RV

1

1

H

i

HnV

SrtsISS

issK'sc

toJ

rliffRSrfcl^J^^

o

JOHNA.SEAVERNS

3 9090 014 530 139

Webster Family Library of Veterinary i^Jledic
Cummings School of Veterinary Medicines
Tufts University
200 Westboro Road

r\ J r- r» r*

WAR DEPARTMENT, - - ADJUTANT GENERAL'S OFFICE.
(MILITARY INFORMATION DIVISION.)

No. XXXV.

Major General HENRY C. CORBIN,

ADJUTANT GENERAL, U. S. ARMY.

Lieut. Colonel W. A. SIMPSON, A. A. G.

IN CHARGE OF DIVISION.

Target Practice and Recount Systems Abroad.

ARRANGED BY

Captain E. A. EDWARDS, 25th Infantry,

AND

Captain J. S. HERRON, 2d Cavalry.

APRIL, 1902.

WASHINGTON :

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE.

1902.

3-15

WAR DEPARTMENT,

Adjutant Geneeal's Office.

Document No. 159.

M. I. D.

TABLE OF CONTENTS.

TARGET PRACTICE.

Papp.

I. — Austria- Hungary 7

II. — Denmark 2o

III.— France 47

IV. — Germany .. 77

v.— Great Britain 119

VI.— Russia 138

VII. —Sweden 139

VIII.— Switzerland 191

Japan (see Appendix A) 343

REMOUNT SYSTEMS.

I.— Austria-Hungary 207

II.— Belgium .' 225

III— China 227

IV.— Denmark 229

v.— France 237

VI.— Germany -- 271

VII.— Great Britain ---- 285

VIII.— Italy 303

IX. — Japan 311

X. — Latin America 313

XI. — Netherlands 317

XII.— Norway 319

XIII.— Persia 321

XIV.— Portugal 323

XV.— Russia 325

XVI.— Spain - 331

XVIL— Sweden 333

XVIII.— Switzerland — 335

XIX.— Turkey 341

(3)

TAEGET PEACTICE IN FOEEKN COUNTRIES.

(!i)

TARGET PRACTICE IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES.

Recent events have shown how necessary good marksman-
ship is to success in war. A view of the methods and course
of training adopted in several European countries to give
their troops the required skill is shown in the following
pages.

Working for the same ends, with almost identical tools, of
necessity involves much of sameness in methods, but diversi-
ties are nevertheless numerous, and valuable hints for adop-
tion into our own service might be gathered from a study of
foreign systems.

I.-AUSTRIA- HUNGARY.

[From translations of official firing regulations furnished by Lieut. Col. James B. Kerr, Ninth Cav-
alry, United States Military Attache at Berlin, compared and arranged by Capt. E. A. Edwards,
Twenty-fifth Infantry.]

INFANTRY AND RIFLE REGIMENTS.
GENERAL RULES.

The thorough individual training of every soldier in the
fighting use of his rifle is the object of the prescribed course
of instruction, which is divided into preparatory instruction,
firing at known distances, demonstration firing, collective
firing at long ranges, and field or combat firing.

The captain is held responsible for the instruction of his
men and for the training of his officers. Underofficers and
skilled men are assistants in carrying on the instruction of
his company. Higher commanders are to foster the fire
training and supervise the course of instruction in the units
of their command.

The preparatory instruction consists in teaching the recruit
the construction, nomenclature, and mechanism of the rifle,
the theory of fire, principles of aiming, etc. This is accom-
panied, or followed, by position, pointing and aiming drills,

8 TARGET PRACTICE IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES.

gallery practice, and drill in estimating distances. The
instruction is progressive throughout, and each subject or
exercise is to be understood before passing to the next.

Men are expected to estimate distances up to 600 paces
with reasonable correctness; officers, noncommissioned offi-
cers, and skilled privates, distances up to the limit of vision.
Men who show special aptitude in estimating distances are
trained in the use of the range finder and in observing the
ground with field glasses. The details of the course are very-
similar to our own, units of length being fixed in the mind
by pacing and by frequent exercise and observation in all
conditions of light and ground, advantage being taken of
opportunities to note known distances on drill or parade
grounds, etc.

FIRING AT KNOWN DISTANCES.

The object of this practice is to enable the soldier to attain
as high a degree of skill as possible in the use of the rifle, and
to prepare him for field practice.

It is divided into preliminary and regular firing, the pre-
liminary firing being intended to familiarize the man with
the principles of firing and the peculiarities of his rifle. The
school target is used for this practice. The men are divided
into three classes, the first — the lowest — of men in their first
year of service, or of longer service who have not fulfilled
the conditions of their class; the second class consists of the
men who, in tlie regular practice and authorized repetitions,
have made at least 40 per cent of hits ; the third class (marks-
men) are those who, in the regular practice in the second
class, have made 50 per cent of hits.

Soldiers are not to engage in target practice until they have
the necessary preparatory instruction. Those who are not
armed with rifles should, in their first year, go through the
course of the lowest class, and in their second and third years
should fire at least IG shots (four of the exercises).

Men of more than one year's service begin target practice
in October, and continue during the winter in favorable
weather. For recruits such weather should always be se-
lected, and their shooting should not be preceded by fatiguing
drill or marching, or be conducted at the same time as that of
the older soldiers. In very cold or hot weather no practice
should be held, and in warm or cool conditions of weather
it should not be prolonged beyond two hours.

AUSTRIA-HrNUARY. 9

As a rule the range practice sliould be finished by the end
of June, and be followed by the long-range and field firing,
but if required hj local conditions the long-range fire may
take place before the spring plowing. In that case young-
soldiers should have had previous training in gallery prac-
tice in firing with raised sights, and have gone through their
preliminary range firing.

The practice at known distances, instruction practice, and
the competitive firings, are held in ordinary field uniform,
without knapsack; the individual field practice, without the
field utensils; and the long-range and field firing, in full
inarching order.

Men who fail to qualify in one year repeat the same pro-
gram in the following year. Men in the lowest (first) class
who qualify, may, nevertheless, in the discretion of the com-
pany commander, be kept in that class, if unsteady or unreli-
able shots, and su'ch men may be ordered to repeat any
exercise in their preliminary shooting if the company com-
mander think it desirable, and if it be not done with ammu-
nition reserved for the regular practice.

During the target year every soldier is required to expend
the number of cartridges prescribed ; failure to do this on
account of detached service, sickness, etc., is noted on his
individual shooting record. At least one exercise should be
fired on a practice day, a second only in case that qualifica-
tion in the first was made in 6 shots. Men who qualify in
their class with less than their allowance of ammunition will
use the saving at the discretion of the- company commander,
first repeating exercises in the regular practice in which the
conditions were not fulfilled.

Men who on account of defective vision are unable to fire
at all distances, remain in the lowest class.

The school targets have wooden frames covered with jute
cloth, on which the paper targets are pasted ; the figure tar-
gets and its varieties are of pasteboard, or of papier-mache.

The school target is of the pattern and dimensions shown
in the illustration. The center band is white. The two outer
vertical bands are light blue or gray. The oval outlined
thereon represents the limit of dispersion of correctly aimed

10

TARGET PRACTICE IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES.

shots, aiming, at 200 and 300 paces, at the lower part, and at
400 paces, at the upper part.

The figure target and its variants are shown in fig. 2. The
figures are of plain light blue, or colored to show details.

Section targets are made up of figures or variants of the
figure target in light blue placed close together. Figure and
section targets are used as fixed, moving, and disappearing
targets. Their height when used as fixed targets at medium

Fig. 1. — School target.

'^f/dure SC^M

'/z ri^ure 904^

Figure target.

ranges is 0.9 meters, when used as disappearing or moving tar-
gets the height is 1.2 meters, the width being in proportion.

In the practice at known distances, when moving targets
are used, they are made to move in quick time for a distance
of 10 paces; disappearing targets are visible for the period
required to march 10 paces in quick time, i. e., 115 paces to
the minute.

For firing at long ranges larger groups are used, represent-
ing lines and columns in battle formation, and for field firing,
targets representing lines and columns of infantry; cavalry,
guns, caissons, etc., arranged as in action, are made to move
or disappear so as to show different phases of the fight. To
ascertain the effect of fire at long ranges on targets repre-
senting columns, only one hit by each bullet is counted. This
is effected by placing horizontal lines at certain distances
from the top edges of the targets, in rear of the first line, count-
ing, on the rear targets, only the hits above the lines. The

AUSTRIA-HUNGARY.

11

position of the horizontal lines is calculated from the ti-a-
jectories, allowance being made for the slope of the ground
on which the targets are located. For the long-range and
field firing the figure and section targets are 1.8 meters high
and of corresponding width.

Some iargets for infantry field practice recently adopted
are described as of coarse-cloth bands 5 meters long and 60

centimeters high on which are
sketched figures of men lying
down. From three to five figures
are on each band, to show more
or less dense lines. The bands
have pickets at the ends, which
are driven in the ground, leather
borders strengthen the edges of
the cloth, and props are used to
support them in case of wind.
Two or three targets represent a
section of sharpshooters.

For transportation they are
rolled up, and can be readily
carried by a man. They are
easily and cheaply made in the
company, and by combining all
the targets of the battalions, a
regiment may represent in posi-
tion any hostile force likely to be
encountered in war, train the men
in scouting, in judging distances,
developing hostile positions, etc.
A gun rest for fire standing is shown in fig. 3 ; for fire lying
down, sand bags are used.

The course of range firing is as follows :

FIRST CLASS.

Preliminary practice.

Fig. 3.

Range.

Target.

No. of
shots.

Paces*
200
200
300
400

Standing, with rest.

Standing

Kneeling

Prone

School

do

do

do

*A pace is "o centimeters = 29.5 inches.

12

TARGET PRACTICE IN FOREIC4N COUNTRIES.
Regular ivactice.

No.

Range.

Po.sition.

Target.

No. of
shots.

Conditions.

5

Paces*
200

200
300
400
500
200

200

Two-thirds figure

4 to 8

4toS
4 to 8
4 to 8
4 to 8
4 to 8

11

3 hits in the last 4 shots

fi

fired.
Do.

KrieeliiiK, bayonet fixed_

Do.

8

do

2 hits in the last 4 shots.

y

Do.

10

do

Sec, 2 two-thirds figures _
do

3 hits in the last 4 shots,

11

Standing, with bavonet
fixed.

firing at word of com-
mand.
3 bits in the 6 shots.

which are to be fired
in 30 seconds.

SECOND CLASS.

Preliminary pvdct ice.

200
300

standing
Kneeling

Prone, bayonet fixed .

Two-thirds figure

One-third figure, disap-
pearing.
Two-thirds figure, disap-
pearing.

Regular x^ractice.

4

300

5

200

6

300

7

4fK1

8

500

9

600

Kneeling

Prone

Prone, bayonet fixed

Prone, with rest

Prone

Kneeling

Two-thirds figure 4 to 8

One-third figure, disap- 4 to 8

pearing.

Two-thirds figure, disap- 4 to 8

pearing.

do „ 4 to 8

Sec., 2 two-thirds figures _ 4 to 8

Sec, 2 figures 4 to 8

3 hits in the last 4 shots
Do.

Do.
Do.
Do.

300
400
20(1

300

400

500

300

Kneeling.
Standing .
Prone

THIRD CLASS.

Preliminary practice.

1

300
400

School . ._ -

8

8

2

do - ■ .

Regular practice.

do

Prone, with rest, bayt

net fixed.
Prone

Kneeling

Half figure

Two-thirds figure

One-fifth figure, disap-

]icaring.
One-third figure, disap-
pearing.
Half figure, disappearing.

Sec, 2 two-thirds figures,

disappearing.
Two-thirds figure, moving.

4 to 6

4 to 6

4 to 8

4 to 8

4 to 8

4 to 8

4 to 8

3 hits in the last 4 shots.'
Do.
Do.

Do.

Do.

Do.

Do.

* A pace is 75 centimeters = 29.5 inches.

Transfers to the second class are made at tlie end of the
target year hj company commanders. Transfers to the third

AUSTRIA-HUNGARY. 13

class (marksmen) are made in each case by the battalion
commander on the recommendation of the company com-
mander, as soon as the soldier has made the required scores.
Marksmen receive badges of distinction, and may be excused
from certain duties, such as room orderly, etc. For men
called out for eight weeks' training, for furloughed men, and
reservists, special courses of instruction are prescribed. The
marksman's badge is a line of red worsted, with red-worsted
ball tassels, worn on the left sleeve of the tunic.

RANGES, MARKING, SCORING, ETC.

Ranges are established at convenient points and are arranged
according to prescribed directions in official manuals for the
different kinds of shooting — known-distance, long-range, and
field firing. The range practice is managed by the company
commander.

The service of marking is done by trained men under the
direction of an officer, who before the practice inspects all the
arrangements, and sees that everything is in order; he regu-
lates the details of the service.

Hits in the oval on the school target are signaled by placing
a red disk over the shot hole; in the center band outside the
oval by a black disk ; in the side bands of the school target
and in figure targets by a white disk. Ricochets on the school
targets are signaled by waving the white disk; on figure
targets that are raised and lowered from covers, by exposing
the uncolored back of the target.

Intentional false marking is severely punished.

Communication between the targets and firing points is
maintained by a system of electro-magnetic bell signals for
showing when fire is to begin or cease, calling for repeated
marking of shots, etc. The table of signals is posted up at
firing points and targets. Where the system is not installed
trumpet signals may be used. When a hit is made on a fixed
target, a danger flag (red) is immediately displayed at the
butt and the markers leave the cover, find, paste up, and
signal the hit, and return to the cover, withdrawing the dan-
ger flag. When the firing is to be interrupted the danger
flag is displayed, but men must not leave the cover until the
signal "rest" is heard from the firing stand. With targets
that may be withdrawn behind cover, the red disk is shown
when fire is to be interrupted; for marking, the target is

14 TARGET PRACTICE IX FOREIGN COUNTRIES.

withdrawn, hole pasted up, and the location of the hit signaled
when the target is again exposed.

The service of marking the target at long-range, and in
field firing, is always under the supervision of an officer, who
receives the necessary instructions from the leader of the
practice. The number of hits is signaled by swinging a flag
to the right for tens, to the left for units. The flags are also
used to show whether the shots are too high or low, or going
to the right or left.

AT THE FIRING STANDS.

To each target five or six men are assigned for practice
under an instructor, who sees that each man fires in the proper
position of body, rifle, etc. A noncomn;iissioned officer or
soldier acts as scorer. Men are called in succession to the
firing point and deliver their fire. Before each shot the man
announces the target he is to fire at, the distance and point
of aim, and after firing states, or indicates on a small target,
where the gun was held when the shot was fired. This point
is insisted on, carelessness in this regard not being permitted ;
if the soldier does not know Avhere the gun was held at the
moment of firing, he must so state.

When the shot has been signaled the soldier calls out the
result and it is recorded by the scorer, who notes the hit as
correct or incorrect with regard to the point of aim. When
the soldier has gained skill in shooting he may fire an entire
score of the regular practice without interruption, announc-
ing the result after each shot.

When firing at moving and disappearing targets, the gun
is not raised until the target appears.

RECORDS, REPORTS, ETC.

A complete record of every shot fired at known distances,
and in the individual field firing by each officer, noncommis-
sioned officer and soldier during the target year is kept on
separate shot sheets for each person. It is closed at the end
of the target year and signed by the company commander.
These sheets go to make up a man's record, and if the man
be transferred, the sheet for the last complete year is sent
with his descriptive list to his new company.

In the school target only hits in the center band are
counted; they are marked 1, if within the oval 1 + . Shots
that fail to hit the target or hit in the outer bands are counted

AUSTRIA-HUXGARY. 15

misses and marked 0, but those shots that fall in the outer
bands are marked 0+.

All hits in the figure targets are counted and marked 1.
Misses are marked by a cipher.

With disappearing and moving targets, shots prescribed
but not fired are counted as misses.

A record is made at the end of each practice of the ammu-
nition expended. Minutes are also made and record kept of
the kind and effect of firing at long range, and of the regular
practice of the company in field firing for each subdivision.
Similar minutes are made and kept by commanders of bat-
talions and regiments. Tke field and long-range fire is exe-
cuted by units at approximately the war strength.

AMMUNITION.

The yearly allowance of ammunition for target practice is :

1. For every officer, cadet officer, and sergeant major of
infantry and rifle battalions, 60 cartridges.

2. For every soldier of the normal peace strength, includ-
ing one-year volunteers, 150 cartridges.

Of the 150 cartridges allowed there are used for range firing,
80 for men of the first class, and 70 for men of the second and
third classes.

For field-firing practice of men of the first class, 70, and for
the men of the second and third classes, 80 cartridges.

In the field firing, men of the first class fire 10 cartridges
in the individual preparatory exercises, those of the second
and third classes, 20 cartridges, and all classes fire 25 car-
tridges in skirmish line and platoon fire, 25 in the regular
field firing, and 10 cartridges in the long-range firing.

AVhen individual preparatory field practice can be carried
out only in part, or not at all, the ammunition saved will l;)e
expended in repeating the fire of skirmishers and platoons
and in extra range practice.

3. For every man called out for a training course of eight
weeks, 60 cartridges. Of these 40 are used for range prac-
tice and 20 for field firing.

4. For officers, cadet officers, furloughed men, and reserv-
ists, 15 cartridges.

Of these the officers and cadet officers use 15 in range firing,
the furloughed men and reservists, 5 for range practice and
10 for field practice. If there be no suitable grounds for field

16 TARGET PRACTICE IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES.

firing, the men called out for eight weeks, furloughers and
reservists, use the ammunition in range practice.

For instruction practice, trial shots on the range, and for
testing rifles, ammunition saved from other firing is to be
used.

DEMONSTRATION FIRING.

This firing is intended to illustrate the accuracy of the rifle,
and the effect of fire under different conditions. The firing
is done by good shots in the presence of all the members of
the company, and takes place as early as possible during the
target-practice season.

The extent of the practice depends on the amount of saved
ammunition that can be devoted to it.

The following are some of the exercises : To show the cen-
ter of impact of different rifles; the effect on the fire of
having the bayonet fixed; the trajectory of the bullet; the
accuracy of the rifle at 200, 300, 400, and 500 paces; firing
from cover at targets also concealed behind cover, and night
firing, or firing in a heavy fog.

The simpler exercises are commanded by the company
commander; those requiring considerable care and prepara-
tion are supervised by the battalion commander. Some may
be carried on during the field practice for which the ground
offers facilities not available on ordinary ranges.

LONG-RANGE FIRING.

The object of this practice is to show the effect of volley
firing and to illustrate its tactical importance, and the best
method of utilizing it in action. Appropriate targets, repre-
senting lines and columns of troops, are used. The firing is
participated in by all classes in the company.

Two positions are taken exceeding 1,200 paces, and five
volleys fired from each position, the first firing being from
the shorter distance. After the firing at each distance the
result of the fire is ascertained and signaled by the marking
party. At the conclusion of the exercise the company is
marched to the targets and the leader gives a lecture on the
subject of the firing.

FIELD OR COMBAT FIRING.

This firing is esteemed the most important part of the
course, being intended for the instruction of leaders of all

austria-hun(;arv. 17

grades, as well as the individual soldier. It takes place after
the range practice, and if possible after the long-range firing.
All classes of firers take part.

The exercises are based on simple offensive tactical suppo-
sitions. The total front of the targets must not be greater
than the front of the firing detachment in extended, order,
and the figure targets used are of natural size.

The leader determines what targets are to be used, in what
order, how long visible, and the signals on which they are to
appear or disappear. The exercise should be arranged to
permit of all kinds of fire. At distances less than 800 paces,
section targets 0.9 meter high must be used, and at less than
600 paces no section targets are shown.

At the end of the exercise the men are marched to the tar-
gets and the leader gives a short dissertation on the firing.

The field firing is divided into preparatory and regular
practice for individual soldiers, groups, and platoons.

The individual preparatory practice may be held, if neces-
sary, on the ordinary ranges, the man at first using dummy
cartridges and afterwards ball cartridges. The course is
arranged by the instructor ; for example, the man is shown sud-
denly a target which remains visible during the time neces-
sary to march 15 paces in quick time (about eight seconds).
The target may, at 600 paces, be a section target of two whole
figures, at 300 paces a half figure, or at 400 paces a two-
third figure. Within the time during which the target is
visible the man must estimate the distance, adjust his sight,
aim, and fire. The shots are delivered from the prone position.

The preparatory practice of groups and platoons is carried
on similarly. During the practice the leaders are not to be
interfered with, comment or criticism being reserved till the
end of the exercise. In the individual exercise, the result of
each shot is ascertained, and if there be time in the group and
platoon practice, the hits at each range, and for the different
kinds of fire, should be marked.

REGULAR PRACTICE.

This takes place, as a rule, in companies or battalions of
approximately war strength. The leader is the battalion or
regimental commander; higher commanders do not interfere
with the course of the exercise, unless gross faults are observed,
and comment is not made until the exercise is over.

18 TARGET PRACTICE IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES.

The closest resemblance to war conditions is sought, reen-
forcements and reserves may be represented by other troops
than those going through the exercise ; these may use blank
cartridges to simulate the assumed conditions. The com-
mander and men of the detachment going through the exer-
cise do not know the distances, or the targets to be shown,
and previous discussion of the practice is not permitted.

Fire must not be opened until within the zone of medium-
range infantry fire, 1,000-500 paces, and is not delivered at
distances less than 300 paces. Markers should not belong to
the company practicing, and the results of fire are not ascer-
tained until the close of the practice. While the company is
going through the field practice, the system of ammunition
supply in battle is also rehearsed.

FIRING PRIZES.

No general competitions are held for prizes, but company,
squadron, and battery commanders should, as far as prac-
ticable, encourage emulation in firing among their men of all
practice classes who show skill in shooting.

Money prizes are provided from an allowance made annually
as follows :

Infantry companies : Florins.

Minimum strength 8

Normal strength 9

Maximum strength 12

Rifle companies (jager) 12

Engineer and pioneer companies 8

Railroad and telegrajih companies 6

Cavalry squadrons . 6

Batteries of light, heavy, horse, and mountain ai'tillery 9

Companies of fortress ai'tillery, for battery practice 9

Companies of fortress artillery, for rifle practice 4

Allowances are also given to depot troops, to landwehr
called out for eight weeks' training, to reservists, and to fur-
loughed men.

The allowances are distributed in January of each year.
Three prizes of 20 kreutzers for each exercise are given to the
men of the lowest class in the company in their first year of
service who make the best scores in the second, third, and
fourth preparatory exercises of that class. Scores made in
repetitions of those exercises are not considered.

Half of the amount remaining is used for prizes of 10 and
20 kreutzers to men of all classes for special progress made.

AUSTKIA-HUN(iAKY.

19

and skill shown in target practice. These sums are handed
to the men on the range during the firing season.

The rest of the money is distributed at the end of the target
practice to the men of all classes who have the largest per-
centage of hits in their regular practice and authorized
repetitions. For the first and second classes one prize only is
given, of not less than half a gulden (50 kreutzers) for men of
the first class ; the second class prize may be a little more,
and the rest is divided in higher sums for prizes for the best
shots in the company.

The award of prizes is noted on the shot sheets of the
winners,

REVOLVER PRACTICE.

This practice is nearly the same for all ofl&cers and men of
infantry and technical troops, and for cavalry and train troops,
armed with that weapon. The annual allowance for infantry
and technical troops is 20 rounds, for cavalry and troops of
the train 30 rounds.

The targets used are the school and figure targets, and the
distances from 15 to 50 paces. No practice is held at distances
greater than 50 paces.

The following is the program for practice of infantry and
technical troops:

No. of
practice.

Distance.

Position.

Target.

Remarks.

1

Paces.
25
50
25
50

Standing, on foot

.. do _ _. _.

School ... -.

2

-do

Do.

3

do __

Figure

.do

Do.

4

do

Do.

Noncommissioned officers who have shown skill in previous
years may omit Nos. 1 and 2, and ammunition so saved may
be used in other firing. When mounted, as are regimental
and battalion buglers of rifle troops, exercises Nos. 1 and 2
should be fired from horseback. Advancing on a line parallel
to the target and 15 paces from it, with revolver raised, the
rider halts opposite the target, turns his body to the right,
aims, and fires.

CAVALRY AND TRAIN TROOPS.

In addition to the firing on foot, the cavalry has two exer-
cises firing from horseback, one at a halt, and one while in

30 TARGET PRACTICE IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES.

motion riding past the target, at 15 paces. The train troops
fire from horseback at a halt, approaching the firing stand
first at a walk, and then at a gallop.

Officers and cadet officers of all troops practice separately.

CAVALRY.

GENERAL RULES.

The method and course of instruction is the same as for
infantry, except that demonstration firing is omitted. The
men are classed as in infantry, and similar targets are used
for the known-distance, long-range, and field firing. When
possible the infantry ranges are used and the service of mark-
ing, signaling, scoring, and recording is carried on as pre-
scribed for infantry.

No soldier is to fire with ball cartridges on the range until
he has gone through the course of preparatory instruction.
The practice for recruits should be during the months of
April, May, and June, and only in favorable weather ; trained
soldiers should frequently practice in bad weather.

The time for long-range and field firing is fixed by regi-
mental commanders, unless otherwise specially ordered, as
might be the case in large garrisons. The long-range firing
and the individual preparatory field firing are confined to men
in their first year of service, and to such men of higher classes
as may have missed the practice in their first year.

The practice at known distances is in ordinary drill uniform,
the long-range and field practice in full field equipment.

ALLOWANCE OF AMMUNITION.

The yearly allowance of carbine ammunition for target
practice is as follows : For every officer and cadet officer, 30
rounds; for every soldier of the authorized strength armed
with the carbine, 50 rounds; and for every noncommis-
sioned ofiBcer armed with a revolver, 30 rounds of revolver
ammunition.

Of the 50 rounds of carbine ammunition, 35 rounds per man
are reserved for range firing; and from the total allowance
of the squadron, 10 rounds per man are allotted for each man
required to go through the individual preparatory field firing,
and 9 rounds per man for those who are to take part in the
long-range firing.

ArsTKlA-HrN(iARY. 21

FIRIXt; AT KNOWX DISTANCES.

The course for all classes consists of seven scores of five
shots each, of which two are preliminary, and five regular
practice. The ranges are from 200 to GOO paces, and the
difficulties are increased for the higher classes by the use of
smaller targets for the same ranges, or by disappearing or
moving targets visible only for a limited period, during which
the shots must be delivered.

LONG-DISTANCE FIRING.

For long-distance firing the men of each squadron taking
part are formed in a detachment. Three positions, at dis-
tances greater than 1,000 paces, are taken, if possible one to
be from 1,800 to 2,400 paces. At each position three volleys
are fired, and the results ascertained for each range.

Firing commences at the longest range. At the end of the
firing the detachment is marched to the targets and the leader
gives cin instructive talk on the practice.

FIELD FIRING.

The field firing is conducted as in the infantry, except that
section targets 1.8 meters high are used at distances of not
less than -iOO paces.

The preparatory practice is managed by the squadron com-
mander. An officer or noncommissioned officer commands
the men, who are combined in one or two platoons. Non-
commissioned officers promoted within the year act as grou^j
leaders. While the conditions of actual service are to be
copied as far as possible, the exercise is to be interrupted
as often as the leader deems proper for the instruction of
those taking part, and to ascertain the efi^ect of the firing.
Of the 10 cartridges allowed for this practice, 4 are used
for volley firing and 6 for individual firing. The practice
should be held in good weather and be finished in one day.

REGULAR PRACTICE.

This, as a rule, is carried on in the ordinary formation of
the squadron. The leader is the divisional commander. In
order to show the action of mounted troops in a fight, a
mounted detachment from another squadron may take part
in the exercise.

22 TARGET PRACTICE IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES.

The j)roblem is made known to those engaged only just
before it is to take place; distances, targets, etc., depending
on the conditions of the fight. As with cavalry the main
object is to delay the advance of an enemy, special attention
is to be given to firing at medium ranges. The most impor-
tant feature is to represent the advance of an enemy by means
of targets. For this purpose disappearing and moving tar-
gets are used, the latter being carried on sleds ; if necessary,
targets showing the enemy in position further advanced may
be kept in readiness on the ground, and set up during a pause
ordered for the purpose, while at the same time more distant
targets — lines and columns- — may be removed. The exercise
may also be made to represent an offensive action.

This practice may be held in any kind of weather and
should be preceded by a march.

TARGET PRACTICE FOR OFFICERS.

Officers and cadet officers, of infantry and cavalry, practice
with the rifle or carbine, and revolver, separate from the men,
under the direction of a field officer or captain. The practice
is generally similar to that of the men, but no classification
is made. To maintain interest in shooting, practices or com-
petitions are held among them.

TECHNICAL TROOPS.

For the technical troops, practicing with the short rifle,
the course of instruction, targets, classification, and records
are the same as for infantry.

ALLOWANCE OF AMMUNITION.

For officers, cadet officers, and sergeants major, 60 rounds ;
for each man of the authorized strength, equipped with the
short rifle, including one-year volunteers, 85 rounds.

Of these there are used in range firing by men of the first
class, 45; by the second class, 40; and by the third class, 35
rounds. Fifteen rounds are expended in preparatory field
firing, 10 rounds in long-range firing, and the remainder for
regular field. firing.

Men called out for eight weeks' training have a smaller
allowance and have special programs of firing.

AUSTRIA-HUN(iARY. 23

RANGE FIRING

The practice is in scores of 5 shots each, as follows : For the
first class, 9 ; second class, 8 ; third class, 7, at distances from
200 to 600 paces, the conditions being more difficult for the
higher classes.

Two prizes of 20 kreutzers for each of the exercises 1 and 2
of the first class are given to men of that class, the remainder
is distributed as in the infantry.

TRAIN TROOPS.

The train troops practice with the carbine. For every
officer, cadet officer, and every man of the authorized strength,
including one-year volunteers, equipped with the carbine, 25
rounds are allowed annually.

The practice of the several classes is in five scores of five
shots each at distances from 200 to 600 paces, the principle
of increasing difficulties for better shots being observed.

A prize of 10 kreutzers for each of the exercises 1 and 2 of
the first class is given, one-half of the remainder is given, in
prizes of 10 kreutzers each, to men of all classes. for special
progress, and the rest is divided in larger amounts among the
best shots of the company.

IT.-DENMARK.

[Kepoited by Lieut. (Jol. William K. Livenuore, Corps of Engineers, United States Military Attache,

Copenhagen and Stooklioliii.l

INFANTRY.

The preparatory drills should be conij)leted before the firing
commences. They should not be practiced more than half
an hour at a time, but may be practiced several times each
day. To keep the men in constant practice, it is advisable to
give them five or ten minutes of these d'rills whenever there
is an opportunity throughout the course of instruction.

Sighting. — A rifle is laid on an aiming stand at such a
height that the man who is aiming can sit down.

The teacher first directs the sight against a sharply defined
point on the target, and then makes the men look at the line
of sight, one after another, with the right eye, while they
close the left eye.

The sights are then directed against another point on or off
the target, and the men again look one by one, and tell the
teacher again at which point it is directed. This drill is
repeated several times.

The teacher finally makes the men direct the aim against a
given point.

Aiming. — The men are next instructed in aiming in dif-
ferent positions, standing, kneeling, lying, behind trees,
rocks, etc.

To test the aiming the mirror may be used, or the men may
be told to point at the eye of the instructor or of other men.
In this case, the man against whom the gun is directed must
satisfy himself that the gun is unloaded.

As preparation for firing at a movable target, the men are
taught to follow a horizontal line with the aim with a slow
and uniform motion to the right or left, then to move the
aim past a slowly moving object until the proper deviation
has been reached, and then follow it for a while at this dis-
tance.

(25)

26 TARGET PRACTICE IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES.

Gymnastic Exercises. — In order to strengthen the muscles
brought into play in shooting, the men are practiced in gym-
nastic exercises with the rifle, viz :

1. The man takes in succession the positions of ready, aim,
ready, etc., holding the rifle for a few seconds in each position.

2. He takes the position of aiming, standing; holds the
piece with the left hand while the right hand with the arm
extended describes as large a circle as possible, and again
grasps the rifle.

3. He takes the position of aiming high, and then drops
the left hand, holding the rifle in the right pressing the butt
against the shoulder, and gradually letting the rifle fall to
the horizontal position, etc.

4. He takes the position of aim; drops the left hand, turns
the rifle with the right until the muzzle is vertical, extends
the right arm horizontally forward, contracts it, etc.

5. In exercises in squads the men are taught to maintain
the position of aim for two minutes.

These, and similar exercises, are repeated when kneeling,
and in all the positions of aiming.

Pulling the Trigger. — The men are then taught to pull
the trigger without disturlung the aim, both against a fixed
target, and against all kinds of objects moving forward, back-
ward, and in all directions, and at all distances.

Rapid Fire with Dummies. — They are then practiced with
dummy cartridges in loading and firing rapidly under all
circumstances.

Blank Cartridges. — They fire blank cartridges to become
accustomed to the report.

Practice for Field Shooting. — Finally, as a preparation
for field shooting, they are practiced with blank or dummy
cartridges in the motions of firing against targets made to
appear and disappear unexpectedly and at unknown distances,
moving in all directions, etc. The man must first estimate
the distance, then he decides whether the object is near
enough for him to fire at it. In the latter case he must
specify the elevation, deviation, etc., fix his sights, decide
what point to aim at, and commence firing. Sometimes two
or more targets are made to appear at once, and then he must
decide which to fire at.

In some cases he may be allowed to choose his moment for
firing wiien he thinks that by waiting he will have a better

DENMARK.

27

chance of hitting. At tirst he is allowed plenty of time to
consider what should be done, but in the final exercises
rapidity should be taken into consideration as well as accuracy.
He is then practiced in all these exercises while he himself
is in movement when the targets appear.

Then the men are practiced in squads, platoons, com-
panies, etc.

GALLERY PRACTICE.

Gallery practice begins after the recruits have received the
elementary instruction in aiming and pulling the trigger, and
firing blank cartridges.

It is conducted with reduced charges and reduced targets,
at very short range either indoors or in the open air, as
explained in the following tables :

Dis-

tauce.

Meters.

1

10

2

10

3

10

i

10

5

10

6

10

7

10

Target.

Riiifl taiget-

do

__-do

Lyiug, with support

do

Lying, without sup-
port.

.do Kneeling, with sup-
port.

do [ Standing, without

I support.

Full-length figure__ do

do Kneeling, without

j support.

Special shooting.

Num-
ber of
shots.

Without knap-
sacks; required
before firing
with full
charges.

do

do

do

do

With knapsacks
do

Pointof aim, cen-
ter of bull's-
eye.

Do.

Man tries to hit

the bull's-eye,

or widest part

of the figure.

Do.

Do.

Do.
Dc.

Apjwrtionnient of exercises.

Classification.

Carry out

exercises

No.—

Number of
cartridges
per man.

Keniarks.

1-7

2-7
0,7

1-7
1-7
1-7

.34
30
H

30
34
34

Special shooting with gallery ammunition

Men in continued service

Men called in for continuous
practice.

is not obligatory, but may be pi-acticed by or
der of the company commander, etc.

Sliooting Nos. 6 and 7 with gallery ammu-
nition, for men called in for continuous prac-

Second lieutenants' school___

Shooting for oflicers, young

officers, and underofficers,

on temporary duty with

recruit battalions.

tice, are not obligatory liut may be practiced
by order of the company commander.

The targets for gallery practice are, first, the ring target,
30 centimeters square with a black bull's-eye of 6-centimeter

28 TARGET PRACTICE IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES.

diameter, and a black ring of 18-centimeter inner and 24-
centimeter onter diameter; and second, a figure target, 30
centimeters square witli a black figure — a man 17 centimeters
high and 5 centimeters wide.

ESTIMATING AND MEASURING DISTANCES.

Estimating. — Officers and men should have practice in
estimating distances in all positions, standing, kneeling,
lying, etc.

At first the men are taught to judge with the eye distances
of 100, 200, and 400 meters, and the size of a man at these
distances. This preparatory practice is repeated also during
the later exercises. They are made in all kinds of terrain
and under all possible circumstances, especially on ground
with which the men are not familiar ; at first slowly and then
in a time not to exceed 10 seconds.

Corporals, undercorporals, and men should be able to esti-
mate distances not over 600 meters, and have some practice
with greater distances. There should be at least 50 problems
in estimating distances at the recruit school, 80 in the can-
didates' school, and 60 for the men in continuous service.

Officers and permanent underofficers should acquire facility
in estimating distances up to 1,200 meters and have some
practice in estimating greater distances.

All these exercises are repeated after the regular course of
instruction has ceased.

In the second lieutenants' school there are at least 100 prob-
lems and in the sergeants' school 80.

Measuring. — Distances are measured by means of a chart,
by pacing, by distance measurers, and by observation of the
effect of shooting.

Exercises in estimating distances by help of a chart are
practiced by officers, underofficers, and pupils in the second
lieutenants' school in connection with other methods.

Exercises in pacing are practiced by officers and men.

Use of the distance measurer is i3racticed by officers, per-
manent underofficers, pupils in second lieutenants' school,
and in the sergeants' school, in connection with estimating
distances with the eye.

In shooting, attention is paid to the falling of the shots,
and to the effect upon the target.

DENMARK.

29

TEST OF PROFICIENCY,

Regimental officers report the proficiency of the most skill-
ful of the corporals, undercorporals, and men.

The minister of war issues special orders every year a>)Out
tests, usually in August, for the ability of the officers and
permanent underofficers in estimating distances.

TARGETS.

The targets used are shown in the figures below :

1.

:::::::i±: ==i|::

/88'

(88*

18 8'

^ (OOC'"'>

th

10.

'< 50 /

ll

' 55'

la.

:< 50"^-

30

TARGET PRACTICE IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES.

280 c"^-

26JOI.

15.

H

< 155 o^- ^

yi^-^

< 660 c^-

FIRING WITH LOADED AMMUNITION.

In all the practice with loaded ammunition, as soon as a
man has fired his rifle he calls out where he thinks the shot
went. The following table gives a synopsis of the practice :
Apportiomnent of exercises, range and field.

Nm.

Dis-
tance in
meters.

Target.

Position.

Number of shots.

Sight.

Remarks.

No.

Description.

Blank.

Loaded.

1

100
250"

2o6"

100

150
200
200
200

300'
250

100
200
300

400
500

200

1

2
3

4

4
4

1

6

7
8
7
7
8
7
8

5
7

8

7
13

Range-finding tar-
get.

Ring target

do

2

4

4
4
4

4
4
4

4
6
5
5
5
5
10
5

5

8
5

5
5

6

250

250
250
250

250
2.50
2.50

250
250
250
250
250
250
250
250

250
250
400'

400
400

250

Without packs ;
aim taken at
bull's-eye.

Without packs.

V

s

- do

Do.

4

5

Full-length figure__
do .

Kneeling, with
support.

Do.
Do.

n

do

Range finding

Lving

Do.

7

Lying, with sup-
port.

do -. _ _

Do.
Do.

<trt

3 half figures"

3oni--touitli figures.

6

Do.

10

do _ _

With packs.

llfl

do _ -

Do.

1?

do

Do.

13

3one-fonrth figures.
3 half figures

Do.

14(1

do - -

10

Do.

15
Ifi

3 one-fourth figures-
Full figure, 1 ring

Kneeling, with

support.
Standing

Do.
Do.

17rt

do

8

Do.

18
IP

3 one-fourth figures.

.3 half figures

5 full figures

3 half figures

Kneeling, with
support.

Do.
Do.

20
21a

Lying, with sup-
port.

According to the
ground.

Do.
Do.

0 Magazine fire.

DENMARK.

31

In series 1 the aim is taken at the bull's-eye every time.

In series 2 to 6 and 8, the instructor, before the firing
begins, gives instructions about the point of. aim.

Series No. 7 for trial.

Magazine Fire.— In series 9 and 11, the time is limited to
twenty-five seconds for each 6 shots; in series 14, to forty-five
seconds for 10 shots; in series 17, to thirty-five seconds for 8
shots; in series 21, to fifteen seconds for 3 shots.

Firing at unknown ranges.

No.

Distance
in meters.

Tarjcet.

Position.

Number
of shots.

Sight.

Remarks.

No.

Description.

22

3.50-100

Between

150-250
Between
'250-350

!)

11
12

Full-length figure : Acconling
suddenly appear- to ground,
ing.

4
3

According to man's
judgment.

do

.do ..

Field pack
carried.

Do.

n

Two-third figure

do

Do.

Score No. 22 is conducted on the target ground. The man
firing advances from a distance of 350 meters to 100 meters
from the target, and then retreats. - Whenever the target is
shown he halts and fires a shot. The target is visible each
time for 10 seconds. Each shot is marked.

Two men can fire at the same time each against his own
figure.

Scores Nos. 23 and 24 are conducted outside the regular
target range and usually by a firing line of the same extent
of front as that of the targets. Each man has a separate
target to fire upon. The figures, one for each man, are placed
in groups of two to five figures in each group. The distance
between the groups is about 4 meters, and between the figures
of the same group, about 2 meters from center to center. The
firing is slow fire by file by command. After firing 3 rounds
the firing ceases and all go to the target to see the effect.
Each man only notes whether he has hit his own figure or
not.

32

TARGET PRACTICE IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES.

Firing in open and dose order {all available men take part in this

practice).

No.

Distance in
meters.

Target.

Position.

Num-
ber of
shots.

Sight.

Kind
of
fire.

Remarks.

25

26
27

28
29

Unknown, be-
tween 700
and 1,200.

About 700

Unknown; be-
tween 350
and 550.

About 30O

About 200

Line of full-
length figures.

2 section targets,
side by side.

Line of two-
tliird titrures.

Line of one-
fourth figures.

Line of two-
third figures.

According to
ground.

_-__-dO

do

do

do

5

3
3

3

6

As specified by
the commander.

do

do

250

Mag-
azine.

With knap-
sacks, etc.

Do.

Do.

Do.
Do.

This shooting is made by 1 section to 1 company at a time.
About as many figures are set up as the number of men
firing; about one to a pace.

With recruits the firing is continued for two days.

Synopsis of firing in close order {ivith blank cartridges) .

Number

Kipd
of
fire.

No. of
score.

Distance in
meters.

Target.

Position.

of blank

car-
tridges.

Sight.

Remarks.

(About 600 ..)

3 figures of horse-

Kneeling,

Up to 8

400

Skir-

Knapsacks

30

J About 450 ..S

men at each dis-

with sup-

mish.

and field out-

/About 300..)

tance.

port.

fits; targets
shown at in-
tervals of 15
seconds at
each disr

31

fAbout 400..1
^About250__;

.._.:do

Standing __

Up to 6

250

Mag-

tance.
Do.

azine.

32

U n k n o w n ;

2 section targets

do

3

Specified by

Vol-

Knapsacks

between

side by side.

commander.

ley.

and field out-

700 a n d

fits.

1,500.

Immediately before fire is opened in score 31 the detachment
runs forward 100 meters and executes "To fire — Halt,"

In firing volleys there should be a uniform pause between
the volleys,

SPECIAL SHOOTING.

With the ammunition which may be left over, special
shooting will be ordered by the company commander or
director of the course.

FIELD SHOOTING,

which follows the individual and collective shooting, is made
to conform as nearly as possible to actual warfare.

DENMARK.

33

It should be based upon a tactical problem which should
be clear and simple. For defense, time is given to estimate
distances, etc.

The targets are, as far as possible, arranged to rise and fall,
advance and retreat, move side wise, and fall when struck, as
may be required to carry out the problem.

Figures 9, 10, and 12 represent videttes, skirmishers, single
men, or small patrols in motion.

Single figures, like 11, represent videttes lying down, or
skirmishers, or small patrols that have halted.

A line of figures like 9 represents a firing line in motion, etc.

Cavalry targets are made by combining figures like 14;
artillery by combining figures like 15 and 16.

Reserves can be represented with targets without figures.

The effect of fire can be shown by a i)rolonged movement
of some of the pieces forming the target.

The hostile fire can be shown by igniting cartridges, or by
the markers firing blank cartridges.

The manner of working the targets is shown in Plate I.
The targets are brought to the ground on a beam with wheels.
Fig. A represents a series of one-fourth figures raised. By
means of the levers, cords, and pulleys they can be turned
horizontally and raised again at will, for example :

At iisigDal froni-

1 balloon up

1 balloon down.

2 balloons up'

1 balloon up

1 balloon down.

2 balloons up .

b
a and b

Kaise one-fourth figures.

Raise one-fourth figures.

Lower one-fourth figures, and raise two-
third figure one minute.

Raise one-fourth figures.

Ijay one-fourth figures, and raise two-
third figure three-fourth minute.

Raise one-fourth figures, and raise two-
third figure three-fourth minute.

Plate II shows the arrangement for marking.

The markers and the frame of the target are protected by
an iron screen, "a," and the markers also by a covering of
earth, "b," and a wooden screen, "c," to keep off fragments
from the earthen bank behind the target. After each shot,
or after a signal on an electric bell, the target is rolled in
and marked and the result is signaled by the wings of the
semaphores.

34

TARGET PRACTICE IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES.

Plate I.

1

niiiiilii^^''"'''"'

inmlll, illlllllU

til 1 I IHH^llllMllll

DENMARK.

35

Plate II.

BanA of Esr-th

3 l ( O I J 2

i2

Tt-

36

TARGET PRACTICE IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES.

TEST SHOOTING.

To test tlie proficiency iu firing in tlie detachment^, etc.,
firings are held annually by special orders from the war
department.

No special practice must be held for preparation.

The chief of the detachment is responsible for carrying out
tlie test in accordance with the orders of the war department
and reporting upon the result.

PRIZE SHOOTING.

The chief of the regiment, or some one detailed by him,
superintends the prize shooting ordered by the war depart-
ment.

The ranges are selected so as to afford as equal chances for
the competition as possible.

Immediately before the shooting the competitors draw lots
for targets, and for the order of shooting.

The results of the company competitions are reported to
the chief of the regiment, or to the man delegated by him.

The prizes are distributed according to the number of
points. In case of a tie the last shot, or the next to the last,
etc., determines the precedence.

Prizes are distributed in the presence of all those who com-
pete for them.

Number of scores, time of prdctice, number of cartridges.

Number of cartridges
per man for —

Total
number
of car-
tridges

Class.

Course.

S

■i

be o

c = »

Score No.

Time.

a

•- o"'u

6

1

c

o

1

s

1

S

pq

1

§

E

55
55

55

18
18
5

15

29

15

29
29

1

Regimental recruits:

For instruction in ISO days--
For instruction in two
months.

Body-guard recruits

Men for continuous service:

1-32

In the compa

are sent hor

1-32

\()-\^ — —

1()-19

24,27,28

10, 12-15, 23,

24, 27.
7,9,14,17-19,

21,27-29.
10, 12-14, 23,

24.
7-24, 26-29—
7-24 . -

5
nies
ue.

6

10
10
9

10

10

3

4
San

20
befo

16

16
16
14

21

21

2

26
le tir

8
re t

9

5
3

9

3

3

5

9
le as

30
hey

9

24
29

24

24

24

14

6
re-

12

12

12

"I'

5

5

5

5
5

26
26

26

18
18

10

24

10

24
24

122
122

122

59

59

3

36

48

31

98
98

17
17

17

20
20

20

142

142

142
59

59

Men called for in continuous
practice.

6

3

12

9
39

60

31

Officers' course in shooting

Younger officers and underofficers

on temporary duty with recruit

battalion.

15
15

113
113

c

•uits

DENMARK. 37

The officers of the battalion statf and the company officers
take part in the officers' course, but captains only (in whole
or in part), if they so desire, and battalion adjutants and staff
sergeants can be excused by the chief of the battalion when
their duties make it advisable,

SHOOTIXG-BADGES.

Of those of the regimental recruits who before the 31st of
August have completed the individual shooting at known
distances, the six who have made the most points in scores
10-21 receive a badge "for shooting." In case of tie, scores
17-21 decide, or if there is a tie here also, scores 12-16.

CAVALRY.

The regulations for carbine shooting are similar to those
for the infantry but have not been revised since 1899, whereas
the infantry regulations were revised in 1901.

The regulations for revolver shooting, and for the practice
of engineer troops, have been declared obsolete and are in
process of revision.

For cavalry the preparatory exercises are similar to those
for infantry.

PROGRAM FOR SHOOTING.

In the REC4IMENTAL ScHOOL. — In the second class of the
school; drill with carbine; preparatory drills in aiming;
position of firing, and pulling the trigger.

Gallery Shooting. — Five shots lying, with support, 5
shots kneeling, and 5 shots standing.

In the Squadron. — First or second year.

Drills with Carbine. — The drills in the regimental school
(preparatory) are repeated in connection with the target prac-
tice. Preparatory drills in rapid fire and in squad fire.

Ten shots per man can be fired with gallery carbine ; 2 shots
lying, 3 kneeling, and 5 standing.

Shooting with blank cartridges, on the average 2 shots per
man.

Shooting with loaded ammunition : At 100 meters, 3 shots
kneeling, 2 shots standing; 200 meters, 3 shots lying, 2 shots
standing; 300 meters, 3 shots lying, 2 shots kneeling; 400
meters, 3 shots lying, 2 shots kneeling; 500 meters, 5 shots
lying, with support.

38 TAKGET PRACTICE IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES.

Combined Shooting. — When advancing in loose order from
450 meters, two positions are taken between 400 and 250 meters
and there are fired — from the first position 2 blank and 5 ball
cartridges ; from the second position 1 blank and 5 ball car-
tridges.

The fire is skirmishing fire with panses. Target — skirmish
line with half figures.

Advancing from 550 meters, two positions are taken between
500 and 400 meters, and there are fired — in the first position
2 blank, 5 ball cartridges ; in the second position 1 blank and
5 ball cartridges.

The fire is given with first 1 or 2 shots as volleys in each
position, the remainder as skirmish fire. Target — Target C.

Shooting at unmeasured distances, individual shooting;
five shots with or without support (at choice of the marksman
himself) against full-length figures at distances of 100-300
meters.

Drills with revolver.

Judgment of distances.

Drills with carbine.

Repetition of preparatory drills.

Combined shooting, as for the men of the first and second
year.

IN THE SCHOOLS.

Drills with carbine : Repetition of the preparatory drills.

Fifteen shots are fired by each pupil with gallery carbine,
5 shots lying, 5 kneeling, and 5 standing.

Individual shooting with loaded ammunition, and com-
bined shooting the same as the first and second years.

Drills with revolver.

Judgment of distances: With officers (lieutenants) and
underofficers.

Drills with carbine : The preparatory drills.

Each man fires 30 shots with gallery carbine, of which 10
are against a movable target ; of the remainder, 5 are fired
lying, 5 kneeling, and 10 standing.

Individual shooting with loaded ammunition: At 200
meters, 1 shot kneeling, 4 shots standing ; 300 meters, 3 shots
kneeling, 2 shots standing ; 400 meters, 3 shots lying, 2 shots
kneeling ; 500 meters, 5 shots lying.

Drills with revolver: Judgment of distances in the first
and second class.

DENMARK.

39

SPECIAL SHOOTING.

Competition. — After the shooting for the first and second
years has been completed, competitions are held.

The shooting is conducted by the regimental commander
according to rules given by the minister of war, and the
inspector general for the cavalry.

The marksmen are selected from the records of firing in
accordance with rules specified for each competition.

No special practice for the competitions is permitted.

The regimental commander reports to the war office the
results of the competitions.

OTHER COMPETITIONS.

If the time allows, and there is sufficient ammunition avail-
able, further competitions are held : Against movable targets
(gallery shooting, 10-meter distance) ; rapid firing (with blank
cartridges) and shooting at unmeasured distances (ball
cartridges).

AMMUNITION.

The supply of ammunition in the field is regulated as
follows :

For each man with carbine, 40 ball cartridges, of which 30
are in Bretton holders in the ammunition bags, and 10 in the
magazine.

For each man with revolver, 24 ball cartridges, in 4 boxes
with 6 in each, which are kept in the cartridge-bag.

Regimental school

First year with the squadron

Second year with the squadron

Third and fourth year with the squadron

Practice school

Officers and underofficers

Gallery
cartridges.

Ball car-
tridges for
carbine.

Ball car-
tridges for
revolver.

In drilling the horses to stand fire, and in field maneuvers,
the following number of blank cartridges can be used for the
carbine :

Regimental school 20 cartridges per man.

Men of the first year 40 cartridges per man.

Men of the second year 40 cartridges per man.

Men of the third and fourth year 30 cartridges per man.

Second lieutenants, sergeants, and corpo-
rals' school .40 cartridges per man.

Undercorporals' school 30 cartridges per man.

40

TARGET PRACTICE IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES.

The following supply of cartridges is fixed for the garri-
sons outside Copenhagen :

Carbine cartridges, ball 18, 000-33, 000

Carbine cartridges, blank - _ _ _ 1 4, 000-22, 000

Carbine cartridges, gallery 4, 000-10, 000

Revolver cartridges 3,600- 5,500

The lowest number shows the quantity of ammunition to
be on hand in case of mobilization ; the highest number, this
amount plus the quantity which will probably be used in the
course of the year.
Number of cartridges authorized for each man during his instructions.

i

Ml

2
g

Shooting drills.

5;

Carbine.

Revolver.

Extra
shots, etc.

Total.

3

■■J

Indi-
vidual.

Com-
bined.

to

3

Ball car-
tridges.

Si

5

2
1

b

"5

z

o

1

t

3

-a

■n
1

Car-
bine.

>

2

a

C

CS

5

>
1
o

1

o
"3

3

1
'u

s

s

0)

C

a

i

•a

5

'C

a

3

o

g

s

•6

s

o

3

3
3

be
■3

■s

3

"3

15
10
10

3

2
2

18
12
12

?0

Men of tbefirst year with the

2
2

30
30

6
(i

6
6

20
•20
20

20
20

2

2
1

2
2
5

1

8
8
6

6
6

52
52
21

52
52
25

4

13

40

Men of the second year with

4

12

— -

40

Men of the thinl and fourth

30

Second lieutenants, ser-
geants, and corporals'

15
15
30

...

30
30
30

4

4
4

18

18
12

6
6
6

5
5

2
.5

20
20
30

4
4

4

26
26
23

40

I'ndercorporals' school

40

The targets which are used at the drills are the divided
Targets A and B, Target C, figure target, pistol target, gal-
lery target, and aiming targets.

Targets A and B have a square bull's-eye with rectangular
spaces around it; Target C has no divisions.

The figure targets are pasted on cardboard.

The targets have the following dimensions in centimeters :

Target.

Width. Height. Center square.

Division outside center.

Target A (inf. 2) —
Target B(inf. 4)..
Target C

Pistol target

Salon target

Figure target

Half-figure target.

100
280
320

188
188
188

30
1721

80 wide, 100 high.
140 wide, 188 high.

8 widel Inner rectangle, 48 high, 16 wide; center
24 high; rectangle, 94 high, 31 wide.
5 10 wide, 15 high.

Pasted on cardboard and cut out along the outline of the
figure.

DENMARK. 41

ARTILLERY PRACTICE.

Denmark has, for many years, been troubled by lack of
sufficient appropriation to carry out the improvements in its
artillery materiel that its officers have desired. Recently
extensive trials have been made of all the most improved
systems of rapid-fire field guns, and, as a result of the reports
of these trials, large sums have been appropriated for new
materiel which will probably soon result in a revision of its
system of target practice.

After the usual preliminary drills and instructions in the
theory of ballistics, and in the use of the sights against
targets of different kinds, the field-artillery practices at the
range nearest to the garrison, in firing with loaded ammuni-
tion, and when these exercises are completed, each battery in
turn is sent for several days to one of the target grounds for
field practice. One of these grounds, situated at a day's
march from Copenhagen, covers several square miles of roll-
ing country with a surface varied by forests, pastures, culti-
vated, sandy, and swampy land, with some fences and stone
walls and a few buildings ; but generally open and affording
admirable positions for imaginary warfare.

The exercises here are based upon a tactical supposition
which is so contrived as to give practice in the work that
would be required of a battery in action. The targets are
made to represent as nearly as possible the appearance of the
enemy against whom the fire is to be directed, and the battery
and its commander have no more knowledge of the nature or
position of this target than in actual warfare they would have
about the enemy. For instance, a battery commander is
told to take up a position on a certain little hill and fire
against another battery in position on the right of the red
farmhouse with two chimneys, or against a line of skirmish-
ers in the cornfield to the left of a certain forest, or to take
up a position to prevent hostile cavalry from crossing a cer-
tain point, etc. In any event the target is not usually seen
by the battery commander until he arrives on the spot. He
must then find the target, select the ground for the guns,
estimate the distance, decide upon the ammunition, fuse, etc.,
and take such measures that in coming into battery his men
and horses are not too much exposed to hostile fire. In the
latter case he may be obliged to fire with only a few of his
guns and even then with reduced effect.

42 TARGET PRACTICE IX FOREIGN COUNTRIES.

Great attention is paid to the time required to find the
target, and to the number of trial shots necessary to get the
range. As soon as practicable a field observatory is set up
to watch the shots. This is simply an extensible ladder with
a hinged prop to support it and a rest for a spyglass near the
top. It is so placed that the observer can see without being
himself too conspicuous.

The amount of ammunition for all the artillery firing
depends upon the annual appropriations.

TARGETS.

For Field Artillery. — The targets, representing infantry
in line standing uj), are rectangles measuring 30 and 15 feet
wide by 5 feet high ; infantry kneeling or partly covered, 30
feet wide by 3 feet high; infantry in column, 10 feet wide
and 15 feet high; for the pieces and limbers of artillery,
H -shaped figures 5 feet wide and 5 feet high; for skirmishers
standing, figures about 20 or 21 inches wide and 5i feet
high; for skirmishers kneeling, 21 inches wide and 33
inches high; for skirmishers lying, 22 inches wide and 19 inches
high. Sometimes the targets are set up in rifle pits. Disap-
j)earing targets are 30 feet long and 6 feet high with two
pivots at the center of each end, which rest on supports which
are driven into the ground wherever the target is required.

Movable targets, 12 to 20 feet long and G feet high, are
moved on sleds with corrugated-iron runners. The wooden
framework is covered with canvas or linen. The sled is
dragged by a line attached to a wagon or limber.

The targets for fortification artillery consist of real objects,
viz, old cannon, magazines, bombproofs, gun pits, rifle pits,
sapheads, batteries made of old cannon; and representations
of objects, such as siege batteries traced on the ground and
with the exterior slopes, etc., marked by colored cloth.
Infantry targets 60 and 30 feet long and 5 feet high. Stand-
ing figures 5 feet high and 2 feet wide, kneeling figures 2^
feet high and 2 feet wide, lying figures 14- feet high and 2 feet
wide. Artillery pieces or limbers, 5 feet high and 5 feet wide.
All kinds of objects against which the fire of position artillery
may be directed are represented by combinations of flags, etc.

Targets falling automatically when struck are made as
follows : A figure representing a kneeling skirmisher is cut
out of a board, f or ^ inch in thickness, and set up with a

DENMARK. - 43

slight inclination from the vertical, supported by a hook
whicli is hinged to a stake and caught in a staple on the
target. A little hammer turning on a pivot is supported in
a horizontal position by a little pin so that when the target
is struck it falls and knocks the hook out of the staple and
the target falls to the ground. Another figure, representing
a skirmisher lying down, is supported by a copper wire with
an eye in the end, instead of by the hook. The eye is passed
over a pin on the top of the target so that when the hammer
falls the wire is knocked off and the target drops.

To represent field artillery, a standing figure is set up on
each side of the target representing the piece, and is held up
by a hook which is loosened in the same manner as with the
kneeling and lying figures.

For Seacoast Artillery, moving targets, made to be
drawn by torpedo boats or tugs, are constructed on the plan
of a catamaran as shown by the sketches.
A for mitrailleuse.
B for guns of small caliber.
C for guns of medium and large caliber.

The dimensions are given in feet.

44

TARGET PRACTICE IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES.

A.— Target for Mitrailleuse.

- ---J6'

m:

w — ^

~-6"^6'

B. — Target for cuns of sma I caliber drawn by torpedo boat (10 miles" speed).
It- 24 J

DENMARK.

45

C. —Target used for shooting with large and mediunn caliber.
Z4- -

;

/

/ I
/ I

I /
I /
I /
I /

1/

I

\

\

T^:

TS

:^

-30'

Covered with haiiens or hoards.

III.-FRANCE.

[Reported by Capt. T. Bentley Mutt, Artillery Corps, I'uittMi Stativs Military Attaclii', Paris.]

Target practice to he executed each year.

Kind of piactice.

Numlier of
cartridges.

Blank. Ball

100
100
200
300
400
300
200

200
300
300
400
600
250

800

1,0(XI

800

600-400
a50

200
300

250

800-600
300

-Infantry.

((t) GaUerij practice.

Active army, 60

Keserves and territorials, 5 full or 15 reduced .

(6) Individual preliminary practice (Tirs d^instructioh).

Standing, with rest, target 0.50 meter in diameter.

Kneeling, target 0.50 meter in diameter

Standing, target 1 meter in diameter

Kneeling, target 1..50 meters in diameter

Lying, target 2 meters in diameter

Standing, target 1.50 meters in diameter

Kneeling, target 1 meter in diameter

(c) Applied practice {Tirx d'application).

Kneeling, .silhouette, man lying

M'ith rest, in trench, silhouette, man kneeling

Standing, silhouette, man standing

Lying, 2 silhouettes, man kneeling

Kneeling, 4 silhouettes, man standing at 0.15-meter interval

Magazine tire, 30 seconds, 2 silhouettes, man standing, at 0.1.5-meter

interval

Standing, at disappearing bust target

(d) Collective firiw] {Fenx collect if »).

Volleys by section :

Standing or kneeling, word of command by sergeants

Standing or kneeling, word of command by chiefs of sections. _.
Standing or kneeling, 45 seconds

Fire at will :

Fire at will advancing, directed by chiefs of sections

Rapid fire, directed by chiefs of sections, sight at 400 meters,

time 30 seconds

Magazine fire, standing or kneeling, word of command by chiefs
of sections, time 30 seconds

Total.

RESERVE ARMV.

(o) Individual practice.

3 cartridges standing and 3 kneeling, at target 1 meter in diameter .

3 cartridges standing and 3 lying, at target 1.50 meters in diameter.

Magazine fire at 2 silhouettes, man standing, at interval of 0.15 meter,

time 30 seconds

(h ) Collective practice.

Volley firing by section standing or kneeling, word of command In-
reserve officers and noncommissioned officers

Rapid fire, time 30 seconds, word of command by chiefs of sections
(sight of 400 meters)

Total for reserves .

8
120

(47)

48 TARGET PRACTICE IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES.

Target practice to he executed each year — Continued.

Number of
cartridges.

^o.

Distances.

Blank.

Ball.

Metera.

TERRITORIAL ARMY.

(<() luiUfiditnJ practke.

26

27
28

200
300
250

6

3 cartridges standing and 3 lying, at target 1.50 meters in diameter.
Magazine fire, time 40 seconds, at 2 silhouettes, man standing at

6

8

20

II. — Cavalry.

(a) Gallery praclke.

{h) Indicichial prelitiiimtrii practice.

29

200
200
400
600

6

30

6

31

0

39

6

((•) Applied practice.

33
34

250
400

6

6

(</) Collective practice.

35
36
37

600

800

4(K»-500

6

3

3

4.S

RESERVE ARMY.

((() Individual practice.

38
39

200
400-800

6

9

(6) Collective firing.

40
41

600
400

6

3

24

TERRITORIAL ARMY.

('() Individual practice.

42
43

200
400

3

3

(6) Collective firing.

44

400

G

12

III. — Field Artillery (with Carbine).

(a) GaUerij practice.

(6) Individual preliminari/ practice.

100

100

200
200
200
2(K»

Wkli rest, standing, target 0.50 meter in diameter, black bull's-eye

3

Offhand, standing, target 0.50 meter in diameter, black bull's-eye

3

3

do _. - _ _

6

do _ - - - -

6

do -

6

FRANCE.
Revolver practice.

49

Kiuil of piactioe.

Numlier of
cartridges.

Blank. Ball

IXFANTRY AXn CAVAI.UY.

Actiri' artiiij.

Intermittent fire, for each officer or man armed with the revolver

Intermittent fire, for each officer or man armed with the revolver

Intermittent tire, for each officer or man armed with the revolver

Intermittent tire, target at 15 meters, a circle 20 centimeters in diameter.
Continuous fire, target at 30 meters, a circle 40 centimeters in diameter.

Reserve and territorial army.

Intermittent fire, each officer and man

Aitini unition allowance.

Organizations.

Ball car-
tridges, rifle
or caibine.

Re-
volver,

in-
fantry

and

cav-
alry.

Blank car-
tridges.

In-
fantry.

Cav-
alry.

In- Cav-
fantry. airy.

Active army:
Officers'

120
120
120

27
27
27

20
20
20

48
48
48

24
24
24

12
12
12

36
' 36"
12
12"
12

50

18

Reserves:
Officers

20

6

Territorial army:

6

Gallery practice, full or reduced charges:
Infantry —

Active army

Reserves or territorials, 15 reduced, 5 fulL

Cavalry —

Active aimy

Reserve or territorials

Field artillery (carbine) —

Active aiiny

Reserves or territorials

BlavJc
cartridges

INFANTRY.

The education of the soldier in shooting is divided into two
distinct phases : First, the preparatory exercises, gallery prac-
tice and firing at known distances, conducted under favorable
conditions and individually ; second, the practice at silhouettes
at known and unknown distances, individual or collective
skirmish firing, and volley practice under every variety of
conditions, exactly as the soldier would find them in w^ar.

50 TARGET PRACTICE IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES.

The men are divided into two classes according to their
proficiency.

The ammunition for the year is tnrned over to the captains,
who are allowed a large initiative in its use for the instruction
of their men. Each captain selects a lieutenant to supervise
the instruction of the noncommissioned officers, and a ser-
geant, who is especially charged with the details of the prac-
tice, teaching the awkward and helping the lieutenant in
developing instructors among the men. This sergeant is
called the "target-practice sergeant."

An officer is selected by the regimental commander to lec-
ture on the subjects treated of in the documents furnished by
the " Ecole Normale de Tir." Each year this school furnishes
the various regiments with copies of lectures delivered there,
and with information as to recent progress in matters of tar-
get practice.

The old way of establishing a man's ability as a shooter by
the percentage he had made in individual practice has been
mostly abandoned. At present practical examinations are
used to determine the comparative skill.

The prizes given for shooting are equally divided among
the various companies.

The colonels, with the approval of the general commanding
the brigade, arrange the programs of the collective service
practice.

It is recognized that the responsibility for producing good
shots rests chiefly with the captain and he is given great lati-
tude to this end.

In each regiment a captain is designated as instructor and
range officer. He has a lieutenant as assistant ; he is required
to be present at all collective skirmish firings, though he may
send his assistant to others ; he keeps the regimental target
book and has the usual functions of a range officer.

Officers are required to learn to shoot and are practiced in
using the range-finder and in estimating distances.

Allowance of Ammunition. — Each officer and man is
allowed the cartridges indicated in the tables on page 47.
Cartridges for competition and examinations are furnished
from this allowance. For the collective service practice, 50
cartridges per man are allowed in addition, for each man
taking part. The whole allowance is required to be consumed
in the course of the year.

FRANCE. 51

In individual practice the targets, silhouettes or groups,
are placed at least 4 meters apart.

A noncommissioned oflScer is charged with supervising the
markers in the pits.

In the practice at known distances the range officer places on
the line of targets a frame 2 meters square covered with ruled
paper. He then, before the men arrive, fires 12 shots from
a rest, with a rifle whose shooting he is familiar with, aiming
each time at the lower edge of a circle traced with a diameter
equal to the range divided by 1,000. The center of impact is
then determined, and the resulting point at which to aim is
marked on a regulation target which is placed to the right or left
of the line of targets. This serves as an indication to the men
of corrections to make in their aiming. If during the day's
shooting the atmospheric conditions change decidedly, the
range officer redetermines the point.

There are two markers for each target, one who pastes, and
one who signals the score of each shot with a flag.

PREPARATORY EXERCISES.

These are in general similar to those prescribed in our
regulations. The men are first taught to place the piece in
the correct position of aim, to do so rapidly and accurately,
then the instruction proceeds in the use of the sights, aiming
with the different elevations, action of the finger on the trig-
ger, pulling the trigger without deranging the aim, etc.

Instruction with the gun on a rest to induce regularity in
aiming, in the amount of front sight to take, etc., proceeds
on lines with which we are familiar.

The instructions for the positions standing, kneeling, and
lying down are almost exactly the same as in our regulations
excei^t that in the position of the "order kneeling" the butt
of the piece is held on the right thigh, the left hand grasping
the stock.

GALLERY PRACTICE.

After thorough instruction in the preparatory exercises the
recruits are given a course in gallery practice before going on
the range. The allowance of ammunition will be found in
the table. This practice is executed in the three positions,
first at targets, and then at silhouettes. They begin with
individual practice at fixed targets, then at moving and
disappearing targets, then practice for rapidity, individual
practice at word of command, and volley firing.

52

TARGET PRACTICE IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES.

The practice with reduced charge is now being largely
replaced by practice with the service cartridge at reduced
distance (30, 50, 60, 100 meters) and gallery practice with re-
duced charge is maintained only at those posts where no safe
range for gallery practice with the service cartridge exists.
The latter is considered much more useful to the soldier in
preparing him at once for the range and prevents his acquir-
ing the bad habits which come with shooting reduced charges.

Whenever it is impossible to get a safe range within 2 or
3 miles of the post, gallery practice is used with reduced
charges. Gallery practice with full charges is given not only
to recruits, but to all soldiers, each being allowed 60 car-
tridges a year. The captain regulates the kind of instruction
to be given to each, and he may direct men who have been
prevented from practicing on the range, to shoot their allow-
ances in the gallery.

The range preferred is 30 meters, but ranges of 50, 60, or
100 meters may be used if necessary.

The targets used in this practice, i. e., full charges at re-
duced distances, are of white paper traced with two concentric
circles whose dimensions are given in the table. These sheets
are pasted on the regulation target frame 2 meters square.

Ranges.

Radius of
inner circle.

Radius of
outer circle.

Diameter of
disks.

Centimeters.
5
7.5

9
12.5

Centimeters.
10
15
18
25

Centimeters.
3

5

6

100 meters

10

Fig. 1.— Target. Fig. 2. — Shot grouper.

Figures 1 and 2 show the ordinary target and the skeleton
shot grouper ; the table gives the dimensions of the target
for various ranges.

FRANCE. 53

The points of impact can be seen from the firing point by
the instructor (using a glass if need be), who coaches the man
accordingly. The holes are not pasted until after each series
of 6 shots. Whatever the kind of practice, it is considered
satisfactory when all the 6 shots of any series have been
put in the outer circle. Generally no conditions are imposed
for passing from one practice to another, the instructor alone
judging when the man has done well enough. No record is
made of this shooting, though in order to stimulate interest
each shot may be counted as in ordinary practice, i. e., 2
points for the inner circle and 1 for the outer.

The practice progresses as follows :

1. The target is a black paster on a white sheet of paper.
The man fires one series of 6 shots and the grouping of the
holes is remarked. The "shot grouper," as shown in the
sketch, is placed over the holes so as to contain in its outer
circle the greatest j)ossible number of hits. This practice
shows the man how his gun shoots, and enables the instructor
to teach uniformity of shooting.

2. When a series of six shots are all contained in the
"grouper," the man proceeds to fire at the target as sketched
above. The point aimed at is a paster of the dimensions
given in the table placed generally as shown in the sketch,
though, following the peculiarities of the man and the gTin
as determined in the first practice, it may be placed in another
position whose relation to the center of the target is such as
would cause that center to be hit when the paster is aimed at.

3. The two practices as aboA'e being satisfactory, shooting
at will and at the word of command, rapid and magazine
fire, are next taught in succession. For this practice the men
are placed in line, elbows touching, and each shoots at his
own target.

The firing at will is at first slow and then proceeds pro
gressively to "rapid fire" (6 shots in thirty-five seconds).
Sometimes a dozen cartridges are given each man and he is
allowed to fire as fast as he can during one minute, and the
results established. Some of the firings at will, etc., are per-
formed from the magazine.

Noncommissioned officers and men who have qualified as
marksmen may be excused from gallery practice if the captain
chooses.

54 TARGET PRACTICE IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES.

The men pass to the practice at silhouettes only after they
have shown proficiency at the ordinary targets.

The shooting at moving and disappearing targets, and the
firing for rapidity, are intended to teach the man to load and
aim rapidly without quitting the target with his eye.

In preparation for volley firing, the men are given indi-
vidual practice at the word of command, then they pass to
volleys by squad.

Commanding officers arrange the exercises so as to give as
much variety as possible and make the work interesting.

With Reduced Charges. — This practice is the same in
principle as that with the regulation cartridge, except that
magazine and rapid fire are not allowed. The range is
always 15 meters, the sight being at 250. The target is of
white paper, 15 centimeters square, on which are drawn two
concentric circles with radii of 5 and 10 centimeters, hori-
zontal and vertical diameters as in the sketch above given.
A black disk, 1.5 centimeters in diameter, is pasted at the
center so that its lower edge is tangent to the horizontal
diameter. The point to aim at is this disk. Metal plates for
targets are prohibited, a suitable stop butt of wood, etc.,
being required.

RANGE PRACTICE.

The actual firing on the range is diA'ided into five courses.

1. "Tirs d'instruction," at known distances (100 to 400
meters), against circular targets.

2. "Tirs d'application," at known distances (200 to 600
meters), against silhouettes drawn on rectangular paper tar-
gets, representing men in three positions.

3. "Tirs de combat individuels," individual combat prac-
tice at unknown distances, generally up to 600 meters, utiliz-
ing cover, against fixed or moving silhouette targets, or
manikins.

4. ' ' Feux collectif s, " volley firing, or firing at will at known
distances, or advancing, against silhouettes painted in rows,
to teach fire discipline and to prepare for 5 ; executed at from
200 to 1,000 meters.

5. "Tirs de combat collectifs," collective combat practice,
under service conditions^ the company' or battalion advanc-
ing to attack, targets being silhouettes, manikins, etc., fixed
and moving; volleys, counted cartridges, and fire at will.

FRANCE. 55

The dimensions and arrangement of the various targets
mentioned above will be given with the description of each
kind of practice now to follow.

