SUCCESS v • • ; LIBRARY i OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA. • - ' v .' Class ' • ' SUCCESS IN MARKET GARDENING THE GARDEN LIBRARY Roses and How to Grow Them By MANY EXPERTS Ferns and How to Grow Them By G. A. WOOLSON Lawns and How to Make Them By LEONARD BARRON Daffodils-Narcissus and How to Grow Them By A. M. KIRBY Water-Lilies and How to Grow Them By H. S. CONARD AND HENRI HUS The Flower Garden By IDA D. BENNETT The Vegetable Garden i By IDA D. BENNETT The Orchard and Fruit Garden By E. P. POWELL House Plants and How to Grow Them By PARKER T. BARNES Success in Market Gardening By HERBERT RAWSON AN IMPORTANT ADJUNCT TO THE MARKET GARDEN Success in Market Gardening A NEW VEGETABLE GROWERS' MANUAL By HERBERT RAWSON REVISED AND ENLARGED EDITION ILLUSTRATED ' ERSITY NEW YORK DOUBLEDAY, PAGE & COMPANY 1910 ALL RIGHTS RESERVED, INCLUDING THAT OF TRANSLATION INTO FOREIGN LANGUAGES, INCLUDING THE SCANDINAVIAN COPYRIGHT, 1892, BY W. W. RAWSON COPYRIGHT, ipio, BY DOUBLEDAY, PAGE & COMPANY PUBLISHED, APRIL, 1910 PREFACE The present volume is a revision of the book of the same title written by my father, the late W. W. Rawson, which ran through several editions. In 1907, a year before his death, my father fully appreciated the fact that any further edition of his work would have to be thoroughly revised in many important details, especially with regard to varieties of vegetables at present under cultivation. With this in mind, he had actually started rewrit- ing the book, doing it in a leisurely way as oppor- tunity offered. It is a keen regret to me that he did not live to complete his labours; death overtook him before he had done much beyond making a number of miscellaneous notes and amend- ments. I have, therefore, undertaken this task of revi- sion in a sense of filial duty and regard, allowing as much as possible of my father's own manuscript to appear in the present edition, which is offered to present the most up-to-date methods of com- [v] 219190 PREFACE mercial vegetable culture in the Eastern United States. With his practices and ideals I am nat- urally familiar, having been associated with him in the actual business of growing for some years prior to his death. Like my father, I have been brought up in the business of market gardening, and can say as he said, "my father followed it before me." No market garden in New England has, at any time, employed a larger capital or marketed a larger annual product than does our establishment. The extent of the establishment and operations at Arlington has attracted general public notice. Men who have already embarked in the business, and have themselves been more or less success- ful in it, will find in this book the means of com- paring their own methods with ours. Young men who are about to choose their vocation, and who have heard of the increasing extent and importance of this business of vegetable grow- ing, will find here facts collected from a long experience, which I, think, can hardly fail to be valuable. A reasonable man will estimate the worth of this book by what it contains — not criticising [vil PREFACE it for the absence of matters which lie beyond its scope and purpose. The revisions and enlargements in the present edition illustrate the most recent changes and improvements in the art of market gardening. H. R. ARLINGTON, MASS., March, 1910. [vii] CONTENTS CHAPTER I PAGE INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. — Scope of the Work .... 3-5 LOCATION AND SOILS. — Choice of a Location. — Convenience of Slopes. — Character of Soil 6-9 LAND DRAINAGE. — Construction of Drains. — Provision for Outlet. — Depths and Intervals. — Benefits 10-18 IRRIGATION. — Necessity for Watering. — Sub-irrigation. — Surface Waterings. — Sources of Supply. — Storage. — Amount and Fre- quency.— Distributing by Hose. — Service of the Pump. — Out- fit and Operation. — Estimates of Cost. — Instances of Success. — Further Instructions /•^•**; 1f< ^/-. »•••;*. .... 19-35 CHAPTER II PREPARATION OF THE SOIL. — First Stages. — How to Plow. — A Thorough Tillage *:-••'»<•••; .,<, v •-••* •••••^.N #.•<-,= . 36-42 LAYING our CROPS AND ROTATION. — Systematic Work. — Objects of a Rotation i +-> . :':. •«, : •••* •/ "... •.-;•• *K . . 43-47 MANURES AND FERTILIZERS. — Amounts and Methods. — Sources of the Supply. — Overhauling and Distributing on Land. — Pro- cesses of Fermentation. — Commercial Fertilizers. — Night Soil. — Wood Ashes. — Manuring in the Hill. — Composts. — Liquid Manures. — Comparative Values. — Chemical Constituents. — Works of Reference . . ' • ; * > > 48-63 APPLICATION OF MANURES. — Rapid-growing Crops. — Fertilizing Land under Crop. — Different Methods . ,. ;. f. . 64-68 CHAPTER III SELECTION OF SEEDS. — Growing or Purchasing. — Best is Cheapest. —When to Purchase.— Testing for Quality . . . 69-70 [ix] CONTENTS PAGE VITALITY OF SEEDS. — How Impaired. — How Preserved. — Contin- uance of Vitality. — Growth from Fresh or Older Seeds . 71-73 SEED-GROWING. — By Vegetable-growers. — By Seedsmen. — Improv- ing the Strain. — Differences in Maturing. — Arlington Seed- growing. — Best is Cheapest. — Gathering and Curing . . 74-76 SOWING THE SEED.— In Newly Worked Soil.— Depth and Other Conditions 77-79 CULTIVATION OF CROPS. — During Growth. — Other Rules and Sug- gestions . * . 80-81 CONSTRUCTION AND OPERATION OF HOT-BEDS. — Furnishing and Regulating the Heat. — Continuous Care Essential. — Tem- perature and Other Conditions of Success. — Four Crops in a Season . ..'... . ., . . . . • • • 82~87 GARDENING IN HOT-HOUSES. — Growth of the Practice. — Advan- tages Resulting. — Requirements for Heating . . . . 88-90 GATHERING THE CROPS. — When to Gather. — Handling and Pack- ing . . . . . -.; . , . , . . . 91-92 CAPITAL AND LABOUR. — Amounts Required. — Practice and Opin- ions.— Rules and Data. — Cost of Sundry Items . . . 92-95 CHAPTER IV VEGETABLES RAISED FOR MARKET. — Characteristics of, and Cul- tural Directions for, the following kinds: — Artichoke — Jeru- salem Artichoke — Asparagus — Dwarf or Bush Beans — Pole Beans — Scarlet Runners — Lima Beans — Beets — • Borecole, or Kale — Broccoli — Brussels Sprouts — Cabbage — Carrot — Cauliflower — Celeriac — Celery — Chicory — Chives 96-14 CHAPTER V VEGETABLES RAISED FOR MARKET. — Characteristics, etc., Con- tinued. Field Corn — Sweet Corn — Corn Salad — Cress — Upland Cress — Cucumber — Dandelion — Egg Plant — En- dive— Herbs — Horse Radish — Kohl Rabi — Leek — Lettuce — Martynia — Mushrooms — Muskmelons and Cantaloupes — Mustard — Okra V . . <) . . . . 145-180 Nl CONTENTS CHAPTER VI PAGE VEGETABLES RAISED FOR MARKET. — Characteristics, etc., Con- tinued. Onions — Parsley — Parsnips — Peas — Peppers -*- Potatoes — Radishes — Rhubarb — Salsify — Sea Kale — Spinach — Squash — Tomato — Turnips — Watermelons — Chinese Yam 181-220 CHAPTER VII IMPLEMENTS, ORDINARY AND SPECIAL. — Kemp's Manure Spreader — Plows — Useful Styles — Harrows — Rollers — Cultiva- tors — Small Tools — Wheel Hoes — Seed-Drills — Com- bination Wheel Tools — Tools for Special Uses . . 221-238 GREENHOUSES, ETC. — Modes of Heating — Use of Electric Light — Permanent Outside Beds — Low Cost Forcing House 238-242 PUMPING OUTFITS. — Different Styles — Various Kinds of Power 243-246 INSECT PESTS. — Preventives — Process of Fumigation . . 247-258 FUNGI AND PLANT DISEASES. — Nature and Growth of Fungi — Pre- ventives — Process of Spraying . . . . . . 259-263 IN CONCLUSION. — Practice vs. Theory — Experiments and Results — Forcing-House Products — Closing Suggestions . . 264-267 INDEX . • . . 269 [xi] ILLUSTRATIONS An Important Adjunct to the Market Garden Frontispiece FACING PAGE Testing Seeds for Vitality . . ... 76 Seedlings of Cucumber Pricked Out from the Seed Bed 76 Digging Over Hot-bed After Heat is Put in . . 77 Pulling Radishes for Market 77 Crosby Egyptian Beet . \ . i . .112 Rawson's Perfection Cabbage ... . . 113 Early Jersey Wakefield Cabbage . ... 113 Sea Foam Cauliflower . . * . . . 134 Paris Golden Self-blanching Celery . .- . 135 Rawson's Hot-house Cucumber . » . *' 154 Marking for Lettuce Plants . . , . . 155 Lettuce Plants Ready to Set into the House . . 155 Putting in Bottom Heat for a Second Crop of Lettuce 172 Taking up Prickers of Lettuce from Seed Beds . 172 A House of Lettuce One Week Previous to Marketing 173 Danvers Yellow Globe Onion, New England Grown Strain . . . * . . ... . 