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BY ELI Kee Rice,

(Read before the American Philosophical Society, November 16 and Decem-
ber 7, 1877.)

By the will of André Francois Michaux, the American Philosophical So-
ciety is, to the extent of the means afforded by his legacy, charged with
the trust, to contribute in this country ‘‘to the extension and progress of ag-
riculture, and more especially in Sylviculture in the United States.’’ This
Society, also, by its Charter is under the obligation of diffusing useful
knowledge ; and few subjects can be more useful than the cultivation of
trees.

It becomes us, therefore, to consider how we can promote the cultivation
of trees in this country ; how make that cultivation subserve the interests
of agriculture ; and in what manner, and how widely we may fulfill these
duties, and diffuse useful knowledge upon these subjects.

Mr. Michaux, as well as his father, spent his life in acquiring knowl-
edge of trees, and wrote his volumes to describe them, not only to promote
science, but to teach their uses and value as timber. He has intended that
we should do more. He intended that we should promote the growth of
trees, and also extend the growth of agriculture ; by the influence of tree-
culture upon climate, soil and the water supply, whereby to increase the
food of man and beast, and thereby to multiply the population of the
world.

In a revoked will he had suggested the purchase of land, and the plant-
ing of it with trees. In this he no doubt intended the exhibition of many
varieties of kinds to give a scientific knowledge of them, and also intended
that the groves there planted should be a centre of distribution of trees and
their fruits. This idea has been held in view by this Society when it
placed half the income of the legacy at the disposal of the Fairmount Park
Commissioners, for the purchase, planting and distribution of trees and tree
seeds. With half the income applied in this manner a more extensive good
can be effected than by a separate application of the whole by the Society,
which would of necessity have been at a more distant place, to be seen
by a few only in the time that a thousand will see the trees in the Fair-
mount Park, and obtain their seeds. In that Park the name of the Testa-
tor has been honored by the plantings commenced in the ‘‘ Michaux
Grove,’’ while thousands of trees procured by his provision are in the
Nursery, waiting to be transplanted over the Park, of nearly three thou-
sand acres, and elsewhere. These add to the variety of our plantings, and
to the self sown trees of the native woods, thus adding increased attrac-
tions for botanists and lovers of the landscapes.

When Mr. Michaux extended his views to agriculture in connection with
tree-culture, we must believe that he had in mind the influences of trees

7

upon climate, the supply of rain and retention of water as means of growth
of grass, the cereals and other crops. Let us consider then what are those
influences, and how far, as beneficent, they are within the control of man ;
not that the means placed at our disposal by Mr. Michaux, can, in the trees
they will plant, soon greatly influence climate, soil and rains; yet by af-
fording a perpetual source of supply of trees, a perpetual example and dif-
fusion of knowledge to others, no one can prescribe limits, in space or
time, to the good these limited means may effect.

The Society will, therefore, I think, pardon me for taking a wide survey,
for it and all others to fill in its outlined work, according to the measure
of their ability, and in the aggregate, all may do a great good, that would
not be attempted if the sphere of operation were not widely opened, and
the necessity of co-operative action, and the ways and means of success,
were not explained, to be kept in view at present, and in a long future.
With our duty mapped out, we and our successors will see the surveyed
field of operations, and will be stimulated by the grandeur and beneficence
of the prospect opened for good to our fellow beings.

It cannot be doubted that Nature will ever willingly do her part of the
work if not thwarted by man; nay, will do it exuberantly. The great
need is to regulate and restrain his excess of destruction. Before man
came upon the earth it had been densely covered by vegetation ; hence its
pervading coal measures, lignites, and stores of oil that have been pre-
served under the rocks to await the age of human intelligence necessary to
develop them. In that age happily we live.

We may well believe that the earliest of our race found our world covered
with forests ; except in those places unfitted for their growth. These were
the polar regions, where ice cuts off the growth of trees; the mountain
crests where both cold and want of soil prevent all growth of trees, and
arid deserts. Whether we may give trees to the deserts is only a question
of procuring water and soil. Yet the seemingly barren lands cast up by
the sea can be made to bear forests, and to flourish in vegetation.

Before man’s appearance, the great enemies of forest life did not exist.
He alone could invent the axe and light the fire. Forests were then in ex-
cess of man’s needs, and were utilized in fossil coal. What evil he has done
with the axe and fire, and how such evil may be repaired, we have to con-
sider. True, the woods grow for legitimate uses ; for timber, for habita-
tions, the mechanic arts and fuel; but not for wasteful destruction. They
must also be felled for needful space and soil to grow the food that man
and beast may live ; but not destroyed to an extent to put the supply of the
food of life in peril ; or to so lessen it as to lessen population. In regions
covered with timber capable of tillage, in excess of that point which will
support the largest population in prosperity, clearing, without waste of
what can be utilized, becomes a duty ; but to exceed that point is a wrong
to humanity. In this we have the practical test that the wise and good
will observe, Life to the greatest number of happy people is the moral and
scientific problem and test of duty, as we must believe that such purpose
was the intent of the Creator.

