THE SUBMERSIBLE AND OCEANOGRAPHY

by
Joseph Francis King

MONTEKEY, CALIF. 9^w

United States
Naval Postgraduate School

THESIS

THE SUBMERSIBLE AND OCEANOGRAPHY

by

Joseph Francis King

April 1970

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The Submersible and Oceanography

by

Joseph Francis^King
Lieutenant Commander, United States Navy
B.S., United States Naval Academy, 1959

Submitted in partial fulfillment of the
requirements for the degree of

MASTER OF SCIENCE IN OCEANOGRAPHY

from the

NAVAL POSTGRADUATE SCHOOL
April 1970

I

ABSTRACT

During a period of expansion of the nation's oceanographic effort,
the submersible has seen a decline in utilization. This has resulted
in several vessels being withdrawn from the market. The reasons for
the lack of utilization of this oceanographic tool are studied in this
paper.

The various national programs are examined to determine those data
collection missions which require the unique capabilities of the sub-
mersible to utilize its ability to provide accurate alignment of
instruments, conduct complex experiments "in situ" and core hard rock
samples .

The submersibles failure to gain greater utilization results from
its high cost and weather limitations and from the fact that its instru-
ment suite does not provide a clear advantage over other methods of data
collection.

It is concluded that the reduction of the pool of submersibles will
not affect the progress of the nation's oceanographic efforts. Programs
requiring such a vessel can be associated with national security, per-
mitting research to be conducted with Navy operated submersibles.

It is also concluded the financial losses incurred by the owners of
the submersibles will not deter further involvement by the private
sector in the ocean development.

LIBRARY „„„«« '

NAVAL POSTGRADUATE SCHOOB
MONTEREY, CALIF. 9394Q ^

TABLE OF CONTENTS

I. INTRODUCTION 7

A. DEFINITION OF TERMS 7

II. PURPOSE 8

A. NATURE OF THE PROBLEM 8

1. National Goals 9

2. Fiscal Support 10

III. LITERATURE REVIEW 14

IV. PRESENTATION OF DATA 16

A. ADVANTAGES 16

1. Capability 16

2. Limitations 18

B. THE USES OF THE SUBMERSIBLE 20

1. The Role of the Submersible in Marine Science ... 20

a. The Submersible in Marine Biology 20

b. The Submersible in Marine Geology 26

c. The Submersible in Marine Geophysics 28

d . The Submersible in Marine Chemistry 29

e. The Submersible in Acoustics 31

f. The Submersible in Physical Oceanography .... 32

2. Role of the Submersible Outside of Marine Science . . 34

a. Underwater Inspection and Maintenance 35

b. Recreation 35

c. Salvage 36

d. Archeology 37

3. Industry Proposals 37

C. THE COST OF USING A SUBMERSIBLE 39

1. The Cost of a Lease 39

2. The Cost of Ownership 44

3. Why the Submersible has been Built 46

4. Profit Expectations 47

5. Demand for the Product 49

6. The Effects of Not Using the Submersible 52

V. CONCLUSIONS 54

A. SUMMARY 54

B. GENERAL CONCLUSIONS 55

C. SPECIFIC CONCLUSIONS 56

VI. EPILOGUE 58

APPENDIX A - The Nation's Involvement in Oceanography 59

LIST OF REFERENCES 67

INITIAL DISTRIBUTION LIST 70

FORM DD 1473 73

LIST OF TABLES AND FIGURES

Table Page

I Funding of National Programs 11

II National Program Versus Data Obtained from 21
Submersible

III Lease Rate for Submersibles 40

IV Range of Cost of Submersible Lease 44

Figure Page

1 Navy Lease of Submersible Services from 50
Commercial Sources

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Appreciation is expressed to those who have shared their time and
experiences concerning this project. A special debt of gratitude is
due Dr. D. F. Leipper and Dr. J. W. Creighton for guidance, counsel,
and consideration. The experience and knowledge gained under their
tutelage was vital to completion of this effort.

A debt of gratitude is also owed to Drs . R. J. Smith and E. C.
Haderlie for the encouragement and contributions made toward this
effort. Particular thanks is also due to Commander Don Walsh for
his interest and efforts relative to this study.

Finally, thanks are due to my wife, Nicki, for her many hours of
typing, but more importantly her extra understanding and assistance
during the preparation of this paper.

I. INTRODUCTION

Interest in the sea has increased rapidly in recent years, and has
led to the formulation of a comprehensive statement of goals for a
national oceanographic effort. The manned submersible has been hailed
as an essential tool to work toward these goals, but although the ser-
vices of various submersibles have been utilized in geophysical, geo-
logical and biological experiments, there has recently been a decline
in such utilization. It is desirable now to establish the true capa-
bilities of the submersible in order to determine more exactly how it
may best be utilized in carrying out the national effort. Those capa-
bilities of submersibles which are unique should be evaluated in terms
of the goals of the program and those capabilities which duplicate other
systems should be evaluated for cost effectiveness.

A. DEFINITION OF TERMS

The definition of marine science provided in the establishing act
of the Commission on Marine Science, Engineering and Resources, has
been used in this paper.

The terms submersible and manned submersible are used inter-
changeably. Only dry manned submersibles were considered. The reference
to unmanned vehicles will have a modifying prefix.

II. PURPOSE

The purpose of this study is to evaluate the role of the submersible

in the broad field of marine science, particularly with respect to its

cost effectiveness and to its unique abilities to support oceanographic
activities .

A. NATURE OF THE PROBLEM

The development of the manned submersible has provided the oceanog-
rapher with a pool of vehicles which have the capability of delivering
trained observers to 99$ of the floor of the ocean. However, the
potential provided by these vessels has seen little utilization in
oceanography. The submersibles available to the scientists are being
reduced in number as they are laid up or the sponsoring businesses fail
[5] . It is necessary to determine if the loss of this potential will
affect the ability to meet stated goals. The economic implication of
the submersible and its influence upon participation in oceanography
by the investment community also needs examination.

In order to assess the value of the submersible, it is first
necessary to examine the current over-all oceanographic programs in
which it might be used and then to determine the amount of fiscal
support available.

The ocean affects all of. us and provides complex problems of such
a scope that a coordinated program of investigation is necessary. The

Numbers refer to List of References

cost of research in the ocean is high. It may be safely assumed it is
beyond the fiscal resources of individuals. The Federal Government has
proposed a coordinated program and provides funds for sponsoring much of
the research which is required.
1. The National Goals

The national program in oceanography as discussed in this paper
refers to "Our Nation and the Sea, a Plan for National Action" of
January 1969, by the Commission on Marine Science, Engineering and
Resources, hereafter referred to as the "Stratton Report". The
Stratton Report was the result of a public law which charged the Com-
mission to "make a comprehensive investigation and study of all aspects
of marine science in order to recommend an over-all plan for an adequate
national oceanographic program that will meet the present and future needs."

The report was comprehensive and addressed national goals in the
following areas :

1. National capability in the sea

2. Management of the coastal zone

3. Marine resources

4. Global environment

5. Technical and operating service

6. Organizing a national ocean effort.

These broad areas were converted into national programs which
pertain to specific problems.

There are several programs which do not have use for the sub-
mersible. These have been indicated by an asterisk, but they are included
for completeness. Following is the full list of programs:

International cooperation and collaboration*

National Security

Fishery Development and Sea Food Technology

Transportation

Development of the Coastal Zone

Health

Non-living Resources

Oceanographic Research **

Education *

Environmental Observation and Prediction

Ocean Exploration, Mapping, Charting and Geodesy

General Purpose Ocean Engineering

National Data Centers *

* Submersible utilization not involved.

** Research beneficial to more than one of the other major programs.

The above programs are administered and conducted through eleven
agencies. They represent the involvement of the Federal Government in
marine science. A brief discussion of the above listed goals and pro-
grams is contained in Appendix A. The report summarized in the appendix
has sought to provide knowledge of the nation's involvement in oceanog-
raphy beyond the intuitive feel that is often held. The oceanographic
effort affects a wide spectrum of activity controlled by a number of
agencies. Despite the multitude of projects and agencies, a central
control could be effected through the path proposed by the Stratton
Report and in the interim the coordination of federal agencies is being
provided by the executive branch of the government.

Reference 11 showed that non-federal research has involved all
aspects of oceanography, but the areas that are stressed include management
of the coastal zone, pollution control, port development, and development
of oceanographic instruments and tools. As one large portion of this
non-federal effort, the submersible industry has an on-going program
designed to enhance the capability of their vessels and to improve their
instrument suites.

2 . Fiscal Support

Federal support for the major oceanographic programs since 1967
has been tabulated in Table I. The annual total of the federal programs

10

TABLE I

FUNDING OF NATIONAL PROGRAMS

PROGRAM

FUNDING BY FISCAL YEAR
(millions of dollars)

67

68

69

70

1. International Cooperation and
Collaboration

2. National Security

3. Fishery Development and Sea
Food Technology

4. Transportation

5. Development of the Coastal
Zone

6. Health

7. Non-living Resources

8. Oceanographic Research *

9. Education

10. Environmental Observation
and Prediction

11. Ocean Exploration, Mapping,
Charting and Geodesy

12. General Purpose Ocean
Engineering

13. National Data Centers*

7.1

161.8
38.1

11.9
21.4

6.6
7.2

61.5
4.0

24.0

77.4

14.8

1.8

9.6

119.9
40.1

11.1
27.6

5.3
7.3

78.1
7.0

28.8

75.7

19.2

2.1

9.5

128.1
43.8

10.6
29.1

5.4
8.0

93.3
7.5

31.6

83.0

18.3

2.3

11.7

143.0
44.5

18.6
29.6

5.3
8.6

93.5
9.2

32.1

99.1

29.5

3.2

* Research that applies to several programs

'Developed from ref. 35, 36 and 37

11

m

m

has risen to in excess of $500 million, of which $300 million is pri-
arily for research and development (R&D) efforts. The non-federal
funds that are available are variously estimated to be as high as $125
illion. A level of $55 million has been selected as most accurate [20;

This investment can be placed in perspective by a comparison to
the size of the gross national product (GNP) and the total the nation
allots to R&D. The former is $850 billion and the latter $25 billion
[9 and 25]. The record since 1962 indicates a fixed ratio between the
GNP and R&D allocation of 3$. This fact will be useful in estimating
future developments. The R&D budget of oceanography is about 1.3$ of
the total R&D allocation by the nation.

