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Copy a 


TEACHERS’ MANUAL 
OF 
ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE, 
NATURE STUDY, AND 
DOMESTIC SCIENCE 


PREPARED UNDER THE DIRECTION OF 


THE COLORADO TEACHERS’ ASSOCIATION _ 


GINN & COMPANY 


BOSTON - NEW YORE + CHICAGO - LONDON 


WUVY OAMVNOTOS) V NO AV(T NOTAT 


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Geseeeaananes 


sa a ne cn 


TEACHERS’ MANUAL 
OF 
ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE, 
NATURE STUDY, AND 
DOMESTIC SCIENCE 


PREPARED UNDER THE DIRECTION OF 


THE COLORADO TEACHERS’ ASSOCIATION 


GINN & COMPANY 


BOSTON - NEW YORK - CHICAGO - LONDON 


LIBRARY of GONGHESS 
— Lwo Goples Mecers) 
JUN 16 1908 | 


vepyeigis Guy 


CopyRIGHT, 1908 
By GINN & COMPANY 


ALL RIGHTS RESERVED 


78.6 


Whe Atheneum Press 


GINN & COMPANY-~ PRO- 
PRIETORS + BOSTON + U.S.A. 


CONTENTS 


ForREworpD ... . . . . . Professor F. E. Thompson . 1 
DOMS). 5. wo 2) 4 2 «» Professor T. S: Parsons « 10 
Prant Lire. . . . . . . . Professor B. O. Longyear . 28 
ScHOOL GARDENING AND IMPROV- 

ING THE SCHOOL Grounps . . Professor W. H. Hockbaum 40 
Fretp Crops .... . . . Professor W. H. Olin . . 60 
Insects AND Birps . . .) .) .) Professor S. Arthur Johnson 
Dive STOCK: & « « « =» + « -Professor W. 2. Carlyle . 98 


Domestic ScieNcE . . . . .. -Professor Mary F. Rausch . 104 


IBIBETIOGRAPHY. © « « =» © 0% « & solos « wel .e 2 118 


ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 


FOREWORD 


BY PROFESSOR F. E. THOMPSON, STATE UNIVERSITY 
OF COLORADO 


For several years there has been growing up in various 
quarters a suspicion that a part of our educational practice 
is merely ritualistic and of little use. We have had, and in 
most cases still have, great faith in our public schools, and 
now and then it is forced upon our attention that not by any 
means all those who have been through the school régime 
a lot of them 
have not even fair common sense. There is apparently not 
much more justice among our people than of old time, there 
seems to be about as much poverty, there is still much trivi- 
ality, and there seems as much political inefficiency. We 
cannot yet dispense with jails, and poorhouses, and reform 
schools, but instead are each year engaged in building more 
of these. Our land is not yet a land of people engaged dur- 


are wise, or righteous, or even competent 


ing “off hours” in reading great works, in admiring great 
pictures, in discussing masterpieces of sculpture or architec- 
ture. The slushy magazine and the villainous yellow news- 
paper are literature for most of the people; walls are still 
hung with chromos, and sculpture and architecture are often 
of the gingerbread variety. We have expected more of our 
education than it has provided. 

1 


2 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 


Does the fault he in expectations that were too large or 
in educating badly done? Probably in both. The world has 
been fed upon some very bad philosophy, and Americans 
have received their share; we have believed that any man 
could become a celebrity —have even supposed that our con- 
stitution made it possible. But constitutions can do no more 
than confer equal opportunities upon those who are equal. 
Men are never created free or equal. No two infants ever 
have equal capacities. No one is ever free from some heredi- 
tary limitation. But we have educated as if all could be 
made scholars, or all mathematicians, or all linguists, or all 
intellectual gentility. Or we have treated children as if they 
were made up of so many powers, each one of which is in 
need of only a certain amount of schooling to bring it out to 
its full perfection, when the child — a creature of developed 
powers — would be the efficient citizen demanded. So we 
drill, with much useless arithmetic, and much worse than 
useless grammar, and much unnecessary spelling and formal 
geography, and a lot more, until we drill all except the most 
docile of the children out of the schools. We have still to 
see that there are no powers except those possessed by people 
who have ideas that will work. We confer power when we 
confer ideas. 

There is a movement in education now — not a big move- 
ment yet, but one that is gaining ground — for the teaching 
of ideas, of ideas about the world, the time, the place, the 
circumstances, In which we are actually living. And these 
ideas are not to be the vague things sometimes known under 
that name, but are to be clear and definite and to be practi- 
cally always “plans of action.” The things which the vast 
majority think about are not to be merely such as are objects 
of beauty, or reverence, or adoration, but are to be things 
which can have something done to, or with, or about them. 


FOREWORD 3 


We are, and most of us always must be, a practical people — 
a people who manipulate earth and air, and fire and water, 
and their combinations and products, to the end of a living 
and some luxury. The ideas of which we stand forever in 
need are ideas along these lines. These are the ideas that 
are fundamental, indispensable, for nine tenths of all our 
people, though, of course, there is no need that they be the 
only ideas. We are not to love artistic and cultural ideas 
less, but the most of us should love practical ideas more, or at 
least first. It ought to be an axiom that the foundation of 
every man’s stock of ideas should be a group that he can, 
if necessary, turn to account in a practical, vocational way. 

Though there has been a tremendous movement to the 
cities, and though that movement is still going on, it is never- 
theless true that most of our people who honestly get a 
living, get it from the soil, and it is true that this must in 
the nature of things long continue to be so. The ideal which 
should become common among the rural population should 
be to make their land produce, through intelligent treatment, 
just as much as it will with the least expenditure upon it of 
time and labor. The farmer should not be a slave to middle- 
men, jobbers, transportation companies, or brokers, and he 
should not be a slave to his ignorance. He is often most 
pathetically the slave to this latter. He too often works 
unintelligently through long hours where intelligent effort 
rightly applied would accomplish far more in a few hours. 
The things missing from most farm equipments are clean- 
cut, practical ideas. 

But there is another side to this matter of ideas. Men do 
not live by bread alone, even though it is true that without 
bread they do not live at all. It may be safely said that, all 
in all, man is happiest who makes his own living and who 
at the same time finds the biggest part of his joy in the 


t ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 


things from which that living comes. The doctor of medi- 
cine who knows the human body and its functions so well 
that every case he undertakes is an absorbingly interesting 
contest between disease and his skill, finds the practice of 
medicine a perpetual inspiration. The teacher who /Anows 
the human mind will gladly pay for a chance to teach. The 
artist who /nows the laws of expression will sacrifice all 
things for time in which to paint. There is no occupation 
that has more of downright creation in it than has farming. 
There is no line of production where as many marvelous laws 
are in operation and codperation. The farmer who clearly 
sees the processes by which his corn, or peas, or wheat, or 
eattle come to maturity has his mind filled with more beauti- 
ful things than are the part of any other man. A little real 
introduction to the wonders in which he lives will give to 
any normal farmer’s boy lines of interest which will keep 
him growing in sanity, love of beauty, and efficiency as long 
as he lives. 

Intelligent farming —farming that is an avocation as well 
as a vocation —is almost nowhere being done. Most farmers 
have by the hit-or-miss practices either of their parents or 
themselves stumbled upon methods that serve, after a fashion, 
especially when supplemented by an enormous amount of 
work. Some day, it is to be hoped, the farmer will be prac- 
tically the superintendent of a lot of natural forces and 
processes which will prepare his crops, and, more than that, 
he will have those crops prepared in just the manner he 
wants. He will be a man with leisure for the employment 
of his powers and interests along other lines than those of 
his vocation, but he will still have many of his best powers 
employed in that occupation which gives him his support. 

It is not our expectation that this bulletin will do much 
more than intimate or at least suggest some lnes of work 


FOREWORD 5) 


that can be profitably undertaken in the country schools. 
It is not expected that it will revolutionize things—the best 
changes come through evolution. But the following outlines 
do indicate some of the more essential topics for study — 
some of the things which the intelligent, successful, happy 
farmer must know about. The ideal of those who are pre- 
senting this material is that it may become a part of the 
fabric of the minds of a host of our rural school boys and 
girls. We want minds full of these ideas. Nothing works 
in any age except ideas. The Greek world was what it was 
because of Greek ideas; the present world is what it is be- 
cause of the ideas of those now living; a better world will 
come when men have better ideas. This bulletin presents 
outlines for some of these groups of ideas. 

The worth-while teacher never teaches subjects 
teaches children; or, better, she helps children to learn. She 
must know what it is she would have them learn, what it is 
she would have them become. The materials suggested in 
the outlines are just mental foods which, under the teacher’s 
direction, each child is to work into his particular mental 
tissue. If this teacher sees clearly what her pupils should 
become, she will find most of the special methods as she 
goes along. The following ideals, the writer believes, can be 
climbed to, in part at least by the way of such materials. 

First. Each child now living in a rural community should 
be made more definitely a part of that community 
understander of its natural features and human activities, a 
sharer in its work. Each child should, for a part of his time, 
engage himself with pondering the problems of his neigh- 
borhood, —the soils, fertilizers, plants, pests, markets, ete. 
The teacher should raise the problems which the children 
themselves do not raise, and which are in the direction de- 
sired, and she should lead in the efforts at solution. And 


she 


an 


6 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 


this is as good a place as any to say that the teacher, to do 
this work successfully, need not herself know in advance a 
lot of agriculture. There is no great virtue in being an ency- 
clopedia; students are made where learners associate with 
learners —the teacher should be a learner with the rest, 
the leader and inspirer. She should take the lead in discov- 
ering what the community’s possibilities are. The particular 
community is to be differentiated from all others and its im- 
portance to the others shown, so that each child resident will 
feel himself a part of something that is significant. 

Second. The teacher will help each pupil to realize that 
in the world of agriculture he can be a real maker of things 
—a creator. She is to help him to discover that there are 
certain natural laws which work together in the growth of 
things. Then she helps him discover that he can modify and 
complicate the action of these laws upon his undertakings in 
an almost endless variety of ways and with an almost endless 
variety of results. She has now led him to the most interest- 
ing human occupation, namely, that of working in view of 
hypotheses which grow out of one’s facts. From now on he 
will not, as an agriculturist at least, be a believer in magic 
or in the influence of the moon. He will have been rescued 
from a life of making those motions his forefathers have 
made. He will now practice an art which is founded upon 
principles and will have dignity accordingly. It is this deeper 
intelligence that farmers stand in need of — not of more 
mere tricks. 

Third. The teacher will use every opportunity to the end 
of evoking in her pupils particular dispositions on their parts 
to the doing of things. The public schools fail more lamen- 
tably right here than anywhere else. Our instruction does not 
emerge in strong, definite dispositions to specific employments. 
Our pupils do not become moral, efficient, because they do 


FOREWORD 7 


not come to a focus. A man is not really a moral man until 
he is at least this — one who can specifically and well per- 
form some part of the world’s work. It may even be granted 
yet that the doing of one’s share is the biggest and best part 
of morality. It is not being urged here that our rural or any 
other elementary teachers are to teach trades; but simply 
that teachers should inspire the most, or all, of their pupils 
with desires for specific occupations. True instruction is that 
which takes most any material and through its skillful repre- 
sentation and working over makes specific individuals want 
to express themselves in particular employments. “ Where 
there is a will there is a way” is an old and faithful saying. 
Teachers should be busy producing “wills”; the boys and 
girls will find “ways” of learning trades. 

Some one may object here that we do not want to make 
all rural children into farmers. I am inclined to beheve we 
do want to do just that —at least in the beginning of their 
careers. It seems to be a commonplace of observation that 
the men who really amount to much have usually practiced 
several occupations. It is the man who early learns some 
line of work well that is most apt later on to change to some 
line in which he can exercise his largest powers. It is only 
the man who wazts to discover what he is best adapted to, 
who is never well adapted to anything. A man’s or a child’s 
first duty 1s to master the occupation he finds nearest to him. 
Even though now and then a potentially good lawyer should 
remain a farmer, no great harm would be done. It is obvi- 
ously true that the present system is making shyster lawyers 
and shyster everything else of boys who might otherwise 
have been efficient and honest farmers. Should our teachers 
work diligently for the attainment of the last aim mentioned, 
many of them would do less harm than they now do in cre- 
ating discontent with the place and opportunity at hand. 


ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 


CO 


Fourth. The teacher should have, as one of her aims, the 
helping of the child to discover the real dignity and signifi- 
eance of the farmer’s occupation. Comparisons will not be 
odious here. Let each pupil discover that few occupations 
afford so good an opportunity for the exercise of the whole 
man, that few give a man the same independence of the dom- 
ination of others, that few can be made mentally, morally, or 
physically so healthy. Let the pupil discover the age of the 
oecupation. Let him learn how many of the world’s great 
men have been and still are of the farming class. Do all 
this, and whether a boy remain a farmer or not, he will be 
one who will help to make for a better understanding among 
social and industrial classes. 

Tfth. The teacher will aim to have each pupil get in the 
way of regarding himself as an authority on at least the line 
of work,—not only an authority but an investigator and 
experimenter as well. Nothing makes a boy respect him- 
self, and strive for a fuller respect and recognition from 
others, as does the discovery that he is regarded as an 
authority. The rural schools are usually small enough to 
enable the teacher to do just this sort of individual work. 
Does anything else present so good an opportunity as does 
agriculture for the getting, by the boy, of this class of tan- 
gible results ? 

On the matter of methods a very few general principles 
may be in order. 

1. The greatest consideration in all methods which have 
to do with the learning process is that each pupil shall actu- 
ally be a participant. If this cannot be accomplished in the 
world of ideas, then there must be some sort of actual 
“doing”; if the teacher is sure of the pupil’s notions, then 
talking and reading (on some topics) is enough, but where 
there is any doubt it should be cleared up with objects. 


FOREWORD 9 


2. The mind does its work with percepts, images, concepts, 
ideas. All these are vitally related one to another. Ideas 
(clear ones), the goal of instruction, depend upon clear, vivid 
percepts, images, and concepts ; and these are made clear and 
vivid by having them, and nothing else at the same time, 
under the full focus of attention. Whatever is to be used in 
must be looked 


a mental picture — is to be part of any idea 
at singly and intently and repeatedly until fixed. Objects, 


all 


pictures, word descriptions, maps, diagrams, models, 
these must be used to the end of clear notions. 

3. Individual notions, percepts, images, concepts, must be- 
come associated into complexes which are ideas, or plans of 
action. The best of all ways to bring about these associations 
is to give pupils (and undertake with them) problems for the 
solution of which they have most of the data in the shape 
of notions, percepts, images, etc. Solving a problem means 
constructing in one’s mind what I have called an idea. The 
problem itself gives part of the data, the teacher and pupils 
discover the rest, and so each mind that really participates, 
builds an idea. 

+. The daily lesson, or the series of lessons, should be prac- 
tically a series of problems of an increasing order of com- 
plexity, the later problems employing the earlier ones and 
their data in new ways. Some of the problems should be 
worked out in actual experiments. 

5. In this (as in other content subjects) the teacher should 
be suspicious of words. She should make sure that they are 
not mere words,—that there are ideas behind them. American 
boys and girls are of too precious material to be made up 
into phonographs. 

6. Teach agriculture as you would any other subject. 
Assign a lesson, see that pupils study it at home and in 
school, and make sure, by questioning during recitation 
period, that the pupils have learned the cardinal facts. 


SOILS 


BY PROFESSOR T. S. PARSONS, PRINCIPAL DURANGO 
HIGH SCHOOL 


In the home surroundings of the pupil we can find as 
well as anywhere else the best materials for the study of the 
soil. It is as necessary for the farmer boy to know about the 
soil upon which the family living principally depends as it is 
for him to know his other school subjects. In the teaching 
of any phase of nature we should begin at home, taking the 
environment of the child. We must build upon what has 
already become a part of his life. Itis a wrong scheme of 
education which permits children to undertake the struggles 
of life entirely ignorant of the physical world with which 
they are in contact. 


SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS 


The teacher need not be an authority upon the subject of 
soils in order to teach it. If the teacher knows a few funda- 
mental principles that will make life on the farm more inter- 
esting, she can accomplish much. She will be making life 
brighter and at the same time will impart to the pupils 
knowledge of untold value which will aid them in life. 

Lead the pupils upon excursions to the fields and woods. 
Study different soils, collect examples of each kind and put 
each in a small bottle and label it, and keep these in the 
schoolroom, Perform simple experiments before the pupils, 
and teach them how to make experiments and how to 

10 


SOILS 11 


observe for themselves. The teaching they receive direct 
from nature is the best teaching. They will not weary of 
observation and experiment. The young mind can easily 
erasp the concrete but soon wearies of the abstract. 

How Farmers first learn to till the Soil. Read to pupils the 
story of Jethro Tull, — how he raised larger crops than his 
neighbors by tilling the soil better than they did. He used 
his brains as well as his hands in farming. We are finding 
out more and more that education is as useful on the farm 
as anywhere else. 

Origin of Soils. Most soils come from the breaking down 
of rocks. The different colors are due to various minerals in 
the rocks. The rocks are broken up by the action of weather- 
ing, droughts, air, moisture, etc.; also by acids formed by 
the decay of fallen leaves and dead plants. Deep-rooted 
trees and shrubs help to break up rocks by forcing their 
roots between the layers. 

The soil is distributed from place to place in various ways. 
Water carries and deposits it. Soil is formed in thin layers on 
the surfaces of rocks by the decay of the scanty vegetation 
growing there. The good soil along the river valley is that 
which has been brought down and deposited by the water. 

Plants need Soil. Nearly all plants grow in soil; even water 
plants often send their roots down to the soil. Plants that 
grow on wood and rocks are of low order. If plants are 
deprived of soil they soon die. 

Kinds of Soil. Sandy soil is composed largely of sand. The 
particles are hard and easily mixed; when moistened they 
cling together and can be molded into various shapes, but 
fall apart when dry. Sandstone is made up of particles of 
sand cemented together. Sand has many uses, such as in 
making glass, mortar, plaster, and cement. Read how the iron 
molder uses sand in making forms and patterns for castings. 


12 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 


Experiments with Sand. Scour a rusty knife with sand. 
Rub a piece of wood smooth with a piece of sandpaper. Try 
to dissolve a handful of sand in a glass of water. Does the 
water become clear when it stands for a while? Can the 
sand be easily separated from the water? Make some little 
balls and cubes of moist sand and let them dry and see what 
happens. Does sand hold water well ? 

Clay Soils. These are of various colors, — red, nearly white, 
and sometimes blue. When moist, clay can be easily molded 
into almost any shape, and when dry it does not fall apart 
like sand, but becomes very hard. When wet, it sticks to the 
boots, to the plow, and to the horses working in it. Clay is 
very useful to the artist in making models, and it is used also 
by the potter and brick maker. Adobe is a kind of clay used 
by Mexicans and others for plasterimg and making houses. 

Experiments with Clay. Make some balls and cubes from 
moist clay as you did with the sand. Do they dry out as 
quickly as the sand? Do they retain their shape better 
when dry? If possible, visit a brick kiln and observe the 
manufacture of brick. Stir up a handful of clay in a glass 
of water. Does it color the water more than the sand? Does 
it settle and allow the water to become clear as quickly as 
the sand did? Can it be separated from the water as easily 
as the sand ? 

Humus Soils. These soils are dark in color, varying from 
light brown to black. They are usually formed in woods, 
swamps, and low meadows. Humus is made by the decay 
of vegetable matter. Traces of former plants always can be 
found in humus. This soil is light and easily worked, and 
holds water readily. Loam is a mixture of sand and clay 
with humus. This is the best soil for plants. 

Experiments. Place a handful of swamp muck or leaf mold 
in an iron shovel and set it upon the burning coals in the 


SOILS 13 


stove. Notice the change that takes place and the amount 
of ashes left. Try the same experiment with sand and clay 
and watch the result in each case. Put a handful of humus 
in a glass of water and stir it up. Notice the bits of sticks 
and leaves that float on the surface. Does the water clear 
as quickly as that with either the sand or clay in it? Pot 
three geraniums, one in sand, one in clay, and one in good 
humus, and see which requires the most watering and which 
makes the best growth, and note the condition of the soil in 
the three pots from time to time. Experiments in growing 
plants in different soils can be carried on very nicely during 
the winter months. 

