LIBRARY

OF THE

UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA.

GIF'T OF"

Mrs. SARAH P. WALSWORTH.

Received October, 1894.
Accessions No.lLt Class No.

A SYNOPSIS

OF

NATURAL HISTORY:

EMBRACING THE

NATURAL HISTORY OF ANIMALS,

WITH

HUMAN AND GENERAL ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY,
BOTANY, VEGETABLE PHYSIOLOGY AND GEOLOGY.

TRANSLATED
FROM THE LATEST FRENCH EDITION OF

C. LEMMONNIER,

PROFESSOR OF NATURAL HISTORY IN THE ROYAL COLLEGE OF CHARLEMAGNE)
WITH ADDITIONS FROM THE

WORKS OF CUVIER, DUMARIL, LACEPEDE, ETC.;

AND ARRANGED AS A

TEXT BOOK FOR SCHOOLS.

BY THOMAS WYATT, A.M.,

AUTHOR OF ELEMENTS OF BOTANY, MANUAL OF CONCHOLOGY, ETC.

Illustrated by Plates.

PHILADELPHIA:
THOMAS WARDLE, 15 MINOR STREET.

MDCCC^XXXIX.

u H I V H *v 51 T IT IS

x* .

Entered, according to the act of congress, in the year 1839, by THOMAS WYATT, in the
clerk's office of the district court of the eastern district of Pennsylvania.

INTRODUCTION.

THE Work here presented to the public was undertaken
with the hope of supplying, in part at least, what seemed a
remarkable deficiency in the course of academical study
pursued throughout the United States, under the general, but
not often rigidly defined appellation of Natural History*

In the respective departments of the Natural History of
Animals, exclusive of Corichology and Human Physiology,
in this latter science itself, in Botany with Vegetable Physio-
logy, and in Geology, although much remains to be done, still
there appears no absolute hiatus, in regard to the necessary
text books. I say in these respective departments; but it,
must have occurred to every scientific man who thinks upon
the subject, as singular, that in a science whose very exist-
ence may be truly said to depend upon method, there should
have been no attempt made to collect the parts into a readily
discernible whole. The entire course of Natural History, as
now taught, is only gleaned by the Student from a variety of
distinct sources — sources differing in manner, and often (from
the very nature of sciences not included among "the exact")
discordant, and often conflicting, in the more important par-
ticulars of matter and arrangement. A perfect remedy for
this latter evil could, perhaps, be found only in a work of
magnitude, and consequent expense, unfitting it for general
dissemination. It is, however, not so much in any thing of
this extended character, as in a well digested and fully com-
prehensive Synopsis that we are deficient.

A compendium appears to be wanting, which, discarding

iv INTRODUCTION.

the weakness of a merely entertaining selection, shall rigidly
retain all which bears upon the ruling feature of a proper
Natural History — the feature of a lucidus or do.

There can be no doubt that, absolutely considered, the
tabular form would be the best for such a purpose; and ac-
cordingly we find that in France, M. Lemmonnier has ac-
quired much celebrity by his well arranged system, on which
this work is based.

But what, in a scientific point of view, is certainly an ad-
vantage, has, in other respects, a very serious inconvenience.
The tabular form, where the matter, as in Natural History,
is essentially complex, and subdivision is piled, as it were,
upon division, will admit of little or no letter press, and re-
quires that the whole pass into the hands of the engraver.
The expense is of course enormous, and renders the book a
dead letter, as far as regards its common academical use.

In the volume now offered, the author has ventured so
to modify that of M. Lemmonnier, as to dismiss the body
of his tableaux, retaining as much of their spirit as was
compatible with the objects in view, and giving many useful
additions from the works of Cuvier, Dumaril, Lacepede, and
other well known naturalists. The Botanic System of Lin-
nseus is preserved, as in the French original.

For a further progress in the science, Dr Comstock's In-
troduction to Botany may be confidently recommended, as a
valuable work for Students. Also to Students in Geology,
who wish to extend their inquiries, we would respectfully
recommend "Lyell's Elements of Geology," for a first book,
and his larger work, entitled, " Lyell's Principles of Geolo-
gy," both of which are written in the most attractive style,
and abundantly illustrated by coloured plates, maps, &c., just
published by Kay & Brother, Chestnut street, Philadelphia.
(See London Quarterly Review and Silliman's Journal of
Science, for notices of Mr Lyell's works.)

INTRODUCTION. V

In conclusion, our grateful thanks are tendered to Dr R.
Bridges of Philadelphia, whose valuable assistance has largely-
contributed to the accuracy and usefulness of this volume ;
also to Dr H. M'Murtrie, and his excellent translation of
Cuvier, which leaves nothing further to be desired, either by
the teacher or the pupil.

T. W.

ANIMAL KINGDOM.

PHYSIOLOGY.

PHYSIOLOGY is a science which treats of the phenomena or
functions whose union constitutes life. These functions may
be distinguished into those which are intended to connect the
living being with the surrounding world ; these are called
functions of relation, and belong only to animals : and those
whose object is the preservation of the individual ; these are
common to vegetables and animals, and are called functions
of nutrition. The instruments by means of which the func-
tions are accomplished are denominated organs. Several of
these united for the same end form an apparatus. Finally,
considered as a whole, they constitute an organization.

The organization, which is an intimate union of form and
matter, is continually traversed by fluids, whose province
is, to convey nourishment to the organs, and to take up, for
the purpose of carrying off, what is useless. This twofold
movement of composition and decomposition is termed nutri-
tion. The first of these two forces, composing nutrition, is
called absorption; the second bears the generic name of
secretion.

Thus the three great functions of nutrition do but prepare
and carry off the elements which, as a final result, are ab-
sorbed or secreted. Organized beings have been divided into
animate beings, or such as are possessed of sense and motion ;
and inanimate beings, or such as are deprived of both these
faculties. The power of spontaneous movement in animals
requires essential modifications of organization : hence are de-
rived in them the characters of the three great functions of
nutrition, viz. the circulation, the respiration and the diges-
tion.

10 PHYSIOLOGY.

CIRCULATION.

A function whose end is the general movement of the blood
in the body of animals. This movement consists in carrying
the nutritive or arterial blood through all the organs, and in
conveying to a respiratory apparatus this same liquid, de-
prived of the elements of nutrition, and loaded with matter
which should be expelled. The circulatory apparatus offers
for consideration the heart and the blood vessels.

The Heart.

The principal agent in the impulsion of the blood, placed
in man within the cavity of the thorax, between the lungs,
the point below, a little forward and to the left. It consists
of two sides, which have no communication with each other :
the right side, which is always filled with venous blood, and
in which is the right, auricle, communicating only with the
right ventricle ; and the left side, filled with arterial blood, in
which is the left auricle, communicating only with the left
ventricle.

Blood Vessels.

These are of three kinds. The arteries, carrying the blood
of the heart to the parts. The veins, returning it from the
parts to the heart. The capillary vessels, forming a commu-
nication between the veins and the arteries.

Principal Arteries.

These are the aorta and pulmonary artery. The aorta,
arising from the base of the left ventricle, terminates at the
bottom of the abdomen. It is the common trunk to the in-
nominata, the left carotid and the left subclavian, the c&liac,
superior and inferior mesenteric, the renal and the primitive
iliacs. The right carotid and right subclavian are formed by
the division of the innominata. The pulmonary artery, ari-
sing from the base of the right ventricle, is divided into two
branches, which lose themselves in the pulmonary tissue.

Principal Veins.

These are the vena cava superior and vena cava inferior,
formed by the union of the principal veins of the body, and
terminating, the former at the top and the latter at the base
of the right auricle ; and the pulmonary veins, two on each
side, extending from the lungs to the left auricle.

PHYSIOLOGY. 11

RESPIRATION.

A function common to all animate beings, and by means
of which in animals, the venous blood mixed with the chyle
obtains its nutritive properties, under the influence of the
oxygen of the atmosphere. The atmosphere surrounds the
earth to the extent of from fourteen to fifteen leagues, and is
equal in weight to a similar bed of water about thirty-two
feet in thickness, or of a like one of mercury about twenty-
nine inches thick. This gas is formed of two elements —
twenty-one being of oxygen, and seventy-nine of azote in a
hundred parts. Vapoury particles of water are also found in
the atmosphere, and traces of carbonic acid. This last gas
arises from the circumstance that animals, in the act of res-
piration, convert a certain quantity of oxygen into carbonic
acid. It is itself again decomposed by plants, which take to
themselves the carbon and give out the oxygen. The respi-
ratory apparatus is composed, in man, of the thorax, the tra-
chea and the lungs.

Thorax.

This is a cavity formed by the dorsal portion of the verte-
bral column behind, by the sternum before, and at the sides
by the ribs, with the intercostal muscles filling up the spaces
between them ; also by a muscle called the diaphragm, clo-
sing the cavity below, and by means of which its capacity
may be increased or diminished.

Trachea,

Or wind pipe, is a cylindrical canal, formed by the larynx,
whose upper opening is called the glottis, and by the trachea
proper, composed of little cartilaginous rings, connected by
membranous partitions. It terminates in the bronchice, which
are divisions of the trachea, leading one into each lung, of
which the right is the longer.

Lungs

Are spongy organs, enveloped by pleurce, and formed of the
bronchial divisions ending in a cul-de-sac among the pulmo-
nary cells, the ramifications of the pulmonary artery and
veins, and the cellular tissue uniting these diiferent organs so
as to form an infinity of small cells.

12 PHYSIOLOGY.

DIGESTION.

A function whose end is to transform the aliment (which
is always animal or vegetable matter) into an opaque milky
fluid called chyle, capable of being absorbed by particular
vessels, which pour it more slowly into the circulatory cur-
rent; where, on mingling with the venous blood, by the
influence of respiration, it becomes at length arterial blood.
This function may be divided into seven acts :

The taking of Aliment.
In man, by the hands and mouth

Mastication.

The division of the food by means of small and very hard
bodies (the teeth), of which some (the incisors) cut, some (the
canine) tear, and others (the molars) grind. The teeth are
formed of a bony substance, covered with enamel, and having
within them a cavity containing a vein, artery, nerve and
pulpy matter.

Insalivation.

A liquid called saliva is imbibed by and softens the divided
food. The salivary glands are the parotid, the submaxillary,
and the sublingual, of each a pair.

Deglutition.

The food reduced to a soft mass crosses the isthmus of the
fauces, reaches the pharynx, passes upon the glottis, which is
covered by the epiglottis, arrives in the oesophagus and de-
scends into the stomach.

Chymification.

The action of the gastric juice, and the contractions of the
stomach, convert the food into a grayish pulp called chyme,
and propel it into the small intestines.

Chylification.

Under the influence of the bile and pancreatic juice the
chyme is now in part converted into an opaque milky liquid
called chyle. The organs here are the intestines, the liver
and the pancreas. The small intestines comprehend the du-
odenum, the jejunum and the ileum ; the large intestine em-
braces the ccecum, the colon and the rectum.

•

PHYSIOLOGY. 13

•Absorption of the Chyle,.

The chyle being absorbed from the internal surface of the
small intestines by the lacteals, is carried into the receptacu-
lum chyli, and thence by the thoracic duct into the left sub-
clavian vein, which itself opens into the upper vena cava.
Here the organs are the lacteals, the receptaculum chyli, and
the thoracic duct.

FUNCTIONS OF RELATION.

The animal places itself in relation with exterior objects
by means of two grand apparatus — the apparatus of sensations
and the apparatus of movements. The first of these regards
the faculty termed sensation, the second the faculty called
locomotion.

THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

Is formed of a peculiar substance soft and pulpy, nearly
fluid in the early period of life, and acquiring more consis-
tence as the animal is developed. This substance, either
gray or white, constitutes masses more or less considerable,
or cords more or less ramified.

The Nervo-Cerebral System,

Or that of animal life, (PI. 3, fig. B) includes the encepha-
lum and the nerves.

The Encepiialum. (PI. 2, fig. A.)

Under the head of encephalum we speak of the cerebrum
(n), the cerebellum (r), and the medulla oblongata (m, m, m).

The Cerebrum

Is a large pulpy ovoid organ, with the thickest extremity
behind. It is composed of two substances ; one white and
internal, the other gray and usually external; including ca-
vities termed ventricles, and lodged in a bony case called the
skull. It is the centre of perception. It is divided into two
hemispheres, of which each consists of an anterior, a middle
and a posterior lobe.

The Cerebellum.

A nervous mass in the hinder part of the skull; gray with-
out, white within ; presenting outwardly the appearance of
layers folding one over the other.

• ft . . '• >

14 PHYSIOLOGY.

The Spinal Marrow.

A pulpy cord, white without, gray within ; lodged in the
vertebral canal ; extending from the base of the brain to the
lumbar portion of the vertebral column, where it is divided
into a great number of filaments called the cauda equina, from
its fancied resemblance to a horse's tail.

The Nerves.

White cords extending from the base of the brain and from
the spinal marrow to the muscles, and to the surface of the
general coverings of the body, to form the organs of sense.
(PL 2, fig. A, and PL 3, fig. B.)

The Sense of Touch.

Of this the seat is the skin. The skin is composed of the
epidermis (PL 1, fig. 1, b, and PL 2, fig. 2, e), the nervous
and colouring tissue (PL 1, fig. 1, a, and PL 2, fig. 2, d), the
dermis (PL 1, fig. 1, c, and PL 2, fig. 2, c), and the piliferous
(hair producing) bulbs, and is supplied with blood vessels
(PL 2, fig. 2, a).

The Sense of Taste.

Of this the instrument is the tongue, or rather the mucous
membrane covering the tongue.

The Sense of Smell. (PI. 2, fig. 3.)

The apparatus of smell is composed of the olfactory nerve
and pituitary membrane covering the nasal fossce, including
the spongy bones, the partition of the nose (vomer) and car-
tilages with the sinuses (fig. 3, a). This sense is excited by
the action of odours upon this apparatus.

The Sense of Hearing. (PI. 2, fig. 4.)

This apparatus is composed of the external ear, including
the pinna or pavilion (a, b, d) and the external auditory canal
(c) ; the middle ear which includes the cavity of the tympa-
num (h) separated from the external ear by the membrane of
the tympanum (g); the chain of small bones, viz., the stapes,
the orbicular e, the incus and the malleus ; the muscles which
move these bones; and the eustachian tube (k); the internal
ear, embracing the vestibule, where we find the oval window,
fenestra ovalis, the opening of the semicircular canals (1), anr!
the opening of the cochka\ the semicircular canals (m); the

PHYSIOLOGY. 15

cochlea (p ) ; and the auditory nerve (o). This subject embraces
the theory of sound, including the nature of sound and its mode
of transmission, and the mechanism of hearing or the transmis-
sion of sound through the different portions of the ear.

The Sense cf Sight.

Under this head are comprised the apparatus for its protec-
tion (PL 3, fig. 5), embracing the brows, the orbit, the eyes,
the eyelashes, the lachrymal gland '(k), the lachrymal points, the
lachrymal ducts, and the nasal duct — the apparatus of motion,
consisting of eight muscles, viz., those which move the lids (the
orUculare and levator of the upper lid], and those which move
the ball, the great oblique (1), the small oblique (g), the four
straight muscles (f, i and d) — the globe of the eye (fig. 6),
including the conjunctiva (b), the sclerotic membrane (s), the
choroid membrane (ch), the retina (r), the iris (i), the pupil
(p), the cornea (c and fig. 5, a), the aqueous humour, the crys-
talline humour (ca), the vitreous humour (o), and the optic
nerve (n and fig. 5, c) — and finally it includes the subject of
light, embracing its nature, direction, reflection, refraction (fig,
7, 8 and 9) and decomposition, together with the mechanism
of vision, or the progress of the luminous rays into the eye
(fig. 10).

The Nervous System of Organic Life,

Or the great sympathetic, is composed of ganglions, united
among themselves by nervous cords, and forming a double
chain on both sides of the vertebral column, extending from
the head to the pelvis.

This nervous system presides over the organs of involun-
tary motion, such as the heart, the stomach and the intestines.

LOCOMOTION.

Animals are not only capable of receiving impressions
from external objects ; they can likewise avoid or approach
these objects at will. This faculty is termed the faculty of
locomotion. It is effected by means of two apparatus, one
active (the muscular apparatus), the other passive (the bony
apparatus). There is another faculty besides that of sensa-
tion and of locomotion, which completes the life of relation ;
it is the power enjoyed by a great number of animals of

16 PHYSIOLOGY.

making known their ideas among themselves by articulate
sounds or by cries.

This faculty is called the voice, and its apparatus the vocal
apparatus, or

Larynx.

The larynx is attached above to a bone called the os hyoides
and below to the trachea. Its sides are formed by five carti-
lages, and supplied with muscles by which a limited degree
of motion is effected : its superior opening is called the glottis ,
over which is a fibro-cartilagmous substance named epiglottis
placed at the base of the tongue.

The Muscular Apparatus.

" Muscle" is the term applied to certain fleshy organs
composed of fibres of extreme tenuity, which are straight and
arranged in a parallel manner among themselves.

These organs are endowed with contractibility ; that is to
say, with the power of shortening and extending themselves
alternately. In the motions of contraction the fibres fold up
in a zigzag form, and the muscle becomes hard and swollen.
The power of the muscles does not act directly on the bones,
but through the agency of certain whitish, fibrous prolon-
gations, denominated when thick, tendons, and when spread
out, aponeuroses.

Muscular contractions operate, some under the influence
of the will (and in this case the muscles receive nerves from
the cerebro-spinal system) ; others again are produced without
any agency on the part of this faculty, and in this case the
muscles receive their nerves from the great sympathetic ;
others, finally, are produced by the united influence of both
the nervous systems.

•mP The Bony Apparatus. (The Skeleton.)

Skeleton is the name applied to the whole collection of
bones in the superior animals. Its use is to afford a base of
support to the soft parts, and to furnish the muscular powers
with resisting levers, which give energy, extent and precision
to the motions. The bones are the hardest portions of
the bodies of animals. Bones are formed of two principal
substances; the one an animal substance (gelatine), inter-

PHYSIOLOGY. 17

mixed with an earthy matter (phosphate of lime). Their
structure is varied, being, in the long bones, compact in the
middle, with a central cavity, and the extremities spongy ;
while in the flat bones it is lamellated on the external sur-
face, but the internal substance is cellular. The bones are
divided, according to their form, into long, flat and thick.
The first are found in the limbs, the second about cavities,
the third wherever mobility and solidity are to be united.

The bones are connected among themselves by approxi-
mation, without any intervening substance forming sutures,
by cartilaginous t substance, by tendinous bands (ligaments),
in the movable articulations enclosing a cavity in the form of
a sac : these are termed capsular ligaments.

The place of union in bones is called articulation ; of this
there are two kinds, movable and immovable ; upon the sur-
faces of bones articulated in the former manner certain re-
sisting substances are found resembling a kind of animal
pasteboard; these are denominated cartilages. A liquid
called synovia moistens them and facilitates their move-
ments.

The Head

Comprehends the cranium and face. The cranium or
skull consists of eight bones, which form a cavity for con-
taining the brain. These bones, which are flat, are the
frontal before ; the occipital behind and below ; the parietal
at the sides and above ; the temporal at the sides and -below ;
the sphenoid before and below ; and the ethemoid in the ante-
rior part of the base of the cranium. The face consists of
the upper and lower maxillce or jaws ; the upper jaw contains
six pair of bones, and one single bone, and sixteen teeth.
These are the two superior maxillary, the two nasal, the two
ossa ungues, the two molar, the two palate, the two spongy
bones, and the vomer, which last forms the partition of the
nose.

The lower jaw has but one bone besides the teeth ; it is
the inferior maxillary bone.

The Trunk
Consists of the spine, the thorax and the pelvis.

18 PHYSIOLOGY.

The Spine

Is composed of the true and false vertebra. The true ver-
tebra comprise three classes. First, the cervical, which are
the seven uppermost vertebra belonging to the neck; the
first is called the atlas, the second the dentata. Second class,
the dorsal or those of the back, which are twelve in number.
And the third, the lumbar, or those of the loins, five in
number.

The Thorax

Is composed of the dor sal vertebra, twelve pair of ribs, with
their cartilages, and the sternum.

The Pelvis

Is composed of the false vertebra (the sacrum and coccy-
gis) behind, and the two ossa innominata at the side and in
front.

The Members

Comprise the two extremities ; the superior and inferior
extremity.

The Superior Extremities,

Each, consist of the shoulder, the arm, the fore-arm and
hand.

The Shoulder

Is composed of two bones ; the clavicle or collar bone, a
long bone, in front ; the scapula or shoulder blade, a flat bone
behind.

The rfrm
Has one long bone, the humerus.

The Fore Arm
Has two long bones, the radius and ulna.

The Hand

Comprehends the whole structure from the end of the fore
arm to the points of the fingers. It consists of the carpus or
wrist, the metacarpus or parts near the wrist, and the fingers
including the thumb.

The Carpus
Is composed of eight small bones arranged in two rows.

PHYSIOLOGY. 19

The Metacarpus
Of four bones which sustain the fingers.

The Fingers,

Each, of three bones, called phalanges.

The Inferior Extremities,

Each, consist of the thigh, leg and foot.

The Thigh
Has one long bone, the femur.

The Leg

Has two long bones, the tibia and fibula, with a thick bone,
the patella, which is connected with it and the thigh, forming
the anterior part of the knee joint.

The Foot
Is divided into the tarsus, metatarsus and toes.

The Tarsus
Consists of seven spongy bones.

The Metatarsus,
Of five bones sustaining the toes.

The Toes,

Of three bones each ; except the great toe, which has but
two bones.

20

VARIETIES OF THE HUMAN RACE.

Distribution of the Human Races on the Face of the Globe,
according to the Animal Kingdom of Cuvier.

THE order of the BIMANA, easily distinguished by the ex-
istence of hands at the anterior extremities only, and by the
presence of three kinds of teeth, is composed of but one genus,
embracing but one species. Man is the only mammiferous
animal truly biped. His feet, likewise, afford a base of sup-
port larger than in any other animal. The great width of
the pelvis, by separating the thighs and feet, gives the body
a pyramidal form very favourable to equilibrium. The head
is also naturally in equilibrium in the vertical position ; but
even if he wished, man could not walk on all fours. The
foot is too short and almost inflexible, and the thigh being
too long would bring the knee towards the ground. The
fore limbs, being too wide apart, and too weak, and shorter
than the hinder ones, would be obliged to support the enor-
mous weight of the head and chest, and even part of that of
the pelvis. The want of a cervical ligament and the little
subdivision among the arteries which lead to the brain would
subject him to frequent apoplexies. Moreover in this posi-
tion he would lose that activity and delicacy of touch which
is so valuable — touch the most exact instrument which intel-
ligence employs. His eyes would be continually turned
towards the earth, and the nostrils to the rear. On the con-
trary, in the biped position man resumes all his advantages.
Nevertheless, if we examine him as an isolated being and
simply in a physical view, he will appear to us the most
unfortunate of animals. He has neither offensive nor defen-
sive weapon ; his naked skin is exposed as well to the burn-
ing heat of the sun as to the rigorous cold of winter. What

VARIETIES OF THE HUMAN RACE. 21

is his strength before that of the lion ? or the rapidity of his
pace compared with that of the horse ? Has he the night of
the bird ? an equal power of swimming with the fish ? the
dog's sense of smell ? the piercing eye of the eagle ? or the
hearing of the hare ? What is his size beside that of the
elephant ? To escape his enemies he has not even the imbri-
cated shells of the pangolin, nor the buckler of the armadillo.
But, if we consider his admirable intelligence, we behold
him subjecting to his dominion or employing in his service
the rapidity of the horse, the strength of the elephant, the
smell of the dog, the piercing eye of the eagle. By means
of this intelligence he alone, of all other beings, has been
enabled to form for himself a language. Through this,
fathers transmit to their children their experience, their
ideas ; and this heritage, in passing from generation to gene-
ration, always increased in its progress from the preceding
generation, becomes at length a treasure which the memory
is no longer capable of preserving. This accumulation upon
accumulation of facts gave birth to writing and then again to
printing, the province of both which is, to render language
perceptible by the eye in all places and at all times.

CAUCASIAN VARIETY.

Facial angle from eighty-six to ninety degrees. Face oval;
forehead prominent ; eyes horizontal ; the balls but slightly
projecting ; colour of the skin white or at least whitish ; hair
varying from black to a shade nearly white. This variety
has formed all the most civilized people of the earth. It oc-
cupies Europe (with the exception of the polar regions),
western Asia and the northern part of Africa. It is believed
to have had its origin in the groups of the Caucasus. Three
branches.

THE GERMANIC-INDO-PELA8GIAN BRANCH.

Germans.

Facial angle about ninety degrees. The vertex rounded ;
face nobly oval ; forehead open ; nose straight or nearly so ;
eyebrows more or less arched, reigning over large eyes. Lips
agreeably coloured and never too thick. Ears small and
lying close to the head. Beard well furnished. Hair

22 VARIETIES OF THE HUMAN RACE.

smooth, generally fine, often curly, varying from black to
nearly white. [Western part of Europe.]

Pelasgians.

Oval of the face a little more elongated than in the pre-
ceding. Nose perfectly straight and extending from the
forehead without any depression to the height of the eyes,
which are exceedingly large. Hair fine, brown or chestnut,
rarely light, remarkable for its excessive length. Complexion
white, but a little embrowned. Stature about five feet and
ten inches. [Eastern and meridional parts of Europe.]

Hindoos.

Complexion of a deep yellow, inclining to bronze. Nose
somewhat agreeably rounded, without ever being flat ; lips
thin ; eyes round, and tolerably large, with the iris black ;
hair long, flat and always very black and glossy ; beard not
well furnished ; disposition mild, simple, docile, industrious,
neither lethargic nor active ; sobriety remarkable. Agricul-
tural or sedentary, they leave the commerce of their rich
country to Europeans or to Arabs.

THE ARABIAN BRANCH.

Face oval, and much elongated at the two extremities ;
chin pointed ; forehead large and prolonged to an elevated
summit. This character of the head is perhaps the cause of
that religious enthusiasm which prevails among the people
of this branch. Nose well defined, thin, pointed and aqui-
line ; eyes black, large, and surmounted with arched and thick
eyebrows ; lips thin ; mouth agreeable ; hair black, very long,
never curling ; skin soft, fine, smooth and tawny — often deeply
so. The Arabs have quick intellect, an aptitude for science,
cunning and the virtue of hospitality. On the other hand
they are avaricious and great robbers. Their language is
emphatic and full of poetic imagery.

THE SCYTHIAN BRANCH.

Upper part of the face excessively wide and flattened ;
eyes very small, deep set, so far apart that there is often more
than the breadth of the hand between them, and surmounted
by large rough eyebrows; nose very broad and flat; eyeballs
excessively prominent ; chin pointed ; beard tolerably furn-

VARIETIES OF THE HUMAN RACE. 23

ished, especially about the lip, and brown approaching to red ;
Hair flat, usually black ; body robust and muscular ; legs
short ; knees turning outwards ; feet inwards. Wanderers,
indomitable hunters, shepherds, but never agriculturists.
Having no local attachments, they emigrate in innumerable
bands, and, at different epochs, spread themselves like a flood
to the north, south or west.

MONGOLIAN VARIETY.

Face flat; forehead square and oblique; eyeballs project-
ing ; eyes narrow and oblique ; chin slightly projecting ;
beard thin; hair straight and black ; skin more or less yel-
low or olive ; language monosyllabic. [Asia beyond the
Ganges.]

Chinese.

Face round and widened in the middle ; cheek bones pro-
jecting ; eyes almond shape when open, with the external
angle very high ; lids large and nearly destitute of lashes ;
brows very thin and black; nose well separated from the
forehead by a deep depression, rounded, slightly flattened,
with the nostrils somewhat expanded ; mouth large, with
vertical teeth ; lips thick and of a livid red ; chin small and
unfurnished with beard; hair smooth, flat, never curling, of
moderate length, thick and always black; skin oily, and
sometimes of a deep brown. Mild, civil, flatterers, cringing,
brokers and greedy of gain. They are essentially rice eaters.

Malays.

Complexion maroon colour, approaching to brick-red or
yellow; eyes less elevated towards the temples; eye-balls
less projecting than among the Chinese. [The coast of Indo-
China, all the Asiatic Archipelago and the ocean as far as
Madagascar.]

Hyperborean Regions of the two Continents.

Head round and of huge dimensions ; face wide, short and
flat in front ; nose flattened ; eye-lids drawn up towards the
temples; mouth large; teeth vertical; hair smooth, black,
naturally greasy and hard; beard thin; ordinary height
about five feet; skin tawny and even entirely black, ac-

24 VARIETIES OF THE HUMAN RACE.

cording to the countries in which they dwell. They have
domesticated the reindeer as well as the dog. They live
upon the flesh of these animals, upon the blubber of whales,
and upon a kind of bread made of bones, lichens and the
pounded bark of the birch tree.

ETHIOPIAN VARIETY.

Skull compressed ; nose flattened ; muzzle projecting ;
facial angle acute ; lips thick ; hair more or less frizzled ;
skin more or less black.

Negroes.

Hair woolly ; skull compressed, and forehead depressed ;
nose flat ; incisive teeth projecting ; skin black. [Africa
from the Senegal and the Niger to beyond the southern tro-
pic.]

^ »•'»,'»•" :.% A* i ..'-" .'''•- : ,-*»•_"'".- V- 1*/ • i '-'-v

Negroes of Mozambique.

Hair woolly; skin black; skull less compressed than among
the Ethiopians; forehead almost as projecting as among Eu-
ropeans; incisive teeth vertical; nose but little flattened.
[Eastern side of Africa upon the Indian ocean.]

Papons.

Hair very thick, and moderately woolly ; forehead high ;
nose a little flattened; face tolerably regular. [Coast of New
Guinea.]

•fllfourous.

Hair smooth and black ; beard thin ; skin black ; limbs
slender, and of a length disproportioned to the body ; nose
much widened ; forehead depressed and compressed. [Inte-
rior of New Guinea and of New Holland.]

Hottentots.

Facial angle seventy-five degrees ; hair black or brownish,
very short and woolly ; teeth oblique and bent ; the olecra-
nean cavity of the shoulder having a hole in it ; skin more
or less yellow, never black; nose immoderately large ; top
of the head flattened; and of a disgusting filthiness. Unso-
cial, taciturn and fearful, they live in caverns, and hardly
know the use of fire.

VARIETIES OF THE HUMAN RACE. 25

..•V '

PEOPLE OF AMERICA WHO CANNOT BE REFERRED TO ANY VARIETY.

North Americans.

Head elongated ; nose long, projecting and very aquiline ;
forehead compressed and flattened ; complexion a copper red
in all climates ; hair black ; beard thin ; moral character en-
ergetic. [All North America ; all the plains and declivities
of the Cordilleras from Chili to Cumana and the Caribbean
Archipelago, inclusively.]

South Americans.

Head generally spherical ; forehead wide but depressed, as
among the Mongolians ; eyebrows elevated towards the tem-
ples; eye-balls projecting; nose flattened and depressed at
the root ; hair long, coarse and straight ; skin neither yellow,
nor black, nor copper ; lips very thick ; intellect generally
obtuse ; moral character altogether brutal.

26

CLASSIFICATION.

GENERAL distribution of the Animal Kingdom into Four
Great Divisions.

First Great Division. Animalia Vertebrata — Vertebrated

Animals.

The interior skeleton forming the solid frame-work of the
body. Nervous system composed, besides the ganglions and
the nerves, of a brain and a spinal marrow situated above the
digestive tube and inclosed in the cavity of the cranium and
the vertebral canal. Blood red ; heart muscular, with at
least two cavities. Respiration generally aerial and pulmo-
nary ; sometimes aquatic, being effected by means of bran-
chiae. Mouth with two jaws placed one above or at least
before the other. Organs of sense to the number of five, and
distinct ; four are lodged in the cavities of the head. Form
of the body symmetrical; never more than two pairs of
limbs.

Subdivision of the Vertebrata into Four Classes.

FIRST CLASS. MAMMALIA.

Viviparous; having mammas and hair; blood warm; cir-
culation double and complete; heart with four cavities; res-
piration pulmonary, and simple.

SECOND CLASS. BIRDS.

Oviparous ; having feathers ; blood warm ; circulation
double and complete ; heart with four cavities ; respiration
pulmonary, and double.

THIRD CLASS. REPTILES.

Oviparous; skin naked or furnished with scales; blood

CLASSIFICATION. 27

cold; circulation double and incomplete; heart with three
cavities ; respiration pulmonary, and simple.

FOURTH CLASS. FISH.

Oviparous; skin naked or furnished with scales; blood
cold ; circulation double and complete ; heart with two cavi-
ties ; respiration aquatic, by branchise.

Second Great Division. Animalia Mollusca — Molluscous or

Soft Animals.

Neither interior nor exterior skeleton ; body enveloped in
a soft and contractile skin to which the muscles are attached.
This skin, in many species, encrusts itself with stony matter
forming a kind of plate denominated shell. Nervous system
composed of many scattered masses, joined by nervous threads,
the chief of which is placed upon the oesophagus, and have
the name of brain. No special organ for smell, very seldom
for hearing, and often none for sight. Circulation complete;
blood white ; generally a bluish white. Respiration effected
sometimes in a kind of pulmonary cavities ; more often by
branchise. Seldom members for locomotion.

Division of Mollusca into Three Classes.

FIRST CLASS. CEPHALOPODA.

Head very distinct, surmounted with fleshy arms, flexible
in every direction, and serving either for progress or for the
seizure of an object; the rest of the body inclosed in a
rounded sack. Circulation double; respiration by branchiae.

SECOND CLASS. GASTEROPODA.

A fleshy disk, upon which they crawl, is placed under the
abdomen. Head more or less distinct, provided with one or
more pairs of tentacula or feelers ; respiration pulmonary or
branchial.

THIRD CLASS. ACEPHALA.

No distinct head nor feelers ; mouth concealed with the
body in a mantle which is divided into two lobes.

28 CLASSIFICATION.

Third Great Division. Animalia Articulata — Articulated

Animals.

The interior skeleton replaced by an external one formed
of a skin more or less modified in its nature and consistence,
and composed of a series of rings, movable one upon another.
Nervous system consisting in two long cords extending through
the length of the abdomen, and dilated at certain distances into
knots or ganglions. The first of the knots placed above the
cesphagus, and called brain, communicates by threads, which
form a collar to the oesophagus, with those placed beneath the
abdomen; blood white except in the Annulata. There is a
rapid decline in the circulation from the first animals of this
division to the last, where we may say indeed that it does not
exist or is performed by simple imbibition. At least three
pairs of limbs when they exist at all.

FIRST CLASS. ANNULATA.

Blood red ; circulation complete ; body covered with a soft
skin, and divided into numerous rings ; respiration by bran-
chiae ; no articulated limbs ; no metamorphoses.

SECOND CLASS, CRUSTACEA.

Colourless blood contained in two kinds of vessels ; skin
encrusted with carbonate and phosphate of lime ; head con-
founded with the thorax ; four attennae or feelers ; two com-
pound eyes ; foot jaws ; always at least six articulated feet ;
respiration by branchiae ; no metamorphoses.

THIRD CLASS. ARACHNIDES.

Blood colourless ; two systems of vessels in those which
respire by lungs ; circulation as in insects in all which res-
pire by tracheae; head confounded with the thorax; eyes
simple ; more than three pairs of limbs ; no metamorphoses.

FOURTH CLASS. INSECTS.

Blood colourless ; distributing itself to the different parts
of the body by simple imbibition; body presenting three
parts — head, thorax and abdomen ; generally three pairs of
limbs ; respiration by tracheae ; metamorphoses more or less
complete.

CLASSIFICATION. 29

Fourth Great Division. Animalia Radiata — Radiated Ani-
mals or Zoophytes.

A symmetry in the disposition of the organs of motion and
of the senses, which are placed in rays around a centre ; op-
posite faces of the body similar ; no distinct nervous system,
nor organs of sense; respiratory organs situated upon the
surface of the body ; circulation hardly discoverable in the
greater number ; a sac without issue for intestines.

Division of Zoophytes into Four Classes.

FIRST CLASS. ECHINODERMATA.

Body invested with a well formed skin ; having a sort of
skeleton armed with points or movable spines ; an internal
cavity and a sort of vascular system, with distinct organs of
respiration.