Oceanography and its associated industries return from $1.5 to
$25 billion dollars to the GNP. The extreme range of the estimates
results from varying definitions of what should be included in this
category by the agencies evaluating the total.

The major federal sponsor of marine science has been the Navy
[3]. It has had a dominant position in oceanography due to the size
of its marine science budget, a total of $287.2 million in FY 1969, 55$
of the national program. A similar percentage applied for 1966, 1967
and 1968. The Navy's role is further strengthened by its large fleet
of ships which can be used for oceanography and its ability to assign
management and technical capability toward the solution of a problem.

The National Aeronautics and Space Administration, the Atomic
Energy Commission, the Smithsonian Institution, the National Science
Foundation, and the Departments of State, Commerce, Interior, Trans-
portation, and Health, Education and Welfare have been the other major
federal sources of fiscal support for marine science.

12

In addition to the Federal Government, thirty-six private firms
have sponsored research [11]. The governments of twenty-two states, two
cities and a large number of foundations and universities also provided
research support. The number of non-federal sponsors of research has
been placed at 95.

13

III. LITERATURE REVIEW

The operations and potential of the submersible have been well
documented. The publication which has an encyclopedia quality is "The
Deep Submersible" by Richard D. Terry. This has presented a fairly com-
plete argument for utilization of this vehicle. Mr. Terry is an employee
of North American Rockwell Corporation, the owner of Beaver IV.

The Interagency Committee on Oceanography (ICO) has a pamphlet
"Undersea Vehicles for Oceanography." These two publications and the
material provided by the firms that manufacture or lease submersibles
has been the basis of the present evaluation of the submersible.

The above mentioned sources of data did not address the cost factor.
In the present study, cost data has been obtained through direct
inquiries to the owner of the vessel or, failing a reply from that
source, the information was obtained from the Navy, if they had used
the vessel in question.

Several corporations did not provide cost data. They voiced concern
that this paper would not present the information in the proper light or
that the options affecting the lease rate would not receive adequate
explanation. Although data is incomplete, sufficient information was
obtained to allow an analysis.

The limitations of the submersible have been, generally, overlooked
in the literature. Data on these has been obtained by personal communi-
cation with submersible pilots, by discussions at industry presentations
and seminars concerning the submersibles.

14

As previously mentioned, the goals of the national oceanographic
program and its progress have been presented in the Stratton Report
and in the annual report of the National Council on Marine Resources
and Engineering Development. The Navy's role in support of the national
program has been described in the "Project Blue Water" Report [3].

The pertinent parts of economic theory and data on the research and
development as a whole were well documented in a variety of publications.
The various authors have been in general agreement on the amounts and
percentage of allocation of the R&D dollar.

Concurrently with the initiation of this study, it was announced
that a budget item, amounting to $3 million, which was to cover leasing
of submersibles for work in support of marine science, had been deleted.
The instrumentation and other expenses associated with the project would
have had to be paid from different sources of funds. There were in
excess of 1600 requests for dives from the $3 million proposed fund. In
response to requests from industry, Congress and the scientific community,
an analysis of the requests has been conducted. The results of that
analysis have been a source of information for this study [21].

15

IV. PRESENTATION OF DATA

The problem will be addressed in three specific areas.

1. Advantages

2. Uses

3. Costs of submersibles

A . ADVANTAGES

The discussion of advantages provides information on capabilities
and limitations of the submersible. This section is presented in gen-
eral terms. Specific submersibles are discussed only when a particular
point may be given emphasis by so doing.
1 . Capability

The submersible has several advantages over other oceanographic
data collection systems. One unique characteristic is the possibility
for the presence of man in situ.

The advantage is based upon the observers ability to take
corrective and selective action during the data collection process.
He has been able to repair equipment during a dive to allow continu-
ation of the mission, or failing this, the observer has been able
to modify the mission plan and to make observations that allowed
future missions to capitalize on the aborted effort.

Reference 7 provides a discussion of such a mission where
Aluminaut was attempting to recover an array of current meters in
3150 feet of water. During the initial dive two equipment failures
occurred which affected buoyancy and navigation. Despite this, the
vessel , by virtue of having men aboard, was able to locate the array

16

and ascertain that it was not fouled. The next dive accomplished
the mission with ease, assisted by intelligence gained during the
first event.

The second major advantage of a submersible is the ability to
maneuver at the scene of the observations to assure complete coverage
and an unobstructed view of the object of interest. This advantage
is not unique, but is shared with the Controlled Unmanned Vehicle
(CURV) to a depth of 2500 feet. Below this depth great difficulty
is encountered in maneuvering unmanned sampling systems.

The last distinct advantage of the submersible is its ability
to collect an integrated set of data at one location. It has carried
instrument racks with equipment mounted to provide a complete spectrum
of oceanographic data including television and photographic coverage
of the scene. The man has the ability to assure that these compli-
cated devices function. It is thus unnecessary to depend on a messenger
and gravity on a kink-free wire. The significance of this feature has
importance in relation to the "long handle" of oceanography. This
traditional method of oceanographic data collection, by a cable with
instruments affixed at various locations, was limited to one wire at
a time due to the fear of fouling the wires. This physically limited
the amount of equipment at one depth.

Although volumes have been written in favor of utilization of
submersibles , the essence of their advantages is contained in the
above factors .

17

2 . Limitations

The limitations of the submersible in its scientific missions
are primarily associated with the specific data requirement, however,
the one common to all missions is the presence of the man.

Man, despite being the prime advantage, brings factors into
data collection that are lacking in most mechanized systems. He has
prejudices which affect his scientific judgment. The reflex reaction
and attention span that he possesses have a tendency to degrade as he
is placed in the stress of the submerged environment for extended
periods. The submersibles , with the exception of Ben Franklin and
Aluminaut, can be characterized as a confining environment with little
personal comfort [17]. The lack of comfort has increased the serious-
ness of the limitation on effective performance.

The weather envelope in which the submersible may be launched
and recovered has proven to be a severe limitation. The launch opera-
tions have been limited to sea state three or less, i.e. the significant
wave height must be less than 3.5 feet and the wind less than 20 knots.
However, a safe recovery of the vehicle can be conducted in a sea state
of four. Several vehicles cannot be hoisted aboard a ship and must be
towed to and from station. This has contributed to the severity of the
weather limitation. The threat of bad weather along a tow transit
route has forced delay of operations.

The submersible has been designed for the utmost in safety
because it carries man. The vessel has several systems to assure the
observers can execute an escape from any situation. The prime threat
to safety which the submersible might encounter is entanglement. The
procedures of diving have eliminated this threat, but in so doing have
limited the tasks that can be undertaken.

18

There have been proposals that would employ the submersible as
a monitor of trawling operations, or as a means of observing cable
suspended instruments, as they operate at or near the bottom, to
evaluate their performance. These proposals have not been carried out
due to the possibility of entanglement with a parted wire or tow. The
use of oceanographic cables from the tender has been prohibited while
the submersible is operating.

Visual observations from most submersibles are made through
windows with a limited field of view [15]. In most instances the over-
lap of the field between windows will not allow the observer and pilot
to view the same object simultaneously. This affects maneuvering and
the ability to discuss the experiments while they are underway.

The speed of most submersibles has been listed in the various
publications in the range of 4 to 6 knots. Busby [15] indicated that
actual operations have shown the speed to be less than one knot when
operating near the bottom.

This slow speed is the result of pilot judgement, in many cases,
since his field of sensor search does not guarantee he will not col-
lide with the bottom or some object that rises from it. The low speed
has increased the safety, but limited the ability to cover a region.

Busby and Costin [16] indicated the hydrodynamic configu-
ration of some vessels caused oscillations as the speed was increased
above two knots.

The remaining significant limitations or capabilities are
associated with the physical characteristics of the vessel, its
navigation equipment, ocean visibility and depth. These will be
discussed when they affect the ability to accomplish roles or when
they increase the cost of an operation.

19

The range of values for the physical characteristics are
readily available in many publications. The table on page 21 of
"Undersea Vehicles for Oceanography" [8] is relatively complete, but
dated.

B. THE USES OF THE SUBMERSIBLE

The introduction stated that the marine science field is dominated
by the Federal Government because of its heavy fiscal sponsorship.
Thus, the scientific role of the submersible will be examined in
relation to federal programs since the majority of operations have
been in these programs. The roles that have evolved outside the marine
science area and some of the projects that have been proposed by the
submersible operators are discussed as separate topics.
1. The Role of the Submersible in Marine Science

Table II relates the scientific disciplines that involve
potential roles for the submersible in the national effort. Since
several of the programs have required the same type of observations
to be made these roles will be discussed in relation to the data
that would be collected by discipline rather than by program to avoid
duplication of comment.

a. The Submersible in Marine Biology

The submersible has been proposed as the instrument plat-
form to make observations and collect samples for the general topic
areas listed under biology in Table II.

