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SYNOPSIS

«
Ty Ld 7 Viol its 43)

OF AN ARRANGEMENT OF

INVERTEBRATE ANIMALS

IN THE .
FREE PUBLIC MUSEUM OF LIVERPOOL;

WITH

INTRODUCTION;

BY THE

|

Rev. HENRY H. HIGGINS, M.A., Camprines,
/
|

FOR THE LAST TWENTY-ONE YEARS A MEMBER OF THE COMMITTEE OF
THE TOWN COUNCIL FOR THE MANAGEMENT OF THE LIVERPOOL
FREE PUBLIC LIBRARY, MUSEUM, AND GALLERY OF ART,
CHAIRMAN OF THE MUSEUM SUB-COMMITTEE,

*

$

READ BEFORE THE LITERARY AND PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF
LIVERPOOL, OCTOBER, 1873.

Second Edition, with additions and Appendix.

LIVERPOOL:
PRINTED BY D. MARPLES, & CO., LIMITED, LORD STREET.
1880.

QUE SHILLING”

Mout SYNOPSIS

OF AN ARRANGEMENT OF

INVERTEBRATE/ ANIMALS

<i THE
/)

FREE PUBLIC MUSEUM OF’ LIVERPOOL; //

/
WITH

INTRODUCTION;

BY THE

Rev. HENRY H. HIGGINS//M.A., Camsringz,

FOR THE LAST TWENTY-ONE YEARS A MEMBER OF THE COMMITTEE OF
THE TOWN COUNCIL FOR THE MANAGEMENT OF THE LIVERPOOL

FREE PUBLIC LIBRARY, MUSEUM, AND GALLERY OF ART);
CHAIRMAN OF THE MUSEUM SUB-COMMITTEE.

READ BEFORE THE LITERARY AND PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF
LIVERPOOL, OCTOBER, 1873.

Second Edition, with additions and Appendix.

LIVERPOOL:
PRINTED BY D. MARPLES, & CO., LIMITED, LORD STREET
1880.

oN r we
A]

Ae

a
+f
7;

17
oY OD Nee
40)

INTRODUCTION
TO THE FIRST EDITION, 1874.

In October, 1861, when the Natural History Collections
presented to the Town of Liverpool by the Grandfather of
the present Earl of Derby were removed from Duke Street
to the building which they now occupy, the question arose,
How should the Museum be made as fully as possible to
answer the requirements of the population by whom it was
to be supported, under the provisions of the Library and
Museum Act ?

The Curator, Mr. Moore, whose valuable services are well
known and highly appreciated, having on his hands, besides
the duties of general superintendence, the re-arrangement of
the extensive series of Mammalia and Birds, together with
preparations for the reception of a similar series of Fishes
and Reptiles, availed himself of my offer of assistance in
obtaining and arranging a collection of Invertebrate Animals,
our stock of which at that time included little beyond some
corals and a few very miscellaneous specimens.

The accommodation available for the proposed collection
consisted of the central areas of a suite of five rooms, 27 feet
in breadth, the total length being 250 feet. Space was thus
provided for twenty table cases, each 10 feet long, set trans-
versely.

One important point was therefore settled by the shape
of the building. The series had to be conformed to a linear
arrangement. In some respects this was a serious disadvan-

Nore.—The substance of the greater part of this Introduction appeared
in Nature, Jan. 12 and April 20, 1871.

a

iV. INTRODUCTION.

tage. The classes of invertebrate animals cannot well be
represented in a single ascending or descending series.
Probably it would not be possible on any symmetrical plan
to assign to them their proper positions relatively to each |
other; but some palpable incongruities might be avoided
by the use of table cases on a ground-plan resembling a
genealogical tree, one proposed form of which is represented
by a diagram in a work published by Professor Rolleston.
(See opposite page.)

The importance of a suitable ground-plan for cases in
museums seems to be much under-rated. When a class of
students visit a museum frequently, the localities of cases
containing special groups become indelibly impressed upon
the memory. This might be turned to good account.

In preparing the first scheme of the collection, it seemed
essential that plain and moderately simple printed descrip-
tions of the life-history of the animals should accompany
the specimens; therefore, as it was clearly impossible to
describe every genus, it became necessary to fix on some
mode of associating in groups a number of examples to which
the descriptions might apply. Such divisions as “ classes”
and ‘‘ orders’ were manifestly too large; whilst ‘“‘ families ”
varied from a single genus, including a solitary species, to an
army of more than a thousand genera,—e. g., the Linnean
families Cerambycide and Curculionide in the Coleoptera.
It was with some regret that the idea of attaching a readable
sketch to each division of a given rank in recent systems of
classification was relinquished, but it was found to be imprac-
ticable ; and the life-history sketch thus became the founda-
tion of the arrangement eventually adopted.

Whether it might be a few species, or a genus, or a
family, or an order, that seemed to afford suitable scope for
a page of readable and instructive matter, it was decided

INTRODUCTION. Vv.

TABULAR VIEW orf att tHe CLASSES in tos ANIMAL

KINGDOM, from “forms of Animal Life,” by Professor Rolleston,
F.R.S. It will be seen on inspection that, with the exception of
the elevation of the Classes in Vermes for the sake of keeping
the great ANNuLoIp and AnNULosE divisions together, the plan of the
Synopsis very nearly coincides with that of the following Table :—

Mammalia.
Aves. VERTEBRATA.
Reptilia.
Amphibia.
Pisces.
Insecta.
Arachnida. Myriapoda.
ARTHROPODA.
Crustacea.
Holothuroidea.
Echinoidea.
ECHINODERMATA.
Asteroidea.
Crinoidea.
Cephalopoda.
Pteropoda.
Gasteropoda.
MOLLUSCA. Lamellibranchiata.
Tunicata.
Brachiopoda.
Polyzoa.
Annulata. Gephyrea.
VERMES.
Rotifera.
Nematelminthia.
Platyelminthia.
Ctenophora.
CCELENTERATA.
Anthozoa.
Hydrozoa.
Spongiadz. Infusoria.
PROTOZOA.
Rhizopoda.

Gregarine.

vi. INTRODUCTION.

that, throughout the entire Collection, such a group should
be segregated, so as to form the unit of the series. Eventu-
ally, in order that the sketches, which it was proposed to
print for that purpose on tablets, might all be in positions
where they could conveniently be read, it was found to be
expedient that each group or unit should occupy an equal
space; and as the blocks on which the table cases rested
were to be fitted up with trays or drawers, twelve of which
would occupy the table case without loss of room, these trays
or drawers were adopted as the receptacles and boundaries of
the groups.

The drawers measured 27 inches in length by 16 inches
in breadth, and their number in the twenty table cases when
completed would be 240. Then arose the problem how best
to divide the 28 classes of Invertebrate Animals into 240
groups, each of which should be capable of affording mate-
rials for a biological notice, such as might be read with
interest by any intelligent visitor.

The entire plan of the table cases, and the limits of many
of the groups, were committed to writing before any consider-
able advance had been made in procuring specimens. In
one respect this circumstance was found to be very advan-
tageous—our desiderata were at once well defined. It was
an object that each of the groups should be illustrated by
carefully-selected specimens; and until this could be attained,
other acquisitions need not be sought for. In making
purchases, such an object, steadily kept in view, exercises a
powerful influence against the seductive attractions of ‘‘ great
bargains,” which often turn out to be great misfortunes to a
museum. Moreover, in accepting donations, it is sometimes
convenient to be able to refer to a fixed plan. Where room
is scanty, as in most museums, nothing is more subversive of
order, or more fatal to an instructive arrangement, than the

INTRODUCTION. ; Vil.

gift of a collection, coupled with a stipulation that it must be
displayed in some special way. It is far better to forego the
possession even of a valuable series of specimens, than to
sacrifice order for their sake.

The number of groups, 240, will no doubt appear to have
been determined simply as a matter of convenience. To a
certain extent this is true. It is also true that after a careful
reference to the best accessible authorities on each of the
Invertebrate Classes, in which much assistance was afforded
me by the many valuable scientific works in the Free Public
Library of Liverpool, it seemed probable that most of the
prominent forms in all the classes might be exhibited in
pairs, with their names and localities attached in large and
legible characters, in an area less than 1,000 square feet ;
and that they might conveniently be disposed in 240 groups,
occupying twenty table cases. For these the suite of rooms
above referred to afforded ample accommodation.

Four table cases contain the Protozoa and the C@Len-
TERATA. Seven are given to the Moxuuscorma and Mot-
Lusca. ‘Two are occupied by the sub-kingdom ANNuLorDa,
including EcuinopEermata and Sconecrpa. ‘Three are given
to ANNELIDA and Crustacea. Four cases hold the Myria-
poDA, ARACHNIDA, and Insecta. For constant exhibition to
the public the series as thus constituted may be regarded as
quite sufficiently extensive.

It is hardly necessary for me to point out the difficulties
and disadvantages which must arise in the course of an
attempt to form a collection in which the whole of the inver-
tebrate classes are divided into a given number of equal
sroups. If all very distinct forms are to be exhibited, some
groups must be heterogeneous in composition, but not neces-
sarily very many. Such forms as Pycnogonum, Lorficula,
and Sagitta may have to appear as associated with other not

vill. INTRODUCTION.

very closely allied forms; but the printed tablet may explain
the circumstances under which they occupy their position,
and render the disadvantage simply a negative one, namely,
that in such instances the arrangement cannot afford much
help to the memory. It is, on the other hand, one of the
peculiar advantages of the plan that the tray or drawer con-
taining an entire group can, with the utmost facility, be
removed to be re-arranged, to illustrate a lecture, or to
occupy a different position in the series.

EXAMPLES
OF

EXOTIC SPECIES.

Earliest Printed |

fossils tablet British
of the of Species.
Group. |Life History |

|

Plan of a Group on a scale of 3th lin.

In the present unsatisfactory condition of systematic
Zoology, probably the only thoroughly scientific mode of con-
veying information respecting an assemblage of organic forms

INTRODUCTION. ix

is that adopted by Professor Huxley, Professor Rolleston,
and others, of describing completely a single included spe-
cies; but this method seems more suited for students than
for a mixed company, such as have visited our Institution
since October, 1861, during which period the admissions to
the Liverpool Museum have exceeded 5,000,000.

The following is the plan of arrangement adopted in con-
nexion with each group. Wherever circumstances permit,
the plan for each group includes (1) A printed schedule.
(2) Exotic species. (3) British representatives. (4) The
printed tablet. (5) Earliest fossils. (6) Diagrams and other
illustrations. (7) Species and varieties on a more extended
scale.

(1) The schedule, of which an example follows, is printed
in large type, and is attached, conspicuously, to the drawer.

Group 222.
Sus-Kinepom — Annulosa, Skeleton external, ringed.
Provinck — Arthropoda, Limbs jointed.
CLass - Insecta, Legs six.
Sup-Cuass -— Metabola, Transformations complete.
ORDER — Lepidoptera, Wings with scales.
Sus-orDER - Rhopalocera, Horns clubbed at the apex.
Faminy - Papilionide, Middle nerve of fore-wing

four-branched.

The next sub-division appears, not on the schedule, but
on the printed tablet, as the distinctive title of the 222nd
group. The following is a copy of the tablet pertaining to
the 222nd group :—

‘‘Genus ORNITHOPTERA and allies.
Bird-winged Butterflies.
Kstimated number of species, 20.
“The species of Ornithoptera, unrivalled in size and

xX. INTRODUCTION.

unsurpassed in magnificence of outline, deservedly stand at
the head of the Butterflies.

““ They are natives of New Guinea and the neighbouring
islands, where, as it is said, the tropical birds are jealous of
their beauty, and injure them by pecking at their wings.

“The inhabitants of Darnley Island capture specimens of
O. Poseidon, and, securing them by one end of a long thread,
they fasten the other end to their hair, allowing the butter-
flies to flutter round their heads.

‘** Observe the contrast between the highly-finished colour-
ing in the Humming-bird Butterflies, Hrycinide, and the
bold massive style in which the gold is laid on in the fore-
wings of the appropriately named O. Cresus.

“ The genus Leptocircus, judged by form and colour, seems
to be out of place in this group; but other characters, con-
sidered to be of great importance in the classification of the
Lepidoptera, such as the venation of the wings and the
structure of the legs, indicate its proper place to be in the
family Papilionide.

“The only species of the genus Teinopalpus (observe the
long and porrect palpi) inhabits the highest ranges of the
Himalayas, especially towards the frontiers of Assam.”

Thus far we have noticed the schedule and the tablet.

3rd. Foreign species. The further portion of each drawer,
to the extent of three-fifths (more or less) of the whole area,
accommodates from ten to sixty exotic species, singly or in
pairs, such species as are most distinct being preferred.
A reference to the authority accompanies, as a rule, the
generic, sub-generic, and specific names. The locality, when
copied from a monograph, is stated simply; but when it is
known where the specimen has been collected, the word
‘from’ is added, e. g., “‘ Ornithoptera Cresus, from the
Island of Batchian.”’

INTRODUCTION. ale

4th. British species. The nearer right-hand corner of
each drawer is occupied by representatives of the group
indigenous to Britain. Some groups have no British repre-
sentatives ; in others, e.g., Noctue genuine, a selection from
the British species fills three-fourths of the drawer. Amongst
these, foreign specimens of rarities are admitted ; but in all
such cases the words ‘‘exotic specimen” are appended to the
name on the label.

5th. Harlest fossils. The nearer left-hand corner in
each drawer is assigned to a few fossils, showing the earliest
appearance of the group in the geological series. In some
instances, e.g., Hippurites, Rugosa, and the Trilobites, the
entire group is represented only by fossils; in others, fossils
are absent.

6th. The printed tablet. Between these two latter sec-
tions of each drawer is placed the printed tablet, about the
size of an octavo page. It exhibits an attempt to describe
some of the salient points in the life-history of the group.
Here, and throughout the series, some attention has been
given to ensure legibility by the use of moderately large
type, names and descriptions being of much less value when
they cannot be read easily.

7th. Diagrams and other illustrations. The upright por-
tion of the table-case over each drawer is given to miscellane-
ous illustrations of the group. The series includes drawings,
plates, and photographs of structure and anatomy, economic
products, silk in various stages, marine and fresh-water
pearls, cameos, from the rough medallion cut from the shell
to the finished work, polished shells, and sections showing
the interior of shells, eggs and egg-cases, preserved larve and
pup, preparations in spirits, examples of mimicry, nests of
Hymenoptera, galls and their tenants; timber and stone
pierced by molluscs, crustacea, and insects; malformations -

Kit. INTRODUCTION.

and distorted growths, healed fractures, coral beads, British
and exotic specimens of fungi growing on pupe, and many
other objects of interest.

Sth. Species and varieties. The blocks on which some
of the table cases rest are fitted with drawers suitable for
receiving an extended series of species and varieties, valuable
ouly to the student, and intended to be seen only on applica-
tion to the Curator. Very little progress has hitherto been
made in carrying out this portion of the plan, which has,
however, the good effect of rendering it quite needless to over-
crowd the groups with less significant species.

The difficulties attending the formation of the series have
not been very great. Collections have been presented to the
Museum by several friends of natural science, amongst whom
may be mentioned Mr. Samuel Smith, of Liverpool, the
donor of a collection of shells rich in generic forms and in
costly varieties of the highest beauty. Mr. Moore has been
successful in establishing friendly communications with many
captains of merchant vessels sailing from the port of Liver-
pool, some of whom have been supplied by the Committee of
the Museum with dredges and collecting apparatus, and have
become enthusiastic naturalists. In recognition of their ser-
vices, several of them have been received as Associate Members
of the Literary and Philosophical Society of Liverpool, a
distinction which seems to be highly appreciated by them.
Something has also been done in the way of exchanges ; but
a large proportion of the whole series has been selected and
purchased specimen by specimen. No object has been pur-
chased simply on account of its rarity; but at the same time
no reasonable expense has been spared in procuring the most
beautiful and perfect examples.

A few general remarks on the subject of expense may be
‘ permitted; details will gladly be communicated to enquirers

INTRODUCTION. Xlii.

connected with museums. It is notorious that few collec-
tions exhibited to the public will bear comparison with corre-
sponding series contained in private cabinets. Why should
this be any longer permitted? It may arise in part from
the impression that in public museums it is unnecessary to
spend much on specimens. Public collections depending
chiefly on donations are, however, likely to be overstocked in
some departments, whilst entirely deficient in others. There
can be no excuse for extravagance, but a rigid economy may
be pushed too far. The trouble and great risk of collecting
in tropical climates must often be very inadequately repre-
sented by the apparently high prices asked for the chief
desiderata, and the rest of a collector’s stock may remain on
his hands for years.

Again, if a genus or a group is illustrated in nature by a
ereat number of distinct and beautiful forms, e.g., such
genera as Madrepora, Conus, Cetonia, &c., this surely is of
itself a biological fact which may claim, even on scientific
grounds, to be fairly and appropriately represented in a
collection. Even on the most severe estimate of what is
necessary for an educational series, something must be
allowed simply for the sake of beauty and attractiveness;
that is to say, if museums are to avoid the fate of certain
parochial lending libraries which contain only such books as,
it is said, everybody ought to like to read.

Why, moreover, should the public be encouraged to esteem
art treasures as so much more valuable than the choicest
productions of nature? One hears of a pair of vases being
sold for two thousand pounds, a sum which would provide
twenty first-rate table cases, and stock them with very fair
illustrations of the whole of the invertebrate groups. Itisa
happy circumstance that a museum of common objects may at
a trifling cost be established in almost any village, and, with

Xlv. INTRODUCTION.

judicious local influence brought to bear upon it, may prove
both useful and creditable; but why should not wealthy
communities, possessing endless drawing-rooms ablaze with
costly decorations, exercise something of a corresponding
liberality towards the museum of natural history, which is
the representative of their appreciation of that which is
higher than-the highest art ?

Considerable difficulty has been found in selecting appro-
priate materials for the printed tablets. Many of the chief
continental authorities on invertebrate animals, admirable as
are their works for the purpose of identifying species, afford
scarcely a line of information on the life-history of the objects
they so grandly figure, and often so elaborately describe. Even
the reports of scientific expeditions may frequently be searched
in vain for this kind of information, which has to be gleaned
from authorities not always trustworthy, from scattered
papers, or from a few books of travel such as those which
have been issued in this country on the Malay Archipelago,
and the River Amazon, and more recently on Nicaragua.

It is mortifying to have to exhibit forms distinguished by
extraordinary developments of structure, and to be able to say
nothing on associated habits. Such strange developments
were once considered to be mere freaks of nature, but no one
now doubts their having a biological and even a genealogical
significance. What a field is here opened! How little of
the biology of a new form has been exhausted when it has
been collected, named, described, figured, and even dissected.
Scientific treatises have prepared the foundation for a solid
knowledge of the subject; but there would be occasion for
regret if biology should ever come tu be regarded by students
in an aspect too exclusively morphological, histological, or
even physiological, if such a view operated to the disparage-
ment of genuine out-of-door observations. The greatest

INTRODUCTION. XY.

advance in Natural History made in the present, or perhaps
in any, generation, has been mainly accomplished by two
observers, who are pre-eminently life-historians and out-of-
door naturalists.

Little need be said of the miscellaneous illustrations con-
tained in the upright portions of the table cases. They seem
to be very successful in engaging the attention of visitors
of all classes—a point which is felt to be of prominent
importance where the admissions amount, taking the average
of open days throughout the year, to about 2,000 daily.
What brings them here ? is a question which again and again
suggests itself. Reduce the number by all the idlers and
mere sight-seers who, no doubt, constitute a large proportion
of the gathering; still, if only one hundred or even fifty per
day seek some kind of instruction, even these in the course of
a year form a large and teachable class. As a firm believer
in the humanising effect of an intelligent interest in Natural
Science, to myself the grand museum problem seems to be,
how to make such an institution most beneficial to the great-
est number.

In estimating the value to the public of a Museum of
Natural History, the speciality of its function should not be
overlooked. It occupies a position quite peculiar to itself,
and does, or claims to do, what in its absence must be left
undone. Many may desire to look upon the wondrous forms
which constitute the population of the sea, the lake, the
river, the forest, or the grassy plain, but it is only in very
rare instances that such far-off dwelling places can be explored
by those whose lot is cast in the busy centres of social life.
The Museum is the best, if not the only, resource.

It is not thus in the departments of Natural Philosophy
and Art. Chemistry, Mechanics, and other allied branches of
knowledge, lead so directly to practical advantages, that

XV1. INTRODUCTION.

in almost every large town opportunities of many kinds and
in various quarters are afforded for the study of such obviously
useful sciences. Art, including music, has its representa-
tive centres in thousands of homes; and, omitting other and
more select illustrations, I will venture to affirm that the
cultivation of a taste for much that is refined and beautiful
in art has very effective aid in the collections displayed to
meet the eyes of all who pass through the streets of a popu-
lous town. It is probable that such exhibitions are not made
with purely educational intentions; but as commerce is the
great promulgator of civilisation, howbeit not always under-
taken for that purpose, so trade, in its free display of choice
fabrics, mechanism, jewelry, ceramic wares, engravings, and
sometimes even pictures, is a benefactor to the public taste.

{f own myself indebted for many pleasant hours to the
shop-windows, pleasant, but not exempt from the recurrence
of the question, Are there not other examples of embroidered
tissues, of exquisite machinery, of purely combined colours,
and graceful configurations, unseen by the throng, and yet as
suitable as these to gratify the beholders ? And it has been
consolatory to remember that there was, not far away, one
place at least where some care had been taken to invite
attention to the wares of Nature’s own handiwork.

IT am disposed to set a high value on the delight afforded
simply by the beauty of natural objects. A specimen without
a history, or even without a name, that calls forth a genuine
exclamation, ‘‘ How beautiful!” fulfils a noble mission ; espe-
cially when the observer is a child, or young.

But the aim of a museum is to do something more than
this. No mere assemblage of rare and beautiful objects can
impart more than a small portion of the gratification capable
of being conveyed by a store of natural productions. It
is the exhibition of the order and affinity between one form

INTRODUCTION. XVit.

and another, and between successive groups of forms, that
constitutes the chief function of a museum.

In reporting the progress of a work which has found
employment for me more or less constantly during a period of
twelve or thirteen years, it is a gratifying duty to acknowledge
the assistance afforded me from many quarters. An impulse
highly favourable to the success of the plan was given at the
outset, by the provision of a series of table cases such as I
have not seen surpassed elsewhere. This has been seconded
by the purchase from time to time of many valuable works on
biology, chiefly Continental, and such as are rarely to be
found in provincial libraries, though almost indispensable for
the study of special classes of the Invertebrata. Liberal con-
sideration has, moreover, always been given to the acquisition,
by purchase or otherwise, of specimens necessary for the
Collection. Acknowledgments are also due to the Chairman
and Members of the Museum Committee, not only for the
honour of a place at their board, but also for the sympathy
and support which have rendered the meetings of the Com-
mittee occasions to myself of much gratification.

To Mr. Moore, the Curator of the Museum, i am indebted
for many valuable suggestions, especially for the very import-
ant recommendation through which the series has been made
an ascending instead of a descending one. The Hchinoder-
mata chiefly, and the Crustacea almost entirely, were obtained
for the Museum through Mr. Moore. Nearly the whole of
Echinoidea were named by Professor Alexander Agassiz,
on one of his visits to the Museum; and it was only in the
course of naming and arranging the rest of the Echinoder-
mata and the Crustacea that the care and discrimination
shown by Mr. Moore in the selection of the specimens
became fully known to me. One very valuable class of acqui-
sitions, those collected and presented by Masters of merchant

XVill. INTRODUCTION.

vessels, may jusily be in a great measure attributed to the
interest and good will enlisted in favour of the Museum by
the unfailing courtesy of the Curator.

Tn completing the eighty-four groups assigned to the Mol-
lusca, I have been much indebted to the assistance of Mr.
Frederick Price Marrat, a long known and highly esteemed
friend, whose intimate and very extensive acquaintance with
shells, as also with the perplexing synonyms of conchology, has
rendered his services of the highest value. The identification
and manipulation of the specimens, within the groups, in the
Mollusca, and also in the Coelenterata, has for some time
past been almost entirely entrusted to him. In the manipu-
lation of the Crustacea and Hchinodermata, I have been
fortunate in having the efficient aid of Mr. John Chard,
whose coloured drawings appear with excellent effect in most
of the twenty table cases.

The following Synopsis is designed to show the systematic
position and limits of each group. The arrangement in the
higher divisions, sub-kingdoms, provinces, and classes, is
almost entirely in accordance with the classification adopted
by Professor Huxley, and published in The Student’s Manual
of Geology, by J..Beete Jukes, M.A., F.R.S., 1872. The
derivations of many scientific names have been given in
Greek characters, to avoid the ambiguity inseparable from the
use of English letters to express Greek words.