SECOND CLASS. ENTOZOA OR INTESTINAL WORMS.

Body in general elongated ; no tracheae, branchiae nor other
respiratory organ ; no trace of true circulation; some vestiges
of nerves.

THIRD CLASS. POLYPI.

A small gelatinous body, often without other organ than a
cavity ; mouth surrounded with tentaculse ; propagation of
new individuals by shoots and eggs.

FOURTH CLASS. INFUSORIA.

Little microscopic beings swarming in stagnant waters ;
chiefly gelatinous, -and without viscera.

30

MAMMALIA.

ORDER II. QUADRUMANA.*

Resemblance to Man greater than in any other animals;
hands to the inferior as well as to the superior extremities ;
the three kinds of teeth, incisive, canine and molar; eyes
directed to the front, or at least obliquely ; mammae upon the
breast; each hemisphere of the brain composed of three
lobes, of which the posterior covers the cerebellum ; intestines
like those of man ; climbing, fructivorous animals. In con-
sequence of this family having the toes of the hind feet free
and opposable to the others, they climb trees with the greatest
facility, while it is only with pain and difficulty they can
stand or walk upright ; their foot then resting on its outward
edge only, and their narrow pelvis being unfavourable to an
equilibrium. Three families.

FAMILY I. SIMIA, LIN. MONKEYS PROPER.

Four vertical incisive teeth in each jaw ; molars with blunt
tubercles ; the nails of the fingers flattened, and all of the
same form, with the exception of the genus Ouistitis ; size
diminutive or middling ; skull almost always rounded ; muz-
zle somewhat prolonged ; neck short ; body slender ; limbs
slim and long ; hair close, long and silky ; the four straight
incisors in each jaw, and the flat nails on all the extremities,
are characteristics which approximate the monkeys more
nearly to man than the subsequent families. Two tribes.

TRIBE I. MONKEYS OF THE OLD CONTINENT.

Five molar teeth on each side and on each jaw ; nostrils
open beneath the nose, and separated by a narrow partition ;

* Having four hands.

MAMMALIA. 31

almost always a callus on the seat and cheek pouches; tail
never prehensile (clinging). Six remarkable genera.

GENUS I. PITHECUS, Geoff. Ourangs.

No tail, nor callosities, nor cheek-pouches. Of all animals
the ourang is considered as approaching most nearly to man
in the form of his head, height of forehead and volume of
brain ; but many exaggerated descriptions of this resemblance
have arisen, no doubt, from the fact that young individuals
only were seen. There is every reason to believe that with
age the likeness decreases as the muzzle becomes more pro-
minent. The body of the Ourang-Outang is covered with
coarse red hair, the face bluish, and the hinder thumbs very
short compared with the toes. [Cochin-China, Malacca, Bor-
neo.]

GENUS II. HILOBATES, Illig. Gibbons.

A callus on the seat ; arms very long ; neither tail nor
cheek pouches. [The Indies and their Archipelago.]

GENUS III. CERCOPITHECUS, Erxl. Monkeys Proper.

Tail long; limbs elongated ; form slender; head rounded;
muzzle moderately projecting; large cheek-pouches; callosi-
ties ; size middling. The length of the hinder limbs gives
these animals great facility in leaping. They abound in Af-
rica, live in troops, and do much damage to gardens and fields
under cultivation. They are easily tamed.

GENUS IV. SEMNOPITHECUS.

Muzzle as in the Gibbons ; length of the limbs dispropor-
tionate ; tail very long ; callosities ; no cheek pouches ; the
larynx furnished with a sac. They differ from the long
tailed Monkeys by having an additional small tubercle on
the last of the inferior molars. [Eastern part of Asia.]

GENUS V. INUUS, Cuv. Magots.

Cheek pouches ; callosities ; a simple tubercle supplying
the place of tail ; completely covered with a light brown hair.
" Of all Monkeys it is the one that suffers the least from our
climate," says Cuvier. He is originally from Barbary, but
is said to have become naturalized in the most inaccessible
parts of the rock of Gibraltar.

32 MAMMALIA.

• •* '.'

GENUS VI. CYNOCEPHALUS.*

Teeth very strong ; false cheeks ; callosities ; muzzle elon-
gated, and, as it were, cut off at the end where the nostrils
are pierced, which causes it to resemble that of the Dog ;
large size ; brutal and ferocious disposition. Our engraving
represents the dog-faced Baboon of Pennant, or Moco-Ape of
Buffon. A bluish ash colour ; hairs of the ruff, and especially
those of the sides of the head, very long ; face flesh coloured ;
of a horribly vicious instinct. [Arabia and Ethiopia.]

TRIBE II. MONKEYS OF THE NEW CONTINENT.

Six molar teeth on each side, and in each jaw ; no callosi-
ties nor false cheeks ; nostrils in the side of the nose ; tail
long, frequently prehensile — that is, the extremity is capable
of seizing a body with much force by twining round it. Two
sections.

Section /. CebitSj Erxl Sapqjous.
The tail prehensile.

GENUS MYCETES, Illig. Howling Monkey.

Head pyramidal ; face oblique ; lower jaw extremely large ;
the hyoid bone has a swelling or bony drum, which com-
municates with the larynx, and gives to the voice of these
animals an enormous volume and frightful sound.

Section II. Pithecia, Desm., Illig. Sakis.
Tail not prehensile.

FAMILY II. OUISTITIS.

Incisive teeth to the number of four in each jaw, but oblique
and bent, especially in the upper jaw ; twenty molar teeth ;
no callosities nor cheek pouches ; tail bushy and not pre-
hensile ; nails compressed, crooked and sharp like claws ;
thumbs of the forehands movable, but placed with difficulty
in opposition to the fingers, from which, indeed, they are so
slightly separated that it is with hesitation we assign to them
the name of Quadrumana. They are pretty little creatures,
of agreeable forms and easily tamed. [South America.]

* Dog-headed.

MAMMALIA. 33

FAMILY III. LEMUR, LIN. MAKIS.

The incisive teeth in greater number, or otherwise directed,
than among the Monkeys ; fore-thumbs easily opposed to the
fingers ; nails flat, except those of the first or two first hind
fingers, where they are pointed and raised ; nostrils in the
end of the snout and winding ; their fur is woolly, and their
teeth begin to exhibit sharp tubercles catching in each other
as in the Insectivora. The Lemur, or Maki, properly so
called, is a very active animal, and, from its pointed head, is
sometimes called the fox-nosed Monkey. This species is very
numerous, and only met with in the island of Madagascar.

ORDER III. CARNARIA.*

Unguiculated animals, with thumbs not opposable, having
the three kinds of teeth, and being born in the ordinary man-
ner ; jaws usually short, with the articulation transversely
directed, and hinge-like, so as to admit of no lateral move-
ment ; the muscles which move these parts are extremely
vigorous ; shape, acuteness and number of the teeth accord-
ing to the aliment, which is composed more or less exclu-
sively of prey ; length of the intestines inconsiderable, and
in relation also with the instinct, whether more or less san-
guinary, of these animals ; sense of smell more fully deve-
loped than any other sense. A numerous order, including
many curious animals ; consists of three families, of which
Plate 7 presents only the two first.

. FAMILY I. CHEIROPTERA.

The character of this family is distinguished by a kind of
wings formed by a fold of the skin, which commences at the
sides of the neck and extends between the fore feet and toes,
enabling them to fly, which, to give the necessary rotation of
the arm, requires them to be furnished with complete clavi-

* Flesh-eating.

34 MAMMALIA.

cles and large scapulae; four canini; incisors varying in
number ; pectoral mammse. Four tribes.

TRIBE I. VESPERTILIO, LIN. BATS.

Fingers of the anterior limbs excessively long, and forming,
with the membranes which they sustain, wings as well de-
veloped as in Birds ; pectoral muscles very thick ; thumb
short and armed with a crooked nail, which these animals
use in suspending themselves or in creeping ; hind feet weak
and divided into five equal fingers, armed with trenchant
claws ; eyes very small ; touch very delicate, having its seat
in the skin of the ears and the wings ; nocturnal animals,
passing the winter in lethargy.

Group I. Fructivorous Bats.
GENUS PLEROPUS, Briss.

Molar teeth with flat crowns ; the second finger before
armed with a nail like the thumb.

Group II. True or Insectivorous Bats.

Molar teeth studded with conical points, fitting into each
other so as to break the horny shells of insects, and to pre-
vent the escape of so small a prey ; no nail on the second
finger. Four remarkable kinds.

GENUS I. VESPERTILIO, Geoff, and Cuv.

Ears separated and of moderate size ; nose without appen-
dage ; tail comprised in the membrane. Common Bat; Sero-
tine; Pipistrell.

GENUS II. MEGADERMA, Geoff. Oreillard.

Ears larger than the head, and joined to each other.

GENUS III. RHINOLOPHUS, Geoff, and Cuv.

Nose furnished with membranes and with crests, present-
ing the rude figure of a horse shoe.

GENUS IV- PHYLLOSTOMA, Geoff, and Cuv.

Membrane in the form of a leaf folded up upon the end of
the nose ; tongue extensible, terminated by papillae, which
appear to form an organ of suction. Vampire ; Javelin Bat.

MAMMALIA. 35

TRIBE II. GALEOPITHECUS.

Fingers of the anterior limbs all furnished with trenchant
claws, and not longer than those of the posterior limbs ; so
that the lateral membrane performs only the office of a spe-
cies of parachute ; live upon trees, where they leap from
branch to branch; insectivorous. [Indian Archipelago.]

FAMILY II. INSECTIVORA.

No wings nor parachute, but clavicles like the first family.
Molar teeth studded with little conical points, in accordance
with their insectivorous habits ; some have long incisors in
front; others incisors and canini shorter than the molars;
mammae placed under the abdomen; size small; life noc-
turnal; habitation, during the day, in holes and burrows.
In cold climates many of them pass the winter in a torpid
state.

GENUS I. ERiNACEUS,*Lin. Hedgehog.

Spines instead of hairs ; the skin of the back is furnished
with' such muscles, that the animal, by inclining the head
and feet towards the abdomen, can shut itself up as in a
purse, and present his spines on all sides to an enemy ; ha-
bitation in the woods ; life nocturnal.

GENUS II. SOREX, Lin. Shrew.

Body small, covered with hair; muzzle sharply pointed ;
ears short and rounded; upon each flank a band of stiff setse,
from which issues an odorous humour ; habitation in holes
excavated in the earth ; life nocturnal.

GENUS III. TALPA. Mole.

Type of digging, subterranean animals; body thick and
short; muzzle elongated and terminated 1»\ a movable snout,
serving to pierce the earth ; anterior limbs very short, very
strong, wide, with united fingers to the number of five, and
armed with trenchant claws proper for digging. Hinder feet
weak, and with five fingers; tail rather short; eye small and
concealed by hair ; no external ear.

/jPsSpBB

pElTlfttlTI

. '• . OSP -v

36 MAMMALIA.

FAMILY III. CARNIVORA.

Four thick and long canine teeth ; six incisives in each jaw,
the root of the second of the lower ones being placed a little
more inwards than the others ; the molars are entirely tren-
chant or have blunted tuberculous parts, but never bristled
with conical points. The anterior molars are the most tren-
chant, they are called false molars] next comes a molar larger
than the others and which has generally a tuberculous heel
more or less wide, it is called carnivorous; then follow one or
two small teeth perfectly flat, and denominated tuberculous.
These animals are more or less carnivorous in proportion to
the quantity of the tuberculous surfaces, the acuteness of the
false molars and the length of the canine. Those genera
having the fewest false molars and shortest jaws are best
adapted for biting ; upon these differences they are most sa-
tisfactorily established. Three tribes.

TRIBE I. PLANTIGRADA.

Animals walking upon the entire sole of the foot, and
having no hair upon this part; five fingers on all the feet.
In the slowness of their movements and in their nocturnal
habits they resemble the Insectivora, and, like them, want
the csecum. The greater number of those who inhabit cold
countries pass the winter in a torpid state. Three remark-
able genera.

GENUS I. URSUS, Lin. Bear.

A variable number of very small false molars behind the
carnivorous teeth ; three large molars on each side of each jaw,
entirely tuberculous; canines rounded and very large; body
stout; limbs thick; tail very short. These Mammalia possess
great prudence, and are less formidable than is ordinarily sup-
posed. Nearly fructivorous, or at least omnivorous, by their
dental system, they prefer fruits to flesh; and it is only when
pressed by famine, that they attack other animals. They are
found in all regions of the globe; their fur and their fat cause
them to be actively pursued ; the chase, however, is not without
danger, on account of their obstinate courage and their great
strength. There are countries, notwithstanding, where the
people make no scruple of attacking them, without other

MAMMALIA. 37

weapon than a stake which they endeavour to force into the
stomach, profiting by the moment when they rear upon their
hind legs the better to wrestle with their enemy, and to stifle
him in their embrace, according to their usual fashion. Their
flesh is much esteemed, and their paws are considered a deli-
cacy. U. Arctos ; U. Americanus ; U. Labiatus ; U. Mari-
timus.

GENUS II. PROCYON, Storr. Racoon.

Canine teeth straight, three false molars pointed; three
tuberculous molars behind, on each side. Tail, long, re-
sembles the Bear's. Inhabit North America and South
America.

GENUS III. MELES, Storr. Badger.

These sad and timid animals inhabit the temperate regions
of Europe and of Asia, and dig for themselves, by means of
their claws, winding tunnels beneath the earth, which they
furnish with dry grass. They come out only at night in
search of their food, which consists of rabbits, field mice and
lizards. When pressed by hunger they content themselves
with roots and fruits. Only one species is known, which is
actively pursued for its fur which furnishes a stiff hair suit-
able for shaving brushes. When attacked, it throws itself
upon its back, and presents to its enemy its four feet, com-
bating with desperate resolution, and seldom dies unrevenged.
Have a small tooth behind the canine followed by two pointed
molars ; then comes in the upper jaw a carnivorous tooth behind ,
which is a large square tuberculous one. Tail short; claws
of forefeet long, and a peculiar sac under the tail exuding a
fetid humour. Skin of its abdomen at least as thick as that
of its back.

S *-" • •* " V "' ' : '

TRIBE II. DIGITIGRADA.

Animals walking upon the extremity of the toes, lifting the
tarsus. Three groups, of which Plate 9 includes only the
two first.

Group I.

Only one tuberculous tooth behind the upper carnivorous ;
body very long ; limbs short, permitting them to pass through
the narrowest openings ; they have hence been called vermi-

38 MAMMALIA.

.

form; small and weak, they are nevertheless very cruel, and
live on blood ; they do not become torpid in winter. Four
remarkable genera.

GENUS I. PUTORIUS, Cuv. Pole-Cat.

Head rounded ; muzzle short and extending beyond the
mouth ; ears round and much wider than high ; tongue co-
vered with pimples ; as many as five toes on all the feet, and
united in three fourths of their length by a loose membrane ;
smell detestable ; life nocturnal and solitary ; disposition
more cruel than in any other kind

The common Pole-cat is brown, approaching to black; the
sides of a reddish yellow ; fifteen or eighteen inches long,
without counting the tail which is six ; it is the terror of hen-
roosts and warrens ; it will crush the heads of all the fowls
in a poultry yard, and transport them one by one to its den.
If, as often happens, it cannot carry them off entire, on ac-
count of the narrowness of the hole through which it entered,
it devours the brains and carries oif the heads.

GENUS II. MEPHITIS, Cuv. Skunk.

Two false molars above, three below, the superior tuber-
culous one very large ; anterior nails long and fitted for dig-
ging; remarkable for their fetid exhalations. [America and
Java.]

GENUS III. MUSTELA. Marten.

Great resemblance to the Pole-cat ; muzzle, however, more
elongated ; has an additional false molar above and below ;
tongue covered with soft pimples. [Both continents.]

GENUS IV. LUTRA. Otter.

Head large and compressed ; body slim ; tongue demi-
asperate ; on all the feet toes to the number of five, armed
with short claws, united throughout their whole length by a
broad and strong membrane, which, together with the ex-
treme shortness of their limbs, and their horizontally flat-
tened tail, gives them facility in swimming ; fur very thick
and composed of two sorts of hair, one silky, long, glossy and
thicker at the point than at the base, the other woolly, shorter
and more abundant. They live on fish.

MAMMALIA. 39

• <^ • "*'
Group II.

Two flat tuberculous teeth behind the superior carnivo-
rous tooth, which is itself furnished with a large heel. They
are carnivorous, but do not exhibit a courage proportioned to
their size and strength; they frequently feed on carrion.
Two genera.

GENUS I. CANUS, Lin. Dog.

Three false molars above, four below ; two tuberculous
teeth behind each of the carnivorous ; the first upper tuber-
culous tooth very large ; a small tubercle upon the upper
carnivorous ; a very large one upon the under ; tongue soft ;
five toes to the fore and four to the hind foot ; claws for dig-
ging; sight excellent; hearing acute ; smell of an astonishing
delicacy ; diet half vegetable, half animal ; a depraved taste
for carrion ; size middling ; proportions of the body betoken-
ing strength and agility. Two subdivisions.

Subdivision I. Dog properly so called.

Head oblong, covered with hairs shorter than those of the rest
of the body ; tail little tufted ; pupil of the eye round during
the day; upper incisives presenting three festoons. The
different races of the domestic Dog are useful allies to Man,
faithful friends, who alone, of all other animals, have fol-
lowed him throughout the world. Some naturalists suppose
the Dog to be a Wolf or domesticated Jackal.

Subdivision II. Fox.

Head broader ; muzzle more pointed ; upper incisors
straight; tail longer and more tufted than in Dogs; fissure of
the pupil vertical during the day ; odour fetid.

GENUS II. VIVERRA. Civet.

Three false molars above, four below, the anterior of which
sometimes fall out ; two pretty large tuberculous teeth above,
only one below ; tongue bristled with sharp and rough pa-
pillae; claws more or less retractile. They often emit an
agreeable perfume. Three remarkable subdivisions.

SUBGENUS I. VIVERRA, Cuv. Civets, properly so called.

A deep pouch divided into two sacs, filled with a pom-
made of a strong musky smell ; pupil of the eye round during,
the day ; claws semi-retractile.

40 MAMMALIA.

t

SUBGENUS II. GENETTA, Cuv. Genets.

Odoriferous pouch reduced to a slight depression formed
by the projection of the glands, and without any sensible ex-
cretion ; claws retractile.

SUBGENUS III. MANGUSTA, Cuv. Mangouste.

Pouch voluminous, simple and containing no odorous mat-
ter ; claws semi-retractile. The Egyptian Mangouste is cele-
brated under the title of Ichneumon. It has a long tail ter-
minated with a black tuft. It is larger than our Cat and as
slender as a Marten. By the Europeans, at Cairo, it is called
Pharaoh's rat, but by the natives nemus. There is no foun-
dation for the classical tradition respecting its practice of
jumping down the throat of the Crocodile. It devours its
eggs, however, with avidity.

Group III.

No small teeth behind the carnivorous tooth of the lower
jaw ; carnivorous instinct more fully developed than in all the
other Carnaria. Two genera.

• • . ..,,.•" -v ;•••'.'• "..,./

GENUS I. HYJENA, Storr.

Three false molars above, four below, remarkably large,
capable of breaking the bones of the strongest prey ; tongue
rough ; four toes on all the feet, armed with huge trenchant
claws; sense of smell delicate; tail short and pendent; a
deep glandular pouch secreting a matter of disagreeable
odour ; fur rough, sparse, composed of long hair, forming a
crest upon the back ; gait peculiar, on account of the body
being lower behind than before ; life nocturnal ; habitation in
caverns ; a depraved appetite for dead bodies, which it will
seek even in the grave.

GENUS TI. FELIS, Lin. Cat.

Muzzle short and round ; jaws possessing the greatest
power known on account of their shortness, and the muscular
masses destined to move them ; only one small- tuberculous
tooth behind the upper carnivorous, without any correspond-
ing one below ; two false molars above and below ; enormous
canine teeth adjoining the incisives, and more than twice
their length ; five toes before and four behind, all armed with
retractile claws, which, being raised perpendicularly, and

MAMMALIA. 41

entirely concealed among the toes while in repose, by means
of elastic ligaments, lose neither their point nor edge ; sense
of smell less acute than among the Dogs ; tongue hard and
bristled with horny papillae, serving to rasp the soft portions
of their prey ; hearing well developed ; sight excellent ; open-
ing of the pupil round or vertical according to the mode of
life. They are formidable animals, capable of tearing to
pieces, with the greatest facility, the most powerful prey.
Lion, Tiger, Panther, Cougar, Lynx, Domestic Cat, &c.

TRIBE III. AMPHIBIA.

Feet so short and so enveloped in skin that they only serve
for creeping when upon land, but form excellent oars in the
water ; body much elongated ; spine very movable, and pro-
vided with muscles which strongly flex it; five toes on all
the feet ; no clavicles nor bony rudiments suspended in the
flesh ; habitation most generally in the sea. Two genera.

GENUS I. PHOCA. Seal.

Four or six incisors above ; four or two below ; pointed
canines in both jaws ; grinders twenty to twenty-four, tren-
chant and conical, without any tuberculous portion ; five
toes to all the feet ; those on the fore feet decreasing from the
large to the little toe, while on the hind feet the large and
little toe are longest. There are two divisions — seals without
external ears and seals with external ears', those without have
pointed incisors ; all the toes endowed with a certain motion r
and terminated by pointed claws placed upon the edge of the
membrane which unites them. Those with external ears
have the four upper incisors smaller, but with a double cut-
ting edge ; toes of the anterior limbs almost immovable ; all
the claws flat and thin.

GENUS II. TRICHECUS, Lin. Morse.

Under jaw without incisors or canines ; upper jaw furnished
with two long canines, like tusks, between which are two
incisors ; four cylindrical molars on each side and in each
jaw; dental system arranged rather for the breaking of
shells than for cutting soft substances or bruising vegetables.

42 MAMMALIA.

ORDER IV. MARSUPIALIA.*

Premature production of their young, which, incapable of
movement and possessing hardly the germs of limbs, attach
themselves to the mammae of the mother, there to perfect
their development. The skin of the abdomen generally
disposed in the form of a pouch about the mammae, and sup-
ported by two articulated bones in the pelvis, called marsu-
pial bones. One striking feature in this order is, that, although
there is great similarity in one species to another, yet they vary
very much in the teeth, digestive organs and feet. They
appear to be the connecting link from the Carnaria to the
Rodentia; and some animals having the marsupial bones,
but entirely without teeth, have been placed with the Eden-
tata. Six tribes.

TRIBE I. DIDELPHIS, LIN. OPOSSUM.

Long canines and small incisors in both jaws. One re-
markable genus, the Opossums, have fifty teeth ; the posterior
thumbs long and easily opposable, a circumstance which has
caused them to be termed Pedimana ; tail prehensile and in
part naked; fetid, nocturnal animals, with a slow gait; ha-
bitation upon trees. [America alone.]

TRIBE II. PHALANGISTA, Cuv. PHALANGERS.

Upper canines long and pointed ; the inferior almost invi-
sible ; thumb large ; the two toes united as far as the first
phalanx. There are two remarkable genera. The Phalanger
proper has a prehensile tail, often in a great measure scaly ;
diet insectivorous and fructivorous ; habitation upon trees.
[The Moluccas.] The Flying Phalanger has an extension
of the skin of the sides, forming a parachute; habitation
upon trees. [New Holland.]

TRIBE III. HYPSIPRYMNUS, ILLIG. POTOROOS.

No posterior thumb nor inferior canines ; toes united as in
the Phalangers.

* Pouched.

MAMMALIA. 43

TRIBE IV. MACROPUS, SHAW. KANGAROO.

No canines ; legs of unequal height, the hinder ones the
longest ; tail short, muscular and serving as an organ of sup-
port and locomotion.

TRIBE V. KOALA, Cuv.

Two long incisives in the under jaw ; in the upper jaw two
long incisives in the middle, small ones upon the sides, and
two small canines. No tail.

TRIBE VI. PHASCOLOMES. POUCHED RATS.

True Rodentia in the teeth and intestines ; no tail ; form
clumsy ; body as if crushed ; head large and flat ; legs short ;
claws long and fit for digging ; graminivorous.

ORDER V. RODENTIA.

In each jaw two large incisors, increasing during life, and
of prismatic form; the enamel being concentrated to the front.
No canines; molars with flat crowns, whose enamelled emi-
nences are always transverse. Under jaw articulated by a
longitudinal condyle, so as to have no horizontal movement
except from behind to before, and vice-versa, as is suitable
for the action of gnawing. Carriage behind, in general, higher
than before, making these animals leapers ; intestines very
long ; stomach simple or little divided ; caecum very volumi-
nous ; brain nearly smooth, and without convolutions ; eyes
directed sideways, large in the nocturnal species, and dimi-
nishing as the habit is more subterranean ; forearms have but
little power of rotation, and the two bones are often united.
Six remarkable genera.

GENUS I. SCIURTJS, Lin. Squirrel.

Inferior incisors strongly compressed ; tail long and well
furnished with hair ; four toes before and five behind ; head
broad ; eyes projecting and lively ; clavicles complete. Two
subgenera.

44 MAMMALIA.

SCIURUS, Cuv. Squirrel proper.

Hairs of the tail arranged upon the sides in the manner
of a large feather ; diet fructivorous ; habitation upon trees.
[Both continents.]

PTEROMYS. Flying Squirrel.

Feet with long bony appendages sustaining a lateral fold
of the skin.

GENUS II. Mus, Lin. Rat.

Linnaeus united under one head all the Rodentia provided
with clavicles which he could not distinguish by some exte-
rior mark. Six remarkable subgenera.

ARCTOMYS, Gm. Marmot.

Molars bristled, with conical joints, ten above, eight below ;
limbs short, with very strong claws ; tail rudimental ; four
fingers, and one tubercle, supplying the place of the thumb,
upon the fore-limbs; five behind. They live in societies, dig
burrows and form within them beds of grass, upon which
they pass the winter in torpor. Diet both insectivorous and
fructivorous. From this F. Cuvier has separated those Mar-
mots that have cheek-pouches. The Prairie Dog belongs to
this subgenus.

Mus, Cuv. Rat proper.

Six molars in each jaw ; four fingers and a vestige of a
thumb before, five behind. Tail long and scaly. Diet om-
nivorous ; voracious. .^

MYOXUS, Gm. Dormice.

Eight molars traversed by furrows in each jaw ; inferior
incisors pointed ; tail very long, soft, and even tufted ; habita-
tion upon trees, where they live upon fruits ; become torpid
in winter.

CRICETUS, Cuv. Hamsters.

Six simple molars in each jaw ; five toes on all the feet ;
cheek-pouches; stomach with. double cavity; eyes large; tail
hairy, short and soft ; habitation in furrows of six or seven
feet deep, dug by means of their claws, and whither they
transport, in their cheek-pouches, considerable quantities of
grain.

MAMMALIA. 45

ARVICOLA, Lacep. CAMPAGNOLS. Water and Field Rats.

Three molars throughout, but without roots, and formed
each of triangular prisms placed on two alternate lines. Tail
moderately long and soft ; e.ars pretty large.

DIPUS, Gm. Jerboas.

Posterior extremities of a disproportionate length ; the me-
tatarsus of the three middle toes formed of a single bone, re-
sembling what is called the tarsus in Birds. Fore feet very
short in proportion with those behind, and furnished with five
toes. Sometimes to the hind feet there are two small lateral
toes besides the three large middle ones. Tail long and
tufted ; progresses by huge leaps, sometimes of seven or eight
feet.

GENUS III. CASTOR, Lin. Beavers.

Tail flattened horizontally, almost oval, and covered with
scales. Five toes to each foot; those behind united by a
membrane ; that which comes next to the thumb has a double
and oblique nail. Molars to the number of four everywhere,
and with flat crowns. The known species inhabits princi-
pally the solitudes of North America, and constructs for
the winter, upon the banks of rivers and lakes, ingenious
dwellings, whose regular distribution, admired by all travel-
lers, has been described in the most eloquent works. They
live on the bark of trees, and unite to the number of three
hundred, or thereabouts, to form colonies, and labour in es-
tablishing dikes against the streams.

GENUS IV. HISTRIX, Lin. Porcupines.

Head as if swollen ; body armed with spines, very long and
ringed in a regular manner with black and white ; clavicles
rudimentary ; molars to the number of four throughout, with
flat crowns, differently modified by plates of enamel, between
which are depressed intervals. Tongue bristled, with spiny
scales. Four toes before, five behind. They walk on the
sole of the foot,

GENUS V. LEPUS, Lin. Hares.

Clavicles rudimentary ; posterior limbs long; two small in-
cisors behind the upper ones ; five molars throughout, formed
each of two vertical plates soldered together. Five toes be-

46 MAMMALIA.

fore, four behind. Interior of the mouth and bottom of the
feet furnished with hair like the rest of the body ; ears long ;
tail short.

GENUS VI. CAVIA, Illig. Guinea-Pigs.

Molars composite, each only one simple lamina and one
forked, no tail ; toes free, four before, three behind. These
are little timid Mammalia, living on dry soils, where they
pass the day in the shelter of stones and brambles, seeking
their food at night. The species so common in Europe under
the name of Guinea-pig is originally from the immense forests
of Brazil.

ORDER VI. EDENTATA.*

No incisive teeth in either jaw ; sometimes canines and
molars, sometimes molars only, often no teeth at all. Nails
enveloping the ends of the toes, and approaching to the nature
of hoofs; at least the rudiments of clavicles. Three families.

FAMILY I. TARDIGRADA.

So named from the slowness of their motions. Face short ;
molars cylindrical ; canines sharp, longer than the molars ;
two pectoral mammae ; toes united by the skin and terminated
by enormous claws compressed and crooked, and when in
repose, bent towards the palm of the hand or the sole of the
foot; forearms much longer than the thighs and legs, making
it a painful effort to walk. Habitation upon trees which they
strip of leaves. One genus.

BRADYPUS, Lin. Sloth.

Two species, the Ai and Unau, natives of the hot parts of
America.

FAMILY II. EDENTATA ORDINARIA.

Ordinary Edentata with a pointed muzzle, and some with
cheek teeth. Four genera.

* Without front teeth.

MAMMALIA. 47

GENUS I. DASYPUS, Lin. Armadillo.

Body covered with a hard shell composed of compartments
resembling small paving stones, which cover the body, the
head, and often the tail ; this substance is formed of three
parts, a shield upon the front, a second very large upon the
shoulders, a similar one upon the croup, and transverse mov-
able bands between the two latter. Five nails on the hind
foot, sometimes only four before, of which the two middle are
longest ; incisives and molars vary with the species.

GENUS IT. MYRMECOPHAGA, Lin. Ant-Eaters.

Hairy animals, with pointed muzzle entirely without teeth,
but provided with a large piliform tongue, which they insi-
nuate into ant-hills and then withdraw in order to swallow
the ants which their viscid saliva has caused to adhere.
Nails throughout ; those of the fore feet very trenchant.

GENUS III. ORYCTEROPUS, Geoff.

. •

This genus was for a long time confounded with the Ant-
Eaters, because they feed upon the same kind of food, have
the same form of head and an extensible tongue. They dif-
fer, however, in being provided with molars, and nails fit for
digging. The structure of their teeth is very peculiar; they
are cylindrical and traversed in a longitudinal direction by a
multitude of canals. Only one species known— the Earth
Pig of the Cape of Good Hope.

GENUS IV. MANIS, Lin. Pangolins.

No teeth ; tongue very extensible ; body and tail entirely
covered with large trenchant scales. Defend themselves by
rolling into a ball.

FAMILY III. MONOTREMATA, GEOFF.

Animals of a singular structure, and subjects of long
controversies among the learned. The organization inter-
mediate between that of the three first classes of vertebrated
animals, as the following characteristics show — mammae;
hair; a double clavicle; a spur on the hind feet of the males,
pierced with a canal which discharges a poisonous liquid ; no
external conch to the ear; no enchased teeth, nor fleshy lips;
eyes very small. Two genera. Inhabit New Holland.

48 MAMMALIA.

GENUS I. ECHIDNA, Cuv.

Muzzle very slender and elongated, terminated by a small
mouth; tongue very extensible; body covered with very
strong spines, sometimes intermingled with hair ; feet short ;
nails strong, fit for digging ; tail very short.

GENUS II. ORNITHORHYNCHUS, Blumenb.

Muzzle elongated, horny, wide, much depressed, in the
form of a duck's bill, and garnished with small transverse
laminae. Mouth provided above and below with only two
teeth without roots, and with flat crowns. Fore feet with a
membrane between the toes ; the hind ones have it only as
far as the root of the nails. [Marshes of New Holland.]

ORDER VII. PACHYDERMATA.*

Feet with five, three, two or one toe unguiculated ; that
is to say, where one or more phalanges are entirely enve-
loped in a large nail called hoof, which renders prehension
impossible; frequently three sorts of teeth, sometimes only
two; no clavicles; stomach simple or divided into several
pouches, but unfit for rumination ; skin most frequently thick,
naked or nearly so. Three families.

FAMILY I. PROBOSCIDIANA.

Five toes to each foot, incrusted with a callous skin which
surrounds the foot, scarcely perceived except by the nails
that appear to be attached to the edge of this skin or species
of hoof; four to eight molars ; no canine ; incisives, project-
ing sufficiently to be called tusks, frequently attaining to a
large size ; trunk or proboscis very long ; with it he conveys
his food and water to his mouth ; mammae, two in number,
attached to the chest ; the young suck with the mouth, not
using the trunk for that purpose. There are two genera, of
which one (Mastodon, Cuv.) is fossil.

* Thick skinned.

MAMMALIA. 49

ELEPHAS, Lin. Elephant.

Molars with flat crowns composed of a certain number of
vertical laminse, each being formed of a bony substance in-
veloped with enamel and bound together by a cortical sub-
stance ; size gigantic ; skin very thick and wrinkled ; ears
very wide and flat; nose prolonged into a long movable
trunk. They consume about a hundred pounds of hay per
day, and from twelve to fifteen buckets of water. They will
carry a burthen of three thousand pounds. Two species, the
African and the Indian.

FAMILY II. PACHYDERM ATA ORDINARIA.

The three kinds of teeth in the greatest number, in the
rest at least two sorts ; feet terminated by four toes at the
most, and at the least by two. Four remarkable genera.

GENUS I. HIPPOPOTAMUS, Lin.

Feet terminated by small hoofs ; six grinders throughout;
very strong canines, of which the inferior are crooked ; four
incisors in each jaw; body very massive and devoid of hair;
legs very short ; stomach trailing nearly to the earth ; tail
short; head very large; eyes and ears small ; diet herbivo-
rous ; habitation in the rivers of the middle and south of Af-
rica. Only one species.

GENUS II. Sus, Lin. Hog.

The two middle toes large and with strong hoofs, the two
exterior ones much shorter and not touching the earth ; inci-
sors varying in number; canines curve upwards and late-
rally ; molars with tuberculous crowns ; muzzle truncated
and terminated by a snout. Body covered with bristles.

GENUS III. RHINOCEROS, Lin.

Three toes to each foot ; skin very thick and wrinkled ;
one or two horns of a fibrous nature placed upon the middle
line of the nose, of which the bones are exceedingly strong,
and united in an arch for their support; this weapon serves
them to fight with, and to disembowel their enemies the
tiger and lion. They inhabit only the equatorial zone of the
old continent.

50 MAMMALIA.

GENUS IV. TAPIR, Lin.

Molars presenting in each before they are worn two trans-
verse rectilinear eminences ; six incisors and two canines in
each jaw, separated from the molars by a vacant space ; four
toes to the fore feet and three to the hind ones. [South
America and India.]

FAMILY III. SOLIPEDES.

Quadrupeds having only one apparent toe and a single hoof
to such foot. One genus.

EQUUS, Lin. Horse.

Six incisors in each jaw, which, when the animal is young,
have the crown ridged ; six molars throughout, with square
crowns marked with four crescents ; two small canines in the
males in the upper jaw (and sometimes in both jaws), which
are almost always wanting in the females ; stomach simple
and of moderate size; intestines very long. The original
country of these animals appears to be the deserts about the
Caspian sea. They are found in the wild state in the plains
of South America, where they live in troops of sometimes
more than ten thousand, commanded by courageous leaders.
The Horse, Ass, Zebra.

ORDER VIII. RUMINANTIA.