Some of the requirements relate to the assessment of marine
biological resources, both for commercial and sport application, some
to the study of life cycles and their inter-relationship with the

20

TABLE II

National Program

vs .
Data Obtainable
from Submersible

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CO <u

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co

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ai o

00

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•i-( OJ

> o

•H ^

<-> 3

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d co

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XI

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?• O)

d M

a-

X ■

W 60 >-,

d co

d i-l <u

co CL T)

a) o. o

o co aj

o s o

00

d
w

d
co
cu
o
o

Biology

Plankton & Nutrient

Bottom Samples

Cores , Grabs

Sealife Specimens
Type

Population
Life Cycle

Deep Scattering Layer

Fouling

Bio Luiminescence

Coral Survey

Geophysical

Gravity

Geo-Magnetism

Seismic Profiling

Tidal Effects

Bottom Heat Flow

x

x

X

X

X

21

National Program
vs .

Data Obtainable
from Submerisble

CO 4-1

CI *4

O U

■h d

CO QJ

T3

I O

Cu O
O M-l
r-< CO

CD

0) 00

> CO o

CD i— I

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-d 4J £i

W d O

•H QJ QJ

h Eh

CO

CO
O
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> c

qj o

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60

C «

•H 0)

> o

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S oi

^

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d ^

W Pn

a.

x "

W 00 >->

cl w

d -H QJ

m a o

o CO QJ

O X O

60

d

w

d
CO
QJ

Acoustics

Reflection

Scattering

Sound Vel. Profile

Sediment Transmission

Noise Level

Geology

Sediment Properties

Sub Strata

Coring

Rock Outcrops

Sediment & Transport

Turbidity

Suspended Sediment

Chemical

Radioactivity

Nitrogen

Oxygen

Phosphate

Silicate

x

X

X

X

22

1—1

National Program

vs .
Data Obtainable
from Submersible

National
Security

Fish Develop-
ment & Seafood
Technology

c
o

■H

4-1

CO
4J

u

o

CX
CO

C
CO
S-i

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CO
4->
CO

CO

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14-1

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> c

CD o
P N

s:

4J
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X

Non-living
Resources

Env. Obs. &
Prediction

Ocean Explo. ,

Mapping,

Geodesy

C

w

c

CO
CD
O

o

pH

X

Salinity

X

Trace Element

X

X

Physical

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

Temperature

X

X

X

X

X

X

Currents

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

Ambient Light

X

X

Optical Properties

X

X

Turbulence

X

X

Internal Waves

X

X

Ice

X

X

X

X

X

Bathymetry

X

X

X

Photographic Survey

X

X

X

X

X

X

Development of

Equipment

X

X

X

X

23

physical characteristics of the ocean, and some to the improvement of
methods of biological harvest.

The function of the submersible has been to enable the
scientist to observe marine animal life and take selected, as opposed
to random, samples to study bio-accoustics and to conduct operations
in the deep scattering layer.

The nature of sea life is varied and its reaction to the
presence of a submersible is not well known. It is doubtful if the
presence of the large, noisy, lighted "monster" is ignored. To the
contrary, Beebe [2] and Piccard [23] have discussed the close scrutiny
given their submersible by various species on the one hand and the
scattering of other sea life on the other hand, as it came into the
field of their lights. To counter the reaction of the marine life,
the submersible must be maintained in a darkened and quiet condition,
then, by cycling the sensing devices and illumination, the sample
might be surprised and observed.

An alternate procedure to obtain a similar sample would
involve the lowering of an equipment rack with television cameras and
a pulsed light. This array could be lowered while monitoring the
progress on the television. The rack method would reduce the cost of
the operation and in comparison with most manned vessels would have a
longer data collection time. The rack could be launched in a sea
state that is higher than( that in which submersible operations are
feasible .

The collection of particular samples by a submersible is
limited to those forms of marine life that are attracted to the vessel
or are slow enough to be overtaken by it.

24

The use of a television to determine the presence of the
desired species, followed by a random sampling using a device such as
a mid-water trawl, might obtain the desired animal without the cost
associated with the use of a submersible.

The efficiency of existing marine harvest techniques, i.e.,
towed nets and drags, has been questioned. A proposal to utilize the
submersible to monitor these operations has been made. However, the
submersible has two limitations that affect this potential mission.
The first of these results from a general reluctance to conduct
dangerous operations in the vicinity of nets that might entangle
the submersible.

Primarily the danger is present due to the limited range
of light in the ocean depths. This requires the submersible to be in
close proximity to the harvest mechanism for evaluation of the
operation.

The second limitation is the speed of a submersible. At
the speed of harvest operations, 2-5 knots, most submersibles are
either not capable of following or have reduced mission length. How-
ever, the use of a camera or television with a pulsed light for
recording the performance of a harvest mechanism may produce the
desired data, and the noise and lights of the submersible which may
bias the result of the experiment would not be present.

For reasons similar to those listed above, a camera or
television equipment packages on a rack allow collection of data in
the deep scattering layer that would produce data comparable to that
obtained by the submersible on the same mission.

25

b. The Submersible in Marine Geology

Geology has a major role in many of the national programs.
It is concerned with the location of mineral resources, origin of the
structures and formations on the ocean floor and the origin, thickness
and strength characteristics of the ocean sediments.

The submersible role in marine geology is wide spread and
significant [29 and 41]. The economic development of the ocean requires
an accurate geologic map. The development of such a map is limited by
the lack of accurate bathymetric maps, and a set of representative
samples of the ocean bottom. (The problems associated with making a
bathymetric chart are discussed in conjunction with the use of the
submersible in physical oceanography.)

The limited speed of submersibles and the low visibility
in the sea make the construction of a large scale geologic map beyond
the capability of a submersible. On the other hand, a "fish" towed
from a surface ship with fathometer and photographic devices allow
wide coverage. The chart can then be constructed from the photograph
and the submersible may be utilized to investigate points of particular
interest. The relative merits of the submersible with a geologist as
an observer as opposed to the "fish" have been widely debated; however,
the economic factor has caused the latter to be the more widely used.

Making the geologic map requires representative rock
samples from outcrops to depict the substrata. Attempts to pick these
rocks from the ocean floor, whether made by a trained observer in a
submersible or by a bottom drag, have a high probability of failing
to find representative samples since the loose rocks may not be from
local strata. The preferred method for assuring a true sample is to

26

obtain it from a rock outcrop. Such hard rock samples have provided
reliable data concerning the formation of the earth's structure.

The National Science Foundation is sponsoring a program,
with an estimated cost of $34.8 million to allow the drilling of the
ocean floor. This program is being conducted from the "Glomar
Challenger". Although the submersibles have a limited ability to
obtain cores, (about 12 inches into hard rock [42]), the concept of
utilizing such vehicles to support the program of bottom investigation
for hard rock bottom truth would expand the national capability beyond
that of the unique Glomar Challenger.

This program, even without the supplemental use of the
submersibles, has produced economic return by the discovery of oil
deposits in the Gulf of Mexico.

The role of the submersible as a means of transportation
for the trained observer to witness sediment transport and turbidity
currents has limited applicability. These events occur on a long time
scale or are unpredictable. Also, the submerisble is not needed since
photographic surveys over a long period from surface ships have the
potential to reveal the pattern of sediment motion. Further, the
implantation of some yet-to-be-developed device on the ocean bottom
may provide a method to analyze turbidity currents. Such a mechanism
could employ a photographic element actuated when the sediment content
of the water reached a "trigger" level.

The submersible has ability to conduct a wide variety of
experiments and collect samples of the sediments. Currently the
strength of the sediments are being estimated from samples obtained by
a variety of coring and grab techniques. The samples are disturbed

27

physically during the collection operation. The pressure of the water
in the sample is relieved, during the raising to the surface, further
affecting the strength properties. The engineering properties of
sediments have an affect on the ability to occupy and exploit the
ocean bottom. The load bearing capacity determines the feasibility
of construction of habitats or remotely operated production facilities.

Various instruments have been developed for use from the
surface for "in situ" determination of such engineering properties as
capacity to resist penetration, compressibility, slope stability and
shear strength. To date, they have not provided meaningful results.
The path of determination of the relationship between "in situ" and
laboratory results lies in the accomplishment of a series of controlled
experiments utilizing the submersible for "in situ" observation and
comparison of the results of these experiments with those obtained
from conventional samples at the same location. Until this relation-
ship has been discovered, the safety factors utilized in ocean floor
construction, about 5 to 7 , as opposed to a desirable 1.5 to 2, place
a severe economic handicap on progress in exploitation of the ocean
f loor .

c. The Submersible in Marine Geophysics

The exact position of points on the earth's surface, the
strength of the gravity and magnetic fields, and variations therein,
represent the major goalsof the geophysics discipline in oceanography.
These are vital to national defense in its application to Polaris
missile navigation and submarine location devices such as Magnetic
Anomaly Detection (MAD) equipment.

28

The submersible has the capability to function in the
collection of the required data, however, navigation accuracy problems
and limited range have resulted in its utilization being limited to
technical demonstration of capability. This is in contrast with the
fact that initial at-sea gravity measurements were made from submer-
sibles, due to their ability to operate below the wave effects. The
principal thrust of technology, in this area, however, has been toward
satellite and airborne collection of data [3].

The flow of heat from the earth into the ocean floor affects
the near bottom currents and causes a slight rise in the sea water
temperature as the bottom is approached. Temperature profiles through
the bottom sediment and the first few meters of the water will allow
determination of the heat flow. The alignment of the temperature
probe is critical to these measurements. The submersible has pro-
vided the ability to conduct these experiments, except that pene-
tration of the probe to the desired depth might not be feasible due
to buoyancy control limitations.

A seismic study capability has been demonstrated from
submersibles , but this technique normally offers no clear cut advan-
tage over surface procedures. However, an ice covered region such
as the north coast of Alaska has provided a situation where seismic
information is vital and surface techniques impractical. A fleet of
submarines will be utilized in this region to collect seismic data in
connection with the recent oil field discoveries,
d. The Submersible in Marine Chemistry

Marine chemistry has been concerned with the distribution
of the chemical constituents of the sea water, corrosion and the

29

engineering properties of materials. The roles proposed for the sub-
mersible have included collection of samples and "in situ" determination
of the concentration of constitutents .

