: ml : Boa be a ie es i FN OR a DA A Ce ‘i 4 MF ery eat! s a Payy} » ie ray Al ean aD By Wie VA : iY NANNY 4y sh Perfectly Formed Apple Tree—Sutton ~ Successful Fruit Culture AaPRACTICAL GUIDE TO THE CULTIVATION _AND PROPAGATION OF FRUITS , BY : » a SAMUEL Te’ MAYNARD, B. Sc. Formerly Professor of Horticulture at the Massachusetts Agricultural College; Botanist and Pomologist to the Massachusetts Board of Agriculture, etc., etc. Illustrated ORANGE JUDD COMPANY New York 1905 LIBRARY of SONGRESS Two Copies Received ‘fEB 8 1905 Gopyrignt cary PTANM. 5; 19 05 | CLASS AV AKG Noi 1/05 656 GOPY B. COPYRIGHT 1905 By ORANGE JUDD COMPANY ee ee PREFACE During the past ten or fifteen years great progress has been made in the cultivation and care of our hardy fruits and especially in the varieties grown, the methods of packing, shipping and marketing, and during this time few books have been written which have kept up with this progress. ‘This progress and the knowledge of insect and fungous pests and their destruction has been largely recorded in scientific books and papers from the numerous experiment stations, with little from the practical and practicing fruit growers, and there is a growing need of a condensed work giving, in plain language, a summary of the scientific progress made, together with the practice of the most successful fruit growers in various sections of the country. LHspe- cially is this information needed that those just starting out in the business of fruit growing, or the village home owner who wishes to grow a small quantity of fruit for family consumption, may find in a condensed form the information necessary for success. It is, therefore, the aim of the author to make a book that is up to date in every particular and to cover the entire practice of fruit growing from the starting of the seed or cutting to the marketing of the fruit, though in many cases works devoted to special fruits may be more complete. It is written from the standpoint of the practical fruit grower who is striving to make his business profitable by growing the best fruit possible and at the least cost. No attempt is made to describe a large number of varieties, nor many of the numerous methods of train- ing, pruning, cultivating, etc., but to give. in plain, Vv v1 PREFACE practical language descriptions of such varieties as are most in demand in our markets, and the methods prac- ticed by the most successful cultivators of many sections of the country; to deal with principles first and with the practice afterward, for the practice to be successful must be based upon correct principles, while the practice will always be varied by the progressive fruit grower according to his immediate conditions and environment. The foundation principles of plant growth and nourish- ment, however, must always remain the same. No one can foresee what results the changing con- ditions from year to year of our own country or of those of other countries of the world may bring about in our methods of fruit growing, and the progressive fruit grower must be ready to adapt himself to these — conditions or be left behind in the march of competition. The Northern States cannot expect to compete suc- cessfully with the more southern of our own States in growing our native fruits out of season, but each section can produce them to such a degree of perfection and put them into the hands of the consumer in such a fresh and attractive condition that there need be little desire on the part of dealers or consumers in any community - to send beyond their own limits for their supply of | fresh fruit in its season. We should also make an effort to supply any de- mand that may come from less favored countries, and, properly managed, this demand for our native fruits should assume very large proportions, but the main effort of the fruit growers, for whom this book is written, should be to supply their own sections with fruit in such an abundance and perfection and at such prices that the inferior products of other sections and other countries cannot secure our markets against the — home supply. S. T. MAYNARD. Nortuporo, Mass., 1905. TABLE OF CONTENTS CEAP TER I LAUR OMUCTMON Se oe eo Oe ee, LEO Ape mE EY UP eet a pe ee Ak Ke te i 10 JSTEND 2 BAS Sc SOAS ee a re 71 to OEP Eiht. PV. BREE PA Oikos fees > aes HR eee eee ce "8 to OR APE RV THE APRICOT AND NECTARINE............ 92 to Milan eine ie te eine ie oe oo ee oe ¢ 95: TO Slaton) Oma RR wt ee ee) sas os SGcee 103 to | CREA PER. valet THE QUINCE iy eat eRe eR Coley, Aaa ahd Rea 108 to CHAPTER IX Mirae MBER 05 aes nae te eb ee aes 112-10 70 91 107 ttt. 113 Vili CONTENTS CHAPTER X THEAGRAPE 322220 oS ee eee eee 114 to Tum BLACKBERRY Goes ee 130 to THE RASPBERRY i016 oo ea ees 139 to CHAPTER XIII THE CURRANT AND GOOSEBERRY .......... 147 to. CHAPTER XIV ah STRAWBERRY 0.0.) fos meer tone 153 to iE CRANBERRY. 24 oo Go te ee ee 170 to CHAPTER XVI | THE BLUEBERRY AND HUCKLEBERRY....... 174 to CHAPTER XVII SUn-lROPICAL NRUITS 2202s soe ee 176 to CHAPTER XVIII PROPAGATION OF FRUIT TREES AND PLANTS.183 to CHAPTER XIX Faure UNDER GRASS Yon oee eee eee 205 to CHAPTER XX INSHORE PESTS. ois ei so ae ect ee 220 to CHAPTER XXI HoNGOUS: DIShHASHS a4. 4 p coe eee 250 to PAGE 129 138 146 152 169 173 175 182 204 219 249 265 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS FIG. PAGE 1 Perfectly Formed Apple Trec.. ate oe ROnESUIeee 2h STAC) ave BONES iis & ces RE OR LER Eee ITER Cee ae SRE IRIE a: 3 Apple Orchard Too Closely Planted ..................- 13 4 Apple Tree Perfectly Formed, Low Headed............ 14 Peete! Aeralts lS aales OTC ierececeses siete sts ick io crev ove elo tne Gees ei eieuenete sees eels. s 15 Se Clanibinicem OAT MM WISE mints cdleccd oars hele s aa bares ee see ee 16 joa lrecsProperly eruned. for Planting 262 vic oc ie ve See ee ed 17 8 Well Formed Tree Twelve Years Old ................. 12 9 Well Formed Tree Twelve Years Old in Bloom....... 19 10 Methods of Heeling-in Trees ................. 22 ee eee ees 20 ile ZC e mao Nta srt ie Ucar ah se a Goals sg gta die ge spas sielevalles 22 UZ GN MEI SATIS (SECO EM OW: )uisis sels. vcs else lorelsieye wiecalarel aims jeter ee 24 mre OUMbA VIVA VINEE ET ATOM a cloveisecc nso olatela s: slab duate xls 4 ls el e'e ee, 25 LA Orch are El anos. (© Alli OPTI -sic2s fc case be. cutee eee aisle ole fee 25 15 Acme Spring Tooth Harrow ...................- tenons 26 TER GH EB CTS WOVE Tk CUA eral alee Ne Gr 26 MVCN NAC COTY ate tee siatcerey tere tiene ccatah ore cots ale wlers a ue sie iala Bipi'e ie, sintle ane erst 27 18 Cover Crop of Canada Peas and Barley .:............ 35 19 Apple Tree Pruned Too Severely .................66. umcoll 20 Apple Tree, Lower Branches Pruned .................. 38 21 Apple Tree, Where to Cut Large Branch.............. 38 22 Apple Tree, Pruning Crossing Branches............... 39 ee ATeUslT QUIN aime ANY Van level tasers Sectee aie rates 0 eae sie aue. a oc oltepol slate’ sr sheysnotercls jelammterel= 40 eee EVE EINER SUAV og ovals Nebo a\e oie «ae copies oem sreleieieley en) ers 40 NEVE UAT tM Sep Fad O Oscar vere rg 4 aye oe ayaa eine. aie. oye eile’ al sketlete “one le fe ete eisiake'e [lepe-e 41 2) OMS THUNTUMT Ne SINC AUS sien. oy crave toliai-eleseiers eave vere leiere renee relate: st ers leveuerbele 42 ile SOM eG MICO sts & oleic aln' ae 6 ainyeeie i deie'er 0 sete leis) auvevere cae s\'eleleiei ee 46 RO NE Tater tee Ee PINE tera 'e eoye cg e\Gre ico. ¢ ie eve, #-arecale.p.6 sieloloisiiae.« tole eiee's ole/e'bve:s 47 20 FE HhesCiOM *../c. 2 BRS R Mee ne oe Mee gaiaben a alee erate te ed Siacotule ele tsieis 48 30 Cleft Grafting, Starting Ble Om CCHsON Ab ihe oe a Ra ep meio os 48 Me@letr rattine, Elorizontal View ...c.s.si-+sss4+e ees 6 48 Soe OION. EOGIZOMLAb VICW: vfs ules coc s ede ccls os sie Se selsin sniae 48 Eee @TOnvy a Yen Gx lecteinbenIN oy eerie seminal seater cdovelewiaishe, <{elsticvete\lol ofa ata\eyerel elevers 49 SO LOhi Grane wre EM OUT CIlONS ioe)... ce 4 ue. able a elel eens 916 i=" 49 a Orchard: SLCPLAGGED fe Sire cic cote we wyele Seles oete ee wells ee oe 59 36 Cornerpieces on Bushel BOxeS ............ cece cece eee eee 61 all AN OIOUGE! Tad) LEWIS Ne Bop SS Salsa sou ea soe Ooo oo oUCpoGuaUooc 61 POMS CLOW PAD OLO NET OSG: s..) aisle ce aiecvale nthe’ 4 « eiple)eseo w'weleieie e.sia,ieie @0' 63 SEN CRMADIL GMI LESS acca ere coi tnleie'e Siepainia 6's. See e- 60s eunielolacer ale, w gi'sts 64 AVC OLUISLOLASe MPUIE EROUSC oe aac. p ake s.cercco'e 2c 7ehe Siceie ein ae a» 69 Ale N(O nee elNy MECC ae ners sate crcl clere eyelets okeuel Ghar cjou desolate allele e\aiepee 80 AA ING), Al ISB elo MMRESs as Sac emsin oo Gis beroe co Oca cloo. Go po.G0 to DoRmace 80 43a Peach Tree Trimmed to Whip .......--eeeeecseeeeeecece 80 43b Peach Tree Cut Back to Stub...... PE esdclestens cuse'ens OO ix x ILLUSTRATIONS FIG. PAGE 44> Peach Tree Before serunin saris ae ce ae oe eee os ee 82 450 Peach. Tree “Prune > syncs < cerere sonore oiepahe pram ale teenie eee . 83 46 Peach ‘Tree Improved) ooo .cse0 as Ss sas oe soe ee eee 84 4 Peach, Orchard: Cultivated 4.24.6 see aoe ee eee 85 48..-Peach. Orchard Four: Years Old x... 22.2 ie: - se eee 86 49°. Peach Orchard 1 (Grass setae oes os eee eee 87 50° Georgia ‘Peach Carrier (472%)... 2 pe LES 0 eae eae 90 ba ellen bere Plan Ser. Be wc aise aw chen eke bree 99 aes CSA TA Ue UTTAR Pod go eee erate aaalia-cetrsie oie peemeai es Coe 100 5S Sita wikeye eb bahia aes Pe ae oe ate oe ek aie ee ees ee 101 ba Sweet, Cherry. Trees! foi25 ioc oes eee BL ee aH aS Hi 105 5b ¢pour "Cherry “Preese Conic 0k i gh le eerie lnc aw cae 106 oo Low Branching Quince: Tree. ox. sin oo 26 75 oe es eee 109 Bie Oram oe: OUNCE? . See ee alah Ole Sielava shan pareeee ARS aI eee ee 110 BS sed. S -QUEINICe U2 ns ore es aohene tee ke ag aE oe Se epee eee 110 59) New. American: Mulberry sc coe. Shsn es cess aces eee ee 112 160: Ss Downing. (MUIDEET Y= 5.5 sce facies ne oc acai ate a ee ee 112 GES Piantine Gra peW ine ic oss... o hose o oalee et ee ee LtG6. 62 Vineyard with Cover Crop ........ ee Se eee 117 63-) Vineyard: Without: Cover ‘Crop-cis.. cse.1. bia ee 117 64) HMicohomical. Use “Of (POSUS=, 62 wank cas ce ees eee ree 118 65 The Kniffin-System of Grape Training ................ 119 Gb) Method yor Bracines Minds osis .icse eee eee 120 67 Modified Kniffin System of Grape Training............121 6s41Grape, Pickine and Storine Wray. csats ceo ee ee ee 124 69 Implements for Girdling Grapevines ..................- 128 10 “Blackberries Pruned and Tnpruned 23.02... eee 132 71 Crosspiece to Blackberry Trellis ........ in! sgetsr Aaya ee 134 72 Supports for Blackberries and Raspberries ........... 135 iS “Lucretia, DEwDerry 3.66 bosons on icek ee noes hte ee 74 Red Raspberrys.meld Culture sc205.) 2 eee 140 (a, Laying Down Raspberry Canes, ic. 2. 42, aes 141 16 Blackcap, Raspberry Tips Rooted... -2.. 5.4... eee 143 dee Cherry iCurrantyocine scouts cs Cee ee ee eee 149 iS NV bite. Imperial Currant: 25 sense ee eee 150 79-80 Arrangement of Planting Staminate and Pis- tillate:: Varieties 04.0%. 20 cick ee ee 155 oe Plant set Loo DEepocuis 2 occu ee ee eae nee a 2 156 82° Plant Set: Too Shallow. 2. $52.3 oss. ogee eee Oe ee es ge Plant Seta t 4 sc5 eee rs aioe eo eee ae 157 $4: Diaesram of.Bedse: Row Systemic. 6 ss... see oe 157 $o:° Strawberries in Wide Matted Rows. ..«.<.c.s+.:. 1 on 158 S62: Ditch: Method’ of Irrigation 0). seal no ue a5 eee TGA 87 Staminate Flower of Strawberry ..... Ie PONE Te RR ER 163 38. -Pistillate Miower of Strawberry. -..+..es.816cee i ee 164 a9) The Marshall-Strawberry Carrier 25.12 2c oo eee 1€8 ve - duaree Bell Cranberry °25.c0. sos bees oe aoe ee eee 172 vy Oranze “Pree in TUDE aia ac one Oo oe eee 178 2 a2-“ Bearing Branch \of Wie oc e.s oes dee eo ee 95-04-95... ROOtWGrartine = ore ees sic. sdb alee seen eRe eee 185 SGA UGStIC he sich voice Boas Gosia tiod Mele os ee ee 187 SG Budding IKnives. < socks eso sein oa ee 188 98-99-100-101 » Budding: ys. « oa seve e sarciun ca ers ere 189 ILLUSTRATIONS Gi FIG. PAGE 102-103 Nursery Treatment of Young TYees .....--+++-++++: 190 AMG ACe STOOL) sc api. < anne eee nnn sees ene me ees eine tent 197 Mpa Ge Om oa oe eae eee tess ae Peete eter tees 198 jie. @ayerine the Grapevine «2-5... -. +. tee ee ee 199 Sipmeratiine the Grape: -...-- <2-- i... see ee ere tet tte 200 108 Span Roof Curvilinear IE IOUS Ce sess oes is) > wfeiin ie s'e' 205 109 suean-to Mruit EIOUSe ....------+-.206- 22s =e feet es etree 206 110 Fruit House Wall with Opening into Outside Border. 208 di ta@ulds Grapery Order oc... a= oie nol es ae ease sie ce te Ze, 112 Training the Vine, Third Year ....---+++---ecssseeeees 215 113 Layering Strawberry Plants TIRED Ole ere rates ceils waieless wie 217 114. A Bench of Strawberry Plants for Worewne. |... eke CLS 115 Round-headed Apple Tree Borer .....-.--++-s++++++++: 224 116 Flat-headed Apple Tree PP OTEI ate soe Teale Siar eietele ale ois 225 117 Oyster Shell Bark Louse ........-.-- ee sees ee ert er terete 226 Pie Een Oa Pema ae ole ac «co wel nee Sanit ee ee einic es eee * 227 Gere Pase Seales: cam cos wee. ce ne eee tee ete ss crete: 228 We Cali NOPE se 5. wi Sains eo ee eae ect tees tenet eet 230 121 Apple Aphis 2 Se EARS RG ays Sig a oe ee Se rer“ Hope @ocilita NiGt Mates a= = cco eur s oie pee cre tie sie eee Spies 233 fos Ogle Mame Gt o26- <5. 2-2 tween en Raisins elec cert ates 234 HOME RM iatatl ge Acatn seers Soarc elait ano hone wh init aveine te eee tte tie o's 235 ER oS Bae EIST Tas a ena ee Uo a a 237 FOG ee IM CUE UNIO fos 2m eo mernle oe <= = nies in wine oes seis we) * ere 8 we ce 239 127 Curculio Catcher ...... Beh aetna rotclay« Sen oiaaen mus Saat 240 em ose: i OF OAT oi ar 2 aio.2 8 ciate ae eins #0014 * Seles Sees secs 241 TES OY SH Ere ere ak V0) 0 le re PR RR SC II al alla 243 130 Currant Eggs on Leaf ilar fens Nokes Bact et ey era nee 131 Currant Worms Hating Leaves ...----+--sseerreeeeeees 245 (ED SSeS) TES STF Cae ae tain DIO UCC aonean te ace act vce 247 1433 Strawberry Crown Borer ..---seeseeeseeeceececsresecces 248 ( T INTRODUCTION The importance of the fruit industry to the people of the United States presents several phases, among which are the value of fruit as a promoter of health, its value as a luxury and its importance as a money crop. AS A PROMOTER OF HEALTH In this way I consider fruit as of by far greater value to man than in any other. Our country is in a remarkably prosperous condition and our people can very easily obtain the food materials necessary to the formation of muscle, bone and fat, and it has been the tendency of a large majority of them to be satisfied with meat, bread, pastry and numerous condiments without an adequate supply of vegetables and fruit. Fruit is generally looked upon as a luxury, but when properly considered it is a necessity, an aid to the proper utilization of the heavier food materials and for invigorating the various organs of the body so that they may best meet the demands made upon them and properly store up materials for repairing all wastes resulting from bodily efforts. That fresh, ripe fruit, in moderate quantities, does enable the system to utilize other food materials taken into it for nourishment, and causes all of the organs to act with more vigor, needs no extended discussion here. Qur people should use more fruit, and they would find it profitable to do so, from many points of view, and much cheaper than doctor’s bills. 4 SUCCESSFUL FRUIT CULTURE AS A LUXURY From the above point of view fruit is an indis- pensable article of food. Fresh ripe fruit is always ac- ceptable with meals, or for the midday lunch it is far more refreshing than any fermented beverage and more nutritious than the choicest pastry or confectionery. What a variety of delicious dishes can be prepared from fresh fruit or from the dried or canned product that keeps in a perfect condition so long after its natural ~ season. What fond recollections often in later years linger around the old home where an abundance of fruit was the lot of youth now grown gray in the service of mankind. What a source of pleasure and refreshment to the laboring mechanic or tiller of the soil after a long day’s toil in the summer or autumn or during the cold days of winter, and yet how few of our laboring people can enjoy more than a small fraction of the fruit needed for health and enjoyment. AS A MONEY CROP Some idea of the importance of the fruit crops of the United States may be obtained when we consider the extent of land occupied by some of our fruits, although accurate statistics are not available for all kinds of fruits, and the immense quantity of fruit produced for our own consumption and for shipping to other countries. The census of 1900 gives the number of apple trees of bearing age in the United States, 201,794,764, and the crop of apples produced 175,397,- 626 bushels; the number of peach trees 99,919,428, with a crop of 15,433,601 bushels; the number of grape- vines over 200,000,000, while the grape crop was over 1,200,000,000 pounds. Statistics of acreage and products of the other hardy fruits to be found are so unsatisfactory that they INTRODUCTION 3 are not given, but we know that in many localities the number of bushels of small fruits far exceeds the yield of the large fruits, and that they are more or less grown for home consumption on at least a majority of the farm homes of the country, and in most of the home gardens in villages where there is sufficient land. _ In the extreme Southern States and on the Pacific slope we find large areas planted with oranges, lemons, pineapples, raisin grapes, prunes, and it is claimed that in Florida and California there are orange trees enough planted to produce more than 10,000,000 boxes of fruit annually, while on the Pacific slope so many prunes are produced (600,000,000 pounds reported as the crop of 1904) and those of such fine quality as to reduce the importation of prunes from Southern Europe to a mere nominal quantity. Within the past few years the planting of fruit trees and vines has increased very rapidly in all sections of the country, except possibly in New England, so that we have some of the largest orchards in the world in our midst. In Missouri, Kansas and some of the other Middle Western States, may be found apple orchards of thou- sands of acres in extent; on the Pacific slope the prune growing industry is assuming immense proportions, and it- is said that the grape growing section or belt between Lake Erie on the north and Lake Chautauqua on the south is the largest in the world. Yet, notwith- standing this immense increase in planting, the demand for our fruit products keeps pace with the supply, prices are sustained, our people are not supplied with nearly the quantity of fresh fruit that they need for health and comfort, and with our rapid growth in wealth and population we must expect equally rapid increase in -. the demand for choice fruit. | Foreign markets, too, are pemandine the products of our orchards and if properly managed this demand 4 SUCCESSFUL FRUIT CULTURE should be sufficient to largely take the surplus that our own population does not consume. In a single year we exported over 3,395,000 barrels of apples to Hurope (largely, or almost wholly to England), and a demand for other fruits in large quantities will no doubt arise whenever we can deliver them to these markets in a satisfactory condition. The great progress being made in methods of preservation and shipping fresh fruits will, no doubt, soon solve this important problem, when we can hope to ship successfully to European markets our oranges, grapes, pears, plums and even peaches. Within the past few years a large demand has arisen for our evaporated fruits in foreign markets, and the fact that in this condition these products can be kept for an almost indefinite time, occupy the least possible space and can be shipped to the remotest mar- kets of the world must lead in the future to their large consumption. In 1897 30,883,921 pounds of evaporated apple was exported from the United States to foreign countries. The business of utilizing the products of our orchards and gardens by evaporation and canning, while in its infancy, has reached large proportions, espe- cially in seasons of abundance, where the supply can thus be carried over to seasons of scarcity, but is des- tined to become a far greater factor in the future of fruit growing. The immense wastes of our orchards during the summer and autumn, when fruit perishes very quickly, may be in this way saved. It is said that over 600 carloads of evaporated apple were shipped from one county in New York State in the season of 1894, and other sections are rapidly increasing in this method of utilizing the poorer grades of apples. The city of Boston in one season consumed over 1,000,000 pounds of evaporated apple and more than the same number of gallons of canned apple. The surplus and INTRODUCTION 5 especially the more perishable grades of all kinds of fruits may be utilized, either in the canned or evap- orated condition, which must be kept out of the mar- kets, or low prices of all grades will rule. THE COST OF PRODUCTION The cost of production of any article, whether it be from the factory or a crop grown in the field, is a very important factor, and while, with the products of the factory, the cost of production has been wonder- fully reduced, the cost of the fruit crop or other farm and garden crops has not been materially reduced, owing to the high price of labor and the difficulty of applying labor saving machinery. It may be said in tnis connection, however, that the price of farm and garden crops, and especially the fruit crops, has not been reduced very materially, and to the intelligent fruit grower, who applies good business principles to his work, who uses the best labor saving devices for reducing the cost and improvement of his product and who looks to the details of the production and the sale of his crops as closely as does the successful merchant or manufacturer, there is almost a certain promise of dnancial success. FUTURE PROSPECTS OF SUCCESS IN FRUIT GROWING The rapid increase of the country in population and wealth must lead to a proportionate increase in the demand for native fruit, provided the growers are wise and produce attractive fruit of fine quality. Good fruit of any kind, well grown, and put up in an attractive manner, will increase the demand and price for that kind of fruit, while poor fruit will not only decrease the demand and also the price of that particular grade, but more or less of all other grades. 