3

Taking in hand the light of History, let us pass over historic grounds to
see what man has done to destroy the forests, and how and where he may
prevent and remedy such devastations. Beginning at the supposed cradle
of our race, we find in the books of the Bible and contemporary histories
frequent mention of the presence of forests, the coverts of wild beasts, and
accessible woods to answer instant requisitions for timber for building
houses, bridges, towers and rams; of trees for shade and fruit, and fuel ;
and branches of trees upon which to hang malefactors. There were the
cedars, firs, shittim wood, terebinth, sycamores, and oaks, upon moun-
tains and plains, and the sacred groves upon the hills where the heathen
worshiped, in a measure protected as sacred by religion and superstition ;
but in after time these were unavailing to save them. The fig, the date,
the palm and the olive were better preserved, as necessities for food, and
willows sprang spontaneous along the edges of the water.

Hesiod lived about a thousand years before Christ. Speaking of Peace,
Justice and Prosperity, he says :

“No days of famine to the righteous fall,

But all is plenty, and delightful all;

Nature indulgent o’er their land is seen,

With oaks high towering are their mountains green :
With heavy mast their arms diffusive bow

While from their trunks rich streams of honey flow.”

Thus described were they as seen, as he watched his flock and courted
the Muses on Helicon. And again Hesiod describes a wooded country
when he speaks of the north wind; says of it :

“ Bellowing through Thrace, tears up the lofty woods,
Hardens the earth, and binds the rapid floods!

The mountain oak, high towering to the skies,

Torn from his roots across the valley lies;

Wide spreading ruin threatens all the shore,

Loud eroans the earth, and all the forests roar.”

The beasts ;

“Through Woods, and through the shady vale they run
To various haunts, the pinching cold to shun:

Some to the thicket of the forest flock,

And some, for shelter, seek the hollow rock.”

Evelyn cites with satisfaction that when Xerxes passed conqueror
through Achaia, he would not suffer his army to violate a tree; “it being
observed by the Ancients that the gods never permitted him to escape un-
punished who injured groves.”’

Near five hundred years before Christ, Eschylus makes the Chorus sing
to Prometheus Bound,

“Thy woes, beneath the sacred shade

Of Asia’s pastured forests laid,

The chaste inhabitant bewails,

Thy groans re-ecboing through his plaintive vales.”

And nearly five hundred years after the Christian Era, Basil the Great

4

writing to Gregory the Great, from the Isis that empties into the south
side of the Black Sea, thus describes his home in that part of Asia Minor :
‘‘A high mountain clothed with thick woods, is watered to the north by
fresh and ever flowing streams. At the foot lies an extended plain, ren-
dered fruitful by the vapors with which it is moistened. The surrounding
forest, crowded with trees of different kinds, encloses me as ina strong
fortress.’’ Humbolt’s Cosmos, 393.

Herodotus had thus nine hundred years before described the country
further to the East. ‘This part of Media, towards Saspires, is high and
mountainous, and abounding with forests ; the rest of the country is a
spacious plain,”

Of the north of Africa Herodotus says, ‘‘ All the more western parts of
Libya, are much more woody, and more infested with wild beasts, than that
where the Libyan Nomades reside ; for the abode of these latter advane-
ing eastward, is low and sandy. From hence westward, where those in-
habit who till the ground, it is mountainous, full of wood, &c.’’ (Ch. 99;
Sec. 191.)

Libya, or the region called Tripoli, extending from Egypt to Tunis, in
the early Christian centuries while under Roman rule, was productive and
populus, and when overrun by the followers of Mahomet, towards the end
of the eighth century, was reputed to contain six millions of souls, and
eighty-five Christian Bishops (Dr. F. L. Oswald), and now probably not a
million inhabit the same space. Elesée Recluse says that ‘‘the examina-
tion of the soil and the remains which are contained in it, proves that at a
recent geological epoch, the Sahara was much less sterile than it now is.
The Tribes of the Algerian Sahara say, that at the time of the Romans the
Ouad-Souf was a great river, but some one threw a speli upon it, and it
disappeared. (The Earth, 95.) That spell was an evil one, the destruc-
tion of the forests.

Dr. Oswald says, ‘‘On the plateau of Sidi-Belbez, in the very centre of
the Sahara, Champollion traced the course of former rivers and creeks by
the depressions in the soil and the shape of the smooth-washed pebbles.
He also found tree stumps almost petrified, and covered by a six foot
stratum of burning sand.’’ He quotes Champollion as saying, ‘‘And so
the astounding truth dawns upon us that this desert may once have been
« region of groves and fountains, and the abode of happy millions. Is
there any crime against Nature which draws down a more terrible curse
than that of stripping Mother Earth of her sylvan covering? The hand of
Man has produced this desert, and I verily believe every other desert on the
surface of this earth. Earth was Eden once, and our misery is the punish-
ment of our sins against the world of plants. The burning sun of the
desert is the angel with the flaming sword who stands between us and
Paradise.” How certain, how sad, is this great truth! How awful then
to.think of the millions more who might have lived but for man’s ignor-
ance, and folly and wickedness ; and to reflect upon the incalculable loss
of happiness to those who did live, and have struggled with a deteriorated
Nature for a miserable existence !