Recent advances in technology have provided instruments
that electronically determine element concentrations with an accuracy
comparable to good laboratory techniques. The oxygen and salinity
determining devices have been made commercially available.

The trace elements, which may relate to radioactivity,
are present in such small amounts that concentration techniques or
X-ray identification procedures are required to determine amounts
present. These cannot be accomplished from any presently available
submersibles due to space and power limitations. Effective sampling
techniques for observing the distribution of chemical constituents
are available from surface vessels.

The effects of the ocean on materials through corrosion
and other processes are little understood. To date, ocean simulation
facilities have been used in the majority of tests involving material
performance. These allow simulation of many of the parameters in the
actual ocean. One of the major problems with simulation is the lack
of the biologic element that can be critical in the performance of
the substance under test. The ability to correlate the results of
tests at various sites due to a lack of modeling standards has limited
the usefulness of much of. the data obtained from these tests [43].

The Naval Civil Engineering Laboratory (NCEL) has con-
ducted a test of materials, which were placed in the ocean for
extended periods. The results of the test showed the chemical and
biological factors that could be expected to affect the material. An

30

extension of this test would be a program that placed the samples in
the ocean under a load, to allow a determination of the strength of
the material in its proposed configuration.

The submersible would have a role in the monitoring of
test progress. It would allow the element loadings to be adjusted
without removing them from the test environment. The amounts that
have been spent on ocean simulation facilities would underwrite an
aggressive program for determination of material performance under
actual conditions.

e. The Submersible in Acoustics

The use of sound in the ocean is analogous to light in the
atmosphere. Just as there is a day and night with its affect on the
ability of the eyes to function effectively, so are there varying
conditions in the seas that affect the results obtained from the
sonic instruments.

In order to conduct studies of the variation of the
acoustic signals as a function of water conditions and range to the
source, a mobile source or receiving system is required. The submer-
sible has been used extensively as a mobile instrument platform for
these tests.

The scientist has formulated theories that predict the
affect of the ocean on sound; however, anomalous behavior has been
noted. The principal regions of doubt are concerned with the water
sediment interface and the distribution of concentrated acoustic
energy in the convergence zone. The submersible has been used to
conduct experiments that examine these anomalies. Since sound is
directional, the alignment of the instruments is critical in acoustic

31

experiments. The use of the submersible has allowed some desired
results to be obtained. Due to the lack of control over the alignment,
the use of an instrument controlled from the surface has not provided
assurance of obtaining the necessary accuracy.

The submersible has been used to collect sediment samples
and conduct in situ tests so that the correlation between the experi-
ments under actual conditions and laboratory results would be deter-
mined. This should result in improved sonar prediction capabilities
for the various types of ocean bottoms.

A region of scientific interest combining acoustics and
biology has been labeled bio-acoustics. This involves the study of
noise generated by sea life. Studies of the source and nature of this
noise are being conducted. The problem of relating noise to source
has been difficult. It has been proposed that an observer be placed
in the submersible in an attempt to determine and visually identify the
source of the emission and to determine the reason for the noise where
possible .

Acoustics probably will remain a keystone in oceanographic
research. The study of acoustic paths, reflection, and absorption of
sound under varying water conditions will be an on-going program for
at least several years. The importance of these studies to our national
defense can be judged from the level of funding for projects associated
with acoustics. For example, the USS Dolphin, an acoustic research sub-
marine, was built at a cost in excess of $30 million,
f. The Submersible in Physical Oceanography

Physical oceanography is concerned with the determination
of the values of certain parameters such as temperature, density,

32

salinity and optical properties, and their time and space variations.
It is also concerned with the boundaries of the ocean including the
wave disturbed surface and the uncharted depths. The submersible has
been outfitted to measure each of these parameters. It has also been
used on drift missions to move with the ocean currents.

The measurement of these properties and boundaries has
also been conducted from a variety of surface vehicles and with
remotely controlled devices. The use of sampling devices controlled
from a submersible as opposed to use of the oceanographic cable has
offered an advantage in that the actuation of the sampling device is
monitored .

Ocean currents have been determined by anchored mechanisms
and free floating devices. The problems associated with the anchored
devices have been calibration, sensitivity and inability to recover
the data due to the failure of release mechanisms. The free floating
devices, principally the Swallow float have also presented problems,
one of which has been the fact these systems are not recovered and
that a large economic investment is thus required to obtain data.

Ben Franklin, a deep submersible, was designed for lengthy
current drift missions. This vehicle was capable of concurrently con-
ducting a variety of oceanographic experiments, and has provided infor-
mation on man's ability to operate in a controlled environment.

Other submersibles have also been used to investigate ocean
currents by drifting and by implanting current measuring devices and
later retrieving them.

Bathymetry has presented a problem which calls for dual
solution; navigation charts and bottom contour charts. Sound signals

33

have been used, almost exclusively, for determination of depth. The
spherical spreading of the sound beam has resulted in some of the
bottom detail being masked due to the sound signal returning first
from the nearest object that is encountered. The loss of bottom
detail is not crucial to the navigation chart since most ship's
fathometers have been calibrated to provide data that corresponds
to the chart, thus allowing the navigation to be based upon the
soundings. The use of depth data obtained from a submersible will
cause the above mentioned correspondence to be lost. The bottom
charts essential to geologic maps must be constructed from data
collected by devices that maneuver close to the bottom to ensure that
the required detail has been obtained. This has been accomplished
from submersibles and by using towed instrument platforms. The
former has an advantage in its ability to easily maneuver near the
bottom, the latter has greater range and costs much less to operate
than a submersible. The placing of a television on a sled has pro-
vided a method for a direct observation of the terrain. This was
formerly an advantage unique to the submersible.

2 . Role of the Submersible Outside of Marine Science

The following discussion concerns markets for the submersible 's
potential which are not included in "marine science". These markets
are; salvage, recreation, and underwater inspection and maintenance.
The submersible has also .been used for archeology. At present, these
markets present a limited demand for submersible services; however,
each area has the potential to expand greatly.

34

a. Underwater Inspection and Maintenance

The submersible is being used to monitor and control the
operations of the systems in the off-shore oil fields. This includes
inspection of pipelines, cables and visual observation of evolutions.
It is used to transport diving service teams with a lock-in lock-out
ability which has greatly extended the diver's ability to perform
useful work.

The submersibles have used their manipulator to make
mechanical adjustments and repairs at the ocean test ranges and in
the oil fields.

It has a potential role in the servicing of completely
submerged oil production sites. The problems of oil production, such
as unsightly rigs, oil spills and cost of maintenance of off-shore
towers have fostered efforts to incorporate the well and all auxiliary
equipment in a submerged unit that will be periodically serviced by
manned submersibles. Systems have been proposed by North American
Rockwell and Lockheed Missile and Space Company which incorporate
these features. North American's submersible, Beaver IV, was designed
as an integral part of this concept.

The role of the submersible in support of off-shore drilling
evolutions is assured as the operations progress into the waters beyond
the depth capability of divers who currently do much of the work [13
and 28] .

b. Recreation

The expanding area of recreation has presented opportunities
for the submersible. The most ambitious effort involved the Auguste
Piccard which was used to convey passengers to the depths of Lake

35

Geneva during the 1965 Swiss Exposition. With a capacity of 40
passengers, 30,000 paying customers were carried to depths of 200 feet.
Upon completion, the vessel was used for 20 research dives to determine
the origin of the lake.

The Auguste Piccard with a designed depth capability of
2500 feet was never used below 1,000 feet. It is now laid up and
available for a price of $200,000 [7].

Small vessels such as Kittredge and Amersub 300 provide a
diversion for those who seek adventure and have the funds to support
their taste.

c. Salvage

The recovery of objects from the ocean floor is an area of
submersible usage which has wide potential and a history of dramatic
success .

The most significant single salvage operation was the
recovery of the nuclear weapon that was lost off the shore of Spain.
This operation employed a variety of devices to locate and recover the
weapon, however, Alvin and Aluminaut were vital to the success of the
operation. The cost of $340 thousand for submersible services in con-
nection with this salvage operation must be evaluated as a bargain
when compared with the cost to the nation's reputation if the recovery
operation had failed, or if some other nation had salvaged the weapon.

The recent recovery of the Alvin by the operations of
Aluminaut was another demonstration of this type of operation. Again
the worth of the object recovered far exceeded the cost of the location
and recovery operation.

36

Pisces is under contract at the Keyport Naval Station to
recover weapons at a test range. It has been able to conduct a profit-
able operation on a fixed fee per torpedo recovery. In addition to
this, it salvaged a 95 ton tug that had sunk in 670 feet of water.
This depth was beyond the ability of any other system to recover the
tug.

Deep Quest was able to conduct a detailed search in a
cluttered area and recover the flight recorder from two aircraft that
had crashed into the sea off Los Angeles. Financially self supporting
operations in salvage from wrecks is a field for the submersible that
has the potential to employ the entire submersible fleet.

d. Archeology

Archeology has been conducted by Asherah, and was its
primary mission during the period it was owned by the Museum of the
University of Pennsylvania. Bass and van Doorninck [12] have reported
on the use of submersibles in this type of operation.
3 . Industry Proposals

The corporations that have produced the submersibles have also
proposed utilization of their vessels. These proposals have seemed to
stress dramatic accomplishment rather than an orientation toward
national programs seeking an economic return in the near future and
an increase in the broad base of scientific knowledge.

Markel [10] proposed a mission that is of particular
interest. This was the utilization of Aluminaut for a company
sponsored salvage mission of a sunken antique vessel from deep water.
The valuables that are recovered will be used to sponsor a national
manned exploration of the seas program. The national manned exploration

37

of the sea has been referred to as a "Lewis and Clark" expedition to
visually explore the ocean floor. The cost of this expedition is
usually discussed in relation to the space program and the potential
for economic returns .