6 SUCCESSFUL FRUIT CULTURE We may give this, therefore, as a rule or axiom in fruit growing: “That the more choice fruit of any kind the people have, the more they want, while the more poor fruit put upon the market the less the demand.” Of course the prices, other things being equal, will depend largely upon the supply and demand, yet the sales are more or less well founded upon the above facts. The problem, then, that confronts the fruit grower of to-day is “how to grow good fruit, how to grow it cheaply, how to attract buyers, and how to utilize all of the products.” In the future chapters of this book - it will be my aim to keep these points always in mind, to present the latest and most practical thoughts, and to show what methods progressive and successful fruit growers are following, what varieties they are growing and how they conduct their business. II THE APPLE THE COMMON APPLE (Pyrus malus) THE SIBERIAN APPLE (Pyrus baccata) The apple is at once the most important and the most widely disseminated of all the large fruits, being found more or less in all the temperate regions wher- ever civilization exists. Its fruit may be had in a fresh condition, without special preserving applications, from August to June, and by the aid of modern cold storage rooms the year around. Its hardiness, its productive- ness, the ease with which it is grown, the great variety of uses made of it, and its nutritive value, leave it without a peer. In its original wild form the fruit of the common apple, Pyrus malus, is small in size, often very acid or bitter and indigestible, and growing on thorny, irregular trees. By favorable natural conditions, or by cultiva- tion, it has been improved until we have the large, vigorous, upright tree, entirely free from thorns and producing large, delicious and easily digested fruit. The Siberian apple (Pyrus baccata) has contributed something to the cultivated varieties, as the common, yellow and Red Siberian crab, and the numerous hybrids with P. malus, the Oldenburg, Gravenstein, Red Astra- chan, ete., and the Russian varieties that have in the past few years been introduced in the hope that they might prove hardier in the extreme North than the old varieties. Most of the valuable varieties, however, that are largely grown, are supposed to be pure seedlings from the first species. Bvt: | 8 SUCCESSFUL FRUIT CULTURE The climate and soil of the Northern United States and of Canada are peculiarly well adapted to the growth of the apple, and no country in the world can produce apples of so fine quality, so brilliantly colored, or that will keep so long. Our fruit has almost a world-wide reputation, and Kuropean and other countries ought in the future to consume more and more of it, both in a fresh or in some preserved condition. It is a fruit that yields heavy crops, as many as twenty barrels hay- ing been obtained from a single tree, and five hundred barrels have been produced on an orchard of two acres. Such crops, however, cannot be grown except under the most favorable condition of soil and skillful care. THE SOIL The land best suited to the growth of the apple is a deep, moist loam, but it will produce some fruit upon almost any soil, except one that is very wet or composed largely of sand. As with all other crops the margin for a profit is small and one about to start into apple growing for profit should carefully investigate the condition of soil, and not invest largely until well satisfied that the land selected is naturally adapted to the growth of this fruit. The slope and exposure of the land are of consider- able importance. High land is generally better than that situated in the valleys, though the soil often is not of as good quality, but there is a good circulation of air about the trees on the high land, and fungous diseases are not so troublesome, and late frosts in the spring and early frosts in the fall are not liable to cut off the crop. There is little choice as to the exposure unless in a given locality there is more danger of high winds, when the trees are loaded with fruit, from one direction than another. Sloping land is much more difficult to cultivate than level land and much of the THE APPLE 9 plant food applied is likely to be washed to the foot vf the slope, leaving the tops of hills with a small supply unless a soil cover crop is kept on the land. TREES FOR AN ORCHARD The best stock for planting is vigorous trees that have reached a medium to large size in two years from the bud or root graft, while an older tree is not so desirable, on account of the number of roots that must necessarily be destroyed in transplanting. A three or four-year-old tree has more vitality and will stand more ill treatment and exposure than a younger one, yet the young tree, if properly planted and cared for, will start into growth more vigorously and in the end make the better tree. The fibrous roots of the young tree will be found not far from the trunk, while those on the older tree will each year be extending outward, and as the distance from the tree that the spade is inserted in digging is the same in both cases, the fibers of the older tree will be the most injured. A very good plan, followed by some orchardists who are obliged to purchase trees grown at a long distance from home, is to buy strong one-year-old trees and plant them in good soil in their home nursery, where they grow for one or two years, and then dig and transplant them to the orchard with little or no exposure of the roots to the sun and drying air. If the planter has the necessary skill to grow trees to the proper form after they are planted in the orchard, it would be much safer to set out stocky, low-branched trees, as tall, slim ones are liable to be injured by the hot sun striking on the long, slender trunk after being removed from the shelter of the nursery and require considerable time and skill to train the head to the proper form. EO SUCCESSFUL FRUIT CULTURE WHERE TO OBTAIN TREES. If the orchardist or planter is not skilled in the art of growing trees in the nursery—and some do not have this skill—it will be best to buy trees of reliable and long-established nurseries as near home as possible. If possible, the stock should be seen in the nursery, especially if large numbers are to be planted, and full understanding be had as to how and when the trees are to be delivered. We would not advise the purchase of trees from irresponsible nursery agents, for, while there are honest nursery agents, these men, as a Class, are generally looked upon as unprincipled, often because of the difficulty in coming at a clear understanding between the agent and purchaser, which largely arises from the fact that the agent does not show his goods nor sell by a sample even, but secures his orders from gaudy colored plates that are generally the most hor- rible exaggerations. In many cases the agent is almost entirely ignorant of the varieties of the trees or plants he sells and will tell almost any story in order to sell his goods. For the above reasons it is best to send orders directly to reliable nurseries, where one will be sure to receive courteous treatment, and orders be filled in the best possible manner. The man who ean care for an orchard with success, who can grow young trees after they have been set in the orchard, can grow young trees for planting, and it is often a greater advantage to have a small nursery in connection with all large orchards, though as a rule the trained nurseryman can grow trees cheaper and better than the customer. PREPARATION OF THE LAND If the land is free from stones, so that it can be easily plowed, it will pay to work it fifteen inches deep by following the ordinary plow with the sole or trench ~ ew \ THE APPLE 11 plow. (Figure 2.) This loosens the subsoil without bringing it to the surface, so that the roots can pene- - trate more deeply and make a light soil more retentive of moisture, and surface-drains a heavy soil, for a time at least. If the land is not naturally in condition to produce a vigorous growth of trees, and one season’s delay is possible before planting, it can be very cheaply enriched with green manure crops, like soy beans, cow-— peas, oats and peas, and barley and peas, or even rye. Something like the following routine is suggested. In the early spring sow oats and peas and when in blossom Fig. 2—Sole or Trench Plow plow under. About the middle of August sow peas and barley, which may be allowed to remain on the land until the following spring, when it is plowed -under and the trees planted. Another plan would be to drill in soy beans the last of May, to be plowed under about _ the same time as the peas and oats, this to be followed by peas and barley. This will give a larger amount of green manure and probably enrich the land a than the first. If preparation of the land begins —e in the fall. and the trees are not to be planted for a year, rye 12 SUCCESSFUL FRUIT CULTURE may be sown in September, to be turned under in June, and followed by the soy beans and then by peas and barley. Should the land be very much exhausted, a light dressing of fertilizer may be necessary with the first crop. With land that cannot be fitted by plowing, it can only be properly fitted by digging large holes in which to plant the trees; the larger the space worked the. better the trees will grow. DISTANCE FOR PLANTING Trees that grow only to medium size, like the Fameuse, Ben Davis, Wealthy, Sutton and others, on poor soil, may be planted as near as 25x25 or 30x30 feet, but trees of a larger growth, like the Baldwin, Gravenstein, King, etc., and on strong soil, should be planted not less than 40x40 feet. Double thick plant- ing is largely practiced, i. e., 12 1-2x12 1-2, 15x15 and 20x20 feet, and this method has many advantages. In the first place, the cost of trees is a very small item in the expense of planting an orchard, while the crop produced from the trees, up to the twelfth year, when they begin to touch branches, will often be a large item in paying the expense of the whole. The great danger in this method lies in the reluctance with which the temporary trees will be removed when they begin to encroach upon the permanent ones. The varieties used between the permanent trees, called fillers, are often early maturing, that do not grow to a large size, such as the Wealthy, Ben Davis, Hubbardston, etc. By heading back the fillers as they encroach upon the permanent trees, they may be kept in condition for bearing fruit for twenty years or more. But this work must be begun as soon as the branches begin to touch or all will be permanently injured. Figure 3 shows the result of close plauting where the fillers have not been removed, THE APPLE a he 1 and Figure 4 shows a perfect low-headed tree with fillers removed. LAYING OUT AN ORCHARD In planting an orchard, whether the land is to be eultivated or not, it is advisable to have the trees in straight rows and equal distances, not only for beauty PR 1 é i Fig. 3—Result of Close Planting but also for convenience in working among them. Perhaps the best way to do this is to use a long, hard- twisted cord or a wire with marks attached at proper intervals upon it. The wire, about No. 14 or 16, gal- vanized, with drops of solder at intervals of five, eo or twenty feet, is much better than the cord, as it is not affected by wet or dryness, and will not stretch. The 294,] POPBIP=MO7] 493J490q Y—F “Sig THE APPLE . 15 cord or wire should be stretched along two opposite sides of the land and stakes put at the proper distance. Then stretch it from the other two sides, putting a stake at every mark. All measurements must be made horizontally, or on the level, if the land is sloping, otherwise the trees will be of unequal distance. If the distance of twenty or forty feet be laid off on a sloping surface, it will be found that the space between these will be less than between those laid out hori- zontally. ‘To lay out an orchard so that the stakes shall be exactly in line is a simple matter, but after digging the holes it is difficult to put. the trees all exactly where wes——oowH the stakes stood unless the Fig. § Planting Board planting board, Figure 5, is | used. This consists of any straight-edged board with a notch in the center and one at each end equal distances from the center. It should be long enough to reach across the hole and should be placed on the same side of the stakes for every hole. Before digging the holes for the trees, the planting board is placed with its center notch against the stake, which is then pulled out and put at one of the end notches and another stake put at the remaining end notch. The board can now be removed, the hole dug, taking care not to disturb the stakes or cover them with soil, and when ready to plant the tree, the planting board is placed against the stakes and the tree against the center notch, as shown in Figure 6, which will bring it just where the stake stood. DIGGING THE HOLES If many trees are to be planted, and it is dry and windy, it is better to dig as many holes during the middle of the day as can be filled with trees during 16 SUCCESSFUL FRUIT OULTURE the last two hours of the afternoon and the. first two hours of the morning, as the roots will be much less liable to injury at this time than if planted in the hot sun in the middle of the day. If the land has been deeply plowed, the holes need be only large enough to allow the spreading of the roots in their natural position; the size must depend upon the size of the trees planted. If the trees are to be planted in turf, the holes should be three or four feet across, with the subsoil well loosened. The surface soil should be thrown in _ a pile by itself, to be used for filling in about the roots, _ and the subsoil in another pile, to be spread upon the surface after the trees have been planted. If the soil is poor, it is necessary that some _ well- rotted manure, or fertilizer, be put with the soil used for filling in about the roots. This should be thoroughly Fig. 6—Planting the Tree ™ixed with the soil, or in- jury instead of benefit will result. If coarse unfermented manure only is available, it should not be used until the roots have first been covered with two or three inches of soil, when it may be mixed with the remaining soil or be spread on the surface after the hole has been filled. The amount to be used must be varied according to the condition of the soil; from one to two shovelfuls of fine manure, or two to four handfuls of fine ground bone, or one to two handfuls of fine ground bone and potash well mixed with the soil. Proper fertilizing of the land is one of the most important conditions of success in fruit culture. Many people will blame the nurserymen because the trees THE APPLE ales they buy and plant do not grow when there is little or no plant food in the soil to sustain them. One has as good a right to expect a crop of corn from land with no fertilizer as a good growth of trees under sim- ilar conditions. If some of the people who fail in tree planting from this cause, could see the amount - of manure or fertilizers used by nurserymen and suc- cessful orchardists, they would cease to wonder why their trees do no better, and put the blame where it belongs. On land that is naturally rich and moist, however, fruit trees, especially the apple and peach, will need little or no manure or fertilizer until fruiting, if the land is kept frequently cultivated. PREPARING THE TREES FOR PLANTING It matters not how carefully trees may be dug from the nursery, more or less of the fine roots and all of the root-hairs will be injured, and, as generally received from the nurseries, there is little to the trees but a few stubs of roots and the top, with its numerous branches and buds to be supplied with moisture and food from this small amount of roots. The consequence is that none of the branches makes much growth, or the evaporation is so great from the large amount of. the surface of the branches and numerous buds that the moisture is dried out faster than it is supplied by the scanty roots, and the tree dies. To remedy this condition, the top must be reduced in proportion to the injury _ ~~ -— _ to the roots, a see in Figure 7, Opals biped ob b b. The older and larger the ing —_— 18 SUCCESSFUL FRUIT CULTURE tree, the more severely must it be pruned. The larger roots wherever injured should be cut off smooth, as decay is more certain to spread from a torn than from a smoothly cut surface. ESTABLISHING THE HEAD In cutting back the tree to obtain a balance between the roots and tep, the formation of the head Fig. 8—Well-Formed Low-Headed Tree, Twelve Years Old should be kept in mind and all shoots not needed to form the main branches of the head be cut away entirely. The trees as received from the average nur- sery have the main branches started at from three to four feet from. the ground, and if a head started higher ae THE APPLE 19 than this is desired the process of “heading up” will require from one to three years, according to the hight desired. Figure 7 illustrates this process, in which all the branches, b 0 6 0, are cut off close to the trunk, the leader being allowed to grow and to produce a set of branches at the dotted lines, a. The increase in the hight of the head will not be more than fifteen or eighteen inches each year and to start the main branches Fig. 9—The Same Tree in Blossom five feet from the ground may require two or three years after planting. The formation of a cluster of branches at one point on the trunk should be avoided, as in time the tree is sure to split down at the fork. The main branches should start out from opposite sides of the trunk at intervals of from five to ten inches apart, - 20 | SUCCESSFUL FRUIT CULTURE Orchardists are now training their trees with a head much lower than formerly, because of the many advantages of the low-headed tree. The pruning is more easily done, the trunk is less exposed to the hot sun and drying winds; thinning and spraying can be more easily done, the fruit will be more easily and cheaply gathered and the fruit that falls to the ground will be less injured in the fall, and with modern tools, like the spring-tooth harrow or the cutaway orchard harrow, as good work can be done as if the heads were trained five or six feet high. Figure 8 illustrates a well-formed low-headed tree and Figure 9 shows the same tree in blossom. TIME FOR PLANTING The best time for setting out apple trees will depend somewhat on the season. When the trees are Fig. 10—Two Methods of Heeling-In taken from the home nursery, or can be obtained near — home, so that they will be but a few hours out of the ground, and when they ripen their buds by the last of October or early November, the fall is the best time for planting unless on land very much exposed to cold, drying winds. But if the trees grow late in the fall and are purchased from nurseries at a long distance © THE APPLE a1 from where they are to be planted, it would be safer to plant in the spring. It is the practice of many orchardists to purchase trees in the fall, and heel them in, as shown in Figure 10, where they will be protected during the winter and be ready for early planting in the spring. ‘The soil for this purpose should be light and _ porous and the surface water should be prevented from settling in about the roots. : PLANTING THE TREES Having the holes dug, the trees pruned and every- thing in readiness, the most important part of the work is now to be done. Only a few trees should be exposed to the weather at once, unless on a moist, cloudy day. ‘Three men are required to do the work most rapidly and thoroughly; one to put the tree in place, spread out the roots and press the soil in and about the roots; and two with spades, one of whom carries the planting board. Perhaps ten trees are dropped in place, when man No. 1 takes up a tree, while No. 2 fixes-the planting board, Figure 5, with the end notches against. the two stakes. No. 1 now places the trunk of the tree against the middle notch of the planting board and spreads out the roots in a natural position, while No. 3 is ready to throw in some rich, fine surface soil, working it in about the roots so that it shall be everywhere in contact with them, and after being covered with three inches of soil, pressing the soil down firmly with the foot. As soon as the tree is in | its proper place, No. 2 throws his planting board to the next hole, takes up his spade and assists in filling up the hole and leveling off the surface soil about the tree. The soil should be pressed very firmly in contact with the roots, but that on the surface should be left as light and loose as possible. 