Historic, archived document Do not assume content reflects current scientific knowledge, policies, or practices. U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, FOREST SERVICE—BULLETIN No. 69, GIFFORD PINCHOT, Forester. IN COOPERATION WITH THE STATE OF CALIFORNIA. SUGAR PINE AND WESTERN YELLOW PINE IN CALIFORNTA. BY ALBERT W. COOPER, M. F., Forest Inspector, Forest Service. rail PURE ‘3 qe < i Bi AY} We "i ceil euilteli Bet Mi Fall WASHINGTON: GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICER. 1906. FOREST SERVICE. Girrorp Pincuot, Forester. Overton W. Pricer, Associate Forester. FOREST MANAGEMENT, THomas H. SHERRARD, in Charge. INSPECTION, ‘FREDERICK EH. OLMstTeD, in Charge.’ DENDROLOGY, | Grorce B.Supworts, in Charge. FOREST EXTENSION, Ernest A. STERLING, in Charge._ : FOREST PRODUCTS, Fadil — Winviam L. Hatt, in Charge. 2 RECORDS, eee SREP JAMES B. Apams, in Charge. Bul. 69, Forest Service, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE |. SUGAR PINE FOREST AT 5,000 FEET ELEVATION IN THE SIERRAS. Sugar pine and incense cedar in foreground. Yellow pine in background. taser ak IMENT OF AGRICULTURE, FOREST SERVICE—BULLETIN No. 69. GIFFORD PINCHOT, Forester. IN COOPERATION WITH THE STATE OF CALIFORNIA. SUGAR PINE AND WESTERN YELLOW PINE IN CALIFORNTA. BY AUBERT WW. COOPER, M. F., Forest Inspector, Forest Service. WASHINGTON: GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICER. 1906. LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL. U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, FOREST SERVICE, Washington, D. C., May 23, 1906. Str: I have the honor to transmit herewith a manuscript entitled ‘Sugar Pine and Western Yellow Pine in California,” by Albert W. Cooper, Forest Inspector, Forest Service, in cooperation with the State of California, and to recommend its publication as Bulletin 69 of the Forest Service. The four plates accompanying the manuscript are necessary for its proper illustration. ; Respectfully, GIFFORD PINCHOT, Forester. Hon. JAMES WILSON, Secretary of Agriculture. bo CONT EN Ts: Page EOC ON sree errs Voter Se Ge i ar Seah aie oes edwin eats once 5 Hira Senay Mesh DUG ON ma ee ete ere Ra vb yee pe 5 ASTOCHUOU S NX 2 SS ee ee oe PS eae ea re tl IPOROSE U7 DOSs ce 6 Ss ha Seley Ree eee eer rg ee ga a ee 8 Suir dmual commen erwer mere awe SS Re sy ee ee ae 10 Weseri MONG OlmNeES De CLES Ae mia toe a ee AL oe ee 14 Sugar pine... --- Ls 2EIS EAD De ONS See Ore LN ae Gee ee eee ae 14 Woolllony (Ones Soe SES Se Ai = ee ee eos Rae pc nn a ge se 19 (CHRON Ci ee A is crs aS URS le a ce a 22 WY OOGls saci BE 5 So US IE Sete See i ee ee i Senge eine ee 25 SLUIGEDIP FUMIO is Sa es im Sa ee eg cng eR 25 SE QUON GT ONO Sieh, SRE ope A ea as ea a ee Wg eae 26 CanmmarercraleimpOGuance sem emer eyes ene wine he ast ie te AA eae S 27 IBRD ie ated PRS clo PIE les Se Sa NT ee ak 29 [Dimer oir e SS eS St ere eee (ec ee ye, Aes ON ae Sete ee ene ec emerge a 30 Dikectsoelumbenne upon bhenoresty 2 sees. ene eee AOS 34 AV ere OTMIG Ul tes eee ee ted eben: SRE es Sc jay te ys MAG Se EY ONS! relate 30 Adwise bilitveolconsenvatiyeullmbermons- 552925921. 222.45 32) 55 soo Se See 35 AGAPEA MIT EyOWbMe Species: (Osmanacement= =e. 525 39s eee ee a7 SS Trem OLIN ep emery agli e ee rariag lye che Pek L yet Wg cy ass i al te fe eee ee o¢ Biellowepinee ras i ere SONU NT eS AGRE ae Oe ge ee Os ee eS SYA JESURES [DIROLU OGL OVO NG oe ek eee ah aca le ER ee a ee Oo” Methods of management for private lumbermen....--.....----------- nn gneee 39 vanncemien tONstOlesh. TOSCrVes=. 02°. sos. aoa Sse eee ee ee oe ee 41 AE COINCLUT SiO TI RR ee rae ans No see IEE ctec) Licneraitdravaisosch che rapereie ale Sia hie Sa/Sa wis Sieve Ss yobie 42 ILLUSTRATIONS. Page. Piate IJ. Sugar pine forest at 5,000 feet elevation in the Sierras........... Frontispiece. TI. Fig. 1—Yellow pine forest within the lower portion of the yellow pine- sugar pine type. Fig. 2.—Sugar pine and fir forest within the lower portion of the fir type.-........-- peered teenies SU n Sone rss otis. 8 III. Fig. 1.—Reproduction in opening made by fire and insects. Fig. 2.—Fire- SCaLLedsbase Ola) SUC a Tesp Ne =i ears eee ee eee yD a es ore 2 aa16 IV. Fig. 1—Fire-killed timber in yellow pine-sugar pine belt... Fig. 2— Reproduction of sugar pine and yellow pine on partially lumbered Dis eee Eee tema eee Gen Sone Aa oS AS oS Spe eee 28 + SUGAR PINE AND WESTERN YELLOW PINE IN CALIFORNTA. INTRODUCTION. Since the early mining days in California, sugar pine has been one of the most valuable timber trees of the State, and the exhaustion of the eastern white pine forests has of late brought it into even greater prominence. Unfortunately, it has a somewhat restricted range, and the supply in sight, though large, is by no means unlimited. Yellow pine in California, which is of equal importance as a timber tree, is also included in this study. ~The two species are so intimately associated, both in the forest and in the market, that a study of one would be incomplete without a study of the other. It is believed that the time is ripe for the better management of the forests of the State, since the growth of lumbering on a large scale, the increased value of Anrbolends, and, above all, the awakening interest of the lumbermen themselves, seem to nmdlicatie the possibility of a first step, at least, in this ireecon. The object of the study here presented, therefore, is to devise modi- fications in present lumbering methods which may lead to a more conservative treatment of the yellow and sugar pine forests and to their better protection from fire. RANGE AND DISTRIBUTION. Within the State of California sugar pine and western yellow pine are closely allied in range, but their commercial and botanical ranges, as a whole, present the greatest divergence. The yellow pine is the most widely distributed tree of the West, comprising in its botanical range almost the whole of the Pacific and Rocky Mountains forest regions. The sugar pine, on the contrary, is limited to the States of Oregon and California. Its merchantable range is still more limited, being confined practically to the west side of the Sierra Nevadas and portions of the Coast Range. Yellow pine is able to endure great variations in climate and to flourish under most unfavorable conditions. The sugar pine is far more fastidious, and unless the different factors of situation are favor- able it 1s unable to exist. A brief review of the distribution of these two trees will show the difference in their adaptability. oO 6 SUGAR PINE AND YELLOW PINE IN CALIFORNIA. The yellow pine ranges from the central part of British Columbia south and eastward to the Black Hills of South Dakota. It acecommo- dates itself to the dry lava beds between the Rocky Mountains and the Pacific ranges, and sweeps in a wide path southward to the hot and dry mesas of Arizona and New Mexico. It grows on both the high, dry mountain ranges of Colorado and the high but well-watered moun- tains of California. Its southern range extends even into Lower Cali- fornia, where it forms fairly extensive forests on the San Rafael Moun- tains east of Todos Santos Bay, with an extreme southern boundary on the isolated peaks of San Pedro Marter. In comparison with this broad range that of the sugar pine seems almost insignificant. It is limited to the Pacific mountains and occu- ~ pies but a small portion of these. It is confined almost. wholly to mountain slopes, ravines, and canyons in the more moist and pro- tected regions. The northern boundary of its range is in the valley of the Santiam River in Marion County, Oreg., whence it extends south- - ward along the Cascade and Coast ranges, bearing eastward to the headwaters of the Deschutes River and the western- shores of Upper Klamath Lake. It reappears on the bluffs east of Klamath Lake and in Drew Valley to the westward of Goose Lake. Itsrange in California extends southward along the Coast Range to the vicinity of Clear wakes eit reappears again in the Santa Lucia Mountains in Monterey County. The main range of the tree, however, is along the west slope of the Sierra Nevadas, though it seenmamelle crosses the main divide and is found in scattered stands on the east slope. In southern Cali- fornia it is confined to the higher elevations. Its southern limit is with that of the yellow pine on Mount San Pedro Marter in Lower California. * There is often a marked relationship between the extension of a species southward and the altitude at which it will exist. This rela- tionship is clearly shown in the case of-sugar-pme. In Oregon the sugar pine is found in merchantable quantities at elevations of 2,500 to 3,000 feet and descends to 1,000 feet near the coast. In northern California the tree occurs between 2,500 and 6,000 feet; in the central portion of the State, between 4,000 and 7,500 feet, and in the south- ern portion between 5,500 and 9,000 feet. Roughly speaking, the altitude of the botanical limits increases at a rate of 500 feet in every 200 miles southward. The lower range of the yellow pine in California is approximately 1,000 feet below that of sugar pine. In the northern part of the State the upper range of