The tracking of food crops, in particular shrimp and lobster,
to observe the life cycles and improve the yield of these species has
been discussed. The life cycle of a lobster covers years. To obtain
the required data would cost in the millions of dollars. The lobster is
a money crop, but will it be found in numbers that would warrant the
large investment in opposition to an investment in those fish that can
be readily converted into fish protein concentrate which is needed in
large amounts now?

Another proposal was the determination of ocean currents by
having the submersible track a free floating buoy and fixed reference.
The precise measurement of surface waves from the stable submersible
has also been suggested. The above tasks may be within the mission
profile of many submersibles but are they needed now? Is the sub-
mersible the best means of accomplishing it? The answer is usually

no

The national goals were established with the aim of meeting
resource shortages that were foreseeable and to provide an under-
standing of the ocean and its potential to allow an orderly exploit-
ation of it.

»

Unless a new source of funds to support submersible operations
is developed, such as the salvage operation, the chance of these
company suggested operations being undertaken is small.

38

C. THE COST OF USING A SUBMERSIBLE

The terms expensive and economical apply on a relative scale. How-
ever, by most standards, submersibles may be listed as expensive. The
range of lease rates have extended up to $16,000 per day and construction
fees of $5 million are not uncommon. The decision to increase research
funding must be preceded by careful examination of the scientific and
economic factors that relate to the use of the submersible. It is the
purpose of this section to address cost and cost effectiveness problems
as they relate to the submersible, such as the cost of a lease, the cost
of ownership, why the submersibles have been built and some effects of
the failure to use the submersible by the oceanographers .

1. The Cost of a Lease

Submersibles are normally leased to make scientific observation.
In most instances the instruments used are the same as would have been
suspended from a surface vessel by cable. The instrument suite required
for the scientific observation is not provided when leasing a submer-
sible or a surface vessel. The leasee is required to obtain the
instruments independent of the vessel. Comparison of instrumentation
then is at most only a minor factor in the analysis of the cost in the
use of a submersible and it will not be considered.

Table III presents the lease rates for various submersibles.
The lease rate is the cost of the vessel, crew, and a basic set of
lights and navigation instruments. The rate is a representative value
which is affected by several factors which can cause adjustments. The
factors are length of lease, non-dive transit days, equipment failure
and multiple dive days. The first three will reduce the daily rate
while in most cases multiple dives incur an added fee.

39

TABLE III
LEASE RATE FOR SUBMERSIBLES

Name of Vehicle

Lease Rate
Dollars/day

Approximate
Cost of
Support Ship

PC3

Nokton

Star II

PC 8

Beaver

Deepstar 4000

DOWB

Aluminaut

700
1,000
2,000 to 2,500

700
5,000 to 8,000
5,000
2,600
2,500 to 16,000

600

600
1,300
2,000
1,600

COST OF MANUFACTURE

Name of Vehicle

Cost

Depth (ft)

Turtle

PC8

Ben Franklin

Guppy (tethered)

PC9C

5.5 million
125 thousand
5.25 million
148 thousand
300 thousand

6,500
1,000
2,000
1,000
1,200

Developed from references 1, 6, 19, 22, 24 and 27

40

Another area of expense when using the submersible is the number
of support personnel required; for a Perry Submersible, for example,
either PC 5 or PC 8, there is a need for two or three maintenance men
at a rate of $100 per day per man. This charge is in addition to the
basic fee for the boat [22].

The more sophisticated submersibles , such as Beaver IV, and
Deep Quest require a support crew of 8 and 11 men respectively when
used on extended cruises. The charge for the charter of the vessels
includes the fee for this crew. It can be seen that this number of
people can very quickly fill the berths allocated for the scientific
party. For example, the T-AGOR class of research vessel has berths for
a scientific party of 15. This ship was designed with an option of
being utilized to support a submersible. The ability to routinely
make oceanographic stations with ships similar to the T-AGOR while the
submersible and its crew are embarked must be evaluated as nil, due to
lack of an adequately sized scientific party. The loss of the data
that would have been collected during transits must be considered in
the price of utilizing a submersible.

The value of the oceanographic data that is routinely collected,
such as salinity, temperature profiles, meteorological and wave data
has not been given a fiscal evaluation. This data is usually submitted
to the national data bank to be employed in a variety of manners. The
minimum value of this data will be placed at the cost of its collection,
that is, the cost of the operation of the vessel and the crew that
would be required to obtain it.

The economic comparison of the submersible with some other
instrument suite should consider reliability, weather, time on station
to accomplish the task, transit time to station, and cost of lost data.

41

The reliability of the submersible and its installed equipment
has tended to decrease with the increased sophistication. Busby and
Costin [16] provided a compilation of malfunctions experienced during
chartered operations. It can be seen that the basic Perry submarine
has had excellent reliability. The Aluminaut, a sophisticated plat-
form, has experienced several failures. The technical nature of the
failures seems to indict the electrical systems. The reliability of
these systems might improve. Technical advances will necessitate the
continuous updating of installed systems with the resultant threat to
reliability being ever present.

The instruments used on the submersible have been assumed to
have the same order of reliability as those used from the surface ship,
but the submersible staff has shown its reliability to be less than
that of the surface ship. This is due to the built-in duplication of
capability that is present on the ship which, due to space consider-
ation, has not been provided on the submersible.

The loss of time on station due to bad weather can be reduced
by planning. Climitological atlases and long range forecasts, when
properly evaluated, can allow the proposed operation to be scheduled
in those time periods which have sea states that will not interfere
with diving.

The cost of the submersible operation can be formulated as
follows :

Submersible Cost = TT x lr^, + (— - St) x LR^, + ST x ID + ID

TT = transit time

LR__ = transit lease rate

U>d = diving day lease rate

ST = station time required to accomplish mission

R = probability of no equipment failure

42

W = probability of satisfactory weather for operation
ID = cost of lost data

The submersible, to gain an economic advantage over any option,
must be operated on missions which minimize its expense and maximize
its utility. The above equation has indicated transit time is extremely
costly. The submersible missions that are conducted on the continental
slope and shelf are conducted in a region that can be exploited economi-
cally and has low transit time. Similarly, missions that would have
replaced several surface sampling operations in one dive, such as a
complete site survey with multiple cores, photographic coverage, and
visual observation, have given an economic advantage to the submersible.

The submersible is leased to dive. An examination of the cost
per dive of various contracts will reveal the daily rates tabulated in
Table III do not truly represent the expenditure of funds required in
utilizing a submersible for a mission. Table IV presents cost data y

concerning the operations of submersibles under contract to the Navy
[18]. It stated the major reason for the variance in the cost per
dive was the transit times.

It should also be noted variance was not a function of the
leasee since Aluminaut dives at $11,650 per dive and $19,760 per dive
were both sponsored by the Naval Oceanographic Office.

When utilizing the submersible, every effort must be made to
economize. The effects of transit time in the cost of an operation
have been clearly indicated. The non-representative example of
$63,500 for one dive by DOWB, is at a rate much beyond the fiscal
capability of the oceanographic community to support.

43

TABLE IV
RANGE OF COST OF A SUBMERSIBLE LEASE

Name of Vessel

Cost per Dive

Approximate
Daily
Lease
Rate

High

Low

Mean

Deepstar 4000

Aluminaut

Star III

Star II

PC3B

Pisces

$13,100

19,760

9,680

1,910
2,800

$ 3,145

11,800

4,720

667

2,240

$ 7,720
14,550
7,040
2,500
1,110
2,450

$5,000

2,500-16,000

2,500- 4,500

2,000- 2,500

400

2 . The Cost of Ownership

There are few examples of an oceanographic research institution
that have owned and operated submersibles . Table III has listed the
cost of purchase or construction of several typical vessels.

The University Museum of the University of Pennsylvania
operated the submersible Asherah in support of its archeological
work. The vessel was found to be well suited for this mission [12].
Reference 38 stated that due to "unreasonably high insurance and
relatively infrequent use," the submersible was sold to Technoceans ,
Inc. This company intends to lease Asherah for various missions.

No other example was found where research institutions owned
and operated a submersible. Several submersibles have been donated
to them, but there is no evidence to indicate that operations were
undertaken.

44

When the submersible is owned, the annual fees for maintenance
and operations plus the cost of insurance and consumables must be con-
sidered. The cost of maintenance and operation for an Alvin type
vehicle was placed at $1 million per year [34].

The submersible, like all ships, can have limited availability
due to maintenance and holiday considerations. The 365 day is reduced
by Sundays, Saturdays, holidays and the need for about 60 days of main-
tenance to 193 operating days per year [26]. With the best of
scheduling, this can be further reduced by weather and equipment
failures so that a 150 operating day schedule for a submersible would
seem normal, or about $6,000 per dive day based on the million dollar
per annum rate. This is close to the lease rate of vessels similar in
ability to Alvin such as Deepstar 4000.

The insurance costs for submersible operations were mentioned
as a factor in Asherah's fate [38]. The figure of $635 per dive was
the quoted insurance rate for DOWB [1]. The other lease rates indicated
insurance was included in the figure presented. The insurance rate for
DOWB was 20$ of the total daily lease rate.

An effort to combat the high cost of owning a submersible,
Guppy, a tethered, 1,000 foot vessel, was designed. It is commonly
referred to as a $100,000 product. Sun Shipbuilding Company [27]
placed the price for Guppy at $148,000 for the basic vehicle, plus
two 1,000 watt lights, one variable shot hopper and 1,200 feet of
umbilical cable. The cost of the lead shot is $25.00 per 100 pounds,
this is used when lifting an object with Guppy. The power package of
a 36 kilowatt generator and cable keel is an extra $15 to $20 thousand.