The tablets in each group, as a rule, do not refer to the
particular specimens exhibited; but in the Synopsis some
objects of more than ordinary interest are often specified.
Visitors inspecting the Collection have frequently expressed
themselves gratified by having their attention called to illus-
trations which might otherwise have escaped their notice.
To most of the groups have therefore been appended short

INTRODUCTION. X1x.

notes, designed to render the Synopsis in this respect useful
as a handbook to the Collection.

FRonNTISPIECE. ‘To admit as much light, and to obstruct
the view of the specimens as little as possible, the upper
wooden frames of the table cases are reduced to the narrow-
est limits consistent with firmness and security. In the
upright compartment, the top, bottom, and ends, as well as
the sides, are of plate glass, and if a shelf is required it is
made of the same material. To give readier access to the
specimens, both sides of the upper compartment fall. ‘To
exclude the dust, piano-forte hinges are used; each frame
closes on double strips of velvet; zinc gutters underlie every
crevice ; and in addition to the locks, bolt screws are used,
which by a half-turn bind the frames closely down in every
part.

As text-books for students of Zoology, the following works
may confidently be reeommended: A Manual of Zoology, by

“Henry Alleyne Nicholson, M.D.; and Introduction to the
Study of Biology, by the same Author. Published by
W. Blackwood and Sons.

XX

INTRODUCTION
TO THE SECOND EDITION.

THE progress of Biological Science, since the first issue of
this Synopsis in 1874, has suggested certain very desirable

improvements in the disposition of the groups within their
respective sub-kingdoms. For example, the Hydrocoralline

now occupy groups 16 and 17. Nothing has occurred to

diminish the expediency, in a linear arrangement, of keeping
the ANNULoID and ANNULOSE sub-kingdoms near together.

The desiderata of the collection in typical forms have been so
far supplied that it is hoped that students of invertebrate
animals, adopting any of the various recent systems of
arrangement, may have no difficulty in finding in the series.
exawples of such genera and species as they may require to

see, or others in close affinity with them. Instances in which

animals separated by characters of high biological significance

are found included in the same group are not very numerous,

and are generally noticed where they occur. Future and,

perhaps, extensive changes in the order of the groups may be

required when the indications of genetic affinity are better

understood. But until evolution through deprivation is as

fully recognised as evolution through accession, systematic

Biology will not be free from extravagant prominence and

significance given to obscure forms, the results, in a

descending order, of parasitism, or other abnormal habits

of life.

Since the first issue of the Synopsis, the kindness of the
Committee has enabled me to publish, at the price of one

INTRODUCTION. XXi

penny, a small popular companion to the series of invertebrate
animals, entitled “‘ Museum Talk about Animals which have
no Bones.” The desirability of the most simple teaching
in museums is illustrated by an incident which occurred
very recently. A north country visitor, probably from the
mining districts, was looking intently at a table case contain-
ing some beautiful Madrepore Corals. Presently, I heard
him call to his wife and daughter, who were noticing the
bird-cases—‘‘ Here, come hither, look at these here ; they be
sea crystals, all different sorts of crystals as grow in the sea!”
There could be no doubt that our visitor had in him the
making of a true observer and admirer of Nature.

It is with much thankfulness that I would advert to the
continued presence, now through a long period of years, of
friends associated with me in museum work. The same
much-respected and esteemed Chairman presides in Com-
mittee. The same Curator is always ready with the same
kind offices of suggestion and encouragement. My old friend,
Mr. F. P. Marrat, is as indispensable as ever; and the ready
hand and pencil of Mr. John Chard are still available. My
hope of seeing a third edition of the Synopsis is, at all events,
precarious; so I may add that the appreciation of Nature
seems to me to be the end; science only the means. In
my attempts to discern the unity there is in Nature, evolu-
tion has become so much a habit of thought, that it seldom
occurs to me that any doubt it. ‘Yet, in spite of all that has
been assumed, Teleology is simply brighter and dearer to me
than ever; and had I twenty lives before me, I would desire
nothing better than to spend them in reading, and helping
others to read, Nature as a Revelation.

October, 1879.

TABLE OF THE ARRANGEMENT ILLUSTRATED
IN THE FOLLOWING SYNOPSIS.

Sub-kingdom PROTOZOA.
Classes RHIZOPODA, SPONGIDA, INFUSORIA.

Sub-kingdom CGSLENTERATA.
Classes HYDROZOA, ACTINOZOA.

Sub-kingdom MOLLUSCA.

Classes POLYZOA, TUNICATA, BRACHIOPODA,
LAMELLIBRANCHIATA, PTEROPODA,
GASTEROPODA, CEPHALOPODA.

Sub-kingdom ANNULOIDA.
Classes ECHINODERMATA, SCOLECIDA.

Sub-kingdom ANNULOSA.

Classes ANNELIDA, CRUSTACEA, MYRIAPODA,
ARACHNIDA, INSECTA.

SYNOPSIS

OF AN ARRANGEMENT OF

INVERTEBRATE ANIMALS.

First Gable Case,

The mark ¥ indicates specimens or other illustrations exhibited in the Cases.

Sub-kingdom PROTOZOA.

mpowros, first ; Saov, animal.—Lowest forms of animal life,
distinguished by the absence of cell-formed tissue.

The very simplest living organism is distinguished from all lifeless
forms of matter by, at least, four characters —Individuality,
Periodicity, Reproduction and Assimilation. (See Appendix.)

The Gregarinide, being probably degraded through parasitism, cannot
appear in the primary group.

Class RHIZOPODA (Dusarpin). Aig, root ;
movs, foot.—Limbs, pseudopodia, formed by simple
extensions of the soft body.

Group 1.—Orders MONERA povierc, single, and AMGEBEA
awoiBos, changing.

In Monera the animal is said to be composed of
structureless sarcode, capable of emitting
pseudopodia, but without a nucleus. In
Ameebea the sarcode exhibits two distinct
layers, and contains a nucleus and a con-
tractile vescicle. The Amcebea may be divided
into two sections—Ameebina, in which the

bo

INVERTEBRATE ANIMALS.

body is naked; and Arcellina, in which the
body is protected by a test or carapace.
{ Drawings of Protomyxa, Ameba, Vampyrella,
Difflugia, ke.
Order FORAMINIFERA. Foramen, an orifice ;
fero, I carry. Animalcules forming calcareous, rarely
arenaceous, shells, found in sponges, sand, etc. The

Foraminifera are exclusively marine, and have a world-
wide distribution.

Group 2.— FORAMINIFERA-IMPERFORATA and allies.

The Pseudopodia are emitted solely from the mouth

of the last-formed segment of the shell.

{| Models, by D’Orbigny and Frié, of about forty-
six species. Cycloclypeus, specimen 1% inches
in diameter, collected and presented by Dr.
Collingwood.

Upper Compartment.
Drawings of Gromia, Miliola, &e.

Group 8.—FORAMINIFERA-PERFORATA.

The Pseudopodia are emitted from the chambers
of the perforated shell.

{| Models, by D’Orbigny and Fri¢, of about seventy- -
six species, including Globigerima and other
Rhizopoda, from the deep seas.

Upper Compartment.

Drawings of Carpenteria, Polytrema, ce.

Group 4.—Order RADIOLARIA. Radius, aray. Rhizopoda,
chiefly marine, and generally developing exquisitely
formed glassy shells.

{| Photographic plates of Polycistina, from Bar-
badoes.

Drawings of Actinophrys sol,

INVERTEBRATE ANIMALS. 3

Class SPONGIDA. czéyyos, a Sponge.

The groups exhibit a small portion only of the entire collection, which
Mr. T. Higgin, of Huyton, has kindly undertaken to name and
arrange for the use of students.

Group 5.— Orders MYXOSPONGLAE and CALCISPONGIAG
(Haeckel). Sponges possessing no fibrous endo-skeleton
and Calcareous Sponges.

Order FIBROSPONGLE (Haeckel).

Group 6.—Family HEXACTINELLID As (Schmidt), Part I.
s&, sia; axtly, a ray. Spicules silicious, with rect-
angular rays.

Genus HYALONEMA. daaAos, crystal; vie, thread.

§] Hyalonema Sieboldi, the glass-rope Sponge—

several specimens, exhibiting the body of the

sponge attached to the stem encrusted by a
commensal Actinozoon Palythoa.

Genus EUPLECTELLA. ¢0, well; waAexros, twined.
Euplectella aspergilum. Sponge from the Island
of Cebu, Philippines, where it is known by the
name of ‘‘ Regadera.” It has also been called
Venus’s Flower-basket.

Group 7..-Family HEXACTINELLIDA (Schmidt). Part IT.

*| Pheronema Grayi (Kent). Collected off the
coast of Portugal, and presented by W.
Saville Kent.

Holtenia Carpentert (Wyville Thomson). Globular
Anchor-Sponge, collected during the expedition
of H.M.S. “ Porcupine,” and presented by
Prof. Wyville Thomson.

Specimens of allied fossils, Ventriculites and

Jhoanites, from the chalk formation.

4 INVERTEBRATE ANIMALS.

Group 8.—Remainder of Order FIBROSPONGLA (Haeckel).
f{ Series of British Marine Sponges; specimens
of fresh-water sponge, Spongilla, collected at
Rainhill, and presented by Charles Longuet

Higgins.

Upper Compartment.

Specimens exhibiting many of the remarkable
varieties of form assumed by the Fibrous

Sponges.
Group 9.—Class INFUSORIA=STOMATODE PROTO-

ZOA.

The Class thus restricted includes a small section only of the INFUSORIA
of the older authors.

{| Coloured Drawings of Stentor, Vorticella, Noc-
tiluca, &c., chiefly from Ehrenberg’s Die
Infusionsthierchen als Vollkommene Organis-
men. Leipzig, 1838.

For the position of the GREGARINIDAE see Appendix.

Sub-kingdom CCSLENTERATA.
(Frey & Leuckart.)
xoidos, hollow ; evrepov, the bowel.—Food-canal open to the
body-cavity.
Class HYDROZOA (Huxley). Internal cavity
simple.
Sub-class HYDROIDA; animals resembling the Hydra.
Group 10.—Order HYDRIDA-GYMNOCHROA (Hincks).
yupvos, naked; xpoe, the skin. Estimated number of |
species: British, 4.
4] Drawings of several species of Hydra, and of the
modes of its reproduction by buds and ova.

INVERTEBRATE ANIMALS. 5

Group 11.—Order HYDRIDA-THECAPHORA (Hincks).
dyxy, a sheath; dépw, I carry. Sertularian and Cam-
panularian Zoophytes. Estimated number of species:
British, 92. Hincks.

{| Series of British Zoophytes, collected and pre-
sented by H. H. H. Small series of Exotic
Zoophytes. Examples of GRaPTOLITES, see
Appendix.

Upper Compartment.
Drawings of ovarian vesicles of Sertularia.

Group 12.—Order HYDRIDA-ATHECATA (Hincks). 2,
without ; yxy, a sheath. Tubularian Zoophytes. Esti-
mated number of species: British, 70.

{| Specimens of the horny tubes of Tubularia, and
of Hudendrium. Beautiful and rare example of
the Hydractinude, Chitina ericopsis, Carter,
from New Zealand.

Upper Compartment.

Drawings of medusiform gonophores, &c., illus-

trating reproductive phenomena in Coryne.

Second Cable Case.

The mark ¥ indicates illustrations exhibited in the Cases. The coloured
drawings are by Joun Cuarp, Liv. Pub. Mus.

Group 13.—Sub-class SIPHONOPHORA. cidwy, a tube;
diem, IT carry. Ockanic Hyprozoa. |
{| Specimens and Drawings of Porpita, Velella, and
of Physalia, the ‘‘ Portuguese Man-of-War.”
Upper Compartment.
Examples, in liquid, of the animals of various
Hyprozoa.

6 INVERTEBRATE ANIMALS.

Group 14.—Sub-class DISCOPHORA. icxos, a disc; dépa,
I carry. NAkkED-EYED, or TRuE Mrepusm.

{| Coloured drawings of these very beautiful, but
small and little-known Jelly-fish.

Group 15.—Sub-class LUCERNARIDA. Lucerna, a lamp.
H1IpDEN-EYED MEDUSm.

{ Drawings of the Hypra-rupa, and its develop-
ment; and of various ACALEPH®, including
the common Jelly-fish of our shores, which
are in fact the free-swimming flowers, gono-
phores, of the little stationary Hydra-tuba.

Sub-class HYDROCORALLINA. Hydrozoa pro-
ducing a regular skeleton of carbonate of lime,
coral, often of large size. Not known to be
represented in deposits older than the Tertiary.

Group 16.—Family MILLEPORIDA. The animals are
supposed to be propagated by free-swimming Medusiform
Gonophores.

{| Specimens of the Coralla of various Millepores,
from the West Indies, where they are familiarly
known as “‘ Sea-ginger.”” MM. nodosa, from the
Pacific.

Upper Compartment.

Drawings of the animal of Mullepora alcicornis,
after Louis Agassiz; and of M. nodosa, after
Moseley. Note the larger central alimentary
zooids surrounded by the smaller and more
numerous prehensile zoéids.

Group 17.—Family STYLASTERIDA. criaov, a pillar ;
actpov, a stae. These had always been regarded as

INVERTEBRATE ANIMALS. 7

Aottnozoa, till the researches of Mr. Moseley, in the
“‘ Challenger,” proved them to be true Hyprozoa.

4] Examples of Stylaster, Allopora, and Disticho-
pora, from the Pacific. These have hitherto
been brought to this country in fragments:
to obtain them in anything like an entire
state it is probably necessary to employ a
diver to detach portions of the rock on which
they grow.

Class ACTINOZOA. «xr, a ray; Cdov, an
aumal. Internal cavity compound.

The groups in this class are named and arranged chiefly after Milne
Edwards’ Histoire Naturelle des Coralliaires; but most valuable
aid has been received from the magnificent work by James Dana,
on the Zoophytes of the United States Exploring Expedition,
1838-42.

Group 18.—Order RUGOSA. rugosus, wrinkled.

The members of this order are, with rare exceptions,
only known as Paleozoic fossils. The rays
are in multiples of four.

§; Polished sections, chiefly from Devonian rocks.
The Order Rugosa includes 224 species.

Order ZOANTHARIA. cov, an animal; év§oc,
a flower. Parts in multiples of 5 or 6.

Sub-order SCLERODERMATA. cxanpos, hard ;
depya, the skin. Corallum secreted within the
animal.

Group 19.—Genera SERIATOPORA (Lamarck), and
POCILLOPORA — (Blainville). The former from
series, a row; the latter from pocillum, a little cup.
Estimated number of species: recent, 28; British, 0;

8 INVERTEBRATE ANIMALS.

fossil, 14; Paleozoic. These genera are of uncertain
position.

{] Corals from the Pacific and Indian Oceans, in-
cluding a very beautiful Seriatopora, possibly
undescribed: other examples from the Red
Sea, &e.

Division TABULATA. Corallite divided by horizontal
plates: rays not developed.

Group 20.—Family FAVOSITIDA. Favus, a honeycomb.
Estimated number of species, 102; all Paleeozoic fossils.

4! The Chained-Coral and other species from the
Wenlock Limestone, &c.

Division PERFORATA. Rays Well developed: eoral
porous.

Group 21.—Family PORITIDA. Reef-building corals,
usually massive. Estimated number of species: recent,
83; British, 0; fossil, 36.

{| Examples of Psammocora, Montipora, Alveopora,
and other genera.

Group 22.—Sub-Family TURBINARINA® (Milne Edwards).
Turbo, a top.

Genus TURBINARIA (Oken) = GEMMIPORA
(Blainville). Estimated number of species: recent,
11; British, 0; fossil, 7.

§] Large foliaceous and cup-shaped Corals from the
East Indies and the Fiji Islands. Dome-
shaped specimen of Astr@opora, remarkable for
its highly finished calices.

Group 23.—Genus MADREPORA (Linneus). Part I.
The name is from the Italian, signifying Mother-pore,
the apical polype being the parent of the rest on the
same branchlet. Natives of tropical seas: one species
is known from the White Sea.

INVERTEBRATE ANIMALS. 9

Upper Compartment.
Larger Corals, including M. palmata, an explanate
Madrepore, sometimes attaining a height and
breadth of seven feet.

Group 24.—Genus MADREPORA (Linneus). Part II.
Estimated number of species in genus Madrepora:
recent, 84; British, 0; fossil, 6; Kainozoic.

M. echinata, M. carduus, M. longicyathus,
and other slenderly branched Madrepores, are
amongst the most beautiful of all the coral tribe.

Chivd Cable Case.

The mark 4 indicates specimens or other illustrations exhibited in the Cases.

Group 25.—Genus DENDROPHYLLIA (Blainville) and
allies. dévdpov, a tree; $vAAsv, a leaf. Estimated number
of species : recent, 28; British 0; fossil, 31; Kainozoic.

The Corals of this group grow in waters of all
temperatures.

{| D. nigrescens from Singapore, and D. ramea from
the Mediterranean: the latter attains a height
of five feet, and possesses an agreeable frag-
rance. Balanophyllia.

Division APOROSA. Coral compact in substance.
Family FUNGIDA. Coralla chiefly explanate ; polype
centres not circumscribed.

Group 26.—Genus AGARICIA (Lamarck) and _ allies.
‘ayapixos, amushroom. Estimated number of species:
recent, 17; British, 0; fossil, 13; chiefly Kainozoic.

§] Species from the West Indies and the Pacific.
A. undata grows on the vertical sides of
rocks, like a large flower with the corolla fully
expanded, and beautifully ripple-marked.

10 INVERTEBRATE ANIMALS.

Even more delicately beautiful is the paper-like
coral, Mycedium fragile. Note a fine specimen
brought home in the ‘‘ Argo” from the island of
Grenada, West Indies.

Group 27.— Genus LOPHOSERIS (Milne Edwards) and
allies. Addos, a crest; océpss, a plant. Lamarck’s
name for this genus, Pavonia, alludes to the expanded
dise of the coral, with polype-mouths in place of the
eye-spots of the Peacock’s tail. Estimated number of
species: recent, 24; British, 0; fossil, 42.

4] Examples from the Indian and Pacific Oceans.
i Upper Compartment.
L. pretorta, curiously intricate in its growth.

Group 28.—Genus FUNGIA (Lamarck) and _ allies.
Estimated number of species: recent, 32; British, 0;
fossil, 9; chiefly Mesozoic.

{| Specimens of F'ungia, shewing the attachment of
the young corals to the under-side of the
parent coral, which is itself free and un-
attached.

Specimens of Herpetolitha, the Slug-coral; and of
Polyphyllia, the Mole-coral. Cycloseris.

Upper Compartment.

Genus Halomitra, Dana; the corallum is deeply
cup-shaped, and shews, within, the truncated
frustrum of a former corallum, on which the
present specimen seems to have been developed.
The same peculiarity has been observed by the
writer in other specimens of Halomitra.

Group 29.—Genus MERULINA (Ehrenberg). uxpdw, to
wind, in allusion to the corded appearance of the sur-
face. The coralla take the form of leaves spread out

INVERTEBRATE ANIMALS. ital

one above the other. Estimated number of species:
recent, 7; British, 0; fossil, O.
{| Specimens from the Sooloo Sea and the Fiji
Islands.

Group 80.—Genus ECHINOPORA (Lamarck). Echinus,
the Hedge-hog. ‘This and the preceding group exhibit
forms of transition between the Fungide and the
Astreide. Estimated number of species: recent, 8;
British, 0; fossil, 1.

{| Specimens from the Indian Ocean and the Red Sea.

Family ASTRAIDA. aortpov, a star.
Polype centres circumscribed.

Group 81.— Division ASTRAZACEA! (Milne Edwards)
and allies. The species of this group are amongst
the most important of reef-building corals. Estimated
number of species: recent, 122; British, 0; fossil,.

267. Mesozoic and Kainozoic.

| Heliastrea, Acanthastrea, Astrea, Prionastrea,
Isastrea, Culicia, &e.

Group 32.—Section LITHOPHYLLIACEZ MEANDRO-
ID (Milne Edwards). Estimated number of species :
recent, 69; British, 0; fossil, 84; chiefly Kainozoic.

{{ Brain Corals. The polype-cells form long sinuous
channels like the windings of a stream, or the
convolutions of the brain; hence the familiar
name.

In the Lettuce Coral, the cell-walls are as thin as
paper, the polypes large and beautifully coloured.

Upper Compartment.

Meandrina mammosa, called by sailors Neptune’s

Shield ; and other large corals.

i INVERTEBRATE ANIMALS.

Group 33.— Sections LITHOPHYLLIACE CESPITOSH
et SIMPLICES (Milne Edwards). Estimated num-
ber of species: recent, 30; British, 0; fossil, 154.
From the Trias upwards. In genus Mussa (Oken), as in
Astrea and Meandrina, the corals grow in hemispheres
attaining ten or twelve feet in diameter, adorning the
ocean bed with richly coloured cupolas.

4] Examples of nearly «ll the recent genera.

Group 34.— Sub-Family EUSMILINAL (Milne Edwards)
and allies. éu (intensive), cuiday, a blade. The name
alludes to the well-shaped and prominent blades which
form the rays of the calices. Estimated number of
species: recent, 54; British, 0; fossil, 248. Meso-
zoic and Kainozoic.

Group 85.— Genus OCULINA (Lamarck) and _ allies.
Estimated number of species: recent, 18; British, 0;
fossil, 18. Chiefly Kainozoic.

4] The group includes the White-Coral of the
Mediterranean, and some very interesting
species from Northern Seas.

Group 36.—Family TURBINOLIDZ: and allies. Turbo,
atop. Solitary corals, more abundant in former periods
than at present. Many of the existing species were
unknown before the comparatively recent use of the
dredge in deep waters for scientific purposes. Estimated
number of species: recent, 47; British, 3; fossil, 134.
Mesozoic and Kainozoic.

{| Turbinolia, British; presented by R. McAndrew;
Caryophyllia, Flabellum, Sphenotrochus, &c.

Glass models of the polypes in their proper
colours.

INVERTEBRATE ANIMALS. 18

Fourth Cable Case.

The mark { indicates specimens or other illustrations exhibited in the Cases.

Group 87.—Sub-order ZOANTHARIA-SCLEROBASICA.
cxAnpos, hard; Pacis, a pedestal = ANTIPATHARIA
(Milne Edwards). «vrimadys, of opposite properties.
The horny axis of the coral is thickly beset with short
spines, and is covered by the common tissue uniting the
polypes. Estimated number of species: recent, 24;
British, 0; fossil, 1.

{| Specimens of Antipathes and Cirrhipathes, the
former shrub-like and delicately branched ; the
latter with a simple stem growing in a loose
coil. The species are widely distributed,
growing on rocks in deep water.

Upper Compartment.

Antipathes arborea, the black coral of commerce ;
rough, and manufactured into beads.

Group 38.—Sub-order ZOANTHARIA - MALACODER-
MATA. padraxos, soft; %pua, the skin=ACTINARIA
(Milne Edwards). axriv, a ray. Distinguished by
the absence of a solid corallum. Estimated number of
species: recent, 200; fossil, 0.

{| Models in coloured glass of about 30 species of
British Sea Anemonies.

Order ALCYONARIA. aAxvay, the Halcyon of the ancients.
In this Order the polypes have eight fringed tentacles.

Group 39.—Family PENNATULIDA. Penna, a feather.
The quill of the Sea-Pen during the life of the animal
remains plunged into the mud at the bottom of the sea,

A

14 INVERTEBRATE ANIMALS.

but does not contract any adherence. Estimated
number of species: recent, 26; British, 3; fossil, 1.

{i Examples of Pennatula, Virgularia, Pavonaria.
Many specimens of Renilla were brought in
the “Argo” from Tucacas. The animal in life,

_with the polypes expanded, is extremely
beautiful.

Fine specimen, in liquid, of Pavonaria quadrangu-
laris, dredged by Mr. McAndrew.

Upper Compartment.
Quills of a gigantic Sea-Pen, from British Columbia.

Family GORGONIDA. = yopyav, the Gorgon of the
ancients.

Group 40.—Genus CORALLIUM (Lamarck). x¢py, maiden
daughter; &daos, of the sea. Estimated number of
species : recent, 3; British, 0; fossil, 2; Kainozoic.

4| Specimens of Coralliwm rubrum, the Red Coral of
the Mediterranean; one very large, with more
than 40 tines. Fine examples of Coralliwm
from Japan, including a milk-white variety.

Group 41.--Sub-family ISIDINA® (Milne Edwards). Icic,
the goddess Isis. Estimated number of species:
recent, 18; British, 0; fossil, 4; Kainozoic.