1. TiRS d'Instruction.— For this preliminary individual
practice, the target is a wooden frame 2 meters square, cov-
ered with paper traced with two concentric circles of dimen-
sions, according to the range, as follows:

100 meters -_. diameter, 0.25 and 0.50 meters.

200 meters diameter, 0. 50 and 1 . 00 meters.

300 meters diameter, 0. 75 and 1 . 50 meters.

400 meters diameter, 1. 00 and 2. 00 meters.

Horizontal and vertical axes, intersecting at the centers, 8
centimeters wide, complete the target.

A hit in the inner circle counts 2 points ; in the outer circle,

1 point; outside of this, zero; ricochet hits, zero.

Each man fires 42 shots during the season at these targets
as shown in the tables on page 47. He must make, out of a
possible 84, a score of 25 before he is passed on to applied
practice (No. 2). To this end he may be obliged to fire some
of his applied allowance at preliminary practice.

2. TiRS d'Application. — For this applied practice the
targets are all silhouettes of men 5 feet 6 inches tall, lying,
kneeling, or standing. The silhouettes are traced in black
on a target frame covered with white paper. The progress
of this practice is given in the tables page 47. For practices
numbered 8, 9, and 10, the silhouettes are drawn on the lower
part of a panel 1 meter wide and 2 meters high. A horizontal
line passing through the top of the silhouette limits the part
of the panel to be struck. Every hit in the silhouette counts

2 points; if below the horizontal line and outside the sil-
houette, 1 point.

For practice at Nos. 11 and 13, two silhouettes are traced
on the panel 2 meters square. The silhouettes are framed in
a rectangle of the height of the figure and 1.50 meters wide.
A hit in the rectangle counts 2 points.

For practice at No. 12, the 4 silhouettes are traced on a
panel 3 meters wide by 2 high. A horizontal line across the
top of the figures limits the space in which a hit counts. A
hit in the rectangle counts 2 points.

In practice No. 14, the bust silhouette on the end of a pole
is moved up and down by a marker in the target pit. The
targets for the different men shooting are marked distinctly ;

56 TARGET PRACTICE IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES.

each, target is raised aud lowered always at the same iDoiiit.
It appears for three seconds and disappears for three seconds.

When the range is not long enough for the distances pre-
scribed, the applied practice is held at such ranges as are
possible.

In applied practice a ricochet hit counts 1.

3. TiRS DE Combat Individuels. — Executed by all men
who have qualified for the "tirs d'application." In the gal-
lery practice a preparation for this practice is made; the
various exercises of campaign service are utilized to teach
the positions, and blank cartridges used as the instructio]i
progresses. The captain has great latitude in teaching this
shooting, in choice of targets, etc. Of course he is limited
by the nature of the ground and the range which is at his
disposal.

The targets are usually silhouettes, bust silhouettes, and
manikins, fixed and movable. The practice is held after being
fatigued with drills and marches, and after double timing.

When there is no maneuver ground near the garrison suit-
able for this practice, advantage is taken of any presence of
the regiment at a suitable range.

Cartridges for this practice come from savings effected from
the other practices.

4. Feux Collectifs. — Executed by all the men without
distinction as to marksmanship, at a target consisting of
panels placed side by side, making a target 2 meters high by
20 meters long. Profiles of 28 silhouettes, men standing with
0.15-meter interval, are painted in black on this target. The
of&cer commanding the section orders the sight to be used and
gives the commands for the fire and the point to be aimed at.
Ricochets count as hits. When the garrison range is not
suitable for this collective practice it is held at the time and
place prescribed for the collective combat firing.

5. Tirs de Combat Collectifs. — The program for this
practice is mapped out by the commanding officer according
to the material and ground at his disposal and submitted tO'
the generals commanding the brigade, division, etc.

The targets are panels, silhouettes, moving targets, etc.,
representing the different arms. They are placed beforehand
in natural positions and as much under cover as possible.
The fire is opened against them and progresses as much as
possible as in actual combat. The distances being unknown.

FRANCE.

the ranges are determined by the methods described. The
company is on a war footing, and all officers and men must
be present if possible. Before this practice begins the troops
must have had a long march or maneuver, so as to simulate
actual conditions.

Targets, — Revolving and sliding targets, commonly used
in our service, are rarely found. Each regiment or command,
as a rule, makes and maintains its own range and targets so
that considerable variety will be found within the limits laid
down in the regulations, and following the skill, ingenuity,
and resources of the command. An annual credit is allowed
each organization for material (wood) out of which to make
targets for their practice.

Fig. 3.— Square target.

Fig. 4. — Rectangular target.

,.>\.,Av, , uO.\\\V( \v\\\A\v\\\vv\\\\\\\\\V"V\\\W
Fig. 6. — Silhouette, man kneeling.

Fig 5. — Bust silhouette
target.

Fig. 7.— Silhouette, man lying down.

Fig. 8. — Silhouette, man standing.

The amount varies with the necessities of each as set forth
in a report, generally 85 francs per regiment and 15 francs
per isolated company.

The mirror is of colored or lightly ground glass and is set
at an angle of 45 degrees with the line of sight. The man

58

TARGET PRACTICE IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES.

sees the rear and front sights and the target through the
mirror; the instructor standing on the man's left, opposite

Reflector in normal
position.

Fig 10. — Reflector for examining the bore Fig 11. — Tripod for use in the aiming drills and

of infantry rifle from the breech. in shooting to determine accuracy of the rifle.

Fig. 12.— Tripod.

Elevaiicn

Reu

i^r

Ptan

Fig. 13. — Instructor's mirror for verifying the accuracy and correcting the faults of a

recruit's aiming.

the mirror, sees in it (reversed) the rear and front sights and
the target, and can appreciate at once the mistakes the man
is making in his aim.

FRANCE.

59

The above sketches give the shape and dimensions of the
various targets referred to in the tables, of the marker's disk
and shot-hole tamper, of the mirror for examining the bore,
of the tripod for aiming drills, and of the mirror for teaching
aiming.

♦ ssor. .

Fig. 14. — Type of a 600-meter range plan.

Joo_ m. S"^ 2.om._

Mm^

Fig. 15. — Profile, pits entirely sunk below the natural level of
the ground.

One method,

Fig. 17.— Section.

Another method.

The above plan and section of a typical range, butt, and
pit need little further explanation. It will be noticed that
the earth in front of the target is removed to a depth of about
6 feet, and from there slopes to the natural level at about 100
meters' distance. This is to prevent ricochets.

The targets, of whatever nature, are erected on slides on
a heavy wooden sill in front of the markers' pits, steadied
by guy-ropes. The hits are signaled and the holes pasted by
means of a disk, with a long handle, having a plug on the
back for holding the pasters.

60 TARGET PRACTICE IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES.

The material and the methods at these garrison ranges are,
from onr point of view, rather crude, though it is to be said
that at the great permanent camps where the infantry, as
well as the artillery, get their best exercises in shooting, the
arrangements are much better. The work there done, in the
matter of actual combat practice on varied ground, with
whole companies and battalions moving forward and shoot-
ing as in battle, is much greater than we have ever seen in
America.

As a rule each garrisoned town has its permanent target
range, used throughout the year not only by the infantry and
other troops stationed there, but by the gendarmery, the
customs and forest guards (douaniers and forestiers), the ter-
ritorial regiments, and shooting clubs. The latter are gener-
ally organized among territorial regiments and consist wholly
of territorials, or partly of these and partly of civilians ; these
clubs are encouraged by the military authorities in every way,
ranges lent them, arms and ammunition furnished or sold at
cost, prizes awarded, etc.

These ranges are rarely more than 600 meters long, and
collective practice on them is generally out of the question.
A range is not considered a good one that is less than 1,000
meters long by 100 wide, and permitting of all the firings
except the combat exercises. When a garrison has no per-
manent range, or it is too small, or circumstances render an
additional one advantageous and obtainable, use is made of
the occasional or temporary range. This is simply a large
tract of land safe for shooting, and placed temporarily at the
disposition of the troops (generally in the fall, after the crops
are in) by the commune, or hired from the owners. No butts
or shelters are ever constructed on such land, and the few
trenches that may be dug are filled in at the close of the
practice. Such a range is required to be 2,000 by 500 meters
for the actual maneuvers of the troops using it, and it must,
of course, besides this, present the necessary features of
security. On these ranges all the combat pra'ctices, even for
a battalion in action, can often be held, and at very small, or
no expense to the government.

CAMPS OF INSTRUCTION AND SHOOTING.

A short account of these camps would seem to be of interest
here. They are primarily intended for the target practice of

FRANCE. 01

field and siege artillery, but infantry troops also use them
for their collective-combat and long-distance practice. The
principle of their existence contemplates one for each army
corps or equivalent ; actually there are seventeen such camps
in France and one in Algeria. The army corps which have
none use the camps nearest to their region.

By far the best and most important of these camps is the
one at Chalons. This is the only place in France where field
artillery can maneuver a fire as on the field of battle, and
where combat practice of masses of artillery can be had. At
this camp is situated also the normal school of target practice,
which furnishes instructors to the infantry.

The camp at Fontainebleau is also used by the artillery
school of application situated there ; the one at Bourges as a
proving ground for the government foundry of Bourges ; the
one at Poitiers by the commission of practical study of artil-
lery target practice which has its seat there.

The brigades of field artillery (each of two regiments) use
their respective camps in turn, but in order that they may
not get to know the ground too well, they are sent every two
or three years to a different camp. When the camp is over
7 or 8 miles from the garrison, the troops go into camp on the
ground, and to this end temporary and even permanent shelter
has been erected at some of them.

The artillery regiments pass from twenty to twenty-five
days each year at these camps.

Infantry collective-combat practice demands a range 500 by
4,000 or 5,000 meters; a range for all arms must be 9,000 or
10,000 by 6,000 or 7,000 meters.

CAVALRY.

What has thus far been written applies in its entirety to
infantry target practice. The cavalry allowance of ammuni-
tion and the ranges at which it is shot can be seen in the
tables, p. 48.

The cavalry troops generally have no special target ranges ;
they use whatever ones the region affords. The targets are
the same for both arms, except that the cavalry does not use
silhouette targets of men lying and men kneeling ; the bust
and standing silhouettes are the same.

The revolver practice (with ball cartridge) is executed only
on foot.

63 TARGET PRACTICE IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES.

MACHINE-GUN PRACTICE.

This matter is now being studied, but as no type of gun lias
yet been definitely adopted for infantry battalions, nothing
has been put in practice concerning target practice for them.

SCHOOLS AND INSTRUCTORS OF INFANTRY TARGET PRACTICE.

There exists at the great camp of Chalons the Ecole Normale
de Tir, a thoroughly equipped and most efficient school of
infantry target practice.

The object of the school is:

1. To form a body of technical specialists for the school
itself, for the military schools of Saint Cyr and Saint Maixent,
and for the technical section of infantry at the ministry of war.

3. To form for each infantry regiment a number of target
practice instructors (capitaines de tir) having a thorough
knowledge of everything concerning target practice and small
arms.

3. To determine upon models of arms and munitions intended
for the infantry ; to test all modifications proposed ; to seek
modifications or improvements by research and experiment ;
to examine all matters submitted to it by the minister of war
concerning the rifle, ammunition, or target practice; to
experiment with, and test all rifles used in foreign services.

4. To test all rifles coming from the government factories
(trimonthly) and all ammunition being issued (monthly).

5. To lay down the rules for infantry fire; to indicate mod-
ifications of the drill book made necessary by changes in the
arm or ammunition ; to propose means for keeping the army
informed of all foreign progress in rifles or target practice.

The instructors of the school consist of 15 infantry officers;
there is a polygon reserved solely for the use of the school, a
complete workshop of arms and ammunition, 78 enlisted men
and 7 civilian employees.

The students are all captains of infantry who have been
recommended by their superiors ; each regiment or battalion
of chasseurs sends an officer every other year to follow either
course No. 1 or No, 3; this makes the number of student
officers in all about 140.

Course No. 1 lasts five months, from February 1 to June 30.
It includes ballistics (a complete study thereof), the efl^ects of
fire, construction and fabrication of arms and ammunition.

FRANCE. 63

and range finders. This course is especially intended to
produce instructors for the schools, etc., mentioned above.

Course No. 2 lasts one month, from October 1 to October 31.
It is confined to instruction in the care and preservation of
the service rifle. This course is especially intended to give
to the regimental range officers (capitaines de tir) the neces-
sary technical mechanical instruction.

REGIMENTAL SCHOOLS OF TARGET PRACTICE.

In each regiment or separate command these schools are
organized to teach the officers and noncommissioned officers
by lectures, exercises, and questions what each should know.
The lecturers and instructors are generally captains who have
come from the Ecole Normale de Tir. The officers are taught
by regiment or (more frequently) by battalion ; the noncom-
missioned officers and men, by company; the lieutenant
colonel is charged with supervision of these schools.

The course embraces armament and ammunition, esti-
mating distances, range finders, and the various prescribed
drills and practices.

CLASSIFICATION OF MARKSMEN, COMPETITIONS, RECOJMPENSES.

Infantry. — At the close of the applied practice, on a day
fixed by the colonel, the annual classification takes place.
Enlisted men who have made a total of 36 points or more in
the applied practice form the first class ; those who have made
less than this, the second class; those who, in preliminary
practice, have not qualified for applied practice, the third
class.

At the end of the season a practical examination, ordered
by the colonels or generals, is held to see what may be the
results of the season's work in each company.

The examination consists of applied or individual combat
practice for the first and second classes united; preliminary
practice for the third class, and, finally, collective practice
for the whole company.

All the men not in hospital must be present. No classifica-
tion is made as a result of this examination ; indeed, there is
no classification whatever of companies in the regiment, or
of regiments, etc., according to skill in shooting; the only
classification is that of the men given above.

64 TARGET PRACTICE IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES.

The recompenses for shooting consist, for each company,
of one silver pin, three hunting-horns embroidered in bullion,
and a number of horns made of cloth, equal to one-fifth the
effective of corporals and men in the company. These are
given to the best shots in order of classification, and are worn
on the left sleeve of the coat.

The sergeants of each regiment, armed with the rifle, have
a competition for the regimental prizes consisting of nine
gold, silver, or embroidered horns; those armed with the
revolver also compete for a silver and bronze medal, given to
the best shots.

These competitions are not exhaustive; they are finished
in one seance; the commanding officer regulates the whole
matter.

A regimental order announces the names of the best shots,
and this is posted on the bulletin boards at headquarters and
in the companies. Commanding officers are directed to allow
to the good shots of their commands all the privileges com-
patible with the interest of the service.

There are no competitions other than those just described.

Cavalry. — The classification, made after the close of the
individual practice, is as follows: Men who have made 30
points out of 36 shots with the carbine and put 24 hits out of
36 shots in the target (see table p. 48), using the revolver, con-
stitute the first class; those who have made 15 points with
the carbine and put 12 hits in the target with the revolver,
constitute the second class; the others form the third class.
The recompenses are the same, and are awarded under
essentially similar conditions as for the infantry.

Field Artillery (carbine and revolver practice). — The
classification, made after the "tirs d'instruction," is as
follows :

First class : All men who have made 1 point for each shot
fired with the carbine and i point for each shot fired with the
revolver ;

Second class : All men who have made one-half the number
of points required for the first class;

Third class : The rest of the men.

There are no recompenses for small-arm shooting in the
artillery.

The latest regulations (1902) regarding revolver practice in
the field artillery prescribe one range only, 20 meters. The

PRANCE. 05

target consists of a bull's-eye 5 centimeters in diameter, and
two circles of 25 and 40 centimeters diameter. A hit in the
inner (25-centimeter) circle counts 2 points ; in the outer circle
1 point.

It is to be remembered that in the field artillery, all men
not mounted are armed with the carbine and bayonet; all
mounted men with the revolver.

UNIFORM WORN AT TARGET PRACTICE.

Gallery practice is held in drill dress without knapsack or
equipment.

The "tirs d'instruction " (preliminary individual practice)
take place in drill uniform with equipments and knapsack
on, but the latter empty.

The "tirs d'application " (applied practice) are in drill
uniform with the knapsack fully packed.

The individual and collective combat practices, and all the
volley practice, take place in regular campaign uniform with
the full campaign kit packed in place — in other words, heavy
marching order.

(The drill uniform spoken of above is something like our
stable dress and is worn over whatever clothes the season
may demand.)

ESTIMATING DISTANCES.

A great deal of attention is given to teaching the men to
estimate distances, and officers are thoroughly practiced.

Practice in estimating by sight and comparison is given by
the various means used in all services and familiar to our
own. This instruction is pursued in connection with other
drills at all seasons and in all weather throughout the year.
Privates are taught to estimate up to 600 meters, officers and
noncommissioned officers up to 1,200 meters by sight, and be-
yond that by using instruments and the map. The latter
work is especially given to officers, but sergeants who show
aptitude are also instructed.

At present each infantry battalion has a telemeter, but a
movement is on foot to provide one for each company. The
telemeters are thus distributed by regiment : One Souchier
field-glass stadiometer, and three Labbez, or more recently,
Goulier range finders.

66 TARGET PRACTICE IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES.

However, most infantry officers have a range-finder field
glass of either the regulation or other make, which is their
private property, and with this they practice.

Exj)eriments in certain infantry regiments on unknown
ground have given the following results in estimating dis-
tances by the eye: Officers, skillful in estimating, make a
mean error of 12 per cent of the distance; officers not very
skillful, 20 per cent; privates of the active army and non-
commissioned officers of the reserve army, 30 per cent.

With the Labbez and Goulier instruments, using a tape-
line or wire for measuring the base, the mean error is from
2.0 to 3.5 per cent of the distance.

With the field-glass range finder, the mean errors are 7 or
8 per cent of the distance.

It is considered that, to be useful, a telemeter should give
the range to within 50 meters.

FIELD-ARTILLERY TARGET PRACTICE.

The program of instruction in target practice for the field
artillery is comprehensive and minute. It comprises —

1 . Exercises preparatory to actual practice, viz :

(a) Indoor work for officers only.

(6) Outdoor work for the whole battery.

(c) Simulated fire.

(cZ) Practice in designating objectives.

2. Actual practice at targets :

(a) Preparatory firing.

(b) War practice,

3. War practice of masses of artillery.

1. {a) The object of this indoor instruction is to teach offi-
cers how to conduct target practice under all conditions.
The instructor announces whatever conditions he may choose,
as to target, weather, estimated distance, etc. ; the officer
being questioned must then give immediately the resulting
commands for the fire ; the instructor announces the observed
strike of the shot, the pupil continues with his orders as to
range, fuse, etc., as thougli conducting actual practice with
his battery. The instructor's oral indications are sometimes
replaced by pictorial representation of the hits on a black-
board sketch of the terrain.

The j)upi]s in this exercise are the captains and lieutenants;
the field officer is the instructor. This work is continued

FRANCE. G7

every year to keep the officers in practice and enable tlieni to
solve without hesitation any problem in fire direction.

(6) Following on this work indoors comes its application,
using the guns and men in the barrack court, stable corral,
or on the drill ground. These drills continue the exercis(3 of
the officers in giving commands appropriate for any condi-
tions under more real surroundings, and habituate the men
to their work, so that all, esj)ecially the noncommissioned
officers, absorb the ideas governing the selection of the vari-
ous kinds of fire and their application.

The captain thus gets his battery in hand and knows what
he can expect of the intelligence, quickness, and coolness of
his subordinates. He is the instructor. He begins with the
simplest conditions, as "fixed target, range so and so," and
proceeds to the most complex. He takes the case of chang-
ing objective, moving target, rapid fire, distribution of fire,
etc., until his directions are translated into correct action
almost mechanically. When this is well done he takes his
battery to the drill ground for a continuation of the L,ame
work.

When the separate batteries have been sufficiently prac-
ticed in this way, the group (three batteries) is similarly
exercised by the major in the various group problems. This
is always done on the drill field or, better, on varied ground.

(c) The preceding practices have been chiefly mental exer-
cises. In the simulated fire they are continued, but made
more real by the use of dummy cartridges and projectiles,
and of petards of stout pasteboard holding about 4 ounces of
black powder. The latter are caused to explode along the
positions supposed to be held by the enemy and give an imi-
tation of his fire, and of the striking projectiles of the battery
being instructed.

This work is first done by battery and then by group. It
is usually preceded by practice in observation of fire, using
petards so as to show the chiefs of platoon how to estimate
overs and unders, rights and lefts, as well as the height of
the burst. When they are fairly skillful in this, the prog-
ress of fire, the whole battery working together, can go ahead
as though actual projectiles had been used.

(d) The practice in designating objectives by the officers,
sergeants, and pointers, is continued throughout the year in
all weather and conditions of the atmosphere. The idea is so

68 TARGET PRACTICE IX FOREIGN COUXTRIES.

to exercise these men that there shall be no confusion, mis-
understanding, or loss of time at the moment of opening fire
upon an objective chosen by the group or battery chief. It
is also to develop skill in making rapid changes of objective,
concentrating the fire of several batteries or groups on a
point, or again distributing it. They commence first with
the officers, then with the sergeants and pointers. Especial
attention is given to teaching the staff officers (or noncommis-
sioned officers), who would be the bearers of messages from one
battery, group, or brigade to another, to carry in the eye the
objective which it is desired to shoot at, so that they may
unfailingly indicate it to the officer to whom the order is
sent. To this end, also, they teach the use of a little deflec-
tion scale, held at arm's length and enabling the aid to fix the
relation of an obscure target to some conspicuous landmark.
2. Actual Practice at Targets. — This is held on the
ranges or camps of instruction spoken of on page 60.

(a) The jjreparatory firings are executed under simple con-
ditions, slowly and in such manner as to show up every
mistake. This practice is preferably interpolated with the
outdoor instruction above described in 1 (6) and (c).

When the battery is already well instructed, these firings
may be omitted and all the ammunition used for —

(b) The ivar practice. — Besides the captain, each lieutenant
must command one of the war practices. The exercise is
made by every possible means to resemble actual service.
The simplest work of course comes first, but instruction being
the object and not hits, commanding officers do not hesitate
later in the practice to place the batteries in difficult positions,
select indistinct objectives, use indirect fire (pointing on an
auxiliary target), and come into battery and open fire with
the utmost rapidity. The whole of the preceding and rather
tedious work having been a preparation for this practice, the
desire is to prove just how effective the artillery would be in
actual battle, using the methods taught it, while at the same
time receiving excellent training in using these methods.
The targets and ranges for the various exercises are arranged
with great care and at considerable expense. They consist
of panels or canvas-covered frames, silhouettes, single and in
rows, dummies, etc., of the shape and dimensions of the dif-
ferent arms of the service and formations in battle. Only
small use is made of disappearing, moving, and mechanical

FRANCE. 69

targets, tliougii some are so arranged as to fall down wlieu
hit. Petards are used to disclose a hidden enemy's position,
and trenches are dug and walls built to give every sort of
useful target.

Each year, for certain days of this practice, the battery is
mobilized on a regular war footing to combine campaign
service with shooting, drill being had in bringing up and
replacing men, horses, and ammunition under fire.

3. War Practice op Masses. — Every year groups of horse
batteries and regiments of field artillery are sent to the camp
of Chalons to constitute, on almost a war footing, the whole
artillery and ammunition train of an army corps. These
troops begin work together with the instruction described
under 1 (b) and (c) and proceed up to actual firing, following
every phase of battle in which the artillery takes part. Sep-
arate exercises are had for divisional artillery, corps artillery,
horse artillery, and then all working together. Some of
these are in combination with infantry and cavalry troops.

The orders for the target practice of field and siege artil-
lery for the summer of 1902 direct the following series of
practice for the troops named at the camp of Chalons :

Series 1. — From April 30 to May 25, directed by General Feld-
mann, commanding the artillery of the sixth region : Six
field batteries of the twenty-fifth regiment ; 7 of the fortieth ;
9 of the eighth ; 2 horse batteries of the fifth division of cav-
alry; 4 batteries of the fifth battalion of foot artillery; 1
battery of the fourth battalion of foot; total, 29 batteries.

Series 2. — From May 30 to June 25, directed by General
Groth, commanding the artillery of the twentieth region:
Six field batteries of the twenty-fifth regiment ; 6 of the for-
tieth ; 9 of the thirty-ninth ; 2 horse batteries of the fourth
division of cavalry; total, 23 batteries.

Series 3. — From June 30 to July 31 : Four field batteries of
the second battalion of foot artillery ; G batteries of the fourth
battalion ; 5 of the fifth ; 5 of the sixth ; 6 of the seventh ; G of
the eighth; 7 of the ninth; (3 of the sixteenth; total, 45 bat-
teries.

WORK AT THE CAMPS OF INSTRUCTION.

As before stated, all the target practice using real projec-
tiles takes place on the polygon, or camp of instruction, at
the disposal of the regiment concerned. The general com-
manding the artillery of each army corps has the direction

70 TARGET PRACTICE IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES.

of tlie practice of the troops of his corps at the camps as well
as in their garrisons. The minister of war designates each
year the camp at which each regiment will perform its target
practice. A regiment of field artillery puts in twenty-five
days at its camp.

Generals whose commands comprise artillery, brigadier
generals who in all likelihood will reach such commands, and
certain staff ofiicers, are permitted to attend and be instructed
at these exercises.

It may be said in general that the instruction of the field
artillery in target practice is most businesslike and thorough,
and that one object alone is kept in view, viz, to get quickly
into action after thoughtful and exact preparation, and then
to reach the target immediately. The education to this end
is minute, but not a projectile is^ fired in practice until the
theoretical instruction and the fire drills (1 a, h, c, d) have
taught every grade what he is to do and how to do it with
calmness and confidence. From the very start of the prepara-
tory instruction to the war practice of masses of artillery,
one guiding principle is evident : to teach the artillery how
to quickly select and suddenly reach its proper target ; all
work, however pretty or interesting, which does not point
directly to this end is omitted or minimized.

If practically the whole time of the artillery is taken up in
teaching it to shoot, the government does not spare expense
in material or ammunition. Besides the cost of maintaining
the camps and sending the regiments to them, there is a large
bill for ammunition fired each year. Every gun is allowed
about 100 rounds per annum of war ammunition for target
practice (2 a and b) ; in addition to this there is allowed a
considerable extra expenditure for (1) the instruction of
officers who would become captains of reserve batteries upon
mobilization; (2) for reservists and territorials, and (3) for
the war practice of masses at Chalons.

Each gun is allowed about 75 petards and 8 blank car-
tridges per year for instruction purposes, as well as an ample
supply of dummy cartridges and projectiles.

SCHOOLS AND BOARDS OF ARTILLERY TARGET PRACTICE.

From what has preceded, it will be evident that all the
camps of instruction, and especially the one at Chalons, are
practical schools for studying and teaching artillery target

FRANCE. 71

practice ; moreover, at the Artillery School of Application at
Fontaiiiebleau this subject naturally receives considerable
attention both theoretically and practically (the school has
its own polygon) ; but besides these establishments there sits
at Poitiers a board for testing artillery, which is charged with
examining the best methods to employ in the fire of field,
siege, and seacoast artillery. At the same place, and using
in part the personnel of this board, is established the practi-
cal course in artillery fire whose object is to exercise captains
of artillery (chiefly seniors) in the rigid application of the
accepted methods of fire of their arm, and also to give them,
as far as is possible, on the polygon of Bourges, instrnction
in the methods in use for siege and seacoast artillery fire.

There are three courses during the year, each two months
in length, as follows: From February 15 to April 15, from
April 16 to June 16, and from September 15 to November 15.
The student oflicers are sent in classes of 20 or 30, and remain
for two months. For the second month of each course a cer-
tain number of field officers are sent to the school to be exer-
cised in organizing, directing, and criticising the conduct of
target practice of several batteries united.

The instructors of these courses consist of a director (colonel
or lieutenant colonel) and three field officers or captains ; there
is permanently attached to the institution one foot battery ;
a field battery from the garrison of Poitiers is available when
needed.

CLASSIFICATION OF GUNNERS. RECOMPENSES.

At the conclusion of the preparatory exercises, and before
the actual target practice begins, the captain holds a competi-
tion, first, among men already qualified as first-class gunners
(maitres pointeurs) ; second, among the rest of the men for
the class of gunner (pointeur).*

* Since the above was written a new regulation has been published on
the subject of classification and recompenses for gunners in the field
artillery. It prescribes that each year, when the instruction has been
completed, and before or during the annual target practice, according to
circumstances, the colonel will appoint a board to hold a competition in
aiming among the batteries of the regiment.

Each captain selects a gun detachment commanded by a sergeant. Men
•who are already first-class gunners are not selected.

The same piece is used by all detachments.

Three tests are given to each detachment. Time and accuracy form
the basis of the marks. The tests are prescribed with great detail, but

72 TARGET PRACTICE IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES.

The competition is wholly practical and consists of aiming the
piece six separate times at an indistinct target at 2,000 yards;
the accuracy of each laying is determined by an instrument.
Each trial is given a mark according to accuracy and time
taken ; to this is added the captain's appreciation of the man's
ability. The results establish the provisional list of gunners.

After the target practice season, when the captain has been
able to judge of the gunners' abilities, he makes an additional
note to the list before made, and establishes the annual classi-
fication of gunners (first and second class) in the battery.

In each regiment there is a competition at the close of the
target season among the first-class gunners chosen, one from
each battery. There are money prizes awarded, and also the
first three are allowed to wear a grenade embroidered in gold
on the left sleeve. All first-class gunners wear a grenade
in red cloth on the left sleeve. The names and grading of
gunners are published as in the infantry.

ARTILLERY SHOOTING CLUBS.

Another evidence of the fostering care of the French govern-
ment in the matter of artillery shooting is found in the
"societ^s de tir au canon" which have been formed of reserve
or territorial officers and even civilians. These clubs are
encouraged in every way; cannon and ranges lent them,
ammunition given or sold at nominal rates, prizes and honors
conferred, etc. It can not be said with any accuracy what
the practical results may be, but these clubs keep up an
interest in artillery shooting, and are an evidence of the
feeling on the subject.

they can not be understood without a thorough knowledge of the sight
and the aiming mechanism of the 75-centiraeter gun, and are therefore
not reproduced here.

The detachments are classified in order of merit. For every regiment
there are accorded 4 grenades embroidered in gold, which are given to
the pointers of the batteries standing 1, 2, 3, and 4 on the merit roll.

Shooting-Competition. — At the close of the target season there is held
in each regiment a shooting-competition among the batteries. Each cap-
tain designates a detachment commanded by a sergeant to represent the
battery. The conditions are minutely prescribed, and the value to be
given to each result. Each detachment fires 3 shots, and the classification
ensues from the results obtained. The prizes are in money : first prize
about S6, second §4, third §2. The prize is di\dded among the men of the
detachment winning it.

FRANCE. 73

SIEGE AND SEACOAST ARTILLERY.

The method of procedure in teaching target practice to the
personnel of the siege and seacoast artillery is the same as
that outlined above for field artillery, taking into account
the differences in the material and the problems of fire.

The instruction begins at the garrison with indoor work for
officers and sergeants in the use of instruments, and the solving
of fire problems.

The instructor proceeds with practical exercises and mental
drills on the lines already explained until fictitious fire prob-
lems can be solved on sight ; then work of the whole personnel
at the guns with all the instruments and combat elements,
simulated fire and the observation of fire, bring the instruction
up to the time for actual practice at targets. This target
practice for the battalions of foot artillery manning siege and
land-fort guns takes place at the polygons or camps already
described. All the problems of attack and defense of siege
and fortress artillery are there worked out and illustrated ;
direct and indirect fire, attack by night with elements of fire
obtained in the day, etc. The men not serving the guns are
required to be present and observe the conduct and effects of
the fire. Each battalion (6 companies) passes about three
weeks of every year at its camp and expends about 450 rounds
of war ammunition, besides the petards, blank rounds, etc.,
used in instruction in its garrison.

The battalions stationed at coast forts receive the prepar-
atory instruction outlined above, and when money and other
considerations make it possible, are also sent for the practical
firing at a polygon. Their target XJractice with great guns
takes place in the harbor they garrison. The preparatory
firings by piece at fixed targets teach the men the drill of the
piece under service conditions, and illustrate the problems of
fire they have been theoretically solving. The rest of the
firing, the whole battery or group of batteries in action,
progresses to conditions as near those of actual war as the
locality and equipment make possible. Every post is occupied,
the complete range-finder service assured, the mine defense
manned, and communication established with the coast torpedo-
boat defense. The target is towed in the field of fire where-
ever an enemy would be likely to go. This target generally
consists of two catamarans of about the shape and dimensions
given in the sketch, joined by a towline about 300 feet long.

74

TARGET PRACTICE IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES.

Each catamaran consists of tliree timbers about 40 feet long
and 12 by 12 inches in section, braced together by iron rods
as shown.

The center log supports a light wooden frame on which is
stretched canvas painted in black and white blocks as indi-
cated.

Plan.

Fiq. 18.

The observation of the fall of the shot with this target is
very easily made.

On page 71 reference was made to the courses in artillery
fire at Poitiers; the instruction at that place also includes
siege and fortress artillery. A course for coast artillery is
established for three weeks every year under similar condi-
tions in one of the great fortified harbors, generally at Toulon.
The officers designated to take this course are generally those
who would have a coast command in case of mobilization.
The battalion of foot artillery at Toulon furnishes the men for
this work.

It is not believed that the instruction in target practice of
the French coast artillery is as efficient and up to date as that
of the field and (perhaps) garrison artillery. In the first
place, since 1871, the French have been ardently occupied in
perfecting their field and frontier fortress artillery, and the
coast artillery has generally come in for second place. The
events of 1898 directed more attention to the coast works, and
the completion of the new armament for the field artillery
has withdrawn a serious burden from the war budget ; there-
fore it is to be expected that the activity in construction of
the last three years is not to be dropped and other improve-
ments in the coast artillery will doubtless follow.

FRANCE. 75

Also, as a matter of fact, a great many of the coast forts
are garrisoned wholly or in part by infantry, who perform
the service of the guns in addition to their other work ; hence,
target practice at these works is not what it should be. Of
the 108 batteries of foot artillery only 42 man the coast de-
fenses. The colonial (formerly marine) artillery furnishes 28
more batteries and 6 companies of workmen for this service ;
in other words, on a peace footing there are hardly 500 officers
and 10,000 trained artillerymen to man the coast defenses of
the whole country. When it is remembered that it would
probably require 5,000 men to furnish one relief for the guns
of Brest or Toulon alone, the lack of technical personnel is
evident. These reasons seem sufficient to account for the
fact that target practice in the coast artillery is not so thor-
ough as it is in the field artillery ; and yet the allowance of
ammunition for practice with the great guns is, from our
standpoint, enormously liberal.

IV.-GERMANY.

[From translations of official firing rt'sulations lurnisiicd by Lieut. Col. James B. Kerr, Ninth Cav-
alry, United States Military Attache at Uerlin, ami from other official sources, comjiared and
arranged by Capt. E. A. Edwards, Twenty-fifth Infantry.]

INFANTRY.

The course of instruction for the German infantry soldier
comprises preparatory instruction and exercises, range firing,
and field (combat) firing. To these may be added instruction
or demonstration firing, and examination firing.

The course is designed to train the infantry soldier in the
efficient use of the rifle in battle, and the importance of the
subject requires that the exercises be conducted with great
exactness, and so directed that at the end of his first year of
service the soldier shall be trained to use his rifle in actual
warfare. In subsequent years the knowledge acquired is
completed and strengthened.

The captain is primarily responsible for the instruction of
his company ; he is assisted by the officers and noncommis-
sioned officers, who are expected to have a thorough acquaint-
ance with the theory of fire and practical skill sufficient to
regulate defective rifles, besides having a theoretical and prac-
tical knowledge of the duties of their grades in the direction
of fire in action. If convenient, the captain may direct special
practice for the noncommissioned officers.

The battalion and regimental commanders, while respecting
the initiative of company commanders, supervise the instruc-
tion, more particularly the field and instruction firing. They
may direct special practice for officers, and generally snould
keep themselves informed of the aptitude and efficiency of
the various instructors.

Higher officers in their inspections see that the instruction
has been properly conducted, and by directing special exer-
cises can compare the firing efficiency of the various troop
units. The results are not published.

PREPARATORY INSTRUCTION.

The instructor first explains to the recruit in simple lan-
guage how the shot is fired, the use of the sights, principles
of aiming, the different kinds of targets, etc. The recruit is

78

TARGET PRACTICE IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES.

drilled in a variety of movements of the arms and body, "with,
and without the rifle, designed to give strength and ease of
movement to the joints and muscles used in aiming, care
being taken to avoid undue fatigue or weariness. This is
followed by position, pointing and aiming drills, at first with
rests, afterwards offhand, standing, kneeling, and lying,
behind entrenchments, rifle pits, or trees, aiming at targets.
During this period the recruit is also practiced in estimating
distances, the course concluding with the firing of blank car-
tridges aiming at targets, and with gallery practice.

GALLERY PRACTICE.

This may be conducted in rooms, halls, barrack yards, or
on open drill grounds, and is usually directed by an experi-
enced noncommissioned officer. The rifle or carbine used
resembles the ordinary service weapon, into which is inserted
a smaller barrel of aluminum bronze of a caliber of 5 milli-
meters. Reduced targets are used, so that at 5 meters the

6.0 cm.-

Fig. 2.

appearance of the target and the probability of a hit are
about the same as with the regular target and rifle at 100
meters. The bullet used in the gallery-practice target will,
at 5 meters, penetrate from 3 to 2^ inches into soft wood, and
has an extreme range of 80 meters.

Targets for gallery practice are shown in figs. 1 and 2.

GERMANY. 79

For the first instruction a target of white ground, marked
as shown in fig. 2, is recommended.

Until the recruit has attained proficiency in the prepara-
tory course he is not allowed to fire with ball cartridges.
Special attention is paid to the eyesight and visual defects
are to be promptly reported, so that if necessary the surgeon
may prescribe the glasses to be worn.

The judicious choice of positions, use of cover, correct esti-
mate of distances, rapid loading, proper adjustment of sights,
rapid and correct aiming, are qualities that require to be fre-
quently exercised and are indispensable to the efficient use of
the rifle in action. The pointing and aiming exercises are
therefore to be continued during the whole service of the sol-
dier, but they must never be too long continued, and are to
be executed strictly with a view to maintaining efficiency.

ESTIMATING DISTANCES.

Instruction in estimating distances is carried on during the
same time as that of the preparatory instruction in the use of
the rifle. Men are expected to be able to estimate correctly
distances up to 600 meters ; officers, noncommissioned officers,
and skilled privates up to 1,000 meters, and are exercised in
estimating even greater distances. Officers are required to
be able to read, correctly and readily, distances on large-scale
maps.

The training is progressive, units of distance being fixed in
the mind by pacing and observation, and the eye trained by
frequent practice in different conditions of surface, light, etc.

RANGE FIRING.

In these exercises officers and men are expected to acquire
and maintain the highest degree of efficiency,. so as to be
skilled in the use of the rifle in all positions, but this, while
important, is to be regarded only as a preparation for field
firing. Firing at known distances being necessary for
thorough instruction, relatively more time and ammunition
are properly devoted to those exercises.

The progressive development of the course necessitates the
division of those firing into classes. The second class consists
of all men in their first year of service, and men of longer
service who have not qualified for the first class. The first
class includes the men who have made the scores required in

80 TARGET PRACTICE IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES.

the second class. A special class is formed, consisting of oflB-
cers, noncommissioned officers, and reenlisted men, who have
twice qualified in the first class. The classification is made
at the end of the practice year by the battalion commander
on the recommendation of the company commander.

Poor shots must be sent back to the preparatory exercises,
and the company commander must personally see that they
are sufficiently instructed before allowing them to resume
firing with ball cartridges, but turning back is to be avoided
witli men in the higher classes, who should have special at-
tention when they have difficulty in making the scores
required in their class.

The target year is from October 1 to September 30 follow-
ing, and is named after the year in which it terminates. All
officers and men of the company join in the practice unless
prevented by absence. As a rule, in all firings men fire with
their own rifles and are required to go through all the exer-
cises prescribed for their class during the year. This may
necessitate advancing to higher ranges men who have repeat-
edly failed in the preceding exercises. The firings at 300, 400,
500, and 600 meters may take place out of their order if the
conditions of the range require it, but if possible this must be
avoided with men of the second class, who should also qualify
in their preliminary firing before commencing their regular
practice.

The preliminary practice must be conducted with the great-
est exactness and attention to detail. The instructor corrects
faults as they occur. Frequently this must be done while the
rifle is in position, and the correction must be made briefly
and calmly so as not to tire the recruit or make him nervous.

Men whose sight, even with the aid of glasses, is less than
three-fourths of the normal, may be authorized by the bat-
talioii commander to go through the firings at reduced dis-
tances. These men are to be examined each year before the
firing exercises commence, and are debarred from promotion
to a higher class. Fine weather should be selected for prac-
tice, especially for recruits.

Not more than two qualifying scores should be fired on one
practice day, nor less than the number of shots prescribed
for one exercise. A qualifying score will be considered as
made, when the last 3 or 5 shots have the required value.

GERMANY.

81

When the required score is made in less than 3 or 5 shots,
the other shots in the score will be fired nevertheless.

An immoderate number of cartridges must not be allowed
to poor shots to enable them to make the required scores.
Except in special cases, the supplementary allowance will not
exceed the number prescribed for the preliminary or regular
practice in which engaged.

TARGETS.

The frames are of wood covered with pasteboard or cloth.
The following patterns are used in range firing :
The ring target (fig. 3). The dimensions are shown in the
illustration. The diameter of the inner circle No. 12 is 10
centimeters ; the diameters of the rings from the center out-
ward increase by 10 centimeters. Rings 10 and 11 are

Fig. 3. — Ring target.

Fig. 4.

black and with 12 constitute the bull's-eye. A vertical black
band 6 centimeters wide runs through the middle, interrupted
at the bull's-eye. The division between rings 10 and 11 is
marked in red, the line of the rings from 1 to 9 may be marked
in pencil where they pass through the vertical band.

The figure target (fig. 4) and its varieties, the head, bust,
trunk, and knee targets of the dimensions shown in the illus-
tration. The figure is a colored representation of an infantry

82

TARGET PRACTICE IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES.

soldier, tlie equipments and trousers of dark shade. The
details of the face, dress and equipment need not he shown.

' ezs

Fig. 5.

Combined ring and figure targets, ring-liead and ring-bust,
(fig. 5). The head or bust target is pasted on a ring target
of gray pasteboard so that the middle vertical line of the

1.T0

60^

) 50

> 70

>50

200
Fig. 6. — Section 400-meier targets.

figure coincides with that of the ring target. The lower edge
of the head target is 67.5 centimeters and that of the bust

GERMANY.

83

target 70 centimeters from the bottom of the ring target. The
lines of the rings are marked in red, where they pass through
the figure. Rings 10 and 11 are not blacked and the vertical
band is omitted.

Section -lOO-meter targets (fig. 6). Three bust targets are
pasted on a target of gray pasteboard or cloth covered with
gray paper as indicated. The horizontal lines dividing the
target into three bands marked in red are not visible at the
firing point.

The section 500-meter and 600-meter targets are the same
as that for 400 meters, except that the widths of the bands
vary. The central band for 500 meters is 102 centimeters, for

J!.

200 cm.

Fig. 7. — Section-figure target.

600 meters 130 centimeters; the outer bands are 34 centi-
meters and 20 centimeters, respectively. The central band

is known as No. 2, the outer
bands as No. 1.

Section-figure target (fig. 7) .
The figures are the full
height of the target.

For fire, standing with rest,
a support shown in fig. 8 is
used. The notches, of which there are 30, are numbered for
convenience in finding each man's position of rest.

Fig. 8. — Gun rest.

84 TARGET PRACTICE IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES.

Each battalion receives a money allowance for target-
practice material allotted under this head in the annual
estimates.

VALUE OF HITS.

On the ring, ring-head, and ring-bust targets, from 1 to 12,
according to the number of the ring struck.

On the section targets (400, 500, and 600 meters) all direct
hits in the center band, either in the figures or in the inter-
vals, count 2, hits in the outer bands count 1.

On the section-figure target all direct hits either in the fig-
ures or in the intervals are counted 1.

The location of ricochet shots is first shown by placing the
disk over them, and they are then signaled as misses by wav-
ing the disk in front of the target.

The value of the hits is shown by rectangular tablets on
which the figures from 1 to 6 are in black on white ground,
the Roman character V being used instead of tlie figure 5;
from 7 to 12 the figures are in white on a black ground, 10
being indicated by a white circle, 11 by a vertical white band,
and 12 by two white squares placed diagonally on the tablet.
A white cross indicates a hit in the target outside the rings.

Grooves are arranged in the marker's shelters, in which the
signals are made to slide in and out of view. They are manip-
ulated under the direction of the noncommissioned officer at
the butt,

ALLOWANCE OF AMMUNITION.

Of the ammunition allowed to each company there are
reserved :

1. For field firing, 60 rounds per man of the effective
strength on which the allowance is based.

2. For special practice of officers, 500 rounds.

3. For instruction firing, at least 200 rounds.

4. For competitive firing, 15 rounds for each officer and
noncommissioned officer.

5. For special practice prescribed by higher authorities, 12
rounds for each noncommissioned officer and private. This
number must not be exceeded.

Cartridges are allowed for testing and regulating rifles.
At the beginning of the target year a general testing and regu-
lating of all arms issued to recruits is recommended. The
remainder of the allowance is used for range firing. No sav-
ings should be made in the allowance for field firing, for

GERMANY.

85

special practice of officers, or for instruction firing. If, how-
ever, there should be any, the cartridges will be used for field
firing in the following year.

Savings made in the allowance for testing and regulating,
and under heads 4 and 5 supra, will be used for supplementary
target practice, special exercises for noncommissioned officers,
field firing, and lastly for competitive firing by privates.

RANGE FIRING.

The firing is divided into preliminary and regular practice
for each class, as follows :

Second class.

PRELIMINARY PRACTICE, THREE SHOTS AT EACH RANGE.

No.

Range.

Position.

Target.

Qualifying score.

1

Mtlers.
150
1.50
150
200
2(K)
200

Standing, with rest _

King

do ..

3

Prone, with rest

4

Prone

do

5

Kneeling

Do

fi

King _

Do

REGULAR PRACTICE, FIVE SHOTS AT EACH RANGE.

150
200

300
300
400
400
500
600
30O

Prone, with rest .

Proue

Prone, with rest .

Kneeling

Prone

Kneeling

Prone

Kneeling

Standing

Bust

Trunk

Ring-head

Ring-bust

Section, 400 meters.

Section figure

Section, 500 meters-
Section, 600 meters.
Section figure

3 hits in figure.

Do.
5 hits, 25 points.
5 hits, 20 points.

4 hits, 6 points.
4 hits.

3 hits, 4 points.

2 hits, 3 points.

3 hits.

In the sixth practice 5 shots are fired in one minute, and in
the ninth practice the shots are fired in thirty seconds, in each
case commencing with two cartridges in the clip or magazine,
accordinsr to model of rifle used.

First class.

PRELIMINARY PRACTICE, THREE SHOT,S AT EACH RANGE.

No.

Range.

Position.

Target.

Qualifying score.

1

Meters.
150
150
200
200

3 hits all above 8.

3

. do . ._.

3 hits all above 6.

?.

. do - _ . - _

do'

4

Prone ...

Do.

86 TARGET PRACTICE IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES.

First class — Continued.

REULLAR PRACriCE, FIVE SHOTS AT EACH RANGE.

Ko.

Eangf.

r..sitinn.

Target.

Qualifying score.

1

Meters.
150
200
300
300
400
500
600
300

Head

'I

Bust _

Do.

S

Prone, with lest

5 hits, 30 points.
5 hits, 25 points.
5 hits, 7 i>oints.

4

.1

6

T

Section, GOO meters

Section figure

Do.

8

Kneeliug

4 hits.

Practice No. 8 is the same a.s the ninth practice in the
second class.

Special class.

rREI.IJIlXARY IM'.ArTU'E, THREE SHUTS AT EACH RANliE.

No.

Kange.

Position.

Target.

(Qualifying si

ore.

1

Meiers.
150
1.50
200
200

Standing, with rest

do

3 bull's-eyes.
3 hits above 7.
3 hits above 6.
Do.

9

do

8

do . .

do

4

Kneeling

King-bust

RE(iri,Ar. riiACTicE, f'Ive shots at EACH i;am;e.

1

150

200
300
300
400
500
COO
300

Prone, with rest

Head ._

v

Bust - . -

Do.

3

Prone, with rest

5 hits, 35 points.

4

Ring-bust

Section, 400 meters

5 hits, 30 points.

5

5 hits, S ]i()ints.

(3

7

Section, (iiMl meters

Do.

8

do

5 hits.

The eighth practice is the same as the ninth practice in tlie
second class.

SERVICE ON THE R.\NGE.

Signaling, Marking, and Scoring. — A noncommissioned
officer and three men from the firing company are at each
target. The noncommissioned officer is responsible for the
correct signaling and marking of each shot, severe penalties
being prescribed by the military penal code for intentional
falsification.

When a shot is fired the target is withdrawn, the shot hole
marked with a pencil, and the value signaled to the firing
point by exposing the proper signal at the side, or on top. of
the marker's shelter, according as the shelter is on the side
of or below the target. The location of the hit on the target

GERMANY. 87

is shown by placing the disk over the shot hole for a moment
after the target is returned to position. This proceeding is
repeated after each shot, the last hit being marked in pencil,
and the preceding one then pasted up. The marking party
is relieved every two hours. At the firing point a noncom-
missioned officer is charged with the arrangements necessary
for the practice. He sees that the ammunition, targets, and
other material are provided, assigns markers, scorers, etc. A
noncommissioned officer or competent private may be detailed
to keep the scores.

Before firing commences the officer in charge sees that
everything is in order, he inspects the targets, noting the
number of shot holes already pasted up ; he directs the prac-
tice, oversees the work of the markers and scorers, and at the
conclusion of the firing he examines the targets, counts the
number of hits, comparing them with the scores, and certifies
over his signature to the correctness of the record, and to the
amount of ammunition expended. The officer is assisted by
one or more noncommissioned officers, and all are relieved
every two hours.

The men are marched to the range under arms, wearing for
preliminary practice, cap, belt, and cartridge-pouches ; during
the regular practice, the helmet, belt, and cartridge-boxes
are worn, the knapsack packed or empty as may be pre-
scribed, cooking utensils, and overcoat carried as on the
march. Arms are inspected before and after all firings. The
bayonet is not fixed during the practice.

The firing detachment, as a rule not more than five men to
each target, forms in rear of the firing point, and each man
steps in turn to the firing point, delivers his shot, and returns
to his place in ranks. The scorer observes the signal from
the target and calls out the name of the firer and the result
of- the shot, which is immediately entered in ink on the com-
pany record and in the small target-record book carried by
each soldier.

BADGES.

To the best shots badges are distributed annually as follows :
To the noncommissioned officers and reenlisted men of each
company, o; to the men of each company in battalions of
higher strength, 8 for the first class and 5 for the second
class; in the battalions of lower strength, 7 and 5, respec-
tively ; to noncommissioned officers and reenlisted men of the

88 TARGET PRACTICE IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES.

instruction battalion, 3 ; and to the men of the first class, 20.

Badges are also allowed to noncommissioned officers and
reenlisted men serving at recruiting depots.

In the competitions for these insignia only men who have
fully qualified in their respective classes are considered. The
badges are assigned to those who qualified with the least
number of shots ; if these be equal, to those making the most
bull's-eyes and hits in the figure, and, lastly, to the highest
number of points.

Men who obtain badges receive with them a certificate from
the company commander, and notation of the same is made
on descriptive books and discharge papers. The badge is
forfeited by reduction to a lower class, but is restored when
standing is reestablished. It may be retained by the winner
when transferred to the reserve.

HONOR PRIZES.

Separate annual competitions are instituted for officers and
noncommissioned officers. The winner, if an officer, receives
a sword or saber, and if a noncommissioned officer, a watch,
presented in the name of the emperor. The prizes are in-
scribed with the name of the winner and year of the competi-
tion. To each army corps three prizes are allotted, one for
the best shot among the officers, and two for the best shots of
the noncommissioned officers of the infantry.

The competitions are held on the various ranges in July or
August of each year. All officers and noncommissioned offi-
cers who are required to take part in the firing at known dis-
tances, present at the time and not prevented by sickness or
other duty, take part. Field officers are permitted to compete
in the officers' match. Detached officers and noncommissioned
officers take part in the competitions at the place where they
are serving, if they have not joined in that of their own corps
in the same year. Those who have won prizes are debarred
from further competitions.

The target used is the ring target with 24 rings, instead of
12 as in the ordinary target. The service arm and ammu-
nition are used.

The range is 150 meters, number of shots 7, 3 standing, with
rest, 4 staixling offhand ; one sighting shot, previously an-
nounced, is permitted. The prize can not be won with a score
of less than 140 points. The highest score wins, ties being
decided by counting the value of the shots backward.

GERMANY. 89

Tlie names of the oflBcers who win prizes are borne on the
annual reports of the corps and are made known to the em-
peror. The honor prizes obtained by noncommissioned offi-
cers are entered in their descriptive registers and noted on
their discharge papers.

OTHER PRIZES.

To each battalion the sum of 80 marks is allowed annually
for the purchase of prizes, having the character of souvenirs,
for noncommissioned officers and privates in the higher
classes. Money must not be given as prizes. The range and
target is the same as already described. Three shots are
fired standing, offhand; the highest score wins, ties being
decided by counting the shots backward ; if all the shots are
equal, they are decided by additional shots. Men in the
second class are not permitted to compete.

RIFLE BATTALIONS (JAGERTRUPPEN).

The rifle battalions (jagertruppen) have a higher standard
of markmanship, more extended range practice, and a larger
allowance of ammunition than the infantry of the line. The
course of instruction is in general the same, with a few modi-
fications. Men who on account of prolonged absence, etc.,
are deficient in skill, have additional practice to enable them
to keep up with their class.

The range firing must be carried out in the order pre-
scribed, the omission of any of the series being forbidden, nor
must regular practice be commenced until the preliminary
firing is finished. The firings at 400, 500, and 600 meters
may, however, take place out of their turn in the series if the
conditions of the range require this to be done.

The classification is the same as for infantry of the line,
except that having once qualified in the first class, officers,
noncommissioned officers, and reenlisted men pass into the
special class, and, if of superior skill, into a higher class, "A,"
at the discretion of the company commander.

The course of range firing for the second and first classes is
conducted in scores of 3 shots at each of 10 exercises of pre-
liminary practice, and in scores of 5 shots at each of 16 exer-
cises in regular practice. The exercises for each class are
nearly the same, the main distinction being in requiring a
greater number of hits or points to qualify in the first class.

90 TARGET PRACTICE IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES.

BADGES, PHIZES, ETC.

Each year after the firing is completed badges are given to
the best shots, six to the special class, five to the first class,
and four to the second class. The competitions for badges,
honor, and other prizes are conducted as in the infantry, 75
marks being allowed to each battalion for the purchase of
prizes — 15 marks to each company and 15 marks for the bat-
talion noncommissioned officers.

CASH GRATUITIES.

In addition to the badges and prizes mentioned, a monthly
allowance of 360 marks is made to the battalion of the guards
and 180 marks to the other rifle battalions for distribution in
equal parts to the 30 best shots of each company.

The right to receive this gratuity is determined at the end
of the target year by competition among those men who have
qualified in their class in the regular practice at full distances.
Men who have been tried and convicted by court-martial for-
feit the right. In special cases, on the recommendation of
the company commander, approved by the battalion com-
mander, their right may be restored. Noncommissioned
officers and one-year volunteers are excluded. Men of class
A who receive the gratuity while serving with the colors lose
their right to it when transferred to the reserve.

The gratuity is awarded to the 30 men in each company
who have qualified in the regular practice in the least num-
ber of shots ; when the number of shots is equal, to the great-
est number of hits in figure targets, and, lastly, to the highest
number of hits and points. A board, composed of a lieuten-
ant, a noncommissioned officer, and a private selected by the
men of the company, the selection approved by the battalion
commander, makes out the lists from the records of the
companies which are submitted to them. The names are
published in orders.

ALLOWANCE OF AMMUNITION.

Of the ammunition allowed to each company, 90 rounds
per man are reserved for field firing, 1,000 rounds for special
practice for officers ; for instruction fire, a minimum of 200
rounds; for competitions, 15 rounds for each officer and non-
commissioned officer and 3 rounds for noncommissioned
officers and privates ; for special exercises directed by company

GERMANY. 91

commanders, 15 rounds for each noncommissioned officer and
private, and tlie same number for exercises prescribed by the
higher authorities.

CYCLISTS.

Cyclists take part in the course of instruction like other
soldiers with the arm of their corps and have a little addi-
tional practice, using the carbine model 1891. The practice
is for all classes, the firing is done in the dress prescribed for
regular practice, and is without (qualifying conditions.

TECHNICAL TROOPS.

The classification is the same as for infantry, but the
amount of range practice prescribed is much less, being for
the second class of engineer troops, 3 preliminary scores of
3 shots, and 5 scores of 5 shots each in regular practice, at
ranges from 150 to 500 meters ; for the first and special classes,
2 preliminary and 5 regular scores at from 150 to 600 meters.
The railroad and telegraph troops, for the second class, 3
preliminary and 4 regular-practice scores, and for the other
classes, 2 preliminary and 4 regular scores at from 150 to 300
meters ; the number of shots in each score of preliminary and
regular practice being the same as for engineers — 3 and 5,
resi)ectively.

Competitions for badges are held annually, there being
allowed to each company of engineer and railroad troops, 7
for the first class and 5 for the second class. Of honor prizes
one is allowed for officers and two for noncommissioned
officers of the engineer and technical troops in common. For
the purchase of prizes for the annual competitions among the
noncommissioned officers and privates, 50 marks are allotted
to each battalion of engineers and railroad troops; 37.50
marks to the telegraph troops; 12.50 marks to the balloon
detachment, and 9 marks to the operating' detachment of
railroad troops. The competitions are conducted as in the
infantry.

AMMUXITIOX.

From the company allowance of the engineer troops 15
rounds per man are reserved for field firing, 5 for individual
fire, and 10 for collective fire ; for competitive firing 15 rounds
for each officer and noncommissioned officer, and 3 rounds for
each private. Some cartridges are also set apart for testing

92 TARGET PRACTICE IX FOREIGN COUNTRIES.

and regulating arms. In the railroad and telegraph troops
10 rounds are reserved for field firing, 5 for individual fire,
and 5 for collective fire ; the other reservations are the same
as for engineers.

INSTRUCTION FIRING.

This firing is intended to demonstrate the ballistic proper-
ties of the rifle, and serves not only to form a well-trained
staff of instructors, but to instruct the men as to their con-
duct in battle when direction of fire fails. The more elemen-
tary exercises are directed by the company commander, for
the benefit of the noncommissioned officers and men at the
beginning of the firing instruction season ; important ones are
conducted by battalion commanders. All are carried oh
under the most favorable conditions, sources of error being as
far as possible eliminated. Some examples are :

TO SHOW THE ERROR OF DIFFERENT RIFLES.

A good shot seated behind a table fires, from a rest at a ring
target at 350 meters with the same point of aim, 0 shots from
an accurate rifle, 9 from one shooting high, and 9 from another
shooting low. The center of impact of each group of shots
will measure the error of the weapon, and show what point
of aim should be taken with eacli rifle.

DEMONSTRATION OF THE ACCURACY OF RIFLES AT DIFFERENT RANGES.

Good shots, seated, the rifle at a rest, fire 25 shots at each
of the distances 350, 500, and 600 meters, at a ring target or
at a white target of the same dimensions, having marks to
serve as points of aim.

A comparison of the extent of the several shot groups with
the size of various objectives in war, illustrates the reason for
fixing the distance, determined by the accuracy of tlie weapon
itself, at which a liit may be expected.

Other exercises are arranged to exhibit the trajectory of the
bullet ; the effect on fire when the bayonet is fixed ; penetra-
tion of the l)ullet into various substances — earth, wood, iron
plates, etc.

FIRING UNDER SPECIAL CONDITIONS.

Single men in shelter trenches fire at 200 meters at targets
placed behind cover, screens, sandbags, etc., through open-
ings about 4 by 2 inches (100 by 50 millimeters), or targets

GERMANY. 93

representing the supposed cover, with the opening or embra-
sure in darker shade, may be used. This familiarizes men
with the different kinds of cover used in war and their influ-
ence on fire, and shows the importance of watching shots and
correcting aim in firing at small objectives. The exercise
may be extended when practicable to detachments firing at
from 400 to 700 meters at low, wide targets, fixed or disap-
pearing.

The principles of indirect fire, night firing in attack or
defense in siege warfare using rests, etc., are also illustrated
by appropriate exercises.

EXAMINATION FIRING.

Every year examination firing is held in the field. This
affords the higher authorities means to observe the training
of the men in firing under conditions resembling those of
actual war, and the aptitude and efficiency of the officers and
instructors.

The firing is directed by brigade or division commanders,
or by the commander in chief, and the exercise, partaking of
the nature of an inspection, is prescribed by the inspecting
officer.

A special allowance of ammunition is made for this firing,

TARGETS FOR FIELD FIRING.

The authorities responsible for the instruction in firing are
also responsible for the adequate use of appropriate targets.

In addition to the figure target and its varieties used in
range practice, other targets are provided to simulate war
conditions in the various field-firing exercises. They are
constructed of light wood frames covered with cotton cloth,
or, in case of figures and silhouettes, of papier-machd, the
object being lightness and ease of management. Fixed tar-
gets representing men, horses, guns, and caissons of full size
have legs to be driven into the ground, or they may be
attached by wooden pins to base-pieces permanently placed
in position.

Infantry is represented by figures or silhouettes of men
lying down, front and side views, and others showing them
advancing, retiring, and walking or running to the right or
left. Cavalry is shown by figures of mounted men in motion
and at a halt, front, side, and rear views • artillery by varie-

94

TARGET PRACTICE IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES.

ties of the figure target, showing men of the gun detachment
facing to the front, and by silhouettes showing them facing
the gun, rear view of horse without rider, and by side, front,
and rear views of horse and rider ; by targets showing front
views of guns and caissons of full size, and others showing
the upper half of these objects. The half-target guns and
caissons, when posed, have the appearance of being on a re-
verse slope. Men figures are grouped with the gun and
caisson targets as they would appear in actual service. See
figures 9 to 17.

Lines of skirmishers lying down are represented by rows
of balloon targets or head figures; advancing and retiring
lines in close or open formation by variants of the figure
targets, cavalry by rows of targets, and artillery by a com-
bination of figure and profile targets with guns and caissons,
horses, etc. As a rule, artillery must be shown as though
behind cover, by the half battery targets. When full targets
are used they must be i)laced, as in actual service, in rear of
elevations, so that only the upj^er part shows above cover.

GERMANY.

95

Fig. 12.

Fig. 13.

96

TARGET PRACTICE IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES.

In all cases the appearance of reality must be copied. In
the line targets the figures should be placed at irregular

' JSJcm. - -

Fig. 14.
161cm ^

^^^^^^ra^

W^^^^^

i_|__U u-uU_-Jc-

Fig. 15. — Gun, full and half view.

llZcm *|

.?:?<-

161 cm

Fig. 16. — Caisson, full and half view.
K 161 cm >i

&^

■^iSf- h-rf

"^^^^^m^^^^^^^^^^^m

Fig. 17.

intervals, and the upper line of the figures representing
advancing or retiring men should not be of uniform height.

GERMANY. 07

Advantage is to be taken of rolling ground by placing fixed
targets so that tliey may become suddenly visible to the
attacking line.

DISAPPEARING AND MOVING TARGETS.

On permanent ranges various figures are arranged as dis-
appearing or moving targets, and are manipulated from cov-
ers not noticeable from the front. A target representing a
line of infantry 100 meters long may be erected in ten minutes
by eight men and be worked by one man. Its construction
is simple, pieces of dimension stuff about 18 feet long, 2^
inches thick, and 3 inches wide are pinned together at the
ends to make the continuous base required. These rest at
the joinings on wooden sills and are kept in position by small
stakes driven in the ground. To the front edge of the base
are fastened the targets (head, bust, etc.) ; the end of the base
projects into the shelter and is provided with a handle by
turning which the targets can be turned over on the ground,
or turned up into view, as may be required. Similar targets
can be constructed on both sides of the cover, which might
then be the center of a target 200 meters long. To represent
the reenforcement or thinning of a line, two or more of such
lines of targets are placed close to each other. In such cases
the figures in the rear must show through intervals in those
in front. The lines of targets are turned up or down to show
reenforcement or losses, the first line turned forward and the
rear targets backward, so as to allow the lines to be placed
close together. In a final charge, to facilitate the counting
of hits, each line has the figures placed close together and the
line which has been fired on is turned down and a fresh one
turned up. The same object may be attained in the use of
one line of timbers by nailing figures to three of the faces.
In this case a trench must run under the target to allow the
revolving of the figures. The advance of a line or groups of
men may be shown with this arrangement by having the head
figures on one face, bust or trunk figures on the second, and
knee or full figures on the third, each appearing in succession,
as the targets are turned.

Balloon targets used to represent lines of sharpshooters
lying in a trench are made of air-tight cloth cylinders about
10 inches high and 8 inches in diameter. They are attached
at intervals to the base timbers. The target is arranged
about as described for the line targets, the base being laid in

US TAKGET PRACTICE IX FOREIGN COUNTRIES.

a shallow ditch, with pits under each balloon, so as to be able
by a turn of 180 degrees to throw the balloon entirely below
the surface of the ground. To prepare them for service they
are inflated by means of a bellows or air-pump; the inflation
is more or less complete, depending upon whether colder or
warmer temperature is to be looked for during the time they
will be in use. luflation keeps them erect, and when punc-
tured by a bullet they soon collapse, thus showing to the
firers the effect of their fire. Shot holes or other injuries are
repaired Ijy covering them with patches of rubber cloth fas-
tened on with rubber cement; temporary repairs may be
made with gummed-paper patches. The balloons are pro-
vided with a valve for deflation when not in use, and detailed
directions are given for their proper care and repair, which
is intrusted only to skillful, careful men.

The advantage of seeing at once the effect of fire and the
illusion of reality they present at long ranges, render the use
of this style of target very desirable, but they are expensive
and troublesome. Recent military publications state that a
new style of target, having the advantages of the balloon tar-
get with the added one of cheajmess, has been experimented
with at the Doberitz camp and adopted for use in Germany.
The targets are thin pottery vessels shaped to show the out-
lines of the head or bust figures. When in position they are
filled with water, and on being struck by a bullet from a
modern rifle they are shattered by the explosive effect, which
allows immediate observation of the efficacy of the fire. At
the long ranges at which they would be used hits are infre-
quent and the cost to replace trifling.

The figure target and its varieties are also used as, a dis-
appearing target by providing a pit into -which it may be
revolved out of sight. It is provided with holes for pins to
fasten the target to the base so as to permit such parts of the
figure to show as correspond to the head, bust, trunk, and
knee targets. When hit, or after a certain time, or at a given
signal, it is withdrawn from view. As it requires time to
install, and one man to work each target, this kind is used
only in exceptional cases on permanent ranges, for individual
and group firing. A less expensive and more easily operated
system of disappearing targets is arranged by sinking a post
in the ground, the top slightly above the level of the surface,
and having a vertical pin on which is pivoted a wooden piece

GERMANY.

99

forming the base of the target, which may be from 4 to 10
meters long. The figure or figures composing the target,
stiffened by light strips of wood at the back, are fastened to
the base piece, regard being had to equalizing the weight on
each side of the central pivot. It may be operated from a
shelter by means of ropes attached to the ends of the base
and led into the shelter. When in position for firing, the tar-
get faces the range and it is made to disappear by being
revolved on the vertical axis so that the edge of the target is
presented to the firing point. Stakes driven into the ground
limit the motion to the proper extent. Several targets may
be operated simultaneously from one cover (see fig. 18).

Fig. 18.

The system has the objection that the figures are on one
line. To show guns, caissons, and men in proper perspective
a rectangular frame ("2 by If meters) is used. Crosspieces
are pivoted to the sides of the frame ; the crossjDieces serve as
bases to which the proper figures are fastened. The frame
lies on the ground, the crosspieces at right angles to the line
of fire, so that the targets face the range. By means of a
cord attached to the targets and led back to the shelter over
a pulley suitably placed, the figures are made to drop back-
ward out of view, or are raised and held up as may be desired
(see fig. 19).

MOVING TARGETS.

Targets are attached to sleds and moved in the required
direction over the surface of the ground by means of wire
ropes to which the sleds are fastened. On the larger perma-
nent firing grounds machinery operated by steam or other

100

TARGET PRACTICE IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES.

power is employed ; on small ranges man or horse power can
be used to operate the windlasses or capstans on which the
wire rope is wound when the targets are moved. The targets
represent infantry, cavalry, and artillery advancing, retir-
ing, moving to the right or left, according to the situation it

Fig. 19.

is desired to depict. They are fastened to permanent bases
bolted to the sleds, at right angles to the runners to show
advancing or retiring troops, and jjarallel to the runners for
targets moving to the right and left. When in position ready
for use, the sleds are placed so that the edges of the targets
are turned to the firing point, and at the pull on the rope
when first put in motion the sled swings around, bringing
the target into view ; at the end of the run the sled is again
turned, causing the target to disappear. Another plan is to
have the targets folded down on the sled, raising them when
it begins to move. The sled runners are curved at the ends
to facilitate movement over uneven ground, and two sizes of
sleds are used, depending on the size of the target to be car-
ried. The targets are constructed of light frames suitably
braced, covered with cloth, and they can be enlarged laterally
by extension pieces. The small sled can be used to carry tar-
gets showing skirmish lines of 8 figures, a close line of 17
figures, and 7 figures of mounted men ; the large sled carries
targets of 11, 23, and 11 figures, respectively. A target show-
ing a side view of gun and horses is carried on two small sleds
joined together, the first carrying the figures of the two fore-
most horses and riders, the second the third horse and rider,

GERMANY

101

limber, aud piece. The number of targets to be fastened on a
sled depends on tlie ground, the weight of the targets, strength

Fig. 20.— Sled for moving target.

?^=^. r.

"^

« i

Fig. 21. — How sled is operated.

n__JO

mr

•^ "•.

:m:

r; I r

Fig. 22.

KI

.'-■eso'-

Fig. 23.

•nrVj'-

ea

■600

and direction of the wind, as well as the pulling power. When
a number of targets are operated at the same time, a power
of from four to eight horses is required.

102

TARGET PRACTICE IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES.

When the nature of the ground will not permit the use of
moving targets, fixed targets showing the objects as they
would actually appear may be used.

100-

^rz.'-^-

- 360 "
Fig. 24.

7<9(?-

■»-

&

^

A

J,

^

A

A

A

A

f^

&i

JL

&

^

H^

1

s

j

J

...I

;i

in

'--c

H

L..

f---

::;;;:

: -- =

M---P

m

d

Ji?0

Fig. 25.

SIMULATED FIRE.

As the sound would be drowned by the real firing of groups
or larger bodies of infantry, it is used for individual fire only,
or for squads when their attention is to be drawn to targets
which they would not otherwise detect. It is produced by
the explosion of crackers behind the covers.

The fire of artillery is simulated by the explosion of bombs
or petards of different kinds, gaged to give the desired sound
and appearance. They are exploded by means of fuses.

GERMANY. 103

friction tubes, or by electricity. Their arrangement on tlie
ground, and the manipulation during the practice, is managed
by well-trained noncommissioned officers, and every precau-
tion is taken to prevent accidents from their use.

markers' shelters.

These, whenever practicable, are to be sunken covers, and
so arranged as to preclude injury from shots or the explosion
of crackers or bombs, to the men in the pits. With raised
shelters every means is to be used to prevent the locations
being known, by making them look like the surrounding
ground. To avoid unnecessary digging, shelters are definitely
located on permanent firing grounds, and when not in use are
fenced around to prevent accidents when the ground is used
for drill purposes. Each cover is equipped with a contrivance
holding two mirrors, which, when adjusted and in position,
enables the men in the cover to see the range and observe
the difi^erent signals; reserve mirrors are provided to meet
accidents. At least one noncommissioned officer and one
private are in each shelter, the one to observe the firing party
and the signals, and the other to manipulate the targets;
additional men may be required, depending on the nature of
the practice. If gun crackers or bombs are to be exploded
from the cover, a noncommissioned officer is assigned for that
duty.

In the covers are signal flags and material for pasting up
targets and shot holes.

Flags are used for communication between the director and
men manipulating the targets. The director whenever prac-
ticable occupies a cover overlooking the others, from which
signals are given to the men operating the targets. The signals
should not be visible to the firing party, nor must flags be
waved from any cover that would betray its location. When
this can not be avoided, the necessary directions must be given
before the firing party comes on the ground. Appropriate
signals are arranged to show when firing may commence, or
must cease, for signaling hits, etc., by flags and bugle calls,
and these signals, as well as those which designate the targets
that are to appear or disappear and any special directions for
the conduct of the exercises, must be well understood by all
concerned in the several operations.

104 TAKGET PRACTICE IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES.

FIELD FIRING, GENERAL RULES.

The course for infantry comprises individual and collective
firing, and each is preceded by preparatory exercises with
dummy and blank cartridges.

The lieutenants, noncommissioned officers, and men of each
company take part in the individual fire ; noncommissioned
officers and men in the collective firing — the former may
compose a special detachment for collective fire.

Individual fire with ball cartridges may be conducted by a
sword-knot noncommissioned officer; collective fire must be
directed by an officer. Individual fire and collective fire of
groups, sections, and platoons is managed by company com-
manders. Collective fire of larger units is directed by bat'
talion or regimental commanders. The company officers are
present at collective firing conducted therein ; all the battalion
officers are present at that of larger units. The dress is tht
same as for regular practice at known distances, with the
addition of the canteen, haversack, and intrenching tools.

For siege firing the dress is forage cap, cartridge-boxes,
overcoat carried like a blanket roll, canteen, haversack, cook-
ing utensils, and intrenching tools. Bayonets are not fixed.

Field firing is conducted in the field or on such suitable
ranges as may be available, special regard being paid in
every case to safety from accidents, which must be insured
by every possible precautionary measure, in accordance with
general rules prescribed 'on this subject.

INDIVIDUAL FIELD FIRING.

Instruction in this is based on the consideration that the
accuracy of the rifle is such that a good shot may expect to
hit a man lying down at 250 meters, one kneeling at 350
meters, a file (two men side by side) kneeling at 500, and a
file standing or a single horseman, at 600 meters. Firing at
the various targets must, therefore, be within the limits of
probable hits, with which the instructor must be well
acquainted.