45

3 . Why the Submersible has been Built

To understand the reasons for the construction of the fleet of
submersibles , which now exist, it is necessary to consider developments
during the last decade. This period contained the space race and the
technological growth that accompanied it. Large firms vied for space
contracts, and in order to attain the variety of competence required,
they acquired other companies through mergers or the formation of con-
glomerates. The General Dynamics Corporation is a typical example
with its variety of holdings ranging from aircraft production plants
to a shipyard that specialized in the construction of nuclear submarines.

In 1963, a national tragedy, the loss of the submarine Thresher
exposed the lack of ability to explore the ocean depths and the gen-
erally sad state of affairs concerning rescue of submarines in distress
and knowledge of the ocean bottom. A program, the Deep Submergence
Systems Project (DSSP) , was initiated within the Navy for the purpose
of lessening this knowledge gap. The DSSP was divided into four areas,
(1) submarine rescue, (2) ocean search, (3) small object recovery, and
(4) large object recovery. The technology to achieve the aims of each
area was not yet developed and it was believed that the DSSP would pro-
vide an attractive region into which a company could direct its
activities with expectation of long term development and profit.

The DSSP required a submersible to be developed to support each
area. The implementation of the program was to take place over several
years with each area having a prime contractor. The failure to gain the
initial contract, development of a deep submergence rescue vehicle (DSRV) ,
did not destroy a firm's opportunity to gain the contract for one of the
follow-on vehicle contracts such as the Deep Submergence Search Vehicle
(DSSV).

46

The aero-space firms saw the DSSP as an attractive business
opportunity. It provided them with the opportunity to become involved
with the production of an item, the submersible, which utilized the
firm's potential in many areas, such as metalurgy, electronics, human
factors engineering and precision manufacturing. In addition, it placed
the firm in the field of oceanography. The literature had widely hailed
the oceans as the "last frontier" for exploration on the earth and dis-
cussed the mineral wealth as well as the potential for providing food.
Firms could diversify into the ocean with a high visibility product
and little investment of its own funds. They became ocean oriented
without necessarily acquiring ocean knowledge.
4. Profit Expectations

The profit expected to be gained from the submersible, was
from (1) the lease or sale of the submersible, (2) knowledge gained to
allow the winning of major contracts for submersibles such as DSSP,

(3) corporate image improvement by involvement in oceanography, and

(4) tax write off from losses associated with the submersible if it is
not a commercial success.

(1) The first motive is direct and to some extent predictable.
The corporations that have gained in this area are generally shallow
divers, going to depths of 1200 feet or less. Therefore they work in
regions that have legal status. The Perry submersibles are typical
examples, they have wide application in oil field work and have received
some utilization in marine science. They were built at a relatively
low price so they would be competitive with other systems for under sea
pipe inspection and maintenance. The commercially successful vessels,
generally, have stressed the idea of the work boat rather than seeking

47

government research contracts. This would be typical of Pisces, and
the Shelf Diver design.

(2) The second motive is associated with the profit from lessons
learned. These could be directly associated with the submersibles or
products developed during the research and development leading to the
vessle. For example, the lessons learned from producing a submersible,
similar in performance to the contract winning proposal for DSRV, would
greatly improve the chance of gaining the follow-on program. This
vehicle would provide a company owned platform for test and development
of advanced systems. It would also be a measure of the effectiveness

of the engineering design and cost estimates for refining follow-on
proposals. The federal government has normally considered proven per-
formance when awarding contracts rather than basing the decision solely
on low cost bids. Westinghouse [40] provided a discussion of their
effort in this area. Deepstar 20,000 was the result of design work
for the DSRV contract. Westinghouse did not gain the contract but had
a feasible design for a submersible which they would be able to produce
in less time than would be required for the DSRV to become operational
since the government with its contract administration and change orders
would not affect progress.

(3) It is difficult to express in dollar terms the benefits a
company might assure to its corporate image by expanding into the field
of oceanography. In the early 1960's this was a great potential [4 and
39]. To date most adventures in the ocean are an extension of on-shore
operations onto the continental shelf. What the ocean holds in the
future can only be conjectured; however, the dwindling resources on the
earth will require massive efforts in the ocean. Those companies that

48

undertake the initial efforts might find they are to the ocean what
General Motors is to the automobile industry or International Business
Machines is to the computer industry. Having been associated with
oceanography has implied that the corporation was forward looking and
interested in long range market development.

(4) The profit from the tax write-off of R&D costs or losses
associated with a submersible that was a commercial failure are diffi-
cult to determine. The information required to discuss this topic in
depth was not available from the corporations that have constructed
submersibles .

The corporate tax structure is such that large tax benefits
can be gained from business losses. The company can structure the staff
for the submersibles operations to allow the overhead to be high, maxi-
mizing the loss during the depreciation period for the vessels. The
large staff could provide services to other sections of the company at
low internally regulated prices allowing some other portion of the firm
to gain benefits while the submersible provides the high loss needed for
tax purposes. By-products of the development of the submersible may be
marketed in an advantageous position by assigning development costs to
the submersible rather than the product.

The numerous manners in which a firm can be managed to gain
the tax benefits from the lack of success by the submersible and gain
profit from the opportunities provided by the submersible are beyond
the scope of this paper.

5. Demand for the Product

The government utilization of submersibles rose rapidly in the
period from 1965 to 1968 as shown in figure 1, and the outlook was

49

FIGURE 1
NAVY LEASE OF SUBMERSIBLES FROM COMMERCIAL SOURCES

3.0"

2.0"

o
Q

o

W

c
o

1.0'

0.1

2.178

1.618

0.552

0.166

65

0.890

0.910

66

T

67 ' 68
Fiscal Year

69

70

Estimated [Ref. 18]

50

promising for research contracts. However, in this period the cost of
the war and pressures for social reform caused a re-appraisal of
government programs resulting in a decline in the rate of growth of
the non-defense research market over the last two years as marine science
programs were assigned lower priorities. This has caused a reduction in
submersible utilization since 1968 by the government. An additional
factor that has affected the downward trend of the submersible market
was the construction of a pool of submersibles , including NR-1, Dolphin,
Turtle and Sea Cliff by the Navy. These vessels have sharply reduced
the lease role of the organization that had previously been the major
source of submersible support. The current extent of the Navy's role
in the commercial field is two salvage contracts, one on each coast.

The above statements concerning motivation into the submersible
market and its status have been general. More specific examples of the
cause for entry into the market follow.

Reynolds International entered the submersible field to
demonstrate the capability of their product, aluminum, in a field
that had been dominated by steel. They were able to produce the deepest
diving submersible on the commercial market and the vessel has held
this distinction since 1965. The only commercial vessel under con-
struction that will exceed the depth of Aluminaut is Deepstar 20,000.

Similar efforts to demonstrate the advantages of the use of
glass in a submersible have been undertaken. The Corning Company has
co-sponsored many of these efforts. The glass has the potential to
provide a combination of strength and visibility not available with
other structural materials.

51

It can be seen that profit has taken many forms. No examples
were found where a firm had underwritten the long term use of a sub-
mersible to further the knowledge of the oceans with little expectation
of a positive return to the company.

6. The Effects of not Using the Submersible

The lack of utilization for the submersible has had an effect
that is immediately obvious; the vessels have been laid up. During the
period of investigation for this paper, approximately six months, the
following submersibles have changed status; Deepstar 4000, Star II and
Star III have been laid up, Beaver IV has been idled, Deep Quest
activities have been cut back, and the only submersible operated by an
educational institution, Asherah, was sold to a private concern.
Effects that are perhaps more significant than the loss of these sub-
mersibles are (1) the loss of ocean experienced talent that was
associated with submersibles, and (2) the reaction of the investor to
the failure of these ocean ventures.

The cost of the loss of ocean experienced talent in marine
science due to the laying up of the submersible cannot be directly
evaluated in terms of dollars. Its effect on progress in marine science
will be felt in that expensive lessons of the past will have to be
learned again and in the increased wages that will have to be paid to
attract the experienced scientists and engineers back into the field
of oceanography.

The reaction of the investor to the failure of the submersible
as a commercial venture is complex. The firms that have had to shut
down their vessels have generally been large corporations whose success
will not be greatly affected by the submersible operation. They are not

52

generally associated with oceanography. For example, General Dynamics
and Westinghouse 's corporate image was not greatly affected by laying
up of the vessels. It is doubtful if most of the stockholders in these
firms are even aware of this action. Rather, the problem arises from
the use of submersibles being assigned the role of an indicator of the
attractiveness of investment in ocean oriented firms. Recent articles
in business and management magazines have addressed these firms as a
possible area for investment. These articles have assessed the laying
up of the submersible as a symptom of poor profit potential in the short
term for all ocean oriented business [31]. The magazines do not attempt
to discourage the long term investor, however, current market conditions
have done this .

The exploitation of the ocean's resources depends on an orderly
development of the equipment and techniques that will be required to
assault this hostile environment. The withdrawal of the private
sector's support at this juncture on the recommendation of an inter-
pretation of the role of the submersible can have serious affects. A
$3 million subsidy which was proposed and withdrawn from the defense
budget might have kept several of the laid-up vessels active and counter-
acted the impression that has been gained by these business writers.

53

V. CONCLUSIONS

A . SUMMARY

The paper has reviewed a balanced national effort for marine science
which has been proposed in "The Stratton Report." This report has
delineated national goals which emphasize increasing the base of oceanic
knowledge and simultaneously seeking economical means of exploiting the
ocean to meet the demand for resources whose land supply has been or is
nearing depletion.

This effort has been converted into specific programs with data
requirements that provided potential roles for the submersible. These
roles were discussed in relation to the scientific disciplines associ-
ated with oceanography. The submersible was found to have unique capa-
bilities to collect the required data for several of the programs. These
capabilities were associated with missions that could be included under
national security.

Research and development funding for the submersible has been pri-
marily sponsored by the Navy. A large federal program, DSSP, has
provided motivation for the construction of several of the vessels,
however, the recent revolution of national priorities has reduced the
extent of this program and the utilization of commercial vessels.