Drainage of the Soil. On the steepest part of a side hill 
there will be but little soil. Lower down we will find more, 
and near the bottom the soil will be very thick. Planting 
seeds in well-drained soils and wet soils will show us quickly 
which is best for crops. Water is not easily heated. A well- 
drained soil is heated by the sun’s rays much quicker than a 
wet soil. A dish of soil will heat much quicker if it is placed 
on the stove above the fire than if it is placed below or 
beside the fire. The sun is the fire that warms up the soil 
in the field, and as the heat comes from above the effect is 
small. The surplus water must be got out of the soil so that 
the air can circulate freely and thus warm up quicker in the 
spring, so the seeds can sprout. Sandy soils usually drain 
themselves and are warmer. If the clay soil is not drained, 
it will be cold and is apt to bake on the surface. 

The stickiness of clay can be overcome by the use of lime 
and humus. Shake up some sand in a glass of water and 
mix in a little finely powdered lime and notice its effect. 
Fill a deep bottle with clear water and drop a handful of soil 
into it. Stir it up and watch it settle. Notice how the 
heaviest particles settle to the bottom, the others arranging 


14 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 


themselves in layers above, according to their size. This 
shows that there is always more or less stony material in 
the soil. This stony material needs working over, and can 
be done best by tillage. Examine a little sand, clay, or loam 
under the magnifying glass. It looks like a little heap of 
stones. That is what all soil is. Thorough drainage and til- 
lage do more than anything else to improve soils. The florist 
is able to grow very large plants in small pots because the 
soil is well drained and is kept loose so that plenty of air 
gets to the roots. ; 

Improving and Renewing the Soil. If a crop is taken off the 
land every year and nothing put back, the land will soon pro- 
duce little or no crop. It is as though you had a thousand 
dollars in the bank and drew out one hundred dollars a 
month and put no more in. We see a good crop on a certain 
field because the soil is good. The market gardener grows 
large crops on small pieces of ground because he keeps the 
soil in good condition. When a piece of woods is cleared 
the first few crops are very heavy because there is so much 
humus in the soil. If we keep the soil supplied with humus, 
we can always grow a good crop. 

There are various ways of renewing the humus and plant 
food in the soil. One way is by the rotation of crops, Le. fol- 
lowing one kind of crop by another, as oats by clover, pasture 
by corn, ete. Most crops take from the soil more than they 
put in, so to keep the soil rich, crops must be grown from 
time to time that will put back the required materials. 

Weathering of the Soil. Weathering affects the soil as well 
as rocks. A stick placed in the fire becomes charred. A 
stick buried in the soil is affected in the same way, except 
that the change takes place much more slowly. Oxygen 
causes the change. Oxygen and carbon in water form carbon 
dioxide. This acts like an acid and dissolves rocks very 


SOILS 15 


rapidly, especially limestone. Vegetable soils are very easily 
crumbled between the fingers and contain but little sand or 
eravel. If a handful of such soil be shaken into a dish of 
water, it will color the water, as some of the minerals are dis- 
solved in it. In order to get the vegetable material into soluble 
form it must be worked upon by the air; but air cannot get 
at the material unless the soil is well drained, so swampy soil 
should be drained in order to let in the air. Air also sweetens 
the soil. Vegetable soils that are wet are sour or acid, and 
plants will not grow in sour soil. A little lime sprinkled over 
the surface of the soil hastens the sweetening process. 

Drainage is one of the best improvements ever made in 
agriculture. Drainage benefits the soil by deepening the top 
soil and removing the surplus water from between the soil 
particles. It benefits the subsoil and thus makes more plant 
food available. It also improves the texture of the soil and 
prevents washing. 

Tile drains are the best and the cheapest. They are lasting 
and are out of the way of the plow. The effect of drainage 
may be shown by filling two tin cans with soil and planting 
seeds in them. Punch holes in the bottom of one can and 
not in the other. Give each the same amount of water, and 
observe in which can the seeds germinate and grow the best. 

Soil and Soil Water. Water rises in the soil just as the oil 
in a lamp rises through the wick. The wick is full of little 
tubes called capillaries, and so is the soil, and the water rises 
through these. If a little kerosene or gasoline is put into a 
bottle and the bottle filled with soil, the oil will rise, and if 
lighted, will burn on the surface. When the water rises to 
the surface of the soil it evaporates. Evaporation is going on 
all the time when it is not raining. The soil soon dries out 
if something is not done to prevent it. Covering the soil with 
a light mulch prevents evaporation. Cultivating or loosening 


16 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 


the surface of the soil soon after a rain serves the same 
purpose. Cultivating breaks the small tubes, so that they are 
unable to bring the water to the surface. 

A soil that contains much humus catches and holds more 
water than one that contains little. Such soil also holds 
moisture longer in dry weather. Plenty of barnyard manure 
applied to the soil helps to retain moisture, but commercial 
fertilizers are of little aid in retaining moisture. 

Take two tall lamp chimneys and fill one with fine and 
the other with coarse soil. Set them in a dish of water so 
that the water just covers the base of the chimneys. The 
water will soon rise to the top of the fine soil, but rises in 
the coarse soil much more slowly. If there is a loose layer 
of rather coarse soil on the top, the water will rise through 
this much more slowly than through the fine soil beneath, so 
much soil water is saved. 

Fertilizing the Soil. The plant gets some food from the air 
through its green leaves. The water of the plant comes from 
the rain that falls on the ground and is taken up by the roots. 
The mineral matter in the soil that is used by the plant is 
dissolved and taken up through the roots along with the 
water. There are about a dozen kinds of food needed by the 
plant, but three of these are frequently used up and have 
to be supphed artificially. These three are nitrogen, phos- 
phorus, and potassium. Barnyard manure is applied to the 
soil because it contains these three foods, and organic matter. 
The manure also affects the texture of the soil. It supplies 
humus to the sand and makes it hold moisture and loosens up 
the clay so that it drains better. The same effects may be 
obtained by green manuring or the plowing under of green 
crops, but not so much plant food is supplied in this way. 

Fallowing also benefits the soil by allowing it to rest a 
year without growing a crop. The weeds and plants that 


SOILS 17 
come up are plowed under and the ground is harrowed from 
time to time so that the air can get through it easily; and 
then the drainage will be better, also. Fallowing puts nothing 
back into the soil, but puts the materials already there in a 
better condition to be used by the growing crops. 

Nitrification of the Soil. The making of nitrates in the soil 
is called nitrification. Nitrogen is one of the most important 
plant foods and is often lacking in soils. Try the experiment 
of dissolving an ounce of nitrate of soda in a gallon of water 
and watering some plants with the solution. Notice how 
much faster the plants grow and how much greener and _bet- 
ter they look. In order to be used by the plants the nitrates 
must be in soluble form. Humus contains nitrogen, and from 
it nitrates are made. In a good soil these minute forms of 
life are called bacteria. These are so small that they cannot 
be seen by the naked eye. Some of these little bodies grow 
upon the roots of certain plants, such as clover, alfalfa, and 
the like, forming little tubercles. In order to work well 
these small beings require warmth, air, and moisture. Other 
bacteria change organic matter into the nitrates. But these 
cannot work well in cold, damp soils, so good drainage and 
tillage help the formation of nitrates. Drainage and tillage 
put all of the plant foods in the soil in more soluble form. 

How Clover helps the Soil. The intelligent farmer knows that 
clover is valuable, not only for pasture and hay, but that it 
is good for the soil as well, because of the nitrogen supplied 
by it. If we examine the roots of a clover plant, we will see 
little swellings or knobs on the larger ones. These knobs or 
tubercles are full of interest to the educated farmer. They 
are the little laboratories where the nitrogen is being taken 
from the air and stored in the soil. 

The air is about four fifths nitrogen, but this cannot be 
used directly by the plant any more than the housewife can 


18 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 


make bread out of unground wheat. So the nitrogen must 
combine with other substances in the soil and become changed 
to nitrates before it can be used. The roots of clover and 
alfalfa penetrate far down into the soil and loosen it up more 
or less and thus aid in another way. 

Soil and Subsoil. The farmer too often does not understand 
the value of a top soil. The subsoil is the foundation of the 
top soil. As a rule, it has less available plant food and humus 
than the top soil, so every care should be taken that the top 
soil is not removed from the field. Water often carries away 
the surface soil. This is why we often find good soil at the 
foot of a hill and poor soil near the top. Notice the difference 
in texture, color, and appearance of the top soil and subsoil. 
Dig a hole in a field through the top soil down to the subsoil. 
Also try germinating seeds in the top soil and subsoil. 

The intelligent farmer plows along a slope instead of 
plowing up and down, and thus retards the loss of the top 
soil. Keeping the soil well covered with grass also prevents 
the loss of the top soil by washing. The soil on the hillside 
should not be worked during the seasons when denudations 
are likely to occur, The hilly land of the farm should be 
used for hay land or pasture instead of for cultivated crops. 

Soil needs to be packed around Seed. Plant a few beans in a 
jar of moist soil and pack the soil down around them. In 
another jar plant a few beans in the same way, only do not 
pack the soil. Set the jars in a warm place and notice how 
the seeds germinate. You will probably find that the seeds 
germinate best in the packed soil. A seed must become filled 
with water before it can germinate, and since those seeds in 
the packed soil receive more moisture they germinate quicker. 
So we learn by packing the soil in a seed bed that we can 
cause seeds to germinate more quickly. This is why the good 
farmer often goes over his field with a roller after he has 


SOILS 1 


sown his grain. A much better lawn will result if the soil 
is packed after the grass seed is sown. 

Packing the soil also aids capillarity. The surface of the 
soil tends to dry out, and if seeds do not receive moisture 
at once in dry weather they will not germinate. Packing 
the soil brings moisture in close contact with the seeds and 
starts germination. Small seeds should be scattered over the 
ground or covered very lightly and then a board laid down 
and stepped on. This should be done over the whole bed in 
order to insure the germination of the seeds. 

Relation of the Soil to Plants. Soil and plants have several 
important relations to each other. The soil holds the plant in 
place, supplies the plant food, acts as a reservoir for moisture, 
and serves as a storehouse for apphed plant food or fertilizer. 
Some soils can act in all these capacities, while others can do 
so in one or two only. Early in the study of soils the teacher 
should take the pupils on excursions into the woods and 
fields where the different soils and their effects on plants can 
be studied at first hand. 

The woods give us an example of a good soil. By digging 
here we can study all the different layers down to the sub- 
soil. In the worn-out field we see just the opposite. Here 
nature’s lesson has been disregarded. Everything has been 
taken from the soil and nothing put back. The plant food 
has been used up, the drainage canals have been closed by 
the tramping of horses’ feet. After the last crop was removed 
the land was left exposed to the winter rains and snows, which 
wash out much of the plant food, and after a few years of 
this treatment the field loses its fertility entirely. 

Roots serve as holdfasts for the plant. They have also 
another important office: they get the food and moisture 
from the soil. Most trees have a very large root system in 
comparison to the spread of the tree. If we examine a large 


20) ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 


forest tree that has been blown over by the wind, we shall see 
a large mass of soil pulled up by the many roots. 

How the Forests help the Soil. The trees of the forest put 
more humus in the soil than any class of plants. The forest 
takes but little from the soil, but puts much into it. Every 
year the forest gives to the soil all the leaves grown during 
the season, and many limbs and branches that have died 
for the want of hght. Many roots also die down in the ground. 
The leaves and twigs remain on the ground, and, as the 
eround is moist, decay goes on rapidly. This process goes on 
from year to year, and soon there is a thick blanket of vege- 
table matter all over the soil. The best soil for flowerpots 
and window boxes can be obtained in the forest because this 
soil is full of humus and holds water like a sponge, and there- 
fore does not dry out quickly. 

Warmth is Necessary for Plant Growth. If seeds are planted 
too early in the spring, before the soil is warm, they will not 
germinate, even though there is plenty of air and moisture. 
They must have warmth. Soil is slow to warm up in the 
spring because there is usually much moisture in it then and 
the sun’s rays only come from above. Good drainage helps 
the soil to warm up. 

The atmosphere is affected by temperature more easily than 
the soil. The warm spring rains bring some warmth into the 
soil. In the summer the soil becomes very warm and does 
not cool off as quickly as the air above it. The summer rains 
are cooler than the soil, and in passing through it they take 
up some of the heat. The color of the soil has much to do 
with the temperature. A dark colored soil is warmer than 
a light colored one. With a thermometer some interesting 
experiments can be made in determining the effect of color 
and moisture upon the temperature of the soil. 

What Plowing does for the Soil. When the land is plowed 


SOILS 21 


deep and the subsoil loosened, the farmer is sure of a good 
crop, other things being present. Land that is plowed to a 
depth of three or four inches cannot produce much. There 
is barely enough soil to cover the seed, and the little soil 
there is, is in danger of being washed away by the heavy 
rains. When the land is plowed to a depth of eight or nine 
inches, and the subsoil loose and open, the air and water can 
penetrate the soil and do their work. If we examine a hard 
road, a meadow, and a well-plowed field, immediately after a 
rain, we shall see why the field ought to be plowed. We find 
that the plowed field absorbs a much greater amount of water, 
and much less of the rainfall runs off. The best time to plow 
is when the soil is dry on the surface and moist just below. 
In plowing care should be taken that every particle of surface 
is turned under. 

The Story of the Buried Treasure. There is a story of an old 
man who had three sons. When the time came for him to 
die, he called his three sons to his bedside and told them that 
there was a treasure buried in the field at the back of the 
house. As soon as the father was buried the three sons began 
to dig the field with spade, shovel, and pick. They left no 
corner of the field unturned, but they found no gold. 

They were about to give up the search, when one of the 
sons said, “ Let us not waste all this hard labor; let us sow 
the field to grain.” So they planted the field, and such a 
harvest was produced as they had never seen. Then the one 
who had proposed the planting said, “ Perhaps this is the 
treasure that our father meant was buried in the ground.” 

The story teaches that the soil must be tilled thoroughly 
and carefully if we would get a good crop. If the soil is well 
cared for, it will repay for all the work done upon it. The 
man who takes all he can get from the soil and never 
puts anything back is in one sense a robber. He is taking 


22 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 


something all the time and never giving anything in return. 
The farmer is dependent upon the soil for much of his living, 
and it is but fair that he should give something in return. 

It is very necessary that the roots of the plants have com- 
fortable homes in the soil. If a farmer has been plowing only 
four inches deep, he should plow an inch deeper each year. 
This gradual deepening will be good for the soil, and if proper 
cultivation and rotation of crops are carried on, the ground 
will become more fertile each succeeding year. If the seed 
bed be well prepared and the air adinitted freely, paying crops 
will always be the rule. 


PLANT LIFE 


BY PROFESSOR B. O. LONGYEAR, STATE AGRICULTURAL 
COLLEGE, FT. COLLINS 


Apparatus. Pocket lens or dissecting stand, flowerpots or 
wooden boxes three to six inches deep, saucers or plates, 
trowel, spade, collecting box or vasculum. A market basket 
and a yard of table oilcloth. Any receptacle in which plants 
can be kept without wilting for a few hours may be used in- 
stead of the vasculum. If plants put into the box are sprin- 
kled with water, they will remain fresh much longer, but are 
in danger of molding if left for more than a day. 

A plant press, preferably made of narrow, thin wooden 
strips placed about one half inch apart and held by three 
cross pieces to which they are nailed. The ends of the cross 
pieces should project about one inch on either side of the 
press. The press should be in two parts and a little larger 
than the drying sheets, or about thirteen by eighteen inches. 
Sheets of carpet about twelve by seventeen inches for drying 
plants. Old newspapers may be cut the same length and twice 
as wide as the driers, and when folded are to hold the plants 
while being dried and when the driers are being changed. 

Heavy white paper for mounting specimens of pressed 
plants. The standard size is about eleven and one half by 
sixteen inches. Smaller sheets may be used for the school 
herbarium. 

Sheets of heavy manila paper, a little more than twice the 
size of the mounting sheets, are folded crosswise and form 
covers for the sheets of mounted specimens. 


9 
23 


24 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 


AUTUMN STUDY WITH PLANTS — THE COTTONWOOD 


Study the cottonwood trees of the neighborhood. In what 
situations do they grow as regards altitude, kind of soil, rela- 
tion to water and alkali? Determine from these observations 
the most favorable situations for the cottonwood. 

In the same relations study the conditions best suited to 
the following field and garden plants: wheat, oats, alfalfa, 
sugar beets, potatoes, peas, beans, asparagus. Note especially 
the behavior of each in fields where alkali is present, and 
determine the relative ability of each to withstand it. Grow 
seedlings of corn, beet, pea, bean, sunflower, and wheat of two 
or more varieties in flowerpots. When well started, water them 
with solutions of common salt of one, three, five, eight, ten 
per cent strengths. Make the ten-per-cent solution first by 
weight. Make the weaker solutions by diluting this with 
the proper measures of water. Keep a record of the effects 
and the different strengths required to kill the plants. 

Study the leaves of the cottonwoods. 


Stipules: are these present or have they fallen 
ott and left scars ? 
Parts of the | Petiole: length, shape in cross section near each 
cottonwood leat end and in the middle, structure as seen under 
hand lens. 


Blade : midrib, veins, veinlets, apex, base, margin. 


Are two leaves on the same branch or tree just alike in 
every way? Are two leaves ever just alike ? 

Study the leaves of the cottonwood while on the tree. 
What positions do they take on the same branch? Does the 
light seem to have anything to do with them? Note the 
motion of the leaves. Are they ever quiet? How is it that 
the cottonwood leaves are so restless ? 


PLANT LIFE 20 


Experiment with other kinds of plants, eg. bean, pea, 
sugar beet, alfalfa, apple, plum, or cherry. In the case of 
root crops, as the best, the root with its crown of leaves, of a 
young plant, may be used as there are no twigs. Do some 
plants seem to require more water than others? In determin- 
ing this it will be necessary to compute the total leaf surface 
of each specimen used. 

Do the leaves on some cottonwood trees differ much in 
shape, size, length of petiole, and in other ways from those 
on others? Most of our common species of cottonwoods can 
be recognized by their leaves. How many species are there 
in the neighborhood, and what are they? Draw outlines of 
several leaves of each species to show their variations, or 
press them and mount on heavy paper or cardboard. 

Try removing the leaves from an alfalfa plant or a half- 
grown sugar beet as fast as they grow out. What is the 
effect on the later leaves as they appear, and how long does 
the plant survive this treatment ? Grow several seedlings of 
corn, bean, or pea in pots. Keep one pot in complete dark- 
ness by setting it in a tight box blackened inside to keep out 
all light. Note the effects of absence of light on the color of 
leaves and the vigor of the plant. This will indicate what 
shading does in influencing plant growth. After growing the 
plant in this manner for a time, cut a small hole in one 
side of the box. How does the plant behave toward the 
light that enters? How do plants grow in a window as 
compared with those which grow in the open where leght 
comes from both sides ? 

The Work of the Leaf. By the following simple experiment 
show that leaves give off water, Cut a short twig bearing 
several leaves from a cottonwood tree or from a house gera- 
nium. Make a smooth hole through the cork of a narrow bot- 
tle or vial. Carefully insert the twig in this hole so that the 


26 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 


eut end will extend one or two inches into the bottle when the 
stopper is replaced. The twig should fit quite snugly, but, if 
air-tight, a narrow groove must be cut lengthwise along one 
side of the cork to allow air to enter the bottle. Fill the bot- 
tle to the top with water and replace the cork containing the 
twig. After a definite number of hours note how much water 
has been taken out of the vial and mark the place on a strip 
of paper pasted on the bottle. Remove all the leaves from 
the twig, refill the bottle with water, and insert the cork 
as before. At the end of the same period as before, note 
how much water has been used and compare the two re- 
sults. It is evident that this experiment will indicate 
roughly the amount of water which must have been given 
off by the leaves. 

Explain as simply as possible the work of the leaf in the 
manufacture of starch under the influence of sunlight. The 
starch thus formed is used by the growing parts of the plants 
or stored in some part for future use. Starvation of a plant 
may be accomplished by removing its leaves during the 
erowing season, as often as any new ones grow out. The 
killing of such weeds as wild morning-glory, Canada thistle, 
and poverty weed may be accomplished in this way. As long 
as the plants are allowed to have any leaves above ground, 
however, they are able to manufacture enough starch to keep 
the underground parts alive. 

Compare leaves of the following plants with those of the 
cottonwood and with each other: geranium, box elder or ash, 
woodbine, alfalfa, garden pea, clematis, yucca, a grass, prickly 
lettuce, Russian thistle, spruce, pine, and cedar. Note the 
following points: 

1. Are some of the parts found in the cottonwood leaf 
wanting in the others ? 

2. Arrangement of the leaves on the stem. 


PLANT LIFE 27 


3. Position of blade and length of petiole in relation to 
light. Examine after dark. Do any of the leaves assume a 
sleeping position at night ? 