5

According to Cesar and Tacitus, middle Europe was found by the Ro-
mans heavily covered with forests, and in Gaul and Britain were the
deeply shaded woods where the Druids had practiced their gloomy religious
rites, and offered in sacrifice the victims of their terrible superstition.

Now pass from eastward of Persia westward, and take a survey of both
sides of the Mediterranean as far as the Atlantic ocean, and we behold
countries on every hand stripped of their forests, with decrease of rains,
with fallen rivers, extended deserts, and depleted populations. This
change from plenty to poverty is justly ascribed mainly to the destruction
of the forests, which exposed the lands to a burning sun. The waters
were dried up, and the soil was washed away by floods, or driven off by
the winds, or covered over by ever drifting sands.

The following are the percentages of woodlands left in the once densely
timbered countries of Europe where forests have not been adequately pro-
tected : Naples, 9.43 ; Sardinia, 12.29 ; Italy, 20.7 ; Spain, 5.52 ; Portugal,
4.40; France, 16.79; Belgium, 18.52; Holland, 7.10; Denmark, 5.50 ;
Great Britain, 5; Switzerland, 15; while Germany yet has 26.}; Russia
in Europe, 40; Sweden, 60 ; and Norway 66 per cent. of their surface in
forests.

The lessons taught us by the other continents of the Eastern Hemis-
phere, are both to avoid the cause of aridity, and to repair in time the
mischiefs caused by man’s improvidence. We have in the west our ‘‘bad
lands,’’ our natural deserts, grassless and treeless, for want of water, and
our grass covered prairies, also treeless, which can only be made productive
of trees by the presence of water, and the absence of fires. Waters must
be had by rains, or be drawn from the earth, or saved in reservoirs or
tanks, to be spent in irrigation. We also have our exhausted lands on the
Atlantic seaboard, which only need rest from tillage, and to be sown with
the seeds and planted with forest trees.

What we can do for these may be seen by observing what has been be-
gun to be done in other countries, not more favorably situated, where men
have yet life and energy sufficing to repair ancestral delinquency. France
has taken alarm and has begun the work of reparation. John Croumbie
Brown has published a book of 351 pages entitled, ‘*Reboisement in
France,’’ in which he describes the evils suffered, and the remedies
of prevention and restoration. He shows the effect of stripping the
mountains in east France of their trees has been to increase snow
and land slides, which destroying that set in motion, also destroys that
swept over in the descent, and that covered by the deposit. When
the rains come, or the snows melt, the torrents come quick, are rapid and
resistless. They undermine the banks, and carry destruction with them.
Nature here again begins the work of restoration by scattering the seeds of
the forest, and men have learned the wisdom of co-operating with Nature,
and of letting her more alone. They now protect the forests, and the forests
promote ‘infiltration, retention, and percolation of water through the soil
and subsoil, on which they grow.’ p. 38,50. In other Departments the like

6

success has been attained as in the High Alps. Where the trees grow, the
springs flow ; where cut down the springs dry up, and the streams grow
less in their channels. There is less rain fall, and the soil retains less of
what falls.

On the west side of France from the Gironde to Bayone, are the Landes,
or Sand-dunes, which are sands carried inland from the seashore by the
winds, until they cover 2,500,000 acres, and threatened to engulf the de-
partments of Landes and Gironde. These, however, have been planted
with the pine and other trees, and the forests now protect the country be-
hind them, and the sands have been considerably subdued by cultivation,
and arrested in their inward progress.

In Algerian Africa the French Engineers, from 1856 to 1864, had dug
eighty-three wells, which together yielded nearly twelve millions of gal-
lons of water per minute, sufficient to nourish 125,000 palm trees. (The
Earth, by Elisée Reclus, 95) ; so that even the desert may be made to yield
fountains of water, and can be clothed with arborial fruit and verdure ;
and it may be in this way that our treeless regions of the Far West can be
attacked by American enterprise. Our warm south and south-west would,
with supply of rain and irrigation, yield greatly increased quantities of
semi-tropical fruit and forest trees of most valuable kinds.

It is the work of reparation of the wrong that man has done to Nature,
and the prevention of the repetition of such wrong, that must now be the
subject of our consideration, practical action, and admonition to others.

Let us first be sure that we are acting upon a true theory. There are
those who think that forests have but little or no influence in producing or
attracting rains; men whose opinions are entitled to great consideration
and respect. Yet we well know that whenever the currents of air, laden
with the moisture of evaporation, strike the cooler mountains, rain is pre-
cipitated. So woods, we may believe, may be so elevated and cool as to
produce showers from clouds charged near to the point of precipitation, as
the dew falls by a slight difference of temperature between day and night.

Men in the valley or plain often do see clouds pass over them to fall as rain
on hills and woods more elevated. We know too that countries have less
rain-fall by reason of the deprivation of their forests. Travelers so report of
Malta, the Cape Verde Islands, St. Helena, and in Aragua, Venezuela, ac-
cording to Humbolt ; and in Egypt, where the date palm and the olive have
of recent time been plentifully planted, the rains have become more fre-
quent : (Dr. Franklin B. Hough’s Report to Congress in 1874, p. 21). Dr.
Oswald reports that a rise has taken place in Egypt in the annual rain-fall,
from 9 to 16 inches, since the increased planting of trees.