sugar pine is about 1,000 feet above that of yellow pine. This difference between the upper limits of the two species holds throughout the greater part of the Sierras. But in southern California, in the San Jacinto Mountains, the difference greatly ASSOCIATED SPECIES. a decreases and almost disappears. This is no doubt due to the uni- formly warm, dry climate, even at high altitudes, where cold nights are offset by warm days. Within the region af their joint occur- rence sugar pine may be considered, ther atone a species of the higher elevations and yellow pine a species of the lower. The merchantable range of yellow pine in California usually coin- cides with the botanical range of the sugar pine. Yellow pine, because of its greater ability to mnie dharma, has an extensive range on the eastern side of the Sierra Newade, anew sugar pine is almost wholly lacking. Thus the two species, especially sugar pine, are very rarely found where the annual precipitation is less than 25 inches, and the region of best development for sugar pine is almost wholly within -a belt where the average annual rainfall is at least 40 inches. The region of best development of sugar pine extends along the west slope of the Sierras from Plumas County south to Kings River, in Fresno County. This may still further be limited to Eldorado, Tuolumne, Mariposa, and Madera counties, which are by far the heaviest producers of sugar-pine timber. The region of best development of yellow pine s% much more diffi- cult to determine. As far as stand per acre is concerned, the nearly pure yellow-pine forests about the McCloud and Pitt River countries -and on the Shasta Plateau might be considered the region of best development.? The tree individually perhaps reaches its maximum size on the basins of filled lakes on the western slopes of the central Sierras, but throughout this region it is so mixed with sugar pine, Douglas spruce, incense cedar, and fir that the stand of yellow pine per acre is comparatively light. ASSOCIATED SPECIES. As previously shown, the ranges of both sugar and yellow pine in California are much the same, although the actual distribution varies. The most common associate of sugar pine on the lower situations, therefore, is yellow pine. Sugar pine never grows in pure stands. Toward the lower limit of its range in the mountains it is found chiefly with yellow pine and incense cedar. This triple association is varied by the presence of Douglas spruce in the northern half of the State, espe- cially in the cooler situations. Oaks, such as California black oak (Quercus californica (Torr.) Coop.) and tanbark oak (Q. densiflora Hook. and Arn.), also occur in mixture with sugar and yellow pine, usually cova an understory. When enone with yellions pe and « There are many dion ceed Aocen the Sionas that will see pen “life. notably in Plumas, Butte, Eldorado, Nevada, Sierra, and Placer counties. Some excellent stands also occur in the San Bernardino Mountains. 32/88—No. 69— 8 SUGAR PINE AND YELLOW PINE IN CALIFORNIA. cedar the sugar pine is usually scattered singly through the stand, though the trees, as a rule, tower slightly above their associates. At high elevations sugar pine is still found with yellow pine and cedar, but white fir has become its chief associate, and its proportion in the stand has increased. This is particularly true on northern and eastern slopes, where sugar pine and fir usually form the bulk of the stand. This association seems to be an excellent one silviculturally, since the sugar pine, which is an intolerant tree, slightly overtops the fir, while the tolerance of the fir enablesit to endure the shading. For- ests of this kind are often among the densest in the Sierras. In addition to the trees already mentioned, sugar pine has sometimes other associates, such as red fir (Abies magnifica Murr.), Jeffrey pine (Pinus jeffreyv), and rarely lodgepole pine (Pinus murrayana). In scattered groves throughout the central part of the State, at eleva- tions between 5,000 and 6,500 feet, on cool, well-drained flats, the big tree (Sequoia washingtontana (Winsl.) Sudw.) occurs. Sugar pine is usually its chief associate, with cedar and fir next in impor- tance, and often a few yellow pine. ‘Yellow pine has a considerable range where sugar pine does not occur. Toward the lower limits of its occurrence and on dry flats, such as the Shasta Plateau, it often grows in nearly pure stands. Usually, however, at such elevations, cedar is present in the stand, and on the Shasta Plateau both cedar and Douglas spruce are to be found associating as scattered individuals with the yellow pine. At the lowest limit of its occurrence yellow pine is found with digger pine (Pinus sabiniana) and numerous oaks, chief among them Califor- nia black oak and two white oaks (Quercus lobata and Q. douglasit). Other associates of the yellow pine are big-cone spruce (Pseudotsuga macrocarpa), in the San Bernardino and San Jacinto mountains, knob- cone pine (Pinus attenuata), and Coulter pine (Pinus coulterz). In general, it may be said that yellow pine associates more or less with all the trees of the Sierras, but that, despite this fact, it has no characteristic associate, such as, at the higher elevations, sugar pine has in fir. 3 FOREST TYPES. In order to facilitate the description of the sugar and yellow pine forests they have been divided into forest belts or types based chiefly upon differences in elevation. In the Sierras four such belts or types may be distinguished: The foothill type, the yellow pine-sugar pine type, the fir type, and the timber-line type. The foothill type is the first real forest type encountered after leay- ing the interior valleys; it extends from the lower foothills up to an elevation of from 1,000 feet to 1,500 feet in northern California, and as PLATE Il. Bul. 69, Forest Service, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. Fia. 1.—YELLOW PINE FOREST WITHIN THE LOWER PORTION OF THE YELLOW PINE-SUGAR PINE TYPE. ‘VA ne tan. * Fia. 2.—SUGAR PINE AND FIR FOREST WITHIN THE LOWER PORTION OF THE Fir TYPE. Here is shown the great number of age classes found in the Sierra forests. FOREST TYPES. 9 high as 3,000 feet in central California. In southern California this type is usually lacking, since the change from chaparral to the yellow pine is very abrupt. The type is characterized by a very open stand, consist- ing mainly of various species of oak, together with digger pine, and, toward the upper limit, some yellow pine of inferior quality. Under- brush is abundant, and is made up chiefly of various species of man- zanita, California buckeye (4'sculus californica), laurel, and scrub oaks. The type is of very little commercial importance and need not be considered further. Table I shows the character of this type toward its upper limits. Next above the foothill type is the yellow pine-sugar pine type. This type comprises the bulk of the commercial forest; in elevation it extends from about 1,500 feet up to 5,000 feet in northern California, and from about 4,000 feet to 8,000 Sue in southern California. As the name implies, Tallow pine “rnd sugar pine are the important trees of this type. Toward its lower extension sugar pine is either very scarce or lacking, while yellow pine forms the bulk of the stand and is associ- ated with incense cedar. The forest of this part of the type is more open, asarule, than that higherup. The characteristic stand consists of a fairly even mixture of the five chief coniferous species, about 30 to 50 per cent of the stand being yellow pine, 10 to 20 per cent sugar pine, 20 to 30 per cent cedar, 15 per cent Douglas spruce, and 5 to 10 per cent white fir. A few scattered oaks are usually present. The stand, at its best, is rather dense, but in most localities fire and other causes have made frequent openings in it. On northern and eastern slopes Douglas spruce, white fir, and sugar pine form a larger percentage of the stand. In the gulches and about the heads of can- yons Douglas spruce and white fir often constitute the bulk of the stand or are mixed with sugar pine, while along streams the California yew (Taxus brevifolia), alder (Alnus Tuas ND dogwood (Cornus nuttallii), and the western serviceberry (Amelanchier alnifolia) are found. Toward the upper limit of the type the proportion of fir largely increases, while that of yellow pine decreases. -Underbrush is seldom thick, except in openings. Where it exists it is made up of various species of manzanita and ceanothus, together with coffeeberry (Rhamnus crocea) and several other species. Table II shows the composition of this type at various elevations. Table III shows the composition near the border between it and the fir belt, as is shown by the increasing amount of fir and sugar pine. The if type, which is next above the sugar sae yellow nae type, extends from about 5,000 feet elevation to 6,500 or 7,000 feet im northern California, while in southern California it fee ae y eee 7,000 and 10,000 feet. On northern slopes, in the northern part of the State, it runs sometimes as low as 4,000 feet. The lower portion 10 SUGAR PINE AND YELLOW PINE IN CALIFORNIA. of this type is