22 SUCCESSFUL FRUIT CULTURE LABELING All trees should be permanently labeled before planting, and a plan be made of the orchard where every tree is located and name given, so that if a label becomes lost or disfigured, no difficulty will be found in looking up the proper name. The most permanent - label, the most easily attached to the tree, and at the same time the cheapest, consists of a triangular zine strip one-half to three-fourths inch wide at one end, tapering to a point at the other, and five to six inches long, as seen in Figure 11. This should be slightly - corroded and the name written with a medium-hard lead pencil. If the zinc is just right and the name is written in a broad hand, it will be distinctly visible for a lifetime. It is fastened to the tree by winding Fig. 11—Zinc Label the small end about a small branch, and as the branch grows the label is uncoiled and does not cut into the tree. A very thin label of this form is made of copper, the name being pressed into it by a stylo, or a very hard pencil. The names on the copper label are as _ permanent as on those of zinc, but are not so legible nor the label so easily obtained. CULTIVATION The effect of stirring the soil after planting trees is: first, to prevent the escape of moisture by forming a layer of loose, non-conducting soil on the surface; and second, hastening the preparation of plant food by the THE APPLE 23 introduction of air. In young orchards it will be found most. economical to grow some hoed crop among the tress tor a few years; but, as a rule, such crops will not more than pay the cost of cultivation and fertilizers used, while they often fall far short of this, and the owner must take his profit in the increased value of his trees. Any hoed crop may be used that does not require cultivation during August and September, as cultivation during these months often causes a late growth of the trees that are more likely to be injured _ than if they matured earlier. The corn crop, if of the small stalked kinds and not planted too close to the trees, is also a good crop, but none of the small grains ‘should be used, as they draw so heavily upon the mois- ture supply in May and June as to seriously check the growth of the trees. With the use of the modern tools for orchard cultivation, now on the market, the cost of cultivation - is much less than it was twenty years ago, and orchards are more and more being cared for by constant cultiva- tion. The advantages of this method are, that the roots are kept deep in the soil and are less liable to injury from the extremes of cold or drouth; less plant food is needed to keep up a vigorous growth, as the latent elements in the soil are made more available by contact with the air; the moisture during dry weather is kept in the soil by the mulch of fine soil produced by frequent cultivation ; the greater the drouth the more frequent should be the cultivation. There may be a limit to the number of times one can cultivate with a profit, but twice or three times each week in very dry weather is none too frequent; a more even temper- ature of soil is produced by cultivation, which results in a steady and healthy growth that is less liable to diseases, most of which only attack trees in a weakened condition. 24 SUCCESSFUL FRUIT CULTURE It is the practice of many orchardists to keep the land in turf for a series of years, then to plow and cultivate for a year or two and reseed, but better results will be obtained by constant cultivation, because the roots are kept well in the ground, while after they have stood in turf for several years they work close to the surface and are seriously torn and cut when the land is plowed again. A heavy mulching of the ground, close to the trunks of the trees, during the summer, has the same effect, but if once begun must be kept up or the trees will be injured by cold or drouth when the mulch decays. IMPLEMENTS FOR CULTIVATION ‘The plow is an indispensable implement in the cultivation of the orchard. It is needed for turning under green ma- nuring or cover crops and where . weeds have be- " come too large to - be uprooted by the harrow or cultivator. This tool should never oe run so deep as to go under the roots, and the furrows should not be turned the same way every time, so as to form ridges along the line of the trees or to draw the soil too much away from the roots. On sloping land, where a ridge is likely to be formed along the line of the trees, it is well to turn the furrows uphill to overcome this tendency. A low- hanging landside plow, like the one shown in Figure 12, will do much better work than will a sidehill plow. The wheel harrow of the common or cutaway form, Figure 13, is now made with a long arm or spreader by which the shears are carried under the branches Fig. 12—Low-Hanging Landside Plow THE APPLE 25 of the tree, while the horses and the driver are in the space outside. ‘The California orchard harrow, Figure 14, will be found to be very serviceable on heavy land. The spring-tooth harrow, of which there are many forms, is one of the best tools for keeping the soil of i =3“F) CLARKS NOG ©) REVERSIBLE D Lt “EXTEN. HEAD’ reeen-~ ~ 6, Fig. 13—Cutaway Wheel Harrow an orchard in fine condition and killing weeds, because of the lifting effect of the teeth upon the soil, which leaves the surface more loose and lighter than any other tool. By separating the sections with a spreader, Figure 15, or by hitching the team to one side, or by a special evener, the’ teeth are carried well under the branches, and by turning the horses in a circle around the trees, the har- row will be drawn so close up to the trunks that little or no hand cultivating need be done. Handles or a strong rope should be attached to this harrow to assist in guiding it, so as not to come in contact with the trees. Fig. 14—California Orchard Harrow 26 SUCCESSFUL FRUIT CULTURE The smoothing harrow and weeders can often be used to good advantage after the plow, or the wheel or spring-toothed harrows. Figure 16 shows the grape hoe, with spring-teeth attachment, also a valuable Fig. 15—Spring-Tooth Harrow tool, working close up to the trees without injury. The | weeders, Figure 17, are especially valuable in keeping a fine tilth of the surface soil, as they cover a wide space and can be more easily guided than the smoothing har- row. They must be used frequently in order to keep | ‘Fig. 16—The Grape Hoe down weeds. Weeders with straight teeth do better ‘work in orchards than those with curved teeth. _ Only the most careful men who are skillful team- sters should be allowed to work in an orchard with THE APPLE 27 any of the above mentioned tools, for careless or un- skilled men will often do more injury in an hour than can be repaired in years of time. TURF CULTURE In nearly every apple growing State of the Union there are thousands upon thousands of acres of land too rough and stony to be cultivated and upon which may often be found large apple trees remarkable for their vigor and productiveness. The fruit produced upon such land is noted for its high color, rich flavor and long keeping qualities. Much of this land is almost worthless for any other purpose than forestry and the production of apples; and if ¢ properly planted with apple trees and cared for, it would, in a few years, give a Fig. 17—A Weeder large income for ; the investment. By this method, particular attention should be given to the selection of the land, using good apple land, to the preparation of the soil directly about the tree, and to cutting and utilizing the material, such -as sedges, brakes, small brush, etc., that grows upon the land. as a mulch, to prevent the escape of moisture and plant food that is being rapidly carried away during the summer by such growths. The advantages claimed for this system are, that the trees mature their wood earlier in the fall and consequently are less liable to injury than where con- stantly cultivated. The roots are protected from the 28 SUCCESSFUL FRUIT CULTURE extremes of heat and cold, the cost of land is much. less and the fruit is more firm, of better color and quality and will keep longer. While upon land that can be easily cultivated greater profit will probably be obtained by thorough and clean cultivation, the first cost of land is generally many times greater than that of land equally rich and well located that cannot be cultivated, and there are many notable instances where successful and profitable orchards have been grown under such conditions. In many sections of our country our farmers and fruit - growers are land poor, i. e., they have more land than they can care for at a profit with the capital in hand, and the first point they should make, if about to enter into apple growing, is to find land suited to the growth of that fruit. If it can be cultivated easily there will be the most profit if it be thoroughly culti- vated, but if too rough and rocky for cultivation, profit- able crops can still be grown by applying plant food to the trees and keeping the grass, sedges, brakes, etc., cut so that they shall not carry ae the moisture or plant food in their growth. I wish to repeat here, however, what is said on another page, that whatever system is followed, success will be obtained only when an abundance of plant food is provided, and the cheapest and best method of sup- _ plying this must be determined by each grower ; whether by the use of the cultivator or harrow and a moderate amount of plant food, or by the application of an abundance of plant food and the frequent cutting of the grass or mulch material found growing about the trees. The amount of fertilizers to be used can only be determined by a careful study of the trees, but enough must be applied to produce from six to ten inches of new wood each year. THE APPLE 29 FERTILIZING AND CARE OF ORCHARD Stable manure may always be used upon fruit trees, if properly applied, but it may do much harm if improperly used. It should be applied sparingly to young trees, unless the land is very poor, or an exhaust- ing crop is to be taken from the land that will feed largely upon the elements that tend to a coarse, woody growth, i. e., the nitrogenous elements. The best time to apply stable manure is in the fall or winter, on land that does not wash badly, or if very sloping it should be put on very early in the spring. Applied at this time the elements of plant food are made avail- able by the action of the frosts and an abundance of moisture in the early season of the growth of the trees, while if applied late in the spring the food is not made available until the middle of the summer and a late, coarse growth is produced that is uae to injury by cold or disease. When trees reach maturity and are bearing heavy crops of fruit, stable manure may be applied more freely, especially in the spring of the bearing year, for unless an abundance of plant food is supplied trees are often seriously injured by overbearing, particularly should the season prove a dry one. Such trees are in the condition of the overloaded and ill-fed horse or the overworked laborer, they are alike more liable to the attacks of contagious diseases than if more fully nourished. Trees that have been injured by overbear- ing may be improved very much by the application of nitrogenous manures the non-fruiting year. The effect of such an application at this time is to stimu- late the growth of the wood and Jessen the development of the fruit buds. This illustrates a law that we find throughout all life, both animal and plant, that the causes or condi- 30 SUCCESSFUL FRUIT CULTURE tions that increase the vigor of the stock or body > decrease the reproductive forces, while with a decrease in the vigor of the body the reproductive forces are increased. Herein is a wise provision of nature for the perpetuation or preservation of species; for when the stock or body is vigorous there is no necessity for immediate provision for the future, but when the stock becomes weak nature makes an unusual effort to per- . petuate the species by an increase of the reproductive powers. One of the greatest difficulties the fruit grower - meets in his business is that of obtaining the necessary amount of plant food to produce his crops. This prob- lem is being solved in a measure by the large amount of commercial manures offered in our markets. Stable manure is not a complete fertilizer. It contains a larger per cent of nitrogenous elements than those of the mineral, and to produce a complete growth must be supplemented by adding potash and phosphoric acid. The kind of commercial fertilizer or manure that gives the best results in fruit growing to supplement stable manure or to be used alone, is fine ground fresh bones and potash. The best grades of bone contain sufficient nitrogen for most soils, but are deficient in potash, and if the land is very poor, potash and some other nitrogenous manure should be added, like nitrate of soda, sulphate of ammonia, stable manure, etc. For an acre of apple trees (forty trees), over ten years of age, the following formula will give good results, varying the quantity according to the condition of the soil, the growth of the trees and whether they are producing a crop of fruit or not cue season of application : 250 to 500 pounds fine eround bone 100 to 300 pounds sulphate of potash 50 to 150 pounds nitrate of soda THE APPLE oe Hardwood ashes, at the rate of from one to two tons per acre, with the same amount of fine ground bone, as in the above formula, will often give as good results. Another formula that would give good results under most conditions is 400 to 600 pounds South Carolina rock (fine ground) 100 to 300 pounds sulphate of potash 100 to 300 pounds nitrate of soda | An application of air slaked lime at the rate of from one-half to one ton per acre will sometimes produce remarkable results, especially where nitrate of soda is used, or if the soil is well supplied with organic matter. If the soil be very poor, as indicated by the slow erowth of the trees, more nitrate of soda or some stable manure must be used. If the land is rich and the trees are making a large growth of wood, use only bone and potash or wood ashes. The effect of the nitrogenous elements is to increase the leaf action of the plant and to a large development of wood; that of the potash to cause a large development of starch and sugar in the plant and fruit; while the phosphoric acid tends to a large development of the seed or fruit. As with stable manure, the best time to apply fertilizers is late in the winter or very early spring, before growth begins, except those containing quickly soluble nitrates, as nitrate of soda, sulphate of ammo- nia, etc., which should be put on just as growth begins in the spring, and in some cases where growth is weak or when a large crop of fruit is to be matured, during the early summer. 7 | : | The above formulas may be varied by the grower from season to season, but not far from the above amounts will be needed to keep a good growth under average conditions. Bearing trees, to produce a good - crop of fruit and not become exhausted, should make a new growth, as previously stated, of from six inches 32 SUCCESSFUL FRUIT CULTURE to one foot on the leading shoots. If they make more than this growth, iess fertilizer should be applied, if less growth is made, then apply more fertilizer. GREEN MANURING OR COVER CROPS _ To supply organic matter to the soil, to retain moisture and to gain nitrogen from the air and also to protect the roots from severe cold during the winter or drouth in summer, it is the practice of some orchard-— ists to grow green manuring or cover crops in their orchards. The plants most used for this purpose are rye, oats, barley and the leguminous plants, peas, field beans, soy beans, cowpeas, crimson clover, alsike, the common red clover, etc. For the general purposes of fertilization the leguminous plants are the most val- uable, from the fact that they organize nitrogen from the air while other plants only take what nitrogen they find already stored up in the soil. The value of any green crop for an orchard depends upon the amount and composition of the crop and the time when it makes its growth and can be turned under. If the crop makes its growth during the latter part of May and June, as with rye and spring sown oats, and the clovers, the trees are often seriously injured by loss of plant food and moisture when mney, most need it, especially in a dry season. Rye sown the last of August, and peas and oats sown very early in the spring, will be in condition to turn under by the last of May and, if the season is fairly moist, will prove very satisfactory, but should the season prove a dry one, serious injury may follow. Of the other grain crops, Barley, sown not later than the middle of Ale with about equal quantity of Canada or field peas (one and one-half bushels of each if sown broadcast), makes a good cover crop and utilizes the nitrogen of the soil THE APPLE 33 and air until late in the season, covers the land during the winter and supplies a large amount of organic mat- ter to be turned under in the spring—April or early May—when we can work the land more easily and profitably than if done later in the season and perhaps with the greatest profit to the trees. Soy beans and cowpeas produce a large amount of organic matter and collect much nitrogen from the atmosphere, but they must be grown during the hot weather of summer, and do not grow and absorb nitro- -gen from the atmosphere or save that in the soil from being lost after the first frost in the autumn as do peas planted with barley. If the seed is drilled in about the middle of August, the land kept cultivated and the frosts hold off until the middle or last of September, a good quantity of organic matter may be produced by these crops and no injury be done to the trees, but if grown through July and August and the season is dry, the trees would be seriously injured. The cover crops should be allowed to lie on the land during the winter if it is hilly to prevent washing. All of the clovers make their main growth during the months of May and June, and in thin soils are less valuable than crops that make their growth in the fall. But on land not subject to drouth clovers are especially valuable, as they take their nitrogen largely from the air and save such as may be developing in the soil during the fall and early spring that would be, lost with a dead crop, like soy beans, cowpeas, or even peas and barley. As some of the nitrogen may be released during the month of May, trees will not be as much injured by the clover crops, however, as they would be with rye or spring sown oats. Field beans are grown in many orchards as a field crop, and if planted with a machine, and harvested, threshed and cleaned cheaply, will prove profitable, but BA SUCCESSFUL FRUIT CULTURE frequent cultivation during the early summer must be given, and as ordinarily grown the profit is more likely to come from the increased value of the orchard crop than from the crop of beans. The haulm or stalks of the bean could be spread evenly over the land after the beans are threshed out, and be plowed under, or be worked in with a wheel harrow and add much to its ability to carry out a large crop of fruit. All things considered, the author prefers Canada peas and barley as a cover crop. Figure 18 shows a cover crop of peas and barley in winter with no snow cover on the _ land. - MULCHING ~ Without water in the soil, no fertilizer or manure - will have much effect upon plant growth; and upon soils that are liable to injury from drouth, mulching in some form must be resorted to. In the cultivation of the land, the fine, loose layer of soil on top forms a most effectual mulch. This kind of a mulch is much to be preferred with perennial crops like the fruits, to _ hay, straw or any other mulch of organic matter, because the roots are kept deep in the soil where they are not as lable to injury from drouth or extreme cold in winter. If a mulch of hay or other organic matter is used, the layer of moist soil is formed just under the mulch, and when this decays, as it will in a year or two, it leaves the roots of the trees so near the surface as to be seriously injured by the first dry season or a very severe winter. This kind of a mulch is often employed while the fruit is ripening, with such varieties as the Graven- stein, Wiliams and others that do not color until nearly ripe, the falling fruit being gathered each morning. This is the practice of Mr. Samuel Hartwell of Lincoln, Mass., on his Gravenstein farm, where 2000 bushels of THE APPLE 35 this variety have been harvested in this way in one sea- son, bringing the highest prices in the Boston markets. Unless the mulch is to be kept up the hay should be removed from the ground as soon as the crop has been Fig. 18—Canada Peas and Barley as a Cover Crop Ee gathered, or a late growth of the trees will result that may cause the winter injury to the bark, so common to this variety. PRUNING No one subject connected with fruit growing is more discussed in our agricultural and horticultural papers than that of