It is quite certain that trees preserve the waters in the ground, and
maintain the flow of the springs and streams. If trees be felled, and the
sun be let in, the ground is dried, and its moisture is carried away by
evaporation instead of percolating into the earth to reach the channels of
the springs, and these also dry up. If the springs fail, the rivulets must
fail, and rivers must full.

7

Reclus says, ‘* Trees, after they have received the water upon their foli-
age, let it trickle down drop by drop on the gradually softened earth, and
thus facilitate the gentle permeation of the moisture into the substratum ;
another part of the water running down the trunk, and along the roots, at
once finds its way to the lower strata.’’ (The Earth, 223).

The facts are abundant in proof that to part with the trees is to lose the
springs they protect, the running streams the springs supply, and the vol-
ume of the broad river. These lost, all the charm of the landscape has fled,
and then this source of man’s refinement and civilization has also left the
world. With loss of rains and springs the fruitfulness of the earth also
passes away. Grass fails for flock and herd, and the bread of life for
man is no longer sure, and only because man has betrayed his trust.

Australia affords corroborative testimony. In the 7’ribune of December
ist, I find this statement: ‘‘ Mr. Landsborough, an explorer of note, says,
‘Keeping sheep is no longer so profitable there as it used to be, but on the
other hand, large tracts of land that were worthless before, have Jatterly
become fit for agriculture. There is a decided increase of forests and of
moisture in parts of Australia, giving hope that eventually the whole in-
terior desert may be reclaimed. The direct effect of sheep-raising has been
to keep down the tall grass which formerly aflorded material for destruc-
tive fires. The trees, young and old, had been periodically burnt by these
fires, until the country becoming almost treeless, its climate had been ren-
dered arid and its soil sterile. If the facts in Australia can be established,
they will afford the most remarkable instance yet recorded of climate being
modified by the labors and surroundings of civilized man.’ ”’

Trees, better than all else, protect the slopes from washing into gullies,
and the loss of the soil by rains. A carpet of grass will do much to protect
the earth from washing ; but is not impervious to the beatings of storms,
and the small beginnings of erosions ever enlarge their channels by under-
mining the roots of grass. The sides of our hills and the sodded slopes of
railroads show this. The force of the unintercepted drops of the driving
rains dees the work of excoriation. The leaves of the sheltering forest
break the force of the rain, and the arrested waters trickle in slow drops to
the ground, and gradually soak into it without washing the soil. The cov-
ering of the falien leaves also prevents disturbance of the soil, and the
leaves growing above, and those dead below as well, intercept the rays of
the sun, and check evaporation. The retained waters must find their exit
by the springs.

The forests in due proportion are also shelter and protection of the grow-
ing crops of the farmer from the force of driving storms. They are a shel-
ter for grazing cattle, and shelter for house and barn, and man and beast
thus kept warmer thrive better. Trees also shelter trees, and northwardly
planted belts largely increase the growths of nurseries and orchards.

Now what is the due proportion of woodlands? A Duke of Burgundy’s
rule, as quoted by Dr. Oswald, is, ‘‘ One-third to the hunter, two-thirds to
the husbandman.’’ William Penn’s direction to his colonists was, that

5

‘‘in clearing the ground care be taken to leave one acre of trees for every
five acres cleared ; especially to preserve oak and mulberry trees for silk
and shipping.’’ His father, Admiral Penn, would have included in it
‘‘shipping,’’ for the purpose of maintaining a navy ; still an object of our
statesmen so far as iron has not superceded wood.

Thus William Penn’s rule was to leave one for five acres cleared, or 162
per cent. of wood appendaut to each farm ; of course, so much besides
the wooded hills, sand-dunes and mountain tracts. For the entire country,
and for the general good of forestry and agriculture his proportion of
woodland is probably something too small. The proportion of woodlands
in the entire area of these States, taking into consideration water surface,
cities, highways, &c., is 29 per cent.; including Territories, is 25 per cent. ;
showing a disproportion of our Territories to be woodless.

Dr. Hough gives the rule of proportion of wood with reference to the
true test. He says ‘‘ There can be no doubt but that injuries may result,
as well to agricultural interests as to the public, from an excess of forest
growth. It is the highest aim of forestry to attain the golden mean be-
tween too much and too little, and on this due balance of field and grove
depends that equilibrium of health and wealth that promises the greatest
amount of human happiness to the greatest number, and through the
longest period of time.’’ Report, p. 32.

It is impracticable to bring the different States or sections of the United
States to approximate any uniform standard as to the proper proportion of
woodlands. It would generally be unprofitable to attempt to make arable,
steep, stony and rough mountain lands, or poor sandy tracts, or deep
swamps and ever-glades. But it is the interest of all to keep these wooded,
and to reforest the lands worn out by cropping, that they may not become
dry deserts. But every vast continuity of forest should be broken for ag-
riculture, intercourse and security of health, property and life, and regions
of prairie and deserts be made to bear a due proportion of forests.