{| Mopsea, with slenderly forked branches; Isis
(decorticated), with black and white articula-
tions, and Melitea with various shades of
scarlet and bright yellow: all have joints,
rendering them more or less flexible.

Group 42.—Sections GORGONELLACEA and BRIAR-
ACHE (Milne Edwards).

Section is here used as equivalent to ‘ Agéle’ (Milne Hawards).
Estimated number of species: recent, 15; British, 0;

INVERTEBRATE ANIMALS. 15

fossil, 0. . The axis of the stem is either sub-calcareous,
or made up of spicule.

{| Examples of Verucella and Juncella, and a very
beautiful specimen of Paragorgia Johnsoni,
from Madeira, presented by its discoverer,
J. Yate Johnson.

Group 43.—Section GORGONACEA. PartI. Foliaceous.
Estimated number of species: recent, 25; British, 2.

4] Phyllogorgia, in which the polype crust is
expanded, forming wings on each side of the
stem. Rhipidigorgia, or Sea-Fans, in which
the branches repeatedly unite, forming a net-
work.

Group 44.—Section GORGONACE/K, Part II. Arborescent.
Kstimated number of species: recent, 58; British, 2.
The base of the Gorgonia polype secretes the tough
horny elastic stem: another portion of the same polype
secretes the soft crust, or bark, which owes its beautiful
colour to the presence of calcareous spicule.

{| Examples of most of the genera, many of them
from the ‘‘ Argo” collection ; the larger fruticose
forms occupy the upper compartment.

Group 45.—Section PRIMNOACEA. zptuve, the poop of
a ship. On the coast of Norway Piimnoa is said to
attain the height of fifty or sixty feet. Estimated
number of species: recent, 13; British, 1.

{| Primnoa verticillata, from Madeira, presented by
J.S. Ryerman. Primnoa lepadifera.

Family ALCYONIDAK. No solid central axis.
Group 46.—Sub-family TUBIPORINA® (Milne Edwards).

16 INVERTEBRATE ANIMALS.

Estimated number of species: recent, 7; British, 0;
fossil 0.

{| Specimens of T'ubipora musica, the Organ-pipe
coral, and of other species of the genus, from
the Indian and Pacific Oceans and the Red
Sea. .

Group 47. — Sub-family ALCYONINA® (Milne Edwards)
and allies. Estimated number of species: recent,
50; British, 3; fossil, 0.

{| Examples of Spoggodia, and other genera.
Coloured drawings of Alcyoniwm digitatum,
with the polypes expanded, and of other species,
chiefly after Dana.

Group 48.—Class CTENOPHORA. xrels, a comb: ¢epo,
IT carry. Transparent oceanic Colenterata, resembling in
habit some of the smaller Jelly-fish, but much more
highly organized. Swimming by means of cilia arranged
in vertical comb-like rows.

{| Coloured drawings of Plewrobrachia, &e. Ces-
tum Veneris, Beroe ovatus, Escholtzia, &c.,
from Dr. Anton Dohrn, Naples.

Hitth Gable Case.

Sub-kingdom MOLLUSCA.
Mollis, soft.
Province MOLLUSCOIDA. Ab-normal MOLLUSCA.

Class POLYZOA. odds, many; {aov, an
animal. Estimated number of species: British, 232
(Hincks, 1880); fossil, 1,600; from the Silurian
upwards.

INVERTEBRATE ANIMALS. 7,

Where VERMES is adopted as a main division,
the Polyzoa are generally included in it.

A monograph of the class Potyzoa, combining the fossil with the
recent species, after the admirable method of MitnE Epwanps in
his Histoire Naturelle des Coralliaires, may be regarded as an
achievement worthy the ambition of any Naturalist. Taking
into consideration the exquisite beauty of the species, their wide
distribution in time and space, their convenient size, and the
interesting questions connected with their structure and habits, no
other wnoccupied Biological field seems to present equal attraction.
Valuable assistance, in identifying the species, and by the contribu-
tion of rare and beautiful specimens in this class, has been given by
Miss Horatia Gatty.

The three groups here assigned to this class are based upon characters
by no means satisfactory, but it has been found convenient to retain
them. The more scientific distinctions are illustrated by coloured
drawings in the upper compartment.

Group 49.—Genus RETEPORA (Lamarck); rete, a net;
and allies. Polyzoarium chiefly calcareous and rigid.
{| Examples of Tubulipora, Cellepora, Idmonea,
Hornera, &e., including some very beautiful
Retepores and other Polyzoa from the Atlantic
Cable. Oldhamia, from the Cambrian rocks,
may probably be a plant.

Group 50.—Genus FLUSTRA (Linneus). Saxon Flustrian,
to weave; and allies. Polyzoarium chiefly horny,
foliaceous or explanate.

4] Examples of Lepralia, Carbasea, Membranipora,
Electra, &e. Observe how closely Amathia
sptralis (Lamouroux), from Australia, resem-
bles in form Archimedipora Archimedea
(Lesuer); a fossil from the Carboniferous
Limestone, Kentucky. A delicate cup-shaped
Flustra on Catenicella.

Group 51.—Genus CATENICELLA (Blainville) ; catena,

18 INVERTEBRATE ANIMALS.

a chain; and allies. Polyzoarium chiefly articulated
and flexible.
{| Examples of Cellularia, Salicornaria, Bicellaria,
Emma, Bugula, &c.
Upper Compartment.

‘* avicularium,”’

Diagram of a Polyzoon, and of an
or Bird’s-head process. Coloured drawings of

fresh-water Polyzoa, after Allman.

The animals of the Polyzoa are always minute,
and live associated in colonies. They -are
much in advance of the Celenterata in com-
plexity of structure, the food canal being
entirely shut off from the body-cavity, and the
nervous system being well defined.

Group 52.—Class TUNICATA. Tunica, a cloak. The
Ascidians, or Tunicaries, are marine animals, having
their internal organs protected by a donble integu-
ment, tough and elastic, in place of a shell. Estimated
number of species: recent, 150; British, 73.

{| Coloured drawings of solitary, social, and com-
pound Ascidians.

Upper Compartment.

Preparations in spirits of Salpians in the chained
and solitary states; also of Pyrosoma, and
many other Ascidians. Diagrams of the early
development of an Ascidian, shewing by the
presence of a pseudo-notochord its approach
to the form of the vertebrate embryo.

In a few cases it has been shewn that the Ascidians
are degenerated forms of vertebrate animals ;
and in some recent systems of classification

INVERTEBRATE ANIMALS. 19

the whole class has been removed to the Sub-
kingdom Vertebrata.

Group 58.—Class BRACHIOPODA. Bpayinv, the arm;
movs, afoot. The Lamp-shells possess a true upper and
under valve. Estimated number of species: recent,
100; British, 5; fossil, 1,000, from the Silurian
upwards.

{| Examples of nearly all the recent, and of a few
of the fossil genera. Lingula is remarkable
for having remained almost entirely unchanged
from the age of the earliest fossiliferous rocks.

Upper Compartment.

Animals of Lingula, and other Brachiopoda, in
spirits.

Group 54.—Order RUDISTES (Lamarck). Estimated
number of species: recent, none known at present ;
fossil, 100, from the Chalk and Hippurite Limestone.

4] Examples of Hippurites ; Specimens of Radiol-
ites, Caprinella, Caprina, and Caprotina, are
desiderata.

Province MOLLUSCA.

MOLLUSCA PROPER.

The present series of MouuuscaA was commenced by a small but very
useful collection contributed in 1859 by the late Miss Yares, of
Liverpool. Some of the desiderata were supplied at the same time
by H. H. H.; others from time to time have been acquired by
purchase, especially at the sale of the Dennison Collection, in 1863.
A very fine collection of choice Shells was in 1868 presented to the
Museum by Samvuent SuitH, Ksq., Banker, of Liverpool.

The Recent Species have been named and arranged in accordance with
** The Genera of Recent Mollusca,” by Henry and AnrHuR ADAMS;
from the same prolific source has been derived much of the informa-
tion recorded in the tablets. The excellent ‘* Manual of the Mollusca,”

20 INVERTEBRATE ANIMALS.

by the late 8S. P. Woopwarp, and the *‘ Manuel de Conchyliologie,”
by M. Curnv, have been followed in arranging the fossil ‘llustra-
tions. Of the 1890 Generic and Sub-Generic forms recognised in
the ‘‘Genera of Recent Mollusca,” the collection at present contains
illustrations of about 1121. The ‘‘ History of Britis Mollusca and
their Shells,” by Kpwarp Forses and 8. Hanury, has been used in
naming and arranging the British representatives in the 78 groups
assigned to the Mollusca Proper.

Class LAMELLIBRANCHIATA. = lamina, a
plate ; Bpayyie, the gills of fish, = CONCHIFERA
(Lamarck). Bivalve Mollusca.

Section ASIPHONIDA. «a, without; cidwy, a tube.

The absence of a respiratory siphon indicates, generally, that the
species do not live immersed in sand or mud.

Group 55.—Family OSTRASIDA and allies. Oyster.
Estimated number of species: recent, 182; British, 5;
fossil, 200. Carboniferous, &c.

{ Examples of Ostrea, Anomia, Plicatula, Spon-
dylus, Placunanomia.

Upper Compartment.

Placenta orbicularis, used for windows in some
parts of China; Group of Pedum in coral of
the genus Porites.

Group 56.—Family PECTENIDA® and allies. pecten, a
comb. Estimated number of species: recent, 220;
British, 18; fossil, 600. Carboniferous, &c.

{| Examples of Pecten, Lima, Radula, Hinnites.
P. Proteus, exhibiting contrasts of colour between

specimens of the same species. Lima excavata,
North Sea. R. M‘Andrew.

Group 57.—Family ARCIDZé and allies. arca, a chest.
Estimated number of species: recent, 341; British, 11;

INVERTEBRATE ANIMALS. 21

fossil, 600. Lower Silurian, &c. T'rigonia, justly
admired for the beauty of its pearly interior, and now
found only in Australian Seas, is represented by many
species in the Mesozoic rocks of Britain.
{| Examples of Arca, Trigonia, Nucula, Yoldia,
Leda, Cucullea, Pectunculus, Adrana.

Group 58.—Family AVICULID and allies. diminutive
of avis, a bird. Estimated number of species: recent,
100; British, 2; fossil, 450. Silurian, &c.

4] Examples of Pinna, Meleagrina, Avicula, Perna,
Crenatula.

Upper Compartment.

Large group of Vulsella in sponge.

Group 59.—Family MYTILIDA and allies. Mussels.
Estimated number of species : recent, 250; British, 12 ;
fossil, 220. Silurian, &c.

{| Examples of ditheria, Mulleria, Mytilus, Crenella,
Myrina.
Upper Compartment.

Iithophaga in stone.

Group 60.—Family UNIONIDA. unio, a pearl. River-
mussels. Estimated number of species: recent, 574;
British, 4; fossil, 100. Tertiary.

{| Examples of Unio, Anodonta, Mycetopus.

Upper Compartment.

British Pearls; figures of Bhudda and artificial
pearls in Unio plicatus.

Unio multiplicatus ; extensive fracture repaired in a
very peculiar manner by the animal ; from the
Gaskoin cabinet.

22: INVERTEBRATE ANIMALS.

Sixth Guble Case.
The mark J indicates specimens or other illustrations exhibited in the Cases.

Section SIPHONIDA. ciday, a tube.
The presence of a well-developed respiratory siphon indicates, gener-
ally, that the species live more or less immersed in sand or mud.
Group 61.— Family LUCINIDA and allies. Lucina,
aname of Juno. Estimated number of species: recent,
362; British, 17; fossil, 380. From the Devonian
upwards.

{| Illustrations of the genera in the families Un-
gulinide, Laseide, Leptonide, Galeommide,
Solemyide, Astartide. Fine series of Crassa-
tella.

Group 62.—Family CHAMID and allies. yauai, on the
ground. Estimated number of species: recent, 52;
British, 0; fossil, 30. From the Chalk upwards.

{| Chama, Hippopus, Tridacna, Arcinella, Chame-
trachea, de. Chama Lazarus, very fine.
Upper Compartment.
Small example of 7’. gigas, the largest known mol-
lusc ; the shell attains the weight of 500 lbs.

Group 63.—Family CARDIID and allies. xaptie, the
heart. Cockles. Estimated number of species: recent,
162; British 9; fossil, 800. From the Silurian
upwards.

{ Cardium, Hemicardia, Bucardia, cde.
Adacna and Monodacna are generic forms from
the Caspian.

Group 64.—Family CYRENIDZE and allies. Cyrene, the

daughter of a river. The olive-green epidermis indi-

INVERTEBRATE ANIMALS. 23

cates a fresh-water habit. Estimated number of species :
recent, 255; British, 12; fossil, 195. Tertiary.
{ Illustrations of the genera in the families Glau-
conomyide, Cyrenide, Cyrenordide.

Family VENERIDAL.

Group 65.—Genus TAPES (Megerle) and allies. tapes,
tapestry. Estimated number of species: recent, 257 ;
British, 8; fossil, 60. Tertiary.

{ Dosinia = Artemis, Tapes, Circe, Clementia,
Rupellaria, &c. Sunetta, fine series of species.

Group 66.—Genus VENUS and allies. Estimated number
of species: recent, 238 ; British, 6; fossil, 160; from
the Oolite upwards.

q{ Venus, Callista, Chione, cc.
Chione Kellettii, from the Dennison collection.

Family TELLINIDAL.

Group 67.—Sub-family DONACINZ# and allies. Wedge-
shells. Estimated number of species: recent, 227;
British, 10; fossil, 60. ‘Tertiary.

{| Donax, Mesodesma, Semele, Hrvilia, &e.
Note.—The beautiful interior of Galatea, from
African rivers.

Group 68.—Sub-family TELLININAL., réaay. (Pliny.)
The Tellens, though inferior to the Pectens in striking
contrasts of colour, are, in refinement of beauty, at the
head of all the bivalve shells. Estimated number of
species : recent, 409; British, 20 ; fossil; 184. Oolite, &c.

{| Tellina, Lucinopsis, Metis, Tellidora, ce.
T’. lata, and others of great beauty.

24 INVERTEBRATE ANIMALS.

Group 69.—Family MACTRIDA, »axrpa,a kneeding-trough.
Estimated number of species: recent, 188; British, 8 ;
fossil, 40, chiefly Tertiary. j

q Mactra, Lutraria, Harvella, Raéta, Labiosa,
Anatinella, de.
Upper Compartment.
Interior of Lutraria, coloured to shew the pallial
sinus.

Group 70.—Family ANATINIDA, and allies. anatinus,
pertaining to the duck. Estimated number of species:
recent, 190; British, 17; fossil, 350. Devonian, &c.

{| Thracia, Myochama, Corbula, Periploma, Pan-
dora, dc. Pholadomya, extremely rare in a
recent state, is a magnificent genus of 150
species aS seen in its fossil representatives
from the Lias, &c.

Group 71.—Family SOLENIDA® and allies. cwayy, a
eutter-tile. Razor-shells. Estimated number of species :
recent, 24; British, 5; fossil, 60. Eocene, &c.

{| Mya, Panopea, Novaculina, de. Saxicava Angast.

Group 72.—Family PHOLADID and others. ¢wAzia,
living in holes. Estimated number of species: recent,
131; British, 14; fossil, 60. Eocene, &c.

{| Clavagella, Brechites = Aspergillum, Pholadidea,
Parapholas. The true bivalve shell of Asper-
gillum, not larger than a Laburnum seed, may
be seen on the tube.

Upper Compartment.

The tube of Kuphus giganteus. Specimens of wood
perforated by Teredo, often called the Ship-
worm, shewing the destructive character of the
borings made by this animal.

INVERTEBRATE ANIMALS. 25

Seventh Cable Case.

The Mark ‘| indicates specimens or other illustrations exhibited in the Cases.

Group 73.—Class PTEROPODA. srepiv, a wing; modc,
a foot. Pelagic Mollusca, of small size, often found
swimming in countless myriads on the surface of the
deep, especially on calm evenings, from the tropics to
high latitudes. The shells are delicate and glassy.
The animals are very simply organised, and resemble
the minute but actively locomotive larve of the Sea-
snails. Estimated number of species: recent, 78;
British seas, 5; fossil, several species of Conularia, and
other genera, from the Silurian upwards.

4] Examples of about 40 species of Balantium,
Cavolina Hyalea, Clio, Limacina, and other
genera.

Series containing more than a few species of
Pteropoda are rare in collections. For the
comparatively numerous examples here exhi-
bited, the collection is indebted chiefly to
Captains of merchant vessels sailing from
Liverpool, especially to Captains Whiteway,
Mortimer and Baker.

Class GASTEROPODA.
yeotip, the stomach ; ove, the foot.

Head distinct, furnished with eyes and tentacles. Body
usually protected by a conical or spiral shell. Lower
part of the body formed into a thickened, expanded,
creeping dise or foot. This class includes all the land
and most of the fresh-water and .marine univalve

26 INVERTEBRATE ANIMALS.

Molluscs. The latter when very young have ciliated
wings on the sides of the head, by which they swim
freely about; the body being contained in a minute
spiral shell, having an operculum.—H. & A. Apams.

Sub-class BRANCHIO-GASTEROPODA,
Beeyxia, gills. Organs of respiration constructed to
breathe air suspended in water.

Group 74.—Order HETEROPODA. é@repos, diverse; zovs,
the foot.

This and the succeeding order are retained at the commencement of the
GASTEROPODA, because, although they may be regarded as more
highly organized than the PROSOBRANCHIATA, they are le3s character-
istic members of the BRANCHIATE GASTEROPODS.

Estimated number of species: recent, 70 ; British, 3.
{| Examples of Oceanic Shells—Janthina, Atlanta,
_&e., including Carinaria vitrea.
Upper Compariment.
Coloured drawings of Firola, &c. Preparations in
liquid of Heteropodous animals ; Janthina

with its raft, from which the eggs of the
animal are suspended.

Order OPISTHOBRANCHIATA. ozicds, behind;
Beeyxie, gills. Organs of respiration situated towards

the rear of the body.

Group 75.—Sub-order NUDIBRANCHIATA. nidus, naked.
The Sea-slugs, though destitute of shells, are often
highly and beautifully coloured. Estimated number of
species: recent, 300; British, 26. They are referred
to two sections,

INVERTEBRATE ANIMALS. DAT

SECTION 1.—AIOLOBRANCHIATA. aioAos, changeable. Gills
in parallel rows.
4 Coloured models of Nudibranchs from the Mersey ;
Tritonia, Hols, &e.
SECTION 11.—ANTHOBRANCHIATA. ayo, a flower. Gills
in the form of a flower.
{{ Coloured models of Nudibranchs, Doris, &ce.
Upper Compartment.
Coloured drawings and specimens in spirits.

Group 76.—Sub-order TECTIBRANCHIATA. _ tectus,
covered. Gills protected by a shell, or by the mantle.
Estimated number of species: recent, 338; British 13 ;
fossil, 100. ‘Trias, &e.

The animals frequent weedy shores and coral reefs:
their bodies often exhibit lively colours, and
are frequently much larger than the shells
which protect the respiratory organs.

§; Examples of most of the genera in the families.
Acteomde = Tornatellide, Aplustride, Cyli-
chuide, Bullide, Philinide, Lophocercide,
Aplyside, Pleurobranchide.

Order PROSOBRANCHIATA. zpacoy, in front;
Bpayxia, gills. A very extensive order, comprising most
of the univalve Sea-shells best known in collections.

Sub-order SCUTIBRANCHIATA. — scutum, a
shield. Animals chiefly littoral in their habits, living
on rocks or sea-weeds near the shore.

Section EDRIOPHTHALMA. 2a, a seat;
opbarwoc, the eye. Eyes sessile. Shell, in the adult,
conical, not spiral.

28 INVERTEBRATE ANIMALS.

Group 77.—Family CHITONIDA. xitayv, a coat of mail.
Estimated number of species : recent, 255; British, 11;
fossil, 80, from the Devonian upwards.

{] Examples of Lophyrus, Tonicia, Lorica, Crypto-
plax = Chitonellus, Mopala, &c.
Upper Compartment,

Plates of the shell of Leptochiton, separated to
illustrate the homology of the last plate with
the entire shell of Patella.

Group 78.—Family PATELLID/ and allies. patella, a
dish ; Limpets. Estimated number of species: recent,
142; British 7; fossil, 100; from the Silurian upwards.

{| Examples of Tectura, Scutellina, Gadinia,
Nacella, &e.

Group 79.—Families FISSURELLIDH & DENTALIDA.
Duck’s-bill Limpets, Key-hole Limpets, Tooth-shells.
Estimated number of species: recent, 141; British 7;
fossil, 144. Devonian, Xe.

The Dentalide form the sub-class Scaphopoda
of Bronn. Their mode of development is
singularly interesting, and they are supposed
to form a link between the bivalve and univalve
Mollusea.

4] Examples of Antalis, Scutus = Parmophorus,
Emarginula, Cemoria, Lucapina, Tugali, Cra-
nopsis, Macrochisma, &c.

Section PODOPHTHALMA. otc, foot; é¢darmos, eye.

Eyes on foot-stalks.

Group 80.—Family HALIOTID AL. adios, marine. ods, ear.
Estimated number of species: recent, 74; British, 1;
fossil, 4. Miocene.

INVERTEBRATE ANIMALS. 29

Upper Compartment.
{] Series of polished Haliotis, including the prin-
cipal kinds used in the manufacture of papier-
maché articles, card cases, Xe.

Family TROCHIDA.

Group 81.—Sub-Family ASTRALIIN Z and allies. «ortpov,
a star. Estimated number of species: recent, 200;
British, 3; fossil, 5. Miocene.

{| Examples of Stomatella, Gena, Stella, Rotella,
Guilfordia, Broderipia, Trochiscus, Camitia,
Microtis, Scissurella, &c., constituting an
assemblage of very beautiful generic forms.

Group 82.—Sub-Family TROCHINA. trochus, a hoop.
Estimated number of species: recent, 600; British, 16;
fossil, 800. Silurian, &c.

The shells of the Trochine are found on the
coasts of all seas, and exhibit a remarkable
variety of form and sculpture.

Group 83.—Sub-Family TURBININZ and allies. turbo,
a top. Estimated number of species: recent, 110;
British, 1; fossil, 420-(?). Silurian, &c.

{| Specimens of Twrbo and Phasianella, shewing the
solid stony operculum characteristic of the group.

Group 84.—Family NERITIDA. vygirys, the Sea-snail.
The species of Nerita are marine, those of Neritina
and Navicella inhabit fresh or brackish water. Esti-
mated number of species: recent, 350; British, 1;
fossil, 100. Oolite.

{| Clithon longispina, distinguished by a remarkable
B

30 INVERTEBRATE ANIMALS.

development of tubular spines. Nerita pelo-
ronta, known to the older conchologists by the
name of ‘‘ The Bleeding Tooth,” was found by
the writer on rocks dried and intensely heated
by the sun.

Eighth Cable Case.
Sub-order PECTINIBRANCHIATA. pecten, a comb ;
Bpayxia, gills.
Section ROSTRIFERA. rostrum, a snout; $epw, I carry.
Group 85.—Family ONUSTID and allies. onus, a load.
Estimated number of species: recent, 158; British, 3 ;
Fossil, 75. From the Carboniferous upwards.
{| Examples of Onustus, Calyptra, Crepidula,
Narica, &c., shewing the characters which have
suggested the popular names, Cup-and-Saucer
Limpet, Slipper-Limpet, Bonnet-Limpet; the
Mineralogist Carrier, Conchologist Carrier, &c.
Group 86.—Family TURRITELLID/ and allies. turris,
a tower. Estimated number of species: recent, 124;
British, 8; fossil, 200. Tertiary.
4] Examples of Twrritella, Vermetus, Cecum, Sili-
quaria, Siphonium, Xe.
‘In Vermetus, the whorls of an ordinary spiral
shell are seen disunited, and taking the form
of a cork-screw.

Group 87.—Family AMPULLARIID and allies. ampulla,
a globular vessel. Estimated number of species:
recent, 181; British, 6; fossil, 70. Tertiary.

This family includes the so-called Apple-snails,
though differing widely from the true snails,
which have lungs and are without opercula.

INVERTEBRATE ANIMALS. 81

{] Ampullaria, Paludina, Paludomus, Bithynia,
Nematura, &c., all inhabitants of lakes or
rivers.

Upper Compartment.

Ampullaria gigas, from the River Amazon.

Group 88.—Family LITTORINIDZ‘ and allies. _ littus,
the sea-shore. Periwinkles. Estimated number of
species: recent, 420; British, 60; fossil, 100.
Permian, &c.