pruning, and upon none is there 36 SUCCESSFUL FRUIT CULTURE a greater variety of practice and more abuse. An orchard may be ruined at the start with very little pruning if not properly done, or it may be put into . condition to produce good results with an equally small amount of pruning if it be rightly done. The first year after the tree is planted it must — have constant care. It is like a child, its first years of training determine its character or form. After the main branches have become fixed, as illustrated in Figure 7, all the pruning the trees require is to give symmetry and regular outline to the head by pinching off the ends of those shoots that tend to outgrow the main branches and to remove such as are likely to be injured by rubbing together, or that are so thick as to interfere with goad growth and ease in gathering the fruit. While young the trees should be allowed to grow with a rather close head, to protect the slender branches from the hot sun and air. When they begin to bear, the weight of fruit will bend down the branches and open the head, so that all the sunlight and air that is needed for the perfection of the foliage and fruit will enter; and a large crop of perfect fruit cannot be borne on a tree without a large amount of foliage. The largest and best fruit is always borne upon those trees that have the largest and most perfect foliage. During the first five years of the tree’s life, and perhaps longer, all the pruning needed can be done with the thumb and finger and the pocket knife, but as the trees grow older, unless the work has been very skillfully followed up, more severe pruning may be needed. Figure 8 illus- trates a perfect tree, Figure 9 the same in bloom. The cutting of large branches should be avoided, if possible, for “every blow struck at the tree will cer- tainly, in so much, shorten its life.” It is true that severe pruning of the orchard in the winter or early THE APPLE 37 spring often results in a great increase in the size and quality of the fruit the following season and conse- quently many growers think they must prune their trees annually. The result of cutting off a large quan- _ tity of the branches at one time is to greatly decrease the number of buds, and consequently those remaining having the same amount of the root force the whole tree would have had, will grow more rapidly, the foliage be more vigorous and the fruit larger and better, but if pruning is to be depended upon for an increase in size of fruit, only a few annual prunings could be Buen the trees before they would be destroyed. It is generally better to put the labor often ex- pended in pruning into thinning and spraying the fruit when the trees are overloaded, or the cost of this work into fertilizers, by which means a permanently in- 2 ( ny His creased vigor of the tree SY ‘ eh ‘i SEE would result and much better AIR AX Bee GE fruit would be produced. © \ VNG i From this statement I would ~ LAV ans not have the reader think NG that no pruning is needed a after the trees begin to bear, i for constant care is needed s and more or less pruning : oes fe must be done to keep the yey ae trees in good condition to produce large crops of good fruit, but many orchards have been ruined in a very short time by pruning. Figure 19 illustrates a tree too severely pruned, yet such is often to be found. In the frontispiece may be seen a tree in perfect condition. The following are some good rules for pruning fruit trees, subject, of course, to slight changes under vary- ing conditions: Fig. 19—Tree Pruned Too Severely 38 SUCCESSFUL FRUIT CULTURE 1. To improve the form of trees that become one- sided from the influence of prevailing winds or other causes, they should be pruned at the ends of the branches, shortening in those that are outgrowing _ their neighbors. Cut- ting off end shoots tends to an increased growth of the lateral branches -and a close head; too much head- ing In may be done, but more orchardists prune too much from | the inside and _ toc little from the outside. Figure 4 shows a perfectly formed tree twenty-five years old. Figure 8 shows a perfectly formed tree twelve years old, pruned; Figure 9 the same in bloom. 2. If we insist on training our trees high enough to ~ enable the team to drive close up to the base, the cutting of large branches from the main trunk is sometimes necessary; but this result may generally be avoided by cutting the drooping ends as in Figure 20, a a, at the dotted lines. If large branches must be cut off, the cut should be made at dotted lne 6b, Figure 21, and not on line a. As has been pre- | viously stated, the practice of ig. 21 Manner of Cate many of the best orchardists is to ee A ae train the trees low and depend upon the modern - orchard harrows to keep the land auia under them. - Fig. 20—Drooping Branches THE APPLE 39 3. To enable the pickers to gather the fruit easily it is the common practice to thin out the inside branches and to cut out all suckers or water sprouts. This may be done to a certain extent, but only upon branches that cross others, as seen in Figure 22, so as to injure one another. All branches that rest on those below them so as to shut out the sunlight too much, and all suckers that grow up. into an already close head, should be cut away, and no more. A tree to pro- duce a large crop of apples met have a large full head, and when there is space above the suckers that is not well filled with branches one or more of these sprouts should be allowed to grow, | ‘for trees are often more injured by cut- ting away the shoots and exposing the==== coo ee ; Fig. 22—Crossing Branches, the Dotte branches to the hot Line a Showing Where to Cut sun and drying winds than by no pruning. A good time to cut off the surplus suckers is in the early summer, when they may be removed with the thumb and finger or with the pocket knife. 4. The removal of dead branches is always in order, but if the trees have been properly cared for, fertilized, sprayed and not allowed to overbear, these should not appear until the trees are of great age. Dead branches are an indication of neglect or improper conditions of soil, and while pruning away such will not remove the cause, an orchard looks much better where any such blemishes are removed very soon after — they appear. The best time to remove dead branches 40 SUCCESSFUL FRUIT CULTURE is while the foliage is upon the trees, as they can be more easily detected at this time. 5. Remove the weaker of two branches that are rubbing together. 6. If one branch rests upon another, ee weaker of the two should be removed. Covering Wounds—All cuts over one-half inch in diameter should be covered with some preservative as Fig. 23—Pruning Saw soon as the surface is dry, to prevent the decay of the wood. Among the materials used are linseed oi] paint, gas tar, shellac, grafting wax, etc. All are good, but the first two of them being cheap and easily obtained, are perhaps the best preservatives and most commonly used. Fig. 24—Paragon Saw Gas tar should not be used too freely on young trees, nor over more space than the injured part, for if it spreads over the surface it may kill the adjoining tissue and do more harm than good. White lead mixed with linseed oil and colored with a little lampblack, chrome green and brown or red, will make a color almost like the bark of the tree. | Implements for Pruning—For cutting large branches the saw should always be used, as it makes THE- APPLE © 41 a wound that can be easily covered. The axe should never be used for this purpose, as with each blow the wood is split in toward the center and a much larger wound made than when the saw is used. When large branches are cut off, the saw should be placed on the under side and from one-fourth to one-half of the thickness be cut here before the cut is made from the upper side, by which means splitting down or tearing off the bark is prevented. Many forms of saws are offered, but those with a long, slender blade (Figure 23) are best, as they may be used when two branches come together, or they can be attached to a pole for cutting off small branches or — suckers at considerable dis- tance from the ground. The Paragon curved saw, Figure 24, with the teeth on the inner curve facing the handle and those on the outer curve facing the point, is better than the straight form, as no pressing down Fig. 25—Pruning Hook upon the saw is required, only pushing or pulling to cause the teeth to cut into the wood. Most of the saws of this kind in the market ‘have six or eight teeth to the inch, which causes them to cut slowly, while if they had five teeth to the inch they would cut much faster. The pruning hook (Figure 25) is a very useful - tool, as with it small branches at the ends of the tree can be removed without using the ladder to reach them. 42 _. §UCCESSFUL FRUIT CULTURE For very heavy work, as cutting off branches one incl or more in diameter, a larger hook may be made by any good blacksmith or machinist with a pole ten to twelve feet in length. Pruning shears (Figure 26) are indispensable in the care of the orchard, as is also the pruning knife, which should be of good material and be kept where they will not rust; for such tools often rust out more quickly than they wear out. Time for Pruning—In this work we must keep in mind the rule practiced by most skilled orchardists that ‘ vigorous grower, as hardy as any, and the fruit is of large size and excellent quality. See methods of propagation in Chapter XVIII, and insects and fungous pests in Chapters XX and XT: : XII THE RASPBERRY THE RED RASPBERRY (fubus strigosus) The red raspberry is the most popular of the bush | fruits in most localities. It is found in a wild state from Labrador to the mountains of North Carolina and west to Missouri and Minnesota. Like the blackberry, it delights in a cool, moist location, but is found growing in almost every kind of soil. It is propagated in the same way as the blackberry and the general treatment in the field is the same. The varieties that are most cultivated are not quite as hardy as those of the black- berry, but, as the canes can be more easily protected from cold by covering, the crop is quite as certain to be profitable. As with the blackberry, large fruit cannot be expected unless the land is rich enough to produce a large growth of canes to shade the soil and keep it cool. The distance for planting varies much with dif- ferent growers and different methods. In a very rich soil the canes may grow so large and tall that if planted -in rows six feet apart or in hills 4x6 feet, the ground will be well shaded, as seen in Figure 74, while in thin or poor soil the cover would not be obtained if set 3x95 feet. The trellis used for the support of the blackberry (Figure 72) is sometimes used; the canes are some- times tied to stakes, though no support is used by most growers. Pruning and Training—The methods of pruning and training outlined for the blackberry apply to this ssofdsiBys ‘f *N JO piel Assaqdsey poy—prz *314_ THE RASPBERRY 141 fruit in almost every particular ; it is better, however, to cut out the fruiting canes soon after the fruit has been _ gathered. Summer pruning is not as generally prac- ticed as upon the blackberry, but some growers obtain good success by this practice. Winter Protection—The canes being small and flexible, they can be laid-over to the ground and covered with soil and thus injury from cold be prevented. The work of laying down the canes is very simple, three men being employed to the best advantage. One man with thick gloves on grasps a cluster of the canes grow- ing together and with a strong pull bends them to the ground, as seen in Figure 75; the second and third man then throw on soil enough to hold the canes down. Another cluster of canes: is grasped and the process is repeated: The bent toward the ===] = south, so that the Fig. 75—Laying Down Red Raspberry Canes sun may not strike | them perpendicularly, which would cause them to start too early in the spring and injure them. After all are laid down the plow is run lightly on each side of the row, turning more soil over or against the canes. It is not necessary that the canes be entirely covered, as the moisture and warmth of the soil without covering is sufficient to keep them from injury. In the spring the canes should be taken up before growth begins, as the buds will start more quickly when near the ground than when standing up- _vight. Deep working of the soil among both raspberries and blackberries should be avoided, as both are shallow rooted plants and when worked deep the roots are some-- times seriously injured and the growth of the plants is 1D _ SUCCESSFUL FRUIT CULTURE ‘checked. As with the blackberry, there are but a very few varieties that are of much value at the North, while © at the South many of the so-called hardy varieties lose the folage by burning during the summer. VARIETIES Cuthbert—While this variety is often winterkilled, where it does withstand the weather it yields a very large crop of large berries of good quality, and is very profit- able. ‘The berries are large, of a shghtly conical form, and rather firm, so that it carries fairly well to market. In color it is not the best, but it sells well. It succeeds best in a rather moist soil. | King—A very early variety of bright-red color and fine quality. In size it is not as large as the Cuthbert, but is one of the largest of the very early kinds, and one of the most productive. It is rather more hardy than the Cuthbert. Loudon—A very stocky, hardy growing plant that in good soil produces large fruit of good quality. It requires a rather heavier and richer soil than other varieties. In a few cases it has been reported as being attacked by mildew when the fruit is about ripening in wet weather. This perhaps would be prevented by thorough spraying just as the blossom begins to open in the spring. | Other varieties that are of value in many localities are Miller, Phoenix, Thompson’s Pride and Early Pro lific. | MARKETING The fruit is very soft and breaks down quickly in the market in hot weather. It should be marketed in pint boxes, and be picked every day. It should never be picked when wet if it can be avoided. As soon as gathered the fruit should be put into a cool, dry place, THE RASPBERRY 143 and then shipped to market at the earliest possible moment. ‘The prices obtained range from five to twenty cents per pint, according to quality and condition. THE BLACKCAP RASPBERRY (Rubus occidentalis) The blackeap raspberry, in its wild state known often as the thimbleberry, differs in the habit of growth, color of fruit and method Ih of propagation very ihe widely from the red ° foo‘, raspberry. It grows . in hills and throws up no suckers from the lateral roots, but sends up strong shoots from the center of the plant each year, and is propagated by the ends of these canes rooting, under fa- vorable conditions, during the_ late summer, and fall. Figure %6 shows ie ro 0Lin s of blackcap plants. The fruit is black in color, less acid than the red varieties, but with larger and perhaps more numerous seeds. It was very popular some ten to fifteen years ago, but now in many markets there is little demand for it. It yields much larger crops than the red varie- ties, and comes to the market following the strawberry and just before the red raspberry. anh | Ny Hi Fig. 76—Rooted Tips of Blackcap Canes 144 ‘SUCCESSFUL FRUIT CULTURE Distance of Planting—They are planted from 4x5 to 5x6 feet, according to the vigor of the variety, and cultivation is generally done with the horse both ways. Blackcap plants should be planted only in the spring, as the roots are very soft and tender in the fall, and the slight pressure of the foot will bruise them, while in the spring they have become somewhat hardened. The end bud of the “tip” or plant should not be planted more than an inch or two below the surface of the soil, but the roots must be put down into the moist soil. Figure 61, illustrating the planting of the grapevine, shows a good way of planting the blackeap raspberry. Most failures in planting the blackcap raspberry come from putting the end bud so deep that it cannot break through the cover soil. Pruning—The pruning required by the blackeap is about the same as for the blackberry, though it will stand more summer pruning and perhaps requires two or three “pinchings-in” to make the canes stand up without sup- port. Some growers tie to stakes, while others use the trellis and do not attempt to cultivate both ways. The fruiting cane should be cut out as soon as the fruit has been gathered in order to allow full growth of the new canes. Harvesting and Marketing—The fruit is picked in quart baskets and sent to market in twenty-four or thirty-two-quart crates. It carries well, but the prices are very low, ranging from five to ten cents per quart, yet the yield is generally large and the fruit ripens nearly all at one time, so that the cost of growing and picking is small and much profit may be expected where there is a demand for this fruit. VARIETIES Scarcely a variety is now grown that was in cul- tivation ten years ago, on account of disease and THE RASPBERRY 145 deterioration of varieties, and it is advisable not to depend upon the old sorts too long but renew the plantations after four or five years with new kinds. Among the best at this time may be mentioned the Palmer—This is an early variety of large size and good quality, of dark color and productive. One of the best for general cultivation. ? Kansas—Perhaps more productive than the last, a little later in ripening, but especially valuable on account of its quality and hardiness. Cumberland—One of the most vigorous and pro- ductive of the blackcaps. It is late and of good quality. It is recommended very highly wherever grown. Other varieties that are grown in some localities are Souhegan, Gregg, Ohio, etc., ete. THE PURPLECAP RASPBERRY (Rubus neglectus) This group of raspberries has of late attracted much attention on account of their great vigor, pro- ductiveness and fine quality. In habit of growth they are like the blackcap, but with a fruit about half way between this and the red raspberry, and the flavor and texture of the latter. They are not as hardy as the other two species, yet the canes seldom kill down so close to the ground but that laterals bear more or less of a crop of fruit every year. The color of the fruit, a reddish-purple, is such that it does not sell readily, but it is especially valuable for home use. It Is propagated in the same way as the blackeap, and should be treated in the same way as this species as to pruning and other particulars. Among the leading varieties are: . | Shaffer—One of the oldest of this group, and one of the best in quality, but is not quite as hardy as some of the later kinds. The fruit is large in size but is too soft for distant market. 