PREPARATORY EXERCISES.

The preparatory exercises are arranged by the instructor
so that the man sees various targets at difi:erent distances,
and is instructed how to take cover, to estimate the dis-
tances and decide upon the elevation required, point of aim,

GERMANY. 105

etc. ; later lie may do all tliese things by himself, the in-
structor afterwards correcting errors.

The course demands high qualifications on the part of the
instructor, and such time and care is to be given to the in-
struction of the recruit, including practice with dummy and
blank cartridges, as will supplement that already received in
the theory of rifle fire, demonstration of the capabilities of
the rifle, and handling of the piece, so that the only real nov-
elty in the field firing with ball cartridges will be the effect
produced by the bullets.

FIRING WITH BALL CARTRIDGES.

These exercises are carried on against figure targets with
its modifications and targets representing horsemen, in the
same manner as in the prejjaratory exercises.

For skillful men more difficult exercises are arranged. To
insure thoroughness men pursue the course separately, under
the surveillance of the instructor. "Without moving the man
may fire at targets appearing in succession at different
ranges, or he may himself advance or retire. To encourage
the observation of shots he may be accompanied by another
man, who watches the shots and tells him where they strike,
and they may alternate in firing and watching for each other,
provided that they go through their course independently,
firing at their own targets. At first, before firing, the man
announces to the instructor his estimate of the distan,ce, ele-
vation required, etc. ; these are corrected if necessary. After
the man has gained assurance he operates alone, and may
state these details after firing the shot. On the company
target record the days of practice by the man are entered on
the memorandum made at the range, the name of the man,
and the number of cartridges fired. The company com-
mander decides whether, and how, the result of the fire is to
be recorded.

Men of the lowest class take up the firing as soon as suffi-
ciently instructed, others as early as possible after the begin-
ning of the target year. If convenient • ground for the
individual fire be lacking, the commander in chief may
authorize it to be omitted, but the omission of such fire for
two years in succession in tJie same unit is to be avoided.
The omission must be specially noted in the annual report
of firing.

106 TARGET PRACTICE IX FOREIGN COUNTRIES.

COLLECTIVE FIRE.

In the preparatory exercises, dummy and. blank cartridges
are used. Targets may be represented by detachments, which
appear or disappear according to the signals or instructions
agreed on, and in pursuance of a prearranged scheme of the
instructor. Artillery and cavalry may be shown by men
carrying Hags of certain colors, or by targets. To develop
promptness and decision in leaders and quickness in the men,
different targets are presented at unknown distances, and
these may appear, or be supposed to be visible for varying
periods, and a certain time be allowed to deploy the men to
deliver the appropriate fire.

The first exercises are by a file of men, then by a group..
The men are instructed how to act in attack or defense, in
the use of sights, in rising quickly for a rush, and getting
into position for firing, catching the aim promptly, etc. This
is succeeded by progressive exercises for platoons and larger
detachments. Conditions requiring independent action on
the part of the men are also to be represented.

FIRING WITH BALL CARTRIDGES.

The exercises are on similar lines to the preparatory ones,
using appropriate targets, among which should be, if possible,
disappearing and moving targets. The exercises should be
based on simple tactical suppositions, represent some phase
of an action, rather than a continuous conflict, and in general
the detachment is assumed to be acting in concert with or
as a part of a larger body. The training is to be addressed
more particularly to infantry opposed to infantry, by fre-
quent fire at short and medium ranges at low targets repre-
senting skirmish lines, but firing at longer ranges is not to be
neglected.

During pauses, or at the end of the exercise, results of fire
are ascertained and compared with the expenditure of ammu-
nition, on the available supply of which the extent of the
exercises will, to a great extent, depend.

The results of the fire are not recorded, but the days on
which collective fire has been held are noted, and if a supe-
rior desires information regarding exercises at which he was
not present, it is furnished in a simple, brief report.

The development of the exercises depends on the allotment
of ammunition by the higher authorities, in addition to the

GERMANY. 107

ordinary allowance of the unit. The additional supply is
meant to allow the different units in turn to have exercises
on a large scale, rather than to be equally divided between
them each year. If extensive exercises in siege warfare and
indirect fire can not be carried on, the principles of these
kinds of fire will be illustrated in the instruction or demon-
stration firing.

In field firing the course of an action is usually swifter, the
fire more rapid, and the consumption of ammunition much
greater than it would be in reality. To prevent peace habits
from having a Ijad effect in actual service, leaders and men
must be thoroughly instructed on this point.

From experiments in, and study of, the effect of collective
small-arm firing, the Germans have derived the rule that for
ranges up to 800 meters one sight should be used ; for greater
distances, two sights, dift'ering by 100 meters, one 50 meters
more, the other 50 meters less than the estimated distance.
The front rank fires with the lower, and the rear rank with
the higher sight. There is thought to be no advantage in the
use of more than one sight for bodies of less strength than a
section of infantry or a platoon of cavalry.

Sufficient results may be obtained from collective fire on
low targets (infantry) up to 600 meters; beyond that distance
the expenditure of ammunition would be too great, though
high targets (representing cavalry) can be hit up to 1,000
meters. At greater distances fire should not be opened except
on objects that by jeason of height, breadth, and depth present
a favorable target.

CAVALRY.

The men are trained in the use of the carbine, officers and
noncommissioned officers in the use of the carbine and re-
volver, trumpeters in the use of the revolver only.

GENERAL RULES.

The course of instruction for the cavalry is the same as for
infantry. The same targets are used, the section targets 400,
500, and 600 meters being designated as section targets I, II,
and III, respectively. The rules for range practice and field
firing, competitions, etc., are in general, as far as applicable,
the same as prescribed for infantry.

108 TARGET PRACTICE IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES.

CLASSIFICATION.

Tlie third class consists of men in their first year of service,
and poor shots of longer service ; the second class of the men
who have qualified in the first year's course, the first class of
the men who have qualified in the second class. Ofiicers are
classed by the regimental commander, and those ofiicers and
noncommissioned ofiicers who have twice fulfilled the condi-
tions of the first class form a special class to which special
fire problems are assigned by the regimental commander.

The preliminary and regular practice of all classes is held
in seven scores of 3 shots each, three of preliminary, and four
of regular practice. The third class fires at ranges from 150
to 500 meters; the second and first classes at from 150 to 60Q
meters. The qualifying scores for all classes are less than
those of the corresponding infantry classes.

One badge for each of the special, first, second, and third
classes in every company is given annually to the best shots
among the noncommissioned ofiicers and privates.

HONOR PRIZES.

For the cavalry there are allowed three for ofiicers and
four for noncommissioned ofiicers.

REGIMENTAL COMPETITIONS.

An annual allowance of 50 marks for the purchase of prizes
is made to each regiment, 10 marks for the noncommissioned
officers, and 8 marks for the men of each squadron. The
winner among the noncommissioned officers is the one who
makes the best score in revolver practice. The competition
among the men is joined in by as many men of all classes as
the supply of ammunition for the purpose permits. They fire
three shots, using the carbine, at 150 meters, standing, off-
hand, at a target similar to that used in the honor-prize com-
petition. The one getting the highest number of rings wins;
ties are decided by counting shots backward, etc. For the
noncommissioned officers of detached sciuadrons of mounted
orderlies, 6 marks are allowed for prizes, and 1 mark more
for each additional squadron in the same garrison ; for the
men of each squadron 8 marks.

TROOPS OF THE TRAIN.

The men are armed with the carbine, and are instructed in
its use at short ranges. They are divided into two classes and

GERMANY. lOU

tlie preliminary and regular practice for eacli class is held in
five scores of 5 shots each, two of preliminary and three of
regular practice, at ranges from 150 to 200 meters.

REVOLVER PRACTICE.

In the cavalry, all officers and men ; in the infantry and
foot artillery, company officers, sergeants major, vice-ser-
geants major, sword-knot noncommissioned officers, color-
bearers, regimental and battalion drum-majors, and such
noncommissioned officers and men as are trained as litter-
bearers and for service in the sanitary detachments, and
officers of the train troops, are instructed in revolver firing.

The course of instruction is the same ft)r all branches of
the service; it is designed to teach the proper use of the
weapon in battle, and includes a knowledge of its construction
and manipulation, the principles of pointing and aiming,
with and without a rest, and firing with dummy and blank
cartridges.

Each firing practice is preceded by instruction in handling
the revolver and by practice with dummy or blank cartridges
elsewhere than on the range, and strict rules are enforced for
the purpose of preventing accidents. For practice with ball
cartridge the ring and figure targets are used.

The firing exercise for infantry and foot artillery is as
follows :

Five shots, using a rest, at 20 meters, at the figure target,
aiming at the body, each shot being marked after firing.

Five shots, offhand, same range, target, and point of aim,
each shot marked as before.

The accuracy of the weapon is such that a good shot can
hit the target every time.

The company commander may direct special exercises for
such officers and noncommissioned officers as show superior
skill.

For cavalry :

Five shots, with rest, at 20 meters, at the ring target, aim-
ing at ring 5 below the bull's-eye, each shot being marked.

Five shots, offhand, at 20 meters, at the figure target, each
shot marked.

Five shots, offhand, at 30 meters, at figure target, each shot
marked.

Five shots, at same range and target, shots marked at the
end of the score.

110 TARGET PRACTICE IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES.

A good shot is expected to hit the bnll's-eye in the first
exercise, and the figure target in the other shooting, at every
shot.

Ofiicers of the train fire 5 shots at 20 meters, using a rest, at
the ring target, and 5 shots, offhand, at the figure target.

Revolver practice is always under the direction of a com-
missioned officer ; no exception to this rule ig permitted.

FIELD ARTILLERY.

The target practice for field artillery is divided into firing
at known distances (school j^ractice), and the field or combat
firing. The school practice is carried on in the battery ; the
field firing in the battery, battalion, or regiment, on troop
exercise grounds, artillery j^ractice grounds, and in the open
country, which latter gives opportunity for the use of unknown
ground offering difficulties differing according to the season.

The practice period is in summer, the time for which is
fixed by the corps commander. The duration of the practice
is from twenty-one to twenty-three days, when two regiments
are present, and from twenty-seven to thirty days, when three
or four regiments are on the ground at the same time. Prac-
tice in the open country is carried on after the field firing, and
before the autumn maneuvers.

As soon as the higher authorities issue the orders for tar-
get practice, the regimental commander makes general
arrangements for the program to be carried out, assigning
days, time, and place for the different firings, directs the divi-
sion of the ammunition among the batteries, assigns officers
temporarily attached for instruction, and gives general instruc-
tions for the batteries and battalions in carrying out the pro-
gram. He also arranges the exercises that seem to him most
useful. For this purpose he calls for suggestions and recom-
mendations from battery and battalion commanders as to
nature and place of targets, positions of batteries, etc. Fatigue
parties are sent ahead by each regiment to make preparations
for its practice and get the targets ready.

The various targets used have already been referred to.
The batteries report for practice with six guns and, if possible,
three caissons.

SCHOOL PRACTICE.

The school practice is regarded simply as preparation for
the combat firing, and is limited to the amount considered to

GERMANY. Ill

be absolutely necessary, determined for every battery by the
regimental commander according to tlie degree of training
shown and the number of officers to be instructed. The bat-
tery chief conducts the school practice. As he knows the
problems to be solved he prepares the battery by instruction
and practice, the lieutenants commanding in turn. Usually
the first practice day is devoted to finding the range by trial
shots; to firing at different targets at known distances, and
to observing the accuracy and effect of the fire. On succeed-
ing days, according to proficiency of the men and officers,
instruction in the use of fuses, firing with time shells, delib-
erate fire at targets up to 1,500 meters, curved fire, etc., is
given, if necessary rejDeating the exercises of the first day.
Observation is extended to noting grazing shots, bursting-
points in front of and beyond the targets, which should be
the effect of design. Instruction in the service of the piece
and in laying and pointing is included in the school practice,
but is not to interfere with the firing instruction. Deploy-
ments are in all cases made as in actual service. Field-
howitzer batteries use "exercise shells" against targets that
would in actual service be fired at with percussion or fuse
shells. This is because the danger from the use of high-
explosive shells can not be sufficiently guarded against if fired
in practice.

FIELD PRACTICE.

This is the most important part of the course and the greater
part of the time is devoted to it.

The exercises are based on simple tactical suppositions, and
leaders and troops must not know in advance the problem to
be solved. It is given out just before the exercise is to take
place. Leaders have the utmost latitude in selecting their
positions, new problems are presented by the disappearance
of some targets and the appearance of new ones, the changing
conditions of a fight being shown by these means and by
causing men and officers to fall out as though disabled, etc.

Most of the field j^ractice is devoted to the battery practice,
which is directed by the battalion commander, the batteries
are commanded, as prescribed in regimental orders, by their
chiefs, or by one of the lieutenants, and the problem given
usually assumes their connection or cooperation with other
troops. Individual batteries may have more extended prac-
tice, for which an increased supply of ammunition is given.

112 TARGET PRACTICE IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES.

In the practice by battalion, the chief or one of the senior
captains may command; in the latter case the regimental
commander may charge the battalion commander with the
management of the practice, and the batteries be commanded
by their chiefs or one of their lieutenants.

The ordinary ammunition allowance is sufficient for only
a few days' practice for each battalion, the battery practice
being favored in this respect. Leaders are expected to select
problems that will give instructive phases of an action, such
as carrying out an artillery attack in different conditions ;
opposing an infantry attack; preparing for an attack by
friendly infantry ; the use of shells against fortified positions,
etc. The course of the action is always to be varied by the
battalion commander directing a change of targets, combining
the fire of several batteries, etc. By causing the unexpected
appearance of horse artillery or other targets at close range,
cases are presented where the battery commander has himself
to order a change of target.

The fire of one battery or group of batteries may serve for
the instruction of others, and exercises are arranged so that
all the officers of a group may assist at the fire of one of its
batteries, and all the officers of a regiment at the fire of a
group or specially instructive fire of one battery. Similarly,
the gunners of a battery are present at all the firings of their
own battery, being relieved from all other duty for this
purpose.

Regimental field practice may take place if the supply of
ammunition and other conditions permit.

The allowance of ammunition and the money credits neces-
sary to carry on the practice are fixed by the military author-
ities and depend on the sum appropriated in the annual
budget. This usually permits only a limited supply of am-
munition, so that only the more important kinds of firing
can be executed, and the expenditure of ammunition has to
be carefully watched to prevent waste. Details of the allow-
ance and cost of ammunition for the various units are not
published except for the information of those concerned in
carrying on the practice. The "Armed Strength of the Ger-
man Empire," published by the British intelligence division
in 1888, states that a sum of money which for Prussia alone
amounts to about seven millions of marks (over $1,600,000)
is set apart every year for artillery practice, divided up

GERMANY. 113

among the various ranges. The same source gives the an-
nual allowance of ammunition for battery practice as 2-44:
shell, 100 shrapnel, and 12 case. The recent changes in arma-
ment of the German artillery, and the great development of
this arm, would warrant the belief that these figures are at
present increased rather than diminished.

REPORTS OF FIRING.

These furnish a means of determining comparative effi-
ciency, and for collecting instructive data regarding the guns
and ammunition. The careful preparation of these reports,
which should be absolutely reliable, is supervised in the bat-
talions and regiment. The firing list is prepared in each
battery by an officer specially detailed for the purpose, from
notes of the firing of the battery made by two noncommis-
sioned officers, one of whom records the commands and direc-
tions of the battery commander, and the other the time and
order of fire, number and kind of projectile, etc. The report
of the effect of the fire on the targets made by the observing
detachment charged with this duty is attached to the firing
list, which is made up immediately after each firing, and
sent to the leader for completion by adding thereto any
memoranda of the conditions of the action, orders or direc-
tions of the battalion commander, etc., necessary to the proper
understanding of the j^ractice.

The duty of observing and recording the effect of fire is
performed by detachments commanded by an officer, assisted
by underofficers and soldiers, all carefully chosen, and well
instructed in their duties. Observation stations are located
at convenient points on the ground, connected by wire with
the position occupied by the officer directing the fire. Every
shot fired is observed, and record made at the time, of the
striking or bursting points, effect on the target, etc., so that
the report made by the observers can be compared, shot by
shot, with the record kept at the firing points. Together
they give the data for the "critique" which is made at the
conclusion of the exercises. The observation posts may serve
for one or more targets, and are provided with necessary
blanks for recording shots, sketches of the ground, material
for repair of damaged targets, etc.

After the close of the exercises, regimental commanders
make up a review of the firing, to which may be added any

114 TARGET PRACTICE IX FOREIGN COUNTRIES.

special remarks on tlie effect or result of any particular firing,
or explanations regarding any departures from prescribed
rules. If exercises take place in the open country, only the
expenditure of ammunition, approximate cost of the same,
and occurrences calling for special mention are reported.
These reports, with the remarks thereon of brigade and divi-
sion commanders, are sent to corps headquarters, from which
they are forwarded by the 1st of November of each year to
the "inspection of field artillery," and are sent from there
to the war minister on or before November 15.

To enable the inspector of field artillery to judge of the
arrangement of the practices and the firing capacity of the
troops, he is furnished with copies of the regimental programs
and the firing lists of any one or all the regiments in the
corps.

COMPETITIONS, PRIZES, AND BADGES.

Two competitions are held annually among the gunners of
each battery, in which prizes are awarded to the successful
ones. One-year volunteers are allowed to compete, but may
not receive money prizes. The first competition is held in
April of each year, all gunners appointed within the year
being eligible.

The exercises consist of pointing at targets at supposed
ranges, with different kinds of fire and projectiles. Rec-
tangular targets about 67 inches (] 70 centimeters) high and
20 inches (50 centimeters) wide, upper half black and lower
half white, are placed at distances from 500 to 1,000 meters,
to determine the correctness of direction of the piece. Only
competitors who attain a fixed standard receive prizes. Of
these the first gets 6 marks, the second 5 marks, and the
third 4 marks.

The second competition is also held in the batteries on their
return from the field exercises among the six best gunners
who have not already received prizes. In addition to the
pointing exercises at targets, guns are aimed at a supposed
hostile battery, represented by guns located at such a distance
as to be barely visible. The competitor on seeing the flash
and smoke of the shot from the hostile gun trains his piece
thereon with tlie elevation corresponding to his estimate of
the distance. As soon as the pieces are pointed, and at a
given signal, a man with a flag places himself at the muzzle
of the piece just fired and an officer verifies the correctness of

GERMANY. 115

the pointing. Three such exercises are given to each com-
petitor, and the final classification is based on standing in
both competitions, ties, if any, being decided by superiority
in the pointing at hostile guns.

Insignia are given to privates in their first year of service,
including one-year volunteers, who have shown skill in point-
ing, and to noncommissioned officers and reenlisted men who
are distinguished for skill and intelligence in the field firing.
The latter are in eight classes, being promoted to a superior
class every year. Soldiers who receive their insignia dis-
charge the functions of gunner while in service and are can-
didates for appointment as noncommissioned officers. The
badge for skill in field firing is a silver grenade and is the
highest class of badge worn. Men who win badges as pointers
or gunners receive certificates to that effect, and the fact is
noted in their records and on their discharge papers.

FOOT ARTILLERY.

The foot artillery manning land fortresses has annual
target practice on the artillery jjractice grounds, conducted
on the same principle as that of the field artillery. The
objects fired at are permanent works, masonry revetments
or targets representing such works, siege batteries, etc.
Competitions for gunners' prizes are held as in the field
artillery.

FIRING SCHOOLS, RANGES, ETC.

The infantry firing school at Spandau (northwest of Berlin)
is under the supervision of the inspection of infantry schools,
and is designed especially for the training of infantry in com-
bat firing, though for the last few years cavalry has also
received training here. Spandau is a large fortress, and, in
addition to its instructional uses, is a great center of army
supplies, an experimental and testing station for all kinds of
small arms and machine-guns, and is designed for a refuge
for the archives, treasure, and court. The imperial war
treasure is kept here, which is intended to meet the first
expenses of mobilization in case of war.

The school staff consists of 1 colonel or lieutenant colonel
in command; he has a lieutenant as aid, a field officer, 4 cap-
tains, and 8 lieutenants, and an instruction company of non-
commissioned officers of Prussian, Saxon, and Wurttemberg
infantry. Among the instruction courses carried on here

116 TARGET PRACTICE IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES.

each year are two of fourteen days each for lieutenant colonels
of dismounted troops, including foot artillery; one of four-
teen days for 36 captains of cavalry, one of fourteen days for
commanders of infantry regiments, and four courses of five
weeks each for 60 captains and 30 first lieutenants of infantry.

Practice courses for noncommissioned ofiicers of infantry
and cavalry are held at Spandau, Hagenau in Alsace, Gruppe,
near Graudenz on the Vistula, and Munster in Hanover; and
at Spandau (for the first time in 1900) a training course in
the use of machine-guns for officers and noncommissioned
officers of the rifle battalions. Infantry practice on a large
scale, not practicable in the limited space at Spandau, is held
at Tegel, north of Berlin, and, in connection with field artil-
lery, on the extensive firing grounds at Jiiterbog.

The royal Bavarian military firing school is at the range
and drill grounds of Lechfeld, 16 miles south of Augsburg.
It is intended solely for Bavarian troops, and courses of
instructions are held annually for field officers, captains, and
lieutenants of infantry, and for officers and noncommissioned
officers of cavalry and foot artillery.

The field-artillery firing school at Jiiterbog, in Branden-
burg, is under the supervision of the inspector of field artil-
lery. The school staff consists of 1 major general, 2 field
officers, and an aid. Four field officers and 12 captains are
detailed as instructors, and an instruction regiment is sta-
tioned there, made up of three detachments of three field
batteries each. Courses for senior officers, in classes of 12
field officers, 72 captains, and 46 first lieutenants, are held
yearly; two courses for lieutenants in classes of 100 each, and
four spring courses for furloughed officers, 35 in each class.
Bavarian, Wurttemberg, and Saxon field-artillery officers are
also detailed to these courses.

The foot-artillery firing school is also located at Jiiterbog.
Its personnel consists of 1 field officer commanding, with a
lieutenant as aid, and 3 field officers and 2 captains as in-
structors. There is, in addition, an instruction battalion of
three companies. There are held here yearly two courses
for junior officers, one for officers of the furloughed class,
and two £or noncommissioned officers.

Since 1899 there have been detailed for instruction to the
infantry firing school at Spandau from each army corps, one
division commander, who were originally in the cavalry or

GERMANY. 117

artillery ; and to the artillery firing school at Jiiterbog, one
division commander and one senior brigade commander, who
were originally in the cavalry or infantry.

Ranges are established at convenient points throughout
the empire for instruction of the troops in firing. Those for
artillery practice are at Tegel (near Berlin), Jiiterbog, Gruppe,
Falkenburg, Wesel, Wahn (Rhineland), Lockstedt (Holstein),
Darmstadt, Hagenau, Zithain (near Riesa), and Lechfeld
(near Augsburg). These are all large ranges, as much as
5,500 yards long, situated on heaths or surrounded by forests.
Accommodations for troops, officers' Cjuarters, barracks, sta-
bles, etc., of a permanent character, are provided for a brigade
of field artillery. These ranges are also used by the cavalry
for their regimental drills, by infantry for their field firing,
and by the landwehr when called out for training, so that
they are occupied during a great part of the year. Each
range is administered by a staff of artillery officers, who
attend to necessary construction, repairs, and general supplies.
Material for their own practice and ammunition is brought
by the troops assigned to the range for target practice.

V.-GIIEAT BRITAIN.

The musketry regulations of 1898 have already been found
to need revision on account of the experience gained in South
Africa, and the military authorities are still engaged in pre-
paring an edition to bear date 1901. The revision not being
completed in December, 1901, a "provisional course of mus-
ketry for the year 1902" was issued.

Targets for individual range practice are rectangular with
bulPs-eyes surrounded by one ring : First class 6 by 8 feet,
bull's-eye 3 feet, ring 5 feet in diameter ; second class 6 by 6
feet, bull's-eye 2 feet, ring 4 feet in diameter, and third class
4 by 6 feet, bull's-eye 1 foot, ring 2 feet in diameter. For
collective firing a sectional target (1 by 8 feet), having on a
white ground four rudely outlined silhouettes of men in line
kneeling, is used.

In the musketry regulations a soldier is a "recruit" until
he has gone through his recruit course, Table A, when he is
called a "trained man." A trained man is said to be "exer-
cised" when he has been through the course in Table B.

A military correspondent in the Times of December 20, 1901,
gives the following synopsis of the provisional course for 1902 :

' ' Table A, recruits, cavalry, and infantry, "consists of four parts, of which
the first three count for classification. Part I includes eleven practices at
200, 300, and 400 yards, 7 rounds, ' ' independent, " in each practice. The tar-
gets for the various distances are as laid down in the 1898 regulations, but
in practices Nos. 5 and 8, at 200 and 300 yards, respectively, the position is
"sitting," and throughout the eleven practices any kind of natural or arti-
ficial rest may be iised by a recruit if found necessary. Parts II and III
remain unchanged except for the substitution of the terms ' ' independent "
and "magazine independent" for "deliberate" and "rapid individual,"
and the reduction of the time allowed in "magazine independent" from a
minute to forty-five seconds from the command "Commence." Part IV
consists of four "independent" practices, the first three at 100, the fourth
at 150 yards, one at a vanishing target, one at a fixed head and shoulders,
and two at a moving figure. In the practice at the fixed head and .shoul-
ders the firer, crouching behind cover, momentarily exposes himself suffi-
ciently to fire a rai^id shot, recruits being allowed four seconds for exposure,
fire, and complete return to cover from "Commence" or signal. In the
above-mentioned practices 168 rounds are expended, leaving 32 for three
field practices to be directed by the assistant adjutant and carried out
under conditions as practical as possible. The points required for classi-
fication as a first-class shot are, as at present, 300 for cavalry and 380 for
infantry.

(119)

120

TARGET PRACTICE IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES.

"Table B, trained infantry," now consists of three parts — independent,
miscellaneous jwactices, and practices for whicli rounds are allotted to
commanding officers and company commanders. Part I includes twelve
practices, of wliicli the first six are in the 1898 regulations, with the excep-
tion that the position in No. 4 at 500 yards is ' ' sitting '' instead of ' ' kneeling. "
No. 7 is "any position," 100 yards at a vanishing head and shoulders ex-
posed four seconds; No. 8 at a fixed head and shoulders, 100 yards, the
firer crouching behind cover and momentarily exposing himself as in the
similar jiractice in Table A. Trained men, however, are allow'ed only
three seconds for exposure, fire, and complete return to cover. Nos. 9, 10,
and 11 are at vanishing head and shoulders, fixed head and shoulders, and
vanishing second-class targets respectively, the distances being in the
first two cases 200 and in the third 500 yards. No. 12 practice is any posi-
tion, magazine independent, 600 yards, at a second-class vanishing target
exposed forty-five seconds. Part II embraces three practices, No. 13, inde-
pendent, about 150 yards at a moving figure ; No. 14, magazine independent,
about 200 yards, any position, behind cover, two shots at each backward
and forward run of a moving figure, 8 rounds in all; No. 15, magazine
independent, about 200 yards, any position, behind cover, at a vanishing
figure. A target to appear at intervals of five seconds, each time at a dif-
ferent place, and to remain exposed fotir seconds. Horizontal space for
each man's target not less than 28 feet. In the first two parts 106 rounds
are expended, leaving 94 for Part III, of which 41 are allotted to the com-
manding officer and 53 to the captain, who formerly had only 40 rounds
per man at his disposal. In addition to these 94 rotmds per man, general
officers are authorized to draw 4,000 rounds per battalion of infantry. At-
tention is directed to special instructions for moving and vanishing tar-
gets and range appliances, which will assist in framing schemes and in
selection of suitable targets.

To speak broadly, the main changes in Tables A and B introduced since
the 1898 regulations, which have been in force only up to the present year,
are the abolition of volleys, the system of firing behind cover, and the
permission accorded to recruits to use any kind of natural or artificial rest
in their independent practices at 200, 300, and 400 yards. The increased
encouragement of individuality in the preparation of special schemes by
captains of companies, the closer attention iiaid to the use of vanishing
and moving targets, and the introduction of the "sitting" position are
other matters in which progress is indicated.

For the purpose of comparison, the course prescribed by

the musketry regulations of 1898 for cavalry and infantry is

given below:

Table A. — Recruits.

PaUT I. — Dei.IBKUATK IXDIVIDIAI, FlHK.

Kauge.

Tiugc-t.

NumbL'i- of scores of 7 shots cacli.

Yards.

200

200

Third class . — -

1>...

300

I>«..

■100

do

GREAT BRITAIN.
Table A. — Recruits — Continued.

Part II. — Delibehate I.ndividial Fiue.

121

Til licet.

Xunilx'i- cif stoix-s of 7 .shuts faili

Yurds.
500
600

TOO
800

First class

-.-do

do ___

do

2 scores — 1 juoue, 1 kiieidiii:
1 si'ore — prone.

Do.

Do.

I'AitT III. — Kai'111 Indivioiai, Fiuk.

■li 10
.=)( HI

Second class .
First cla.ss __.

1 kueeliug, 1 staudiutj
1 prone, 1 kneeling.

Part IV. — Collective Fire.

3(10
300
300
500
600
30O
500

Sectional

do ..

do -.

do _.

do _.

do _.

do -.

7 deliberate voUe.vs — front rauk kneeling.

7 shots, deliberate, independent — front rank kneeling

7 shots, rapid, independent — single rank, kneeling, u

7 shots, delilierate volleys — single rauk, kneeling.

7 shots, deliberate volle.ys — single rank, prone.

7 shots, rapid volleys— front rank kneeling, a

7 shots, rapid volleys — single rauk, kneeling. <t

Table B. — Trained Men.

Pari' L — Dei.u-.f.rate Ixuividial Fiuk.

200
200
500
500

Third class

do

Second class

_ do

1 kneeling.
1 standing.
1 prone.

COO

800

do

First class

1 prone.
1 prone.

300

Sectional

7 shots, deliberate volleys — front rank kneeling.
7 shots, rapid volleys — front rank kneeling, a
7 shots, rapid, independent — front rank kneeling, a
7 shots, deliberate volleys — single rank, kneeling.
7 shots, rapid volleys — single rauk, kneeling, a
7 shots, independent — single rank, kneeling, a
7 shots, deliberate volleys — single rank, prone.
7 shots, rapid volleys — single rank, prone. <t

21 shots, attack practice — as prescribed.

300

do

300

- . do .

500

- do . _

500

- do _ _ .

50O
600

do

do _ -

fiOO
SOO)

200j

do

do

II. Magazine fire. Time allowance, one minute.

A new system of instruction in field firing lias been adopted
at Aldershot. The general idea and the details of the system
of skirmish runs were worked out by Capt. E. L. C. Fielden,
74th (2d battalion) Highland Light Infantry. Capt. E. B.
Cassatt, Thirteenth Cavalry, United States military attache
in London, who visited Aldershot in November, 1901, and

122 TARGET PRACTICE IX FOREIGN COUNTRIES.

through the courtesy of the British war office witnessed the
setting up and working of the targets, describes it as follows :

The ground used at Aldersliot for this purpose enables one battalion to
advance to the attack with as near an approach to the conditions of actual
warfare as I have seen. The battalion advances in column of route, when
fire is suddenly opened upon it by a single gun, posted about 800 yards to
the left front. Deployment is made at once and the gun is silenced. On the
Uring line reaching the crest of a long hill perpendicular to the front, the
first position of the enemy is seen, about 900 yards distant, and the advance
is subjected to artillery fire from a battery about 2,500 yards. The enemy
can hardly be distinguished, as their skirmishers show only their heads
and shoulders, and that only occasionally. As the advance continues, the
enemy are supposed to have retired to a second position about 800 yards
away, with a deep ravine in its front, through which runs a main railway
line. The enemy's object is to destroy this line before the advance can
occupy it, and with this object in view, an armored train is sent down to
cover a party of men who come running down the hill to blow up the
tracks, which they are supposed to succeed in doing. The advance con-
tinues beyond the railway and up the hill, when the enemy is found to
have taken his last position near the guns aforementioned. The battalion
thus strikes three positions, covering about 2,500 yards.

The targets are merely dummy figures of the simplest construction, and
look as if they had been made by some post carpenter. They are all
worked by men in pits by means of ropes and springs, with the exception
of the armored train and the wrecking party. An extensive system of
telephones connects all the pits. A peculiar i^art of the arrangement is
that the advance is the whole time subjected to shrapnel fire, which is
obtained by means of the explosion of small, harmless bombs, suspended
from wires above the men's heads or laid on the ground in front. This
and the firing of the dummy guns by the same means are the only elec-
trical features of the system. I must myself confess to having been
startled when one of the imitation shrapnel exx^loded without any warn-
ing at my horse's feet. The only thing in the system which could not be
made at any post is an ingenious spring by wiiich the fixed targets are
made to resume their upright position after being pulled down. I can
heartily recommend the adoption of a similar system at some of our larger
posts. I inclose an extract from the Strand Magazine of December, 1901,
containing plates of the only photographs of the new system.

In conclusion, it must be stated that over all the ground are covered pits
for the use of umpires, who, by means of mirrors, can watch the advance
in all its movements. The only drawback to the practical utility of this
range is that the Government will allow only 20 rounds per man to be used
in this practice.

The Strand Magazine, from which the accompaiiying illus-
trations are copied, says :

In order to give our readers an idea of a field day on the ranges we will
imagine, for the time being, that we are part and parcel of the attacking
force. Forward ! March ! We scatter and become units of a long strag-
gling line of creeping, ever advancing foes. We avail ourselves of every
particle of cover. What is that on the crest of the hillv The enemy"?

GREAT BRITAIN.

12J

"Who said the enemy".' Why, yes, sxirely there they arc again. Watch
these two men running along the crest of the hill, Lnt before the -words
are out thev are gone again.

Fig. 1. — The running men. showing how they are worked from the pit.

Fig. 2.— The same figures on the crest of the hill some 400 yards away.

124

TARGET PRACTICE IX FOREIGN COUNTRIES.

Someone on our left had taken a pot shot at theni. A hit ! No, it isn't.
They are there once more. Let us get nearer. On we creep ; we reach
the coveted hill, we make a dash for the top, and lo ! before us are the
dummy figaires of the enemy. On our right we see a Maxim ready to fire.
The gvmner pops up and down behind the breech. "Shoot him if you
can, boys!" and the peppering begins

Fig. 3. — The dummy Maxim.

Then without a moment's notice heads and shoulders appear in the
heather, and before we can take aim they are gone again.

The magazines are brought into use and we pepper away for our lives.
The heads appear again and are lost to view a moment after.

Fig. 4. — Heads and shoulders among the heather.

GREAT HKITAIX.

125

"We reach the hill. Behold a signaler. He waves his flag, evident!}'
sending a message to his commander in rear, reporting onr advance. He
is gone, our excitement grows to a tremendous pitch. There he is again !
Ping, ping, ping; he's do^^^l. But, alas, it is not the rifle that had done
it, but the man in a protecting pit who has worked the life-like dummy.

Fig. 5. — The signaler.

Fig. 6.— The dummy cavalry— note the ropes which keep the figures straight.

We advance continuously. Five hundred yards ahead there is a house—
a Boer inn. We intend to capture it, but we are not there vet. We have

126

TARGET PRACTICE IX FOREIGN COUNTRIES.

to face a cavalry charge. The intrepid horsemen are dummies too, but
none the less are swift of motion. Note the ropes which give them life.
"We give the mounted men a lesson. Look at the white patches, each of
which denotes a bullet mark, and you ^vill say that we have made good
practice to-day.

Fig. 7. — The dummy armored train spits fire.

We must get to the inn at any price: it must be stormed. We crawl
again down hill, behind hillocks, across ditches and ravines. But what

W'-V-

___ M

^A

■ri

'-■■^^m^'^^^^-^ '■'«•■.■■.■;"

■

WlBttimJ^^BM

^^■9 t.

b

'-■>.fC

Mi-

. ^ ' lipi"^' ifT'^ jiiM wT

w&

jdiisis

ci

k

Fig. 8.— The armored train "going home." The white patches indicate the hits
after a field day.

is this ? Take cover ! A roar and a nimble — it is the armored train !
With a shriek it dashes across the valley and spits fire at us as it goes.

A party of the enemy has been sent to wreck the line as soon as the
train has passed. They tear down the hill in front of us and disappear
from view. They have had a bad time. Look at their poor dummy
bodies. But see, they are wp again for a few seconds near the signal box.

I

GREAT P.KITAIX.

127

What i.s that hjud explosion 't Halloa! they have siicceeded; yes the line
is blown up. They were gallant fellows, but they did not know the vahie
of taking cover.

Fig. 9. — The dummy wrecking party.

Fig. 10.— After Ihe attack.

We do, and on we creep. There's a man coming ont of the inn with a
gxin — probably the landlord. Steady, boys, bang ! bang ! We've got him !
No, he turns tail and enters the house again. We do our best, however,
and give him a parting shot in the back just as he gains shelter. As we

128

TARGET PRACTICE IN FOREIGN COUINTRIES.

advance we obtain a glance of tlio back of tliis structiire, and we note
■svdtli satisfaction that we have left onv marks on the walls — canvas walls —
and on the dummy figures that appeared at short intervals at the windows.

Fig. 11. — The landlord.

Fig 12. — The Boer inn.

GREAT BRITAIN.

129

^^^^^^^1^ ^w ' ^^ ^^'^^^^^^^^^H

"r"^'-^^..-.

Fig. 13. — The Boer inn — behind the scenes.

Fig. 14.— The pit, with men who "work" the innkeeper.

We climb anotlier kopje and come under the fire of a battery, just visi-
ble in the far distance, craftily concealed under the shadow of a wood.
"We hear an explosion; it is the 15-pounders opening fire. Halloa! one of
its deadly messages drops and explodes less thaii 20 yards in front of us.
Shrapnel covers (sic) our advance, but undaunted we move ahead
unswerving toward the coveted goal.

130 TARGET PRACTICE IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES.

-^^m^ . 11

i^^^iSS^^n-

Fig. 15. — The dummy bailery.

Fig. 16. — The switch.

Fig. 17. — The explosion of a ground mine.

GREAT BRITAIN. 131

We find out afterwards that the l)attery fire was not so deadly as might
have been anticipated by anyone who did not know that the bursting
shells were nothing more than ground mines fired, as we advanced, by
electricity from the switch shown on the preceding page.

So our illusion is over. We shake hands, for we have done imcommonly
well, but we want to come again.

I

VT.-RUSSIA.

[Reported by Capt. S. L'H. Slocum, Eighth Cavalry, Uiiiteci States Military Attache at St. Petersburg.]

INFANTRY.

Instruction begins on the first of May and is conducted by
the subaltern officers of the company under the superintend-
ence and responsibility of the company commanders. The
usual preliminary instruction is given and all preliminary
drills are executed with fixed bayonets.

Every soldier fires 100 rounds annually with aiming tubes
and shot.

For an infantry regiment the following number of drills is
recommended :

Company.

Battalion.

Regiment.

19
4

12
3

4

TARGETS.

The targets used for ordinary practice are of two sizes.
No. 1 is 70 inches high, 52^ inches broad, divided into three
vertical belts, the outer belts being painted light gray and
the center one white with a black band 4i inches broad and
widening in the center to a circle down the middle. No. 2 is
84 inches in length and 70 inches broad, painted light gray
and divided by narrow black lines into 6 equal horizontal
bands. There are also in use targets 17^ inches broad and,
respectively, 70, 35, and 17^ inches high, on which are painted
full-length, half-length, and head figures of Russian soldiers.
For prize firing, a circular target ll inches in radius and
divided into 14 rings is used. Figures may be painted on
No. 1 target.

(133)

134

TARGET PRACTICE IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES.

The course of target practice for active, reserve, and
fortress infantry is as follows :

No.

Kange.

Position.

Target.

Description of fire.

Number of
rounds.

1st
time.

Other
times.

1

Paces.
200
200

300
400
400
400
500
800

Standing

3 rounds prone, 2
rounds kneel-
ing.

Standing

do

No. 1

5
5

5
5
5
5
5
5

5

91

._ do

R

do

5

4

Full figure

do _..

5

5

Kneeling

do _ .

fi

Head

_. do .

5

7

do

. do _„

8

3 rounds prone,
with rest ; 2
rounds kneel-

do _ . _. -

5

q

1,000
400

500 to
300

do _ „

8 figures ._

1 disappearing

half figure.
Half figure for

each man.

do

5
5

5

5

in

Individual ; 5 seconds for each
round.

Individual fire by command of
group leader, from one posi-
tion after a rush forward, each
man on his own target ; slow
fire.

Individual fire by command of
group leader, from two posi-
tions after rushes forward ;
slow fire from first, and quick
fire from second position;
marking of hits for whole
group.

Volleys by squads in open order,
by command, after an advance
in quick time, from one posi-
tion.

"Volleys by half companies in
line, by command after an
advance at quick time ; one
minute allowed.

Company in line ; volley by half
companies, by command, al-
ternately, at two distances,
after an advance in quick
time ; one and one-half min-
utes allowed in all for firing.

Solution of a tactical problem
by the company, half in firing
line, half in support.

The half company formerly in
firing line iu support and vice
versa.

5

11

Prone or kneel-
ing, according
to ground.

12
IS

800 to
400

1,200
to 800

1,800

to
1,200

2,600

to
2,000

2,600
to
400
2, (300
to
400

do

do

4 double half
figures.

8 figures

15 figures, 2
paces apart.

21 No. 2 tar-
gets in rows
25 paces dis-
tance.

Field targets

. _ do

10

5
5
10

20
20

10
5

14

do

5

15
IH

Standing or
kneeling, ac-
co rd ing to
ground.

_ do ._

10
20

17

- do

20

All officers shoot yearly the first to tenth practices. Non-
combatants shoot yearly only Nos. 1, 2, and. 4, and all com-
batant noncommissioned officers and men the whole course iu
their first year ; in the following years the course, with the
exceptions of Nos. 2, 5, 7, and 11. Reserve men called in for
training, or on mobilization, only shoot Nos. 4, 12, and 13.
For each officer there are allowed 150 rounds of ball am-
munition, and for each noncommissioned officer or man

RUSSIA. 135

(combatant or iioncombataut), 150 rounds of ball and 15 of
blank ammunition yearly. The total of the rounds allowed
for noncommissioned officers and men is expended as follows:
Fifteen rounds a man for noncombatants; 125 ball and 15
blank cartridges for each man firing the course for the first
time; 105 rounds of ball cartridges for each man firing the
course for the second or subsequent times. The remainder is
at the disposal of the commander of the unit for field-firing
exercises on a larger scale, shooting in winter, extra rounds
for bad shots, inspections, and prize firing.

After completing the eleventh practice, the combatants are
divided into two classes, the first comprising those who in
their first year have 33 hits out of 55 shots, or in subsequent
years 21 hits out of 35 shots, the second class, all the others.

Those who for two years running have been in the first
class receive badges. Prizes of from 1 to 2^ rubles are
given, after a competition at 200 paces, to the best 10 shots
of each company. Five rounds are fired for accuracy at a
ring target, and 10 rounds in thirty seconds for rapidity.
Prizes (weapons) are also given for good shooting among offi-
cers. In each regiment or independent battalion a certain
number of men of vigorous constitution and good eyesight,
and who are good shots, are chosen as scouts (okhotniki) and
placed under a selected officer. A principal feature of their
training is the hunting of wild animals, for which in a regi-
ment, 500, and, in an independent battalion, 200 rubles are
once and for all allowed for the purchase of rifles, dogs, etc.,
these being afterwards kept up by the sale of the game shot.

The object is to have specially trained men for difficult or
dangerous duties in war. The number so trained should
never be less than four per company.

TARGET PRACTICE FOR CAVALRY.

In March, target practice begins, and by the 1st of May
recruits and old soldiers should have finished not less than
six of the practices of the course (see below).

For target practice eight days per squadron, and six per
regiment, are reserved.

For estimating distances four days per squadron.

136

TARGET PRACTICE IX FOREIGN COUNTRIES.

Cavalry target practice.

No.

Kangp.

PusitiriM.

Target.

Description of fire.

Number
of rounds.

1st Other
time, times.

1

Paces.
200
200

400
400

800

1,000
400
1,200 to
800.

2,400 to
2,000

2,400 to
400

Standing

3 rounds prone,
2 rounds
kneeling.

Standing

Kneeling

.3 rounds jjrone,
with rest; 2
rounds kneel-
ing.

do

Mounted

Any position

do

do

No. 1

5
5

5
5

5
5
5

20
20

5

9

Head on No. 1 _

_ .do - ...

3

do -_

5

4

Half figure

.do .

,">

_ do _ -_ __

5

6

8 figures

do

5

No. 1

do

5

8
9

10

8 figures

21 No. 2 targets
iu 3 rows, 2.5
paces apart.

Fielil targets

Squad volleys in open order, by
command, after an advance in
quick time, from one position.

Volley by half squadrons, by com-
mand; squadron advances in line
at quick time; firing from two
positions, each one and one-half
minutes.

Solution of a tactical problem by
the squadron, half in firing line,
re.st iu support.

10
20

All officers shoot every year through the first to seventh
practices. Noncombatants only shoot the first, second, and
third, and all other combatants shoot, in their first year, all
the practices; in their second and subsequent years all except
Nos. 2 and 4. For each officer there are allowed 75 rounds of
ball ammunition, and for each combatant or noncombatant
noncommissioned officer or man 75 rounds of ball and 10
rounds of blank ammunition, and 100 rounds for use with
aiming tubes (gallery practice) yearly. Cossacks go through
the sa,me course as regular cavalry.

There is no revolver practice for cavalry.

FIELD ARTILLERY TARGET PRACTICE.

It includes firing against a visible and stationary target,
against a target invisible to the gunners and against moving
objects. The field practices by single batteries are four in
number, and are always executed with a battery of eight guns.

These practices are :

1. Direct firing with ring shell, changing to shrapnel,
against a target in the open at 2,100 to 2,800 yards.

2. Firing* against a target unseen from the battery, at 1,166
to 2,3.32 yards.

3. Case or shrapnel fire at short ranges.

1. Any field practice chosen by the brigade commander.

RUSSIA. 137

The allowance of ammunition for the yearly course of prac-
tice in all field, reserve, sortie, and mountain batteries is 182
ring shell, 164 shrapnel, and 10 case, and in addition, for
field firing, 15 ring shell and 30 shrapnel for field, etc., and 7
ring shell and 13 shrapnel for horse or light batteries.

For the inspections there are allowed, for each battery, 70
to 100 rounds, to be fired at about 3 A'ersts (about 3,300 yards),
50 to 70 rounds to be fired at about 2 versts, and about 30
rounds to be fired at about 1 verst.

Artillery practice begins about the 1st (our 14th) of August,
and is carried out in the great artillery camps, five in number.

For revolver practice, 20 rounds per pistol are allowed in
the field, and 26 in the horse batteries.

SEACOAST-ARTILLERY TARGET PRACTICE.

No details obtainable.

RIFLE RANGES.

Each camp has a rifle range for the use of all troops sta-
tioned in it, and it must be so arranged that it can be used
for tactical exercises also. It should be about 6,500 paces
long, and firing should be capable of being carried on over
3,500 paces of it.

If sheets of water, marshes, hills, large woods, etc., are in
the rear of the targets, the length of the range may be reduced
to 4,500 paces. The total breadth of a range for an infantry
regiment is 1,000 paces, for a brigade 1,300 paces, and for a
division 1,900 paces. In these figures it is assumed that 8 out
of the 16 companies of a regiment will be using the range
simultaneously. Only four markers' butts are allowed for
each regiment.

FIRING SCHOOLS.

The firing school for infantry oflicers at Oranienbaum is
designed to give instruction in combat firing to ofiicers detailed
yearly for instruction. The number of officers detailed and
range of subjects treated have been greatly increased since
1898. The instructional troops attached to the school have
been increased from a company to a battalion. The courses
of instruction last for seven months, and more stress is now
laid on the training of captains as battalion commanders and
as directors of the scientific investigations of young officers.

138 TARGET PRACTICE IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES.

The firing school of field, mountain, foot, and seacoast
artillery is situated at Tsarskoye-Selo, near St. Petersburg.
Captains of artillery are instructed in the same course as cap-
tains attending the infantry school. Other courses are held
for junior lieutenants of field and mountain artillery in the
summer at Ust-Izhora and Krasnoye-Selo, near St. Petersburg,
and for those of foot and seacoast artillery at Ochakof (44
miles east of Odessa on the Black Sea). By an order of
April 26, 1901, it is provided that generals of infantry and
cavalry, and chiefs of staff of corps and divisions are to be
detailed to artillery firing schools for instruction in material
and fire action of artillery. The course lasts three weeks
and is of a practical character. To illustrate the action of
artillery in attack and defense, infantry and cavalry units
stationed in the vicinity take part in the exercises, for which
a special allowance of ammunition is made.

VII.-SWEDEN.

[Reported by Lieut. Col. William K. Livermore, Corps of Engineers, United States Military Attache,
Copenhagen and Stockholm.]

INFANTRY.

The Course of Instruction.

The course of instruction consists of preparatory drills,
school shooting, drills in estimating and measuring distances,
and field shooting, or a systematic course of drills in fire fight.

PREPARATORY DRILLS.

The preparatory drills are divided into loading, pointing,
aiming, firing, and gallery shooting drills.

Loading. — For drills in loading, dummy cartridges are
used. The men are drilled in loading in all positions, at first
slowly and then by degrees more rapidly. Finally they are
drilled in loading while in motion and with cartridges.

For practice in quick loading the men are drilled in mov-
ing the mechanism quickly backward and forward, at first
without cartridges and then with dummies.

Pointing. — Pointing is first practiced standing, then lying,
with or without support, and then kneeling. The soldier is
also taught to acquire the habit of taking good aiming posi-
tions behind such objects as can be used for protection and
for support to the gun, kneeling on both knees, crouching or
sitting down. For practice in placing the butt against the
shoulder, the men are first practiced in bringing the gun in
the direction of the target by the quickest movement ; and
then in placing the head in position on the butt, and the
index finger of the right hand so that its middle joint rests
against the trigger, which is thereby pressed somewhat back.
Gymnastic exercises with the rifle are practiced as prepara-
tory to the position drill. The object of the drills is to
strengthen the muscles which are mostly called into play in
shooting. These are the muscles of both shoulders and arms,

(139)

140 TARGET PRACTICE IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES.

the work of which consists in raising the rifle to the firing
position and keeping it there as steadily as possible. No
regular time is assigned for these drills, but usually about
five or ten minutes at the beginning and end of each hour of
shooting drill. In gallery shooting and school shooting these
drills are, however, practiced only at the end of the exercise,
so that the men may not be tired during the shooting.

First the gun is brought slowly from the position of order
arms to that of aiming, as, it is said, "The strength of the
movement is increased by the time taken to make the move-
ment, not by the number of times the movement is made.
All the movements are to be made slowly. The left arm to
be exercised as much as the right."

The drill is also to be practiced with a gun in each hand,
the guns are lifted by command.

With the object of increasing the i)ower of the left arm to
support the gun and of strengthening the right wrist, the gun
is brought up to the firing position at the command "With-
out aim. Point," and is kept there for a period which is
gradually increased to one minute ; the gun is also held up
with one hand.

When the right wrist is so well drilled that the gun can be
kept in pointing position without the assistance of the left,
the strength can be increased by repeatedly extending and
bending the right arm.

Aiming. — The instruction begins by explaining the prin-
ciples for aiming.

The aiming drills begin by teaching the men to correct the
line of sight. This is done by placing a gun provided with a
diopter in correct position of aim. Each man must observe
this and afterwards regulate the diopter himself.

When the man has learned to get the correct line of sight,
he is instructed in directing the piece at a target.

The same drills are then repeated without the diopter.

The men's skill in aiming is then tested by a so-called mov-
ing point of direction. At a distance of 15 meters a sheet of
paper is fixed on the wall, and the gun is directed against
some part of the paper. On the paper is held a small target
for gallery practice. The target is then moved horizontally
and vertically, and each man in succession without touching
the gun says when he finds that the target is in the line of

SWEDEN. 141

sight. The man who moves the target puts a small pencil
mark on the place indicated. This is done three times. The
three points thus indicated are then connected by straight
lines and the triangle thus formed shows the error in
aiming.

The men are then taught how to make allowance for wind
and other influences that affect the trajector}^ For this pur-
pose a target for gallery practice is so fixed that it can turn
on its center of gravity. The point is marked which on
account of disturbing causes should be the average point of
impact for the gun in question, and the man must then indi-
cate what point he should aim at to hit the center.

The gun is placed at 15 meters distance from the target,
and the man must direct it so as to counterbalance the deflec-
tion. The target is then turned half around, and if the line
of sight then hits the marked point, the aim has been cor-
rectly taken.

When the man can point correctly he is taught to aim first
with support, then without support, lying and kneeling, and
finally standing. In these drills, especially where a support
is used, the aiming can be controlled by mirrors, which are
screwed on the ground behind the sight.

Pulling the Trigger. — The instructor first shows how
the gun is to be fired by crooking the index finger of the right
hand without jerk until the firing pin is released. The
instruction proceeds gradually, first with support while lying
or standing, and then without support. Attention is at first
fixed on the movement of the index finger, but afterwards the
gun is directed against the target and the instructor observes
and controls it by means of a mirror.

Drills in pulling the trigger should be practiced at each
school-shooting drill.

Loading, Pointing, Aiming, and Firing, Combined. —
After going through a course of preparatory' drills, they prac-
tice them all together, and in connection with drills in esti-
mating distances. The targets should be such as would be
reciuired in war.

Knapsacks of gradually increasing weight are carried dur-
ing the practice.

Gallery Practice. — The object of gallery practice is to
serve as a direct preparation for the school shooting and to
give practice in the use of the sight at long distance.

142

TARGET PRACTICE IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES.

The distance for gallery practice is always 15 meters. The
targets are like those used when firing with loaded ammuni-
tion, but are reduced in proportion to the distance (fig. 1).

1^5^ cpi^ _^

I

^'1

^

Fig. 1.

The 300-meter sight generally is used for gallery shooting.

For the drills in the use of the sight at long distances the
aim is taken at a low point of direction, and the hits are
caught on a higher target.

SCHOOL SHOOTING.

The school shooting includes precision drills and applica-
tion drills, singly and in squads.

The object of precision drills is to acquire accuracy in firing
at an ordinary target and to lay the foundations of fire
discipline.

The object of the application drills is to give practice in
shooting, against field targets, to develop fire discipline, and
the knowledge of the results which can be expected from
firing.

Ordinary targets are used for precision drills (fig. 2).

SWEDEN.

143

The targets for the application drills are half figures and
one-third figures (figs. 3, 4, 5, and 6).

They are usually pasted on boards 170 centimeters high
and 180 centimeters wide. When using three one-third size

.AS.Cjrh

-_i_

±

Fig. 3.

figures pasted on a board the figures should be evenly divided
on the board and a vertical line should be drawn at 40 centi-

^-Aoc!n-^

Fig. 4.

i

1^ -ty£m^ ^

Jk..if

Fig. 5. Fig. 6.

meters' distance on each side of the central line of the target
(fig-. 0).

144 TARGET PRACTICE IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES.

On targets with pasted figures the lower part is shaded by
dashes or gray color to represent the cover behind which the
target is supposed to appear.

To each practice ground is assigned :

One officer as chief, the necessary number of officers or
underofficers as detachment commanders, and the necessary
number of underofficers as squad commanders.

Shooting squads, one to each target; one or two men to
each target as markers, and one underofficer for each group
of four targets, to have charge of the markers for these tar-
gets, and, if the shooting is directed against more than one
group of targets, one officer for the markers' detachment'.

If the practice ground is arranged with swing targets, one
man for each signal apparatus, and if the ground is arranged
for fixed targets, one, or, when shooting at long distances and
in windy weather, two buglers or drummers, and finally, men
for the necessary posts as sentries.

At precision drills, which are not competitive, the squad
commander orders the position for firing, the placing of the
sight, and the aim. When the command "Fire" has been
given by the commander, the man himself fires when he is
ready. When the man has fired, he reports to the squad
commander how the line of sight seemed to be directed with
relation to the center of the target, at the moment he fired.

The squad commander takes, during the shooting, a place
from which he can observe the whole firing without causing
the man any discomfort. He observes whether the man han-
dles his gun properly, and tries during the drill by means of
the controlling mirror to observe the errors, and gives the
necessary information and instruction, but avoids disturbing
the man while shooting.

During individual application drills, and during competi-
tive precision drills, the men must have more freedom, but
are still under the supervision of the squad commanders. If
the ground is arranged for swinging targets each shot is
usually marked as soon as it is fired.

When the ground is arranged for fixed targets the mark-
ing, as a rule, is made after every second or third shot.

In application drills in detachments, the respective detach-
ment chiefs bring the detachment to the firing position, and
order the fire according to the drill regulations. The mark-
ing, as a rule, is done after the shooting is completed.

SWEDEN. 145

Marking. — When marking on a target, the value of the hit
is first given, and then the position.

The value of the hit is given by holding the disk in the
center of the upper side of the target for hits in the bull's-
eye (5) ; in the upper right corner of the target for hits in the
ring (4).

The position of the hit is given immediately after by plac-
ing the center of the disk just over the hole caused by the
bullet with that side turned to the firing point which will be
best visible.

In individual firing at a figure target when the shot strikes,
the disk is held straight up, and then the position of the hit
is indicated as above.

When shooting by detachments, the results are reported by
telephone, or by showing the disk to the left for the tens, and
to the right for the units.

DRILLS IN ESTIMATING AND MEASURING DISTANCES.

Measuring Distances. — Distances are estimated in the
field either by pacing, or by measuring on charts, or with a
bicycle, or by trial shots. Both officers and men should be
able to measure distances by pacing. All subaltern officers
should have some knowledge of, and exercise in, the use of
the distance measure adopted for the infantry.

Estimating Distances. — Men are practiced in estimating
distances up to GOO meters; officers uj) to 1,500 meters.

Privates who seem to have an aptitude for it are also to be
exercised in estimating up to 1,500 meters. At least twelve
men in each company are selected for this purpose. They are
usually detailed as helpers in estimating distances, and as
orderlies during a fight.

The drills begin by placing men at a distance of 200, 400,
and 600 meters from the party to be exercised, and these men
take different positions according to previously arranged sig-
nals. The leader explains to the detachment what the different
distances are, how the fire is to be regulated, etc., all of which
the men must try to impress upon their minds. This drill is
repeated as often as necessary.

When some accuracy has been attained in these and other
drills, the men begin to estimate distances in different terrain.

The drills are made from different shooting positions, es-
pecially lying down.

146 TARGET PRACTICE IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES.

For educating the officers, and the men detailed from the
ranks, the usual course of instruction is taken first, and then
extended to distances from 600 to 1,500 meters.

The instructions explain that, as a rule, the distances are
estimated too long in the dusk, in cloudy and rainy weather;
but, on the contrary, too short in a fine, clear atmosphere,
especially if the sun shines on the target; too long over
broken ground and along streets, alleys, and roads, but too
short over ground sloping away from the observer, over water
and over fields.

The drills for the men at last take the form of direct prep-
aration for field shooting.

FIELD SHOOTING.

General Rules. — The field shooting must take place
under war conditions.

Field shooting is of two kinds, individual and by detach-
ment.

Individual Field Shooting. — This has for its object, to
drill the soldier in adapting the skill acquired in previous
drills to the conditions which will occur in the field, to teach
him to adjust his aim to the distance, etc., and to take the best
possible position for shooting.

In individual field shooting each man must, therefore, have
his target, which, as far as possible, must be similar to those
presented in actual warfare.

The man must be left entirely to himself in the choice of
position and aim, but as soon as he has fired one or two shots
he should be corrected if necessary, and to this end the shots
should be marked.

These drills are best conducted by platoons. One or more
targets are set up for each of the firing points fixed by the
leader. Each man in succession must then practice against
each of the targets.

Corrections are made, under the direction of the officer, by
the underofficer for each target, who is the score-keeper.

The leader sees that the drills are made with a definite ob-
ject in view.

After the man has finished shooting, the number and posi-
tions of the hits are marked and recorded in his presence.

Field Shooting in Detachments. — Field shooting in de-
tachments is a drill which as far as possible should have the

SWEDEN. 147

character of a fight with loaded ammunition. In this exer-
cise the object is to practice the leaders in guiding the fire
under conditions as near like those occurring in the field as
possible, and to exercise the men under all conditions, in
keeping their discipline and steadiness.

These drills should be based on a simple supposition and
have a certain object in view. The targets, which are to be
like those in war, are to be arranged accordingly. It would
be well if the movements and fire of the enemy could be
marked.

Field shooting in detachment is always to be commanded
by a specially appointed officer. This officer arranges the
targets according to the supposition given, and takes the nec-
essary precautions for safety. He gives to the respective
commanders of the shooting detachments, the markers, senti-
nels, etc., the necessary instructions. He also decides when
the maneuver is to commence, follows its course closely, and
stops it when he finds cause. As many officers as necessary
are placed at the disposal of the chief, to supervise the record,
etc. Orderlies and trumpeters are also placed at his disposal.
After the end of the drill the leader holds a critique.

The results of the shooting, which are always to be made
known to the men taking part in the drill, are also to be criti-
cised in the critique so that the causes of good and bad firing
may, as far as possible, be made clear to the detachment.

The leader makes a report of the drill.

APPORTIONMENT OF THE DRILLS.

Recruit School. — The preparatory drills are practiced
with great care. The recruit must, if he is to be regarded ap
well practiced in loading, pointing, aiming, and firing, be
able to deliver, in any position 10 shots a minute against a
target. In detachments of the size of a platoon the loading
after a volley must be done in two seconds, and the filling of
an empty magazine in eight seconds.

Gallery shooting is conducted according to a prescribed
table, but the requirements of this table may be increased.
For cadre recruits are assigned, at the utmost, 200 rounds per
man, and for the conscript recruits, 100 rounds.

The prescribed school shooting for the cadre recruits of the
first class comprises :

Precision practice of nine scores of 5 shots each at the school
or ring target — two scores at 100 meters, one at 200 meters,

148 TARGET PRACTICE IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES.

and six at 300 meters, position prone, kneeling, and standing,
and with and without rest, as proficiency is attained. The
requirements are that all shots shall be hits, 3 of the hits in
the first five scores to be bull's-eyes, in the last four scores to
be bull's-eye (5), or in the ring (4).

Individual applied practice, nine scores, two at 200 meters,
at the one-third figure, two at 300 meters, at the half figure ;
requirements 3 and 2 hits, according to position — prone in
first scores, and 2 shots prone and 3 kneeling in second scores
at each range ; one score at 400 meters at the full figure, and
two scores at target 6 ; two scores at GOO meters at target 6 ;
requirements, 2 or 3 hits according to position and size of
target.

The detachment applied practice is of two kinds, first,
where the detachment of four men in line, prone or kneeling,
fires at the command of the chief, each man at his own target,
and, second, where the detachment or platoon, also in closed
line, prone or kneeling, fires, by command of the chief, at a
common target. Eleven scores are fired in this practice at
300, 400, and 600 meters. The target used at 300 meters is
the half figure and at the other ranges target 6, the require-
ment being 2 or 3 hits when firing at individual targets, and
40 or 50 per cent of hits when firing at a common target,
depending on the position, prone or kneeling.

After going through the apj)lied drill they should, if occa-
sion offers, repeat at least five times a precision score of 5
shots, 2 lying, 2 kneeling, and 1 standing, against a target at
300 meters, with no restriction as to result ; 250 cartridges are
allowed each man for this practice.

For cadre recruits of the second class, drills according to
a program fixed by the regimental chief, with 25 cartridges
for each man ; for conscript recruits, 90 to 100 cartridges for
each man.

From the beginning of the application drills packs are car-
ried, increasing in weight up to that carried in the field.

Cadre recruits who do not fulfill the requirements of a drill
should repeat the same before the next drill commences,
under careful guidance. The scores in which the recruit does
not qualify after the first shooting are to be repeated if occa-
sion offers.

To qualify in shooting the cadre recruit must be able to
fulfill the demands in at least ten scores of the applied drills,

SWEDEN. 149

where each, man shoots against a special target, and in at
least three scores against a common target, and besides this
he must make 30 points in precision drill with competitive
scores.

Individual field shooting is practiced by the cadre recruits,
and if possible also by the conscript recruits. At the most
20 cartridges for the cadre recruits and 10 for the conscript
recruits are assigned to each ma,n.

Field shooting in squads is practiced only by the cadre
recruits ; 20 cartridges are assigned to each man.

Regimental Drills. — After a few preparatory drills,
school shooting is conducted as in the recruit school, but on
a much smaller scale. Packs are carried in all the drills.
Field shooting in detachments is practiced yearly with 20
cartridges for each man.

Corporals' and Underofficers' Schools. — After a few
preparatory drills, school shooting is carried as far as the
supply of ammunition permits.

Field shooting, singly and by detachment, and drills in
firing against disappearing and moving targets, are conducted
according to plans fixed by the respective chiefs.

To each pupil are assigned 120 cartridges.

Practice for Officers. — No more ammunition is used
than the object in view demands.

PRIZE SHOOTING AND PRIZES.

General Rules. — Prize shootings are held by each regi-
ment and "corps" or battalion.

The right to take part in the regimental competitions is
limited to -40; in the "corps" or battalion to 20 of the men
who have fulfilled the requirements of the school shooting at
the regimental meetings and made the highest number of
points in precision drills.

If necessary for the selection, preliminary competitions may
be held.

Prize Shooting. — Prize shooting takes place during the
regimental meeting on a day when the conditions of weather,
etc., are as favorable as possible, and when those who take
part have not recently been fatigued by long field maneuvers,
etc.

The prize shooting is arranged and conducted like a pre-
cision drill "with competitive scores," excepting that no pack

150 TARGET PRACTICE IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES.

is carried, that officers are detailed as detachment com-
manders, and as chiefs for the markers and that for each
target an underofficer is detailed to watch the markers.

Prizes. — The prizes are:

Silver medals to wear on the breast ; badges, two crossed
rifles of red cloth, to wear on the right forearm ; and money
prizes; and as a distiiiction and reward for good distance
judges, a five-pointed star of red cloth to wear on the right
forearm.

For distribution as money prizes each regiment receives
annually 300 kronor, for four prizes at 20 kronor, eight prizes
at 10 kronor, and twenty-eight prizes at 5 kronor.

Each corps or battalion receives annually 150 kronor, for
two prizes at 20 kronor, four prizes at 10 kronor, and four-
teen prizes at 5 kronor,

A "shooting medal" is given to the one who at the jDrize
shooting makes 45 points, or who in two succeeding years
gets 43 points, if he has not already a medal.

Shooting badges are also given to those who receive shoot-
ing medals, and to those who in two succeeding years have
fulfilled the requirements of the school shooting at the regi-
mental meetings, and received at least 40 points in precision
shooting.

Those who receive this mark of distinction are called
marksmen.

Money prizes are given to all who at a prize shooting make
at least 30 points.

Prize money not distributed may by order of the regimental
commander be divided between the "distance judges."

The distribution of prizes takes place in the presence of
the whole regiment, corps or battalion.

Figs. 2 to 6 represent the ordinary forms of fixed target.
Disappearing and moving targets are described in the account
of artillery practice.

A detailed description of the method of using these targets
at the rifle range at Rosersberg would be equivalent to a
treatise on applied tactics.

This rifle range lies at a distance of 15 or 20 miles from
Stockholm and occupies the extensive grounds and buildings
of an old palace or castle, including all kinds of terrain for

SWEDEN, 151

preliminary and field practice. Tlie exercises in the latter
are made to approach as nearly as possible to actual warfare.

Each day's exercise is intended to represent part of some
definite military ojDeration.

The general and special ideas are explained as in kriegs-
spiel or at grand maneuvers. The men know only as much
of the movements of the enemy represented by the moving
and disappearing targets as they are assumed to know during
the battle in which they are supposed to be engaged. These
targets are placed and colored as much like the enemy as
possible, and sometimes no little skill is required to find them
when they appear suddenly at a considerable distance in the
shade and with their heads just showing from time to time
behind the rocks or bushes. The discussion which follows
each day's practice gives to both officers and soldiers a most
vivid and practical idea of the use of varied ground in mili-
tary operations.

This rifle range and infantry shooting school is also a col-
lege for the development of the scientific as well as the prac-
tical side of the subject, where new arms and new methods
are thoroughly tested, studied, and discussed.

CAVALRY.

The practice in shooting for the cavalry is essentially the
same as that for the infantry excepting that the cavalry do
not carry their knapsacks.

They are practiced in estimating distances when mounted
as well as dismounted.

Apportionment of the Drills.

recruit shooting.

Gallery shooting is conducted according to a prescribed
table,, but the requirements of this table may be increased by
order of the commanding officer. One hundred cartridges
per man are allowed for these drills.

The school shooting for the cadre recruits comprises seven
scores of 5 shots each, at ranges from 100 to 300 meters, firing
at the school target ; requirements, all shots to be hits, and 3
of the hits in each score to be in the bull's-eye or in ring 4.

Five scores of individual and detachment applied practice,
at the one-third and half figures, at 100, 200, and 300 meters,

152 TARGET PRACTICE IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES.

and at target 6, at 400 and 500 meters. The first two shots in
each of the first four scores are delivered individually, and
the last three by the squad in line, each man firing at his own
target. In the fifth score the men of the squad all fire at the
same target.

Twelve shots, 5 lying, 5 kneeling, and 2 standing, are fired
in competitive shooting at the school target. Requirements,
25 points. One hundred and twenty cartridges are allowed
each man.

For conscript recruits only a few exercises are prescribed.

Cadre recruits who do not fulfill the requirements in a drill
should repeat the same under careful supervision. The scores
in which the recruit, after the first shooting, does not qualify,
must, if possible, be repeated.

To qualify in shooting the cadre recruit must have fulfilled
the requirements in at least two of the applied drills, where
each man shoots against his own target ; in at least one drill
where the shooting takes place against a common target ; and
in precision drills with competitive scores he must have made
at least 25 points.

Field shooting (single and in squads) is practiced only with
the cadre recruits. Twenty cartridges per man are allowed
for the field shooting, besides the ammunition left over from
the school of shooting.

REGIMENTAL DRILLS.

A short course of school shooting is held, one score of pre-
cision practice at 300 meters, one of applied practice at 400
meters, and 12 shots in competitive firing, the same as in the
recruit school, at which 35 points must be made to qualify.

Preparatory drills for field shooting and field shooting in
detachments are practiced yearly. Twenty cartridges are
allowed for each man taking part in these drills.

corporals' and underofficers' school.

The preparatory drills are repeated and school shooting is
practiced to the extent allowed by the ammunition according
to a program fixed by the respective chiefs.

Field shooting, if possible both single and in squads, is
practiced according to the instructions of the respective chiefs.

Sixty cartridges are assigned to each pupil.

SWEDEN. 153

DRILLS FOR THE OFFICERS.

No more ammunition is used than necessary.
Captains and senior underoflficers may be excused from
these drills.

PRIZE SHOOTIXG.

Prize shooting is arranged yearly in each regiment.

The right to take part in these prize shootings in a regiment
of 10 squadrons is limited to 40, in a regiment of 5 squadrons
to 20. of the men who have fulfilled the requirements of the
school shooting in the regimental drills, and who in the pre-
cision drill with competitive scores have gained the highest
number of points.

If necessary for the selection, preliminary competitions may
be held.

REVOLVER PRACTICE.

The course of instruction consists of preparatory drills, and
firing with loaded ammunition.

PREPARATORY DRILLS.

The preparatory drills are divided into : Handling the re-
volver, positions, etc., loading and unloading, pointing, aim-
ing, pulling the trigger, and firing with blank cartridges.

Handling. — After the recruit has been taught the mechan-
ism of the revolver and the use of its several parts, he is taught
to take the positions "Revolver in" and "Revolver out." In
the former the pistol is in its holster, in the latter, as shown
in fig. 10.

Loading and Unloading are then practiced from the posi-
tion of "revolver out."

Pointing. — The recruit is taught to take the position with
his revolver cocked, the arm extended, and the line of sight
horizontal, etc.

Aiming. — The line of sight, etc., is explained to the recruit.
As the revolver is, in general, used only for short ranges, not
over 40 meters, the point of aim is for all distances taken at
the upper part of the enemy's body. This point is marked
on the target (fig. 7) by an ordinary patch or paster used to
cover the bullet holes.

The revolver is then set on its stand (fig. 8), the line of sight
directed upon the bottom of the patch at a distance of 10
meters, and each man is called in turn to see how it is pointed.

154

TARGET PRACTICE IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES.

Each man is then taught to j)lace the revolver himself, and
criticise the position taken by the others.

They are then taught to aim with support. The man first
takes the position of aim and then the support is brought
under his hand (fig. 9). He is then told to retain the aim as
long as possible and when either his arm or eye is tired, or
when so commanded, to take the position of "revolver out."

The same exercise is then repeated without the rest.

Fig. 7.

The instructor must not allow the pistol to be pointed at
his own eye, in order to test accuracy of the aim, but it may
be pointed against the image of his eye in a mirror.

Pulling the Trigger. — So much depends upon skill in
pulling the trigger without disturbing the aim that these

SWEDEN.

155

exercises should be repeated frequently at unexpected mo-
ments, as well as at the time expressly set apart for the
purpose.

The instructor first explains how to pull steadily with the
finger without disturbing the aim or moving any other part
of the body; first with support (fig. 9), and then without. If
he can not keep the sight on the target long enough to pull
the trigger gradually he is taught to come to the position of
"revolver out" and rest.

Fig. 9.

The recruit is then instructed to combine the movements
of pointing, aiming, etc., by comrnand, and then go through
the motions of firing one, two, three, etc., shots by command;
finally at the command "Fire," to go through the motions of
firing six shots.

156

TARGET PRACTICE IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES.

Firing with Blank Cartridges is practiced to accustom
the recruit to the report of the piece. Sometimes without
the knowledge of the recruit the cartridges are not all loaded,
so that his unsteadiness will be more evident.

Fig. 10.

Each man fires 3 blank cartridges with support, and 3
without.

FIRING WITH LOADED AMMUNITION.

These exercises are at first conducted under the most favor-
able circumstances of weather, light, etc., and nothing is
permitted to disturb the recruit in his first effort.

The target is a colored figure of a soldier (fig. 7). A hit
within the 4nner oval line (bull's-eye) counts 3, the next, 2,
on the figure, 1.