{| Littorina, Rissoa, Planaxis, &e. Litiopa from
the Fucus natans in the Sargasso Sea.

Group 89.—Family MELANIIDA. péras, black.
Melania, Melanopsis, &e. Estimated number of species :
recent, 407; British, 0; fossil, 72. Tertiary.

4] Illustrations of about 80 generic and sub-generic
forms, all from fresh water.

Group 90.—Family CANCELLARIID and _ allies. |
cancelli, lattice work. Estimated number of species :
recent, 274; British, 6; fossil, 720. Trias, &c.

§! Trichotropis, Aporrhais, Ceritthium, Struthi-
olaria, Halia, Admete, &c.

Trichotropis bicarinata, and a fine series of
Cancellaria.

The fossil representatives of this group are very
numerous, and are often found in the finest
possible condition.

Group 91.—Family CYPRAXID and allies. Cowries.
Estimated number of species: recent, 200; British, 3 ;
fossil, 64. Cretaceous, &c.

{] Examples of Cyprea, Trivia, Ovulum, Pedi-

32 INVERTEBRATE ANIMALS.

cularia. C. aurantia, worn as an ornament
by the chiefs in the Friendly Islands.

Upper Compartment.

Very aged C. tigris; C. pantherina, with Balani
enclosed in a coating of enamel; and many
others from the Gaskoin cabinet.

Group 92.—Family STROMBIDAL. crpéuGos, a spindle.
The Strombide are active animals, possessing large and
well-developed eyes: they are by some authorities placed
at the head of the Prosobranchiata. Estimated number
of species: recent, 84; British, 0; fossil, 170. Lias, &c.

4] Examples of Pterocera, Terebellum, Strombus,
&e., and a very fine series of Rostellaria,
Gladius Martinii, Marrat.

Upper Compartment.

Rough medallions and finished cameo, from the
shell of Strombus gigas.

Section TOXIFERA. rofov, an arrow; epw,
I carry.
Group 93.—Family CONIDA. Cone-shells. Estimated
number of species: recent, 400; British, 0; fossil, 80.
Cretaceous, Xe.
§| Examples of Conus and Dibaphus, including
C. omaicus, C. cedo-nulli, C. nobilis, C. aurisi-
acus, C. orbignyt, and others, illustrating the
generic and sub-generic forms of this elabo-
rately painted group of shells.

INVERTEBRATE ANIMALS. 33

Section PROBOSCIDIFERA. zpoBocxsc, a pro-
boscis.

Group 94.—Family SOLARIIDA® and allies. Solarium,
a dial. Estimated number of species: recent, 38;
British, 0; fossil, 400. Silurian. ;

§] Examples of Solarium = Architectonica, Torinia,
&¢c., shewing the winding whorls of Solarium,
the staircase T'rrochus. The space is chiefly
occupied by fossils, Pleurotomaria, Huom-
phalus, &e.

Group 95.—Family TEREBRIDAS and allies. terebra, an
auger. The Scalide, familiarly known as ‘‘ Wentletraps,”
seem out of place here, and well deserve to be dis-
tinguished as a group by themselves. S. pretiosa, in
really fine condition, is one of the most beautiful, as it
used to be one of the most costly of shells. Estimated
number of species: recent, 480; British, 50; fossil,
420. Silurian, &c.

{| Specimens of Scalaria, Pyramidella, Eulima,
Stylifer, &e., including Terebra pretiosa from
the Dennison cabinet; Niso splendidus, pre-
sented by S. Smith.

Pusionella curvirostris, Marrat.

Upper Compartment.

Stylifer on an EHehinus, from Ceylon.

Group 96.—Family NATICIDA® and allies. Estimated
number of species: recent, 240; British, 11; fossil,
260. Devonian.

{| Specimens of Natica, Velutina, Lamellaria,
Naticina, Sigaretus.

34 INVERTEBRATE ANIMALS.

Ninth Cable Case.
The Mark 4 indicates specimens or other illustrations exhibited in the Cases.

_Group 97.—--Family CASSIDID and allies. cassis, a
helmet. Estimated number of species: recent, 80;
British, 0; fossil, 50. Cretaceous.

{| Examples of Cassis, Dolium, Oniscia, Ficula,
&e., including Morwm exquisitum.

Sconsia Barbudensis, Higgins and Marrat.

Warrenia, new genus, W. harpeformis, Higgins
and Marrat. Collected by Captain Cawne
Warren.

Upper Compartment.

Cameos in various stages (rough medallions, half-
finished, and completed), from the shells of
Cassis Madagascarensis and C. rufa. Pre-
sented by W. H. Tooke. Sections shewing
interior of shells.

Group 98.—Family MARGINELLIDA. =margo, a rim.
Estimated number of species: recent, 412; British, 1;
fossil, 50. Cretaceous, &e.

{| Marginella, Erato, Columbella, Engina.

Marginella Warrent, Marrat.

M. balteata, Higgins and Marrat.

Strombina subulata, Sow.

Many species of Marginella are unsurpassed by any
other shells in beauty of form and finish.

Group 99.—Family MITRIDA. Mitres. Estimated
number of species: recent, 439; British, 0; fossil, 100.
Cretaceous, &c.

INVERTEBRATE ANIMALS. 35

{| Illustrations of most of the 21 generic and sub-
generic forms constituting this extensive and
highly ornate family of shells, found chiefly
in the Philippine Archipelago.

Group 100.—Family VOLUTIDA. Volutes. Estimated
number of species: recent, 100; British, 0; fossil, 80.
Cretaceous, &c.

{| Examples of Voluta, Cymba, Melo, including the
very beautiful and rare Lyria lyreformis,
presented by 8. Smith.

Upper Compartment.

Observe the highly coloured interior of V. dthi-
opica, Dennison collection.

Group 101—Family TURBINELLIDZ and allies. turbo,
a top. Estimated number of species: recent, 118;
British, 0; fossil, 48. Cretaceous, &c.

Turbinella, Fasciolaria, Fastigiella.
Upper Compartment.
Armlets, made from the Chank-shell, worn by the
poorer Hindoos and Malays.
Curious linear arrangement of egg-capsules, sup-
posed to belong to some species of the present
group. Presented by Captain Mortimer.

Group 102.—Family DACTYLIDA. daxrvacs, a finger.
Three very characteristic sub-families are combined in
this group, the Olives, the Harps, and the Ancille, all
tropical or sub-tropical in their distribution. It may be
noticed that the present and five preceding groups are
represented in British seas by a single species only, and
appeared not earlier than the chalk formation. Esti-

36 INVERTEBRATE ANIMALS.

mated number of species: recent, 161; British, 0;
fossil, 70. Cretaceous.
Oliva, Harpa, Ancilla. Oliwa mirabilis, Higgins
and Marrat.
{| O. Labuanensis, discovered and presented by
Dr. Collingwood.

Upper Compartment.

Malformations. Gaskoin collection.

Family BUCCINIDAN. buccinwm, a trumpet.

Group 103.—Sub-family PURPURIN and allies. pwr-
pura, purple. Estimated number of species: recent,
178; British, 1; fossil, 42. Tertiary.

{| Examples of Purpura, Ricinula, Concholepas,
Separatista, Pinaxia, &e.
Upper Compartment.
Group of many Magilus antiquus, in coral, Capt.
Jinman; also group illustrating the boring of the
animal into, and across, the lamelle of the coral,
as shewn by Mr. Charlesworth.

Group 104.—Sub-family NASSINA® and allies. nassa,
a basket. Estimated number of species: recent, 553;
British, 7; fossil, 150. Tertiary.

{| Examples of Buccinum, Nassa, Eburna, Phos,
&e., including a very fine series of all the
known species of Hburna.

Group 105.—Family TRITONIDAX. Tritons. Estimated
number of species: recent, 165; British, 0; fossil, 68.
Tertiary.

{| Examples of Triton, Ranella, Persona, &e.

INVERTEBRATE ANIMALS. By

Group 106. Family PLEUROTOMIDAK. § zaAzupa, side ;
touos, a notch. Estimated number of species: recent,
491; British, 15; fossil, 300. Cretaceous, &c.

Murchisonia plicata, Higgins and Marrat.
{{ Examples of Plewrotoma=Turris, Mangelia, &c.
Large number of generic forms.

Family MURICIDA. Murex.

Group 107.—Sub-family FUSINAX. jfusus, a spindle.
Estimated number of species: recent, 206; British, 6;
fossil, 840. Oolite, &c.

{| Examples of Fusus, Hemifusus, Pisania,
Neptunea Turtoni, &c.; amonst them, [usus
pagodus and Metula clathrata.

Upper Compartment.

Fusus antiquus, fitted up as in Norway for use as a
lamp.

Group 108.—Sub-family MURICINA. Estimated number
of species: recent, 268; British, 5; fossil, 180.
Chiefly Tertiary.

4] Examples of Murex, Trophon, &c., including a
very fine series of ‘Typhis, S. Smith; and
Murex endivia, Dennison collection.

Murex imbricatus, Higgins and Marrat.

M. brandaris and M. erinaceus were probably the
chief sources of the purple dye for which
ancient Tyre was celebrated.

In the Molluses of the next Sub-class occur for the first time in the ascending
series animals which have attained to aérial respiration. As compared

38 INVERTEBRATE ANIMALS.

with other GasteRopPopA, the Land-snails and Slugs possess a similar
odontophore or elastic strap, set with sharp teeth; transformations less
distinct ; a primary neural flexure of the intestine; and breathe air by
means of a pulmonary chamber formed by an inflexion of the mantle.

Genth Gable Case.

Sub-class GASTEROPODA PULMONIFERA.
mvevuov, lungs; gepw, I carry. Not more than about
half-a-dozen forms have been found in paleozoic rocks.

Group 109.—Order OPERCULATA. operculum, a lid.
Estimated number of species: recent, 1,000; British, 3;
fossil, 50; Tertiary. The operculate PuLMonrIFERA attain
their highest development in the Polynesian Islands,
but are found in both hemispheres. The shells exhibit
remarkable varieties in form and sculpture: some are
cylindrical and glassy, others discoid; many are beauti-
fully keeled, as may be seen in the delicately fringed
whorls of TYvochatella constellata. The drawer is
crowded, but contains examples of nearly all the generic
and sub-generic forms.

{| Certain sections in this Order are supposed to
have closer affinity with some of the con-
stituents of the Sub-class GasTEROPODA
BRANCHIFERA.

Order INOPERCULATA. in, without; oper-

culum, a lid.

Group 110.—Sub-order THALASSOPHILA. déracca,
the sea; ¢idoc, a friend. Estimated number of species :
recent, 100; British, 0; fossil, 3. Tertiary.

4] Examples of Siphonaria, Amphibola, &. The
shells of Siphonaria resemble those of the

INVERTEBRATE ANIMALS. 39

Limpet tribe, but the animals are widely
distinct. 72 species are exhibited, most of
them presented by Mr. F. P. Marrar.

Upper Compartment.
Drawings of the animals of Siphonaria and Patella.

Group 111.—Sub-order LIMNOPHILA. Aiuyy, a pool;
giaos, a friend. Estimated number of species: recent,
700; British, 25; fossil, 160. Tertiary.

§] Examples of Auricula, Scarabus, Limnea, Plan-
orbis, Physa, Physopsis, &e. A brackish or
fresh-water group, as indicated by the pale or
sombre colouring even of the tropical species.

Group 112.—Sub-order GEOPHILA. ij, the earth ; giAos,
a friend.

Family LIMACIDZE and allies. imag, a slug.
Estimated number of species: recent, 200; British, 13.
Examples of Limax, Arion, Nanina, Helicarion,
&c. The beautifully coloured shells of Nanina
appear to advantage in a group where most of

the species are without shells.

Upper Compartment.
Drawings of the Animals.

Family HELICIDAN. = éAsxy, a winding.

Group 113.—Sub-family HELICINA. Part I. The influ-
ence of geographical position is well illustrated in this
group, by the family likeness subsisting between the
members of the smaller series, Brazilian, N. American,
Madeiran, and European. Estimated number of species :
recent, 408; British, 10; fossil, afew. Tertiary.

40 INVERTEBRATE ANIMALS.

{] Examples of Solaropsis, Anchistoma, Iberus,
Theba, cc.

Group 114.—Sub-family HELICINA. Part II. The up-
turned mouth of Anostoma indicates that the adult
animal must move with the spire of the shell downwards.
The West-Indian tribe, allied to Lucerna, Macrocycls,
&e., includes some of the largest and smallest of the
Helices. Estimated number of species: recent, 200;
British, 6; fossil, a few. Tertiary.

{| Examples of Acavus, Cochlea, Lucerna, Macro-
cyclis, &c., including a fine series of the rare
Malayan genus Geotrochus.

Group 115.—Sub-family HELICINAX. Part III. Estimated
number of species: recent, 200; British, 3; fossil, a
few. Tertiary.

{| Examples of Streptaxis, Helix, Helicostyla, Xe.

In the Philippine Islands the Helices attain their
highest beauty of form and colour; e.g., Cal-
licochlias, Corasia, and Helicostyla.

Group 116.—Sub-family PUPINA. Pupa, a doll. Esti-
mated number of species: recent, 574; British, 16;
fossil, 50. Tertiary.

4] Examples of Pupa, Clausilia, Cylindrella, &c.,
and of most of the generic forms in this
extensive group.

Note the form and sculpture of some of the more
slender species of Cylindrella, a West Indian
genus.

Group 117.—Sub-family BULIMINAX. Part I. Bovasmos,
hunger. Estimated number of species: recent, 480;
British, 5; fossil, 0.

INVERTEBRATE ANIMALS. 41

{ Examples of Orthalicus, Bulimulus, &c. For

the geographical distribution of the Bulimi,
see the tablets.

Note the delicate texture of the shells in the paper
Bulimi, Orthalicus; the grotesque shapes in
Otostomus ; the form, texture, and colour in
Aspastus.

Group 118.—Sub-family BULIMINA. Part II. The
Helices of the Philippine Islands are rivalled by the
Bulimi of the same region, ¢.g., B. irroratus, and B.
malleatus. Estimated number of species: recent, 230 ;
British, 0; fossil, 30. Tertiary.

{| Examples of Cochlostyla, Bulimus, Partula, &c.

Upper Compartment.

B. ovatus, and other Bulimi, with their eggs.

Group 119.—Sub-family ACHATININ#@ and allies.
achates, an agate. Estimated number of species: recent,
344; British, 3; fossil, 14. Tertiary.

{| Examples of Achatina, Succinea, Achatinella,
Simpulopsis, &e.

Upper Compartment.

Some of the larger Achatina, chiefly an African

genus, fully equal in size the largest Bulimi
of the western hemisphere.

Group 120.—Family OLEACINID4# and allies. olea, an
olive. The present is a very heterogeneous group, but
all the most important forms are illustrated. Estimated
number of species: recent, 503; British, 16; fossil, a
few. Tertiary.

49 INVERTEBRATE ANIMALS.

{ Examples of Oleacina, Glandina, Discus, Zonites,
Vitrina, Testacella, Sagda, &c. Series related
to Testacella and Parmacella.

Eleventh Cable Case.

The Mark indicates specimens or other illustrations exhibited in the Cases.

Group 121.—Family BELLEROPHONTIDA (MacCoy).
Estimated number of species 70, known only as fossils,
chiefly Silurian and Carboniferous. The position of the
eroup is uncertain, the animal being quite unknown
except through the remains of its shell. Its place may
probably be with the Heteropoda.

Class CEPHALOPODA.
xedary, the head; ods, a foot.
Organs of progression encircling the head.

Order TETRABRANCHIATA (Owen). Gills
4; arms many, without suckers, resembling tentacles.
The shells in this very extensive order, of which only a
single living form remains (the Nautilus), are all
chambered, 2.¢., divided transversely into compartments,
in the outermost of which the animal resides, keeping up
a communication with the previously inhabited chambers
by means of a siphuncle or tube.

Family AMMONITIDZ (Owen). "AMMON,
a title of Jupiter when represented as having the horns

of a ram.
Group 122.—Genus HAMITES (Parkinson); and allies.
hamus, a hook. This group includes the genera of the
Ammonite family, in which the tube of the shell is

INVERTEBRATE ANIMALS. 438

nearly straight or sharply bent near the extremity ; also
genus T'wrrilites, in which the chambered tube forms a
beautifully spiral shell. Estimated number of species,
140, all known as fossils of the Cretaceous system.

Group 123.—Genus AMMONITES (Bruguiere). Sutures
of the shell more or less ramified. Estimated number
of species, 530, occurring from the Trias to the Chalk.
{| Specimens of Ammonites from the Wealden, Oolite,

Lias, Chalk, and Green-sand formations.

Group 124.—Genera GONIATITES (De Haan); and
CERATITES (De Haan). Sutures of the shell sinuous,
but not ramified. Estimated number of species, 175,
known only as fossils from the Devonian to the Trias.

Family NAUTILIDA.

Group 125.—Genus ORTHOCERAS (Breyn); and allies.
ép40¢, straight; xéeas, a horn. The Orthoceratites were
extremely abundant in the very ancient seas, the
Carboniferous Limestone in some parts being almost
made up of theirremains. The shells sometimes attained
a length of six feet. Estimated number of species, 200,
from the Silurian to the Trias.

Group 126.—Genus NAUTILUS. vavuridos. AnisToTun,
B.c. 312. Nautilus, the sole living representative of the
vast assemblage of tentacle-bearing Cephalopods, has, it
is said, been recognised in every geological formation
from the Silurian upwards. The series thus extended
includes more than 100 species; 6 species are still
living, though the animal has rarely been observed, and
was first described by Professor Owen. The Nautilus
creeps, shell uppermost, on the bottom of the sea; but

44 INVERTEBRATE ANIMALS.

it occasionally ascends, and has been seen in shoals
floating on the surface after a storm.

{| Examples of Nautilus pompilius, N. wmbilicatus,
N. macromphalus, and of a few fossil forms.

Upper Compartment.

Sections of the shell to shew the chambers and the
siphuncle. Specimen in liquid of the animal
within the shell.

Order DIBRANCHIATA. Gills two; arms,
with suckers.

Section DECAPODA. Arms ten.
Group 127.—Genus SPIRULA and allies. The shell of

Spirula is internaland chambered. Estimated number
of species: recent, 4; fossil, a few, from the lower
Tertiary.
Upper Compartment.
{| Spirula in spirits with the animal entire, very rare.
Section shewing the ventral siphon passing through
the chambers of the shell.

Group 128.—Family BELEMNITIDA. Bédzuvov, a dart.
Belemnites. Belemnoteuthis Actinocamax. The shell is
internal and chambered, and is protected posteriorly by
a cylindrical guard tapering to a point. This guard is
the only part commonly found. Estimated number of
species 40, all known as fossils, chiefly from the Lias.

{| Specimens from Dr. Mantel’s collection, in very

fine condition, shewing the horny pro-ostracum,
the ink-bag, and the phragmacone.

INVERTEBRATE ANIMALS. 45

Group 129.—Family SEPIADA. Cuttles. Syria.
ARISTOTLE, from city, a pouch. The shell is internal,
consisting of an oval calcareous plate, shewing at the
apex traces of the chambered structure characteristic
of the order. Estimated number of species: recent,
30; British, 3; fossil, 9. Oxford clay, &c.

4] Fossil remains and recent specimens of cuttle-
bone.
Upper Compartment.
Coloured drawings of the animal, and preparations
in liquid.

Group 130.—Family TEUTHIDAS. Calamaries and Squids.
tevic (ARISTOTLE). The shell is an internal horny pen.
Loligo, Cranchia, Sepiola. Estimated number of
species: recent, 90; British, 10; fossil, 14. Lias, &e.

¢| Parrot-like horny beaks of Squids. Eyes of
Cephalopods taken from Peruvian mummies.

Upper Compartment.

Pen of Squid four-and-a-half feet in length,
collected by Capt. Mortimer in the North
Atlantic. Animals of the group in spirits.

Section OCTOPODA. Arms, eight.

Group 1381.—Family OCTOPODIDA Poulpes. Octopus,
Eledone. Estimated number of species: recent, 58;
British, 1.

4] Dried Octopods, from the market at Constanti-
nople.
Upper Compartment.
Drawings and preparations in spirits.
C

46 INVERTEBRATE ANIMALS.

Group 132.—Family ARGONAUTIDA. Argonaut, Paper-
Nautilus. The beautiful shell of the female Argonaut is
secreted by the extremities of the dorsal arms, which are
disciform. The animal is not attached to the shell, but
sits in it, clasping the sides with its webbed arms.

4] Very large specimen of A. argo, and examples of
four other species.
Upper Compartment.
Drawings of the female Argonaut with its shell.
Preparation in liquid of male Argonaut, shew-
ing the hectocotylised arm.

Gtwelfth Guble Case.
If VERMES be adopted as a Sub-kingdom, this and the
following eight table-cases should succeed the fourth table-
case, and the MOLLUSCA take their places.

Sub-kingdom ANNULOIDA.

Animals possessing a distinct nervous system, a
water vascular system, and a food canal shut
off from the body cavity: body of the adult
having. its somites (merosomes) disposed
pseudo-radially, without true segmental division.

As the principal departure from the ordinary method
of arrangement occurs at this point, it may be proper
for the Writer to mention, by way of explanation, that
he cannot bring himself to regard the high development
of special organs in the CepHaLopopa, due probably to
the absence of morphological obstructions, a& in any wise
equivalent in importance even to the first prefigurements
of the great annulose type; in which many somites,
each in itself an individual of a lower grade, unite
as constituents, first of a type with an exo-skeleton

INVERTEBRATE ANIMALS. 47

(ARTHROPODA), subsequently of a type with an endo-
skeleton (VERTEBRATA), by degrees consigning their
combined energies to be under the superintendence,
first of a cephalic ganglion, at length of a brain.

Class ECHINODERMATA.
zxivoc, the hedgehog; %epua, the skin.

The general arrangement of the groups in thi. Class
is in accordance with the classification adopted
by MM. Dvusarpin and Huph, in “ Histoire
Naturelle des Zoophytes Echinodermes.” (Suites a
Buffon. Paris, 1862).

Sub-Class CRINOIDA.
xpivos, a lily; ef@os, form

Body of the animal, during the whole or a portion of its
existence, attached to the sea-bottom by a jointed and
flexible stalk.

Group 133.—Orders CYSTOIDEA, BLASTOIDEA, and
CRINOIDEA in part. The Cystoidea, earliest of the
Echinoderms, attained their maximum in the Lower
Silurian. They were closely followed by the Blastoidea,
or Pentremites, and the Crinoidea, or Stone-Lilies: the
latter alone survived, though in diminished numbers,
the Paleozoic age. Estimated number of species, 140.
M. Dvusarpin.

Group 134.—Family PENTACRINIDZ (D’Orbigny). The
beautiful Pentacrinus Mullert is one of the few living
forms which very closely connect the animal life of the
present age with that of ages immeasurably remote.
Living in the deeper waters of the Caribbean Sea, it has

48

INVERTEBRATE ANIMALS.

seldom been brought to light, and was long regarded
as a solitary relic of the vast Crinoid population of
the ancient oceans. Deep-sea dredging has recently
afforded examples of allied forms. Pentacrinus Wyville-
Thomsoni was taken at a depth of 1,095 fathoms,
KE. Atlantic, and Bathycrinus gracilis at 2,485 fathoms.
Estimated number of species: recent, 10; fossil, 6.
Lias.

The collection is fortunate in possessing one fine
specimen of P. Mullert and two of P. Wyville-
Thomsont. Whilst inspecting them, Dr. Car-
penter, who described and named the latter
species, remarked to the writer that, in conse-
quence of a structural peculiarity, the stem of
a Pentacrinite never snapped asunder except.at
a joint close below one of the whorls of arms
which at intervals of about three inches radiate
from the stem. If, therefore, the stem of a
living Pentacrinite broke, a whorl was thereby
brought in close and even contact with the
sea-bottom, to which the arms could cling and
again support the animal in an erect position.

Group 135.—Family COMATULIDA. Feather-stars.

Although the adult Feather-stars move freely from place
to place, in their early condition they are attached by
the centre to a fixed stem, in which stage they so
much resemble the species of the preceding group, that
the larval state of Comatula rosacea received the name of
Pentacrinus Europeus. Estimated number of species :
recent, 35; British, 3; fossil, 20.

INVERTEBRATE ANIMALS. 49
‘Sub-Class ASTEROIDA. Star-Fishes.

Order OPHIUROIDEA. us, snake; odpa, tail ;

eidos, form.

Group 186.—Family OPHIURIDAX. Part I. Sand-stars.
In the Ophiuride the number of arms is always five ;
the arms do not, as in the true Star-Fishes, contain
extensions of the body cavity, but are simply locomotive
appendages. Estimate of species: recent, 80; British,
2; fossil, 9.