And farm lands should be interspersed with trees to preserve them in the
best agricultural condition. To do this, few farmers, though they draw their
fuel from the mines, are inclined, by planting areas of cultivated or pastured
fields. This they would not consider economical. But they could with little
loss of useful space, plant the most sunny side of every road passing through
their farms, and thus the farming soil would be little shaded, and the roots
of the trees draw the greater part of their nourishment from the soil under
the highway. The public would be gainers in grateful shade, and the
farmers would have the protection of the roadside trees and their shade ;
and finally, their use as timber as they come to maturity, and are replaced
by renewed plantings. To do so much, an enlightened self-interest should
impel them.

In addition let every farmer keep open and flowing all his springs for drink
for his herds and flocks; plant around them groves of trees, both to pre-
serve the flow of the water, and to afford shade to man and beast.

Every railroad company should plant trees on the sunny side of their line

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of tracks for shade, and for cross-ties and car timber, against the time when
lumber will surely become more scarce ; and should, for its best self-inter-
est, use every device to avoid firing the forests, and use cross-ties that have
been barked, creosoted, kyanized, or “iturated with boiling tar. The in-
terest they have at stake to economize is incalculable.

Legislation is not here suggested, except it be to authorize the roadside
planting ; and, perhaps, counties to offer rewards for such planting. The
functions of our Society in regard to tree planting are two: to diffuse use-
ful knowledge, and to execute the trusts of the Michaux legacy, yet this is
to co-operate in a sphere of action that is boundless and endless. True, our
‘fund is small, but held by a perpetual trustee, its munificence should be
perpetual ; its beneficent effects never cease to spread, and the knowledge
we impart and incentive we give, may bring sympathetic and enduring
aid by many others, by the States, and the United States.

When we consider that trees require the growth of many years; that
large tracts of country are denuded, which can be more profitably used
by reforesting than otherwise, and that to make the reforesting useful and
profitable, there must be choice of trees, and skillin the manner of their
management and care, we must see that no time should be lost. This gen-
eration should begin the work effectively, and enjoin the duty upon those
to follow.

The kinds of trees to be preferred by considerations of durability and
their multifarious uses, are the American White Oak; the American
White Pine ; the American White Ash; the American Elm; the Chest-
nut, Walnut, Hickory and Larch. To this list of trees is to be added the
Ecalyptus, or Blue Gum, of Australia, for its anti-malarial properties, and
for its rapid growth, yet excellent timber. Its wood is white, about as hard,
but a little stronger than the best Eastern Ash. (J. T. Stratton, Ag]. Reps.
of °75, p. 345). The planting and management must be left to professional
skill.

The Massachusetts Society for Promoting Agriculture, who received
two-fifths of the Michaux Estate, have offered prizes for the cultivation of
plantations of not less than five acres, to be planted with the European
Larch, Scotch and Corsican Pine, and American White Ash. The compe-
tition will be likely to exact the use of farm lands, while agricultural
economy requires the chief sowing and planting of trees to be on the stony
places, and profitless sandy spots, such as are often savingly allotted to
bury the dead. These too may be planted with economy and pleasing ef-
fect.

Annexed to their circular is a very valuable Essay by Professor C. 8.
Sargent, Director of the Botanic Garden and Arboretum of Harvard Uni-
versity. This I have read since writing the preceding pages, and the facts
and opinions by him expressed, sustain the foregoing views. He shows by
sufficient testimony that woods do produce rainfalls ; do preserve springs
and rivers ; do protect the soil and crops, nurseries and orchards ; that
sandy lands#though exposed to the fierce winds of the seashore, have pro-

10

duced largely in Massachusetts, the Larch and Scotch Pine, besides Oaks,
Ashes, Maples, Norway Spruce and Austrian and Corsican Pines. He
recommends a protecting belt of trees to be planted on the northern side
of every farm. The proper proportion of forest for Massachusetts he con-
siders to be 25 per cent. Besides the woodlands in the State, there are
nearly two millions of acres of unimproved lands, 1,200,000 acres of which
is admirably suited for forest growth, the value of the timber on which, in
fifty years, could only be reckoned by hundreds of millions. True, this
would devote half the State to Sylviculture ; yet, he thinks it would be its
most profitable use, and be a benefit to that and other States.

Professor Sargent expresses his concern at the rapid destruction of
timber in the United States, as sure to enhance its price, and produce many
agricultural evils. He says, ‘‘ Every year the destruction of the American
forests threaten us with new dangers. Every year renders it more impera-
tive to provide some measures to check the evils which our predecessors in
their ignorance have left us as a legacy,ewith which to begin the second
century of our Republic.”’

The Professor calculates so large a timber profit to his State, besides other
advantages as to make it a moral duty, and patriotic achievement, to engage
in tree planting, and insists that railroad corporations must plant in their
own interest.

If farmers would generally plant one side the highways, and a row or
belt of sheltering trees on the north side of their farms, and they and the
Governments should see that all untillable grounds should be kept in the
growth of timber as far as practicable, exempt from plunder and fires, we
should attain that proportion of trees over the whole country which is re-
quired by the best interests of agriculture and the general good of the ’
people. This should be the aim of all.