The men come up in turn and fire after the instructor has
given the command "Point; aim; fire 1, (2, 3, etc.) shots"

SWEDEN.

157

or simply "Fire." If not otherwise specified, 6 shots are fired
in succession. After all are fired and the man comes back
to the position of "revolver in," the instructor commands
"Forward." They go to the target and the shots are marked
and covered (see figures).

Fig. 11.

APPORTIONMENT OF THE EXERCISES.

Officers and Underofficers. — Captains and older under-
ofificers can be excused from the school-shooting drills.

PRIZE SHOOTING AND PRIZES.

General Rules. — Prize shooting is held by each regiment,
and corps or battalion.

The right to take part in the regimental competitions is
limited to 40, in the "corps" or battalion to 20, of the men
who have fulfilled the requirements of the school shooting
at the regimental meetings, and made the highest number

158 TARGET PRACTICE IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES.

of points in precision drills. If necessary for the selection,
preliminary competitions may be held.

Prize Shooting. — Prize shooting takes place during the
regimental meeting on a day when the conditions of air,
weather, etc., are as favorable as possible, and when those
who take part have not recently been fatigued by long field
maneuvers, etc.

The prize shooting is arranged and conducted like a pre-
cision drill "with point calculation" excepting that no pack
is carried; that officers are detailed for detachment com-
manders and as chiefs for the markers, and that to each
target an underofficer is detailed to watch the markers.

Prizes. — The prizes are :

Shooting medals of silver to wear on the breast.

Shooting marks, two crossed rifles of red cloth, to wear on
the right forearm ; and

Money prizes, and, as a distinction and reward for good
distance judges, a five-pointed star on red cloth to wear on
the right forearm.

For distribution as money prizes each regiment receives
annually 300 kronor, for four prizes of 20 kronor, eight prized
at 10 kronor, and twenty-eight prizes of 5 kronor.

Each corps or battalion receives annually 150 kronor, for
two prizes of 20 kronor, four prizes of 10 kronor, and fourteen
prizes of 5 kronor.

A "shooting medal" is given to the one who at the prize
shooting makes 45 points, or who in two succeeding years
gets 43 points, if he has not already a medal.

Shooting badges are also given to those who receive shooting
medals and to those who in two successive years have fulfilled
the requirements of the school shooting at the regimental
meetings, and received at least 40 points in precision shooting.

Those who receive this mark of distinction are called
marksmen.

Money prizes are given to all who, at a prize shooting,
make at least 30 points.

Money prizes not distributed may, by order of the regi-
mental commander, be divided between the "distance judges."

The distribution of prizes takes place in the presence of the
whole regiment, corps, or battalion.

Records and reports are required of all kinds of shooting.

SWEDEN.
Revolver practice for officers and underofficers.

159

No.

Distance

Xuiiilier

ill meters.

ot shots.

1

10

3

2

10

3

3

20

3

4

•20

3

5

30

3

6

30

3

7

15

3

8

15

3

Manner of sliootiiig.

With siiiiport, point of aim marked

Vitlumt Kupport, point of aim markeii

Willi siipiiort, point of aim marked

Without support, point of aim marked

Witli support, point of aim marked

■Without support, point of aim marked

With support, point of aim marked

Without support, point of aim marked

l{e<iuirement8.

All in the figure.
Do.
Do.
Do.
Do.
Do.
Do.
Do.

Ill exercises 7 and 8 the "weapon is used as a self-cocker,
and tlie time for each exercise is limited to 10 seconds at the
most.

Anyone who does not qualify must, in a subsequent year,
repeat the preparatory exercises as well as those in this table.
Anyone who has qualified is excused from preparatory exer-
cises and practices according to a program drawn up by the
chief of the regiment, with the restriction that the target
shall be the figure of a soldier,' and that 6 shots shall be fired
with the revolver used as a self-cocker and within the speci-
fied time.

MISCELLANEOUS TROOPS.

Special tables are prepared for cavalry sergeants and musi-
cians, men of field artillery, the field-telegraph companies,
for the train, and for the hospital troops.

In all cases, except for the officers and underofficers, those
men who do not qualify shall, whenever there may be an
opportunity, repeat the exercises preceded by the preparatory
exercises.

PRIZE SHOOTING.

Prize competitions are held annually for each field-telegraph
company, and each company of hospital troops.

Prizes. — For each field-telegraph company one of 20
kronor, one of 10 kronor, and three of 5 kronor.

For each hospital company one of 10 kronor and one of 5
kronor.

field artillery.

The field artillery is equipped with S.l-centimeter guns,
model '81 and model '94, and with 7.5-centimeter guns, model
'87 (Krupp).

IGO tar(;et practice in foreign countries.

Field artillery practice in Sweden is partly regimental and
partly special. The former is conducted by battery, division,
etc., the latter in the shooting schools.

The exercises in firing comprise instruction shooting for
recruits, practice shooting, field shooting, and prize shooting.

If local conditions and other circumstances permit, there
is held yearly, during the repetition exercises, instruction
shooting for recruits, practice shooting and field shooting
with the whole battery, field shooting in division with the
wliole division, and prize shooting.

At the summer exercises of the constable school, practice
shooting and field shooting by battery.

The artillery ammunition assigned to every regiment for
its year's shooting is divided among the batteries by the
regimental commander after he has set aside what is required
for instruction shooting, prize shooting, and the constable
school ; and he then takes into consideration the proficiency
of the dift'erent batteries, so. that, as far as possible, all the
batteries may obtain the same skill in shooting. The chief
of the regiment indicates also the amount of ammunition
which is considered sufficient for field shooting by division.
He also instructs the proper chief of division, or the chief of
the underofficers' school, about the distribution of the ammu-
nition for various kinds of shooting. For field shooting it is
not definitely stipulated how much ammunition should be
used. The battery commander only indicates what kind of
ammunition is available, and the shooting continues until it
is stopped by the leader when he considers that the object has
been attained, or when the ammunition has been used up.

The captain who, as below indicated, directs the instruction
shooting for recruits, draws up a program for the purpose,
which is submitted to the chief of division who supervises
the shooting.

To carry out the practice shooting, and the field shooting
by battery, more definite instructions are given by the chief
of division, or the chief of the underofiicers' school, and for
the field shooting by division, by the chief of the regiment.

As it is impossible in one year to solve all the problems
which should be considered, it is necessarj^ to follow a scheme
prepared beforehand for several years.

In assigning the problems, consideration is taken of the
relative proficiency of the officers.

SWEDEN. 161

In order to develop uniformity in their instruction, the
problems should be interchanged as much as possible.

After the battery officers have reported upon their task,
explaining how it was solved by them, and the motive for a
possible deviation from the regulations, the leader holds a
critique in the held. He criticises the selection of the firing
position, the method of coming into battery, the battery
commanders' method of conducting the fire, arrangements
for the observer, etc.

Immediately after the written report of the shooting of the
school has been received, the leader holds another critique in
which he explains how far the problem has been solved and
whether it was solved in the simplest manner.

Special attention is given to the effect of errors in obser-
vation.

In criticising field shooting, great attention is given to the
time required to develop an effective fire, and the nature and
extent of the results of this fire.

POINTING DRILLS.

The men are taught, first, to point the. gun at a vertical and
then at a horizontal line, then at a bull's-eye, then at a target
moving forward and back; and then, for firing with canister,
against disappearing targets; and finally against such targets
and other objects as would be presented in the field.

INSTRUCTION SHOOTING FOR RECRUITS.

The object of this shooting is partly to accustom the troops
to firing with loaded ammunition, partly to show the accu-
racy of the piece and what influence the changes in elevation
and azimuth exert on the shot, and partly to show the effect
of the projectile and the circumstances which influence it.

The firing is conducted with one gun at a distance of from
300 to 1,000 meters, and it is instructive in its nature, so that
no change is made in elevation or azimuth, or in setting the
fuse, without explaining the object to be attained and show-
ing immediately the result.

In firing with shells the influence of greater or less accuracy
in pointing is shown, as well as that of changing the elevation
or azimuth, that of the point of burst, and of the nature of
the ground where the shell strikes.

1<!".* TAKC.KT I'KACTU K IN FoKKKiN < OlNTHIKS

In firing with shrapnel it is shown how the effect of this
projectile is dependent upon the height and distance of the
point of burst, and how this ])oint is affected by the elevation
and by the setting of the fuse.

In firing with canister, the comparatively slight effect of
changes in pointing is explained both in elevation and in
azimuth.

School targets and platoon targets are used in this drill.

PRACTICE SHOOTING.

This shooting is to bo regarded as a preparation for field
shooting and has for its object to instruct and practice offi-
cers, underofficers, and men in their duties in shooting.

Shooting is always conducted by battery, and the command
is taken in turn by the second captain with the batterj', and
by the lieutenants, who are chiefs of section, and sometimes
by the ordinary battery chief. During these shootings the
underofficers have, from time to time, opportunity to act as
chiefs of section, and the second constables as chiefs of piece.
In practice shooting at a constable school, as many pupils as
possible should have an opportunity to act as chief of piece.

The targets are platoon figures arranged as firing lines,
gun and limbers: but the supports and the cannoneers should
not be marked, because in this exercise tlie effect is not
considered.

The firing is continued only iintil the sights have been
atl justed and the fire has been regulated.

Coming into position should be execute<i as far as possible
as it would be in action.

As this practice is essentially for instruction, rapidity is
not as iniportant as it is in field shooting, but more attention
is given to see that the men follow their instructions accu-
rately in handling the gun and the ammunition.

No instruction is given during the shooting. When it is
necessary the fire is stopped. The regular chief of the bat-
tery, especially when he is not directing it, follows the course
of the firing in order to learn what defects in instruction are
developed.'

The chief of division or chief of the underofficers' school is
present at the practice shooting and acts as a leader.

SWKDEX. 163

FIELP SHOOTIXG BY BATTERY.

The object of this shooting is to accustom the battery chief
to direct the fire, aud to teach the rest of the persouuel their
duties in action.

If local circumstances permit, every field exercise should
be based on a tactical problem which is given to the battery
chief by the leader immediately before the firing is to take
place.

In accordance with the problem, the battery chief selects
the site to be occupied by the battery, unlimbers, and selects
the kind of projectile if this has not been specified, and opens
fire.

If local conditions do not permit of giving a tactical basis
to the problem, the leader tells the chief of battery where the
battery should unlimber and at what target he should fire.

In firing, the regulations for drill and for shooting should
be strictly observed. Especial weight is given to the rapidity
of finding the range and completing the trial shooting.

The shooting is watched by the chief of di^-ision, or chief
of the underofficers' school who acts as leader.

BY DIVISION .

This shooting is chiefly designed to practice chiefs of divi-
sion in directing the fire of two or more batteries, and to
accustom the rest of the personnel to those circumstances
that make the firing of a division more difficult than that of
a separate battery, and to the greater difficulty in hearing
the word of command and observing the shots, etc.

As the chief of di\-ision can not have an opportunity to
perform his functions in directing the fire unless it be kept
up for some time, as much ammunition is allotted for each
field practice by division as the supply on hand permits.

The exercises are so planned as to require the immediate
direction of the chief of di\*isiou. This is effected by the
changing of the target for the whole division, or by orders
from the regimental commander to the chief of division either
to divide the fire of the division between different targets
or to concentrate it against the same target, and it is left
for the chief of division to specify how this change shall be
effected.

]64 TARGET PRACTICE IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES.

At times also in division shooting a target should appear
against which the battery chiefs should turn their fire with-
out waiting for orders from the chief of division.

The regimental commander himself should act as leader at
this shooting and conduct the critique of the work of the
chief of division. The critique of battery commanders is
incumbent upon the chief of division.

PRIZE COMPETITION.

Each gun fires 8 shells with bursting charge and smokeless
powder against a target placed at 600 meters' distance, the
target being 3.3 meters square and provided with a bull's-eye
of a diameter of 40 centimeters, and seven rings of respec-
tively 40, 60, 80, 100, 130, 140, and 160 centimeters' radius.
The first 3 shots are trial shots and are fired with the same
elevation and deviation. The center of impact is marked
with a small point and the chief of piece makes the necessary
alterations in the elevation and azimuth corresponding to the
distance of the center of impact from the center of the target.

After these adjustments have been made, the remaining 5
shots are fired for "points." Each hit, the center of which
falls in the bull's-eye, is counted for 8 points; between the
bull's-eye and the first ring, 7 jjoints; the first circle and
second, 6; the second and third, 5; the third and fourth, 4;
the fourth and fifth, 3 ; the fifth and sixth, 3 ; the sixth and
seventh, 1 ; other hits, 0.

The number of hits for each gun is recorded and the time
occupied in the shooting for points, which is counted for each
gun from the firing of the fourth shot to the firing of the
eighth shot, inclusive ; and the order in which the prizes are
distributed is regulated only by the number of points received
if the time occupied in the shooting for points has not exceeded
two minutes, unless a projectile has either failed to hit the
target, or only hit in the ricochet, in which case no prize can
be given.

If an even number of points be made, the distance of the
hits, made during the shooting for points, from the center of
the target is measured and preference is given to the one for
which the sum of these distances is the least. When the
sums are the same the preference is decided by drawing lots.

Shooting medals of silver are distributed yearly to the
chiefs of piece who in the prize shooting have received prizes

SWEDEN. 165

and at least 32 points, and a requisition for the shooting
medals is sent to the inspector of artillery as soon as possible
after the competition, accompanied by drawings showing the
hits, provided that more than 32 points have been obtained.
Shooting medals are given but once to the same person.

SHOOTING SCHOOL.

Shooting School for Senior Officers. — The purpose
of the school is to give the officers of the field artillery prac-
tice in making a correct and rapid application of the shooting
regulations, and to give them clear and correct ideas about
the use and effect of artillery fire, also to give the nnder-
officers of the field artillery practical skill, as well in firing as
in other duties which may devolve upon them in the field.

The school is under the orders of the chief of ordnance
and inspector of artillery, who inspects it and directs its work
according to the requirements of the moment, as well as
those published as general orders.

The personnel of the school consists of the staff, officers
ordered to go through the course, the helpers, an instruction
battery, and, during that part of the course which is fixed by
general orders for each year, the underofficers' schools of the
first and second Svea artillery regiments, which are placed
at the disposal of this school.

The staff consists of the chief, the adjutant, 2 range officers
(one of whom is range captain), surgeons, veterinary sur-
geons, 3 underofficers (2 range underofficers for duty with the
range captain, and 1 in the kitchen), and 4 privates.

The officers commanded to go through the course consist
of 2 regimental officers and 10 captains.

The helpers are 1 first constable, 24 privates, and 3 artisan
soldiers (1 smith and 2 wood-workers).

The personnel of the battery of instruction consists of 1
chief of battery, 3 chiefs of detachment, 1 battery adjutant,
6 to 7 sergeants, 40 constables, 1 detachment trumpeter, and
54 privates, of which 1 is a hospital soldier and 2 are horse-
shoeing soldiers.

Besides the horses of the regimental officers, the school is
allowed 3 to 6 service horses, 35 saddle, and 60 draft horses.

The personnel is appointed for each course of instruction
as follows :

Officers belonging to the staff, the regimental officers, and
the chief of the instruction battery, are appointed by the king

166 TARGET PRACTICE IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES.

on the recommendation of the chief of ordnance and inspector
of artillery.

The remaining ofl&cers, the nnderofficers who belong to the
staff, and the artisan soldiers are appointed from the regi-
ment which the king designates, on the recommendation of
the chief of ordnance and inspector of artillery.

The surgeon and veterinary surgeon are appointed by the
medical department.

Of the privates of the staff, two are appointed from the regi-
ment to which the chief of the school belongs, and one from
each of the regiments to which the regimental officers ordered
to the course belong.

Of the helpers, eight privates are ordered from each of two
artillery regiments, and one constable and eight privates from
the Norrland artillery regiment.

Of the personnel of the instruction battery, the battery ad-
jutant and the detachment trumpeter are ordered from the
regiment to which the chief of the battery belongs, and the
nnderofficers and privates are detailed from the different regi-
ments.

The ten captains take the course of instruction before they
are appointed chiefs of the battery.

Sergeants who have shown special ability in aiming are
detailed as chiefs of piece, and constables who are likely to
become nnderofficers are detailed as pupils in the instruction
battery.

The privates, who are assigned to the instruction battery,
are used as drivers, horse-holders, and grooms.

The school is established at the MarmA, range and is allowed
to use tha buildings and the materiel, etc., of the artillery
there. It begins each year on the day appointed by general
order and lasts 42 days.

Duties, Instruction, and Practice. — The chief of the
school directs the education and is responsible for the disci-
pline and maintenance of order.

The chief of the instruction battery is under the direct
command of the chief of the school, and regulates the duties,
as well as the education and drills of the battery.

The range captain, who is under the direct command of the
chief of the school, observes strictly his instructions with
regard to the shooting as well as those of the regimental

SWEDEN. 167

officers in command, and is responsible for order on the firing
ground, and for the record of the results of firing.

The education in the school is as follows :

For the officers ordered to take the course. — Shooting drills
with field pieces in battery and in division, and shooting drills
with revolver.

Besides this, the chief lays out a course of short lectures by
the officers, illustrated, if possible, by examples, explaining
the shooting regulations, the method of shooting with field
artillery in foreign countries, the construction and use of
the distance measurer, fire tactics, etc.

With the instruction battery. — Theoretical education, as a
necessary preparation for, or explanation of, the practical
drills ; drills with the field pieces in connection with aiming
drills, partly under difficult circumstances; shooting drills
with field pieces; drills in accurate management of the gun,
the mechanism and the ammunition; shooting drills with
revolver; setting up telephone wires and telephoning; field
fortification drills; the use of maps on the terrain, and the
solution of tactical problems.

In the shooting drills with guns in battery attended by the
officers, the regimental officers act as leaders under tlie super-
vision of the chief of the school, the captains act as battery
commanders; the chiefs of section ordered to the instruction
battery, commonly as chiefs of section; the sergeants ordered
to the same battery (with the exception of the battalion adju-
tant) alternately as commanding the fourth section, if chiefs
of piece, or, as the chief of the school so directs, as chiefs of
section ; and the constables ordered to the same battery serve
in turn as chiefs of piece.

The division shooting takes })lace when the underofficers'
schools of the first and second Svea regiments (artillery) are
placed at the disposal of the chief of the school by general
order, and at these exercises the division is commanded in
turn by the regimental officers ordered to the course, and
the instruction battery and the underofficers' school batteries
by the officers attending the school.

Other Regulations. — The ammunition allotted each year
by a general order for the exercises of this school is supplied
from the magazine at Marma, when required by the chief of
the school.

The personnel ordered to the school receive pay according
to regulations and the budget for the scliool.

168 TARGET PRACTICE IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES.

SHOOTING SCHOOL FOR SUBALTERN OFFICERS.

The object of the school is to give subaltern officers, and if
possible also the sergeants, as complete an education as pos-
sible in the duties of chief of section in firing.

The school is under the orders of the chief of ordnance and
inspector of artillery, who acts as inspector and gives the
necessary instructions about its duties which are in addition
to those fixed by general orders.

The personnel of the school consists of the staff, the officers
and sergeants ordered to go through the course, the helpers,
and an instruction battery placed at the disposal of the school.

The staff consists of the chief, who is the teacher, the adju-
tant, the second teacher, the range officer, surgeon, veterinary
surgeon, and 3 underofficers (2 range underofficers for service
with the range officer, and 1 for the kitchen).

The chief, the adjutant, the second teacher, and the range
officer are detailed for each course by the king, on the recom-
mendations of the chief of ordnance and inspector of artillery.

The surgeon and veterinary surgeon are assigned by the
medical corps.

Instructions about the orders for the rest of the personnel
of the school are given by the king, on recommendation of
the chief of ordnance and inspector of artillery.

Duties, Instruction, and Practice. — The chief of the
school regulates the course of instruction and is responsible
for the discipline and the maintenance of order. During the
drills with the guns he acts as leader.

The second teacher helps the chief with the instruction as
directed. At shooting drills with the guns, he generally
commands the battery.

The range officer, who is under the direct command of the
chief of the school, observes strictly his instructions with
regard to the firing, and is responsible for the order on the
range and for the record of the results of firing.

The chief of the instruction battery may, at shooting drills
with guns if the chief of the school so decides, command the
battery, and is, like the ordinary chiefs of section and chiefs
of piece, altogether at the disposal of the chief of the school.

The education includes shooting drills with field guns in
battery, at which the officers and sergeants ordered to the
course act in turn as chiefs of section and chiefs of piece; ex-
ercises in making reports and keeping records of the results

SWEDEN.

169

of the firing ; practice in measuring distances with the instru-
ment used by the field artillery ; shooting drills with revolver.

Besides these, the chief and the second teacher deliver short
lectures, illustrated, if possible, by examples from the results
of the shooting, on topics connected with these subjects.

The ammunition assigned to the school, which is regulated
each year by a general order, is obtained on requisition by
the chief of the school from the depots.

The personnel ordered to the school receive pay according
to regulations and the budget for the school.

EXPENDITURE OF AMMUNITION.

During the year 1901 the expenditure of ammunition at
the regimental practice was as follows :

First Svea artillery regiment

First Gota artillery regiment-.

Wendes artillery regiment

Noniaud ai'tillery regiment

Second Svea artillery regiment
Second Gota artillery regiment
Gotland field corps artillery

Shells.

Shrapnel.

100

1,600

500

1,300

180

3,000

250

1,550

250

1,.550

100

1,600

50

500

5,000
3,000
5,500
4,500
4,500
5,000
600

EXTRACTS FROM REPORT OF THE SHOOTING SCHOOL FOR SENIOR OFFICERS
OF THE FIELD ARTILLERY, 1901.

The course lasted from June 9 to July 20.

The officers ordered to attend the course were 10 captains,
3 lieutenants for chiefs of section, 11 sergeants, 40 constables,
1 detachment trumpeter, 82 cannoneers, and 3 artificers. ■

Thirty-five saddle and 60 pack horses were placed at the
disposition of the school.

Two underofficers' school batteries were, for a short time,
stationed at MarmS, and took part in the exercises for two
days in division with two batteries without loaded ammuni-
tion for three days' target practice in divisions.

The exercises at the school were as follows :

1. Lectures, "skjutspel," critique, etc hours.. 31i

2. Making reports and records do 72^

3. Revolver shooting do 13

4. Shooting with loaded cartridges - do... 16

5. Sharpshooting with guns in battery series. . 90

6. Sharpshooting with guns in division do... 10

7. Drill in division without loaded ammunition hours.. 4i

8. "Witnessing the sharpshooting of the constable

schools do... 9

170 TARGET PRACTICE IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES.

The shooting school expended during the exercises the fol-
lowing 8-centimeter ammunition with smokeless powder :

Shots.

8-centimeter shrapnel, model '93 3,300

8-centimeter shrapnel, model '88 500

8-centimeter shells, model '87 100

8-centimeter canister, model '87 100

Total 4,000

The firing took place every day, and the allowance of
ammunition proved to be well calculated for the time of the
shooting.

The following record shows the distribution of the work :

When shooting by battery : Shots.

Against nnlimbered battery 51

Against battery in gun column — 3

Against battery protected by guns or other means 7

Against skirmish line, standing still 26

Against skirmish line with reserve 5

Against advancing skirmish line 5

Agair st skirmish line advancing at a run 5

Against retreating skirmish lines 5

Against companies in file, deploying to skirmish line -- 2

Against companies in line, deploying to skirmish line . 6

Against advancing cavalry 4

Against retreating cavalry 2

When shooting by division :

Against nnlimbered battery 8

Against advancing skirmish line 3

Against retreating skirmish line 3

Against advancing cavalry — 1

Targets were changed 46 times during the series. In one
series indirect fire was practiced.

EXTRACTS FROM THE REPORT OF THE SUBALTERN SHOOTING SCHOOL FOR
FIELD ARTILLERY, 1900.

The course lasted from the 18th of May to the 8th of June.
Twenty-one subaltern officers were detailed to attend the
course, an average of 3 to each regiment.
The following exercises were carried out :

Hours.

1. Lectures, alternately by both teachers, as an introduc-

tion and preparation to the other exercises and to dis-
cuss the results of the shooting. 8

2. Aiming exercises 2|

3. Practice in battery _ 4i

SWEDEN. 171

Hours.

4. Sharpshooting with the guns 40

5. Shooting with revolver 4

6. Distance measurement 9

7. Shooting with reduced charges and practice with ex-

plosives --- 14

8. Making out reports and records of the firing. - 98

9. DisciTSsing reports, etc 6

The lectures were on the following topics :

Aiming drills and means for aiming, the duties of the
detachment chiefs and the gun commanders during firing in
battery ; the making up of reports and firing records, Unges
distance measurer, the distribution of fire, explaining the
results by examples from the shooting, and the scout service.

The shooting school fired over 1,000 shots from 8-centi-
meter guns with smokeless powder.

At the firings the officers were divided as follows :

Detachment chief s 3

Gun commanders 6

Records and reports 4

Timing shots 1

On duty at the target as observers, etc 3

To follow the shooting and keep the shooting books 3

The work was distributed in this manner every forenoon
and changed in the afternoon, so that the same pupil had
several opportunities to practice different duties in turn.

TARGETS.

Targets for elementary or precision shooting are compara-
tively simple. Those for field shooting are more and more
complicated until in the final exercises they form a perfectly
dramatic representation of the hostile forces advancing,
retreating, firing, or charging under all the conceivable cir-
cumstances of actual warfare.

Figures and Designs. — The targets are usually composed
of figures which represent the object on which the fire is sup-
posed to be directed, and these figures are arranged separately
or collectively according to the nature of the problem.

These figures, etc., are made of wood, pasteboard, or cloth.

Wood is used for permanent targets of small dimensions,
and for certain special problems.

172

TARGET PRACTICE IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES.

Pasteboard is generally preferred because it is easily worked
and is quite durable.

Cloth is used for disappearing and moving targets.

The designs are classified as :

(a) School targets. — Generally of wood, 5 meters square
(fig. 12). The dimensions are given in meters and centi-
meters.

»-- --

■-0

: *

lil

Fig. 12.

wood and of the

(6) Pr'ize shooting targets. — Also of
dimensions specified for the competition.

(c) Field targets. — Figures representing men, horses, etc.,
viz:

Infantry figures of full length or of half, one-third, or one-
fourth the full length, of the form and dimensions shown in

figs. 13, 14, 15, 16, and 17. They
are made of pasteboard tacked on
a skeleton of wooden laths.

Cavalry figures are sketched
on cloth of the pattern shown in
fig. 18. The dimensions in milli-
meters. The cloth is tacked on
a wooden frame. Those for the
horses without riders are similar
in design.

Artillery figures are made of
pasteboard. That for the piece
unlimbered is shown in fig. 19;
for the limber, fig. 20: for the
personnel the infantry figures are
used. For artillery limbered up

SWEDEN.

173

the figure of a caisson, fig. 21; for the mounted men, fig. 22;
for horses without rider, fig. 23.

!«. _ £yM. _ ^

Fig. 15.

Fig. 14.

"^'

^1

It- Sl^- - ^

Fig. 16.

I

J rj-

i-L _

^! ! V !

Fig. 17.

1^

174

TARGET PRACTICE IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES.

Simple Targets. — Suitable targets for artillery practice
are f ornied by combining several figures, and arranging tliem
in different formations.
Tliey are classified as :
(a) Immovable targets.
(6) Appearing and disappearing targets,
(c) Movable targets.
{d) Balloon targets.
(«) Immovable targets. — Infantry in firing line, or in close
order when it is supposed to be exposed to view, is represented
by lying or kneeling figures, only when in motion by whole
fisures.

Fig. 19.

Infantry in fighting formation is represented by a line of
one-third or half figures arranged according to the terrain.

3^-

.'390 _
Fig. 20.

V'^hH- - •■i^'^ — *"'j4

Fig. 21.

Company reserves are placed about 300 meters behind the
firing line, well sheltered, and if possible hidden by the

SWEDEN.

175

ground. When a large body of troops is to be represented,
the reserves in close order are so disposed as to be withdrawn
from the observation of those who are firing. When close
columns are concealed by the ground the targets are made of
pasteboard screen on wooden frames 1.8
meters high and 10 meters long, and on
them are sketched whole or half figures.
Three such screens in each line represent a
platoon, etc.

Immovable cavalry targets are not used
for the fire of field artillery.

For artillery targets a bat-
tery unlimbered is represented
by artillery and infantry figures
set up as shown in fig. 24. Only
in exceptional cases, when there
is no shelter available, are the
rest of the personnel, the lim-
bers, horses, etc., represented;
they are then placed in line
or column on one side of the
battery.

The number of figures rep-
resenting a six-gun battery is
Fig. 22. Fig. 23. givcu as follows :

■CI
-1

Ordinarily. Exceptionally.

Front figures (various sizes)..
Profile figures (various sizes) _

Horse figures

Gun figures

Limbers without horses

Limbers with horses

(b) Rapidly appearing and disappearing targets. — An in-
fantry target arranged to appear suddenlj^ is shown in fig. 26.
It swings on two pivots (fig. 25) at the top of the frame, and is
held in a horizontal position by a prop. A long cord or wire
is led to a place of safety from which the prop is removed at
the proper time ; the target then drops to the vertical position
shown in the figures and becomes visible from the firing point.
The cord or wire is sometimes protected from the fire by lay-
ing it in a furrow. Figs. 27 and 28 represent a target arranged
with a counterpoise to appear or disappear. When the cord

170

TARGET PRACTICE IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES.

is loose the counterpoise is so adjusted that the target falls
hack a little below the horizontal position. When the cord'
is tightened it rises to the position shown in the figures.
This target is used in the open or behind earthworks, etc.

UU I I I i_L| I I I I I I ■ I .

W W I'T', W W W

-s

-I

Fig. 24.

c

-J^,

Fig. 25.

5)

}L r.

U „ Jl „

U _ i! „■

^S

^~

^S

7^'

r^l

Fig. 26.

A™ Jl^ Jl^iL

TT^ 11 11^ n

II ^ I! ^\ II II i],

\VJ

Fig. 27.

An infantry target at first visible, but arranged to disappear
under fire, is made like that shown in fig. 26, but with the
pivots at the foot of the frame instead of at the top. Several
groups are represented side by side and one or more are made
to fall from time to time by pulling out the props.

Figs. 29 and 30 represent a full-length infantry target made
to appear and disappear. It falls back to the horizontal posi-
tion when the cord is loosened and is brought back when the
cord is tightened.

Thin lines, patrols, outposts, etc., are represented by sev-
eral targets like that shown in fig. 31. The target and the
prop are both hinged to the footboard and when struck,

SWEDEN.

17^

the vibration releases the prop from the shallow notch in
the target so that both fall down.

Fig. 28.

Fig. 29.

For cavalry the figures are drawn on a cloth target 10
meters long and 2 meters high; swinging horizontally on a
pivot made of an old artillery axle and wheel (figs. 32, 33).

7\

?f^

n

V

It is turned normal to the plane of fire to make it appear,
and parallel to make it disappear.

The artillery targets (fig. 35) are operated in the same way
as the infantry targets ; each of the figures for the guns, lim-
ber, personnel, etc., may have its own cord, or some may be
made automatic, or all may be made to rise together.

178

TARGET PRACTICE IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES.

(c) Movable targets. — Movable targets are moved on trams
or sleds. Tramways are more expensive but more serviceable
for targets moving across the line of fire either perpendicu-
larly or obliquely so that they can be properly protected.
Figures of all kinds are mounted on cars or wagons with four,
six, or eight wheels, and hauled by motors or by the inclina-
tion of the track.

Sleds are more common and are used for all targets moving
in the line of fire. The runners are of wood or sheet iron.
Sleds with wooden runners are heavier and are considered
more serviceable for heavier targets, especially when moving
over a soft, moist, and comparatively level field. But sleds
with sheet-iron runners like those shown in fig. 38 are most
commonly used. The runners are of corrugated iron 1 milli-
meter thick ; a wooden block is bolted to each runner by the
same bolts that hold the two crossbeams. The runners are
connected also by braces in front and behind, and the iron or
steel cords that are attached to the blocks serve also as diag-
onal braces.

JL

Fig. 31.

These lines are led by snatch blocks to a distant part of
the field, 2,000 meters, more or less, where it is convenient
to apply the motive power by horses or steam or otherwise.
When practicable the part of the line most exposed to the
projectiles is laid in a furrow.

When the figures on the sled are fixed, the sled is so turned
that they will present their edges to the firing point until
they are to become visible, and so that the sled is turned on
starting.

Figures 39, 40, 41, and 42 represent devices by which in-
fantry targets are made to rise on the sled when the cord is
tightened, and figure 43 a target with two sets of figures
which impersonate a skirmish line advancing by rushes and
then lying down to fire.

SWEDEN.

179

180

TARGET PRACTICE IX FOREIGN COUNTRIES.

Figure 44 represents the frame for a movable cavalry tar-
get tliat disappears by turning on its hinges.

Figure 45 is the frame of a disappearing and movable
artillery target, and 46 a sled which shows a target for artil-
lery unlimbered (like figure 19) when it halts, and limbered
up (like figure 21) when it is in motion.

Fig. 35.

(d) Balloon targets. — If there is a suitable elevation on the
firing ground, a staging is built on it, 10 or 15 meters high,

Fig. 37.

SWEDEN.

ISl

on wliich is displayed a target representing a balloon 7 meters
in diameter with its gondola and lines. If no such elevation
is available, a balloon is made of paper and inflated with hot
air. To maintain the heat a sponge saturated with alcohol

Fig. 38.

is held under the hole in the bottom of the balloon by cross
wires. The alcohol is ignited when the balloon is to ascend.

±.]t

S0£ _

Fig. 39.

Fig. 40.

It is controlled by a marline cord which leads to a place of
shelter from which the balloon can be raised and lowered.

182

TARGET PRACTICE IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES.

For longer practice a balloon is made of varnislied linen
and filled with water gas or illuminating gas. This balloon
is controlled by a fine steel wire, and is raised and lowered
by a windlass or other machinery.

Fig. 41.

Combined Targets. — If a terrain is supposed to be occu-
pied by infantry, targets that fall automatically (fig. 31) are
set up in the proper places to represent patrols, and infantry
figures to represent a firing line, at distances of one or two
paces along such a line as it would probably occupy. Com-

pany reserves are represented by full-length figures 300 meters
behind the line, if possible well sheltered. They are repre-
sented by such targets as those shown in fig. 30.

Fig. 43.

If the firing line is to l)e reenf orced it can be represented by
suddenly appearing targets (fig. 26), which must be set up on
the firing line before the firing begins.

SWEDEN.

183

If the reserve is also to advance to reenforce the firing line
it is represented by sleds as shown in fig. -43. The sleds are
advanced from the reserve to the firing line, and this advance

^

^

X

^^

V

3

SOASD

-^r

^

^

Fig. 44.

is made by rushes nnless the distance is too short, or unless
the ground affords them great protection while advancing.

-e-

^J£ _

Fig. 45.

-&-

Fio. 46.

When a large body of infantry is to be advanced over the
fire-swept zone to the assault, it can be represented as shown
in fig. 47.

Fig. 47.

The limit must first be fixed to which the assault can come.
Up to this limit at distances of about 100, 75, or 50 meters
a,part, depending upon the nature of the ground, are placed

184

TARGET PRACTICE IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES.

appearing and disappearing targets (figs. 27, 28). By the side
of them are laid the drag lines for the sleds on which are
brought np figure targets like fig. 43. At somewhat greater
distances, about 1,500 to 2,000 meters, are placed disappearing
full-length figures (fig. 30), and besides them sleds are kept
concealed. When the exercise is to begin, there are first
shown the disappearing full-length figures which, after they
come under effective fire, disappear. Then the sleds are put
in motion. If the ground is open, after the artillery fire has
become effective, the sleds can advance by rushes ; otherwise
the sleds move up at once to the line of figure targets most
remote from the firing point. The sleds stop and are metamor-
phosed into a firing line and the stationary figure targets

Fig. 49.

appear. After the fire has continued some time, or the
following sled has reached the firing line, all the sleds set
themselves in motion to the next figure line, which then
becomes visible, and the former line disappears. In this
manner the attack advances from line to line up to the most
advanced figure line. If the drag lines are laid around snatch
blocks about 100 meters from the firing point, even the final
assault can be represented.

By similar means the retreat of an infantry force can be
represented.

If the advance of a large body of cavalry is to be repre-
sented, six or eight sheet-iron runners are laid side by side
at distances of 4 meters and a great sled is built on them and
hauled by several drag lines (fig. 50).

SWEDEN.

18i

Artillery. — To represent the advance of artillery, tlie fig-
ures (fig. 21) should be set up on 6 sleds 15 meters apart.
The drag lines of three sleds are united and the movement
is so regulated that they keep abreast of each other. If the
battery in advancing is to halt and unlimber, sleds with
double targets, like fig. 46, are employed.

When a large body of artillerj^ is to advance, the drag
lines are so disposed that they will move together.

Fig. 50.

Fire of the target. — When it is desirable to represent the
fire of a target, several cartridges are laid in a row parallel
to the line of fire in front of each gun and connected by a
slow fuse so that each will be ignited in turn.

Signals. — Both semaphores and telephones are used for
communication between different parts of the range.

HEAVY ARTILLERY.
PREPARATORY EXERCISES.

After the use of the sights, and the nature of the trajectory,
have been explained to the men they are taught to direct the
piece upon some object that is described to them. If no
natural objects present themselves, targets on a reduced scale
or even objects on a wall painting, are used.

186

TARGET PRACTICE IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES.

The time required to direct the piece is observed and re-
corded.

All kinds of pieces, and all the different methods of aiming,
are practiced in this manner, both direct and with an auxil-
iary point of aim. Fig. 51 shows an apparatus for making a
disappearing target; fig. 52, one for a movable target; figs.
53 and 54 are objects which may be made to move along the
apparatus.

For practice in atming at unseen objects a gun is fired, or
a cartridge is exploded behind a hill, and the piece is directed
from the indications of the smoke.

W^ J^otiF

Fig. 52.

Fig. 53.

Fig. 54.

Night shooting is simulated against a movable point, or
against a target either fixed or movable.

Prize competitions in pointing are held every autumn.

The men are also practiced in observation of shot by firing
with blank cartridges, the explosion of the shot being simu-
lated by cartridges previously laid at the proper distances
and exploded as ordered by telephone.

FIRING WITH LOADED AMMUNITION.

Firing with loaded ammunition comprises instruction shoot-
ing for recruits, practice shooting, field shooting, and prize
shooting.

SWEDEN.

18^

AVhen circumstances permit, these firings are conducted
during the repetition exercises, except the prize shooting, and
this should be completed before October 1.

The ammunition allotted for the year's shooting is divided
among the companies by the chief of the corps, after reserv-
ing what is required for recruits and prize shooting. It is so
distributed that the companies may as far as practicable re-
ceive like instruction in shooting. As it is impossible in one
year to go through all the necessary exercises, it is necessary
to follow a program laid out for several years in succession.

The shooting is conducted in a manner similar to that of
field artillery.

Field Shooting. — Field shooting, like that for field artil-
lery, should be based upon some tactical supposition, but as

Fig. 55.

it is usually impossible to vary the ground very much, the
changes are generally made in the character and movements
of the targets. If practicable the same targets should some-
times be fired upon simultaneously by two widely separated
batteries directed by the same ofiicer.

Prize Shooting is practiced annually with an 8-centimeter
gun at the time specified by the chief of the corps. Each gun
fires 8 shells against a target set up at a distance of 600 meters.
The target is 3.2 meters square with a bull's-eye 40 centi-
meters in diameter, and circles 80, 130, 160, 200, 240, 280, and
320 centimeters in diameter.

Hits in the bull's-eye count 8 ; inside of the first circle 7,
etc. The time between the fourth and eighth shot should not
exceed five minutes.

188

TARGET PRACTICE IX FOREIGN COUNTRIES.

The prize shooting is conducted on principles similar to that
of field artillery.

TARGETS.

All kinds of figures may be set up at points visible or
invisible from the guns.

Torpedo boat targets are made of a wooden framework
covered with a network or with strips of cloth (figs. 55, 56,
and 57).

mm

I il|n I illi I im I nrrT

^■•5

T~niii I nil I iiifrT>

Fig. 56.

^

1^ /SOOnup.

Fig. 57.

EXTRACT FROM THE REPORT OF THE SHOOTING SCHOOL FOR THE ARMY AND
NAVY FORTIFICATION CORPS, 1900.

The session lasted from the 1st of May to the 11th of June.

Those who took the course of instruction were 2 captains,
3 subaltern officers, 3 underofficers, and 17 constables, of which
2 captains and 7 constables were from the artillery corps of
the navy.

To the instruction company there were ordered 80 pupils,
of whom 10 were from the artillery corps of the navy.

The daily work was on the average eight hours.

The time was divided for the officers and underofficers as
follows :

Hours.

45
9
9

Lectures, shooting regulations and making reports

Distance measuring

Examination of materiel

Visiting the forts at Vaxholm and Oscar Fredericksborge

and Karlskrona -

Bursting drills, etc --

Firing with guns and revolver 128

39

Total

338

SWEDEN. 189

The school shot 37 drill series and. 46 field series as follows :

Hours.

Against immovable uncovered target, shell 4

Against immovable uncovered target, shell and shrapnel. 19
Against immovable uncovered target, shell and shrapnel- 4

27

Against immovable covered target, shell .- 4

Against immovable covered target, shrapnel 3

Against immovable covered target, shell and shrapnel. .- 2

9

Against targets representing balloon, shrapnel 3

Against marked ship's deck, shell 1

Against towed target, and distance measure 17

Against towed target, shell 8

Against towed target, shell and shrapnel 16

Against anchored target on the sea, and mitrailleuse 2

43

Of this year's shooting the one which took place on the 23d
of May with a 24-centimeter howitzer, model 94, was especially
interesting.

From this shooting it is apparent that the pieces in question
could be used with advantage against an anchored fleet or
even against a large anchored vessel in windy weather.

The target represented the deck of the German armored
vessel Filrst Bismarck ^ and it was struck by not less than 45
per cent of the shots, although the wind blew with a force of
at least 4, that is, 10 to 15 meters in a second.

In connection with the subject of target practice under
"field conditions," it is suggested that such exercises might
be made to conform still more closely to reality if, after offi-
cers and men have first been practiced deliberately in this
kind of firing, the problem should be so arranged as to simu-
late the disturbing influences which affect both officers and
men in action.

This can be effected to some extent if they understand that
a few seconds more or less may turn the scale of the battle
for or against them, if noncommissioned officers and soldiers
who acquit themselves creditably are rewarded by prizes or
even by promotion, and if, in case of failure, the exercises
are repeated under more arduous conditions, and if by all
possible means the men are given to understand that their
own record and that of their company or regiment depends
upon their exertions for each fraction of a second during the
decisive period.

190 TARGET PRACTICE IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES.

They should "understand that it is often necessary to bal-
ance carefully the advantages of running to the firing point
with the disadvantages of arriving out of breath.

When a detachment is itself exposed to hostile fire, those
who by calculation and lot are found to be killed or wounded,
should be required to fall out or at least to cease firing for
the day, thereby reducing the fire effect and chance of success
of the detachment. If the man is killed because he has wan-
tonly exposed himself to hostile fire it might be advisable to
assign him such extra drills or practice as the case demands,
and proper measures of discipline should in all cases be
applied to men who are disposed to regard the exercise as a
representation and not as a reality.

1

VIIT.-SWITZERLAND.

[Keported liy M;ij. George K. Cecil, Third Infiintiy, luited States Jlilitaiy Attache, Beruc.]

In Switzerland skill in the use of the rifle is much sought
after, and male citizens of all ages able to handle the rifle are
to be found practicing at shooting stands as members of the
shooting clubs that are scattered throughout the country.
This spirit of emulation extends so far that a very large
percentage of the youths have attained a fair degree of
proficiency before reporting for duty at the recruit schools,
yet in these recruit schools a course in target practice is
included.

The targets used are shown in figs. 1 to 10b.

cm
Fig. 1. — Target A.

Prior to the assembling of the recruits the officers and
noncommissioned officers forming the cadres for the schools

(191)

192

TARGET PRACTICE IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES.

are given a preliminary course in individual practice with
conditions according to the following table :

Distance.

Target.

Position.

Conditions.

Points.

Hits.

1

Single shots

do

Meters.
300
300
400
300

A
B

C
D

9
9
5
12

4

2

Prone, with arm rest__

4

3 _ . .

- do

3

4 ..

Magazine fiie__

Prone

6

The conditions to be filled are the following :
In the exercises 1 to 3 inclusive, in 5 consecutive shots,
maximum 8 cartridges, if after the fifth shot the required
score has not been made, another shot will be fired and the

Fig. 2.— Target B.

last 5 considered, and if the required number of points and
hits have not yet been made, another will be fired, and so on
up to 8 cartridges. In exercise No. 4, 2 cartridges will be put
in the magazine; the soldier will fire these and refill the
magazine, which holds 13 cartridges, and fire them, all in
forty seconds. If he fails to make the required score, he
may repeat this exercise once only.

The recruits having reported, they are put through a course
of sighting, position, and aiming drills with the sights adjusted

SWITZERLAND.

193

to distances up to '2,000 meters, first with rests and then with-
out, until they are able to take the proper positions, hold the
piece steady, and pull the trigger without flinching; then a

?e

^

in'6

-4S -•

JO

AS

J 9.

^ - - -M

•zyu

Fig. 3. — Target 0.

few rounds of blank cartridges are fired, followed by a few
rounds with ball cartridges to accustom the recruits to the

1

f5»^^^ ^^^ f^^^l

■

*' » i:

\

. .//

3

• » /

*

* o K

;

* *^

♦ * A^^

o

* ^,A^

L

^k^^^

L--*^

!

w-

.:^^<:^.-...

— \
1

1

.'?.'^

--•-45 '

19 J

...

- -45-

.10

..-

---45 -

U'6;

Fig. 4.— Target D.

noise and to the recoil. For this preliminary course 15 ball-
cartridges are allowed, and all the exercises are in front of
targets. The instructing ofl&cer is given great latitude in the

194

TARGET PRACTICE IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES.

metliod of his instruction, only so that no man shall approach
his regular practice until he can aim and fire without flinching,
but in no case will he begin his regular practice before the
third week.

It may be well to add that gallery practice finds very little
favor, and is seldom resorted to in the instruction of the
recruits, though five cartridges of reduced
strength are authorized for each recruit,
which may be employed after what is known
as the Gysi system. It is
claimed that they are not
sufficiently accurate to in-
spire confidence ; besides,
there being
no recoil and
little

L--- 45cm '

Fig. 5. — Target E

45 -•

Fig. 6. — Target F.

45----»

Fig. 7.— Target G.

fS----

Fig. 8.— Target H.

report, it does not materially tend to diminish the tendency
of nervous men to flinch, which is the greatest obstacle to be
overcome.

The individual jjractice is a fire with conditions according
to the following table :

Distiinc.

Target.

Position.

Conditions.

Points. Hits.

1

Single slicits ___
. -do .

Meters.
300
300
400
300
300
200
400
500
200
300

A
A
A
A
B
B
C
I)

c

D

8
8
6
5
8
7
4
5
i)
10

3

2

3

3

do

Prone __ . .

3

4

do

Standing . __

2

5- „. .

.. do .. .

Prone, with rest

Kiici-liiig _ _ _

4

6

do

4

7

do -_.

2

8

._ -do

K Milling, with rest__

, 3

9

Magazine fire._
do

6

10

Proni'.

6

The conditions to be fulfilled are the following :
Exercises 1 to 8 inclusive, in 5 consecutive shots, maximum
8 cartridges, if after 5 shots the required score is not made,
another will be fired and the last 5 counted, and in case of

SWITZERLAND.

195

failure, still another, and so on up to 8 cartridges. In exercise
9, 8 cartridges will be placed in the magazine, and forty

-30 C/Jtr- - -

Fig. 9. — Target J.

Fig. 10a.— Target K.

seconds allowed to fire them. In exercise 10, 2 cartridges
will be placed in the magazine and sixty seconds allowed to

Fig. lOb— Target K.

fire these, fill the magazine, which holds 13 cartridges, and
fire them.

196 TARGET PRACTICE IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES.

In case of failure to make the required scores, exercises 9
and 10 may be repeated once. Any recruit who has not ful-
filled the conditions has noted on his record "restd," and he
passes to the following exercises :

Applied Fire. — This individual applied fire at field targets
is to habituate the i*ecruit to put in practice the training he
has received, and he is allowed to assume his own position
and select his own point of aim.

Program. — Exercise 11: Single shots 300 meters at target
F disapxjearing (visible during six seconds).

Exercise 12: Single shots at less than 300 meters, at 5 fall-
ing targets G, arranged as a line of skirmishers, five shots at
each exercise.

After the firing the results are criticised by the instructor.

Insignia of Good Shots. — Those who fulfill all the condi-
tions in the fire with single cartridges with the minimum
number of shots, and the magazine fire without repeating the
exercise, and make a total of 140 points, by the addition of
all the points and hits of the fire with conditions, will receive
the insignia of marksman (bon tireur). Others who fill the
conditions 1 to 8 with 45 cartridges, and 9 and 10 without repe-
tition, receive honorable mention, which is also noted in the
soldier's target book, which contains a record of his target
practice during all the years of his service.

The individual practice completed, the recruits are then
practiced in collective firing, both by section and by company.
These consist of varied exercises illustrative of campaign
work. The following exercises will serve as illustrations:

1. Exercises by section in extended line, firing as single
loader, at 400 meters, at a line of skirmishers formed of fall-
ing targets H and G mixed.

2. Exercise by section in extended line, at 500 meters at an
extended line of falling targets G and F mixed.

3. Exercise by section in line in close order at GOO meters,
at a line in close order of falling targets F and G. The front
of the targets should always exceed half tlie front of the
section, and in the appreciation of the results, the time
employed enters as an important factor; 25 ball-cartridges
are allowed for this kind of practice.

The recruits are next practiced in the fire of combat, which
is in fact more an instruction for the commander than for the
men in the ranks. For this purpose several sets of targets

SWITZERLAND.

197

are placed so that they may be seen at about the same time.
The chief marches his section on the ground, discovers the
targets, selects his objective, determines the range, and orders
the fire. At first he may fire a few shots till he gets the
range, and then he directs the rapidity and distribution of
the fire. For this purpose about 30 cartridges are usually
allowed. The same problem is given by company on an
unknown terrain, if possible, for which 50 cartridges per man
are allowed, but the company is required to approach the
terrain after a rapid march, or some exercise requiring great
effort.

If time and ammunition permit they may fire against tar-
gets representing disappearing cavalry.

In appreciation of the results it is estimated that a superi-
ority of fire is obtained when one-third of the targets have
fallen; when one-half have been hit the objective is beaten.

In the schools for noncommissioned oflicers the individual
fire with conditions is according to the following table :

Exercise.

Kind of fire.

Distance.

Target.

Position.

Conditions.

Points.

Hits.

1

Single shots

do

3[eters.
300
400
300
300
200
400
500
200
300

A
A
A
B
B
C
D
C
C

Kneeling _ .

9
7
5
9
8
5
6
10
8

4

3

3

do

3

4 . -

do _ .

Prone, with rest

4

5

do

4

6

do

Prone -

3

do

Kneeling, with rest ._
Kneehng

3

8

Magazine fire

do . .

6

9

The conditions are, exercises 1 to 7, in 5 consecutive shots;
maximum 8 cartridges, same as for recruits.

Exercise 8, magazine charged with 8 cartridges, time 30
seconds; exercise 9, 2 cartridges in magazine to be fired,
magazine refilled with 13 cartridges and fired, time forty sec-
onds. Exercises 8 and 9 may be repeated once.

Applied Fire. — Exercise 10: Single shots, between 200
and 300 meters at target F disappearing, visible five seconds,
0 shots, each marked as fired.

Exercise 11 : Single shots, between 300 and 400 meters, two
falling targets F placed near together, 5 shots at most fifty
seconds.

Exercise 12: Magazine fire, 300 meters, four targets F fall-
ing, placed in line, magazine filled with 13 cartridges, to

198

TARGET PRACTICE IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES.

knock down all the targets with the least possible number of
shots, time thirty seconds.

Exercise 13 : From 200 to 500 meters, targets falling or dis-
appearing silhouettes. Will be used in this exercise what are
left of the 95 cartridges allowed for the indiAddual practice.

The insignia of marksman and honorable mention will be
given on the same conditions as for recruits, that is, a total of
140 points made with minimum of cartridges in exercises 1
to 7, and without repeating exercises 8 and 9.

Similar problems are given in collective firing to those pre-
viously described in the recruit course.

The course of practice for the newly appointed officers is a
little more difficult, and each officer is allowed 15 cartridges
for preliminary practice, after which the following program
is followed :

Kind of file.

Distance.

Target.

Meters.

3W

A

400

A

3fM 1

A

300

B

■2W

B

300

C

400

C

oOO

D

3(Kl

C

4(KI

D

3CK1

F

Single shots _

do

do

do

do

do

do

8 t do

9 I Magazine fire

10 I do

11 i Single shots .

Disappearing target visible five second;
12 I Single shots

Kneeling

Prone

Standing

Prone, with rest

Kneeling

do

Prone

Kneeling, with rest .

Kneeling

Prone

Kneeling

begin aim after target appears.
200 F Prone

Five targets (falling) in line of skirmishers.

9

4

"

3

6

3

9

4

9

4

6

4

5

3

6

4

10

5

10

5

Exercises 1 to 8 and 11, in 5 consecutive shots, maximum &
cartridges; exercise 9, magazine filled with 13 cartridges,
time thirty seconds; exercise 10, 4 cartridges in magazine,
refill once, time forty seconds ; exercise 12, 5 shots, time forty
seconds. Numbers 9, 10, and 12 may be repeated once. In
case of failure to make the requisite scores the officer is
reported "restd."

The officer is given other practice in collective fire and as
instructor of men.

After the courses of instruction in the schools previously
described, the men are expected to keep themselves in prac-
tice by exercises at the shooting stands and at their homes,
but during the cours de repetitions of the ^lite the men are

SWITZERLAND. 1!)9

given the followiiii^ practice, to see if they liave kept up their
training :

1. Single shots, 400 meters, Target C, prone, 8 cartridges.

'2. Magazine fire, 300 meters, Target C, kneeling, 8 cart-
ridges in the magazine, time forty seconds ; also GO cartridges
for collective firing under the company commanders.

The same allowance is made for the landwehr, except that
only 30 cartridges are allowed for collective firing.

MARKING AND SCORING.

For marking, two disks are used, preferably of sheet iron,
of 40-centimeter diameter for the longer ranges, and 30
centimeters for 200 and 300 meters. They are painted the
same color as the pasters, that is :

Red with white band-- 4)„ .- , , .^

„T., •. « f On one side red, white on the otlier.

White 3)

T-,, , " . • Orange on one side, black on the other.

Black 1)

The disk is placed with the center over the hole made by
the bullet and held there a few seconds ; a miss is marked by
balancing the disk in the hand. The law provides very
severe penalties for false marking or false scoring, and great
care is taken to prevent errors.

MARKING.

Target A (fig. 1) : Points.

Interior circle, 40 centimeters in diameter- ._ 4

Exterior circle of black, 60 centimeters in diameter 3

Interior circle white, 100 centimeters in diameter 2

Exterior circle white, 150 centimeters in diameter 2

Other parts of the target 0

Target B (fig. 2):

Hit in figure 3

Interior circle, 70 centimeters in diameter 2

Exterior circle, 100 centimeters in diameter 1

Other parts of the target 0

Target C (fig. 3):

Band containing figures, 50 centimeters wide 2

Band next below figures, 50 centimeters wide --- 1

Upper and lower bands 0

Target D (fig. 4) :

Band containing figures, 100 centimeters wide- 2

Lower band, 60 centimeters wide 1

Upper band 0

On the other targets, known as field targets, each hit
counts 2 points. They are made of wood, painted a neutral

200

TARGET PRACTICE IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES.

color, gray or light brown, and are, excei)t those representing
artillery, provided with an apparatus to cause them to fall
when struck.

Targets B, C, and D are of paper, light- brown in color.
A, B, C, and D are mounted on wooden frames, arranged in
pairs and counterpoised over pulleys so as to slide vertically,
very similar to the Brinton targets used in our service. At
most of the stands, if not all, the markers' pits are sunken in
front of the targets, and a stone wall or other substantial
butt is constructed behind the target to stop the projectiles.

Fig. 11.

Each recruit is provided with a target book, and when he
fires he at once announces to the officer who is instructing him
the place on the target upon which he thinks he was aiming
when the gun was discharged ; this point the officer marks
with a dot ( • ) on the target in his book. When the shot is
marked the place hit is marked with an oblique cross (X) and
the two points are joined by a line. Many men are inclined
to close the eyes when they pull the trigger, and it is believed
this helps them to overcome this difficulty, as well as to cor-
rect errors in sighting. See illustration (fig. 11).

POSITION AND FORTRESS ARTILLERY.

The recruits for these two branches of the artillery service
are given the same instruction and individual practice as the
infantry recruits, and the same individual practice in the
cours de repetition. They are armed with the short rifle.

SWITZERLAND. 201

CAVALRY.

A copy of the program for the target practice for the cav-
alry recruits not being obtainable, the details of the practice
can not be given, but from inquiries it is learned that the
preliminary instruction and the individual practice do not
materially differ from the course pursued with the infantry
recruits, but to this pistol practice is added, almost identical
with that given the newly appointed officers.

PISTOL PRACTICE.

In the preparatory course of cadres assembled before the
recruit schools, there is a short course of pistol practice for
the officers, all of whom carry pistols. There are three exer-
cises of 6 shots each at 50 meters at Target A, and four
exercises under such rules as the commandant of the school
may direct, and at whatever targets he may choose, in series
of 6 shots each at distances from 25 to 50 meters. Then in
the target practice school for young officers newly appointed
there are provided three exercises of 6 shots each at 50 meters
at Target A, and seven exercises at such targets and under
such conditions as the commandant of the school may direct,
at ranges varying from 25 to 50 meters. All the cavalry
have similar pistol practice dismounted.

There is no provision for mounted practice.

ALLOWANCE OF AMMUNITION.

Ammunition allowance is as follows :

jy-n Cartridges

■KlttC* : per man.

Preparatory practice, cadres recruit schools 30

Each recruit, infantry 200

Each recruit, fortress and position artillery 95

Noncommissioned officers, target school ._ 335

Officers newly appointed 250

Cours de repetition elite 75

Cours de repetition landwehr 45

Carbine :

Recruit school 150

Cours de repetition 24

Pistol :

Officers forming cadres of recruit schools .-. 42

Officers newly appointed 60

Cavalry recruits. 60

202 TARGET PRACTICE IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES.

Besides the foregoing, there is allowed for obligatory prac-
tice at the shooting stands and paid to the societies on their
returns of practice :

Kiancs.

For each man carrying the rifle or carbine. 1.50

For each man carrying a revolver 3.00

There are other subsidies to these shooting societies encour-
aging additional voluntary practice for men held to military
service, also for all citizens of the country.

AMMUNITION ALLOWANCE FOR MACHINE-GUNS.

Machine-guns, Maxims: Cartridges.

For recruit school 60,000

For cours de repetition, per company with 8 guns 15, 000

ARTILLERY.

The schools of recruits for field and mountain artillery de-
vote mnch time to target practice, using as targets the same
forms as the field targets for infantry, grouped in sections or
companies, sometimes in column, then again in line, close or
extended order; those representing artillery usually in bat-
tery. Infantry sections are formed and mounted on wheels
with a long cable attached which is deflected by pulleys and
by means of horses ; these targets are made to move at varying
rates, while the artillery fire at them. Practice is given at
known and unknown distances, from short to extreme ranges
for the guns employed, including the methods of getting the
range with both time and percussion shells.

Similar practice is given the recruits for position and for-
tress artillery.

The following is the allowance of ammunition for field and
mountain batteries :

Shell. Shrapnel.

For each school of recruits with two batteries 300 770

For each battery in cours de repetition without maneii-

ver 60 440

For each battery in cours de repetition with maneuver 360

At the maneuvers a quantity of blank ammunition is con-
sumed, prescribed in orders, each year.

Note. — The Neue Militiirische Blatter, Berlin, January 1, 1901, says:
"There are no firing schools, as the term is understood in Germany, in the
militia system of Switzerland. Lieutenants of infantry are required to
complete a four weeks' course at a so-called firing school, during which
they are instructed both theoretically and practically in individual and

SWITZERLAND. 203

jilatoon fire. Occasionally more extensive firing exercises are held in ele-
vated localities, as, for instance, in 1898 on Monnt de Baiihnes on the pla-
tean of Crebillon. The military department has appointed a commission
for the study of the question of firing instruction, but the suggestions
refer only to exercises in the recruit schools and cours de i*epetition.
Nothing is done in the way of firing instruction for field artillery, the
target practice held being thought to be sufficient. "

There is an experiment ground at Thun where new weapons for infantry
and artillery are tested.

I

EEMOUNT SYSTEMS OF FOEEIGN AKMIES.

(205)

EEMOUNT SYSTEMS OF FOREIGN ARMIES.

Military remounts have been shown by recent events to be
a factor on which, more than any other, success in war may
depend. Three hundred thousand horses, costing $62,000,000,
were purchased by Great Britain for the South- African war,
where 95 per cent of the British fiekl army is mounted. Ger-
many has 130,000 horses in the army, France has 143,000, and
Russia 175,000. As high as 500,000 more would be required
to bring one of these countries up to a war footing.

The systems herein described have been reported by our
military attaches, or compiled from other sources, and show
how and where the principal armies of the world obtain their
remounts, and the methods practiced for improving them.

I.-AUSTRIA-HUNGARY.

[Reported by Lieut. Col. J. B. Kerr, Ninth Cavalry, I'liiteil States Military Attache at Berliu.]

There are in Austria-Hungary 3,857,000 horses; of these,
1,548,300 are in Austria, and 2,308,700 in Hungary. The
number of stallions in Austria is 133,145, in Hungary, 198,845.
Both geldings and mares are used in the army. The geldings
and mares over 4 years number in Austria 1,040,412, in Hun-
gary, 1,553,155; total, 2,593,567; under 4 years in Austria,
374,743, in Hungary, 556,700; total, 931,443.

In time of peace all horses and pack animals for the army
are purchased by remount commissions, acting under the
orders of the imperial war ministry. In case of mobilization
the additional horses required are furnished by the horse
owners, who give their serviceable animals to the govern-
ment, receiving proper indemnification for the same. Only
in case of a partial mobilization of small extent may the
horses be purchased as in peace. Horses purchased in peace
are distributed directly either to the troops requiring them
or to the remount depots. The cavalry and artillery may be

(207)

208 REMOUNT SYSTEMS OF FOREIGN ARMIES.

permitted by the war ministry to purchase their remounts
directly. Organizations which have not this permission may
occasionally buy particularly good horses, rendering a de-
tailed report of the transaction to the war ministry.

There are seven permanent remount purchasing commis-
sions, stationed as follows: At Budapest, Szegedin, Nagy-
Kaniza, Bilak, Lemberg, Rzeszow, and Miskolcz. Each of
these commissions is composed of a colonel or lieutenant
colonel of cavalry as president, a retired officer as recorder
and accountant, and of a veterinary surgeon. Certain of
these commissions have at their disposal a retired field officer
of cavalry to replace the president when deemed necessary.
The purchasing commissions of the troops that buy their own
horses are each composed of a field officer or captain of cav-
alry as president, a retired officer as recorder and accountant,
and of a veterinary surgeon. Certain of these commissions
have also at their disposal a retired field officer of cavalry to
replace the president when deemed necessary. The com-
mander of the troops is nevertheless responsible for the mili-
tary value of the horses bought by these commissions, and it
is also his duty to see that the necessary number of horses is
obtained. All the horses purchased are procured within the
limits of the empire. Most of them are bought during the
autumn. In the spring and summer only as many are pur-
chased as are necessary to supply the losses that have occurred,
and the 3^-year-olds which go to the remount de^jots. The
purchasing commissions publish in the newspapers the dates
of their meetings. Horses are procured as far as possible
from the raisers; it is only exceptionally and only in the
absence of the latter that the commissions have recourse to
the merchants. From 50 to 60 per cent of the horses are
bought without an intermediary. In addition to the horses
purchased at the seats of the commissions, the presidents of
the permanent commissions visit the markets, the raising
centers, and the private breeding stables in order to procure
especially suitable animals. The horses acquired for issue
direct to the troops must be at least 5 years old, 7 at the
most. The commissions are authorized to buy a limited
number of 4-year-olds if particularly strong and well devel-
oped. Only healthy and serviceable animals are purchased.
The minimum height is 15 hands 1 inch for horses for the
cavalry, for noncommissioned officers' saddle horses, and

AUSTRIA-HUNGARY. 209

saddle horses for the train ; 15 hands 3 inches for draft horses ;
14 hands 2 inches for pack horses. Saddle horses, however,
below 15 hands 2 inches are not bought unless they are par-
ticularlj'- strong animals. The minimum height for draft
horses is reduced only in very exceptional cases. The saddle
horses of the horse artillery are preferred between 15 hands
1 inch and 15 hands 2 inches. The maximum height is 16
hands 1 inch for the saddle, and 16 hands 3 inches for draft.
For mules for mountain service the height depends upon the
breeding conditions of the country where they are bought.

There is no export duty on horses or mules. The import
duty on horses over 2 years of age is $4.06 each, colts of 2
years and under being free, mules $0,812.

The use of the mule is confined to pack purposes, princi-
pally for mountain artillery.

The prices of the horses are fixed each year in the budget ;
they average $101.32 for saddle horses, and $141.47 for draft
horses. These are the average prices. The commissions may
pay more in special cases. The commissions have also at their
disposal a fund for increasing the purchase price of cavalry
horses and horses for noncommissioned officers of artiller3^
The fund amounts to an annual allowance of $5,790, or 38.6
cents for each animal bought. The number of horses annually
acquired is about 12,000. Descriptions of the horses, at the
time of purchase, are entered in a book by the recorder. The
horses are then branded on the left side of the neck. When
the horses reach their regiments they are branded with the
regimental number on the left hip. Each organization of
troops receives annually 12 per cent of its authorized strength
in saddle horses and 10 per cent in draft horses. The aver-
age service duration of the former is therefore 8-J years and
of the latter 10 years. The purchase of horses of 5 and even
4 years is very difficult, as the raisers generally sell the ani-
mals under these ages, or else have spoiled them by work.
The military administration, therefore, has been obliged
either to raise the price, or to buy younger horses, from 3^
years and over. For these young horses the creation of horse
depots became necessary, in which the animals could be kept
until 4^ years old, the age at which they can be delivered to
the troops.

The remount depots number five, and are located at Bilak,
Nagy-Daad-Sari, Labod, Klecza Dolna, and Ihaszi Marczalto.

210 REMOUNT SYSTEMS OF FOREIGN ARMIES.

Each one of these depots includes a large domain where young
horses are raised on the range for a period averaging one
3^ear. These horses are not ridden at the depots. There is
joined to each depot a farm, which permits the supplying of
all agricultural products for the depot by means of its own
resources. The depot at Nagy-Daad-Sari has a capacity for
1,000 remounts, at Labod 600, and at each of the three others
400. For superintending the remount service a general is
appointed, who has the title of general inspector of remounts
and who is directly under the orders of the imperial war min-
istry. He exercises direction over the purchasing commis-
sions and the remount depots in all that concerns the purchase,
raising, and distribution of horses. His attention is given
principally to tlie kinds of animals bought, and the formation
of groups of horses for assignment to the different troops. He
assists at the purchases on the days the commissions meet at
important fairs. Under orders of the minister of war he
inspects the horses in the different organizations, in order to
keep himself informed of the value of the remount horses as
to their adaptability for the service and to watch their devel-
opment. He submits to the war ministry all propositions
which appear to him to be of a nature to improve the remount.
He acquaints himself with the horse production of the mon-
archy, in order to be able to direct purchasing commissions
to the places where they will find the most and the best
horses. A field officer is detailed to assist him.

After the month of May each year, 3-year-olds are bought,
but the best only ; that is, those which give promise of mak-
ing good mounts for ofiicers. They are sent to the remount
depots.

Each regiment receives annually about 65 horses, 12 to 15
of which come from the remount depots.

The remount depot of Nagy-Daad-Sari is in Hungary. Its
grounds extend over a domain of 8,000 acres. It is in two
tracts, one containing 4, 700 acres and the other 3,300, located
about 4 miles from each other. In addition to the pastures
reserved for the horses, much of the land is placed under
cultivation. The management is entirely military. It is
administered by 1 field oflBcer, as commander; 1 captain, 4
lieutenants, one of whom is the accounting officer, 12 ser-
geants, 10 corporals, and 60 privates, furnished by the regi-
ments to which the horses are sent. The privates are chosen

AUSTRIA-HUNGARY. 'HI

from the sickly men of the regiments and those against whom
continual complaints are entered. The agricultural labor is
done by civilians. In busy seasons the number of laborers
reaches 600. All kinds of agricultural products are raised,
but principally oats and corn. Oxen are used for work.
Horses which have been injured or have in other ways become
unsuitable for army use are also employed in work and as sad-
dle horses for the attendants. The dwellings and the stables,
as at all the other depots, are on high gronnd. The pastures,
from 500 to 750 acres in extent, are inclosed by wire fences.
The horses are distributed in herds of about 100 each, and are
always guarded by two or three men, the noncommissioned
officer of the stables making frequent inspections. The horses
are kept outside as much as possible, but never over night.
They are taken out early in the morning. In summer during
the heat of the day they are brought in, and then taken out
again in the afternoon until night. The ration consists of 7.2
pounds of hay and 4.4 pounds of straw, no grain.

The purchasing commissions take only those 3-year-olds
which seem susceptible of making good mounts for officers.
They pay for these young animals from $119.66 to $138.97.
These horses are very uniform, there being but little variance
among them. Fewer than one-fourth of the horses purchased
go to the depots, the remainder go directly to their regiments.
There are found in the depots only picked horses. When
they first arrive at the depot they are quarantined for six
weeks in a special stable, and are pastured in a field com-
pletely isolated. Afterwards they are put in common stables.
This undoubtedly prevents the spread of contagious diseases.
Horses of similar size and form are placed in the same stable,
but they are not selected or set apart for the diff^'erent branches
of the service until it is time to forward them to their regi-
ments. After a stay of six months at the depots the horses
are examined and marked by the commandant in classes from
0 to 7. Classes 7 and 6 contain the perfect and very good,
which enter definitely into the category of officers' horses.
Classes 5 and 4 are marked as almost very good and good,
and are noted to be inspected again. Another examination
of them is made before they can enter the first-named category.
Classes 3 and 2 will make noncommissioned officers' horses,
unless they greatly improve before leaving the depot ; 1 and
0 go to the troops. The young horses frequently change for

212 REMOUNT SYSTEMS OF FOREIGN ARMIES.

the better or worse during their stay at the depot. The infe-
rior horses go to the artillery. When they have reached their
fourth year, the horses are classed by the inspector general
according to the number to be furnished to each regiment.
The different lots are drawn for before starting for their
regiments.

All the remount depots are similar in every respect, their
managements and resources being uniform.

The horses are not shod and are not trained under the sad-
dle at the depots.

The description given of the remount depot at Nagy-Daad-
Sari will serve to illustrate the manner in which the horses
are cared for at the other remount depots mentioned.

In the army the trot is very little used. It is never prac-
ticed beyond the regulation speed. The gallop is more gen-
erally in use, the degree of blood of the horse lends itself to
it. The reins are loose during the walk, which is an easy
one. It is a principle not to inconvenience the horse, but to
leave him at liberty as much as possible. Long distances are
moved over at an easy and smooth gallop. The riders guide
their horses well. The stirrups are short and the legs well
forward.

There being comparatively few hard roads in the empire,
especially in Hungary, the horses of the army are not habitu-
ally shod. The metaled roads generally have paths of earth
on the sides for riding, so that the horses are seldom ridden
on hard ground. They have, as a rule, very fine feet. When
shoes are used they are made of iron, with a groove, and have
holes for 6 nails. The foot is cut by the farrier the least pos-
sible. The condition of the ground has giiided somewhat the
choice of the locations of the cavalry garrisons. Some of the
regiments are near immense moors where the horses gallop
on elastic ground. Horses are groomed three times a day.
They are not vaccinated.

The officers are well mounted, often purchasing superior
horses in the markets for their own use. Mounted officers in
part receive government service horses, and in part supply
themselves with horses, for all of which they receive forage.

In time of peace the following officers have mounts free of
cost: Adjutants of infantry and fortress artillery, lieuten-
ants of cavalry, captains of cavalry of the second class, and
the subaltern officers of the field artillery and of the train.

AUSTlilA-HUNUARY. 213

In war, in addition to these, all supi)ly oflQcers, officers of the
pioneer troops, field telegraph and field sanitary officers, etc.,
are furnished mounts by the government. The infantry
adjutants are remounted by the cavalry regiments, those of-
the fortress artillery by the regiments of corps artillery. The
horses put in their possession must be under 10 years of age.
Each regiment of cavalry always has on hand six horses for
this purpose. At the end of eight years the horses become
the property of the officers having them in their possession.

The cavalry officers, remounted free of cost, take char-
gers from among the troop horses. These horses should as a
rule, barring accidental injuries or disability, remain five
years in the hands of the holder. After five years the officer
can ask to become the owner by the payment of three annui-
ties, amounting in all to one-quarter of the value of the horse.
After eight years the officer has a property right to the horse.
The artillery officers are remounted in the same manner from
among the saddle horses of the noncommissioned officers of
their corps. The officers of the train choose from among the
horses of their train divisions. All the other officers, the field
officers and captains of foot troops and of the technical troops,
of the staffs, of the foot artillery, captains of the first class and
the field officers of cavalry, are remounted at their own ex-
pense. The doctors and officials of the supply departments
are not mounted in time of peace, troop horses being furnished
them temporarily during the maneuvers. Upon mobilization
they mount themselves at their own expense from among the
requisitioned saddle horses.