146 : SUCCESSFUL FRUIT CULTURE Columbian—A more vigorous plant than the last, and very productive, but the fruit is not of as good quality. : | Numerous other varieties of this type have been introduced, but all of them are of the same dark red color that is not attractive in the market, and none of them should be planted largely for market unless there is a certainty of a demand for them. YELLOW RASPBERRIES Yellow varieties, or albinos, of the blackcap and the red raspberry, are listed in most nursery catalogs, but they are of little value in the market, as they are not attractive, and are not of as good quality as the red or, black varieties. The best among the yellow raspberries — is the Golden Queen or Yellow Cuthbert, which is sup- posed to be a white or albino form of the latter. When first picked it looks well, but it soon turns to a brown color. The yellowcap raspberry and the white black- _berry are of no commercial value and are to be planted only as curiosities. XIII THE CURRANT AND GOOSEBERRY THE CURRANT (Ribes rubrum) This is one of the most healthful fruits, is easily grown, and should be found in every garden. It is grown to a considerable extent for market, and where the soil is suited to its growth it is found profitable. It succeeds best in a deep, moist loam, but if too wet the plants are heaved out in the fall ‘and spring by frost. To prevent this heaving out the land may be heavily mulched in the fall with coarse stable manure or straw, but this must be removed in the spring before the roots have made much growth, or it will cause the roots to grow so near the surface as to be injured by the cultivator, and the second winter the bushes will be likely to be tipped over by high winds. Shallow level cultivation will give the best results. The land must be kept rich with a heavy dressing of stable manure or fertilizer each year, using enough to produce a few strong new canes each season, for there is no fruit that runs small so quickly on old wood as the currant. Planting—The distance most generally planted is “x6 feet, and they may be planted either in the fall or the spring, as is’ most convenient. Some growers set the plants nearer than four feet in the row, and prune the bushes to three or four strong canes. The best plants are strong one-year cuttings, though many 148 SUCCESSFUL FRUIT CULTURE growers prefer two-year-old plants. ‘The currant comes into bearing the second or third year from planting, and with proper care should last. for a generation at least. . _ Pruning—The pruning required consists in remov- ing the old wood after it is three or four years old and allowing only a limited number of new canes to grow. These canes should be strong and upright, so as to earry the fruit high that it may not be spattered by heavy rains. If the canes are low it is well to mulch while the fruit is ripening, but this must be removed at the earliest possible time after the fruit has been harvested, so that the roots may not be drawn to the surface. Harvesting and Marketing—Currants are marketed in quart baskets in the same manner as strawberries and raspberries. It is a fruit that will hang a long time on the bushes, especially if grown under the shade of trees or when the foliage is heavy, and is often in condition for marketing for more than a month. Some growers pack about ten pounds of this fruit in a common market basket and sell by the pound. ‘The prices range from five cents to fifteen cents per quart, with an average of perhaps not far from eight to ten cents for the season. he yield under good conditions is often 200 bushels per acre and upwards. VARIETIES While there are many more or less distinct varie- ties, they are not so marked in their variations as ‘most of the other fruits. It is often said that the, difference in the varieties sold under different names is due to the treatment they receive as to soil and fer- tilizers, and this is in a measure true, yet there are several varieties that are marked enough to warrant distinct names. Among the best of these are: THE CURRANT 149 Cherry (Figure 77)—-Bush stocky and vigorous, producing short bunches of large berries of a decidedly acid quality. This variety is found badly mixed in most of the nurseries with the Versailles, a long bunched and more vigorous grower, but not as valuable a variety. For this reason the Cherry is not as desirable as some other varieties that have been kept free from mixtures. Wilder—A variety resem- bling the Cherry somewhat, but with a longer bunch and rather more vigor of bush. The stock has been kept free from mixture and is free from the objection to the Cherry. Fay’s Prolific—This is perhaps the most planted of any variety. The bush is vig- orous and very productive, the fruit is large, bunches longer than the Cherry, but of about the same degree of acidity. It is a more valuable variety than the latter from the fact that it is entirely free from mixtures. Red Cross—Resembles the Wilder very much in bush and bunch of fruit, but perhaps a little more vigorous. Pomona—A very vigorous and productive variety of especially good quality. Grown in a very rich soil the fruit is of good size and its immense productiveness and fine quality make it often one of the most profitable varieties in cultivation. | 150 SUCCESSFUL FRUIT CULTURE _ White Imperial (Figure 78)—White varieties of this fruit are not very popular in the markets, but as the fruit is much less acid than the red kinds and of much better flavor, they should be planted for home use, and the markets be educated to know of their superior qual- ity. The above variety is the best in quality of this group, and is equally productive with the White Grape, which is also a good kind, but more acid than the latter. — The Black Currant (Ribes nigrum)—The black currant is a vigorous growing, hardy and productive fruit, but is not generally in demand ex- cept in markets where there are many English or German peo- ple. In its uncooked state it has a peculiar flavor that is not liked by Americans, but it makes a most delicious jelly or 39 _ marmalade. It is easily grown, is free from all insect pests and fungous diseases that attack the red currant, and where there is a market for the fruit at reasonable prices it would be very profitable. If a hybrid could be produced between this and the red currant, with improved quality and with the same hardiness and vigor, it would be a valuable addition to our hardy fruits. Among the best varieties are the Black English, Black Naples and Lee’s Prolific, the latter perhaps being the best of the three. > Fig. 78—White Imperial Currant THE GOOSEBERRY Low The Golden Flowering Currant (Ribes aureum)— This is the common flowering currant of the garden, an improved variety of which, known as Crandall’s Im- proved, has been introduced, that produces a much larger berry of rather better quality than the original. The principal objection to this variety is the habit of not ripening all of its fruit at one time. Like the black currant, this is of little value for market, but offers some hope of value if it can be crossed with some other species and thus give us a hardy and vigorous strain that will be as free from disease and insects. Crandall’s Improved is the only variety that is offered by nur- serymen. i See Chapters XX and XXI for protection from insects and fungous pests. THE GOOSEBERRY EUROPEAN (Ribes grossularia) AMERICAN (Ribes oxyacanthoides) The gooseberry is not a fruit that finds a ready sale in our markets in large quantities, but its consump- tion is increasing, and it should be more largely used. The season for marketing is longer than that of the currant, from the fact that it is sold in both the green and the ripe state. The conditions of growth are about the same as for the currant, but it will grow fairly well under the shade of trees. The land should be made rich with an abundance of potash and phosphoric acid and nitrogen enough to make a fair growth of wood. In pruning the same plan should be followed as with the currant, cutting out the old wood after it is more than three years old, and thinning out some of the small and weak new shoots, and thus forcing the growth into those shoots that are left. Among the varieties that 152 SUCCESSFUL FRUIT CULTURE succeed over the largest area may be mentioned the following: Columbus—Fruit large, greenish-yellow, and of good quality. Plant vigorous and very productive. One of the best. Downing—A very hardy and productive variety, with light green fruit of medium size. It is especially valuable for cooking on account of its tender skin and good quality. Red Jacket—One of the best of the red fruited varieties. Fruit of large size and good quality. Industry—An English variety that under some conditions is very satisfactory. The fruit is of large ‘ size and good quality, but the bush generally makes a slow growth. For insects and fungous diseases attacking the gooseberry, see Chapters XX and XXI. | XIV THE STRAWBERRY EUROPEAN (F'ragaria vesca) AMERICAN (Fragaria Virgimana) In some particulars the strawberry is the most important fruit crop of the temperate zone. It rivals the apple in the time that we may have it in the market in a fresh condition. Coming from the extreme South soon after New Year, a supply is kept up from the South to the North and from the North to the South until August. It is the first fruit of the season, and will produce, under good conditions, more bushels per acre than the potato. It is of especial importance to the grower just starting into business because an income can be obtained within twelve to fourteen months after planting. It is a fruit that succeeds in a great variety of soils, but is most profitably grown on a deep, rich sandy loam. In a very dry time on light land the crop is often injured by drouth, but if a heavy coating of stable manure is turned under before setting and the land is well mulched before the fruit begins to ripen, a crop will be carried through a great deal of dry weather. The strawberry often yields a very heavy crop on reclaimed meadows, but under such conditions the tendency is to run to plant instead of fruit, and the fertilizers used should contain a large amount of potash and phosphoric acid. A very good fertilizer is made of three parts of good hard wood ashes to one of fine ground bone used at the rate of from one to two tons 154° %. SUCCESSFUL FRUIT CULTURE - per acre, according to the fertility already in the soil. A southern slope should be selected for an early crop and a northern one for a late crop. FITTING THE LAND It will be especially advantageous to work the soil deeply with a trench plow, fining it to a depth of fifteen to twenty inches, as the more deeply and finely it is worked the greater will be its capacity for resisting drouth. If it is plowed in the fall it will work up much earlier in the spring, and if stable manure is plowed under in the fall it will give better results than if turned under in the spring. Turf land that is to be devoted | to the strawberry should be planted with some hoed crop like potatoes, etc., for one season, or it may be planted with some leguminous crop like cowpeas, soy beans, hairy vetch or clovers, that can be turned under to supply nitrogen, and also humus to hold the moisture. The surface of the land should be thoroughly fined with the harrow and drag or leveler and marked out carefully to rows of accurate distances, that the work of culti- vating may be done quickly and easily. If the land is not well supplied with plant food any good fruit fer- tilizer may be scattered along the rows, to be worked. in as the plants are set, the remainder to be worked in with a weeder or fine-toothed cultivator within a few | days after planting. TIME FOR PLANTING While the strawberry may be planted at any time in the year when the ground will work, it is the practice of most of the large commercial growers to set only in the spring. This is done so that the plants may have plenty of time to make a full growth and mature an abundance of blossom buds, and the largest crops will be produced when planted at this time. Strong layers THE STRAWBERRY 155 or potted plants will yield a few very large berries, and it is from these plants that we often obtain the prize berries, but the cost of plants and the small crop ob- tained does not warrant the outlay if grown for profit. PLANTS Only plants with young, white roots should be used if the best results are expected, and plants taken from a bed grown for fruiting are not as good as those grown - for plants alone when all of the plants are dug out by lifting the soil for several inches deep. In digging, the plants should be protected from the air as soon as ee ee ee RE SS OS BP ag. Sis OL LO sei nce ccm ip cer Sa Fig. 79— Fig. 80— Method of Planting Perfect and Imperfect Varieties out of the ground by putting into sacks or covered baskets and be taken to a cellar or moist shed, where the dead leaves and runners are all pulled off, the roots straightened out and placed in bunches, or if to be sent away tied in bundles of twenty-five or fifty each. Placed in this way for a little time, the roots are straight and easily planted. If plants are to be shipped for some distance the roots should be packed in damp moss with the leaves exposed to the air, when ey will keep for a long time in good condition. Staminate and Pistillate, or Perfect and Imperfect Plants—In selecting varieties it must be borne in mind that if those with pistils only are planted, little or 156 SUCCESSFUL FRUIT CULTURE no fruit will be produced, but if every third or fifth row be of a variety that has perfect flowers, all will be fertilized and a good crop the result. The diagram, Figure 79, illustrates: this planting; or if it is desired to secure plants of the staminate variety for planting unmixed, they may be planted as shown in Figure 80. PLANTING There are many different ways of putting the plants into the ground, the success of any one of which depends upon the roots being placed deeply in the moist soil, a Fig. 81i—Planted Too Deep Fig. 82—Planted Too High well spread out and the soil firmed closely in contact with them. A very good way to determine if the plants are properly set is to take hold of the leaf, and if the plant pulls out it is not planted firmly enough, while if the leaf breaks off it is properly firmed. The depth to plant is illustrated by the accompanying figures: Figure 81 shows a plant set too deep, Figure 82 one too shallow, and Figure 83 one set just right. Methods or systems of planting are very numerous, but only two or three will receive attention here. THE STRAWBERRY 157 The Hill System—This consists in setting the plants in rows of from three to three and one-half feet apart and one foot apart in the row, and keeping the runners cut off, when at the end of the season each plant has made a large number of crown buds, and under fayorable conditions will produce a large number of berries. All of the run- = ners are of course pulled or SS) cut off as they start out. } The only serious objection to this system is that with the roots continually start- ing out higher on the crown as new buds are formed, the plants at the end of the season are rather shallow rooted, and are liable to be heaved out during the win- ter unless a deep covering of mulch is placed around : iliem Elie method Hasthe 1° = eee advantage that with the runners removed the ground about the plants can be kept clean very easily and cheaply, and the fruit easily mulched and harvested. The Hedge Row System (of Kellogg)—This is a modification of the hill system, the plants being set in rows two and one-half to three feet apart, and in Ds Ge PD. Gan, CoN Gaal. GUE CRSA. OFX res Om Ne Or Vex, OM WeXCe AO DEAD ES tle) CLD, Cota? Cla au Caen. 6 Fig. 84—The Hedge Row System the rows about two feet, and treated the same way as in the hill system except that plants are allowed to fill in the space at eight:to ten inches apart. This is in fact but a modified hill system in which the hills come 158 SUCCESSFUL FRUIT CULTURE close together, thus serving to protect one another, and, the ground being well filled with roots, there is less danger of their being heaved out by frost. The same heavy covering during the winter will be needed -as with the hill system, taking care not to cover the crowns too deeply. In Figure 84 the old plants are represented by o, the runners by x. | Wide Matted Row—This consists in setting the plants in rows three, four or five feet apart, according to the richness of the soil, and one to two feet in the Fig. 85—Strawberry Field with Wide Matted Rows _rows, and letting the runners grow over the space be- tween the rows from four to six inches apart, thus making beds of fruiting plants eighteen inches to three feet wide. Figure 85 shows strawberry field of A. A. . Marshall of Fitchburg, Mass., set 4x5 feet, and run into beds three feet wide; irrigation pipes are seen in the foreground. Some growers place the runners the proper distance apart as they grow, and others let the bed be. covered in a natural way and then dig out the surplus plants in the fall, the last of August or early September. The first plan, however, is the better, as then each THE STRAWBERRY 159 plant has an abundance of room to fully mature and will give a much larger crop of fruit with larger berries than the small plants of the second method. The Matted Row System—Probably more berries are grown by this system than by any other, and perhaps it requires less labor, yet the size of the fruit will be smaller and, in time of drouth, the ground between the plants not being stirred easily, the roots will be near the surface, and therefore more injured. One advan- tage that the wide matted and the matted row have over the hill and the hedge row system is that the roots are running through all of the soil, holding it together, and the plants are not as likely to be thrown out by frost. Whatever the system, the crop will depend more upon whether the land is rich in plant food and has an abundant supply of moisture in it at the time the fruit is maturing than anything else. CULTIVATION If the plants have been set in regular lines both ways, most of the work of cultivation can be done by the horse cultivator or the small hand cultivators, of -which there are many different kinds. All of the run- ners are generally cut off until the plants get strong, or up to about the first of July, after which such as are needed are allowed to grow. After the runners begin to grow, if in the matted row, great care must be taken not to disturb them after they have become rooted. If the plants are grown by the hedge row or in the hill system, the runners being cut off before they are rooted, they will not interfere with the use of the hand or wheel hoe, and better work can be done, and be done more cheaply. The land: should be kept fine and mellow to the depth of two or three inches, and the drier the time the more frequently the soil should be cultivated. \ 160 SUCCESSFUL FRUIT CULTURE If the plants are not making the growth that is desired, more fertilizer should be applied about July 1, and again early in September. Chemical fertilizers should not be applied when the leaves are wet, but, if dry, can be applied safely unless used in very large quantity. If it should adhere to the leaves it can be easily brushed off with a broom or by drawing a bush over the row. If large quantities of quickly soluble fertilizer like nitrate of soda, sulphate of ammonia or the potash salts be used, it must be scattered at a little distance from the plants and the soil must be frequently stirred to keep it from burning the leaves as it is deposited on the surface of the soil by evaporation. During the first season the young plants should be sprayed two or three times to keep the rust fungus from gaining a hold. Im soils.that are infested with the plants known as the chickweeds, of which there are two troublesome species, which grow during very cold weather, the land must be cultivated until the ground freezes, and also in the spring the small chickweed plants must be weeded out. Under this condition the cost of cultivation is much increased and the crop will not be as large as in land free from this pest. IRRIGATION One of the great needs in strawberry growing is an abundance of water as the fruit is ripening, and even if the soil is naturally moist and we have done all that could be done to preserve what there is in_it, there often comes a season when a crop would be largely benefited by the use of water on the surface. Of the profits resulting from the establishment of an artificial . supply of water we have no figures, but that must depend largely upon the cost of the water and its application. If one is situated so that water can be carried to the - THE STRAWBERRY 161 strawberry field by gravity in open ditches or cheap troughs, the cost need be but small, while if to be carried a long distance in pipes and be raised to a considerable hight it would be very much greater. There are two methods of applying water most generally em- ployed, the ditch method and the sprinkling method. The Ditch Method—This is the simplest and most used. The water is let into ditches at the upper part of the field where it can run down between the rows as Fig. 86—Ditch Method of Irrigation shown in Figure 86. If the fall is so great that the soil will be washed, hay or straw is trodden into the ditch, when it will run more slowly and spread out better among the plants. If the land is nearly level, the water must be directed by means of frequent small ditches and be carried to different parts of the field by means of pipes or troughs. Cheap hose may be made of cotton cloth for this purpose that will last a long time if taken’ up and thoroughly dried after being used. 162 SUCCESSFUL FRUIT CULTURE The Sprinkling Method—This method is not so much in use as the last, but possesses some merits over it, as the water is apphed in the most natural manner and over the whole surface, and when properly apphed has generally given remarkable results. It - can, however, be applied only where there is a good head or force to distribute in a fine spray to considerable distance. ‘The best time for applying water is an im- portant matter. It has been found that the same amount of water applied at night will do much more good than if applhed in the morning, that there is less loss by evaporation, and the ground is less hardened. If water is applied, enough should be used to wet down to the roots fully, or little or no benefit will result, for if only the surface soil is wet the roots work up to the surface and continued dry weather will be more de- structive than if no water were used. WINTER PROTECTION While the strawberry is perfectly hardy, growing, as it does, at the extreme North, if the ground is not covered with snow from the time it is frozen in the fall till settled weather comes on in the spring, the plants will be heaved out, and for this reason it is the practice of all Northern growers to cover the strawberry fields as soon as the ground is frozen in the fall. If deeply covered before the ground is frozen the plants are often _ smothered, and all of the old leaves destroyed, and, while this does not ruin the crop, yet the plants do not start with the vigor that they would if these leaves ‘were uninjured. Mulching Material—V arious materials are used for this purpose, among the best of which are pine needles, rye straw, oat straw, meadow or sedge hay, corn stover, buckwheat straw, soy beans, etc., etc.; of these perhaps THE STRAWBERRY 163 the best are the pine needies, clean rye or oat straw and soy bean straw. But whatever is used, it should be free from weed seeds, as nothing reduces the yield of a plan- tation more certainly than numerous small plants grow- ing about them and carrying off moisture and plant food from the land. In the spring the mulch is drawn off from the crown of the plants as soon as growth has begun, and after the plants have begun to bloom it is best to