generally a fairly even mixture of sugar pine and white fir, with a few scattered yellow pines and cedars. The fir and sugar pine are at first about equally represented, though occasionally sugar pine may predominate. The sugar pine in this portion of the type attains its best development, but with increasing elevation it becomes more and more short boled, flat crowned, and limby, and the number in the stand diminishes until it finally disappears altogether, and the forest becomes one of pure white fir or white and red fir mixed. Where fire has not killed the standing timber, this type is the densest of the four, and therefore very free from underbrush. In the open- ings occur some of the largest chaparral areas in northern California. Within the region of this type numerous exceptions occur. For example, on southern slopes or on warm flats, with a good depth of soil, Jeffrey pine is often the prevailing species, associated with a few firs, cedars, and sugar pines. Again, where the underlying rock is close to the surface, and the soil consequently very shallow, the fir is replaced by lodgepole pine, often forming pure stands over consid_ erable areas in the upper portion of the type. In the timber-line type fir still forms a considerable portion of the stand, but the tree growth is stunted or scrubby, while such charac- teristic timber-line trees as white-bark pine (Pinus aibicaulis) and limber pine (Pinus flexilis) are present. The type, however, is an unimportant one, and need not be further discussed. It will be seen from the preceding paragraphs that elevation is the chief factor upon which the character of the stand depends. Next to this, slope and aspect have the greatest effect on its composition. Besides these, however, the character of the forest shows a certain amount of change from north to south. Perhaps the most marked is the decrease and final disappearance from the stand of Douglas spruce and the gradual increase in the amount of incense cedar. The forests of the Sierras are approximately even aged, although, in common with all virgin stands, they include a wide range of diameter classes. Probably not more than 1,000,000 acres have been entirely cut over, and another million more or less culled. Good virgin timber will usually average about 25,000 feet to the acre, while individual acres sometimes yield as much as 100,000 feet, board measure. STAND TABLES. The stand tables which follow show by species the average stand of trees from 1 inch in diameter up. Each table is based on about 20 strip acres. Tables I and II give the total stand, and the stand above 1-inch, 12-inch, 18-inch, and 24-inch diameter limits, for each species, at various elevations. Tables III and IV differ from the others in that they show the distribution of the diameter classes. STAND TABLES. 1 Pa It will be seen from Table II, which is for Butte County, that at 2,500 feet sugar pine and white fir figure very little in the stand, but that they occur in increasing quantity as the elevation increases. Douglas spruce, on the other hand, falls off rapidly and disappears almost entirely at 4,500 feet. Table I is for similar elevations in Madera County, some 300 miles south of Butte County. It will be seen that the table for 2,500 feet in one county is very similar to the table for 4,000 feet in the other. In both Douglas spruce is lacking, since the locality is south of the range of this species in the Sierras. Tables III and IV are for similar elevations, the one for Madera County, the other for Butte. Table III represents the yellow pine- _ sugar pine type, and Table IV the fir type. In both there is a wide range of diameter classes, which is explained in part by the presence of a younger growth, and in part by the variety of species and the vary- ‘ing conditions under which individuals have grown. TABLE I.—Average number of trees and percentage of each species per acre at various elevations in the foothill type, Madera County, Cal. AVERAGE OF 20 ACRES AT 3,000 FEET ELEVATION. | Western | | Califor- | : : | Digger - | Sugar | Incense |_~ ~ | Other Diameter breasthigh. | ; yellow | : oar, fash lolEXeltel| eee Total. | pine pine. | pine. cedar. oak. | Species. | ine (said Mam OVCE SS te ee re oe ere 2ScOh une 127605 |- ee | 0.05 13.15: | 1.25 56.00 Rencentient yee een een 28 emeroUs70) it 2) QONBO)| eee | .09 23.48 | 2.23} 100.00 | } | AO Zeandiaver yarn. men gee | 9.65 ZUR OM (ene st el NAC ange che ead | 6.35 | .40 | 21.00 Remcente oi. etme nee sae] mer 4595 DIP OO be sake ee Ces eee 30.24 1.91 100.00 IS AN GVOVER Se - ooo 8 oe oa 2.30 7g U8) Sar eal Sek (nara PE 3.25 | .30 8.15 IRCIICCN eee yan ee eee | 28.22 | Dose ph \\ Reet Beas Se {fhe a 39.88 3.68 100.00 DACEATIO SOV GT ee ee .95 je?) 1)a| Pao eee he pee [Ee soets areeee| 1.85 .20 4.20 RETICAR LEE ee een eee | DIAG | eee 2B U5 el eee cee Seaeoeeens | 44.05 4.76 100.00 AVERAGE OF 20 ACRES AT 4,000 FEET ELEVATION. | | | | | r Ir GUOV GC meee natty we hat pee a ens | 80.60 3.55 | 47.40 | aks ul Lesa ae | 138.35 Renecnt yee epee et eee [ee een 58.26 2.57 | 34.26 ZANCY tol Peedtae agate | 100.00 IOAN OVE =e Ma eee eo incense fe. 38.20 Qe 5) 19205" Lat te beeen dee | 64.85 ETE COT eee etree ee ne RE ees 58.90 3.32] 29.38 | SEAO) aaa mee | 100.00 ASUeMOROVERaE gee ee ee te eee 26.45 1.40| 14.05 | BoB alls aoe eae 45.25 RemCenite wer eee awe eae tle [Sage sett speie ee 158.45 3:10 ||) 31205 1H. 0)s eee | 100.00 Dagenmadcayer ees ere oe eee ees | 14.50 1.30 9.80 1. GO| eke ee | 97.20 RETICO ER ene ee pees Say el es | 53.31 4.78 36.03 By SSs tea 100.00 | | 1? SUGAR PINE AND YELLOW PINE IN CALIFORNIA. -Tasce I].—Average number of trees and percentage of each species per acre at various elevations in the yellow pine-sugar pine type, Butte County, Cal. AVERAGE OF 20 ACRES AT 2,500 FEET ELEVATION. { =< ; | | | | i Western ae ‘. beget Sugar | White | Douglas Incense | Other Diameter breasthigh. es pine. fir. | spruce. cedar. | species. | Total . | | | iS ane OVER tae oe eee ee 50.65 6.15 0.45 SEAS 10.45 18.90 | 118.95 WET CONb es - ae, Se eee 42.58 5.17 | -38 27 .20 | 8.79 15.88 | 100.00 Ian overs: tae eee a 15.05 2.20 | 10 6.20 | 1.60 | 1015 37.30 Percent 22) 22 ite Fae eee 40.35 5.90 | eH 16.62 | 4.29 | aye ay 100.00 iS and Overs se) Ae 10.65 1.704 10 5.50 | 90 | 6.40 25.25 (Per Cents 2-2 sae ee eee ee 42.18 6.73 | 40}. 21-78 | 3.56 25.35 100.00 DA SNGION GL oa oo sen eed ee 6.90 see 05 4.60 | 65 | 2.65 | 16.40 Per cerih = Soo tet eee 42.07 9.45 31 28.05 3.95 16.16 | 100.00 AVERAGE OF 20 ACRES AT 3,500 FEET ELEVATION. Wigmdsower ot) Ss 2 ee 34.40| 11.80 | 93.30| 13.50] 13.70] . 3.90.| 100-00 Percent)" fiawi oar oe 34.19] 11.73} 23.16) 13-42] 13.62| —-3.88) 100.00 12nd Over et een se 15.00 | 5.40 | 5.55 8.85 | 8.60} 1.45 | 48.85 Percents. ee See 33.45 12.04| 12.37 19.73 | 19.18 | 3.23 | 100.00 LESLAEST (6 We (es a ee lie ee ge 11.95 | 4.40 | 4.35 7.80 | 6.25 | 45 | 35.20 Percent 25 eres ee 33.95 12.50} 12.36} 22.16) 17.75 | 1.28 100.00 DAU SAG OVET {ee te ee eS 9.10 | 203 | 2.95 6.30 | 4.20 | -10 26.40 IPericent eer eas ee ee eee 34.47 14.21 su z7 23.86 | 15.91 | 38 100.00 | | AVERAGE OF 20 ACRES AT 4,000 FEET ELEVATION. iii over ee ee | 50.17]. 23.57| 93.81 6.10} 20.16] 16.78| 149.59 Rencent | es ee urease he ees 15.76 | 15.92 4.08 | 13.48| 11.21} 100.00 12 and oveM@..-2 5-512. | ASST 6.614 27 231i Ces pas 44.18 IPOr: Cen fee ee ee eee | 33.66 14.96 16.46 5.23 10.95 18.74 100.00 (Seam GlOVCI Sst Se eee | GON aloo 6.26 2. 08 3.43 | 4.26 | 33.22 Ret Cont eo ee 34.92 16.83 | 18.84 6.26 Sse ie ES: 100.00 OA anGiGVers-e nee | 8.91 4.68 | 5.25 1.98 2.61 | 1.85 | 25.28 Percent §.2 tt es eas ee | S525 juan eISe5 Uae Ogg 7.83 |" 10:22.) > 7383, k . oon | AVERAGE OF 20 ACRES AT 4,500 FEET ELEVATION. de Srdcover. ye eens ees 25.30| 15.40} 26.55 1.30| 14.25 | 4.90 7.70 Rereenties - 322 ose ee | 28.85 17.56 30.27 1.48 | 16.25 | 5.59 100.00 YO and OVOE 2s ee 18.15 10355 | 13250 105°). 910:35-) © = 2:35 :h vetoes Per Gentes. 62 Meese sek ees 32.44 18.85 24.13 1.88 18.50 | 4.20 | 100.00 18nd Overs: Ue eee ees oy oe 15.20 9.65 11.40 1.00 8.40 | 1.05 46.70 Percenter shee eee Ree 32.55 20.66 24. 41 2.14 17.99 | 2.25 100.00 JAC MAN VION ED. 32 tea nae 12.20 | 8.85 | 9.30 .90 5.40 | 25 | 36.90 Percents. eo eee 33.06 | 23.98 25.20 2.44| 14.64 | -68 100.00 STAND TABLES. 18 Tase III.—Average number of trees and percentage of each species per acre at 5,000 feet ele- vation within upper limits of yellow pine-sugar pine type, Madera County, Cal. (Average of 20 acres.) Western aes | Califor- F P F : Sugar | White | Incense | -7) 7 | n., Diameter breasthigh. se pine. fir. eedane peace Total. Inches. CL THD: TD te 2 SE ae ns en ter Rg a 6.35 | 7.95 11.85 16.90 0.30 43.35 EER go Te Ae ies 2 ees re yb 90 | 1.00 1.05 2.10 40 5.45 Aneta rt Soa bn 1d | .90 | 50 50 1.70 -35-\ SSkos Leen ee a Aree Se Lotta Ree oP 1.70 15 .35 1.60 mY enero li ERO e ee BE ses uk Note ee 65 .40 5D | 1.20 25 |. 