182 [xiii] ILLUSTRATIONS FACING PAGE Digging Parsnips from Pit to Send to Wash-shed for Market . , . . . . . 183 Parsnips in Tubs Ready to Wash . . . 183 Rawson's Excelsior Pea . ^4 . . 210 Comet Tomato . 211 [xiv] SUCCESS IN MARKET GARDENING CHAPTER I INTRODUCTORY REMARKS — LOCATION AND SOILS — LAND DRAINAGE — IRRIGATION OF CROPS ESTIMATES OF COST — INSTRUCTIONS MARKET GARDENING as a business has some peculiar features in which it differs from other branches of agriculture. Many people have an impression that the growing of vegetables for market is like any ordinary farming, and are dis- posed to believe that any person who can plough, hoe and dig can grow one crop as well as another. Such people would find themselves sadly mistaken if they should undertake the business themselves and actually attempt to carry it on equipped with only a general knowledge of ordinary farm work. Market gardening is made up of details; and, while each separate step may be easy of mastery by those who have a natural taste for the business, the whole art and a full comprehension of it can be acquired only by actual experience in the 19] SUCCESS IN MARKET GARDENING work and thorough practical acquaintance with all the minor points. Therefore we desire every one to understand at the outset that a book on the subject, no matter how complete, can be only a helper, and a partial guide toward the desired knowledge. In other words, the rules that can be laid down on paper, however explicit they may be made, will never educate a man to be a successful gardener, unless he is himself naturally adapted to the business, and is willing to do his part by personally devoting him- self to the work, in all its details, as it goes along. And so in writing the cultural directions for the different crops, I do not expect to be explicit enough to enable a mere novice, with no knowl- edge whatever of the subject, to achieve a success in gardening the first year. This would be impos- sible for me to do, were I to attempt it — which I do not. Even should I set down the most minute particulars and details, there would be very few cases where one could carry them out to the letter, as culture and treatment must necessarily vary according to soil and locality. But my aim is simply this: by writing out practical directions and descriptions, gathered [4] INTRODUCTORY REMARKS from my own experience, to enable any one, already in some degree familiar with the work to cultivate successfully the various crops enumer- ated; provided his land and location are adapted to them. I propose to give my readers, as far as possible, the benefit of my own practical experi- ence, and the methods of a success in business which has been gained only by years of close application and hard work. In the following pages, I shall discuss at more or less length all the different products of the market garden; and some of the coarser crops, belonging rather to the "farm garden," or even to the farm, will be incidentally treated of. In so doing. I shall go through the whole series in alphabetical order, in order that the reader may the more readily turn to the information he is seeking. I propose to devote space most liber- ally to the most important crops. A chapter on Farm Implements and other supplementary mat- ter will conclude the work. But there are certain conditions essential to all crops. Some of the most essential requirements of high cultivation, and even of the most ordi- nary soil culture, are often misconceived or over- [5] SUCCESS IN MARKET GARDENING looked, to a serious extent. For which reason it seems best, before proceeding to particular direc- tions for particular crops, to treat, as fully as space will permit, of these general and very essential matters. LOCATION AND SOILS In seeking a good location for a market garden, of course the first point to be taken into con- sideration is the necessity of being near some good market. And, right here, we would say that the largest cities do not always offer the greatest induce- ments to beginners. There are hundreds of wide-awake towns all over the country which will furnish a good, though limited, market for men who are able to work up a trade. In these smaller towns, producers will often be enabled to realize better prices than in metropol- itan markets, both from the fact that there is less competition to meet, and also because the purcha- sers there found will be likely to look more to the quality, and less to the cheapness, of the article offered, than those resorting to the city markets. [6] LOCATION AND SOILS As we have mentioned, nearness to market is an important point, but the character of the soil and the lay of the land are of importance almost as vital as location. Of course, for a variety of crops, the land should be varied in character. But such variety cannot always be obtained, so that many are confined to one or two distinct kinds of soil, and in such cases find themselves limited to such few crops as are particularly adapted to their land and location. Rocky ground is, of course, and by all means to be avoided for garden crops, in view of the deep and uniform cultivation they need to receive. And low lands which require under-draining are adapted only to certain special crops, and involve heavy outlays to make them capable of profitable culture. Preferably to either, a sandy loam with a sandy or gravelly subsoil should be selected. Such land is far better than soils resting on clay, not only because its nature is warmer, but because it is naturally well drained. A .clay subsoil, at least until deep drains have been sunk and oper- ated a considerable time, will render any land cold, as it retains the moisture. SUCCESS IN MARKET GARDENING If one can have his choice as regards the lay of his land, gently rolling or undulating slopes with a general eastern or southern exposure should by all means be selected. This will make more difference than some might imagine; as a northern or western slope is not nearly so soon affected by the genial spring influences as a more sunny location. The difference between a northern and a south- ern slope often amounts to one crop a year; for on the sunny side of a rise of land the soil can be worked in the spring so much earlier that, by right calculation, two crops a year can be grown, the first of which can be planted earlier — and the second can actually be harvested sooner — than the one crop raised on a northern slope. Sloping land has still another advantage, almost equally desirable with that derived from having the right exposure, consisting in the facility it affords for irrigation. If a water supply can be brought to and stored in a tank, constructed on a natural elevation within the area to be irri- gated, the slopes of course furnish the most con- venient means possible for its distribution to the crops. And if the location is fortunately near a [8] LOCATION AND SOILS large pond, or unfailing brook, the privilege of access to such a water supply would very greatly increase the real value of the land for every sort of cultivation. It should be noticed that some ground which in its native condition is quite incapable of bearing good crops has yet a superior natural capacity, that may be developed by skilful handling and liberal expenditure. This is especially true of lands lying on a retentive subsoil, and such lands, after some years of thorough draining and deep tilth, will show admirable results. In treating of drainage, we shall endeavour to make it clear how such a course of culture operates to mellow and warm the cold, barren soils, and bring them into high condition. In fact — having a good exposure to begin with — by drainage, deep tilth, generous and judicious manuring and irrigation, as required, the most barren spot on earth can be made as highly productive as any other soil, even the richest. It is only a question of time and expense. Accordingly it has been said, not with- out some truth, that after all the chief matter in choosing a location is its convenience to markets of sale and supply; because if the soil be never so SUCCESS IN MARKET GARDENING unfavourable the owner can make it over to suit himself, while if he is remote from market he can do nothing to help himself as regards that diffi- culty. All these considerations have weight, and must be duly