4] Examples of Ophioderma, Ophiura, Ophiolepis,
and other genera.

Group -137.—Family OPHIURID. Part II. Brittle-stars.
The Brittle-stars are much more active than the Sand-
stars, and have a tendency to break themselves up into
little pieces when captured. They die instantaneously
when placed in fresh water. The Ophiuride inhabit
almost all seas, and are found occasionally at great
depths. Estimated number of species :—recent, 65 ;
British, 11; fossil, 11. Silurian and upwards. The
total number of species of Ophiuride, in a list by
Theodore Lyman, of Harvard College, U.S., is 164.

{| Examples of Ophiocoma, Ophiothrix, Ophiacan-
tha, Ophiomyxa, and other genera.

Group 188.—Family ASTEROPHYDEZE (Dujardin). This
group includes species with arms varying from perfectly
simple stems to the highly branched appendages of
Asterophyton, one species of which, known as the
Shetland Argus, when curled up somewhat resembles

50

INVERTEBRATE ANIMALS.

the Rose of Jericho (Anastatica Hierochuntia). In
moving, the Asterophyton lifts itself along on tiptoe,
resting on the extreme ends of the branches, which
thus form a kind of cage. The branches divide dicho-
tomously, beginning with the 5 arms; these, by
division, produce 10, and these again 20, and so on.
In a New England specimen, mentioned by A.
Agassiz, the terminal branchlets were computed at
many thousands. Estimated number of species:
recent, 16; British, 1.

4] Examples of Asterophyton (Linck); Huryale
(Lamarck).

Order ASTEROIDEA. daorip, a star; <idoc,
form.

Ambuiacral furrows with four rows of tube-feet; anus dorsal.

Group 189.—Genera ASTERACANTHION (Muller) ; and

HiLIASTER (Gray). This group includes the com-
mon star-fish or cross-fish, found abundantly on the
shores of the Mersey. The arms of star-fishes have, on
the under side, furrows pierced by rows of openings
through which can be extended or retracted locomotive
organs called tube-feet. A complicated apparatus (the
water-vascular system) fills or empties, and thus pro- *
trudes or withdraws, these tube-feet, or any portion of
them, at the will of the animal. Estimated number of
species: recent, 50; British, 4; fossil, 9. Silurian
and upwards. In this, as in most groups of the order,
the collection is indebted for fine examples to the liberal
contributions of Professor Agassiz.

INVERTEBRATE ANIMALS. 51
Ambulacral furrows with two rows of tube-feet ; anus dorsal.

Group 140.—Genera CRIBELLA (Agassiz), SOLASTER
(Forbes), and allies. The genus Cribella forms a link
between the cross-fish, Uraster, and the sun-stars,
Solaster. Most of the Echinoderms possess, and Cribella
exhibits very distinctly on its upper surface, near the
junction of two arms, a small aperture like the rose of
a watering-pot (madreporiform tubercle), which acts as
a filter for the supply of the water-vascular system.
Estimated number of species: recent, 538; British, 4;
fossil, 1.

Group 141.—Genus PALMIPES (Linck), and_ allies.
In this group the arms or rays are slender, so that the
web which joins them constitutes the chief part of the
body, Palmipes, the Bird’s-foot Sea-star, the thinnest
and flattest of the order, ranges from the Artic Seas to
the Mediterranean. Estimated number of species:
recent, 47; British, 1; fossil, 7. Higher Crag.

4] Examples of Culcita, Asteriscus, Oreaster, &c.

Group 142.—Genera ASTROGONIUM (Miller), and
GONIODISCUS (Muller). The long, sharp, and
strong spines conspicuous in some of the species of
this group serve to protect the animal from the attacks
of enemies, or from the effects of sudden concussions.
The animal can lower its spines in any required direc-
tion, as river steamers lower their funnels when passing
under a bridge. Estimated number of species: recent,
30; British, 2; fossil, 84. Chalk and Higher Crag.

{| Examples of Paulia horrida, Antennea, &c.

52, INVERTEBRATE ANIMALS.

Group 143.—Genera ASTEROPSIS (Muller), and
ARCHASTER, (Muller). Star-fishes, writes A.
Agassiz, have a singular mode of eating: they place
themselves over whatever they mean to feed upon, —as for
instance a cockle,—the back gradually rising as they arch
themselves above it; they then turn the digestive sac
or stomach inside out, so as to enclose their prey com-
pletely, and proceed leisurely to suck out the animal
from the shell. Estimated number of species: recent,
11; fossil, 2. Green-sand.

Ambulacral furrows, with two rows of tube-feet: anus
absent.

Group 144.—Genera ASTROPECTEN (Linck): LUIDIA
(Forbes). Three representatives of the present group are
found in British seas; Asterias aurantiaca (Linnzus),
Astropecten (Linck), called by fishermen the Butthorn,
and two species of Luidia, one of which when full grown
measures two feet across, but specimens of this size are
with great difficulty obtained entire,“owing to the habit
which Lwidia possesses of voluntarily breaking itself
into little pieces when an attempt is made to remove it
from its natural element. This species, in common
with many others, has at the end of each ray a pigment
spot, which is probably a rudimentary organ of vision,
and is guarded by a movable eye-lid. Estimated
number of species: recent, 46; fossil, 20. Oolite and
upwards.

INVERTEBRATE ANIMALS. 53

Chirteenth Gable Caae.

The Mark | indicates specimens or other illustrations exhibited in the Cases.

Sub-Class ECHINOIDA. Sea-Urchins.

éxivos, hedgehog; 0s, form.
Family CIDARIDA. «xidapis, a Persian turban.

Group 145.—Genus CIDARIS (Lamarck) and allies. The
elobose Cidaride differ widely in appearance from the
long-armed Asteride of the preceding order; but if the
arms of a Star-fish were turned up over its back till the
tips nearly met, and if the sides of the turned-up arms
were united by plates bearing tubercles crowned with long
spines, the morphological affinity between the Star-fish
and the Sea-urchin might to some extent be thus illus-
trated. In the Sea-urchin five spaces with ambulacral
pores alternate with five spine-bearing segments, all
vertically disposed, the mouth being always on the under
side. Estimated number of species: recent, 17; fossil,
424, Chiefly from the Oolitic and Tertiary formations.

{| Cidaris papillata (Fleming), the only representa-
tive of the group in the British seas, was
formerly supposed to be found exclusively near
the Shetland Islands, where it is called the
Piper, its spines being compared with the
drones of a bag-pipe.

Group 146.—Genus DIADEMA (Gray) and allies. diadyue,
a diadem. The metamorphosis of an Echinus has
no parallel out of its own class. The egg of the Sea-
urchin produces a free-swimming ciliated embryo, which

54

INVERTEBRATE ANIMALS.

becomes a larva with an internal calcareous skeleton,
shaped like a painter’s easel (Pluteus). On the interior
lining of its stomach is formed a germ (blastema), which
assumes a radiated form, absorbs in part, or casts off,
the larval body with its skeleton, develops a new mouth,
and grows into an Hchinus. The adult form is therefore
constructed on a lower type than that of its larva, from
which the Sea-urchin seems only to borrow materials
necessary for its growth. Estimated number of species :
recent, 89; British, 0; fossil, 107.

{| Examples of Salmacis, Echinocidaris, Ambly-

pneustes, Garelha, Trichodiadema.

Group 147.—Genus ECHINUS (Linneus) and allies. éxivos,

a hedgehog. In the shell of Hehinus sphera, the com-
mon Egg-urchin of British coasts, are combined upwards
of 600 plates, bearing more than 4,000 movable spines.
At the apex is an anal opening, surrounded by plates
perforated to admit the passage of the ova. One plate,
larger than the rest, is of a spongy character, and admits
water for the supply of the water-vascular system. Five
smaller adjacent plates have orifices answering to the
eye-specks of Star-fishes. On the under side of the
Echinus may be seen the points of five projecting teeth,
forming the extremities-of a marvellously complicated
dental apparatus, which has been termed Aristotle’s
Lantern. Estimated number of species: recent, 19;
British, 8; fossil, 26. Cretaceous and Tertiary. |

{| Examples of Spherechinus, Lytechinus, Psam-
mechinus.

Group 148.—Genus TOXOPNEUSTES (Agassiz) and allies.

togov, an are; mvévois, respiration. Hchinus lividus, the

INVERTEBRATE ANIMALS. 55

Purple Sea-urchin, was seen by the writer, lying hun-
dreds together in tide-pools on the coast of Kerry,
Treland. This species frequently lives in cup-shaped
cavities of rocks corresponding with the size of the
animal. It seems to perforate the rock by the con-
tinued motion of its spines, which, being covered by a
living membrane, are renewed at the tip as the points
are worn away. Estimated number of species: recent,
30; British, 1; fossil, 9.

{| Examples of Lowechinus, Toxocidaris, Helioci-

daris, Tripneustes.

Group 149.—Genus ACROCLADIA (Agassiz). axpos,
pointed; xAados, the young shoot of a tree. The
species of this group, distinguished by their massive
spines, are found in Tropical seas, and during life are
superbly coloured; but they are much disposed to cast
off their spines on being removed from the water.
Estimated number of species: recent, 6.

4] Examples of Pedophora and two species of Acro-
cladia.

Group 150.— Genus ECHINOMETRA (Breynius) and
allies. On the integument of many of the Hchino-
dermata are found curious little appendages called
Pedicellariz, in shape not unlike the head and stem of
an Encrinite, but possessing only two or three arms,
which open and close with much activity. These pre-
hensile organs, much resembling the avicularia of the
Polyzoa, are supposed to be modified spines. Estimated
number of species in the present group: recent, 14;
fossil, 195.

56 INVERTEBRATE ANIMALS.

Family CLYPEASTRIDZA. clypeus, a shield; astrum,
a star.

Group 151.—Genus ECHINARACHNIUS (Van Phels)
and allies. ¢xivos, apaxvy, a spider’s web. The globose
form of the common Sea-urchin differs very widely from
the flattened disc of the Cake-urchin, Hchinarachnius
placenta, a northern form rarely found in British seas;
but upon examination the true ambulacral pores of the
Cake-urchin may be seen, forming a rosette on its
upper surface; and other very curious modifications of
the ordinary echinoid structure may be recognised as
associated with an extreme reduction in the size of the
body cavity of the animal. Estimated number of
species: recent, 32; British, 2; fossil, 63.

| Examples of Melitta, Dendraster, Rumphia,
Lobophora, Scutella.

Group 152.—Genus CLYPEASTER (Lamarck) and allies.
Shield-stars. Between the Clypeastride of the present
and the Spatangideé of the succeeding group occurs the
family Cassidulide, in which the mouth is central, but
the dental apparatus is wanting. The species, of which
M. Dujardin recognises more than 260, begin to appear
in the lower Oolite, attain their maximum in the Chalk,
diminish progressively in the Eocene and Miocene,
whilst the living representatives are confined to two or
three species found in tropical seas. Kstimated number
of species: recent, 18; British, 0; fossil, 285.

{| Examples of Rotula, Hneope, Pygorhynchus, &c.

Group 158.—Family SPATANGIDA. ocxdrayyos, a Sea-
urchin. The Spatangide, or Heart-urchins, live in

INVERTEBRATE ANIMALS. 57

sand or mud, with which, when opened, their intestines
are found to be filled; these substances seem to have
been swallowed for the sake of the animal matter mixed
up with them. Estimated number of species: recent,
33; British, 4; fossil, 176. From the Chalk upwards.

§] Examples of Meoma, Desoria, Xanthobrissus,
Tripylus, Plagionotus, Schizaster, Kleinia.

Group 154.—Sub-Class HOLOTHUROIDA. = érAoborpioy,
Greek name for the animal. Many links are missing
between the Sea-urchins and the Sea-cucumbers, Holo-
thuride. The latter are worm-like animals, possessing
a tough flexible skin, and bearing around the mouth a
five-rayed coronal of feathery tentacles. The order
includes two families: I. Synaptide, simple in form,
and moving by means of anchor-shaped spicules
attached to papille or minute warts. II. Holothuride,
several species of which are known in commerce as
Béche-de-mer or Trepang, used in China as turtle is
used in this country. Estimated number of species:
recent, 97; British, 15.

§; Examples of Trepang as prepared by Malays for
the Chinese market. Coloured drawings of
some of the species, and of their internal
anatomy. Specimens preserved in liquid.

58 INVERTEBRATE ANIMALS.

Class SCOLECIDA.
oxmAye, a Worm; éi0os, form.
Unisegmental Worms (Rolleston).

The head of the Tape-worm constitutes the true animal, the joints
being simply hermaphrodite generative products, which the head throws off
by a process of gemmation.

Group 155.— PARASITIC SCOLECIDA; often termed
ENTOZOA. Tape-worms and Cystie-worms, Teniada;
Flukes, Trematoda; Thorn-headed Worms, Hchino-
rhynchus; UHair-worms, Gordiacea; Thread-worms,
Ascaris, Oxyuris, Trichina; Guinea-worm, Filaria ;
&e. The members of this group may in a general
manner be described as passing through certain stages
of their development in the bodies of living animals.
The embryos when set free remain imperfectly developed
until received into some living animal other than the
one in which they began their existence.

{| Illustrative drawings and diagrams.

Group 156.—FREE SCOLECIDA. The free, or non-para-
sitic, Scolecida include animals belonging to both the
two systematic divisions of the class. In the division
Platyelmia, or Flat-worms, are the Turbellaria, includ-
ing the Planarians, which in shape resemble minute
soles, and are found in pools and moist places; also the
Nemertians, or Ribbon-worms, interesting as resembling
the Sea-urchins in a certain stage of their larval develop-
ment. In the division Nematelmia, or Thread-worms,
most of which are parasitic, are the Angudllulide,
Vinegar-eels, Paste-eels, &c., numbering more than 200
species, chiefly remarkable for tenacity of life. On the
authority of Professor Rolleston, a place in this class is
assigned to Sagitta, a transparent worm-like marine

INVERTEBRATE ANIMALS. 59

animal about an inch in length, constituting, according
to Professor Huxley, the class CuomrognatHa. For-
merly included with the Inrusor1a, but now generally
regarded as a sub-class of Sconncrpa, occur the Rortt-
FERA or wheel-bearing animalcules, familiar, and from
their extreme beauty a source of high gratification, to
all microscopist observers of pond life. Rorirera and
TURBELLARIA possess a “‘ water-vascular system.”
{ Coloured drawings of Planaria, Sagiita, and
Rotifers, including Melicerta and Floscularia.
Diagrams illustrating the biology of the group.

Fourteenth Gable Case.

The Mark & indicates specimens or other illustrations exhibited in the Cases.

Sub-kingdom ANNULOSA,

Animals composed of numerous annular somites or
segments arranged longitudinally.

Provinee ANARTHROPODA.
Multisegmental WORMS (Rolleston).

The CumroGnatua being removed to the ANNULOIDA, on authority as given
above, this Province includes a single Class only.

Class ANNELIDA.

The only systematic work on the species of the whole class known to the
Writer is ‘‘Histoire Naturelle des Annelés marins et d’eau douce.”’
M. A. De QuarrErAces. 3 vols. 8vo.and 1 vol. of plates, About
1,200 species are described.

No Annelide has a heart or a head comparable with
these organs as found amongst Crustaceans or Insects.
The water-vascular system generally present in the
ANNULOIDA is here replaced by a pseudo-hemal system
conveying a fluid sometimes corpusculated. The lateral
appendages of the segments, when present, are not
articulated, but pertain to the skin.

60 INVERTEBRATE ANIMALS.

Group 157.—ANNELIDA ABRANCHIATA. Worms un-

provided with external organs of respiration.

I. Order HrrupinzEaA=DiscopHora. Aquatic worms
without lateral appendages of any kind, but having a
sucking disk posteriorly or at both extremities. Ten
genera are included, the forms best known being the
Black-leech, the Horse-leech, and two species of the
common or medicinal Leech usually imported from
Hungary. The latter have ten minute eyes arranged in
the form of a horse-shoe over the upper part of the
anterior sucker. _

II. Order OuicgocumtTa. lEarth-worms, Lumbri-
cid@, possessing eight rows of short bristles acting as
locomotive organs. The animals are eyeless, and have
a mouth without appendages. Water-worms, Naidide,
including Tubifex, a little bright-red worm inhabiting
the mud of impure streams. .

Ill. Order GepHyREA. yédupe, a bridge; often
regarded as a Class, but recognised by Mr. Huxley as a
division of inferior rank. The animals have affinity
with the Holothurians, a fact to which the name may
possibly allude, if it does not rather refer to the long
strangulated neck of the Spoon-worms, Sipunculide,
frequently found on British coasts burrowing in the
sand or inhabiting the deserted shells of Whelks.

Group 158.—ANNELIDA BRANCHIATA. Worms pro-
vided with external gills in the form of respiratory tufts
or plumes.

I. Order Tupicoua. In this Order the gills are
placed near the head of the animal, forming plumes
often of extreme beauty in colour and disposition. The
tube may be calcareous, as in the little Spirorbis abun-

INVERTEBRATE ANIMALS. 61

dant on Fuci; and in Serpula, the meandering tubes of
which frequently almost cover the valves of marine
shells ; or it may be formed of grains of sand and frag-
ments of shells, as in Terebella; or it may be of a
leathery consistence, made up of mud strengthened by
a glutinous secretion, as in Sabella, which at Hilbre
may be seen rendering the deeper tide-pools gay as a
border of flowers. In Serpula, one of the plumes carries
a little caleareous lid closing the mouth of the tube
when the animal retires.

II. Order Errantia. In the free Annelides the
gills are arranged in tufts along the back or sides of the
body. In the Sea-mouse, Aphrodite, the back is pro-
tected by scales concealing the gills, the scales being
themselves hidden by bundles of flexible bristles glitter-
ing like spicular iron ore, and displaying all the
colours of the rainbow. The Lob-worm, Arenicola,
burrows in the wet sand, and is much used by fishermen
for bait. In the Sand-worms, Nereide, the anterior
extremity is sometimes furnished with eyes, and a
mouth with jaws and feelers, and thus makes a nearer
approach to a true head than is found in any other of
the VermES. Hunice gigantea attains a length of four
feet, and has as many as four hundred segments. The
tracts and burrows of the free Annelides on the ancient
sea-bottoms are found in rocks of almost all ages from
the Cambrian upwards. The tubes of the Tubicola occur
as early as the Silurian period. The little Microconchus
was found by the writer in the Middle Coal-measures at
Ravenhead.

62 INVERTEBRATE ANIMALS.

Provinee ARTHROPODA.
ap§pov, a joint; mous, a foot.
Animals with jointed limbs articulated to the body.

This great Province vastly outnumbers in species the total of the
preceding invertebrate Provinces, and exceeds them in the interest
of its annals. The gathering up of several body-segments, somites,
to form a true head, here first appears, and with it apparently
a capacity for the higher orders of instinct. Prefigured in VERMES,
this arrangement attains perfection by multitudinous steps and
very slow degrees. The term ARTHROPODA is retained as a con-
venient designation, but is inferior to ANNULOSA in expressing the
chief character of the present Sub-kingdom.

Class CRUSTACEA. Crusta, a crust.
Respiration generally by gills. Antenne, two pairs.
Jointed appendages, more than eight. The body of a typical
Crustacean is made up of about twenty-one segments or
somites, often nearly equally distributed between the head,
the thorax, and the abdomen.

The general arrangement of the Class is in accordance with the
‘* Histoire Naturelle des Crustaces,” par M. Minne Epwarps; but
advantage has frequently been taken of the great work on the same
subject by JAMES Dana, of the United States Exploring Expedition,
This work is a monograph of surpassing excellence.

Sub-class CIRRIPEDIA. Cirrus, a curl; pes, a foot.
In the larval state the Cirripedes are free and loco-
motive: subsequently two of the larval antenne dis-
charge a kind of glue, by which the head of the animal
becomes permanently attached to some solid object.

Group 159.—Family BALANIDZ and allies. @aA«voc, an
acorn. In the family of Sessile-cirripedes, or Acorn-
shells, the head of the animal is fixed to the centre of a
shelly plate, the basis of a conical shell made up of
several pieces and open at the top when not closed by
the pyramidal operculum. To the thorax are attached

INVERTEBRATE ANIMALS. 63

six pairs of forked limbs bearing twenty-four plumes
or cirri. Rocks and stones near low-water-mark for
miles together on various parts of the British coasts
are thickly coated with Balanus crenatus ; other species
are found attached to Cetacea, Turtles, shells, and
corals. Balanus psittacus attains a height of eight
inches, and is much prized as an article of food in Chili.
Estimated number of species: recent, 100 (Darwin) ;
British, 16.

Group 160.— Family LEPADIDAS. Azrds, the Limpet,
Stalked Cirripedes, or Barnacles. The antenne of the
free larva are prehensile. Having attached itself to
some solid object, as a piece of timber or the bottom of a
ship, the anterior extremity of the animal becomes enor-

- mously elongated, forming a stalk or peduncle bearing
a “capitulum,” constructed of calcareous plates united
by amembrane. Delicate plumes made up of twenty-
four cirri are incessantly protruded and retracted, and
by their action currents of water are made to enter the
capitulum, bringing food to the animal. The plates of
the capitulum are extensively used in the construction
of artificial flowers.

The remainder of the Sub-class includes a few
interesting but minute species, constituting the orders
ABDOMINALIA, Apopa, and RuaizocerpHaua. Estimated
number of species in the Broups recent, 45 (Darwin) ;
British, 11.

Sessile Cirripedes are first met with in Eocene
deposits; and Stalked Cirripedes have been found as
early as the Lower Oolite; but neither appear in any age
to have abounded so greatly as at the present time.

64

INVERTEBRATE ANIMALS.

Sub-class ENTOMOSTRACA.

In the third or highest Sub-class of CrusTacka,
viz., Manacostraca, the post-cephalic segments are four-
teen in number: in the Enromostraca the number is
greater or less than fourteen.

Group 161.—ENTOMOSTRACA, in part.

I, Order OstRacopa. <cotpaxov, a shell. Animal-
cules abundant in fresh-water pools. The body is
enclosed in a bivalve shell. Cypris, &c.

II. Order CopEPoDA. xwz7y, an oar; mods, a foot.
Water-fleas, Cyclops, &c.; head and thorax protected
by a carapace. The Fish-lice, Ichthyophthira, including
Lernea, Achtheres, Peniculus, and various other genera
parasitic on fishes, are recognised by Professor Huxley
as peculiarly modified CopEpopDa.

I1I.—Order ChaDocERA. xAddos, a branch; xépac,
ahorn. Antenne used in swimming. Daphnia, &e.

TV.—Order PHYLLOPODA. $0AAoy, a leaf; mods, a foot.

Fairy-shrimps, &e. <Apus, interesting from its affi-
nity to the extinct Trilobites, is said to have sixty pairs
of feet. Estimated number of species: recent, 190 (M.
Edwards) ; fossil, 70. From the Silurian upwards.

Some of the smaller species, both fresh-water and
marine, swarm in numbers beyond computation. Active
and voracious, they in their turn become the prey of
enemies of many kinds; the redness and flavour of
trout are supposed to be improved by a diet of ENnTo-
mosTRACA: the crystalline texture of Beroé discovers
them undergoing the process of being digested; and
water-drinking animals of all orders, in the absence of
extreme precautions, derive some part of their nourish-
ment from minute Crustaceans.

INVERTEBRATE ANIMALS. 65

Group 162.—Order TRILOBITA. rpeis, three; AoBd<, a lobe.
The species of this order are known only as Paleozoic
fossils. The shell is composed of a cephalic shield, a
certain number of free and movable thoracic rings, and a
caudal shield, or pygidium. The eyes when present
are compound, but no antenne or gills have been
detected, and very little is known of their locomotive
organs. Burmeister thought that the Trilobites swam,
back downwards, in shoals near the coast, rolling
themselves into a ball as a defence when attacked.
Dr. Buckland compared them with Serolis. (See Group
164.)

Group 163.—Order MEROSTOMATA. pypos, thigh; corona,
mouth.

I. Sub-order XipHosura. £idos, a sword; odpa, a
tail. The King-crab, Limulus, seen from above, exhibits
little more than a huge buckler rounded in front and
furnished with a pair of large dull eyes and three ocelli;
a second smaller buckler toothed at the sides; and a
posterior appendage, or telson, shaped like a bayonet.
From below, the animal thus esconced appears as if
chiefly made up of an assemblage of jointed limbs, of
which six pairs encircle the mouth, the basal joints or
thighs acting as jaws, whilst the extremities serve for
prehension or locomotion. Six other pairs carry gills
and are used in swimming. ‘The species are not numer-
ous, but frequent sandy coasts in many parts of the
world, and occasionally leave the water, burying them-
selves in the sand to avoid the heat of the sun. The
King-crabs were in existence before the Trilobites dis-
appeared. The long continuance of so grotesque a form,
resembling a magnified animalcule, is worthy of notice.