The officers remounted at their own expense can be author-
ized by the war ministry to be furnished horses by the per-
manent purchasing commissions, in which case they pay for
the same in monthly installments, the number of which may
vary from 12 to 48. The field officers, excepting those of the
cavalry, may also, though exceptionally, obtain similar
authorization to take mounts from among the horses of the
cavalry, artillery, or train. A uniform price of 8131.63 is
paid for these horses. The horses taken directly from the
purchasing commissions can be acquired at the price of
$162.12, which is the jjrice limit authorized for officers of the
cavalry, artillery, and the staff. In this case, the permanent
purchasing commission serves as intermediary between the
seller and the officer in whose interest it acts. All officers of

214 REMOUNT SYSTEMS OF FOREIGN ARMIES.

cavalry and of horse artillery, mounted free of cost, are
obliged to own also one or two horses purchased at their own
expense. Thus, in the cavalry each field ofiBcer and captain
must own three horses ; each lieutenant, besides the charger
furnished free of cost, one horse. The higher officers draw
forage for and have to keep a greater number of horses. A
mounted officer receives an allowance (extra pay) for each
horse held at his own expense. For cavalry officers the extra
pay is $12.16 for each horse per year. For officers of the
other arms $17.02. Lieutenants of cavalry and captains of
the second class of cavalry receive also a special indemnity
of $48.7-4 per annum. Mounted officers receive extra pay for
stable hire, and the higher officers entitled to carriages receive
extra pay for carriage-house hire, when stables and carriage
houses are not furnished by the government. The allowance
of horses is, for a general, from 3 to 7, according to his duties;
for a colonel of cavalry, 4; other cavalry field officers, 3;
colonel of infantry, 3; colonel of artillery, 3; captains of the
staff, 2; and field officers of the diverse arms, 2. Commuta-
tion of forage is due all officers entitled to mounts, whether
the animals were acquired at their own expense or free of
cost. The allowance for mounts is drawn annually, the other
allowances are drawn either every five days or monthly, and
are paid in advance.

The daily forage ration for horses of the army in time of
peace is as follows : For saddle horses of all kinds 9.24 pounds
oats, 7.48 pounds hay, and for bedding 3.44 pounds straw.
For draft horses of artillery 10.16 pounds oats, 9.9 pounds
hay, and for bedding 3.44 pounds straw. For draft horses of
the train 9.24 pounds oats, 7.9 pounds hay, 1.87 pounds straw,
and for bedding 3.44 pounds straw. For draft horses of the
schools 9.24 pounds oats, 9.9 pounds hay, and for bedding
3.44 pounds straw. In time of war the forage ration is the
same for all categories of horses; it consists, however, of
three types: First, the strong ration, 12 po^^nds oats and 6.6
pounds hay ; second, the ration furnished from the provision
columns, 11 pounds oats and 6.6 pounds hay ; third, the reserve
ration, 5.5 pounds oats and 6.6 pounds hay.

There are sixty-two large storehouses throughout the empire
for forage and rations. These storehouses themselves have
permanent or temporary annexes in the principal garrison
centers. In small garrisons the forage is furnished directly
by contractors. Compressed forage is not used.

AUSTRIA-HUNGARY. 215

111 time of peace tlie total number of horses in the army is
69,950, Of this number 46,700 belong to the cavalry, 14,900
to the artillery, 1,620 to the infantry, and 6,730 to the train,
pioneers, and other services. In addition there are about
5,000 officers' horses. In case of mobilization the cavalry
requires a great many more trained saddle horses. In order
to have them available and not to be compelled to maintain
them in peace, every j^ear a certain number of horses of the
cavalry regiments are given, after six months' training, to
civilians for use. These persons must be in assured condi-
tions of life and must take the obligation to maintain the
horses in a serviceable state, and to return them within
twenty-four hours to the reginaent in question, in case of
mobilization. In addition these horses are assembled annually
during the autumn maneuvers, for periods not to exceed
twenty-eight days each, and every spring they are submitted
to a mustering commission which reports their degree of serv-
iceability. In case of good maintenance, the holder receives
an annual prize of $4, $2 of which is paid in the autumn and
$2 in the spring. If "the horse, by the fault of the user, is not
serviceable for war, the holder must render indemnification.
At the end of six years in Austria and five years in Hungary,
the horses become the property of the users without payment.
They are, nevertheless, subject to requisition upon mobiliza-
tion. In this case, however, their owners receive pay for
them from the public treasury. The number of these horses
in the service of private persons is 26,260. They are bought
over and above the annual contingent and are commonly
known as "horses on leave." The practical application of
this system has caused no criticism.

In case of mobilization the horses can not be procured in
the same manner as during peace, as this would require sev-
eral months, and the mobilization would be delayed. For
this reason the horses required in case of mobilization are
supplied by conscription (requisition). This is regulated by
the horse-conscription laws of 1873. By these laws every
horse owner is obliged to give the government the horses
owned by him which are serviceable for war, for which he
receives ])roper indemnification. Horse owners disobeying
the call to present their horses will be forced to do so, and
will be fined if they can not justify their delay. The entire
horse supply is divided between the two states of the monarchy

216 REMOUNT SYSTEMS OF FOREIGN ARMIES.

in the ratio of the total number of horses they contain. The
number of horses to be furnished by the provinces and dis-
tricts is iixed according to the number of horses they have.
In order to determine this number, a horse classification is
made every three years by mixed commissions, composed of
army officers and civilian representatives, which divide the
horses into two classes, the "serviceable" and the "unservice-
able." In the interval between these periods, the horse own-
ers have to report their horses, and the heads of the local
communities submit, with these reports, evidence as to the
serviceability of the horses for war. For each levying dis-
trict there is appointed during peace a commission, consisting
of a field officer or captain, one reckoning officer, one vet-
erinary or farrier, representatives of the civil authorities, and
three sworn civil appraisers. As soon as the order to present
the horses has been issued the communities are requested by
the civil authorities to bring to the designated place, at a
fixed time, all those horses which in the last classification
were found serviceable, as well as those which by the 1st of
the last January exceeded their fourth year of age. These
horses are presented and are then classified by the commis-
sion as serviceable or unserviceable ; then as saddle, draft, or
pack animals. The following are specifications for servicea-
bility: minimum height for saddle horses, 15 hands 1 inch;
for draft horses, 15 hands 2 inches (if strongly built, 15 hands
1 inch) ; for pack animals, from 12 hands 2 inches to 13 hands
3 inches. In the Tyrol and Dalmatia smaller minimum
measures are required, viz, 14 hands 2 inches and 13 hands 2
inches, respectively, for saddle horses; 12 hands 2 inches for
pack horses, and mules 10 hands 2 inches. The minimum
age is 4 years; no maximum age is fixed. Unessential faults
not rendering the animals unserviceable, but which in time
of peace might exclude their acceptance, are disregarded.
The remount prices fixed by the war ministry are published,
and the owners of serviceable horses are requested to offer
them at the fixed prices. Those voluntarily offered are pur-
chased by selection made by the commissions, at the prices
fixed. If the number of horses to be furnished by the com-
munity is not thus obtained, then all the other serviceable
horses are ap'praised. The appraisement is done by the sworn
appraisers, who are not bound by the remount prices (the
prices fixed), but serviceable horses may be taken at a price

AUSTRIA-HUNGARY. 217

below the remount price. No objection against the appraised
price is allowed. Those horses are first taken which receive
the lowest appraisement. The appraised prices are paid at
once. As a rule persons owning more than one horse are not
required to furnish more than about one-half their number
of horses. If the number of horses is not sufficient for this
method to be emj)loyed, some other method is adopted, all
horse owners being treated impartially as far as possible.
As soon as a mobilization is ordered trained service horses
are no longer furnished to officers; they can then get only the
horses furnished by the country, that is, untrained horses.
Officers, therefore, during a campaign can depend for trained
horses only upon those they have already acquired in time of
peace. The number of horses required upon mobilization is
about as follows : cavalry, 91,350; artillery, 87,440; infantry,
25,150; train, pioneers, and other arms, 47,000; total, 250,940.
The numberof additional horses required is, therefore, 175,000.

The administration of the studs of Austria-Hungary may
be said to be a military one. The officers and men of the
stables have a military organization. While the personnel
is amenable to the minister of war and to the commanders
of the organizations, it is paid, as provided by the budget,
by the ministers of agriculture of Austria and of Hungary.
The ministers of agriculture have the direction of the studs in
the corresponding parts of the monarchy.

There are two kinds of establishments : First, breeding-
establishments where the state produces and raises horses;
second, stallion depots. The officers at these establishments
belong to a special corps, which has two divisions, one for
Austria and the other for Hungary. This corps of officers is
recruited from the officers of the cavalry and of the train who
have served three years in a body of troops, and who have
also shown special aptitude. To verify this aptitude, the
officers must pass an examination before a board under the
presidency of the inspector of the Austrian or Hungarian
studs, at the veterinary institute of Vienna or of Budapest.
The examination is both theoretical and practical, and bears
upon the knowledge of the horse, its anatomy, and the raising,
riding, and driving of horses. The examination is followed,
by a period of six months of probation before the officer is
definitely admitted. Exceptionally, the cadets acting as
officers of cavalry and of the train can be admitted, after one

218 REMOUNT SYSTEMS OF FOREIGN ARMIES.

year of service, subject to examination before the board, and
a probationary period. Once officers of this special corps
they can not, as a rule, be transferred back to the arm from
which they came. In particular cases their transfer may be
approved by the minister of war, but only after the officer
has, by a probationary period with troops, given proof that
he is still capable of serving there. This corjDS numbers 128
officers, of whom 45 belong to Austria, and 83 to Hungary.
These officers have charge of the following establishments :
In Austria, the breeding stables of Fiber and of Radautz,
and the stallion de]3ots of Stadl, Graz, Goding, Pisek, and
Drohowyze. In Hungary, the breeding stables of Mezohegyes,
Kis-Ber, Babolna, and Fogaras, and the stallion depots of
Stuhlweissenburg, Nagy-Koros, Debreczin, Sepsi-Szent-
Gyorgy, and Agram. Each of these establishments has at
its disposal the necessary number of surgeons, veterinary
surgeons, and accountants belonging to the various organiza-
tions. There are on duty at these establishments 943 noncom-
missioned officers, 18 accountants, 3,578 privates of cavalry,
and 135 orderlies; total, 4,674. Under the orders of the com-
mandants of the establishments is also the management of
the civil personnel necessary for the cultivation of the land
connected with the breeding establishments.

The stallion depots furnish stallions for a certain number
of permanent posts commanded by officers. Each post fur-
nishes its stations with stallions during the covering season.
The number of posts in Austria is 16, and in Hungary 20, in
all containing 3,067 stallions, and supplying 1,118 covering
stations. The state rents to private persons 191 stallions. It
does not loan stallions free of rent.

The Hungarian breeding establishments contain 3,686 ani-
mals, distributed as follows: At Mezohegyes 2,049, at Kis-Ber
698, at Babolna 584, and at Fogaras 355. The breeding sta-
bles influence to some extent the national raising by their
selections of stallions and mares for reproduction, the prod-
iicts being disseminated by sales, and furnishing a considera-
ble number of brood mares of superior type. There results
from this, in the horse production of the monarchy, a uni-
formity by which the remount service has profited in a great
measure, to furnish the army with horses of a standard type
and of similar gaits.

The royal Hungarian breeding establishment of Mezohegyes
is the most important, on account of the number, variety, and

AUSTRIA-HUNGARY. 219

quality of its horses. It extends over an area of 50,000 acres,
in one tract inclosed by a ditch and forest. The domain has
6,000 civil and military employees, and includes a sugar fac-
tory and an alcohol distillery. Cereals cover about one-
quarter of the ground. The stables were founded in 1785.
In 1884 a number of stallions and mares were acquired in
Turkey and Moldavia.

The chief of the agricultural ministerial section of breeding
stables classifies the horses, excludes animals unfit for repro-
duction, distributes stallions, admits brood mares and directs
the annual sales. The horses are never tied up in the stables,
but range in the paddock. The service animals of the breed-
ing stables, 98 saddle horses and 56 draft horses, are chosen
from those excluded. Mares may be boarded at the stables
during the covering period. They are stabled free of cost,
but the forage used by them is paid for by the owners at its
market value, which is on an average about $6.08 a month
per mare. The owner pays $1 to the men who take care of a
mare. The price of the serving is fixed each year by the
minister of agriculture. Thoroughbred mares foaled in
Hungary and belonging to Hungarians are served for half
the fixed price, and any who have won a race are served free
of charge. There is in connection with this establishment a
school for noncommissioned officers. Each year the pupils
have a six months' course, including hippology, horse raising,
and the care of horses in case of sickness or of ordinary acci-
dents. The agricultural department operates eight farms, on
which range 9,000 horned beasts of the Hungarian or Simen-
thal breed. The methods are similar to those for the raising
of horses. There is a chief veterinarian, assisted by two
military and three civil veterinarians. Each one examines
all the stock in his jurisdiction every day. The chief veter-
inarian makes once a month a general inspection of all the
animals. The hospital contains special places for animals
that should be isolated.

The shoeing is placed under the direction of a veterinarian,
who has under him nine farriers, one of whom is a master
farrier. They use only about 1,200 horseshoes per j^ear,
principally for the horses of the agricultural department.
Those of the breeding stables are shod only exceptionally,
even the service horses going barefoot. Experience has
proved that leaving the horses unshod has a salutary effect

220 REMOUNT SYSTEMS OF FOREIGN ARMIES.

ou the horn of the hoof, the quality of the foot becoming
fixed in the breed, so that tliere are but few defective feet.

Tlie brand of the breeding stable, M surmounted by the
royal Hungarian crown, is placed on the right side of the back
behind the withers. An initial indicating the pedigree of the
sire is branded on the left side opposite.

All the horses are very gentle, being accustomed to man
from an early age. They are never ill-treated. The price of
the stallions raised at the breeding stables is estimated at
$463. On the whole, these horses are good, but are lacking
somewhat in style. The stallions are worked every day from
two and one-half to three hours at a walk or trot, and once or
twice a week they are galloped live or six minutes. During
the covering season they are not exercised at the gallop.

The stallions are divided into two classes, those that remain
permanently at the stables for reproduction, and those sent
to the stallion depots. The former class consists of 5 English
thoroughbreds, 6 half-English-breds, 4 Anglo-Norm ands, 3
Gidran, and 13 Nonius. The price of serving the best English
thoroughbreds is from 832 to $38.60. In general the gaits are
not fancy, as only the gallop is cultivated for horses for the
army.

The stable has an auction sale every year at Budapast
during the month of October. Eight horses are annually
sent from the stables to the cavalry school at Vienna to be
ridden, in September and October, at the hunts with hounds
at Holies.

Stallions are furnished by the Government to the communes
(districts) at a price ranging from $120 to $200 each, under
the following conditions : Good maintenance, which is verified ;
maximum price to be charged for covering $1.16 ; to cover not
oftener than twice a day ; and not more than 88 mares annually.

The Hungarian breeding stables at Kis-Ber have 18,000
acres of land. The specialty of this stable is the reproduction
and acclimatization of English thoroughbreds and of half-
English thoroughbreds to improve the native breed. The
celebrated stallion Buccaneer, purchased in England, in
twenty-one years covered 726 mares, and his offspring have
won $1,100,000, including the English Derby and the Grand
Prix in 1876. Draft horses for agricultural purposes are also
bred here. In addition, silver-gray Hungarian cattle and
sheep and hogs are raised. There is an annual sale at the

AUSTKIA-HUXGARY. 221

stable ill June. Since 1867, i78 thoroughbred colts have been
sold at an average price of $907.30. The highest average
price -svas in 1885, when the remarkable average of $l,8r;5.60
was reached.

The breeding establishment at Babolna extends over 10,117
acres. The specialty of this stable is the improvement of
races of oriental blood. The results were not satisfactory
with Arabian blood, consequently Syrian mares and stallions
have been introduced. The stable sends to the stallion de-
pots 50 horses each year.

The Hungarian breeding stables at Fogaras are of the least
importance. There is much Arabian blood there. The small-
ness and absence of distinction in the breed is somewhat
indicative, perhaps, of its proximity to Turkey. Many sheep
of good quality are also raised here.

The stallion depot of Sepsi-Szent-Gyorgy contains 150 stal-
lions, the other stallion depots of Hungary about 200 each.

There are also two imperial breeding stables, one at Lip-
itza and the other at Kladriiber, which raise horses almost
exclusively for the em^jeror's stables. The first raises full-
blood Arabian horses, and crosses from this blood with Span-
ish stock. The first Arabian stallion sent here was a white
9-year-old taken from j^apoleon's stables after the battle of
Leipzig. Nearly all the horses at this stable are white.

The breeding stables of Kladriiber furnish the heavy horses
of Spanish breed, which serve for the imperial gala carriages.
Their gaits are very j)oor.

The breeding establishments of Austria, Fiber and Ra-
dautz, and their stallion depots and stallion posts, have simi-
lar organizations and administrations to those described for
Hungary.

There are a great number of private breeding stables, but
none of very great extent. Among the most important of
these may be mentioned the stables of John Becker, Stephen
Blaskovics, Eleck Forster, Count Alvis Karolyi, Count Al-
bert Apponyi, and the stables of the city of Hodmezo-
Vasarhely.

More than one-half the horses of the army are raised by
civilians, without any assistance from the breeding estab-
lishments or stallions of the state, as the number of remounts
influenced by these government institutions are insufficient for
the army. The horses raised by private breeders naturally

222 REMOUNT SYSTEMS OF FOREIGN ARMIES.

are not so -aniform in size, gaits, and other qualities as those
influenced by the governmental breeding.

The saddle horses in general may be said to belong to two
distinct types, the Galician and the Hungarian breeds. The
Galician horse is perhaps, for army use, superior to the Hun-
garian. This is due in part to the fact that the animals pur-
chased by the remount commissions in Hungary, owing to
the low buying price, are seldom of the iirst class. The best
animals go to other countries, which make extensive pur-
chases in Hungary. The Hungarian horse is, nevertheless,
a remarkable cavalry horse. He has an excellent back and
loins, perfect legs and feet, a large neck, and much style. A
striking trait is also the extraordinary uniformity of the type
of the various animals influenced by the breeding establish-
ments. Both types of horses are extraordinarily gentle,
which results from the absence of brutality in their treatment.

As for the stallions sent by the various breeding stables to
the hunts at Holies, they are noted, when the hunts are over,
by their riders, who are army officers, as to their endurance,
ability, condition of breathing organs, etc. These notes are
considered when the stallions are distributed to the breeding
stations, and an unfavorable report may lead to the animal's
being put out of service.

The training of the horses for the army begins at 4 years.
It is conducted with the greatest method and is very extended.
In addition to the military institute at Vienna, each cavalry
brigade has a riding school, where officers are taught the
principles and practice of training troop horses. This assures
great uniformity in the service. A peculiarity of the riding
to be mentioned is that all men are provided with a small
rattan switch f of a yard in length, which is carried when
mounted, excepting dress occasions. This does away with
the touches of the spur, which are, especially among mares,
frequent causes of restlessness.

At the military institute the instruction does not stop with
the riding school and training, the young lieutenants being
sent during the months of September, October, and Novem-
ber to the hunts at Holies. For this purpose the emperor
puts at the disposal of the institute his mansion, which has
accommodations for a great number of officers, and stables
for 300 horses. The royal breeding stables of the monarchy
furnish about 150 stallions, chosen from the animals of 8 or 9

AUSTRIA-HUNGARY. 223

years, the riding institute contributing also a certain number
of liorses. The domain keeps 80 deerhounds bought in Eng-
hind. The object sought is not only to practice the officers
in riding at the gallop, in order to render them energetic
goers, but to acquaint cavalry officers with the amount of
effort they can demand of a horse, and of the strength of the
latter. The horses are highly trained for the hunt, the train-
ing including the jumping of ditches, hedges, etc. The hunt
consists of letting loose, in a very much cut up but untim-
bered country, a deer caught in the forest on the opposite
bank of the March. The animal being out of his country is.
hunted, often in sight of the dogs. The horsemen follow the
dogs, crossing behind them all the obstacles which they
encounter. These latter consist principally of ditches, slopes,
etc., the most difficult being a ravine from 11 to 13 j^ards
wide, with 2 yards of water at the bottom. The officers ride
well at obstacles, are well seated, but yield little to their
horses, who jump pressing on the bridoon. The pace is
severe, and to follow it good horses are required. These
hunts are a military sport, and afford an excelleut method of
practicing riding in the open.

I

I

I

ir.-BKLGIUM.

[ICxtiiut t'ldiii "Ziicht iiu(i lifmoiitiiun;;- ilt-r Militiir-Pt'iTdc allci- Staateii, ' \i\ Dr. Paul Goldliw.k,

Berlin, 1001.]

The total number of horses in Belgium in 1805 was 271,527.

The type of horse generally raised is a heavy pack animal,
known as the Flemish horse in its heavier form, and as the
Ardennes horse — the horse of the mountains — in its some-
what lighter form. Tliere has been developed, however, a
considerable industry in the raising of tine-bred stock.

As late as the seventies Belgium produced but one-tenth the
horses necessary for her cavalry remounts, the remainder
being purchased abroad, principally in Ireland. Horse breed-
ing has become so extensive of late, however, that of the 825
saddle horses needed in the army in 1895, only 399 had to be
purchased abroad.

The breeding of thoroughbreds is not very extensive in Bel-
gium, the number of stallions for this purpose in 1899 having
been 28.

In 1901 there were 8 regiments of cavalry, with a total of 40
squadrons, 8 depots, and 4 field-artillery regiments. The
number of service horses in 1901 was 10,875, distributed as
follows: Cavalry, 5,578; infantry, 258 ; artillery, 2,933; engi-
neers, 39; gendarmerie, 1,814; general staff, train, etc., 253.
In time of war the total strength is 143,000 men and 28,600
horses.

The remounts are supplied on the basis that artillery horses
are serviceable about eight years and cavalry horses nine years.

The size of saddle horses must be from 15 to 15^^ hands for
the chasseurs; 15i to 15^ for the lancers; 15^ to 15f for the
guides, and 15i for the artillery. That of draft horses must
be from 14i to 15^ hands.

The supply of draft horses for the artillery is purchased
almost entirely at home, the number so purchased in 1895
being 213. The average price is about $164. As high a price
as $231.60 is paid for specially heavy horses from Ireland, for
use with large guns. The number of such animals purchased
in 1895 was 19.

23.5.55 15 (225)

226 REMOUNT SYSTEMS OF FOREIGN ARMIES.

The horses were formerly purchased from a contractor by a
government committee and then assigned to the regiments.
This system, however, led to many complaints, as the regi-
ments were unable to keep the quality of their horses up to the
standard. Of late the manner of procuring horses for the cav-
alry and saddle horses for the artillery has been such that each
regiment has to do its own purchasing. For this purpose a
board is convened consisting of the regimental commander, two
other officers, and a veterijiary surgeon. The draft horses of
the horse batteries are purchased by a board of officers from
various regiments. The remounts for the train are supplied
from condemned artillery horses. There are no remount
depots, each regiment training its own remounts. An officer
is allowed to purchase his mounts where he wishes or he may
select them from the horses of the regiment. In the latter
case the officer is not allowed for four years to dispose of them
unless they become unfit for service.

III.-CHINA.

[ExtRic-t fioiii "ZiK-lit iiMci Ui-moiitiiuiii; tier Jlilitar-l'lVnh- allc-r Staateii," by Dr. Paul Goldbeck,

Berlin, 1901.]

As in the greater part of Eastern Asia, the horses of China
are small, with the exception of those from Turkestan, which
are somewhat larger. The following races are distinguished :

(1) The Manchurian race, seldom over 12 hands high. These
are enduring little animals and are very sure-footed in rough,
difficult country. They are used almost entirely as remounts
for the Chinese cavalry, especially in the broken country of
northern China.

(2) The West-Mongolian horses. These are considerably
larger, sometimes 15f to 16f hands high, but they are genuine
steppe horses and useless in mountainous countries.

The methods of breeding in Mongolia and Manchuria —
which, by the way, are the only parts of China where horse
breeding is carried on — is mostly the unrestrained breeding in
herds. Although the Chinese settlers raise some horses on
their farms, the native Mongol allows his herd (often number-
ing 1,000 head) to run wild on the range generally without even
a herder. Owing to the extreme cold of winter nights, these
horses have very long coats (sometimes measuring 2 inches
in length) which give them a shaggy appearance. They live
by grazing on the steppe grass summer and winter. The
Mongol, being zealous to preserve his breed of horses for
himself, sells only geldings — never stallions or mares. The
geldings are sold by small breeders direct to soldiers or freight-
ers. The large owners sell only in lots to dealers.

The price of horses varies from $10 to $24. The principal
feed consists of a kind of rice mixed with small black beans.
Clover, mixed with chopped straw and dampened, is used as
fodder. Hay is unknown to the Chinaman ; grass is seldom
used, and oats are raised only in the northernmost regions for
export to Russia.

In the whole southern part of China horses are seldom found
even as domestic animals, asses and mules being preferred for

(227)

228 REMOUNT SYSTEMS OF FOREIGN ARMIES.

driving, the Cliinamen (except soldiers) caring little for rid-
ing. Mules are also bred quite extensively in the north, but
it is in the south that they are most valuable, being able to
endure the damp climate much better than the horse.

I

IV.-DENMARK.

[Rev)orted by Lieut. Col. W. R. Livermore, Corps of Engiiiepis, I'liited States Military Attache at
Copenhageii anil Stockholm.]

The horses are obtained only by purchase. They are ob-
tained in Denmark, Germany, England, and Ireland. In
Denmark the horses are bought from breeders and agents, in
foreign countries only from horse dealers.

The average price for the ordinary cadre horses is $217.08,
for ofiBcers' horses $235.84. Expenses in purchase, amounting
to about $21.44, are included in this price.

Horses are purchased and inspected by the remount board.
For cavalry they are half-bred geldings or mares. The gaits
required are the walk, trot, and gallop. There are no regu-
lations for weight. The same regulations apply to the saddle
horses of the artillery as to the horses of cavalry.

The draft horses for the artillery are bought only in Den-
mark and are required to be Danish-bred horses. They are
as a rule larger and heavier than the saddle horse and need
not be as highly bred. Pack horses are not used. About
400 horses have been recently purchased.

There is no government breeding establishment. In a
remount depot on Fyen are kept some of the Danish-bred
cavalry remounts, of which about 20 are bought each spring
when .3 years old. After about a year at the dejDot they are
delivered to the regiments and replaced by 20 others.

The war office has two English thoroughbred stallions and
four German half-bred stallions which each year in the cover
season are stationed with horse-breeding associations or with
the farmers who have an interest in and knowledge of horse
breeding* The price for covering is $2.68 to $8.04. These
stallions have been used some few years.

There is no import or export duty on horses.

There are about 420,000 horses and no mules in Denmark.
About 3,750 horses are in the army — 2,455 in the cavalry, 1,014
in the field artillery, 38 in the train, 28 in the riding school,
15 in the officers' school, and 200 horses of mounted officers
outside the mounted arms.

(229)

230 REMOUNT SYSTEMS OF FOREIGN ARMIES.

In case of mobilization for war about 12,100 more horses
would be required. About 6,000 are to be delivered by the
local governments, the remainder to be bought by the army
itself in the neighborhood of the garrisons, and by the re-
mount board in Denmark and foreign countries.

The horses of the cavalry serve on an average 9.7 years;
the horses of the artillery and train on an average 9.9 years.
There are required yearly 400 horses.

The horses are broken and trained at the regiments, the
saddle horses for one year, the draft horses for one-half year.

The brand of the remount board (R K) is on the left thigh,
also the brand of the detachment (E A R, D R, G H R).

The horses are, as a rule, not vaccinated. Inoculating with
blood serum has been practiced a few times recently when
there were many cases of lung diseases.

The shoes are ordinary handmade iron ones of various
forms, as a rule, with calks during winter and without during
summer.

The horses are, as a rule, groomed twice a day.

The forage allowance is 11.02 to 12.13 pounds of oats, 4.41
pounds hay, and 8.82 pounds straw a day, of which 4.41 pounds
straw is for bedding. Compressed forage is not used.
There are no special regulations for officers' horses.

EXTRACTS FROM THE LAW OF 1876 ABOUT THE HORSES AND WAGOXS
NECESSARY IN CASE OF WAR.

In case of wai', the horse owners in the country are under obligation to
furnish for the use of the army all the necessary horses suitable for war
purposes, according to the regulations established by this law.

The number to be supplied for the army in case of preparation for war
are apportioned to the city of Copenhagen, the towns, and the counties,
according to the regulations established by the minister of the interior.
The county councils make the apportionment to the communities in each
county, also in accordance with regulations made by the minister of the
interior.

The magistracy in Copenhagen, the town council in each provincial
town, the county councils in Frederiksberg, Frederiksvaerk, Logstor,
Marstal, Ncirre Sundby, and Silkeborg, and the parish council in the rural
communities are to procure at twenty-four hours' notice one and one-half
times as many horses, suitable for war purposes, as the communities are
to deliver according to the apportionment at the time.

Every horse owner, in case of war preparations, is bound to comply
with the orders of the above-named authorities immediately, and to deliver
for the use of the army all horses belonging to him. Any of the authoi'i
ties named, however, are authorized to buy for the community as many
horses as it is obligated to deliver, on condition that those which are not
taken are to be retiirned.

DENMARK. 231

The horses which are offered are to be sui>plie<l each with four ji^ood
shoes, a cover, girth, and hemp halter.

The horses for the quota are selected by boards, one appointed for each
county, and each consisting of three members, namely, the sheriff (in
Copenhagen the mayor) as president, a member chosen by the county
council (in Coi)enhagen the magistracy), and a member appointed from
the war office.

If the board finds any horses unsuitable, the owners may x)resent others
within one hour after all the horses submitted have been judged ; if any
of these are also rejected, the board is authorized to purchase as many
horses as are lacking to complete the quota, and the community must
make up the difference between the sum paid and that of the valuation.
The board, if necessary, may complete the quota by taking the horses
from the community itself, in which case the authorities of the commu-
nity must assist if necessary.

The horses thus procured are delivered immediately at the place of
muster to the army. ^

The owners of the horses thus obtained receive at delivery a pecuniary
compensation eqiial to the value of the horses, and paid from the treas-
ury, either in cash or by check, the price paid being decided by the county
valuation boards according to the market price for horses.

The county valuation boards consist each of three expert and responsible
men, chosen by the county council (in Copenhagen by the magistracy).

The authorities above named, when choosing horses, are, as far as
possible, to avoid horses of especially high value.

The transportation and feeding of the horses on the way to and from
the places of muster must be provided by the horse owners, who subse-
quently receive compensation from the treasury at a rate fixed by the
minister of the interior.

If a horse owner fails to comply with orders given in accordance with
these regulations, he is fined in the public police court not exceeding
$26. 80 for each horse involved. These fines accrue to the treasury.

The minister of the interior and the minister of war jointly draw up
regulations concerning the purchase of horses, and jointly take the
necessary measures to execute the law on the subject.

EXTRACT FROM THE REGULATIONS OF THE REMOUNT BOARD.

The remount board is to consist of four members, viz, one colonel or
lieutenant colonel of cavalry, president of the board; one captain and
one first lieutenant of cavalry (the last named may be of the artillery) or
two first lieutenants of cavalry, or one of cavalry and one of artillery, and
one veterinary surgeon.

One of the members shall, if circumstances permit, be garrisoned in
the same town as the president, and, like him, exclusively do duty on
the board and also perform the duties of secretary. The other members
serve with their detachments when the board is not assembled.

The board is under the immediate command of the war office.

The duties of the board are :

(a) To purchase the horses necessary for the supply of the army, except
those needed at the riding school and shoeing school.

232 REMOUNT SYSTEMS OF FOREIGN ARMIES.

(b) To form the inspecting board in connection with the civil members.

(c) To make reports or decisions about questions connected with the
remount service and other matters relating to horses when called for by
the war office.

(d) To make suggestions about such reforms in the army remount
service as it considers advisable and necessary.

The horses are bought in the autumn at an age of from 4i years to 6^
years, and in the spring at from 5 to 7 years.

The height of the horses must be from 15 to 15^ hands when they are
under 6 years ; after this age xvp to lof and 16 hands.

The board can, however, in special cases, make exceptions to these rules
governing height and age, but in such cases it must be noted in the report
of the board to the war office.

The horses which are sent to troops are put down on a list as officers'
horses or cadre horses. With regard to the last named it is noted whether
the horses in question are fit to " station out. "' The horses thus designated
must be at least 5 years old and be so strong that, if they are sent to the
cavalry, they can be trained for three months and then stationed out, or,
if sent to the artillery, be stationed oiit and used by private keepers at
once.

To insure proper competition for the delivery of horses, the president of
the board gives, in the public newspapers, advance notice of each pitx-
chasing journey of the board.

In purchasing and distributing horses, it must be considered that three-
fifths of the horses which are annually sent to the cavalry regiments and
artillery regiments are to be stationed out.

The president of the board distributes the purchased horses.

INSTRUCTIONS FOR THE SUPERIOR MUSTERING BOARD.

The "board of inspection" consists of four military members and is
assisted in some of its duties by three civilian members. The military
members are, a staff officer, who is president of the board, a captain, and
a first lieutenant (or two first lieutenants), and a veterinary surgeon.

The civilian members are appointed by the ministry of the interior from
each "brigade district."

The board assembles upon the order of the war office.

The duties of the board are :

(a) To make once a year, in at least three places of each brigade dis-
trict, an inspection of all the horses stationed out there.

(&) To determine whether private keepers have fulfilled the obligations
in regard to the horses stationed out.

(c) To revise decisions of the combined regimental muster boards on
appeals by private keepers.

The three civilian members cooperate with the board in (b) and (c).

EXTRACTS FROM THE INSTRUCTIONS FOR THE COMBINED MUSTERIN(i BOARDS
OF CAVALRY REGIMENTS AND ARTILLERY RE(iIMENTS.

The combined mustering board of each cavalry regiment and artillery
regiment is to cimsist of the mustering board of the regiment and two
civilian ineiubers appointed by the minister of the interior.

DENMARK. 233

The board assembles only by regimental orders, and, as a rnle, in the
garrison of the regiment.

The board is to observe the regulations fixed by the war office for the
stationing out of the horses to private keepers.

The duties of the board are : J

(a) To distribute and deliver horses to the private keepers who meet
after notification by the regiment.

(b) To muster the out-stationed horses when they return after notifica-
tion by the regiment.

(e) To make examinations of the out-stationed horses when called in by
the regiment for that purpose.

(d) To revise the decisions made by inspecting officers, and appealed
from by private keepers.

EXTRACTS FROM THE REGULATIONS FOR THE STATIONING OUT OF ARMY
HORSES WITH PRIVATE KEEPERS.

The horses must be used in such manner that they can at any time be
delivered back to the detachments in serviceable condition. They must
be used for riding, light driving, and for field work in good soil. But
stone work, work in a thrashing machine, mill work, and public driving
are prohibited. The horses must not be let out by the keepers to others.
They must not be absent over forty-eight hours at one time from the place
of stationing out without permission from the detachment.

If healthy, the horses must be in good, hard condition, and must be
grain-fed, except in the grazing period. If a natural sickness is the cause
of a bad condition, siich fact must be proved by a certificate from a vet-
erinary surgeon. From the 1st of June to the middle of September, it is
allowable to graze the horses. If the hojses are called in during this
period, they should, if the order is received in time, be stabled and grain-
fed at least three weeks before the day of assembling.

The horses nnist be handled with care in every respect and always
be kept clean. They should always be well shod, and the shoes must be
removed or replaced as often as necessary to keep the hoofs in good con-
dition. The out-stationed mares miist not be covered.

If a horse gets sick, it must be treated promptly by an authorized veter-
inary surgeon, and the detachments must be notified at once, and again
when the horse recovers.

The keepers must comply with any order received from the detachment
regarding calling in of the horses, but, if circumstances permit it, keep-
ers will be given from two to three weeks' notice.

The delivery of the horses is made to the same board from which
received, or to one similarly constituted. The board examines each horse
to see if the keeper complied with his agreement and reports the result.
The keepers must deliver for each horse 4 good shoes and a serviceable
hemp halter. The shoes and halter are supplied by the government.

The horses stationed out will be inspected by a detachment officer at
irregular intervals, at points so fixed that no horse need be brought more
than 2 miles (Danish)* from the place where it is stationed.

*One Danish mile equals 4.68 English miles.

234 REMOUNT SYSTEMS OF FOREIGN ARMIES.

The horses are examined annually by the superior raustering board,
which consists of four military and three civilian members, the last named
being appointed by the minister of the interior. This board selects at
least three diflferent localities in each brigade district in which to hold
meetings. The horses which this board finds unserviceable are at once
condemned.

For a violation of these regulations a keeper may be fined by the inspect-
ing officer up to S2.68; by the combined mustering board up to $8.04; by
the superior mustering board up to $16.08.

If, on examination, a horse is found to have deteriorated abnormally,
any of the boards above mentioned can impose on the keeper a fine equal
to the loss sustained by the treasury. In such a case the horse will, as a
rule, be withdrawn from the keeper.

A finding of an inspecting officer may be appealed from to a combined
mustering board, and one of this board, if involving a penalty of over
§8.04, to a superior mustering board. The sentences of the last named
are not subject to appeal.

Agreements to keep horses are binding for three months, and thereafter
also, until withdrawn after a notice of one month.

Keepers must retain each horse at least one year. If they wish to
return him after that time they must give three months' notice to the
detachment. No modification of this rule is allowed by the fact of horses'
being called in for service. The detachment can, however, call in the
horses without any notice, if required to do so by the exigencies of the
service.

The only compensation due the keepers is included in the "pay for
feed."' This is calculated by the day and is paid by the detachment
intendants each month, either to the keeper himself or to a representative
authorized in writing by the keeper to receive it.

EXTRACTS FROM THE REGULATIONS FOR THE PURCHASE OF HORSES BY
THE IMMEDIATE AGENCY OF THE DETACHMENT.

The highest average price which may be paid is fixed for the officers'
horses at §268, for other saddle horses and for draft horses at §241.20, but
a detachment must always endeavor to obtain the horses at the ordinary
market price.

In purchasing horses (they must be geldings or mares) the use which is
to be made of them must be kept in view, especially if they are for saddle
purposes or draft purposes. They must be in good condition when
purchased.

The following are the requirements for saddle horses purchased :

1. They must be between 6 and 10 years of age.

2. They must not be under 15^ hands and not over 16 hands in height.

0. They must have frames adapted to riding piirposes, must have
strength, endurance, and lightness, have sound and strong legs, and even,
easy, ground -covering gaits.

Horses that amble miist not be bought.

The following must be observed in purchasing draft horses :

1. They are to be of the same age and of the same height as the saddle
horses.

DENMARK. 235

2. They mtist unite sound and strong legs with depth and width of body,
have a ground-covering, even, and fairly easy gait, but with regard to the
exterior, as for instance, the length of the neck, and the junction of neck
and head, the requirements need not be so rigid as with the saddle horses.

In the advertisements about the purchase of horses it must be plainly
stated that sellers must guarantee against hidden faults, such as asthmatic
afflictions, staggers, cribbing, wind-sucking, etc. The seller must be
required at the close of the transaction to guarantee against such faults.
The horse must be examined before it is received. This examination con-
sists of testing the eyes and the tongue. The tongue must be whole and
free from old and deep scars. It must also be ascertained whether the
horse suffers from founder, ruptures, as umbilical rupture, etc. , or scrotal
hernia, or hanging spermatic cord, and, as far as possible, that the geld-
ings are clean cut and the mares not with young.

The muster itself must take place on a pavement and not on soft ground,
as otherwise lameness may not be detected. Hor.ses that are vicious,
shrieking, or ticklish, and horses that, on account of former injury by
saddle or harness, try to avoid touch by shaking themselves, must be
rejected. Kicking and biting anijnals must also be rejected.

If practicable, each horse must be tried at the inspection with a rider,
or, if a draft horse, with a wagon, to see if he is restive or liable to bolt. If
this trial can not take place, the seller must be held responsible for each
horse's being broken to riding or driving, as the case may be. Horses
that are ridden together or driven together should be preferred to
unbroken horses or such as are only matched on the spot.

If a detachment of infantry is ordered to purchase horses in the absence
of either an officer of cavalry or artillery, or a military veterinary sur-
geon detailed to assist it, the detachment is authorized to seek expert
civilian help and to pay a suitable salary for it.

I

V.-FRANCE.

[Reported by Capt. T. Bentley Mott, Artillery Corps, United States Military Attache at Paris.]

Horse and Mule Census. — The horse census of 1900 gives

the following figures :

Total horses in France... 3,303,229

Total mules in France 24, 155

Total horses in Algeria 77, 123

Total mules in Algeria -.. 2, 199

Total --- 3,306,706

Import Duties. — The import duty is as follows:

Francs per head.

Horses, stallions, geldings, and mares 30

Foals 20

Mules 5

Asses --- 3

The total effective of horses in the army, both those belong-
ing to the government and those owned by the officers, is as
follows (1902):

staffs

Military schools

Personnel outside of staffs, schools, and the line .

Troops of the line

Gendarmes and republican guard

Officers'
horses.

4,305

132

57.5

17,342

702

23, 056

Enlisted
men's horses.

2,266

106, 277
11,047

4,305

2,398

575

123, 619

11,749

142, 646

This is the actual effective of the whole active army, in-
cluding the gendarmes (military police) and the republican
guard.

The effective which forms the basis of estimates for the
appropriations is smaller than this, by the following items :

Officers.

Enlisted
men.

Total.

General and field officers:

Active army : 7, 298

Gendarmes and republican guard 240

7,5.38

12,407

Of gendarmes and republican guard 11,047

19 94.''

Remainder after deduction of these items from the preceding

15, 518

107,183

122, 701

(237)

238 REMOUNT SYSTEMS OF Ji'OREIGN ARMIES.

These last figures are known as the "budgetary effective"
of horses, because on this basis money for the remount is
furnished in sufficient sum to replace each year one-seventh
the number of officers' horses (subalterns) and one-eighth the
number of troop horses. The general and field officers have
to provide their own mounts, and the gendarmes and the
republican guard are mounted from condemned cavalry
horses.

The tables which follow show :

The budgetary effective (that is, public animals in service)
for 1902 and the number to be bought in 1902;

The same items for each branch of the service, for the staffs,
schools, etc. ;

The average prices allowed this year for the several cate-
gories of animals.

The various items are given separately for officei's' horses
and troopers' horses, and again, for those intended for service
in Algeria and Tunis.

Each year are replaced one-eighth the number of horses
for troops, one-seventh for officers, and one-eleventh of the
.stallions and brood mares ; that is, each year there are con-
demned 14 per cent of officers' horses, 12 per cent of troop
horses, and 9 per cent of stallions and brood mares. In other
words, for troop horses (saddle and draft mules and horses)
the average length of service is considered to be eight years,
for officers' horses, seven years, and for breeding horses eleven
years. The condemnation and replacement for all arms is
effected on that basis.

The number of horses and mules for the various services
bought in the last ten years has not greatly varied, so that
the tables represent not only the figures for this year, but
also a fair average for other years.

In examining the item "horses for infantry, officers," it is
to be remembered that all infantry captains are mounted.

There are about 4,000 mules used in the army for all
purposes.

The officers' horses with which these tables deal are tlie
horses of subalterns; generals and field officers buy (usually
from the state, as explained later on) their own horses; hence
the appro'priation for these horses is not expended, but only
advanced. To this end about 1,000,000 francs are annually
made available, but this amount eventually returns to the
treasury.

FRANCE.

239

—

————— —

S

—

5 5 i 5 i

—

^

o c

c

X ■* = X = =

S 8

"N

"*

X i-i -. -.t T -a.

X

1-"

^ i; CO -i" o

c-

X

S

^

s 53

X^io' CO->f 'N

Tt^

r-"

{f ssfs"

I^

^

-jT o"

^

(MO « O <N

(N

?0

_

O

s *-

IN 'SI (N rt

'",

— X ^

cc

"5>

(N ^

sh

ts

t~^

f-Tco'

ci

5

iiSS 1 1

_

1

^

"^

-

54

i

^

1 § g g g

3C,

5^

x 1

o >J r: o 1 f

^

1 O CO ^ 5

s t^

X t- —'1 1

^

;o

1 ic'to'-^'^cT

■N

•* 1

X M -N 1 1

«

1 t- CO — --

lO

^£

55

1 CO

o

(>3

-

5t="

^

^

^

i

-^

>r

o

ii if 1

o

o

O OO ! 1

o

o

o o
o o

<M

S 88 1 1

(M

■<*<

-^

^

« 1-

X

r-*

CO

o o

3

B nf

c'x" 1 !>f ^r !m'

cT

^

t-^ oTt-^ 1 1

r^""

^"^

— " — "

tc — 1 r- -j; (N

r- IM eg 1 1

g

— -^ 1 M r^

'■O

iC

E

^

£ '

oT

r-'co" 1 1

•*

r-' — r

X

"

■ri

. 9

O OO O 1 1

(-

1 c o o o

o a^ o ffi 1 1

1 o o = o

i X

1 O tC CO O

X

a.H

^

< a

■in

;«

3i

i

. o o

p O 1 O O Q

o

II II 1 i

u

^

«■* „ o

o

1"-°--

C4 t- 1 0^ <N X

s =

*

— ^ —

-— ^

i i

J_

X a: K CO >J X

_i

,.,

•M CO M X O

OJ

0^

=• a I-. o «

?^

I- m-*^-~o

■£

c -n r-

UO

ic

IN

o

rH CO

CO

•o

^

^

5

-*.2

^

cc c: cc •* 1 1

■XI

■*

1 -* O X O

^

~

^ -a- Ti 1 1

■^

o:

1 C 1^ •* y^

X

'r E

M

CD

3;

.5

Tf £^

^

,s

^

< 1

3

d

._

o

>o o 1 m (M 00

■*

CO

IM 03 t~ 1 1

,.^

■c

■*

<M

I~ (M !0 ■ 1

lO

(M

ffl

i-H ^- o 1 1

lO

X

^

OJ

— CO 1 1

CO

z

ii<

J_

X O CO 1 O CO

f_

IN

X ■* CO t- o

~

^

■!*<

lO 03 tN 1 -^ :^

o

CO

t- CO CO X lO

Tf

13

IM

Or- 1 CO Tf

CO

CO --0 .-1 n CO

CO

t-

•^

o

-*

t- ■* 1

?o

p

r- ■* C3

CO

IM

J

H

^ IM

iao

P

■-'1

X

•^

t-

1 uf5 t- t- O

-o

f) -; ri 1 1 1

>o

•*

I CO o: X *c

t^

II

<*

lO

1 X O CO -^

fj-

1 '*"

co'

uf

05

CO o: 1 1 to CO

CO

■c

X 03 CD 1 1

X

^

n

CO ■* 1 1 :o r-

o

X

r^ 0^ CO 1 1

(M

:j

r-

CO 00 1 1 CO -^

o;

CO X iC 1 1

lO

C8

CO

« CO 1 1

•*

ryi

r- CO-'jT 1 1

S

ic

w (M 1 1

0-.

o

^

' 1 1 1 1 IV 1

Its 1 1 1 1

DO It3 !

1 c ' 1 1

OJ 1 (i> 1

1 03 1 g ] 1

.2 1 a j

C 1 1 1 1 1 O 1

3 1 1 1 1 .^

1 £ 1 -2 1 0^

ISIS l-Ji

i-^ u 1"

-liJ

C 1 1 1 1 ! i3 I

be 1 1 1 ; X s 1

« i i i lis i

i 1 1 1 l-Si 1

X 3 i =* 1 .5

s

a

l^!l

« 1 r 1 1 -^ jj 1

r:^ 1 1 1 1 o '3 1

S ]

=

3

3i

1 '

fc, o ' ' ! '•^ 'E -2

"3

1 i

o £ 1 S l-s

llllll

H X M ii ^

.3

1

0

> % aa O

1 i

- £ >. 1 s-« ^ "

^

'^ 1

'o

^

5 ¥§^

S

H

■-C 0/ ^ £

s

P3

< ^ 1

3o

240

REMOUNT SYSTEMS OF FOREIGN ARMIES.

e
Si

"i^^

§

0

i

o
ja
t^
•S

i

•n

a

a

£

o

s

s

CO

1

o

li-IM fill

1

op

\

0'

co"

•ri
an

^1

^ 1 1 1 1 1 1 ! !
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 i j

§8"

8

CO

i

i
%

1 i 1 i
ft 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

8

CO

1

(M

5

co'

o

p.

■ri

1 NNN N
"^ i i i 1 i i i i

g

00

8

CD

0 0

0 -S"

c

1 ' 1 1 1 1 1 1
1

1

?■

I

S
I

2
1

a
'A

c

1

!

co"

Is

2

1

iC

i

8

co-

>

1

lOt-Or-OOC-IMlN

i

|S|

1

00 ic t' 00 CD a:

co

"^ a

rH 1 C6 00 .-^ OJIN IM
CD 1 t~ ^ CO C^ I^

rH 1(N ^

00 iM la

t- -^ r-

CO Tf

■* Ol ■^ -^ CO 1
CO 00 CO t- ^ 1

r-T cT 1

■*t-i-(Ot-0CiOO
O X CO 00 IC O CO
03 00 SJ CO -*

i-T CO

CO
CO

to"

CD CO 0
of r-T

OS
00

co"

^ CO CO ■* CO 05
00 Ttl CO t- 10 -^

IN CD CO CO 0

oT (Nr--

CD

•*-

•

I 1 ] ] ] 1 |-3

i i^ i i 1 ii

i 1 0. 1 1 1 1 bC

i is' i i i ■§

1 is 1 1 1 |;S
1 i= i i i iB.

ij|.« i i is
t ills i i il
1 i 1 °,1 i i i ^

J5 X S a. a! < IS E- 0

0

K

0

iiJ
iiri

'^ U i^ u*

C 0 0 0

.Q — — »-

liii
gill
= 1^1

S S cs ce
0

a

■5
0
H

i 1 \u% \

1 ml 1

i£ i^lt^ i

^% iS'e-l i

t. !; t. 1. t.^
0£ 0 C 0 1

E S £ S 5 = i

C 0 0 0 0 ^ j

^ ^ ^ ^ « X t-

0 0 C 3 C I S.

I

I

FRANCE. 241

THE REMOUNT SERVICE IN FRANCE.

It may be said that all horses and mules for the French
Army are bought in the open market. The only exception
will be mentioned under the heading "Studs and Breed
Farms."

The remount service is charged with the purchase and de-
livery of all horses and mules needed for the military service.
For the purpose of the remount, France is divided into two
"circumscriptions" or districts, each of which is commanded
by a colonel or lieutenant colonel of cavalry ; Algeria and
Tunis constitute a third district. In these two districts there
are 10 depots and 11 subdepots or "annexes," each depot with
its annex being commanded as a rule by a major of cavalry.
Besides these depots belonging to districts there are 6 depots
(having 11 annexes) which are commanded directly by the
inspector general of the remount service.

For the purpose of discipline and police the remount estab-
lishments are under the authority of the corps commanders.

Personnel op the Service. — The personnel is as follows:

1. An inspector general holding his position permanently
and an adjoint (major general and brigadier general, respec-
tively) ;

2. Commanders of districts (colonels or lieutenant colonels) ;

3. Commanders of depots (with command and supervision
of one or more annexes ; generally majors of cavalry) ;

4. Commanders of annexes (captains, or veterinarians of
the second class) ;

5. Eight remount companies (five in France, three in
Algeria and Tunis) ;

6. Enlisted men belonging to mounted organizations de-
tailed for duty at remount depot annexes.

The depots are intended to receive and care for the horses
bought by boards until ready to be sent to the troops (they
are never kept longer than twenty days) ; the annexes to
receive horses under 5 years, to keep and train them from the
time they are bought until ready for delivery to the troops,
and to deliver them.

The inspector general of the remount service directs the
service in France, Tunis, and Algeria, being responsible to
the minister of war only, with whom he communicates
directly. Commanders of districts and of depots not in a

242 REMOUNT SYSTEMS OF FOREIGN ARMIES.

district may correspond directly with the minister ou current
matters.

The commander of a district supervises the work of his
remount depots, apportions the men of the remount companies
in his district, and has in general the attributes of command,
visitation, and inspection.

The depot is the business unit of the remount service. Its
commander is regularly a major of cavalry detached; he has
under him a captain or lieutenant of cavalry detached who
bears the designation of "permanent buyer" (at some depots
two such officers are employed), a veterinary, a disbursing
officer, and a detachment of remount men.

Horse Boards. — The depot commander and his assistant
are permanent members of the board for buying horses all
the year round. During the active period, from October 1
to May 15, when the board travels about the country, a third
officer is usually detailed from a mounted command in the
region, and attached as "temporary buyer." Dejiots which
buy horses chiefly for the artillery may be increased hy the
addition of a captain or lieutenant of that arm ; he may be
permanent or temporary buyer. A horse board must in no
case, however, have more or less than three members. In
order that the requisite three members may be had for buy-
ing horses that may be presented at any time at the depot,
for attending fairs, etc., the commander of the depot may,
when he thinks it advisable, appoint his disbursing officer or
veterinary as third member, or he may ask for the detail of
an officer from the troops in the vicinity. He may make this
request directly to the commanding officer concerned. It is
to be noticed that horse boards do not use a veterinary in
their regular buying trips.

The depots are scattered throughout the country at points
best adapted for receiving and caring for the animals pur-
chased, and are all in the horse-raising sections. The most
important annex is at Suippes, department of Marne, where
a great part of the young horses are collected and trained.
At Saumur there exists a special breaking and training
school for horses intended for the use of the other military
schools and for the use of general officers. Unmanageable
horses from the cavalry regiments are also sent to Saumur
for special training. The extent of these depots and the
money expenditures involved in their operations may be

FRANCE. 243

realized wlien consideration is given to the fact that annually
there are disbursed for horses and mules for the French army
about 15,000,000 francs.

Remount Companies. — There are eight remount com-
panies, all composed of selected cavalrymen, but they are
not counted in with the fighting strength of the cavalry.
The strength of each company varies, according to location.
A company is commanded by a captain with a variable num-
ber of lieutenants. Four of them are divided among the
various depots, one serves for all the military schools and
three are assigned to Algeria and Tunis. Their principal
duties consist in caring for the animals at the depots and
conducting them to the regiments or batteries. The com-
pany which does duty at all the schools is essentially made
up of stablemen and grooms, but the administrative control
of the company remains with the company commander,
through his lieutenants or other detachment commanders,
subject to the ultimate direction of the general officer com-
manding the remount service. At depots, the depot com-
mander controls the companies or detachments of the
remount. Officers as well as men all come chiefly from
the cavalry and are selected.

Mode of Purchase. — Annually, the minister of war fixes
the total number of animals to be purchased and designates
the commands which are to be supplied, as well as the dates
and sources of delivery. According to this allotment the'
animals are bought by the boards and sent to the depots or
delivered directly to the commands. The former is the reg-
ular method, the latter being used only when considerable
saving of expense would ensue.

Before starting out on a trip which will require the visiting
of several points, the board sends notice of its route and the
dates when it may be expected at each locality to the ' ' pr^-
fets" or mayors, who post notices to that efi^ect so as to give
as much publicity as possible.

The method of making the purchase is described at length
on page 250, "Mode of Operation of Horse Boards in Algeria."

Specifications. — The official specifications governing the
boards in their purchases relate only to the age and height
of the horses; for the most part the whole matter is left to
the judgment of the members of the board. These officers
are very carefully selected horsemen and they are supposed

344 REMOUNT SYSTEMS OF FOREIGN ARMIES.

to know better than any orders could teach them the require-
ments of a horse for the military service.

The following rules are made for guidance of the boards :

Purchases for the military service are made only of geld-
ings fully cured from effects of castration, and of mares not
in foal ; the horses must be of French origin, free from blem-
ish, with mane and tail uncut, and must have the conforma-
tion and quality requisite for the arm of service to which
they are destined.

A board is authorized to pay a higher jDrice to a seller who
presents a young horse — especially one coming 5 years —
bridled and saddled, broken to the three gaits, and uniting
the conditions of a good military horse.

Height. — The height must be as follows:

Cavalry : Hands.

Cuirassiers -.- 15^ to 16^

Dragoons 15 to 15^

Light - 14ito 15^

Arillery aiid train 15^ to 16

Infantry officers. 14^ to 15^

Mules 14itol5i

Age. — Horses over 8 years old will not be bought. Officers'
horses (all arms), cavalry horses, and horses for the horse
artillery of independent divisions of cavalry, are bought any
time after October of the year they reach 3 years of age.
Sometimes, by permission of the minister, a few of these
horses may be bought after July. About 10 per cent of the
horses annually bought are 6, 7, or 8 years old ; the rest, 90
per cent, are 5 years or under.

Artillery horses, except tho-e just mentioned, must be over
4 years, and are bought after January 1 of the year in which
they reach that age.

The boards are authorized to buy thoroughbred horses
after the 16th of November of the year in which they reach
2^ years, provided the seller gives a certificate that the ani-
mals have been trained. These thoroughbred horses are
divided as equally as possible among regiments, and are
intended for officers' mounts. These animals, if mares, are
sent direct to the regiments; if stallions, to a depot to be
castrated, Where they remain till healed, after which they are
sent to the regiments.

Ordinarily the horses are sent as bought to the depot, where
they are kept under observation (never more than twenty

FRANCE. 245

days) for vices or diseases. The horses over 5 years are then
sent in convoys to their destinations; those under that age
are sent to the annexes to be handled and kept till the month
of October, when they are sent in lots to their destinations.
The remount men are used to take the horses (usually by rail)
to their destinations, or the organizations may be asked to
send men for this duty. Generally one man is sent for every
four horses. Horses undergo no training at the depots.
When horses are received at the depots the greatest care is
exercised in the matter of hygiene. Horses that are at all
sick are separated from the others; lots are kept together;
each horse has his own grooming kit, which is used for him
alone; the watering troughs are regularly disinfected, in fact
every precaution is taken against the transmission of disease.

Besides the regular purchases by the remount service,
special animals may be purchased by any of the mounted
troops, but at a price not exceeding the annual average fixed
amount. This is accomplished by a commission within the
regiment composed of a field officer, a captain, and a veter-
inary surgeon, who are appointed by the brigade commander.

The authorities of the cavalry school at Saumur are also
authorized to purchase, through a commission appointed by
the commanding general of the school, horses of pure blood
or others of suitable quality. Indeed, the better-bred horses
are not purchased largely by the remount service, as the prices
asked are higher than those authorized to be paid by that
service, so that special authority has to be obtained for the
purchase of superior animals, whether at the school, in the
regiment, or by the remount service.

In all purchases whatsoever a written guarantee of sound-
ness and suitability is always exacted from the seller, who,
also, is required to give his name, address, and residence.
That, together with the date and place of purchase, the price
paid, etc., form the basis of the entry in the horse-descriptive
book opposite the animal's number, which number is branded
on his near forehoof as soon as he is bought. Later the
number of the regiment and the initial of the arm are branded
on the off forehoof. During the purchasing period an ab-
stract of the animals purchased is sent to the ministry of war
every fifteen days.

Colts dropped by mares at the depot are taken up on the
returns and are sent to Suippes, the special depot for young
horses.

246 REMOUNT SYSTEMS OF FOREIGN ARMIES.

White or gray horses are not bought if the supply of suit-
able horses of hardy color is sufficient for the number needed.

As much as 1,000 francs are allowed for a mule in France;
450 francs in Algeria and Tunis.

Pack mules for the Alpine mountain batteries and Alpine
chasseurs a pied are bought in the Alpine region. Mules
bought in Algeria and Tunis are chiefly for the train.

About 250 horses are bought each year in France for use
in Algeria and Tunis. No discrimination whatever is made
against mares in the purchases.

At the depots the horses are classified and grouped accord-
ing to the arm of the service for which they are intended,
after which they can not be changed without a special report.
Horses over 5 years are usually delivered to the regiments or
batteries in separate lots of 20 or more, as bought, each animal
accompanied by his descriptive list. Horses under 5 years
are kept at the annexes and sent in one lot to their destinations
on October 1 of each year. On arrival at the stations of the
troops, the herd is at once looked over by the veterinary sur-
geons, who certify to the sanitary condition of the animals,
and a copy of the certificate is returned to the issuing depot
for file. After the animals have been a month in the hands
of the troops, a special report as to their characteristics is
made to the ministry of war through official channels. Horses
which, after delivery, are found to be unsound or of vicious
habits, are pronounced upon by a board of experts and the
seller is obliged to take them back and pay expenses.

Condemnations. — Throughout the regiments and batteries
animals may be condemned by inspectors general at any
period, although in the cavalry it is usual not to present such
animals oftener than once a quarter, and it is customary at
such periods to make requisition for animals to replace those
which are to be condemned or which have died. Any animal,
however, which has come from the remount service within a
year and has become unfit for service from any biit accidental
causes, must have a special report of the case made to the
ministry of war. Cavalry horses which have become unfit
for saddle purposes, but which are otherwise still sound and
available as draft animals, are reported for transfer to the
artillery or to the train, but they must be ascertained to be
susceptible of at least two years' additional service as such.
All condemned animals are sold within fifteen days after

FRANCE. 247

approval of conclemuatioii, eacli animal being accompanied
by his descriptive list, which must show the nature of his
disability, accompanied by a certificate that the state guar-
antees only that the animal is free from glanders. The pro-
ceeds of the sales are deposited by the intendance officer in
the nearest subtreasury. The condemned animals are suitably
marked.

Funds. — The items of expenditure for the remount service
to be considered and accounted for are: The purchase of
animals, expenses of travel of boards, fees to veterinaries and
troopers (really extra pay), extra pay to noncommissioned
officers, brokerage, purchases of halters or yokes, revenue
stamps (for receipted bills), advertisements, etc., and feed for
animals in transit, all which is provided by the annual budget.

In addition thereto is an allowance of harness and equip-
ments, tools, stable furniture, medicine, instruments, etc.,
for each depot or subdepot according to its needs, and a
money allowance or fund for keeping it in order, for horse-
shoeing, etc. Returns for all expenditures are made quar-
terly, but the supplies are based upon monthly estimates.

Books. — The principal books kept are those relating to the
special functions of the remount service, such as a register of
animals purchased or turned in, a register of issues to officers
or to troops, a register of colts dropped in the depot, a register
of animals returned to sellers for vicious habits or unsound-
ness, a register of animals sold to officers, a register showing
changes in original classification, a register of mares in foal
and animals lent to civilians, a register showing transfer of
animals from one depot to another by order of the minister.

Every month a report is sent in by the corps commander of
each army corps of the number of horses or mules purchased
and issued within his district, the number remaining on hand
to be disposed of, and, annually, on the 10th of January, a
report of the number of condemned animals sold during the
year.

Horse boards are instructed to be careful to send horses of
similar type to each regiment and even to each brigade of
cavalry, and to see that not only each lot fills this condition
but that the lots sent in succeeding years do likewise, so that
the horses of the units may be of homogeneous types.

As regards artillery draft horses, in time of peace, care is
taken that all are also fit for the saddle, because they are then

248 REMOUNT SYSTEMS OF FOREIGN ARMIES.

used alternately as near and off horses ; while upon war mob-
ilization they are all to serve as near horses and the off ones
are to be supplied by requisition.

A distinction is made between sergeants' horses and those
for corporals and men. The former should be really dragoon
or cuirassier horses and should be chosen with an idea of fur-
nishing material also for the remount of officers of a regiment,
the latter horses need not have so much regularity or be as
well-bred.

Horse batteries demand especial attention, as they are called
upon for long marches at rapid gaits on all sorts of ground.
Only horses of particular resistance, quickness, and mettle are
chosen for this service, and colonels of regiments and com-
manders of remount depots are directed to be careful not to
furnish field batteries with horses suitable for horse batteries,
since the latter horses are not easy to find.

Annexes. — These are establishments of transition where
young horses (under 5) are kept from the time they are
bought until they are delivered to regiments. They are
maintained on ground belonging to or rented by the govern-
ment, or the commune. Their number is regulated from
time to time by the minister of war. An important part
of the duty of a depot commander is the supervision of
his annexes, and he is expected to visit them frequently and
unannounced.

An annex is, according to its importance, either commanded
by a captain of cavalry or managed by a veterinary of the
second class ; but there is always a veterinary on duty at each
annex. The enlisted men are recruited for this special serv-
ice, being chosen from jockeys, stablemen, etc. They are
given very little military instruction, most of their time
being devoted to the horses. There is also usually a small
detachment of men detailed from the organizations supplied
by the annex. The number of men is generally one for every
ten horses.

The annexes are kept with scrupulous regard to health and
cleanliness. They have ample paddocks in which the young
horses are turned out whenever the weather is not bad. The
horses are also given some work on a small track. They are
hardly ever mounted, but are handled as much as possible
and initiated in military habits. Their grooming is not very
thorough, as the strength of the detachment would indicate,
but they are kept clean and in good health.

FRANCE. 249

REMOUNT DEPOTS IN ALGERIA AND TUNIS.

The operations of the remount service in Africa are in gen-
eral similar to those in France, and need no further description
in addition to what has been said. The depots supply the
mounted troops stationed in Africa with practically all their
horses and most of their mules, and send about 430 mules
each year for the train in France. This is only about one-
eighth of the total number of horses and mules bought each
year in France for the train. On the other hand, a few artil-
lery horses and mules are sent each year from France to
Africa.

Specifications. — Horses purchased by the depots must
combine the qualities required for the army as regards dis-
tinction, strength of back, and sturdiness of frame, must be
of Arab, Barbary, or Arab-Barbary origin, whole or castrated,
exempt from blemishes, and with flowing tail, that is, with
the dock of the tail intact. Mares are not bought for troops.
The great majority of African troops are mounted on stallions
and a small percentage on geldings.

Age Limits. — Not less than 4 and not more than 8 years.
It is understood by the stipulation that onlj^ horses complet-
ing their fourth, fifth, sixth, seventh, or eighth year of age
in the current year will be admitted. Nevertheless, horses
of 4 years should be bought only when the supply of horses
of 5 years is not sufficient to meet the demand. In any case
they will not be admitted before the 1st of May in the year
in which they reach the age of 4.

The same rules apply to the purchases of male and female
mules. In regard to mules for the colonies, however, the con-
ditions as to age and size may be modified by the minister.

Height. — The height must be as follows:

Hands.

Horses for officers 14| and above.

Troop horses for colonies (as Senegal, etc. ) 14 and above.

Troop horses for Algeria :

Spahis - 14i and above.

Chasseurs d'Afrique 14^ and above.

Mules :

Pack 14 and above.

Draft 14i and above.

A tolerance of f-inch is allowed for animals of excellent
conformation.

All the horses are sent, within twenty days, from the depots
to their destinations in bunches of from 10 to 20 from time to

250 REMOUNT SYSTEMS OF FOREIGN ARMIES.

time during the whole year, there being no "establishments
of transition " as in France.

An effort is made to continue the same type and breed in
each regiment.

The Algerian spahis furnish their own horses. For loss
incident to service they are reimbursed in the sum of 500
francs each. They are furnished forage or commutation.
Each squadron of spahis has a remount fund, coming from
various interior economies, to cover losses, to pay for horses
for indigent members, etc.

Mode op Operation of Horse Boards in Algeria. —
The operations of the horse board are carried on in public in
the most faA^orable places. Order is maintained by police
(gendarmerie, spahis, or other mounted men, according to
the territory occupied). The members of the board wear
uniform. The horses are examined individually. The places
chosen for the reception of the horses are selected in such a
way as to spare the breeders too much trouble in bringing up
their horses, the interests of the treasury being kept in view.
Wherever practicable, these places are near a railway sta-
tion. The horses presented are accepted only upon a major-
ity vote of the members of the board. If a horse is adjudged
acceptable, each member notes the fact in his pocketbook
with what seems a fair price for the animal. The bases for
the purchase prices are determined by the budget. The
horses offered are received by the board without discussion,
in accordance with memorandums which the members hand
to the president. The memorandums state whether a horse
is adjudged acceptable or not, and, in the former case, the sum
of money it seems to be worth. The president of the board
receives the memorandums of the members only after he has
drawn up his own. The members of the board, in making
their estimates, should not lose sight of the fact that the bud-
getary standards of price are but averages, and that it is
permissible to go below or above them. The price of the
horse passed as fit to be bought is provisionally fixed by the
president. This price is the exact average of the prices set
down on the memorandums of the members.

When one of the members, other than the president, con-
siders that the horse is not acceptable, the animal may never-
theless be bought, but in such a case the name of the member
who has voted adversely, with his reasons therefor, are

FRANCE. 251

inscribed on tlie register of purchase. When, however, the
president himself considers that a horse is not acceptable the
animal is refused on his opinion alone.

Before letting the seller know the amount of the average
price decided, the president asks him how much he expects
to get for his horse and communicates his reply to the other
members of the board. When the latter have decided, by a
last and rapid examination, that the seller's demand is in
agreement with or in excess of the first estimate, the president
asks each of the members whether he maintains or modifies
his estimate, and then finally fixes the average figure of the
board, which must be accepted or refused, without discussion
by the owner of the horse. Nevertheless the price demanded
by the seller must be considered as a maximum which shall
never be exceeded by the purchase board in fixing the sum
to be i^aid. The board should use great reserve in making
refusals, so as not to depreciate the value of the horse by
publicly pointing out what. are considered to be faults. The
board should confine itself to declaring that a horse is not
suitable for the service of the army, unless the refusal be
based on causes altogether apparent, such as faulty build,
insufficient or excessive age, etc.

In the course of the operations, the president of the horse
board should neglect no opportunity of entering into relations
with the breeders and discussing with them all matters rela-
ting to the horse-raising industry of the district.

When the price is accepted by the seller, it is proclaimed
in a loud voice by the president in presence of the public.
Exception is made, however, in the case of natives, so that
no offense may be given, in this connection, to the amour
propre of certain among them.

A description of the horse is then taken, but this descrip-
tion must be verified by the commanding officer of the depot.

At the end of each session held in the open air, the horses
bought are collected in the order in which they have been
received, and a serial number is lightly branded on the left
side of the neck of each. After the horse has reached the
depot, his number is branded on the near forehoof . Later
the number of the regiment and the initial of the arm are
branded on the off forehoof.

In the colonies outside of Algeria and Tunis the remount
is effected by means of purchases in the colony if suitable

252

REMOUNT SYSTEMS OF FOREIGN ARMIES.

horses are obtainable, otherwise the necessary number is
sent from France and Algeria,

REMOUNTS OF OFFICERS.

To officers of all grades and arms and to all military offi-
cials and employees horses are furnished for the most part
gratuitously or else upon easy terms.

Horses are furnished in three ways: (1) gratuitously;
(2) on the installment plan; (3) by sale outright.

The number of horses which officers are entitled to acquire
and keep at the government expense is given in the table
following :

War

footing.

Major general

Brigailier general

Coldiifl and lieutenant colonel (staff)

CaptuiM (staff)

Colonel or lieutenant colonel of infantry

Colonel or lieutenant colonel of cavalry or artillery

Major of infantry

Major of cavalry or artillery

Captain of infantry

Captain of cavalry or artillery

Lieutenant of cavalry

Lieutenant of artillery

Surgeon major of infantry

Surgeon major of artillery

1. Gratuitous. — All mounted officers below the grade of
major are mounted gratuitously on both peace and war foot-
ing ; for those above this rank, the number of horses required
on a war footing is furnished gratuitously, provided the
officers own already the horses required on a peace footing.
All reserve and territorial officers are mounted gratuitously
upon war mobilization. Officers who are entitled to gratui-
tous mounts, but who prefer to provide their horses at their
own expense, have to make in writing application for this
privilege. Some officers who can afford it prefer to do this
as they then have complete control of their mounts and can
use them in harness or lend them out, which in case of
horses furnished by the state gratuitously is absolutely for-
bidden.

If among the horses furnished to his regiment for officers'
mounts an officer does not find a horse that would suit him,
he can buy one in the market and present it to the horse
board for purchase. If the horse is accepted, the officer is
paid back the estimated price within the regulation amount

FRANCE. 353

allowed, and the liorse is regarded as the property of the
state furnished to the officer as a gratuitous mount in the
regular way and is subject to the usual restrictions. Such a
horse can not be exchanged, returned, or condemned within
eighteen months without authority of the minister.

2. On the Installment Plan. — All officers above the
rank of captain are obliged to own the number of horses
indicated in the table given above. Upon his promotion, a
captain can buy at a reduced price (depending upon how long
the horse has been in his hands) the mount formerly fur-
nished him gratuitously, paying either outright or by install-
ment, all these amounts being minutely regulated according
to how long the horse has been in service.

Any officer above the grade of captain can buy on the
installment plan from the remount service the number of
horses to which he is entitled, selecting the horses from
among those on hand for the purpose, and paying $3 a month
per horse. The horses remain the property of the state,
which not only maintains them, but even replaces them if
lost incident to the service. When the total of the installs
ments equals the price paid for the horse by the state, plus
one-tenth, he becomes the property of the officer.

Officers may select in the market any horses which they
would like to take on the installment plan, and submit them
to the boards. If a liorse is accepted, the board pays his
estimated value and then the officer receives his mount under
the conditions just stated. Such a horse may not be returned
or condemned within eighteen months.

3. By Sale Outright. — All officers above the grade of
captain can select from available horses provided by the
remount service the number to which they are entitled and
purchase the horses at the estimated value, paying the price
in two installments. These horses become their absolute
property, but if they desire to sell the horses the state has the
right of refusal.

Subalterns who have renounced their right to gratuitous
mounts are obliged to buy their horses in the market. Any
officer may keep at the expense of the government one horse
above the number allowed him by regulations, provided he
has bought his horses in the market.

The minimum age of horses furnished by the state to officers
by either of the three methods above cited is as follows : Four

254 REMOUNT SYSTEMS OF FOREIGN ARMIES.

years for tliorouglibred horses ; 5 years for Arabian or Bar-
bary or full-bred Anglo- Arabian horses ; G years for horses of
all other breeds.

Officers are pecuniarily responsible for accidents resulting
in the loss or injury of horses which they hold as property of
the state, if such accidents result from their own fault. A
permanent board of survey is provided for passing on all such
matters. If the officer is relieved from responsibility he is
furnished another horse. Another horse is likewise furnished
when the horse the officer holds is condemned as unfit for
service.

Corps or brigade commanders may, under certain restric-
tions, authorize officers to exchange horses.