allowed for; but the point I desire most to insist upon is the advantages possessed by the loams lying on sandy or gravelly subsoils, in their excellent natural drainage, and in being easy of cultivation. LAND DRAINAGE Land, Soil, or Agricultural Drainage is a topic already touched upon, because inevitably presenting itself in connection with the choice of a proper location; but it is quite too large a subject to be dismissed with a brief and merely casual mention. In selecting a location for either market garden- ing or farming, it is preferable, as we have said, to secure land that is naturally well drained. By this description we designate a soil which, owing to inclination of surface, or from having a porous subsoil, lets the water pass off quickly after a heavy rainfall, and which therefore stands in no need of [10] LAND DRAINAGE artificial drainage. But it is not always possible to secure such a location, and in many cases arti- ficial drainage is the only means by which the best of farming land can be brought under cultiva- tion. It would be impossible in a volume of this size, even if wholly devoted to the topic, to give a complete description, with all details of methods and materials employed, for constructing the tile drains now in general use. We can only hope to give a few detached suggestions on the subject, such as may be of benefit to our readers in improv- ing waste land, and in rendering heavy, soggy fields more tillable, and turning to account their natural fertility. Amongst all the various ways of constructing permanent drains — with stone, brush, square and sole tile, etc. — it has become the well-established general opinion that well-burned round tiles, with collars, if well laid, form the best. And in the long run they also prove the cheapest; although at first more expensive than some other devices. Cobble-stone drains, such as in some localities are largely used in place of tile, are, when properly [11] SUCCESS IN MARKET GARDENING laid, actually more costly. And still more objec- tionable is the fact that, although in some instances they may last a long time and prove quite service- able, they are always liable to be reached by surface water, which, by carrying silt into them, stops them up, and of course renders them useless. The general principles to be observed in laying a stone drain are quite well understood. But a mistake is often made by lack of diligence in securing proper covering, and especially by resort- ing to the use of turf, which is often dumped in upon the stones, and which, when decayed, forms the most effective possible material for obstruct- ing the drain. There are many ways of constructing cheap drains of brush, slabs, poles, etc., but they are sure to clog up and create trouble sooner or later; and, as we have said before, the round tile when well laid, generally speaking, forms the cheapest and most satisfactory means of draining. In planning for the draining of a field, the chiefly important item is to take notice of the lowest point; at which the outlet must be formed. If a natural watercourse can be found near by, [12] LAND DRAINAGE as much as four or five feet lower than the lowest surface of the field, it will be a great saving, both as regards expense and trouble. The ditch by which the water is carried from the outlet must be of sufficient capacity to serve its purpose at all times and seasons in a thoroughly adequate manner. The laying out of mains, sub-mains, and laterals must depend wholly upon the character and condition of the land. More skill is required to lay out properly a complicated system of drains than to conduct any other branch of the gardener's work; and the designing of it is a more puzzling matter than people generally realize, until they have had some experience in it. In the brief space which we can give to the subject it is impossible to describe minutely the methods of mapping out such a system; and we cannot do better, therefore, than to refer our readers to George E. Waring, Jr.'s able work on "Draining for Profit and Draining for Health," which is the most complete work on this subject with which we are acquainted. Any one who has even a moderate amount of this class of improvements in contemplation ought by all [13] SUCCESS IN MARKET GARDENING means to possess a copy of the above-named book, and make himself master of its contents by careful and diligent study. The author recommends a general depth of four feet for drains; never admitting a less depth unless where an outlet at that depth cannot be obtained, or where ground is underlaid by rock. There is a general concurrence of opinion amongst those who have most carefully examined the sub- ject, favouring this rule for the least depth. At intermediate points occurring between such (mini- mum) depths, the depth must be often greater, because the drain must slope uniformly from point to point, while the land does not. As regards the distance between the drains, there is a difference of opinion, in fact this is a question which does not admit of any exact or definite solution, as it obviously depends in a great degree upon the peculiar constitution of the soil, which is variable; and, moreover, no amount of practical experience even will afford data for reducing practice to any well-grounded theoretical rule. It is not feasible to state, in exact terms, precisely what is the operation of these subterran- ean drains upon the moisture of the soil; but an [14] LAND DRAINAGE idea sufficiently definite for all practical purposes may be gathered from experience. In tolerably porous soils, forty, or even fifty feet apart is generally conceded to be sufficiently near for four-foot drains. But for the more retentive clays, all distances from eighteen feet to fifty have been recommended. The feeling grows more in favour of the greater width, from continued observation of the successful working of drains so placed. Still the author's opinion, formed from over twenty years of personal experi- ence and observation of such works, and with due consideration of views published by others, is that we should hardly ever, where a soil needs draining at all, leave widths exceeding forty feet. He further says that, in the lighter loams, there has been good success in following Professor Mapes's rule: that "three-foot drains should be placed twenty feet apart, and for each additional foot in depth the distance may be doubled. For instance, four-foot drains may be forty feet apart, and five-foot drains eighty feet apart." But with reference to this greater distance — eighty feet — it is not to be recommended in stiff clays for any [15] SUCCESS IN MARKET GARDENING depth of drain. When it is necessary, on account of underlying rock or by reason of insufficient fall, to go only three feet deep, the drains should be as near together as twenty feet. No great exactness can be had in such a matter as this. In consideration of the variety of soils, and our inability to measure the exact amount of water to be drawn off (which is never a constant quantity), or even the rate at which it may reach the drains by percolation through any given soil, uniform depths and distances cannot of course be prescribed with any pretence to theoretical precision. A general judgment made up from experience and observation is all that can be offered. For explanation of the beneficial influences of draining, we must endeavour to realize some of the conditions of plant life. One of these is moisture at the roots. If drainage were attended by a complete withdrawal of all the permanent moisture of the soil, no one would be its advocate. Some imagine that wherever executed it is to the detriment of the land's capacity for production, though increasing its capacity for being cultivated. They say "more tillable is not more fertile. Tile [16] LAND DRAINAGE draining is a craze. Wholesale rules without discrimination are a curse. Drained lands are not invariably better than the same lands undrained," etc. But we maintain that in all soils not naturally well drained (and so not requiring it) draining does as much good by promoting moisture during periods of drought, as by removal of the surplus water, which would otherwise destroy the pro- ductive capacity of the land. This is due to the fact that the deeper tilth and pulverization of the drained lands enable them to hold