66

INVERTEBRATE ANIMALS.

II. Sub-order EKuRYPTERIDA. «vpvs, broad; wrepoy,
awing. ‘The species are known as Paleozoic fossils.
{| Four species of Limulus, and a small example of
Pterygotus, a genus of fossil Crustaceans, some
species of which attain a length of six feet.

Sub-class MALACOSTRACA. The third and
highest Sub-class of the Crustacea. The body-segments
(somites) are regarded as being twenty-one in number,
of which seven are cephalic (belonging to the head),
seven thoracic, and seven abdominal; but the whole of
these can be distinguished in no single example. The
modifications of the segments and their appendages are
extremely complicated ; one rule, however, obtains in all
instances, namely, that each pair of appendages indicates
a separate segment.

Division EDRIOPHTHALMATA. pa, a_ seat;
6d0aAu0s, an eye. Eyes not on foot-stalks; body
not protected by a carapace.

Group 164.—Order ISOPODA. ico, equal; zovs, a foot.

The animals of this group generally possess seven more
or less uniform pairs of feet, which in the three sections
of the order are modified to suit various modes of life.

I. Cursorial. The Sea-slater, Ligia, common on
rocks and walls near the sea. The wood-piercing Isopod,
Limnoria terebrans, wherever it prevails, notwithstand-
ing its small size, is a most destructive enemy to
ships, piers, and timber embankments. The Wood-lice,
Oniscus, and the Pill-balls, Armadillo, though terrestrial,
breathe by modified gills.

II. Natatorial. The Sea Pill-balls, Spheroma,
swim freely, but the Fish-lice, Cymothoa, remain for the
greater part of their existence attached to fishes.

INVERTEBRATE ANIMALS. 67

III. Sedentary. ‘Che Prawn parasite, Bopyrus,
may sometimes be detected under the carapace of a
prawn, where the Isopod probably feeds together with,
rather than upon, its host.

Estimated number of species: recent, 210; British, 42.

{| Examples of Idotew entomon, from the Baltic,
the largest of the Isopods; Serolis, from the
Falkland Islands, resembling a Trilobite.

Group 165.—Orders LAAMODIPODA. Aziuss, the throat ;
Bis, twice ; rods, a foot; and AMPHIPODA: 44}, both-
ways ; ods, a foot. The species in the former order are
few, and possess heads indistinctly separated from the
thorax ; hence the first pair of limbs seem to be attached
to the throat. The order includes the Skeleton-screw,
Spectre-shrimp, and the Whale-louse, Cyamus. From
the Isopods the Amphipods differ in having pairs
of limbs set to the front and others to the rear.
Amongst them are the Sand-hoppers, Jalitrus, which
occur in millions near the water’s edge on sandy coasts,
incessantly leaping as if overflowing with the joy of
life (Paley). The Coast-screw, Gammarus; the xylo-
phagous Chelura; and the tube-inhabiting Cerapus.
Estimated number of species: British, 110.

Division PODOPHTHALMATA. = zovs, a foot;
6gbarAwoc, an eye. Eyes on footstalks ; body protected
by a carapace.

Group 166.—Order STOMAPODA. créua,a mouth; 7ovs, a
foot. Gills external; pairs of legs, generally seven. The
Opossum-shrimps, Mysis, so called from the pouch in
which the female carries her eggs, abound in. some parts

68 INVERTEBRATE ANIMALS.

of the Arctic Seas. On the coast of Boothia they form
the food of prodigious shoals of salmon: in the Green-
land Seas two species form part of the food of the
common whale. Mysis Oberon, found on the coast of
Cornwall, is so transparent that in a tumbler of water
nothing of it can readily be seen but its pair of black
eyes. The Squilla, or Mantis-shrimp, so called from
its resemblance to an Orthopterous insect, exhibits most
of the body segments with their appendages perhaps
better than any other Crustacean. The larger species
are tropical, and it is probable that the animal, like the
Mantis, waits the approach of its prey within the reach
of its truly formidable fore-legs. Estimated number of
species: recent, 50 (M. Edwards); British, 18.

Order DECAPODA. 8éxe, ten; mods, a foot. Gills
contained in cavities at the sides of the carapace. Pairs
of feet, five, the first pair at least chelate, 7.¢c., termi-
nated by nipping claws. Includes Shrimps, Prawns,
Lobsters, and Crabs.

Many of the finest examples in the series were obtained from
W. Harper Pease, by whom they were collected in the Pacific.

Tribe MACROURA. = paxpos, long; ovpa, a tail.
That which is commonly called the tail is in reality
made up of segments of the abdomen, which in the
present tribe is terminated by a fan-shaped swimming
appendage or fin, obviously acting to the greatest advan-
tage when, by its powerful down-stroke, it propels the
animal backwards.

Group 167.—Family PALASMONIDAX. Prawns, Palemon,
differ from Shrimps in the position of the segments
bearing the antenne, and in the carapace, which in

INVERTEBRATE ANIMALS. 69

the Prawn is generally keeled and extended in the form
of a sharply-toothed beak, but in the Shrimp is depressed
and unarmed. Prawns whilst living are objects of great
beauty, and in warm climates often exhibit vivid colours
and attain a large size. Mr. Gosse notices the curious
fact that Prawns taken from the obscurity of deep holes
and rocky pools reflect a rich flush of iridescent purple
extending over the whole body, heightening in effect the
various streaks and spots of orange, light-blue, red,
chestnut, and cream white which adorn the animal.
These disappear, though the animal may continue in
health, after a few hours’ exposure to the light; but
specimens captured from shallow pools have, even when
first taken, all their markings of a pale-olive tint.
Estimated number of species, 42 (M. Edwards) ;
British, 11 (Bell).

§] Examples of Rhynchocinetes, Hippolyte, and
Palemon, including P. carcinus and P. Jamai-
cencis.

Group 168.—Families CRANGONIDZ, ALPHEID, and
PENAIDA. Shrimps, Crangon, exhibit a tendency
the reverse of that noticed in Prawns, the species found
in northern seas being frequently larger than those
belonging to the more southern coasts of Britain. In
the arctic seas and in the bays of Spitzbergen they
supply food to the Walrus and the Seal (Adam White).
Estimated number of species: recent, 52; British, 10,
(Bell).

{| Examples of Crangon, Atya, Sicyonia, Alpheus,
including Crangon borealis.

This group, together with the preceding = Famille

des SaticoquEs (M. Edwards).

70 INVERTEBRATE ANIMALS.

Fitteenth Cable Case.

The Mark 4% indicates specimens or other illustrations exhibited in the Cases

Group 169.—Families THALASSINIDA: and ASTACI-
D&, excluding Homarus. The former of these families
includes the burrowing Macroura, generally found buried
in sand or mud: the body is long and weak and the
shell or crust membranaceous. Some of the exotic spe-
cies have the power of occasionally leaving the water and
remaining out of it for a considerable time.

Astacus, the River Cray-fish, is found in fresh-
water streams, especially near old bridges, where cracks
in the masonry afford it a safe retreat.

Nephrops, the Norway Lobster, is generally a
northern species, though Mr. Bell mentions having
received fine specimens from the Mediterranean.
Estimated number of species: recent, 24; British, 7.

Group 170.—Genus HOMARUS (M. Edwards). Lobster.
The Crustacea all cast their shells annually, or more
frequently, until they arrive at full growth. In the
presence of the gigantic variety of the common Lobster,
Homarus vulgaris, found on the coasts of North America,
it seems impossible that the huge mass of muscular
flesh contained in the large claws should be withdrawn
through the narrow joints without being crushed and
destroyed. Reaumur states that the segments are com- }
posed of two longitudinal pieces which open to allow of
the withdrawal of the soft limb, and afterwards close again
so accurately that it is very difficult in the cast crust to
discover the line of division. This explanation, derived
from observations on the River Cray-fish, has not met
with general acceptance, and the method of the moult-

INVERTEBRATE ANIMALS. 71

ing, ecdysis, of the higher Crustacea is still open to
discussion.

Estimated number of species: recent, 3 (M. Edwards) ;
British, 1.
{| Example of common Lobster, and of the gigan-
tic American variety.
Upper Compartment.
Lobster articulated, so as to exhibit the segments
with their appendages.

Group 171.—Family PALINURIDA. The Spiny-lobsters
are undoubtedly amongst the most handsome of the
Macroura; but the group is chiefly interesting from
the fact that the Glassy-crabs, Phyllosoma, till recently
supposed to be included in the Stromapopa, are now
recognised as larval forms of the Palinuride. In
Astacus and Homarus, the young, from the time when
they are very small, are said closely to resemble the
adult. If this be true, the affinity between the Lobsters
and the Spiny-lobsters is probably simply a mor-
phological one, and points of great interest may be
expected to occur during future investigations of the
phylogeny of the Spiny-lobsters. The species are widely
distributed, and are found on rocky ccasts.

Estimated number of species: recent, 18; British, 1.

‘| Examples of Palinurus guttatus, P. Lalandii, P.
longumanus, &e., and of Phyllosoma.

Group 172.—Families SCYLLARIDA and GALATHEIDA.
The Broad-lobsters, Scyllaride, derive much of the pecu-
liarity of their form from an extaordinary modification
of the outer pair of antenne, which in this family are
developed into broad flat plates, sometimes strongly

72

INVERTEBRATE ANIMALS.

toothed on the margin, and probably serving for shovels
in excavating holes in the sea-bottom, in which the
animals take shelter whilst watching for their prey.

The Plated-lobsters, Galatheid@, resemble the pre-
ceding in habit. Mr. Couch observes, with reference to
Galathea strigosa, ‘‘ It is very remarkable to witness the
accuracy with which they will dart backward for several
feet into a hole very little larger than themselves; this
I have often seen them do, and always with precision.”
The arrangement of M. Edwards is followed in the
retention of Galatheideé in the tribe Macroura.

{| Examples of Scyllarus, Ibacus, and Galathea ;
and of Avglea levis, a fresh-water species from Chili,
collected and presented by Capt. J. A. Perry.

Tribe ANOMOURA. dvouos, irregular ; odpa, a tail.
The Crustacea of this tribe exhibit an advance in
organisation, the anterior or cephalo-thoracic portion of
the body being more developed in comparison with the
abdominal portion than in the Macroura.

Group 1738.—Section ANOMOURA INFERIORA (Dana) in

part.
Sub-tribe PAGURIDEA. MHermit-crabs.

In the Soldier-crabs, or Hermit-crabs, the abdomen
is long, weak, and tender; it is always inserted into
the cavity of some cast-off marine shell, of which the
crab becomes the tenant, changing, however, its habita-
tion for a more commodious one as it increases in size.
Shells occupied by P. Prideauxu, a British species,
very frequently afford a resting-place for the Sea Ane-
mone, Adamsia maculata. When the Crab changes its

INVERTEBRATE ANIMALS. 73

habitation, it is said carefully to convey the Anemone
to its new tenement. Within the shell, together
with the crab, a beautiful sea-worm, Nereis bilineata,
often resides, seizing and devouring without molestation
a share of the food captured by the crab.

The Purse-crab, Birgus latro, inhabits many islands
in the Pacific, living in holes at the roots of trees, and
only occasionally visiting the sea. It feeds on the nuts
of various palms, and is said to climb the cocoa-nut
trees in search of its favourite food.

Estimated number of species: recent, 43; British, 10.

4 Examples of Cenobita, Caleinus, &e.

Group 174.-ANOMOURA SUB-MEDIA. (Dana.)
Sub-tribe LITHODEA. Stone-crabs.
Not more than about six species are known belonging
to this group.

4 The Northern Stone-crab, Lithodes Maia, is
found occasionally on the coasts of Scotland
and the Isle of Man. ‘The colour whilst the
animal is living is yellowish red; that of an
allied species from Fuegia is cherry-red. The
Porcupine Stone-crab, Lithodes hystrix, is
from Japan. The Noduled Stone-crab,
Echinocerus cibarius, is from the Columbia
River. It is probable that all the species are
weak slow-moving animals, and that their
strange aspect corresponds in some way with
their more than ordinary need of protection.

Group 175.—ANOMOURA MEDIA. (Dana.)
Sub-tribe PORCELLANIDEA. Porcelain-crabs.
The little Porcelain-crabs are the butterflies of the
class. Many species frequent coral reefs, and, as

74 INVERTEBRATE ANIMALS.

described and figured by D’Orbigny and other writers,
exhibit elaborate ornamentation and vivid colouring.
One species is wholly of a bright scarlet-lake, another
of a deep mazarine-blue, a third is rose-colour, with
bands of snow-white fringe crossing the carapace ; other
more sombre species, including the ‘‘ Broad-claw” of
our own coasts, have series of long and delicate lashes,
serving as nets or strainers for the capture of animal-
cules. The Hippidea are small Crustaceans found
chiefly in the Pacific.

Kistimated number of species: recent, 34; British, 2.

4] Examples of Porcellana, Remipes, Albunea, &e.
Group 176.—ANOMOURA SUPERIORA. (Dana.) Several

species of Dromia carry on the carapace a sponge-like
mass of sufficient size to conceal the whole animal.
M. Edwards remarks, that the Dromia fixes the load on
its back by the aid of its posterior pair of legs. Some
other crabs have similar habits, in consequence of which
the older individuals resemble walking gardens of vari-
ous kinds of Zoophytes. Mr. T. Higgin observed in the
young of Hyas coarctatus that its bristles were sharply
recurved at the point, forming a forest of hooks capable
of entangling loose sprays of Zoophytes and Sponges,
some of which would take root and at length form a
thicket, under cover of which the crab might readily
make a prey of unwary intruders.
Estimated number of species: recent, 12; British, 1.

{| Examples of Dromia, Dynomene, Homola,

Ranina, &e.

Tribe BRACHYURA. paxds, short; dpa, a tail.
This tribe includes all the most highly organised

INVERTEBRATE ANIMALS. (5)

Crustaceans. The nervous system is much more con-
centrated forwards than in the inferior tribes. The
abdomen is slightly developed, and is not used to assist
the animal in swimming. The larval form, Zoea, long
considered to be a distinct animal, bears some resem-
blance to the adult type in the Macroura.

Section A.—Crabs with mouths much narrowed in front=
Famille des Oxystomes (Milne Edwards).

Group 177.—Families LEUCOSIADM, CORYSTID, and
DORIPPIDA.

Many of the Leucosiade are readily distinguished by
their convex form narrowed in front into a kind of
muzzle, and by their porcellanous shells smooth or
granulated. They are tardy animals, resting with their
bodies covered up to the eyes in sand, often in deep
water.

The Corystid@ are placed by Dana considerably
higher in the series. The external antenne are long
and hairy. One species of Corystes inhabits British
seas, and is called the Masked-crab.

Dorippide. The two posterior pairs of legs in
these degraded-looking crabs are situated on the hinder
part of the back, and are adapted for clasping.
Estimated number of species: recent, 60; British, 6.

{] Examples of Peltarion, Pseudo-corystes, Perse-

phona, Ilia, Ixa, &e.

“ Group 178.—Family CALAPPIDA. Nearly every species
in this limited group is distinguished by striking pecu-
liarities in form or colouring; but very little seems to
be known of the life-history of any one of them. The
Mediterranean representatives of Calappa are called by

76 INVERTEBRATE ANIMALS.

the French Crabes Honteux, Modest-crabs, from their
habit of hiding their heads and smaller limbs behind
their broad-crested nippers, chele. The armour is
certainly strong and very complete, and might be of
invaluable service to the wearer if a Calappa had nothing
to do but to defend itself from the attacks of enemies ;
but how a panoply allowing the limbs but little play
can be convenient for the general requirements of crab-
life has yet to be discovered, and perhaps may be so
by the aid of an aquarium.

Estimated number of species: recent, 18.

{| Examples of Matuta, Hepatus, Camara, Orithya
manullaris, &e.

Section B.—Crabs with quadrilateral shields = Famille
des CatometTorEes (Milne Edwards).

Group 179.—Family GRAPSIDAL. This family includes
seven genera, the species of which are widely distri-
buted through tropical and sub-tropical regions: they
frequent coasts and rocks washed by the spray of the
ocean, and are very timid creatures, retreating, on the
first alarm, with great speed to their lurking places.
Nautilograpsus alone is oceanic in its habits, and is
found on floating timber or sea-weeds, often far from
land. Several species of Grapsus were observed by the
writer climbing the walls of the Castle at Vera Cruz.
They were very active and difficult to catch.

Estimated number of species: recent, 60; British, 1.

{| Examples of Goniopsis, Sesarma, Trichopus,
Plagusia, &e.

INVERTEBRATE ANIMALS. a.

Group 180.—Families OCYPODIDA and GONOPLACID.
The Ocypodians, as the name implies, are very swift
runners, being nearly always on the strand, where they
dig holes, in which for the most part they remain during
the day, coming forth to feed at night. They are said
to hybernate in holes further from the sea. The species
of Gelasimus are remarkable for the enormous size of
the claw on one side of the male crab: they live together
in pairs in holes on the beach: the large chele are
used to defend the entrance to the hole. The Gono-
placians are good swimmers, and are generally found
in moderately deep water. The species are not well
defined: one of the forms occurs in British seas.
Estimated number of species: recent, 32 ; British, 1.

{| Examples of Curtonotus, Macrophthalmus, &c.

Sixteenth Cable Case,
The Mark 4 indicates specimens or other illustrations exhibited in the Cases.

Group 181.—Family GECARCINIDZ: and allies.

This group includes four families, well distinguished
by the habits as also by the structure of the animals.

The Thelphuside are fresh-water crabs, living in
holes on the banks of rivers.

* My late friend, Canon Kingsley, describes the demeanour of this Crab as
irresistibly ludicrous: ‘‘ One of his claw arms, generally the left, has dwin-
dled to a mere nothing and is not seen; while along the whole front of his
shell lies folded one mighty arm, on which he trusts; and with that arm,
when danger appears, he beckons the enemy to come on, with such wild
defiance that he has gained therefrom the name of Gelasimus vocans, ‘The
Calling Laughable’: and it were well if all scientific names were as well
fitted.” (‘* At Last,” vol. ii., p. 89.)

E

78 INVERTEBRATE ANIMALS.

The Gecarcinide, as the name implies, are Land-
crabs, inhabiting the warmer regions of all parts of the
world, except the interior of continents. Their gills are
adapted for respiration so long as they are kept moist,
a condition favoured by the nocturnal habits of the
animals. Once in the year, at the spawning season,
they are said to migrate in vast numbers together.

The Pinnotheride, or Pea-crabs, reside in the
bivalve shells of living Molluscs.

The Mycteride, for the most part, inhabit salt-
marshes.

Estimated number of species: recent, 50; British, 2.

] Examples illustrating the four families.

Section C.—Crabs with shields more or less semicircular in
front = Famille des CyctomeTores (Milne Edwards).

Family PORTUNIDA. Crabs with hinder tarsi
much dilated, for swimming.

Group 182.—Genus CHARYBDIS (De Haan) and allies.
In the large division of the Crustacea characterised by
having organs of vision set on long footstalks, Podoph-
thalmus vigil, in this group, an inhabitant of tropical
seas, affords the most striking example of pedunculated ©
eyes, the special advantage of which to the animal has
not been fully ascertained; but it seems certain that
by such an arrangement the animal might compute
the distances of objects of prey very accurately by their
parallax, and might view them stereoscopically before
devouring them.

Estimated number of species: recent, 20; British, 0.
4; Examples of T’halamita, Lissocareinus, &c.

INVERTEBRATE ANIMALS. 79

Group 183.—Genus NEPTUNUS (De Haan) and allies.
Many of the species of this group are found on the
high seas far from land. Note the clean-cut lines of the
shield, the arms, and the swimming-paddles in the
frigate-like Neptunus pelagicus. The form of this ocean-
crab is a study in the art of combining prehensile
efficiency with strength and speed.

Estimated number of species: recent, 20; British, 0.
{| Examples of Amphitrite, Oceanus crucifer, &e.

Group 184.—Genus PORTUNUS (Fabricius) and_ allies.
The British Swimming-crabs are known to fishermen
by various local names, such as the common Shore-crab,
the Velvet-crab, the Fiddler-crab, the Nipper, &c. They
are not first-rate swimmers, but are active and voracious,
and from their omnivorous propensities have been termed
the scavengers of the sea.

Estimated number of species: recent, 30; British, 12.
§ Examples of Scylla, Polybius, Portumnus, &e.

Group 185.—Family ERIPHIDZ (Dana).

Mr. Dana has established this family to include
certain crabs distinguished by some important peculi-
arities connected with the respiratory apparatus. The
small but pretty species of Trapezia, with bright porcel-
lanous shields, are found amongst the branches and
folia of living corals.

Estimated number of species: recent, 60; British, 2.
¢ Examples of Hudora, Pilumnus, Galene, Dometia,
Geryon tridens, &e.

Family CANCERID.
Group 186.—Genus CANCER (Linneus). The generic
name Cancer has been retained to include the common

80

INVERTEBRATE ANIMALS.

edible crab, Cancer pagurus, and its allies. Several
of the species grow to a large size. The gills of crabs
are attached to the bases of the legs, and are contained
in cavities protected by the sides of the carapace. An
apparatus of fan-like appendages sweeps the water out
of the gill-cavities by orifices in front, efferent canals,
whilst a fresh supply of water rushes in from behind
through orifices near the base of the fourth pair of legs,
afferent canals, thus keeping up a constant circulation.
Estimated number of species: recent, 10; British, 1.
4] Examples of about 6 species.

Group 187.—Genus XANTHO (Leach) and allies.

{| Menippe gigas (M. Edwards) is probably the
most powerful Crustacean : the pincers are worked by a
muscular apparatus enormously developed, and must be
capable of crushing with ease the shells of many bivalve
Mollusca. Much variety in colour and sculpture is met
with amongst the smaller generic forms.

Estimated number of species: recent, 50; British, 2.

{/ Examples of Chlorodius, Htisus, Daira, Acte-

odes, &e.

Group 188.—Genus CARPILIUS (Leach) and allies.

Estimated number of species, 24; British, 0.

4 C. coralinus, C. maculatus, and the rare C. sig-
natus afford good examples of the smooth,
convex, and highly-coloured shields which pre-
vail in this group; Atergatis, Zozymus, &e.

Section D.—Crabs with shields more or less triangular, much

narrowed in front = Famille des OxyRHINQUEES (Milne
Edwards).

INVERTEBRATE ANIMALS. 81

Group 189.—Family PARTHENOPIDA. The species all
live amongst rocks in moderately deep water; they move
slowly, and notwithstanding their grotesquely rugged
aspect, cannot be formidable except to animals much
inferior in size to themselves. The single British
species, the Strawberry-crab, is said to use its long
arms in climbing.

Estimated number of species, 20; British, 1.
4; Examples of Parthenope, Lambrus, and Crypto-
poda, &e.

Family MAIADA.

Group 190.—Genus MATA (Lamarck) and allies.
Estimated number of species, 40; British, 1.

{{ Maia squinado, the Thorn-back-Crab, is not un-
common on the British coasts and in the
Mediterranean. It was well known by the
ancients, and was regarded by them as an
emblem of wisdom.

Group 191.—Genus MITHRAX (Leach) and allies.
Estimated number of species: 40; British 4.

Groups 190 and 191 constitute the family Matapa ;
most of the species in 191 have eyes on movable
foot-stalks, capable of being folded back and
hidden in the channel of the orbit.

4 Examples of Pisa, Hyas, &c.

Group 192.—Family INACHID. Spider-crabs.
Estimated number of species: 40; British, 6.

{| Leptopodia sagittaria is remarkable for the

extreme length and slenderness of its rostrum

and limbs. Such a form could exist only in a

82 INVERTEBRATE ANIMALS.

medium of nearly its own specific gravity. A
closely allied species is the colossal Macro-
cheira Kempferi of Japan, having by far the
greatest span of any Crustacean. It is said
to live amongst broken rocks, and to feed on
Star-fishes: its long arms, with a span of
nearly eleven feet, enabling it to pluck its prey
even from the deepest crevices. (See Case
over the north door.) Presented by James C.
Fraser. Examples of Stenorhyncus, Hury-
podius, and other genera.

Seventeenth Gable Cause.

The Mark ¥ indicates specimens or other illustrations exhibited in the Cases.

As far as the end of the Eleventh Table Case, and in the following
portion of the series, the tablets have been completed; and from
them occasionally a paragraph has been inserted in this Synopsis,
but sparingly, to avoid unnecessary bulk.