4. The functions of the leaf or its part. 

5. The veining of the blade: whether in the form of a 
network (netted veined) or of parallel fibers (parallel veined) ; 
whether the largest veins grow out along the sides of the 
midrib (pinnate), or branch out in several directions from the 
base of the blade (palmate). 

6. The division of the blade: whether all in one piece 
(simple), or in several pieces or leaflets Jomed to a common 
stalk or petiole (compound). 

7. What plants have no true leaves? (Most cacti. The 
prickly pears have very small leaves at first on the new joints.) 

Autumn Colors. Note the autumn colors in leaves of differ- 
ent plants. Does the situation of the tree or other plant 
seem to affect the earliness of coloring? Autumn coloring 
may be taken as indicating the ripening or maturing of the 
leaves. Do the different species of cottonwoods differ in 
earliness of coloring?) How does frost seem to affect this 
process? Do the leaves ever freeze to death before the 
autumn coloring appears ? 

Seed Dispersal. What benefits come to the plants from the 
dispersal of their seeds? Study the various means of seed 
dispersal as shown by the following: 

1. Dispersed by wind: milkweed, dandelion, wild lettuce, 
clematis, box elder, ash, mountain mahogany, pine and spruce, 
Russian thistle, and other tumbleweeds. 

2. Dispersed by water: giant and false ragweed, dock, clot- 
bur, many grasses and other plants growing along ditches 
and streams. Remove the wings, hairs, and other parts from 
a number of such seeds and place the naked seeds in water. 
Do they float ? Is there any benefit from the fact ? 


28 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 


Dispersed by animals: fruits and seeds furnished with 
hocks, barbed spines, prickles or hairs, such as_ stick-seed, 
clotbur, sandbur, stick-tight, porcupine grass; fleshy or pulpy 
fruits that contain hard or bony seed, such as chokecherry, 
hawthorn, Virginia creeper or woodbine, raspberry and cur- 
rant, poison ivy. These are largely eaten by birds and scat- 
tered in that manner. 

Farm seeds form a@ common means through which seeds of 
many plants are scattered. In this way many of our worst 
weeds have been brought from Europe and other countries 
and sown on our farms. Samples of farm seeds may be ex- 
amined for weed seeds that may be present. 

A few plants, such as the sweet pea, wild geranium, and 
violet, shoot their seeds when ripe, usually by means of the 
sudden twisting or springing of some part holding the seeds 
when drying. The catapult fruits — skullcap, sage, wild 
bergamot —are usually sprung or operated by animals movy- 
ing about among them, and by the movement of the plants 
in wind, while certain low, spreading plants reach far out 
along the ground and drop their seeds on new soil, as shown 
by the knoterass and purslain common in gardens. 

Collections of seeds and seed pods illustrating the differ- 
ent modes of seed dispersal may be made and mounted on 
cardboard. A brief description of how the process of dis- 
persal takes place should be written on the card with the 
specimen, together with simple drawings which the pupils 
can make. 


PREPARATION FOR WINTER 


Plants get ready for winter in several ways, of which the 
folowing may be studied as among the most common. 

1. Fall of Leaves. With a sharp knife cut lengthwise sec- 
tions through cottonwood twigs so as to pass through the 


PLANT LIFE 29 


base of a leafstalk. Under a lens note the line where the 
leaf will separate from the twig. This is called the separat- 
ing layer, and when full formed causes the leaf to drop off 
easily. In what way does a sharp frost affect the fall of 
leaves? The shedding of their leaves enables many perennial 
plants to reduce their surface and thus largely avoid the 
severe drying effects of winter. 

Study the fall of leaves in the woodbine, ash, box elder, 
and other trees and shrubs. 

What plants do not drop their leaves? Do such leaves 
become highly colored in autumn? What plants hold their 
leaves all winter? When do such plants drop their leaves / 

What becomes of the leaves after the plants are through 
with them ? 

2. Seeds form a means by which annual plants get through 
the winter. 

Plant seeds of wild sunflower as soon as ripe; also others 
a year or two old. Which germinate? What advantage is 
this to the plant ? 

Try the same experiment with other seeds that ripen in 
late summer and autumn, using some wild and some culti- 
vated plants. Do any of them germinate? Is the fact of 
special use to the different plants, and in what ways ? 

Examine and compare seeds of pea, bean, pumpkin, sun- 
flower, corn, buckwheat, pinon pine, sugar beet, and others 
before and after they have been soaked several hours in 
water. Look for the scar or hilum, and the micropyle or little 
opening through the seed coat. The micropyle is often invisi- 
ble even under the lens, but it is usually near the hilum. Its 
location is most readily and surely determined by the fact that 
the tip of the caulicle, the little stem of the embryo, les close 
to the micropyle within the seed coats. Draw seeds of each 
species to show their shapes, scars, and other markings. 


30 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 


After removal of the seed coats or other coverings care- 
fully examine the structure of the soaked seeds. 

The little plant or embryo consists of: 

a. Caulicle, a little stem. 

b. Cotyledons or seed leaves. These vary in number, shape, 
size, and thickness in different plants. In the corn there is 
one (monocotyledonous); in the pea, bean, and others, two 
(dicotyledonous); while in the pines there are several (poly- 
cotyledonous). 

e. Plumule, the little bud from which the shoot is to arise. 
The plumule is often too small to be seen readily. 

Make drawings of the various embryos studied and name 
the parts. 

In some seeds the embryo completely fills the seed coats, 
eg. pea, bean, pumpkin, and sunflower. The cotyledons in 
such cases are rather large and thick and contain a supply of 
food material in the form of oily, starchy, or albuminous 
matter. Starch is readily detected by applying a very little 
tincture of iodine to the cut surface of the soaked cotyledons, 
when a bluish or purplish color will develop, becoming 
blackish if much starch is present. If albuminous matter 
alone is present, the color produced is yellow or brownish 
yellow. If starch is also present, a greenish color is often 
noticeable. Oily matter will give a greasy appearance if a 
seed containing it is crushed on paper. Seeds like the corn 
and buckwheat contain a quantity of starchy matter (endo- 
sperm) in which the embrvo is imbedded. 

Thus a seed consists of a little plant supplied with a small 
store of plant food and ineclosed within a coat or shell. 

Fleshy Roots. Roots of beet, turnip, carrot, and dandelion 
contain a store of plant food and possess a crown with buds 
which are capable of starting into growth the next season. 
Place a sugar beet, turnip, or carrot root in the top of a glass 


PLANT LIFE 51 


jar containing water. The lower end only of the root should 
be in the water, which should be changed occasionally. Note 
the origin of the new growth showing where buds are located. 
The sugar in the roots furnishes mainly the material for the 
new growth. 

Leaf Rosettes. Shepherd’s purse, mullein, dandelion, and 
some primroses possess a circle of leaves which lie flat on 
the surface of the ground and are thus able to avoid to some 
extent the severe cold, especially when they are covered with 


AN Irrigation Ditcn 


snow. They usually possess a strong taproot supphed with 
a store of plant food, and are thereby able to start into vigor- 
ous growth early the next season. 

Underground Stems. (rolden-rod, wild aster, milkweed, blue 
stem and blue grass, and many others have underground 
stems which remain alive, although the parts above ground 
are killed in winter. In spring these send up new shoots 
from the buds. Tubers, ike those of the potato, are very 
thick underground stems well stocked with starch. Bulbs 
are very short stems with fleshy scalelike or enwrapped leaf 
bases attached to them, as in the lly, onion, mariposa lily, 
hyacinth, and tulip. Plant tubers of potato whole. From 


52 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 


others cut pieces containing one eye, two eyes, and others 
without an eye. Plant in moist sand or sawdust and note 
from time to time the origin of the shoots that arise. Where 
do the roots start from? Do the pieces without an eye grow ? 
Do these facts have a bearing on the growing of potatoes ? 
Place hyacinth bulbs in the top of a jar or wide-necked bottle 
of water so that the base of the bulb just touches the water. 
Keep in a dark, warm closet or basement until roots have 
formed. Blossoms may come out in time from the terminal 
bud among the leaves. 

Study branches of cottonwood in winter condition and 
interpret the various scars and marks to be found on them, 
according to the following classification. 

a. Leaf scars, just below a bud. 

b. Bud-scale scars, showing where the terminal bud stood 
the year before. 

e. Lenticels (minute dots or swellings under the outer bark). 

d. Flower-bud scars. These often occur on all but the 
last season’s growth of branches from large trees. They 
stand just over a leaf sear and mark the position of the 
flower buds. 

e. Branch scars formed by the dropping of twigs and 
branches that have become crowded or starved and are of no 
further use to the tree. Many of these discarded branchlets 
may be found in autumn and spring lying on the ground 
beneath a large cottonwood tree. 

Other scars, due to hail, insects, or other injuries, may occur 
on the branches. 

Buds. Study the position, size, shape, and other charac- 
teristics of the buds on the different species of cottonwoods 
of the neighborhood. 

There are several kinds of buds: termina/, at the end of 
a twie; lateral, on the sides of a twig; flower, those which 


PLANT LIFE 33 


contain a flower cluster; branch, those which contain a leafy 
branch ; dormant. All buds on the cottonwood are dormant 
during one winter. Some of the very small ones at the lower 
part of the season’s growth are usually latent, that is, remain 
dormant for several or many years. 

Compare twigs and branches of box elder, ash, maple, apple, 
cherry, or plum, and other trees and shrubs to be obtained. 
Learn to read the history of a branch; of a fruit spur of the 
apple, cherry, or plum. 

Bark. Study the bark characters of the trees of the region 
until the species can be recognized in winter as far as pos- 
sible by this means. Small slabs, six by six inches, show- 
ing the bark on the trunks, may be mounted on thin boards 
or heavy pasteboard together with six-inch lengths of smaller 
branches which show the various characters of the bark. 

Wood. Study in cross sections the stem of a sunflower 
plant and note the arrangement of the three parts, — bark, 
wood, pith. Compare with a section of cottonwood or other 
tree branch. The sunflower stem has only one ring of wood 
and a thin bark with no corky outer layer. The cottonwood 
has as many concentric rings of wood as the branch is years 
old, and the outer bark becomes thickened with a corky layer. 
What causes this outer layer to crack into ridges on old 
stems? Compare the part of the annual layer which is 
formed in spring with that produced later in the season. 

The cambium layer, which hes between bark and wood, is 
the region of growth in such stems. Does the bark peel off 
easily in winter ? 

Compare the structure of the stem of Indian corn with that 
of the above stems. (The stem is here covered with a dense 
outer layer, the rind, which does not separate readily from 
the stem. The wood is represented by the threadlike strands 
which run lengthwise through the pith.) What is the character 


Bes ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 


of the leaf of the corn as compared with that of the cotton- 
wood? Draw diagrams showing the structure of the three 
stems above mentioned. 


SPRING STUDY WITH PLANTS 


With the approach of spring comes the season of renewed 
activity in the living things of nature. Much of the winter's 
work has been done in the class room, but as plant growth 
begins out of doors the interest may be gradually transferred 
again to the outside world. 

Seed Germination. Plant seeds of pea, bean, squash or 
pumpkin, corn, buckwheat or castor bean, and box elder in 
boxes of sand or sandy soil, and study their behavior during 
germination. Note how the different parts of the embryo be- 
have and how they get out of the seed coats. What part first 
appears above ground? Examine at different stages of sprout- 
ing and make drawings and notes of each. Plant seeds at 
different depths and note their behavior in germination. 

Gather a little soil from a garden, ditch bank, open prairie, 
and mountain side, and place in dishes for germination of any 
seeds that may be present. Note the number of kinds that 
appear; also what kinds, so far as possible. 

Note how the various plants begin to grow. Study the 
unfolding of leaves in trees and shrubs and other hardy 
plants. Observe which buds are the first to open; also if the 
plants of the same kind differ in the time of leafing out. 

Examine opening leaf buds of different species of cotton- 
woods, cutting the buds crosswise with a sharp knife. Note 
how the leaves are rolled or folded within the shell of bud 
scales. Notice the color and odor of the balsam with which 
all parts are coated. What differences are discoverable in the 
buds of the different species? Draw enlarged diagrams of 
cross sections of the opening buds. 


PLANT LIFE 35 


Watch for the earliest flowers. What is the character of 
the plants that bloom earliest, and how is it that they are 
able to appear so early ? What relation does the appearance of 
flowers bear to that of leaves? Make cuttings from six inches 
to one foot long from the last year’s growth of willow and 
cottonwood. Insert the lower end in moist sand in pots, kept 
in a moderately warm place. Plant others out of doors in a 
moist soil. Examine at intervals of a few days to note the 
process of rooting. Make cuttings from geraniums and other 
house plants and insert them in clean sand in the bottom of 
a box covered with a pane of glass. Keep in a warm place 
until roots form, Examine from time to time to follow the 
process. 

When the leaves are coming out note how the bark of 
cottonwood, willow, and other shrubs ships off readily. This 
is due to the softening of the cambium layer as growth 
begins. This is the time to make willow whistles, also to 
do grafting on the apple and pear. Study grafting as done in 
the orchard at this time. Budding consists of inserting a bud, 
and a bit of the bark to which it is fastened, under the bark 
of another tree of the same or closely related kind. It is per- 
formed in midsummer or early fall, and is adapted to the 
cherry, peach, plum, and apple. 

Watch the blooming of the cottonwoods. Do all of them 
bear the same kind of flowers? Gather branches bearing 
opening flower clusters (catkins) and place in vases or jars 
of water in the schoolroom where they can be watched. The 
flowers of the cottonwoods are as simple in structure as any 
to be found. On one tree each little flower may consist of a 
tiny bunch of purple stamens fastened to a small stalked disk, 
each disk in the cluster or catkin coming out from under a 
fringed seale. With the lens note the structure of the stamens. 
Each consists of a threadlike stalk, the filament, which bears 


36 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 


a four-celled pod, the anther. The anther soon opens and 
discharges a yellow powder, the pollen. 

Tie or closely pin several small paper sacks over the ends 
of twigs of a pistillate-flowered cottonwood so as to inclose 
several catkins in each sack. This must be done just as the 
catkins are coming out of the buds which contain them, and 
before the pollen from other trees has touched them. When 
the trees are in full bloom remove part of the paper sacks, 
bring a branch from a staminate flowered tree of the same 
species, and shake some of the pollen powder upon the pistil 
flowers. Replace the sacks and leave them on until the trees 
are entirely through blooming, or for several weeks. 

When the cottonwood is nearly ready to shed cotton, untie 
the sacks and compare those twigs that were covered all the 
time with the others. What do you conclude to be the office 
of the pollen ? 

On another tree each little flower may consist of a small 
ege-shaped body fastened to a stalked disk, while from its 
apex three earlike objects grow out. This whole thing con- 
sists of the pistil, the egg-shaped part being the ovary and 
the earlike objects the stigmas. Carefully open the ovary 
and with the lens note the tiny seedlike objects, orwles, that 
grow inside. Make enlarged drawings of each flower and its 
parts. Study in like manner the flowers of other trees and 
shrubs of the region. ; 

As they come on examine the structure of the flowers of 
some of the following plants: wild onion, sand lily, mariposa 
lily, pasque flower or anemone, loco, beardtongue, cucumber, 
squash or pumpkin, cherry or plum, apple, corn, oat, wheat, or 
barley. In most of these the stamens and pistils are together 
in the same flower and are inclosed in the bud by some more 
or less showy parts, the floral envelopes. Where these are 
in two sets, the outer is the calyx, the inner the corolla. 


PLANT LIFE 37 


Floral diagrams showing the positions of the parts in the 
flower bud may be drawn by the oldest pupils. 

Pollination of Flowers. This may be taken up by the older 
pupils, to some extent, in connection with their study of floral 
structure. The various agents by which pollen is carried 
from stamens to stigma in the same flower (close or self-pol- 
lination) or from stamens of one flower to stigmas of another 
flower of the same species of plant (cross pollination) should 
be noted. How is the structure of the flower and the arrange- 
ment of its parts adapted to each agent? In the case of the 
cottonwood the separation of the flowers, each kind being on 
separate trees, necessitates cross pollination, the wind being 
the agent. Indian corn has the staminate flowers in the tas- 
sel at the top of the plant, while the pistillate flowers are on 
the ear. What part does the silk represent ? How is pollina- 
tion effected ? 


COLLECTED PLANTS FOR SPECIMENS 


A collection of the commonest plants of the neighborhood 
may be made during spring and autumn months of the school 
year. Some pupils may be interested enough to carry this 
work through the summer vacation. 

If not too large, the whole plant should be taken — root, 
stem, and leaf. In large plants twigs or small branches must 
do. Strive to get as many different stages of bloom as pos- 
sible on one specimen. It is often necessary to collect speci- 
mens from the same plants, at different times in the season, 
in order to get flowers, leaves, and fruit. Such plants as grow 
trom small bulbs, tubers, or rootstocks should be carefully 
dug up so as to get all or part of the underground portions. 

The specimens should not be allowed to wilt before being 
put into the drying press. To press the plants, lay a drying 


38 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 


sheet on one part of the press, and on this place a sheet of old 
newspaper or other thin paper, on which carefully spread the 
plant. Some parts may need breaking or cutting off, others 
ean be doubled back to make them come between the driers. 
On top of this place another drier and another sheet of thin 
paper with a specimen on top. Continue this until the plants 
are all used or until the pile is not more than six inches high. 
On top of all place another drier and the upper half of the 
press. Twenty or thirty pounds of weights may now be 
placed on top of the press; or, preferably, a strong, heavy 
cord may be wound about the projecting ends of the cross 
pieces of the press in such a way as to draw the top and 
bottom parts together, 

The driers should be replaced with dry ones once a day for 
several days, or until the plants feel dry to the touch. The 
first time this is done the leaves and other parts that are 
crumpled may be straightened out. The process of drying 
may be hastened by keeping the press in the sun or near the 
heat of a stove. A record of the date, the locality, and the 
character of the soil should be ‘kept for each plant, together 
with the name of the collector. As far as possible the plants 
should be identitied soon after they are collected, as they are 
most easily studied then. Good dried specimens, however, 
can be quite readily identified by a botanist at any time by 
softening a flower or other part in hot water. 

Specimens of fleshy fruits, when nearly full grown, may 
be gathered and preserved in a four-per-cent solution, in water, 
of commercial formalin or formaldehyde. Large-mouthed bot- 
tles or fruit jars are suitable for holding such material. 
Flowers of many kinds may also be kept well, so far as 
structure is concerned, in this way. The specimens should 
be soaked in water for half an hour or more before being 
used for study. 


€ 


PLANT LIFE 39 


In this way flower buds, flowers, young fruit, and nearly 
mature fruits of such plants as cherry or plum, apple, straw- 
berry, raspberry, and others may be kept ready for use, and 
the teacher will thus be able to show their various stages of 
development without waiting for the season to bring them 


around. 


SCHOOL GARDENING AND IMPROVING THE 
SCHOOL GROUNDS 


BY PROFESSOR H. W. HOCHBAUM, COLORADO STATE 
NORMAL SCHOOL 


Introduction. The effect of beautiful rural school and home 
grounds is a great one, making the country child content with 
the country, stimulating the love for nature and the beauti- 
ful, and making for better culture, better ideals, better homes, 
better farms, and better, broader, fuller, and richer lives. 

The indifference of farmers as a class to the appearance of 
rural school grounds is the one great factor that accounts 
for our bleak, bare, cheerless, rural school grounds the coun- 
try over. Generally the poorest piece of land in the district 
is chosen as a site for the schoolhouse. Good farmers, who 
give their every care and attention to the welfare of their eattle, 
are careless and neglectful of the place where their children 
vo to school. School grounds without trees, grass, or flowers, 
usually untidy and ill kept, are not the best environment for 
the impressionable child. Beautiful school grounds are great 
educators, and their influence should be recognized. 

This should inspire every teacher to work for the better- 
ment of every school. She, more than the parents or her 
pupils, is responsible for the present conditions. She will 
have to start this improvement work, for she is the leader. 
To be sure, she may lack training and experience in such 
work, but given enthusiasm and perseverance, much can be 
done, even under the most unfavorable conditions. Enthusiasm 
and perseverance are more important than mere knowledge 

40 


IMPROVING THE SCHOOL GROUNDS 41 


of garden handicraft, for there are prejudices to overcome, 
as it is more than likely that the people of the particular rural 
community will resent the introduction of a “fad.” To over- 
come this the teacher will have to talk gardening at every 
opportunity. She will have to work for some immediate im- 
provement of the school grounds, and thus show her earnest- 
ness in the cause. This immediate improvement, secured 
with the aid of the children, who will clean litter, rubbish, 
and trash from the grounds, and perhaps repair fences and 
buildings, will win other helpers from the community. After 
this “sprucing up,” the further improvement, that is, the 
planting, may be planned. 