in saturation, as water is held in a sponge, valuable stores of water to be given off a little at a time, as needed, and also to draw up from below, by capillary attraction, similar timely supplies — while all excess and surplus is promptly gotten rid of. A published work by A. N. Cole contains sug- gestions of interest in this connection. We have suggested that the most perfect drainage does not aim at a complete withdrawal of all the moisture; water is essential to plant life, but the land must not be drowned with water. Air and water both must be presented to the feeding roots. He says, " Tilled land being porous, the air forces its way [17] SUCCESS IN MARKET GARDENING into the crevices, and the water (of rains) passes through it from above. We will suppose that the water comes to a stratum that is impervious to its onward course. What happens? Simply this: it dams up slowly, inch by inch, forcing out the air as it rises. All motion and circulation is stopped. Fermentation and decomposition soon begin. The earth is drowned out — suffocated — dead for want of air. Water is good for the ground ? Yes ; but not in this way. The water must be moving constantly. There must be a current of air and wrater, and not too much or too little of the latter." The processes of pulverization, which will be described under the title "Preparation of the Soil," are such as to provide for the admission of the air. We shall now consider, in the remainder of the present chapter, by what means we may supply the needful amount of the other indispensable element, water. By drainage we provide for the removal of a surplus, whether from rains or springs; our next care must be for supply and distribution of a quantity adequate, in the longest and severest droughts, to the exacting needs of the growing crops. This supply and dis- [18] IRRIGATION OF CROPS tribution constitute what is intended by the term "Irrigation." IRRIGATION OF CROPS Artificial watering, especially as now conducted, forms perhaps one of the most important subjects that we could write upon. All vegetables are com- posed largely of water, some containing more than 75 per cent. A single hill of cucumbers, as has been said, will drink half a barrelful of water in three days' time, and, having done so, will begin languishing for lack of moisture, and die in a week. According to Dr. J. H. Gilbert, for every ton of dry substance grown, in an average crop, an amount of water equivalent to three inches of rain is exhaled in the process; which amounts to about two hundred times the weight of the vegetable product. And Sir J. B. Lawes arrived at substantially the same result by his own researches, separately prosecuted. Hence it will be readily seen that, unless there is moisture enough when the crop requires it, there will be a shortage in the harvest. What is commonly called an "impoverished [19] SUCCESS IN MARKET GARDENING soil," or one considered naturally unfertile, may be in fact good enough in itself, its only deficiency being in the matter of moisture. We often see a poor piece of land yielding a good crop in a wet season; and artificial watering on a grand scale has, in many well-known instances in Colo- rado, California, and elsewhere, both at home and abroad, converted absolute deserts into pro- ductive grain farms and fruit and cattle ranches. Although the rainfall during each year averages about the same now as in former periods, the seasons are changing in this respect: that the rainfall is not so evenly divided, and we get longer and more protracted droughts; not relieved by the fact that the rainfalls, when they do come, are heavier. For this reason the subject of irri- gation is constantly gaining in importance. It involves questions, both in regard to the supply of water and the manner of applying it. Of course there are many cases where land is not located so as to be easily irrigated. Whatever the location is, no matter if quite favourable, it will require careful management in laying out the rows and planting the crops, to secure a plan which will allow of irrigating to the best advantage. The [20] IRRIGATION OF CROPS rows should always run up and down the slope of ground, and more or less obliquely if the ground is at all steep (instead of crosswise), so as to allow of watering in the furrow, which is the proper way, as the moisture is required to be applied to the roots and not the foliage. One excellent method of applying moisture to the soil consists in sending water through lines of tiles properly laid in the ground, with joints slightly open between each tile and the next one — a method mostly practised on low lands. The distribution of the moisture is accomplished very successfully, by stopping the lowest end of each line of tiles and filling into it from the highest point. This method I would recommend for low and heavy lands; because if water were to be applied to the surface, the soil would harden and an injury to the growing crop would result. On sandy lands the largest benefit will be derived by running it over the surface about once a week; applying about one inch at a time-, which is above the average quantity resulting from a good rain- fall in our New England climate. When the rainfalls are of average amount and come with uniformity, no addition by way of [21] SUCCESS IN MARKET GARDENING irrigation is required; but when, as is very often the case, no rain falls for two or three weeks or more, it may become necessary to make two or three applications. Irrigation by watering the foliage is not recommended, except under glass, where it is often necessary, and can be applied without injury to the growing crop. It is better to water under glass on a pleasant day than on a stormy or cloudy one; but in the field a cloudy one would be preferred, if the water was to be applied so as to wet the foliage. There are numerous market gardeners at the present time who have abundant facilities for supplying themselves with water for irrigation; though it has only been secured, ordinarily, by a liberal outlay. Although many places are located near towns or cities which have a public water supply, they cannot be allowed to draw from the supply in such large quantities as are required for purposes of irrigation, as the need would come at a time when the water was the lowest in the reservoir, and was most in demand for other purposes. It is, therefore, necessary that the land to be irrigated should be located near a pond, lake, or stream, [22] IRRIGATION OF CROPS or resort must be had to undercurrents of water that may be reached by a driven well. I much prefer to pump from wells in all cases, because in the summer the water from ponds or rivers is quite warm, while that from wells is cool, and this coolness will be an advantage to the crop, especially if the ground is very dry and hot, as is often the case; and again in winter, if taken from ponds or rivers, is very cold, and could not be put upon the plants until it had been warmed, while that taken from wells would be at a proper temperature to be applied immediately. For these reasons I have always preferred the wells; and have always used them. Pumps used for irrigating are of three kinds, depending on their motive power, namely, wind- mills, steam pumps and gasoline pumps. For those who can afford the outlay it is much the better plan to have a windmill with either of the others. The windmill will do the cheapest pumping but when it does not pump a sufficient quantity then the other motive power can be used. My experience with steam power has been much more extensive than with gasoline engines, and for that reason in the following pages I will [23] SUCCESS IN MARKET GARDENING discuss principally pumping by steam. However, gasoline pumps are being used more extensively every year, and it may be an open question whether they can do the work at less expense. In many places there are elevated ponds or rivers that can be caused to flow by gravity to the point desired, either through closed conduits or pipes, or in open canals; when such is the case, no pumping is necessary. After a sufficient supply of water is found, and a method of raising it to a proper height for dis- tribution, by the use either of steam pumps or windmills, or both — a tank or reservoir of the largest attainable capacity must next be provided for the purpose of storing