In Pennsylvania we have begun no considerable tree planting, except it
be that in Fairmount Park. There, besides previous plantings, the Com-
missioners have planted within eighteen months, 12,082 trees, of the value
of $14,490 ; and have yet in the Nursery 33,304 trees.

From the reserved moiety of the Michaux income, the American Philo-
sophical Society has established in the Park the course of Lectures de-
livered by Dr. Rothrock on Arboriculture and Botany, who dwells em-
phatically upon the importance of woods for the preservation of water and
soil and in protection of agriculture.

Citizens of Pennsylvania have, however, commenced an important Syl-
viculture in Eastern Virginia. Landreth & Co., of Philadelphia, have for
six years and a half been planting 300 acres of black walnuts, and in a few
years will complete some thousand acres in hard wood nut bearing trees.
Mr. Burnet Landreth, a member of the firm, without fear of inciting ri-
valry, and without any apprehension that the growing market for timber
can be overstocked, has published their doings in the Journal of Forestry,
published in London. He seems actuated by the spirit of patriotism more
than the love of profit. He laments that the White Pines of our State have

VT

gone, and those further north-west are rapidly going, leaving no succession
in kind, and the Oaks and Hemlocks are fast departing, which are some-
times cut down to get the bark for the tanner, with but the contingent
chance of selling the wood for cross ties and lumber. When felled both
objects should certainly be secured.

Landreth & Co., buy worn-out lands cheaply ; buy them near navigable
waters, for cheap transportation by water, sow or plant nuts of chestnut,
walnut and hickory, or sow the seeds of the white pine, which they find to
grow in the South, and leave the yeliow pine seeds to sow themselves.
They see a boundless area of timber growth before them and others ; trees
of slow return ; but know that the market will await its maturity, and will
be ever a rising one, as the country shall become more shorn of timber,
denser in population, and more demand the consumption of timber. The
profit awaited will be surely compensatory for capital, labor and interest
thus invested ; and though for many years unproductive of annual income,
the timber crop when it matures will be found to cover all the investment,
with no interest of capital expended, but there self-invested by ligneous
increment. It is an inheritance laid up for heirs ; a good to them ; a good
to the nation. Yet the harvest is not all postponed, and to be but once, at
distant period ; for the process may be one of successive thinnings of small
trees thickly planted, and of old trees of different kinds maturing at dif-
ferent times, thus bringing repetitions of profits. The sowings of nature
and the plantings of man may also be in every successive year, and
different tracts thus yield annual returns as trees are fit to cut. The plant-
ings should be annually repeated as the woods shall be thinned. It should
be a rule, except in needed thinnings, never to cut down thrifty trees that
are yet rapidly making wood. An economical instinct will teach all this
to the provident forest proprietor. As certainly as the axe and portable
saw mills cut up the best timber of the forest, as they surely are rapidly do-
ing, the plantings of man, and the protected growths of nature, should fol-
low with equal pace, with selections of kinds most profitable, except where
cleared land is fit and required for agriculture. The whole country has
but its 25 per cent., while there are excessive quantities in large tracts in
some sections, and no forests in other vast areas. This shows another dis-
tribution of trees must be a work of the future.

Philadelphia should not overlook the interest she has in keeping well
wooded the sources of the Schuylkill, the river that gives her chief supply
of water. The Schuylkill Navigation Company began this beneficent
work of supply of water and wooded protection by building their mag-
nificent mountain reservoirs, and buying wooded tracts, by the shade of
trees to protect the springs that supply them.

It will also be to the interest of the city to build, in the future, more
mountain reservoirs, and protect their supply of trees, that she may have
adequate stores of waters, there to meet the exigency of summer drouths,
when here population shall have increased. The secured wooded water
sheds, and the plantings in progress in Fairmount Park subserve the same

12

purpose ; but with the city’s growth her needs will increase of conserving
her water supply at a distance, that our second beautiful river may con-
tinue adequate to the wants of a metropolis of millions.

Here should be specially brought to notice, the necessity of a vast
amount of tree planting in the prairies and plains that extend over the
central length and breadth of our northern continent. With great depths
of alluvial soil, protected by the heavy prairie grasses, which through
the centuries have annually added their decaying richness to the vegetable
mould, the rolling or flat prairie regions have but occasional groups of
trees. The cause of the absence of trees seems to have been the frequent
fires that swept over the prairies, for wherever protected by the settlers
from fire a thick and flourishing growth of trees springs up, and the plant-
ings also thrive.

The prairies need trees the more, to induce precipitation of rain, 2nd to
protect the soil, springs and streams from evaporation, by reason of the
immense extent of wheat and corn crops now grown in continuous fields
of a thousand or more acres, each spring sown or planted, thus exposing
the bare ground for more than half the year, in the intervals of the crops,
to the drying sun, to be swept away alike by winds and rains. And heavy
belts of growing timber are wanted for more than the attraction and reten-
tion of rain and water ; are wanted to make it something more possible to
arrest the great prairie fires ; and also, to break the force of the storms and
tornadoes that so destructively sweep the central parts of our continent ;
where no sheltering mountains or hills exist to arrest the force, and dis-
perse the winds. Some such benefit has already been perceived and ac-
knowledged.