draw the mulch closely under them so as to keep the fruit clean and the crown roots shaded. Some growers remove the mulch in the early spring, clean out all small weeds, stir the sur- face soil and then put it back close up about the plants again. This in- sures a clean bed and helps to retain the soil moisture ; that in light land - Fig. 87—Staminate or ‘‘ Perfect’’ is so often deficient. ee VARIETIES Among the hundreds of varieties that are in cul- tivation, there are many that succeed well in one place that do not do well in others, and the grower will have to depend largely upon trial of several sorts and the testimony of those who are successful in growing this fruit in his own locality. It may be said that no variety will succeed long in one locality. It is a fact that no varieties are generally grown now that were 164 SUCCESSFUL FRUIT CULTURE popular ten years ago, and some do not retain their vigor even that time. It is therefore the part of wisdom to have a trial bed of the most promising new kinds in order to know what is best adapted to each individual locality. The local experiment station will be the first to try all promising kinds, the best of which each grower should give a trial. Varieties are either staminate, or perfect (Figure 87), those having both stamens and pis- tils, and will bear fruit if planted alone, or pistillate (Figure 88), the flowers having only pistils, and must be . planted near some staminate variety to produce fruit. The pistillate flowered varieties are more productive,-as a general rule, than are the staminate kind, due probably to the strain on the flower of the latter to produce pollen. Among the varie- ties that are most Fig. 88—Pistillate or ‘‘ Imperfect”’ grown are: Strawberry Flower Cly de—A stam- inate variety of great vigor of plant and freedom from disease that does well on rather light land, when the plants are not too close together, but on heavy soil, or if the plants are very close together, the color is poor and the berry is soft. It requires a rich soil to make it carry out to perfection the large crop of berries that it will set. Haverland—A pistillate variety that has made the largest record for productiveness of any now in cultiva- tion. The fruit is medium to large, and is borne on THE STRAWBERRY 165 long and slender stalks that do not stand up under the weight of its heavy crop of fruit. This fault, together with the small size of the berries under ordinary condi- tions, places it in the list of only medium value. Glen Mary—A perfect flowered variety of vigorous growth and good quality. The fruit is large but some- what irregular in form. The flowers do not produce as much pollen as some other varieties, and if planted as a fertilizer for pistillate sorts it should be planted in every third or fourth row. Sample—One of the most productive pistillate varieties, producing berries of large size and good qual- ity. For general purposes it has proved one of the most profitable. It is medium in season and often carries its fruit very late. Brandywine—One of the most vigorous perfect flowered varieties, producing berries of large size, firm and of the best of quality. It is a rather late variety, and under most conditions is productive, but under others it is reported as not productive. It is a good pollenizer for late varieties. Other varieties that are of value under some conditions are Bubach, Senator Dunlap, Nick Ohmer, Seaford, Gandy, Warfield, Excelsior, Marshall, etc., etc. MARKETING The strawberry is a very perishable fruit, and must be handled with the greatest skill to give the best results. If possible the picking should be done early in the morning or the latter part of the day, and after picking at any time the fruit should be taken to some cool place where there is not too much of a draft of air to dry them too rapidly. It is not advisable to put them on the ice, if it can be avoided, on account of the con- densed moisture that will collect on the berries when 166 SUCCESSFUL FRUIT CULTURE brought from the cold storage, yet if properly exposed to cool, dry air for a little time after being taken from cold storage they will not be injured by this treatment. Package—The quart basket is almost universally used, packed in a bushel (thirty-two-quart), twenty- four-quart, and sixteen-quart crate or carrier. Most of the thirty-two-quart crates are now considered as gift packages, and are not returned to the shipper, but are — sold to local growers near the markets for ten cents . each. If the grower delivers his fruit to the retailer he may have his crates reserved, and thus only a small number will be needed to market a large crop of berries. One of the best packages for carrying and displaying the fruit is the “Marshall” carrier, Figure 89, in which twenty-four quarts of berries are packed, and it has the advantage that all of the fruit is exposed to the view of the purchaser without removing any partitions, and if well put up will attract customers by the large amount of fruit exposed in one mass. This figure shows thirty quarts, with only from eight to fifteen berries in a basket. Soiled baskets should never be used, as the fruit shows to better advantage in new baskets, and the new ones are as cheap as old baskets collected from the consumers. Picking—This is one of the greatest problems of the strawberry grower. Some employ boys, some men and some women. The first are the most difficult to manage, and do the work in the most uncertain way. Girls and women do their work well, are easily managed, but are rather slow in many cases. Quick, active young men. make good pickers; the cost per quart, however, is much greater, but they can often be brought into the field in times of an emergency when other help is not available. Numerous methods of recording the number of boxes picked by the different pickers have been de- vised, perhaps one of the best of which is the card system, THE STRAWBERRY® 167 where the picker keeps his record card, and when fruit has been picked the record is made by punching out the proper number of boxes. At the end of each day or — week, as the case may be, the first card is taken.up and the total number is punched on another card, which is kept by the picker until payment is made. In picking ~ the fruit, each berry should be picked by the stem, and not be pulled off, and for a local market should be allowed to become fully ripe before being picked. Sorting and Packing—It will be found very difficult to find pickers in many places who will sort the fruit = as picked so that it will be most satisfactory for a fancy = market, and it is therefore the practice of most growers ™ of fancy fruit to have it sorted and packed in a shed or ~ house near the strawberry field. All that is done often, where the pickers are reliable, is to sort over and pack © the top layer of berries, picking out any defective berries © and replacing them with sound ones, and turning the ~ ,. top layer so as to present the best appearance. Others . = turn out all of the berries in a box and sort and pack. all of the fruit. This must be done very carefully, or the berries will be so crushed that they will not stand ' ne up long after they reach the market. If, however, this is properly done, the fruit will keep longer, for all of the overripe berries having been removed, decay will be less rapid, and much better prices be obtained. Many growers make two sorts, those that are ered in every way and of large size, and those of small size and possibly with some other defect. The second grades © ~ are sold for canning, making syrups, etc., and often will; sell at as good prices as the average run of berries not « - sorted, while the fancy berries bring high prices and _ sell the seconds. The common bushel crate or carrier is the ees used for shipping to near markets, but when shipped long distances those holding forty-eight or sixty-four AIIVD AIIBGMBIYS [[BYsSIVBYA! 94 1—6g "Sid : THE STRAWBERRY 169 quarts are largely in use. The Marshall carrier (Figure 89), holding twenty-four quarts, is especially adapted to fancy berries, as all the fruit can be seen at once upon taking olf the cover, and presents the most attractive appearance possible. For insects and fungous pests, see Chapters XX and XXI. XV . THE CRANBERRY (Vaccintum oxycoccus) This delicious fruit is distributed over almost the entire country and under favorable conditions produces large and profitable crops. The entire crop of the country for a single season has been over 808,000 bushels, of which Massachusetts produced 432,000 bushels, New Jersey 175,000 bushels, Wisconsin 101,000 bushels. It can only be profitably grown in a soil nearly saturated with water, bogs and wet meadows being utilized for this crop. The conditions for success are wet, boggy land, with an abundant supply of water, so that the “bog” may be flooded in a short time in case of a late frost in the spring when the plants are in bloom, during the summer to prevent injury from the “leaf roller” insect, and in the fall to protect from frost before the fruit is gathered. Water should be in sufficient supply also to keep the bog flowed all winter. PREPARATION OF THE BOG All growth of trees, bushes, grasses or other plants must be removed from the surface and the bog made level by grading. Ditches should be made at intervals so that the water may set back into them to hasten flooding, and to quickly drain away the water after flooding. The level of the water in the ditches for the best results is from ten to twelve inches below the surface THE CRANBERRY Wal at all times. After all growth has been removed from the surface and the land roughly graded perfectly level, it should be made as fine and mellow as possible, after which a covering of clean, sharp sand from three to six inches deep is spread evenly over it. The land is then ready for the plants. Setting the Plants—The plants, or rather cuttings, are the end runners of established bogs, twelve to fifteen inches long, cut from the edges of the rows or paths, or often taken from some more solid part of the bed. If possible these cuttings should be taken from some spot where the plants are producing large crops of large, finely colored berries. The bog is marked off in from nine to eighteen-inch squares, and the cuttings, three or four in a bunch, are forced through the sand into the fine soil below with a blunt wooden dibble or paddle, and the sand pressed firmly about them. In planting the cuttings, care should be taken not to break off the lower end of them in forcing through the sand. After planting no weeds should be allowed to grow, all that appear being pulled out by hand. It is not the general practice of growers to use the hand hoe unless obliged to do so, and a good bog is so soft that it would not hold up a horse. Sometimes when the land is espe- cially poor, a light dressing of any good commercial fruit fertilizer just before the sand is put on or after the plantation has been in bearing several years, will produce marvelous results. Well prepared bogs will _ yield good crops the third year, and after this nearly a full crop every year, unless insects or frosts destroy them. The yield of a good bog under favorable condi- tions has often been between one hundred and two hun- dred bushels per acre. The average of all bogs in the - Cape Cod section in a single season has been one hundred and seventeen bushels; that of the country between eighty and ninety bushels. E e 172 SUCCESSFUL FRUIT CULTURE HARVESTING This crop must be harvested before fall frosts unless water facilities are such that the bog can be flooded at ten or twelve hours’ notice. The crop is gathered by hand picking and by means of the rake or scoop. With the latter 400 to 450 quarts per day are picked by the most active pickers, while hand pickers will hardly pick more than 200 quarts unless the crop is large and thick. Storing and Marketing—The cranberry is a fruit that keeps well in an airy, cool, but not too dry place, the temperature never going down to thirty-two degrees. Fig. 90—The Large Bell Cranberry For home use, if put in fruit jars and covered with cold water, the fruit will keep until May or June if placed in a moderately cool cellar. It is most largely sold in barrels of about 100 quarts. Prices obtained range from $3.50 to $15 per barrel, an average of about $7. Some markets demand the fruit in crates, and many dealers buy in barrels and repack in crates or boxes. RENEWING A CRANBERRY BOG After ten or fifteen years of fruiting many bogs “begin to fail, and are renewed by resurfacing, or with THE CRANBERRY ta little expense by again covering with sand. A lignt covering of sand every five years would probably give satisfactory results. It is found in some cases that a light dressing of superphosphate will give the plants a vigorous start and greatly improve the yield and _ quality of the fruit. INJURIOUS INSECTS Two insects have become somewhat of a menace to the cranberry crop—the “leaf roller’ and the berry moth. The former is prevented from doing serious damage by flowing for a few days or a week soon after they begin to work seriously. ‘The berry moth is more or less destroyed by the use of arsenate of lead sprayed upon the plants and fruit while quite small. For further particulars as to controlling insect pests, see bulletins of Massachusetts and New Jersey experiment stations. Many varieties of cranberries are now being grown. - They may be divided into three groups, 1. e., the Bell, Olive and Bugle types. Figure 90 shows the large Bell variety. | XVI THE BLUEBERRY AND HUCKLEBERRY (Vaccuntum Canadense) BLUEBERRY 4 (Vaccinium corymbosum) (Vaccintum vacillans) HUCKLEBERRY (Gaylussacia resinosa) While these berries are found in our markets in © considerable quantities in almost every section of the country, the supply comes wholly from bushes grown in the pastures, fields and swamps. Many attempts have ~ been made to cultivate it in garden and field, but with poor or indifferent success. Like most plants growing naturally on land with a good soil cover, they become weakened and soon fail if exposed to much sun and air about. the roots and lower branches. Im the pas- tures and meadows the ground is shaded by grass and undergrowth, and the stems of the bushes by close growing foliage about them, and to insure even a mod- erate growth these conditions must be provided in the garden. The natural soil cover of the meadows may be replaced by leaves, old hay or even by a close planting and a mulch of fine soil, and if the soil is naturally a little moist or the season cool and moist, a fair growth will be made. An acid soil seems to be a necessity in: growing this fruit. TRANSPLANTING Plants that wiil come up with a bog or clump of roots should be selected, and only those producing the THE BLUEBERRY AND HUCKLEBERRY 175 largest berries taken. Cut back severely and set close together about as deep as they stood in the pasture, tramping the soil firmly avout the roots. A mulch should be placed around the roots and if very dry a lib- eral amount of water be poured into the holes to settle the soil about the roots before the mulch is put on. Additional mulch or manure should be placed about them when it becomes thin. Another method of treatment which is more generally satisfactory is to clear a blue- berry or huckleberry lot of everything but good, strong bushes of these fruits. Divide into three lots and early in the spring spread manure or fertilizer among them. Then mow the tops of one plot close to the ground. The ‘two plots not cut down will produce a large crop of fruit if the season is favorable, and the new canes on the other plot will make a strong growth that for the next two years will yield very large and fine fruit. The second spring plot No. 2 is cut down, and No. 3 and No. 1 bear fruit. After this three years’ rotation two plots of bushes will be producing vigorous canes that will yield an abundance of fine fruit, if, in addition to cutting back, an occasional dressing of manure or fertilizer be applied. | Many brush pastures, by a httle thinning out of “robber” plants, treated in the above manner, may be made a source of considerable income. Women and children can generally be found who will pick the ber- ries on shares “if the picking is good,” and the fruit be gathered when it will bring the best prices. XVIT SUB-TROPICAL FRUITS THE ORANGE THE SOUR ORANGE (Citrus aurantium) THE SWERT ORANGE (Citrus aurantium dulcis) THE MANDARIN ORANGE (Citrus aurantium nobilis) THE POMELO, GRAPE FRUIT, ETO. (Citrus decumana) THE HARDY ORANGE (Citrus trifoliata) THE LEMON (Citrus limonum) Next to the apple the orange is by far the most important fruit in the United States, although it can be grown only in special localities. It is to the Southern sections of the country what the apple is to the Northern sections. It is a good shipping fruit, even better than -the apple, and its beautiful color and delicious flavor make it a close rival. Orange growers are generally very enthusiastic in their work, and well they should be, for the beautiful tree with its bright green leaves and wonderfully fragrant white flowers, followed by its golden fruit, makes it an object for admiration, and when the work is carried on in a systematic, business- like way, except when injured by frost, orange growing is profitable. While easily grown, the trees must have constant care to keep them growing vigorously, and to protect them from insect pests, and in some sections to protect - them from frosts. THE ORANGE piv ere PLANTING THE ORCHARD Orchards are started in two ways: (1) by planting trees already budded with desirable varieties, and (2) by planting seedlings (stocks) in the orchard and bud- ding them after one or two years’ growth. ‘The best stock for the extreme South is the sour orange, and for Northern sections the hardy orange (C. trifoliata). In a general way the preparation of the soil, pruning of the tree before planting, etc., are the same as for the apple or peach. In planting an orange orchard or grove, local conditions of soil, exposure and markets must be very carefully studied. In different sections the distance varies much, according to the variety grown, the method of pruning and richness of soil, so that no rule can be given. Enough room should be given for the full development of the trees. — Training the Trees—A round, low-headed, compact tree with an abundance of foliage is the ideal condition. If possible give the tree a slightly conical form by keeping the leader or central shoot a little stronger than the lateral branches. _In other words, don’t let the laterals outgrow the leader. The low head has many advantages. All the work of trimming, thinning, spraying, harvesting and protecting from frosts can be more cheaply and better done on low trees, and less fruit will be blown off in case of cyclones or heavy storms. Cultivation—As with other orchard fruits, the aim should be to produce a vigorous and healthy tree. If the soil is naturally rich and drouth resistant, less cul- tivation and less fertilizing material will be needed. If the soil is very thin, even with a large application of plant food, very frequent cultivation must be prac- ticed. Where the supply of water for irrigation is abundant, less plant food and less stirring of the soil 178 SUCCESSFUL FRUIT CULTURE will be needed, but very few good crops are grown, even under these conditions, without considerable cultivation. A very cheap source of organic matter (humus) in the Fig. 91—Orange Tree in Tub soil may be produced by sowing cover crops of clover, vetch or other leguminous crops about the time the trees are maturing their main annual growth. If there THE ORANGE 179 is any one season when drouth is more likely to occur than another, care must be taken that the cover crop is not making its greatest growth at this time, as with the great loss of plant food and moisture in this way at such a time the trees are likely to be seriously injured. | Protection from Frost—To secure fruit and trees from injury by frost, provisions must be made for their protection, which should be ready at all times for use at shortest notice. When the trees are grown close to the ground coarse hay, reeds, brush or other similar material can be quickly piled up around the trunks and in among the branches at but little expense. Such - material could no doubt be obtained near at hand or be grown especially for this purpose. After danger is past it could be used for bedding or for mulch. Folding covers, lined with paper, could be employed over small trees, which, if kept stored in a dry, airy place, would last a lifetime, and often in a single night save the results of years of labor and much invested capital. Other methods of protection may also be sug- gested, all of which should be investigated before adopting any of them. Figure 91 shows a sweet Florida orange tree grown in a tub, by Mr. E. H. Wrenn, Mt. Airy, N. C. It is eight and one-half feet high and its top ten feet in diameter. In winter it is kept in a brick store, heated with a stove, and in summer out of doors. It bore over 200 oranges the past season. VARIETIES As with all other kinds of fruit, the varieties of oranges are very numerous, and new and im- proved kinds are constantly coming to notice. The work being done by the Department of Agriculture at Washington in searching every orange growing section 180 SUCCESSFUL FRUIT CULTURE of the world for choice varieties to be tested in this country will no doubt lead to a rapid improvement, and each grower must follow this investigation and be ready to adopt those that prove the best. Among the varieties now largely grown may be mentioned Boone’s Early, Satsuma, Homosassa, Jaffa, Maltese Blond, Pine- apple, Washington Navel, ete. POMELO (GRAPE FRUIT) This fruit is practically a large orange with a thick skin and an acid, slightly bitter pulp. It requires nearly the same treatment as the orange. A few varieties to be recommended are Duncan, Royal, Triumph, ete. KUMQUAT (GOLD ORANGE) A most beautiful ornamental tree producing very small fruit in immense numbers. The rind as well as _ the pulp is edible, the fruit being especially valuable for preserving in the whole state. The great beauty of the trees, their great productiveness, and the quality of the fruit, especially when preserved, should make this fruit very popular in the near future. THE FIG (Ficus carica) While almost a tropical fruit, the fig, by careful manipulation and winter covering, may be made to bear fruit as far north as New England. In the South it must be grown rather slowly after it reaches fruiting age, as a rapid growth tends to the formation of leaf buds rather than fruit buds. The soil should not be cultivated deeply, as the roots run near the surface. THE PERSIMMON 181 The strong new shoots that outgrow their neighbors should be pinched back when they have reached the desired length. This is much better than to allow long shoots to grow without checking and finally cutting off large shoots at the end of the season. At the North small trees may be grown in tubs or boxes, putting them in a warm, sunny place in sum- mer, and storing in a dry, warm cellar or pit during the winter. They are | sometimes even grown in the garden if planted in a warm, dry soil in the sum- mer, and should be covered deeply in the winter with soil so that they will: net freeze, but the tub or box system is much the best. Among the best Fig. 92—Bearing Branch of the Fig Tree varieties are the Black Ischia, Brunswick and White Adriatic. A bear- ing branch of the fig tree is seen in Figure 92. THE PERSIMMON AMERICAN (Diospyros Virginiana) JAPANESE (Diospyros Kakt) This fruit, a native of the Middle and Southern States, is one that should be given more attention. When ripe the fruit is beautiful, of good quality, and is pro- duced in large quantities. Few trees are planted in orchards, though some of the new varieties would war- 182 SUCCESSFUL FRUIT CULTURE rant their extensive cultivation. When grown in a too rich soil the trees are often destroyed by cold, there- fore at the North it is best to plant in a rather light soil. The fruit of most varieties is not edible until the decay- ing process almost sets in, when they become very delicious. 