The handicaps to improvement work in this state may 
seem great. Many schoolhouses are located in non-irrigated 
districts, some may not even have wells on the premises. 
Others, again, are in high-altitude districts, where the season 
is short and the winters especially severe. Yet these handi- 
caps should not deter the teacher from attempting some 
improvement work. The greater will be your glory if success 
is yours. There are comparatively many species of shrubs, 
trees, and flowers, both native and introduced, that will suc- 
ceed even under the most adverse conditions. Only make 
the attempt to improve and you will be surprised to see how 
richly your efforts will be repaid. 

Cleaning up the School Grounds. The first step in the improve- 
ment of the school-ground area should be a cleaning-up process. 
This must, of course, be accomplished by some development 
of local pride. Get the pride of your pupils so aroused that 
they will help clean up the grounds and keep them in good 
condition. Try to have more attractive grounds than the 
“Cottonwood Draw School,’ your nearest neighbor. Insti- 
tute a cleaning-up campaign. Adopt “Clear up and Clean 
up” as your motto. Have one wood pile in some convenient 


42 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 


place instead of several scattered all over the area. Repair 
the broken fences and gates. Rake up and burn all rubbish. 
Clear stones from the land. Cut down all weeds and burn 
them. Cut off small inequalities of surface and fill up all 
holes, so as to have a fairly level surface. Clean up around 
the corral and horse sheds, and keep clean. Perhaps you will 
need some new hitching posts or other renewals and repairs. 
Clear the weeds from the roadsides. 

Planning the School Grounds. In considering the planting of 
the school grounds a plan is essential. Without some plan, 
however simple, one cannot come to a finished, beautiful, 


MakinG a ScHoo, Garpen 


coherent composition. Such a plan should concern itself with 
the general arrangement of the area, considering walks, play- 
ground areas, gardens, and plantings. These are the funda- 
mentals and we should consider them before worrying about 
the details. As the builder first considers size and general 


IMPROVING THE SCHOOL GROUNDS 45 


arrangement in planning a house, before concerning himself 
with the color of the paint, so must we in planning the 
school grounds consider, first, general arrangement, before 
worrying about the proper depth to plant sweet peas, or 
what kinds of morning-glories we are going to plant. 

We consider first, then, the general arrangement of the 
grounds with reference to the buildings. The schoolhouse 
is to be the center of the picture we are making. Most school- 
houses are situated only a short distance from the highway. 
The entrance walks and drives should therefore be as direct 
as possible, straight rather than curved, laid out to afford the 
most convenient access. 

In ordinary school-ground areas we may concern ourselves 
with three divisions of the property, viz: 

1. The front area, — between the main building and the 
road. 

2. The playground area,—at the sides or rear of the 
building. 

3. A service portion, — comprising the extreme rear area 
for sheds, corrals, wood piles, and outbuildings. 

In the arrangement of these areas we should strive to 
keep the centers open; that is, all the plantings should be 
thrown to the sides or to the rear. These plantings serve to 
frame the picture, to screen some buildings, to hide objec- 
tionable features, to protect and shade the schoolhouse and 
make it part of the picture, and to afford shelter from the 
prevailing winds. 

The front area should preferably be sown to grass. Here, 
especially, all plantings should be placed at the sides and 
against the building. This is the dress portion of the grounds, 
and should be made the most attractive, since it is the part 
of which most is seen. The trees along the highway may 
be planted in line. All other planting should be informal, 


+t ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 


natural, massed. Nature never plants things in line. Most 
amateurs make the mistake of planting things in line, or 
scattering shrubs and trees all over the area, in a hit-or-miss 
way. A much stronger effect 1s secured if the planting is 
massed, the centers being kept open. Attention is thereby 
focused, in the same way that the artist focuses attention by 
massing, rather than distracting it by scattering his subjects 
all over the canvas. Furthermore, the plants make a better 
erowth, can be given better care and need less care, if planted 
in masses, in beds of well-cultivated soil, than if placed into 
holes cut in the ground. Massed plantings appear more natu- 
ral, and we should strive to imitate nature as closely as pos- 
sible in most landscape improvement work. This front area 
may be screened from the rear portions by shrub masses. 

The playground areas should be separated for boys and 
girls. These may be placed at the sides or rear of the build- 
ing. They need not be sodded, but should be kept in good 
condition, — level, clean, and neat. 

The gardens should be so situated as to be convenient of 
access from the schoolhouse. Plantings of trees and shrubs 
will protect them. They should be screened from the service 
portion of the grounds, since there we may expect to find 
the more unsightly features of the area. The gardens should 
be fairly level, yet slope somewhat to facilitate irrigation. 

The service portion should be screened from the other 
parts of the grounds. This must also be of convenient access 
from the road, yet must not be too far from the schoolhouse. 
The buildings and fences that are a part of this area ought 
to be well screened by vines and shrubs. 

Many teachers will no doubt think that the above ideal will 
be difficult to carry out, especially where the conditions are 
so trying as they are in the higher and more arid portions of 
the state. This ideal of greensward, massed shrubbery, and 


IMPROVING THE SCHOOL GROUNDS 45 


trees may seem afar off. Yet, under the most adverse condi- 
tions, much improvement can be made. Have the conditions 
peculiar to the region well in mind. Do not attempt to do 
too much the first year. Improve a little at a time until 
your experience allows you to plant everything the means 
permit. Where you cannot purchase lawn seed for a green- 
sward, or where this may not succeed, a substitute may be 
found in the native flowering plants of the arid plains. These 
can be transplanted to the school grounds with success, pro- 
vided reasonable care is given them. Perhaps the native 
bunch grass of the arid plains may be used. Seed of this 
ean be collected easily, and if sown early in spring, a stand 
of grass may be secured. There are also many plants, trees, 
and shrubs, native and introduced, that are very hardy. As 
has been said, many of these will thrive under the most 
adverse conditions. I am aware that it will take a great 
many trees and shrubs to fill the grounds and shrubbery 
beds. Yet given a few cottonwoods, box elders, maples, 
dogwoods, Virginia creepers, the average teacher can in a 
few years propagate enough plants to fill all requirements. 
Some teachers may be in wooded districts, where they can 
draw on nature’s vast stores, the native shrubs and trees of 
the mountains and foot hills, far more beautiful than intro- 
duced species and far more satisfactory. These can be trans- 
planted with little effort, and, given ordinary care, will 
thrive and make a garden beautiful. I know that it can be 
done, for we are doing the very thing here. Even sagebrush, 
that homely, characteristic plant of the plains of Colorado, is 
beautiful when growing at the edge of a shrubbery bed or 
planted along a fence or the base of a building. It may 
seem odd to think of planting sage brush, yet Eastern people, 
with all their wealth of ornamental plants, use sage as a 
decorative plant in their garden. I have seen in parks and 


46 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 


gardens of the East far more inconspicuous plants used for the 
same purpose. Our native yucca, or, if you will have it, soap- 
weed, is far more beautiful than the cultivated, cherished yuc- 
cas of Eastern gardens. It is characteristic, natural, beautiful. 

What to Plant and How to Plant it. This refers to the plant 
material to be used in the decoration of the school-ground 
area. In choosing plants for this purpose always choose the 
cheaper kinds, for, all things being equal, these are hardier 
and more satisfactory than the higher-priced ones. Wher- 
ever possible, plant native trees, shrubs, and flowering plants. 
These are far more interesting than the introduced kinds, 
since they carry with them something of the spirit of the 
country and region. Their name is legion. Colorado has a 
wealth of native plants suitable for ornamental planting. 

In selecting plants do not choose for beauty of flower 
alone.’ Plant for fohage as well as for bloom. Plan to have 
some color in your garden the year round, be it color of bark, 
foliage, flower, or fruit. Plan to have some evergreen trees 
and shrubs, as well as the deciduous sorts, for they are cheery 
in winter, when all else is sere and brown. Plant with an 
eye to the future and not alone for immediate effect. Plant 
large masses of the same or closely related kinds, and plant 
these in irregular masses, the natural way. In massing, 
plant: the taller growing kinds at the rear of the beds, the 
smaller kinds in front. 

In massing, furthermore, have the beds well prepared by 
deeply cultivating and fining the soil. In these beds dig the 
holes for the plants a little larger and deeper than the spread 
of roots appears to demand. Fill the spare immediately about 
the roots with good, rich soil, well compacted, so that the 
plants will at once take hold and grow. Especially is this to 
be advised where the less fertile subsoil les near the surface. 
Water well immediately after planting, to settle the soil 


IMPROVING THE SCHOOL GROUNDS 47 


around the roots and to keep life going. Water well all the 
time, particularly the first season when the plants are mak- 
ing every effort to reéstablish themselves. After the plants 
are watered, prune back at least one half. This restores the 
balance of root and top, disturbed by the loss of root surface 
occasioned in removing the plants from the woods or nursery. 

Where water is scarce, success in transplanting may be 
attained by following the principles of the dry farmer. Pre- 
pare the land well in the fall by deep plowing to increase the 
water-holding capacity of the soil. This deep plowing enables 
the soil to hold more of the moisture precipitated in fall 
snows and rains. Once taken up by the soil, this moisture 
may be retained to a large extent by cultivating the surface 
occasionally during the winter. In early spring, when the 
ground is still moist, the transplanting may be done. Spread 
out the roots well and firm the soil about them. Reduce the 
evaporating surface of the plant by pruning back severely 
one half or more. After planting, cultivate the surface or 
put on a thick mulch of manure or litter. 

Planting for Early Crops. The market or truck gardener 
roughly classifies vegetables thus: (1) vegetables that may be 
transplanted ; (2) vegetables that may not be transplanted. 

By planting seeds of the vegetables of the first class in the 
hotbed early in spring, he secures plants which may be set 
out in the open ground when all danger of frost is over. 
These naturally have the start over plants grown from seed 
planted directly outdoors; consequently, he gains time in 
the maturing of a crop. This is a matter of some profit, since 
the earliest vegetables always pay best. 

The same method can be practiced by school gardeners. 
Because of the time gained, the garden will show some results 
before the close of school in late spring. In regions where 
the season is short, as in high altitudes, this method must be 


48 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 


resorted to in many cases to get any crop at all. Especially 
is this true of such crops as tomatoes, egg plant, and peppers. 
These plants are easily injured by hght frosts. If we wait 
until all danger of frost is past and sow the seeds of these 
plants directly outdoors, the plants will not mature in time 
to escape the early frosts of autumn. 

Preparing the Garden for Planting. (Garden soil must be in 
the very best condition as respects textures and fertility. 
Fertility means productivity. The plant food in the soil must 
be in such condition that the plants can use it immediately. 
It must be available. The texture must be such as to most 
easily facilitate the operations of the garden and afford most 
congenial quarters for the plants. If the soil is loose, open, 
friable, and well drained, we say that the texture is good. A 
garden soil must, furthermore, be early ; that is, it must be- 
come warm and must dry out early in spring, so that seeds 
and plants may grow. 

Such a soil may be obtained by careful and consistent 
working; that is, by plowing and cultivation, by admitting 
manure and vegetable matter, and, in the case of wet heavy 
soils, by drainage. Medium loams are the best garden soils. 
Heavy soils are too wet, cold, and late. Such soils bake and 
are ever hard to manage. Light sandy soils dry out too 
rapidly, and, where there is much wind, are blown away. 

In the fall, when the soil of the school garden is still moist, 
plow or dig it up as deep as possible, turning under in this 
operation any manure you may have been able to secure. 
After every rainfall or snowfall, as soon as the ground is dry 
enough to work, the surface should be cultivated to aid in 
retaining the moisture. Land thus prepared will be in fine 
condition for sowing in the spring. Then it may again be 
turned over, stone and litter removed by thorough raking, 
and the beds and walks laid out. 


IMPROVING THE SCHOOL GROUNDS 49 


It is quite essential that the garden be dug or plowed to 
a considerable depth. The soil is thereby loosened up. New 
plant food is unlocked, as new surfaces are exposed to the 
weathering influences of sun, air, and moisture. The storage 
reservoir for water is also deepened, while the feeding area 
for the roots is greatly increased, for the tender rootlets and 
feeding root hairs can then more easily penetrate the soil. 
Ask any farmer of the importance of this deep plowing and 
thorough fitting of the land, especially for such crops as 
potatoes and beets, and he will tell you that it is more impor- 
tant than any subsequent operations necessary in the grow- 
ing of the crop. Unless this thorough fitting of the land is 
well attended to, dwarfed, gnarled, misshapen potatoes, beets, 
carrots, parsnips, and turnips will be yours to harvest. 

The Garden Record. A garden notebook will prove of great 
benefit in the garden work. <A class notebook, kept where 
every one can get to it, will do, but individual notebooks are 
better. In this notebook the following items may be recorded. 
Their record ought to prove of great value in governing the 
garden operations from year to year. 

1. Date of sowing and planting the various crops. 

2. Date of harvesting the first crops. 

3. Date of harvesting the main season crops. 

4. Date of last killing frost in spring. 

5. Date of first killing frost in fall. 

6. General weather observations and records of effect on the 
various crops of the garden. 

7. Temperature records; amount of sunshine; amount of 
rainfall ; total precipitation. 

8. Records of the varieties and kinds grown; their yield, 
when ripe; suitableness for the region. 

Do not insist on too much detail. Spend more time in the 
garden than in writing up notebooks. 


50 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 


Laying out the Laboratory School Garden. The size and scope 
of the laboratory school garden, the place where the children 
are to dig and plant, depends upon local conditions, such as 
the amount of water, character of the soil, knowledge of 
handicraft, length of school session, ete. Every effort should 
be made to give every child in the grades above the second, 
some plot of ground which he may call his own, where he 
may plant and care for the plants he is interested in. For 
the first two primary grades, a common garden is better than 
one with individual plots. As the age and experience of the 
child permit, larger plots may be assigned. A bed six feet 
by ten feet will suffice for ordinary purposes. Here the 
child may plant parsnips and peas, peanuts, maybe, or daisies 
and daffodils. It is better to practice flood irrigation. This 
will work to better advantage than inter-row irrigation, for 
with these short beds the rows will be short and unevenly 
spaced, and they are bound to be crooked. Have one large 
walk, with smaller lateral walks connecting the garden plats. 
These walks should be large enough to prevent crowding, say 
three to four feet. Smaller walks should be laid out between 
all the individual plots. Have enough walks so that the 
children will not have to jump over garden plats at the risk 
of trampling growing crops. The garden operations are also 
greatly facilitated by having enough space for walks. 

As soon as the condition of the soil allows, dig up the 
garden and get it into condition for planting, as outlined 
above. Then lay out the main walks and the lateral ones. 
The beds assigned may next be laid out, as well as the walks 
between. Do not raise the beds above the walks. The main 
walks should have gutters to carry the water of irrigation. 

Sowing the Garden. Transplanting is not always successful 
in the arid West. The winds are drying and the sun is hot. 
Unless cool, cloudy days favor the planter, and unless the 


IMPROVING THE SCHOOL GROUNDS ol 


ground is moist, fine, and rich, transplanting may be a failure 
with even the hardier plants. Yet I would advise every 
gardener to try transplanting, for much time is gained. Here 
at Greeley the young gardeners were quite successful with 
such crops as lettuce, cabbage, muskmelons, parsley, onions, 
tomatoes, peppers, and other hardy crops. 

There are always certain crops that cannot be transplanted, 
and which must be sown where they are to grow in the gar- 
den, and thinned to the proper distances as they crowd. You 
will find some of these in the list below, others in the Plant- 
ing Table. All the root crops, for example, are best sown 
where they are to stand. 

In sowing seeds care must be taken not to sow too deep 
or too shallow. If too shallow, the seeds and young plants 
will be washed out, or bake under the hot sun. If sown too 
deep, the seeds will be late in germinating and coming up, 
or, perhaps, will not come up at all. In general, sow a little 
deeper than books advise for Eastern conditions. The size of 
the seed governs the depth of sowing. Small light seeds must 
be barely covered, or planted very shallow. Unless they are 
protected by some shade, they will bake. Try, therefore, in 
sowing small light seeds to protect where possible with some 
light covering, as light brush or dry, clean straw. The 
heavier seeds may be planted deeper. Peas, for example, may 
be planted three inches deep. 

Do not crowd the seeds in the row or drill. You will have 
to thin the young plants anyway. Why waste seed? After 
sowing, firm the earth on top of the seeds with the foot or 
hand. This restores capillary action, so that the soil will be 
moist near the seeds, and will thus enable them to sprout 
and grow. If the soil is very dry, do not sow. Water the 
soil well first, leave over night, and then sow the next day. 
Especially is this advised for light seeds, for if you water 


52 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 


immediately after sowing, and the ground is very dry, the 
small seeds will wash away. Always try to sow in moist soil. 
After the seedlings are up and when they show character, 
they may be thinned out to spaces sufficient for the best 
development of the plant. Sometimes two or three thinnings | 
must be made. In some cases these thinnings may be eaten. 
Beet thinnings make the most delicious spring greens. 
Garden Flowers. Many of our most beautiful garden flowers 
are annuals. There are many kinds suitable for planting. 
Many may be grown from seeds sown in the cold frame or in 
the house, and thus time in blooming is gained. Good stocky 
plants should be grown, and care must be used in transplant- 
ing some of the tenderer sorts. Others will grow almost 
under any conditions. Some poppies cannot be transplanted 
and must be sown where they are to stand. These should, of 
course, be thinned to the proper distances as they crowd. 
Only the common kinds are given here. These are cheapest 
and best. They can often be purchased for a cent or two a 
package, and fifty cents’ worth will make a great showing in 
the garden. Often the children will bring seeds saved from 
flowers grown in their home gardens. It is always better to 
try only the hardier and more common sorts of vegetables and 
flowers, at least at the start. As one’s knowledge of handicraft 
increases, the more difficultly grown kinds may be tried. 


List oF ComMON GARDEN ANNUALS! 


Aster. H. Endless varieties of these pleasing garden flowers may 
be grown. There are red, pink, purple, blue, and white varieties in 
different shapes and kinds of flowers. They grow from one foot 
to three feet high, blooming in late summer. They are fine for cut 
flowers and last a long time in water. 


1 The letters H., Hh., and T., refer to hardy, half hardy, and tender, 
respectively. P.= perennial. All others are annual. 
I y I 


IMPROVING THE SCHOOL GROUNDS 53 


Sow outdoors in April, and indoors in the hotbed or house in March, 
transplanting as soon as the weather permits. Asters are likely to 
be small and dwarfed unless plenty of water is supplied them. 

AGERATUM. Hh. A small plant about nine inches high. Blue 
flowers. Sow outdoors when danger of frost is past, or indoors in 
March, transplanting outdoors as soon as the weather permits. 
Space plants six to nine inches apart. 

BLankeT FiLowers (Gaillardia). H.P. Beautiful early flowering 
perennials for shrubbery beds or garden. Red, orange, and variegated. 
The native species are also beautiful. Sow seeds indoors in February 
and transplant to permanent quarters as soon as weather permits, 
or sow outdoors in August and protect the seedlings over winter 
with straw and litter. Thin to twelve inches apart. 

Canpyturr. H. A well-known garden annual. The white and 
carmine shades are best. Grow about one toot high. Sow indoors 
in March, or outdoors when danger of heavy frost is past. Trans- 
plant to ten inches. 

Morninc-Guiory. H. A free-flowering twiner. Sow as early as 
possible in spring, in a warm sunny place. Sometimes a nuisance, as 
it is likely to self-sow and grow where it is not wanted. Not to be 
planted with shrubs. 

MiGnoneTte. H. Sow outdoors as soon as the ground is ready, 
or indoors in March and transplant. Space twelve to eighteen inches 
apart. Mignonette is a fragrant and very desirable garden annual. 
It likes a cool situation and plenty of water. 

Nasturtium. Hh. Dwarf and twining. These delightful annuals 
flourish in the hottest sun and in the poorest soil. They are of all 
colors, — red, orange, yellow, cream, striped, maroon, pink, and scarlet. 
The flowers are borne in great profusion. Sow in the spring as soon 
as the weather is settled. 

Pansy. H. This well-known flower demands a cool, shady, moist 
location for its best growth. It is very hardy and thrives in a low 
temperature. Sow the seeds in a sheltered place outdoors in early 
fall, and thin to three inches as the plants crowd. Protect with straw 
over winter and transplant to place where wanted in early spring. 