the water so raised until it can properly be distributed to the crops. Where windmills are used, for obvious reasons, the storage capacity must be greater than where steam pumps are employed. This may amount to a considerable addition to the first cost; but, on the other hand, the cost of steam pump and boiler is somewhat greater, and the running expenses considerably so. There are incidental advantages attending the use of steam which may be of great importance. The preference must [24] IRRIGATION OF CROPS depend upon one's situation; as above said, it will pay to have both. The expense of fitting up such an arrangement for irrigating a market garden is not so large that gardeners should say they cannot afford it. At present prices and in the light of our present experience, we can reckon the cost at figures much lower than five years ago. If one has not the means to pay for these facilities, and does not feel warranted in going into debt for what one wants, of course one must do without them, and depend on transient watering from summer showers. But it becomes more and more evident every year that such a course will ruin the man who follows it. The ill effects of the increasing irregularity of the rainfall are mitigated, it is true, by deeper ploughing and the construction of drain- age works, but all crops (some more than others), in addition to every other aid that can be given them, will need besides, at certain times, abundant watering. Even in the most favourable seasons, resort must be had to artificial watering at inter- vals, to secure the growing and maturing of a crop such as to give satisfaction, and reward the gar- dener for his labour. [25] SUCCESS IN MARKET GARDENING Unfortunately we do not know from one day to another what weather to expect, whether a deluge or a drought. We are in constant fear lest the shower that comes to-day may be the last for a month; yet we have to put the water on lightly for fear there may be a deluge the next day. One inch of water at any one time is all that is safe to apply. If there is no rain for a week, then another inch; and so on through the season, as the necessity appears. I think that one inch of water over the surface once a week will keep any crop growing in the driest weather. A good steam pump will supply that amount over one acre of land through a three- inch pipe in six hours. For about nine months of the year a windmill would furnish all the water required by a market garden, but during the other three months a steam pump would be required in addition in order to furnish a suffi- cient supply for all seasons. On a later page we shall present a cut of a com- pact and serviceable steam apparatus designed for pumping, under Deane's patent. It combines all the essential features needed for drawing water from the source of supply (well, spring, [26] IRRIGATION OF CROPS stream, pond, or tank), and forcing the water any distance and height to a point suitable for distributing it, by gravity, over the land to be irrigated; or, as frequently practised, forcing it through pipes to hydrants, where hose can be used for further distribution. In some cases the hose may run directly from the pump. It is much more easily understood and managed than might be supposed, owing to the simplicity and compact style of its construction. It is claimed to be the simplest arrangement of the kind on the market, and such that any one of ordinary intel- ligence can learn to operate it in half a day.* The easiest and often the best way of leading the water to various localities at will is by the use of rubber hose; this is cheaper than pipe, which is heavy, and very awkward to handle. It is often found practicable to obtain rejected steam fire- engine hose which, although not strong enough to stand the pressure of the steam fire-engines, is amply strong enough to use for irrigating. There is seldom more than thirty pounds' pressure, as the water is not forced, but is allowed to run through the open hose. The amount of land that * Consult Chapter Seven. [27] SUCCESS IN MARKET GARDENING can be irrigated by the use of a steam pump in a day of twelve hours is about three acres. By using a suitable pump we can throw one hundred gallons per minute, which, in a day of twelve hours, would be equivalent to covering three acres more than seven-eighths of an inch deep; equiva- lent in quantity to what we should call an abund- ant fall of rain ; — indeed, it is rather more than an average of rainfalls, and certainly we cannot believe there is ever an acre of growing crop which, in a dry time, would not be benefited by such a watering to an amount much more than the cost; though many people shrink from the expense involved, and are skeptical about getting full return for the outlay. But certainly where water can be had in ample quantity, and can be applied at such moderate cost as may be inferred from the foregoing state- ments, it must be plain to every one, and, practically, every one does now believe that it will and does pay, in frequent instances earning many times over the amount it costs. It has oftentimes occurred that such watering, once or oftener applied, has saved a crop that, without it, would have been a complete failure. For [28] IRRIGATION OF CROPS my part, I would as soon think of being without a steam pump as the farmer who cuts hay would of being without a mowing-machine. There is very seldom a season so wet that the steam pump will not be required two or three weeks; and in most seasons it will be in use eight or ten weeks. When the weather is very dry, and all the crops need abundant watering, the pump should be kept running night and day, by employing two sets of men. It will be economy to do this, not only from the fact that a double supply is thus obtained, but because when the fire is allowed to go out at night it takes about an hour to get the pump to running again. By continuous running, time is saved at both ends of the day. Be sure to provide a good pump, one that will pump at least seventy, and better if one hundred, gallons per minute. I do not recommend the smaller pump, for it will cost just as much to run one of the small size, except for a.trifling difference in the quantity of coal required; and the price of a large pump is not much more than that of a small one, while it will do many times the work with the same labour. [29] SUCCESS IN MARKET GARDENING It takes one man to run the pump and one to attend to the hose. Only a very little hose will be required, if the land is well piped in the manner following: I would advise beginning the piping with two-and-one-half-inch cement-lined pipe placed under ground with hydrants set but a short distance apart. Run one such line from the tank-supply main fed by the mill or pump, as the case may be, to each of the buildings and hot-beds; and pipe for all the outside culture with three-inch pipe of the same class carried above ground, and furnished with faucets suitable for attaching hose at intervals, so arranged that the distance in any direction from each faucet to the next shall not exceed seventy-five or eighty feet. This surface-pipe must be taken up each year in the fall and replaced every spring. Such arrangements may appear rather expen- sive, but it will save much time in the busy season to have the water carried to all parts of the place. On a place of ten acres, the cost of putting in pump, boiler, pipes, and fittings need not be over $1,000. I would rather have a place of ten acres well fitted up for irrigation, than one of twenty without irrigation; and I venture the assertion [30] IRRIGATION OF CROPS that I could raise more vegetables, or receive more money for my crops, in a period of ten years, from the ten acres irrigated, than from the twenty acres not irrigated. Any farm that has been well equipped for irrigation, whether it be one or five, ten or twenty acres, will bring enough more at any time, when offered for sale, to pay for the amount so expended. Therefore, the expense, beyond fuel, labour and repairs, would be only the annual interest on the cost. We will allow $50.00 for interest, or $5.00 per acre on ten acres. The direct cost of running pump for twenty-four hours continu- ously, would consist of the following items: Coal, $3.00; skilled labour, including repairs, $7.00; additional help in moving hose, $2.00; making a