The Navy has constructed submersibles which have the potential to
accomplish the data collection required by the national effort, further
reducing the market for the commercial submersible in marine science.

To off-set the loss of a market for the submersible, a subsidy has
been proposed which would finance submersible services for scientific

54

missions. This subsidy would tend to keep a competitive pool of vessels
available for marine science. To date the subsidization of submersibles
has not been placed in effect and current information indicates that it
will not be .

The submersible has non-scientific roles which provide it with a
potential expanding market. These roles are associated with recreation,
salvage, and mechanical work on off-shore facilities. The rate of
expansion of these roles is limited by the lack of a legal status for
the ocean floor. Pending a determination of a code of laws for this area,
about sixty percent of the surface area of the earth, commercial expansion
off the continental shelf will be limited due to the uncertainty of a
firm being able to profit from its investments.

The potential of the ocean to provide a profit to a firm will con-
tinue to attract investments regardless of the failure or success of the
submersible. The subsidy would be an attempt to support these ventures
beyond their usefulness.

B. GENERAL CONCLUSIONS

The submersible has unique capabilities to perform work that is
essential to attaining the national goals in the ocean. Most of these
unique roles can be associated with national defense, thus the Navy's
vehicles can be assigned to accomplish them.

The lack of a legal code for the ocean floor, beyond the contin-
ental shelf, has reduced commercial exploration and exploitation of
the non-living resources of the ocean. This has eliminated a portion
of the commercial market for the submersible.

55

The unique roles of the submersible in marine science have been
diminished as technology has provided more sophisticated instruments
which can accomplish the same tasks with control from a surface vessel,
for example, recently real time viewing of the bottom has been provided
to a depth of 20,000 be television.

C. SPECIFIC CONCLUSIONS

The unique capabilities of the submersible which are required to
support the national effort are the ability to:

1. Conduct hard rock coring of selected outcrops to provide
substrata information vital to geologic maps.

2. Conduct controlled "in situ" tests to determine the engineering
properties of the sediments and collect conventional samples in
the immediate area for laboratory test correlations.

3. Conduct experiments at the water-sediment interface in which
the alignment of the test instrument has great significance,
for example, bottom heat flow and acoustic studies.

4. Assist in the identification of bio-acoustic sources.

5. Provide a mobile platform for acoustic instruments with the
necessary alignment information available.

6. Conduct experiments that involve collection of a complete set
of measurements and samples simultaneously at one depth.

7. Conduct "in situ" evaluations of material performance where the
sample is affected by all the elements of the hostile environ-
ment of the ocean while the sample is in a configuration similar
to its potential use.

56

The submersible is an expensive instrument platform, however, it can
be made economically competitive with other vessels by reducing transit
periods. Missions that collect a large amount of data in one locality
such that multiple stations would be required from a surface vessel, also
are missions where the economic efficiency of the submersible would be
enhanced .

57

VI. EPILOGUE

With limited funds, the role of the submersible in marine science
has tended to diminish. If additional funds should become available,
an expansion of programs might increase the use of the vehicle. The
private sector will not provide these funds due to the problems associ-
ated with the question of the ocean-bottom legal status. The Federal
Government has given higher priority to other programs, for example
war on crime, public health and the war in Viet Nam. When additional
funds become available, some of the conclusions of this paper will be
invalidated .

58

APPENDIX A

f.
THE NATIONAL INVOLVEMENT IN OCEANOGRAPHY

In 1966, the Congress initiated a comprehensive study of the
nation's involvement in marine affairs. It was hoped that this would
provide coherence to the multitude of efforts that were being conducted
by the federal agencies to develop our potential to utilize the ocean.
The study group, chaired by Dr. Julius A. Stratton, Chairman of the
Ford Foundation, was composed of specialists in ocean sicences,
engineering, national security affairs, economics, foreign affairs
and public administration. It was to assist the President in identi-
fying government-wide goals and in developing strategies for their
achievement .

The Stratton Committee recognized the need to conduct the research
that would provide the basis for understanding the complex relations
that shape and control the ocean as well as applying efforts to meet
projected shortages of food and minerals. The recommendations of the
report that it issued, are in many cases very specific; however, only
the broad goals and programs are presented in order to allow a general
familiarity with the federal effort.

NATIONAL GOALS

The goals are broad statements of purpose. They provide the
criteria by which proposed programs may be evaluated. The six basic
goals are presented in summary form.

This Appendix has been developed from refs. 32, 33, and 35-37.

59

1. National Capability in the Sea

The nation must have the broad capability to satisfy the needs
for scientific and engineering knowledge common to nearly all marine
programs. The national program in technology and marine science should
emphasize those activities basic to a wide spectrum of potential
applications .

2 . Management of the Coastal Zone

A management system, which would permit conscious and informed
choices among development alternatives and provide for proper planning
for more effective use of our coastline must be introduced. The pre-
sent federal, state and local systems are inadequate for the task of
preserving the region.

3 . Marine Resources

Policies should be developed so there is no critical shortage
of any raw material. These policies should advance economic efficiency
in the development of all resources.

4. Global Environment

The effective use of the sea would require the capability to
observe, understand and predict oceanic processes on- a global scale.
This would include data on the ocean's chemistry, biology, thermal
structure, motion, and the characteristics of the bottom.

5. Technical and Operating Services

New technology must be brought to bear to provide general purpose
mapping and charting, navigation safety, data management and instrument
calibration.

60

6. Organizing a National Ocean Effort

A means of effective coordination of the national effort must
be found. The formation of a federal organization for marine science
affairs was urged.

The above list omits all of the detailed goals of the Stratton
Report and the Panel Reports. As to submersibles , it stated a specific
goal for the development and construction of exploration submersibles
with ocean transit capability for civil missions to 20,000 foot depths.
The 20,000 foot depth provides access to 98 percent of the ocean's
floor, excepting only the deep trenches.

NATIONAL PROGRAMS

The nation hopes to achieve the goals by a series of programs.
These cover a variety of efforts, however the principal programs are
funded under thirteen headings .

The following summary discusses the area of interest of the program
and the work being undertaken.

INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION AND COLLABORATION

This area has been listed first for the reason it has greater impact
on the future development of the ocean than any other technological or
economic program.

The lack of a body of law governing the sea floor beyond the claims
of national jurisdiction has placed more than 50$ of the surface of
the earth, the sea bottom, in an extra-legal status. On 15 December
1969, the United Nations General Assembly passed a resolution that
stated persons and states should refrain from exploiting the resources
of the sea bed beyond the limits of national jurisdiction prior to

61

extablishment of an appropriate machinery to manage that region. It was
further stated no claim to any part of this area or its resources will
be recognized.

The establishment of machinery to provide for the efficient
exploitation of the ocean must be accomplished to provide a stable
environment for the investment and scientific communities. Pending the
resolution of the status of the ocean floor, the expenditure of effort
and funds in this area will be hampered by doubt concerning the ability
to profit from ones efforts.

The question of the deployment of military installations on the sea
floor has also been addressed by this program. The prevention of
weapons systems being placed on the sea floor was the subject of a
recent United States - Russian Treaty. This problem will continue to
be treated in the future.

The funds allocated to this goal support the various international
commissions that foster cooperation and administer the many fishing
treaties, the International Ice Patrol and projects to foster the
exchange of information between nations.

DEVELOPMENT OF THE COASTAL ZONE

The coastal zone is one of our most precious national assets. This
region is populated by forty-five percent of our urban population and
is the recreation center for many more people.

Current efforts to conserve our national heritage, to provide
recreation, to foster commercial development and to dispose of heat and
organic pollutants, place many sectors of society in conflict concerning
this area. The coordination of these efforts is accomplished through a
variety of programs.

62

The funds budgeted for the development of the coastal zone are used
in the following six areas:

1. Development of commercial and sport fisheries

2. Enhancing recreation uses

3. Maintaining the quality of coastal waters

4. Resolving the questions related to coastal zone property,
boundaries and uses

5. Strengthening policy planning, coordination and development
of the zone

6. Encouraging research education and information.

The coastal zone includes the Great Lakes and Chesapeake Bay, as
well as the oceanic zone.

NATIONAL SECURITY

This program consists of projects that are designed to maintain
and improve the capabilities of our military forces to conduct their
assigned missions. It can be divided into areas of emphasis as
follows :

1. Surveying the properties of the ocean and ocean bottom

2. Marine science and technology in support of defense systems

3. Development of undersea search, rescue, recovery and man
in the sea capability

4. Test and calibration facility

5. Marine science in support of the limited test ban.
These provide a large amount of data of use to non-military

applications, which by itself would not have a high enough priority
to be investigated.

The free exchange of information between the military and non-
military sector is vital to the progress of the national effort. To

63

date this cooperation has existed and is assured in the future due to
the large percent of the oceanographic effort that is controlled by the
Federal Government. It has been estimated that 90$ of the data collected
by the Navy is unclassified and available to the public through the
National Oceanographic Data Center (NODC).

FISHERY DEVELOPMENT AND SEA FOOD TECHNOLOGY

This program seeks to strengthen the fishing industry for economic
development at home and aborad. This program is being conducted by the
financing studies that will lead to greater production of the fish
catch. It is also responsible for producing fish protein concentrate
(EPC).

DEVELOPMENT OF NON-LIVING RESOURCES

This program has these areas of increasing emphasis. They are
reevaluation of the legal-financial-administrative framework for oil
and gas leases, establishment of environmental protection and the
complete geological, geophysical and bathymetric mapping of the
United States Continental Shelf.

This program has been involved with the petroleum and mineral
mining operations and development of desalinization of water.

TRANSPORTATION

This program has the responsibility for rejuvenating our merchant
fleet and port facilities. In addition, it has taken steps to reduce
pollution caused by marine disasters, such as the sinking of the Torrey
Canyon, and improving navigation systems.