Petunia. H. White and magenta shaded flowers that delight 
us the whole summer long. They are very good for massing in 
beds or for edging walks. Sow indoors in early spring, or outdoors 
as soon as the weather permits. Thin to eighteen inches apart. 


54 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 


The most expensive seeds are the best. Do not buy cheap seeds 
of this species. 

Puiox (Drummondii). H. Brilliantly colored flowers, — red, ma- 
roon, white, pink, scarlet, and variegated. The dwarf varieties are best. 
Sow in the open ground in May and thin to ten inches apart. 

Poppy. H. Poppies do not transplant well and the seed must be 
sown where the plants are to stand. When the seedlings crowd they 
may be thinned to twelve inches. For continuous bloom prevent the 
formation of seed pods. Some varieties are brilliantly colored. The 
Shirley poppy is a distinct type and is very good. 

Sweer ALyssum. H. One of the most satisfactory garden annuals, 
blooming from early spring until late fall. The flowers are white and 
very fragrant. The plants grow about eight inches tall and are excel- 
lent for lining walks or garden beds. Sow the seeds outdoors in April, 
thinning to eight inches as the plants crowd, or sow indoors in March 
and transplant outdoors as soon as the weather permits. 

Sweet Peas. H. For the best effects with these old garden 
favorites, plant the colors separate. Large fragrant bunches of 
flowers all of one color may then be picked and a better bouquet 
obtained than when mixed colors are planted together. The seeds 
are very cheap, as twenty cents will purchase four ounces. Sow the 
seed in fall for early spring bloom and protect the plants over winter. 
Sow the seed about four inches deep in well-prepared rich soil. If 
you wish to sow in spring, sow outdoors about the twentieth of 
March, sowing seeds about three inches deep in moist soil. After 
planting, stir the surface soil and then place over the row brush or 
chicken fence wire for a support. 

Srocks. H. These fragrant garden flowers come in many colors, 
and IT recommend them to every one. The flowers, while not large or 
gayly colored, are very fragrant. The characteristic gray foliage of 
the plant reminds us of some of our native plants. Sow the seed 
indoors early in spring and transplant to fifteen inches outdoors 
when the weather is settled, or sow outdoors in April and thin as 
the plants crowd. The most expensive seed gives a larger percentage 
of double flowers. 

VeRBENA. H. Verbenas demand good rich soil. For the best re- 
sults sow the seeds indoors in February and transplant to the garden 
in April or May, setting the plants ten inches apart. If separate colors 
are wanted, plants from seed cannot be depended upon. It is better 
in that case to purchase young plants, or cuttings of known color. 


IMPROVING THE SCHOOL GROUNDS 55 


Zinnia. H. This old favorite of grandmother’s garden succeeds 
anywhere, blooming all summer until frost. The flowers are very 
brightly and oddly colored. Sow outdoors when danger of frost is 
past and thin to fifteen inches. The dwarf varieties are interesting. 
The scarlet tints are brilliant and fine. 

Catirornia Poppy. H. Flowers all summer, Red, white, orange, 
and yellow varieties can be had. The plant is very hardy and 
drought-resistant and seems to grow well anywhere. Sow early in 
spring and thin to twelve inches. 


Climbers 


Doricuos Bean. T. Ten to twenty feet. The flowers are borne 
in clusters. Purple and white are the two colors to be had. The 
foliage is beautiful and the plant is useful where a large screen is 
desired. Sow like morning-glories after danger of frost is past. 
Also known as the hyacinth bean. 

JAPANESE Hop. T. This is one of our most rapid annual climbing 
plants, twining from fifteen to twenty feet in a season. The leaves 
are prettily variegated. Sow early in spring in pots in the house or 
hotbed, or outdoors when danger of frost is past. Rich, well-tilled, 
moist soil is appreciated by the plant. 

Common Hop (Humulus lupulus). H.P. A very beautiful and 
efficient screen. Makes a good growth every year, once it is estab- 
lished. The young plants are cheap, and every school yard ought to 
boast three or four plants of this species. 

CLematis PanrcuLtaTa. H.P. This is one of the best perennial 
climbers. The leaves are a rich glossy green. The white flowers, 
borne on beautiful long sprays, grace the porch or wall in September. 
‘A support of some kind is appreciated by the plant. 

VirGiIntA CREEPER (Woodbine). H. This is the best all-around 
vine for covering fences, sheds, and screens. The large green leaves 
turn to brilliant red, orange, and yellow in early fall, and then this 
plant is beautiful indeed, especially so if it bears at the same time 
deep purple, grapelike fruit. This has escaped from cultivation and 
can be collected from stream banks in some localities of the state. 
A support of some kind will help it to more quickly serve its object, 
namely, to screen fences, buildings, and undesirable vistas. Trained 
to twine about a large ash, its gay colors contrast well with the 
glossy green leaves of this tree in early fall. 


56 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 


Honrysuckies. H. There are several kinds of twining honey- 
suckles. Hall’s, the Chinese, and varieties of these are very beauti- 
ful and should be in every garden. They are hardy and easily 
cared for. 

Trumpet Creeper. H. A tropical old-fashioned favorite. The 
plant is hardy and succeeds well nearly everywhere. It is grateful, 
however, if given a somewhat sheltered position. 

Dutcuman’s Pirr, H. Another interesting climber. I fancy that 
in this climate it will appreciate a somewhat sheltered shaded posi- 
tion. The plant is a rapid grower. Its large leaves and curious 
flowers make it an interesting and useful addition to most gardens. 


The Problem Garden. In your garden set aside some plot of 
ground, no matter how small, for a problem garden. This 
problem garden may be made, in a large measure, the labora- 
tory of your older pupils, a laboratory where many interest- 
ing and helpful problems and experiments may be carried 
on. Here, for example, experiments in tilling and cultivat- 
ing may be made, or experiments that will bring home the 
ereat Importance of thorough fitting of the land, conserva- 
tion of the soil moisture, and the effect of tillage on the 
texture and fertility of the soil. 

Here seed tests may be made, and you may show what a 
good effect selection of seed has on the vigor and yield of 
a crop. New varieties may be tested here, and prove their 
worth for general planting in your garden beautiful. Many 
other garden and farm problems may be worked out in this 
problem garden. I will suggest that part of it be made a 
place where varieties of fruits can be tested. Find out by 
actual test how many kinds and varieties are suited to your 
region. Such experiments will be of great benefit to the en- 
tire state, for these are a few of the things of which the rural 
people of this state need to know more. 

Irrigating and Watering the Garden. Floor irrigation is better 
than inter-row irrigation for all gardens except the home 


IMPROVING THE SCHOOL GROUNDS oT 


vegetable garden. In the small garden plots the rows are 
short and crooked and made up of plants of different sizes. 
Inter-row irrigation will be found to be impracticable because 
of these factors. Floor the beds from the small ditches 
placed along the lateral walks. The waste water may be 
utilized in flooding the plots below, or may be allowed to 
run in the shrubbery beds. Care must be exercised on irri- 
gating thus, not to wash out the small seeds and plants, so 
it is dangerous to use a large head of water. But when you 
water, be it with bucket, hose, or by ditch, soak the ground. 
Do not be content to merely wet the surface. Have the soil 
so well tilled that the water will soak in readily. Test the 
depth of penetration by thrusting the finger in the soil. If 
you can easily push this down in wet soil for three inches, 
you may know that you are soaking the ground somewhere 
near the roots of the plants. After each watering, as soon 
as the ground permits, restore the surface blanket of loose 
soil to conserve moisture. How often you will have to water 
depends upon the locality, the amount of water, the kinds of 
plants, the soil, ete. Depend more on cultivation to conserve 
moisture than on watering. 

Flowers in Winter. By planting the bulbs of hyacinths, 
tulips, and narcissus in fall, blooms may be had in mid- 
winter. A blooming plant greatly cheers during the dark 
winter days, and because flowers are so easily obtained from 
bulbs, every one should plant a few in the fall. These bulbs 
can be purchased at a very reasonable price. They should be 
ordered early in the fall, to have them on hand before heavy 
frosts come, and should be planted before the end of Sep- 
tember. The secret of success in getting bulbs to bloom in 
winter is to secure good root growth before the plants are 
taken in the house. If the following directions are observed, 
every one can succeed. 


58 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 


All bulbs require well-drained soil, free from fresh vege- 
table matter. Fill pots three fourths full of garden soil of 
this kind, and then place three or four bulbs of a kind in 
this soil, pressing them down. Now fill the pot even full 
with soil, and firm this down with the hands to within a 
half inch of the top. This leaves a space for water. Sprinkle 
a little chaff over the top of the pots, and after labeling them, 
water and place outdoors in a sheltered position. Then cover 
the pots with a foot of soil. 

Any time after the middle of January these pots may be 
removed to the schoolroom. A mild day should be chosen, 
lest the tips of the bulbs freeze. If the soil is frozen, thaw 
it out gradually by placing the pots in a room where the 
temperature is not too warm. Then the pots may be watered 
and placed in the schoolroom windows. The chaff that is 
placed on top of the soil in the pots enables one to separate 
the soil cover from them. 

After blooming, the pots may be stored in the cellar. In 
the spring the bulbs should be taken from the pots, cleaned, 
and stored in dry sand, in a cool, dry, dark place. The fol- 
lowing fall the bulbs may be replanted in pots, though it is 
better to plant them outdoors in the shrubbery beds. 

A Window Garden. If you cannot have bulbs for winter 
bloom, or if the schoolhouse is too cold over Saturdays and 
Sundays, by resorting to some of the following devices you 
may still be able to have a little green or perhaps a little 
bloom to cheer up the schoolroom. Have something green, 
some growing thing in the schoolroom, no matter how com- 
mon or simple it may be. Plant a beet or a carrot in a pot 
or can. To be sure, these are commonplace, but under the 
conditions they will prove interesting. 

Early in spring, as the weather gets warmer and the tem- 
perature of the room does not go below freezing, a window 


IMPROVING THE SCHOOL GROUNDS 59 


box containing some of the following common, hardy plants 
may prove very successful. Make a box large enough to fill 
the window-bench space and about five inches deep. Drain- 
age must be provided for by boring a few holes in the bottom 
or by leaving a crack. A coating of paint will greatly improve 
the appearance of the box. Cover the drainage holes with pot 
crocks or a layer of cinders, and fill the box with good garden 
soil and plant therein plants or seeds of those varieties with 
which you are familar. 


FIELD CROPS 


BY PROFESSOR W. H. OLIN, COLORADO STATE AGRI- 
CULTURAL COLLEGE 


Introduction. Let the child be led to find out the truth 
for himself. Curiosity is inborn in every child, and the true 
teacher makes use of this fact and so plans the work that 
the child is, by logical steps, led from the known to the 
unknown. In this way nearly every child will take a keen 
pleasure and deep interest in the practical study of that 
which in the majority of cases is his life work. 

Amplify each lesson in your own way, stamping it with 
your personality. The bibliography names books which you 
will find helpful in working up these lessons in Field Crops. 

A Lesson on Seeds. In our study of plant life we have 
learned that plants have a number of ways of propagation or 
of reproduction. The crops we grow in the field are repro- 
duced by seeds. 

A seed is a rudimentary plant with sufficient stored-up 
food to nourish it until it can obtain its supply from soil 
and air. When the seed has been matured the mission of 
the plant has been accomphshed. 

In most instances, leaves, stalks, and roots die, but the 
plant lives in each vital seed which it has brought into ex- 
istence, as wheat, oats, barley, corn, etc. Some plants, hke 
the sugar beet, require two seasons to mature seed; and some, 
like alfalfa, will mature seed each season, but the plants 
will live on for many years. 

The normal seed has that mysterious, indefinable some- 
thing which we call /ife, giving it the power of growth and 

60 


FIELD CROPS 61 


development. It is a vital force which we may in a measure 
influence, control, or even destroy, but which, when once 
destroyed, we cannot restore. 

The great object of cultivation is to provide that environ- 
ment, supply those conditions, which will enable economic 
plants of great commercial value to produce the best and 
most vital seeds. 

In a healthy, vigorous growth of these plants les our 
greatest profit. How very important then for us to study 
the nature and character, in fact, the hfe history, of the 
plants we cultivate in our fields. 

Luther Burbank, the great student of plant lfe, who lives 
in California, said some years ago: 

The student of plant life who adds one more kernel of corn to 
each ear, one additional grain to each wheat head, oat panicle, or 


barley spike, one more potato in a hill, would add to the nation’s 
output of these important field crops as follows: 


1 extra kernel of corn to each ear, 5,200,000 bushels 
1 + “ ‘“ wheat to each head, 15,000,000 ‘“ 
1 « 66 “ oats to each panicle, 20,000,000 ‘“ 
1 «& ‘“ * barley to each head, 15,000,000 “ 
1 “ potato in each hill, 21,000,000 ‘“ 


The farmer of to-day seeks to increase his acre yield rather 
than the number of yielding acres. 

School Collection of Seeds. Heat a seed until it will not 
grow, and freeze a seed until it will not grow, and plant both 
with a normal seed in a soil box and give an object lesson 
on life as a vital force. 

Have children get a school collection of seeds from the 
school district. Place in uniform-sized, screw-capped bottles 
two or three inches in height. Schools should not gather seeds 
from the nation by correspondence in English class work. 
Have all classified and named. Send to the United States 


62 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 


Department of Agriculture for a collection of classified weed 
seeds, and have the class determine how many grow in the 
district by bringing in samples. 

Make as complete a collection as possible of seeds of field 
crops from crop-growing regions of the United States. 


HARVESTING THE PoTaToO Crop 


The children will delight to do this work under your 
directions. 

Classify all seed bottles by name of seed and state where 
erown. 

Germination. (ermination is that first stage of growth when 
the plant depends upon the seed for its nourishment. 


OUTLINE 
1. Parts of a seed. 
2. Essential factors of germination. 
a. Vitality. 
hb. Moisture. 
c. Heat. 
d. Oxygen. 
3. Cireumstances which influence vitality. 
a. Maturity. 


FIELD CROPS 635 


b. Heredity. 

c. Age of seed. 

d. Size of seed. 

e. Climatie conditions. 
4. Testing farm seeds. 

a. Soil-box test. 

b. Sand test. 

c. Plate test. 

d. Cigar-box test. 

e. Some original plan of germination test devised by student. 
5. Plan for germination card, 


Name 


( Number ) TT eee, aeewinati 
Class J Number No. germinated days. Total per cent germination. 


| of seeds f 1-2-3-4~-5-6-7-8-9-10-11-12-13-14-15 


REMARKS. 


Germination (continued). 
1. Classes of Seeds: 
a. Monocotyledons, 
b. Dicotyledons. 
2. Depth to plant seeds : 
a, Varies with nature of soil. 


b. “ « climate. 
C. “ ‘“ character of season. 
d. “ “size of seed. 


é. “ “ character of seed. 


64 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 


3. Have students partition a cracker box. These boxes are usually 
at least fifteen inches or more deep. Place in one division pure sand, 
in another pure clay, in another sandy loam soil, etc., until all kinds 
of soil in the neighborhood are fairly well represented. Now place 
ten seeds of the following plants at the depths of one, two, three, 
four, five, six, seven, eight, uine, ten inches respectively: alfalfa, or 
red clover ; wheat; barley; oats ; corn ; pumpkin ; flax ; sugar beet, 
and such other seeds as neighborhood interests may indicate. 

Have normal temperature and moisture conditions so students can 
be led to determine why monocotyledons can be planted at lower 
depths than dicotyledons, and what would seem to be the best depths 
for each kind of plant in each kind of soil. 

4. Require a written lesson in English giving facts learned from 
studies in germination. 

Classification of Field Crops. Under the head of Field Crops 
are considered those crops which are generally cultivated on 
an extensive scale under Field Conditions. We usually con- 
sider any crop which is grown on an area of ten or more acres 
as a field crop, even if given intensive or garden methods. 

The following groups of field crops are presented for our 
present study: (1) cereal, (2) legume, (5) tuber root, (4) grass, 
(5) forage, (6) sugar producing, (7) fiber, (8) melon, (9) clover, 
(10) miscellaneous. 

The United States is the greatest agricultural nation in 
the world, and on some of its five and three-quarters million 
farms all of the above-named crops are grown. 

The total area in field and garden crops in our nation by 
the last census was found to be in round numbers 289,000,- 
000 acres. The total area of improved or cultivated land in the 
nation at that time (1900) was 415,000,000 acres. The remain- 
ing portion of this cultivated area not in crop (126,000,000 
acres) is in orchards, woodlands, meadows, and pastures. 

Describe each crop group and name some region in our 
nation where each is grown. This lesson can be used in the 
geography work most advantageously. 


FIELD CROPS 65 


A Cereal Story. All cereals belong to the grass family. 
Those grasses which are grown principally for their fruits 
or edible grains are called cereals. 

The six great cereals of the world are wheat, rye, barley, 
corn, oats, and rice. 

Wheat. Wheat is grown from the subpolar to the subtrop- 
ical region in both Orient and Occident. Corn, the world’s 
greatest cereal, is found in a comparatively limited area. 
Wheat is a native of Asia, but was brought to South America 
in the sixteenth century. From there it has followed civiliza- 
tion to all the Americas. 

We can trace this grain in its origin to Asia, yet here we 
fail to find when or where it first furnished man with bread, 
his “ staff of life.” 

While its origin is thus shrouded in obscurity, yet, we know 
it to be the greatest world grain grown, and we may properly 
consider it a safe barometer of the world’s civilization, since 
it has been used as a seed plant for forty-six centuries. Egypt, 
the northern nation of antiquity, Greece, and Rome, all culti- 
vated and prized it above all the fruits of the field. 

One of the first findings in the excavated ruins of Pompeu, 
Herculaneum, and Stabeu, the three cities buried by Italy’s 
remarkable voleano in 79 A.D., was charred loaves of bread 
on tables in the homes of these cities. 

The nation raising the most wheat and transferring it into 
bread for its people has ever been a leader in progressive 
civilization. 

The world’s average annual cereal crop is supphed by 
the following nine nations, named in order of production : 
(1) United States, (2) Russia, (3) France, (4) British India, 
(5) Austria, (6) Italy, (7) Germany, (8) Argentina, (9) Spain. 


66 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 


The most important wheat consumers are here given, with 
the average amount per capita consumed annually : 


1. French . . . 467 Ib. 6. Yankee (U.S.) . 240 Ib. 
2. Canadians . . 360 « t. Dateh ©... ¢) 2A 
3. Italians . . . 307 « 8. Germans . . . 180 « 
4. English . . . 250 « 9. Russians .. . 93 « 
5. Austrians. . . 250 « 10. Japanese . . . 22 « 


Wheat is now raised in forty-three of Uncle Sam’s states 
and territories. In 1850 the total wheat crop of our nation 
was but little more than what Kansas raises alone in a good 
year — 100,000,000 bushels. The nation’s wheat exports 
that year amounted to 1,000,000 bushels of wheat and 
2,000,000 barrels of flour. 

In 1859 a United States geological survey revealed the 
remarkable fact that Iowa and Wisconsin could never be per- 
manently first-rate wheat lands; and one year later Klppart 
wrote that Ohio marked the western limit of profitable wheat 
growing, stating that the Far West was mostly a desert inca- 
pable of producing anything, much less good wheat crops. 

It is not too bad to spoil the official report on Iowa and Wis- 
consin by stating that now these two states raise 30,000,000 
bushels of wheat annually; while almost in the center of 
Klippart’s dream of desert, incapable of raising good wheat, 
is situated the greatest wheat state in our nation. 

The average yield of the important wheat countries is as 
follows: 


Argentine . . G6bu.perA. Hungary . . 17 bu. perA, 
India ee SO et France. . . 28 &  & 
Russia . . . 1O % &% 6 N.W.Canada 25 « «& «& 
Romania. . . 17 “ “% & U-S. 4 cc « «dS. fe paces 
England. . . 30 “ “% & 


The greatest bread basket of the world is beyond the ex- 
treme limits of successful wheat growing as set by Klppart 
in 1860. The great Northwest of our nation and Canada are 


FIELD CROPS 67 


now, and will continue to be, the greatest wheat-producing 
regions in all the wheat-growing world. In the central and 
northern portion spring-wheat varieties are raised, and in the 
southern portion, including Nebraska, Kansas, and Oklahoma, 
winter wheat seems well adapted to both soil and climate. 
Before the opening of the wheat region in the Northwest, 
Rochester, New York, was the flour city of the Union; to-day 


EXPERIMENTAL PLOTS AT THE COLORADO EXPERIMENTAL STATION 


Minneapolis, in the very heart of the great Northwest, is the 
flour city of the world. Rochester has lost her big mills, but 
claims the honor of still being our nation’s flour center, 
although she now spells it “flower.” Minneapolis alone pro- 
duces fifteen and a half million barrels of flour annually, 
besides 400,000 tons of feed. While only 30 per cent of the 
flour is exported, yet if the exported product of the mills of 
this city were laid in a hne, it would reach from New York 
to Honolulu. 