Incisors generally as many as eight in the under jaw alone,
and replaced in the upper by a callous pad ; between the
incisors and molars is an empty space where, in some genera,
we find one or two canines ; molars generally to the number
of six throughout ; four feet terminated by two toes and two
hoofs, which face each other by a flat surface, whence these
animals are called cloven-footed] sometimes behind the hoof
are two small spurs, traces of lateral toes ; the two bones of
the metacarpus and metatarsus are united into one called the
cannon. There are always four stomachs : the first and
largest is called the paunch ; it receives, in large quantities,

MAMMALIA. 51

vegetables coarsely bruised by a first mastication ; thence
they are borne into the second, which is termed the bonnet*
the sides of which have laminse resembling those in a honey-
comb ; this stomach, which is very small and globular, seizes
the food, moistens it and compresses it into little pellets,
which then successively ascend to the mouth to be rechewed.
The animal remains in repose during this operation, which
is continued until all the food received into the paunch has
been subjected to it. When thus rechewed it descends di-
rectly into the third stomach, called the leaflet on account of
its sides having longitudinal laminse resembling the leaves of
a book : thence again it passes into the fourth stomach or
rennet, whose sides have only wrinkles, and which is the true
organ of digestion. Three sections.

Section I. Euminantia without Horns.

There are two genera, the genus Camelus and the genus
Moschus, Lin., Musk.

GENUS CAMELUS, Lin. Camel.

Canines in both jaws ; two pointed teeth implanted in the
incisive bone; inferior incisives to the number of six; eighteen
or twenty molars ; upper lips tumid and cleft ; neck long ;
instead of the large hoof flattened upon the internal side, which
invelopes the whole inferior portion of each toe, and which
determines the figure of the ordinary cloven foot, they have
merely one small one which adheres to the last phalanx, and
is of symmetrical form ; large masses of cells cover the sides
of the paunch. Two subgenera.

SCBGENUS CAMELUS, Cuv. Camel proper.

Toes united below, nearly to the point, by a common sole,
horny and favourable to progression upon sand ; lumps of fat
upon the back ; a second canine in the under jaw ; four mam-
mae. There are camels with one and camels with two humps.
[Old Continent.]

SUBGENUS AUCHENIA, Illig. Lama.

Toes separate ; no lumps ; no second canines in the under
jaw ; no mammse ; size much less than in the Camel. [New
Continent.]

52 MAMMALIA.

GENUS MOSCHUS, Lin. Musk.

A long canine on each side of the upper jaw and projecting
from the mouth in the males ; body slender ; feet small ;
tail very short ; hair short ; hoofs formed like those of the
ordinary Ruminantia; no lachrymal apparatus; one species
has a kind of pouch placed under the belly of the male, in
which is inclosed a strong odorous humour known by the
name of Musk] the others have no pouch. [Old Conti-
nent.]

Section II. Ruminantia with Solid Horns.
GENUS CERVUS, Lin. Stag.

The Stag is an animal of a stately, elegant form ;. when full
grown he is commonly between four and five feet high ; often,
when he enjoys abundance of food, and lives undisturbed by
man or the beasts of prey, he attains a much larger size ; his
legs are slender and elegant; tail short; ears large and pointed;
his horns lofty and branched. The female is of a smaller
and more slender form, and destitute of horns. A reddish
brown colour, which has gained this genus the appellation of
Red Deer, distinguishes the upper part of the body; the
hinder part of the neck and the space between the shoulders
are marked with a black list; some part of the face is com-
monly black; the sides and under part are white. The
Stag loses and renews his horns annually, and, for a while,
each set of horns is adorned with an additional branch. The
young has no horns the first year ; in his second year his
horns are single and straight, and, till his sixth, the number
of the antlers continues to increase. From this period they
are multiplied so irregularly, that the animal's age is esti-
mated not so much by the number of the antlers as by the
size and thickness of the whole horns. The sprouting horns
are at first extremely tender, and covered over with blood-
vessels. They grow not like the horns of the Bull, the Sheep
or the G oat, by shooting out new matter at the roots, and mo-
ving forward that which is already formed, but, like trees
and other vegetable bodies, increase their length by additions
at the points. Delicacy and acuteness of the senses distin-
guish the Stag in an eminent degree ; his sense of smell is
exquisite ; his eye is sparkling, soft and glowing with ex-

MAMMALIA. 53

pression ; he hears distinct and low sounds, and is not inca-
pable of relishing the melody of music. One mode of hunting
this animal, practised in ancient Greece, was for two persons
to go out together, and one to charm the unsuspecting Stag
with the melody of his voice or his pipe, till the other ap-
proached near enough to pierce him with a dart or arrow.
These animals run with great swiftness, living generally in
forests upon grass, leaves and buds. The various species
are scattered throughout North and South America, Europe
and Asia.

GENUS CAMELOPARDALIS, Lin. Giraffe.

These beautiful animals are of a reddish colour, with darker
spots. The hair of the tail is most frequently black. The
extreme length of his neck and shoulders renders it difficult
for him to crop grass from the ground. He feeds chiefly
therefore on the leaves and tender shoots of trees. Horns in
both sexes always covered by a soft skin and never falling ;
no larmier or muzzle ; ears long and pointed. The one sole
species of this genus embraces the tallest of animals. Timid
and gentle these Ruminantia defend themselves with great
courage against the attack of large Carnivora.

Section III. Ruminantia with Hollow Horns
Are the most numerous section of this order.

GENUS ANTILOPE.

In size and shape these animals bear great resemblance to
the Elk. The forehead of the Antelope is flat and broad above
the eyes, but from the eyes to the tip of the nose becomes
gradually narrower till it terminates in a sharp point ; the
breast is furnished with a dewlap covered with long hair ;
on the upper part of the forehead stands a tuft of hair erect ;
the ears are long and pointed ; though the body is of a thick
robust form the legs are slender and elegant ; the horns are
generally about two feet long, of a dark brown colour, gene-
rally twisted in various ways, according to the species ; the
hoofs are short and surrounded at their junction with the leg
with a circle of black hairs. These Ruminantia are nearly
altogether natives of the Old Continent; some have been
found in the prairies of North America. Their disposition

54 MAMMALIA.

is mild and sociable ; they live in herds ; some having five
thousand in number are occasionally met with in Africa.

GENUS CAPRA, Lin. Goat.

Horns directed Upwards and backwards ; chin usually
furnished with a long beard ; forehead almost always con-
cave.

GENUS Ovis, Lin. Sheep.

Horns directed backwards, but inclining spirally more or
less forwards ; forehead generally convex; no beard.

GENUS Bos, Lin. Ox.

Horns directed laterally, inclining upwards or forwards in
the form of a crescent ; muzzle broad ; body short, thick and
high ; legs robust ; a dewlap ; nails behind the hoof.

ORDER IX. CETACEA.

The grand classical characters which nature has imprinted
on the cetaceous order will, in a philosophical view, vindicate
their arrangement among the Mammalia. Their internal
structure agrees, in every respect, with that of the Mammalia
of Cuvier ; and their external conformation also is in some
other parts similar. Being destitute of gills, they breathe by
means of lungs, which obliges them frequently to rise to the
surface of the water for fresh air. Another great resemblance
to the Mammalia is their having warm blood and being pro-
vided with mammse, with which they suckle their young, pro-
tecting them with parental attachment.

Body fish-formed, terminated by a horizontal fin, in place
of posterior limbs. The anterior limbs likewise arranged as
fins ; toes enveloped in a covering, and without nails ; some
vestige of a pelvis, without articulation to the vertebral co-
lumn.

The cervical portion of the dorsal spine very short; skin
smooth and more or less thick; no ears externally, nor movable
eyelids, nor lachrymal apparatus; eyes large; crystalline sur-
face very much convex ; habitation in the sea. Two fami-
lies.

MAMMALIA. 55

4-

FAMILY I. HERBIVOROUS CETACEA.

No blow-holes ; pectoral mammae ; mustachios of hair ; an-
terior fins serving for prehension ; molars with flat crowns ;
sometimes tusks. One remarkable genus.

MANATUS, Cuv. The Lamantins.

Manati or Cow Whales have an oblong body; molar teeth,
marked with two transverse ridges upon their crowns; no
canines in adult age ; some traces of nails upon the end of the
pectoral fins ; skin very thick and naked ; mustachios very
strong and close.

FAMILY II. CETACEA ORDINARIA. BLOWERS.

Conical teeth, or none ; no vestige of hair; nostrils opening
without, on the top of the head, very far from the end of the
muzzle ; nasal fosses so arranged as to permit them to reject
by these openings the water which they take with their prey
into their enormous mouth. Four genera.

GENUS I. DOLPHINUS, Lin.

The general features which distinguish the Dolphins are
simple and few. They have teeth in both jaws, all simple,
and almost always conical ; these are the most carnivorous
and the most cruel of the order ; a dorsal fin always single ;
snout considerably elongated, broad at the base, round at the
extremity ,resembling the bill of a Goose.

GENUS II. MONODON, Lin. Narwhals.

The Narwhal has no true teeth in either jaw ; but in the
upper are found the distinguishing characters of the genus,
two long, straight and pointed tusks, like spears, spirally
twisted, implanted in the maxillary bone, and directed to the
front.

Pectorals remarkably small for so large an animal, no dor-
sal fin, head about one seventh part of its whole length.

GENUS III. PHYSETER, Lin. Cachalots.

Under this genus we describe the Cachalot or Spermaceti
Whale. Head enormous and nearly square and generally
one-third of its whole body ; snout very obtuse and truncated;
lower jaw very narrow, containing teeth, none in the upper

56 MAMMALIA.

jaw ; blow hole twelve inches long in the form of an f, on
the anterior extremity of the head; pectorals small and ob-
tuse; head divided into cavities or cells communicating with
each other, filled with oil which is fluid when the animal is
living, when dead takes the concrete form which we deno-
minate spermaceti.

GENUS IV. PHOCCENA, Cuv.

The Porpoise is of all the Cetacea perhaps best known to
us. We shall give the general description in the words of
Cuvier. " It has absolutely no hair, not even eyelashes. Its
skin is perfectly smooth, and its scarf skin is soft to the touch
and easily detached. It has no lips properly so called ; but
the skin, always sleek and black, is somewhat strengthened
at its union with the gums. The eye is small and situated
nearly in the line of the opening of the mouth ; the eyelids
are soft and have very little play; their internal surface is
moistened with mucus, but there are no puncta lacrymalia,
and consequently no tears. The iris is yellowish ; the pupil
in form of a v reversed. The opening to the ear is not larger
than the point of a pin; that of the blowhole is placed on the
top of the head between the eyes, resembling a crescent. No
osseous parts in either tail or dorsal fin, but composed almost
wholly of fat,"

GFNUS V. BALCENA, Lin. Whales.

Resembling in size and appearance the Cachalots, but the
head not so much enlarged in front; no teeth. The two
sides of the upper jaw are armed with transverse laminae
called whalebone; lower jaw unarmed. Live upon Worms,
Mollusca and Zoophytes. One species (B. Mysticetus) af-
fords the whale oil of commerce.

57

AVES.

Birds are oviparous Vertebrata with a double circulation
and respiration, organized for flight.

The lungs, which are not separated from the abdomen by
a perfect diaphragm, are undivided, fixed to the ribs, and sur-
rounded by a membrane pierced with large holes, so that the
air passes into the cavity of the chest, the abdomen, the arm-
pits and even into the cavities of the bones, which are hollow.

Their anterior extremities cannot serve either for standing
or prehension; they are consequently bipeds, and take their
food by means of the mouth. The two clavicles are joined
together and form what is called the fourchette. This, with
the projections of the scapula, keeps the shoulders asunder.
The wing supported by the humerus, the fore arm and the
enlarged hand, has throughout its length a range of elastic
feathers which offer a large surface of resistance to the air.
The feathers of the hand, always ten in number, are called
primaries ; of the fore arm, varying in number, secondaries ;
of the humerus, which are less strong, scapularies ; those of
the thumb bastards. The bony tail is very short, but sup-
ports a range of strong feathers from twelve to eighteen in
number. The weaker feathers ranged along the base of the
quills are called the wing and tail coverts.

The legs have a femur, a tibia and fibula, a tarsus and
metatarsus represented by a single bone terminated by three
pullies and to which are attached commonly three toes and a
thumb. There are also certain muscles attached to the pel-
vis and passing over the knee and heel to the toes, so that
the weight of the body suffices to flex them and thus allows
the bird to sleep perched upon its feet.

H

•

58 AVES.

ORDER I. RAPACE./E.*

Beak bent at the extremity ; upper mandible dilated on
each side, or armed with a tooth ; feet robust, short, with
three toes before and one behind, armed with claws gene-
rally sharp; sternum without lateral slopes. The species
comprised under this head are voracious and cruel ; they are
among Birds, what the Carnivora are among Quadrupeds ;
they live on prey or carrion, and construct their nests, called
eyries, in elevated places ; lay generally three or four eggs ;
they are monogamous. Two families.

FAMILY I. DIURNAL BIRDS.

Head compressed laterally ; eyes situated at the sides ;
toes without feathers; exterior toe always directed to the
front, and most frequently united by its base to the middle
toe by the aid of a small membrane ; nostrils pierced in a
membrane called the cera ; stomach almost altogether mem-
branous ; intestines short. Three tribes.

TRIBE I. VULTUR, LIN. VULTURES.

Eyes even with the head ; the tarsi reticulated, that is to
say, covered with small scales; an elongated beak curved
only at the end ; a greater or less portion of the head and
neck divested of feathers; wings so long that in walking
they hold them half extended ; talons feeble in proportion to
their size. Four genera.

GENUS VULTUR, Cuv. Vulture proper.

Head and neck naked ; collar of long feathers and down
at the root of the neck ; beak large and strong ; nostrils dis-
posed transversely at its base ; no caruncles (a kind of fleshy
excrescence). [Old Continent.]

GENUS SARCORAMPHUS, Dura.

Base of the beak surmounted with caruncles ; nostrils oval
and longitudinal. [America only.]

* Birds of prey.

AVES. 59

GENUS CATHARTES.

Beak as in the preceding, wide and with oval and longi-
tudinal nostrils, but no caruncles; head and neck naked.

GENUS PERCNOPTERUS.

Beak long, slender and slightly inflated above its curva-
ture; nostrils oval and longitudinal ; only the head naked.

TRIBE II. GYPACTOS, STORR. GRIFFINS.

Eyes and talons as in the preceding ; head entirely co-
vered with feathers ; beak very strong and straight, with a
crook at the end, and inflated at the curve; nostrils covered
by stiff hairs directed forwards ; tarsi short and feathered to
the toes. One species only.

TRIBE III. FALCO, LIN. FALCONS.

Head and neck clothed in feathers ; a projection of the
eyebrows, causing the eye to appear sunk ; blood-thirsty and
endowed with a strength which permits them to satisfy their
insatiable appetite ; the female is larger than the male, and
on this account is called, in falconry, the tarsel or tiersel.
The Falcons are the tyrants of the air ; it is among them
that poetry has chosen the king of Birds. Two sections.

Section I. Noble Birds of Prey.

Beak curved from its base ; second quill of the wing the
longest. Two genera.

GENUS FALCO, Bechst. Falcon proper.

Upper mandible armed with a strong tooth towards the
point ; wings as long or longer than the tail.

GENUS HIEROFALCO, Cuv. Gerfalcon.

A simple emargination of the beak ; tail long and displayed,
extending remarkably beyond the wings.

Section II. Ignoble Birds of Prey.

Fourth quill of the wing generally the longest; beak
furnished about its middle with a simple emargination in
place of a lateral tooth towards its point. Four remarkable
genera.

60 AVES.

GENUS AQUILA, Briss. Eagle.

Tarsus as short, or but little longer, than the middle toe ;
beak straight at the base, and bending only at the point.
Two remarkable subgenera — the Eagle proper, Aquila, Cuv.,
which has the tarsus feathered down to the root of the toes,
and the Fisher Eagle, Halisetos, Savig., which has the tarsus
feathered only in the upper half.

•" / ** •• '

GENUS ASTUR, Bechst. Goshawk and Sparrowhawk.

Wings shorter than the tail; but the beak curved from its
base.

GENUS MILVUS, Bechst. Kite.

Tail forked; wings excessively long; beak small; tarsi
short ; nails feeble.

GENUS BUTEO, Bechst. Buzzard.

Wings very long; tail equal ; feet strong ; interval between
the eyes and beak naked ; the beak curved from its base as
in the preceding.

FAMILY II. NOCTURNAL BIRDS.

Large head ; eyes very large, directed forwards and sur-
rounded with a circle of fringed feathers, the anterior of which
cover the cera of the beak, and the posterior the opening of
the ear ; pupil of the eye very large ; exterior toe of the foot
free, and capable of being directed at will forwards or back-
wards; apparatus of flight weak; fourchette having little
strength ; feathers with soft beards covered with fine down.
Form but one genus.

GENUS STRIX, Lin.

They may be divided by their tufts, the size of their ears
and the extent of the circle of feathers around their eyes.

SBBGENUS OTUS, Cuv. Horned Owls.

Have two tufts of feathers (aigrettes) on the forehead which
they can erect at will ; the conch of the ear extending in a
semicircle from the beak to the top of the head ; beak curved ;
feet feathered to the nails.

AVES. 61

SUBGENUS STRIX, Sav. Screech Owl.

Ear as large as in the former ; beak straight, bent only
towards the end ; no aigrettes on the head ; tarsi feathered.

SUBGENUS SYRNIUM.

Conch small and not occupying the half of the height of
the cranium ; no aigrettes ; feet feathered to the nails.

SUBGENUS BUBO.

Conch small ; aigrettes.

SUBGENUS NOCTUA, Savig. Chouette.

Ears level with the head ; no aigrettes ; circle of feathers
small ; toes naked.

SUBGENUS SCOPS.

Ears level with the head ; aigrettes ; naked toes.

ORDER II. PASSERINE.

Four toes, three before and one behind, which distinguishes
them from the Climbers ; tarsi weak and short, which sepa-
rates them from the Waders ; exterior toes united by a short
membrane, which removes them from the Palmipedes. The
character of the beak and nails, joined with the preceding,
separates them from Birds of Prey. The stomach is a mus-
cular gizzard. Length of wing and extent of flight variable.
Sternum has a single notch on each side, except in some
genera, where there are two. Food consists of fruits, insects,
grain, according to the thickness of the beak. Five families,
of which the four first include birds whose exterior toes are
only united by one or by two phalanges. Plate 17 only con-
tains the two first.

FAMILY I. DENTIROSTRES.

Beak notched on both sides of the point. Ten remarkable
genera distinguished by the form of the bill.

62 AVES.

GENUS LANIUS. Shrike.

Beak very much compressed, and more or less bent towards
the end. Toes entirely free. An ardent and courageous
temper, which urges them to contests where they frequently
expire in the clutches of a dying enemy.

GENUS MUSCICAPA, Lin. Fly- Catcher.

Beak depressed horizontally; more or less curved and
notched at the point, and furnished with hairs at the base.

GENUS AMPELIS, Lin. Crown-Bird.

Beak short, depressed, wide and slightly arched . A brilliant
plumage generally decks these timid and taciturn birds ; they
inhabit the warm regions of America.

GENUS TAN AGRA, Lin. Tanager.

Beak conical, triangular at base and notched, with the
ridge arched. Wings short. They inhabit America, and
are remarkable for the brilliancy of their colours.

GENUS TURDUS, Lin. Thrush.

Beak compressed and arcuated, but without the crook at
the point, which is also less strongly indented than in the
Shrikes. Two subgenera, the Thrush proper and the Spotted
Thrush. The former has its colour uniform or distributed in
large masses ; the latter has the plumage speckled with black
and brown.

GENUS ORIOLUS, Lin. Orioles.

Beak like the thrush, but somewhat stronger; feet shorter;
wings a little longer.

GENUS CINCLUS, Bechst. Water-Thrush.

Beak compressed and straight, with mandibles of an equal
height, nearly linear, and growing sharp towards the point,
the upper one hardly arcuated.

GENUS MJSNURA. Lyra.

Beak slightly compressed and notched ; nails obtuse and
long like fingers ; males have a long tail with plumes in the
form of a lyre.

GENUS MOTACILLA. Warbler.

Beak straight, fine, and resembling a bodkin. Three re-
markable subgenera; the Fauvettes with the beak straight and

AVJSS. 63

slim throughout ; the Wren with a beak perfectly conical and
pointed, and the Meadow-Larks with a slim beak, and the
nail of the thumb very long.

GENUS PIPRA, Lin. Manakin.

A compressed bill higher than broad, and emarginated ;
tail and feet short ; two external toes united at the base for
one-third their length. Two subgenera.

SUBGENUS RUPICOLA, Briss. Cock of the Rock.

Large and beautiful birds, having a double vertical crest
on the head.

SUBGENUS PIPRA, Cuv. Manakins proper.

Small birds remarkable for their lively colours ; no crest.

FAMILY II. FISSIROSTRES.

Beak short, broad, flattened horizontally, slightly crooked,
without notches, and with an extended commissure. Two
remarkable genera, one nocturnal, the other diurnal.

GENUS CAPRIMULGUS, Lin. Goatsucker.

Mouth excessively large ; beak depressed, very small,
curved at the end, garnished with strong mustachios; nos-
trils in the form of small tubes. These solitary birds only
fly during twilight, or upon fine nights, and pursue Phalense
and other nocturnal insects.

GENUS HIRUNDO. Swallow.

Wings very long; flight rapid ; plumage thick ; flight di-
urnal. They are remarkable for their industry in building
their nests. Two subgenera — the Swallow proper, which has
the toes of the feet as in the other Passerinse, and the sternum
notched; and the Martinet, which has wings excessively
long ; a very powerful flight ; tail always forked ; feet very
short ; the thumb capable of turning forward as the other
toes; and no notch in the sternum.

FAMILY III. CONIROSTRES.

.•:.;•'-'; •'•• ; v*V ; >;. *-'.W- -<-^-~ ^-i*-r ''^.4 •.-•,; ^;v*v
Beak strong, more or less conical, and without emargina-
tion. Six remarkable genera.

64 AVES.

GENUS ALAUDA, Lin. Lark.

Beak cylindrical ; toes entirely free ; nail of the thumb
longer than the thumb itself; regimen granivorous.

GENUS PARUS, Lin. Titmouse,

Beak compressed, slender and short, furnished with short
hairs at the base; nail of the thumb much curved; regimen
omnivorous.

GENUS EMBERIZA, Lin. Bunting.

Beak short, with the upper mandible narrowest and pro-
vided with a projecting tubercle on the palate ; regimen gra-
nivorous.

GENUS FRINGILLA. Sparrow.

Beak conical and more or less thick at base; they live
generally on grain. The Sparrows proper, have the beak
short, conical and a little inflated towards the point. There
are two remarkable subgenera — the Finch whose beak is
somewhat less arcuated than that of the Sparrow, and
stronger than that of the Linnet — and the Linnet which has
the beak exactly conical without being inflated. Those are
called Goldfinches which have the beak a little longer and
more pointed. The species which are more or less greenish
are called Tarins or Serins by the French.

GENUS CORVUS, Lin. Crow.

Beak straight and strong, with trenchant edges; nostrils
covered with stiff feathers.

SUBGENUS CORAX, CUV. Raven.

Tail rounded or square ; upper mandible arcuated.

SUBGENUS PICA, Cuv. Pie.

Tail long and cuneiform ; upper mandible arcuated.

SUBGENUS GARRULUS, Cuv. Jay.

Tail displayed, but little elongated ; the two mandibles ter-
minated by a sudden curve.

GENUS PARADISJEA. Birds of Paradise.

Beak of medium size ; nostrils covered with velvet feathers ;
feathers of the sides plumose, singularly developed.

The velvet and metallic appearance which so beautifully
distinguishes these birds, and which, from its exceeding

AVES. 65

splendour, has given rise to the " Bird of Paradise," is attri-
buted to the influence of the climate they inhabit. This
influence has been noticed in several other genera. They
are natives of New Guinea and the adjoining islands, and
are usually procured by Europeans from the savages of
those regions, who prepare the birds for sale by cutting off
the wings and feet. This circumstance has given rise to the
common idea that they were really destitute of those mem-
bers, and supported themselves always in the air. They
live on fruit and are extravagantly fond of spices.

FAMILY IV. TENUIROSTRES.

Beak slim, elongated, without emargination, sometimes
straight, sometimes more or less arcuated. Three remark-
able genera.

GENUS SITTA, Lin. Nuthatch.

Beak straight, prismatic, pointed, and serving the same
purposes as the Woodpecker's. Tongue not extensible ;
nostrils, upon close inspection, seem to be covered with hair;
quills of the tail of no support in the action of climbing.

GENUS CERTHIA, Lin. Creeper.

Beak arcuated at three angles, compressed and pointed;
tongue entire ; nostrils half closed by an arched membrane.
Quills of the tail serving to climb.

GENUS TROCHILUS, Lin. Humming-Bird.

Beak long, slim, straight or arcuated, and tubulous. Tongue
extensible and split almost to its base. The subgenus Ortho-
rhynchus has the beak straight. The subgenus Trochilus^
proper has it arcuated. These birds, like the Birds of Para-
dise, are celebrated for the metallic lustre of their plumage,
and, especially, for a species of laminae as brilliant as precious
stones, which are formed by a peculiar kind of scaly feather
on the throat and head. The split tongue is protruded to a
great length, and employed in taking up the nectar of flowers.
They feed also on small Insects, of which the stomach is fre-
quently found to be full. Their very small feet, long and
narrow wings, displayed tail, short humerus and broad ster-
num without emargination, give them extraordinary powers
i

66 AVES.

of flight. Their rapidity is proportionally greater than that
of any other bird, and they balance themselves in the air with
nearly as much ease as certain flies. They live singly and
are exceedingly courageous.

FAMILY V. SYNDACTIL^E.

Exterior toe nearly as long as the middle one, to which it
is united as far as the penultimate articulation. Three re-
markable genera.

GENUS ALCEDO, Lin. King-Fisher.

Beak triangular, long, straight and nearly pointed; tail
very short, [Both Continents.]

GENUS MEROPS, Lin. Bee-Eater.

Beak elongated, arcuated and trenchant, with an. elevated
ridge ; feet very short. [Old Continent.]

GENUS BUCEROS, Lin. Hornbill.

Beak enormous, dentated, cellular and surmounted with a
prominence or with a simple swelling, varying with the age.
[India and Africa.]

ORDER III. SCANSORLE.*

External toe directed backwards like the thumb, whence
results to them a more solid support, of which certain genera
take advantage in clinging to and climbing upon trees ;
sternum presenting nearly always two emarginations behind;
flight middling; regimen fructivorous or insectivorous, ac-
cording as the beak is more or less robust ; they build their
nests in the trunks of old trees. Five remarkable genera.

GENUS Picus, Lin. Woodpecker.

Beak long, straight, angular, the end compressed into a
wedge, and fitted for splitting the bark of trees; tongue
slender, armed near the tip with spines that curve backward,
and capable of being thrust far out of the beak ; tail com-

* Climbers.

AVES. 67

posed of ten quills, with stiff and elastic stems, which sustain
them as a prop while climbing trees.

GENUS YUNX, Lin. Wryneck.

Tongue extensible as in the Woodpeckers, but without
spines ; beak straight, pointed, nearly round and without an-
gles ; their tail has only the ordinary feathers ; they live
nearly like the Woodpecker, but climb little.

GENUS CUOULUS, Lin. Cuckoo.

Beak middling, well cleft, compressed and slightly arcuated ;
tail long ; regimen insectivorous ; birds of passage. The
female of the true Cuckoo builds no nest in which to depo-
sit her eggs, but abandons them in the nest of some other
species, which hatches them with its own ; the others build
for themselves.

GENUS RHAMPHASTOS, Lin. Toucan.

Beak voluminous, nearly as large as the bird, light and
nearly cellular within, arcuated near the end, irregularly in-
dented along the edges ; tongue long, narrow and furnished
on each side with barbs like a feather. They are only found
in the tropical countries of America. The front of their neck
is generally decked with vivid colours, and its feathers were
formerly often employed in the dress of French and Ameri-
can ladies.

--.,.." . ,. •*"

GENUS PSITTACUS. Parrot.

Beak stout, hard, solid, rounded on all sides, and enve-
loped at base by a membrane in which the nostrils are
pierced; tongue thick, fleshy and rounded — two circum-
stances which give them the greatest facility in imitating the
human voice; the inferior larynx somewhat complicated;
their food consists of all kinds of fruit ; they climb among
the branches of trees with the aid of their beak and claws ;
build in the trunks of trees ; have a voice naturally harsh
and disagreeable ; they are almost always adorned with the
most lively plumage ; hardly any of them are found beyond
the torrid zone ; there are some, however, in both conti-
nents. They congregate in forests, where they make great
havock.

68 AVES.

SUBGENUS ARA. Maccaw.

Tail displayed and long ; cheeks without feathers. [Ame-
rica.]

SUBGENUS PAROQUET.

Tail long; cheeks feathered ; a naked space around the eye.

SCBGENUS COCKATOO.

Tail short, equal or squared ; cheeks feathered ; a movable
crest.

SUBGENUS PAROQUET PROPER.

Tail equally cuneiform ; no crest.

SUBGENUS TRUMPET PAROQUET.

. Tail short and square ; a crest ; cheeks denuded ; upper
beak enormous.

ORDER IV. GALLINACE.E.

Upper mandible arched ; nostrils pierced in a large mem-
branous space at the base of the beak, and covered by a car-
tilaginous scale ; a heavy carriage ; short wings ; the bony
sternum diminished by two emarginations so wide and deep
that they occupy nearly the whole sides ; fourchette articu-
lated by a simple ligament ; flight feeble ; anterior toes
united at base by a short membrane, and indented throughout.
The Pigeons and another genus are the only kind which have
not this membrane ; their usual food is grain ; crop extremely
large, and gizzard vigorous.

GENUS PAVO, Lin. Peacock.

An aigrette or crest on the head ; beak naked at its base ;
the coverts of the tail of the males more elongated than the
quills, and capable of being erected so as to form a wheel.
The domestic Peacock is a native of India, and was brought
thence by Alexander.

GENUS ALECTOR, Merr. Hocco.

Beak robust, with the upper mandible the longest, bent,
and surrounded with a skin where the nostrils are pierced ;
head crested ; no spur.

AVES. 69

GENUS MELEAORIS, Lin. Turkey.

Head and upper part of the neck invested with a skin
without feathers, and papillated ; an appendage under the
throat and another conical one on the forehead ; coverts of
the tail short and stiff, capable of being erected ; weak spurs
on the males.

GENUS NUMIDA, Lin. Guinea-Fowl.

Head naked and surmounted with a callous crest ; fleshy
wattles at the bottom of the cheeks ; tail short and pendent ;
no spurs.

GENUS PHASIANUS, Lin. Pheasant.

Cheeks partially divested of feathers and covered with a
red skin ; feathers of the tail variously disposed in the form
of a roof.

SUBGENUS GALLUS. Cock.

Head surmounted with a fleshy vertical crest; inferior
mandible furnished on each side with fleshy wattles ; quills
of the tail forming two vertical planes, back to back ; a long
spur.

SUBGENUS PHEASANT PROPER.

Head without fleshy crest ; beak and cheeks naked ; tail
long, displayed, the quills being spread, each in two planes,
one covering the other as in a roof.

" „ "' -^- "•; '. v .-,"'•., '• ' •-. '

GENUS TETRAO.

A naked band, most usually red, holding the place of an
eyebrow. Two subgenera.

SUBGENUS TETRAO, Lath. Grouse.

Feet covered with feathers; no spurs; toes naked; tail
round or forked.

SUBGENUS LAGOPUS. Ptarmigan.

Toes as well as feet covered with feathers ; tail square or
round.

GENUS PERDIX.

Tarsi as well as toes naked. Four subgenera.

SUBGENUS FRANCOLTNUS, Tern.

Beak long and strong ; tail enlarged ; spurs strong.

70 AVES.

SCBGENUS PERDIX. Common Partridge.

Beak not so strong ; the males have a short spur or only a
tubercle, the females none.

SUBGENUS ORTYX. American Partridge.

Beaker stronger, shorter and more convex ; tail larger ; no
spurs.

SUBGENUS COTURNIX. Quail.

Beak more slender ; tail shorter ; no red eyebrows ; no
spurs.

GENUS COLUMBA, Lin. Pigeon.

Beak compressed ; arcuated at base and covered with a
soft tumid skin ; toes divided ; flight strong ; tail composed
of twelve quills only. . *

.

ORDER V. GRALLATORLE.*

. • ••

Lower part of the leg naked ; tarsi most generally elevated ;
two circumstances which permit them to enter the water
without wetting their feathers, to wade through it, and fish
by means of their neck and beak. Those which have the
beak strong, feed on Fish and Reptiles ; those which have it
weak, on Worms and Insects. A very few content themselves,
in part, with grain or grass, and these alone, live at a distance
from the water. Exterior toe joined by its base to that of the
middle one by means of a short membrane ; sometimes there
are two membranes and at others the membrane is entirely
wanting; the toes likewise are sometimes bordered all along
or palmated. No thumb in certain genera. Wings usually
long; legs, while flying, extended behind. Eight families,
of which three hardly are entitled to this name.

FAMILY I. BREVIPPENNES. SHORT-WINGED.

Size so considerable that all the muscular power (appa-
rently) at the command of nature would be insufficient to
enable them to fly. Wings very small and unfit for flight ;

• •" "'• •"• NJ •*TH/^ '..-''-•, :Si'; '

* Waders.

AVES. 71

^ . s

sternum flat, without ridge ; pectoral muscles weak ; those
of the thigh and leg enormously thick ; the thumb always
deficient. Two genera.

GENUS STRUTHIO, Lin. Ostrich.

Beak depressed horizontally, of moderate length and blunt
at the end ; tongue short, and rounded like a crescent ; eye
large, the lid fringed with lashes. Legs and tarsi very long.
Rapidity of course greater than that of any of the Mammalia;
feet furnished with two or three toes, either all with nails or
none ; crop enormous, followed by a considerable sac between
it and the gizzard. Africa and South America.

GENUS CASUARIUS, Briss. Cassowary.

Wings still shorter than those of the Ostrich, and totally
useless even in running. Feet with three toes all furnished
with nails ; barbs of the feathers so scantily furnished with
barbulse, that at a distance they appear covered with pendent
hair. India and New Holland.

•'-.'.• t,_ .-» . (gy • . f\l

FAMILY II. PRESSIROSTRES.

Long legs, without thumbs, or with one so short as to be
unable to reach the earth ; beak of moderate size and suffi-
ciently strong to penetrate the earth in the search for Worms.
Three remarkable genera.

GENUS OTIS, Lin. Bustard.

Beak nearly straight, and compressed; wings short; toes
short and bordered with membranes; no thumbs.

GENUS CHARADRIUS, Lin. Plover.

Beak moderate, enlarged at the end, and the nostrils occu-
pying one half to two-thirds of its length ; no thumb.

GENUS VANELLUS, Bechst. Lapwing.

Same beak as the Plover, but a small thumb.

FAMILY III. CULTRIROSTRES.

Beak thick, long and strong, generally trenchant and
pointed. Three tribes.

72 AVES.

TRIBE I.

Beak straight, and slightly cleft; nostrils occupying nearly
one half its length ; toes moderate, the external ones a little
palrnated; thumb very short; part of the head and neck naked.
There is only one genus — Grus (Crane) — but this has two
subgenera, viz., Psophia, Lin. (Trumpeter), where the beak is
shorter than in the other species, the head and neck clothed
only with down, and the circumference of the eye naked — and
the Ordinary Crane, where the beak is as long or longer than
the head.

TRIBE II.

Beak stronger ; toes larger. One remarkable genus only —
that of the Ardea, Cuv. (Heron). Here a cleft of the beak
extends to beneath the eyes ; nails long, the middle with in-
dented edge; external web remarkable. Three subgenera,
but they are not well marked.

SUBGENUS TRUE HERON.

Neck very slender and furnished towards the bottom with
long pendent feathers.

SUBGENUS BITTERN.

Feathers of the neck loose and separated ; beak raised to-
wards the heavens when at rest.

SUBGENUS NIGHT-HERON.

Port of the Bittern; beak thicker in proportion; some
sparse feathers upon the occiput.

TRIBE III.