In the prairie and treeless regions of the central West, where settled, the
settlers have perceived it to be their interest to plant, and to save the spon-
taneous growths of trees, and beyond the incentive of interest, the pleas-
urable occupation has kindled an enthusiasm for Arboriculture. The fires
are fought, and less frequently lighted ; coal, when at hand, is preferably
used for fuel, and the spontaneous second growth is generally better than
the original forests where these had been. In the State of Minnesota,
Martin County, “‘thousands of acres of young timber trees are growing,
some spontaneous, others planted ;”’ in Redwood, ‘‘ The cultivation of
forests on the prairies will amount to from 1 to 20 acres per quarter sec-
tion ;”’ in Steele County, ‘‘Some attention has been given to planting forest
trees, and the interest is on the increase, as the experiments have been
quite successful; many small groves of quick growing varieties being
planted near dwellings ;’ in Watonwan, 1,000 acres are under cultivation,
in groves of from one to 12 acres ; in Nobles County, ‘‘ An association has
been organized, and the children in each school are being organized into
Centennial bands of little foresters, with promises of badges and more
valuable prizes for planting trees.’? In the State of Iowa, Crawford
County, ‘‘ Large numbers of the more thrifty farmers have planted groves
of maples, cotton wood, black walnut and box elder, which have grown

ad 15

with great rapidity, and the vast expanse of treeless prairies, which a few
years ago stretched in every direction as far as the eye could sce, is now
dotted over with beautiful groves, which greatly add to the wealth of the
county,’’ and in Cherokee County it is reported, ‘‘ A great many are plant-
ing timber, which grows fast.’’ For Missouri it is reported that, ‘‘ In the
portions of the State that were originally prairie land or openings, sponta-
neous and thrifty forests have sprung up and increased, as increasing set-
tlements have prevented annual prairie fires ;” for the County of Greene it
is stated, ‘‘ Nearly all the old timber is inferior, for the reason that the
woodlands produce abundant grass, which is burned over every season,
and injures the trunks of the trees. Forests, from which the fires are kept
are very thrifty, many of the trees adding one inch to their diameter an-
nually.’”’ See Agl. Rep. for 1875.

For Kansas and Nebraska, the Report of 1875, says, ‘‘On original
prairies, forest growth is increasing rapidly from two causes: The first is,
the arrest of prairie fires by cultivation, which has resulted extensively in
the spontaneous springing up on uncuitivated portions of a thick growth
of young trees, which grow with wonderful thrift ; the second cause being
the planting Of forests, now doubly stimulated by legislative encourage-
ment, and by assured success in respect to both growth and profit. In ad-
dition to personal advantages to the planter, in the increased comfort,
beauty, and money value of his premises, it is claimed that a public bene-
fit is already perceptible in a modification of the climate, particularly in
the way of assuaging the severity of the once unimpeded winds.’’ Of Jef-
ferson County, Kansas, it is said, ‘‘ The forest area is rapidly increasing in
consequence of stopping the prairie fires, and the planting of new groves ;”’
while of Barton County, it is said, ‘‘ Flattering results have been obtained
from planting tree seeds and cuttings.”’

Tree planting in California is receiving much attention. Before the 1st
January, 1876, James T. Stratton had planted in Alameda County, 195
acres with 130,000 Eucalyptus trees, that is the Blue Gum of Australia,
eight feet apart each way. The company owning the railroad between
Los Angelos and Anahelm. in Southern California, had planted 140 acres,
with about 80,000 Eucalyptus trees. In the spring of this year it was an-
nounced that, ‘‘ The Central Pacific Railroad Company has lately arranged
to have 40,090 Eucalyptus Globulus trees set along the 500 miles of the
right of way of the company. This is only the first installment, as it will
require about 800,000 of the trees for the 500 miles of valley where they
are to be cultivated. The immediate object of the plan is to increase the
humidity of the region, and lesson the liability to droughts.’’

The United States Government has begun to take a deep interest in the
subject of the preservation of American Forests. This appears to have
had inception in a Memorial to Congress of the American Association for
the Advancement of Science, upon the cultivation of timber and the pre-
servation of forests, in August 1873, signed by Franklin B. Hough and
Gvorge B. Emerson their Committee, which being referred to the Com-

14 ?

mittee of the House on Public Lands, Dr. Hough, on March 10th, 1874,
submitted to Washington Townsend, Chairman of that Committee, his
views at length on the subject of the Memorial. These were printed by
order of the House, ina Report of 118 pages. It is a full, yet compact
statement of many facts and statistics, which abundantly sustain the con-
clusions herein expressed, There followed in October 1875, the Report of
the Commissioner of Agriculture for that year, a division under the head
“Statistics of Forestry,’ from p. 244 to 358, giving the forest area of
every county in every State in the Union, in number of acres, and the
percentage of the whole number in the County and State, with other valu-
able information. It is very important in its promise of future reports, and
also from the fact that will be the basis of contrast, to show the progress of
reforesting the country. An Act of Congress of August 15th, 1876, gives
earnest that Congress will guard this great national interest, especially as
it made an appropriation for the compensation of a competent commis-
sioner to investigate and report upon the preservation of the forests, and
the exportation of timber and other products of the forests. I have an an-
swer to my inquiry, from Dr. Hough, the Commissioner, saying that he is
at Washington to print his report in that of the Commissioner of Agricul-
ture ; that he has tried to do justice to Michaux and others ; thinks the
facts he has collected opportune, and that the interest in forestry is grow-
ing. The President’s Message to Congress of this month earnestly recom-
mends legislation to protect the timber belonging to the Government, and
the preservation of the forests of our country.