Establishments WHICH Mount Officers. — In general an
officer of a mounted organization may select his mount from
the whole number of horses available in the organization,
with the exception of those already assigned to officers or
noncommissioned officers or those reserved for the remount
of officers not belonging to a mounted organization. General
officers, if they do not buy their horses in the market, are
permitted to choose among the horses of the war school at
Paris, at Saumur, or in the remount depots of Paris and
Suippes, where special classes of horses known as ' ' general
officers' horses " are trained for their purposes. At the vari-
ous schools officers generally choose among horses furnished
to the school, omitting of course the expensive " chevaux de
carriere" and "chevaux de manege." Officers not belonging
to mounted organizations are mounted from horses of desig-
nated mounted regiments ; thus officers of the general staff, of
foot artillery, engineers, etc., are mounted by the light artillery
and dragoons ; infantry captains, from horses of French blood
in the light cavalry, etc. Field officers of foot organizations
are mounted from the animals selected for the purpose in the
cavalry regiments of their region. They may also select a
horse from a depot if they pay for his delivery. Officers of
the remount service choose their horses at the depots and it
goes without saying that they are well mounted. Officers
who are mounted gratuitously may not choose among horses
intended for the officers buying their mounts for cash or on
the installment plan. Officers choose, in general, according
to rank.

FRANCE. 255

Gray horses are ridden by officers of tlie noucombatant
category — surgeons, quartermasters, commissaries, etc.

Under no circumstances is an officer allowed to sell a horse
obtained from the state, directly either to a civilian or to an-
other officer ; the sale must be effected through the remount
service.

A horse, after having been once, assigned, is rarely taken
from the trooper without his consent.

About 250 thoroughbred horses are bought by the remount
service each year for delivery to officers.

In mounted regiments the extra horses, subject to sale or
assignment to officers, are divided into five classes.

1. Those to remount the officers of the command.

2. Those to remount officers of the general staff and of en-
gineer troops, besides ten horses of the lots pertaining to the
cuirassiers and the dragoons (extra-heavy animals) reserved
every quarter to remount officers of the gendarmerie.

3. Those to remount infantry officers (of the rank of cap-
tain and above), intendance officers, surgeons, administration
officers, all at the rate of ten horses per regiment of the light
cavalry (chasseurs a cheval and hussars).

4. Those specially selected for general officers, the cavalry
schools, and the superior war school.

5. Those intended for the enlisted men of the gendarmerie
being aged horses of 12 years or more and not possessing the
necessary aptitude for war service in their arm (cavalry), but
still susceptible of good use in time of peace, particularly for
the gendarmerie (mounted military policemen). The horses
of class 5 are never, for any reason, again given out to cav-
alrymen.

These classes are made up and their numbers completed
every quarter. Horses turned in by officers 'aot belonging to
a regiment are classed with those of the category to which
they properly belong. In giving out horses from any of the
classes, priority of the applications is observed.

Officers who are required to own their mounts, particularly
majors and those of higher rank, with the exception of general
officers, are granted, besides forage, shoeing, and veterinary
expenses, an extra allowance at the rate of from $G to $12 per
month. In addition to this allowance for horses owned, all
officers who are required to be mounted, whether they draw
their mounts from the state or purchase them, are allowed

25G REMOUNT SYSTEMS OF FOREIGN ARMIES.

the cost of the first horse and equipments, wliich cost varies,
according to grade, from $90 for a newly appointed sublieu-
tenant up to $230 for an officer of cuirassiers.

"CHEVAUX DE MANEGE" AND " CHEVAUX DE CARRIERE."

A regular effective of about 366 horses of the first category
and 473 of the second is maintained for the use of the schools
where riding is taught, as, for instance, Saumur, St. Cyr, the
artillery schools at Versailles and Fontainebleau, the war col-
lege at Paris, etc.

The "cheval de manege," as the name indicates, is a riding-
hall horse, used for this purpose alone and never for outdoor
work. The "cheval de carriere," on the other hand, is used
solely for outdoor work, in the outdoor riding school (a regu-
lar adjunct of the- "riding hall" at all schools and most
cavalry posts). The nearest English equivalent for "cheval
de carriere" is "cross-country horse." These horses are
selected and trained with great care and will exhibit to the
instructor the smallest mistake committed by their riders.
They are of course taught to jump ordinary obstacles, but
they are not used in the military steeplechases nor as troop
horses. The ideal type of the "cheval de carriere" is the
Irish hunter. The average price allowed for this type of
horse is about $360, but authority may be and often is
obtained to pay much more — even as high as $500 and $600,
The price allowed for the riding-hall horse is $250, but often
more is paid. Some magnificent animals of both types are
to be seen at the schools. Besides these two types of horses,
there are maintained for the schools about 1,375 "troop
horses" for outdoor drills and exercises under arms

STUDS AND BREED FARMS.

As already stated, horses are obtained for the French army
almost wholly by purchase in the open market. The only
exception is furnished by a few young horses, raised on the
military breed farms in Algeria and Tunis, which are found
unsuitable for breeding purposes and are, therefore, sold or
turned over to the troops.

Government Studs. — The 22 government studs existing in
France proper are administered by the department of agri-
culture and do not furnish horses to the army. The object

FRANCE.

257

of these studs is to furnish good sires of every race to horse
breeders, especially small farmers throughout France, for the
purpose of improving the blood of French horses. The serv-
ices of the stallions are paid for, by the owners of the mares
served, at rates fixed according to the value and reputation
of the stallion.

Especial attention is of course paid to selecting stallions
suitable for military purposes, because the government wishes
to increase the production of such animals and to encourage
breeders to raise them. A ready market and good prices
exist for military horses. But the army has nothing to do
with these establishments and is not supplied by them.

Army Studs and Breed Farms. — These exist only in
Tunis and Algeria, and the former are maintained at and in
connection with the remount depots in those countries.
There are four depots, three branches, two annexes, and two
breed farms, located as follows :

Kemoiint lU-pots and
studs.

Establishments attached to these depots
and studs.

Military divisions in which the
depots, annexes, and farms

Branches. Annexes.

Breed farms.

are located.

Blidah

Milianah ._

Mustapha _

Tiaret

L'Allelik

Sctif

L'Allelik ..

Constantine.

Tunis

Tunis.

The breed farm is maintained for the purpose of rearing
stallions for the government studs. The expenses of all these
establishments come from the appropriations for the army,
the number of stallions to be maintained being fixed in the
appropriation bill each year; for 1902 it is 600. One-eleventh
of these animals is replaced each year, the average j)rice this
year being $292.50 per stallion, or the total for the 55 stallions
required in 1902, $16,087.50.

The official reason for the existence of these studs in Algeria
and Tunis is "to increase the number and improve the race
of horses in those countries."

As each stud is attached to one of the remount depots, the
same personnel of officers and men suffices for both services.

Personnel. — This consists of a colonel or lieutenant colo-
nel, director of the remount and stud establishments, who has
the same functions as an officer commanding a remount circum
scription in France. He directs and controls the operations ot
the various establishments in all that concerns the purchase

258 REMOUNT SYSTEMS OF FOREIGN ARMIES.

of the horses and their hygiene, appoints the noncommis-
sioned officers, grants or forwards applications for leaves of
absence, makes recommendations to the inspector general
of the remount service, inspects the various depots, presides
over horse boards when he sees fit, makes recommendations
to the inspector general as to stallions which should pass
from the remount to the stud service, advises the inspector
general as to the composition, number, and location of the
stations, and supervises the matter of service of the mares.
His reports go, one copy to the inspector general of the re-
mount service and the other through the general commanding
the nineteenth corps (Algeria) to the minister of war.

The general officer, who is the permanent inspector general
of the remount service, inspects and directs this service in
the same way as he does the remount service in France, being
responsible to the minister alone. His reports and orders do
not go to the generals commanding cavalry brigades and ter-
ritorial divisions in Algeria and Tunis, but are sent directly
to the minister or the commanding officers of the remount
depots, as the case may be.

Commanding Officers of Depots. — Each depot and annex
is commanded by a major of cavalry (detached), aided by two
officers (one a "permanent buyer") who are detailed generally
from the troops stationed in the region — a veterinarian and a
company or detachment of enlisted men of the remount serv-
ice. Each branch depot is commanded by a captain detailed
from the troops of the region, v^ith a veterinarian and detach-
ment of remount men under an officer of the remount service.
The personnel of each establishment constitutes a horse board
for purchasing horses and also conducts the affairs of the
stud. During the buying time, i. e., from January 15 to
July 1, each horse board may be increased by one officer,
taken from mounted organizations serving in the region. In
cases of large horse transactions the boards may be doubled
by details of additional officers. In general, the command-
ing officers of depots have the attributes of post commanders.

There are actually three remount companies of about 300
men each, detailed for service at the establishments in Africa.
They have a special uniform, are armed with the revolver only,
are given extra pay (from 5 to 13 cents a day), and are not put
through drills and exercises. These men are usually old sol-
diers, selected for their knowledge and love of horses, and

FRANCE. 259

the best of them are detailed for work with the stallions.
The officers of these companies are employed chiefly in the
stud, though they may serve on horse boards. They are
sent on frequent inspections of the stallion stations. Those
that show most ability are proposed for appointment as
"permanent buyers."

During the season each station is visited, without previous
notice, by officers of the depot twice during a month and
oftener if necessary. The greatest latitude, however, in this
and in all matters is left to the commanding officer of depots.

Early in January each year, all the noncommissioned offi-
cers and privates thought to be capable of taking charge of
stations are brought together at each depot and branch and
given theoretical and practical instruction in their functions.
Conditions under which a stallion should be used for serving,
kind of stallion to be used for registered mares, etc., and
everything else possible for their instruction on this detached
service is taught.

The service of stallions in all the army studs is absolutely
gratuitous. All horse raisers, European or native, have a
right to these services without discrimination. However,
light-draft mares of European blood are not to be served ex-
cept by Barbary or Arabian stallions chosen among those of
stocky build. Registered mares are served only by stallions
registered in the Algerian stud book or thoroughbred stal-
lions of French register. Each locality is obliged (through
its civil and military authorities) to furnish stable and hous-
ing for men and horses during the serving season. If in any
locality such accommodations are not supplied, or are not
satisfactory, no station is established there. The season be-
gins on January 15. The service of the mares begins at each
station four days after the arrival of the stallions, and lasts
till the 15th or sometimes the 30th of June. Generally speak-
ing, service is made by each horse once a day, in the morning
preferably, though some horses may be allowed to serve
twice in the same day. All stallions, without exception,
have one day of rest in the week.

Grooming and Forage. — The stallions are generally
groomed but once a day, usually in the evening; but they
are rubbed down before and after exercise. After grooming
they are watered and then fed oats and barley.

The ration for a . stallion is as follows : Hay, 6i pounds ;
straw, 11 pounds; oats or barley, 11 pounds. All stallions

200 REMOUNT SYSTEMS OF FOREIGN ARMIES.

of French register, and other horses also if deemed necessary,
may be allowed oats instead of barley. Draft stallions are
allowed 4i pounds oats extra dnring the season. For thirty
days at the end of the season, each stallion gets 9 pounds of
carrots a day, in addition to the ration.

In July, August, and September the stallions are exercised
only at a walk, and where it is possible baths in salt or fresh
water replace grooming every two or three days. During
this period an effort is made to treat all troubles caused by
the fatigue of the serving season. From October 1 to Janu-
ary 31 they are given progressive exercise to reduce fat, which
is the chief cause of debility. They are ridden at least two
hours a day from 8 to 12 miles. At whatever hour the exer-
cise takes place, they are never watered until two hours after
coming in.

Source of Supply. — The stallions for these army studs
come from two sources: First, those from the army breed
farms in Africa, and second, those bought by horse boards in
their regular rounds. When a board buys stallions which it
thinks would make good breeders, this fact is noted on their
descriptive lists when they are sent to the depots, and when
the director makes his inspections he selects from among them
the best, which in the next season are given trials. Those
not so selected are sent immediately to the troops. Later the
director recommends to the inspector general those which he
thinks should be transferred permanently to the stallion
depots, the number each year being, of course, determined
by the appropriations for this purpose. The others are sent
to the troops.

These "trial stallions" are used during the season accord-
ing to their maturity. Those 4 years old and some of 5 years
serve not oftener than once or twice a week.

The latest figures are for 1901, and among them the follow-
ing are of interest :

The total number of stallions employed in the army studs
was 845, thus divided as to race :

English tlioroiiglibred 1

Arabian thoroughbred ^ 79

A-rab-Baj-bary 104

Barbary 661

Total 845

I

FRANCE. 20 1

The total number of mares served was 32,807, and the
number of colts reported by breeders, 9,960.

There are about 250 fewer stallions appropriated for in
1902 than there were in 1901. The reason for the difference
has not been officially explained.

Army Breed Farms in Algeria. — There are two of these,
one at Tiaret and the other at I'Allelik. The latter has been
recently established and is not so important as the former,
which will be described.

The object of maintaining these farms is to rear and
furnish the government studs in Algeria and Tunis (and
eventually in France) with (1) breeding stallions of the thor-
oughbred Oriental, that is, Arabian type; (2) breeding stal-
lions of the Barbary race improved by an Arabian cross ; (3)
breeding stallions of the Barbary race improved by any
other advisable selected cross.

The establishments are governed in the same way as the
stallion and remount depots and are under the direction of
the same higher officers. Each comprises a farm on which
the forage, etc., is raised, and the necessary stables, barracks,
and buildings, grooms, and laborers.

The personnel consists of (1) a captain or lieutenant of cav-
alry, commanding; (2) a lieutenant of cavalry, assistant or
disbursing officer ; (3) a lieutenant of the remount service,
commanding a detachment of his men; (4) a veterinarian;
(5) a sufficient number of noncommissioned officers and pri-
vates of the remount service, and laborers.

The effective is established by the minister on the recom-
mendation of the director general of the remount service,
according to the needs and development of the farm. The
men are chosen from among the lightest and best horsemen
in the three companies of remount in Algeria.

The maximum number of animals prescribed for the serv-
ice is: (1) 4 stallions of either Arab or Barbary stock; (2)
45 mares of Arab or Barbary or Arab-Barbary stock; (3)
colts gotten of the foregoing on the farm ; ( 4) the mules or
oxen necessary for the farm work.

The officers of the breed farm conduct all its affairs, super-
vise the rearing and training of the horses, form boards for
purchasing horses in the neighborhood for the establishment
and for distributing prizes to breeders, keep the stud book,
and inspect the stallion stations during the season.

262

REMOUNT SYSTEMS OF FOREIGN ARMIES.

All colts are regularly trained from the age of 3 years,
their track records carefully kept and copies sent to the
inspector general of the remount service. During July and
August, however, no work is required of these young horses.
When stallions 3 years old have been well broken they are
sent to the various studs in Algeria and Tunis; the mares of
corresponding age are served the following spring. Stallions
and mares which are no longer valuable as breeders, and colts
and fillies which are not adjudged suitable for reproducers,
are recommended to the inspector general either for sale or
for distribution to the troops.

Generally the work of the farm is done by soldier labor,
but civilian labor may be hired or military-prison labor used.

The expenses for buildings, extra pay, and incidentals for
1902 is estimated at $7,304.70.

FORAGE ALLOWANCE.

The allowance in oats, hay, straw, etc., is prescribed for
each class of animals and for each kind of service, as peace
footing, war footing, bivouac, marches, camps of maneuver,
on trains, at sea, etc. The following extracts from the tables
are deemed sufficient :

Each horse, pounds per day.

France.

Peace footing. War footing.

1

.\t sea.

Hay.

Straw.

Oats. Hay.

1

Straw.

Oats.

Hay.

Bar-
ley.

Barley
meal.

Bran.

M'ater.

Cuirassiers, artillfrr at-
tiiilied to iii(i.<iiv.cav__
Field artillery and foot

7.7
5.5

5.5
5.5
5.5

8.8
7.7

7.7

7.7
7.7

U.5
11.5

11.0
10.0
8.8

7. 7
5.5

5.5
5.5
5.5

5.0
4.4

4.4
4.4
4.4

12.7
12.6

12.1
11.0
10.0

7.7
6.6

6.6
5.5
5.5

5.5
4.4

4.4
4.0
4.0

3.3
3.3

3.3
3.3
3.3

Gal».
4.2
4.0

Dragoons, train, clievaux
deniani'ge, gendarmes,
etc

Light cavalrj-, infantry,
nonconibatant officers..

All mules, and in Algeria
all horses and mules

4.0
4.0
4.0

Oats may be replaced as follows : By corn, barley, or rye,
at weight for weight ; by wheat, beans, or pease, at two-thirds
weight of oats.

AVheat, beans, and pease are not allowed in total substitu-
tion ; the other grains are so allowed when absolutelj' neces-
sary. The regular articles of issue are oats, hay, barley, and
straw. Barley meal, bran, carrots, parsnips, green fodder,

FRAXCE. 263

linseed, etc., are obtained as substitutes for savings on tlie
regular ration. Temporarily, in France, the practice now is
to substitute 2.2 pounds of barley for an equal weight of oats
in the daily ration. In Algeria, barley is usually fed instead
of oats.

Certain army corps are now experimenting with a ration
which with straw serves as a food component and increases
the hay and oats allowance. The weight of oats is carried to
10. -t and 13 pounds according to the arm; that of hay to 6.6
and 8.8 pounds according to the arm. An allowance of 3
cents a day per horse is paid. With this the captains may
buy turf, gorse, lieather, sawdust, fern, etc., for bedding.
Formerly straw alone was used as bedding.

The straw for all purposes is chiefly wheat straw, that of
rye, oats, and barley being less frequently distributed. No
special straw is selected for feed, all coming from the same
loft.

Both spring and winter oats are fed ; good oats are gray,
white, or black, clean, smooth to feel, without odor and
weighing from 55 to TO pounds to the bushel.

During one month, generally from May 15 to June 15, the
majority of horses are fed green forage, about 22 pounds a
day. For convalescents and other special cases, this green
forage may be raised to 88 pounds a day. The only com-
pressed forage used is hay. This is considered to assure the
preservation of the hay (if perfectly dry when pressed) for
two or two and one-half years. The pressed bales weigh from
110 to 130 pounds each. The results obtained from use of
compressed hay have been uniformly excellent.

GROOMING.

In winter horses are groomed twice a day, once between
8.30 and 10 a m., and again about 3 p. m.

The squadron commander regulates the method of feeding
his horses, but as a rule hay is fed at reveille, one-half the
day's ration of oats about 10 a. m. along with hay and straw,
and the rest of the day's ration of oats, hay, and straw about
4 p. m.

FARRIERS.

In each squadron of cavalry (which is about the strength
of a United States troop of cavalry) there are one farrier and
two assistant farriers. All farriers are men who have served

264 REMOUNT SYSTEMS OF FOREIGN ARMIES.

their three obligatory years and have voluntarily reenlisted.
Promising assistant farriers are selected, one from each bri-
gade, and sent to the farriers' school at Saumur, where they
undergo a thorough course in their trade, and upon passing an
examination receive a brevet which quickly promotes them
to farrier and chief farrier. Only men who agree to reenlist
are accorded this privilege. Farriers are given competitive
examinations for the grade of chief farrier.

The farrier receives, besides the pay and allowances of his
grade (private, corporal, or sergeant), an additional pay reg-
ulated by the number of horses he keeps shod. This amounts
generally to 5 cents per month per horse unshod, 16 cents per
horse shod in front, and 33 cents per horse shod all around.
He is required to renew each horse's shoes once a month. He
must keep at all times an extra set of shoes, carefully fitted,
for each horse under his care, and labeled with the horse's
name and number. This is in addition to the reserve shoes
kept on hand in the "mobilization stores." The farrier is
required also to renew on the forehoofs, whenever necessary,
the branding of the horse's number and the letter of the
organization. The farrier has many privileges, such as liv-
ing at the canteen, sleeping out of barracks, etc. His wife is
given preference as cantiniere.

SHOEING.

In the army the adjustment of the shoe is either a la fran-
gaise or a I'anglaise, generally the former. In the former
the upper surface of the shoe is made slightly concave, the
lower or wearing surface is made convex, and there is no
beveling of this face. The incurving is greatest at the toe,
diminishes to nothing at the quarter, and from there on to
the heel the shoe is flat. No channel is cut on the lower
surface for the nail heads, but each head is countersunk.

The front shoes are of uniform width from toe to quarter;
the hind shoes are appreciably wider at the toe than at the
heel. Nail holes are evenly spaced ; hind shoes have no nails
at the toe; generally, eight nails for front and hind, some-
times six.

In the adjustment a I'anglaise, the exterior circumference
of the uppei" surface of the shoe, where the horn bears, is
flat; the part where the sole bears is beveled off. The lower
or wearing surface is flat, and the nail holes are made in a

FRANCE.

!G5

deep channel, the nail heads, when the shoe is on, being flush
with the surface. In other words, the method is that com-
monly in use in America.

It generally takes two men to shoe a horse in France, one
to hold up the foot and the other to do the shoeing. In the
army this assistant is prescribed for the farrier, though in

Front.

Hind.
Fig. 1. — French shoeing.

Feet correctly shod.

the shoeing a I'anglaise the farrier is supposed to work alone,
as is our custom; this, however, he rarely does. The hoof is
prepared for shoeing about as is customary in our army,
cutting away the sole and trimming the frog being prohibited.
The frog is, however, cleaned and loose parts removed ; it is
even prescribed that its point shall be brought to the center
of the sole and superfluous parts of the bars removed. After
the shoe has been accurately formed to fit the prepared hoof,
it is set on hot and held firmly till the hoof is evenly burned
on its whole bearing surface. The shoe is then removed,
quenched, reset, nailed, and clinched.

Front.

Hind.

Fig. 2. — Shoeing a I'anglaite.

Most shoes are now machine made. Orders regulate the
dimensions of the shoes for the various units.

Rough Shoeing. — In winter, horses may be shod with shoes
having holes for the reception of ice calks ; permanent rough
shoeing is almost never practiced. The calks are provided
for the heels only, or two for the heels and two at each side
of the toe. The calks are of steel, square in cross section,
about i inch high and screw into place.

266 REMOUNT SYSTEMS OF FOREIGN ARMIES.

VACCINATION.

Vaccination is practiced for two diseases only, viz, anthrax
and tetanus (lockjaw). The first is so rarely observed in the
army that veterinary statistics hardly ever mention it, and
vaccination for it is therefore rarely employed. AVhen it is,
the spring is the most favorable time, as vaccination then
gives immunity during the summer, at which season the
anthrax is most likely to appear.

Against tetanus, as a measure of prevention, vaccination
is regularly recommended to army veterinarians and is con-
stantly practiced in cases of wounds, etc., in parts of the
animal's body which experience has shown to lead to lock-
jaw, the most frequent causes being castration and nail
in the hoof. The serum employed comes directly from the
Pasteur Institute in Paris. Before using the serum, the
veterinarian should assure himself of its perfect clearness;
he then makes two subcutaneous injections of 10 cubic cen-
timeters each on the neck or behind the shoulder of the animal.
The first injection is made at the moment the operation is
performed, or as soon as possible after the traumatic condition
is observed. A second injection is made 8 or 10 days later.
The veterinarian should not, because he has used the pre-
ventive serum, neglect also to treat the wounds aseptically
till cured.

The results obtained with this tetanus serum in France have
been very satisfactory theoretically and practically ; the dis-
ease has become more and more rare, and some military instal-
lations which had grown to be considered as veritable tetanus
breeders have been entirely cleaned of the disease.

There is also employed more and more each day in the army
a therapeutic anti-tetanus serum, but while the results have
thus far been encouraging, it is not yet possible to say to what
extent they have been due to the serum and to what extent to
the therapeutic treatment concurrently employed.

While these are the only vaccinations employed in the vet-
erinary practice of the army, it may be added, as a matter of
interest, that in France they now begin to employ an "anti-
streptococique" serum in affections of dropsy and erysipelas;
this, however, is, strictly speaking, a therapeutic method and
not vaccination.

FRANCE.

2GT

MOBILIZATION EFFECTIVE.

The nninber of horses, in addition to the peace effective,
■which woukl be required upon mobilization of the army is
sui:)posed to be kept secret. This number can be roughly es-
timated from the number of army corps to be mobilized and
from the knowledge of the peace effective in horses. How-
ever, in a discussion on the budget a few years ago (1897) in
the chamber of deputies, the following table was officially
furnished as setting forth the needs of the war effective :

Peace

effective.

War

effective.

Additional
horses re-
quired in
war.

55, 695

30, 260

4,500

4, 120

87, 360
250, 260
100,000
140, 000

31 665

220 000

95 500

Traiu.. . . . . __ _ . .

1G5, 880

Total

94, 575

577,620

483 045

These figures being for France proper, it will be seen that
the peace effective given is about 15 per cent less than the
peace effective for 1902. We may then say that to put her
army on a war footing for a great continental war, France
would need at the start at least 500,000 more horses than are
now in service, not taking later needs into account.

These horses would undoubtedly be procured by requisition,
and it is for this reason that the census of animals fit for the
va^rious military requirements is taken each year in France.
This document contains all the data required by the war de-
partment for requisitioning horses, should the need arise. It
is not believed that the necessary number and quality would
be forthcoming from home sources.

Experiments have been made at different times to test the
possibility of mounting regiments of reserve cavalry as the
law contemplates they should be mounted upon mobilization,
that is, by requisition. The results, even in horse-raising dis-
tricts, have not been satisfactory ; in two weeks' time sufficient
numbers of cavalry animals were not found in the territories
assigned to the regiments to mount their men. About one-
fourth the horses taken were light-draft and not saddle horses.

Now of the 500,000 horses needed immediately upon mobil-
ization, about one-half are saddle horses for the artillery and

268 REMOUNT SYSTEMS OF FOREIGN ARMIES.

cavalry. The draft liorses could easily be gotten, but the
saddle horses continue to present a serious difficulty. The
general horse-raising business has been on a steady decline
for the last. fifteen years. In 1888 the exports exceeded the
imports by about 25,000 head; in 1895 the imports exceeded
the exports by about 15,000 head and they have not since
decreased.

The raising of saddle horses as distinguished from draft
horses has been in former years and is even now considered
more remunerative by breeders ; the result is that the remount
officers, notwithstanding the high prices allowed for saddle
animals, have some difficulty in finding the 15,000 annually
required (most of these are saddle horses).

Premiums to Breeders of Military Horses in
France. — It was an endeavor to rectify this situation that
the French chambers in 1897 passed a law which puts in the
army appropriations each year an item of $234,000, which is
used to encourage horse raisers in the production of military
saddle horses. This sum enables the remount service to pay a
higher price than heretofore, the increase being in the nature
of a premium to the producers of good military animals
raised in France, and especially to the small farmers who can
not compete with great ranchers. This premium is in addi-
tion to the average price allowed for each class of animal.

As a safeguard thrown around this increased expenditure
for horses, the ministry of war has given strict orders that
the purchasing boards shall demand from the horse raisers
certificates showing ages and pedigrees of the animals they
sell. Prospective sellers must send to the remount stations
at least ten days before the purchasing boards start out
descriptions of the animals they propose to present, stating
pedigree, etc. This arrangement also serves to prevent the
presentation of foreign-bred — especially American — horses by
French breeders along with those of their own raising. The
object of the premium is to encourage French breeders, so
that premiums are not paid on any foreign-bred horse, what-
ever his quality.

The average price paid previous to 1897 for a y6ung, serv-
iceable, cavalry horse, either for the heavy cavalry or the
light, was about $204.75. It is contended by the horse raisers
that this price is insufficient, even for a horse 3^ years old.
They contend that a mare is worth $156, and that, allowing

FRANCE. 269

that she may produce eight colts, which is a heavy average,
$19.50 should be added to the value of each colt when sold.
Then comes the cost of maintenance of the mare during
gestation, Avhich is never less than $48.75, and the cost of
each colt during the three years that he is being maintained
by the raiser is at least $39 per year, so that the raiser can
not sell his 3-year-old colt for less than $185.25 without incur-
ring loss.

It is estimated that the horse-raising interest presents annu-
ally 120,000 horses to the remount purchasing boards, although
only about 16,000 are accepted.

Premium for Encouraging Horse Raising in Algeria.
Each year the appropriation bill for the army contains an
item of varying amount for this purpose; in 1901 it was
37,680 francs; in 1902, 74,780 francs. For 1902 there is also
an item of 30,300 francs for prizes for military horse races in
Algeria. (There is regularly voted 3,000 francs for prizes
for military horse races in France.) The sum for Algeria
was obtained from savings due to the jDresent low price of
mules in Algeria.

The funds for premiums to breeders is divided among the
various districts of Algeria in proportion to their importance
in the matter of horse raising. In each district a commission
is appointed consisting of two oflBcers, a veterinarian, and two
civilians (one European and one native), which awards the
premiums. The premiums are in sums of 150, 100, and 50
francs, and are awarded to colts and fillies of 2 and 3 years
and brood mares in foal or shown with their get of that year,
the sires to be stallions belonging to the state or Arab, Bar-
bary, or Arab-Barbary stallions approved by the state. Mares
receive one-half the sum allotted to the district, colts and
fillies the other half.

Owners must establish the pedigrees of the animals and
prove that they have owned them at least three months.

t

I

VI.-GEEMANY.

[Reported by Lieut. Col. J. B. Keir, Ninth Cavalry, Cuited States Jlilitary .\tt(iclie at Berliu.]

The production and improvement of horses for the German
army have been for a long time the object of active vigilance,
and the results obtained have been most satisfactory. The
Germans have encouraged and developed the propagation of
military horses until they now have better-bred mounts than
those of any other European army. Aside from the private
breeding stables, they have organized government breeding
establishments, where are kept both stallions and mares, and
stallion depots, in each of which are kept from 80 to 120
stallions which are distributed among the stallion stations
during the covering season, .from January until May.

Horses from 3 to 4 years of age are purchased for the army
by remount commissions. The horses are then assembled in
remount depots. These depots are also agricultural establish-
ments on large scales, are under the direction of the military,
and grow the necessary forage and other products for their
own use. Horses are sent from the depots to the regiments
and other organizations when between 4 and 5 years of age.
The only ones not sent to the depots are some older heavy
draft horses purchased for the artillery and the train, which
go immediately to their organizations ; this is permitted for
only a limited number of horses namely, those that are bought
from 4 to 6 years of age and at an average price of $301.

There are 25 remount depots, of which 17 are in Prussia, 5
in Bavaria, 2 in Saxony, and 1 in Wurttemberg. They are
distributed over the Empire, in the principal horse-raising
centers. The total annual receipts of the 17 depots in Prussia
are about $289,500, the expenses about $772,000; the differ-
ence $482,500 is appropriated for in the budget. This raises
the average cost of a horse to an amount between $173.90 and
$227.74. Bavaria maintains in its remount depots about
1,200 horses. In Saxony the remount depots of Kulkruth and
Skassa contain together about 700 horses, but these two depots

cm)

2? 2 REMOUNT SYSTEMS OF FOREIGN ARMIES.

have four annexes Avhicli contain 400 more. Horses for the
Saxon army are j)urchasecl to a great extent in East Prussia
arid Hanover at an average price of $214.20 each.

The remount depot for Wurttemberg was established in
1897 ; before this date its horses were bought in the market,
generally in Prussia. The depot of Breitholen can not fur-
nish all the horses necessary for the army of Wurttemberg ;
some direct purchases are therefore still made, and arrange-
ments are made also for obtaining horses from the remount
depots of Prussia.

The province of East Prussia is celebrated for its fine
horses, and furnishes nearly half the horses for the Prussian
army. In all the depots the horses are kept in stables, and
have stalls, but are not tied up, being left free to walk around.
A tin tag bearing a number is hung on the neck of each horse.
By this number the animal is known until the end of his mil-
itary service. The numbers differ in the various depots, so
that it can be immediately determined from which establish-
^nent a horse comes, also by whom he was purchased. The
horses distributed to the light cavalrj" (hussars and dragoons)
must be from 15 hands 2 inches to 16 hands in height, and
for heavy cavalry (uhlans and cuirassiers) from 16 to IT
hands. The horses of East Prussia are regarded as the best
horses in Germany.

The purchasing commissions for the remount horses consist
each of one permanent president and two oflQcers of cavalry
or field artillery detailed each year. Each commission has
also one veterinarian, one secretary, and one or two orderlies.
Each commission operates in a designated district. This
plan enables the members to become well acquainted with
the character of the animals within their zone of action. The
commissions are in session only during the time necessary for
the purchases. They are convened during the month of May
and adjourn by the 15th of September. The president is the
only permanent member. During the winter the presidents
work at the office of the minister of war. The other mem-
bers are detailed annually from among officers having special
knowledge of the horse, and who show promise of becoming
qualified to act as presidents of commissions. After the pur-
chases have been made, these officers return to their organi-
zations. The commissions publish in the newspapers the
dates on which they will hold what is called here "the

GERMANY. 273

remount markets," and on these dates they make the pur-
chases. The remount commissions purchase only serviceable
and healthy remounts. No standard of weight is prescribed,
no training demanded. The sellers must furnish foal certifi-
cates. Cold-blooded horses are not accepted. The horses
must be from 15 to 17 hands in height. They may be either
geldings or mares.

The horses are rounded up in bunches, placed in charge of
detachments furnished by neighboring regiments of cavalry,
and taken to the nearest remount depot. A few of the horses
are kept at the depots for as long as two years each. The
president of the commission determines definitely whether an
animal is suitable for purchase ; the ranking lieutenant alone
discusses with the owner of the horse the conditions of bar-
gain and the price, and the junior lieutenant takes the meas-
urements.

The distribution of the horses to the different arms is made
by the inspector general of remounts, who visits the depots
for this purpose. The regiments send detachments to the
depots for the horses, which are transported to their regiments
by rail, except where the distance is short. The distribution
is now made in July. As the discharges of horses unfit for
service are made from the various organizations after the fall
maneuvers, the numbers of horses on hand are therefore for
some time above the regulation allowances. The regiments,
in consequence, are authorized to sell 20 horses each immedi-
ately after the arrival of the remounts. A regiment of cavalry
receives annually 63 horses; each squadron from 12 to 13.
There is supplied in addition the necessary number of ofiicers'
horses, known as officers' chargers. All lieutenants, and cap-
tains of the second class (captains drawing first lieutenants'
pay), of cavalry and horse artillery are entitled to one govern-
ment horse each. Each of these officers must also procure
and keep one additional mount. The service horse is deliv-
ered only after complete training, as it is not considered desir-
able for the officer to spend his time at the work necessary
for the training. At the end of four years the charger becomes
the property of the holder. The officer who does not take
advantage of his right thus to select a horse, receives in its
stead the average price of a remount horse, paid in five annui-
ties. An officer thus waiving his right to a government
charger is obliged to keep two horses of his own. The

274 REMOUNT SYSTEMS OF FOREIGN ARMIES.

inspector of remounts, in making the distribution of the
horses at the depots, places the best mounts in the category
of officers' horses ("chargers"). This designation, however,
does not restrict the choice of the officer, who may select from
all the remount horses through the intermediary of a commis-
sion to approve the preference. If the horse assigned to an
ofiicer does not, in the first year of possession, answer the
requirements of the service, it may, upon the recommendation
of the commission, if sound and healthy, be exchanged for
another, generally of the same remount. As a rule such an
exchange is permitted only once. The regimental commander
may, for very particular reasons, authorize a second exchange.
With the exception of captains of the second class and lieu-
tenants of cavalry and horse artillery, all mounted officers
receive a special allowance with which they purchase horses
in the markets.

The remount depots are all conducted in a similar manner.
A description of a few will be given. The depot of Preussisch-
Mark is situated in the province of East Prussia. It has an
area of 2,037 acres ; the stables have a capacity for 330 horses.
The average cost of the maintenance of a horse at this depot
for one year is $57.12. The cultivation of the land furnishes
the depot forage, oats, and hay, and also other grain, which is
sold. Cattle, donkeys, mules, etc., are also sold. In 1897 the
sales amounted to $22,230. The extra costs are compensated
for by the increase in value of the animals during their stay.
The stables consist of two buildings adjoining, having in
front a common yard. Hayracks are not used, although they
exist in all the stables. The hay and straw are placed on
the ground. The hayracks are believed to tire the loins of
the horse when he raises his head. The price paid for 3-year-
olds varies; it now averages $155.89. The average cost of
maintenance being $57.12, the l^-year-old costs the govern-
ment $213.01. In other depots the annual expense of mainte-
nance is less, so that the average cost of one of their horses
up to the time of his arrival in a cavalry regiment is reduced
to $207.28.

The inspector general of the remount service designates the
horses for the different organizations in the month of June;
detachments are then sent by the organizaticms for them. To
care for 330 horses at the depot twelve stablemen with an
overseer and stable chief are employed ; each man cares for

I

GERMANY. 275

about 30 horses. None of these employees belong to the
army, but all are ex-soldiers. To this personnel are added
an accountant, a veterinarian, and a director of the establish-
ment. The horses are not ridden while at the depot. By
purchasing 3-year-olds, advantage is taken of the market,
which finds no other call for horses of this age. The govern-
ment has thereby a wide choice, and the horses are thus fed
grain a year sooner. The horses also have the advantage of
not having been worked and thus spoiled for cavalry pur-
poses. Against this system are the expenses of maintenance,
of the land, buildings, etc. Most of the depots were founded,
however, at a period when land was not so valuable as it is
now. The state then possessed large tracts and was able to
choose, for the installation of the depots, very favorable sites
from its own possessions. The number of horses at any depot
is regulated by the area under cultivation.

The remount dej^ot at Kattenau, in East Prussia, has a do-
main of 2,516 acres. It contains a central establishment and
three branches. There are 600 horses attached to this depot.
A very large amount of green forage is used. In fact the
grazing at all the depots is much more restricted than for-
merly, the feeding of green forage having taken its place. A
special isolated place, divided into box stalls, is set apart for
the hospital. The ration of forage is fed on the ground in
small jDortions, the grain being put in a box fastened to the
wall. All the horses are unshod. The feet are carefully
watched by the veterinarian. The farrier also goes over and
fixes them every month. There is a list made of the horses
in each stable. This list contains the number, description,
and the arm to which each animal is assigned. The soil in
the vicinity of the stables is sandy and dry. The horses are
very gentle. The average daily ration is 7^ pounds oats, 12i
pounds hay, and 15 pounds straw. In the summer the feed
consists for the most part of green forage. Pasturing is
almost abandoned at this depot. The cost price of the stay
of a horse for a year at Kattenau is about $68.40.

The remount depot of Baerenklau has a central establish-
ment and five branches, with a capacity for 500 horses. Its
management is similar to that of Kattenau. Soon after the
arrival of the horses at the depots they are almost invariably
sick with influenza.

276 REMOUNT SYSTEMS OF FOREIGN ARMIES.

While at the depots, the young horses are systematically
exercised in so-called ' ' movement grounds, " inclosed grounds,

21 to 26 yards wide, and from 825 to 1,250 yards long, and
oval in shape. They are daily for two hours driven on these
grounds in bunches of 100 head each, at moderate paces (slow
trot and gallop ) with front and rear herders. They thus obtain
free step, develop muscle, good hoofs, and healthy internal
organs, and acquire a certain discipline.

Immediately after purchase the horses are branded on the
left side of the neck with the year. After the transfer of
the horses from the remount depots to the regiments, they are
branded on the left hip with the regimental brand, from
which, in an abbreviated form, the regiment to which they
belong may be seen: D4, U6, A3, etc. The brands, how-
ever, are not placed over others, such as those of breeding
stables, etc.

In the army the average length of service of horses of the
cavalry and train is ten years, of field artillery nine years,
and of the military riding institute from seven to eight years.

There is no regulation fixing the length of time that a horse
may serve in the army. A great number of them are dis-
charged between 14 and 15 years of age. This matter is left
entirely with the squadron commander, who may allow them
to stay in the service up to the age of 20 years. In a few of
the organizations particular horses are allowed to stay until

22 years of age, which is the extreme limit. The number of
animals to be annually received in each organization is fixed,
varying only in consequence of more or fewer horses being
selected for officers' chargers. As a result a squadron com-
mander having received his allowance (which is 10 per cent
of his authorized strength), say 13 horses, in July, will not
have more than 13 altogether sold and discharged after the
fall maneuvers, although he may have more in his squadron
that should be discharged. For instance, if a horse dies he
is not replaced, but the squadron commander, in order to
keep the number at the authorized limit, discharges one horse
less. If a captain is compelled to condemn more horses than
he has received from the remount, the deficit continues dur-
ing the year, and the number of the effective files of the
squadron for the time being is reduced. If a horse becomes
unfit for service, and the squadron commander judges it
impossible to keep him in the ranks, he reports the fact to

GERMANY. 277

the regimental commander, wlio convenes a board, composed
of a captain, two lieutenants, and a veterinary surgeon, to
examine the horse. The decision of the board as to the dis-
position to be made of the horse is final, its findings being
subject to no approval by superior authority and to no appeal.
If the horse is declared unfit for the service he is immediately
sold at auction. (It may be worthy of remark that the tend-
ency in the German army is to the decentralization of power
in the hands of the war ministry. Initiative and authority
is being extended to and centralized in the ofiBcers present on
the spot, who are held responsible for their actions. This
relieves the war ministry and heads of dej^artments of many
details of which they can have only a paper knowledge.)

The money received for the sale of the horse is taken up in
the special fund which exists in all squadrons, batteries of
field artillery, and divisions of the train, for the improvement
of the horses. This fund accrues not only from the proceeds
of such sales, but also from the sales of the forage rations
which are authorized to be drawn for the animal after he has
been sold and until he has been replaced, and also from pay-
ments made by the one-year volunteers for the hire of the
horses used by them. The commanders of the organizations
purchase from this fund, in the open market, a horse to re-
place the one sold. The number of horses thus bought is very
limited.

There are, in round numbers, 4,200,000 horses in Germany.
The number in the army is as follows : In the cavalry, 65,700;
in the artillery, 33,750; in the other branches, 5,270; draft
horses, 25,900; pack horses, 12; total, 130,632. There are no
mules in the army.

The number of horses imported into Germany annually
averages: From France, about 7,000; from Russia, 32,000;
from Belgium, 21,500; from Denmark, 16,000; from Austria-
Hungary, 12,000; from Holland, 8,000; the total imports being
about 102,000, while the exports reach only about 10,000.
The import duties on horses over 2 years of age are $4.76
each; under 2 years, 61.19; colts following dam, free; mules,
$1.19. No export duties are charged on horses or mules.

For use outside the continental empire, the horses for the
expeditionary corps in China were the only ones provided by
the army administration. No horses for use of the troops in

278 REMOUNT SYSTEMS OF FOREIGN ARMIES.

the colonies liave been shipped from Germany. The few
horses used in. the colonies are native horses furnished by the
local civil administration. For the East- Asiatic expedition-
ary corps the horses were bought partly in the United States
of America and partly in Australia. For those purchased
in the United States the same conditions were required for
their acceptance as are established by the United States Gov-
ernment for its remounts.

The forage ration varies according to the service performed
by the horse. There is a ration for garrison duty, for the
march, and for field service. The heavy ration consists in
garrison of 11.16 pounds oats, 5.58 pounds hay, and 7.81
pounds straw; for the march, 12.27 pounds oats, 3.34 pounds
hay, and 3.9 pounds straw; for the field, 12.61 oats, 3.3-4 hay,
and 3.9 straw. The heavy ration is allowed to the horses of
the cuirassier and uhlan regiments, to the horses of the gen-
erals, general stajEf, adjutants general, officers on duty at the
war ministry, artillery of the guard corps, regimental and
artillery battalion commanders, artillery and train horses
(when used for draft purposes), and, when in the field, for
all cavalry and artillery horses.

Besides the heavy ration there is also a light-cavalry (guard),
a middle, and a light ration. The light-cavalry (guard)
garrison ration consists of 10.6 pounds oats, 5.58 hay, and
7.81 straw; the march ration, 11.5 oats, 3.34 hay, 3.9 straw;
the field ration, 12.61 oats, 3.34 hay, 3.39 straw. The light
garrison ration consists of 9.48 oats, 5.58 hay, 7.81 straw;
march ration, 10.6 oats, 3.34 hay, 3.9 straw; the field ration,
11.16 oats, 3.34 hay, and 3.9 straw. The horses of the light
cavalry of the guard are entitled to the light-cavalry (guard)
ration ; the horses of the dragoons and hussars of the guard
to the middle ration; and the horses of all other troops,
officers, physicians, and officials to the light ration.

Additional allowances are authorized for certain prescribed
cases ; for instance, for railroad travel of over eight hours'
duration the hay ration is increased by 6 pounds 11 ounces.
An increase is authorized also for the heavy horses during
maneuvers.

The rations for the officers' horses of the cavalry are the
same as those for the service horses of their regiments ; thus
an officer of the cuirassiers receives the cuirassier ration, an

GERMANY.

279

officer of tlie hussars, tlie liussar ration, etc. They are en-
titled to rations as folloTvs :

I

Peace footing.

War footing.

4
3
3
3

2

5

Field officer _ _ . _ _„.____.-

4

Captain conimaiiiiins a scjuadron _ .. _ _ _

3

Ke2:iniental adjutant, first or second lieutenant

3

3

Surgeon lieutenant _ _ _____

1

Pavnia-<ter,

1

1

Veterinarian _. _______

1

The forage rations constitute a personal allowance of the
officers entitled to them, who may dispose of the rations as
they desire. Instead of the rations officers may draw money
either for all the rations allowed for their horses or for any
part of the same.

In the cavalry the following extra pay for the jiurchase of
horses is allowed per month :

First lieutenant -. ._ S3. 57

Captains of the second class 7.14

Captains of the first class_ 5.95

Staff officers not regimental commanders 5. 95

Regimental commanders 11. 90

Officers of the horse artillery have the same allowances.
The generals do. not receive any extra pay for horses. The
allowance of forage for general officers is for 3 to 8 horses each
according to said officers' duties. In time of peace they are
not required to keep their full number of horses, but they
may draw and sell their full allowance of the forage. Com-
pressed forage is not used.

A squadron is allowed each month from $10.23 to $10.71
for shoeing its horses. On a peace footing there are 139
horses in a squadron, and this monthly allowance not only
proves for them sufficient, but often is not all expended, so
that a reserve fund is constituted to provide for unexpected
needs. The squadron commanders are entirely free to have
or not to have the horses of their squadrons shod. It is cus-
tomary not to shoe the horses during the winter, that is, from
the 1st of October to the 1st of April. During this period,
which is devoted to the instruction of recruits, the horses
work only in the riding hall or on the exercising grounds,
which are prepared for the purpose and are soft. They can
then, barring exceptions indicated by the veterinary surgeons,
go without shoes. During the summer all depends upon the

280 REMOUNT SYSTEMS OF FOREIGN ARMIES.

sj)ecial conditions in the vicinity of the garrisons. If, in
going to drill, the squadron is obliged to traverse a consider-
able part of the city, the front feet are shod. If on the con-
trary the ground in the neighborhood is not too hard, the
horses are left entirely unshod until the fall maneuvers. For
these maneuvers the horses are shod all around, as it is diffi-
cult to foresee what kind of ground may be encountered.
But in exceptional cases, where it is known that they will be
used only on soft ground, economy is preserved by shoeing
only the fore feet. In the cities the cavalry never furnishes
mounted patrols or mounted orderlies. All this service is
done by soldiers on foot. This permits doing without shoe-
ing the greater part of the year, thereby incidentally saving
a part of the fund allowed for shoeing. There is, neverthe-
less, always in the storehouse a large supply of shoes, enough
not only for shoeing the squadron horses all around, at the
moment of mobilization, but also for a reserve supply to take
along.

Until recently no vaccination of any kind was prescribed
for military horses. In the last few years, trials have been
made to guard by vaccination against influenza, that is, to
protect the healthy horses by vaccination before the infec-
tion. The vaccine used for this purpose consists of the lymph
of such horses as have recovered from the disease. The re-
sults of these trials have not been sufficiently satisfactory to
lead to a general adoption of such vaccinations.

During winter horses are groomed three times a day.

When the horses are brought from the depots to their regi-
ments and organizations, they are trained for one year before
being placed in the ranks, after which they are trained
another year in the ranks before their education is regarded
as completed.

When horses are discharged from the cavalry, they are put
in the train, if adjudged suitable for the purpose.

The mounted organizations of the army have some other
horses which are known as "Kriimper" horses. These are
maintained in excess of the regulation effectives, and rations
may not be drawn for them. They are fed on the savings of
the whole. The number of Kriimper horses is fixed by regu-
lations at 3 or 4 per squadron, 2 to 5 per battery or train com-
pany, 6 at the most for tlie officers' riding institute, or not
over 4 for the noncommissioned officers' riding institute.

GERMANY. 281

These horses are used as draft animals for the stable wagons
and in the squadron or company fatigue duty. They may also
be hired out to other organizations of the garrison. Under
certain conditions they may be driven also by officers of the
regiment or organization, on payment of a certain charge,
which goes into a special fund.

In case of mobilization the horses necessary to put the army
on a war effective are obtained by requisition.

The number of horses to be added to the peace effective in
case of a general mobilization is 380,000. It is expected that
these horses will be procured in Germany upon mobilization,
as they are now ready and listed for such service. The law
of 187o affecting military requisitions, and the regulation of
1886, concerning the conscription of horses, indicate in detail
the rules to be followed in all that concerns these operations.
Concisely they are as follows : A general census of horses is
made every ten years by the civil authority. This is followed
by a classification made by commissions, each composed of an
army officer and one official of the civil administration. Dis-
tricts are then assigned to the different army corps, and, in
case of mobilization, the corps commanders call for the
required number of animals of the desired classes. The horses
are inspected by commissions established during time of peace
and composed of 3 members each. The work is laid out in
such a manner that each commission will not have more than
1,200 animals to examine. Upon the civil authority is incum-
bent the duty of assembling the horses and of seeing that they
are collected at the points wished at the time indicated in the
order of mobilization. The horses selected by the commis-
sions are taken by the owners to designated points where mili-
tary receiving commissions appraise the animals and fix the
amounts to be allowed the owners. The horses are then sent
to the organizations by men of the recruiting service or men
of the landwehr or landsturm, assembled for this purpose in
advance at the different receiving points.

There are in Prussia three government breeding stables,
containing stallions and mares. They are the stables of
Trakehnen, Beberbeck, and Graditz. Their object is to raise
blooded stallions for the purpose of supplying the stallion
depots, of which there are 15. The latter send out their stal-
lions to the various stallion stations established throughout
the empire during the breeding seasons. After the breeding

282 REMOUNT SYSTEMS OF FOREIGN ARMIES.

season is over each year the stallions are brought back again
to the stallion depots.

The breeding stables, stallion depots, and stations are all
"Under the management of the ministry of agriculture, and are
in no way connected with the war ministry or the army.

The breeding stable of Trakehnen was established in 1T25.
It has a domain of 10,000 acres, and comprises 13 farms where
stallions, colts, and brood mares are kept. The stables now
have 15 stallions, 350 mares, and 730 colts of different ages.
Among the stallions are 10 first-class English thoroughbreds;
their average cost price was 817,850. The well known Tra-
kehnen breed of horses is about one-half English blood,
one-quarter Arabian, and one-quarter blood of the ancient
coursers of the Teutonic order of knights who raised with great
care and success their steeds in East Prussia during the thir-
teenth and fourteenth centuries. These horses are suitable
for all the services, and make remarkable saddle horses and
carriage horses. The finest products go into the emperor's
stables. Mares of private persons are also served at the sta-
bles. The stables possessed two Arabian stallions, but they
were recently discharged, as their product lacked size. There
are, however, at the stables, four Arabian mares, which give
fine products. The few officers who possess these horses men-
tion them with pride. All the stallion depots have a certain
number of Trakehnen horses. At 3 years of age the stallions
are divided into two classes, the principal stallions, which are
to serve in the breeding stables, and the stallions of the coun-
try, which are sent to the stallion depots.

The breeding stables of Graditz have an area of 7,500 acres.
They contain seven stallions, among which is Chamont, bought
at the price of $32,000.

In addition to the stallions raised, the government purchases
about 200 stallions each year.

The effectives of all the government stables of Prussia are,
for the principal breeding stables, 35 stallions, 640 brood mares,
and 2,000 colts; for the stallion depots, 2,250 stallions; 4,925
animals in all. The price charged for covering mares is from
50 cents at some of the stations to $100 at some of the breed-
ing stables. The ordinary price through the country is about
$1. All htDrses have foal certificates. They are not inbred.
Stallions are not lent to civilian horse raisers ; their services
are paid for.

GERMANY. 283

Bavaria has 1 royal breeding stable, 2 principal breeding
stables, 5 stallion depots, and 123 stallion stations.

Saxony has 1 breeding establishment for the production of
draft horses ; it is of limited extent and of not much impor-
tance.

Wurttemberg. has 3 small breeding stables, which are also
stallion depots. The government stallions in Wurttemberg
number 126.

The total number of government stallions in Germany is
3,000, exclusive of the colts.

SUMMARY OF THE VETERINARY MEDICAL REPORT OF THE
PRUSSIAN ARMY, 1900.

The Militar-Wochenblatt publishes a summary of the vet-
erinary medical report of the Prussian army for 1900. The
total number of service horses was 81,039, and of these 32,996
or 40.71 per cent came under treatment, with the result that
30,399 or 92.12 i^er cent of the treated horses were cured, 320
were declared unfit for further service, 1,1-48 or 3.48 per cent
died, and 368 or 1.11 per cent were killed, making a total loss
to the service of 1,836 horses or 5.58 per cent of the horses
treated, and 2.26 per cent of the total strength. Compared
with the previous year there was an increase of 6,410 in the
number of cases treated and 284 in the number lost. Deaths
from glanders were more numerous than in the two years
immediately preceding, the figures being 13 in 1898, 1 in
1899, and 52 in 1900. Of the 52, 47 cases came from one reg-
iment, but in 21 of these there was some doubt as to the real
nature of the disease. Chest murrain affected 1,618 horses,
of which 1,498 were cured, 70 died, 1 was killed, and 49
remained under treatment. No less than 1,019 cases, with 43
deaths, occurred in the first quarter of the jeav. The cases
were less numerous than in either of the four preceding years,
the numbers for these years being 2,277, 3,116, 3,265, and
2,301. The far less dangerous murrain or intestinal fever
showed a great increase in the number of cases, the figures
being 4,325 for 1900 and only 861 for 1899, but only 1 horse
died from this disease and 1 was shot. Colic was, as usual,
much more fatal, as out of 3,746 horses treated, 528 horses
died, both these numbers being higher than those of any of
the five preceding years. Inflammation of the throat and
larynx aft'ected 527 horses, but only 1 died ; 420 of the cases

284 REMOUNT SYSTEMS OF FOREIGN ARMIES.

were infectious and 284 of these came from one regiment.
The number of cases treated for saddle and harness galls was
596, against 440 in 1899. The number of cases of inflamma-
tion of the tendons also show an increase, it being 4,039, with
a loss of 39 horses. The hot-iron treatment, which at one
time was common in these cases, is now very exceptional,
cold-water bandages and other cooling treatment, with mas-
sage, being substituted for it. The general increase in the
numbers treated for the various complaints is attributed
chiefly to the greater amount of work the horses were called
upon to do.

GERMAN COLONIES.

[Fiom " Zucht und Remontirung der Militar-Pfenle aller Staaten," by Dr. Paul Goldbeck, Berlin,

1901.]

Little is known concerning horse breeding in the German
colonies, in many of which the principal draft animals in use
are mules or oxen. In German Southwest Africa the number
of horses is estimated at from 3, GOO to 4,000. Mules were
formerly imported from Argentina, but they are now being
bred to a considerable extent. The number of animals in
possession of the protective force in 1899 was 1,162 horses, 220
foals, 350 mules, and 1,050 oxen. There is a stud establish-
ment, from which 70 horses were delivered to the troops in
1899.

In German East Africa horses are kept only for purposes
of mule breeding, the principal transport animals being asses,
mules, and oxen.

In East Asia the mounted troops possessed, in 1900, 69
horses and 92 mules, besides which 47 officers, surgeons, etc.,
were obliged to keep horses. The ration consists of 8.82
pounds of barley, 6.61 pounds bran, and 17.64 pounds of straw;
for mules of 7.72 pounds barley, 6.61 pounds bran, and 17.64
pounds of straw. When the troops were mobilized for China,
in 1900, a cavalry regiment and a field artillery regiment were
formed, the horses for which were purchased in America and
Australia.

YII.-GREAT BRITAIN.

[Reported by Capt. E. B. Cassatt, Thirteenth Cavahy, Tniteil States Military Attache at London.]

1. The remounting of the British army at home is carried
out under the orders of the inspector general of remounts, the
details of whose work are shown below.

2. The regular army abroad, in normal times, has no
mounted trooi^s except in South Africa, Egypt, and India.
For these it has been the custom to purchase locally. In
South Africa and in Egypt the horses for the British and the
native cavalry are Syrian Arabs.

The artillery in Egypt is remounted from England.

In India all the remounting of the army is done under
orders from the local government.

The only irregulars are the troops of the native states who
are remounted by their own rulers.

The regulars are, first, British cavalry, horse artillery, field
artillery, mule batteries, and elephant batteries; second,
native cavalry regiments, which are, for the most part, what
is termed "silladar," that is to say, horse, clothing, arms, and
equipment are the property of the trooper. In former times
the trooper enlisted bringing with him his own horse and
equipment, but now he brings money, and everything is
found for him, the money being refunded on his discharge.

The Madras cavalry regiments are not "silladar," but are
remounted by the government.

3. There are no mounted troops maintained in the colonies,
except a few in Australia who are remounted by local
arrangements.

•4. In the United Kingdom horses are acquired by purchase
in the open market, from any dealers or private individuals
who may produce suitable horses when required. They are
purchased by the inspector general and assistant inspectors
of remounts, assisted by veterinary surgeons, who examine
for age and soundness.

(385)

286 REMOUNT SYSTEMS OF FOREIGN ARMIES.

The department furnisliing this information is not at lib-
erty to announce the prices paid.

5. The general requirements of the different arms are as
follows :

For cavalry :
Heights —

Lancers and dragoons .-. - - 15.2 hands.

Hussars. 15. 1 hands.

Household cavalry .-. 16 hands.

Ages 5 oif to 6 years.

These may, generally speaking, be described as of the
hunter class.

For artillery, engineers, and transports :

Heights - 15.1 to 15. 3 hands.

Ages 5 off to 6 years.

These should be described as good draft horses, those for
transport being somewhat heavier than those for artillery.

For mounted infantry and yeomanry :

Heights 14. 2 to 15 hands.

Ages 5 off to 6 years.

Of the polo pony stamp.

6. Sex is not considered in mounting the army.

7. The subject of gaits or paces is not considered, the idea
being that all horses can be trained to the regulation speed
of trot, walk, and gallop.

8. Color is not considered, except in special units as follows :
Household cavalry, black ; second dragoon guards, bay ; sec-
ond dragoons, gray. Gray horses are not supplied to any
other corps except for trumpeters and, it is believed, to the
bands.

0. Horses are not weighed in the United Kingdom.

10. In connection with the ages mentioned above, in past
years a certain number of 4-year-olds have been issued in the
autumn, but it is now proposed to make a strict rule that no
horse shall be issued that is less than full 5 years old in the
autumn.

11. No pack animals are used except one or two per unit
selected from the lighter draft animals, or, in some cases,
mules for reserve of small-arm ammunition with infantry.

A considerable amount of pack transport is used in India,
but there is no information at present of the numbers main-
tained.

GREAT BRITAIN.

287

12. The following is a table of horses purchased in the
United Kingdom in recent years :

Cavalry.

Royal

artillery.

Jlouiited in

fa 11 try.

Trausport.

1S97 ..

1,665
1,061
7,336

1,140
1,286

0, yt<5

30

59

2, 276

325

]!^;i8

IS'.tU .._ _._

179
184

13. There are no government studs in England or the
colonies.

14. As far as I know, no duties, whether for import or
export, are charged in this country.

15. At present this office has, with regard to the number of
horses and mules in the United Kingdom, no accurate infor-
mation, but such information is promised.

16. In the army, with the exception of South Africa, the
numbers at present are as follows :

Cavalry.

Royal artillery.

Mouu

eil infantry.

Transport.

7,847
361

9, 940

287

120
120
100
h

2,889

Eevpt - .

48

Malta -._ _ _

100

ludia

(( 4, 725

7,455

6

a Exclusive of "sillaciar" horse.

17. On mobilization for home defense about 186,000 horses
will be required. It is not known when or where they will
be obtained. The number of horses required on mobilization
for over-sea warfare will, of course, depend on the extent of
the operations.

18. The annual loss at home and in Egypt from all causes
is 12 per cent.

19. Horses are retained from ten to eleven years.

20. In normal times the average number recjuired annually
for the United Kingdom is 1,300.

21. No training is required of horses before they are issued
to units, and they are bought broken or unbroken.

22. No depots exist for breaking in horses before they are
issued to units, but in normal times there are two depots for
assembly of remounts, namely, Woolwich for artillery and
transport; Dublin (including Lusk) for all branches.

23. All horses are branded with an army number, figures
of over three digits, on the near hind foot ; three digits and
under on the off hind foot; sc^uadron, battery, and company
numbers on the fore feet.

24. According to the department furnishing this informa-
tion, vaccination of horses in the British army is not carried

388 REMOUNT SYSTEMS OF FOREIGN ARMIES.

out, but section 10 of the Regulations for Army Veterinary
Services reads as follows :

The army vaccine institute of Aldershot will be under the direction of
the professor of the army veterinary school, subject to the orders of the
district veterinary officer of the command. He will be held responsible
for the vaccination of calves, and for the collection and issue of lymph.
In these duties he will be assisted by the assistant professor of the school.
He will submit to the district veterinary officer, for the information of
the war office, a monthly return showing the amount of lymph issued
from the institute, together with the results obtained by lymph issued
during the previous month. He will furnish an annual report on the
working of the institute and its results, through the district veterinary
officer, to the general officer commanding.

The district veterinary officer will ascertain, from time to time, that
the stock of lymph on hand is not in excess of the quantity reqiiired to
meet immediate demands, and that no lymph, which may have dete-
riorated from age or other caiase, is issued.

This seems rather inconsistent with the statement that no
vaccination is carried on.

25. Shoeing. — The following is taken from Regulations for
Army Veterinary Services :

I. — REGULATION SHOE.

The kind of shoe to be used in all branches of the service, unless other-
wise specially ordered, is the "concave shoe" — that is, one which is con-
cave on its ground surface and fiat on its foot surface — for both fore and
hind feet. The inner margin of the web in contact with the foot should
be brought to a thin edge. The thickness and breadth of the web of the
shoe will be uniform all round. The heels of the shoes will be rounded
and well sloped.

The nail holes will be from six to eight in number, according to the size
of the foot and weight of the shoe, and placed in the groove or "fuller-
ing " on each side. The nail holes on one side of the shoe will be opposite
those on the other side ; when only five nails are used, the inside heel nail
will be left oiit.

One toe clip is to be used with the fore shoe, and two toe clips with the
hind shoe. In the case of draft horses, one toe clip only in the hind shoe
may be allowed. A quarter clip may be used when required, in the case
of "kickers." Calks maybe used, when considered necessary, on light or
draft shoes.

Tips, or half shoes, in cases of contraction, chronic thrush, sandcrack,
corns, or other diseases or defects, also shoes with turned-up toes, or other
shoes for special purposes, may be used at the discretion of the veterinary
officer.

II. — HOW TO PREPARE THE FOOT AND FIT THE SHOE.

When preparing the foot for the shoe, the ground surface of the wall
will be lowered to a sufficient extent with the rasp. The drawing knife
will not be used. The sole will be left uncut. The frog must not be

I

I

GREAT BRITAIN.

289

touched if it is sound and firm. If, however, it is ragged and soft, and
inclined to thrush, it shoiild be attended to and dressed. "When necessary,
the toes of the feet will be shortened by rasping the ground surface of the
fore part of the hoof. The toes will not be shortened after the hoofs are
shod.

The shoes made by farriers will not be fitted when too hot. The shoes
will be made to fit accurately the outer edge of the crust round to, and
inchiding, the heels. It wnll not project beyond the wall at any point ex-
cept a little at the heels. The outer edge of the wall will be well rounded
with the rasp before the shoe is fitted or affixed, but no rasping of any
kind will be permitted after the shoe is on. The nails will not be driven
too high up in the wall, and the clenches are to be evenly laid.

Every horse is to be shod with new shoes when necessary. When the
shoes are not worn out, removes are allowed at the discretion of the com-
manding officer or veterinary officers.

The practice of using grease, tar, or other dressings, to the horse's feet
generally, will not be allowed.

Instructions with regard to the preparation and keeping up of shoeing
books by farrier sergeants will be found in queen's regulations.

III. — INSPECTION OF SHOEING AT OUT STATIONS BY OFFICERS.

At out stations, the officer in veterinary charge will supervise the shoe-
ing. His attention is directed to the following points :

1. That the horses are kept well shod.

2. That the farriers make a daily inspection to see that no clenches are
left up, that all broken nails are replaced and that unsound frogs are
properly attended to.

3. That the sole and frog are uncut with the drawing knife.

4. That the outside of the wall has not been rasped.

5. That the nails are not driven too high up.

6. That the toes are properly shortened in the way described.
Special facilities exist at out stations for training men to become shoe-

ing-smiths and " cold-shoers." Officers commanding should, therefore,
encourage men to attend the forge for instruction.

IV. — DIMENSIONS OF HORSESHOES BY SIZES.

For convenience of reference, the sizes of shoes, fore and hind, are
divided and numbered 1 to 8. The following tables give the approximate
dimensions of the several shoes :

Fore shoes for

riding, draft, and wheel horses.

Size

Width.

Leugth.

Width
of web.

Average
weight.

Number of

nail holes on

each side.

Designation
number
of nails.

No. 1 - „ - -

/./.Acs.
4

6

Inches.
4K
fs

5>|
5%
6
6}i

iHches.

1

'/a

1

1

Ounces.
8

14
16

22K
25

281-^

3
3
3
3
3
4
4
4

3 or 4

No. 2 -

6

No. 3

No. 4

6

7

No. 5

8

No. 6

8

No. 7 .

9

No. 8

9

290 REMOUNT SYSTEMS OP FOREIGN ARMIES.

Hind shoes for riding and lead horses.

Size.

Wiath.

Length.

Width
of web.

Averajie
weight.

Number of

uail holes on

each side.

Designation
number
of nails.

No. 1 -

Inches.
i

4%
4%
5

ri

Inches.

5%
6

Inches.

i

1

Ounce.''.
8
13

24
26
29

3
3
3
3
3
4
4
4

3 or 4

No. 2

No. 3

No. 4

No. 5

No. 6

6

6

7
8 or 9
8 or 9

No. 7

9

No. 8

9

Hind shoes iritli calks for wheel horses.

No. .5.
No. 6_
No. 7_
No. 8.

^H

s%

%

22

by.

G

M

24

ri%

6M

1

26>-2

ij

6>$

1

33

8 or 9 heel
holes, 10
toe holes.

8 or 9 heel
holes, 10
toe holes.

9 heel holes,

11 toe
holes.
9 heel holes,
11 toe
holes.

V. — COLD-SHOEING.

Veterinary oflficers are to make themselves acquainted with the details
necessary to render the system of cold-shoeing as perfect as possible, and
especially with regard to the requirements of field service. They should
be able to recognize the different sizes of shoes and nails, and know the
proportion of sizes required in the units to which they are attached, so that
provision may be made for an ample supply in barracks, on the line of
march, or in the field.

In working the system, commanding officers should give veterinary offi-
cers every support, as the latter will have to see that the shoeing is carried
on with the utmost care and economy, and at the same time efficiently ;
that the instruction afforded by the farrier staff sergeant and sergeants to
the shoeing-smith, acting shoeing-sraiths, and learners, is carried out
properly and thoroughly, and that as many men from the ranks as possible
are trained to shoe. Attention is directed to the regulations issued with
regard to keeping men already instructed in practice by having them in
the forge at intervals, and for as long a time as may be necessary or con-
venient.

The chief feature in the system, and the one upon which the scheme is
mainly based, is the adoption to a large extent of the practice of what is
generally known as "cold-shoeing," i. e., the cold fitting of shoes issued
ready for immediate use, and nails requiring no preparation, both being
provided from s'tore.

One-half of the shoes and nails required for units will be so supplied, the
object in view being to maintain the practice of shoeing exactly as it would
have to be performed in the field — quickly, simply, and efficiently; and to

GREAT BRITAIN. 291

allow of the training of large numbers of men in the ranks as shoers, while
also making provision for a supply of veterinary assistants for war service
from the farrier staff sergeants and sergeants and shoeing-smiths who have
successfully passed through the Aldershot or other recognized military
veterinary school.

The remaining half of the shoes will be made from old shoes, and the
remaining half of the nails from nail rod supplied on requisition, in order
to instruct and keep the shoers in practice, so that in cases of emergency,
as when the supply of shoes or nails fails, but the materials for making
them are available, there may be no interruption to the shoeing. It is
estimated that one and a half or two old shoes will suifice to make a
new one.

Fuel, tools, aprons, and other materials necessary for shoeing, as laid
down in the equipment regulations, will be supplied from store at regular
intervals, or on application when required.

The maximum requirement of shoes should not exceed 18 sets a year per
horse, and with care it may, under favorable conditions, be considerably
reduced. The supply of nails is more than is necessary for new shoes ;
indeed, in the smaller sizes of shoes, and particularly the fore ones, all
the nail holes need not be filled, five nails being generally sufficient for
each shoe, if well placed and driven in the hoof ; the surplus can therefore
be iitilized in removing shoes or replacing lost ones. Loss or waste of
shoes and nails is to be carefully guarded against, and when it can be
clearly proved that this is due to negligence on the part of the farriers,
or others, they should be required to replace them at their own expense.

A new rasp should last, when supplemented by an old one, from six
weeks to two months, or longer. This is the tool which must be replaced
most frequently. The wear of the other tools is indefinite, but they will
not be replaced at the public expense unless certified that they are fairly
worn out, or broken or lost through no fault of the farriers.

It is necessary that the training of farrier staff sergeants and sergeants
and shoeing-smiths, to act as hospital assistants on active service, be kej)t
up in regiments, even when they have passed a course of instruction at the
Aldershot or other recognized military veterinary school ; and veterinary
officers are to afford them every opportunity in this direction.

The squadron shoeing-smiths are to be trained so as to be in readiness
for promotion to the rank of farrier sergeant ; and those who are to be
made shoeing-smiths should be selected from the best men for the purpose.

It is incumbent upon commanding officers to watch carefully the working
of the system, in order to prevent waste, and they will hold the veterinary
officers in charge responsible that the horses are not shod oftener than is
actually necessary, and that all shoes, nails, iron, and coals issued to the
farriers are appropriated solely to the uses for which they are supplied.

VI. — INSTRUCTION OF SOLDIERS IN COLD-SHOEING.

With the view of insuring thoroughness and uniformity in the instruc-
tion of soldiers in shoeing horses, in the manner required to be followed
on active service, directions for instruction are laid down in Appendix
VIII. Shoes are provided ready for immediate application to the hoofs, or
needing only trifling alteration in shape in special cases ; and nails are also

292 REMOUNT SYSTEMS OF FOREIGN ARMIES.

issued, "pointed" and finished in such a way as also to be ready for use
without further preparation.

The different steps in the operation of shoeing are to be adopted method-
ically and progressively, and taught thoroughly.

For instruction, men ai-e to be preferred who have been accustomed to
work in a forge, to handle a hammer, or to manipulate horses' legs and
feet.

No man is to be dismissed as proficient who can not shoe a horse, serv-
iceably well, within an hour.

Level, even fitting of the shoe to the foot and careful and solid nailing
on are the chief objects to be attained in this system of shoeing.

VII. — WINTER SHOEING BY THE INSERTION OF FROST NAILS.

These nails are intended for "roughing" horses in frosty or slippery
weather, and are made of mild steel, having chisel-shaped heads. The
heads are hardened, but the shanks are not.

The "small" size is similar in shape in the shank to the ordinary horse-
shoe iron nails, and is suitable for use by medium or light cavalry and
other riding horses. The shoes for such horses will range from No. 2 to
No. 4 or 5 sizes.

The "large" size nails are suitable for mounted services other than those
mentioned above, the shoes for which range from No. 5 to 8.

The average weight per 1,000 is: large, 35i pounds; small, 24 pounds.

The following general instructions for the use of these frost nails are
published for the information of all those concerned :

One shovild be inserted in each heel of each fore shoe, and one in the
outer heel of each hind shoe, where there are no calks or wedge heels ; or,
should it be considered expedient, in the case of draft or other heavy horses
one nail would be inserted in each heel, and in the toes when considered
requisite. For this purpose the "small" nail will do, as the shank will, if
necessary, penetrate the hoof.

For di'aft horses an oblique hole similar to those in the heels should be
stamped between the first and second toe nail holes, so that frost nails can
be readily inserted in the same manner when required.

These holes would take the small or large frost nails at discretion.

It is a good plan to have the head of the outside nail across the shoe,
and the inside one in the same line as the shoe, so as to prevent injury to
the opposite leg of the horse.

The success of these nails entirely depends on the accuracy with which
they are fitted to the nail holes. The countersunk portion of the nail
head should be completely embedded therein, only allowing the "chisel"
head or sharp portion to remain above the shoe, otherwise an undue strain
is caused on the neck of the nail, which breaks or wears loose, or bends
over. Too much attention can not be paid to this, as a neglect of it often
leads to failure.

The horses must be shod a little wider at the heels than usual, to allow
of exit of nails without penetrating the horn, and the nail hole must be
punched exactly on the wearing surface, from whence it should pass
obliquely upward and outward to the upper surface of the shoe. The
nail should fit tightly ; to insure this, it is a good plan, after the nail is

GREAT BRITAIN. 293

turned outward from the shoe to let the horse put his full weight on it,
and then to fasten it.

A groove may be made in the shoe where the nail turns over at the side
of, and under, the shoe. This would protect the shank and also prevent
its striking the opposite leg.

It is not necessary to remove the nails when the horses return to stables,
but it may be done at discretion. No special tools are needed for the use
of these nails ; the ordinary stamp and pritchel are suitable, and the nails
are readily removed with pincers.

Sample shoes, showing the exact way of making the holes and securing
the nails, will be supplied on demand for the guidance of farriers.
. To avoid waste and loss, all unused frost nails at the end of winter are
to be returned by commanding officers to the chief ordnance officer of the
district.

At the discretion of the veterinary officer the shank of the nail may be
pinched off about half an inch from the foot surface of the shoe ; this can
be done by making a nick in the nail with the edge of the rasp; a twist or
two of the pincers will then break the nail. The part of the shank
remaining should be firmly fastened by being hammered down.

26. Shoeing is carried, out in all units by the farriers under
the orders of the commanding officers, and supervised by the
veterinary surgeons in the forges.