total of $12.00, to which add, for wear and tear, $2.00; then we have $14.00 as the cost, exclusive of interest, for each watering of six acres; or $2.33 per acre. But the total interest charge remaining un- changed, whatever the number of waterings made in a season, has to be borne in equal shares by all the waterings. The resulting cost for a single watering might be as high as $7.33 per [31] SUCCESS IN MARKET GARDENING acre, if it were the only one made that season; but if two applications are made, the cost drops to $4.83 per acre. In the case of three, the resulting cost for each one will amount only to $4.00 per acre; and, where there are four, only $3.58. In the foregoing calculation we have reckoned on the pump as discharging one hundred gallons a minute. The seventy-gallon pump would, sub- stantially, do the watering of only four acres, instead of six, within the time computed for, with but an imperceptible amount of saving on the total cost of the day's operations. The practice of irrigating by the aid of pipes and hydrants has only lately been introduced here, and owing to the great outlay involved, the method is used by comparatively few. But too much cannot be said in favour of irrigation ; and the use of windmills and steam pumps has become well- nigh universal.* In one instance, which was reported to the Mass- achusetts Horticultural Society, in a severe drought, a steam pump was rigged, and the water of Mystic River was poured for seven days and nights upon "Consult Chapter Seven. [32] IRRIGATION OF CROPS a parched field, averaging 75,000 gallons per day, or a quantity equal to three inches over the entire surface, at a cost, including all expenses, of perhaps ten cents per 1,000 gallons. Somewhat later, in 1884, the present writer had six acres planted with cauliflowers. This is a crop which does not show the effect of dry weather until about to head; when, if there is danger of a check, the application of water will cause them to go right on. That year the need was urgent, and he devoted his steam pump to the work of supply — running it continuously for four weeks, with two men by day and two to relieve them at night. From these six acres he sold $3,500 worth of cauliflowers. If he had not irrigated them he would not, probably, have realized over $1,000 for his crop. Very many similar instances might be given. In applying the water to a field of cabbages or cauliflowers, the rows being about three and a half feet apart, a plough is run between the rows, so as to make a furrow for the water to run in. It is a very easy matter to water a field where the land is on a slope, but where it is nearly level it is much more work, as the hose has to be fre- [33] SUCCESS IN MARKET GARDENING quently transferred to different points in order to water evenly. In watering a field of celery a furrow is ploughed away from the plants, on each side of the row, at a distance of about one foot. The furrow is then filled with water; and as soon as this has soaked away the furrow is turned back again. An application of this kind once a week will prove sufficient even in the driest time. It will be manifest, upon reflection, that con- tinuous light waterings are not what is desired. Water cannot, of course, be applied without reducing the temperature of the soil very materially, and thus occasioning, for the time, a condition unfavourable to the advance of the crop. This is a matter for serious consideration, in connection with many crops, especially in a climate like ours. In the case of light waterings, frequently repeated, a larger proportion disappears by immediate evaporation, thus wasting work, and, moreover, by this excessive evaporation, still further and needlessly reducing the temperature of the soil. Liberal supplies at proper intervals are rather to be given, transferring the delivery from one section of the grounds to another, on successive days, [34] IRRIGATION OF CROPS and so continuing till it is time to resume the round. The proper intervals, in a time of drought, may be taken to be about one week, on the average, though this must vary with the crop, the soil, the temperature, and the judgment of the cultivator. The same variation may be expected in estimating the amount of water necessary for one thorough irrigation. No general estimate on these points can be given that will be at all satisfactory, except merely as a rough rule for planning the scale of the works. In establishing such a system, no great nicety of calculation is likely to be of any value. The data already given, and the practical examples which have been cited, will enable any one, making due allowance for variations of circumstances, to arrive at a conclusion near enough for his purposes. [35] CHAPTER II PREPARATION OF THE SOIL - LAYING OUT OF LAND FOR THE DIFFERENT CROPS - ROTATION OF CROPS - MANURES - THEIR APPLICATION PROPER preparation of the soil, prior to sowing or planting, is one of the most impor- tant conditions involved in the process of getting a crop. We shall not aim to discuss at length the principles on which it depends, but confine ourselves in the main to simple and practical directions as to the work to be done. Ploughing, subsoiling, harrowing, raking, and (at some stage of the process) manuring — these constitute the main operations by which the land, after being stripped of a crop, is put into condition to be planted with another. For all market-garden crops we recommend that the ground be ploughed once before an appli- cation of manure is made. In the case of all leaf crops, like celery, cabbage, etc., eight inches would be a sufficient depth for this first ploughing, [36] PREPARATION OF THE SOIL before the manure is applied. For the second ploughing, which is to turn the manure under, a depth of six inches would be sufficient, and prefer- able : so as to leave the manure as near the surface as possible, and still have it covered. Then, if the land is lumpy or hard, a wheel harrow or some implement for breaking up the lumps should be put to service. Lumpy, uneven ground, or coarse soil, will never do to plant in: seeds will not catch uniformly or grow well in it; the plants will lack uniformity, and will not mature together. The importance of this matter is too generally underrated; very few people have anything like an adequate idea of it. If the ground is to be devoted to raising greens, or some sowed crop where a drill is to be employed, a Meeker harrow will smooth the surface nicely, so that the seed-sowTer will do its work to satis- faction. A full description of its operation may be found in the chapter treating on Farming Implements. This harrow will prepare the surface sufficiently well for such crops as onions, cabbages, or beets, and for spinach and other sorts of greens; but for such small, fine seeds as those of lettuce, [37] SUCCESS IN MARKET GARDENING or dandelion, the hand rake must be brought into service. For root crops, at the first ploughing a depth of twelve inches would be none too much. In ploughing for deep-rooted crops, like parsnips, long carrots, or horseradish, the second ploughing should be of eight inches' depth; and this should be followed by a "subsoil/' after which use the Meeker harrow or leveller, as already directed. After ploughing and harrowing, it is often advisable to pass the roller over the land. The horse roller is a very useful article, and is used very extensively. When the ground has been harrowed, and the lumps not yet broken are brought to the surface, the roller is put on to crush and smooth them out. It is also very beneficial on light land, in dry weather, to help the land to retain a sufficient quantity of moisture. I have found the use of a good horse roller to be of great advantage, both in breaking up and pulverizing lumpy land, and in firming down soil that has been thrown up very lightly during previous preparation. Such soil, until again com- pacted, is prone to become excessively dry; a result which is obviated by use of the roller. The [38] PREPARATION OF THE SOIL top should be perfectly dry before rolling, in order to obtain the desired effect. We have already alluded to subsoiling, and wish to remark here that the subsoil plough is a valuable, indeed, an indispensably necessary imple- ment, and should be invariably put to use in the preparation of the ground for all root crops. The