3.05 eer eee Le ee ae 55 | .70 30 1.10 20 | 2585 Prins ae mahi ae NP a Ete ae bey ae a Be -90 25 35 1.05 | 10 |: 2265 FAL 2 AEN Se Teeter ie aaa gree Uo GLAD eed AVES San 90 | 45 .60 50 -10- | 3.55 Diente Dea rea shh). Se Pee Sor -50 | 35 -80 1.05 | 05 | cv2kab DRE Eye SER Se se ape trae tp Ce .80 -45 | -59 | (GY (eS es ee 2.45 Eh) mepninare Reg tite Ee ie Rama Sa Pa 75 55 60 1.40 05 3.35 Sap een oy tates Whe inn MER ae, 45 | 25 -80 Teas a leg ema a | 2:85 SL. oy Wy Lakai he eae scn oy 2) ees eee 45 55 .90 i 00) [eel eee se ls 2290 SU ce ate i Ta io ig eg oer .70 | 40 | 80 | 1.20 Ope aee0) BO Mh a age AR oe ne eae et ae ae .30 | 50 -90 | NOt poss ee fe 2435 LN a ae IBD gaat de gee wpe se ee .40 45 | 80 | cay eee ae |" 22840 AOIPM en ne og ia a -70 | 65 50 | WA Ay ace deka 2.25 Cita, A A ae AT 7S el Ce a 40 | .30 .65 | 1 a Ve pees Be 2.45 AG eee nies Mememnin Mieri eR ELAN? The S .65 | 135 -40 | BS ice as coo | 1.95 OR. ahd CMe AR oi ee te as) eee 45 | .40 55 | SOU) fee eae eee | 1.70 ASTE Or GD eee iste el ee ee en a 1.10 | 2.35 65 | gl Ree ee be WAeSO SIRE ORS ten ies sep es Ne eS on 15 | BU sae ere [ema sari | Reh MES 80 Sastre en RR ee hn Ce aE 20.65 | 19.25 24.60 | 38.45 2.30} 105.25 LE CSP SIN acy ee a ae eee a ema 19.62 | 18.29 O37 a) 36053 2.19 | 100.00 | | TREES 12 INCHES AND OVER IN DIAMETER BREASTHIGH. ] | é | TR baiteeeen ase ate SS Sok Op ne aay ny tS Smt se 5a eee 10270 12.25 20.25 1.65 58.60 BETACGN 8=s een e eN aee Re | 23.46) 18.26] 20.90| . 34.56 | 2.82 | 100.00 TREES 18 INCHES AND OVER IN DIAMETER BREASTHIGH. Ota eo eee saat Bae, he 10.35 9.40 10.65 15.35 0.70 | 46.45 IRC TICEN Ga ee ee 22.28 20.24 22.93 33.04 SE | 100.00 TREES 24 INCHES AND OVER IN DIAMETER BREASTHIGH. PRU alee re oot iar re ee eS | 8.35 8.20 9.10 | 12.10 0.25] 38.00 PEEICCUtEee re oa oe sce es | 21.97 21.58 23.95 | 31.84 .66 | 100.00 14 SUGAR PINE AND YELLOW PINE IN CALIFORNIA. TaBLe I1V.—Average number of trees and percentage of each species per acre at 5,000 feet ele- vation within fir type, Butte County, Cal. (Average of 20 acres.) | Pee 2 Western ee : : | White Sugar Incense | Other : Diameter breasthigh. | Fe pine. eee cedar. | species. Total. Inches. UsbOSIO Seo ee oh be ee eee 16.04 2:50]. — 1.95.1) . “S280 1.20 25.49 PD 2 Es WON Peo Oe ones ES, ne ata oS 1.20 -70 | 35 | 20 40 | 2.75 TAS Len Pi a, Ge Led ee a | 70 30 | 15 20 | 25 1.60 AG Soc ee eer pee | == 00 20 | 40 65 | 05 2.30 AQ ss re Sea oe ae ome ek Rego om shied 50 | 25 25 20 | ~. 2570 DOC Ee ee Na Raya ee Siem 1.55 40 45 60 10 3.10 Doe TR hay come eae ee eH ee GO aaah 1.05 35 | 50 100] hese 2.10 JA Ral BARC ae ak Re eae a dee eee eae [Sed 45 | 80 30 05 2.70 DB Sa cere ee See Tene eet Re ae Sea 1.45 .70 | 50 60 05 3.30 ean es Seite AME aoe eet ese EI VS 85 75 | 70 35 05| 2.70 SON Ce eas eee et ee erate ke ete 50 30 | 60 HOiassctee 1.90 cy Ribas Wenig omens Sep tte! hy 2 2 65 35 | 75 “45 | 05) 2.95 BARR eG on nice Wh, Sines Sapte ae 60 1.20 | “5D 45 05| 2.85 3h eke Bite (Re oo ok een ae win 75 90 50 “50 (| aaa 2.65 Ane eee Se We | eet eee as 70 1.10 | 60 Ep ees 2.65 iis hae car eee Sn ay sa en Une 1 F 80 | 90 55 7. Dp eee 2.45 AO Ai eV cn ae 2 og Nee ae eR 50 BD 40 ig Sie Taian ee ste 7c AA aoe pe RU ta en Tey = Piccola Ne Pee Cone 30 80 10 Ob. eee 1.25 Mi Be SOR Sey Wa ES He eg ee 45 1.20 55 | 10 05| 2.35 Hay Aas, aaah ak Demet eg tee verano 15 95 35 | 0. eee 1.55 NO OsOS pee toe ine Seams fe ene ee | 65 3.15 45 | rg aeaees a | 4.50 TSGLOL Dn ate N Pare, a eee pe eee eet co JF) leeesa aay [eens Sie ae | 50 Mobale 2 25 sc aoe 5 Sees ee | et agp eT eGo: emit a em 2.50| 75.34 ‘Per. cent) te eee ee ee ee 43.13 24.75 15.20 13.61 3.81 | 100.00 TREES 12 INCHES AND OVER IN DIAMETER BREASTHIGH. Wey bee cee te nee as eS | 16.10 }- 15.90 9.40| 6.40] ~ 1.15] 48.95 Por Celity ete in Pies ees | 32.89 | 32.48] 19.20] 13.08 | 2.35 | 100.00 TREES 18 INCHES AND OVER IN DIAMETER BREASTHIGH. | { | | | Ot al ese aes ee a eee 13.05 | 14.65 8.45 5.25| 0.50] 41.90 Percents 5h esi ee ec ee | 31.15 | 34.96| 20.17} 12.53] 1.14] 100.00 | TREES 24 INCHES AND OVER IN DIAMETER BREASTHIGH. | | | | BRO iB ee AA ie Seatac Aan 2 5B | . 8.90] 13.50 7.00 4.25 0.25 33.90 Pet Cont ene Pi ec oye | 26.25 | 39.82 20.65 12.54 74 | 100.00 } DESCRIPTION OF THE SPECIES. SUGAR PINE. . Sugar pine belongs to the white pine group, and botanically closely resembles its eastern relative, the white pine (Pinus strobus). Itisa five-needle pine, with needles 3 to 4 inches long, rigid, usually erect, and of bluish or dark green color. The cones of the species are of remarkable size, sometimes 18 to 20 inches in length and from 3 to 4 inches in breadth. They require two years to ripen. The seeds are usually liberated in September or October, the cones persisting until the next spring or even longer. The seeds are from one-half to five- eighths of an inch in length, with broad, obtuse wings. DESCRIPTION OF THE SPECIES. 15 Sugar pine prunes itself well, surpassing the eastern white pine in this respect. This is an important factor in the value of the tree for lumber, since it enables it to form a clean stem much earlier in life. At maturity the sugar pine has a long, clean, symmetrical, and rather slowly tapering bole, surmounted by a flat, spreading crown. The height growth of sugar pine is rapid, and the mature trees usually tower slightly above the rest of the forest. . The tree has an average height of from 150 to 175 feet and a diameter of from 4 to 5 feet, although it may attain a maximum height of 235 feet and a diameter of 12 feet. At no period of its life does sugar pine have a deep root system, though that which it has is strongly developed and wide spreading, so that in spite of the absence of a taproot the tree is very wind firm. In its demands upon the soil sugar pine is never very fastidious. The principal soils of the region in which it occurs are a rather light, loamy, or sandy soil resulting from the decomposition of outcropping schistose rocks, and a loose, rather coarse, gravelly soil, which results from the breaking down of the granite backbone of the Sierra Range. On both of these soils the sugar pine grows equally well, provided they are well drained, of sufficient depth, and not too dry. A third soil, and one to which it does not take so readily, is found in the Shasta region. It is a loose, dry, glacial drift, underlain by a subsoil of decomposed lava. ‘The scarcity of sugar pine on this soil is, how- ever, undoubtedly due to the extreme dryness of the surface soil, for on exactly similar soils where moisture !s more abundant the tree is very thrifty. Sugar pine is found most often and does best in situa- tions with moist atmosphere, where transpiration is slow, hence its preference for cool north and east slopes and heads of gulches and canyons. As might be expected from this, the sugar pine is unable to stand drought, serecially when young, a Paci that is of ereat Importance in the reproduction of the species. The sugar pine is an intolerant tree, possibly the most so of any of the Sierra conifers. It can not attain full development without an abundance of light, and is invariably suppressed or killed under heavy shade. In early youth, however, it is to a certain extent shade demanding, and in full light is apt to be stunted or even killed. The moister the air, of course, the less apparent is this shade-demanding quality, and on cool northern slopes young trees will sometimes thrive without any protecting shade. As it grows older the tree demands more and more light, and is usually seen with its crown fully exposed. A scale of tolerance for the coniferous species of the Sierras begin- ning with the most tolerant would be: Incense cedar, white fir, Douglas spruce, yellow pine, sugar pine. 32/88—No. 69—06——3 16 SUGAR PINE AND YELLOW PINE IN CALIFORNIA. The two pines are very close together in tolerance, but on the whole the yellow pine seems to stand suppression rather better than does sugar pine, hence it is placed ahead of it on the list. Both rank as intolerant species, while incense cedar and white fir are tolerant species, and Douglas spruce can hardly be called either tolerant or intolerant. The sugar pine does not produce seed as early in life as do the other Sierra conifers. It is seldom that a tree less than 16 inches in diameter bears cones, and usually only trees 20 inches or more in diameter bear to any considerable extent. This species, moreover, is neither a regu- lar nor a prolific seeder at any period of its life. Individual mature trees, it is true, often bear seed steadily, but in small quantities com- pared with either incense cedar or yellow pine. There are undoubt- edly, at intervals, extra heavy seed years for sugar pine, but that there is any general regularity in their recurrence is extremely doubtful. Locally good seed crops occur at intervals of five to seven years, but sugar pine will be found seeding a little every year. The principal Sierra conifers rank as seed bearers about as fol- lows: Incense cedar, yellow pine, Douglas spruce, white fir, sugar pine. In distributing its seeds the sugar pine, thanks to its height, can cover a considerable area, though this is somewhat offset by the size and weight of the seeds, which prevent very wide distribution by the wind. Ordinarily a tree will seed up the ground thoroughly at a dis- tance from its base equal to its height. Wind, slope, and water can often be depended on to greatly increase this distance. The sugar pine is not only the least prolific seed bearer, but it is one of the most particular species as to seed bed. Ii prefers a moist, rather loose, bed on which to germinate, such as the natural duff or humus of the forest floor affords, and will seldom germinate on bare mineral soil. The condition of the ground after fire is hardly favor- able to sugar pine germination. Under even the best conditions sugar pine seed has not a high per cent of germination. Tests made by the Forest Service place it at about 25 per cent. In addition to this fact a large number of seeds are destroyed by squirrels and ground mice, the squirrels often stripping a tree of its cones before they are ripe and leaving a large part of the seeds to rot in the cones on the ground. These facts explain to a large extent the scarcity of sugar pine reproduction. Add to this the dependence of the young seedlings on the right degree of shade and it is at once apparent that to secure natural reproduction of the species is by no means easy. Sugar pine seedlings are often found under the virgin stands, but they are never very abundant. The conditions of seed bed here are usually favorable to germination, but the shade is too heavy and in a short PLATE III. Bul. 69, Forest Service, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. IN OPENING MADE BY FIRE AND INSECTS. Fi@. 