64

NATIONAL DATA CENTERS

This program seeks to facilitate the collection and distribution of
data. The National Oceanographic Data Center was established to serve
this need. Steps are being taken to ensure wide dissemination of cur-
rent marine science projects.

GENERAL PURPOSE OCEAN ENGINEERING

This program includes advanced engineering related to material,
power, propulsion, soils, habitats and instrumentation. Specific
projects include the development of Cable Controlled Underwater Research
Vehicle (CURV III), and power sources for underwater tasks.

The National Instrumentation Facility, a center to provide prime
standards and calibration techniques for oceanography, is funded by
this program.

EDUCATION

The program consists of the Sea Grant Program which is administered
by the National Science Foundation. This will provide a source of
specially trained manpower for developing oceanographic programs and
a base of institutions capable of research in marine sciences.

ENVIRONMENTAL OBSERVATION AND PREDICTION

The program is devoted to understanding and predicting the ocean
environment. Areas of emphasis in this endeavor include the develop-
ment of Buoy Technology and Spacecraft Oceanography.

OCEAN EXPLORATION, MAPPING, CHARTING AND GEODESY

The program seeks to provide knowledge of those features of the
ocean that vary slowly with time. The program has a wide variety of

65

ships employed to obtain data for accurate charts. Among the methods
being developed are experimental photogrammetric maps with closely
spaced contour intervals from data obtained by submersibles .

HEALTH

The program has stressed research into marine bio-active substances
and possible sources of new pharmaceutical products.

The Stratton Report has indicated another area of growing concern,
the Arctic. The nation will seek to further economic development of
the Arctic region in general and Alaska in particular, so that the
United States will have a dominant role in that region of the world.

66

LIST OF REFERENCES

1. A. C. Electronics letter, serial S-295B to Professor R. J. Smith,
Subj : Proposed Charter of R/V DOWB .

2. Beebe , W. , Half Mile Down, Harcourt, Brace and Company, 1934.

3. Center for Naval Analysis Study 19, The Navy's Role in the
Exploitation of the Ocean (Project Blue Water), V. 1, June 1968.

4. Committee for Oceanography, Publication 1228, Economic Benefits from
Oceanographic Research, National Academy of Sciences, 1964.

5. "Dry Year for Submersibles" , Oceanology International, p. 19,
February 1970.

6. General Dynamics, Electric Boat Division letter serial 1146 to
Superintendent, Naval Postgraduate School, Subj: Use of Star II,
16 May 1969.

7. Hull, E. W. S., "Those Remarkable Little Work Boats," Geo Marine
Technology, V. 3, p. 21-40, May 1967.

8. Interagency Committee on Oceanography pamphlet number 18, Under-
sea Vehicles for Oceanography, Government Printing Office, 1965.

9. Javits, J. K. , Hitch, C. J. and Robinson, K. T., The Defense
Sector and the American Economy, New York University Press, 1968.

10. Markel, A. L. , Adventures with Aluminaut, paper presented at
National Aeronautic and Space Engineering and Manufacturing
Meeting, Los Angeles, California, Oct 6-10, 1969.

11. National Council on Marine Resources and Engineering Development,
Marine Research Fiscal Year 1968, 1969.

12. National Geographic Research Reports No. 419, Evacuation of a
Byzantine Shipwreck at Yassi Ada, Turkey by F. G. Bass and F.
van Doorninck.

13. National Petroleum Council, Petroleum Resources Under the Ocean
Floor, 1969.

14. National Security Industrial Association, Ocean Engineering, V. 1,
1966.

15. Naval Oceanographic Office Informal Report 68-62, Design and
Operational Performance of Manned Submersibles, by R. F. Busby,
June 1968.

67

16. Naval Oceanographic Office Informal Report 68-82, Ocean Surveying
from Manned Submersibles , by R. F. Busby and J. M. Costin,
September 1968.

17. Naval Oceanographic Office Informal Report 69-15, Undersea Studies
with the Deep Research Vehicle Deepstar-4000, by R. Merrifield,
March 1969.

18. Navy Material Command letter MAT 0327/DUB to COMSUBDEVGRU 1, Subj :
Navy Use of Commerical Submersibles; Information Concerning, 27
June 1969.

19. Ocean Systems Operations, North American Rockwell letter serial
69MA6075 to Professor R. J. Smith, Subj: Use of Beaver IV,

10 June 1969.

20. "Oceanography; Science of the Seventies," The Value Line, V XXII,
p. 560-570, 17 February 1967.

21. Office of Naval Research Study, Report on Deep Submersibles,
December 1969.

22. Perry Submarine Builders unserialized letter to Joseph King,
Subj: Perry Submersibles, 12 January 1970.

23. Piccard, J. and Dietz , R. S., Seven Miles Down, G. P. Putnam's
Sons, 1961.

24. Reynolds Submarine Services Corporation unserialized letter to
Joseph F. King, Subj: Use of Aluminaut, 1 December 1969.

25. Roman, D. D., Research and Development Management: The Economics
and Administration of Technology, Appleton-Century-Craf ts , 1968.

26. Schlosser, A. J., "Navy Diving Service Leases," Naval Ship Systems
Command Technical News, Vol. 17, p. 38-40, January 1968.

27. Sun Shipbuilding and Dry Dock Co., letter serial RHH/11 to
Joseph F. King, Subj: Guppy Costs , 11 December 1969.

28. Stevens, R. 0., Jr., "Undersea Workboat in the Gulf of Mexico Oil
Fields," Ocean Industry, V. 4, p. 30-34, October 1969.

29. Symposium on Mineral Resources of the World Ocean, Proceedings ,
University of Rhode Island, 1968.

30. Terry, R. D., The Deep Submersible, Western Periodicals Co., 1966.

31. "The Future of Oceanography" Business Management, V. 37, p. 40-65,
October 1969.

32. U. S. Commission on Marine Science, Engineering, and Resources,
Our Nation and the Sea, U. S. Government Printing Office, 1969.

68

33. U. S. Commission on Marine Science, Engineering, and Resources,
Panel Reports, U. S. Government Printing Office, 1969.

34. U. S. House of Representatives; Hearings of Department of Defense
Appropriations for 1970, U. S. Government Printing Office, 1970.

35. U. S. President Marine Science Affairs, U. S. Government Printing
Office, 1967.

36. U. S. President Marine Science Affairs, U. S. Government Printing
Office, 1968.

37. U. S. President Marine Science Affairs, U. S. Government Printing
Office, 1969.

38. University of Pennsylavnia unserialized letter to Joseph F. King,
Subj : Asherah Operations, 21 November 1969.

39. University of Texas at Austin working paper 68-23, Marine Sciences
and their Industrial Potential, by George Kozmetsky, 16 April 1968

40. Westinghouse Report, Mission Definition - Deepstar 20,000, by
A. Schwartz, 30 September 1969.

41. Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution Report 67-50, Geology from
a Deep-Diving Submersible, by John Schlee, August 1967.

42. Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution Report 69-32, Hand Tools and
Mechanical Accessories for a Deep Submersible, by C. L. Winget ,
May 1969.

43. "$7.4 million Ocean Simulation Facility Being Built," Oceanology
International, p. 11, January 1970.

69

INITIAL DISTRIBUTION LIST

No. Copies

1. Defense Documentation Center 20
Cameron Station

Alexandria, Virginia 22314

2. Library 2
Naval Postgraduate School

Monterey, California 93940

3. Department of Oceanography 3
Naval Postgraduate School

Monterey, California 93940

4. Oceanographer of the Navy 1
The Madison Building

732 N. Washington Street
Alexandria, Virginia 22314

5. Naval Oceanographic Office 1
Attn: Library

Washington, D. C. 20390

6. LCDR P. Tatro, USN 1
Office of Naval Research

Department of the Navy
Washington, D. C. 20360

7. CDR Don Walsh, USN 1
3334 Hawk Street

San Diego, California 92103

8. Dr. D. F. Leipper 1
Department of Oceanography

Naval Postgraduate School
Monterey, California 93940

9. Dr. J. W. Creighton 1
Department of Business Administration and Economics

Naval Postgraduate School
Monterey, California 93940

10. Dr. R. J. Smith 1

Department of Oceanography
Naval Postgraduate School
Monterey, California 93940

70

No. Copies

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Department of Oceanography

Naval Postgraduate School
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Washington, D. C. 20390

13. LCDR V. K. Nield, USN 1
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Naval Postgraduate School
Monterey, California 93940

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USS Long Beach CGN 9

Fleet Post Office

San Francisco, California 96601

71

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The Submersible and Oceanography

Master's Thesis; April 1970

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13. tPONtONINO MILITARY ACTIVITY

Naval Postgraduate School
Monterey, California 93940

UtIajt

During a period of expansion of the nation's oceanographic effort, the sub-
mersible has seen a decline in utilization. This has resulted in several vessels
being withdrawn from the market. The reasons for the lack of utilization of
this oceanographic tool are studied in this paper.

The various national programs are examined to determine those data
collection missions which require the unique capabilities of the submersible
to utilize its ability to provide accurate alignment of instruments, conduct
complex experiments "in situ" and core hard rock samples.

The submersibles failure to gain greater utilization results from its high
cost and weather limitations and from the fact that its. instrument suite does
not provide a clear advantage over other methods of data collection.

It is concluded that the reduction of the pool of submer»ibles will not
affect the progress of the nation's oceanographic efforts. Programs requiring
such a vessel can be associated with national security, permitting research
to be conducted with Navy operated submersibles.

It is also concluded the financial losses incurred by the owners of the
submertibles will not deter further involvement by the private sector in the
ocean development.

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Marine Economics

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16 DEC 70
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16 DEC70
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The submersible and

oceanography.

19016
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The submersible and
oceanography.

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The submersible and oceanography.

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DUDLEY KNOX LIBRARY