27. Horses are groomed twice a day in winter, i. e., morn-
ing and midday, but when they do not come in from work
before the dinner hour, they are groomed in the afternoon.
At the evening stable hour little grooming is done, but horses
are rubbed down and wisped.

28. Forage. — The following is taken from the Regulations
for the Allowances of the Army :

SCALE OF ISSUES IN KIND AT HOME.

The following are the daily issues of forage for horses in the United
Kinardom :

Oats.

If in quarters

If in camp, or in other circumstances which are, in the opinion of the gen-
eral officercommauding, equivalent to being in camp. (A special report
should, in the latter case, be made to the war office)

Pounds.
10

Pomvh. Pounds.
12 8

1:

For cobs the daily issues will be 2 pounds of oats less than the above.
The ration of forage counts from the midday feed of the day for which
it is drawn, and therefore includes the morning feed of the next day.
An extra issue of 3 pounds of oats may be made as follows:

(a) For horses of the army service corps throughout the year when
drawing wagons at a trot.

(b) For all horses — other than those drawing under (a) — employed at
draft work for at least five hours a day during the period from October
to April, inclusive.

294

REMOUNT SYSTEMS OF FOREIGN ARMIES.

(c) For horses employed on special work which, in the opinion of the
general officer commanding, renders the issue necessary, a special report
being made to the war office.

(d) For draft horses, of the army service corps, of 16 hands and over in
addition to the ration they are otherwise entitled to whether in quarters
or in camp.

The ration for mules at home will be as follows :

Mules of 15 hands and upward employed on. heavy draft work

The same if in encampments

Smaller mules

The same if in encampments

Oats;

Hay.

Pounds.

Poundn.

10

12

12

12

5

10

fi

12

Potmds.
S
Nil.

The ration for registered horses employed for mobilization purposes
will be as follows :

Pound.s.

Oats 18

Hay -.-- 10

The authorized ration is laid down as being sufficient for the average
requirements of horses. Officers commanding mounted units will use
their discretion, as a matter of regimental arrangement, in directing the
distribution of the proportions of the full ration. Power is also given in
the conditions of contract which will further enable the officer command-
ing to vary the food of the horses of the unit by giving equivalents in lieu
of a portion of the ordinary ration.

The following scale of equivalents shows the substitutes which are
allowed to be drawn where necessary (all equivalents of each other) :

Pounds.

Barley 1

Straw 2

Bran 1^

Malt -- I

Oatmeal -.. ^

Hay li

Oats 1

Carrots, green fodder, linseed, and mangelwurzel, and other articles,
are in lieu of oats or hay, the issues to be regulated according to their
average market value as compared with the contract rates for the oats or
hay for which they are substituted.

Deviations from this scale may be made in special cases at the discre-
tion of the general officer commanding, provided the variations sanctioned
do not give rise to increased cost.

29. No compressed forage is issued except foreign and colo-
nial hay (and there is no rule to regulate this) which is
sometimes bought in place of the home-grown supply,

30. Officers of cavalry, horse artillerj^, staff, and infantry
supply their own horses at their own expense. In the field
artillery the governm.ent supplies officers free of charge.

GREAT BRITAIN. 295

The regulations permit all officers to hire horses for £10
per annum, and officers under the rank of lieutenant colonel
to purchase remounts, under certain conditions, but the
revision of these rules is now under consideration.

COURSE OF INSTEUCTION OF SOLDIERS IX SHOEING.

[Ki'Siiliitions for Array A'eterinary Service, Appendix VIII.]

Instruction 1. — The easiest and safest method of seizing, lifting, and
holding the horses' front and hind feet, as in the operation of shoeing.

Note. — This instruction should be carried out on old steady horses, and
particular care should be observed in showing how the shoer is to manage
a restless or vicious horse, and the precautions to be adopted to guard
himself from injury. Patient and gentle treatment should be inculcated.

How to shoe troublesome horses with the side line on the hind leg is
also to be taught.

Instruction 2. — The best and most expeditioiis way to take off fore and
hind shoes.

Note. — Completely cut off all the clinches, insert pincers between shoe
and hoof, toward the extremity of inside heel, pry steadily and firmly
dowaiward and across the foot to start heel nails, and withdraw these;
then apply pincers to outside heel in the same manner, withdrawing nails,
and so on until the shoe is off.

Show how to remove broken nails from the hoof when the shoe is off ;
and also how to take off shoe from a painful foot, by driving the nails
downward from the front of the hoof and withdrawing them one by one.

Instruction 3. — How to handle the rasp, and reduce the wall of the
hoof properly to its normal dimensions.

Note. — The proper length and natural slope of the wall are to be shown,
and the method of obtaining these in an overgrown hoof demonstrated.
This is important. Hoof to be made quite level on the ground surface,
which should have a wide and solid bearing for the shoe to rest upon.
The sides of the hoof should be eqvial in height, so as to keep leg and foot
in a straight direction. Toe of hoof well shortened ; heels not too much
lowered. Sole and frog to remain strong and unpared, loose fragments
only being removed. Edge of the wall to be rounded.

Instruction 4. — How to fit a shoe projierly and quickly.

A off.— As it is not possible to provide shoes to fit all hoofs exactly —
these varying greatly in size and form — the number of the size required
should be explained, and if alteration in length or shape is needed how
this should be effected — making the shoe narrower or wider, more elon-
gated or more circular, as the shape of the hoof may demand. The shoe
should fit the full outline of the hoof. A small portion of the horn must
be removed at the toe of the fore foot, sides of toe of hind foot, to effect
this and to lodge the clip. If the alteration is made on the anvil, it should
be by a series of firm, steady, and not too heavy blows of the hammer.
When altered to the proper shape, the shoe should be made perfectly level
by hammering it lightly on the svirface ; this also makes it wear better.

Instruct how to alter shoes without an anvil, as on the tire or nave of a
cart wheel, stone, etc.

Nail holes to be easy for the neck of nails ; if too tight widen from the
fuller surface, not the back of the shoe. With holes too tight, the nails
break at the neck. Show how to narrow or close fuller, so as to allow
smaller nails to be used in case of necessity.

There shoiald be solid and close coadaptation between the surface of
Tioof and shoe, to insure the latter being well retained. Shoe to rest on

296

REMOUNT SYSTEMS OF FOREIGN ARMIES.

the entire width of the wall and margin of sole. All but the heavy hind
shoes with calks can be altered in a cold state, as a rule ; and these can be
also altered to some extent without heating them, when alteration is
necessary.

Instruction 5. — How to nail on a shoe safely and securely.

Note. — The shape of the nail is to be explained and the reasons for the
bevel at the point insisted upon, in order to prevent the nail from entering
the sensitive parts of the foot. The mode of driving the nails ; height to
which they should be driven in the horn ; their direction — toe nails lightly
forward, so as to include more of the fibers of the wall ; when all are
inserted, how they should be driven home and drawn up at ends (with
the fore feet toe nails first, and firmly; heel nails last, and lightly).

Instruction 6. — How to finish shoeing.

Note. — Laying down and embedding the ends of the nails, or ' ' clinching, "
to be taught ; and the necessity for the clinches being strong, and pro-
jecting as little as possible beyond the wall, especially on the inside of the
hoofs.

The surface of the wall not to be rasped except round the edges between
it and the shoe.

It is desirable, if possible, to acquaint the men under instruction with
the structure of the horse's foot, even should the instruction be very
elementary, the hoof being the chief subject for consideration.

How to fasten a loose shoe ; how to make a hind shoe fit a front foot,
and vice versa, on an emergency ; how to remedy too fine or too coarse
nail holes ; and how to act when a nail has been accidently driven into or
too near the quick, should also be taught.

HORSES, COBS, AND MULES PURCHASED BY GREAT BRITAIN BETWEEN OCTOBER
1, 1899, AND MAY 31, 1901.

Country.

Horses. Cobs. Total. Mules

Great Britain

Ireland

Argentina

United States of America.

Canada

Australia

Hungary

Italy..:

Spain

Cyprus

35, 197
7,372

10, 647
3,664
7,118
6, 945

3,149
4,147
25, 872
30,412
824
3,083
5,400

38, 346
11,519
25, 872
41,059
4,488
10, 201
12, 345

56, 987

7,004

15, 229

128

The official returns give the number of remounts purchased
abroad for the South- African campaign as 67,958 for 1900 and
91,983 for 1901. The total number of horses sent to South
Africa from the British Isles, India, the colonies, and from
abroad, in 1900 and 1901, is 242,311.

BRITISH COLONIES.

[From " Zuchtund Remontirungder Militjir-Pferde aller Staaten," by Dr. Paul Goldbeck, Berlin, 1901.]

INDIA.

It is natural to suppose that England would take energetic
measures to promote raising in this, her most important
colony, but horse raising, as well as agriculture, in India

GREAT BRITAIN. 297

depends in a great measure on the timely arrival of the mon-
soon, and, as droughts are prevalent, horse breeding suffers
as a consequence. Until 1876 the government kept its own
studs, but the results were so poor that this method was
abandoned and an entirely new system introduced. At pres-
ent rural studs and government stallions are maintained, the
latter being sent to depots. The purpose of these measures
was to obtain good cavalry remounts. The mares are inspected
and if declared fit for breeding are branded "V I" (veteri-
nary inspection) on one shoulder and are served by the
government stallions free of charge. Not all parts of India
are by any means adapted to horse breeding, the famine
districts being in this respect absolutely excluded. Breeding
flourishes most in the northwestern provinces of Punjab,
Beluchistan, and Sind, and in Deccan, of the Bombay presi-
dency.

Table showing number of stallions kept by the govern-
ment, together with the number of mares served by them in
1898-99 :

Full-sized types :

Thoroughbreds and three-fourth breds. _ 103

English half -breds and Norf oiks 58

Hackney.-- : 44

Roadster 2

Australian 47

Arabs 131

Local breeds 5

Total stallions 390

Ponies :

Arab 17

Local breeds -. 1

Total pony stallions 18

Total stallions, including pony stallions 408

Jacks 406

Number of mares 15,694

The English thoroughbred has done good work in the im-
provement of the races in India wherever good specimens
were employed, but it has become unpopular owing to the
poor specimens, so that Australian thoroughbreds are now
preferred. Hackneys have been utilized to increase the size
of the native breeds, but the products soon become too bulky

298 REMOUNT SYSTEMS OF FOREIGN ARMIES.

for cavalry purposes. Arab stock is very popular, as it per-
petuates its traits and eliminates many weak points inherent
in the native mares.

Besides the government stallions mentioned, numerous pro-
vincial governments and private parties keep breeding stal-
lions, these amounting in 1898-99 to 198 animals, among
which the Arab blood predominated.

The best known of the native races of nearer India are the
Punjabs. In general the horse bred here is a small animal
l-li hands high, resembling the Afghan ; there are, however,
also larger horses called "Turki" or "Irani."

In Bengal the native horse is a pony 12 to 13 hands high.

In farther India an excellent pony is found in Burma, but
neither mares nor stallions of this race are exported.

Mule breeding is given, in India, considerable attention,
the number of jacks used for this service in 1899 having been
406.

There were in India in 1897 a total of 1,120,194 horses,
1,110,072 mules and asses, and 233,477 camels. These were
distributed as follows : Northwest i^rovinces and Oudh, 493,000
horses and 309,000 mules and asses; Punjab, 271,000 horses
and 557,000 mules and asses; Bombay, 152,000 horses and
67,000 mules and asses.

It is the aim of the Indian government to supply the troops
exclusively with horses bred at home. This plan, however,
is not yet entirely feasible, although energetic measures have
been taken to promote horse breeding.

The native cavalry consists of 19 regiments of Bengal lan-
cers, 5 of Punjab cavalry, 1 queen's own corps of guides in
Mardan, 1 detachment of police in the Northwest Province
and Oudh, 2 in Punjab, 1 detachment imperial service corps
troops, 2 regiments central India horse, and 1 remount depot.
The number of horses in a native regiment is about 600. Of
the English imperial troops only three regiments obtain their
remounts in India, all the artillery and the remainder of the
cavalry purchasing Australian horses. The native cavalry
troops, on the contrary, are supplied almost entirely with
home-bred horses. The remounts for native troops are pur-
chased full-grown, and the number bought in 1899 was 1,763.
There were also purchased 1,571 mules for the English troops
and 1,281 for the natives, mainly for purposes of transpor-
tation. Special committees are sent to Australia for the

GREAT BRITAIN. 299

purchase of remounts for the artillery and part of the cavalry.
The Indian cavalry received a valuable addition in 1890 in
the shape of a camel corps which by 1893 had 500 camels.
The animals are bred in a government establishment.

CANADA.

In Canada hardly any beginning has been made in system-
atic horse breeding. Manitoba, however, has a stallion
register in which some 250 stallions have been entered, and a
studbook is also kept for the foals produced. The eastern
provinces have little or no importance as horse-breeding dis-
tricts, while the western territories in some localities produce
a considerable number of horses. The province of Alberta,
especially, may be regarded as the center of the horse-breed-
ing industry, the winters there being short and the pastures
suited for the purposes. The breeding of heavy horses is
scarcely sufficient for the needs of the mining districts. The
number of saddle horses produced is, on the contrary, quite
large, being estimated at 30,000 head. In 1892 a number of
breeders in the region of Alberta sent a petition to the gov-
ernor general of Canada, stating that a large percentage of the
thousands of light saddle horses raised at Alberta would be
very suitable for remounts for the English army; that much
English thoroughbred blood had been introduced of late, and
that, as a consequence, the breed had been materially
improved. The only thing stated to be lacking was a market.
Furthermore it was claimed that the Canadian Pacific Rail-
road facilitated transportation and warranted the establish-
ment of a remount depot at Calgary. Finally, it was asserted
that the price of the horses was very low. The plan, although
at first regarded favorably, was never carried out. A tour of
inspection of the horses was made by two remount officers,
who decided that the majority of the horses were unsuited
for military use. This opinion was coincided in by the
inspector general of remounts. A German horseman by the
name of Hofaker, on the other hand, gave, after a visit to a
ranch at Calgary, a much more favorable opinion of these
horses.

In the provinces of Ontario and Manitoba there were in
1897, 613,670 and 100,274 horses, respectively. For the other
provinces statistics are lacking.

300 REMOUNT SYSTEMS OF FOREIGN ARMIES.

CAPE COLONY.

The number of horses in 1897 was 357,960.

In Cape Colony and Natal together there were, before the
Boer war, four cavalry detachments with about 1,200 horses,
all from Cape Colony.

AUSTRALIA.

The total number of horses in Australia (including New
Zealand and Fiji) in 1897 was about 1,935,000, distributed as
follows: New South Wales, 498,034; Queensland, 479,280;
South Australia, 164,820; Victoria, 431,547 (in 1895); West
Australia, 62,222; Tasmania, 29,898; New Zealand, 252,834.

In the most important colony, New South Wales, there
were in 1898 :

Heavy draft horses.
Light draft liorses -
Saddle horses

Thoroughbred.

18,473
13, 758
26, 338

Ordinary.

125,234
108, 308
174, 702

The prices are very low. Heavy draft horses bring only
$47.60 at auction in New South Wales; in West Australia
from $4.75 to $9.50 more. Saddle horses cost about $28.60,
only the best (the Indian remounts) coming to $71.40. The
exports are inconsiderable, amounting to 1,865 horses in 1897,
of which 1,189 went to India. As England has been pur-
chasing a great number of remounts every year in Australia,
interest has been awakened in the breeding of a stronger sad-
dle horse than formerly.

As there is no standing army there is no remount service.
Each colony, however, has a few batteries of permanent
artillery, for which the necessary horses are bought in open
market. There are also a few regiments of volunteer cavalry,
partly lancers and partly mounted infantry — a sort of militia.
Each volunteer has to secure his own remount. Australia is
an important source for remounts, not only for the British
colonial forces, but also, to an extent not yet appreciable, for
mounted troops of other powers, particularly those in East
Asia, Good thoroughbreds are imported to a great extent
from England to improve the Australian breeds. An excel-
lent half-bred saddle horse is raised in New South Wales and
Victoria.

V

I

GREAT BRITAIN. 301

NEW ZEALAND.

In New Zealand the method of breeding is in general the
same as in Australia, but the industry has reached a higher
stage than in the latter country. The number of horses in
1898-99 was 258,649, having increased by 5,412 since 1897-98.
The breeding stallions in service in 1898-99 were as follows:
Thoroughbreds, 509; hunters and hackneys, 134; trotters,
237; light draft stallions, 409; pack horses, 780; ponies, 169;
asses, 26. The total number of mares used for breeding pur-
poses in the same year was 17,835. No government aid is
afforded to the horse-breeding industrj\ Draft horses cost
$18 to $30 each, saddle horses and coach horses, $7 to $25 each.
In 1898 there were exported 3,210 horses, of which 2,639 went
to New South Wales and 116 to Bengal.

VIII.-ITALY.

[Reported by Capt. T. Bentlcy Mott, Artillery Ccjrps, Uinte<] States Military Attache at Paris.]

What follows applies to horses in Italy. The few that are
required for service in the Italian-African colonies are bought
in Africa.

HORSE AND MULE CENSUS.

The latest figures are the following ;

Total in Italy

Total in the army, including officers' horses

Total in the cavalry, including officers' horses

Total in the artillery and engineers, including officers' horses

Other services

Additional number required in case of mobilization for war, to
be brought or requisitioned in Italy

Uorses.

Mules.

750,000 330,000

Horses and
mules.

1,080,000
47,347
21,251
14, 74(>
11,350

217,000

IMPORT AND EXPORT DUTIES.

These duties are so insignificant that it may be said that
practically there are no import or export duties on horses in
Italy.

YEARLY PURCHASES.

The average number of horses bought each year by the
remount depots is 3,680. About 600 more are bought directly
by the regiments. The cavalry takes about 2,600, the artil-
lery about 1,200.

PRICES.

Cavalry, from S96.oO to $193 for troop horses; artillery,
$193 for wheel and $164.05 for lead horses; mules an average
of $173.70. These jDrices include the cost of transportation
to the destination

PERCENTAGE OF LOST AND CONDEMNED ANNUALLY.

In the artillerj^ this loss is estimated at 10 per cent; in the
cavalry it is somewhat greater. In the cavalry, horses ad-
judged unfit for active service, but still capable of doing less

(303)

304 REMOUNT SYSTEMS OF FOREIGN ARMIES.

exacting work, are transferred to the train or sold to infantry
officers at low rates.

The average number of years that horses are retained in
service is: cavalry, 12; artillery, 13; mules and draft horses,
15 years.

METHOD OF SUPPLY AND SPECIFICATIONS.

All animals are bought in the market, none are raised on
government farms.

CAVALRY.

Horses are bought for the remount service of the cavalry
by boards sent out in the spring from the different remount
depots. The regiments are also authorized to buy horses
between 4 and 8 years directly, provided it is established
that they are raised in Italy.

The cavalry remount depots are under the direction of a
colonel in the cabinet of the minister of war.

In the matter of getting suitable horses much is left to the
judgment of the horse board, and the specifications are very
general in their nature. Horses bought for the cavalry may
be mares or geldings, of any color, between 2 and 3 years
old, showing the requisite breeding and conformation. Lan-
cers' horses should be from 15^ to 16 hands high; light-
cavalry horses from 14^ to 15^ hands and weigh about 880
pounds.

These horses as soon as bought are sent to the raising-
depots, where they are kept until -i^ years old, when they
are sent to the regiments. At these depots they are not
seriously trained, but only handled and given sufficient exer-
cise to keep them in good health. The training is all done
in the regiments. There are six of these raising depots, four
on the peninsula and two in the islands.

A good number of English thoroughbred stock is bought.
In the islands they get a strain of Arabian blood that has
come down from ancient times.

ARTILLERY.

Horses and mules for the artillery must be mares or geld-
ings, of any color except gray, between 4| and 8 years old,
must weigh about 1,100 pounds, and must have a good dis-
position, and the breeding and conformation necessary for the
service in view. Horses for field batteries and horse batteries

ITALY.

305

slioiild all have generally the same qualities as those demanded
of wheelers. Mules must be good for the pack service of
mountain artillery.

Horses of any blood are procured by purchase, the chief
foreign races being American, French, or German; some
French mules are also bought. The proportion of males and
females should be about equal. Horses should be from 14f
to 16^ hands high; mules from 14:p to 15f.

Boards of artillery officers with a veterinarian buy all the
horses and mules for the artillery and engineers.

BRANDING.

Horses and mules are branded with hot iron on the left hip.
The mark is a cross and the number of the regiment.

VACCINATION.

Rarely practiced ; against anthrax the Pasteur virus is
occasio lally used.

SHOEING.

The method known as hot-shoeing is practiced, the hot shoe
being apx)lied to the hoof before being quenched and set. The
Italian model of hand-forged shoe is used exclusively.

FORAGE.

The composition of the forage allowance is as follows :

Ordinary ration

In cantonments

On the march

While traveling by rail

11.02
1 1 . U-A
11.02
11.02

Compressed hay is very rarely used.

STUDS.

The army has at Persamo one small breeding establishment
intended to distribute among raisers brood mares of good
blood. This has been established very recently.

However, separate from the army, seven stallion depots are
kept by the state for the purpose of encouraging, throughout

306 REMOUNT SYSTEMS OF FOREIGN ARMIES.

tlie country, the raising of well-bred horses. These estah-
lishnaents have GOO stallions. Private stallions, before they
are permitted to serve, have to be submitted to inspection and
approval of a government board. The services of the govern-
ment stallions cost generally from $2.31 to $7.72 per mare
served, thougli there are a few unusually fine animals for
whose services $38.00 to $115.80 or more is 23aid. Thus the
Italian government bought Melton, the winner of the Epsom
Derby of 1885, and his services cost $193 per mare.

The majority of these state stallions are full or half blood
English or Arabian and some hackneys, Clydesdales, and
Brabants.

officers' HORSES.

In order to assist mounted officers in the acquisition of good
service horses, a certain number of mounts are distributed
each year, or advances of money made for the purchase of
mounts. Such horses are denominated "cavalli de agevo-
lezza." They are divided into the following categories:

SPECIAL.

Category A. — Horses for general officers.

Category B. — Horses for general officers, for general staff
officers, for cavalry officers, and for artillery officers entitled
to the horse allowance of $54.60.

ordinary.

Category 1. — Horses for general staff officers; cavalry
officers; artillery officers; colonels and lieutenant colonels
commanding corps; and chiefs of service of infantry, engi-
neers, the sanitary corps, the commissariat, and the military
veterinary ; but not for infantry staff officers.

Categories 2 and 3. — Horses for officers of any grade in
the infantry, engineers, the sanitary corps, the commissariat,
and the military veterinary service.

The greatest debt which an officer may incur for a horse
furnished by the state, or for advances made, may not exceed
$390 for a general officer or a colonel holding the post of a
major general, $292.50 for an officer entitled to a horse allow-
ance of $78 and more, $224 for an officer entitled to a horse
allowance of $6^.30, $195 for an officer entitled to a horse
allowance of $54.60.

ITALY. 307

In special cases tlio minister may authorize an officer to
exceed the maximum limits mentioned above. In such a case
an officer, in addition to the horse allowance, must have
deducted from his pay each month 61. 04 for each $48.75 or
fraction thereof until the debt has come within the limits
mentioned. These horses, to whatever category they may
belong, must be paid for within three years. After the last
payment the horse becomes the property of the officer. When
such a horse becomes unfit for service on account of physical
defects, infirmities, or vices, the permanent council of admin-
istration, as well as that of the regiment to which the officer
belongs, assisted by a veterinarian, examines the horse and
gives authorization for its sale, the proceeds to be paid to the
remount service if the debt has not yet been liquidated.

Horses belonging to the special category A are drawn from
those of the cavalry school, recognized to be in sound condi-
tion, of good disposition, well broken, and from 7 to 12 years
old, and are selected by a commission composed of two
general officers, and one superior veterinary officer. This
commission fixes the prices, which must not exceed $307.50
per horse.

Special category B horses are between 4^ and 7 years old,
and are acquired either abroad or from the studs. In the
former case their price does not exceed $307.50 each. In
the latter case they have, according to the price established
by the depot council of administration, a value of from $224
to $202.50 each.

Horses of the ordinary categories are selected in the cav-
alry regiments by commissions nominated and presided over
by the commander of the brigade and composed of one field
officer, two subaltern officers, and one veterinary officer for
each regiment.

The horses are classed as follows :

First category, those from 5 to 0 years of age.

Second category, those from 0 to 12 years of age.

Third category, those of 12 years of age and more.
The minimum height of the horses is :

For the first category, 14f hands.

For the second and third categories, 14| hands.
The cost is as follows :

First category, between $224 and $175.50.

Second category, between $165.75 and $00.50.

Third category, $87.75 and lower.

308 KEMOUNT SYSTEMS OF FOREIGN ARMIES.

The horses procured on the market for money advanced are
entered in the i)roper category and are assigned as follows :
First category, i-year-olds (thoroughbreds may be 3-year-
olds) to 9-year-olds and of a value not under $175.50.
Second category, from 5 to 12 years and of a value not

under $96.50.
Third category, from 5 to l-t years and of a value not
under $58.50.
The height must be between 14^ and 15^ hands for officers
entitled to second-grade rations, exception being made for
officers over 5 feet 9 inches in height who may procure horses
15f hands high. Officers entitled to forage of the first grade
have mounts between 15^ and 15f hands high.

The horses procured on the market by general officers for
money advanced are entered into one of the two above-
mentioned categories, according to age, value, and height.

The advances of money for the acquisition of horses come
generally from the treasury of the corps to which the officers
belong or from the units in which they serve.

ASSIGNMENT OF HORSES TO SUBALTERN CAVALRY OFFICERS.

Thirty-four horses in each cavalry regiment are assigned
to subaltern cavalry officers. These mounts are selected from
among the best received by the regiment from the studs or
from the cavalry remount service. These horses, called
chargers, are entered on a special roll (the roll of chargers)
and are distributed among the squadrons. The chargers are
not branded, and are not subject to the regulations for troop
horses with regard to uniformity of dimensions and cut of
the tail. Chargers are obligatory for subaltern officers but
optional for captains and field officers.

A corps commander may permit a lieutenant, applying
for such permission, to turn in the charger received from the
state and substitute for it one of his own.

A newly appointed second lieutenant who has graduated
from a military school must, before entering the cavalry
school, join the regiment to which he has been assigned, and
there the commander, taking into account the build, the apti-
tude, and even the wishes of the officer, assigns him a horse
from among the available chargers of the regiment.

The charger is used only in the service and on such occa-
sions outside the service which the commander believes

I

ITALY. 309

convenient. It may be kept in the stable of the officer to
whom it has been assigned.

The expenditure for bedding and shoeing for officers'
mounts is charged to the fund assigned for those purposes
for troop horses.

A corps commander, for the good of the service or on rec^uest
of the interested parties, may authorize officers to turn in
horses assigned them and take others from those available in
the regiment.

The chargers are dropped from the roll of officers' horses
after six years, and are then carried as troop horses and may
be selected for sale on installments of the second and third
categories. If, however, a horse, in the judgment of the
officer to whom assigned, shows special aptitude for continu-
ation in the service as a charger, the commander may leave
him on the roll for another term. The commander may have
the horse dropped from the roll before the expiration of the
six years if the animal is found unfit for service as an officer's
horse. Reports of such cases are sent to the minister. If
unfitness results from carelessness of the officer to whom the
horse has been assigned, the council of administration of the
corps deducts from the remount allowance of the responsible
officer the sum representing the depreciation of the horse.

The annual supply of chargers to the corps is at the most
one-sixth.

ASSIGNMENT OF HORSES TO SUBALTERN OFFICERS OF THE FIELD ARTILLERY
AND HORSE ARTILLERY.

In field artillery and horse artillery regiments there are
a number of horses called chargers, taken from the best horses
coming from the studs, the ordinary remount service, or the
special remount service ordered by the minister for this pur-
pose. These horses are distributed among the batteries of
these regiments, to be assigned to subaltern officers of these
regiments, with the exception of the train. Some of these
horses are assigned also to the staffs of these regiments.

The chargers are entered on the rolls like battery horses
with, in each case, the special note as charger, to which is

added, " Assigned to on ," if for an officer. A report

is made to the minister each time a horse is entered upon the
roll or assigned to an officer. The chargers are not branded
and are not subject to the dispositions in force with regard
to battery horses referring to dimensions and cut of the tail,

310 REMOUNT SYSTEMS OF FOREIGN ARMIES.

but, when not assigned to some officer, these horses serve as
saddle horses on the same footing as the battery horses.

The use of these horses is optional to captains of field artil-
lery and horse artillery regiments, but obligatory for subal-
tern officers. The commanders of corps may, however,
authorize subalterns, requesting permission, to substitute
private horses for the chargers. The charger is used only in
the service and in such cases outside the service in which the
commander sees fit to permit its use. It may be kept in the
stable of the officer to whom it has been assigned. Expenses
for bedding and shoeing for officers' mounts fall to the sum
allotted for those purposes for battery horses. The forage
rations are the same as for battery horses. The care of the
horse is provided by the officer. The corps commander, for
the good of the service or on request of the interested par-
ties, may authorize officers to change chargers for others from
among the available horses of the same category.

When a charger is found unfit for the service as an officers'
horse, he is carried on the roll as a battery horse, the term
"charger" being efi^aced. A report to the minister is made
of such cases. If the unfitness of a horse for service is pro-
duced by the carelessness of the officer to whom he has been
assigned, the council of administration deducts from the
remount allowance of this officer the sum representing the
depreciation of the horse.

IX.-JAJ\\N.

[Kioin-'ZuclituiMl HciiiniitinuitrdcrMilitiii-PIVnU'iillc'iStiiiiti-ii,"' by Dr. PiiuIOoIilbci-k, Berlin, l!Mll.]

Japan has over 2,000,000 horses, the number in 1895 having
been 1,530,603, exchisive of the military horses used in the
Chino-Japanese war.

Although Japan is by no means poor in horses, their quality
leaves much to be desired. The animals are strong enough
in the fore quarters, but weak in the hind quarters; their
shoulders are short and abrupt, their chests narrow, and their
size ranges only from 13^ to 14i hands; they are, however,
tough and enduring, and need little care.

Of recent years the government has endeavored to improve
the breed by introducing American, Hungarian, French, and
Persian stallions. As, however, the crossing was done at
first without any definite aim, no success was attained, but
for the last three years the earnest purpose of securing a
medium-size saddle horse has been followed. The best horses
come from Yesso. There are at present four studs.

The obligation has been placed upon officers of the army to
keep the number of horses corresponding to their rank. All
higher civil officials must, moreover, possess two horses each.

The Japanese army was increased in 1896, so that by the
end of 1899 there were 13 cavalry regiments with 65 squad-
rons, and 13 field artillery regiments with 79 batteries (in 1900
117 batteries). Great difficulty was experienced in procuring
suitable remounts for the increased organization. A horse
board is sent yearly to all horse-breeding sections of the
country, and also frequently abroad, especially to Australia.
Principally i-year-olds were purchased, at a maximum price
of $25 each. The greatest difficulty consists in securing strong
pack animals for the train service, for which purpose the gov-
ernment has recently been making purchases in Australia.
Thoroughbreds are now, however, being imported from France
in order to improve the home breed. Animals purchased are
placed in a remount depot at Tokyo.

(311)

X.-LATIN AMERICA.

[Fioni "Zuoht unii Kcnioiitirung lU r Milit-ii-I'fcidcjiller.Stiiatiii, " liy l>i-. I'aulGokllieck, Bciliu,U)Ul.

ARGENTINA.

Tlie number of horses in 1894 was 4,4-47,000, and the num-
ber of mules 483,000.

The immense lierds of wild, half-wild, and broken horses
which roam over the pampas of Argentina are the descendants
of original Spanish breeds, chief among which was the Anda-
lusian. The Argentine horse has a reputation for great
endurance and for requiring little care. He has been recom-
mended as a good animal for light cavalry, and is said to have
been imported for this purpose even into France. The price
is very low, ranging from $24 to $48. Imported stock is
crossed with the native stock, principally for the production
of carriage horses. However, the majority of the imported
horses are bred among themselves. They consist of Arabs,
English thoroughbreds, hunters, hackneys, Anglo-Normans,
Morgans from the United States, Trakehnens, Oldenburgs,
Hannoverians, Orlofs, Percherons, Clydesdales, Shires, Cleve-
lands, and Suffolk Punch. Of late the most popular have
been the Anglo-Normans, Trakehnens, and Clydesdales.

At present the ratio of native stock to crossed breeds is
about 4,000,000 of the former to 415,000 of the latter. The
number of pure breeds in 1895 was 15,577. The numbers
exported, in 1897, were 13,615 horses, 16,390 asses, and 16,317
mules.

In November, 1899, there were 11 cavalry regiments of 4
squadrons each, 1 squadron of escorts of the president, 4 field
artillery regiments, and 2 mountain artillery regiments, with
a total of about 4,000 horses and 1,500 mules. In view of the
above-mentioned figures it is evident that the remounts re-
quired are easily secured at home. A horse trained for riding
costs only about $7.14.

Argentina serves as a source of remounts for many Euro-
pean countries. England purchased a very considerable

(313)

314 REMOUNT SYSTEMS OF FOREIGN ARMIES.

luiniber of horses in Argentina for the South African war,
and for some years has had a permanent remount-purchase
commission there, which as early as 1898 purchased 1,500
horses for South African troops. By August, 1900, a total
of 24,000 horses had been delivered for England. The prices
are from $100 to $250 for cavalry horses, $100 to $200 for
artillery horses, and $70 to $80 for cobs. According to
recent reports, Italy contemplates sending to Argentina a
similar commission. General Valpini having been sent thither
in 1899 to study matters relating to horse breeding.

BRAZIL.

The principal horse-breeding localities are in southern
Brazil, the portion inhabited by Germans. There is j^rac-
tically no horse breeding in the north. The small native
horses are raised by a few landowners for private use, but
mules are generally preferred and are imported in consider-
able numbers. The regions where mules are bred are in the
states of Minas Geraes and the southern states. There is a
lack of good military horses. A movement is on foot looking
toward the establishment of government studs in Parana and
Rio Grande do Sul. There are 6 regiments of field artillery
(2,562 horses), 6 battalions fortress artillery (2,100 horses),
and 14 regiments of cavalry (0,020 horses), making a total for
the army of 10,682 horses. The supply of remounts is now
derived from the h^rds that run wild on the prairies. Gar-
risons in Brazil are so far apart that when cavalry is trans-
ferred from one to another the horses are not taken along,
but new remounts are secured from the plains nearest the
new station.

CHILE.

This country had, according to a census taken in 1877,
447,000 horses. According to statistics of 1885 the number
of horses foaled per year, exclusive of Santiago, is 54,000, and
it is estimated that, including Santiago, this number would
be 60,000. The breeds, like those in Argentina, are of degen-
erate Spanish stock. Few horses are bred for sale.

When well-bred stock was introduced into Chile it was
rather with the object of breeding it pure than crossing with
the native breeds. With the exception of a few English
thoroughbreds, the Cleveland bay is the horse that has been

LATIN AMERICA. 315

bred for tlie last thirty years for driving purposes. The few
Anglo-Normans, Norfolk trotters, and North American breeds
that have been introduced have not attained much importance.
The government neither owns nor assists any stud or other
establishment of the kind. On the other hand, private owners
readily offer the services of their valuable stallions, the fees
ranging from $5.80 up to $28.95.

The number of mules and asses raised is considerable,
though scarcely sufficient for home needs.

Chile has 7 cavalry regiments with 4 scj[uadrons each, and
each regiment has at present 370 horses. There is an escort
squadron with 250 horses, 1 regiment field artillery with 500
horses, and 5 regiments mountain artillery with 80 horses
and 200 mules each. As general-service liability was in-
troduced in 1900, a considerable increase in the establishment
will probably take place. Henceforth 12 per cent of the
horses are to be replaced yearly. The purchases will be
made by the adjutants of the remount section of the great
general staff, in which about 7 or 8 adjutants and 30 men are
on duty. The chief of the remount service has under him
also the veterinary department. There is a kind of remount
depot established. The age at purchase is between 3 and 4
years, but after purchase the horses, before distribution to
the troops, remain in remount stations for one year. The
yearly requirement of remounts is about 400, and the average
price paid is $24.38. Mounted officers may purchase horses
from the remount depot for $36.50 each, and may sell them
in case they become unfit for service. A new set of regulations
is being prepared after the model of the German "charger"
system.

MEXICO.

The principal horse-breeding region in Mexico is on the
plateaus, where some of the large studs have as many as 8,000
or 10,000 horses and mules each. No special race is bred.

The Mexican cavalry consists, since 1897, of 14 line regi-
ments of 4 squadrons each, 8 skeleton regiments of 2 sciuad-
rons each, 2 regional squadrons, and 1 sciuadron of army
gendarmerie, with 9,257 horses. There are 4 battalions of
field artillery. The total number of horses in the army is
13,059. It is manifest that the purchase of the necessary
remounts is an easy matter.

XI.-THE NETHERLANDS.

[From ■Ziulit ini.l Ki-moiitining dt-r Jlilitiir-l'fcRlt- ;ilk-i' Staaten," by Dr. Paul Gulilbeck

Berlin, 1901.]

Tlie immber of horses in tlie Netherlands in 1896 was
269,000.

The Dutch army has 3 regiments of cavalry, of 5 field
squadrons and 1 depot squadron each, 1 orderly squadron, o
regiments of field artillery, and a remount depot. The total
number of horses is 5,259, the number of remounts needed
yearly being 420. All purchased horses, before being turned
over to the troops, are kept in a remount depot for at least a
year. The horses for the cavalry are purchased by a com-
mission in Ireland, where the artillery horses formerly were
purchased. Of late, however, some of the artillery horses
have been secured at home — in 1898 about one-half. The
average size of remounts is 15^ hands, the age, at purchase,
between 3 and 4 years, and the average price about $225.12.
Although officers are allowed to purchase their horses from
the remount depots at the average price, and subject to cer-
tain conditions regarding disposal, they usually jjrefer to
buy their mounts of dealers.

DUTCH COLONIES.

Although the climate of the East Indian archipelago is by
no means adapted to horse breeding, still these regions have
a large number of horses, especially of the races suitable for
draft purposes in a warm, damp, and tropical climate.

Java had, according to the last census, 485,131 horses.
The Java horse is a small animal, 12 to 12^ hands high, and
thrives best in a mountainous country. There is also a
saddle horse. Most of the horses in Java are imported from
the other islands.

The Dutch troops in the islands have 1 cavalry regiment
with 700 horses; 4 field batteries with 75 horses each, or 300
horses in all, and 4 mountain batteries with a total of 105
horses and 160 mules. The yearly requirement for remounts

(317)

318 REMOUNT SYSTEMS OF FOREIGN ARMIES.

is 250 horses and 15 mules. Horses for the remount depot
are bought from 1^ to 4 years old ; for the direct supply of
the artillery and the cavalry they are bought full-aged, but
not over 7 years old. The size with trimmed hoof must be as
follows: 1-i- to 4 years old, 12^ hands; 4 to 7 years, 12^ hands.
Horses from Sumatra may measure as low as 12 hands.
Mules for the mountain artillery are bought in China. Owing
to the hard usage to which the natives put young horses, the
government decided to establish a remount depot in 1888 in
Java. The horses are kept there till they reach the age of 5
years, when they are turned over to the cavalry or artillery.

Xir.— NORAVAY.

[Keiioited by Lieut. Col. \V. K. Livermoiv, Corps of Engineers, I'nited States Military Attache at
Copenhagen and Stockhohii.]

The Norwegian government, not contemplating the inva-
sion of any foreign country, has organized its army purely
for purposes of defense. In case of war only the line is liable
to duty abroad.

Horses for the army are supplied in three different ways :

(a) By purchase abroad, " original horses " (stamheste) 250
in all ;

(b) The rest of the horses in time of peace, the so-called
"quarter horses" (kvarterheste), about 3,400 in all, are
obtained at home by the supply establishment;

(c) The horses required in the field in excess of those avail-
able in time of peace are obtained by conscription.

(a) STAMHESTE.

The stamheste are purchased in Sweden and in England by
the remount commissioners. The prices vary from $134
to $268.

Special orders about inspections are issued at every
purchase.

The cavalry requires about 182, of which about 10 per cent,
namely, 18, are acquired annually. The horses are generally
half-blood English. They are mares or geldings. The color
is indifferent. The artillery lequires 39 stamheste at the rate
of about 4 a year ; the requirements are similar to those of
the cavalry. During the past few years about 25 horses have
been bought annually, but in 1899, at a single purchase, 80
were bought for the orderly squadron.

There is no government breeding establishment in Norwa3^
The Norwegian Government is making investigations with a
view to finding an economical remount system based upon
the stock now in Norway. One of the three stallions now
used is a hackney, the two others are Norwegian. The stal-
lions are lent to civilian horse raisers with the condition that

(319)

320 REMOUNT SYSTEMS OP FOREIGN ARMIES.

should the foals be deemed suitable they can be bought at a
stipulated price when they reach the proper age.
The import duty is $13.40 per horse.

(6) KVARTERHESTE.

There are about 150,000 horses in the country.

There are in the army 3,400 kvarterheste, 200 officers'
horses, and 250 various, outside those obtained by conscrip-
tion. The kvarterheste are distributed as follows : cavalry,
1,600; artillery, 1,300; other branches, 250; draft horses and
pack horses, 250.

In case of luobilization for war about 14,000 more would be
required. These they expect to raise by conscription.

The annual loss is about 10 per cent.

Cavalry horses and artillery horses are retained in the serv-
ice about ten years. About 10 per cent are required annually.
Draft horses and pack lorses are retained about twelve years.
Horses for cavalry are kept at the remount school about
ninety days ; those for artillery, engineers, and train, about
forty-five days. Men to look after them there are detailed
from the organizations to which the horses belong. The
horses are not branded and are never vaccinated. They are
shod with ordinary horseshoes with calks. The number of
times they are groomed varies with circumstances.

In the field the forage allowance is 14.33 pounds of oats or
barley, 9.92 pounds of hay or 13.23 pounds straw. Com-
pressed forage is used.

The native Norwegian horses are small and stout. They
are well formed for artillery uses, and are very nimble in
climbing. There is some difference of opinion among Nor-
wegian officers with regard to their fitness for cavalry. The
opposition to them comes in part from those having a fond-
ness for shock tactics.

XITL-PERSIA.

[Froin'-Zurhtuiiil Romoiitininsiili-r 3IiIit;ir-I'f. nU' allcrStiiiitcii," by Dr. PiUil Goldbeck, Bialiu, 1901.]

Persia, renowned from time immemorial for her horses,
still possesses an excellent supply of them. The shah and
noblemen of the country each keep a number of studs, in
which, however, only the horses needed by the court are bred.
The principal wealth of horses lies with the tribes of nomads,
who follow the same methods of horse breeding as the Arabs.
The Persian thoroughbred is very nearly related to the Arab,
but is more slender in build.

The Persian cavalry, excluding the three Cossack regiments
under Russian command, stationed in Teheran, and the body-
guard of the shah (about 1,200 cavalrymen), consists of irregu-
lar troops. There are said to be 125 squadrons of cavalry.
The artillery is said to consist of 20 batteries. In the cavalry
each trooper is obliged to furnish his own horse and equipment.
Russian horses have been introduced experimentally for artil-
lery purposes, but balk on long grades. It is very difficult to
find suitable draft horses in the country. Horses become un-
serviceable usually at the age of 12 years, though Arabian
horses attain ages of 18 to 20 years in spite of their rough
usage. The ration consists of G.61 pounds of barley for sad-
dle horses, 8.82 to 11.02 pounds of barley for draft horses, and
for each also 13.23 pounds of straw and (3.61 pounds of hay.
The barley is fed half in the morning and half in the evening.
In May all dry feed is withheld from the animals, and they
are given grass and hay without limit. During the last days
of May a little barley is added and then dry forage is resumed.

23555 21 (321)

f

XIV.-POHTUGAL.

[From "Zucbt uml RemontiiuugdL'iMilitai-I'fenlealleiStn;»teu, " bv Pr. Paul Goltlbeck, Berlin, 10(11.

As horse breeding receives no support from the Govern-
ment, it has reached a very low stage, and no exact census of
the number of horses and mules exists.

Portugal has 8 regiments of cavalry (32 squadrons), 32 bat-
teries of field artillery, 2 batteries of horse artillery, and 2 of
mountain artillery; and in the reserve, 8 groups of cavalry
(16 squadrons) and 4 sections of artillery (16 batteries). In
the standing army there are 6,394 horses and 4,34:2 mules, and
in the reserve 3,121 horses and 1,992 mules; total 9,515 horses
and 6,334 mules.

Remounts are purchased for the army by a general remount
commission, consisting of a colonel of cavalry as president, a
captain of cavalry, a lieutenant, and two veterinarians. The
amount to be expended each year on remounts is fixed by the
war minister. The prices have ranged for the last few years
between $130.75 and $138.38; for officers' mounts from $181.20
to $214.42 are paid. The age limits are between 3 and 7 years.
The average length of service of a horse is calculated at ten
years. The following are the rules with regard to size :
Horses 3 to 3i years old, 14i hands; 4 years old, 14^ hands;
4 to T years, 14f hands; for horses of generals, and general
staff, cavalry, and lancer officers, 14f hands ; for all others,
14| hands; mules must measure 14^ to 14f hands, according
to the service for which they are intended. Seventy per cent
of the horses purchased are of Spanish origin, the remainder
of Portuguese.

(323)

XV.-RUSSTA.

[Fniiu "Zucbt uud lU-iiioiitiiunj; iltr Militiii-Pfcrde allei- Staaten," h_v Dr. Paul Goliibeck, Berlin,
1901, and report of Capt. S. L'H. Slocuni, Eighth Cavalry, United States Military Attache at St.
Petersburg.]

Russia is the greatest horse-producing country in the world,
although she stands behind many other countries if the num-
ber of horses produced is considered in proportion to her area.
The total number is about 25,100,162, of which over 21,000,000
are in European Russia.

The horses of Russia are for the greater part steppe horses,
i. e., wholly or half-wild horses, ranging in bands of 20 to 30
each. To these belong the horses of the Kirghizes and Kal-
muks, those of the Don and the Caucasus, and a part of the
peasants' horses.

The horses of the studs have been i^roduced by crossing
with English and other breeds.

Breeding stallions are placed at the disposal of the rural
proprietors : (1) Those stationed in the government studs
are occasionally allowed to serve mares of private parties.
(2) There are established so-called breeding stables (rural
studs), from which stallions are sent to the various stations
during the covering period. The total number of these studs
in 1893 was 33, the majority of which had their chief seat in
the capitals of the respective governments. (3) Government
stallions may be assigned to so-called "permanent covering
stations," tliat is, into private hands, where they remain
throughout the year and are allowed to serve free of charge
(or for a nominal fee). They are not allowed to be used for
work. The keeper must bear the expense of maintaining
them and may have 15 mares of his own served.

Corresponding to the generally low stage of the breeding
service, the number of mares served is very small. In 1899
the number of stallions in the depots was 3,939 and the num-
ber of mares served only 89,219. Of the stallions, 2,480 were
in the agricultural zone of Russia, and 1,459 in the Caucasus,
steppe, and Tomsk depots. The number of stallions is not
nearly sufficient. Eighty-nine private stallions were approved
in 1889. It is also proposed to increase the number of gov-
ernment stallions and establish more depots in 1901. Special

(325)

326 REMOUNT SYSTEMS OF FOREIC4N ARMIES.

attention will be paid to the Poltava and the Yelizavetgrad
depots, as they are the principal sonrces of prodnction for
cavalry remounts.

The best-known government stud is that of Khrenovoye on
the Don. There are three breeds, namely, trotters (on Janu-
ary 1, 1900, 12 breeding stallions, 119 brood mares, and 202
foals) ; hunters (6 breeding stallions, 28 brood mares, and 21
foals) ; and draft horses of foreign races (18 breeding stallions,
166 brood mares, and 186 foals). The remaining government
studs are all in the district of Kharkof, as follows :

Streletz. — The stock was originally Arab, but later some
Orlof blood was added. The aim was the jn'oduction of a
light-cavalry horse. Owing to the difficulty of procuring
suitable Arab stock, English thoroughbreds were eventually
introduced (in 1890), but it is now proposed to discontinue
them. On January 1, 1900, there were 15 breeding stallions,
152 brood mares, and 334 foals. The area of the stud is
27,181 acres.

LiMARESK. — The original aim was to produce a light-cav-
alry horse, and Arab stock was first bred. In 1885-86 English
thoroughbred blood was introduced, and the object was
changed to the breeding of a heavy cavalry horse. It is now
intended, however, to discontinue the English thoroughbred
stock and breed the pure Orlof-Rostopchin saddle horse. The
status on January 1, 1900, was 14 breeding stallions, 174 brood
mares, and 411 foals. The area is 27,181 acres.

Derkul. — English thoroughbred stock is bred here, the
number of thoroughbreds being 8 breeding stallions, 45 brood
mares, and 04 foals. The number of private mares served
yearly at Derkul is 100, at a fee each of al)out 874 and under.
There is also an Arabian (steppe) section which, on January
1, 1900, had 6 breeding stallions, 39 brood mares, and 38 foals.

Novo Alexandrovsk. — The mission of this stud in 1833
was the production of a cuirassier horse, and much English
thoroughbred blood was introduced. Heavy carriage horses
and saddle horses are produced. The status is 10 breeding
stallions, 171 brood mares, and 302 foals. The area is 30,887
acres.

Janow. — This is the only government stud in Poland.
English thoroughbred stock is bred, and the numbers on
hand are 12 stallions, 12 thoroughbred mares, and 49 half-
bred mares. The foals number 25 thoroughbreds and 93
half-breds.

I

RUSSIA.

327

The numerous private stud's follow for the most part, as
far as breed is concerned, the tendencies of the government
studs of their respective regions.

The number of animals in the government studs was as
follows on January 1, 1900: One hundred and three breeding
stallions, 955 brood mares, 1,780 foals, 151 draft horses and
others;" total, 3,002 head.

The total receipts from government studs were $141,371.10,
and the expenditures $1,115,142.37.

There were exported in 1899 from Russia 59,448 horses,
57,100 going beyond the European boundary, 436 to Finland,
and 1,912 beyond the Asiatic boundary.

The following table shows the number of regiments, etc. ,
including Cossacks :

Europe,
including
Caucasus.

Siberia,

Turkestan,

Amur.

Field troops :
In corps —
Ca val ly —

591

367
41

36

59

17
49

6

3'2

AttilU'iy—

11

3

Nut ill corps —
Ciivalrv —

Hcijinients _ .

10

S(|Un<iroiis Hiirl sotiiias _. __

47

Artillery—

19

Keserves;

Caiires of the cavalry reserve _

Artillerv, batteries _ _ . .

The total number of Cossack sotnias is 311, which number
can be increased in war to 1,000. The peace establishment
of cavalry horses is 140,000; in the war establishment this
number is increased to 350,000. There are special remount
services for each branch; that is, one for the regular cavalry,
one for the artillery, and one for the Cossacks. The total
number of horses in the army is 175,000. The number re-
quired annually is 17,500. In case of mobilization 350,000
more would be required.

The cavalry troops of European Russia formerly received
their mounts entirely through remount officers, who, in con-
sideration of a sura, varying from $108.15 to $154.50 for each
horse, had to purchase remounts at their own expense and
their own risk and deliver them in a serviceable condition.
They were really to a certain extent wholesale horse dealers.

3-^8

REMOUNT SYSTEMS OF FOREIGN ARMIES.

There were at first no official remount depots, but the re-
mount officers had private depots of their own where they
kept the horses bought by them until fit for service.

The age limits prescribed are from 3^ to T years. The
heights are as follows : For guard cuirassiers, 15^ to 16 hands;
light guard cavalry, 15 to 15^ hands; line cavalry, 15 to 15^
hands; guard artillery, 15 to 15^ hands; field battery saddle
horses, 15 to 15:j hands; gun horses, 11 to 15^ hands; horse
battery saddle horses and draft horses, 15 hands. Stallions,
geldings, or mares may be taken.

The above-mentioned remount system was found very de-
fective, so that the government was finally compelled to take
charge of the service, the German method of private purchase
and remount depots being introduced as a tentative measure.
At first the positions of remount officer were discontinued in
Moscow and Kief, those in other places being continued.
Since January 1, 1901, the new method has been definitely
adopted. Two kinds of remount commissions, permanent
and temporary, have been established. The former are ap-
pointed by the supreme military council and the latter by the
inspector general of cavalry. There are at present seven
permanent and two temporary commissions. Every commis-
sion consists of a general officer as president, a field officer, a
veterinarian, and assistants. Horses bought in the fall must
be 3^ to 5^ years old, and those bought in the spring from 4
to 6 years. The following prices are fixed from 1901 to 1903:

From 15^3 bauds up..
Fniui 15 to loVi hand:
From U% to iS Uaud

Categorj-.

I.

11.

Thorousrh-

Thoroush-

breil

bred witli

without

slight

blemishes.

blemishes.

III.

Partially

thoivugh-

brwi

without
blemishes.

IV.
Partially
thorough-
breil with

slight
blemishes.

$193. 12
167.37
141.62

§167. 37
141.62
103.00

8115.87
103.00
77.25

Artillery remounts were formerly supplied by permanent
remount officers, each buying for the artillery in his own dis-
trict. It was only in certain districts — Finland, Moscow,
Don territory, etc. — that the artillery was permitted to pur-
chase remounts independently. In these an officer of each
brigade was charged with making the purchases, and a com-
mission detailed to approve them. Since 1S91 all permanent

RUSSIA. 329

foot batteries and horse batteries have been allowed to pur-
chase their remounts independently. The amounts they are
allowed to expend for this purpose per horse are as follows:
Guard batteries, $144.20; field batteries in St. Petersburg
military district, 8103; in military districts of Kief and
Odessa, §90.12, including all expenses.

Heretofore all the Cossacks have been required to jjrocure
their own mounts. These troops are divided into three bans,
each of which has a very different class of horse. The fol-
lowing arrangement has been made to improve the mounts
of the Cossacks of the first ban, who are gradually acquiring
a standing with the regular cavalry. Upon the discharge of
the Cossacks who are to be transferred to the second ban in
the fall, the regiments of the first ban may exchange their
unserviceable horses for serviceable ones by paying a small
sum of money.

Up to 1884 all the cavalry officers, as well as most other
officers, were required to purchase their own mounts. This
rule is still in force for the guard officers, but the officers of
the regular cavalry and horse artillery receive so-called
"crown horses" from among the service horses. A second
horse ration is allowed so that officers, if they so desire, may
keep a private mount besides. Every officer of mounted
troops may purchase a service horse from his regiment, but
no more than six horses per regiment may be sold each year.
" Crown horses " remain the property of the government and
may be used only in the service. Since October, 1899, the
obligation to keep a private service mount has been extended
to officers of the horse artillery, including the mountain artil-
lery. Officers of foot troops are allowed to select suitable
horses from among the condemned cavalry horses, for which
moderate prices are charged.

The forage ration is as follows : For the guard cavalry
(cuirassiers), draft horses of the guard artillery, of the
officers' reserve school, and of cadre 1 of the guard cavalry
reserve : 13^ pounds oats, 10 pounds hay, and 4 pounds straw.
For the horses condemned from the guard and cavalry regi-
ments : 10 pounds 4^ ounces oats, 10 pounds hay, and 4 pounds
straw. All other saddle horses of the guard cavalry and
artillery, of guard cadres Xos. 2 and 3, and of the officers'
schools: 12 pounds oats, 10 pounds hay, and 4 pounds straw.

Cavalry horses undergo one year's training before being
turned over to the troops. Each regiment has a depot for
this purpose.

XVI.-SPAIX.

[From " Zuclitund KeniontirungUerMilitar-PfeniealleiStaaten," by I»r. Paul Goldbeck, Berlin, lUOl.]

The number of horses in 1897 was 397,172. Spain raises
a great number of asses and mules. An English commission
purchased there for the Boer war a total of 12,000. They are
reported to have proved admirably adapted to the transpor-
tation of light artillery in hilly regions. The usual price of
mules reaches as high as $193.

In order to assist horse breeding the Spanish government
maintains four stallion depots of 100 animals each, and three
annexes with 25 stallions each. The stallions kept at these
depots are mostl}^ of the Spanish race, but there are also
Arabian and English thoroughbreds, the latter very few in
number and poor in quality. There are also some Norfolk,
Percheron, Anglo-Norman, and even Anglo-Hispano- Arabs in
use. In order to aid breeders the covering fee is made as low
as $4.82, and in some regions where the breeding industry is
in a backward state no fee is charged. The number of thor-
oughbred stallions in Spain in 1896-97, according to the
Spanish studbook, was 155 English, 19 Arab, and 19 Anglo-
Arab stallions. There has been a considerable decrease since
1894-95.

A military stud has been established, as a sort of experi-
ment, in the province of Cordoba. It has 80 mares of the
Spanish, Anglo- Arab, Anglo-Norman, and Percheron races,
as well as 4 breeding stallions — 2 Spanish, 1 English thorough-
bred, and 1 Norfolk. It is intended to raise not only sires
for the stallion depots, but also stallions to be sold at cost
price to breeders.

Spain has 28 regiments of cavalry and 14 regiments of
reserve cavalry, 9 remount depots, establishments, etc., gen-
darmerie, and 16 regiments of field artillery and mountain
artillery, having a total, including other branches of the
service, of 14,300 horses and mules.

There are three remount purchase commissions for cavalry,
each with a remount depot under its supervision. In these

(B31)

332 REMOUNT SYSTEMS OF FOREIGN ARMIES.

depots the colts are kept until 4 years old before being turned
over to the regiments. The general staff, infantry, artillery,
engineers, carbineers, administrative troops, and medical corps
purchase their horses and mules ready for service. The artil-
lery has a remount commission consisting of a colonel, lieu-
tenant colonel, major, and two administrative officers, with
headquarters at Madrid. The civil guard also has a remount
commission of its own. To purchase the necessary remounts
the commission makes tours through the country. Some
remounts are bought abroad. All draft horses for the artil-
lery are purchased abroad, principally in Belgium. The
requirements of remounts are as follows : Cavalry — age, 2 to
4 years; size, 14 to 15f hands, according to age. Artillery —
age, 4 to 7 years; size, 15 to 15^ hands for saddle animals, 15^
to 15f hands for draft animals, and 14f to 15i for officers'
mounts. Other troops — age, 4 to 7 years; size, 14f to 15f
hands (in the civil guard, ISj to 15f hands). The length of
service of a horse is reckoned at 10 years.

The average price paid for horses by the army is $106.15 for
2-year-olds, $168.87 for 3-year-olds, $193 for 4-year-olds, and
$173.70 to $386 for trained animals. The average value of an
Andalusian saddle horse is $289.50, especially valuable speci-
mens being $400, $600, and even $800. Light draft horses are
sold at $772 to $1,158 per team; heavy horses, which are rare,
from $289.50 to $386 each.

General officers may select and buy their horses from among
the cavalry remounts, at cost, but never for less than $241.25
each. Field and company officers who are required to have
mounts receive them from their regiments, but must pay for
them a certain sum, varying according to the grade of the
officer, from $38.60 to $135.10.

XVII.-SWEDEN.

[From '• Zucht und RemontirungderMilitai-PferiifiillciStaateii," by Dr. PauIGoldbeck, Berlin, 1901.]

The number of horses in Sweden in 1897 was 512,406.

The Swedish Government favors the horse-breeding in-
dustry in every respect. Great attention is paid to the raising
of mi-litary horses. The successes are such that the peasantry
not only furnishes all the army remounts and all the breeding
stallions needed for service throughout the country (except
those imported to keep up the stock), but also many excellent
remounts for Norway. Formerly the government maintained
studs of its own, but this is now no longer necessary. These
studs were situated as follows: At Stromsholm, until 1872;
at Flyinge, until 1887 (English thoroughbred and half-bred
stock); and at Ottenby, in Oland, until 1892 (English half-
bred stock). The first and second mentioned are now stallion
depots. The number of stallions at Stromsholm in 1899 was
74 and at Flyinge 89, besides 62 young stallions at the latter
place. Most of the stallions stationed at Stromsholm and
Flyinge were purchased abroad — partly in England and partly
in Hannover. Stallions subsidized by the government are
kept by a great many private owners.

The Swedish permanent troops include 8 cavalry regiments
(5,300 horses), and 11 batteries of field artillery and mountain
artillery. The total number of horses in the army in 1900
was 6,742. In case of mobilization the number is increased
to 28,319, which are all at hand. The yearly number of
remounts is about 540. All remounts, except those of the
indelta cavalry, are purchased through a remount commission,
consisting of a chief, a veterinarian, and another member.
The average price paid is $187.60, but it is intended to raise
this price. The remounts must be between 3 and 7 years of
age, and must not be under 14i hands high measured behind
the saddle. A peculiar system, similar to that in vogue in
Norway, exists for the indelta cavalry, for which certain
landholders are required to maintain remounts.

(333)

I

4

I
i

XVIII.-SWITZ ER LAND.

[Reported by Maj. G. K. Cecil, Tbinl Infaiitiy. I iiiteii 8tntis Military Attache at Bern.]

The Swiss system of supplying horses for military pur-
poses, like the entire Swiss militia system, is unique. In the
first place, no recruit is assigned to the mounted service until
he has produced conclusive evidence of his ability to own
and care for a horse. The horses are bought by the govern-
ment and trained. The recruit is permitted to select one at
the appraised value, and pays to the government, at the time
the horse is assigned to him, one-half the amount. He takes
the horse to his home and uses him as his private property,
but must keep him in good condition and ready for inspec-
tion. The recruit must report with this mount every time
he is called to service. The government, at the end of each
year, refunds to him ten per cent of the amount he has paid;
that is, ten per cent of half the appraised value of the horse,
so that at the end of his ten years' service in the elite, all his
money has been returned to him, he has had the use of the
horse for ten years, and the animal now becomes his private
property, which he may sell or otherwise dispose of.

The recruit may furnish his own mount, which is inspected
and appraised, after which the government pays the soldier
half the appraised value of his horse, and thereafter ten per
cent of the other half annually for ten years. If the horse
dies in the meantime, or becomes unfit for service, the bal-
ance is refunded to the soldier, who then selects another horse
from the depot on the same conditions, except that, when
the soldier is transferred to the landwehr, the horse does not
become his private property, but must be returned to the
depot. On returning his mount to the depot the soldier
receives the balance of the amount paid by him. The same
rule applies to the horses for both officers and enlisted men,
though the officers, in selecting, are not limited to the cavalry
remount depot, as there is a horse rdgie at Thun supplying
a higher grade of horses, especially for officers. This regie

(335)

330 REMOUNT SYSTEMS OF FOREIGN ARMIES.

also trains and supplies horses for the field artillery. These
horses are purchased during the first months of the year, and
are used during that year at the recruit schools for light
artillery. In the autumn they are appraised and sold at
auction, to natives only, on condition that they be well cared
for and returned to the recruit stations, for use in a recruit
school, at such times as called for each year, for the three
following years. After that they become the absolute prop-
erty of the purchaser. If the bids on any horse are less than
his appraised value he is not sold, but is held for a future
auction. For the use of his horse at recruit schools, etc., a
purchaser is paid, while the animal is in service, from two to
four francs per day. In this way the government has, for
use in the instruction of the light-artillery recruits, and for
service during the cours de repetition, as well as at other
times, a supply of fairly well trained horses. All horses for
the artillery and trains, whenever required, are hired from
civilians. The owners are paid the rates established by the
government. The horses are examined by a board of veter-
inary surgeons three times, namely, upon delivery, then two
days after delivery, and, finally, upon being returned to the
owners. Upon the reports of this board damages are paid by
the government. Besides the 100 horses bought each year
for the regie and intended for the artillery, and for officers,
there are purchased about 800 horses every year for the
cavalry.

Last year there were bought for the cavalry :

Foreign horses 793

Swiss horses ..- 4

Horses furnished by soldiers 5

Horses furnished by soldiers to replace their lost horses 2

Total 804

The foreign horses are bought and inspected by a board,
which is composed of the chef d'arme, chief veterinarian, and
usually also the commandant of the depot, and which, to
make the purchases, is sent abroad. Of late years the horses
have been bought in Ireland, northern Germany, or Hungary,
as the markets have seemed most favorable.

Specifications for Horses. — Active temperament; neck
shapely and of medium length; withers prominent; barrel

SWITZERLAND. 337

short; back straight; loins arched and muscled; the croup
substantial and approaching the horizontal; chest large and
deep ; the legs and fetlocks strong ; unbound tendons ; good
feet. White horses of too striking appearance are rejected,
unless the purchase is justified by excellent qualities. The
height should be not less than 15 hands nor more than 15|
hands; age not less than 4 years nor more than 6 years.
Mares and geldings are accepted.

The horses are shipped to the depot at Bern, where they
become acclimatized before they are given any hard work.
They are then given a course of training involving about four
months' time, in which they are exercised at the walk, trot,
gallop, and in jumping hurdles. They are trained also to
work in harness, that they may be useful to the owner in
agricultural labor. For this purpose the necessary number
of trainers is employed. When the training is completed the
horses are inspected by the chef d'arme, the chief instructor,
and the chief veterinarian. Any that are found fractious,
near-sighted, blind, wind-broken, stiff, or incurably diseased
are returned to the depot either for treatment, or, if found
permanently disqualified for service, for sale. Horses when
first purchased are branded on the near fore foot; those
accepted for assignment to recruits are branded also with
the year and the federal cross on the off side of the neck and
with the number on the near side of the neck. Horses con-
demned to be sold are branded on the left ear.

.The horses intended for enlisted men are arranged, accord-
ing to appraised values, into four classes. The classes cor-
respond to four values, S312, $373, $234, and $195. The
horses intended for officers are appraised at $351. These
values are calculated to cover the first cost of the horses, the
transportation, acclimatization, and training, in other words,
to cover the expenses of the remount depot.

A descriptive book accompanies each mount issued. This
book must be presented at all subsequent inspections of the
horse. The inspector notes therein the horse's condition and
any other pertinent remarks.

Provision is made for returning horses to the depot for
further training or for exchange when, after reasonable trial,
they are found unsound, vicious, or in any other way unfit

338 REMOUNT SYSTEMS OF FOREIGN ARMIES.

for the military or home use of the holder. When a soldier
is "unable to keep his horse he is permitted to transfer him to
some responsible party, who assumes the care of the animal
under the conditions prescribed for the soldier. After ten
years this party becomes the absolute owner of the horse.

No figures are obtainable at the military department as to
the percentage of annual loss, but it is believed that this per-
centage is very small, and that a very large proportion of the
horses assigned to recruits are serviceable during the entire
10-year term of service in the dlite, as well as useful a num-
ber of years thereafter. The Swiss are very kindly disposed
toward animals and take elegant care of their horses and
cattle. The system for the purchase, and treatment of horses
for the r^gie at Thun is approximately the same as for the
cavalry remount depot at Bern. Greater latitude is allowed
in procuring fine horses for officers. Those horses intended
for the light artillery are given less training under the saddle.
The receipts from the rdgie about balance the expenditures.

As it owns few horses and keeps those of the army largely
in the hands of private citizens, the government has no adopted
method as to shoeing. So far as my observation goes the
shoes are similar to those in our service.

There is no government stud under the military depart-
ment, but there is one at Avenches under the agricultural
department. The purpose of this stud is the improvement of
the breed of Swiss horses. Ninety-three fine stallions are
kept in the establishment. No mares are kept. The stallions
are distributed among the different cantons. The charge for
the stallions' services is $1.17 each.

The government charges to private individuals a nominal
duty on imports, amounting to 59 cents per horse and 30 cents
per colt.

When employed in government service, the horses, whether
owned by the government or hired from citizens, are each
allowed the following ration : 9.9 pounds oats, 9.9 pounds hay,
and 6 . 6 pounds straw. The commanding officers of the cavalry
remount depot and of the r^gie are allowed to vary this ration
for sick horses and those undergoing acclimatization, provided
the appropriation be not exceeded. When necessary, bran
and molasses may be fed. Compressed forage is seldom, if
ever, used. The horses are habitually groomed twice a day.

SWITZERLAND.

339

In 1900 a census of all horses, with a view to their employ-
ment for military purposes, was made in Switzerland, with
the following result :

Tjiie :

Common —

Heavy

Light

Improved

Pure blood

Half blood

Saddle horses :
Officers —

Officers incorporated

Trained

Suitable for training

Noncommissioned officers —

Ti-ained

Suitable for training

Draft horses :

For light artillery

For train

Total adapted for military services

Horses that may be used in emergency

Unfit for military services

JIules adapted for pack services

23, 804
49, 38B

1 61,896

21,277

15, (K13

7, 381

4,490

117

161

972

862

3,525

2,434

1,617

1,374

1,837

1,421

3, 627

3,041

23, 897

22, 654

29,719

25, 619

65, 194

57,405

18, 457

10, 140

18,314

14,005

1,613

1,544

The chief of the military department says, with reference
to the showing made, that in point of view of numbers and
quality of the horses adapted for military services, this census
has been favorable. There appears to be in the country an
ample supply of horses for a mobilization of the entire mili-
tary force. All the animals may be taken when needed in
defense of the country. The report shows a decided increase
during the preceding decade.

On January 1, 1901, the elite cavalry possessed 4,6-11 horses
and the landwehr cavalry 3,433 horses.

XIX.-TURKEY.

[From "Ziicbt uuil Kenioutining der Militar-Pferde aller Staaten," by Dr. Paul Goldbeck, Berlin,

1901.]

According to tlie reports of the tax officials, which for
various reasons can hardly be regarded as entirely trust-
worthy, Turkey has over 2,000,000 horses; nevertheless, she
is unable to supply her own remounts at home, probably
because the amounts offered are too small. The peasants are
unwilling to sell as low as those of other countries.

There are four military studs in Turkey, all under the
supervision of an inspector general, who is directly subordi-
nate to the war ministry. They are as follows :

Chifteler, the largest, is 22 miles long by 16 broad. The
number of horses is as follows: 52 stallions (15 Hungarian
and Russian, 6 native, 31 Arab); 307 brood mares (119 Hun-
garian and Russian, 180 native, 8 original Arab) ; 686 foals
(382 of foreign blood, 164 native, llO Arab) ; 7 working horses;
total, 1,052 horses.

Malatia (in Armenia). — The number of horses is 460.
The breeding tendency is the same as for the preceding stud,
but it is sought here also to refine the Kurd breed of horse.

Adana, with 250 horses at present. The mares are Arabs.

Bagdad. — This stud consisted in 1899 of 1,300 horses of
pure Arab stock and 20 Hungarian mares.

There are no private studs in the real sense of the word.

Beyond the free use of stallions from the above-mentioned
studs, horse raising receives no support from the government.

The export of Arab mares is strictly forbidden, and that of
stallions is subject to an export duty of $23.16 each. There
are really no horses exported, except a few of Arab stock, and
imports are made principally for the army.

The Turkish army contains, on a peace footing, 40| cavalry
regiments with 880 horses each (202 squadrons), 15 batteries
of horse artillery, 169 batteries of field artillery, 38 batteries
of mountain artillery, and 13 train companies with mules and
a few horses. In war there would be 115 cavalry regiments

(341)

342 REMOUNT SYSTEMS OF FOREIGN ARMIES.

with 543 squadrons, each squadron with 150 horses, and 18
field-artillery regiments with 21 G field batteries, and 36 horse
batteries of 6 guns each, the field batteries having 150 and the
horse batteries 230 horses each.

The irregular Kurd cavalry, which was recently increased
from 36 to 45 regiments — the so-called hamadich — procures
its own remounts. The military horses of the remaining
troops are purchased abroad, partly in Russia but principally
(and of late almost entirely) in Hungary. The number pur-
chased each year depends solely on the financial means
available. The yearly percentage of remounts required is
ofiicially fixed at 11 for the cavalry and 9 for the artillery.
For 1898 1,100 artillery horses were bought in Russia, and 400
artillery and 700 cavalry horses in Hungary. The require-
ments made of remounts are the same as those in Germany,
after which they are copied, but in reality any healthy 5-year-
old is accepted. There are several remount depots in Turkey
in Asia, but none in Turkey proper. The length of service
of a horse is said to be officially calculated at seven years.
Mules are used for the mountain artillery and for hauling
forage and x^ro vision wagons, etc.

APPENDIX A

The following report was not received until after the other
manuscript had gone to press :

INFANTRY TARGET PRACTICE REGULATIONS OF

JAPAN.

[Reported by Maj. 0. E. Wood, Artilleiy Corps, United States Military Attache at Tokyo.J

The following extract from a recent translation made under
my direction of " Infantry Target Practice Regulations of the
Japanese Army " will give an idea of the plan and scope of
instruction which is carried out in each infantry regiment :

PART I. — THE THEOBY OF TARGET PRACTICE.

The two chapters devoted to Part I contain a brief discus-
sion of the trajectory — its form and elements, the influence of
the force of gravity, the weather, light, wind, etc., on the
firing ; a discussion of the front and rear sights, line of sight,
etc., velocity, penetration, danger space, angles of elevation
and angles of fall.

As an illustration of the difiiculties ex|)erienced in using
the translation for the purposes of this pajDer, the following
quotations are made :

"The weight is that which to fall down the flying bullet
and its degree is to increase with the time elapsed."

" The gravity is that which to drop the bullet to ground
according to the time of the flight and the resistance of air
constantly reduced the velocity of bullet, therefore the tra-
jectory forms the curve, and degree of it increased as much
as the bullet apart from the muzzle."

PART II. — FIRING INSTRUCTIONS.

Chapter 1 discusses the duties of officers — regimental, bat-
talion, and company" commanders, company officers, and
noncommissioned officers.

(343)

344 APPENDIX.

With reference to the duties of the company officers, the
translation reads :

"These officers and noncommissioned officers are not only
to be well acquainted with theory of firing, but to be well
furnished with skill to correct the bad rifle."

Chapter 2 takes up the modes of instruction — a general out-
line— elementary drills for recruits, sighting drill, position
and aiming drills. One quotation is very pat and well
expressed: .

"In all firings, the selection of a proper position, accuracy
in estimating distances, quickness of loading, correctness of
sighting, quickness of aiming, and the presence of mind, are
the necessary conditions of a soldier, and one who lacks them
can not be called a skilled marksman."

Chapter 3 — preliminary drills — goes into the details of aim-
ing drills, a complete discussion of the sights, use of tripods
and sand bags for proper instruction in aiming, methods of
correcting errors, tests by means of the triangle, and describes
the proper standing, kneeling, and prone positions.