68 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 


The one state of Minnesota makes over 118,000 barrels of 
flour daily. 

The opening of the Middle West and the Northwest gave 
an impetus to the European export trade, and the large freight 
steamers now being built for Pacific commerce bid fair to 
make the Orient —the original home of wheat — our most 
important buyer of wheat and flour, The opening of the 
Panama Canal will be a great factor in this development. 
To-day the world’s mills grind out 361,000,000 barrels of 
flour for the 510,000,000 bread eaters,.but since the number 
of bread eaters is constantly increasing we must now seek to 
make each acre sown to wheat produce its maximum crop. 

For this reason we need to carefully study the seed we 
sow, that we may secure for planting a quality that shall pro- 
duce its kind with the greatest vigor. For this reason permit 
me to call your attention to the classes of wheat we should 
consider and the grades made by our grain inspectors. 

I wish to take this opportunity of taking you through a 
large flouring mill and showing you how wheat is ground 
into flour and feed products. 

The wheat is first cleaned, tempered, tested, and, if approved 
by the tester, it is ground by the gradual reduction method, 
which is a process of granulation rather than pulverization, 
as is the case of the upper and nether millstone. In this 
process it goes through six different sets of machines called 
breaks. This is the roller-mill process. The first break shghtly 
erushes the wheat kernel when it goes to the scalper or sieve. 
Here the middlings, or grits, are separated. The residue is 
sent to another break, where it is crushed still more, carried 
to the scalper again, and more middlings sifted out. The wheat 
goes through six sets of breaks and a scalper each time, the 
rolls in each break being closer and closer together, and the 
middlings obtained in each instance being finer and finer. 


FIELD CROPS 69 


This gives six different grades in size of particles. The finest 
and purest is selected for the best grade of flour, run through 
purifiers, where impurities are removed by suction and sifting. 
Dirt and dust are caught in a dust collector made of flannel 
tubes, when the residue is ground into flour, which is some- 
times spoken of as bolting. Something like one hundred and 
fifty separations are made from the time the wheat is turned 
into the hopper until it comes out in the sack labeled with 
the trade-mark of the particular mill grinding it. 

Complete the story by having bottled samples of the product 
of each break, the different grades of flour made, and the feed 
products produced in the flour-making process. State the num- 
ber of pounds of flour made from one hundred pounds of wheat. 


1. Botany of wheat: 
a. Name and species. 
b. Tilling or stooling. 
c. Fertilization. 
d. Composition of grain and parts of kernel. 


2. Culture methods : 

a. Preparation of seed bed. 

b. Seeding time, method, amount of seed per acre. 

c, Cultivation after seeding. 

d. Irrigation. 

e. Harvesting. 
3. Fungous diseases. (See Professor Longyear’s “ Plant Life.’’) 
4. Insect enemies. (See Professor Johnson's * Insect Studies.’’) 
5. Uses of wheat. 
6. Marketing of wheat. 

a. Commercial grades. 

b. Elevators; terminal; country elevators. 

c. Wheat centers of nation; of world. 
7. Statistics. 


a. World’s production. 

b. Ten great wheat-producing nations. 

c. Ten wheat states of our nation. 

d. Exportation of wheat by customs districts. 


TO ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 


(1) Atlantic ports. 

(2) Gulf ports. 

(3) Mexican-border ports. 

(4) Pacitic ports. 

(5) Northern border and lake ports. 

8. Judging samples of wheat. 

A Corn Study. Corn is believed to be a native plant of 
America, being found here by Columbus. Evidence points 
to the fact that the ancient Peruvians cultivated corn cen- 
turies ago in the Inca Empire. The Montezumas are known 
to have grown the plant in Mexico, while the North Ameri- 
ean Indian carried it with him in his nomadic wandering 
over what is now the United States. 

The primitive corn of the early days seems to have had 
ears from four to six inches long, each individual kernel being 
enveloped in a husk, and the whole surrounded with an outer 
husk covering. From this peculiar wild corn all our culti- 
vated species are believed to have been developed. 

This crop has become the most important crop of our 
nation. Here in the United States is grown eighty per cent 
of the world’s corn. 

The leading corn states of our nation are here given in 
order of average and yield for 1906. 


ACRES YIELD IN BUSHELS 
WIR rer ak <a Uk. sa - oe oar ad 9,450,000 373,275,000 
BUC: 4 ye a ee A 9,610,000 347,169,000 
Nebraska. . . .... | 7,320,000 249,782,000 
WMGOURIE. 6. 4 <> oe mnaeadl 5,050,000 228,522,000 
Kansas ......./'| 6,750,000 195,075,000 
Indiana . . . . | 4,640,000 183,893,000 
ERO i ee Be 6,920,000 155,804,000 
OUMIGe ay ey. 2.3086 Sa ee BS 3,320,000 141,645,000 
Tennessee ..... . | 3,070,000 86,428,000 
Indian Territory . . . . | 2.030.000 68,493,000 


FIELD CROPS (Gl 


Let us load the corn of these ten states on wagons, forty 
bushels to the load. We will place the wagons and teams so 
that the noses of the horses come just to the tailboard of the 
preceding wagon. If it were possible for this line of march to 
cover the land and sea, an average year’s crop would make 
a complete belt of corn wagons from Denver, our capital city, 
six times around the world. If placed in a straight line, the 
first wagon would be nearly three hundred thousand miles 
from the last one. If our nation’s corn crop for 1907 be 
placed in wagons holding forty bushels each, starting from 
our nation’s capital city as a center, it would make a line of 
golden grain for our President to review that would number 
over seventy-three million wagons, sufficient to encircle the 
globe sixteen times. Place this crop of corn in freight cars 
holding five hundred bushels each and we will have over 
five and three-quarters million car loads. This would be 
sufficient to make a corn train entirely round the world, 
with cars reaching from Boston to Seattle waiting to get 
in line. 

We may now begin to comprehend why, in the lst of the 
nation’s cereals, corn stands first in average yield and value. 

It is estimated that seventy-five per cent of the corn now 
grown in the United States is used on the farm as food 
for the various forms of live stock; fifteen per cent is used 
as glucose, starch, spirits, breakfast foods, and other forms for 
human consumption ; ten per cent is exported. 

The area where corn can be grown is circumscribed by soil 
and climatic conditions. The growing demand for corn can 
only be met by more intensive methods of corn raising. We 
must make an acre produce more corn than it does at present. 
The average for the nation in 1906 was but little more than 
thirty bushels per acre, and for the banner state (Illinois) 
thirty-six bushels. 


T2 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 


To the question, How much corn is it possible to raise on 
a measured acre? permit us to say that in 1889 the Ame7ri- 
can Agriculturist, a farm paper published in New York, 
offered a prize to the farmer who would raise the greatest 
number of bushels of corn on a measured acre. Forty-five 
farmers in the corn-growing states competed for this prize. 
The average yield of these forty-five corn fields at harvest 
time was one hundred and four bushels. The highest yield 
was two hundred and fifty-five bushels. This was grown by 
My. Z. J. Drake of Marborough County, South Carolina. This 
is the highest yield ever known. It seems abnormally large 
to us, and we will not attempt to approach it in actual work, 
but it shows us the possible yield as eight hundred and thirty 
per cent above our present average national yield. 

By studying the character and growing habits of the corn 
plant as it grows in the field, the nature and structure of the 
developed grain, and the best methods of selecting and stor- 
ing seed ears, it would seem possible for us to get more vigor- 
ous and prepotent seed for planting, and, with a more perfect 
stand, to secure a greatly increased yield. 

The importance of the corn crop cannot be overestimated. 
The Mississippi valley is a vast territory, the richest on the 
continent. It is this valley which we call the “Corn Belt,” 
where this crop is, and perhaps always will be, the money 
crop for the farmer to grow. 


OUTLINE Study FOR CorRN 
1. Botany of corn. 
a. Name and species. 
6. Fertilization. 
c. Ear and number of rows of kernels. 
d. Composition of grain and parts of kernel. 
2. Cultural methods. 
a. Preparation of seed bed. 
}, Seeding — time, method, and of seed per acre. 


v=) 


10. 


~I 
co 


FIELD CROPS 


c. Cultivation after seeding. 
d. Harvesting. 
Selection and testing of seed ears. 
a. Methods of testing germination. 
Fungous diseases. 
Insect enemies. 
Uses of corn plant. 
History of plant. 
Marketing corn. 
a. Commercial grades, 
b. Corn centers of nation. 
Statistics. 
a. World’s production. 
b. Five largest corn-producing nations. 
c. Ten corn states of our nation. 
d. Colorado’s corn production. 
(1) Why not grown more generally in the irrigated 
lands. 
e. Our corn commerce is with what nations principally ? 
Judging samples of corn. 


Oats and Barley. Follow a similar plan for oats and barley. 


OUTLINE FOR Stupy oF RICE 


For rice the following plan may be followed: 


1 


bo 


Ns 


oO 


=I 


Botany of rice. 
a. Name of species, 
b. Character of growth. 
c. Composition of grain. 
Climate requirements. 


. Soil needs. 


Cultural methods. 
a. Preparation of seed bed. 
b. Seeding. 
c. Application of water. 
d, Cultivation. 


. Harvesting. 


a. Time. 
6. Method. 
Uses. 


. Statistical data. 


T4 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 


The Legume Group. beans and peas have been grown for 
many centuries, and have, until modern times, been gathered 
by hand. Hence they became known as legumes, from the 
Latin word /ego meaning “ I gather.” 

All plants which resemble peas and beans in their botan- 
ical nature, having seeds formed in pods or legumes and with 
similar blossom, leaf, and root habits, are called members of 
the legume family (Leguminosve). 

The following are the principal members of this family : 

1. Cultivated for seed. 

a. Common field and garden pea. 
4. Common field and garden bean. 
c. Horse or Windsor bean. 
d. Lentils. 
e. Lupines. 
J. Peanut. 
2. Cultivated for forage more than seed. 
a. Alfalta, 
b. Clover family. 
(1) White or Dutch. 
(2) Alsike or Swedish. 
(3) Common red. 
(4) Crimson or scarlet. 
(5) Mammoth. 
(6) Japan or Lespedeza. 
(7) Vetch or tares. 
(8) Velvet beans. 
3. Cultivated for both seed and forage. 
a. Soy bean. 
b. Cowpea. 

The economic importance of legumes is tersely stated by 
Professor James of Ontario as follows: 

1. They have many leaves and are good for fodder. 

2. Their seeds are very rich in food materials. 

3. Their roots are generally long; therefore they are deep 
feeders. 


FIELD CROPS T5 


4, They take up free nitrogen from the air, and are there- 
fore easier on the soil than are cereals of root crops. 

Secure bottle samples of seeds of all members of this plant 
group and such native examples as can be found in the dis- 
trict. Lead students to decide what member or members 
are best adapted for growing in the school district. Have 
definite reasons given. 


OUTLINE 


1. Botanical name and description. 

2. Crown and stem growth. 

3. Root growth — root tubercles. 

4. Inflorescence. 

5. Seed information. 

6. Importance of good seed. 

7. Seed-bed preparation. 

8. Seeding alfalfa. 

9. Cultural treatment the first season. 

10. Cultural treatment the second season. 

11. Cultural treatment the third and successive seasons. 

12. Rules to observe in curing alfalfa. 

15. Harvesting for seed — suggestions. 

14. Alfalfa the basis for a crop rotation. 

a. Five essentials as a soil improver. 
b. Plowing up alfalfa: how to do it; when to do it. 

15. Coburn’s “ Quartette of Alfalfa Vexations.” 

16. Smith’s « Alfalfa M/usts and Don'ts.” 

17. Uses and value of alfalfa to the farm and the farmer. 

18. Research work — test of viability and purity of seed used in 
neighborhood. Determine different leaf and stem types in a given 
area of a field of alfalfa three or more years old. Determine average 
number of stems on crowns one year old; two years old; three years 
old; four years old; five years old. Can a crown be found in the 
district with three hundred or more stems? Find length of root 
under normal conditions of one-year-old plant, two-year-old plant, 
three-year-old plant. Determine what is now being done by plant 
breeders to improve this plant. Are honeybees desirable in alfalfa 
fields ? 


TO ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 


Crop Rotation. The preceding lessons on field crops will 
suggest a general plan for studying all crops of special inter- 
est to the school. It is very important to call attention to 
rotation of crops, and a brief outlne is here given to be 
used after work on the special crops is completed. 


Tue Resu_tts WHEN EpucATION IS APPLIED TO FARMING 


OUTLINE 


1. Reasons for crop rotation. 

2. Planning a rotation. 

3. Choice of crops and rotation, 

a. Things which must be considered. 
(1) Adaptation to locality. 
(2) Yield or producing power. 
(5) Quality. 
(4) Market condition for crop grown. 

All plans for farm rotations should include some feed crops which 
can be fed upon the farm to some form of live stock, and the barnyard 
compost hauled back to the fields to renew the stock of plant food. 

}. All rotations should have at least one legume crop. Why? 
c. All rotations should have at least one cash or money crop. 


FIELD CROPS 17 


4. Length of rotation. 
a. Differs with size of farm. 
6. Differs with kind of farming practiced. 
5. Plan a practical rotation for the home farm and bring into class 
for general discussion. 


In all this work let the idea prevail that a rotation must 
keep up soil fertility and at the same time equalize farm work, 
seeking to distribute to best advantage throughout the year. 


INSECTS AND BIRDS 


BY PROFESSOR S. ARTHUR JOHNSON, COLORADO STATE 
AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE 


Introductory. The way to begin nature study and agriculture 
is to begin. The material to be used is that which is at hand. 
What this will be in a given locality no one can foretell, and 
probably it will not be the same two years in succession, 

The view to be kept constantly in mind is this: that 
which ultimately will be of greatest value to those whose 
business it is to come in close contact with the soil. Nature 
study has a very close relation to all agricultural pursuits, 
for it is the laws of life that we wish to discover, and he 
who enters most keenly and sympathetically into these pur- 
suits is best equipped to so control them that he may obtain 
the best results. 

Equipment. 1. Hund lens. The first article of importance 
will be a good hand lens of rather high power. The Bausch 
and Lomb lens, No. 6, costs seventy-five cents, and will serve 
for most purposes. 

2. Insect Net. The next in importance is an insect net. 
This can be made or purchased from dealers. To make the 
net, take a stout wire about four feet long and bend it into 
a circle about a foot in diameter, leaving four inches or more 
of each end free to bend down by the sides of the handle. 
Cut a groove across one end of the handle and a few inches 
down each side. Lay the wire ring in the groove across the 
top and fasten it down with small staples. Then bend the 
ends of the wire down and fasten firmly in the grooves at 

78 


INSECTS AND BIRDS i 


the sides of the handle. The net is made from some sort 
of light material. Bobbinet or linen scrim is the best, but 
cheese cloth or other material will serve very well. The net 
should be nearly twice as deep as is the diameter of the ring, 
and made round at the bottom. Nets may be purchased from 
dealers at from one to three dollars each. 

3. Collecting Bottle. The collecting bottle is made by tak- 
ing any wide-mouthed bottle, putting a piece of cyanide of 
potassium in the bottom, covering this with sawdust, and 
pouring soft plaster of Paris over the top. It is well to fit a 
piece of blotting paper over the plaster of Paris, and keep 
some pieces in the bottle to take up excess of moisture. 
The cyanide of potassium is one of the most violent poisons 
known, and the bottle must be labeled POISON, and care 
taken that the fumes are not breathed. 

4. Insect Boxes. Cigar boxes serve very well for retaining 
collections temporarily, but are not sufficiently tight to make 
permanent receptacles. 

5. Notebooks. Records of some kind should be made of 
these lessons, both for the purpose of impressing them and 
for the educational value of the work. Sketches should be 
made of the different stages in the insects’ lives, and accounts 
written of the habits, characteristics, and other points dis- 
covered. These might have been indicated in the outlines, 
but it is better to trust to the teacher’s judgment to select 
the times and occasions. Ordinary composition books will 
answer every purpose. 


STUDYING INSECTS 


The Cabbage Butterfly. This common garden pest will fur- 
nish a series of lessons which will be typical of a whole 
group of insects, the moths and butterflies. Each kind of 


80 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 


insect has its own life history, of course, but each stage in 
the life of the cabbage buttertly will be duplicated in a more 
or less general way by any one of this great order of insects. 

The larvie can usually be found in abundance in any cab- 
bage patch. They are not true worms, like the earthworm, 
but caterpillars. They are commonly called worms, but the 
children should be taught the distinction. Worms never 
develop into more highly organized animals. They are al- 
most the exact shade of green of the cabbage leaf, and when 
full-grown are a little over an inch in length. They will be 
found of all sizes, and more abundant, on the lower sides of 
the leaves than on the upper. A large number of these should 
be collected and brought to the schoolroom, where they may 
be kept in “ breeding cages,” which are nothing more or less 
than jelly glasses, or other suitable receptacles, preferably 
of glass. 

In caring for the caterpillars do not put more than three 
or four in each cage, and supply them with fresh food each 
day. Place a thin piece of muslin over the top of the glass, 
and fasten it on with a rubber band. On Friday, when the 
cages must be left till Monday, they should be covered with 
tin covers to keep the leaves fresh. 

But to return, the search over the cabbage plants should 
not be confined to securing caterpillars alone. Careful scrutiny 
will almost surely reveal the eggs of the butterflies. These 
are tiny yellow objects firmly attached by one end to the sur- 
face of the leaf, more often beneath than above. These little 
objects are perhaps three times as long as broad, and dome- 
shaped, being pointed at the free end. With a good hand lens 
tiny ridges may be seen running from the base to the top, and 
between these, are little dashes running crosswise. 

The eggs will hatch within a few days and the baby cater- 
pillars be an object of wonder. Observe the large size of the 


INSECTS AND BIRDS 81 


caterpillar compared with the egg, the relatively large size of 
the head, the color, and tiny hairs which cover the body. 

With the large larvee taken on the plants make out the 
general shape and ground color. Are there any markings ? 
Describe them. Note the hairs which cover the body. Into 
how many segments, or rings, is the body divided? How 
does the head compare with the size of the rest of the body ? 
Has it eyes? Where are they situated? How does the larvé 
eat ? Which way do the jaws move? How does it walk ? Do 
the feet move in the same way as those of the horse or dog ? 
Count the legs. How many kinds? What differences in 
shape? The first six are called true legs, the others prop legs. 
To what part of the body are the true legs attached? Do 
they have any relation to the body rings ? 

To which segments (counting from the head) are the prop 
legs attached? (Four pairs on successive segments, and the 
pair on the last segment, make up the ten.) The front legs 
are called true legs because they are replaced later by the 
legs of the butterfly ; the prop legs disappear. Examine the 
place where the caterpillar rests on the leaf. See if you can 
find the bed of fine silken threads under it. With a hand 
lens examine the sides of the larger worms. On each seg- 
ment is a little dark ring. This marks the place where the 
air holes enter the body. The insect breathes through these 
little holes and the air is carried by tiny tubes to all parts 
of the body. 

Many of the larger caterpillars will go into pupation soon, 
perhaps within a day or two. Usually they come to the top 
of the breeding cage and spin a silk bed on which to rest. 
The hind prop legs are firmly secured in a tuft of silk, and 
a beautiful silk loop is spun, which passes over the back. 
A caterpillar in this condition should be passed about the 
class so that all may observe what has been done. 


82 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 


Within the next twenty-four hours the last skin will be 
shed and the pupa revealed. The old cast skin will be found 
attached to the posterior end of the pupa. It is very frail and 
much crumpled, but the head shield retains its shape very 
well. The pupa of the insect, of course, is not made suddenly 
out of the caterpillar, but the changes have been going on in- 
side for some time, though hidden by the outer skin. The 
skeleton of an insect is really on the outside and cannot grow 
as rapidly as the insect, so it is necessary, from time to time, 
to throw off the old skeleton, in order to get a new one. 
These changes are called molts, and usually occur several 
times during the insect’s life. 

Note the form of the pupa; also the relation of its color 
to its surroundings. By careful examination the wings of the 
future butterfly, and other parts of the body, may be seen be- 
neath the delicate cuticle. See the way the pupa is attached 
and hung by the silk. 

The adult butterfly will probably emerge in the warm 
schoolroom within two weeks unless the worms were col- 
lected so late that the winter brood has been taken, in which 
ease they will probably not appear until the following spring. 