Group 193.—Class MYRIAPODA. pogies, 10,000; wrod, a
foot. The animals of this class have comparatively few
segments when first hatched. The head is distinct, and
in the Centipedes is armed with poisonous fangs. The
remainder of the body is made up of nearly similar
segments. Respiration is by trachee.

Allied form PERIPATUS. ‘“ This is an animal
of the very highest importance and antiquity, and I
believe it to be a nearly related representative of the
ancestor of all air-breathing Arthropoda, 7.e., of all
insects, spiders, and Myriapods.” (H. N. Moseley,
F.R.S.) The short disconnected trachex are scattered

INVERTEBRATE ANIMALS. 838

irregularly near the surface of the whole body. Prrt-
PATUS is not unlike the fossil Myriapod KupHOoBERIA.

I. Order Cumopopa. yéiAos, a lip; mods, a foot.
Centipedes: animals active, nocturnal, predacious.

II. Order CutuocnaTHa. yds, a lip; yvabos, a
jaw. Millipedes: animals tardy, vegetable feeders.
About 500 species in this class are recognised by

Walckenaer.

{| Examples of Scolopendra gigantea, Lithobius,
Geophilus, Julus, Polydesmus, Himantharium,
&e. Small series of British Mvyriapopa,
collected and presented by H. H. H.
Euphoberia Brownii a fossil of the Middle
Coal Measures, collected at Ravenhead, and
presented by H. H. H.

Upper Compartment.

Drawings of Peripatus and Huphoberia.

Class ARACHNIDA. = agaxvy, a spider.

The following characters may serve to distinguish
the animals of this class. Head and thorax amal-
gamated to form a cephalo-thorax; antennz none, or
modified into nippers; legs never more than four pairs;
respiration aerial; transformations none, or indistinct.

The authorities most used have been C. L. Koch
and Dr. C. W. Hahn, ‘‘ Die Arachniden,” 16 vols. 8vo.,
and ‘‘ Histoire Naturelle des Insectes Apteres,” par M.
le Baron Walckenaer et M. Paul Gervais, 5 vols. 8vo.,
Paris, 1847.

Group 194.— Sub-class ARACHNIDA-TRACHEARIA.

Respiration by the skin or by respiratory tubes, trachee.

84

INVERTEBRATE ANIMALS.

I. Order Poposomata. The Sea-spiders are found
on Fuci, or under stones near low-water mark on the
sea-coast, and are tardy creatures, apparently made up
grotesquely of little more than jointed limbs. Pycno-
gonum, Nymphon, &ce.

II. Order Acartna. Water-bears, Tardigrada,
animalcules found in’ wet moss, &c.; Mites, Acari;
Water-mites, Hydrachnide; the Itch-acarus, Sarcoptes;
the harmless parasite on the face, Demodex; and the
Ticks, Ixodes.

III. Order ADELARTHROSOMATA, &0yAos, concealed;
apipov, a joint; cau, a body. Harvest-spiders, Phalan-
gide; the Book-scorpion, Chelifer; and the venomous
Galeodes of the family Solpugide.

The biology of this group, of which Walckenaer
describes about 450 species, when it shall have been
fully investigated, must prove to be deeply interesting,
because of the extreme divergency amongst its con-
stituents. If the segregation be natural, 2.¢., if the
genealogical affinity be real and close, great indeed must
have been the influence of habits and circumstances
under which a Galeodes and Demodex, a Hydrachna,
a Chelifer, and a Pycnogonum have been evolved from a
common and not very remote ancestor.

Sub-Class ARACHNIDA-PULMONARIA.
Respiration by pulmonary sacs, with or without respira-
tory tubes; cephalothorax more or less distinct from the
abdomen; eyes six, eight, or twelve in number.

Group 195.—Order PEDIPALPI. Scorpions and allies.

Head and thorax amalgamated; abdomen distinctly
segmented. Estimated number of species, 93 (Walck-
enaer).

INVERTEBRATE ANIMALS. 85

{| Examples of about 22 species of scorpions,
including the Black or Rock-scorpion of Africa,
the most formidable of the family. Several
species of Phrynus. Observe in the largest
example, which is probably of an undescribed
species, the extreme length and slenderness of
the many-jointed tarsi of the first pair of legs.
Thelyphonus, the Whip-scorpion, is found in
Mexico, Brazil, India, Java, and other hot
countries. Its bite is poisonous (Packard).

Upper Compartment.

Scorpion articulated.

Group 196.—Order ARANEIDA. Spiders. Head and tho-
rax amalgamated; abdomen not segmented; eyes six or
generally eight. The life-history of spiders is deeply
interesting; that of the British species has been well
told by E. F. Staveley.

Space is here deficient, but some of the more
remarkable forms are exhibited, including Gasteracan-
tha and Acrosoma, with bodies armed with long spines
and glittering during life with brilliant metallic colours.
Estimated number of species, 1,120 (Walckenaer) ;
British, 808. (Blackwall).

| Small series of British Spiders presented by J.
Blackwall, F.L.S., author of ‘‘ A History
of the Spiders of Great Britain and Ireland.”

Upper Compartment.

About 14 species of Mygale, wuyaay, a Field-mouse ;
tubular nests of Mygale, showing the trap-
door; female Mygale, with egg-cocoon, &e.

86

INVERTEBRATE ANIMALS.

Class INSECTA = HEXAPODA.

Head, thorax, and abdomen distinct; antenne a single pair :

three pairs of legs borne on the thorax.

The species included in this wondrous class have been
estimated at 160,000 in number (190,000, Packard),
which is about equivalent to the sum of the species in
the whole of the rest of the Invertebrate Animals,
together with the Fishes, Reptiles and Amphibians,
Birds and Mammalia, with all the known species of
plants in addition. In other words, Insects constitute
about one-half of the species included in the Animal
and Vegetable Kingdoms. (Mr. Bentham’s Presidential
Address to the Members of the Linnman Society, 1871.)

The chief orders of the class have long been estab-
lished on characters mainly derived from the organs of
flight ; but all attempts to collect the orders into higher
divisions have hitherto been unsatisfactory. By far the
most important scheme divides the class into three sub-
classes. I. AmeTAsonA; Transformations absent. II.
HemimMetasoita; Transformations incomplete. III.
Metasota; ‘Transformations complete. But the
advantage of this classification has in the present
instance been relinquished as incompatible to an
indefinite extent with the integrity of the Orders.
Objectionable on the same ground are the older divi-
sions: I. Hausreniata; Insects with sucking mouths.
II. Manprpunata ; Insects with biting jaws. Groups
197-222 chiefly illustrate the former, groups 223-240
the latter of these divisions.

The order of the groups corresponds nearly with
the arrangement proposed in vol. 1, page 29, of the
“* Introduction to the Modern Classification of Insects,”

INVERTEBRATE ANIMALS. 87

by J. O. Westwood, F.L.S., 2 vols. 8vo., 1839. The
classifications adopted by Haeckel, Huxley, Ray Lan-
kester, Macalister, Nicholson, Packard, and Wyyville
Thomson, all differ in important particulars; and are
too concise to admit of being used as text-books for the
sub-divisions of the Class, the true genetic order of
which is manifestly yet a desideratum. As a guide to
the morphology and habits of the Hexapoda, Professor
Westwood’s work can hardly be surpassed.

Order HETEROPTERA. 2r2¢0s, different ; stTepoy,
a wing. Insects having their fore-wings chitinous or
leathery towards the base, and membranous towards
the apex. Estimated number of species: total, 1,350
(F. Walker, 1873) ; British, 354 (J. W. Douglas).

Group 197.— HETEROPTERA-Hyprocorisa. v@wp, water;
xOpbs, a bug.

This portion of the HeTERoPTERA is made up of
aquatic insects, of which the species are not numerous.
4] Examples of Water-scorpions, Nepa; Boat-flies,
Notonecta ; and of the only truly oceanic genus
of insects, Halobates ; specimens presented by
Capt. Mortimer. Observe the arrangement of
the eggs on the back of Zaitha ; how were they
placed there ?
Small series of British species collected and pre-
sented by H. H. H.
The division AMETABOLA here introduced, consisting
of insects which undergo no transformations, includes
three orders of which the species are all of small size :

I. Order AnopLuRA. Lice, with sucking mouths.
Pediculide. i

88 INVERTEBRATE ANIMALS.

IT. Order Matuopnaca. Bird-lice, with biting jaws,
Philoptera, several species of which are said to be found
on the same animal.

ITI. Order Tuysanura. Spring-tails, Podura, Lepis-
ma.

Walckenaer describes 300 species of the first two
Orders, and 106 of the third. The British species of the
first two Orders have been described by H. Denny ;
those of the last have appeared very recently in a beau-
tiful monograph by Sir Johu Lubbock.

Group 198.—H ETEROPTERA-Grocorisa. v7, the earth ;
xopis, a bug. Notwithstanding the bad reputation
attached to this group, by reason of its including the
common House-bug and some exotic species far more
severely noxious, we here meet with curiously fanatistic
shapes and brilliant contrasts of colour. ‘lhe British
species, though small, are frequently beautiful, and have
been described in an excellent monograph by J. W.
Douglas.

‘| Observe the foliaceous expansions on the legs of
Diactor, the protective mimicry in Phlea, and
the prismatic reflexions in some of the Scutel-
leride.

Small series of British species presented by J. W.
Douglas.

Order HOMOPTERA. uc, like; wrepov, a wing.
Wings four, entirely membranous and deflexed.
Group 199.—Family FULGORIDA. Fulgor, brightness ;
and allies.
4] Examples : Lantern-flies, Fulgoride ; the China
Wax-insect Plata; Frog-hoppers or Cuckoo-

INVERTEBRATE ANIMALS. 89

spit-insects, Cercopide ; Plant-lice, Aphide ;
Scale-insects, Coccide; Cochineal-insects, Coc-
cus cacti; Shell-lac-insects, Coccus lacca.

Observe the curious modifications of the ‘‘ Lan-
tern’’; the waxen plumes in Lystra; the
extravagant development of the prothorax in
some of the exotic Cercopide.

Small series of British species, presented by F. W.
Douglas.

Group 200.—-Family CICADIDA. xixx26y, the Screech-owl,
in allusion to its shrill note. Illustrated by about 36
species, including representatives of Polynewra, Geana.

Observe the instrument by which the male Cicada
emits its loud note; it is a tense membrane on its
sides near the base of its wings, and is well seen in
C. saccata, from Australia.

A single species is found in Britain, where it is by
no means common.

Upper Compartment.

Dundubia imperatoria, the largest species in the group.

Group 201.—Order DIPTERA. @is, twice; mr<pov, a wing.
Wings two; the lower pair of wings are replaced by a
pair of slender filaments clubbed at the tip, called
halteres or poisers. No two-winged fly has a sting.

Estimated number of species, 24,000 (Bentham) ;
5,220 species are described in “ Histoire Naturelle des
Insectes Diptéres,” J. Macquart, 11 vols., 1835-1855.
The British species exceed 2,000 ; “ Insecta Britannica,
Diptera,” F. Walker, 3 vols., 1856.

{| Examples: Meat-flies, Muscide: Gnats and
Mosquitoes, Culicide ; Long-legs, Tipulide ;

90

INVERTEBRATE ANIMALS.

House-flies, Anthomyia; Hoverers, Syrphi-
de; Gad-flies, Tabanide. ;

Fleas, Pulicide, are inserted in this group because
of their resemblance to certain two-winged flies found
near the roots of trees.in woods, Mycetophilide, the
larve of which infest various species of Agaricus and
other fungi.

Observe the eyes in Diopsts set at the ends of foot-
stalks; the hymenopterous aspect of Mydas giganteus
and the extended proboscis of Pangonia, capable it is
said of piercing the hide of cattle while the insect is
still on the wing.

Series of British species presented by Benjamin Cook.

Upper Compartment.

The African Tsetze, Glossina morsitans.

Order LEPIDOPTERA. Aemis, a scale; trepoy,
a wing. Wings four, covered on both sides with minute
imbricated scales. Estimated number of species, 24,000
(Bentham).

The works used in naming and arranging the
series were numerous. Those of especial service were
* Papillons Exotiques,” Cramer and Stoll, 5 vols. 4to. ;
“ Sammlung Huropeischer Schmetterlinge,” J. Hubner,
9 vols. 4to.; ‘‘ Genera of Diurnal Lepidoptera,”
Doubleday and Westwood, 2 vols. imp. quarto; and
the works of W. C. Hewitson.

Division HETEROCERA. étepos, different; xépas,
a horn. This division includes all the insects of the
order except Butterflies,

INVERTEBRATE ANIMALS. 91

Group 202.—MICRO-LEPIDOPTERA. wixgos, small. In
this group are included all the Heterocera below the
Noctue; Pyralidina, Tortricina, Tineina, Pterophorina,
and Alucitina. More than 3800 species are described
and figured by H. T. Stainton in his monograph of
Tineina, 13 vols. 8vo. The British species representing
the group exceed 1,130; the exotic species are in pro-
portion less numerous than in other groups.

Series of Austrian species, presented by Dr.
Steindachner, Imperial Royal Zool. Museum,
Vienna.

Group 203.—NOCTUAI-GENUINA. Estimated number
of species: British, more than 800; European, 800.

‘| Examples of a few exotic and about 80 selected
species of British Noctuze. Observe the diver-
sity elaborated within the limits of conspicuous
similarity.

Group 204.—NOCTUA-LIMBATA. limbus, a_ border.
Observe the British species of Catocala, including C.
Fraxini; also the Owl-moth of Brazil, Thysania Agrip-
pina, so coloured as easily to escape notice when resting
on the bole of a tree. The specimen exhibited measures
more than eleven inches across the wings.

Gighteenth Cable Case,
The Mark %| indicates specimens or other illustrations exhibited in the Cases.

Group 205.—GEOMETRINA. yj, the earth; pérpov, a
measure. ‘The name alludes to the mode of progression
adopted by the larvee, which are called loopers, because
in moving they alternately take the form of the Greek
letter Q and extend themselves at full length.

92 INVERTEBRATE ANIMALS.

The females of certain species are without wings.
Geometre, of which about 270 kinds inhabit Britain, -
are sometimes seen in the cold grey light of a winter
evening, but more characteristically they are the butter-
flies of the summer twilight. Whilst the Noctue and
other more robust moths, passing swiftly by, seem
always in haste, these slender and delicately-coloured
insects flutter leisurely along the hedge-side in the
gloaming, apparently in a condition of perfect enjoy-
ment.

Upper Compartment.

Specimens of preserved larve, showing protective

mimicry.

Section BOMBYCINA. fcu6vé, the Silk-worm.
Group 206.—Genus SATURNIA and allies. This group
includes amongst its constituents upwards of 40 silk-
producing moths, the larve of which secrete the silk in
two large intestine-like vessels which unite at the
mouth in a common tube called the spinneret; through
this tube is ejected the secretion which, as soon as it
comes in contact with the air, hardens into a shining
fibre known as silk.
Observe the configuration of the shaded pattern in
Brahmea and the tale-like spot in Attacus Atlas.

Upper Compartment,

The Ailanthus Silk-moth, Attacus Cynthia, Cocoons,
Silk, &e.; also Cocoons and Silk of the Tusser
and various other Silk-worms, presented by F.
Moore.

Group 207.—Genus ARCTIA and allies. Observe examples
of the exotic genus Histia from Northern India and

INVERTEBRATE ANIMALS. 93

Java, the species of which in outline and colouring
closely resemble butterflies. For an account of Mimicry
in Insects see the Tablet. The group is illustrated by
18 British species.

Group 208.—PSEUDO-BOMBYCES. The Swifts, Lappets,
and Prominents include some of the most rare and
beautiful British Moths. Of these about 40 species are

exhibited.
Upper Compartment.

Specimens of a Fungus, Torrubia Robertsii, on the
larvee of Hepialus from New Zealand; also of
Torrubia militaris on pup of moths, collected
at Rainhill and presented by H.H. H. Pre-
pared larvee of moths.

Group 209.—Family URANIID/® and allies. Species of
Urania are frequently seen near the rivers of Brazil
flying in a certain direction, and following one another
in rapid succession for several days together; yet not
one is seen to return. These insects resemble butter-
flies, but are distinguished by the antennz, which are
not clubbed, and by the chrysalis, which is not angular.

_ Observe especially the very rare and beautiful Urania
Ripheus, a native of Madagascar, and the scarcely less
beautiful Nyctalemon.

In this group also are included the Burnets, Clear-
wings, &c., Zygenide and other Families: amongst
them may be noted Glaucopis caudata, with an append-
age resembling an ovipositor; it is probably a mimic of
an associated Hymenopterous insect.

Group 210.—Family SPHINGIDA. c¢iyé, the Sphinx.
The name alludes to the larva, which frequently carries

its head erect. Note the artistic correspondence between
F

94. INVERTEBRATE ANIMALS.

the colour patterns and the very peculiar outlines of the
insects in this group.
Upper Compartment.
Specimen of S. Carolina, with extended proboscis.

Division RHOPALOCERA. fomadov, a club; xépas, a horn.
This division includes all the Butterflies, properly so
called.

Group 211.—Family HESPERIDAL., Skippers. A rustic
type of form and colouring characterises the insects of
this group from all parts of the world. Estimated
number of species: British, 7; exotic, 650.

Group 212.—Families ERYCINIDAZ, Humming-bird But-
terflies; and LYCASNIDA, Coppers, Blues, Hair-
streaks. The Hrycinide are chiefly from Tropical
America: amongst them are counterparts in miniature
of most of the chief types amongst the Butterflies. Do
these insects appreciate their own beauty? It is a
beauty distinguished not less by its superlative richness
and variety than by the absence of all incongruous
embellishments. Helicopis Cupido is to an eye
eesthetically trained, what a scherzo of Beethoven’s is
to a musical ear. In approaching the question how
such a result has been produced through evolution, the
present case differs not in kind from that of any other
living thing; but the difficulties associated with the
hypothesis of evolution, when regarded as working only
by means of natural selection, are in such an instance
as this conspicuously displayed.

Estimated number of species: British, 19; exotic, 750.

Group 213.—Family SATYRID AS and allies. Meadow-russet
Butterflies. Note the transparent wings with one azure

INVERTEBRATE ANIMALS. 95

spot in Hetera Esmeralda. Estimated number of spe-
cies: British, 11 ; exotic, 450.

Group 214.—Family MORPHID and allies. Glory of Brazil
Butterflies. The typical kinds are all found in Tropical
America: some species frequent open places in forests,
flying with a slow flapping motion over the tops of the
low herbage ; others sail majestically round the tops of
trees, and are difficult to capture. Morpho Aurora, the
largest and one of the finest insects in the group, is said
to frequent plants growing on the sides of precipitous
rocks. Observe the resplendent Morpho Cypris from
Columbia, and the opaline sheen of Morpho Ganymede
from Bogota. Estimated number of species, 100.

FAMILY NYMPHALIDAE, vwy¢y, a bride.

Group 215.—Genus APATURA and allies. The group
includes Butterflies allied to the Purple Emperor found
in Britain. Note especially Nymphalis Jason, from
Southern Europe. Estimated number of species:
British, 2; exotic, 400.

Upper Compartment.
{| Examples of mimicry of leaves, Kallima Inathis
and Hebomoia Glaucippe. Earlier and later broods of
the same Butterfly, P. Levana and prorsa.

Group 216.—Genus VANESSA and allies. Note several
exotic species corresponding with British forms, e.g.,
the New Zealand Admiral, Pyrameis gonerilla.

The caterpillar of a Butterfly is an embryo furnished
with the means of locomotion and mastication. The
stages which the bird passes through in the egg, and
the animal in the fcetus, are attended in the insect by
the power of seeking for and devouring food.

96 INVERTEBRATE ANIMALS.

Upper Compartment.

Preserved larve and drawings of eggs.

Nineteenth Gable Cause.

Group 217.—Genus ARGYNNIS (Fabricius) and allies,
Fritillaries. Note Agraulis moneta, Mexico, so called
from the silver-like plates on its under side. Estimated
number of species: exotic, 150; British, 9.

Group 218.—Family HELICONIDZ: and allies. The beau-
tiful Heliconide are from Tropical America: when
crushed they emit an offensive odour, which is said to
protect them from the attacks of birds. The group
includes the Acreide from Africa. Estimated number
of species; exotic, 350.

Group 219.—Family DANAID Zé and allies. The species
are natives of the Kastern Hemisphere. Note especially
the two species of Hestia from Java. Estimated num-
ber of species: exotic, 110.

Upper Compartment.
Case with examples of the black-veined-white pat-
tern from six distinct families of Butterflies,
and one of Moths.

Group 220.—Family PIERIDAX. Whites. Note the Euro-
pean and Mexican species allied to the Brimstone
Butterfly of this country ; also the mimicry of the Helt-
conide in the females of certain species. Estimated
number of species: exotic, 450; British, 10.

Upper Compartment.
Pairs of Butterflies showing a remarkable difference
between the male and female of the same spe-

INVERTEBRATE ANIMALS. 97

cies; preserved larvee and magnified drawings
of eggs.

Family PAPILIONIDA.

Group 221.—Genus PAPILIO and allies. Swallow-tailed
Butterflies. For the Linnean divisions of the Butterflies
into Hquites, Danai, Plebeii, &c., see the Tablet.

Upper Compartment.
Case with specimens of Papilio Vertumnus, pre-
sented by H. J. Cauty. A chair is placed
near, by the aid of which P. Vertwmnus may
be seen by looking down upon it from above ;
whence the carmine spot on the lower wing
appears of a pale amethystine hue.

Group 222.—Genus ORNITHOPTERA, and allies. ¢pvis, a
bird ; arepov, a wing.
These royal insects are found chiefly in the Molucca
Islands and in New Guinea. Observe the
difference between the male and female in O.
Cresus and O. Aruana; also the extended
palpi in Teinopalpus, a native of the higher
ranges of the Himalayas, on the borders of
Assam. Kstimated number of species, 20.

Order NEUROPTERA. vedpov, a nerve; mTepov, a wing.

Group 223.—NEUROPTERA in part.

{| May-flies, Hphemeride ; Ant-lions, Myrmeleoni-
de; Lace-wings, Golden-eyes, Hemerobiide ;
two examples of the exquisitely fantastic forms
characteristic of the genus Nemoptera, N. Coa

98

INVERTEBRATE ANIMALS.

and N. Lusitanica ; Corydalis, the most savage
looking of all insects; Winged, worker, and
soldier forms of J'ermitide, the so-called White
Ants. The group also includes the order Trt-
cHopTeRA (Kirby), = the Caddis-flies, Phry-
ganeide, and the Order THYSANOPTERA
(Haliday) = Thrips. Series of British repre-
sentatives of the group, presented by Benjamin
Cooke. Wing of a large insect, beautifully
preserved in a nodule of ironstone, from the
middle coal-measures, Rayenhead; collected
by the writer, and referred to the genus Cory-
dalis. Mr. B. Cooke, after a careful examina-
tion of the fossil, believed it to represent
the basal portion, about one-third only, of
the fore-wing of a Nothochrysa.

Upper Compartment.

Larva of Ant-lion ; female of White Ant.

Group 224.—NEUROPTERA ODONATA. Dragon-flies,

Iibellulide.
Note the extraordinary length of body in Lestes

Lucretia, from the Cape of Good Hope; also
the species from Borneo. JBritish series, B.
Cooke and F. Brockholes.

Order ORTHOPTERA. 64s, straight ; arepov, a wing.

Group 225.—Family PHASMIDAL. acme, a spectre.

Walking-stick and Spectre insects, vegetable feeders,

chiefly found in India, China, South America,
and Australia. Observe Lonchodes virgeus,
which has the longest span of any known

INVERTEBRATE ANIMALS. _ 99

insect; also three species of genus Phyllium,
the Walking-leaf.

Group 226.—-Family MANTIDA. partis, a devotee.
Generally distributed in warm climates ; rapacious
insects, assuming, whilst on the watch for
prey, attitudes alluded to in the names Mantis
religiosa, Mantis oratoria, &c.
4; About 30 species illustrate the group, including
Metalleutica splendida from Borneo.

Group 227.—Family LOCUSTID. Adxos, a troop.

Tree-locusts. Rarely gregarious. Most of the
continental authorities agree in applying the
name ‘‘ Locust” to the species in this group,
distinguished by their long, slender antenne,
and by the sabre-like ovipositor of the female.
Hither the Greek or the Latin derivation (locus
ustus, a scorched place) of the name would
seem to apply more appropriately to the gre-
garious and migratory species included in the
following group.

Observe the closeness of the resemblance between
several species of Locusts and the leaves of
trees in the various stages of decay. This
mimetic perfection may be regarded as the
result of progressive improvements on the
part of the assailants, as well as on the side
of the species protected by disguise; indi-
viduals on the one side becoming more and
more mimetic, and on the other (that of their
enemies) more and more able to penetrate
through the assumed disguises.—(‘‘ The Natu-
ralist in Nicaragua,” by Thomas Belt, 1874.)