Besides a beak smoother than in the preceding, these have
webs nearly equal between the base of the toes. Two re-
markable genera — the genus Ciconia, Cuv. (Stork), with a
beak straight, thick, pointed and slightly cloven — and the
genus Platalea, Lin. (Spoon-bill) with a long beak termi-
nated by a disk flattened in the form of a spatula.

FAMILY IV. LONGIROSTRES.

Beak slender, long and weak, which restricts these birds
to a mere searching in the mud for Worms and Insects. Two

AVES. 73

remarkable genera. The genus Scolopax, Lin. (Snipe) has a
beak either curved at the bottom or straight. There are two
subgenera.

SUBGENUS IBIS.

Beak arcuated, slender, obtuse and almost square at base;
nostrils prolonged into a furrow which extends to the end of
the beak; head or neck partially naked; thumb resting upon
the ground ; external toes remarkably palmated.

SUBGENUS SCOLOPAX, Cuv. Snipe proper.

Beak long and straight with the point inflated ; feet with-
out web ; large eyes placed very much behind.

SUBGENUS LIMOSA, Bechst. Godwit.

Beak like the Snipe but longer ; legs longer ; feet palmated.
Sea shore Birds.

GENUS RECURVIROSTRA, Lin. Avoset.

Beak long, thin, pointed, smooth, elastic and curved up-
wards ; feet webbed to near the ends of the toes.

FAMILY V. MACRODACTYLI.

Toes very long and fit for running upon grass and marshy
ground, or even for swimming, especially in those species
where they are bordered with a membrane, without being
webbed. Sternum narrow. Three remarkable genera.

GENUS PARRA, Lin.

Wings armed with a spur; four long toes divided down to
the root with extremely long and pointed nails, a peculiarity
from which they have received the name of Surgeons. Asia
and South America.

GENUS RALLUS. Rail.

Wings unarmed ; beak straight or moderately curved, cy-
lindrical at the point, without frontal plate. Toes not bor-
dered.

GENUS FULICA, Lin. Coot.

Wings unarmed; beak prolonged into a kind of shield
which covers the forehead. Three subgenera.
K

74 AVES.

SUBGENUS GALLINULA, Briss. Water-Hen.

Beak as in the Rail, but a frontal shield, and very long
toes furnished with a narrow border.

SUBGENUS PORPHYRIO.

Beak higher in proportion to its length ; toes very long
and almost without border.

SUBGENUS FULICA. True Coot.

Short beak and large frontal shield; toes greatly widened by
a festooned border, which renders them excellent swimmers.

FAMILY VI. VAGINALIS, LATH. SHEATH-BILL.

Legs short; tarsi scutellated; beak thick, and upon its base
a hard substance which the bird has the power of raising and
depressing.

FAMILY VII. GLAREOLA.

Beak short, conical, arcuated throughout and strongly
cleft; wings very long and pointed; tail often forked. Legs
of moderate height ; external toes somewhat palmated.

FAMILY VIII. PHCENICOPTERUS, LIN. FLAMINGO.

Legs excessively long ; the three anterior toes palmated to
the ends, the hind one extremely short ; neck not less slim,
nor shorter than than the legs ; head small ; a beak whose
lower mandible is an oval, longitudinally grooved into a semi-
cylindrical canal, while the upper one, oblong and flat, is
bent crosswise in its middle so as to join the other exactly.
They live on Shellfish, Insects and Fish.

ORDER VI. PALMIPEDES.

Feet formed for swimming, that is to say, placed far back
on the body, attached to short and compressed tarsi, and
palmated between the toes ; plumage dense, glossy, saturated

AVES. 75

with oil, garnished next the skin with a thick down, and in-
tended to protect them from the water in which they live ;
length of neck often much exceeding that of the feet, which
permits certain species to seize their food at the bottom of
shallow waters ; sternum very long, affording complete pro-
tection to the greater portion of their viscera, and having on
each side but one emargination or oval hole furnished with
membrane; gizzard generally muscular; inferior larynx
simple, but in one family inflated into cartilaginous capsules.
Four families.

FAMILY I. BRACHYPTEILE.

Legs placed farther back than in any other birds, which
renders walking painful to them, and obliges them to stand
when on land in a vertical position ; flight feeble, or none at
all; plumage very dense, smooth and glossy like silver;
they swim under water by the aid of their wings. Three
genera.

GE*C§ COLYM BV«, Lin. Diver.

Beak smooth, straight, compressed and pointed ; nostrils
linear ; they consume a great many fish. Three remarkable
subgenera, distinguished by the form of their feet.

••MEiruf PoDiccrt , Lath. Grebe.

Toes widened by membranes, the anterior only united at
the base; middle nail flattened.

McKeuf , Bruw. Diver proper.

Feet palmated; nails pointed; northern birds seldom
breeding among us, but migrate south during winter.

, BriM. GuMUmat.

No thumb; feathers as far as the nostrils; wings still
shorter than those of the Divers.

Grow ALCA, Do. Auk*.

Beak very much coinpfOMttd, elevated vertically, trenchant
towards the rear, and generally ridged across ; feet entirely
palmated, and wanting the thumb. [Northern Seas.]

Gcvu« APTKXODYTC*, font. Penguin.

No flight ; small wings, furnished with traces of plumage,

76 AVES.

like scales ; when standing they rest upon the tarsus, which
is widened like the sole of the foot in some quadrupeds.

FAMILY II. LONGIPENNES.

Thumb small or none ; wings very long ; beak not indented,
but crooked at the end in the first genera, and merely pointed
in the others.

GENUS PROCELLARIA, Lin. Petrel.

Beak curved at the end, which appears to be formed of a
piece articulated to the rest ; nostrils united in a tube upon
the back of the upper mandible ; a sharp nail instead of
thumb.

GENUS DIOMEDEA, Lin. Albatross.

Beak large, strong, trenchant, and terminated by a thick
crook, which appears to be articulated there ; nostrils resem-
bling short rolls placed upon the beak ; feet without thumbs
or even small nails. ; wings very long and narrow. These
are the largest sea-birds. [Southern Ocean.]

GENUS LARUS, Lin. Gull.

Beak compressed, elongated, pointed; upper mandible
curved at the extremity, the inferior angular aiid inflated j
nostrils long, narrow and open for one half the length of the
beak ; tail composed of equal feathers ; legs tolerably long ;
thumbs short ; the larger species are called Goelands, the
lesser Mouettes.

GENUS STERNA. Sea- Swallow.

Wings excessively long and pointed ; tail forked ; beak
pointed, compressed, straight, without curve or projection ;
the nostrils situated near the base ; toes to the number of
four, one behind long enough to reach the earth, three before
united by emarginated membranes, causing them to swim
badly.

FAMILY III. TOTIPALMAT^E.

Thumb united to the toes by one single membrane, which
renders their feet complete oars when extended ; feet short ;
they are the only Palmipedes who perch upon trees.

AVES. 77

GENUS PELECANUS, Lin. Pelican,

Beak exceedingly long, straight, depressed and terminated
by a kind of nail ; the lower mandible has flexible branches
sustaining a naked membrane, which can be dilated into a
more or less voluminous sac ; nostrils linear, hardly percep-
tible ; eyes heavy and naked like the throat.

GENUS TACHYPETES, Vieil. Frigate-Bird.

No remarkable pouch ; tail forked ; feet short ; toes semi-
palmate ; wings very long ; mandible short and curved at
the point.

GENUS SULA, Briss. Booby.

Beak straight, the edges provided with teeth ; nostrils pro-
longed by a line which extends to near the point ; throat
naked (as well as the circumference of the eyes), and little
extensible ; nail of the middle toe indented like a saw ; wings
moderate.

FAMILY IV. LAMELLIROSTRES.

Beak thick, clothed with a soft skin rather than with true
horn, the edges furnished with small laminae or teeth ; tongue
wide and fleshy, and the edges notched ; three toes before
united by membranes, one behind free ; wings of moderate
length ; habitation more frequently upon fresh waters than
upon the sea.

GENUS ANAS, Lin.

Beak large and broad, the edges furnished with a row of
projecting laminae, placed transversely, which seem intended
to let the water escape when the bird seizes its prey. Three
remarkable subgenera.

SUBGENUS CYGNUS, Meyer. Swan.

Beak as broad before as behind ; neck very long ; nostrils
in the middle of the length of the beak.

SUBGENUS ANSER, Briss. Goose.

Beak moderate and narrow before ; legs longer than in the
Anas proper.

78 AVES.

SUBGENUS ANAS, Meyer. Duck.

Beak widened and much flattened towards the end ; legs
very short ; neck moderate. Some species have the thumb
bordered with a membrane, others have not.

GENUS FULIGULA, Leach.

Beak broad and flat. The Canvass-back and Red-neck
belong to this genus.

GENUS MERGUS.

Beak thin, cylindrical, much crooked at its extremity;
mandibles with sharp teeth directed backwards ; nostrils per-
forated.

REPTILIA.

Reptilia are oviparous Vertebrata, with an incomplete cir-
culation and diminished respiration, organized for creeping.

On each contraction of the heart in Reptiles, only a part of
the blood received from the system is thrown into the lungs,
and therefore only that portion is exposed to the action of the
atmosphere. It results from this that the respiration is less
than in the preceding divisions, consequently the heat of the
blood is less, and they are called cold-blooded animals ; their
muscular energy is less ; digestion slower ; sensations more
obtuse ; and in cold climates they pass the winter in a state
of torpor.

The brain is small in proportion to the size of the animals,
and their sensations do not appear to be referred to the brain
as a common centre, since they live and move after the loss
of the brain and even after the removal of the head.

The external covering of the body is composed of scales or
naked skin, as on account of their blood being cold they do
not require to be protected against the loss of temperature.
Their eggs are not hatched by the parents, but generally by
the influence of solar heat.

REPTILIA. 79

ORDER I. CHELONIA.*

Body oval, short, enclosed in a solid shell, covered by
skin, or with large scales; the upper part of the shell, com-
posed of dorsal vertebrae and ribs (as many as eight pair)
spread out and united together, is denominated the carapax;
the under part, formed generally of nine pieces, constitutes a
true sternum, and is called the plastron. A kind of frame
surrounds the carapax and joins it to the plastron at the sides ;
it is composed of a series of pieces, which appear to repre-
sent the sternal portion of the ribs. The scapula and bones
of the pelvis, instead of being attached to the ribs and dorsal
spine, are attached beneath, so that the Tortoise may be con-
sidered as an inverted animal. The vertebral extremity of
the scapula is articulated with the carapax ; the inferior ex-
tremity with two bones, of which one is analogous to the
coracoid apophysis of Birds and remains free, the other, rep-
resenting the clavicle, is united to the plastron ; so that the
two shoulders form a ring through which pass the oesopha-
gus and trachea ; jaws covered with horn as in Birds ; no
teeth ; heart composed of two auricles and of only one ven-
tricle, with two unequal communicating chambers. Four
remarkable genera.

GENUS I. TBSTUDO, Brog. Land Tortoise.

Feet adapted for walking ; legs as if truncated, with very
short toes closely joined as far as the nails, of which there are
five before and four behind.

GENUS II. EMYS, Brog. Fresh-Water Tortoise.

Toes more widely separated than in the preceding, and
more or less palmated ; carapax usually more flattened than
in the former.

GENUS III. CHELONIA, Brog. Sea Tortoise.

Feet elongated and flattened in the form of fins; toes
closely united in a single membrane ; shell too small to re-
ceive the head and feet.

* Tortoises.

80 REPTIL1A.

GENUS IV. TRJONYX. Soft Tortoise.

No scales ; merely a soft skin to envelope their carapax and
plastron.

ORDER II. SAURIA.

Heart like that of the Chelonise ; ribs movable, partially
connected with a sternum, and serving for respiration ; lungs
more or less extended towards the posterior extremity of the
body; skin covered with scales or hard granulations called
shagreen ; mouth always armed with teeth ; toes generally
provided with nails ; tail more or less long ; most usually four
legs, sometimes only two ; eggs enveloped in a hard and cal-
careous shell. Six families.

FAMILY I. CROCODILIDA.

Animals of large size ; tail flattened laterally, which ren-
ders them aquatic; four limbs; five toes before, four behind,
more or less palmated ; only the three internal ones armed
with claws; a single row of pointed teeth in each jaw ; tongue
fleshy and flat, and adhering close at its edges ; the back
and tail covered with large square scales, relieved by a ridge
along their middle ; those of the abdomen fine and smooth ;
a crest with strong indentures on the tail, double at the base;
ventricle of the heart divided into two chambers, made dis-
tinct by a complete partition ; instinct carnivorous ; habita-
tion in fresh waters. Three genera.

GENUS I. CROCODILUS, Briss. Crocodile proper.

The fourth tooth of the under jaw passing into a notch of
the upper jaw; teeth of unequal size ; muzzle moderate and
depressed horizontally ; toes of posterior limbs entirely pal-
mated. [Both Continents.]

GENUS II. GAVIAL, Cuv.

The fourth tooth of the under jaw passing into a notch of
the upper ; teeth equal ; muzzle long, slim and cylindrical ;
toes of the posterior limbs entirely palmated. [The old con-
tinent only.]

REPTILIA. 81

GENUS III. ALLIGATOR, Cuv.

The fourth tooth of the under jaw entering into a hole in
the upper ; toes of posterior limbs semi-palmated. [America
only.]

FAMILY II. LACERTINIDA.

Tongue extensible and terminated in two threads; five
free toes on each foot, unequal and armed with nails ; scales
of the abdomen and top of the tail arranged in transverse
bands. Two remarkable genera.

GENUS I. MONITOR.

Large size ; tail flattened laterally ; teeth to the jaws, not
to the palate.

GENUS II. ' LACERTA. Lizard proper.

Extremity of the palate armed with two rows of teeth ; a
collar under the neck formed of large scales ; a casque formed
by the projection of the cranium over the orbits.

FAMILY III. IGUANIDA.

All the characteristics of the second family except that the
tongue is not extensible. Two remarkable genera.

GENUS I. AGAMA, Daud.

Head enlarged behind ; no teeth in the palate ; scales of
the tail imbricate; spines on different parts of the body,
especially near the ear ; skin of the throat loose and suscep-
tible of inflation ; some have femoral pores, others none.

GENUS II. DRACO, Lin. Dragon.

No teeth in the palate ; the six first false ribs, instead of
investing the abdomen, extend in a straight line and support
a fold of the skin of the sides, forming a parachute ; scales
imbricate.

GENUS III. IGUANA, Cuv.

Teeth on the palate ; ribs formed in the ordinary manner ;
a range of recurved scales all along the back ; a dewlap under
the throat. [America.]

82 REPTILIA.

FAMILY IV. GECKOTIDA.

Form heavy ; aspect hideous ; five toes widened through
a part or through the whole of their length, so as to allow of
their sustaining themselves, like flies, with the feet up ; in
most the nails are retractile ; eyes large, pupil contracting on
the approach of light; life nocturnal. One genus, Gecko,
Baud.

FAMILY V. CHAM^ELEONIDA.

The back, if it may be so expressed, trenchant; skin gra-
nulated ; five toes on each foot, divided into two bundles op-
posable to each other ; tail prehensile ; tongue issuing from
the mouth in the form of a worm ; an enormous development
of the lungs, which enables the animal to change colour and
even renders it, when the lungs are full, nearly transparent ;
live upon insects. One genus, Chamcelio.

FAMILY VI. SCINCOIDEA.

Feet short ; tongue not extensible ; scales equal and imbri-
cated upon the body and tail.

GENUS I. SEPS, Daud.

Body much elongated ; feet small ; lungs unequal.

GENUS II. BIPES, Lacep.

Fore feet entirely wanting ; the hind feet alone visible ;
rudiment of a shoulder beneath the skin.

GENUS III. CHIROTES, Cuv.

No hind feet ; fore feet alone visible.

ORDER III. OPHIDIA.

Body extremely elongated, entirely without limbs, moving
itself by means of the folds it makes while in contact with
the ground ; vertebral column very movable, composed of a
vast number of vertebrae supporting themselves ; a great

REPTILIA. 83

number of ribs, employed in respiration ; no sternum nor
movable eyelids, nor tympanum ; tongue very extensible,
terminated by two long movable points of a consistence nearly
like horns, and contained, while at rest, in a membranous
case ; the mouth furnished with teeth fit only to retain the
prey ; heart with two auricles, and only one ventricle ; only
one lung, extending far towards the posterior portion of the
body; voice, when any, consisting in a dull hiss; eggs agglu-
tinated in the form of a chaplet, and quite soft, although en-
veloped in a calcareous substance. Three families.

FAMILY I. ANGUINA.

Three eyelids ; imbricated scales over all the body ; most
usually the rudiment of. a shoulder or pelvis under the skin.

FAMILY II. SERPENTIA.

No sternum nor vestige of shoulder ; no third eyelid nor
tympanum. In this family are comprised the greater part
and the most singular of the Ophidia. Two tribes.

TRIBE I. AMPHISBCENA.

Mouth not dilatable ; head uniform with the body, permit-
ting them to walk equally well backwards or forwards ; body
covered with scales.

TRIBE II. SERPENS PROPER.

Jaw so arranged as to permit a wide opening of the mouth ;
the two branches are not soldered, and can separate laterally;
the tympanal bone to which they are attached is itself sus-
pended to another bone articulated to the cranium ; the two
upper maxillary bones preserve also their mobility ; besides
the teeth of the jaws there is a double range in the palatine
arches. Two sections.

Section I. Non- Venomous.

No movable teeth either with channel or tube ; all are
fixed strongly ; in the roof of the mouth four rows nearly
equal, two below. Two genera.

84 REPTILIA.

GENUS I. BOA, Lin.

Under part of the tail and body furnished with a simple
uninterrupted band of scales ; body compressed ; two hooks
near the extremity ; tail prehensile.

GENUS II. COLUBER, Lin. %>

Plates beneath the tail, arranged in pairs. Two subge-
nera. The subgenus Python is of great size, and has hooks
near the extremity ; the subgenus Coluber proper is of small
size, has no hooks, and large plates upon the head.

Section 1L Venomous.

A gland placed under the eye secretes a poison, and dis-
charges it by a canal, whose extremity opens into a duct or
gutter channelled in certain teeth of the Cupper jaw called
movable fangs ; the animal, at will, can conceal them in a
fold of the gum ; besides these there are, in the upper jaw,
two ranges of palatine teeth. Two genera.

GENUS I. CROTALUS, Lin.

Rattles at the extremity of the tail, as many as seven or
eight, very rarely ten. A small rounded pit behind each
nostril. [America.]

GENUS II. VIPERA, Baud.

No rattles at the extremity of the tail nor rounded inden-
tation behind each nostril. Two subgenera.

SUBGENUS VIPER PROPER.

Small granulated scales on the top of the head.

SUBGENUS NAIA.

Head furnished with plates ; anterior limbs susceptible of
being raised up and drawn forwards, so as to dilate this part
of the body into a disk more or less broad.

v- •. ' ' • • »' " *'-.,'; •'*.-•'- -'•• * V. <.;f-

FAMILY III. NUDA.
Consist of a single genus.

COECILIA, Lin.

So called because their eyes are so small as even to seem
to be wanting ; scales so small that the skin appears to be

REPTILIA. 85

entirely naked. To this genus belongs the common Orvet
or Slow Worm.

ORDER IV. BATRACHIA.

No carapax, nor scales, nor nails ; body covered with a
naked skin; limbs most generally; a heart with two auricles
and one ventricle ; two equal lungs, to which, at first, are
added branchiae supported on each side of the neck by carti-
laginous arches. The greater part lose these branchiae and
the apparatus which supports them in passing from the con-
dition of Fish to that of Reptile. Three genera — among which
are the Protei — retain them for life. Eggs enveloped in a
simple membrane, and becoming greatly enlarged in the
water. Two families.

FAMILY I. RANA. FROG.

Four legs, but no tail, in their perfect state. Head flat ;
muzzle rounded; opening of the jaws wide; anterior feet
short, terminated by four toes ; the posterior longer and fre-
quently having six. In the greater part there is a soft tongue
not attached to the bottom of the gullet, but to the edges of
the jaw, and folding inwards. Skeleton without ribs ; inspi-
ration being effected by a motion of deglutition, expiration by
a contraction of the abdominal muscles. The young, which
issues from an egg, is called a Tadpole', it is provided with a
long fleshy tail, and with a little beak of horn; and its only
limbs are small fringes at the side of the neck which disap-
pear at the end of a few days. Respiration is effected by
branchiae affixed to the hyoid bone ; the water which enters
the mouth and traverses them, issues by one or two openings.
At a certain period these organs decay; the horny beak falls;
the intestines become shortened; to the herbivorous regimen
succeeds a carnivorous one ; the tail is insensibly absorbed ;
the legs perceptibly develop themselves, the hind ones ap-
pearing sooner than the anterior, which grow beneath the
skin. Four remarkable genera.

86 REPTILIA.

GENUS I. RANA, Lin. Frog proper.

Skin smooth; body tapering; hind feet very long and
more or less palmated ; a row of small teeth all round the
upper jaw ; under each ear, in the males, a fine membrane,
which becomes inflated when they cry out ; these animals
swim and leap very well.

GENUS II. HYLA, Laur. Tree-Frog.

Same characteristics as the frogs ; the only difference lies
in a kind of rounded viscous pellet placed upon each toe, and
which enables them to adhere to the smoothest bodies, and
to run upon the leaves of trees with the feet upwards.

GENUS III. BUFO, Laur. Toad.

A thick bulky body ; skin covered with warty excrescences ;
hind legs short; a thick lump, pierced with pores, behind the
ears, which emits a milky, fetid humour. No teeth.

GENUS IV. PIPA, Laur.

Body flattened horizontally ; head triangular ; no tongue ;
each of the fore toes divided into four small parts at the ex-
tremity ; the species best known inhabits South America, and
presents a very remarkable phenomenon. The male places
the eggs upon the back of the female who repairs to the
water; the skin of the back there swells and forms little
cells, where the young inclose themselves during the meta-
morphosis.

FAMILY II. SALAMANDRA.

Four feet; a tail as in the Lizards; very small ribs; in the
adult state, respiration as in the Ranse, except in three genera,
where branchiae exist through life ; branchial arches in the
Tadpole inclosed in a tunic, and floating externally; fore feet
appear before the hind ones.

-"" -: , • ' •• f ' ' . '*'*'': •'."*'; . ' ,5. r*.' '''*-•'*' '.. -" •i

GENUS I. SALAMANDRA, Laur. Terrestrial Salamander.

In the perfect state, tail round ; four toes before, generally
five behind ; existence as a Tadpole brief.

GENUS II. TRITON, Laur. Aquatic Salamander.

Tail compressed at the sides ; astonishing power of repro-

REPTILIA. 87

duction exhibited in the formation of new limbs in the place
of those cut or torn off. ) . *

GENUS III. PROTEUS, Laur.

True Amphibia on account of the double use of lungs and
branchiae throughout life.

PISCES.

Fish are oviparous Vertebratae with a double circulation, and
organs of respiration adapted to the element in which they
live. The respiration is performed by means of branchice
(gills) situated on each side of the neck, composed of nume-
rous laminae covered with small blood vessels. The air in
the water which passes through these laminae acts upon the
blood which is constantly arising from the heart. The heart
consists of one auricle and one ventricle which transmit the
blood to the branchiae ; from thence it is conveyed into an
artery situated under the spine. This vessel acts like the
left ventricle in Mammalia and distributes the blood to all
parts of the system to be returned by the veins to the heart.

The structure of Fish is well adapted for swimming, and
this is facilitated in a number of species by an air bladder
immediately under the spine. The tail is the principal in-
strument in progression. The organs analogous to limbs are
much reduced and are represented by rays which support
membranous fins. Those fins which correspond to the fore
limbs are called pectoral, to the hind ones ventral, those situ-
ated on the back dorsal, those below anal, and those at the
end of the tail caudal The rays are either hard and pointed,
consisting of a single piece divided through its length, when
they are called spinous; or they consist of a number of pieces
articulated together, called articulated rays.

The head varies in form, but consists of the same number

88 PISCES.

of bones as in other Ovipara, each bone being divided into
several pieces. In the greater number the intermaxillary
bone forms the margin of the upper jaw, having behind the
maxillary or labial bone. A palatine arch composed of the
process of several bones forms a sort of anterior jaw, and
aifords, behind, an articulation for the lower jaw, which
usually consists of two mandibulary bones on each side.
The hyoid bone has rays on each side for the support of the
branchise. These latter are covered by three bony pieces as
a sort of lid, the operculum, the suboperculum, and the inter-
operculum, so as to close the great opening of the gills ; these
three united play upon a fourth, the prceoperculum.

This class may be divided into Fishes Proper or Bony
Fishes, and the Chondropterygii or Cartilaginous Fishes.

Series I. Bony Fishes,
t ' '

ORDER I. ACANTHOPTERYGII.

14 •;-. i. (ffEg ,tsi -

Spines occupying the place of the first rays of the dorsal,
or alone sustaining the first fin of the back where there are
two ; some spines to the anal ; generally one to each ventral
The mobility of the upper jaw and the disposition in combs
of the branchise distinguish them from the Plectognathi and
the Lophobranchii. Fifteen families, of which we give the
four most remarkable.

FAMILY I. PERCOIDES.

Body oblong and covered with scales, generally hard and
rough; operculum or prseoperculum, often both, with denta-
ted or spinous edges ; the jaws, the fore part of the vomer,
and generally the palatine bones, furnished with teeth.
Three divisions.

The first have the ventrals inserted under the pectorals,
and forming a division which may be called Thoraci-Per-
coides. Two remarkable genera.

PISCES.
GENUS I. PERCA, Cuv. Perch.

Ventral fins under the pectorals; two dorsals; seven bran-
chial rays ; all the teeth en velours (so small and close to-
gether as to resemble the pile of velvet) ; bony operculum
terminating in two or three sharp points; preeoperculum den-
tated ; tongue smooth.

GENUS II. LABRAX, Cuv.

Differ from the Perca in having scaly opercula termina-
ting in two spines; tongue rough. Includes the Rock Fish of
America.

Another division have the ventrals placed more forward
than the pectorals; they are called Jugulares. The most
remarkable genus of which is the

URANOSCOPUS, Lin. Star Gazers.

Eyes placed at the upper surface of the head, and look up-
wards ; mouth vertical.

The third division have the ventrals farther back than the
pectorals. They constitute the Abdominales.

MULLUS. Mullet.

Ventrals to the rear ; pelvis not suspended to the shoulder ;
three rays to the branchiae ; praeoperculum not dentated ; two
long cirri (beards) hanging from the under jaw.

FAMILY II. ACANTHOPTERYGII,

WITH MAILED CHEEKS.

Aspect of the head singular, being variously bristled and
plated ; the suborbital bones more or less extended upon the
cheeks. Two remarkable genera.

GENUS I. TRIGLA, Cuv.

Three rays, free, and spread out under the pectoral fin, but
not sufficiently developed to sustain them in the air.

GENUS II. DACTYLOPTERUS, Lacep. Flying Fish.

Under rays of the pectoral very numerous and united by a
membrane, so as to form an additional pectoral longer than

M

90 PISCES.

the fish itself, and capable of sustaining it in the air for a
considerable time.

.-,-•''•- "rr }».; ••• \ ;•,*•• '•'

FAMILY III. SCOMBEROIDES.

Scales small ; body smooth ; tail and caudal fin very vigo-
rous. Three remarkable genera.

GENUS I. SCOMBER. Mackarel.

Two small cutaneous crests on the sides of the tail ; an
empty space between the two dorsals ; five false fins above
and below. -,;„/•

GENUS II. THYNNUS. Tunny.

A kind of corselet around the throat, formed by scales larger
and smoother than those of the rest of the body ; nine false
fins above and below.

GENUS III. XIPHIAS. Sword-Fish.

A beak or long point, in the form of a sword or spit, ter-
minating the upper jaw, and forming a powerful weapon.

FAMILY IV. ACANTHOPTERYGII,

WITH LABYRINTHIFORM PHARYNGEALS.

The superior pharyngeals divided into small lamellae, more
or less numerous, irregular, intercepting cells in which the
water remains to flow upon and moisten the branchiae while
the fish is removed from its element. This permits it to seek
the land and crawl to a considerable distance from the water ;
a singular faculty, which gave rise to the Indian belief that
these animals fell from heaven.

ORDER II. MALACOPTERYGII ABDOMINALES.

Upper jaw movable ; branchiae in combs ; rays of the fins
generally cartilaginous ; ventrals suspended under the abdo-
men and behind the pectorals, without being attached to the
bones of the shoulder. A numerous order, comprising the
greater part of Fresh-water Fishes. Five families.

PISCES. 91

•

FAMILY I. CIPRINID^E.

Mouth slightly cloven ; jaws weak and generally without
teeth ; pharyngeals deeply indented, to compensate for the
trifling armature of the jaws ; body scaly ; no adipose dorsal;
these are the least carnivorous of fish. Only one remarkable
genus.

GENUS CYPRINUS, Lin. Carp.

Tongue smooth; the palate provided with a thick, soft and
singularly irritable substance, commonly known by the name
of " Carp's tongue ;" pharynx presenting a powerful instru-
ment of mastication; only one dorsal ; body scaly; they in-
habit fresh water, and are the least carnivorous of their class ;
they live on herbage, grain and even ooze. Seven remark-
able subgenera.

SUBGENUS 1. CIPRINUS, Cuv. Carp proper.

Dorsal long, in which, as well as in the anal, is a spine
more or less stout, in place of the second ray; some have cirri,
others are without them.

SUBGENUS II. BARBUS, Cuv.

Dorsal and anal short; a strong spine in place of the
second or third ray of the dorsal; four little beards (cirri), of
which two are upon the end and two at the angles of the
upper jaw.

SUBGENUS III. GOBIO, Cuv. Gudgeon.

Dorsal and anal short, without spines ; cirri.

SUBGENUS IV. TINCA, Cuv. Tench.

Characteristics of the Gudgeons, but very small scales and
cirri.

SUBGENUS V. LEOCISCUS, Klein.

Dorsal and anal short ; no spines nor cirri.

SUBGENUS VI. CATOSTOMUS, Leseur.

Dorsals short and opposite to the ventrals ; lips fleshy,
hanging and fringed or crenated ; inhabit the fresh waters of
North America.

92 PISCES.

SUBGENUS VII. PCECILIA, Sclin.

Have the jaws horizontally flattened, protractile, slightly
cleft, armed with a row of very small teeth ; operculum
large ; five rays to the branchiae ; ventral but little way back ;
the dorsal above the anal ; small fish of the fresh waters of
America.

>'*;'! \ *f*

FAMILY II. ESOCES.

No adipose fin ; the edge of the upper jaw formed by the
intermaxillary, or when not so formed the maxillary is with-
out teeth and hidden by the lips ; instinct voracious ; many
of them ascend rivers.

GENUS I. Esox, Cuv. Pike.

Muzzle oblong, obtuse, wide and depressed ; one dorsal
opposite the anal ; nearly all the mouth, besides the jaws,
bristled with teeth.

GENUS II. EXOCETUS, Lin. Flying-Fish.

Excessive length of the pectoral fins, which are sufficiently
extended to support them some time in the air. Their flight
is never very long ; they rise to avoid voracious Fishes, but
soon fall, as their wings merely serve as parachutes. Dorsal
placed above the anal ; branchial rays ten.

FAMILY III. SILURID^E.

No true scales ; a naked skin or large osseous plates ; al-
most always the dorsal and pectoral have a strong articulated
spine instead of the first ray ; frequently an adipose one be-
hind. Those of the genus Silurus are commonly called Cat-
Pish.

FAMILY IV. SALMONIDES.

Body scaly ; the first dorsal with soft rays, followed by a
small adipose one, that is to say one formed simply of a fold
of the skin filled with fat and unsupported by rays.

GENUS I. SALMO, Cuv. Salmon proper,

Or Trout, have interior of the mouth more completely armed
than in any other Fish ; their natatory bladder extends from
one end of the abdomen to the other. Body almost always

PISCES. 93

spotted. Ventrals opposite to the middle of the dorsal.
Adipose opposite the anal ; branchial rays about ten.

GENUS II. OSMERUS, Artedi. Smelt.

Mouth not so well armed as in the Salmon ; body without
spots ; ventrals corresponding with the anterior edge of the
first dorsal ; branchial rays eight. They are found in the
sea at the mouth of large rivers.

FAMILY V. CLUPE^E.

No adipose fin ; body scaly.

GENUS I. CLUPEA, Guv. Herring proper.

Intermaxillaries very short, forming but part of the upper
jaw, the sides of which are formed by the maxillaries ; bran-
chiae deeply cleft, sides of the branchial rays comb-like;
mouth moderate ; upper lips not notched.

GENUS II. ALOSA, N. Shad.

An emargination in the upper jaw.

GENUS III. ENGRAULIS, Cuv. Anchovy.

Mouth cleft far behind the eyes; branchiae still more open
than in the Herring ; rays twelve or more.

ORDER III. MALACOPTERYGII SUBRACHIATI.

Ventrals attached under the pectorals. Pelvis immediately
suspended to the bones of the shoulder. Two remarkable
genera.

GENUS I. GADUS, Lin.

Recognizable by the sharp-pointed ventrals attached to the
throat. A slightly elongated compressed body, covered with
soft scales ; head without scales, fins soft, jaws and front of
the vomer armed with unequal pointed teeth in many rows ;
branchiae large, with seven rays ; two or three dorsal, one or
two anal and a distinct caudal. Inhabit cold and temperate
seas and form important fisheries.

94 PISCES.

SUBGENUS MORRHUA, CUV. Cod.

Three dorsal fins; two anals; a cirrus at the point of the
lower jaw.

SUBGENUS MERLANGUS. Whiting.

The same number of fins as the Cod, but no cirrus.

SUBGENUS MERLUCCIUS, Cuv. Hake.

Two dorsals ; only one anal ; no cirrus.

GENUS II. PLEURONECTES, Lin.

Commonly called Flat Fish, have a character unique among
vertebrated animals, consisting in the want of symmetry in
the head, where both eyes are on one side, which remains
uppermost while the animal is swimming, and which is
always deeply coloured, while that in which the eyes are
wanting is whitish. The rest of the body participates a little
in this irregularity. The two sides of the mouth are not
equal, and the pectorals rarely so. The body is strongly
compressed and vertically elevated. The dorsal extends
throughout the length of the back; the anal occupies the
under part of the body, and the ventrals almost seem to con-
tinue it before while they are in fact often united with it.
There are six rays to the gills, and no natatory bladder; they
seldom quit the bottom of the water. Three remarkable sub-
genera.

SUBGENUS I. PLATESSA, Cuv. Plaice.

A range of obtuse trenchant teeth in each jaw; generally
teeth enpaves to the pharyngeals (arranged like paving stones).
The dorsal only advances as far as the top of the other eye,
and leaving, as well as the anal, an interval between it and
the caudal. Generally eyes on the right.

SUBGENUS II. RHOMBUS, Cuv. Turbot.

Teeth small and crowded, like those of a card, in the jaws
and pharynx; dorsal advancing towards the edge of the upper
jaw, and extending, as well as the anal, to very near the cau-
dal ; eyes almost always to the left.

SUBGENUS III. SOLEA, Cuv. Sole.

Mouth twisted, and as if distorted, to the side opposite the
eyes, and furnished on this side only with teeth en velours

PISCES. 95

(very minute and crowded), while the side of the eye is de-
prived of teeth ; dorsal commencing at the mouth and ex-
tending, as well as the anal, to the caudal.

ORDER IV. MALACOPTERYGII APODES.

Form elongated ; skin thick and soft, presenting but little
appearance of scales ; few bones ; no ventral fins. Two re-
markable genera.

GENUS MURJENA, Lin.

Small opercula concentrically surrounded by rays, and en-
veloped, as well as these latter, in the skin, which only opens
at a considerable distance back by a species of tube. Two
remarkable subgenera.

SUBGENUS ANGUILLA, Cuv. Eel.

Gills opening on each side under the pectoral fins ; the
dorsal and caudal forming by their union a pointed caudal ;
dorsal commencing at a considerable distance behind the
pectorals.

. : . .

SUBGENUS CONGER, Cuv.

Dorsal commencing near the pectorals ; upper jaw longest ;
same characteristics as in the Eel.

GENUS GYMNOTUS, Lin.

Gills partially closed by a membrane, but which opens
before the pectorals ; anal extending generally to the end of
the tail : no dorsal.