1.—REPRODUCTION Here sugar pine is comin th yellow pine. together wi gin FIRE-SCARRED BASE OF A SUGAR PINE. Fe 2a tates cutting the stump very high, or else long butting of the first log. is necessi Th i Of DESCRIPTION OF THE SPECIES. 17 time the young trees suffer from suppression, and soon die. In small openings in the virgin stand and along the edges of roads or broad trails cut through the virgin forest the conditions for sugar pine seem most favorable. Such openings are usually very quickly filled with young growth of all species, but the protection afforded by the side shade and the stimulation to rapid height growth from the overhead light are just the conditions that favor sugar pine, and its rapidity of height growth enables it to outstrip all competitors and ultimately to gain possession of the ground. It is probably by such means that sugar pine is enabled to hold its position in the virgin forest. When lumbering takes place these conditions are entirely changed. The forest is cut clear, and any sugar pine that secures a start is likely to suffer from drought and exposure, while yellow pine, which is more adapted to such conditions, gains possession of the ground. In some localities where lumbering was first carried on, only the larger trees were taken, and thus only a partial clearance made. In such localities sugar pine had a better chance, and it is here that the best reproduction and second growth are found. The species never reproduces in pure stands and seldom forms as much as 25 per cent of the young growth, but it seems fair to predict that some of these stands when mature will contain as much as 30 per cent of sugar pine. Excellent examples of the above conditions are to be found in Butte, Tehama, and Eldorado counties. The power of mature sugar pine to resist fire issometimes underrated, for in this respect it far surpasses eastern white pineand compares favor- ably with most of its associates. In youth all suffer about equally from fire, and are either killed outright or injured sufficiently to fall a prey to fungus and insect attacks. Up to the time it is an inch in diameter, sugar pine is killed outright, and from that time until the pole stage is reached it is usually killed ultimately by anything but the lightest ground fires. Mature trees are very rarely killed by fire, unless it should get into the crown, and although sugar pine has a much thinner bark than either yellow pine or Douglas spruce, it ranks well up in the list for fire resistance, the trees usually continuing to flourish without apparent permanent injury long after the butt has been badly burned. In point of fire resistance the Sierra conifers rank as follows: Yellow pine, Douglas spruce, sugar pine, incense cedar, white fir. Windshake in-the mature trees is not uncommon, but is usually con- fined to localities where the nature of the topography renders winds unusually severe or where for one reason or another the tree does not erow at its best. Sugar pine is not particularly susceptible to fungus attacks, since trees that are badly fire scarred often live for a long period without 18 SUGAR PINE AND YELLOW PINE IN CALIFORNIA. suffering from fungus diseases. This is in part due to the six months’ dry season, which is naturally inimical to fungus growth. In some localities, however, the mature trees suffer considerably from the attacks of ‘‘ Trametes pint,’ which produces what is known as ‘‘red heart.’ It is claimed by some lumbermen that sugar pine growing on the Chico and Red Bluff ridges in Butte and Tehama counties is par- ticularly bad in this respect, often 50 or 60 per cent of the mature sugar pine being infected more or less with red heart. It is significant in this case that rainfall in this region is as heavy as anywhere in the range of sugar pine in California. There are other fungus diseases to which the species is hable at different periods of its life, but the amount of injury from such causes is, on the whole, slight. All the Sierra conifers are attacked by a parasite, a species of mistle- toe (Arceuthobium occidentale), vhich grows on the limbs and small branches, drawing its food from the living cells of the tree. Sugar pine is probably freer from this parasite than any other species, and when mature trees are attacked the harm done is, as a rule, not great. Trees attacked early in life, however, are sometimes badly deformed, and young trees up to an inch or two in diameter are occasionally killed outright. From insect injury sugar pine is again more immune than some of its associates. Attacks from insects that are capable of injuring healthy trees seem at present to be very local, and show little indi- cation of spreading. Dr. A. D. Hopkins, in his report on his trip through the West (Bulletin 21, Division of Entomology, Department of Agriculture), makes the following statement: A Dendroctonus allied to the one just mentioned [D. brevicomis], but evidently undescribed, was found to be a special and dangerous enemy of the sugar pine and mountain white pine [Pinus monticola], especially of the latter. It was frequently met with in the vicinity of Grants Pass, Oreg., in sugar pine, and was found abundant in the bark of dying and dead standing and felled trees in the vicinity of Sand Point and Kootenai, Idaho, where a large amount of timber had died, evidently as a result of its attack. * * * It is undoubtedly capable of attacking and killing great quantities of white and sugar pine, but may possibly be prevented from doing so in the future, in all regions where extensive timber cutting Is carried on, by its being attracted to the stumps, logs, and tops of trees felled for lumber and fuel. * * * Another species at present recognized as Dendroctonus terebrans was commonly met with in the bark of living, dying, and dead standing trees and the stumps of recently felled Pinus ponderosa, P. lambertiana, P. monticola, P. murrayana, P. contorta, and P. radiata, in all of the localities where these species of pine grow. The sugar pine has, of course, many other insect enemies, some of which attack leaves, roots, twigs, or seeds, but that described in Doctor Hopkins’s report is probably the worst. Besides the enemies of sugar pine already discussed, there are numerous others that do it more or less harm. Squirrels and ground mice destroy the seeds, and cattle and sheep sometimes destroy the DESCRIPTION OF THE SPECIES. 19 young seedlings. In the case of cattle the injury is very slight, as they eat only the smallest seedlings of not more than a year or two in age; that they do eat these is, hone er, an observed fact. Sheep grazing is much worse, as the bands of sheep eat or destroy all the young reproduction in their path and leave the ground hard and trampled and in poor condition for seed germination. YELLOW PINE. The western yellow pine (Pinus ponderosa) belongs to the group of pitch pines known as the ponderose, of which P. contorta and P. ari- zonica are examples. It is a three-needle pine, though sometimes there are but two needles in a sheath. The needles are 3 to 6 or 8 inches in length and grow in thick clusters at the ends of the small branches. They usually persist until the third season. The cones form the first summer and mature the second, the seed being shed during the second fall, while the cones persist until the following winter or spring. They are from 3 to 6 inches long and are often borne in clusters. The yellow pine has several varieties and closely allied species; of the latter by far the most important in California is the Jeffrey pine (Pinus jeffreyt). This so closely resembles the yellow pine that it is sometimes considered simply a variety. It grows almost entirely at high elevations, usually entering the forest where the yellow pine stops. Yellow pine assumes a wide variety of