The butterflies are white, marked with black. The males 
have one round black spot on the front wing, the females, 
two. The adults may be kept in confinement in the school- 
room for observation. Often they may be induced to sip a 
little sweetened water from the fingers or a drop in a con- 
venient place. Call attention to the parts of the insect’s 
body: the head; the thorax, or middle part; and the abdo- 
men. Insects asa class have three parts to the body and get 
their name from this character, for dizsect means “ cut into.” 
They are characterized, too, by having six legs, and are called 
technically Hexapoda, which means six feet. How many 
wings? To what part of the body are they attached? How 


INSECTS AND BIRDS 83 


many legs? Where are they found? What differences 
between the front and hind wings? Notice the knobbed 
feelers attached to the head. How does the butterfly eat ? 
What does it do with its long sucking tube when not eating ? 

If desired, the adults may be killed in the cynanide bottle 
for further study, but it will be better to collect specimens 
out of doors for this purpose. The scholars become attached 
to their pets, and it is better to give the butterflies their 
hberty. 

Other Larva. If requested, the pupils will bring in other 
larvee that they find on plants or wandering about at this 
season of the year. These may be kept in cages. If they 
are found on plants, they should be fed with leaves of the 
kind of plant from which they were taken. Most of those 
found wandering about will be full fed; that is, they will 
eat no more, but are seeking a place to pupate. The larve 
of moths will, perhaps, spin cocoons or bury themselves in 
the moist sand which should be provided in the bottom of 
the cage. 

Hairy caterpillars called woolly bears are quite common. 
They are of two kinds, — those with a thick coat of hair, 
brown in the middle part of the body and black at both 
ends, and others with mixed hair over the entire body. The 
former transforms into the ded/a moth, but will not spin a 
cocoon until the next spring. They cannot be easily kept 
over in the warm schoolroom. The latter will spin cocoons 
the coming fall, weaving the hair of the body in with the 
silk. Watch this process. Certain large caterpillars with 
horns or spikes on the posterior end of the body are the 
larvee of the humming-bird moths and change to the pupa 
form in the ground. Fill the cage half full of moist (not 
wet) sand, and after these larvee have disappeared in this a 
few days, carefully dig them out and show the chrysalds to 


84 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 


the pupils. Larvie of the codling moth may be taken under 
bands on apple trees; the boll worms in ears of corn; the 
hop merchants on hops; the cotton worm on cotton; the fall 
army worm on grains and grasses. 

The group of insects which have practically the stages 
described in this brief outline belong to the order called 
Lepidoptera. All moths and butterflies come under this 
head. The next insect that we study will belong to an- 
other order. 

The Squash Bug. Another common pest which is often 
available for insect study is the squash bug. Almost any 
garden or field where pumpkins or squashes are growing, will 
produce specimens for study. The only disagreeable feature 
in this work is the offensive odor which the insects emit. 
Numbers of them should be collected and killed in the 
cyanide bottle. They may be exposed in the open air for 
half a day before the study is to begin. 

These insects are true bugs, rusty black in color and about 
half an inch in length when full-grown. The adults are 
ovoid in form with flat backs. Find the three regions of the 
body as in the butterfly. What is the shape of the head ? 
Note the long feelers attached. How many joints in them ? 
Find the compound eyes. Examine the mouth parts. Note 
the long sucking tube which extends back between the fore 
legs when not in use. The children will have to be informed 
as to the way in which these insects get their living. Within 
the tube under the head are four long bristles which are 
thrust into the tissues of the plant, causing the sap to flow. 
With the sucking tube, or beak, this sap is drawn up by the 
insect. Compare with the biting mouth parts of the cabbage 
eaterpillar. It is very important to draw out this informa- 
tion, for on it rests the use of two great classes of remedies 
for combating insect pests. For insects which chew their 


INSECTS AND BIRDS 85 


food, like the cabbage caterpillar, we may often put some 
poison on the leaves which they will eat. For the insects 
which suck their food we cannot use such a poison because 
they will put their beaks through it and suck the juice un- 
harmed. Therefore we must use something which will kill 
the insects when put on their bodies, called a contact poison. 

Examine the wings. How many pairs? Note how they 
are laid over each other on the back. Remove the upper 
wing for examination. Is it the same texture throughout ? 
From which part of the body do the wings and legs come ? 
Compare with the butterfly. Note that the legs and body 
generally are made up of joints or rings. The young of these 
insects hatch from eggs laid by the parents and get their 
living in exactly the same way. They are gray in color and 
have the abdomen more rounded than the adults and are 
devoid of wings. During their lives they shed the outer 
skin a number of times. 

If squash bugs are not to be had, there are a great many 
others which may be substituted. Among them are the box- 
elder bug, stink bugs, ete. 

The order to which the bugs belong is called Hemiptera 
because of this double structure of the wing. It includes all 
those insects which have mouth parts built upon the plan of 
the squash bug. Besides those already mentioned, there are 
chinch bugs, green-plant bugs, cicadas or harvest flies, plant 
lice, and water striders. The so-called “green bug” on wheat 
is a plant louse. Plant lice are to be found on all plants, 
and many of them cause great damage. Among such are 
the corn-rust louse, apple louse, hop louse, and lice of dif- 
ferent kinds on house plants. Leaf hoppers of many kinds 
are injurious to grapes, cotton, and many other plants. 

Other Work. Many kinds of bugs may be collected and shown 
to the pupils until they have the order firmly fixed in mind. 


SO ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 


Hornets. The hornets and wasps belong to an order of insects 
which, in many respects, are the most wonderful in the world, 
and to which we owe more of the beauty of the earth in which 
we live than to any other group. Here come the bees, tame 
and wild, the ants, the hornets, the wasps, the sawflies, and a 
very large proportion of the parasities on other insects. 

The fact that hornets sting will deter some from the study, 
but if the directions here given are followed, the danger will 
be greatly lessened, if not altogether obviated. 

The first step will be to interview the boys and find out 
where a hornet’s nest is located. If one can be found which 
hangs from the limb of a tree within reach of the ground, 
the labor and risk will be greatly lessened. 

Capture of the Nest. After dark, preferably on a cool night, 
the party should start out armed with a little cotton, a tight 
paper bag large enough to inclose the nest, and a lantern. 
The party halts some distance from the nest so as not to 
disturb the watchful colony. The lantern is held in such a 
way that sufficient light is thrown on the nest to work by. 
One of the party shps cautiously forward and quickly slips 
a wad of cotton about the size of one’s thumb into the hole 
at the bottom of the nest. The paper bag is then drawn 
quickly over the nest and crumpled tightly about the limb 
above. Cut the limb away and the entire colony is captured. 

The insects may be killed in a number of ways. A little 
opening may be made in one corner of the bag and _ this 
thrust in the mouth of the cyanide bottle. The hornets will 
rush out at this opening and be captured. Gasoline, carbon 
bisulphide, or chloroform may be poured into the bag on the 
nest and the inmates killed in this way. Some one may be 
stung during this operation, but that is part of the game. 

Study of the Hornets. When the hornets are killed they 
should be carefully separated into three groups according to 


INSECTS AND BIRDS 87 


the forms. In the early fall three forms, or, as they are some- 
times improperly called, “ sexes,” will be found. The smaller, 
and usually the most numerous kind, are the workers. The 
largest and most robust ones are the young queens, while 
the ones intermediate in size, which are slender and have 
long antennie, are the males. The males may be distinguished 
from those of the other groups because they have one more 
segment in the abdomen and one more in the antenne. One 
good nest will furnish plenty of specimens for the whole class 
to study. Provide each pupil with one or more. 

See if this insect has the three parts to the body that the 
others studied had. Note the colors of the body. Examine 
the head. Where are the eyes? Note the large ones at the 
sides of the head. Examine the top of the head with a lens 
to discover three small simple eyes, — ocelli. Examine the 
mouth parts. Are they made for biting or sucking? How 
many wings? What is their texture? See the heavy lines 
(veins) in them. Note that the fore wings fold lengthwise 
when the insect is at rest. How is the abdomen joined to the 
thorax? What is its shape? Compare the different parts of 
this insect with the others studied. 

The order to which the hornet belongs is called Hymenop- 
tera, which means “clear wings.” The groups which come 
in this order have already been named. 

Study of the Nest. Note the outer form of the nest, — how 
the layers are put on, and the texture of the “ paper” of which 
they are composed. The hornets gather substances with which 
to make the paper by scraping fibers from weatherbeaten wood, 
dead trees, boards of houses, fences, etc., with their jaws, or 
mandibles, and carry them to the nest in round balls the size 
of a small pea. Arriving at the nest, the pulp is worked 
over with the mandibles and mixed with saliva which makes 
it stick, Careful examination of the surface of the nest will 


88 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 


show where each one of these pellets has been put on in a 
tiny strip. With a pair of scissors cut through the paper 
envelope around the middle of the nest, beginning at the 
hole at the bottom. Remove the paper from half of the nest. 
Note the layers of paper and the way in which they are put 
together. Note the layers of combs. What is the shape of the 
cells? Do they extend in the same direction as those of the 
honeybee? How are the combs held together? Examine 
the cells to see what they contain. Doubtless there will be 
plenty of larvie. These may be drawn out with a pair of for- 
ceps for examination. Note the color, shape, head. Compare 
with the larvee of the cabbage butterfly. Examine cells for 
eves. Study them. Many cells doubtless have white caps 
over them. These caps were spun by the larvie, like the 
cocoons of moths. Remove some of the caps and draw out 
the inhabitants. These are the pupwe of future adults. Com- 
pare with adults. Now note that this insect has the same 


stages in life as the cabbage butterfly, — ege, larva, pupa, 


adult. These changes that come in an insect’s life are called 
metamorphosis. An insect which has all four is said to have 
a complete metamorphosis. The metamorphosis of the squash 
bug is said to be incomplete because it has no inactive pupa 
state when feed is not taken. 

History of the Nest. A hornet’s nest is used but one year. 
The young queens found in the nest will go out when cold 
weather comes and find places where they may hide during 
the winter. The others, both drones and workers, die in the 
fall. In the spring each queen that has lived through will 
start a new nest. At first she does all of the work her- 
self and raises a brood of workers. After that she does 
nothing but attend to the work of egg laying, the workers 
making the cells and nest and feeding the larve. The 
drones and young queens are only produced in the fall of 


INSECTS AND BIRDS 89 


the year, so that the queens may live over winter to produce 
new nests again. 

Other Work. If a hornet’s nest is not available, other in- 
sects in this order may be selected. The common wasps, 
with their nests, may usually be easily secured. Often the 
adults may be found on the schoolroom windows and cap- 
tured in the cyanide bottle. Honeybees may be secured in 
sufficient numbers for study from the homes of scholars 
where bees are kept. A piece of comb, especially that which 
contains brood larvee, will illustrate the points which are to 
be brought out in the life history. In using the honeybee it 
will be well to read up on the subject or visit an apiary and 
ask questions. Follow the outlines given here for the hornet 
as a general guide. The following points may be added. 
Note that the bee is clothed with dense hairs. On the hind 
legs it may be noticed that one joint has a fringe of curved 
hairs. This is a pollen basket. The pollen gathered in this 
is carried to the hive and used for the food of young bees. 
Gather all the information possible from scholars living in 
homes where bees are kept. The currant worms have a very 
different life history from that of the bees and wasps, but 
the adults look very much like them, and they belong to the 
same order. 

Ground Beetles. Large beetles may commonly be found 
under boards and stones, and killed in the cyanide bottle. 
The larger forms will be most valuable for study. Sometimes 
there is danger of confusing these with the darkling beetles. 
The ground beetles have larger mouth parts and are much 
more active than the other kind. 

Having collected a good number of these, go over the 
anatomy that has been learned from the other insects. Note 
that there are two pairs of wings. The outer pair are shell- 
like and meet in a line down the middle of the back. This 


90 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 


characteristic is the one that separates this order from the 
others. All beetles are called Coleoptera, which means 
“sheath wing.” Of what use are the hard wing covers to the 
insect ? The Coleoptera belong to a very large order, one of 
the most important economically. Here are found the potato 
beetles, the ladybirds, the cottonwood-leaf beetles, May 
beetles, and many others. Lift the upper wings and find the 
thin membraneous ones underneath. See how they are folded. 
Note how different in texture they are from the strong upper 
ones. (It is quite possible that the teacher will find forms 
in which the lower wings are not present.) In flying, the 
insect uses only the under pair, the upper pair being held out 
stitly at the sides, serving, perhaps, as parachutes. 

Now examine the mouth parts. If the specimens are fresh, 
these may be separated out with a pin. In front of the mouth 
is the upper lip, or labrum, which runs as a narrow strip 
across the lower edge of the face. Below this are the quite 
prominent jaws, or mandibles. Notice their shape. Which 
way do they move? To what part of the head are they 
attached? Just below the mandibles is to be found a second 
pair, the maxille, moving the same way as the mandibles. 
Note their shape and the jointed appendages attached to 
them. Still under these is the tiny lower lip, or labium. 
Does it have jointed appendages also / 

The teacher should go over these points in private in order 
to be able to help the pupils in their study. 

Examine the beetles carefully and note that the legs are 
made up of joints resembling those of a stovepipe. Note that 
the body itself is made up of rings. What about the antennie 
Are there any animals other than insects which have the 
bodies made up of joints? Compare with spiders. Crabs, 
crayfish, and lobsters are formed in the same way. How about 
centipedes ? Because all of these animals have this peculiar 


INSECTS AND BIRDS 91 


characteristic, they are put into one great group and are 
called Arthropoda, which means “ jointed foot.” The ground 
beetles Lve upon insects and other small animals, and are 
therefore very beneficial to mankind. 

Life History of Beetles. The life history of beetles is best 
studied by following some leaf-eating species, such as the 
potato beetle. The eggs of this beetle are laid in clusters on 
the food plants. The larvie are reddish brown, stout grubs, 
which eat the leaves. They molt several times and pupate 
in the ground. All beetles have complete metamorphosis. 
The larvee of ground beetles are long white grubs, which are 
capable of moving about quite rapidly and live chiefly in the 
eround. 

Other Work. Collect numbers of beetles of as many varie- 
ties as possible and compare with regard to form, color, ete. 

Studies of Common Birds. Bird study is undoubtedly the 
most popular branch of animal nature work. The reasons 
for this are many. Birds are more numerous than any other 
available group of vertebrates. They are also more in evidence 
than the others, for with their ability to fly they are less fear- 
ful of exposing themselves to view; in fact, that phase of 
their lives must make them conspicuous at times, whether 
they will or no. Add to these the features of song, nesting 
habits, companionableness, and peculiar habits, such as flock- 
ing and migration, and there is sufficient to attract the atten- 
tion of all. 

Outline for Bird Observation in the Field.! A notebook should 
be made ready by preparing each page with the numbered 
words in capitals in the following outline. The part included 
in parentheses should be committed to memory so as to aid 
in taking notes. As the bird is observed, the note should be 
made opposite the appropriate place on the page. 


1 Anna Botsford Comstock, in ‘*‘ Home Nature Study ’’ Course. 


ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 


NAME - — Date 
I. Size. (Compared with the English sparrow, robin, crow.) 
Il. Corors. (Bright, dull.) 
III. MarkIncGs: 
1. Top or HEAD. 
2. BACK: 
3. BREAST. 
4. WINGS. 
6.) AGE; 
IV. SHAPE: 
1. Bopy. (Long and slender, short and stocky.) 
2. Birt. (Short and stout, long and_ slender, long and 
heavy, hooked, curved.) 
3. Tart. (Forked, notched, square, fan-shaped.) 
V. Movements. (Ilop, walk, creep up trees, bob head and wag 
tail, twitch tail from side to side.) 
Vi. Fricur: 


Vil. 


VIII. 
1d.¢ 


1. Fasr. (Direct, abrupt and zigzag, smooth and circling.) 

2. Stow. (Flapping, sailing or soaring, flapping and sail- 

ing alternately.) 

LocaLities FREQUENTED. (Gardens, orchards, roadsides, 
fences, meadows, thickets, woods, rivers, lakes, and 
marshes. ) 

Foop AND MANNER OF OBTAINING Ir. 

SONG : 

1. MANNER AND TIME OF SrnGinG. (From perch, in the 
air.) 

2. CHARACTER OF Sona. (Plaintive, happy, long, short.) 

3. CALL Notes. (Signal, warning, anger, fear, pain, pro- 
test.) 


Winter Care of Birds. The winter months offer, in many 
respects, admirable opportunities for the study of birds, if for 
no other reason than the paucity of other life at this season. 

In severe spells of weather, when food is largely covered 
with snow, the strenuousness of the lives of these feathered 
beings may be greatly lessened by thoughtful care in feed- 


ing. 


Birds may be attracted to the school grounds and kept 


INSECTS AND BIRDS 93 


there for study until warm weather calls them away to their 
summer homes. 

The food of a bird must be suited to its needs, of course, 
and a variety of kinds will attract a variety of guests. 
Crumbs from the dinner pail scattered on the snow will 
draw many of the smaller varieties, such as sparrows, juncos, 
chickadees, and others. Most of the woodpeckers will take 
meat from the limbs of trees and similar places. Tie lumps 
of suet securely to the under sides of limbs of trees. The 
limbs selected should be those which extend upward at an 
angle of at least forty-five degrees, otherwise the meat will 
be too difficult for the birds to reach. Nuthatches some- 
times carry away lumps of this to hide. In order to pre- 
vent such wholesale methods, some people wrap the meat 
with wire in such a way that only small bits can be pecked 
off. Large bones which contain marrow can be split and 
fastened to trees or posts in a similar manner. A great many 
sparrows and finches are fond of seeds. Their wants may be 
supplied by seeds of hemp, sunflower, box elder, and others. 
The teacher is wise who stores up the seeds of plants and 
trees in the season when they may be had in quantities. 

A good plan is to provide a feeding box on the top of a 
post or the limb of a tree. If this box can be protected by 
a roof, it will be more serviceable to both man and bird. We 
should always remember that the feeding of the birds should 
be as regular as possible, and when once begun, should be con- 
tinued as long as it is necessary for the good of our charges. 

There are many things to learn about the bird visitors, 
and one of the first is the names of the common kinds. To 
know every kind of bird at sight is expert work, and is only 
acquired after long study and experience, but any one may 
know those that are most common. The chief groups of 
birds are given in another part of this outline, so that the 


94 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 


student may learn something of the way in which the natu- 
ralist arranges them. Common names often cover a multi- 
tude of sins. The little brown and slate-colored birds which 
we know as snowbirds are juncos. There are so many kinds 
of them so nearly alike that few people know the differences. 
Junco is the only name that most of us need to know. The 
horned larks that stay with us in winter are a different kind 
from those that nest here. The former come from the far 
North, while those that are here in summer seek a warmer 
country in which to spend the winter. Among other birds 
that we are apt to see are the jays, grouse, flicker, crow 
blackbird, waxwing, and robin. 

Note the actions of the birds as much as possible, manner 
of flight, call notes, manner of taking food, method of using 
the feet in walking, hopping, perching, etc. Note the indi- 
vidual characteristics of the birds, temperament, sociability, 
flocking habits. Other items will suggest themselves as the 
study proceeds. 

Grasshoppers. During the spring months insect life appears 
on the stage in ever-increasing abundance until it reaches its 
gala day in midsummer. Among the first insects to be found 
in the spring are some of the beetles and grasshoppers. Most 
kinds of grasshoppers die in the fall of the year after the ege- 
laying season is over, but some live until spring in the half- 
or full-grown state. Individuals may be found as soon as 
the warm days appear, and should be killed in the cyanide 
bottle for study. 

The grasshopper is one of the classical insects for study of 
anatomy in biology, because its generalized form gives a fair 
idea of the whole class of insects and because its large size 
permits of easy manipulation. 

After the grasshoppers have been in the bottle for several 
hours they will be ready for study. Have the pupils place 


INSECTS AND BIRDS 95 


them on the table with the back uppermost and the head 
from them. Note the three parts of the body. Examine the 
head as with the beetle. Note the long antenne and com- 
pound eyes. The mouth parts may be worked out and glued 
to pieces of paper on which the names may be written, or the 
older pupils may make sketches of them. 

The thorax and wings should be thoroughly examined. 
What is their shape? texture? structure? Note how the 
lower pair are folded when the insect is at rest. The adult 
erasshoppers differ from the young in that the wings of the 
former are fully developed. In the young they are repre- 
sented by wing pads which are not sufficiently developed 
for use. 