'The Japanese persimmons are much supe- rior in size and quality, and are becoming of some com- mercial importance in the South. They are not hardy north of Washington. It is grafted upon the native stock, which may tend to make it more hardy. An effort — is being made to produce new varieties of the native species, as well as from crosses with the Japanese, and we look for a-great improvement in this fruit. Among the best varieties now in cultivation are Hyakume, Taber’s No. 129, Yeddo, etc., ete. The cultivation required for success is not unlike that to be given:to the Japanese plum o1 peach, though it is not as easily transplanted as either of the above. THE LOQUAT (Eriobotrya Japonica) The Japanese medlar or Japanese plum, as it is sometimes called, is a delicious fruit about the size of the Reine Claude plum, but of a brighter color. The fruit ripens in March and April, and while the trees are hardy as far north as the Middle South, its fruit matures only as far north as the middle of Florida. The leaves are large, dark green above, with a whitish down upon the under side, making it a decidedly orna- mental tree. In Southern Florida it is beng somewhat extensively planted, and the fruit often finds its way into nearby markets, but is little seen in the Northern markets. Besides its being used in a fresh state, eaten from the hand, it is preserved, having something of the flavor of sweet cherries. | AVIII THE PROPAGATION OF FRUIT TREES AND PLANTS While it may not generally be advisable for the fruit grower to attempt to grow trees for his own planting, in many cases it may be best and profitable to do so, and it certainly will be of great advantage to all to know how they are propagated, to enable them to judge of the value of the trees they buy, and if one can have well grown ones on his own place, ready to transplant at just the right time, and in a perfectly fresh condition, they will be much more sure to do well than the average nursery trees. | In this chapter I shall attempt to give only the practice of the most reliable nurseries, so illustrated that with a little practice the intelligent and energetic man may grow good trees for his own planting, and perhaps supply some to his neighbors. The boys and girls should become interested in this work, in which they might soon become skillful, and perhaps lay the foundation for the establishment of the nursery business in sections not now supplied with home grown trees. THE PROPAGATION OF THE APPLE None of the varieties of the apple reproduce the same kind from seed. Thus there has never been but one Baldwin. apple tree grown from seed; all of the trees of this variety, except the first one, that came _ from seed, have been grown by inserting buds or cions 184 SUCCESSFUL. FRUIT CULTURE from this tree, or others like it, into other seedling stocks. The stocks most in use for this purpose are those imported from France or other Huropean coun- tries; where the people have gained great skill, and where the price of labor is much less than in this country, though a few of our nurserymen grow good native stocks, either from imported seed or that from strong natural or unbudded trees. If only a small number of seedlings are needed, the seed can be obtained from strong trees of natural fruit, separating it from the pulp or planting the whole apples, first cutting them into quarters and planting in the fall before the ground freezes. If the seed is cleaned it may be planted in the fall, where the mice or squirrels will not destroy it, or it may be kept over in dry sand or fine dry loamy soil buried in the ground where there is no _ standing water, care being taken that the sand does not _ become wet. In the spring the seed should be sown as soon as the soil will work fine and mellow. The Seedbed—Any rather moist, rich loam will grow good apple seedlings if it is properly prepared. It should be deeply worked with the plow or spade and well enriched with partly decomposed stable manure, or with fine ground bone and potash at the rate of 1500 pounds of the former to 500 pounds of the latter per acre. After the seedbed has been thoroughly fitted the seed should be sown in drills fifteen inches apart if to be cultivated by hand, or thirty inches if it is to be done by the horse, and be covered about one-half inch deep. After the seedlings are an inch or two high they should be thinned to about two inches apart, weeding out all weak or defective seedlings, and during the season cultivate thoroughly at least once a week. If in July the seedlings are not making the growth they ought, some quick acting fertilizer should be scattered along the row and cultivated in. PROPAGATION OF TREES AND PLANTS 185 Digging the Seedlings—In the fall, before the ground freezes, the seedlings, which should have made a growth of from one to two feet, must be carefully dug and heeled-in, i. e., packed in trenches of light soil, where there will be no standing water, with the soil carefully worked in among the roots and nearly all of the top covered with soil, and as very cold weather comes on a covering of straw or hay be put on to keep the ground from deep freezing. If the seedlings are to be root grafted, they are washed after digging and packed in sphag- num moss or sawdust and put into a very cool cellar. Root Grafting— Much has been said pro and con as to the value of the root- grafted apple tree as compared with the budded tree, and it may be said that both are good when the work is properly done, and the writer believes that a root graft, skillfully made in December or January, and carefully stored in a cool cellar in moist sand or light soil until the last of April and then planted in a rich soil, will make as good a tree as most budded stocks, but, for the amateur, budding will give the best results. The root graft is made by taking the seedling and first trimming off the lateral roots and the end of the Fig. 95 Root Grafting Fig. 93 186 SUCCESSFUL FRUIT CULTURE main root to about six to eight inches long. A cut is then made just below the collar about an inch long, as seen in Figure 93. A tongue is then. cut at A B; the cion, Figure 94, a piece of the last season’s growth of the variety desired, is then taken, and a similar cut is made at A B, the two being pressed together with the cambium layers of both stock and cion in as close contact as is possible, as seen in Figure 95. The graft is then tied firmly and evenly with waxed string, waxed — cloth or raffia fiber. The success of the work depends upon the smoothness of the cut, the perfection of the union of the cambium layers, and close and firm tying. To shut out the air and moisture from the grafted sur- face and insure a more complete union, it is best to cover the cut with grafting wax or with waxed cloth after tying. After the grafts have been made they should be packed in boxes in moist sand or‘ fine sandy soil, pressing the packing very firmly about the grafted parts. After the box is filled it is placed in an upright position, that any growth that may take place will be toward the union of the graft. The grafts should be planted as soon in the spring as the soil will work up light and mellow, and they are best set with a dibber or spade, the top bud being set at the level of the ground. In planting with the spade the blade is inserted to ‘its full depth, worked back and forth until the desired space is made, when a graft is placed at each end of the opening made, and one in the middle, thus setting them about four inches apart, with the top bud just at the surface of the soil. The spade is then again inserted a few inches outside of this opening and the soil pressed. very firmly against the grafts. The soil should then be trodden firmly on both sides. In taking the root grafts from the boxes it is best to keep them in a ee of water until they are planted. PROPAGATION OF TREES AND PLANTS 187 Budding—For propagation by budding, the seed- lings that have been heeled-in the previous fall are taken up as soon as the land will work up mellow in the spring, the ends and lateral roots trimmed as for root grafting, and planted in the same manner as the root grafts, except that they are set only as deep as they stood in the seedbed. The seedling and the root graft are now planted in the nursery and in a few days after planting the surface of the soil must be made fine and mellow and be kept in this condition through- out the growing season. To insure success in budding, the stocks must be made to grow vigorously and be kept free from insects and fungous pests by spraying with kerosene and the bordeaux mixture. Budding is best done when the seedlings are approaching maturity, ranging from the first of August — to September 15 in different parts of the country, but it must be done when the bark will peel readily. The buds used should be those from vigorous fruiting trees that produce the type of fruit desired. Before the _ work of budding begins, a sufficient number of bud sticks (Figure 96) should be prepared, as well as an abundance of tying material (raffia fiber) cut to the proper lengths, according to the size of the stocks to be budded. The bud sticks and tying material are carried in a moistened wrapper slung over the left shoulder, so as to be readily reached by the right hand. The stocks should then be trimmed for five or six inches above the ground of all shoots and leaves, so as not to interfere with the work of budding. A sharp shoe knife with a thin blade and a rounded point is generally used, though the budding Fig. 96—Bud Stick 188 _. SUCCESSFUL FRUIT OULTURE knives (Figure 97) sold by dealers in horticultural supplies are preferable. The process of budding consists in first making a cross cut, as shown in Figure 98, then turning the knife and starting about three-quarters of an inch below, making an upward cut to the cross cut, where by a quick turn of the hand the bark on both sides of the cut is raised, as Shown in Figure 99. A bud stick is then taken, and, placing the knife about half an inch below the bud, a cut is made through the bark upward, taking a little of the wood with the bud. The bud is then held by the stalk of the leaf that has been left for Fig. 97—Budding Knives the purpose, and the point inserted under the raised bark,and pressed down until it is well in place, as seen in Figure 100. If the bark does not peel quite readily enough the rounded point of the knife is pushed under — the raised points and run downward, raising it so that the hud will be properly set, but buds will not be as sure to grow as if the bark peels with the pressure of the bud as it is forced down in place. After being inserted the bud must be firmly and evenly tied with some soft and flat tying material or soft string, as seen — in Figure 101. The material most in use is raffia fiber, so commonly employed for tying asparagus and other vegetables. PROPAGATION OF TREES AND PLANTS 189 The conditions of success are: (1) a vigorous grow- ing stock; (2) a well matured bud; (3) a sharp, thin- bladed knife; (4) a clean, smooth cut; (5) little exposure to the air and a good fit under the bark; (6) firm and even binding. After the buds have been in- serted a week or two the stocks should be examined, and if the bands are cutting into them, the result of rapid growth, they should be loosened a little, or if the | = Se if il g. 101 | i [s(t Ue es Darn te til au } Fig. 99° Fig. 100 Fi bud has united sufficiently a cut may be made on the side opposite the bud, when the band will be gradually loosened by the continued growth of the stock. The buds require no further care until the following spring, when the stock is cut off just above the inserted bud, and we have practically the same condition as in the root graft just planted, except that, in the latter, one year’s growth of roots has been made in the nursery, © while in the former it has been just transplanted. Nursery Treatment—Taking the budded seedling and the newly transplanted root graft, we will give the treatment required to produce a first-class tree for 190 SUCCESSFUL FRUIT CULTURE orchard planting. The conditions of success are: (1) a rich soil and frequent and thorough cultivation; (2) allow only one bud to grow, i. e., the bud inserted into the stock in budding and the top bud of the cion on the root graft; (3) allow only one shoot to grow (Figure 102), a clean, straight growth being necessary to a satisfactory tree. The young trees must be protected from injury by insects and fungous diseases as in the ; orchard, and the same methods are to be employed. At the begin- ning of the second year, and before the growth begins, the one-year-old shoot should be ‘cut back to the hight at which it is desired to have the top formed. (Figure 103.) This hight may be from two to four feet, according to the method of training to be followed in the growth of the young tree, those not having made over two or three feet being cut back to the ground for a new start. Buds of those trees that have been topped at from two to four feet high will start all along from the top of the ground in most cases (Figure 102a), but only a few at. the top are generally allowed'to grow, the others either being rubbed off as soon as well started, or being allowed to grow an inch or two and then the ends pinched to check their growth, thus forcing all development into the branches desired for the head. These branches —- + Fig. 102 Fig. 103 Nursery Treatment of Young Trees PROPAGATION OF TREES AND PLANTS 191 pinched are to be finally cut off close to the trunk. The last method has the advantage of making a more stocky tree, though not quite so smooth and clean. At the end of the second year apple trees, either root grafts or budded stock, should stand from five to seven feet high, and be from three-fourths to one inch in diameter at the ground, with four or five strong shoots near the top and evenly placed on all sides of the trunk. Such trees, i. e., two-year trees, are better than those older or younger for general planting, and should not be allowed to stand longer in the nursery. Digging Trees from the Nursery—The value of nursery trees to the purchaser largely depends upon how many of the roots are secured in digging them from the ground, and how long they are exposed to the air before they are planted in the soil again. The best way to get them from the ground is to first dig the soil away from the tree down to the roots, which will be, in well cultivated land, about six inches. Then with sharp spades cut a circle around the tree at from one to two feet, according to the size of the tree, severing all roots that go outside of that limit. With two strong spades, one on each side, and a third man to pull, the tree is then lifted out with the largest amount of roots that it is possible to secure. If a large number of trees is to be dug and the help is limited, all of those of one variety are first loosened and then, going over the row again, all are taken quickly from the ground and the roots covered, or each kind may be planted before another kind is dug. Trees should never be kept out of the ground any longer than 1s absolutely necessary. If trees are to be transported a long distance, the roots should be protected from drying by the process known as “puddling,” which consists in dipping them in a thick mixture of clay and water, the covering thus formed making an almost air-tight covering over the roots. 192 SUCCESSFUL FRUIT CULTURE Trees from Home vs. Distant Nurseries—The ques- tion as to whether it is best to grow our own trees, to purchase them from nurseries near home, or to send to sections a long distance away where they have peculiar advantages of soil or special skill that comes from long practice which enables them to grow better trees and at a lower price, is one that needs careful consideration. There can be no doubt as to the value of two trees equally well grown, the one from a nursery within a short distance of the place of planting, where they may be dug and planted the same day, and one grown hun- dreds of miles away. The one grown in the home nursery will be, beyond question, the best to plant. It is the practice of local nurseries to buy young stock of parties who are very skillful, and are growing in large quantities, plant them in their own nurseries for a year or two, and then sell to the local trade. These trees are, as a rule, more sure to grow than trees planted at first hand, but are more expensive. The question as to where to obtain the best trees for planting is an important one, and can only be settled by a very careful consideration of all the surrounding conditions, but one thing must be impressed on the planter—that it does not pay to buy poor stock at any price. PROPAGATION OF THE PEAR The pear is propagated in practically the same way as the apple, but requires more care in the selection of the seed, in the growth of the seedlings and in their care in the nursery. The stocks most in use by the nurserymen are imported, and called French stocks, but by a careful selection of seed and an especially good soil, good native seedling stocks may be grown. ‘The varieties of the pear are generally increased by budding (see. page 189). Some nurserymen, how- PROPAGATION OF TREES AND PLANTS 193 ever, use the root graft, though this method cannot be recommended for general use. __ _ Nursery Treatment—The best soil for the growth of good trees in the nursery is a deep, moist loam, per- haps a little clayey, but thoroughly underdrained. The seedlings are cared for and planted in the same manner -as the apple, but more attention must be given to them that they do not cease growing from the time planted - until they are budded, for, if from want of plant food or moisture they are checked in growth, the leaf blight may attack them, the leaves fall, and budding cannot be done. If it is found at any time in July that growth is weak, some quick acting fertilizer should be scattered in a furrow close up to the roots and be cultivated in. Frequent cultivation must be kept up from the time the seedlings are set out until budding is completed—once. a week is not too often—and in case of drouth more frequent working of the soil will be advisable. The leaf blight fungus, described in Chapter X XI, is more likely to attack pear seedlings in hot, moist weather, in low land, than upon that in full exposure to air and sunlight. The preventive, other than that mentioned, is spraying with the bordeaux as used in the orchard. The budding of the pear seedlings, cutting off of the stock and the forming of the head is the same as to time and method as for the apple, but it generally requires one-year longer to grow a first-class pear tree than for the apple. : Top-working—Some varieties produce a weak stock or trunk, and to make good, upright, clean trees, must be “top-worked.” This consists in budding in summer, or splice or tongue grafting in spring, on some strong erowing stock like Clapp or Flemish Beauty. In this way a stout trunk is obtained much earlier than can be produced on its own stock. Old trees of unprofitable varieties may be grafted over as described for the apple. 