subsoil should follow after the landside plough, in the same furrow, and go down to a depth of fifteen or eighteen inches. It usually takes two horses, as the larger sizes of ploughs do; and it is even harder for the team than common plough- ing. There are small subsoilers which can be used with one horse; but if the land requires sub- soiling at all, it is better economy to use the larger size and do the work more thoroughly. In the concluding chapter, relating to Farm Implements, a sufficient description will be given of the different ploughs that are likely to be required, both landside and subsoil. At this point I wish to call attention to .the great impor- tance of keeping them always clean and bright. Never allow the ploughman to put his plough away with any dirt upon it. It is the sure mark of a poor ploughman, when his plough is covered [39] SUCCESS IN MARKET GARDENING with dirt, and goes through the land like a stick. In fact, there are but very few good ploughmen to be had, and any employer is fortunate if he gets one. Many men will call themselves good at ploughing; but the men who really understand it, and do it as it should be done, are very scarce. When such a man is found, he should be kept on the place, if possible. In ploughing land for the different crops, some plough about the same depth for everything; but the depth ought to be varied so as to suit the crop. For instance: all root crops should be ploughed from ten to twelve inches; while, for vine crops, six inches would be quite sufficient. Many take, in all eases, all they can to the furrow, making it, say, twelve or fourteen inches wide; but where the land is ploughed twelve inches deep, and a coat of manure is turned under at the same time, eight inches is wide enough to turn the furrow. In a "first-time" ploughing, six inches deep, with no manure to turn under, twelve or fourteen inches may be taken at each furrow. Always plough all the land once in the fall and twice in the spring, but never when it [40] PREPARATION OF THE SOIL is wet. Soil that is worked when very wet, except sometimes a very sandy piece, will scarcely recover from it for a whole season. The purpose of the fall ploughing will be most completely accomplished by leaving the land in clods and rough, loose ridges, for the frost to operate upon during the winter. The greater the surface thus exposed to the influence of the atmosphere and changes of weather, the better for the soil and the coming season's crops. More- over, late turning over the ground is an effectual means of killing off the larvae of the May beetle, the pestilent white grub, and other larvae of insects. Being disturbed from their winter quarters, they are to a great extent destroyed by exposure to the cold and air. In the case of sod land to be prepared for tilled crops, there is a manifest advantage in turning it earlier in the season, so as to hasten the decay of the turf; but with land already under cultivation the case is entirely different, and the later it can be done the better. It is, of course, assumed that everything neces- sary to a perfect drainage has been done prior to the process of preparation here described. [41] SUCCESS IN MARKET GARDENING Wherever the water has been extracted by drainage, it leaves a moderate moisture in the soil (until withdrawn by evaporation or taken up by the crop), which is exactly the condition most favour- able to vegetation. The various processes of preparation, and later cultivation, are directed more especially to the maintenance of this con- dition. The ground should be finely pulverized both at and below the surface, encouraging the roots to strike downward and below the immediate influence of the hot sun. The air entering through the fine interstices of the soil condenses its latent moisture upon the cooler portions beneath the surface; thus contributing materially to the desired moisture, and also aiding the chemical changes attendant upon plant growth. Another very important result of thorough and deep pulverization is the capacity afforded to the soil of directly absorbing and holding rain-water which otherwise would flow off wastefully, if not destructively, on the surface. Any one can see for himself the contrast between a soil which has received this thorough tilth, and one which has not; the latter looks well enough early in LAYING OUT LAND FOR CROPS the season, but is burned up when the summer heats begin; while the deep-tilled land, on the contrary, holds the moisture like a damp sponge down below the reach of the sun; and its presence there is plainly visible in the crop. LAYING OUT LAND FOR CROPS A careful and definite plan, to be adhered to with as much strictness as the nature of the case will admit, is essentially necessary at the very outset of operations. If one is well acquainted with the land one is cultivating, and knows what crops have been grown on each portion of it the previous season, of course one can make one's plans accordingly. But if it be the first season of one's occupation the arrangements must of necessity be guided by such information as one has. In that case, they will be partly experimental, and changes will be from time to time inevitably incurred; but this disadvantage should be avoided as far as careful attention to the subject will enable one. It is a good idea, when practicable, to have a plan of the garden on paper, and to have this [43] SUCCESS IN MARKET GARDENING made during the winter; so that the intended arrangement of crops can be mapped out for the coming season. This will, of course, be a con- venient guide in placing the manure for each crop at the point where it is to be used, in pro- curing supplies of seed, and also in many other details. In mapping out a field in this manner, a person must of course understand the rotation, or suc- cession, of crops, in order to do the mapping intelligently; and accordingly we shall proceed to consider this subject next in order. ROTATION OF CROPS The right succession of crops for enabling the cultivator to obtain paying results, both in the harvests to be gathered first and in condition of the soil for further culture, has always been a subject of much importance to every tiller of the soil; and is also interesting from a scientific point of view. The difference between the old style of summer fallowing and the present well-understood plans of rotation is so considerable that the two ways [44] ROTATION OF CROPS are styled by some the "old" and "new" agri- cultures. Under the old system, an occasional year of fallowing was relied upon to rest the ground and renew the plant food in the soil, so that in the succeeding year a larger yield could be obtained than if the land had been cropped continuously. Fallowing, although of benefit in some respects, is wasteful in two ways. The land of course is yielding no income in the idle year; here there is a loss of interest on capital. And then, too, as I am persuaded, there is always more or less waste and loss of plant food going on from any soil that is left exposed to the sun and rain during the summer months. At least two and often three crops in a year with constant tilth (including, with other benefits to the soil, the suppression of all weeds and wild growth) represent the "new" method. It is decidedly in contrast with the old at all points — and seems at all points to have the advantage of it. The correct theory of rotation proposes, while making immediate use of the plant food already in the soil, at the same time to prepare the soil for producing the other crops that are next to follow. [45] SUCCESS IN MARKET GARDENING In arranging for a system of rotation, we should aim to grow such crops and under such culture as will keep the soil well supplied with humus, or plant food. No exact rules can be laid down as to the order in which crops should be planted in rotation, but it should be remembered that some plants by nature feed near the surface (like corn, for instance), while others, take clover, for example, draw the most of their nourishment from deep down in the soil. The object should be always to avoid following one deep-rooted crop by a similar one; taking great care to alternate them with others as con- stantly as possible. It is well, when practicable, to follow a slow-growing crop with one of quick growth, or vice versa. No root crop should