ORDER V. LOPHOBRANCHII.

Jaws complete and free ; branchiae, instead of having the
form of a comb, are divided into small round tufts arranged in
pairs along the branchial arches, and concealed under a large
operculum tied down on all sides by a membrane, which
leaves only a small orifice for the escape of the water ; bran-

96 PISCES.

chial rays hardly apparent ; body of small size, and plated
from one end to the other with laminae, which generally ren-
der it angular. Two remarkable genera.

GENUS SYNGNATHUS, Lin.

A tubular snout terminated by an ordinary mouth split
vertically; no ventrals; the eggs slip into a pouch placed
under the abdomen or tail, and which splits open for the pas-
sage of the fry.

SUBGENUS HIPPOCAMPUS, Cuv.

Trunk compressed laterally, and considerably more ele-
vated than the tail ; by curving after death the head and body
take the semblance of the chest of a horse in miniature ; the
joints of the scales are elevated into ridges, and their salient
angles into spines ; no caudal fin.

GENUS PEGASUS, Lin.

Mouth opening beneath the base of the snout; body mailed;
trunk wide and depressed ; pectoral often very large, whence
they derive their name ; dorsal and anal opposite each other.
[Indian Ocean.]

ORDER VI. PLECTOGNATHI.

Maxillary bone soldered, or firmly attached, to the sides of
the intermaxillary, which alone constitutes the jaw ; palatine
arch connected by a suture with the cranium, and deprived
of mobility; opercula and rays concealed under a thick skin,
leaving visible only a small branchial fissure ; mere vestiges
of ribs ; no true ventrals ; natatory bladder considerable.
Two families.

FAMILY I. GYMNODONTES.

Jaws furnished, instead of apparent teeth, with an ivory
substance internally divided into laminae, whose ensemble
resembles the beak of a Parrot, and which, in fact, consists of
true teeth united, succeeding each other as fast as they are
destroyed by trituration. One remarkable genus.

PISCES. 97

GENUS DIODON, Lin.

Jaws undivided, and presenting only one piece above and
another below, behind the trenchant edge of which is a round
portion transversely furrowed, and forming a powerful in-
strument of mastication ; skin armed on all sides with thick
pointed spines, so that when inflated they resemble the burr
of a chestnut tree. They can also swell themselves out by
filling their stomach with air, or rather a sort of fine and ex-
tensible crop, which occupies the whole length of the ab-
domen.

FAMILY II. SCLERODERMI.

Snout conical or pyramidal, prolonged from the eyes, and
terminated by a small mouth armed with a few distinct teeth
in each jaw; skin generally rough or covered with hard
scales. One remarkable genus.

GENUS OSTRACION, Lin.

In place of scales bony and regular compartments, soldered
as- in a cuirass, permitting no free movement except to the
tail and fins, which pass through the holes of this corselet.

Series H. Chondropterygii. Cartilaginous Fishes.

Skeleton consisting of a mere homogeneous and semitrans-
parent cartilage, which is invested only at the surface, in the
genera Raia and Squalus, with a bed of small, opaque, circular
grains, arranged one against the other and not in threads or
filaments.

In the Lampreys the skeleton has not even this envelope;
and, in the Ammoccetes, it remains absolutely membranous.

The most apparent characteristic of this division of the
class of Fishes is the absence of maxillary and intermaxillary
bones ; or rather in their only having vestiges of them under
the skin, while their functions are fulfilled by bones analo-
gous to palatines, and sometimes even by a vomer. Three
orders.

N

98 PISCES.

ORDER I. STURIONES.

Branchiae free at their external edge ; a single orifice very
open in each operculum ; no rays to the membrane. One
remarkable genus.

GENUS ACIPENSER, Lin. Sturgeon.

Body elongated and more or less covered with bony plates
implanted upon the skin in longitudinal rows ; the exterior
portion of the head also well mailed ; mouth placed under the
snout, small and without teeth ; eyes and nostrils in the sides
of the head ; cirri under the snout ; dorsal behind the ven-
trals and beneath it ; caudal surrounding the extremity of the
spine, and having a salient lobe beneath shorter than its
principal point. These enormous Fishes are not only inha-
bitants of the ocean but likewise nearly all the northern rivers
of the old and new world. Norway produces some of a
thousand pounds weight. In old Rome a respect approach-
ing to worship was paid them, and they were borne in tri-
umph through the streets.

ORDER II. SELACHII.

Branchiae fixed on both edges, and letting the water escape
by as many holes pierced in the skin as there are intervals
between them ; the ordinary bones of the jaw reduced to mere
vestiges ; the bones which succeed, the palatines above and
postmandibularies below, alone armed with teeth ; branchi-
ostegal rays not apparent externally ; no operculum ; pecto-
rals and ventrals; the latter placed behind the abdomen.
Three remarkable genera.

GENUS I. SQUALUS, Lin. Shark.

Body elongated ; tail thick and fleshy ; pectorals of mode-
rate size ; form approaching that of ordinary Fishes ; branchial
openings ; eyes upon the sides of the head and neck ; snout
sustained by three cartilaginous branches connected with

PISCES. 99

the anterior part of the cranium ; small branchial ribs appa-
rent.

GENUS II. PRISTIS, Lath. Saw-Fish.

Uniting with the form of the Shark a body flattened before ;
branchiae opening below as in Raid, and a very long snout or
depressed beak, like the blade of a sword, armed on each side
with strong, bony, trenchant and pointed spines ; this weapon
enables them to attack the largest Cetacea.

GENUS III. RAIA, Lin. Ray.

Body flattened horizontally, and resembling a disk on ac-
count of its union with the exceedingly broad and fleshy
pectorals joined with each other to the snout, or before it, and
which extend behind the two sides of the abdomen to near
the base of the ventrals ; eyes on the dorsal surface as well
as vents (two openings which communicate with the bran-
chial cavity and supply it with water, when the gullet of the
animal is filled with prey) ; mouth, nostrils and branchial
orifices on the ventral surface; dorsals almost always on the
tail.

ORDER III. SUCTORII.

Mouth in a ring ; skeleton more imperfect than in any
other vertebrated animal ; neither pectorals nor ventrals ; body
elongated and terminated before by a fleshy lip, circular or
semicircular, sustained by a cartilaginous ring, arising from
the soldering of the palatines to the under jaw ; the branchiae,
instead of combs, present the appearance of purses, formed by
the union of one face of a branchia with the opposite one of
its neighbour. One remarkable genus.

GENUS PETROMYZON, Burner. Lamprey.

Seven branchial openings on each side; skin of the tail,
above and beneath, turned up into a longitudinal crest, which
supplies the place of a fin, but in which the rays are hardly
distinguishable fibres ; two dorsals, the posterior one joining
the caudal ; maxillary ring armed with very strong teeth ;

100

PISCES.

tubercles covered with a very hard shell, and resembling
teeth, garnishing the inner disk of the lip, which is very cir-
cular ; tongue with two longitudinal rows of small teeth, and
moving backwards and forwards like a piston, producing a
suction, by means of which the Fish attaches itself to rocks
and other solid bodies, and even to other Fish, whom they
finally pierce and devour. Lampreys are highly esteemed
by epicures. In ancient Rome an extraordinary price was
paid for them, and satirists reproached the rich for their ex-
travagance in this respect. In the year 1600 a lamprey would
bring ten or even twenty pieces of gold.

101

Second Great Division of the Animal Kingdom.

ANIMALIA MOLLUSCA.

MOLLUSCA have no articulated skeleton or vertebral canal.
Their nervous system consists of a number of medullary
masses, which are named according to their location in dif-
ferent parts of the body. The principal one is called the
brain, and is situated transversely on the oesophagus, which
it envelopes with a nervous collar ; organs of motion, circu-
lation and respiration various. The circulation is always
double, being assisted by an aortic ventricle seated between
the veins of the lungs and the arteries of the body ; blood
white or bluish.

Nearly all the Mollusca have a development of skin called
a mantle ; this is either membranous or fleshy as in the naked
Mollusca, or it has developed in its thickness a substance
more or less hard, arranged in layers : when this substance
becomes so much developed that the animal finds shelter
beneath it, it is called a shett, and the animal is called testa-
ceous.

All modes of mastication and every variety of digestive
apparatus is to be found in this class. They most generally
have a large liver.

Their muscles are attached to different parts of the skin,
so as to produce various inflections, contractions or prolon-
gations of the body, by means of which they creep or swim.

Explanation of Fig. A, PL 29. The nervous system of an
Octopus: 1, the brain; 2, the nervous collar around the

102 ANIMALIA MOLLUSCA.

oesophagus ; 3, optic ganglions ; 4, lateral ganglions ; 5, ab-
dominal ganglion.

Fig. B., PL 29. Anatomy of an Acephala: 1, the mouth
followed by the stomach and intestines ; 2, the liver ; 3, the
heart ; 4, the aorta ; 5, the branchiae ; 6, the muscular appa-
ratus ; 7, extension of the mantle in the form of a tube.

CEPHALOPODA.

Having the most complicated organization of all the Mol-
lusca; head rounded and provided with two large eyes very
similar to those of the vertebrated animals ; apparatus of
hearing situated in two little cavities, one on each side of the
head, without external meatus or semicircular canal, and in-
closing a membranous sac, in which is suspended a small
stone ; mouth armed with strong horny jaws, like the beak of
a Parrot; about its opening long fleshy arms, extremely vigo-
sous, capable of being flexed in every direction, and provided
with suckers, by means of which they attach themselves very
firmly to the objects which they embrace ; the rest of the
body inclosed in a kind of sac ; branchiae receive the venous
blood under the influence of the contractions of two fleshy
ventricles situated at the base of each ; aortic heart composed
of one ventricle only ; stomach extremely complicated ; a
peculiar gland secretes a blackish humour, which they em-
ploy in tinting the water of the sea for the purpose of con-
cealing themselves, and which is kept in a pouch diversely
situated according to the species.

GENUS I. OCTOPUS, Lam. Polypus.

Sack without the fins ; rudiments of a small dorsal, con-
sisting in two little grains of a horny substance, on the two
sides, of the thickness of the back; eight feet, nearly equal,
very large in proportion to the body, and united at base by a
membrane ; the animal uses them in crawling and seizing its

ANIMALIA MOLLUSCA. 103

prey ; their length and strength make them formidable wea-
pons, by whose means it entwines itself around other animals,
even destroying men while bathing.

GENUS II. ARGONAUTA. Argonaut.

No cartilaginous granules on the back ; the pair of feet
nearest the back susceptible of dilatation, at their extremity,
into a large membrane; a very thin shell, symmetrically
fluted, spirally convoluted, and somewhat the figure of a
shallop ; consequently the animal, when the sea is calm, uses
it as a boat, employing six of its tentacula as oars, and up-
lifting the two, which are spread out as sails. If the sea
becomes rough, or an enemy appears, the sails and oars are
instantly drawn within the shell, and the shallop sinks.

GEWUS III. SEPIA. Cuttle-Fish.

Body contained in a sac bordered throughout its length
by a narrow fin, and inclosing in the back a shell formed of
an infinity of very small, fine, calcareous laminae ; mouth
surrounded with ten arms, of which two are much longer
than the rest, and have suckers at the extremity only.

GASTEROPODA.

This is a class including a great number of Mollusca of
which an idea may be obtained from the Slug and the Snail.
Locomotion effected by the aid of a fleshy disk placed under
the abdomen ; head more or less distinct and situated anteri-
orly, and furnished with very movable appendages (tentacula)
placed above the mouth, and which are the seat of touch,
perhaps of smell ; eyes very small, sometimes entirely want-
ing, sometimes adhering to the head, sometimes fixed at the
base, side or point of the tentacula; respiratory organs of

104 ANIMALIA MOLLUSCA.

various forms, and upon which depends the division of these
animals into eight orders. We give the three principal.

ORDER I. PULMONEA.

Respiration effected in a cavity the narrow orifice of which
they open and shut at pleasure ; no branchiae ; a net-work of
pulmonary vessels creeps over the parietes of the respiratory
cavity. Some inhabit the earth; others the water; the latter
are obliged to rise occasionally to the surface, and open the
orifice of their pectoral cavity to breathe. Two remarkable
genera.

GENUS I. LIMAX, Lin. Slug.

Naked semi-cylindrical Mollusca; the skin forming a shield
upon the back containing often the rudiments of a shell ; pul-
monary orifice at the right side of this buckler. Three re-
markable subgenera.

SUBGENUS I. LIMAX PROPER, Lara.

Body generally elongated, and provided, in some cases,
with a small oblong and flat shell, or with a calcareous con-
cretion ; orifice of the respiratory cavity at the right side of
this species of buckler ; four tentacula susceptible of protru-
sion and retraction by evolving like the fingers of a glove; in
the mouth a single jaw in form of a dentelated crescent.

SUBGENUS II. VAGINULU?, Ferus.

Mantle dense, without shell, and extending over the whole
length of the body ; four tentacula. [East and West Indies.]

SUBGENUS III. TESTACELLA, Lam.

Mantle very small, placed upon the posterior extremity,
containing a small oval shell with a very wide aperture, and
a very small spire; this shell is not the tenth part of the body
in length.

GENUS II. IlEiiix, Lin. Snail.

Shell complete, apparent and globular; the opening a little
encroached upon by the projection of the penultimate turn of
the spire, and circumscribed in the form of a crescent. The

ANIMALIA MOLLUSCA. 105

Romans bred them in parks, and fattened them for food; the
most esteemed came from Sicily and Africa. Snails breed
in all parts of the world ; moist localities are those in which
they assemble, through preference, during summer ; in winter
they bury themselves in the earth, or under walls, and the
bark of trees.

ORDER II. NUDIBRANCHIATA.

No shell nor pulmonary cavity ; branchiae exposed upon
some parts of the back. They are all marine animals, fre-
quently swimming in a reversed position, making the sur-
face of the feet concave like a boat, and aiding themselves
with the edges of their mantle and their tentacula as with
oars. Only one remarkable genus.

GENUS DORIS, Cuv.

Branchiae arranged in a circle on the posterior part of the
back, under the form of little arbusculse, composing altogether
the appearance of a flower. They are found in all seas.
Their ova resemble gelatinous bands spread upon rocks and
marine plants.

ORDER III. PECTINIBRANCHIATA.

Respiratory organs consisting almost always of branchiae,
composed of laminae, united in the form of combs, and con-
cealed in a dorsal cavity with a wide opening on the side of
the head. Almost all have turbinated shells, with the mouth
entire or provided with a syphon, and generally susceptible
of being more or less completely closed by an operculum at-
tached to the foot of the animal behind. Four remarkable
genera.

GENUS I. CONUS, Lin. Cone.

Shell conical, with the apex in front; the spire flat, or
slightly projecting; aperture rectilinear, very close, elongated,

106

ANIMALIA MOLLUSCA.

and narrowed by an enlargement of the straight edge and the
folds of the columella.

GENUS II. CYPRJEA, Lin. Porcelain.

Spire projecting but little ; aperture narrow and extending
from one extremity to the other; shell resembling the half of
an egg; the rounded part smooth and adorned with beautiful
colours ; the under side flattened.

GENUS III. PURPURA, Brug. Purple.

Shell oval and thick ; columella without folds ; provided
with a short canal bent to the left ; last whorl of the spire
very large ; aperture very wide.

GENUS IV. CASSIS, Brug. Helmet.

Shell flattened behind, or with a spire only slightly pro-
jecting; aperture narrow, long and terminated anteriorly by
a very short canal, emarginated and reflected to the rear;
columella indented and plicated.

ACEPHALA.

Mollusca without distinct head, whose mouth, having no
teeth, is -concealed under the mantle, and cannot be thrust
forward, so that the animal rather receives the nutritive mo-
lecules brought by the water than seizes them of its own
accord ; only the senses of touch and taste are certainly ascer-
tained to exist. This class includes almost all the bivalved
shells, a great number of the multi valves, and some without
shells. The mantle opens in various ways, sometimes before,
sometimes all round, and then again only upon one side;
the shell is closed by means of muscles specially destined for
that purpose; it opens by the action of an elastic ligament

ANIMALIA MOLLUSCA. 107

placed behind the hinge, and which throws open the valves
when the muscles relax.

FAMILY I. OSTRACEA.

The mantle open, without tubes or any particular aper-
tures ; foot very small or entirely wanting ; the greater part
are fixed either by their shells or by their threads to rocks or
other bodies under water. Two remarkable genera.

GENUS I. OSTREA. Oyster.

No foot ; mantle provided with a double range of fringes;
shell hinged, inequivalved and laminated ; hinge without
teeth; ligament small; a single muscular mass extending
from one valve to the other.

GENUS II. AVICULA, Brug.

Besides the single transverse muscular mass, another fasci-
culus extending from one valve to the other, and placed before
the mouth. Certain species are called Pintadinse, the most
celebrated of which yields the mother of pearl.

FAMILY II. MYTILACEA.

Mantle opening before, with another separate opening ; all
have a foot used in crawling, or at least in drawing out,
directing and placing the byssus. Three remarkable genera.

GENUS I. MYTILUS, Lin. Sea Muscle.

Shell swoln out into a triangle with equal valves; one is
fixed by a byssus. [The rocks of the sea.]

GENUS II. ANODONTEA.

No byssus ; hinge without a tooth ; in the interior of the
shell a silvery nacre, and sometimes the most brilliant co-
lours, purple and pink. [Fresh waters.]

GENUS III. UNIO.

Shell has a short cavity in one valve near the hinge, which
receives a short plate or tooth of the other, and behind it is a
long plate, which is inserted between two other plates on the
opposite side. [Fresh waters ; species of the United States
numerous.]

.•

•••«•

f IT SK SI

108 ANIMALIA MOLLUSCA.

FAMILY III. INCLUSA.

Mantle opening at the anterior end, or towards the middle,
only for the passage of the foot, and prolonged at the other
end into a double tube, which issues from the shell.

GENUS TEREDO.

Mantle prolonged into a tunnel much longer than the two
little rhomboidal valves, and terminated by two short tubes,
the base of which is furnished on each side with a stony and
movable pallette. The Teredo penetrates while young into
the wood which it finds submerged, where, by the aid of its
valves, it digs out for itself a residence, enlarging it as it
grows in size.

109

Third Great Division of the Animal Kingdom.

ANIMALIA ARTICULATA.

THIS division is well, characterized by an external articu-
lated skeleton in the form of a sheath, adapted, according to
the different genera, for walking, running, swimming, or for
flight. This skeleton is either composed of hard articulated
rings or is membranous or soft. The mode of connection of
the articulations of the limbs is by two points, allowing only
a hinge-like motion ; but in the body the connection is by
flexible membranes or by parts fitting into each other.

The Articulata resemble each other most in their nervous
system. The brain is situated upon the oesophagus, and
supplies the parts near the head with nerves. A double row
of ganglia extend along the abdomen, and are united together
and with the brain by nervous cords. Each of these supply
the place of additional brains, and send nerves to the neigh-
bouring parts.

The kind of respiration, the organs of circulation, and even
the colour of the blood, exhibit so much difference, as to re-
quire separate notice in each class.

The classes are four. The Annulata or red blooded
worms ; the Crustacea ; the Arachnides, and the Insecta.

110 ANIMALIA ARTICULATA.

ANNULATA.

Body divided into numerous rings ; the head hardly dis-
tinct from the other segments, and without antennae properly
so called ; nervous system composed of a long series of gan-
glions, one pair to each ring ; eyes scarcely distinguishable,
or entirely wanting ; never organs of hearing or smell ; skin
soft, never stony or like bark ; no articulated feet ; stiff hairs,
in the greater number, for locomotion ; respiration either by
exterior organs analogous to branchiae, or by interior organs
having no resemblance to tracheae, or even by the surface of
the skin ; red blood inclosed in two systems of vessels, where
it moves under the influence of contractile pouches, called
hearts by some authors ; mouth presenting either a vent hole
or a long piotractile trunk, or small horny jaws ; nearly all
live in the water (earth worms or lumbrid excepted); all ap-
pear to be more or less carnivorous. Three orders.

ORDER I. TUBICOL^E.

*/ 1 f« . J ' •( 'f^U'-f i-"f :. '^-.'I .'•? "•• ?'.'* i rl ^f' '-'• i. '• ' '• •': ''

Branchiae in the form of tufts or arbusculae, attached to the
head or anterior part of the body ; ordinary habitation in
horny or calcareous tubes formed by a transudation of the
skin of the animal, or by fragments of shells and particles of
mud agglutinated upon a membrane secreted by the animal.

All the species live in the sea.

r . .-affl • ^^mcrTO ofit

GENUS AMPHITRITE, Cuv.

The Amphitrite are known by the gold coloured setae,
arranged like a crown or the teeth of a comb on the fore part
of their head ; their mouth is surrounded by numerous ten-
tacula.

ANIMALIA ARTICULATA. Ill

ORDER II. DORSIBRANCHIATA.

Branchiae in the form of tufts, arbusculae, laminae or tuber-
cles placed upon the middle of the body, or along the sides ;
most species live in the mud, or swirn freely in the sea ; a
few have tubes.

GENUS APHRODITA, Lin.

Back covered by two longitudinal ranges of scales, under
which are concealed the branchiae ; body usually flat, short
and broad.

ORDER III. ABRANCHIATE.

No apparent branchiae ; respiration by the surface of the
skin, or, as it is thought, in some by internal cavities; the
greater part live free in the water or mud, some in the moist
earth. Two families ; one of which have setae, the other is
without any.

FAMILY I. ABRANCHIATE SETIGEILE.

One remarkable genus.

; V LUMBRICI, Lin. Earth-Worms.

Body long, cylindrical and formed by a great number of
rings ; no eyes, tentacula or branchiae ; mouth without teeth ;
the common Worm is so widely disseminated as to be uni-
versally known; its body, which sometimes attains the length
of a foot, includes more than one hundred and twenty rings,
each having eight hairs beneath ; it feeds on vegetable matter
or animal substances.

Circulation of the Earth- Worm, PL 31, Fig. 1 : A, dorsal
vessel ; B, abdominal vessel ; C, subnervous vessel ; D, mo-
liniform vessels or hearts ; E, deep seated abdomino-dorsal
vessels ; F, superficial abdomino-dorsal vessels.

The mixed blood of the dorsal vessel A is conveyed, by
the contractions of the hearts D, into the abdominal vessel B,
which distributes it to the different parts of the body ; thence

112 ANIMALIA ARTICULATA.

it returns, as venous blood, through the vessels E, into the
dorsal vessel, which transmits it into the vessel C, where,
after having regained its nutritive properties, it returns, by
the vessels F, into the dorsal vessel, and there mixes with the
venous blood brought by the vessels E.

FAMILY II. ABRANCHIATE ASETIGERE.

One remarkable genus.

HIRUDO, Lin. Leech.

Body elongated, flat beneath, convex above, soft, retractile,
and composed of a great number of segments ; small aper-
tures are to be observed in the inferior surface and upon the
sides, corresponding to small vesicles, considered by some
authors as organs of respiration ; mouth sometimes composed
(as in the medicinal species) of a vent-hole, encircled by a
lip, at the bottom of which are three jaws, each armed upon
the edge with two rows of very fine teeth ; sometimes the
teeth are few and blunt ; sometimes the mouth is entirely
without horny points; crawling is effected by means of the
disk at the mouth, and another placed at the posterior part
of the body.

Pulmonary circulation of the Leech, PL 31, Fig. 2 : A, a
lateral vessel; B, pulmonary auricle; C, latero-dorsal vessel;
D, a latero-abdominal vessel; E, pulmonary vessel ; F, pul-
monary pouch.

In the Leech there are four longitudinal trunks, one of
which is the dorsal vessel, another the subnervous, and the
other two are abdominal vessels. These vessels all commu-
nicate with each other both by capillaries and by large
branches (C, D). From these branches are given off the
vessels destined for general nutrition and cutaneous respira-
tion ; but there is likewise a pulmonary respiration carried
on by means of a double apparatus, consisting of particular
vessels and a pulmonary pouch (F). The blood passes from
the vessel D through E into the capillaries on the surface of
the pouch F ; it returns from thence through the pulmonary
auricle B into the lateral vessel A.

ANIMALIA ARTICULATA. 113

CRUSTACEA.

Body divided into rings more or less distinct, movable, of
considerable consistency (horny or calcareous), and having a
double series of articulated membranes constituting one or
more, frequently two pairs of antennae ; several jaws or other
organs serving for prehension of food ; several pairs of nata-
tory or ambulatory feet (in general five or seven pairs); ner-
vous system composed either, of a great number of similar
nervous swellings, disposed by pairs, and united so as to
form two gangl ionic chains, distant from each other, and ex-
tending throughout the length of the body, or of two ganglions
dissimilar in form, volume and disposition, but always simple
and single, and situated one on the head, the other on the
thorax. Circulation . complete ; heart aortic; respiration by
branchiae; eyes compound, in a few cases simple, and de-
scending, by successive modifications of organization, to pe-
diculated eyes with facets^ composed each of an hexagonal
or square corneal, a conical crystalline, or vitreous body, and
a gelatinous substance, surrounded, as well as the crystalline,
with a colouring matter, and considered as an expansion of
the optic nerve. Almost always there is ah auditory appa-
ratus which consists in a small tubercle situated between the
mouth and the base of the external antennae, including a
vessel filled with an aqueous liquid. Three remarkable
orders.

ORDER DECAPODA.

Rings of the head and thorax soldered together and con-
cealed under an enormous carapax which extends to the ab-
p

114 ANIMALIA ARTICULATA.

domen; branchise formed of lamellse or filaments, always
simple and inserted in the internal paries of a special cavity
situated on each side of the thorax, and formed by the lateral
prolongation of the carapax ; heart nearly quadrilateral, situ-
ated in the middle of the thorax ; from this heart spring six
principal arteries, distributing the blood through all parts of
the body ; buccal apparatus extremely complicated, and com-
posed of a lip, small tongue, and six pairs of members, viz.
a pair of mandibles, two pairs of jaws, and three pairs of foot
jaws; five pairs of true feet, formed of six articulations; 1,
the coxa or hip ; 2, the femur or thigh ; 3, the tibia or leg ;
and the true foot, consisting of, 4, the carpus ; 5, the pollex ;
6, the index. Four antennae inserted between the eyes and
mouth ; eyes with facets, pedunculated and movable. Two
families.

Explanation of Fig. A, PL 33. Respiratory apparatus of a
Decapoda : 1, branchiae ; 2, venous sinus ; 3, vessel carrying
out blood ; 4, vessels returning blood ; 5, heart ; 6, sternal
artery. The small arrows show the course of the blood
through the vessels.

FAMILY OF THE BRACHYURA.

Tail but little developed, hardly of any use in locomotion,
without false natatory feet, never terminated by a fin, in the
form of a fan, and doubled up under the body. Three re-
markable genera.

GENUS PORTUNUS, Fabr.

The two posterior feet terminating in fins ; shell forming
the segment of a circle, wider than long ; dilated before, nar-
rowed behind ; short ocular pedicles ; tail of the males with
five distinct rings, seven in the females.

GENUS CANCER, Fabr. Crab proper.

Posterior feet ambulatory; carapax at least once and a half
as wide as long, of a tolerably regular oval, and very convex
above ; anterior feet thick and short

GENUS GECARCINUS. Leech.

Shell in the form of a heart, thick, without teeth or spines;
pedicles of the eyes short and lodged in rounded cavities;

ANIMALIA ARTICULATA. 115

foot-jaws wide apart, leaving exposed a portion of the interior
of the mouth.

FAMILY OF THE MACROURA.

Tail well developed, generally longer than the cephalo-
thoracic portion of the body, extending behind and employed
in natation ; it has always beneath it lamellous false feet, and
at its extremity a fin in the form of a fan. Four remarkable
genera.

GENUS PAGURUS, Fabr. Hermit Crabs.

Body elongated; tail extended, at least as long as the
trunk ; the four last feet much shorter than the preceding ;
posterior part of the body entirely soft. Inhabit marine
shells.

GENUS PAL.SJMON, Fabr. Prawns.

Body of a less solid consistence than that of the other
Crustacea, arcuated, and, as it were, hunch-backed; the fore-
head prolonged into a beak-like point ; lateral antennae very
long ; the intermediate with three filaments ; carpus inarti-
culated ; second feet the longest.

GENUS ASTACUS, Fabr. Lobster.

The three first pairs of feet terminated by a dydactile
hand, the first enormous and like a forceps; tail fan-like with
lateral plates divided transversely.

GENUS PALINURUS, Fab.

Lateral antennas hairy, exceedingly long and thick; feet
simple ; only four pair of false feet.

ORDER AMPHIPODA.

Eyes sessile and immovable ; no carapax ; body composed
of rings ; four first foot-jaws serving for locomotion ; no pro-
per branchiae ; mandibles provided with a palpus; the five
first pairs of abdominal limbs aiding locomotion and not
branchial; palpi of the thoracic limbs vesicular and bran-
chial. Two remarkable genera.

ANIMALIA ART1CULATA.
GENUS PHRONIMA, Lat.

Four anterior pair of feet in the form of a hook; fifth didac-
tyle; antennae two; appendages of the tail six, styliform and
forked.

GENUS TALIPRUS, Lat.

No foot in form of a hook ; the haunch of the last pair of
feet very large.

ORDER ISOPODA.

Characteristics of the preceding order ; no palpi, however,
to the mandibles; seldom any proper branchiae; the first five
pairs of false abdominal feet branchial.

GENUS ONISCUS, Lin. Wood-Louse.

•

Four antennse (of which only the lateral ones are very
apparent) with eight articulations, and covered at base by
the lateral edges of the head ; they inhabit dark and moist
places.

ARACHNIDES.

Skin like bark, but neither horny nor calcareous ; head
confounded with the thorax; abdomen distinct; never wings;
antennae replaced by articulated pieces (chelicerae) terminated
by one or two movable hooks ; from two to twelve eyes grouped
in various ways ; never composite eyes ; generally four pair
of feet inserted in the thorax, and terminated by two, some-
times three hooks ; nervous system composed of two cords
which, except in the case of Scorpions, have but three gan-
glions; respiration by pulmonary sacs placed under the
abdomen, or by ramified tracheae, communicating with the

ANIMALIA ARTICULATA. 117

external air by fissures or apertures called stigmata or spira-
cula ; there are from two to eight of them. Blood white ;
circulation in accordance with the mode of respiration. The
most of them feed on Insects; either seizing them in the
silky web which it fabricates, or catching them by running,
or leaping upon them when they approach too near their
retreat. Others live as Parasites, upon Vertebrated Animals;
a certain species are found only in flour, upon cheese, and
different vegetables.

ORDER I. PULMONARIA.

Respiration by pulmonary sacs placed under the abdomen,
and communicating with the exterior air by spiracula, some-
times there are eight, four on each side, sometimes four, or
two ; from six to eight smooth eyes ; heart consisting of a
large cylindrical vessel, sending the blood through the arte-
ries to the different parts of the body, and receiving by
the veins that which has traversed the respiratory organs.
Always four pairs of feet. Two remarkable families.

Explanation of Fig. B, PL 33. Circulation of Pulmonaria :
1, the heart; 2, artery carrying blood to the head; 3, respi-
ratory apparatus ; 4, vessels which reconvey the blood from
the pulmonary sacs to the heart.

FAMILY I. ARANEIDES.

Foot-palpi without forceps at the end, and terminated at
most by one small hook ; four, or two, pulmonary pouches ;
.last articulation of the chelicerse pierced near its extremity,
for the issue of a poison, proceeding from a gland placed in
the preceding joint. Abdomen soft, and furnished, in ally
with four or six nipples, fleshy at the end, cylindrical or
conical, articulated, situated very close to each other, and
pierced at the extremity with an infinity of little holes, for
the passage of a silky thread, issuing from reservoirs within.
Legs composed of seven articulations, of which the two first
form the hip, the next the thigh, the fourth and the fifth the
tibia, and the two others the tarsus terminated by two or

118 ANIMALIA ARTICULATA.

three hooks, of which two only are dentelated like a comb.
Eyes smooth and glistening in the dark. Two genera.

GENUS MYGALE, Walck.

Eight eyes situated at the extremity of the thorax and ge-
nerally very close together; four pulmonary pouches; hairs
on the tarsi concealing the hooks. These are often called
Crab-Spiders; their bites are considered dangerous; the
Mygale Avicularia will destroy a Humming Bird. The My-
gale Csementaria, or mason, is remarkable for its industry ;
it digs subterranean galleries, one or two feet deep, in decli-
vities, or places secure from inundation ; these galleries it
lines with fine silk, closing up the entrance by means of a
solid trap, which fits with a hinge to the opening ; this trap
shuts of its own accord and closes the dwelling of the inge-
nious animal.

GENUS ARANEA, Lin.

Never more than two pulmonary pouches ; contains two
tribes.

Tribe of Sedentary Jlranex.

These weave webs ; or at least cast abroad threads to sur-
prise their prey, and always remain in these traps or their
vicinity, as well as near their eggs.

SUBGENUS CLOTHO, Walck.

Eyes arranged in a triangle. These Spiders attach to
stones a kind of tent, the exterior of which resembles the
finest taffety; it is composed, according to the age of the
animal, of a greater or less number of layers ; the top of the
stone within is furnished with a kind of carpet of extreme
whiteness and softness. An imperceptible window, produced
by the separation of two portions of the exterior envelope cross-
ing each other, serves as a gate to the dwelling.

SUBGENPS ARANEA PROPER.

Eyes arranged in a slightly curved line. These construct
in the interior of our houses, in angles of walls, upon plants,
hedges, and often upon road sides, either in the earth or under
stones, an angular web, to the upper part of which is a tube

ANIMALIA ARTICULATA. 119

in which they remain motionless. They are remarkable for
the care which they take of their eggs, and the industry
which they exhibit in the construction of their nests.

Tribe of Vagabond Spiders.

Two, or four of their eyes often much larger than the rest;
thorax large ; feet robust ; they construct no webs, but watch
for their prey and seize it by hunting it down or leaping upon
it. One remarkable subgenus.

SUBGENUS LYCOSA.

Holes excavated in the earth, and the walls of which are
fortified by threads which prevent their caving in, are the
dwellings of these animals; here they pass the winter, some-
time closing the entrance. At the door of this residence they
lie in wait for prey. The female carries about with her
every where the cocoon containing her eggs, having attached
them to her abdomen with silk. The young progeny thus
enclosed, live in this way some time, grouped about the ab-
domen of the mother, and giving her a hideous appearance.
The bite of the Lycosa Tarentula was formerly considered
very dangerous — incurable it was supposed — except with the
aid of music.

FAMILY II. PEDIPALPI.

Palpi very large, in the form of projecting arms terminated
by a forceps or claw. Chelicerse of two fingers, one of which
is movable. Abdomen composed of segments very distinct,
and with out fusi\ the whole body clothed in a tolerably solid
dermis; two, or four pairs of pulmonary sacs. One remark-
able genus.

GENUS SCORPIO.

Abdomen intimately united with the thorax ; tail of six
joints, knotty, slim, and terminated by a sting. Nervous
system presenting seven ganglions. They live upon the
ground or under heaps of stones ; many species in houses.
The number of Scorpions met with in certain countries is
sometimes so considerable that, as some travellers relate, the
inhabitants have been forced to abandon them. In spite of

120 ANIMALIA ARTICULATA.

all that has been said respecting the dangerous sting of these
animals, the consequence is not usually very serious, and acci-
dents, when occurring, have been occasioned by ignorant and
absurd treatment. M lian relates that the priests of Isis at Cop-
tos in Egypt trampled with impunity upon the very numerous
Scorpions of that town; and it is certain that the introduc-
tion of poison from the sting of the European animal is at-
tended with but trifling results. Certain naturalists pretend
that the Black Scorpion, living among the rocks of Africa,
will cause the death of a man, with its sting, in less than
two hours. It is not true that the animal turns its sting upon
itself when placed within a circle of fire.

ORDER II. TRACHEARLE.

Respiratory organs consisting in radiated, or ramified
tracheae, receiving air by two apertures or stigmata only ; no
veins, or arteries. From two to four eyes. One remark-
able family.

FAMILY HOLETRA.

Thorax and abdomen united in one mass under a common
epidermis; generally eight feet, sometimes only six. Two
remarkable genera.

GENUS ACARUS. Mite.