forms, which depend largely upon the character of the situation in which it occurs. Under the best conditions it is a tall, rather full-boled tree, and has a height, when mature, of from 175 to 200 feet, and a maximum diameter of from 6 to 7 feet. A very noticeable feature in the development of the tree is its persistent height growth; that is, it never runs to limbs even when grown in the open. The limbs persist well toward. the ground in such cases, but usually remain small. The mature trees have a very heavy, yellowish bark, with rather smooth, large, irregular plates. The bark is often from 2 to 3 inches thick. The root system of the yellow pine is somewhat deeper than that of the sugar pine, although the mature trees have very little, if any, tap- root. The young seedlings, however, develop a long taproot, espe- cially in dry situations. In such places the growth below ground during the first year will sometimes be two or three times that above eround. Later, however, the tree develops a strong lateral root sys- tem which renders it very wind firm. Yellow pine is not fastidious in its demands upon soil moisture. Its remarkable ability to stand drought and to occupy unfavorable locations are factors which largely explain its wide range. It does 20 SUGAR PINE AND YELLOW PINE IN CALIFORNIA. best, however, on a rather loose, sandy loam or gravelly loam soil that is well watered and well drained. Jn the Sierras such conditions are found on the beds of the old filled-in lakes. Often yellow pine will be found growing well on very dry soil, such as the glacial drift of the Shasta Plateau, but it is probable that the subsoil is well watered there and that the depth of the tree’s root system renders accessible a good supply of moisture. The yellow pine is decidedly a light-loving tree; even a slight degree of shade perceptibly retards its grewth. But the hardy nature of the species seems to permit it to survive for a longer period under shade than some trees no less tolerant. If not shaded too long it will recover, but shade-grown trees are always more spindling in form and show a decided suppression in height growth. The ability of yellow pine to withstand drought makes it capable of enjoying full sunlight from the start. In the scale of tolerance it ranks next to sugar pine at the end of the list. Next to incense cedar yellow pine is the most prolific seed bearer of the Sierra conifers. Moreover, there seems to be a large degree of regularity in the occurrence of seed years. Heavy seed years occur about once every three or four years. Unlike the sugar pine, how- ever, yellow pine bears very little seed during the intermediate years. The seed of the yellow pine is well scattered, and a single tree is often able to seed up a considerable area. The trees begin bearing seed at a much earlier age than sugar pines, but trees under 12 or 14 inches in diameter seldom bear very heavily. The seed is shed in the fall and usually germinates the same season- Yellow pine is not very particular about seed bed and may be found germinating on the bare mineral soils, but the germination is much better where the seed bed contains more moisture. Often on lum- bered areas within the virgin forest it will be found that young seed- lings are much more abundant on the patches of squaw carpet (Ceano- thus prostratus) than elsewhere. This is undoubtedly due to the mois- ture-retaining qualities of this form of ground cover. Yellow pine seed has a fairly high percentage of germination. Tests made by the Forest Service place it at about 70 per cent. As might be expected from the seeding capacity and hardy char- acter of the species, reproduction and second growth are abundant wherever light is plentiful and seed trees present, provided, of course, fire is absent. Yellow pine may be found reproducing even under the heavy virgin stands, but lack of light prevents its surviving beyond the first few years. Under partial shade the yellow pine will hang on in a suppressed condition much longer, but it is in the large openings made by lumbering or fire that reproduction is at its best. The full light to which the species is partial and its ability to withstand DESCRIPTION OF THE SPECIES. 21 ‘drought, combined with its rapid height growth, render it particularly adapted to occupy such areas, oftentimes to the exclusion of almost all other species. It is this fact that either has entirely changed or is changing the character of the stand on areas where lumbering is car- ried on, so that the relative amount of yellow pine in the future Sierra forests bids fair to greatly exceed that in the present virgin stand. In its power to resist fire, yellow pine surpasses all its associates. The young trees, as in the case of other species, are easily killed or per- manently injured by fire, but with the larger and mature trees the thickness of the bark is an excellent protection against ground fires, and even after the bark has been burned through on one side the tree usually continues to thrive. Mature trees are sometimes killed by fire, or sufficiently injured by it to fall victims to insect attacks, but this is the case only when the fire is excessively hot and the crown is more or less affected. While not so free from injury by natural enemies as the sugar pine, yellow pine does not, as a rule, suffer greatly in this way. Wind does very little damage to the species. Wind-shake is not common, and, outside of a few very exposed ridges, the total effect of wind on the tree is so shght as to scarcely deserve mention. Yellow pine often suffers, however, from fungus diseases. Among the mature trees conk, or red heart, is fairly common, and very old trees which have been injured by fire will almost invariably be found to be more or less affected by red heart, which is due to a fungus (Z7rametes pini). Generally, however, the yellow pine, except overmature trees and those that have suffered from some other form of injury, seems to be exception- ally free from fungus diseases within its California range. Like the other Sierra conifers, the yellow pine is a host plant for the parasite Arceuthobium occidentale. It is more subject to it than sugar pine, though less so than cedar or fir. Most of the damage done is to the limbs, which become crooked and gnarled and eyventu- ally die. Yellow pine suffers from insect attacks probably more than any other western conifer. Doctor Hopkins says of it in his report on his western trip: It has in Dendroctonus brevicomis a most pernicious enemy, which penetrates and exca- vates winding galleries through the living bark of the finest trees, speedily causing their death. Very many trees have died and are dying from this cause, and the dead ones are contributing to the spread of forest fires. Its next greatest enemy is the pine butterfly, which has from time to time defoliated and caused the death of much of the best yellow-pine timber in eastern Washington and in Idaho. There are many secondary enemies of greater or lesser importance among the Scolytid genera Pityophthorus, Pityogenes, X yloterus, Tomicus, Hylastes, and Hylurgops, which con- tribute to the death of trees primarily injured by defoliating and other insects, fire, and other causes. Numerous Buprestid and Cerambycid enemies of the wood and bark contrib- we) SUGAR PINE AND YELLOW PINE IN CALIFORNIA. ute to the unhealthy condition of the timber and the destruction of the wood. Coleopterous larvee infest the terminal twigs of young trees near Moscow, Idaho, and one or more Curculi- onid beetles breed in the bark at the base of young and old trees. , The Dendroctonus mentioned by Doctor Hopkins has already done considerable damage in the neighborhood of McCloud, Cal., and has commenced its depredations in the Yosemite region. Tomicus con- fusus, the species which kills fire-injured young sugar pines, is also found in young thickets of yellow pine wherever fire has injured them. It seems probable that in the near future the frequency of insect attacks on the yellow pine will become a very serious factor in dealing with the forests, since their relation to lumbering and fire is such that in many places the conditions are ripe for their increase. Yellow pine when growing pure seems in greater danger of widespread destruc- tion than when mixed with other species, and the increasing number of pure yellow pine stands is an additional menace of danger from this source. a Aside from the three sources of injury already mentioned, yellow pine has few enemies, nor does it suffer much from grazing or the like. An injury, the cause of which has ceased but the effect of which is still visible in Butte and Tehama counties, is that caused by boxing. During the civil war most of the yellow pine in the region was boxed for turpentine, the high price of which made this a profitable under- taking. After the war, when the price for turpentine was again normal, it ceased to be profitable to exploit the western yellow pine for this purpose. The quality of the timber cut from these boxed trees, however, has been greatly lowered, owing to this early boxing, GROWTH. The following tables show the growth of sugar pine and yellow pine in height, diameter, and volume. Tables V and VI show the diameter breasthigh and the total height for sugar and yellow pine at different ages. The growth for yellow pine is shown in two localities, the first in northern California and the second in central California. | It will be seen that sugar pine is rather slow in both height and diameter growth up to the fortieth year, when both increase rapidly and continue for the next hundred years. This is due to the fact that most of the sugar pines have been shaded more or less in their early youth. For this reason it is believed that, under a suitable system of management, the sugar pine will have a much more rapid erowth than that shown in the tables. This belief is borne out by the fact that trees grown under more favorable conditions show far better growth than the average which is shown in the tables. GROWTH. ey Yellow pine, it will be seen, has a much more rapid height and diameter growth than sugar pine, but this growth begins to fall off more rapidly, and at the age of one hundred years or more it is sur- passed by the sugar pine, which maintains its growth much longer and attains a ereater maximum height and diameter. TaBLeE V.