194 SUCCESSFUL FRUIT CULTURE PROPAGATION OF THE PEACH Peach trees for orchard planting are more easily grown than those of any other fruit. The soil best suited to the production of first-class trees is a medium deep loam, that will not be subject to drouth, and fully exposed to a good circulation of air. Much care must be exercised in the selection of the seed, that coming from vigorous, healthy trees being the best. Much of the seed used is sold as coming from Tennessee, North Carolina, etc., where it is claimed that the disease known as the “yellows” does not exist. It is undoubtedly true. that this disease is less prevalent in the above-mentioned sections, but it is thought that it may be found there, and as the “natural” fruit often is less vigorous than many of the budded sorts, it would seem best to use seed from the most hardy, healthy and vigorous varie- — ties, whether budded or not. The seed should be obtained as early in the fall as is possible, and be “bedded,” i. e., mixed with soil and exposed to the frost so that it will germinate more readily in the spring. Bedding the seeds consists in selecting a rather moist soil of sandy loam, where there will be no danger of standing water, and making a pit from six to ten inches deep, and of the size required for the amount of seed to be used. In the bottom of this bed a layer of seeds two or three deep is placed, then a layer of soil of the same depth, treading it firmly, then another layer of seeds, and so on until the bed is filled a little above the level of the surrounding soil. Here the seeds - remain exposed to the action of moisture and frost until they begin to sprout in May, when they are thrown upon a wire screen, and the shells will separate from the kernel if the frosting has been a success. If any seeds fail to sprout they must be carefully cracked with a light hammer. As the kernels are separated from PROPAGATION OF TREES AND PLANTS 195 the shells they should be kept covered with moist sand or soil until ready for planting. They are planted in rows from four to five feet apart and about two inches in the row, covering with fine soil from one to two inches deep, according to the character of the soil. Under proper conditions of cul- tivation and in good soil the seedlings should be from eighteen to twenty-four inches high by the last of August, when they are to be budded. If larger than this they are more difficult to bud, and will make a tree the following season too large for the best results in planting in the orchard. The peach is the most easily budded of any of the fruit trees, but care must be taken not to put in fruit buds. Buds should be taken from the best and most fruitful trees and not from the nursery rows, though the latter will be more certain to grow, and fewer blossom buds be obtained. The process of budding is the same as for the apple. As the peach seedlings grow very rapidly about the time of budding, a closer watch must be kept that the bands do not cut into the stocks so as to cause them to break off in the wind. ‘The stocks are cut off, as seen in Figure 43, the following spring, and the buds start into rapid growth, requiring early attention that the inserted bud is not injured by other buds that start . about it. The care required the first season is to see that only one leader grows, but all laterals are allowed to grow, and at the end of the first year’s growth the tree is ready for planting in the orchard. Peach trees are graded according to size into No. 1 and No. 2, or according to hight, as five to seven feet, three and one- half to five feet, and three to four and one-half feet. The trees most planted are those of medium or second sizes, for the reason that these have more dormant buds on the main stem than the larger trees, and conse- quently more stocky heads can be formed from them. 196 SUCCESSFUL FRUIT CULTURE ° PROPAGATION OF THE PLUM Varieties of plums are propagated by budding on several kinds of stocks, the most in use being the French or Myrobalan, strong growing varieties of the native or American plum, and the peach stock. For the Euro- pean varieties the Myrobalan is most largely used, though the use of the American stock is increasing. The Jap- anese plums are grown on both the Myrobalan and the peach stock, the former doing the best when to be planted on heavy soil and the latter when to be set on rather light soil. The nursery treatment is prac-_ tically the same as in the growth of the apple, and the amateur finds no great difficulty in growing good trees. Some growers are using peach roots on which to graft the Japanese and some American varieties, the claim - ‘being that when worked in this way, and planted deeply, roots will soon grow from the cion and thus the trees are on their own roots in a short time. The Japanese plums grown on peach stocks are generally large enough for planting at one year from the bud. PROPAGATION OF THE APRICOT AND NECTARINE These two fruits are propagated in, the same man- ner as the peach, being budded on the peach stock. PROPAGATION OF THE CHERRY Like the plum, the varieties of the cherry are prop- agated on imported stocks. ‘Two kinds are used, the Mahaleb and the Mazzard, the latter being most largely used and most valuable. The soil for the best results is a light, rather rich loam, kept well cultivated, by which means the seedlings are brought into good condi- tion for budding the last of August. If growing very ~ rapidly at the time the buds are inserted, it is often _ the practice to head back the seedlings to check their PROPAGATION OF TREES AND PLANTS 197 growth, and thus cause a more perfect union of the bud with the stock. After the stock is cut off in the spring, the bud grows very rapidly, and the trees are often large enough for transplanting to the orchard at one year from the bud. PROPAGATION OF THE QUINCE ~The quince is propagated by cuttings, by layers, by stools and by root grafts, but as the two former methods are rather difficult, the last two are the ones most used. Root Graft—For . this purpose small Yn _| pieces of apple roots are V Y 4 y, used ; the trimmings of NINN A Vy VA A the seedlings are taken . WG Y ATA =m and cut into lengths of x Sz: Le three or four inches, SENATE fos each one to be grafted on a cion six to eight inches long, of the de- sired variety, and are then planted in the same manner as the Fig. 104—Quince Stool apple root grafts de- scribed on Page 186. The apple root supplies moisture and a little food material until roots are formed on the cion, when it fails to grow more, and we have the quince on its own root. Where only a few trees are desired they may be grown by what is called the “stool”? method. This con- sists in first cutting a small, young tree down to within four or five inches of the ground, and allowing it to throw up new shoots that grow one season, as seen in Figure 104. At the beginning of the second season a mound of soil is made about this “stool” deep enough to keep the base of the shoots moist all of the time 198 SUCCESSFUL FRUIT CULTURE during the summer, when in the fall roots will be found well developed. These shoots are then cut off and treated as rooted cuttings, which after one season in © the nursery under good conditions should be lange enough to plant in the orchard. PROPAGATION OF THE GRAPEVINE The grape is propagated by cuttings, by layers and by grafting, and is one of the most easily propagated of the fruits. Cuttings—Two kinds of cuttings are employed, the long cutting and the short cutting. The long cutting, under ordinary care, gives the best results, the short cuttings only being employed under glass. The long cuttings are made of canes of the last season’s . growth, of medium size, about eight to ten - inches long, containing two or more buds to each cutting. (Figure 105.) The best time to make a is in the fall before the ground freezes, tying in bundles of twenty-five and carefully heeling-in in a sheltered place or in a cold-frame where they will not freeze, and re 105— where they can be gotten at early in the rape : : : Cutting spring for early planting. Cuttings are some- times planted in the fall, but if this is done a heavy mulch of stable manure should be put on the bed before the ground freezes to keep them from being heaved out by the frost. Layers—Perhaps the best method by which the amateur may increase his stock of vines is the “spring layer.” (Figure 106.) This consists in taking canes of last season’s growth and bending them down into a trench five or six inches deep in the spring before growth begins, and after the buds along the cane have made a few inches of growth, filling in the trench with - PROPAGATION OF TREES AND PLANTS 199 good soil, when during the summer roots will form at each node or bud, and in the fall we shall have as many rooted plants as there are shoots. If, after the cane has been bent down, only the buds at the end of the cane and those near the vine start, it may be bent up, when the buds at the highest point will grow. If any of these new canes grow faster than the others the ends should be pinched off so as to force the growth into the weaker ones. ———S} Fig. 106—Layering the Grapevine Summer Layer—This consists in taking a cane of the present season’s growth and bending it down into a trench in July, covering with five or six inches of soil as in the spring layer, but only two vines will be produced from each cane layered, i. e., that at the end of the cane and that part nearest to the vine. By these two methods anyone who has a vine or two in the garden may increase the number with much more certainty and with less labor than from cuttings. 200 SUCCESSFUL FRUIT CULTURE Grafting the Vine—Many of the varieties highly recommended by nurserymen prove of little value except under the most favorable conditions, and after planting it becomes necessary to destroy them or to change the variety. ‘The latter can be done with a limited success only by grafting, though no one has been able to make more than a small per cent of grafts to grow, but when they do succeed the growth is so great that the graft bears fruit often the next year after grafting. ‘The most successful method of grafting the vine is by cutting Fig. 107—Grafting the Grapevine off the stock two or three inches below the surface of the ground in the fall before the ground freezes, and making a common cleft graft. If the stock does not split well a fine saw may be used to split it. After the cion has been inserted the soil is packed firmly about the cleft, no wax being used, then a small flowerpot is inverted over it (Figure 107), so that the cion may not be disturbed when being uncovered in the spring. More soil (d d) is now banked around the flowerpot, and, as cold weather comes on, mulch enough is put PROPAGATION OF TREES AND PLANTS 201 on to keep it from freezing deeply (gf). In the spring, after heavy frosts are over, the covering is taken off, the soil packed firmly to the top of the cion, when, if the work is successful, growth will begin early and a large vine will result. This kind of a graft is also made by some in June after the leaves have unfolded, and the sap has become thickened, but the cions must be kept dormant in cold storage or deeply covered on the ice in an icehouse. If the stock used is very small the cion should be tied in with a strong string in order to obtain pressure enough to cause the cambium layers to unite. PROPAGATION OF THE CURRANT AND GOOSEBERRY These two fruits are propagated in the same manner as the grape, i. e., by cuttings and layers. | The Currant—Cuttings are best made as soon as the leaves begin to fade in August or September. They are made of the new wood, from six to eight inches long, and should be planted at once for the best growth. The soil should be a deep, moist, rich loam, and the planting and care is the same as for grape cuttings or root grafts, the top bud of the cutting being just covered with soil. Before the ground freezes the bed should be covered with several inches of strawy manure or other mulch to prevent the heaving of cuttings by the alter- nating freezing and thawing during the winter and spring. If the work is successful a large growth may be expected the next season, and the bushes will be ready to plant at one or two years from the time the cuttings were planted. Layers of the currant are made like those of the grape, but as cuttings root so easily under proper conditions, the layer is not much used. The gooseberry is not easily grown from cuttings unless the canes are first covered with soil for one season, but readily grown by what are called “stools,” as 202 SUCCESSFUL FRUIT CULTURE — described under the quince. After the shoots have been covered one season they are cut off and planted as cuttings, rooting readily, and at two years they are ready to plant in the field. PROPAGATION OF THE RASPBERRY AND BLACKBERRY These two fruits are increased in two ways, 1. e., from suckers and from root cuttings. A sucker plant is one that naturally comes up from the roots of these plants, and is the cause of their spreading. If these sucker plants are taken up we find that they have but few fine roots, but if carefully taken up and transplanted at once make good plants, and are largely used in setting new plantations. The root cuttings are, however, much better, as they have an abundance of fine roots. Root cuttings are made by digging up the roots of the desired kind in the fall before the ground freezes, cutting them into pieces of from two to three inches in length, using everything from one-eighth of an inch up, and planting in rich, moist soil in beds or wide rows about as peas are planted, covering about two inches deep. Before the ground freezes deeply a covering of coarse stable manure should be put over the bed that the ground shall not freeze deeply. In the spring the covering is taken off as soon as severe freezing weather is over, the ground carefully cleared of weeds as the season advances, and by July the bed will be studded over with buds from the planted roots. The only care needed during the summer is to keep the weeds down, keep the surface of the soil mellow and to check, by pinching, — any very strong growing plants that tend to injure their neighbors. At the end of the season the plants should average two feet in hight and have a large mass of roots. Such plants are far more valuable than the sucker plants, and sell at about double the price. < PROPAGATION OF TREES AND PLANTS 203 The blackcap raspberry is propagated by the ends or tips of the canes taking root. This takes place to a limited extent without assistance, but to obtain the largest number of plants the ends of the canes should be carefully covered with one or two inches of soil the last of August or early in September. The layer or “tip” plants (Figure 76) are better if not taken up until the following spring, but if carefully dug and handled, it may be done in the fall with a fair degree of success. The tips should not be planted in the field until spring. . . PROPAGATION OF THE STRAWBERRY The strawberry is not generally grown as a nursery | product alone, but the plants for setting new fields are often taken from the fruiting plantations. To a lim- ited extent this practice is not seriously objectionable, but, as many kinds are often grown in the fruiting fields more or less closely together, there are many chances of their getting mixed. The plants cannot be as well dug as from a bed where all are to be removed, and therefore it is better to have all plants grown in beds where no fruit is expected. A’ method practiced by some of the experiment stations and others, called “summer bedding,” is found very satisfactory. This consists in heeling-in, or planting in close rows or beds, the runners that are thinned from the rows or the field during the summer, where they remain until the follow- ing spring, when they may be set in the field at any time from the first of April to June without being checked in transplanting. In this way runners that have made but very short roots, if heeled-in and shaded for a day or two, will make strong rooted plants in a few weeks, and each plant will have full exposure to the air and sunlight, thus making very strong plants. 204 SUCCESSFUL FRUIT CULTURE In the foregoing pages of this chapter we have given a brief outline of the methods employed in propa- gating the fruits and the treatment they require in the nursery, which we hope will enable those who are about to go into fruit raising and with some practice to grow, under favorable conditions, good trees and plants for - their own planting. XIX FRUIT GROWING UNDER GLASS While in this progressive age almost all of the fruits of the tropics and many local fruits are shipped to the North in a perfectly fresh condition from the South, yet to have native fruits out of season in the : Te Ns my ty see e ° e. A\ SU iar meen Crane .. rceiceity De td ; oS is = ny oe a and 4 : = cs ; y a ont Z . o lee n, SSIs oy ee et aed as re = - RIE UN AN GENE Fig. 108—Curvilinear Span-Roof House great perfection that they may be grown in skillfully managed fruit houses will always be considered a great luxury. For many years past fruit growing under glass has received much less attention than formerly on account of the improved facilities for transportation, and as a market product to compete with Southern or Pacific Coast products the fruit houses will hardly be 206 SUCCESSFUL FRUIT CULTURE able to hold their own except for its greater perfection. Large estates, with their numerous gardens and green- houses, may add a fruit house, a cold or hot grapery, or force strawberries in any cool house, at little expense, with a great deal of satisfaction. So, too, the owner of a city home with but a few rods of land may have, if he can, afford the expense, even choicer fruit than We (/n, Sess ry <6 = Go Be. a reer BS. ri By, ‘@ DE nif! Fig. 109—Straight Sash Bar Lean-to House can be grown by the farmer, and so control conditions as to have it through a much wider range of season. This expense, however, need not be great after the houses are built, and these may be simple and inexpensive structures built against the house or stable, or may be very elaborate and ornate, built by skillful greenhouse architects. As with fruits out of doors the grower must be familiar with the needs of each crop—and they need practically the same conditions under glass that they FRUIT GROWING UNDER GLASS wae, do in the field—and be prompt and persistent in carry- ing out the details of the work in all of its stages. A little neglect or wrong treatment for even a short time will result in more serious injury than in the field. Too high or too low temperature for even a short time at critical moments may often destroy an entire season’s growth, and no one should undertake the care of fruit under glass unless they are so situated that attention can be given to the crop by someone at any moment of the day when conditions may require it. Among the fruits that may be successfully grown under glass are the peach, apricot, grape and strawberry. THE PEACH AND APRICOT For forcing these two fruits, very nearly the same conditions are required. ‘The most approved house for this work is one with a span roof running north and ~ south. Both the curvilinear (Figure 108) and the straight sash bar (Figure 109) are used, the former being more ornamental, while the latter will make a closer house. In the extreme Northern sections the lean-to has the advantage that it can be most easily heated, on account of the shelter wall on the north side. The foundation should be raised above the surrounding land to insure quick surface drainage and a dry atmos- phere. The trees are generally grown in borders, but where space is limited they may be grown in pots or tubs and stored during the winter or dormant stage in close quarters in the houses, in stable cellars or in pits. The Borders—The borders are generally made in- side, as seen in Figure 108, but may be partly outside as well, as shown in Figure 109, and should be made of fine, light, but moderately rich material. Decayed sods, leaf mold, coarse bones, mortar waste and perhaps some sand if the soil is heavy should be well mixed together for this purpose. The border should be thor- 208 SUCCESSFUL FRUIT CULTURE oughly underdrained with tile, as shown in the illus- trations, with a free outlet, so that there shall be no possibility of water standing about the roots. Where the fruit is to be forced during the winter the inside border is probably the best, but where growth does not begin until spring the outside border has some advantages, requiring less care as to watering, though in case of heavy rain storms may become too wet unless drainage is very perfect. The roots of the trees planted inside reach the outside border through 6x18-inch openings in 4 t EG at gaa = ia Bes Spy eo ge Ee SS ; ES te 7a as Meee ° © aes =e] > er = & sat, > See toG?? Sets et & ~~ sy34f -