Sometimes chelicerse, but simply formed of a single forceps,
either didactyle or monodactyle ; sometimes a sucker composed
of laminae in the form of a lancet, and united. Sometimes in
place of a mouth is a mere cavity, without other apparent ap-
paratus. The most of these animals are very small, even
microscopic ; some are vagabond, and to be met with upon
stones, leaves, the bark of trees, in earth, water, flour, putre-
fied meat and old cheese ; others live parasitically upon the
skin, or in the flesh, of diverse animals; they have even been
observed in the brain and eyes of animals.

ANIMALIA ARTICULATA. 1S1

GENUS IXODES, Lat. Tick.

Legs eight, no chelicerse, palpi projecting, serving as a
sheath to the sucker, sucker hard and dentated, body covered
with a hard skin; Parasitical animals, they are found in thick
woods, and fasten themselves upon Oxen, Horses, Dogs, &c.,
so strongly that they can only be detached by force.

INSECTA.

We now enter upon that department of Natural History
which treats of Insects ; by the study of which we are con-
ducted into a province the most extensive, and by far the
most populous of the whole empire of nature. The residence
of quadrupeds, as we have seen, is confined to the land ; that
of fishes to the water ; while birds are enabled to rise from
the surface of these elements into the aerial regions. Nature,
however, has assigned a still more extensive range to those
animals upon whose history we are now entering. They are
found to pervade every part of her dominions, in numbers
that defy all computation ; for in nothing does the immensity
of her works more strikingly appear than in the infinite num-
ber and variety of these smaller productions.

But although a complete history of the operations of nature
in this large and populous part of her empire cannot be ex-
pected, yet such a general picture may be given as shall de-
monstrate the existence of that great vivifying principle by
which she is animated, and by which she is enabled continu-
ally to pour forth into existence such immense numbers of
organized beings. A lucid classification of such Insects as
most frequently occur, and whose manners are best known,
presents to us a pleasing view of that protection which Pro-
Q

122 INSECTA.

vidence affords even to the smallest of its creatures ; of the
means it employs for perpetuating them, and of that great
arrangement of nature by which one set of living beings find
subsistence by devouring another, and by which life is con-
tinued through every part of the creation without a pause.

Insects have a dorsal vessel analogous to a heart, but no
vessels for circulation ; respiration is performed by means of
tracheae extending parallel to each other throughout the body,
communicating at intervals with stigmata or external open-
ings, which admit air. The nervous system of most Insects
consists of two principal and twelve inferior ganglions, each
of which distribute nerves to the neighbouring parts. The
digestive apparatus is various according to their aliment.

The head bears the antennae, eyes and mouth ; the eyes
are either simple or compound ; the latter have a cornea with
many small facets, and more or less convex, but in the former
it is smooth ; the eyes are generally three in number, seated
on the top of the head in a triangular form ; the mouth con-
sists of six parts, the two upper of which are called mandi-
bles, the rest maxilla ox jaws ; these latter are furnished with
articulated filaments called palpi.

The trunk of insects is called thorax or corselet] it is com-
posed of three segments, affording points of attachment for
the legs and wings. These are denominated the prothorax,
the mesothorax and the metathorax. Sometimes, as in the
Coleoptera, the anterior, much the largest and separated from
the succeeding by an articulation, appears to form the whole
trunk, and is called thorax or corselet.

The wings are membranous, dry and elastic organs, com-
monly translucent and attached to the sides of the back of the
thorax ; when they are four the first pair is joined to the
second, and the other to the third segment of the thorax,
when only two to the second segment. They are formed of
two membranes, traversed by numerous nervures, which are
tracheal tubes. The wings are either two or four in number;
when only two, an opaque species of scale (elytra), more or
less solid, and which opens and shuts, takes the place of the
anterior wings in many Insects, and beneath this the wings
are folded when at rest.

INSECTA. 123

The organs of locomotion consist of a coxa of two pieces, a
femur, an unarticulated tibia and a tarsus. The number of
phalanges vary from three to five,, and the last joint is usually
terminated by two hooks.

The abdomen presents nine or ten segments, some of which
are however frequently reduced.

Explanation of Fig. A, PL 34, Aptera: 1, the head; 2,
the maxillary palpi ; 3, three segments of the thorax ; 4, an-
terior wing of the mesothorax ; 5, posterior wing of the me-
sothorax; 6, the thigh (femur); 7, tibia; 8, tarsus.

Fig. A, PL 35. Coleoptera: 1, the head; 2, the protho-
rax ; 3, the corselet ; 4, the mesothorax ; 5, the rnetathorax ;
6, the elytra ; 7, the wings ; 8, the two first rings of the ab-
domen.

There are some Insects which pass through their stages of
life under three different forms; viz., that of larvce, of pupa,
and of perfect Insects ; these changes are termed the meta-
morphosis. The Butterfly is an example : the eggs of the
Butterfly are hatched and produce animals, called Caterpil-
lars, with an elongated body, divided into rings, having a
head with jaws and several small eyes ; feet six, scaly and
anterior, the rest membranous and posterior. In this state
these animals live for some time, frequently changing their
skin ; finally from the skin of the Caterpillar issues a totally
different being, of an oblong form and without distinct limbs,
it soon ceases to move, and remains a long time apparently
dead, and is called a Chrysalis. In time the skin of the
Chrysalis splits, and therefrom issues the Butterfly, moist and
with short flabby wings ; it soon however dries, the wings
enlarge, and the animal is perfect and ready for flight.

All Insects do not pass through these stages. Those with-
out wings do not change, and are said to be without meta-
morphosis. Of those which have wings many only experi-
rience the change of receiving them ; these are said to undergo
a semi-metamorphosis. The remainder are said to experience
a complete metamorphosis.

124 INSECTA.

ORDER I. APTERA.

Insects without wings and without metamorphosis ; that is
to say, maintaining always the form in which they issue from
the egg.

• •• /" '•'•.' " ' *• - • . - • ." '*' • ~ '•.**•-:-•'

FAMILY I. MYRIAPODA. CENTIPEDES.

Body very much elongated and composed of a series of si-
milar annuli, each of which sustains one or two pairs of feet;
the number of the rings and feet augmenting with the age of
the animal ; abdomen not distinct from the thorax ; head pro-
vided with two eyes formed by an union of smooth ocelli
(little eggs) ; two antennae ; a mouth armed with jaws. They
live in the earth, and under different bodies placed upon its
surface.

. ' .„•*-•>

FAMILY II. PARASITA.

Six feet only ; abdomen without articulated and movable
appendages ; two, or four, small smooth eyes ; a great portion
of the mouth internal, and exhibiting externally either a snout
or projecting mammilla, containing a retractile sucker, or two
membranous and approximated lips, with two hooked man-
dibles. Body flattened, transparent, divided into eleven or
twelve segments, of which three belong to the trunk, and
have each a pair of feet. They dwell constantly upon the
same Quadrupeds and Birds, whose blood they suck. So great
is their fecundity, that it has been calculated their females, in
two months, can give birth to eighteen thousand young.
Certain people, called Phtirophages, such as the Hottentots
and New Zealanders, eat these disgusting animals.

GENUS I. PEDICULUS, Deg. True Louse.

Mouth exhibiting externally a very small mammilla, con-
taining a sucker. Tarsi composed of one articulation, almost
equal in size to the tibia, and terminated by a very stout nail,
folding over a projection, so as to form a kind of tooth, whose
office is that of a forceps.

INSECTA. 125

GENUS II. RICINUS, Deg.

Mouth composed externally of two lips and two mandibles,
resembling hooks ; tarsi articulated and terminated by two
equal hooks. All, with the exception of the Dog species, live
upon Birds.

FAMILY III. SUCTORIA.

Instead of a mouth a sucker of three pieces, included be-
tween two laminse, forming, together, a trunk or beak, either
cylindrical or conical. Only one genus.

PULEX, Lin. Flea.

Body oval, compressed, clothed with a sufficiently firm
skin, and divided into twelve segments. Head small, with a
little round eye on each side. Feet strong, particularly the
hind ones, which are the longest, and enable these animals to
leap more than two hundred times their own height. Fleas
are not born under the form in which we recognize them ;
their eggs produce little larvae, without feet, and like worms;
they are exceedingly lively, rolling themselves into a circle,
or spirally, and crawling with a serpentine motion ; they are
at first white, and then reddish. After remaining for twelve
days in this shape, they enclose themselves in a little silky
cocoon, where they become nymphs, and whence they issue
in the perfect state at the expiration of twelve days again. A
particular species, known in America bv the name of chigre,
introduces itself under the nails of the feet and hands, and
beneath the skin of the heel, and there soon acquires the vo-
lume of a small pea, by the rapid growth of the eggs which it
carries in a membranous sac beneath the abdomen.

ORDER II. COLEOPTERA.

Four wings, of which the superior, called elytra, are gene-
rally hard, thick and short, serving as cases for the inferior,
which are membranous, and folded transversely; head pro-
vided with two antennse, of various forms, and almost always

126 INSECTA.

with eleven articulations ; two eyes, with facets ; no smooth
eyes ; mouth composed of a labrum, or upper lip, a pair of
mandibles of a scaly consistence, a pair of jaws having each
one or two pair of palpi, and a labium, having a pair of labial
palpi. Larva vermiform, with six short feet ; nymph inactive,
with limbs visible ; metamorphosis complete. They are the
best known and most numerous of insects. Four sections.

Section I. Pentamera.
Five articulations in each tarsus. Four families.

FAMILY I. CARNIVORA.

Two pairs of maxillary palpi, and one of labial; antennae
filiform. Three remarkable genera.

GENUS I. CICINDELA, Lat.

Head strong ; eyes large and projecting ; corselet very nar-
row and round ; mouth bristled with hairs ; body generally of
a deeper or lighter green, mingled with metallic and brilliant
colours, and having white spots upon the cases. Habitation
in sandy places, where they actively pursue Flies and other
Insects. Their larvae are found in the sand, where they ex-
cavate perpendicular holes, and place their large head at the
opening, in order to lower it rapidly, like a trap, whenever an
Insect happens to pass over the treacherous bridge.

GENUS II. CARABUS.

This genus is characterized by setaceous antennae, and by
the shape of the thorax, which resembles a heart ; the point
cut off and margined. The elytra are likewise surrounded
with a margin.

In their winged state, the heads of these animals are pro-
minent; their mouths are armed with jaws, and four palpi.
Their eggs are deposited under ground, or in decayed trees,
where the larvae reside till they are metamorphosed, It is
not vegetable production alone that they devour : they are the
greatest tyrants to other Insects, and destroy, indiscriminately,
as many as their strength enables them to overcome. They
frequently emit a fetid odour, and discharge an acrid, caustic
liquor, when touched.

INSECTA. 127

>.1 -*• 'r •'. -' > •."> .', V/^ ' ' ~.'.T "' '•" ' . •

GENUS III. GYRINUS.

These animals have four eyes, two on the upper, and two
on the under side of the head ; the antennae are clavated, stiff,
and shorter than the head. The hinder legs are also short,
flat, and very broad.

The colour of this insect is a resplendent black, with a
shade of brown. The elytra are adorned with beautiful striae,
consisting of a number of points, so minute as hardly to be
observed without the assistance of a microscope. On the
hinder part of the margins of the elytra are seen, by the same
means, small protuberances, borne upon pedicles, and so de-
ciduous, that the smallest friction sweeps them away. The
feet of this Insect are of a yellowish brown, and the hinder
pair so short, that in certain positions the animal seems to
have but two. These are the insects seen wheeling around
with inconceivable rapidity on the surface of stagnant waters.

FAMILY II. SERRICORNES.
Antennae filiform, or like a saw. Three remarkable genera.

GENUS I. ELATER.

The insects of this genus are distinguished by setaceous
antennae, but more particularly by an elastic spine, which
springs from the under side of the thorax, near the extremity.
By the means of this spring, these animals, when turned upon
the back, are capable of jumping into the air, and recovering
their position.

In the state of larvae, the insects of this genus inhabit the
trunks of decayed trees, and are there metamorphosed into
the winged form. Their residence is then changed, and they
are seen in various haunts, flowers, thickets or open fields.

The chestnut-coloured E later. This Insect is found both
in corn and pasture fields.

The antennae are branchy, and the tips of the elytra black;
the rest of a pale flesh colour ; the thorax is covered with a
fine ash-coloured down. A South American species gives
out a vivid light during the night.

GENUS II. LAMPYRIS.

Elytra soft; corselet semicircular, and covering the head;

128 INSECTA.

female generally without wings. They are nocturnal Insects,
lying concealed among the grass in the daytime, and only
issuing at night; the female then emits a bluish phosphorescent
glow.

GENUS III. ANOBIUM, Fab.

Body round; head covered by the corselet; these Insects
gnaw the wood of old furniture, and in the nuptial season
call each other by striking the head upon the surface of solid
bodies, after fixing themselves there firmly with their claws ;
the noise thus produced has procured them the vulgar appel-
lation of Death-watch.

FAMILY III. CLAVICORNES.

Antennae in form of a club. One remarkable genus.

GENUS DERMESTES.

Body somewhat depressed; antennae longer than the head;
the larvae attach themselves particularly to the skin of dead
animals ; the perfect Insect lives upon flowers.

FAMILY IV. LAMELLICORNES.

Antennae terminated by a collection of lamellae arranged
like a fan, or the leaves of a book; the anterior part of the
body generally projects in the form of a hood. Three re-
markable genera.

GENUS I. SCARAB^BUS.

Body thick and convex ; hood exceedingly short ; flight
heavy, and in a right line. They inhabit the hot regions of
both continents.

GENUS II. MELOLONTHA, Fab.

Hood wide and square ; elytra hard and long ; antennae
with ten articulations, of which five or seven in the males,
six or four in the females, compose the club ; larvae soft, elon-
gated, and known by the name of White Worms.

GENUS III. LUCANUS.

Body flattened ; head at least as large as the corselet in the
males, who often exhibit well developed mandibles.

INSECTA. 129

Section II. Heteromera.

Five joints to the four first tarsi; one less in the two last.
One remarkable genus.

GENUS CANTHARIS.

Elytra soft and flexible ; head a little wider than the cor-
selet, which is nearly ovoid, and reflexed anteriorly ; antennae
filiform ; tarsi with entire joints and cleft hooks ; diverse
species are employed externally as epispastics. They are
seen in May and June, principally upon the ash and lilac.

Section III. Tetramera.

Four joints to each tarsus ; they live on flowers or the
leaves of plants. Two remarkable genera.

GENUS I. CALANDRA.

Antennae clubbed and inserted upon a sort of trunk pro-
duced by the anterior prolongation of the head; larvae without
feet, and formidable for their devastations among grain, of
which they devour the interior without touching the bark ;
a pair will produce from six to fifteen young in a month.
The most common species are known in the larva state by
the name of Weevil.

GENUS IT. PRIONUS.

Body depressed ; corselet spiny ; antennae very long, like
bristles and placed between the eyes; all the species are
generally remarkable for the elegance of their forms and the
brilliancy of their colours ; they live in woods upon the trunks
of trees, in the interior of which they exist as larvae, nymphs
and perfect insects.

Section IV. Trimera.
GENUS COCCINELLA.

Little Insects with hemispherical bodies, adorned with
beautiful colours ; their larvae live principally upon grubs ;
and on this account are useful in gardens.

130 INSECTA.

ORDER III. ORTHOPTERA.

Body generally softer than in the Coleoptera ; elytra soft,
semi-membranous and furnished with nervures; wings folded
longitudinally, and generally like a fan, and divided by mem-
branous nervures running in the same direction ; antennae
less variable in shape than among the Coleoptera, and usually
composed of a greater number of joints; eyes composite,
sometimes accompanied with two or three small smooth eyes ;
jaws covered with a kind of casque called galea ; mandibles
very strong and horny; four palpi ; the maxillaries composed
of five articulations, the labials of three ; metamorphosis par-
tial, being confined ta the growth and development of the
elytra and wings, which begin to show themselves in the
nymph in a rudimental state, or like stumps; habitation
always terrestrial even in their two first states ; regimen her-
bivorous or carnivorous, but most frequently herbivorous.
Two families.

FAMILY I. CURSORIA.

Posterior as well as anterior legs only adapted for run-
ning ; females without horny ovipositor ; no singing organ.
Two genera.

GENUS I. FORFICULA, Lin.

Three joints to the tarsi ; wings fan-like, and folded trans-
versely beneath very short crustaceous elytra ; body linear,
and terminated by two large, movable and shelly pieces,
forming a forceps.

GENUS II. MANTIS, Lin.

Corselet exceedingly elongated and narrow ; five joints to
each tarsus ; anterior legs larger than the others ; they use
them for conveying their prey to the mouth, by quickly
flexing the tibia against the thigh. The name of Mantis,
which in Greek signifies prophet, is derived from the suppo-
sition that they indicate or point out objects when extending
the feet. The Turks pay them a certain reverence.

INSECTA. 131

FAMILY II. SALTATORIA.

The pair of posterior legs remarkable for the size of the
thighs ; legs spiny and adapted to leaping ; males are en-
dowed with the faculty of making a stridulous noise, vul-
garly called their song ; sometimes they produce it by rub-
bing rapidly, one against the other, the interior surfaces of
their elytra ; sometimes they excite it by a similar alternate
action of the posterior thighs upon the elytra and wings, the
thighs acting like the bow of a violin. Three genera.

GENUS I. GRYLLUS, Geoff.

In the males a portion of the elytron, in the form of a mir-
ror or drum-head, forms the musical instrument ; elytra and
wings horizontal ; three joints to the tarsi. Two subgenera.

SUBGENUS GRYLLO-TALPA, Lat.

Tibia and tarsi of the two anterior legs wide, flat, indented
in the form of a hand and fit for digging. The female digs
for herself, in June or July, to the depth of six inches, a sub-
terranean cavity, round and smooth in the interior, where
she deposits from two to four hundred eggs. This nest,
with the passage to it, resembles a bottle with the neck bent.

SUBGENUS GRYLLUS PROPER.

No broad anterior feet. The Field-Gryllus digs for him-
self a very deep hole in a dry soil, exposed to the sun, and
here lies in wait for Insects.

GENUS II. LOCUSTA, Geoff.

Same musical instruments as the Gryllus ; mandibles less
indented, and galea broader ; elytra and wings tectiform ;
tarsus composed of four joints ; always a projecting ovipositor
in the form of a sabre, in the females.

GENUS III. ACRYDIUM. Cricket.

Stridulation of the males produced by rubbing the thighs
against the elytra or wings ; no projecting ovipositor in the
females ; elytra and wings tectiform or inclined ; tarsus com-
posed of three joints ; antennae sometimes filiform and cylin-
drical, sometimes in the form of a sword, or terminating in a
club, and always as long as the head and corselet. Certain

132 INSECTA.

species, called Travellers, unite in troops so considerable that,
upon rising, they resemble a dark cloud, and convert all
places where they sojourn into deserts. Their death is a new
scourge ; for, in putrefying, their bodies often emit exhala-
tions which produce epidemic diseases. In certain parts of
Africa the Insects are collected for eating, and also preserved
in brine for commerce.

ORDER IV. HEMIPTERA.

Two wings covered by two elytra, generally membranous
at their free extremity ; mouth formed by a kind of articu-
lated tube, curved inferiorly, resembling a beak, and exhibi-
ting a groove including four stiff, pointed hairs, which have
been considered as the rudiments of mandibles and jaws,
organs which have disappeared in these Insects ; metamor-
phosis generally incomplete ; many have smooth eyes, but
never more than two. Two sections.

Section I. Heteroptera.

Beak springing from the front ; elytron membranous at the
extremity; elytra and wings always horizontal, or slightly
inclined.

GENUS I. CIMEX, Lin.

Three joints to the tarsi ; antennae longer than the head,
and inserted between the eyes.

SDBGENUS PENTATOMA.

Elytra crossed, and partially coriaceous ; antenna? with five
joints.

SUBGENUS CIMEX PROPER, Lat. Bed-Bug.

Body wide, entirely without wings, and exceedingly de-
pressed ; antennae with four joints, terminating abruptly in
the form of setae.

GENUS II. NEPA, Lin. Water- Scorpions.

Antennae inserted and concealed under the eyes ; they are
shorter than the head, or, at least, of the same length ; ante-

INSECTA. 133

rior legs susceptible of folding up so as to form a forceps ;
tarsi with one or two articulations ; they are all aquatic and
carnivorous, and sting severely.

Section II. Homoptera.

Beak springing from the lowest part of the head ; females
provided with an ovipositor, composed of three dentelated
laminae, which they employ in notching vegetables to deposit
their eggs ; elytra throughout of the same consistence, and
always tectiform and semi-membranous. Three remarkable
genera.

GENUS I. CICADA.

Tarsi with three articulations ; antennae of six joints ; head
wider than the corselet; three simple eyes; elytra not crossed,
tectiform, transparent and veined ; a musical instrument in
the males, composed of two kinds of drums or scales, which,
through the influence of little muscles, become alternately
convex and concave.

GENUS II. APHIS.

Tarsi with two articulations terminated by two hooks;
antennae with six or seven joints; elytra and wings oval or
triangular and tectiform ; beak very distinct. Nearly all
these animals live in societies upon trees and plants, whose
juice they suck with their proboscis. Their punctures cause
the leaves or young vegetable shoots to assume different
forms, as may be seen upon the young shoots of the linden,
the leaves of the gooseberry, the apple, and more especially
the elm, the poplar and the pistachio, where they produce
warts or excrescences, enclosing families of Aphides, and
often an abundant saccharine liquid.

GENUS III. Coccus, Lin.

One joint only to the tarsus, with a single hook at the end ;
females without wings, and provided with a beak; the males
have two wings, which lie one over the other horizontally ;
antennae filiform or setaceous, and most commonly with
eleven joints. The Cochineal (C. Cacti) belongs to this
genus.

134 INSECTA.

ORDER V. NEUROPTERA.

Four similar, naked, membranous and reticulated wings ;
mouth exhibiting mandibles, jaws and two lips, suitable for
mastication ; abdomen without sting, and seldom provided with
an ovipositor ; antennae generally setaceous, and composed of
a great number of articulations ; small eyes, two or three ;
metamorphosis complete or incomplete; larvae always fur-
nished with six hooked feet, which they use in their search
for food ; form generally elegant; colour sometimes very
brilliant ; regimen carnivorous in the larvae and perfect in-
sects. Two remarkable families.

FAMILY OF THE SUBULICORNES.

Antennae of not more than seven joints, and but little
longer than the head ; mandibles and jaws entirely covered
by the labrum and labium ; habitation, during the two states
of larva and nymph, in the wrater, where they feed upon
living prey. Two genera.

GENUS I. LIBELLULA, Lin. Dragon-Flies.

Head thick and round, or triangular ; two large lateral
eyes ; three simple eyes placed upon the vertex ; two anten-
nae inserted in the forehead ; corselet thick and round ; ab-
domen much elongated, and terminated, in the males, by two
lamellar appendages; form slender; colours agreeable and
various ; wings large arid like lustrous gauze ; wonderful
agility in pursuing Flies or other Insects upon which they
prey ; the larvae and nymphs (which differ only in the rudi-
mental wings possessed by the latter) live in marshes, where
they swim by means of a kind of oars, or by a particular
mechanism, which consists in expelling from the abdomen a
certain quantity of water previously introduced into the
intestines, where there are organs resembling branchiae.

GENUS 11. EPHEMERA, Lin.

Body soft, long, tapering, and terminated posteriorly by
two or three long and articulated setae ; wings inclined to the
rear ; legs very slender ; tibiae short and confounded with

INSECTA. 135

the tarsi ; anterior legs much longer than the others ; mouth
very small ; mandibles hardly distinguishable. They derive
their name from the brevity of their existence in the perfect
state, never surviving the day of their birth. There are some
of them, even, who are metamorphosed, lay eggs, and expire
the same evening. The larvae are elongated and soft ; they
live many years, previous to the metamorphosis, in holes
with two issues, which they excavate in the banks of running
waters.

FAMILY OF THE PLANIPENNES.

Antennae with many joints, considerably longer than the
head; mandibles very distinct; wings four, and alike. Two
remarkable genera.

GENUS I. MYRMELEON, Lin. Lion-Ant.

Wings equal and tectiform; abdomen long and cylindrical,
with two projecting appendages in the males ; antennas short,
with hooks, and enlarged towards the extremity ; the larva
generally moves backwards ; it digs in the sand a cavity in
the form of a funnel, at the bottom of which it places itself
with its two horns wide apart, and wo to the Ant or other
small Insect that passes by the edge of this hole ! the sand
caves in, and it falls into the ambuscade ; the Lion-Ant sucks
its blood by the aid of its horns, which are also suckers, and
then throws its body to a great distance, so that it may not
serve as a warning to other Insects for whom it is lying in
wait. If the prey is vigorous and resists, at the moment when
the walls of the funnel are caving, the Lion- Ant, with its
head, throws down upon it a shower of sand. The larva is
not transformed for two years.

GENUS II. TERMES, Lin.

Tarsi with four articulations ; wings folding horizontally
upon the body, very long, slightly transparent, coloured, and
with very fine nervures ; abdomen terminated by two little
points; antennae setaceous; the larvae live in society, and
construct enormous nests of from ten to fifteen feet high, and
sometimes capable of holding a dozen men ; individuals called
neuters, distinguished by their enormous head and strong

136 INSECTA.

jaws, are charged with the defence of the habitation. The
females arrived at the perfect state are taken care of and sup-
plied with food before and during the period of laying eggs,
by the larvae or labourers, who place them in a particular
lodging, situated in the middle of the dwelling. Some females
lay, it is said, 60 eggs per minute, which is 3600 an hour, or
86,400 a day.

ORDER VI. HYMENOPTERA.

Four naked membranous wings veined longitudinally, the
superior of which are always longer than the inferior; mouth
composed of jaws and a labium very narrow, (besides the
labrum and mandibles) forming a demi-tube more suitable
for suction than mastication ; envelope of the body not crus-
taceous ; tarsi with five joints ; abdomen generally attached
to the thorax by a very slender pedicle, terminated, in the
females, either by an ovipositor in the form of a saw, or by a
simple retractile sting which introduces an irritating fluid
into the wounds it creates ; always three smooth eyes beside
the two composite. Metamorphosis complete. Most of the
larvae are without feet, remaining motionless in the spot
where born, and where they find food, brought, under cer-
tain circumstances, by the adult individuals. Those pro-
vided with feet attend to their nutrition. These insects
present three kinds of individuals, whose colour and form
vary greatly-— the males, the females and the neuters. Two
sections.

Section I. Terebrantia.
An ovipositor in the females. Two remarkable genera.

GENUS I. ICHNEUMON, Lin.

Maxillary palpi projecting ; antennae setaceous ; abdomen
cylindrical; in the females a long ovipositor with three
threads. These insects are the most deadly enemies of the
larvae of others. Their females, with their long ovipositor,
pierce a hole in the body of the Caterpillar, and there place

INSECTA. 137

the egg ; the worm which issues devours the entrails of the
victim.

GENUS II. CYNIPS, Lin.

Head small; corselet thick and high, which causes them to
appear as if hunch-backed; inferior wings with a single vein.
The punctures which the female makes in plants for the pur-
pose of introducing her eggs, cause excrescences denominated
gall-nuts. The Fig-Oynips is famous for the services it ren-
ders in the East by bringing about the fecundation of the
tree whose name it bears. In fact, these are the Insects
which transport the pollen of the male flowers into the inte-
rior of the females, which are surrounded with a kind of skin
having only a very narrow aperture at top.

Section II. Jlculeata.

No ovipositor; a concealed retractile sting composed of
three pieces; larvae always without feet and living upon food
brought them by the females and neuters. Three remark-
able genera.

GENUS I. FORMICA, Lin. Ant.

Lips and jaws not projecting ; antennae filiform and geni-
culate ; abdomen united to the thorax by a pedicle in the
form of a scale or knot, single or double ; each species is of
three sorts — the males, the females whose wings are long,
and the neuters which are apterous. They feed upon a
great number of substances, but are particularly fond of sac-
charine matter; their habits are very curious.

GENUS II. VESPA, Lin. Wasp.

Superior wings folding longitudinally. Jaws not extending
beyond the mandibles ; antennas with thirteen articulations
in the males, and twelve in the females. The females and
neuters build nests composed of a kind of paper or card
which they make by bruising with their mandibles particles
of decayed wood or bark, and reducing it to a paste by the
aid of a fluid, which is supplied abundantly by their mouths.
They feed upon insects, meat or fruit.

GENUS III. APIS, Lin. Bee.

Jaws probosci-form, and extending beyond the mandibles;

138 INSECTA.

the first joint of the posterior tarsus very large and compressed
in the form of a square or triangular face.

SUBGENUS BOMBUS, Lat.

Corselet much larger than the head ; posterior legs spiny.

SUBGENUS APIS PROPER.

Head and corselet equal in width ; posterior legs without
spines ; first articulation of the tarsus squared.

ORDER VII. LEPIDOPTERA.

Four membranous wings covered with little coloured scales ;
mouth forming a rolled proboscis, produced by an elongation
of the jaws, upon the sides of which are found the rudiments
of mandibles and downy palpi. Metamorphosis complete ;
larvae called caterpillars- — of which some feed upon leaves,
others, less common, gnaw the ligneous part of trees, soften-
ing it with a saliva which they disgorge ; some live at the
expense of woollen stuffs and furs. The nymphs are almost
always motionless, and generally spin a cocoon to effect the
metamorphosis.

FAMILY I. DIURNA.

Wings vertical during repose ; antennae terminated, in ge-
neral, by a small round club, at other times tapering at the
end and reflexed into a hook; caterpillars almost always
provided with sixteen feet; chrysalis hardly ever enclosed
in a cocoon, but suspended in the air by the posterior extre-
mity of the body.

GENUS PAPILIO. Butterfly.
SUBGENUS PAPILIO PROPER.

The six feet adapted to walking ; inferior palpi very short,
hardly reaching the hood.

SUBGENUS PARNASSIUS.

Six feet adapted to walking; inferior palpi elevated beyond
the hood and with three joints.

1NSECTA. 139

SUBGENUS VANESSA.

The two anterior feet considerably shorter ; no ambulatory
ones. Antennae terminated abruptly by a short button ; ca-
terpillars covered with spines/

SUBGENUS POLYOMMATUS.

Two anterior feet as in the preceding, no ambulatory ones.
Small eye-like spots upon the wings.

FAMILY II. CREPUSCULARIA.

Wings, during repose, horizontal or inclined ; the inferior
one retained to the superior by a stiff hair ; antennae in the
form of an elongated club, prismatic or fusiform ; sometimes
they are pectiniform ; caterpillars always provided with six-
teen feet

GENUS SPHINX.

Antennae prismatic and terminating in hairs ; wings long
and horizontal; abdomen pointed. The Death's-headed
Sphinx has occasioned much terror in certain countries by
the kind of cry which it utters, and the insignia of death

upon its corselet.

' . • - - .'./••" • '

FAMILY III. NOCTURNA.

Wings, during repose, hori zontal or inclined ; the superior
nearly always bridled to the inferior ; antennas decreasing in
thickness from the base to the summit, or setaceous.

TRIBE OF THE BOMBYCES. Silk- Worms.

Proboscis always short and rudimental ; wings extended,
horizontal, or inclined so as to form a triangle with the body.

TRIBE OF THE TINE^E. Moths.

Wings rolled cylindrically ; the larvae live in a sheath or
case.

140 INSECTA.

ORDER VIII. DIPTERA.

Body with teguments of the consistence of tender bark ; a
trunk forming a univalved sheath, open beneath, and contain-
ing a sucker, composed of two, four, or six stiff bristles ; six
feet, two membranous wings, above them two movable bodies
called halter es. Two palpi; antennae formed usually of three
joints; eyes large, commonly three simple ones; thorax occu-
pied in a great measure by the mesothorax; abdomen with
from four to seven distinct segments; tarsi with five joints.
Two divisions. Metamorphosis complete.

DIVISION I. NEMOCERA.

Body usually slender and elongated ; head small ; legs long
and slender ; wings elongated, and often narrow; antennas fili-
form or setaceous, and frequently at least as long as the head
and thorax together, and with not less than six articulations.
One remarkable genus.

GENUS CULEX, Lin. Musqueto.

Proboscis long, slender, projecting, and terminated by two
small lips ; sucker with five bristles ; antennas filiform, hairy
and downy ; no simple eyes ; wings laid one over the other ;
palpi shorter than the proboscis.

These insects, of which only the females suck blood, show
themselves but little during the day, except in the woods.
The female lays from two hundred to three hundred eggs,
one by one, placing one upon the other, and forming of the
whole a kind of raft, which floats upon the water. The res-
piration of the larvas who live in this element, is effected by
means of a spiraculum, placed at the end of a long tube; this
tube serving for the introduction of air into the tracheas, the
larva is obliged to live in a reverted position, keeping the
extremity of its body upon the surface of the water.

DIVISION II. BRACHOCERA.

Body generally wide, and not long; head hemispherical,
and of the breadth of the thorax; proboscis sometimes long,
slender and coriaceous, sometimes short, thick and fleshy; a

INSECTA. 141

sucker with two, four, or six bristles; feet moderately long;
wings usually wide ; antennae with three articulations. Three
remarkable genera.

GENUS I. TABANUS, Lin. Gad-Fly.

Head wide; sucker composed of six pieces, in the form of
lancets; proboscis projecting, with two lips. They resemble
large Flies, and are well known by the torments which they
inflict upon Horses and Oxen, whose skin they pierce for the
purpose of sucking their blood.

GENUS II. OESTRUS. Bott.

Hardly any vestige of mouth ; sucker composed of two setae,
appearance like that of a large hairy fly; antennas very short;
tarsi terminated by two hooks and two pellets.

These Insects are rarely found in their perfect state. Each
species is generally a parasite of some species of mammife-
rous animal, and places its eggs upon whatever part of the
body is most suitable for its larvae.

GENUS III. MUSCA. Fly.

Proboscis apparent, membranous, bi-labiate, and suscepti-
ble of being entirely drawn within the buccal cavity; sucker
of two pieces.

142

Fourth Great Division of the Animal Kingdom.

ANIMALIA RADIATA.

ORGANIZATION more simple than in the three preceding
branches ; the parts arranged around an axis, and upon two
or more rays, or upon two or more lines extending from
pole to pole ; nervous system indistinct, generally not appa-
rent ; circulatory organs very incomplete, and, in the greater
part, not existing at all ; seldom a mouth ; sometimes an in-
testinal cul-de-sac ; in the greater number a simple cavity,
even in the thickness of the body, opening, sometimes by
several suckers ; often no distinguishable mouth. Five
classes.

ECHINODERMATA.

Skin well organized, sustained frequently by a sort of
skeleton armed with articulated and movable points or spines,
with an internal cavity in which viscera are floating ; vas-
cular system confined to different portions of the intestines,
and to the organs of respiration, which are, in general, very
distinct, as well as the viscera ; nervous system very incom-
plete, filiform, and, in many species, even altogether imper-
ceptible. Two orders.

ANIMALIA RADIATA. 143

ORDER I. ECHINODERMATA PEDICELLATA.

.) •

Envelope pierced with a great number of little holes, across
which pass membranous tentacula, terminated by a small
disk, fulfilling the office of vent-hole ; such are the Echini
or Sea-urchins and Sea-stars.

ORDER II. ECHINODERMATA APODA.

Body clothed in a coriaceous skin, without armour or vesi-
culous feet.

ENTOZOA.*

Body, in general, elongated or depressed, articulated or not
articulated, and without limbs ; no branchiae nor tracheae, nor
any other organ of respiration; no traces of a true circulation;
some vestiges of nerves, but sufficiently obscure, as many
naturalists have even doubted their existence; almost all live
within other animals ; there are hardly any tissues or cavi-
ties in which some have not been discovered; they have
even been observed in muscles and the cerebral substance.
The manner of their introduction into the animal economy
has never been satisfactorily ascertained. Two orders.

* Intestinal Worms.

4.44 ANIMALIA RADIATA.

ORDER I. NEMATOIDEA.

An intestinal canal floating in a distinct abdominal cavity;
a mouth; external skin furnished with muscular fibres. The
Ascaris belongs to this order.

ORDER II. PARENCHYMATA.

Body inclosing in its parenchyma viscera indefinitely ter-
minated, and resembling most frequently vascular ramifica-
tions, sometimes none apparent. Example, the Taenia.

- -c

ACALEPHA.