follow one of a similar character; nor should vines follow vines. Alternation is always beneficial. Onions are very generally regarded as an excep- tion to this general rule, and to some extent they doubtless are so; but I have not found it advisable to grow them on the same ground many con- secutive years, as they are far more likely to become maggoty, and otherwise diseased, than [46] ROTATION OF CROPS when the ground is changed once in two or three seasons. There is considerable truth in the suggestion that a good rotation can only be had when con- ducted by competent management, as hinted in the following extract from Wilmer Atkinson: "The rotation that is wanted is the one that will rotate most fertility into the farm and most cash into the pocket. Differing soils, differing advan- tages or disadvantages of markets, differing de- grees of knowledge and experience in the growing and handling of certain crops are among the many elements that enter into the question. In any case, it must be the one that will yield the largest amount of sale product, with which to meet cur- rent expenses of business and living, and at the same time store increase of fertility in the land for future use." Just what this is appears to him a doubtful ques- tion, quite too intricate to be discussed, and on which it would be quite impracticable for one far- mer to advise another. On the contrary, we hold that accumulated experience has settled many points in a way not likely to be reversed, and affords much valuable aid in promoting the objects [47] SUCCESS IN MARKET GARDENING on which all are agreed: immediate cash returns and future productiveness of the soil. The subject of the judicious succession of crops will be repeatedly reverted to, and illustrated by many practical examples, fully explained. These will be found in the cultural directions which accompany our descriptions of the different vege- tables, hereafter given in this book. MANURES AND FERTILIZERS The provision, preparation and use of manures and fertilizers is one of the most important and diversified subjects in the whole business of mar- ket gardening; and to cover these points advan- tageously and economically involves a very con- siderable amount both of thought and labour. In my own practice, the dressing that is usually supplied per acre for growing the two or three crops which it is customary to obtain each year from garden land consists of from twenty to twenty- five cords of well-decomposed stable manure, put on broadcast. The manner of applying depends somewhat on the crop; and many special instructions will be [48] MANURES AND FERTILIZERS given in the cultural directions which are furnished with our descriptions of various vegetables. In general, however, the manure is either spread in advance of the first ploughing, and then turned under, or is put on after the ground has been worked once, being then worked in with the second ploughing. The distribution of the manure is generally by the use of tip-carts, as there is no spreader now in use that will put on twenty cords per acre by once going over. During the summer, fall and winter, manure for the succeeding season is hauled out from the city. The sources of supply are the large stables, from which the accumulations of manure must be removed at brief intervals all through the year. It is usually piled in some place near where it is to be used. However, during the summer, it is my usual practice to put it into my cellars, and there let the hogs work it over until fall. This manure, so prepared, is, in my judgment, the best I have, and is used for growing cabbages as well as other vegetables; although many people do not consider hog manure desirable for that crop. In the beginning of the winter this is teamed out upon the fields where it is to be used; the cellar [49] SUCCESS IN MARKET GARDENING is then filled again, and its contents remain in it until spring. All the manure which is drawn from the city in the summer and fall is overhauled in the early winter, and is again worked over in the spring before applying it to the land. It will then be quite fine, and fitted for nourishing any kind of crop. In distributing the manure, to put on twenty- five cords to the acre, reckoning four tip-cart loads to the cord, requires one hundred loads; making three piles to the load, we shall have piles twelve feet apart each way. In applying twenty cords to the acre, still reckoning four tip-cart loads to the cord and three piles to the load, we shall have piles twelve by fifteen feet apart. In applying fifteen cords to the acre, with loads and piles as before, we shall have piles sixteen by fifteen feet apart. This last-named amount is one which is seldom used in a market garden, except where one crop is to occupy the ground through the whole season. Where two crops are to be grown with one appli- cation of manure, the second amount is the one to be used; and where three are to be grown, use the first-named amount. It is very wasteful to expose manure unneces- [50] MANURES AND FERTILIZERS sarily to sun and wind. Never spread manure one day to be ploughed in the next. It may not be amiss to mention, lest its impor- tance should be overlooked or underestimated, the great advantage of taking care, in spreading the manure, to do it evenly, and so that the heaps shall not be made to overlap. One heap is then made to join up to another, and the whole ground fares alike as regards the supply of manure. This seems obvious enough, and practical works on farming already have sought to enforce this view. But, as we read in one recently published, "there is more in this point than is generally supposed by farmers, who, in many cases, are careless and wasteful in this respect, giving too much in some places and too little in others. The consequence is uneven growth over the different parts of the field; perhaps rank in some places, and in others a half- starved crop." The same writer suggests another important point in spreading, which is to break up the lumps and scatter the manure about in a fine state; unless this is done the field cannot be evenly fertilized. There is work about this, and some hired men will neglect and avoid it if they are permitted, but [51] SUCCESS IN MARKET GARDENING it should not only be insisted upon, but looked after, and its faithful performance insured. Solid man- ure should never be allowed to ferment, either out- doors or under a cover, without the presence of absorbent material to take up the gases evolved during the process. This is the basis upon which the whole theory of composts and management of the compost heaps is admitted to rest. As already implied, it is necessary for green manure to undergo fermentation, in order to make its constituent elements available as plant food. Some good gardeners insist that all manure should be thoroughly fined before it goes upon the land; that none should be carried on that is not as fine as the soil upon which it is to be spread. It is undoubtedly advantageous to con- form to this rule as far as is reasonably possible. However, green manure may be applied in the fall and covered in with the fall ploughing, in which case the fermentation, when it occurs, takes place within the soil, making it mellow and rich. At this stage, and until the warm weather of the following spring induces fermentation, there can be no waste of the manure by soakage of water, because it is still insoluble. [52] MANURES AND FERTILIZERS The case is different with fine compost, or with the ordinary pulverized commercial fertilizers, the benefit from which must be secured in a crop taken the same season, or it may never be obtained. In case three crops are to be grown and the third crop is to be cabbage or celery, the appli- cation of about one-half ton of some good commer- cial fertilizer to each acre would be very beneficial. It should be put on when the third crop has made about half its growth. In many similar cases, guano, superphosphate, bonedust and the like may be used in combination with the stable manure already in the soil, with excellent results. This use of commercial fertilizers in connection with stable manure has become quite common with market gardeners during the past few years. Some people even have an idea that, by the use of commercial fertilizers and without any other manuring, land can be kept in