—Rate of growth in diameter and height of sugar pine. | | Diame- | Diame- | eee Le Tas F ee ee CCT) clare = Age. | preast- | Height. A ge A OnRE | Height. | 7 | high. | dane ola | | | | Years. | Inches. Feet. Years. | Inches. | Feet. LOSS (ete) 7 TON ee 20.9 | 103 20ES Ses 2.5 15 20 See | 23.0 | 113 30 Be Sri 3) 22 si), fue 24.9 | 122 Aiea a 5.8 | 29 14055: 26.6 128 Geeeace (eSin| 39 1505 2eee 28.2 134 COMA 9.9 | 49 (con 29.3 | 138 (UE eeetee 12:2 60 TO 30.4 | 140 SQeases 14.4 ORS eal 80 ose | 31.4 | 143 SOR» 16.5 Ls | eae Oe emer One| 144 LOOR==== tS ering Al AUD case | 32.4 | 144 TaBLe VI.—Rate of growth in diameter and height of yellow pine. { | Butte County . Madera County. Age, | Diameter | Diameter aoe | breast. | Height. breast- Height. high. high. | | = | | Years. | Inches. | Feet. Inches. Feet. LORE eee | 0.4 | 6 56) 6 20S ee | Dede i 12 4.0 20 30 Se ARE 19 te2 38 | AO pee 6.5 29 10.0 51 | DOS eas: 8.9 | 44 12.4 GES 60.ASe 11.4 57 14.3 68 LOE 13.8 69 16.0 75 SORES: 16.1 79 17.4 81 igs ere. 18.1 87 18.9 87 LOO nese 20.0 94 20.3 94 WO eee Pl a7 99 21.4 100 120 Aa 23E3 104 22.5 105 180). 2s. 24.6 108 23.6 111 TAQ ee 25.8 112 24.6 116 150s 27.0 115 PAD) 120 1605 28.0 | 118 26.4 123 17O=e 29.0 | 121 Qe? 126 SO Rese 29.8 | 123 28.0 128 10 ee 30.6 | 125 28.7 130 20025 = 31.3 | 127 29.4 132 | ! | Tables VII and VIII show the average logged volume of sugar pine and western yellow pine for trees of different diameters, scaled by the Spalding Log Rule. It will be noted that yellow pine runs somewhat higher throughout. This is due to the fact that the cull from charred butts is greater in the case of sugar pine, whereas the yellow pine loses very little from this cause. 24 SUGAR PINE AND YELLOW PINE IN CALIFORNIA. TaB_e VII.—V olume of sugar pine. ~ Diameter| Trees un- | Trees over Diameter Trees over breast- |der100feet| 100 feet | breast- | 100 feet high. high. high. | high. high. Inches. | Board feet.| Board feet. | Inches. | Board feet. L2ot ee 20 4) see oe lee cee 2,025 ISseroee 40H ala ee 38 ei 2,175 [4 eee. CO ae ieee eyaeomt os 2,340 [ota ee SO) ae Ba ee AQter ses 2,500 1G es 110 sl eee | 2,665 lly pease 140 175 | 42S ot 2,850 1S See 180 220 a tone | 3,040 195s 225 265i 144 oe 3,220 2) ese 270 SLO pe 4oeee? 3,400 VA is parca te 325 365 AG Sap 3,600 22 375 425 gy ES eee 3,800 ye ey 435 ASS tril hc48 Se 4,000 DAS cris ie 500 550 AG Bea 4,215 De eee 565 630 OO eseee 4,440 Owns <5) 640 THUGS ii Ge oe 4,675 DD ferries 715 800 De rere 4,900 PAeWie boa 790 900 98 ea 5,150 PM eae Bio 875 1,000 By ewes 5, 400 5 ethene 950 1,110 Hien eee 5,675 Beets 1,040 15225 DOR Eeee| 5,975 Be etree 25 1,350 BY ee eee 6,275 332 ee eee eee 1,475 Ge cdesc 6,600 oy: eee | Aeseek eee aa 1,610 bose eo: 6,900 SO tee Snes Nem eee 1,750 60st e se 7,215 SOLS SRA eee 1,875 TaBLeE VIII.—V olume of western yellow pine. : Trees under 100 feet Trees over 100 feet Diame- high. high. ber: precast Butte | Madera Butte Madera ets County. | County. County. County. Inches.| Board feet.| Board feet. Board feet.| Board feet. TD Saris | eae saa PATO Woe Nar et ene ee eae hae 20 AQi EVES Sa ese At eee le heenen ee eee 14s 45 6025S ee Soe iene 15. 75 SONG Eee ee Ser ot rece Seer 16. 105 A Bend tee et een bh eee oe 3 oe Wee 150 155 200 vee eee ASee 200 195 } 2852 Abe Pees ae 19_. 260 250 | A 3 a dares eae 20ers 325 315 | 405 450 Ai ee 400 380 | 470 520 PB 470 450 540 595 WB e 540 530 615 685 Dane 615 610 700 780 PAS | 690 695 790 885 26 eee 770 770 900 995 Pf an ee 850 850 | 1,020 1,120 28 - - 930 925 1,150 e255 29... PAOLO seks a5. eee 1,290 1,400 300: LR O90 sre Sees 1,460 1,545 Sle 17 0 een nee Bnet 1,635 1,710 32. L250 ee See 1,810 1,895 Be ee a ee Thee ee eet Dene 1 Deal aeee ane eee Bde SIE Cee eae ieee ane oe DIO se ier ae Sone SO ee ee oe ee Eee 25 SOU Ba See rete BO) 2a UL ees Sn Set Se ee eee 25 O20 LS iaee 3 hee eee BY Peet Rapier rsa eerie Seer Ze: epee oe ees BS Saal See ae Se Wa ee oe ae Pete eit ae geodase Be ah naeee genee Ste meee OHO Reaeote doce AQ E Sccshe 2 ia Saree ne ete oe 332A ee ens Ses ae AUS AAC ee cee Soe ear eye to Bee aaa te es Sot 7 as| bee Rae talehe Sy 0 Se PE ee 33605 <2 oes 2 Fe tac gee ee Re ee Gt eed 35 O00 oa sen eee 7 eee cea 8 oe Seas ec 300s 8 ces tee CAG tie Sewers earn oi a ce ee Oe AM Oge at ee set ee AG eR ey Oe | Seo eta, ee 4 (350 ia fe See ee Woon. 25 Table IX shows the relation between height and diameter for both sugar pine and yellow pine. It will be seen that the two are remark- ably close, though the sugar pine tends to be slightly taller in pro- portion to its diameter than the yellow pine. TaBLe [X.—Comparative heights of sugar pine and western yellow pine. | ae Yellow pine. | aaeae Yellow pine. IDiane— |e Shee | Diame- : veer Es, cs Butte Madera | Butte eee Butte | Madera Butte high. | County. | County. | County. || high. County. | County. | County. | | ss | Height. | Height. | Height. | Height. | Height. | Height. | | | | | rare TGEESs \\ — INA | L0G I REGS I EO ES Feet. Feet. | Feet. Wee teee| 8 8 | 7 Zier 103 98 | 97 Dre eee 13 te 10 PPR 108 103 | 100 ee ee 7 16 14 Dayan age 113 108 | 103 Bee ee 21 20 | Pal ah A 118 113 | 106 ae 26 25 | PAA COTES Oe 122 118 . | 109 Geese | 30 31 | 27 PAD cue 126 122 | 113 Tere. 35 37 Sapalleiore sek: 130 1250 115 (Baers | 40 42 | 39 28a toe | 134 128 118 Quins s: | 44 47 45 ON ame | 137 131 121 1O Ze 49 él 50 SOR see | 140 134 124 dik Retina 54 55 Sie ||| 7 al ee 142 136 126 We cesee 59 | 59 | 61 Bem 144 138 129 le Sees 64 63 65 Sis docae 145 140 131 Ie oke 68 67 70 By eee 146 142 134 Lege ees 73 71 74 Beoee ae 147 | 143 136 aera 7 75 79 SO Sua 148 145 139 eseBed 83 79 83 Shee 150 | 146 141 Ikoese ae 88 83 86 Sse alee Toes 147 144 I) ceSae 93 88 90 SORE REE 15 2is4 148 146 7A ee ae | 96 | 93 94 ArT: 152 | 149 148 | | WoopD. SUGAR PINE. The wood of sugar pine is soft, straight grained, and easily worked. It is very resinous, and the resin ducts are large and conspicuous. The heartwood is light brown in color, while the sapwood is yellowish white. When finished, the wood has a satiny luster that renders it excellent for interior finishings. The specific gravity of the dry timber is 0.3684, and rough dry timber averages about 2.5 pounds to the board foot. In contact with the soil sugar pine shows moderately durable qualities, although this might prove less apparent in a climate not so dry as that of California. In brief, sugar pine closely approaches the eastern white pine in its physical characteristics. The following table, the figures for which were taken from the Tenth Census Report, will show the relation between the two woods: Ultimate Ultimate | Resistance Coefficient > ' transverse) resistance F of | to inden- eerie re strength | tolong | Dre elasticity. IR crushing. tation. | A tae = eel SUSAN ra = sree em a Se ee ie ae eee eet ea | 794 255 | 3,382 1,244 WUE GS DIN Gey a en eee ees 82S es See ee 5 851 | 267 | 6,219 | 1,194 Specifie gravity: USM DIMG Sat erscte ws cere ee elec e cme woth waata s clo ernie bel ctotelsalcim oe bing eae cele ace cate es 0.3689 NY C/U EEN OD US ee ge ee ty ee A I Ed ne ee ae Dey: .3854 26 SUGAR PINE AND YELLOW PINE IN CALIFORNIA. Although these figures are not based on a sufficient number of tests to make them conclusive, they are accurate enough to indicate that the two woods are very close, though the eastern white pine is a trifle the stronger. On the whole, it seems safe to say that sugar pine is slightly inferior to white pine in quality as well as in strength, for it is more brittle, and its large, conspicuous resin ducts are some- what of a detraction. Sugar pine timber has an almost endless variety of uses. It is used extensively for doors, blinds, sashes, and interior finish. In ‘pattern work sugar pine is largely replacing white pine, as it is cheaper and its softness and straight grain render it an excellent substitute. Its freedom from odor or taste causes the wood to be much used in the manufacture of druggists’ drawers. Other common uses are for oars, moldings, ship