Marine animals, in whose organization we still perceive
vessels, although Cuvier regards them as productions of the
intestines excavated in the parenchyma of the body ; form
circular and radiated; a single orifice; no distinct organs of
respiration. Their name, derived from the Greek, signifies
nettle, and has been given to them on account of the faculty
possessed by certain species of imparting to the hand which
touches it a sensation of pricking and burning. Two orders.

ORDER I. SIMPLICIA.

Natation effected by means of the contractions of the body ;
some emit a phosphorent light, making the sea, at night, re-
semble a starry sky ; substance gelatinous ; no fibres apparent.
Example, the Medusa.

ANIMALIA RADIATA. 145

ORDER II. HYDROSTATICA.

One or more bladders filled with air, and destined to sup-
port the animal in the midst of the fluid ; very numerous ap-
pendages, some of which act as suckers, others as tentacula;
no apparent mouth.

POLYPI.

Body cylindrical or conical, often without other viscera
than its cavity; often, likewise, with a visible stomach, to
which intestines adhere, or rather vessels excavated in the
substance of the body ; a single orifice surrounded by tenta-
cula, and making these animals resemble the Octopus ; pro-
duction of new individuals by buds and by eggs. Two re-
markable orders.

ORDER I. CARNOSI.

Body fleshy, contractile and without any solid matter ex-
ternal or internal; inferior extremity in form of a disk, serving
to keep them stationary, sometimes aiding them to creep, and
even susceptible of being detached, so as to permit them to
swim ; mouth surrounded by tentacula, resembling, in their
expansion, the petals of a flower. Such are the Actiniae or
Sea Anemonies.

146 ANIMALIA RADIATA.

**;

ORDER II. CORALLIFERL

Animals united in great numbers to form composite ani-
mals, protected and sustained by solid matters called polypiers,
internal or external ; nutrition, sensibility and will in com-
mon. Such are the Sponges, Madrepores, Tubipores and
Coral.

INFUSORIA.

Little microscopic beings swarming in still waters ; the
greater number gelatinous and without viscera : at their head
we place the species with the most complex organization.
Two orders.

ORDER I. ROTIFERA.

Body oval; a mouth ; a stomach ; an intestine ; and a tail ;
anteriorly a singular organ, which, by its vibrations, gives
the appearance of revolving wheels.

ORDER II. HOMOGENEA.

No viscera ; often not even the appearance of a mouth.

BOTANY

BOTANY.

ELEMENTARY ORGANS.

SIMPLE ORGANS. CELLS AND VESSELS.

CELLS, OR CELLULAR TISSUE.

An assemblage of cells joined together, composed each of a
spherical dodecaedric fusiform sac, generally from one-three-
hundredths to one-five-hundredths of an inch in diameter;
membrane of the sac fine, delicate, imperforate, and most fre-
quently marked with dots ; colour green, owing to the interior
globules. The cellular tissue, which is the general, and
sometimes the sole element of plants, increases by the deve-
lopment of new cells, either in the intervals, or, in some cases,
in the interior of the old ones.

VESSELS.
TRACHEAE.

Each a tube formed by a spiral thread which may be un-
rolled in the form of a corkscrew, and included in a membrane,
as if it had been born in a cell; form cylindrical; diameter
from one-three-hundredths to one-three-thousandths of an inch ;
extremities conical. They are found in all the organs of vas-
cular plants, the leaves of flowers, &c., principally around the
pith of dicotyledonous trees.

ANNULAR, OR RADIATED VESSELS.

Cylindrical tubes, not ramified, marked with regular trans-
versal rays, parallel with each other, not susceptible of being
unrolled, sometimes very close together, and, owing to the
presence of veritable solid rings, fixed at variable distances
from one vessel to another, but at equal distances in the same
vessel; diameter the same as in the tracheae.

150 BOTANY.

PUNCTUATED VESSELS.

Cylindrical vessels, spotted with opaque points or dots, dis-
posed in series, sometimes parallel, sometimes slightly oblique,
and marked with paler rays, like rings, or in spirals, distant
from each other by the diameter of the tube, at least. Diameter
generally greater than the tracheae.

MONILIFORM VESSELS.

Tubes punctuated, ramified, and slightly curved at irregu-
lar intervals; they are frequent in roots, articulations, or at
the origin of branches and leaves.

RETICULAR VESSELS.

Cylindrical tubes, whose surface is covered with transversal,
oblong spots, giving it the appearance of a net. Kieser has
observed them in the Balsam and Nasturtium, principally in
the root; he regards them as a modification of tracheae, in
which the spires are unequally combined. Lindley has found
them in the Papyrus and Lily ; Parkinge in the tissue which
forms the internal portion of the cells of the anthers.

COMPOSITE ORGANS. INTERNAL ARRANGEMENT.

FIBRES.

Collections of vessels, composed generally, and especially
in the wood, of punctuated vessels and tracheae, surrounded
by elongated, fusiform cells; the most solid fibres known are
those of the Phormium Tenax, vulgarly called New Zealand
Flax, which will support a weight represented by sixteen and
one-third, those of flax supporting a weight represented by
eleven and one-third.

RESERVOIRS OF THE PROPER JUICES.

Regular cavities produced in the tissue of vegetables by
juices of diverse natures, generally coloured and odorous,
which distend the cells and break their walls. These cavities
are also improperly called vessels.

AERIAL CAVITIES.

Empty spaces of the size of three or four cells, produced
either by a too rapid enlargement, or by a natural disposition

BOTANY. 151

of the plant. They are met with in the trunk or in the
leaves, where they communicate with the external air by little
openings called Stomata.

EXTERNAL ARRANGEMENT.

EPIDERMIS.

The external, general envelope of plants, composed, first, of
a simple superficial pellicle, without appreciable texture,
pierced with elongated apertures, corresponding to the middle
of the stomata ; secondly, of one of several beds of utricles,
diversely formed, according to the species, intimately united,
and filled with a liquid which is generally colourless.

STOMATA.

Little oval apertures, rarely visible to the naked eye, pre-
senting themselves, when viewed through a microscope, with
dark lip-like edges, and situated between the ordinary cells of
the epidermis, principally upon the parenchyma of the leaves,
and communicating, internally, with air cells. They have
the property of closing, when moistened.

LENTICLES.

Small tubes or punctuations found upon the surface of the
branches of monocotyledonous vegetables, and which they
render more or less rough to the touch; their colour is gene-
rally paler than that of the wood; the young roots issue
through them, when a branch is put into the moist earth.

HAIRS.

Appendages of the cellular tissue, formed of elongated cells,
and designated according to their forms, their consistency, or
their physiological functions, as simple, divided, acukiform,
glanduliferous, excretory, &c.

THE ROOT.

The inferior part of vegetables, by which they are fixed to
the earth, and through which the liquids which nourish them
penetrate. It is characterized by growing in a direction op-
posite to that of the trunk ; by being elongated only through
its extremities ; by being without stomata ; by never becoming

152 BOTANY.

green in the air ; and by being irresistibly attracted towards
the centre of the globe. The part of the root which is united
with the trunk is called the neck; the undivided portion suc-
ceeding the neck is termed the body, and, finally, the rami-
fications are distinguished as radicles. It is thought that the
extremity of the radicles presents certain little bladders (spon-
geoles) which produce the phenomenon of endosmosis, or that
phenomenon in which noxious fluids are thrown off, while
nutritive are absorbed.

THE STEM.

That part of the vegetable which grows in an inverse di-
rection with the root, which seeks the air and the light, bears
flowers and leaves, and transfers the ascending sap to these
latter from the roots. All vascular vegetables possess this
organ, but it is sometimes excessively short, as in the Hya-
cinth, where it is reduced to a subterranean platform. The
spot where the root joins the stem is called the neck. We
must not confound with the stem two supports of certain
Flowers, both without leaves; the one called scape, issues
from the midst of the radical leaves (example, Hyacinth), the
other, called radical peduncle, issues from the axil of a leaf.
The tissue of the stem has a marked influence upon the ascent
of the sap. In fact, water will ascend in a branch which we
plunge inverted into a full vessel ; it also mounts with great
celerity and force in a slip of Vine, cut at some distance from
the earth and stripped of its leaves. Hales, a celebrated
English physician, in an experiment of this nature, saw the
liquid raise a column of mercury to the height of thirty-eight
inches.

THE TRUNK.

The stem of dicotyledonous Trees, such as the Beech, the
Oak, &c. It is characterized externally by being conical,
that is to say, by tapering from the base to the summit, and
by being divided, at its upper part, into boughs, branches,
and ramuscules or twigs, bearing leaves and flowers. Exa-
mined internally, it exhibits the medullary canal, and, upon
the circumference, the ligneous beds and the bark. Its dia-
metrical increase is brought about by the annual formation of

BOTANY. 153

a layer of wood and a layer of bark, organized under the in-
fluence of a liquid called the sap. Hence it happens that the
oldest layers of wood are at the centre, and the more recent at
the circumference, while, with the bark, the reverse is the
case.

The development in height is effected by buds, which, like
so many young plants, contribute, by their growth, to aug-
ment the diameter of the base, and the extent of the plant
considered in its ensemble. This particular mode of growth
has caused the trunk to be called the ligneous exogenous
stem.

THE PITH.

A white substance, composed of hexagonal cells, abundant
and moist in the shoots, and dry in the old branches; it is
contained in a canal formed principally of tracheals, and
called the Medullary Sheath, or Canal.

THE LIGNEOUS LAYERS.

Formed of ligneous fibres, compacted together, and disposed
in concentric beds ; the oldest, generally of a deeper colour,
are called the Wood, or heart, the new, of a brighter hue, the
alburnum.

THE BARK

Is formed of three membranes, placed one over the other.
For the description of the epidermis, see what is elsewhere
said concerning Elementary Tissues. The herbaceous enve-
lope is a plate or layer of cellular tissue placed beneath the
epidermis, the parietes of whose cells contain little green
grains, called globuline] it like wise contains the proper juices.
The liber is formed of a series of superimposed laminse, com-
posing a vascular net, the meshes of which are filled with
cellular tissue; the old liber forms the proper cortical cover-
ing. The medullary rays are laminse of cellular tissue pass-
ing in the direction of the thickness of the trunk, from the
centre to the circumference, and, in a horizontal cut of the
tree, resembling the horary lines on a dial : they serve to esta-
blish a communication between the pith and herbaceous en-
velope,

154 BOTANY.

STIPE.

The ligneous stem of monocotyledonous plants, presenting
the appearance of a column of the same diameter throughout,
except occasionally towards the middle, which is a little in-
flated. The stipe is seldom ramified, and is crowned by a
bunch of flowers and leaves, forming a kind of capital. In-
ternally, the fibres, instead of composing cones fitting toge-
ther, are scattered in the midst of a general pith. At the cir-
cumference no bark is seen. The oldest ligneous fibres,
instead of being at the centre, are, on the contrary, pressed
towards the outside, on account of the particular manner in
which this stem developes itself. In fact, every year new
fibres arise in the centre, which push those of the preceding
year towards the circumference. The debris of leaves en-
gendered by these new fibres form a kind of ring, which aug-
ments with the total length of the tree. This mode of growth
has given to the stipe the name of the ligneous endogenous
stem.

CULM.

Stem proper to grasses, rarely divided, hollow internally,
and exhibiting, at intervals, nodes or compact rings, whence
spring alternate sheath-like leaves.

PHIZOMA.

The subterranean and horizontal stem of perennial plants,
concealed entirely or partially beneath the earth, and throw-
ing out from their anterior extremity new shoots, as their pos-
terior extremity decays.

STEM PROPER.

The common stem of plants, and which is not included in
any of the preceding species.

BOTANY. 155

ESSENTIAL ORGANS.
BUDS.

Organs inclosing in scales, or other ligamentary substances,
rudiments of a stem, of leaves, or of flowers.

BUDS PROPERLY SO CALLED.

Organs of various form, nature and aspect, generally com-
posed of imbricated scales, including the rudiments of stems,
leaves, or organs of reproduction. They develope themselves
always upon the branches, at the axils of the leaves or at the
extremity of the twigs.

We distinguish three kinds of buds, according to the dif-
ferent shoots to which they are to give birth. 1st, Leaf-buds,
or wood-buds, which only shoot forth branches charged with
leaves ; they are elongated and pointed. 2d, Flower-buds,
which produce only flowers, and which are commonly de-
signated as buttons ; they are short and rounded. 3d, Mixed
buds, which give birth to both flowers and leaves; their form
is between those of the two preceding classes.

V /

TuRIONS.

The only difference between the turion and the bud pro-
perly so called is that the former springs always from a
perennial root, or rhizoma, that is to say from under ground
[Asparagus], while the latter developes itself invariably upon
a part exposed to the air and light.

BULBS.

A kind of subterranean bud appertaining especially to pe-
rennial monocotyledonous plants ; it is supported by a kind
of solid platform intermediate between it and the true root;
it is to this flattened tubercle that the fleshy scales or tunics
(coats) which form the bulb externally are affixed by their
basis; the interior includes the rudiments of a shaft and
leaves.

We distinguish three species of bulbs : 1st, Tunicated bulbs,
which are formed of scales of a single piece, fitting one upon the
other. 2d, Scaly bulbs, the scales of which are smaller, free at
their upper edge, and covering each other as tiles upon a roof.

156 BOTANY.

3d, Solid bulbs, the coats of which are so compact and con-
founded, that they are indistinguishable, and seem formed of
a solid and homogeneous substance; this last however is
more properly called a cormus.

TUBERCLES.

This name is given to short and thickened portions of a
subterranean stem which holds in reserve the amidon destined
to nourish the shoot or shoots which spring from them, as
we see in the Potato and the Orchis. When small they are
termed tubercles.

BULBILS.

Small solid or scaly buds growing upon different parts of
the plant, and capable of a separate vegetation.

LEAVES.

Appendages of stems, generally membranous, plane, and
greenish, in which the vegetable juices (water charged with
carbonic acid) being put in relation with the fluids of the
atmosphere, undergo important modifications which render
them nutritive. Under the influence of the solar light, the
carbonic acid which issues either from the part absorbed
with the water, by the spongioli, or from the part absorbed
by the leaves, is decomposed ; the oxygen is exhaled ; the
carbon forms matter eminently combustible, such as lignine
or wood, saccharine, gum and amidon. This respiration of
leaves is accompanied by a very abundant aqueous exhala-
tion ; about two-thirds of the water absorbed by the roots.

We must regard the leaves as formed by the expansion of
a collection or bundle of vessels, which, in some measure,
compose their skeleton or veins ; the intervals left between
the veins are filled by a substance analogous with the herba-
ceous envelope, parenchyma, which is moulded around these
veins as the soft parts of animals around the bony system.
It is evident that the general form of the leaf depends upon
the disposition of the principal veins, and that the modifica-
tions exhibited by the edge of the same leaf depend upon the
disposition of the secondary veins, the tertiary, &c. When-
ever the principal or secondary veins are sufficiently near

BOTANY. 157

together for the veins which spring from them to unite
themselves at least at their base, the leaf is called simple (PI.
42, Fig. 2); whenever, on the contrary, this junction cannot
be effected, and the veins surrounded by the parenchyma are
separated by clefts, the leaf is said to be divided ; where
several secondary parts are attached to a common petiole,
each remaining distinct and free, the leaf will be compound
(PI. 41, Fig. 4), and the parts will bear the name of folioles.
The leaves are sessile when they attach themselves by their
base to the stem or branches ; they are petiolate when they
attach themselves to a support called petiole or foot stalk ; the
angle which the leaf makes with the stem is called the axil',
the wide portion of the leaf is termed the limb ; it has two
faces, the superior and inferior*.

EXPLANATION OF THE FIGURES ON PLATES 42, 43.

Fig. 1, 2 : Parallel veined leaves.

Fig. 2, 3 : Penniverved or feather-veined leaves.

Fig. 4 : Same, compound.

Fig. 5, 6 : Palminerved or radiated leaves.

Fig. 7 : Same, compound.

Fig. 8, 9 : Pedatinerved leaves.

Fig. 10 : Same, compound.

Fig. 11, 12 : Peltinerved or peltate leaves.

Fig. 13 : Same, compound.

EXPLANATION OF THE FIGURES ON PLATE 45.

Fig. A: 1, monopetalous corolla; 2, monosepalous calyx.

Fig. B : Irregular polypetalous corolla.

Fig. C : Regular polypetalous corolla.

Fig. D : Mode in which the pollen is disposed in an anther.

Fig. E : Granules of the pollen floating in the fovilla.

Fig. F : Dehiscence of an anther.

Fig. G: 1, filament; 2, anther.

Fig. H: 1, stigma; 2, style; 3, germen.

Fig, K : Hypogenous stamens.

Fig. L : Perigenous stamens.

158 BOTANY.

Fig. P : Germen cut to show the ovules.

Fig. R : Round pollen, the external membrane of which
bursts, and the interval forms a species of tube which bursts in
its turn and suffers the pollenic granules to escape.

Fig. T : Section of a stigma, to show how it is traversed by
the grains of the pollen.

Fig. X: 1, stigma; 2, conducting tissue; 3, expansion of
the conducting tissue to receive the ovule; 4, epicarp; 5,
endocarp ; 6, nutritive vessels of the ovule ; 7, raphe ; 8,
chalaza; 9, primine; 10, secundine; 11, exostome and en-
dostome ; 12, tercine ; 13, embryo.

ACCESSORY ORGANS.

STIPULES.

Appendages of the leaves situated on the base of the petiole
and presenting the appearance of small leaves or scales.
[Plate 43, Fig. M.]

TENDRILS.

Simple threads or branches which roll themselves spirally
around foreign bodies to sustain the stems which are provided
with them. [Same Fig.]

THORNS

Are abortive branches and differ from prickles in being a
continuation of the ligneous fibre. [Plate 43, Fig. N.]

PRICKLES.

Appendages of the stem or branches, simply articulated
with the ligneous fibres. [Plate 43, Fig. O.]

INFLORESCENCE.

We give this name to the general disposition or arrange-
ment assumed by the flowers upon the stems or other organs

BOTANY. 159

which support them. The flower may be borne upon a spe-
cies of foot-stalk called peduncle ; or even attached imme-
diately by its base, it is then sessile. When the peduncle is
ramified, each of the divisions bearing a flower takes the name
of pedicel; the small leaves, entirely different from the others,
which are often found about one or several united flowers,
are called bractes; a symmetrical disposition of these organs
around one or more flowers, so as to form a kind of accessory
envelope, bears the appellation of involucrum. Many mono-
tyledons have large alternate sheath-like bractes, which en-
velope the flowers in their first development, and which ex-
pand, little by little, in the form of a horn ; these are spathes.
When there is only one flower upon a plant, the inflorescence
is said to be unifloral; when there are two, it is termed gemi-
nate ; when three, female; when several from the same node,
verticulate. There are two classes of inflorescence.

CLASS I. CENTRIPETAL OR INDEFINITE.

Flowers springing from the axil of the leaves, and expand-
ing from the circumference to the centre. The varieties may
be referred to two types.

TYPE I. SPIKE.

Flowers sessile in the axil of several leaves or bractes, and
not detaching themselves after the florescence. [Wheaty
Rye, &c.]

CATKIN OR AMENT.

Spike composed of male or female flowers only, surrounded
by scales like bractes, withering and falling after florescence,
[Hazel, Willow.]

CONE.

Spike where the flowers are provided with very large
bractes, or such as are susceptible of increase after florescence,
and which often have the appearance of an unique whole.
[Pine.]

SPADIX.

Spike with a fleshy axis peculiar to monocotyledons, and,

160 BOTANY.

«

while young, enveloped in a large bracte called spathe.
[Simple spadix, Arum ; ramified spadix, Date.]

RACEME.

Flowers borne upon peduncles more or less elongated, and
diminishing in size from the base to the summit. [Wild
Cherry.]

THYRSE.

A compound raceme in which the middle peduncles are
the longest, and are subdivided; differs from a panicle in
being very dense. [Lilac.]

PANICLE.

. A raceme where the pedicels along the main peduncle are
divided and scattered. [Oats.]

CORYMB.

Like the umbel in appearance; but the peduncles stand at
different points on the main stem, but elevate the flowers to
nearly the same height, [Yarrow.]

TYPE II. UMBEL.

Peduncles springing from the same point of the stem, like
the braces of an umbrella bearing floret on their extremities.
The simple umbel has the peduncles non-ramified. [Prim-
rose.] The composite umbel has the peduncles divided into
pedicels. [Wild Carrots.]

CAPITULE.

Umbel where the pedicels are excessively short ; flowers
in great number, and so close set that they may be taken at
a distance for a single flower.

CLASS II. CENTRIFUGAL OR DEFINITE.

Stem terminated by a central flower, having at its base
generally two bractes, producing from their axil two new
branches with a terminal flower, and so on. They are called
centrifugal, because the expansion of the flowers takes place
from the one central flower to those of the circumference.
All the inflorescences of this kind are comprised in the generic
title cyme. [Euphorbium, Chickweed.] The cyme re-

BOTANY. 161

sembles the umbel in the peduncles arising from the same
point, but differs in their being variously and alternately
subdivided.

GRAFT.

Grafting consists in producing artificially the union of two
plants. A portion of one is taken, called the graft, and placed
in immediate contact with the other, which is termed the
subject. The first condition of success is, to obtain a pro-
longed contact between fresh and living organs of two plants.
In dicotyledons it is the aubier and liber, especially the point
of junction where the cambium is, which offer the best
chances of success ; since it is here that the tissue is forming,
or has just been formed. The second condition is, that this
contact be established between analogous vegetables : the
greater the analogy the more readily will the graft take.
The operation is not always possible between plants of the
same family, and it is impossible between plants of different
families. There are a great many methods of grafting, but
we must content ourselves with indicating the principal

GRAFT BY APPROXIMATION.

Two neighbouring trees being left unrooted, a branch of
each is bent down, and the two limbs strongly tied together,
spots being brought in contact where the aubier is naked.
When the junction is effected one of the branches may be

cut off below.

/•

GRAFT BY LIGNEOUS SCIONS.

A branch is cut, like a sort of bud, so as to be fitted to the top
of a branch of another tree. Care must be taken so to cut
the graft and notch the subject, that they may be exactly
adapted. The notches are made in various ways. The most
simple is to cut the subject so as to make the insertion in a
simple slit ; this is termed cleft-grafting ; when several scions
or grafts are inserted upon a large truncated branch, it is
called crown-grafting.
v

162 BOTANY.

GRAFT BY BUDS.

A slip of bark, having one or two buds, is exactly fitted to
the subject, in the place of a similar slip removed ; the whole
is tied up to produce an immediate contact, and to prevent
injury from the wind or sun. When the strip of bark con-
tains only one bud it is called a shield-graft ; when there are
several, and the strip is circular, it is an annular graft. By
these means three hundred and thirty-six varieties of apples
may be engrafted upon an old Pear tree.

HERBACEOUS GRAFT.

This does not differ greatly from the others as to the man-
ner of fitting the scions or getting the buds ; but it is practised
upon herbs or upon tender shoots of trees. In this way the
Melon has been grafted upon the Cucumber, and the Tomato
upon the Potato.

THE FLOWER.

This name is given to the union of the organs destined to
accomplish the reproduction, by germs, of phanerogamous
plants. The flower is composed of leaves in a particular
stage of transformation^ springing from the extremity of the
stem or its branches, and arranged in regular verticels or
whorls. These verticels are various in number ; they have
a great tendency to become united, and their form differs
from that of the leaf in proportion to their distance from the
outer edge of the flower. They are divided into four classes :
the calyx, externally ; then the corolla and the stamens, and,
within them, the pistils which crown the germs or ovules
which become seeds. The calyx and the pistils are generally
composed of a single verticel; but the corolla and the sta-
mens are sometimes composed of many fitting together.
Each verticel is ordinarily composed of five pieces in the
dicotyledons, and of three in the monocotyledons. The por-
tion of the stem, or of the branches, which supports the
verticels, is called the torus or receptacle.

BOTANY. 163

i ^

THE CALYX.

The parts of the calyx called the sepals form a primary ex-
ternal envelope. The analogy of these pieces with the leaves
is evident ; like these latter, they are often plane, green, and
furnished with stomata; they present, too, the same internal
organization, and fulfil the same physiological function. They
are often united, more or less completely. When the calyx
has the sepals thus united, it is called gamomosepalous or
monosepalous, and when they are free, polysepalous. The co-
herent portion of a monosepalous calyx is called the tube, and
its border the limb.

COROLLA.

Formed by one or several verticels of pieces called petals,
generally of a brilliant colour, and exhaling odours more or
less grateful. The corolla is called monopetalous, or gamope-
talous, or polypetalous, according to the union or freedom of
the petals. The expansion of the petal is termed the limb ;
and may be either entire or divided, regular or irregular ;
when the point of attachment in the petal is narrow, it is
termed an unguis (claw).

THE STAMENS.

One or more organs within the petals, and having with them
great analogy of position and transformation ; they are inserted
upon the torus, close to the petals, often adhering to them,
and are even transformed into these organs, as in double
Roses, where we often observe such a change to take place.
When there is but one verticel of stamens, they are equal in
number with the petals and (except in a few cases) alternate
with them. When there are several verticels, each is com-
posed of the same number of pieces, and the total number of
the stamens is a multiple of that of the petals. The stamens
perform an important part in the business of reproduction.
When these organs are attached beneath the germen [PL 45,
Fig. L]. they are denominated hypogenous\ when upon the
calyx [Fig. K],perigenous; and when upon the superior part
of the germen [Fig. G], epigenous. A flower without stamens
is called a female flower.

164 BOTANY,

THE FILAMENT.

A part which is sometimes deficient or exceedingly short,
which is usually cylindrical, rarely flattened, and of a con-
sistency and nature analogous with the petals ; it is never
green. It is a support of the anther, as the petiole is of the
leaf, and the claw is of the petals.

THE ANTHER.

This organ may be compared to the limb of the leaf, of
which the filament would be the petiole ; this limb, narrow
and thick, includes generally two compartments, containing
the pollen ; the opening of these compartments is usually in
the direction of their length [PL 45, Fig. F], but may be ef-
fected in various ways, as Fig. O.

THE POLLEN

Is composed of a multitude of little yellow or reddish grains,
which generally escape, in the form of dust, from the interior
of the compartments, and which, by their fall upon the
stigma, and the rupture of their envelope, permit exceedingly
small granules, swimming in the midst of a liquid called fo-
villa, to introduce themselves within the ovary, there to form,
in their development, the germ destined to reproduce the
plant, and called on this account the embryo.

THE CARPELS OR PISTILS.

The last series of organs as we proceed to the centre of the
flower ; composed of leaves more or less folded on the inte-
rior side and which bear upon their edges the ovules destined
to become seeds. Besides the name of carpels, we also give
to these leaves that of pistils, which was formerly applied to
the ensemble of the organ, of whatever nature it might be,
and now, by preference, to the united carpels, when not very
. numerous. The carpels are then considered as compart-
ments. A flower without carpels is termed a male flower.

THE GERMEN

Or germ is a name given to the tumefied inferior portion
of the pistil ; it is the limb of the leaf in its largest part.
The ovules are ranged within upon the two edges, which

BOTANY. 165

fold towards the centre of the flower, and are united, at least
in all the isolated carpels. The filament which supports them
is called the funiculus ; the point of the junction of the funi-
cle and ovule, the hilum. Before expansion, the ovules pre-
sent the appearance of pulpy excrescences without envelope
or aperture ; a little while afterwards the culminating point
is pierced, and we distinguish a small ovoid body (nucleus)
enveloped at its base by two membranes, the exterior called
primine, the interior secondine ; the common point of union
of these two membranes is at the base of the ovary and is
called the chalaza', the primine and secondine do not entirely
cover the nucleus, but leave at the apex a round aperture
called the foramen sometimes; the raphe is a line or ridge
passing from the ovule to the chalaza, being the upper portion
of the funiculus attached to the face of the ovule ; the aper-
ture of the primine is termed the ezostome, and that of the
secondine the endostome. This time of the greatest expan-
sion of the foramen coincides with that of the fall of the
pollen upon the stigma, so that the pollenous grains, travers-
ing the cells of the style, may reach the interior of the ovules,
and fecundate them ; after which it contracts and closes en-
tirely when the ovule becomes a seed.

THE STYLE.

The superior prolongation of the germen, much narrower
than it, and often as fine as a thread. When the carpels are
united, the styles or stigmata, or even both, are often likewise
united, and this part may even be wanting.

STIGMA.

A naked point without epidermis or cellular tissue, and
bedewed with a viscous humour which it secretes. It pos-
sesses the property of absorbing liquids, especially ihefovilla.

166 BOTANY.

THE FRUIT.

This name is given to the carpels when grown ; the ovules,
in growing, become seeds. The fruit contains two parts, the
pericarp and the seed.

THE PERICARP.

The pericarp is that part of a ripe and perfect fruit formed
by the parietes of the fecundated germen, and containing in
its interior one or several seeds. It is composed of three
parts — the surface or exterior membrane (epicarp), the inte-
rior membrane (endocarp), and the intervals between the two
(mesocarp). The epicarp often has hairs, glands or stomata;
it is easily taken off under the form of a transparent pellicle
in the legume of Beans ; it is the velvet skin of the Peach ;
it is rarely thick or hard. The endocarp varies greatly in
nature, consistency, colour, &c. ; in the legume of Peas it is
green like the epicarp ; in the Almond it forms what we
vulgarly call the shell ; in the Peach and Cherry it is the
bony part of the nut or kernel. The mesocarp is sometimes
so fine as scarcely to be distinguishable, while at other times
it is thick and fleshy, as in the Apricot, the Peach, &c.

Fruit are said to be dehiscent when, on ripening, the peri-
carp splits open and allows the seeds to be dispersed ; when,
on the other hand, the pericarp remains closed throughout
the whole of its existence, it is said to be indehiscent. Every
carpel is more or less two-edged, one edge representing the
nudrib of a leaf, and the others the margins united ; these
edges are called the sutures, the former the dorsal, the latter
the ventral suture ; to this the seeds are attached in all sim-
ple fruits. Fruits are said to be inferior when the calyx is
placed on the apex of the germ, and superior when below the
germ.

Class /. Jlpocarps.
Simple fruits formed of free carpels. Two sections.

BOTANY.

167

LEGUMEN.

DEHISCENT.

!A follicle is a carpel opening longitudinally
by the ventral suture; pericarp not fleshy,
often foliaceous. [Ranunculus.]

f A legume is a carpel unique and opening
longitudinally in two valves, both at the
dorsal and ventral suture ; pericarp but lit-
tle or not at all fleshy, of an elongated form,
and compressed at the sides. [Bean, Aca-

Lcia.]

NON DEHISCENT.

A drupe is a mesocarp fleshy ; endocarp
coriaceous or bony; carpel generally single
in each flower, with one or two seeds,
_ [Peach, Plum.]

DRUPA.

Or grain is an indehiscent carpel, bony,,
generally small, containing a single grain, not
ACHJENIUM <> united with the pericarp. The Strawberry
is an accumulation of small grains upon a
^ fleshy torus.

Class II. Syncarps.

Composite fruits formed of two or more carpels of the same-
flower united. Two orders. Those fastened to the calyx,
and those not fastened to the calyx. The first order has twa
sections, dehiscent and non dehiscent.

NON DEHISCENT.

f Pericarp one-celled, by abortion, termi-
\ nated in the flower by two or three stigmata,
I and united with a single seed. [Wheat,
[Maize.]

CARIOPSIS.

SAMARA.

f Compartments projecting externally under
J the form of dorsal wings, from a dry, inde-
I hiscent, two or more celled fruit. [Maple,
I Ash.]

168

BOTANY.

HESPERIDIUM.

SILIQU.

CAPSULA.

PYXIDIUM.

Epicarps united externally in a coriaceous
skin, almost always concealing the juncture
of the carpels, which are easily separated by
the hand, provided that the endocarp adhere
but slightly to the rest of the pericarp. [Ci-
tron, Orange.]

DEHISCENT.

f A silique consists of two carpels united
j throughout their length in a dry, bivalved

< fruit, with a thin partition ; seeds attached
I to the two edges of the partition in each com-
[partment. [Cabbage, Radish.]

f A capsule consists of two or several carpels
J united in a dry, dehiscent, many seeded fruit,
I in any manner whatever. [Water-Lily,
[Poppy.]

f Capsule opening in the middle by a cir-

< cular, horizontal fissure. [Chickweed, Purs-
[lain.]

The second order has two sections, fleshy and not fleshy.

NOT FLESHY.

f Two or several carpels united with the

tube of the calyx, and internally with their
CREMOCARPIUM. < , j i • .• r

I single seed ; when ripe, separating from a

L common axis. [Umbelliferse.]

CYPESELA.

GLANS.

f A single carpel, by abortion of the others,
J indehiscent, united with the calyx, and con-
gaining a single seed, [Composites.]

f Pericarp coriaceous or ligneous, indehis-
j cent, unilocular by abortion, containing one
I or many grains, and surrounded at the base
[by a cupule. [Hazel, Oak.]

BOTANY. 109

FLESHY.

(Several indehiscent carpels, with a carti-
laginous or bony pericarp, enveloped by a
fleshy calyx, united with them, and indehis-
I cent. The remains of the stamens and the
j lobes of the calyx are seen at the upper por-
(tion. [Apple, Pear.]

f" Several verticillated carpels, forming a
p J one-celled fleshy fruit, to the internal walls

I of which the seeds are attached. [Melon,
[Gourd.]

(A many celled fruit, with calyx and peri-
carp pulpy, indehiscent; seeds surrounded
with pulp, and easily separated from their
L point of attachment. [Gooseberry, Grape.]

Class IIL Polyanthocarps.

Fruits aggregated by the approximation or junction of many

flowers.

f Or cone is an assemblage of sessile fruits,

g J composed each of a pericarp in the form of a

| convex scale, and of seeds situated at the base
[of the pericarp. [Pine, Fir.]

1A concave, fleshy receptacle, surrounding,
more or less, small distinct fruits, and pro-
ceeding from a multitude of flowers. [Fig.]

f Carpels of several flowers united by the

circumjacent floral envelopes, bractes and
SORUS. { ,. , J ,, . V rA

I floral axes adhering together. [Anana,

[Bread-Fruit, Mulberry.]

THE SEED.

The seed is that part of a perfect fruit which is to repro-
duce a new vegetable. No naked seeds exist, strictly speak-
ing ; but the pericarp is sometimes so fine, and adheres so
closely to the seed, that it is with difficulty distinguished,
w

170 BOTANY.

The seed includes four parts, of which two are never de-
ficient.

THE ARILLUS.

An expansion of the apex of the funicle around the seed,
which is only seen in a few species ; it may be fleshy, pulpy,
or even membranous. This, in the Nutmeg, forms what is
called the mace.

THE SPERMODERM OR EPISPERM.

An organ which is never deficient, which forms the proper
tegument of the seed, and is simple or composed of two mem-
branes, the testa and the tegmen. The former is the exterior
membrane, so called on account of its coriaceous nature ; it
is smooth, and absorbs moisture with great facility. The
latter is the internal membrane ; it is not smooth, and does
not absorb water.

THE ALBUMEN OR ENDOSPERM.

An intermediate body, which frequently exists between
the embryo and the spermoderm ; it is composed of diverse
matters, fleshy, farinaceous, oily, or analogous to horn. In
the nut of the Cocoa the milky part is the albumen ; it is
visible also in Maize, Rice, &c.

THE EMBRYO.

The rudiment of the young plant, protected and nourished
by all the envelopes and liquids of which we have spoken.
Under the influence of light, moisture, oxygen and heat the
plant is developed. This phenomenon is termed germination.
The embryo consists of

THE RADICLE.

A little simple root, usually fine and pointed, sometimes
thick and obtuse, and the length of which varies. In the act
of germination the water reaches the radicle first, which is
inflated or elongated in diverse ways.

THE PLUMULA,

Or young stem, sometimes scarcely visible. In the seed
it is composed of two parts, one beneath the cotyledons, the
tigclla, the other above, the gemmula.

BOTANY. 171

COTYLEDONS.

Small lateral inflations of the embryo, as many as one or
two, or even more. Cotyledons of a foliaceous nature have
stomata ; grow more or less green in germination ; fleshy or
farinaceous cotyledons have no stomata, never grow green,
and diminish in volume during germination.

CLASSIFICATION OF PLANTS.