100 INVERTEBRATE ANIMALS.

Upper Compartment.
Pseudophyllus from Borneo. Probably the largest
known example of the Order, and of an
undescribed species.

Group 228.—Family ACRIDIIDZ. axpis, the Grasshopper.
Migratory Locusts, Grasshoppers, &c. The ravages for
which these insects have long been notorious have not
been confined to a single country; nor have they always
been committed by the same kind of locust. Africa
seems to have suffered most frequently and severely, but
Europe, North and South America, and the East have
from time to time been subject to their visitations.

Series of British species, presented by B. Cooke.

Cwwentieth Cable Case.

The mark 4 indicates specimens or other illustrations exhibited in the Cases.

Group 229.—Families ACHETIDA: and BLATTIDA.
Crickets, Achetide. %xérys, an utterer of shrill sounds.

Note the form of the fore-legs, constructed for
burrowing, in the Mole-cricket, Gryllotapa
vulgaris.

Cockroaches, Blattide. The British species are
of small size: the common Cockroach which
infests houses, Blatta Orientalis, is supposed
to have been introduced from the Levant.

The Order EvpLexopTERA=Karwigs, Forjficulide,
derives its name from the wonderous manner in which
the ample wings are folded and hidden under the tiny
wing-sheaths of the insect.

INVERTEBRATE ANIMALS. 101

Upper Compartment.

The Order Srrepsiprera. Stylops, parasitic on -

Bees, closely allied to the Beetles, is placed here
provisionally.

Order COLEOPTERA. xoAcés, a sheath; arepoy, a wing.
The number of species in this Order, as estimated by
Mr. Bentham in 1871, is 90,000. Works of especial
service in naming and arranging the series were, Lacor-
daire, ‘‘ Genera des Coléoptéres,”’ 9 vols., Paris, 1859 ;
Olivier, ‘‘E/ntomologie,” 6 vols. 4to.; Gory et Percheron,
“* Monographie des Cétoines.”’

Most of the groups include a small series of selected British species

presented by B. Cooke, or collected in the neighbourhood of Liver-
pool by H. Longuet Higgins.

Group 230.—Divisions EUPODA, PSEUDOTRIMERA,
HETEROMERA.

Examples of Tortoise-beetles, Cassidide ; Turnip-
fly, Phyllotreta ; Lady-birds, Coccinellide ;
Meal-worm-beetle, Tenebrio; Cellar-beetle,
Blaps; Oil-beetle, Meloé, Blister-beetle, Lytta,
&e.; also of the division BRACHELYTRA.

Estimated number of British species, more than 1,000.

Group 281.— Division LONGICORNES. Long-horned
Beetles. Families LAMIADA, LEPTURIDZ, and
allies. The group is illustrated by more than 60 exotic
species, and by many of the 40 British species. Note
the tufted horns in some examples of Lamia.

Upper Compartment.
Series of Long-horned Beetles, collected in Mada-
gascar, and bequeathed to the Museum by
W. T. Gerrard.

102 INVERTEBRATE ANIMALS.

Group 232.—Division LONGICORNES. Families CERAM-
BYCIDA, PRIONIDA, &. The Family Cerambycide,
as established by Linnzus, included most of the Long-
horned Beetles, now distributed in more than 1,300
genera. British representatives of the group, 12
species.

i Psalidognathus Friend, from Columbia.

Group 233.—Division RHYNCOPHORA. foyxos, a snout ;
gepw, I carry. Weevil-beetles. The space allotted to
exotic forms is occupied by more than 80 species illus-
trating the principal types. British species, 500; exotic
very numerous, distributed in about 900 genera.

Note the series of Diamond and Gold-patch Beetles,
Entimus, Cyphus, Hupholus, &c.

Group 234.—Divisions STERNOXI and MALACODERMI.
Examples of Buprestide, remarkable for their gorgeous
colours; Skip-jacks and Fire-flies, Hlateride, in certain
species of which, spots becoming luminous in the dark
may be seen on the hinder angles of the thorax ; the
Glow-worm, Lampyris, &. British species, 200.

Group 235.—Family CETONIID/ and allies. Goliath
Beetles, Rose-chafers, Cock-chafers, &c. British
species, 15, The exotic species are very numerous;
about 90 are exhibited.

{| Mycteristes Cumingu, Philippines, and seven
species of Ceratorhina, all from Africa.
Rhomborhina Ruckert from Simla.

Group 286.—Family SCARABASIDA® and allies. Speci-
mens of the Sacred Scarabeeus, Ateuchus sacer ; Dumble-
dor, Geotrupes, &e. British species, 62.

INVERTEBRATE ANIMALS. 103

Note the wondrous horn-like extensions of the
thorax in Chalcosoma Atlas, and the prodigi-
ous forelegs in Huchirus longimanus.

Upper Compartment.
: Observe the projection of the thorax in Dynastes-
Neptunus.
Specimen of carved Ancient Egyptian Scarabeus.

Group 237.—Families LUCANIDM, DYTICIDA, and
others. Carrion-beetles, Necrophaga; Stag-beetles,
Lucanide ; Predaceous Water-beetles, Hydradephaga,
&c. British species, 600.

{1 Chiasognathus Grant, Chili, &e.

Group 238.—Division GEODEPHAGA. Predaceous Land-
beetles. Tiger-beetles, Cicindelide; Carabide ; Bom-
bardier-beetle, Brachinus crepitans, &c. British
species, 350.

{| Mormolyce Phyllodes, Java; Manticora scabra,
Africa, &c.

Order HYMENOPTERA. sujv,a membrane; ztepov, a wing.

The species of Hymenoptera have been estimated at 25,000, but no
work has appeared on the whole of the Order comparable with the
great work of Lacordaire on the Coleoptera. In this country,
collectors of Butterflies and of Beetles are more numerous by many
times than collectors of the Hymenoptera; yet these, in their
biology, are far more interesting than any other order of insects.

Group 239.—Divisions TEREBRANTIA and ACULEATA
in part. Saw-flies, Tenthredine; Gall-flies, Cynipide ;
Ichneumons, Wasps, Hornets, Xe.

More than 250 kinds of galls have been described,
many of which are formed by Cynipideé on

104 INVERTEBRATE ANIMALS.

the roots, twigs, or leaves of the oak. The
minute particle of virus injected by the insect
when depositing its egg seems to possess
properties capable of compelling the growth-
force of the oak to develop cells constructing
an oak-apple, a nut-gall, a leaf-spangle, or
some other form of nidus best adapted to the
habits and necessities of the tiny parasite: a
correlation truly wondrous. Galls are known
to be injurious to oak-trees; can their pre-
sence be associated with some compensative
advantage ?

Note the enormous length of the ovipositor and
sheath in Pimpla atrata. British series,
chiefly local, deposited by the Royal Institu-
tion, Liverpool.

Upper Compartment.

Nests of Social Wasps; Galls and Oak-apples, with
the Gall-fly Cynips, together with specimens
of Allantus and Chalcis, from the same gall.

Group 240.—Family FORMICID/ and Division MELLI-
FERA. Ants and Bees. About 180 British species of
Bees have been described.

Mr. Belt’s work on Nicaragua contains a large
amount of very interesting information on the
habits of ants, especially those of a species of
stinging ant which finds both food and a home
in the hollow thorns of an Acacia, and in
return protects the tree from the formidable
attacks of leaf-cutting ants. The Heitons, or
foraging ants, he regards as being in intelli-
gence at the head of all the insect tribe.

INVERTEBRATE ANIMALS. 105

*

{| Male, Female, and Worker of the Hive Bee.
British series of Bees, chiefly collected in the
neighbourhood of Liverpool, by H. H. H., and
deposited by the Liverpool Royal Institution.

APPENDIX.

The colour patterns of Butterflies appear to be
derived through various modifications from two very
simple type patterns, wrought with one or both of two
kinds of scales.

A. First Typs-pattern. Wings having simply

a pale ground, or pale with lines composed
of dark scales along the veins. Example:
Aporia crategi. British.

B. Suconp TypE-PATTERN. Wings having a pale
ground with an orange or red blush occupying
the central area. Gonepteryx Cleopatra.
Kuropean.

There are also two kinds of scales:

C. ScaLEs CoLOURED BY Prament. White, Yellow,
Brown, Black, Red, and some kinds of blue.

D. IntpEscEent Scaues, deriving their colour chiefly
from the striation of their surface. Gold, Sil-
ver, Blue, Green, Amethyst, Crimson, &c.

Modifications:

A’. Dark lines attenuated, visible only at the tip,
and there expanded. Pieris Brassice. British.

A”. Dark lines expanded, forming patches and
scallops. Arge Galathea. British.

A”. Dark lines expanded, forming a blackish area,
and leaving the pale ground visible only in

APPENDIX. . i.

spots or markings. T’hymele alveolus. British.
Lasiommata Afgeria. British.

B.. Blush, occupying a space near the tip. Antho-
caris cardamines. British.

B’. Blush, occupying nearly all the area of the
wings, and shewn in the intervals between the
dark scales.

Note.—Even where, as in Huplea Treitschkei,
only a small spot or two of white is shewn on the
wings, it is probable that the ground colour of the wing
is white, almost wholly obscured by a greater development
of the dark scales belonging to the veins. The iride-
scent scales, except when forming metallic markings, as
on the under side of the Fritillaries, are generally
mingled with dark scales (rarely with the pale ground
scales), the edges of the areas in which they prevail
being shaded off, as in Apatura Iris. British.

_ The Common Admiral, Pyrameis Atalanta, is an
example of the combination of A!” with B". Wherever
the black does not extend, is shewn the red blush, which
does not, however, reach quite to the tip of the fore-wing;
for there, intervals in the black shew the white or pale
eround colour in spots. The New Zealand Admiral,
Pyrameis gonerilla, on the underside of the fore-wing,
indicates plainly that the true character of the red area
is that of a red blush on a pale ground. The subject is
more fully treated by the Writer in a paper which
appeared in the Quarterly Journal of Science, for July,
1868.

WM. APPENDIX.

SupPpLEMENTARY Note to Group 11.

The following Extract is from an Address delivered by Professor
Autitman, F.R.S., to the Biological section of the British
Association, 1873.

“Let us take an example in which these two principles seem to be
illustrated. In rocks of the Silurian age there exist in great profusion
the remarkable fossils known as Graptolites. These consist of a series
of little cups or cells arranged along the sides of a common tube, and
the whole fossil presents so close a resemblance to one of the Sertu-
larian hydroids which inhabit the waters of our present seas as to
justify the suspicion that the Graptolites constitute an ancient and long
since extinct group of the Hydroida. It is not, however, with the
proper cells, or hydrothecx, of the Sertularians that the cells of the
Graptolite most closely agree, but rather with the little receptacles
which in certain Sertularine belonging to the family of the Plumu-
- Jaridee we find associated with the hydrothece, and which are known
as “nematophores.” A comparision of structure, then, shows that the
Graptolite may, with considerable probability, be regarded as repre-
senting a Plumularia in which the hydrothece had never been
developed, and in which their place had been taken by the nemato-
phores.

“¢ Now it can be shown that the nematophores of the living Plumu-
laride are filled with masses of protoplasm which have the power of
throwing out pseudopodia, or long processes of their substance, and that
they thus resemble the Rhizopoda, whose soft parts consist entirely of
a similar protoplasm, and which stand among the Protozoa, or lowest
group of the animal kingdom. If we suppose the hydrothece sup-
pressed in a Plumularian, we should thus nearly convert it into a
colony of Rhizopoda, from which it would differ only in the somewhat
higher morphological differentiation of its ecenosarc, or common living
bond by which the individuals of the colony are organically connected.
And just such a colony would, under this view, a Graptolite be, waiting
only for the development of hydrothece to raise it into the condition
of a Plumularian.

APPENDIX. aw.

“Bringing, now, the Evolution hypothesis to bear upon the question,
it would follow that the Graptolite may be viewed as an ancestral form
of the Sertularian hydroids, a form having the most intimate relations
with the Rhizopoda ; that hydranths and hydrothece became developed
in its descendants, and that the Rhizopodal Graptolite became thus
converted in the lapse of ages into the Hydroidal Sertularian.

“ This hypothesis would be strengthened if we found it agreeing with
the phenomena of individual development. Now,such Plumularide as
have been followed in their development from the egg to the adult
state do actually present well-developed nematophores before they
show a trace of hydrothec, thus passing in the course of their embryo-
logical development through the condition of a Graptolite, and recapi-
tulating, within a few days, stages which it took incalculable ages to
bring about in the paleontological development of the tribe.”

EVOLUTION BY DEGRADATION.

It is hardly surprising that the theory of Evolution by Regression,
advocated by Dr. Dohrn, of Naples, and in this country by Professor
Ray Lankester, should have met with some opposition, so greatly does
it multiply the difficulties of ascertaining the true phylogenetic affinities
between living things. Supposed links in the ascending series have
now to be tested from above as well as from below; and notwithstand-
ing the great prominence given in recent systems to such links as
Enteropneusta, Cheetognatha, Amphioxus, Myxine, and other scantily
represented forms, they may be examples of degradation and not
* Jinks” at all, but rather ends hanging loosely down from parts of the
chain above them. In classification, above all other things, the maxim
should be, Festina lente.

v. APPENDIX.

ON THE USE OF A GENEALOGICAL TREE.

A genealogical tree of the animal kingdom, even if drawn with perfect
biological accuracy, can only represent the lines of life as seen projected
on a plane surface. Thus, two groups, apparently close together, may
be far asunder, the one above, the other below, the surface.

Nevertheless the “Tree” may be of some service in suggesting
analogies or affinities unlikely to be noticed at close quarters ; just as
the outline of a range of hills may best be seen at a distance.

Ifa similar tree of the vegetable kingdom were before us, we might
observe in it a division, Protophyta, answering to Protozoa; and a
group, which may be termed the Vaucheria group, including Siphonee
and Phycomycetes, corresponding in some striking respects with Vermes.
Degradation through parasitism would appear to be less prominent,
and change through adaptation to environments, more conspicuous,
than in the classes of animals. The most remarkable feature in the
two pedigrees might, perhaps, be recognised in the fact that they are
so distinct, the one from the other. From the simplest forms, and the
most remote ages, of life on the earth, the two kingdoms of animals
and plants have been developed side by side, without coalescence or
confusion, though having protoplasm, absolutely indistinguishable by
experiment, as a “ physical basis of life,” common to every constituent
of both kingdoms.

As favouring such generalised conceptions of unity in Nature, a
Genealogical Tree may have its use; though sharing, in common with
all other appliances, an incapacity for adequately representing the
details or the method of scientific classilication.

54)
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GENEALOGICAL TREE OF THE ANIMAL KINGDOM, FROM
“GRUNDRISS DER ZooLocie” BY Proressor G.V. Koc.

APPENDIX. V2.

CLASSIFICATION.

It was my wish to have given in tabular forms some slight outlines
of the various systems of classification adopted by Professors Grant,
Haeckel, Hualey, Ray Lankester, Macalister, Nicholson, Packard, and
Sir Wyville Thomson, adding a few remarks on their distinctive
features.

But it is found easier to concentrate the attention on a single plan,
and to notice the chief divergencies, than to compare a series of plans.
I have therefore selected the Stammbaum des Thierreichs of Professor
G. V. Koch, as a central scheme. The names and numbers in the
Stammbaum denote classes.

Classes 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 constitute the Sub-kingdom Protozoa, dis-
tinguished by the absence of cell-formed tissue.

Most authors include Class 7, Infusoria.

The Gregarinide are omifted, though retained by Lankester as
forming Class Corticata.

The same author gives Noctiluca as an example of a distinct Class,
Proboscidea.

Class 8, Spongie, treated by Grant as constituting Class Porifera =
Sub-kingdom Polystomata, Hualey-

Classes 9, 10. 11 form the Sub-kingdom Ccelenterata — Phylum
Nematophora, Lankester. It includes Class Hydrocoraliine, Moseley.

Classes 7, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, enclosed within a dotted
line, represent the Sub-kingdom Vermes.

Each of the Classes 12, 13, 16 and 18 forms a distinct Phylum or
Sub-kingdom, Zankester.

The same author places Class 17, Tunicata, under the name
Urochorda, amongst the Vertebrata.

Class 14, Polyzoa, he inserts between the univalve and bivalve
Mollusca.

The remaining Classes, 15 and 19, are referred by him to the Phylum
Appendiculata, which also includes Gnathopoda= Arthropoda, i.e., the
whole of the boneless animals with jointed limbs.

Classes 19, 20, 21, 22, 23 constitute the Sub-kingdom Echinodermata,
which in most of the recent systems of classification immediately
succeeds the Ceelenterate Sub-kingdom.

Such an arrangement seems to be essential in either of two cases.

vid. APPENDIX.

Ist. Where Sub-kingdom Vermes is adopted. But the theory of
evolution by degradation may probably before long cause the dis-
appearance of “ Vermes”’ from biological text-books.

2nd. Where the Mollusca are placed at the head of the Invertebrate
Animals. That the Mollusca, as a whole, are not higher than the
Hexapoda as a whole, seems to be confirmed by the recent embryologi-
cal researches of M. Fol, who states that ‘‘the Mollusca are not
segmented animals which have fused their metameres, but they are
animals which have remainef simple.”

For these reasons, and for others which are given earlier in the
Synopsis, I have ventured to adopt an arrangement which appears to
me to be, on the whole, best suited for exhibition to the public. I
have done this hoping that student visitors to the collection will find no
difficulty in correlating the groups of the present series with those of
any of the excellent zoological text-books published for their use.

Classes 24, 25, 26, 27 represent the Arthropoda.

These are placed in two grades, Malacopoda and Condylopoda, the
former of which is constituted by Peripatus. Lankester.

To Class 26, Arachnida, is referred Limulus, the King Crab,
and the Trilobites, Lankester.

Orders Linguatulina, Tardigrada, and Pycnogonida are added in
an Appendix of degraded animals belonging to the Class. Lankester.

Class 27, Hexapoda, is divided into Masticantia and Sugentia,
Lankester. But Phryganea, referred to the former, is deficient in
mandibles.

Classes 28, 29, 30, and 31 constitute the Mollusca.

Professor Ray Lankester’s arrangement of the Mollusca is very
interesting, and by his kind permission it is inserted. It is sufficiently
obvious that the prefix “ Lipo” is from Aime, the radical form of
Aeirrw, to be wanting.

Neomenia is a genus formed by Tulberg for a curious worm-like
molluse newly discovered.

APPENDIX. vit.

Tabular View of the Phyla of the Animal Kingdom.
ANIMALIA.

Organisms incapable of assimilating either N or C from their simpler
water-soluble compounds, and therefore provided (excepting parasites)
with the means of ingesting and acting upon the solid substance of
other organisms.

Grade I1.—PLASTIDOZOA (Homoblastica).
Animals consisting of single plastids, or of groups of plastids not

differentiated into cell-layers.
Provrozoa.

Grade II._ENTEROZOA.

Animals consisting of many plastids primarily arranged in two layers
surrounding a food-receiving cavity—the enteron (the lumen of which
is obliterated in some parasites).

Grade 1 (of the Enterozoa) CAALENTERA (Diploblastica).

Enterozoa in which the enteron remains as a continuous cavity,
either simple or much ramified, coextensive with the body wall.
Persons telostomiate, generally with radial symmetry.

Phylum 1.—Porirera.
» 2.—NEMATOPHORA.

Grade 2 (of the Enterozoa) CAALOMATA ({Triploblastica).
Enterozoa in which a second cavity containing hemolymph—viz.,
the coolom—entirely shut off from, though in its origin a part of, the
enteron, is developed between the body wall and the enteric wall.
Persons primarily prostomiate, bilaterally symmetrical, with paired
nephridia and nerve tracts.

Phylum |.—EcuinopDERMA.
Branch a. Ambulacrata.
; b. Tentaculata.
Phyl. Phyl. Phyl.
2.—PLATYELMIA. 4.—GEPHYRA. 6.—ENTEROPNEUSTA.
By. a. Ciliata.
, ©. Suctoria.

3 —APPENDICULATA 5.—Mo.iusca (Mrso- 7.—VERTEBRATA.
(PaRapoDa). PODA). Br. a. Urochorda,
Br. a. Cheetopoda. Br. a. Eucephala. » 0b. Cephalo-
» 0. Rotifera. » 0b. Lipoce- chorda.
» ¢. Gnatho- phala. » ¢. Craniata
poda.
Phyl. 8.—NEMATOIDEA. Phyl. 9.— CuETOGNATHA,

The above is extracted, with permission, from “ Notes on Embryology
and Classification for the Use of Students,’ by HE. Ray Lankester,
M.A., F.R.S., printed by J. and A. Churchill, New Burlington Street,
London, 1877.

1X. APPENDIX.

CLASSES AND ORDERS OF THE MOLLUSCA. (Lankester_,
Branch «. BUCEPHALA.

Class. Order. Examples.
GravE A Lipoglossa. :
ScoLEcoMORPHA : : ; Neomeni.

Grave B. HEehineglossa.
i Grave a. AMPHOMG@A.

1, Polyplacophora | Citoncitus
Grave b. COCHLIDES.
ae Patella.
I. GASTROPODA 1, Autocochlides Buccinum.

; : : | Atlanta.
a Naat! Pterotrachea.
3. Cryptocochlides { et ee
4, Pulmonata { Fee
Gravrk a. PTHROPODA.
. Thecosoma . { uae:
2. Gymnosoma . pee:

\ Pneumodermon.

II. CePHaLoropa Grave b. SIPHONOPODA.

at a = —— oe
a

1. Tetrabranchia. Orthoceras.
Nautilus.
2. Dibranchia. ( Spirula.
: \ Loligo.
III. ScapHoroDA Dentalium.

Branch s. LIPOCEPHALA.
( Branch a. HoLtoBraNncuta,
Grade a. Hetoprocta.

Lophopus.
1. Phylactolema Plumatella.
J, TEenrActLi- sR Paludicella.
BRANCHIA 2. Gymnolema . { Flustra.
(Bryozoa) Grade b. Hntoprocta. _
Pedicellinea . pease
Branch $. PrEROBRANCHIA.
Podostoma Rhabdopleura.
Class. Order. Examples.
( 1. Ecardines { LILES
II. SrrRoBRANCHIA { oe Lingula.
(Brachiopoda) 4 2 Testicardines. { seve
; ; Arca.
TI]. LAMeLLiBRaN- 1. Asiphonia \ Unio.
CBI 2. Siphonata { ala

APPENDIX. Xx.

‘An Arrangement of Invertebrate Animals,” after Sir
C. Wyville Thomson, F.R.S.

Type.qy ne, Class.

PROTOZOA.
Monera. Gymnomonera, Lepomonera.
Rhizopoda. Foraminifera, Radiolaria.
Infusoria. Flagellata (in part), Suctoria, Ciliata.
Gregarinida. Monocystis, Gregarina.

ZOOPHYTA.
Porirera. Sponges.
C@LENTERATA.

Actinozoa. Alcyonaria, Zoantharia.
Ctenophora. (4 Orders.) Examples: Cestum, Pleurobrachia.
Hydrozoa. (10 Orders.) Ex. Hydra, Millepora, Acalepha.
KCHINODERMATA.
Pelmatozoa. Pentacrinus, Comaster.
Echinozoa. Ophiura, Culcita, Hehinus, Holothuriua.
ANNULOSA.
VERMES.
Platyelmia. Cestoda, Trematoda, Turbellaria.
Nematelmia. <Acanthocephali, Gordiacea, Nematoda,
Chetognatha. (One Genus.) Sagitta.
Gephyrea. Priapulus, Sipunculus.
Annelida. Discophora, Oligocheta, Polycheta.
Polyzoa. Pedicellina, Crisia, Retepora.
Rotifera. Melicerta, Floscularia.
ARTHROPODA.
Crustacea. Lepas, Cyclops, Cancer.
Arachnida, Pyenogonum, Mygale, Scorpio.
Myriapoda. Julus, Scolopendra.
Insecta, Hexapoda. (8 Orders.)
MOLLUSCA.
Tunicata. Ascidiacea, Thaliacea.
Brachiopoda. Crania, Lingula, Terebratula.
Lamellibranchiata. (10 Orders.) Ostrea.
Cephalophora. (4 Orders.) Helia.
Cephalopoda. (2 Orders.) Nautilus.

LIVERPOOL:
D. MARPLES AND C0. LIMITED,
LORD STREET.

File

By the same Author.

MUSEUM TALK

ABOUT ANIMALS WHICH HAVE NO BONES;

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