work, chain boards, bakery work, cooperage, and woodenware—in short, for almost any purpose for which white pine is used. The poorest grades are used extensively for boxes, especially fruit boxes, and for drying-tray slats. The wood is still used for making shakes (a hewed shingle 36 inches by 6 inches), and its straight grain and the ease with which it splits have made this in the past almost the first use for which the tree was sought. Logs too knotty to cut uppers, but otherwise sound and straight grained, are sometimes turned into bolts for match wood. YELLOW PINE. The wood of yellow pine varies as greatly as do the silvical charac- teristics of the tree. In one locality alone four kinds of trees are dis- tinguished, the classification based largely on the character of the wood. The wood is rather heavy as compared with that of sugar pine, is hard and strong, sometimes brittle, and very resinous. The heartwood is reddish brown, and the sapwood yellowish white and often very thick. The sapwood from certain trees, when finished, has a beautiful satiny luster, is ight and easily worked, and is equal to sugar pine for finishing purposes. Yellow pine has a specific gravity when dry of 0.4715, and rough dry lumber weighs about 2.7 pounds per board foot. It is thus con- siderably heavier than sugar pine and is proportionately stronger. Yellow pine has a great variety of uses, especially where a strong, durable wood is desired. It is extensively used for building materials, such as scantling, beams, flooring, ceiling, etc., railroad ties, door stock, and matches. Small trees 6 inches, 8 inches, and 10 inches in diameter are extensively used in some localities for mine props; in fact, the use of yellow pine for mining timber was one of its earliest uses. RELATIVE IMPORTANCE OF SPECIES. 27 COMMERCIAL IMPORTANCE. An idea of the relative commercial importance of yellow and sugar pine may be gained from a few statistics of cut. According to the Twelfth Census, the total timber cut in California for the year 1900 was 864,665,000 board feet, made up as follows: Feet. Wien ernie sopeeee ees Sor 2 PS. 289, 095.000 SSeS IG ee eee Pee a eae re eet 32-52, 308; 000 ieeemmnches Gere enn periess 02 ee Pa oe ee ct 2 - 486; 191-000 Rete spuclesuees eee 2s S25 LE ese coe 37, 071, 000 (pe hae SS se ae ee ae 864, 665, 000 The total cut for the year 1904 was, in round numbers, 900,000,000 feet, as follows: Feet. Beco piesste eee ae eee so: 289, 000, 000 Sa nN oe = 120, 000) O00 ied wanda s a ween aso See Ss ees. 2. 2 = 2-% “400, 000; 000 Wikerspeetes == ees ees eee So et = 2. 2.’ 90;,000; 000 The yellow pine cut has remained practically stationary, while that of sugar pine has more than doubled. The increase in the cut of sugar pine is natural, owing to the increased demand for the species, but as yellow pine is always cut in conjunction with sugar pine it is not so apparent why yellow pine should have remained stationary. This, however, is probably due to two causes: First, yellow pine has followed a slight slump in the market, and the mills cutting yellow pine chiefly have curtailed their output, especially as the season of 1904 was somewhat shortened by early and late rains; sugar pine, on the other hand, has remained steadier in price; in fact the demand for the upper grades has at times almost exceeded the supply; second, yellow and sugar pine are very closely united in the market, and the steadier prices for sugar pine have doubtless led to the marketing of better qualities of yellow pine (or white pine, as it is known in the market) under the name of sugar pine, thus swelling the figures for the sugar pine output and decreasing those for yellow pine. Redunod, according to the tables, shows a falling off, due, doubt- less, to the fact that there has been a slight slump in the redwood market during the past year and also to the fact that the production of redwood has nearly reached its height. The increase in the cut of other species is largely due to the increase in the use of white fir and incense cedar, and is a part of the general growth of the lumber industry within the State. Yellow and sugar pine together form very nearly one-half the out- put of the State, oad if the amount of other species cut by the sugar and yellow pine mills is considered, they form more than half the lumber industry of the State. This division of the industry, namely, redwood on one hand and sugar and yellow pine on the other, is a 28 SUGAR PINE AND YELLOW PINE IN CALIFORNIA. veographical one and extends to the mills and market as well. From a market or commercial standpoint sugar pine and yellow pine may. therefore be considered by themselves. Of the total cut of yellow and sugar pine, about 55 per cent is cut by 8 mills, while the rest of the cut is distributed among 30 or 40 smaller mills. Of all the sugar pine cut in the State, over 70 per cent is cut by 5 companies, which cut sugar pine chiefly, and the rest of the cut is distributed among 15 or more companies. : The most important factor of the sugar and yellow pine market is the competition of Washington and Oregon lumber, which has practi- cally driven these two woods out of the general California market and entirely out of the San Francisco market. This is due to the cheap- ness of Oregon and Washington lumber, and to the fact that the San Francisco market can be reached at a smaller cost for transporation by the Oregon and Washington lumbermen than it can by the Califor- nia sugar and yellow pine producers. For example, the water freight rate per thousand feet from Portland to San Francisco is but $3.25, while the average rate per thousand for rail shipments from the San Joaquin and Sacramento valleys is $5. The extent of the compe- tition may be realized when it is known that 700,000,000 feet were shipped into California last year, and although a large part was undoubtedly reshipped, a good proportion remained in the State. To meet this competition and to open up markets outside the State, the sugar pine and yellow pine producers have organized what is known as the California Sugar and White Pine Agency. This agency to some extent regulates the output and prices, but actually handles but 35 per cent of the total output, and this 35 per cent is wholly made up of the upper grades. These grades are for the most part marketed outside the State, the sugar pine going largely to the eastern seaboard, where it is sold for from $50 to $65 per thousand and competes with corresponding grades of eastern white pine. In fact, there is at present very little trouble in marketing the better grades of this timber. Some sugar pine also is distributed through the Middle West, where it goes to supply sash, door, and blind factories, and the like. Very little sugar pine goes abroad. The yellow pine competes to some extent in the Los Angeles market, but it has rather lost ground to Oregon fir in the last few years. The principal market hes throughout the Middle West, where it competes successfully with southern pines. Last year about 5,000,000 feet of the upper grades were exported. Of this, 4,000,000 feet went to Aus- tralia and New Zealand, while the remainder went to Europe by way of Galveston, principally to Liverpool, Belfast, and Glasgow. It is in the marketing of the lower grades, however, that the sugar and ‘‘white’’ pine producer meets the greatest difficulty. The freight rates—75 cents per hundred pounds to the Atlantic seaboard and 60 PLATE IV. lture. of Agricu Bul. 69, Forest Service, U. S. Dept. Pee! al ear ne ance is made for swelled butts, fire scars, etc. Charred trees, particu- larly sugar pine, are not long butted, except in extreme cases, but in scaling the butt logs from such trees a liberal allowance is made for cull. The bases of trees left are, wherever possible, cleared of brush and other débris, and the trees are protected from injury during logging operations. After logging, a space is cleared around those trees which have débris within 30 feet of their bases. If trees are felled with their tops together the labor of piling is greatly decreased, and it is possible to perform the whole operation at a cost of not more than 25 cents per 1,000 feet of timber cut. CONCLUSION. From the preceding study it is plain that conservative management of the sugar and yellow pine forests of California is practicable. The greatest obstacle to securing a future crop of timber is fire, but it is believed that effective fire protection is possible, and at a reasonable cost. With this accomplished and with a sufficient number of seed trees left after lumbering, the ground will soon become stocked with young growth. Since this report was written the city of San Francisco has been almost entirely destroyed by earthquake and fire. What effect this will have on the local lumber market it is yet too early definitely to say. There is little doubt, however, that any increased demand will chiefly affect redwood and Washington and Oregon fir, whereas the market for sugar pine and yellow pine will not be affected sufficiently to modify or make incorrect any of the statements or conclusions made in this report. O x. one prac Pe ie La