The proposition before us invokes physical causes for physical effects.
Yet are these very interesting to our mind and feelings. They concern
deeply human life and happiness. The mind must plan and execute the
work ; must appreciate the beneficent results, and not without gratified
emotions in view of the good to come. The purposed means will seek to
influence the elements ; in a measure to rule the powers of the air; to draw
rains from the clouds ; to detain the waters in the earth to flush the springs
and swell the streams; will both drain the marshes, and cause wells and
fountains to flow in the desert ; cause the grasses and cereals to cover the
fields, and the forests and woeds and trees to grow on mountains, hills and
plains. Yet all this, is not to speak or act presumptuously, for it is but
to use the powers placed at man’s disposal. It is to do more extensively
what has been done; what is therefore practicable. Man is to engineer,
to plow and plant, and sow and water, but God must give the increase.
Man is to obey the first command, ‘‘ Replenish the earth and subdue it.”’
Obedient to this we have the promise, ‘‘I will give you rain in due sea-
son, and the land shall yield her increase, and the trees of the field shall
yield their fruit.’’

That the evils reviewed have been terribly aggravated during many
centuries, should not discourage us. The full remedy may require as many
centuries as the cause has been operative ; but every step of repair is bene-
ficent progress. The world is now fuller of resources than ever before.
Man’s enginery is gigantic; his machinery is imbued with intelligence.

15

He can destroy faster ; but knows how to repair his injuries sooner. But
to cease to do evilis to begin to do good; for Nature only asks man’s
leave to renew her beneficent growths. Stop the fires on the prairies,
lighted by the hunter for unknown centuries, and Nature will clothe them
with forests. Plant with trees, and protect the self sown seeds of the
forests along the waste lands of the seaboard, and they are born who may
see them all reforested ; see them also renew a virgin forest soil. We have
just begun many beginnings. Let them be followed up by many zealous
co-operators, and our country will exhibit a prosperity, salubrity, and
beauty never before seen, and in due time will become the dwelling-place
of millions more human souls, else not to be born; souls to be happy on
earth, and to people heaven. If this world was worth the making it
must be man’s duty to make it teem with happy life.

ADDENDA.—Since reading the above paper, Prof. Lesley has kindly sent
me two quotations which strongly support the views and purposes of the
essay read. i a

I. “The country from the head of St. Croix river [in Wisconsin] to
Bayfield is covered with drift. . . . not an outcrop for fifty miles. Most
of the district is destitute of living springs and streams. Numerous
depressions in the drift are partly filled with water... .. The soils
sandy and barren, supporting only a stunted growth of ‘jack’ pines and,
‘scrub oaks.’ Fire has killed the timber over wide areas, on which grass
was growing, exhibiting before our eyes nature’s simple method of con-
verting woodland into prairie. The reverse process is just as simple.
When prairies are no longer swept over by fire, timber springs up, re-con-
verting prairie into woodland. Grass, with fire as an ally, can beat timber.
Timber can beat grass when it has no fire to fight.’’-—Report of O. W
Wight in Geology of Wisconsin, p. 76, 1877.

II. ‘‘In the whole Kingdom of King Devanampriva Priyadarsin, as also
in the adjacent countries; . . . . the Kingdom of Antiochus, the Grecian
King and his neighbor Kings, the system of caring for the sick, both men
and cattle, followed by King D. P. has been everywhere brought into
practice. Wherever useful healing herbs for man and beast failed, these
he introduced and cultivated. Wherever roots and fruits were wanting,
these he introduced and cultivated. He caused also wells to be dug and
trees to be planted on the roads for the benefit of cattle.’’— Dr. Kern’s
translation of the Girnar rock inscription in India, second section of the
tablet. See p. 193 and Plate 1. Jour. R. Asiat.§. Vol. TX. part 2. July, 1877.

What Christian nation has provided so humanely for traveling man and
beast? The purpose of trees and shade as above advocated is immediately
practicable and beneficent. Let us also open the roadside springs and
wells, and furnish the cup for cold water; and maintain the supply of
medicinal herbs, roots and barks. This we will begin in the Park as soon
as the Pharmaceutists will lend their efficient co-oferation. Except in the
hospitals of our large cities, and county poorhouses, the sick wayfarer
must depend upon humane tavern landlords and benevolent citizens, who
seldom fail in Christian charity. But may God and man save us from Tramps!

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