With regard to the use of the trigger and hammer, para-
graph 55 of the translation reads :

"The use of trigger has great influences upon the firing,
therefore, it must be minutely instructed and it needs con-
stant attention."

Chapter 4 — estimating distances — is very full and complete.
It provides that every officer, noncommissioned officer, and
soldier must become skillful in estimating distances for short
range (up to 600 meters), for middle range (between 600 and
1,000 meters), and become accustomed to estimate distances
for long range (over 1,000 meters).

Three methods are provided :

First, estimating by sight by the use of soldiers either
mounted or dismounted in various positions. After the dis-
tance is estimated by sight it will be actually measured by
the step or by the surveyor's chain, except for the longer
ranges, when maps and instruments are used.

Second, by sound. The velocity with which sound travels
being given as a guide.

Third, by pacing.

(The above methods are very similar to those used in the
United States army.)

I

APPENDIX. 345

Chapter 5 gives the divisions of target practice and the
allowance of ammunition. Three divisions are mentioned:
drill practice, battle practice, and testing practice. These
divisions are explained with great minuteness, and are very
complete.

Each officer, noncommissioned officer, and soldier is allowed
annually 25 rounds of ball cartridges in drill practice, 45
rounds of ball cartridges in battle practice, and 100 rounds of
blank cartridges for preliminary practice and in field service.

Each company is annually allowed in addition 1,200 rounds
of ball cartridges for rifle tests, inspection practice, and for
the honor firing.

Chapter 6 takes up details of drill practice, covers all
instruction concerning the firing, the ranges, the dress, the
duties of markers, the superintendence by commissioned offi-
cers, the various details required, the methods of marking
and scoring, the records, the different classes of marks-
men, the care and distribution of ammunition, and the police
of the range.

Among other rules the translation reads :

"The aiming is not exercised licentiously on the range."

Chapter 7 speaks of the battle practice. The object is to
practice firing under battle conditions, the troops being in
heavy marching order. This practice is divided into file
firing, and party battle practice.

In file firing, a prej^aratory drill is had under the reg-
ulations for skirmish drill in Part I of the infantry drill
regulations.

The file firing is conducted in the company, man targets in
different positions being used at unknown distances. As the
men become more proficient, disappearing and moving targets
are used.

The result of the shooting is reported by signal markers
after the firing has ceased.

Party battle practice is conducted at unknown distances in
short range, middle range, and long range. Fire control and
discipline conform to the requirements of infantry drill
regulations.

Battle practice is either by squad, section, or company and
is always practiced at unknown distances in various localities.

Chapter 8 is devoted to testing practice. This is for the
purpose of testing for accuracy by means of the rifle securely

346 APPENDIX.

fixed on a tripod or stand, at known distances, in good
weather. Every soldier in turn is required to fire nine shots
at 300 meters' distance with his own rifle in the usual positions
for that range. The results are compared with the standard
rifle, and all deficiencies or inaccuracies are corrected by-
skilled workmen.

Night practice is had occasionally at targets posted at from
200 to 800 meters, using a search light or fire light, and
resting the rifle on top of the breastworks. This is for the
purpose of trying the men under unusual conditions.

Chapter 9 gives the different classes of marksmen.

The third class consists of recruits and men in their first
year of service; in preliminary practice at 100, 150, and 200
meters, and in the regular practice at 200, 300, 400, 500, and
600 meters.

After completing the course of practice laid down, the
third-class man is promoted to the second class, and after
completing a somewhat similar course in that class, he
becomes a first-class marksman and practices at all ranges
under varying conditions.

Officers and noncommissioned officers who have fulfilled
the requirements of the first class for two successive years
become special marksmen.

Chapter 10 is devoted to inspection practice. Once in each
year the division or brigade commander inspects each regi-
ment in battle practice, simulated so far as practicable to
actual battle conditions, thus testing the skill of officers and
men. A copy of the report of this inspection is preserved in
the regiment.

Chapter 11 speaks of marksmen's badges. Four badges or
medals are given each year as a reward of good shooting.

The special marksmen's badge is given to the three best
shots in a regiment.

The first-class marksmen's badge is given to the two best
shots among the commissioned officers of each battalion, and
to the two best shots among the soldiers of each battalion.

The second-class marksmen's badge is given to the two best
shots among the soldiers of each company.

The third-class marksmen's badge is given to the best shot
among the soldiers of each company.

These badges are presented with due ceremony with the
whole command drawn up under arms, and may be worn on
the uniform during the individual's service in the army.

APPENDIX. 347

PART III. — MATERIALS FOR TARGET PRACTICE, AND THE RIFLE RANGE.

Chapter 1 — Targets and Marking Instruments. — The
targets are made of wood and bamboo frames, covered with
cloth and paper.

1. Ordinary target, a white rectangle 1.65 meters long and
1 meter in width, on which ten black concentric circles are
painted ; the intervening spaces or zones between the circles
counting from 1 (outer) to 10 (bull's-eye). The eighth and
ninth zones and bull's-eye are all in black, the eighth and
ninth circle painted in white. The diameter of the central
zone is 10 centimeters.

2. Ordinary target with head figure covering eighth, ninth,
and tenth zone, the black figure showing the head and shoul-
ders of a soldier.

3. The figure target, complete figure of an infantry soldier
in black, widest part of figure being 40 centimeters.

There are four kinds of figure targets :

(a) Whole body figure standing, 1.65 meters high.
(6) Kneeling figure, 1 meter high.

(c) Breast figure, 50 centimeters high.

(d) Head figure, 35 centimeters high.

4. Figure target of several figures ; the figures are in black
on a white rectangle, 1.65 by 1 meter in size.

Targets are of three kinds, fixed, disappearing, and mova-
ble. The fixed (ordinary) target is on a double revolving
frame, similar to those in the United States in manner of
construction. The disappearing target is handled by a sys-
tem of ropes and pulleys, appearing and disappearing from a
fixed location. The movable target is arranged so that it can
be moved (within certain limits) in any direction — up, down,
right, and left.

Signal flags and markers are constructed and used generally
in a similar manner to those in the American army.

Chapter 2 — The Ranges. — The ordinary ranges for drill
practice are exceedingly well planned, constructed, and ar-
ranged for the different firing stands from 1 00 up to 600 meters.
They are well protected by traverses, so that every range can
be used at the same time; a long bricked-up gallery leading
from the longest range (at the side) to the long continuous
line of pits where the targets are placed, 16 targets on each
side.

348 APPENDIX.

These target ranges are located in several places in the
suburbs of Tokyo, and also adjacent to the stations of infan-
try troops of the different divisions throughout the empire.

Temporary ranges are used for battle practice in such local-
ities as may be deemed suitable.

PART IV.— PRACTICE RECORDS AND REPORTS.

The usual and customary record books for the different
battalions and companies are kept ; also, each soldier has a
target practice record book which he keeps, similar to ours.

Company practice records are completed every year and
reports sent in to the battalion commander. Each battalion
commander is responsible that full reports are sent to regi-
mental headquarters.

The regimental reports are sent to brigade commanders,
and brigade reports to division commanders, where they are
consolidated and forwarded to the war department.

ADDENDUM.

Regulations for gallery practice are given, the range gen-
erally being about 15 meters, small targets, and reduced
charges.

Target practice for the "kobi" (landwehr) reserve, depot
troops, and the six weeks' active service soldiers is also pro-
vided for, regular tables of instruction being given.

Honor firing or competitive tournaments are executed in
each regiment annually under the supervision of the division
commander, according to special regulations from the war
minister.

The time and details of the event are prepared and notifi-
cation of the place selected, etc., are all sent through the
division.

A special badge is given to that company in the division
which makes the highest percentage, and three days' fur-
lough is given to each member of the entire company.

This badge is preserved by the company until the honor
firing of the succeeding year.

A special report is made and forwarded by the division
commander to the war minister.

APPENDIX. 349

INFANTRY TARGET PRACTICE.

REPORT OF THE TARGET PRACTICE OF THE FIRST REGIMENT OF INFANTRY
OF THE IMPERIAL GUARD DIVISION.

On April 25, by permission of the war department, I wit-
nessed the target practice of the first battalion of the first
regiment of infantry of the imperial guard division on the
"shatekiba" (target range) at Oknbo in the suburbs of Tokyo.

The firing was at 300 meters, the i^osition taken was prone.
The accuracy of the shooting was not very good ; the expla-
nation given being that they were only first-year men.

The Murata rifle, caliber 0.286, is similar to the Mauser
rifle.

Cartridges inserted by a clip (of five cartridges) ; the bolt
action of breechblock simple and easy to manipulate.

The targets (at that range) seemed to be smaller than our
own, and were certainly difiicult to hit, for it took me three
shots to get on the target.

All the conduct of the firing was excellent, no confusion
whatever, no talking ; and the ofiicers appeared much inter-
ested in the practice of their men, taking frequent occasion
to remedy faults in elevation, windage, holding, sighting, etc.

In the pits which I visited, everything was conducted
quietly and uniformly, there were three markers to each tar-
get. When a shot was fired at a target, the target was
revolved, the shot hole (if there was one) discovered and pasted
over by one man, the flag raised by another man, while the
third man indicated on the visible target, by means of a disk
at the end of a long pole, the exact position of the hit. The
work of each group of men was superintended and controlled
by a sergeant, while a commissioned oflicer overlooked and
controlled all the targets which were being used by each par-
ticular company.

In all my experience I can suggest no improvement in the
manner of conducting target practice ; it seemed to be com-
plete.

The target range at Okubo is said to be the finest in the
vicinity of Tokyo; it covers an unusually wide area, there
being arrangements for 32 targets which can be used at the
same time, atr the same range, or at different ranges.

When firing is conducted for battle practice, the troops are
marched out in the country as if for a regular campaign
against the enemy, and firing up to 1,200 meters is practiced.

350 APPENDIX.

AMMUNITION ALLOWANCE.

Note. — Information just received that the annual allow-
ance of ammunition is as follows : For each infantry soldier,
125 ball and 100 blank cartridges ; for each cavalry soldier,
98 ball and 30 blank cartridges. For revolver practice — for
each infantry noncommissioned officer, 80 ball cartridges;
for each cavalry noncommissioned officer, 20 ball cartridges.

FIELD ARTILLERY TARGET PRACTICE.

The field artillery application school is located at Yotsu-
kaido, about 30 miles southeast from Tokyo, under the super-
intendence of Colonel Noma of the artillery, with a staff of
about ten instructors. The students number about 30 ; there
being one lieutenant from each of the regiments of artillery
of the twelve divisions and the imperial guard, and one lieu-
tenant from each of the six additional regiments of artillery
which constitute the two brigades of artillery, together with
extra officers and supernumeraries.

The course of instruction is essentially a practical one, con-
sisting of instruction and practice in field and mountain artil-
lery, and the care of ammunition, signaling, and equitation,
and extends over a period of six months — from December 1 to
June 10 — divided into two courses of three months each.

There are two batteries of artillery at the school, fully
equipped with both field and mountain guns, so that each
may be used as occasion requires.

The eighteenth regiment of artillery, composed of six bat-
teries of six guns each (which belongs to the second brigade of
artillery), is also quartered here in barracks and stables adjoin-
ing the inclosure which comprises the school of instruction.

The ground in the vicinity of the school extends for several
miles, giving an area rectangular in shape, with but few
clumps of trees, and fairly level ; small hummocks and shal-
low depressions here and there not interfering with the
maneuvers of artillery in any direction, presented an ideal
terrain for practice.

The extreme ends of this range of open country is bounded
by thick groves or small forests of trees behind which, to the
north and -south, have been constructed high artificial em-
bankments of earth for the better protection of the surround-
ing country from the effects of artillery fire, but which are
not visible.

APPENDIX. 351

Oil the occasion of my visit on April 28, the various bat-
teries of the eighteenth regiment were having drills of various
kinds; other detachments were being drilled in signaling,
and while one of the school batteries was being drilled as a
mountain battery, the other battery had proceeded to the
plain of maneuver preparatory to the artillery practice which
was to take place.

At the extreme end of the range to the south could be seen
(with glasses) the target, supposedly the enemy's artillery,
there being eight groups at proper intervals representing the
guns with their detachments.

The battery (of six guns and three caissons) moved out from
their temporary resting place in column of sections — took up
the trot, and came " right front into battery " into their first
j)Osition (about 3,000 meters), obtained an approximate range
by use of a range-finder, and fired two or three shells ; then
rapid fire of shell and shrapnel for about two minutes (as
near as could be judged while watching the effect through
glasses) . The range seemed to be very accurate, as the shrap-
nel burst apparently a short distance in front and over the
line of targets.

The actual result in hits had not been ascertained when I
left the field.

A certain peculiarity in the ground must here be noted in
order to make intelligible what is to follow. There were
places across the plain of fire where the ground seemed to
break into parallel lines.

Suddenly there was a sharp yell from someone, the guns,
which had ceased firing, were run by hand rapidly to the front
some 50 meters, and looking toward the gun targets I saw
what appeared to be the head of a column of infantry in com-
pany column a short distance to the right of the gun targets
and some 300 meters nearer; and I was informed by one of
the ofiicers that the yell meant, ' ' There comes the infantry in
column."

In an incredibly short time the new range of the infantry
column target had been found by one or two shells ; and then
rapid fire with shrapnel (timed at the rate of one shot every
three seconds) filled the vicinity of the target with bursting
shrapnel for about one and one-half minutes.

Then another sharp yell, and we could see suddenly a line
of soldiers' heads which appeared to spring out of the ground

352 APPENDIX.

at a distance of some 700 meters nearer, and extending almost
across the whole plain of fire. (I was afterwards told that
there were 1,000 of them — there certainly were several
hundred.)

Again the range was quickly obtained, and the shrapnel
seemed to cover the entire line — the little puffs of smoke of
the bursting shrapnel seeming to be at the right distance in
front, and just high enough to do effective work. There
were of course some wild shots, and some few short fuzes ;
but I did not notice a single failure to explode in the air. It
was wonderful shooting, but I would have been better satisfied
if I could have found out the percentage of hits.

These infantry targets were so arranged that by moving a
long lever, away off at one side out of sight and out of range,
the rows of figures could be made to show up above the slight
depressions referred to, and by a reverse motion could be
made to disappear.

It certainly was a very ingenious and novel idea, and very
effective ; and as there were a number of these depressions,
where the infantry column or line target could be used, it
was not known in advance where they were to appear, and
in each instance the range had to be found in order to do
effective work.

The effect of these heads showing up as they did was un-
canny, and one could not resist the impression that they were
human beings.

The battery limbered up and withdrew out of sight until
after lunch was disposed of by officers and men, when the
firing was resumed under similar conditions but at different
ranges. I was much impressed by the rapid and oi-derly
manner in which they all worked together with apparently
good results.

After the practice was completed, all the student officers
and the battery officers who conducted the firing were gathered
together, and an exhaustive criticism was made by Colonel
Noma and the field officers present, in which every point was
carefully discussed, the officers all making notes in their field
books for future reference and guidance.

On returning to the parade ground of the school, the drill
with the mountain guns was witnessed.

Five horses (no mules are used) were packed with one gun
and its equipment. While marching in column the command

APPENDIX. 363

"Halt! In Battery" was given, and in one minute and thirty
seconds (timed) the gun was in position, loaded, and ready
for action, and the horses to the rear out of the way.

These Japanese soldiers seem to be human machines ; they
work quickly and silently, each doing his own part exactly
as he has been instructed, and the officers seem imbued with
a pride in their profession which is most commendable.

Annual Allowance of Ammunition. — Shell and shrap-
nel: To each battery, 426 rounds; Blank cartridges : To each
battery, 600 rounds.

i

INDEX

TO

TARGET PRACTICE AND REMOUNT SYSTEMS.

(355)

INDEX TO TARGET PRACTICE.

AllowaDce of money for maiiiteuance,
prizes, etc.:

Austria-Hungary 18

Denmark 41

France 57

Germany 89,90,91,108,112,114

Russia 135

Sweden 150, 158

Ammunition, allowance of, small arms and
guns :

Austria-Hungary —

Cavalry 20

Infantry 15

Technical troops 22

Denmark —

Artillery 42

Cavalry 39,40

Infantry 27,30,32,36,38

France —

Artillery 48,70

Cavalry 48,61

Infantry 47,50

Germany —

Artillery 112

Cavalry 107

Infantry 81,84,90

Rifles 90

Technical troops 91

Great Britain 122

Russia —

Artillery 137

Cavalry 136

Infantry 133

Sweden —

Artillery 167,169,170

Cavalry 151,152

Infantry 147-149

Switzerland —

Artillery 202

Infantry and cavalry.. 193, 197, 199, 201

Machine gun 202

Aitillery target practice:

Denmark 41

France 48, 64, 66, 72, 73

Germany 110,115

Russia 136

Sweden 159

Switzerland 200,202

Badges. (See Insignia.)
Camps of instruction :

Denmark 41

France 60.69

Camps of instruction — Continued.

Germany 98,116,117

Great Britain 122

Russia 138

Sweden 150,166

Switzerland 203

Classification of men firing :

Austria-Hungary 8,12

Denmark 39

France 50, 63, 34, 71

Germany 79, 85, 91, 108

Great Britain 119

Russia 135

Sweden 147,152

Switzerland 200

Collective fire :

Austria-Hungary 7,16

Denmark 32

France 47, 54, 56

Germany 106

Great Britain 121

Russia 1.34,136

Sweden 146, 148

Switzerland 196

Competitions :

Austria-Hungary . 18,23

Denmark 36,39

France 63,71,72

Germany 88, 89, 93, 108, 114

Russia 135

Sweden 149,153,158,159,164

Switzerland 196

Demonstration firing, testing rifles, etc.:

.■\ustria-Hungary 7,16

France : 62

Germany 77, 92

Estimating distances :

Austria-Hungary 8

Denmark 28, 29, 38

France 65

Germany 79

Russia 135

Sweden 145

Switzerland 192, 193, 202

E.xamination or test firingi:

Denmark 29, 36

Germany 77, 93

Field firing:

Austria-Hungary 16,21

Denmark 26

France 55, 69

Gerniiiiiy 93,105,111

(357)

358

INDEX TO TARGET PRACTICE.

Page.
Field fiiiug — Continued.

Great Britain 121-131

Kussia 133

Sweden 146

Switzeriand 196

Figure targets. (See Targets.)
Firing schools :

Denmark 37,38

France —

Artillery 70

Infantry 50,60,62

Regimental 63

Germany 110, 115, 116

Great Britain 121

Kussia 137,138

Sweden —

Artillery 160, 165, 166, 168, 170, 188

Cavalry 152

Infantry 142,147,149

Switzerland 191,201,202

Gallery practice :

Austria-Hungary 8

Denmark 27

France 47,48,51

Germany 78

Russia 136

Sweden 140, 141, 147

Switzerland 194

Individual practice, range and field :

Austria-Hungary 8,21

Denmark 38

France 47,56

Germany 77-81, 104

Great Britain 120,121

Russia 134,136

Sweden 146. 148

Switzerland 194

Insignia and rewards for good shots :

Austria-Hungary 13

Denmark 27, 36

France 64

Germany 87, 88, 90, 114

Kussia 135

Sweden 150,158,164,165

Switzerland 196

Instruction, course of:
Austria-Hungary —

Cavalry 19,20

Infantry 7,11,12

Officers' 22

Technical and train troops 22,23

Denmark —

Artillery 41

Cavalry 37,38

Infantry 25

France —

Artillery 66

Cavalrj' _.. 61

Infantry .. 49,54,55,60

Germany —

Artillery 110,115

Cavalry 107

Page.
Instruction, course of — Continued.
Germany — Continued.

Cyclists 91

Infantry 77

Rifles 89

Technical troops 92

Great Britain 119-121

Russia —

Artillery 136

Cavalry 136

Infantry 133,134

Sweden —

ArtiUery 159,161,166

Cavalry 151

Infantry 139,142

Switzerland —

Artillery 199,202

Cavalry 201

Infantry 191,197

Machine-gun practice :

France 62

Germany 116

Switzerland 202

Marking, scoring, signaling:

Austria-Hungary 13

Denmark i 33

Germany 84,86,113

Great Britain 120,121

Russia 135

Sweden 145,146,164

Switzerland 199

Matches. {See Competitions.)
Officers, practice :

Austria-Hungary 19,22

Denmark 37

France 50

Germany 84,89,109

Russia 134

Sweden 153, 167

Switzerland 191,192,198,201

Officers, range ; duties 50,51

Pistol firing. (See Revolver and pistol

practice.)
Position and aiming drills. (See Instruc-
tion, course of.)

Practice, additional, Denmark 32

Practice, field firing. (See Field firing.)
Practice, known distances:

Austria-Hungary ",8,21

Denmark 30

France 54

Germany 85, 86, 89, 107, 110

Great Britain 120,121

Russia 134,136

Sweden 147, 148, 149, 151

Switzerland 192,194,197,198

Practice, preliminary or preparatory :

Austria-Hungarj- 11

Denmark 25

France 47,48,51,66

Germany 77, 80, 85, 104

Sweden 139, 153, 162

Switzerland 192

INDEX TO TARGET PRACTICE.

359

Page.

I'ractioe, revolver. {See Kevolver and pis-
tol pnictice.)

Practice, special conditions, Germany 92,9.'?

Practice, volley tiring. (See Collective fire. 1

Prizes. (See Competitions.)

Qiialifyinjj scores :

Austria-Hungary 12

Germany 80,81,8.5

Sweden 147, 152

Switzerland 192,194,197,198

Range practice. {See Practice, known dis-
tances.)

Range practice, time and weather 8, 9

Ranges. (See Camps of instruction.)

Revolver and pistol practice :

.\ustria-Hungary 19

Denmark .37,38,40

France 49, 64

Germany 109

Russia — . 136,137

Page.
Kevolver and jiistol practice — Conliniii-.i.

Sweden 1.53-1.57

Switzerland 201

Schools for instruction in firing. (See Fir-
ing schools. )

Scores to qualify. (.See Qualifying scores.)

Scoring. (See Marking, scoring, signaling.)

Signaling. (.See Marking, scoring, signal-
ing.)

Targets :

.\ustria-Hungary 9,10,11

Denmark 29, 34, 35, 40, 42, 43, 44

France 52, .57, 58, 74

Germany 78,81,82,83,94-104

Great Britain 119,123-130

Russia 133

Sweden 142,143,150,171-188

Switzerland 191-195,200

Uniforms worn in practice 9,65

Volley fire. (See Collective fire.)

I

i

INDEX TO REMOUNT SYSTEMS.

Piige.

Acclimatization of horses :

Austria-Hiinguiy 'i^O

Switzerland 337

Adana stud, Turkey 341

Advances for purchase of officers" remounts :

France 238

Germany 273, 274

Italy , 306

Afghan type of horses, India 298

Ages of horses and mules :

Algeria 249,202

Austria-Hungary 208,209

Chile 315

Denmark 232,234

Dutch East Indies 318

France 244, 246, 249, 255

Germany 271,275,276

Great Britain 286

Italy 304, 3(17, 308

Japan 311

Netherlands 317

Portugal 323

Russia 328

Spain 332

Sweden 333

Switzerland 337

Tunis 249

Turkey 342

Agram stallion depot, Hungary 218

Alberta horse breeding, Can.ada 299

Algerian remounts 249

Allelik. (See L'Allelik.)

Allowances for remounts to officers :

Austria-Hungary 214

France 255, 256

Germany 273, 274, 279

Italy 306

American stallions in Japan ^ 311

Andalusian saddle horse 332

Anglo-Hispano-Arab stallions 331

Anglo-Xorman stallions:

Argentina 313

Austria-Hungary 220

Chile 315

Spain 331

Annual loss of horses. (See Yearly recjuire-
nieuts of horses.)

Annual requirement of remounts. (.See
Yearly requirements of horses.)

Antbra.\:

France 266

Italy 3(15

(361

Page.

Antistreptococique serum, France 266

Apponyi's (Count Albert) breeding estab-
lishment, Austria-Hungary 221

Apportionment of horses on mobilization:

Austria-Hungary 215,216

Denmark 230

Appraisement of mobilized horses :

Austria-Hungary 216,217

Denmark 231

Germany 281

Arab-Barbary horses, Algeria and Tunis 249,

260, 261

Arab-Barbary thoroughbred stallions, num-
ber of, Algeria 260

Arab horses, Algeria and Tunis 249,260,261

Arab horses, imported into Argentina 249

.Arab mares :

Germany 282

Turkey 341

Arab mares, export forbidden, Turkey 341

Arab stallions :

Algeria 260

Argentina 313

Austria-Hungary 221

France 260,261

Germany 282

India 297

Italy 306

Spain 331

Turkey 341

.\rdennes hor.se, Belgium 225

Argentina as a source for remounts for
Europe 313,314

Argentine horses 296,313,314

.\rgentine horses in France 313

Army breeding farms. (.See Breeding es-
tablishments.)

Army horses with jirivate keepers. (See
Civilians' use of army horses.)

■\rmy studs. (.See Studs.)

Artillery batteries, number of. (See Num-
ber of artillery batteries.)

Artillery horses :

Argentina 313,314

Austria-Hungary 215,217

Belgium 225

Brazil 314

Chile 315

Denmark 229, 230

Dutch East Indies 317

France 247,248

Germany 271

362

INDEX TO REMOUNT SYSTEMS.

Page.
Aitilleiy horses— Continued.

Great Britain 285,286

Italy 303, 304, 305, 306, 309, 310

Mexico 315

Netherlands 317

Norway 320

Persia 321

Russia 328,329

Spain 332

Switzerland 336,339

Turkey 341,342

Artillery reg;inients, number of. (.SVc Num-
ber of artillery regiments.)
Asses :

Argentina 313

Bombay 298

Chile 315

China 227

German colonies 284

Germany 274

India 297, 298

New Zealand 301

Oudh 298

Punjab - 298

Spain 331

Assignment of horses to officers. {See Issue

of horses to officers.)
Assignment of horses to the various units.
(See Issue of horses to various units.)

Australia as a source for remounts 300

Austrah'an horses 278, 284, 296, 297, 3(X)

Australian stallions, India 297

Australian type of horses, India 297

Austro-Hungarian horses exported into Ger-
many, statistics 277

.\venches stud, Switzerland 338

Babolna breeding estal)lishment, Hungary,

218, 221

Baerenklau remount depot, Germany 275

Bagdad stud, Turkey 341

Bales of hay, weight of, France 263

Barbary stallions, number of, Algeria, . 260,261

Barbary type, breeding of, Algeria 259, 260, 261

Barley meal, rations:

Algeria 262

France 262

Barley ration :

Algeria 259,260,262,263

France 262,263

German East Asia 284

Great Britain 294

. Norway 320

Persia 321

Bavaria remount depots 271

Beans as forage, China 227

Beans, forage ration :

Algeria .: 262

France 262

Beberbeck, Prussia 281

Becker's (John) private breeding establish-
ments, Austria-Hungary 221

Bedding, Fi-ance 263

Bedding for officers' horses, Italy 301:

Belgian horses :

Germany 277

Spain 332

Beluchistan, horse breeding 297

Bengal type of horses, India 298

Bern remount depot, Switzerland 337

Bilak remount depot, Austria-Hungary, 209,210
Blaskovics's (Stephen) private breeding es-
tablishment, Austria-Hungary 221

Blidah remount depot and stud, Algeria 257

Boaids for mobilized horses, Denmark 231

Bombay horse breeding 297

Brabants stallions, Italy 306

Bran ration :

Algeria 262

France __, 262

German East Asia 284

Great Britain 294

Switzeriand 3.38

Biunding:

Algeria . 251

Austria-Hungary 209,220

Denmark ^ L.. 230

France 245,247

Germany 276

Great Britain 287

Hungary 220

Italy 305, 309

Norway 320

Switzerland 337

Tunis 251

Brazilian remounts 314

Breeding associations, Denmark 229

Breeding establishments :

Algeria 257,261

Austria-Hungary 217,218

Bavaria 283

Brazil 314

Denmark 229

France 256,257

German colonies , 284

Germany 271,281,282,283

Great Britain 287

Hungary 218,219

India 297

Italy 305,306

Japan 311

Mexico 315

Norway 319

Persia 321

Prussia . 281

Russia 325,326.327

Saxony 283

Spain 331

Sweden 333

Tunis 2.57

Turkey 341

Wurttemberg 283

Breeding farms. (See Breeding establish-
ments.)

i

INDEX TO REMOUNT SYSTEMS.

363

Page.

Breeding of horses:

Algeria 2.5T-261, 269

Argentina 313

Australia 300

Austria-Hungary 217-222

Bavaria 283

Belgium 225

Belurlii.stan 297

Bombay 297

Brazil 314

Canada 299

Chile 314

China 227

Deccan 297

Denmark 229

France 256-202,268,269

German colonies 1 284

Germany . 281,282,283

Great Britain 287,296-301

Hungary 218-222

India 296,297,298

Italy 305, .306

.Japan 311

Manchuria 227

Manitoba 299

Mexico 315

Mongolia 227

New South Wales 300

New Zealand „_ .301

Norway 319,320

Persia 321

Portugal 323

Prussia 281, 282

Punjab 297

Russia 32.5, .326, 327

Saxony 281

Sind, India 297

Spain 331

Sweden 333

Switzerland 338

Tunis 257

Turkey 341

Victoria, Australia 300

Wurtteraberg 283

Breeding of mules :

Argentina 313

irazil 314

Chile 315

China 228

German Africa 284

India 297,298

Mexico 315

New Zealand 301

Spain 331

Breeding stables. (.See Breeding establish-
ments.)

Breiholen, remount depot, Wurttemberg 272

British colonies, remounts 285,287,296-301

Brood mares :

Algeria 261,262

Austria-Hungary 218,219

Page.
Brood mares — Continued.

France 2(i2

Germany 282

Hungary 218,219

India 297

Italy 305, 306

New Zealand 301

Prussia 282

Bussia 326,327

Spain 331

Turkey 341

Buccaneer, celebrated stallion, Kis-Ber,

Hungary 220

Budapest remount purchasing commission,

Austria-Hungary 208

Budgetary effective of horses. (See Number
of horses, army.)

Burma pony, India 298

Calgary, remount depot, Canada 299

Camel corps, India 299

Camels, army:

Algeria 2.39

India 298

Tunis 239

Canadian horses purchased by Great Britain,

statistics 29(i

Canadian remounts 299

Cantiniere, France 264

Cape Colony remounts 3(K)

Carbuncle fever. {See Anthrax.)
Cariots used as forage :

Algeria 260, 262

France 262

Great Britain 294

Castration followed by tetanus, France 266

Caucasus stallions 325

Cavalli de agevolezza, (officers' horses)

Italy 306

Cavalry horses on mobilization. {See Mob-
ilization of horses.)
Cavalry horses, supply of. {See Supply of

horses.)
Cavalry. {See Mounted troops.)
Cavalry regiments, number of. {See Num-
ber of cavalry regiments.)
Census of horses. (.See Number of horses.)

Chamont stallion, Germany 282

Change of horses by officers, Italy 309,310

Chargers :

.\ustria-Hungary 213

Chile 315

Germany 273, 274, 276

Italy 308,309,310

Cheval de carriere, France 239,254,250

Cheval de manege, France 239,254,256

Chief farriers, F>.ince 264

Chifteler stud, Turkey 341

Chile, remounts 314

Chilean breed 314

Chinese mules for East Indian artillery ___ 318
Civil officials' horses, Japan 311

364

INDEX TO REMOUNT SYSTEMS.

Page.

Civilians' use of army horses :

Austria-Hungary 215

Denmark 232, 233, 234

Switzerland 336

Classification of horses :

Austria-Hungary 212, 216

Frarrce 216,255

Germany 273,274,275

Italy 306, 307, 308

Russia 328

Switzerland 337

Cleveland hay, Chile 314

Clevelauds :

Argentina 313

Chile 315

Clovei', forage, China 227

Clydesdales, imported irrto Ar-gentina 313

Clydesdales, stallions :

Argeutirra 313

Italy 306

Cobs, statistics of purchase. Great Britain__ 206

Cold shoeing, Great Britain 290,291

Colic, Prussia 283

Colonies, remounts :

France 239,251

Germany 277, 278, 284

Great Britain 285,287,296-301

Italy 303

Netherlands 317, 318

Color, airuy horses:

France 246, 255

Great Britain 286

Italy 304

Norway 319

Cults, thoroughbred, Hungary 221

Commutation of forage :

Algeria 250

Austria-Hungary 214

Germany 279

Compensation for mobilized hor-ses :

Austria-Hungary 216

Denmai-k 231

(Jornpensation forstationed-out horses (with
])iivate keepers) :

Austria-Hungary 215

Denmark 234

Condemnation of horses :

Austria-Hungary 209,210,111

Belgium 226

Chile 315

Denmark — 230,234

France 238,246,254

Germany 273,276,280,283

Great Britain 287

Italy 303,304,309,310

Norway 320

Prussia 283

Russia : 327,329

Switzerland 337

Turkey 342

Page.
Conscription of horses :

.\ustria-Hungary 215

Denmark 230

Fiance 267

Germany 281

Norway 319,320

Constantine remoirnt depot and stud, Alge-
ria 257

Cor-doba province, militai-y stud, Spain 331

Corn, forage ration, France 262

Cossack r-emounts, Russia 327,329

Covering :

Algeria 257,259,261

Austria-Hungary 220,221

Bavaria 283

Chile 315

Denmark 229

France 2.56,257

Gei-many 271, 281, 282, 283

India 297

Italy 306

Norway 319,320

Pr-ussia 282

Russia 325

Spain J 331

Switzerland 338

Tunis 257,259

Turkey 341

Wurttemherg 283

Covering fees:

Algeria 259

Arrstria-Hungary 220

Chile 315

Denmark 229

Fr-ance 257

Germany 282

India 297

Italy 306

Prussia 282

Russia 325

Spain 331

Switzerland 338

Tunis 259

Turkey 341

Cross-country horse, France 256

Crown horses, Russia 329

Cyprian mules purchased by Great Br-itain. 296

Danish-bred horses 229

Danish horses imported into Germany, sta-
tistics 277

Debreczin stallion depot, Hungary 218

Debts incurred by officers in purchasing re-
mounts, Italy 306,308

Deccan, horse breeding 297

Decentralizatiorr of remount service, Ger-
many 277

Depots for training remouuts. {See Train-
ing school for horses.)

Derkul stud, Russia 326

Descriptive book of horses, France 246,247

INDEX TO REMOUNT SYSTEMS.

ot>5

Page.
Diseases of horses :

Aiistiia-Hiiiigar.v 211, '212,219

Deimiiuk 230, 235

Knince 245,246,266

Gennan.v 278,283

Oiviit Britain 288

Italy 305

Prussia 283

Switzerland 337,338

Draft animals, other than horses, German

Southwest Africa 284

Draft horses :

Australia 300

Austria-Hungary 209,216,219,220

Belgium 225, 226

Denmark 229, 234, 235

France 239, 240, 246, 247, 248, 267

Germany 271, 277, 280, 281

Italy 303,304,305

New South Wales 300

New Zealand 301

Norway 320

Persia 321

Russia 328,329

Spain 332

Switzerland 339

West Australia 300

Draft mules :

Algeria 239, 240, 246, 249

France 239, 240, 246, 249

German colonies 284

Tunis 239, 240, 246, 249

Turkey 342

Drohowyze stallion depot, Austria 218

Dropsy, France 266

Dublin, remount depot, Ireland 287

Dutch colonies 317

Dutch horses imported into Germany,

statistics 277

Duty on Arab stallions, Turkey 341

Duty on horses, mules, asses, and foals :

Austria-Hungary 209

Denmark 229

France 237

Germany 277

Great Britain 287

Italy 303

Norway 320

Switzerland 338

Turkey 341

East Prussian remounts ^ 272

Elephant batteries, India 285

<^:iite, Switzerland 335,338,339

Engineers' horses :

Belgium 225

France 239, 240, 255

Great Britain 286

Italy 303, 306

Spain 332

Page.

English stallions:

Algeria 260

Argentina 313

Austria-Hungary 220

Chile 314

Denmark 229

Germany 282

India ^ 207

Italy 306

Russia 326

Spain ^ 331

English thoroughbreds imported into
Argentina 313

Erysipelas, France 266

Expenditures of breeding establishments :

Algeria 262

Russia 327

Expenditures, purchase of horses:

Algeria 239,240

Austria-Hungary 209

Denmark 229

France 239, 240, 247, 268, 269

Germany 271, 274

Italy 303

Portugal 323

Tunis 239, 240

Expenditures, remount depots, Germany 271

Export duty on Arab stallions, Turkey 341

Export duty on horses. (See Duty on
horses, mules, and asses.)

Exports- of horses, mules, and asses :

Algeria 246

Argentina 296,313,314

Australia 278,284,296,300,311

Austria-Hungary 277

Belgium 332

Canada 296

China 329

Cyprus 296

Denmark 277

France 268, 277, 305

Germany 229, 277, 305, 313, 336

Great Britain 229,296,313,333

Hanover 333

Hungary 296,336

Ireland 225,229,296,336

Italy 296

Manchuria 227

Netherlands 277

New Zealand 301

Persia 311

Russia 321,327

Spain 296,323,331

Turkey 219,341

United States 268,

277, 278, 284, 296, 305, 313, 315

Extra pay for remounts of officers. (See
Allowances for remounts to officers. )

Farriers :

France 263

Great Britain 289,291,293

366

INDEX TO REMOUNT SYSTEMS.

Farriers' school :

Deuniark

France

Great Britain

Faults of piircuased horses guaranteed
against. {See Guarantee of horse seller
required.)

Fees for covering. {See Covering fees.)

F-es of farriers, France

Feed. {See Forage.)

Field-officers' horses :

Austria-Hungary 21.3,

France 237, 238,

Italy

Fiji, remounts

Fines for disabling a horse :

France

Italy

Fines for disobeying mobilization orders :

Austria-Hungary

Denmark

Fines for violation of regulations for sta-
tioned-out horses, Denmark

Flemish horses, Belgium

Fogaras, breeding establishment, Hungary,

218,

Fontainebleau artillery-school horses,
France

Forage :

Algeria 250,259,260,

.\ustria-Hungary 211,

China

Denmark

France 255, 262,

German East Asia

Germany 274, 275,

Great Britain 293,

Italy 305, 308,

Norway

Persia

Kussia

Switzerland

Forage allowance :

Algeria 250,259,

.\ustria-Hungary 211,

Denmark

France 252, 255, 262,

Germany 275,277,278,

Great Britain 293,

Italy 305, 308,

Norway

Persia

Kussia

Switzerland

Forage commutation. (.See Commutation
of forage.)

Forage furnished to-apahis, Algeria

Forage storehouses, ,\ustria-Hungary

Forster (Eleck), private breeding establish-
ment, Austria-Hungary

French horses imported into Germany

French horses and mules for Italian artillery

231

264
291

214
254
308
3(tO

254
309

215
231

234
225

262
214
227
230
263
284
278
294
310
320
321
329
338

262
214
230
263
279
294
310
320
321
329
338

250
214

221

277
305

Page.

French stallions in Japan 311

Frost nails, shoeing. Great Britain 292

Funds, remount service :

France 247

Germany 271

Fyen remount depot, Denmark 229

Galician saddle horses, Austria-Hungary 222

Gendarmerie :

Belgium 225

France 239,240,255

Me.\ico 315

Spain 331

Generals' horses :

France 238,255

Germany 279

Italy 306,308

Spain 332

General staff officers' horses :

France 255

Italy 306

German "charger" system in Chile 315

German colonies, remounts 284

German horses for Italian artillery 305

German horses for Swiss army .336

German stallions 229

Gidran stallions, Austria-Hungary 220

Glanders :

France 247

Prussia 283

Gilding stallion depot, Austria 218

Government stallions. {See Stallions.)
Government studs. {See Studs.)

Graditz breeding stable, Prussia 281

Graditz stallions, Germany 282

Gratuitous remounts. {See Officers' horses,
gratuitous.)

Graz stallion depot, .\ustria 218

Green fodder :

China 227

France 262

Germany 275

Great Britain ._ 294

Persia 321

Grooming :

Algeria 259

Austria-Hungary 212

Denmark 230

France 248, 2,'j9, 203

GiM-many 280

Great Britain 293

Norway 320

Switzeriand _._ 338

Guarantee of horse seller required :

Denmark 235

France 245

Hackney stallions :

Argentina 313

India 297

Italy 306

New Zealand .301

Norway 319

llauuver remounts, Germany ' "^"V

I

INDEX TO REMOUNT SYSTEMS.

36^

Page.

Hanoverians imported into —

Argentina 313

Sweden 333

Hay ration :

Algeria 259,262

Austria-Hungary 214

Denmark 230

France 262,263

Germany 275,278

Great Britain 293,294

Italy 305

Norway 320

Persia 321

Russia 329

Switzerland 338

Hodmezii-Vdsarhely, city breeding stables,
Hungary 221

Holies hunts serving as tests for stallions,
Austria-Hungary 222,223

Holies hunts, training of horses, Austria-
Hungary 220, 222

Horse boards. (See Remount commissions.)

Horse descriptive book, France 246,247

Horseshoes:

Austria-Hungary 219

Denmark 230

France 265

Germany 280

Great Britain 288-293,295,296

Italy 305

Norway 320

Switzeriand 338

Hungarian horses:

Great Britain 296

Japan 311

Switzerland 336

Turkey .. 342

Hungarian mares, Turkey 341

Hungarian saddle horses 222

Hungarian stallions :

Japan 311

Turkey 341

Hunter stallions. New Z' iland 301

Hunters imported into Argentina 311

Ihaszi Marczalto remount depot, Austria-
Hungary 209

Import duty on horoes. {See Duty on
horses, mules, asses, and foals. )

Imports of horses, mules, and asses :

Algeria 246

Argentina 313

Australia ^ 301

Austria-Hungary 219

Brazil 314

Denmark 229

Dutch East Indies 317,318

France 246,268

Germany 277

Great Britain 296,300,331

India 298,299,300

Italy 305, 307

Page.

Imports of horses, mules, and asses — Cont'd.

Japan 311

Netherlands 317

New South Wales 301

Norway 319

Persia 321

Portugal 323

South Africa 296

Spain 332

Sweden 333

Switzerland 336

Tunis 246

Turkey 341,. 342

Indelta cavalry horses, Sweden 333

Indian remounts 296

Infantry horses :

.\ustria-Hungary 217

Belgium 225

France 239, 240, 255

Italy 306

Ru.ssia 329

Influenza, Germany 275, 280

Inspector! general an<i inspectors of re-
mount service :

Algeria 258

Austria-Hungary 210

Denmark 232,234

France 241

Germany 274

Great Britain 285

Russia 328

Switzerland 337

Tunis 258

Installment plan of purchase of horses by
officers, France 252, 253

Instruction in horseshoeing :

France 263,264

Great Britain 291,292,295,296

Instructions for the mustering boards, Den-
mark 2.32

Irani type of horses, India 298

Irish horses purchased by :

Belgium 225

..reat Britain 296

Netherlands 317

Switzerland 336

Irish hunters, France 256

Irish mules purchased by Great Britain 296

Issue of horses of homogeneous type in each
unit:

Algeria 249

Austria-Hungary 211,212

France 247

Tunis 249

Issue of horses to officers :

Austria-Hungary 211,212,213,214

Belgium 226

Denmark 229, 232

France 252

Germany 273,274

Great Britain 294,295

368

INDEX TO REMOUNT SYSTEMS.

Page.
Issue of horses to officers — Continued.

Italy 3(»>-310

Netherlands 31^

Kussia 329

Spain 332

Switzerland 3.3.5

Issue of horses to private keepers. (See

civilians' use of army horses.)
Issue of horses to various units :

Algeria 249,250,251

Austria-Hungary-_— 210, 212

Belgium 226

Denmark 232

France 244, 245, 246, 247, 248

Germany 273,276

Great Britain 287

Italy 303, 304, 305

Netherlands 317

Russia 327-329

Spain 332

Sweden 333

Switzerland 335,337

Italian colonies' remounts 303

Italian mules purchased by Great Britain.. 296
Jacks :

India 297,298

New Zealand 301

Janow stud, Russian Poland 326

Java 317

Kalmuk horses, Russia 325

Karolyi, Count Alvis, private breeding

stable, Austria-Hungary 221

Kattenau remount depot, East Prussia 275

Kharkof district studs, Russia 326

Khreuovoye government stud, Russia 326

Kirghiz horses, Russia 325

Kis-Ber breeding stable, Hungary 218. 220

Kladriiber breeding stable, Hungary 221

Klecza Dolna remount depot, Austria-Hun-
gary 209

Krlimper horses, Germany 280

Kulknith remount depot. Saxony 271

Kurdish cavalry, Turkey 342

Kurdish horses, Turkey 342

Kvarterheste, Norway 319

Labod remount depot, Austria-Hungary, 209, 210

Lack of good military horses, Brazil 314

li'AUelik breeding farm, Algeria 257

L'Allelik remount anne.x, Algeria 257

Landholders' horses for indelta cavalry,

Sweden 333

Landwehr, Switzerland 339

Leniberg remount purchasing commission,

Austria-Hungary 208

l<ength of service of horses :

Austria-Hungary 209

Belgium 225

Chile 1 315

Denmark 229,230

France 238

Germany 276

Great Britain 287

Page.
Length of service of horses — Continued.

Italy 3(14,309

Norway 320

Persia 321

Portugal 323

Russia 327

Spain 332

Switzerland 335,338

Turkey 342

Length of service of mules :

France 238

Italy 304

Light-draft stallions, New Zealand 301

Limaresk stud, Russia 326

Linseed forage ration :

France 263

Great Britain 294

Lipitza breeding stable, Hungary 221

Lockjaw. [See Tetanus.)

Loss of horses, annual percentage. (See

Yearly requirement of horses.)
LogstiJr, apportionment of mobilized horses,

Denmark 230

Lung diseases of horses, Denmark 230

Lusk remount depot, Ireland 287

Lymph. {See Serum.)

Malatia stud, Turkey 341

Malt forage ration. Great Britain 294

Manchuria, horse breeding 227

Manchurian horses 227

Mangelwurzel forage ration, Great Britain. 294

Manitoba, horse breeding 299

Mares. (See Brood mares.)

Measurement behind saddle, Sweden 333

Melton stallion, Italy 306

Mexico, remounts 315

Meziihegyes breeding establishments, Hun-
gary 218

Milianah branch remount depot, Algeria ._ 257

Militia system, Switzerland 343

Minas Geraes, mule breeding, Brazil 314

Miskolcz remount purchasing commission,

Austria-Hungary 208

Mobilization of horses:

Austria-Hungary 207,215,216,217

Denmark 230,231

France 267

Germany 281

Great Britain 287

Italy 303

Norway 320

Russia 327

Sweden 333

Switzerland 339

Molasses as feed for horses, Switzerland ... 338
Moldavian stallions and mares imported

into Austria-Hungary 219

Mongolia, horse breeding 227

Morgans imported into Argentina 313

Mostaganem remount depot and stud, Alge-
ria --. 257

INDEX TO REMOUNT SYSTEMS.

369

Page.

Mounted troops :

Algeria 239, 2-tO

Argentina 313

Austria-Hungary 215,217

Belgium 225

Brazil 3U

British colonies 286,287

Chile 315

China 227

Denmark 229

Dutch East Indies 317,318

Egypt 287

France 237, 239, 240

German colonies 284

Germany 277, 281

Great Britain 287

India . 287, 298, 299

Italy 303,304

Japan 311

Malta 287

Mexico 315

Netherlands 317

Northwest provinces of India 298

Norway 320

Oudh 298

Persia 321

Portugal 323

Punjab 298

Russia 327,328

South Africa 285

Spain 331,332

Sweden 333

Switzerland 335,337,338,339

Tunis 239,240

Turkey 341,342

Mule breeding. {See Breeding of mules.)

Mules :

Algeria 237, 249, 261

Argentina 313

Austria-Hungary 209

Bombay 298

Brazil 314

Chile 315

China 227,228

Cyprus 296

Denmark 229

Dutch East Indies 317,318

France 237, 2.38, 246, 249

German colonies 284

Germany 274, 277

Great Britain 286,294,296

India 298

Ireland 296

Italy 296, 303, 304, 305

Mexico 315

Northwest provinces of India 298

Oudh 298

Portugal 323

Punjab 298

Spain 296,331,333

Switzerland 339

23555 24

Page.
Mules — Continued.

Tunis 249

Turkey 342

United States of America 29G

Murrain, Prussia 283

Mustapha remount annex, Algeria 257

Mustering boards, Denmark 232

Nagy-Daad-Sari remount depot, Austria-
Hungary 2(19,210,212

Nagy-Kaniza remount purchasing com-
mission, Austria-Hungary 208

Nagy-Kiiriis stallion depot, Hungary 218

Nails, horseshoeing. Great Britain 289,

291,292,293,296

Natal, remounts 300

Netherlands, colonies. (.See Dutch colonies.)

New South Wales, remounts 300

New Zealand, remounts 301

Nonin stallions, Austria-Hungary 220

Norfolk stallions :

Chile 315

India 297

Spain 331

Novo-Alexandrovsk stud, Russia 326

Number of animals in the government

studs, Russia 325,326,327

Number of artillery batteries :

Dutch East Indies 317

Persia 321

Portugal 323

Russia 327

Sweden 333

Turkey 341

Number of artillery regiments :

Argentina 313

Belgium 225

Brazil 314

Japan 311

Mexico (battalions) 315

Netherlands 317

Spain 331

Number of asses :

Bombay 298

India 297,298

New Zealand 301

Punjab 298

Spain 331

Number of asses exported, Argentina 313

Number of camels :

India 298

Number of camels, ai-my : •

Algeria and Tunis 239

India 299

Number of cavalry regiments :

Argentina 313

Belgium 225

Brazil 314

Dutch East Indies 317

Japan 311

Mexico 315

Netherlands 317

370

INDEX TO REMOUNT SYSTEMS.

Page. .

Number of cavalry regiments — Continued.

Persia (squadrons) 321

Portugal 323

Russia 327

Spain 331

Sweden 333

Turkey 341, 342

Number of horses :

Algeria 237

Argentina 313

Australia 300

Austria-Hungary 207

Belgium 225

Bombay 298

Canada 299

Cape Colony 300

Chile 314

Denmark 229

Fiji 300

France 237,267

Geiman colonies 284

Germany 277

India , 298

Italy 303

Japan 311

Java 317

Manitoba 299

Natal 300

Netherlands 317

New South Wales 300

New Zealand 300

Northwest provinces, India 298

Norway 320

Ontario 299

Oudh, India 298

Punjab 298

Queensland 300

Russia 325

South Australia 300

Spain 331

Sweden 333

Switzerland 339

Tasmania 300

Turkey 341

Victoria, Australia 300

West Australia 300

Number of horses, army :

Algeria 239

Argentina 313

Austriu-Hungary 215,217

Belgium 225

Brazil 314

Chile 315

Denmark 229

Dutch East Indies 317, .318

Egypt 287

France 207, 237, 239, 240, 267

German African colonies 284

German East Asia 284

Germany 207, 277, 283

Great Britain 207, 287

Page.

Number of horses, army — Continued.

India 287,298

Itely 303

Malta , 287

Mexico- 315

Netherlands 317

Norway 320

Portugal 323

Prussia 283

Russia 207,327

South African war, Great Britain 207

Spain 331

Sweden 333

Switzerland 339

Tunis 239

Turkey 341,342

Number of horses, artillery :

Algeria 239,240

Austria-Hungary 215 ■

Belgium 225

Brazil 314

Chile 315

Denmark 229

Dutch East Indies 317

Egypt 287

France 239, 240, 267

Germany 277

Great Britiiin 287

India 287

Italy 303

Malta 287

Norway 320

Tunis 239, 240

Turkey 341

Number of horses, cavalry :

Algeria 239, 240

Austria-Hungary 215

Belgium 225

Brazil 314

Chile 315

Denmark 229

Dutch East Indies 317

Egypt 287

France 240, 267

Germany 277

Great Britain 287

India 287

Italy 303

Malta 287

Norway 320

Russia 327

Switzerland 339

Tunis 239,240

Turkey 241

Number of horses, engineers :

Algeria 240

Belgium 225

France 240

Italy 303,305

Tunis 240

Number of horses exported. {See Exports
of horses, mules, and asses.)

INDEX TO REMOUNT SYSTEMS.

371

Page.
Number of horses, gendarmerie :

Belgium 225

France 240

Number of horses imported. {See Imports
of hoi-ses, mules, and asses.)

Number of horses, infantry :

Austria-Hungary 215

Belgium 225

Number of horses, mobilization. (See Mo-
bilization of horses. )

Number of horses, mounted infantry:

Egypt 287

Great Britain 287

India 287

Malta 287

Number of horses purchased :

Algeria 239, 240

Austria-Hungary 209

Belgium 225

Denmark 229

France 238, 239, 240

Great Britain 287, 296, 298, 313, 314

India 298

Italy 303

Netherlands 317

Norway 319,320

Sweden 333

Switzerland 336

Tunis 239,240

Turkey 342

Number of horses, train. {See Ti-ain horses.)

Number of horses, transport. {See Train horsee.)

Number of mules :

Algeria 237

Argentina 313

Bombay 298

France 237

India 298

Italy 303

Northwest provinces and Oudh, India _ 298

Punjab 298

Spain 331

Switzerland 339

Number of mules, army :

Argentina 313

Chile 315

Dutch East Indies 317,318

France 238,239,240

German colonies 284

Germany 277

Great Britain 296

India 298

Italy 303

Portugal 323

Spain 331

Number of mules exported. {See Exports
of horses, mules, and asses. )

Numt>er of mules purchased. Great Britain. 296

Number of pack horses, army. {See Pack
animals.)

Number of pure breeds, Argentina 313

Page.
Number of stallions. {See Stallions. )
Oat ration :

.\Igeria 259, 262

Austria-Hungary 214

Denmark 230

France 259,262

Germany 275, 278

Great Britain 293,294

Italy 305

Norway 320

Russia 329

Switzerland 338

Oatmeal, forage ration, Great Britain 294

Oats, kinds of, France 263

Officers' extra pay for purchase of horses.
(See Allowances for remounts to officers.)
Officere' horses :

Algeria 249

Austria-Hungary 212, 213, 214, 215

Belgium 226

Chile 315

Denmark 229, 230, 232

France 237,

238, 239, 240, 249, 252, 253, 254, 255

Germany 273,274

Great Britain 294,295

Italy .30r>-310

Japan 311

Netherlands 315

Norway 320

Portugal 323

Kussia 329

Spain 331

Switzerland 335, 337

Tunis 249

Officers' horses condemned :

France 254

Italy 309, 310

Officers' horses, forage ration, Germany. 278, 279
Officers' horses, gratuitous :

Austria-Hungary 212,213,214

France 252

Germany 273

Great Britain 294

Russia 329

Officers' horses, specifications :

Algeria 249

Austria-Hungary 211

France 244,249,253

Italy 307,308

Portugal 323

Tunis 249

Oldenburgs imported into Argentina 313

Oi"an remount branch depot and stud, Al-
geria 257

Orlof-Rostopchin breed 326

Orlofs imported into Argentina 313

Oxen, breeding fai'ms, Algeria 201

Oxen of German African colonial troops 284

Pack animals :

Austria-Hungary 207, 209, 216

Belgium 225

372

INDEX TO REMOUNT SYSTEMS.

Page.
Pack auiuials — Continued.

Denmark : 22P

Fi-ance 246

Germanj- 277

Great Britain 286

India 286

Italy 305

Japan 311

New Zealand 301

Norway 320

Switzerland 339

Turkey 342

Pack horses. (See Pack animals.)
Pack mules. (See Pack animals.)

Parana projected government stud, Brazili 314

Paris remount depot, France 254,256

Parsnips for forage, France 262

Pay of farrier, France 264

Peace effective of horses. (See Number of
horses, army.)

Pease used as forage, France 262

Pedigree statement for purchased horses
required :

Algeria 269

France 268

Germany 273

Percentage of annual loss of horses. (See

Yearly requirements of horses.)
Percheron stallions :

Argentina 313

Spain 331

Percherons imported into Argentina 313

Persamo breeding establishment, Italy 305

Persian stallions in Japan 311

Persian type of horses 321

Personnel of remount service :

France 241, 257

Germany 272, 275

Piber breeding stable, Austria 218, 221

Pisek stallion depot, Au.stria 218

Poltava horse depot, Russia 32G

Pony stallions, India 297

Premiums for horse-raisiug :

Algeria 269

France 268

Preussisch-Mark remount depot, East Prus-
sia 274

Price, brood mares ;

Algeria 239

France 268

Price, horses :

Algeria 239,240,250,251

Argentina 313, 314

Australia 300

Austria-Hungary 209, 212, 213

Belgium 225

Canada . 299

Chile .' 315

China 227

Denmark 229, 2.34

East Prussia 272

Page.
Price, horses — Con t i nu ed .

France .„ 238, 239, 240, 250, 251, 256, 268, 269

Gei-many 271, 282

Great Britain 286

Hanover, Germany 272

Italy 303, 307, 308

Japan 311

Netherlands 317

New South Wales 300

New Zealand 301

Norway 319,320

Portugal 323

Russia 327,328,329

Spain 332

Sweden 333

Switzerland 337

Tunis 239,240,250,251

West Austraha 300

Price, Irish hunters, France 256

Price, mules :

Algeria 246,269

France 246,269

Italy 303

Spain 331

Price, stallions:

Algeria 239, 2.57

Germany 282

Hungary 220

Price, stallions raised at breeding establish-
ments, Hungary 220

Price, thoroughbred colts, Hungary 221

Private property, soldiera" mounts, Switzer-
land 335

Private stallions, approved, Russia 325

Prussian breeding establishments 281,282

Prussian remount depots 271,272

Punjab horse-breeding 297, 298

Punjab type of horses 298

Purchase of horses :

Algeria 238, 239, 240, 249, 250, 251

Australia 285

Austria-Hungary 207,208,209,210,211

Belgium 225,226

Chile 315

China 227

Denmark 229, 231, 232, 234, 235

Egyi.t 285

France 238-251

German colonies 284

Germany 271 , 272, 273, 276, 282, 284

Great Britain 285,

286, 287, 296, 298, 299, 313, 319

India 285,298,299

Italy 303-308,313,314

Japan 311

Me-xico 315

Netherlands 317

Norway 319,320

Portugal 323

Russia 327-329

South Africa 285,296

I

INDEX TO REMOUNT SYSTEMS.

373

Page.
Purchase of horses — Continued.

Spain 332

Swollen -— 333

Switzerlanil 335, .336, 3.37

Tunis 238, 239, 2-10, 249, 250

Turkey 341,342

Purchase of horses from the Government by

officers. {See Officers' horses.)
Purchase of horses in the niarliet by officers,

France 252

Purchase of horses for East Asiatic expedi-
tionary forces, Germany 277,278,284

Purchase of horses for South Africa 285,29(5

Purchase of horses, officers' extra pay for.
{See Allowances for remounts to officers.)
Purchase commissions. (See Kemountcom-
missions.)

Purchasing season, Germany 272

Quality of horses and mules :

Algeria 249, 250

Argentina 313

Australia 300

Austria-Hungary 210,211

Belgium 225, 226

Brazil 314

Canada 299

Chile 314, 315

China 227

Denmark 229, 232, 234, 235

East Prussia 272

France 244,245,246,247,248,249

Germany 272,273,275,282

Great Britain 286

India 297,298

Italy 304, 305, 30G, 307, 308

Japan 311

Java 317

New Zealand 301

Norway 319,320

Persia 321

Prussia 272, 282

Kussia 325

Spain - 331,332

Sumatra 318

Sweden 333

Switzerland 339

Tunis 249,250

Turkey .341,. 342

Queensland, remounts 300

Radautz breeding establishment, .\ustria-. 221
Ratio of native stock to crossed breeds, .Ar-
gentina 313

Receipts and expenditures, government

studs, Russia 327

Receipts, remount depots, Germany 271

Recruits' payment of horses, Switzerland 335, 3.37
Refund of money to soldiers, Switzerland-. 335

Registers, remount service, France 246, 247

Regulations for the stationing-out of army

horses with private keepers, Denmark 233

Remount annexes :

France 241, 248

Germany 272

Pajre.
Remount boards. (See Remount commis-
sions.)
Remount commissions :

Algeria 257, 258, 259

Austria-Hungary 207, 208, 2(19, 210, 21 1

Belgium 226

Chile 315

Denmark 231,232,233

France 242, 257, 258, 259

Germany 271,272,273,274

Great Britain 285,314

India; 298, 299

Italy 304, ,305, 307, 314

Japan 311

Netherlands 317

Norway 319

Portugal 323

Russia 327-329

Spain 331,332

Sweden 333

Switzerland 33.5-338

Tunis 2.57,258,2.59

Remount companies :

Algeria and Tunis 241,243,258

France 241, 243, 258

Remount depots :

Algeria 249, 257

Au.stria-Hungary 209,210,211,212

Bavaria 271

Belgium 226

Canada 299

Chile 315

Denmark 229

Dutch East Indies 317,318

East Prussia 272,274,275

France 241, 242

Germany 271, 272, 274, 275

Great Britain 287,299

Italy 304

Japan 3n

Java 318

Netherlands 317

Prussia 271, 272, 274, 275

Russia 325,326,328,329

Saxony 271

Spain 331,3.32

Switzerland 337

Tunis 249, 257

Turkey 342

Wurttemberg 271, 272

Remount districts of France 241

Remount establishments, director of, Alge-
ria 257

Remount fund of spahis, Algeria 250

Remount markets, Germany 272,273

Remount purchasing commission. (See Re-
mount commissions.)
Remount service :

Algeria 249-252

Austria-Hungary 207,218

Belgium 226

Chile 315

Denmark 2.30-234

374

INDEX TO REMOUNT SYSTEMS.

Page.
Kemount service — Continued.

Dutch East Indies 317

France 241-248

German colonies 284

Germany 271-276,281-284

Great Britain 28.5-287,314

India 296,298,299

Italy 304-310, 314

Japan 311

Netherlands 317

Norway 319, 320

Portugal 323

Russia 327-329

Spain 3.31,332

Sweden 333

Switzerland 335-338

Tunis 249-252

Turkey 341, 342

Remount service, inspectors general and in-
spectors. (See Inspectors general and in-
spectors of remount service.)
Remount service, personnel. (See Person-
nel of remount service.)
Remount service, funds. (See Funds, re-
mount service.)
Remount stations. (See Remount depots.)
Remount training schools. (See Training

schools for horses. )
Rental of private horses by troops, Switzer-
land 336

Requisition. (See Mobilization of horses.)

Reserve officers' horses, France 252

Riding exercises at Holies bunts, Austria-
Hungary 220,222,223

Riding-hall horses, France 2.56

Riding-school horses, Denmark 229

Riding schools :

Austria-Hungary 222

Denmark 229, 231

France 256

Germany 280

Rice as forage, China 227

Rio Grande do Sul, projected government

stud, Brazil 314

Roadster stallions, India 297

Russian mares, Turkey 341

Russian stallions, Turkey 341

Rye, forage ration, France 262

Rzeszow remount purchasing commission,

Austria-Hungary 208

St. Cyr, riding-school horses, France 256

Sale of government horses :

Austria-Hungary 219,220

France 246, 247

Germany 273, 277

Italy 307

Switzerland .._. 336,337

Sale of horses condemned :

France 246,247

Germany 273,277

Italy 307

Switzerland 337

Page.

Saumur, farriers' school, France 264

Saumur, training school for horses, France. 242
Saumur war-school horses, France. 242,254,256

Saxony, breeding establishments 283

Saxony, remount depots 271

Sepsi-Szent-Gycirgy, stallion depot, Hungary,

218,221
Serum :

Denmark. 230

France 266

Germany 280

Great Britain 288

Italy 30.5

Service of horses, langth of. (See Length of

service of horses. )
Setif, remount branch depot and stud, Al-
geria 257

Sex of army horses :

Algeria 246, 249

Denmark 229,234

France 244,249

Germany 273

Great Britain 286

Italy 304,305

Norway . 319

Russia 328

Switzerland 337

Tunis 249

Shires, imported into Argentina 313

Shoeing:

Austria-Hungary 212,219

Denmark 230

France 264,265

Germany 275,279,280

Great Britain 288-293,295,296

Italy 305,309

Norway 320

Switzerlami 338

Shoeing inspection, Great Britain 289

Shoeing instruction for soldiers, Great

Britain 291,292,295,296

Shoeing school. (See Farriers' school.)

Silladar regiments, India 285

Sind, India, horse breeding 297

Size of hoi-ses and mules :

Algeria 249

Austria-Hungary 208,209,216

Belgium 225

Brazil 314

China 227

Denmark 232

Dutch East Indies 317,318

France 244, 249

Germany 272, 273

Great Britain 286

India 298

Italy 304,307,308

Japan 311

Java 317

Manchuria 227

Mongolia 227

Netherlands 317

INDEX TO REMOUNT SYSTEMS.

375

Page.
Size of borses and mules — Continued.

Norway 319

Portugal — 323

Russia - 328

Spain 332

Sweden 333

Switzerland 337

Tunis 249

Skassa, remount depot, Sa.\ony 271

South Australia, remounts 300

Spabis, borses, Algeria 250

Spabis, remount funds, Algeria 2.50

Spanisb borses, Austria-Hungary 221

Spauisb mules purchased by Great Britain. 296
Specifications :

Algeria 249

Austria-Hungary 208,209,216

Belgium 225

Denmark 229, 232

Dutch East Indies 317,318

France 243,244,249

Germany 272, 273

Great Britain 286

Italy 304,305,307,308

Netherlands 317

Portugal 323

Russia 328

Spain 332

Sweden 333

Switzerland 336, 337

Tunis 249

Turkey 312

Specificatious, officers' borses. {See Officers'
borses, specifications.)

Stadl, stallion depot, Austria 218

Stallion depots, stallion stations, etc.:

Algeria 257, 259

Austria-Hungary 218

Bavaria 283

Denmark 229

France 256

Germany 271,281,282,283

Hungary . 218

India 297

Italy 305,306

Prussia 281, 282

Russia 325,326,327

Spain 331

Sweden 333

Switzerland 338

Tunis 257,259

Turkey 341

Wurttemberg 283

Stallion fees. (See Covering fees.)
Stallion stations. {See Stallion depots, stal-
lion stations, etc.)
Stallions:

Algeria 257,259,260

Argentina 313

Austria-Hungary 207,220,221

Bavaria 283

Stall ion.s — Continued.

Belgium 225

Chile 315

Denmark 229

East Prussia 282

France 257,260

Germany 271,281,282,283

Great Britain 297

Hungary 207,220,221

India 297,298

Italy 305, 306

Japan 311

New Zealand 301

Norway 319,320

Prussia 281, 282

Russia 325-327

Spain 331

Sweden 333

Switzerland 338

Tunis 257,259,260

Turkey 341

Wurttemberg 283

Stallions, subsidized, Sweden 333

Stallions, various breeds:

American 311,313

Anglo-Hispano-Arab 331

Anglo-Norman 313,315,331

Arab 259,

260, 261, 282, 297, 306, 313, .326, 331, 341

Arab-Barbary 259,260,261

Australian 297

Barbary 2.59,260,261

Brabant 306

Cleveland 313

Clydesdales 306,313

East-Prussian 282

English 229,

260, 282, 297, 306, 313, 325, 326, 331, 333

French 311

German 229,281,282

Gidran 220

Hackney 297, .301, 306, 319

Hungarian 220,221,311,341

Hunters 301

Nonin 220

Norfolk 297,315,331

Norwegian 319

Oldenburg 313

Orlof ^ 313,326

Percheron 313,331

Persian 311,321

Pony 297,301

Roadster 297

Russian 325-327,341

Shire 313

Suffolk Punch 313

Syrian 221

Teutonic 282

Trakehnen — 282,313

Trotter 301

Turkish 219

376

INDEX TO REMOUNT SYSTEMS.

Page.

Stamheste, Norway 319

Stationing-out of horses with private
keepers. {See Civilians' use of army
horses.)

Statistics of exports of horses. {See Exports
of horses, mules, and asses.)

Statistics of horses. {See Number of horses. )

Statistics of purchase. {See Number of
horses purchased. )

Steppe horses, Russia .SSo

Storehouses, forage, Austria-Hungary 214

Straw ration:

Algeria 262

Austria-Hungary 21i

Denmark 230

France 202, 20.3

German colonies 28-t

Germany 275, 278

Great Britain 293,201

Italy 305

Norway 320

Persia 321

Russia 329

Switzerland 338

Streletz stud, Russia 326

Studbook :

Algeria 259

Canada 299

France 259

• Spain 331

Studs :

.\lgeria 257, 201

Austria-Hungary 217,218

Bavaria 283

Brazil 314

Denmark 229

France 256, 257

German colonies 284

Germany 271,281,282,283

Great Britain 287

Hungary 218,219

India 297

Italy 305,306

.Tapan 311

Mexico 315

Persia 321

Pnissia 281

Russia 325-327

Saxony 283

Spain 331

Sweden 333

Switzerland 338

Tunis 257

Turkey . 341

Wurttemberg 283

StuhlWeissenburg stallion depot, Hungary- 218

Subaltern officers' horses :

Austria-Hungary 212

France 253

Italy 308,309

Subsidized stallions, Sweden 333

Suffolk Punch stallions, Argentina 313

Page.

Suippes depot for young horses 242, 245, 259

Suippes remount annex, Fi-ance 242, 254

Sumatra horses 318

Superior mustering board, Denmark 232

Supply of horses:

Algeria 249

Argentina ' 313

.\ustria-Hungary 207-216

Belgium 225

Brazil 314

Chile 315

China 227

Denmark 229, 230, 234

Dutch East Indies 317,318

France 243, 246, 249, 267, 268

German colonies 284

Germany 271-276,281

Great Britain 285,

286,287,298,299,300,301

India 298,299

Italy 303-306,308,309

Japan 311

Mexico 315

Netherlands 317

Norway 1 319, 320

Persia 321

Portugal 323

Russia 325,327,328,329

Spain 331,. 332

Sweden 333

Switzerland 335,330,337,339

Tunis 249

Turkey 341,342

Supply of mobilization horses. {See Mobili-
zation of horses.)
Supply of mules:

Algeria 249

Argentina 313

Austria-Hungary 209

Dutch East Indies 318

France 249

German colonies 284

India 298

Spain 331

Switzeriand 339

Tunis 249

Syrian-Arab type of horses, British colonies. 285
Syrian stallions and mares, Austria-Hun-
gary 221

Szegedin remount purchasing commission,

Austria-Hungary 208

Table of army remounts, France 239, 240

Tasmania, remounts 300

Tetanus, France 266

Teutonic breed of horses, Germany 282

Thoroughbreds for officers, France 244,255

Thoroughbreds purchased, Italy 304

Thun horse regie, Switzerlaml 335

Tiaret, breeding farms, .Mgeria 257

Tokyo remount depot, Japan 311

Tomsk depots, Russia 325

Tools for horseshoeing. Great Britain... 291,293

INDEX TO REMOUNT SYSTEMS.

377

Page.
Train lidisfs and mules:

Algeria 240

Austria-Hungary 215,217

Belgium 22G

Denmark 229, 230

Egypt 287

France 210,267

Germany :-8,2S0

Great Britain 287

India 287

Italy 304

Japan 311

Malta 287

Tunis 240

Turkey 341

Training of farriers:

Denmark 231

France 2(53, 264

Great Britain 291

Training of horses:

Austria-Hungary 220, 222, 223

Denmark 230

France 241,242

Germany 273,276,280

Great Britain 287

Italy 304

Korway 3'?9

Russia 321

Switzeriand 337,338,339

Training schools for horses:

Austria-Hungary 222

France ' 242

Norway 320

Russia 329

Trakehnen breeding stable, Prussia 281,282

Trakehnen horses, Germany 282

Trakehnen horses imported into Argentina 313
Transport horses. (See Train hoi'ses.)
Treatment of horses :

Austria-Hungary 212

Denmark 230

France 266

Germany^ 2>i3

Great Britain 287,288

Italy 305

Norway 320

Prussia 'AsZ

Troop horses used at schools, France 256

Trotter stallions .301

Tunis remount depot and stud 257

Tunis remounts 249

Turki type of horses, India 298

Turkish stallions and mares imported into

Austria-Hungary 219

United States horses exported 268,

277, 278, 284, 296, 305, 315
Unserviceable horses :

Austria-Hungary 211,215,216

Denmark 231, 234

France 249, 250, 251

Germany 273, 276, 277, 283

Unserviceable horses — Continued.

Italy 303, 304, 310

Prussia 283

Russia 329

Switzerlanil 339

Vaccination :

Austria-Hungary 212

Denmark 230

France 266

Germany 280

Great Britain 287,288

Italy 305

Norway 320

Vaccine. (See Serum.)
Vaccine institute at Aldershot, Great Brit-
ain 288

Valuation boards for mobilized horses :

Austria-Hungary 216, 217

Denmark 231

Germany 281

Versailles artillerj' school horses, France 256

Veterinary medical report of the Prussian

army 283

Veterinary service :

Germany 283

Great Britain 288,289,290,295,296

Prussia 283

Veterinary school, Great Britain 291

Victoria, remounts 300

Virus. (See Vaccination.)

War effective of horses. {See Mobilization

of horses.)
Water ration :

Algeria 262

France 262

Weight of horses :

Denmark 229

Germany 273

Great Britain 286

Italy 304

West Mongolian horses : 227

Wheat as forage, France 262

AVild horses :

Argentina 313

Russia 325

Winter shoeing, Great Britain 292

Woolwich remount depot. Great Britain 287

Wurttemberg breeding establishments 283

Wurttemberg remount depot 271,272

Wurttemberg stallion depots and stallion

stations 283

Yearly I'equirements of horses :

Algeria 239, 240

Austria-Hungary 209,210

Belgium 225

Chile 315

Denmark 230

Dutch East Indies 317, 318

Egypt 287

France 238,239,240

Germanv 273, 276

378

INDEX TO REMOUNT SYSTEMS

Page.
Yearly requirements of horses — Continued.

Great Britain 287,296

India 298

Italy 303, 309

Netherlands 317

Norway 319,320

Russia 327

South African campaign 296

Page.
Yearly requirements of horses — Continued.

Spain 332

Sweden 333

Switzerland 336, 338

Tunis 239,240

Turkey 342

Yelizavetgrad horse depot, Russia 326

Yesso horses, Japan 311

%

^

Webster Family Library of Veterinary Medicine
Cummings School of Veterinary Medicine at
Tufts University
200 Westbora Road
WnrhtoftnnJi!A015^-3

Li