Two methods have been followed in classifying plants ;
one is called the artificial, the other the natural method : the
object of the former is to afford an easy mode to recognize in-
dividuals; the latter to arrange them according to their natural
affinities. In one point both of these methods agree, viz.,
the subdividing the vegetable kingdom into groups of more
or less importance, as follows: classes, subclasses, orders,
genera and species. The artificial system of Linnaeus is that
which is at present, with some modifications, universally
adopted. The classes of this system are twenty-four in
number, and are founded upon characters drawn from the
number, situation, proportion, &c. of the stamens. The first
eleven classes are characterized by the numbers of stamens,
and expressed by names derived from the Greek.

Class 1. Monandria; perfect flowers, with only one
stamen.

Class 2. Diandria ; 2 stamens.

Class 3. Triandria ; 3 stamens.

Class 4. Tetrandria ; 4 stamens.

Class 5. Pentandria ; 5 stamens.

Class 6. Hexandria; 6 stamens.

Class 7. Heptandria; 7 stamens.

Class 8. Octandria ; 8 stamens.

Class 9. Enneandria ; 9 stamens.

Class 10. Decandria; 10 stamens.

Class 11. Dodecandria; 12 to 29 stamens.

The next two classes derive their characters from the
number and insertion of the stamens ; the number in both
being twenty or more.

"•

172 BOTANY.

Class 12. They are adherent to the calyx.

Class 13. They are not adherent to the calyx.

The two succeeding classes are founded upon the relative
length of the stamens.

Class 14. Didynamia ; 4 stamens, two of which are longer
than the other two.

Class 15. Tetradynamia ; 6 stamens, four of which are
longer than the other two.

Then come four classes founded upon the connection of
the stamens with each other.

Class 16. Monadelphia; all the filaments united together
to form a tube, the anthers themselves remaining free.

Class 17. Diadelphia ; the filaments united into two sets,
anthers free.

Class 18. Polyadelphia ; the filaments united into more
than two sets, anthers free.

Class 19. Syngenesia ; filaments and anthers united into
a tube.

The succeeding four classes are founded on the relation of
the stamens to the pistil.

Class 20. Gynandria ; stamens adhering to or apparently
growing out of the pistil.

Class 21. Monoecia; stamens and pistils in different
flowers, but on the same plant.

Class 22. Dio3cia ; stamens and pistils in different flowers,
and also in different plants.

Class 23. Polygamia ; stamens and pistils separate in
some flowers and united in others, and either all on the same
or different plants.

The last class has no flowers properly so called.

Class 24. Cryptogamia; no stamens or pistil, or those
in which these essential organs cannot be discovered.

GEOLOGY

GEOLOGY.

Historical Table of the Revolutions of the Globe.

INTRODUCTION.

THE earth which we inhabit is one of eleven planets which
revolve around the sun. It has two motions : one of rotation,
which it performs in twenty-three hours, fifty-six minutes,
four seconds, and whence results the alternation of day and
night ; the other of projection around the sun, or the annual
motion, which is completed in three hundred and sixty-five
days, five hours, forty-eight minutes and forty-five seconds.
Its form is that of a sphere flattened towards the poles. Its
surface is about twenty-five million seven hundred and ninety
thousand four hundred and forty square leagues, three-fourths
of which are occupied by the sea. Its semi-diameter at the
equator is about one thousand four hundred and thirty-five
leagues. The science which treats of the structure and com-
position of the globe, together with the changes it has expe-
rienced since its first existence, is called Geology. The
principal fact upon which this branch of human knowledge
reposes is the increase of heat which has been remarked in
descending mines, and which, at its least expression, is about
one degree for about every twenty-five metres of depth;
whence it would result, if we suppose this increase to con-
tinue in the same proportion, that, at the depth of a half
league, water could no longer remain liquid, and that at
twenty or twenty-five leagues the heat would be sufficient to
melt most rocks. This central heat has given rise to the
supposition that the interior of the globe is in the condition

176 GEOLOGY.

of an igneous fluid, and that primitively it was altogether but
one incandescent mass — a supposition which accords per-
fectly well with the calculations of astronomers, who demon-
strate that our planet has precisely the form which it must
have assumed under this hypothesis.

As soon as the temperature of the globe decreased, through
the cessation of the calorific cause, a solid crust was formed
about the liquid mass, whence resulted a first mode of the
formation of rocks, operating from above to below, and which
must continue until the whole globe has grown cool. While
the planet was incandescent the atmosphere which surrounded
it was necessarily filled with an immense quantity of water
and sublimated matter, besides the gases which now compose
it. In proportion as the process of cooling progressed these
materials would be deposited upon the surface of the earth, and
augment the thickness of the solid stratum. When the tem-
perature permitted water to remain in a liquid state upon the
earth, a new mode of formation would be united with the
other, that of precipitation and crystallization. Finally,
ruptures of the solid crust of the globe must have taken place
in consequence of the pressure of fluids, or of the contrac-
tion of the interior parts, diminishing in volume as they grow
cool.

FIRST EPOCH.

A very dense and extensive atmosphere, produced by the
volatilization of certain substances, easily rendered aeriform,
such as water, lead, sulphur, bitumen, mercury, zinc, &c. ;
temperature and pressure too great to permit any living being
to be developed; first cooling; formation of a solid crust,
tending to augment every day in thickness ; formation of the
superior strata of the primordial soils, and of the mineral
crystallizations which they include ; extensive risings at the
surface of the soil ; Plutonic eruptions, without flames or sco-
rified lava; internal effusions between the strata; termina-
tion of the first epoch, characterized by the establishment of
permanent aquatic basins.

GEOLOGY. 177

PRIMITIVE EARTHS.

The primitive earths are composed principally of granitic
rocks, of schist, mica or talc, and of amphibolous rocks.

Three substances predominate in the rocks of the primary
formation : these are mica, a very brilliant mineral, of variable
colour, and metallic appearance, composed of very fine leaves,
easily detached ; feldzpar, a mineral often found in red crys-
tals, square and elongated ; quartz, a rock-crystal, and very
hard body, striking fire with steel. When these three mine-
rals are equally disseminated, in grains more or less thick, the
rock which results is called granite. As one of the three pre-
dominates, or is mixed with some new mineral, the rock takes
a different name. Thus primordial rocks, disposed in lami-
nae, where mica or talc predominates, sometimes even exclud-
ing feldzspar, are termed schistous, micaceous, or talcous.
Amphibolous rocks are the same as the preceding, with the
exception that the mica is here replaced by a very brilliant,
greenish mineral, with a great tendency to assume elongated
forms ; it is called amphibola.

USEFUL MATTERS OF THE PRIMARY FORMATION.

Massive granite, fit to be carved into columns, and other
stone work of great dimensions.

Kaolin and petunze, of which porcelain is made.

Fine rock quartz, proper for the fabrication of crystal.

The fine statuary marble, cipolin, verd-antique.

White gypsous alabaster, of ancient formation.

Topaz, amethyst, &c.

Muscovy glass.

Labrador and Amazon stone.

SECOND EPOCH.

Appearance of organized beings — 1st. Vegetables; 2d.

Aquatic marine animals ; 3d. Amphibious reptiles ; tremors

of the earth and frequent swellings, producing only extensive

undulations upon the surface, and no high mountains, as yet;

x

178 GEOLOGY.

seas of but little depth ; numerous and very wide lakes and
rivers ; a gigantic vegetation of ferns and other acotyledonous
plants ; at a later period monocotyledonous ones ; formation
of coal and lignites ; plu tonic eruptions, without scorified lava;
metalliferous injections in veins ; internal effusions between
the strata ; atmosphere rendered less thick, in consequence of
the cooling of certain volatilizable matters, which are precipi-
tated upon the earth, such as mercury, zinc, lead, sulphur
and bitumen.

EARTHS FORMED DURING THE SECOND EPOCH,

EARTH OF TRANSITION FORMED UNDER THE INFLUENCE OF FIRE AND

WATER.
SCHIST.

Rocks arranged in laminae, or dividing easily in flags, like
slates. The schists of Angiers present impressions of very
simple animals, belonging to the class of Crustacea, but en-
tirely different from all those known at present. In these
strata we meet with touch-stone, oil-stone, black-lead, red-
lead, alum, vitriol, anthracite, numerous veins of copper, lead,
zinc and iron; mercury, with bitumen, is found in the upper
portions.

CALX.

Thick beds, including the greater part of the marbles with
mixed colours, such as the gray and black, also the small
granite, among others, remarkable on account of the round
and white spots, in the shape of stars, formed by fossil, Radi-
ata, called Encrinites. The most extensive iron mines are
found between these calcareous beds and the primary forma-
tion; hence also spring the greater number of the mineral
waters.

COAL. FREESTONE.

The transition freestone and pudding-stone are generally
sterile. They are advantageously employed in carving or
building. The pudding-stone sometimes forms also excellent
mill-stones, and the freestone good whet-stones. The pre-
sence of coal is announced by black rocks, and impressions
of vegetables resembling large Ferns.

GEOLOGY. 179

INFERIOR SECONDARY EARTH.
VARIEGATED FREESTONE.

Thus called on account of their gray or reddish colour,
sometimes mixed. They are mingled with pudding-stones
and schistous marl, presenting great variety of shade, which
has procured for them the name of rainbow marl. Some ve-
getable fossils are here found, but no animal.

ALPINE CALX OR LIAS.

Tints uniformly gray or blackish ; a compact paste rarely
granulated, including much clay. Here are found many
fossil shells (the arcuated Grypheus, a kind of Oyster, flexed
in form of a bow) ; rock salt belongs to this formation, but more
especially to the variegated freestone and the rainbow marl.

JURASSIC OR OOLITHIC CALX.

This latter name has been given to them because they
appear to form small round granules like fish eggs. We
here find the following fossils. Icthyosaurus, the head of a
lizard, but prolonged into a tapering muzzle, armed with
pointed and conical teeth ; vertebral column organized as in
fish; pelvis small and weak; four limbs, of which the hume-
rus and femur are thick and short, and the other bones, which
are flattened and close together, compose, when enveloped
by the skin, fins analogous to those of the Cetacea. They
live in the sea and crawl with difficulty. Plesiosaurus, limbs
a little more elongated and more flexible than in the preced-
ing ; shoulder and pelvis more robust ; neck slender, as long
as the body, composed of thirty vertebra and some more, and
terminated by a very small head. Megalosaurus, form like
that of the Monitor ; size so enormous that if we suppose the
the same proportions as in the Monitor, it must exceed seventy
feet in length. Pterodactylus, tail very short; neck very
long ; head large ; excessive elongation of the second toe of
the fore-foot, which is more than twice as long as the body,
and probably served to sustain some membrane which aided
the animal in flying. The remains of two species are found,
one of which might have been about the size of a common
bat, the other of a thrush.

180 GEOLOGY..

SUPERIOR SECONDARY EARTH.
GREEN FREESTONE.

Characterized by small grains of green matter found dis-
seminated therein.

CRETACEOUS EARTH.

Thick and numerous strata, covering entire countries, and
having two varieties ; the one like chalk properly so called,
that is to say white, soft and tolerably friable; the other al-
together hard, and supplying fine stone for sculpture and even
true marble. Here are found Oysters, and Rudistes, very
irregular shells resembling horns diversely flexed, and with
uneven surface.

THIRD EPOCH.

Great swellings or erections; sinking of valleys; displace-
ment of seas and lakes; extinction of a great number of or-
ganized beings; appearance of new species, such as large
mammiferous quadrupeds (Cetacea and Pachydermata) ; at
the same time appear insects and fresh water fish; remark-
able progression in the vegetable kingdom ; the dicotyledonous
plants are more numerous than the acotyledonous and mono-
cotyledonous ; volcanic phenomena more strongly character-
ized than during the two first epochs ; trachytic and basaltic
eruptions, with productions more or less bullous and scorified.

EARTHS OF THE THIRD EPOCH.

INFERIOR TERTIARY EARTH.
MARINE FORMATION.

i':'. '„;

Coarse Cah, composed of calcareous layers of marine for-
mation, between which are inserted accidentally some beds
of fluviatile formation. One of these fresh water deposits is
oftqn found in the inferior portion ; it is that of plastic day ;
it is succeeded by strata of clay, marl, and sand, in the midst
of which are piles of lignite. Coarse calx is the building
stone of the Parisians.

GEOLOGY. 181

FRESH WATER FORMATION.

Gypsous marl and silicious cah, composed of beds of marl
with Lymnese and of a compact calx with a fine grain impreg-
nated with silex, in the midst of which are interspersed ovoid
masses of gypsum containing numerous bones of terrestrial
Mammalia (Palseotherum, Anoplotherum). The shells in-
cluded in gypsous marl are particularly those called Lymnese,
Cyclostomes, Planorbes and other fluviatile Mollusca. The
Pal&othera, are Pachydermata intermediate between the Tapir
and the Rhinoceros ; bone of the nose very short, and seem-
ing to require a little proboscis ; six incisors and two canines
in each jaw ; feet divided into three toes ; seven species are
found in the lime-pits in the vicinity of Paris, of which the
greater portion are about the size of a Horse, the rest of a
Hog, Sheep or Hare. The Anoplothera are Pachydermata
remarkable on account of teeth in a continued series, as we
find in the Bimana family, contiguous and without interval,
and on account of an unique organization of a cloven foot
where the metatarsian and metacarpian bones are not united
in a cannon. The best known species of these animals, which
are peculiar to the lime-pits and coarse calx in the vicinity of
Paris, resembled a large Otter, and frequented lakes, in the
bottom of which its bones are found incrusted in gypsum.

SUPERIOR TERTIARY EARTH.
MARINE FORMATION.

Sands and marine freestone of Fontainebleau ; sands strati-
fied in distinct beds, ferruginous and micaceous; very hard
banks of freestone with marine shells in the superior portions
of the deposit.

FRESH- WATER FORMATION.

Superior fresh-water calx and mill-stone. Mill-stone is the
name given to a silex indented with a multitude of irregular
cavities, supplied with silicious filaments arranged much like
the reticulated tissue of bones, and spread with an ochrous
plaster; these cavities are often filled with clayey marl or
sand, and have no communication.

182 GEOLOGY.

FOURTH EPOCH.

Universal deluge ; appearance of aerolites ; trains of erratic
masses; beds of rolled flints ; change in the astronomical posi-
tion of the planet; extinction of many races of large animals;
new races smaller; volcanic phenomena very powerful; erec-
tion of the highest mountains; appearance of Man upon the
globe; local inundations; sinking of valleys at various stages ;
diminution of intensity in volcanic phenomena; actual period.

EARTHS OF THE FOURTH EPOCH.

DILUVIAL EARTH.

This earth is composed exclusively of sand and rotted flints
mingled without regular stratification. Diluvial deposits are
most usually accompanied with erratic masses. This appel-
lation is given to enormous fragments of rock more or less
rounded at their angles ; some are known which weigh as
much as three hundred thousand kilogrammes. These va-
rious materials are generally in a movable condition; some-
times, however, we see sands and flints cemented by a marlous
or ferruginous clay introduced by infiltrations which still
continue at some points. This earth includes no remains of
those singular animals which abound in the tertiary soil.
Pachydermata, however, still prevail [the Mammoth, Masto-
don, Rhinoceros, Hippopotamus, Tapir]. These Pachyder-
mata are attended with numerous remains of Horses, large
Ruminantia [Stags, Oxen] ; remains are also found of Hyenas,
Bears, Tigers, &c. In caverns, called bony gaps, in the midst
of a red cement, we also find remains of two gigantic Edentata,
the Megatherium and Megalonyx.

FOSSIL ELEPHANT. RUSSIAN MAMMOTH.

From fifteen to eighteen feet high ; covered with a thick
reddish wool, and with long, stiff and black hairs, forming a
crest along the back ; enormous tusks implanted in alveoli
longer than those of our Elephants; in other respects it re-
sembles the Indian Elephant. It has left thousands of car-
cases from Spain to the extremity of Siberia, and some are
found in every part of North America. Its tusks are so well

GEOLOGY. 183

preserved in cold countries that they are employed for the
same purposes as ivory.

GENUS MASTODON.

These animals had feet, tusks, trunk, and many other de-
tails of conformation in common with Elephants. They dif-
fered from these in the jaws; where the crown, bristled at its
issuing from the gum with thick conical points, presented, in
proportion to its detrition, disks more or less wide, which
represented the cups of these points. Remains of these ani-
mals have been found in both continents. The most remark-
able species, and one which appears peculiar to America, is
the great Mastodon, whose height is about nine feet ; the
proportions of the body are more heavy than those of either
the Fossil Elephant or the Elephant of our days. There
was an error in regarding it as carnivorous.

GENUS RHINOCEROS.

There were three large Rhinoceroses, all two-horned.
The species most widely scattered, in Germany and England,
and which, like the Elephant, is found even near the shores
of the Frozen Ocean, where it has also left entire individuals,
had the head elongated, the bones of the nose robust, sustained
by a bony nostril partition, not one simply cartilaginous ; it
was destitute of incisives.
*

GENUS MEGATHERIUM.

This united a part of the generic character of the Arma-
dillo with some of those of the Sloth, and in height equalled
the largest Rhinoceros ; its claws must have been of a mon-
strous length and strength ; all the skeleton is of excessive
solidity. As yet none have been disinterred except in the
sandy strata of South America.

POST-DILUVIAL EARTH.

This earth comprehends the products of present volcanoesr
glaciers, morasses, deposits of lake salt, modern formations
of sand and calx, fluviatile and marine alluvions, deposits of
springs incrusting banks with Mollusca and Zoophytes,
flinty and muddy deposits, and finally modern turfs, and the
vegetable mould. The organic remains here met with belong

184 GEOLOGY.

to species analogous with those existing in the countries where
they are discovered. It is here only that we meet with human
remains, a fact clearly proving the recent appearance of Man
upon the earth.

EXPLANATION OF THE STRATA.

Massive granitic earth.

Stratified granitic earth, disposed in beds or layers.

Materials vomited by the central fire, and arranged either
at the surface or within the beds. They may be designated
by the following names : first and second epoch, plutonic
rocks (porphyry and serpentine); third epoch, volcanic
rocks (trachyte, basalt) ; fourth epoch, volcanic rocks (lava).

Aquatic basins.

INDEX.

A.

Aphis, ' -. • •'*--£

- 133

Apoda, -•'*,<' '"'. *•"•"'.

- 143

Absorption,

13 Apocarps, •- ••'"--' .«

- 166

Abranchiatee, " « -

Ill Aptenodytes, , **J

- 75

Acephala, - -

:•••'. 27 Aptera, W "' »y

- 124

Acipenser, - ,- . ••' J^ ' -v .

^ "- : 98 Aquila, -^-^ wV ^^ .

60

Acephala, .--'., -.•>

*- 106 Arm, : '.v ' •\f>; ."^

18

1 o/\ . i .

OO

Aculeata,

i-**v/ jr\.rfiDiniij -
.-K 137 Articulata, -

22
28

Acalepha,

144 Arachnides, -^

28

Acrydium, - ''••?-' *";'••--

131 Arvicola, v-- .>;

45

Accessory Organs, -

- 158 Ara, t ,,; i?.5S^

68

Achcenium,

.:. '••- 167 Argonauta, - . ; ^

- 103

Agama, [ * .nrt • W* '

•?: 81 Arachnides, - . '.*•-

- 116

Aerial Cavities,

•!v*v 150 Araneides, -

• 117

Alfourous, * -~

; -- 24 Aranea, " '-J **^

* 118

Alauda,

r- •*•• 64 Arillus,

- 170

Alcedo,

;•*• 66 Astacus, - ^ .. '

r 115

' j •••". 68 Auchenia - -

f'-t

Alca,

75 Aves,

ol

1 'v»f. 57

Albumen, ^ -

-v, 170 Avicula, *-.

• 107

Alpine, :-'-^

V, 179

Americans, N.

*,: 25

Americans, S.

l*»y 25 B.

Amphibia, -'-^

•frr*. 41

Ampelis, --

62 Bacca, ; iJ', ' -s-^;

- 169

Amphisboena,

y ?-?<^ 83 Bark,

-, 153

Amphi trite,

L-»i 110 Barbus, V^- ' ^ -^

- 91

Amphipoda,

- 115 Batrachia, - '•^•.-.

- 85

Animalia Vertebrata,

26 Baloena, *- -.T

* 56

Annulata,

28 Bipes,

. .-.« 82

Anas, -v

77 Bittern, * '*,.

72

Anser, .'*-

77 BloodVessels,

10

Anguina, '**

-- 83 Bos, .

54

Animalia Mollusca,

101 Bombus,

- 138

Anodontea,

107 Bombyces, -

- 139

Animalia Reticulata,

ir 109 Botany,

- 149

Anobium,

- 128 Brachocera,

- 140

Animalia Radiata, -

- 142 Brachyura, -

- 114

Annular Vessels,

- 149 Bradypus, -

46

Anther,

164 Brachypterro, ' +•

75

Apparatus, -

16 Bulbils,

- 156

Aphrodita, -

111 Bulbs,

155

Y

186

INDEX.

Buds,

- 155

Cicindela,

vr 126

Bufo,

86

Cincl us,

62

Buteo,

60

Classification,

26

Clupese,

93

Clotho, - !'

- 118

C.

Clavicornes,

- 128

Conirostres, — '

63

Cathartes, •-

'*•-'<:•' - 59

Corvus,

64

Capra,

^ 54

Cor ax,

64

Caprimulgus,

^-. 63

Cockatoo, - - * '. ,-.-.

68

Camelopardalis,

53

Coturnix, -

70

Caraelus,

51

Columba, - - ^

70

Cavia,

46

Colymbus, - •

75

Castor,

45

Coluber,

84

Campagnols,

45

Conger, ...

95

39

Conus, - - -

- 105

Garni vora, -

. -> - 36

Coleoptera, \* x<

- 125

Carnaria, - •

•-*-•''* - 33

Coccinella, -

- 129

Caucasian, - '• -

21

Coccus, v.,"'"

- 133

Carpus,

- 18

Coralliferi, -

- 146

Casuarius, --;

71

Cone,

. 159

Catostomus,

91

Corymb,

- 160

Cancer,

- 114

Corolla, .',-.» -

- 163

Carabus,

- 126

Coal,

.y.* 178

Cantharis,

..*?• 129

Crustacea,

- 28

Calandra,

,. 129

Cricetus, , - -

44

Carnosi,

niSte* 145

Crocodilida, -,.* -v • . *-

80

- - 106

Crotalus, - - - *

84

Catkin,

- 159

Crepuscularia, - - •*?»»•

- 139

Capitule,

•.;.**« leo

Cremocarpium,

- 168

Calyx,

- 163

Cretaceous Earth, -

- 180

Carpels,

- 164

Cuculus, ...

67

Cariopsis,

- 167

Cultrirostres,

71

Capsula,

- 168

Cursoria,

- 130

Calx, , -

' y 178

Culex,

-' 140

Cerebral System,

13

Cuhn,

- 154

Cerebrum, - /

13

Cygnus, - r

77

Cerebellum,

- 13

Cyprinus,

91

Cephalopoda, •

27

Cypreea,

- 106

Cercopithecus,

"- 31

Cynips,

- 137

Cebus,

32

Cypesela, , - -

- 168

52

C VTllOCCulltlluS ; '-'•'"» -

QO

Cetacea,

54

O/w

Certhia,

65

Cells,

- 149

D.

Chinese,

-v 23

Chymification,

*a? 12

Dactylopterus,

89

Chylification,

12

Dentirostres,

61

Cheiroptera,

• 33

Decapoda, -^

- 113

Charadrius,

71

Dermestes,

- 128

Chelonia,

79

Diurnal,

58

Chamseleonida,

82

Diomedea, -

79

Chirotes,

82

Diodon, - ...

97

Cicada,

- 133

Diurna,

- 138

Circulation,

10

Diptera, .*».

- 140

Cimex,

- 132

Diluvial Earth,

- 182

INDEX.

187

Dorsibranchiata,

ir 111

VJicuiv^" y .

Glans,

-i<"*
- 168

- 107

Glareola,

-,-:'*&&

Graft,

- 161

Gryllo,

- 131

|

Gymnotus,

95

Echinodermata,

- 142

Gymnodantes,

-Art*-*9*

Echidna,

48

Gypactos, **

59

Edentata, ->

46

* . :"

Elephas, ^

49

Emys,

»*», 79

H.

Emberiza,

r 64

"A. ^ •» ' * .- / :' v

Embryo,

- 170

Hands,

18

Encephalum,

A 13

Hairs,

- 151

Engraulis,

93

• ^<W

Entozoa,

t.;rir , ->*• 143

Hearing,

14

Ephemera, -

.*, 134

Helix,

- 104

Epidermis, -

- 151

Hemiptera,

- 132

Erinaceus, -

•:. .*.. 35

Heteroptera,

- 132

Ethiopian Variety,

>.- 24

Herbaceous Graft, -

- 162

Equus, ?

,*> 50

Hesperidium,

- 168

Head,

17

Hindoos,

~Afe*ll

F.

Hilobates,

31

Histrix, - •.;•••*?*

45

Felis,

-. .,-., 40

Hierofalco, -

59

Fingers,

19

Hirundo,

63

Fibres,

- 150

Hippocampus,

96

Filament,

- 164

Hirudo,

- 112

Flower,

- 162

Homogenea,

- 146

Formica,

- 137

Homoptera,

- 133

Foot,

19

120

Folliculum,

',-.-. 167

Hottentots,

24

Formation, Marine

'•-... 180

Hyperborean,

23

Fossil Elephant,

- -I 182

Hypsiprymnus,

42

Freestone,

> . 178

Hyla,

86

Fringilla,

•* 64

Hymenoptera,

- 136

Fruit,

:.'? 166

Francolinus,

.-. 69

Fulica,

' V? 73

I.

Fuligula,

78

.vi*?f ''t,v , ..

Ichneumon,

- 136

Iguanida,

81

G.

Iguana,

81

Inclusa,

- 108

Gad us,

& ' a 93

121

Gallus,

- 69

Insectivora, -.^

35

Garrulus, - *^

,e~ 64

Inuus, ". •"-

31

Gavial,

80

Insalivation, -. -„

12

Gasteropoda,

" v 103

Isopoda,

- 116

Gallinula, ~i -

. .^ 74

Geckotida, -

" •" 82

Gecarcinus,

.. 114

J. %

Germans, -,

21

Germen,

V;" ' 164

Jurassic,

- 179

188

INDEX.

\

K.

Megatherium, * -

_

8*U - * •". *

Melolontha, -

_

Koala,

*5r 43

Merluccius - ' • •" ^ *

Merlangus, - y.Ofi

.

Milvus,

• •-

L.

Motacilla,

.

Monodon,

.

Lacertinida,

wte 81

Monotremata,

.

Lacerta,

•-*' 81

Mongolian, -

.

Lab rax, '-

89

Moniliform Vessels, -

-

Lampyris,

- 127

Mollusca,

.

Lamellicornes,

- 128

Morrhua,

.

Larus,

-w . 76

Monitor,

•.»

'••*' 62

16

MursBna, ...

Leg, -

19

Musca,

.

-*• 33

Muscular Apparatus

-

Lepus,

;;&. 45

Mu stela,

.

Leuciscus, -

91

Mus,

-

Lepidoptera,

;>V:- 138

Myrmecophaga,

c--~

Lenticles,

•••-- 151

Myoxus,

-

Legumen, - "

- 167

Mycetes,

-

Limosa,

^ 73

Myrmeleon, -

-

Limax,

*•• 104

Myriapoda, -

-

Libellula, -

- 134

My gale,

-

Ligneous Layers,

- 153

My til us,

-

Locomotion, • ,

15

Mytilacea, -

-

Lungs,

-- 1 1

1 • •* •

Lutra,

?<* 38

Lumbrici,

*•' 111

N.

Lucanus,

'-*'*. 128

- " •• • ' '-v, ~ •'

Locusta,

- 131

Naia,

-

Lycosa,

^ 119

Negroes,

.

-

Nematoidea, -

-

Nemocera, -

-

M.

Neuroptera, -

y-tir

Nepa,

•**$•

Macropus, -

*'-."i' 43

Nerves,

-

Mangusta, -

40

Nervo-Cerebral System,

-

Macroura,

- 115

Nervous System,

IHiic

Mantis,

- 130

Numidia,

-

Marine Foundation,

- 180

Nuda,

••&

Mastodon, -'

i'.*v- J83

Nudibranchiata,

-

Manatus,

•^ 55

Nocturna, ''"*••-

-

Manis,

in- 47

Marsupialia, -

42

Malays,

23

O.

Mastication, -

^ 12

Members,

.-,-. 18

Oniscus,

.

Metatarsus, -

'•&•> 19

Ornithorhynchus,

-

Megaderma, -

V 34

Ortyx,

-

Meles,

:* 37

Orycteropus,

-

Mephitis,

v- 38

Oriolus,

-

Msenura, - - ; -

-* • 62

Organic Life,

•

Merops,

- 66

Osmerus,

,#*j

Meleagris, <• *

*; 69

Ophidia, :;•;» ^

-

Mergus, r*

t ^ 75

Ostracion, " * ; '*•

-

183
128
94
94
60
62
55
47

150
101

95
141

38
44

44

135
124
118

107

107

84

144
140
134
132

84
105
139

116

48
70
47
62
15
93
82
97

INDEX.

189

Ostracea,

,= -..* 107

Pipa,

"..,-.:<; an.

Ostrea,

,- 107

Picus,

•v-™»*l

Otis,

: -. 71

Pica,

64

,-, go

Pinra

f»O

Ouistitis,

<*: 32

A iprd.,

Pleropus,

" - •-• Do

p*fay*!M

Ovis,

,.-: 54

Plantigrada, -

Fr^fi

Plectognathi,

nr/. -;^;c;-;:96

Planipennes,

>- 135

P.

Pleuronectes,

- - »»

Plumula,

- 170

Pacliydermata,

. 48

Passerinae, -

•>.' 61

Podiceps,

75

Parus,

.<<*.( 64

Portunus,

- 114

Paradisaea, -

- •:.-, 64

Pollen,

- 164

Palmipedes, -

>>V 74

Pomum,

- 169

Parra,

... 73

Polyommatus,

- 139

Pavo,

„>•. 68

Post-Diluvial Earth, -

„ |P99 - 183

Paroquet,

,M\ 68

Prickles,

- 158

Pagurus,

- 115

Prionus,

- 129

Palasmon,

115

99

Palinurus,

- 115

Pressirostres,

T.":-'' 31

Platessa,

.':** 94

Porphyris,

; »u-^^|

Parasita,

.ti« 124

Proteus,

87

Papilio,

- 138

Procellaria, -

-y --W

Parnassus,

- 138

Proboscidiana,

48

Parenchymata,

- 144

Procyon,

37

Panicle,

- 160

Psittacus,

./;»;, 67

Pectinibranchiata,

- 105

Pteromys,

• •a.'^il

Pepo,

- 169

Putorius,

:»->-«;jB§

Pericarp,

- 166

Principal Arteries, -

w£l|

Pentatome, -

- 132

Pulmonea, -

- 104

Pentamera, -

- 126

Purpura,

- 106

Pediculus,

- 124

Pulmonaria, -

- 117

Pedipalpi,

..'..- 119

Pulex,

- 125

Pelvis,

/<*, . 18

Polyommatus,

- 139

Pelasgians, -

/W 22

Punctuated Vessels,

- 150

Percnopterus,

59

Pyxidium,

- 168

Pcecilia,

..«* 92

Perdix,

69

Pelecanus, -

77

Q.

Percoides, - - ,

88

Petromyzion,

99

Quadrumana,

-':..:"»

Pith,

- 153

Physiology, -

9

Phyllostoma,

34

R.

Phoca,

'.•;:=4i 41

Phalangista, -

42

Rapaceae, -«

• 4 -• - 58

Phascolomes,

<•« 43

Rallus,

73

Physeter,

-t 55

Rana, -:*~ ' —

85

Phocena,

56

Radiata,

- 142

Phasianus,

>-- 69

Raceme,

- 160

Phcenicopterus,

r*l 74

Radicle, ^~ ; -. -

- 170

Phronima,

-? 116

Respiration, - —

-•-,piil

Phizoma,

- 154

Recurvirostra,

73

Pisces,

87

Reptilia,

78

190

INDEX.

Reticular Vessels,

- 150

Sturiones,

>- 98

Reservoir, - . ? -

-,-, 150

Squalus,

98

Rhinolophus,

34

Spike,

- 159

Rhinoceros, -

- . 49

Sphinx,

i- *.. 139

Rhinoceros, Fossil, -

- 183

Spadix, :f*^'

- 159

Rhombus, - •>- -".'••*-,

94

Stomata, - - -=

- 151

Rhamphastos, - - ,f

67

Stem,

- 152

Ricinus, » ••'.- '- r

xr*: 124

Stipe,

- 154

Root,

v.« 151

Stipules, , - >*i

- 158

Rotifera,

.& 146

Stamens,

•- 163

Rodentia,

v 43

Style,

rs-jj 165

Ruminantia, -

.v*. 50

r»i. 165

Strobilus,

T.-- - 169

Strata, Explanation of,

.;-.-> 184

S.

Spermoderm, . --•••-

- 170

Sublicornes, -

«=, 134

Sarcoramphus, i..;.*iU

.-Hfr 58

Suctoria, ..--••

- 125

Sauria, ...

^ 80

Suctorii,

.i-r 99

Salamandra,

,u 86

Sula,

-,« 77

Salmonides, ...

* 92

Sus,

Tw. 49

98

gynornathus,

T-.., 7 n 96

Saltatoria, X-

- 331

Syndactilae, -

,p--. 66

Samara, ...

,^ 167

Syrnium,

,pj 61

Schist,

liuii1. 178

Scarabaeus, -

iteev 128

Scorpio,

- 319

T.

Sclerodermi,

,-«<- 97

Scomberoides,

,4-f.. 90

Taste,

.ftitci-? --i. 14

Scincoidcd . . •

?•« , 82

s. 19

Scolopax, - ^-ji»fjJi

. W 73

Tapir,

,71' 50

Scansorise, -

;j<ji». 66

Talpa,

ttf»i 35

Scops,

„*; 61

Tardigrada, -

u« 46

Scirus,

43

Tanagra,

,^. 62

Scythian Branch,

22

Tachypetes, -

77

Semnopithecus,

,;;;K: 31

Taliprus,

- 116

Serpentia, _ - -

J.--V* 83

Tenuirostres,

..... 65

Selachii, " -

,y:* 98

Tetrao,

"-»& ..--. 69

Sepia,

- 103

Testudo, --:.

r. 79

Serricornes, -

- 127

Testacella, -

-. 104

Shoulder, - -.£*

19

Teredo,

^.B 108

Sight,

15

Thorax, V, ^

- 11

Simia, ; -s-v ..' —

W3R 30

Thigh,

ii-^r 10

Sitta,

65

Thynnus,

90

Siluridae,

92

Tinea,

^ 91

Simplicia, •

- 144

Touch,

14

Siliqua,

- 168

Totipalmata,

-f, 76

Skeleton,

\#* 16

Toes,

19

Smell,

14

Trachea,

-. 11

Solipedes, ...

-. 50

Trunk,

^ 17

Sorex,

J&. 35

Trichecus, -

41

Solea,

94

Trochilus, --

65

Sorus, «*^

- 169

Trionyx,

80

Strix,

60

Triton,

86

Struthio,

71

Trigla,

89

Sterna,

76

Turdus, - ' fejj

-. - 62

Umbel,

Unio, ' .

Uria,

Ursus, *

Uranoscopus,

U.

INDEX.

Vespertilio,
Venomous,
160 Vespa,
107 Vipera,
75 Viverra,
36 Vultur,

191

34
84
137
84
39
58

V.

Vaginalis, -

Vanellus,

Vaginulus, -

Vanessa,

Variegated Freestone,

X.

Xiphias,

74

71
104
139
179 Yunx,

90

67

THE END.

C'pert aurtolt

PHYSIOLOG

PJ.I

ian arfcry

fa/r

Thoraci

PHYSIOLOGY

PHYSIOLOGY

a -

v-

BOTAJVV.

fasti*.

P&rtioal

trunk ofr $ria,r.

Trachea of a re>0t 0f

BOTANY

Pi.

'frun

PL

3

BOTANY

PI

Cont.

JJati.

Catiu*.

f. S .Burnt. LttH, ftulf

BOTANY,

Pi.

.*.

FOSSILS

11.4,9