The life history of grasshoppers will prove interesting 
material. The eggs are laid, most commonly in the fall, in 
patches of dry ground, such as paths, ditch banks, etc. The 
mother grasshopper makes a hole in the ground with her 
abdomen, and then hnes it with a fluid which makes it practi- 
cally water-tight. In this neat little package twenty or thirty 
eggs may be laid. The top is then sealed over and the whole 
covered with loose earth. By digging the loose earth in the 
places indicated, these “pods” of eggs, as they are called, 
may often be disclosed. If the eggs are laid in the fall, they 
will hatch in the following spring. The young resemble the 
adults, but differ from them in being wingless and having 
very large heads in proportion to the rest of the body. There 
are about four molts and the metamorphosis is incomplete. 

The grasshopper belongs to a different order of insects 
from any that we have studied before. Because of the 
straight upper wings they are called Orthoptera. In this 
order are also found katydids, crickets, and some others. 

Other Work. Watch from March on for the coming of new 
birds in their migrations to the north. 


96 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 


The coming of the frogs from their winter quarters may 
be looked for in March. 

Cutworms. The seedlings and other plants in the garden 
are often injured during this and the next month by cut- 
worms. These are grayish or brownish caterpillars which 
hide by day and eat by night. The evidence of their pres- 
ence is often the cut-off plants of the garden. The culprits 
may usually be found in the loose earth within a few inches 
of the place where the injury is done. They bury them- 
selves to the depth of an inch or two after dragging in some 
of the vegetation that they have cut off as food. Look under 
pieces of board, clods of earth, and other protected places in 
the field for these caterpillars. When disturbed they have 
the habit of curling up and playing “possum,” whereby they 
may usually be distinguished from others. 

These caterpillars may be kept in a breeding cage in which 
a little earth is put. They may be fed on green vegetation 
of almost any kind, but prefer clover or lettuce leaves. They 
will pupate in the ground about the last of May or the first 
of June, and the moths will appear about two weeks later. 
The cutworms are among the most injurious insects that we 
have. The damage is done chiefly in the spring, when they 
cut off young plants of many kinds. 

Other Work. The bluebirds, robins, and meadow larks will 
be abundant during April and should be studied. This and 
the next month will be the best for the study of bird songs. 
For general bird study, follow the outhne given for bird 
study during the winter months. 

Bees and Flowers. Teachers are all familiar with the fact 
that many flowers depend upon insects for fertilization. To 
make this study valuable it should follow a study of flowers 
which will acquaint the scholar with the parts and their 
uses. They should know the meaning of fertilization and its 


INSECTS AND BIRDS. oT 


use to the plant. Having proceeded thus far, it will be well 
to call attention to the different kinds of pollen. Some pollen 
is dry and dusty, such as that of the flowers of the maple, 
and may be blown from tree to tree. The other kind, like 
that found in peas and most conspicuous flowers, is sticky 
and must be carried by some other means. Collect some 
bees over flowers and note the pollen which clings to the 
hairs over the body and may sometimes be found in lumps 
on the legs and abdomen. Watch the bees collect it. What 
do they do with it? (Store it in the nests or feed it to the 
young.) What may happen when a bee with pollen from 
one flower clinging to it goes to another? Study the flowers 
for the adaptations that they have for securing cross fertili- 
zation. This is one of the most interesting subjects that we 
have, and the literature is abundant. Space here prevents 
going into detail. Other insects than bees are engaged in 
the work of cross fertilization. The butterflies, many flies, 
and some beetles help to accomplish this. Many flowers 
depend almost entirely on insects for this office. 

Other Work. Continue the study of the different groups of 
insects and their life histories. 

The birds will be nesting in May, many of them about 
the houses of the children. Watch this process. See how 
much time is consumed in building a nest. How is it made ? 
Of what material? Note the difference between the inside 
and outside of the nest, its shape, location, when the eggs are 
laid, how many, how long before hatching, how the young are 
fed, upon what. In short, gain all the information possible 
along these lines. 


LIVE STOCK 


BY PROFESSOR W. L. CARLYLE, COLORADO STATE 
AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE 


Introduction. In our present educational system in the 
rural sections the one great difficulty hes in getting boys 
and girls from the farm to see the points of contact between 
their studies and their future life work. There is altogether 
too large a percentage of the young people from the country 
districts who leave school between the fifth and eighth grades 
simply because they cannot see what value their study is to 
be to them in their future life work on the farm. This out- 
line is substituted with the idea that it will tend to interest 
these young people in advanced education along live-stock 
lines. The subjects for the lessons are briefly outlined and 
may be elaborated to almost any extent in the judgment of 
the teacher. 

What the Human Family gets from Live Stock. I. From 
cattle: milk, butter, cheese, beef, veal, tallow, and hides for 
leather. 

2. From sheep: wool for clothing, mutton, and soft leather 
for gloves, ete. 

3. From swine: pork, such as ham and bacon, lard and 
sausage. 

4. From poultry: eggs, and meat products such as chicken, 
turkey, goose, and duck. 

A brief outline of the characteristics and qualities of the 
various meat products should be given, calling attention to 
such products as eggs, milk, butter, and lard in the daily 
menu of the human race. 

98 


LIVE STOCK 99 


For the older pupils, a study of the statistics of the classes, 
types, and breeds of the various kinds, with their estimated 
value taken from the census reports for state and county, will 
be interesting and valuable. 

Importance of Horses in Our Civilization. Dwell upon our de- 
pendence upon this animal for field labor —in_ producing 
crops, fruits, and vegetables, and their transportation to mar- 
ket, ete. An outline of the early history of the horse and its 
association with mankind from the origin of history to the 
present time will be valuable and helpful to the student not 
only in many phases of his work in history but in his lie 
work as well. 

Types and Breeds of Draft Horses. Particular reference should 
be given to the prevailing climatic and other conditions con- 
stituting the environment of the various types and breeds in 
their native countries. Trace the effect of environment, both 
natural and artificial, on the characteristics of the various 
breeds. The characteristics and utility of the different breeds 
should be taught. 

Breeds of Light Horses. These may be made very interest- 
ing lessons by tracing the early history of the Arabian horse 
through the Thoroughbred, and down through the American 
trotter and the American saddle horse to our present types 
as we find them in the United States. Reference may also be 
made to the various breeds of light horses and the extent to 
which the Arabian blood has improved and developed them. 

Types and Breeds of Beef Cattle. These lessons may follow 
the same general outline as is given for beef cattle, noting 
how the demand of any particular interest of a people has 
changed and modified the type and utility of the animals they 
have developed. 

Types of Sheep. Wild sheep are found in Asia and North 
America, the latter being called Rocky Mountain sheep. 


100 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 


From the wild sheep of Asia are descended our breeds of 
domesticated sheep. Early biblical history speaks of Cain 
as the first shepherd, so undoubtedly flocks of sheep were 
herded as a source of profit centuries before history was 
written. Woolen goods were manufactured in Asia two 
thousand years before the Christian era, and the fine wools 
of Italy were greatly improved while Roine was still a repub- 
lic. Prior to the Christian era fine-wooled sheep existed in 
Spain, and these were improved by the introduction of fine- 
wooled sheep from Italy. 

The breeds of sheep of to-day are classified as follows : 

1. Fine-wooled sheep. 

2. Mutton sheep. 

a. Medium-wooled. 
b. Loneg- or coarse-wooled. 

Fine-Wooled Sheep. These are descendants of the Spanish 
sheep, and have been improved greatly in Spain, France, Ger- 
many, and North America. They are bred chietly for the 
value of their fleece, and are not well adapted for meat pro- 
duction, being light in weight and hard to fatten. You have 
learned that the finer and longer the fiber of wool, the greater 
its value. But extreme fineness and great length are hard to 
get in combination, so that the fleeces of fine-wooled sheep are 
short, compared with the fleeces of coarse-wooled sheep. The 
fine fleeces also contain more yolk or oil than coarse fleeces, 
and on that aecount there is a less percentage of scoured 
wool to unscoured or raw wool. 

The Spaniards introduced sheep into North America soon 
after Columbus landed here. From these are descended the 
flocks of so-called “Mexican” sheep in Mexico, New Mexico, 
and Arizona. 

There are three types of fine-wooled sheep, — the wrinkly, 
Delaine, and smooth-bodied types. 


LIVE STOCK LOT: 


The wrinkly type are the smallest Merinos, with very fine, 
greasy fleeces, and wrinkles or folds of skin over the entire 
body. They are represented by the American Merino breed. 

The Delaine type has wrinkles only on the neck and flank, 
and is larger-bodied, with longer, drier wool. The wool is also 
somewhat coarser. All of the breeds of this type are called 
Delaine Merinos. 

The smooth-bodied type is free from wrinkles or has them 
only on the neck. They are the largest-bodied Merinos, and 
the wool is still longer, coarser, and drier than in the Delaine 
Merinos. There is only one breed of this type, namely the 
Rambouillet (pronounced Ram’buh lay). 

The Merinos are all very hardy because of their dense fleeces, 
and consequently are used more in the range industry than 
any other type. 

Mutton Sheep. It is not known just what was the origin of 
the sheep native to Great Britain. Undoubtedly they are from 
the continent of Europe. But regardless of the source of their 
stock, the British have given to the world nearly all of the 
improved breeds of mutton sheep, both medium-wooled and 
coarse-wooled. 

Medium-Wooled Sheep. Some of the medium-wooled sheep of 
England were raised in the hills, or “ downs,” as the hills are 
called, and so have taken the name of “down” breeds. These 
all have black or brown faces, and so are also sometimes called 
“black faces.” They are the Southdown, Suffolk Down, Hamp- 
shire Down, and Oxford Down. 

The other medium-wooled breeds are the Cheviot (a Scotch 
breed), the Dorset Horn, and the Tunis (an African breed). 
The Cheviot and the Dorset Horn both have white faces, and 
the Tunis a golden-brown face. 

All of these sheep have broader, deeper bodies than the 
fine-wooled sheep, have straighter backs and rumps, and are 


102 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 


much more easily fattened. Most of them are heavier breeds 
than the Merinos. They are, therefore, much better than 
Merinos for the production of mutton, but their fleeces are 
not nearly so dense, and consequently they are not so well 
adapted for range use the year round. They are used exten- 
sively, however, for producing lambs, which are sold the same 
summer they are born. Colorado lamb-feeding districts fatten 
many lambs of this type. 

Long- or Coarse-Wooled Sheep. The best known breeds of this 
typeare the Lincoln, Cotswold, and Leicester, all English breeds. 
The Black Faced Highland is a Scotch breed, and is small in 
hody, while the other three are the largest-bodied sheep in 
common use in America. All the long-wooled sheep are dis- 
tinguished by the fact that the wool hangs in long curls or 
spirals, and parts on the back. The wool on fine-wooled and 
medium-wooled sheep stands straight out from the body like 
bristles in a brush. 

The long-wooled sheep clip good heavy fleeces, and so are 
valuable for both mutton and wool; they are used for run- 
ning on the range the year round, as well as for producing 
mutton lambs. The long-wooled fleeces contain less oil or 
grease than any other class of wool. 

The Breeds and Types of Swine. Follow the same general out- 
line as noted in the beef-cattle lessons, dwelling particularly 
on the fact that the American people have developed more 
and better types and breeds of this class of stock than of any 
other, which is due very largely to the fact that swine reach 
maturity much earlier in life, and it requires less time and 
patience to effect improvement than in any of the other classes 
of live stock. 

Breeds and Types of Poultry. Give an idea of the amount 
and extent of the poultry interests in America, and of the 
comparative value of the poultry products produced in the 


LIVE STOCK 105 


United States as compared with the other products, such as 
grains, beef, hay, etc. The breeds and types may be studied 
and the interest stimulated in this very Lmportant branch of 
our live-stock industry, which may be made particularly 
interesting to boys and girls from the fact that all of them 
may very easily secure some of this stock to study and 
experiment with. 

Development and Importance of the Dairy Industry in America. 
The value of cleanliness, the transmission of disease through 
milk products, and the relation between the diseases of ani- 
mals and human beings, as in tuberculosis, typhoid fever, 
etc., explain how readily these diseases may be transmitted 
through meat and milk. 

Let the teacher enlarge on the following : 

Milk as a human food: its source of supply; its impor- 
tance and various methods of handling, bringing out the 
importance of cleanliness and freedom from taint and odors. 

Butter: its value, method of manufacturing, etc. 

Cheese: its value as a food; its importance ; varieties and 
methods of manufacture. 

In presenting the foregoing the teacher should not attempt 
to go into details too deeply. Some general information is 
what is desired, merely to stimulate the interest of the stu- 
dent in the everyday things with which he is constantly 
coming in contact, with the object in view of creating in him 
a thirst for more information which he should get later on 
in his college course. 


DOMESTIC SCIENCE 


BY PROFESSOR MARY F. RAUSCH, COLORADO STATE 
AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE 


Introduction. Sometimes domestic science in the rural 
schools has been opposed on the ground that an expensive 
building and equipment are necessary, but much good may 
be done without them. In many schools in different parts of 
the country the total cost of equipment has not exceeded 
twenty dollars, and in some instances it has not exceeded five 
dollars. In some cases a room in the basement has been se- 
cured, in others the end of a hall, and it is a common thing 
to find one end of a class room fitted up for the work. 

Often the boys are able to build a small cupboard for food 
and utensils, or even to put some shelves in a dry-goods box. 
The girls hem muslin for curtains. A small oil stove may 
be procured for three dollars, and some housekeeper is usually 
willing to donate one iron, so that the children may have a 
lesson in washing and ironing dish towels and napkins. 
Different farmers furnish fuel at stated times. 

If the teacher is enthusiastic, she will have no trouble in 
getting the parents to donate a saucepan, cups, spoons, a bow], 
a teakettle, a frying pan, knives and forks and plates, a dish 
pan, a draining pan, towels, and soap. A small table is neces- 
sary, and in emergency a dry-goods box covered with white 
oil cloth will do very well. Parents are glad to send milk, 
egos, butter, flour, and whatever else is necessary. A very 
small quantity of food stuffs is needed, as it is the principle 
which is shown at school; the pupils practice at home. 

104 


DOMESTIC SCIENCE 105 


Sometimes the children give an entertainment and use the 
proceeds to furnish the equipment. 

Industrial Training not in Homes To-day. The homes of to-day 
do not furnish industrial training. Formerly candles, car- 
pets, clothing, and many other necessities which now are 
purchased at the stores were made in the homes. Industrial 
home training of a generation ago trained the brain as well 
as the hand, and made fine men and women. ‘Times are 
changed for the better in many ways, but the love of house- 
keeping seems to be lost. It is the aim of domestic science 
to create a love and respect for the work of the hand, to 
teach habits of neatness and economy, and to fit a girl to be 
a good mother and housekeeper. 

Each girl who leaves the rural school should be able to 
take charge of the work in a small home — to know how 
to buy wisely, to prepare good food, to be clean, and to keep 
the home neat, to take care of the mending, to dress well, 
and with good taste. 

In class work the older pupils may assist the teacher. 
In many schools in Virginia the teacher gives instruction in 
practical cookery, housekeeping, and sewing, and conducts at 
the same time regular class-room recitations. 

The study of various kinds of food, where and how they 
are grown, forms a very important part of nature study and 
should be correlated with reading, writing, and language 
lessons. Let the pupil write an essay on wheat,—— where it 
grows, what it costs, what a good cheap food it is, and how 
many things may be made from it. 

Some Suggestive Lessons. The following suggestive lessons 
may be given by any teacher to pupils of any age. It has 
been found that young children in New York, Wisconsin, 
and other states are able to do this work intelligently and 
to put it in practice in their own homes. 


106 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 


These lessons may be varied to suit the teacher. In nearly 
every case in which the work had been tried, the superintend- 
ents have been so pleased that they have been willing to 
set aside from one to two hours every Friday afternoon for 
this work. The teachers who have tried it say that the chil- 
dren are so enthusiastic about it that, if permitted, they stay 
until six o'clock. In every case the pupils that have taken 
work in domestic science have done better work in their 
other studies. 

It is advisable to let the children give an exhibit once a 
year, and to let them bring loaves of bread, cookies, cakes, 
puloweases, and aprons which they have made. The mothers 
and fathers will all come. Increased interest will be taken 
in the schools. 

Prizes are often given for the best exhibit of any kind. 
This year, in a bread-making contest, a little girl of eight 
received the first prize. These lessons may also be used for 
older pupils, and may be given without any equipment. It 
is often desirable, and very much appreciated, if the mothers 
are invited to attend the classes. 


PERSONAL CLEANLINESS 


Care of the Body. 1. Hands. 2, Teeth. 5, Finger nails. 4. Hair 
and head. 5, Clean body. 6. Clean clothing. 

Personal Habits. 1. Keep face and hands clean. 2. Neatness in 
dress. 5. Buttons on clothing and shoes. 4, Not to spit on floor or 
slate. 5. Not to “swap chewing gum.” 6, Not to pick nose. 7. Turn 
face aside when coughing. 8. Keep mouth closed, 9. Pencil should 
not be put in mouth. 

Nore. Mouth is for eating and speaking, and should be closed 
when not in use. 

Sleeping Rooms. 1, Sleep with windows open. 2. Have plenty of 
bed covering. 3. Don’t sleep in clothes worn during the day. 4. Ten 
hours’ sleep necessary for children under twelve. 5. Take clothes oft 
bed; put on chair in front of window. 6. Air sleeping rooms. 


DOMESTIC SCIENCE 107 


MEASUREMENTS 


Mental Drill. 1. How many ounces in one cup of sugar? 2. How 
many ounces in one-half cup butter? 3. How many tablespoons in 
one cup butter? 4. How much will five cups of flour weigh? 5. How 
much will two cups of granulated sugar weigh ? 

Abbreviations, Level Measurements. 1. Cup — liquid and solid. 
2. Spoon. 

Nore. To measure a cupful, fill cup and level with knife for 
good accurate results. Cup of butter is packed solid. Cup of liquid, 
all the cup will hold. 


CARE OF THE KITCHEN 


Fire. 1. How to make fire. 2. Drafts. 3. Care of fire and stove. 

Kitchen, 1. Care of floor, sweeping and dusting. 2. Sink. 3. Win- 
dows. 4. Faucets, zinc, and nickel. 5. Brooms and brushes. 6. Sink 
strainer. 7. Garbage. 

Norte. Make a sink strainer out of a tomato can. Scrub strainer 
and garbage pail with hot soapy water. Do not throw parings or 
coffee grounds into the sink, 


Disu WASHING 


1. How to scrape dishes clean. 2. Dishes piled and washed in the 
P ] 
following order: glasses, silver, dishes, saucepans. 3. Dish water, 
s 8 ] 
—pan of hot soapy water for washing, clean hot water for rinsing. 
Dish pan. Dish cloths. 

Nore. Wash dish pan inside and out. Dry thoroughly. Wash 
out dish cloth and towels. They must be washed and boiled and 
hung in the sun at least once a week. 

fo) 


WATER 


1. Source of water. 2. Care of water. 3. Use of water in health and 
disease. 4. Danger of bad water. 5. Water good to carry away waste 
products of the body. 6. Difference between hard and soft water. 

Water for Drinking Purposes. 1. Value. 2. Making of tea and coffee. 


108 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 


FRUIT 


1. Value of fruit because it contains water and mineral. 2. Dan- 
ger of underripe fruit. 3. Danger of overripe fruit. 4. Dried fruit 
cooked. 

Baked apples, steamed prunes, apple sauce, dried apricots. Stale 
bread thoroughly dried out and used with fruit for puddings. Apple 
Betty. 

Nore. Soak dried fruit twenty-four hours before cooking, and 
cook slowly. Prunes need no sugar. With other fruit add sugar 
just before taking from the fire, because then it takes less. 


CEREALS 


1. Kinds of cereals. 2. Let children get lists of breakfast foods 
from stores and catalogues. 3. Methods of cooking. 

Oatmeal, corn meal, cream of wheat with dates, farina. Rice as 
vegetable and dessert. Potatoes. 

Nore. Foods containing starch must be carefully and thoroughly 


cooked. 
MILK 


1. Value of milk as a food. 2. Danger in bad milk. 3. Use of 
milk, sour milk. 4. Boiled milk indigestible. Making of cottage 
cheese, custard, slices of bread baked with cheese and milk. 

Notrr. Milk must be taken slowly, not a whole glassful at one 
swallow. 


EaGs 


1. How to know a fresh egg. 2. How to keep eggs for winter use. 
3. Eggs and milk as food. 4. How to cook eggs: hard- and soft- 
boiled eggs; poached; scrambled ; baked; sponge cakes. 

Norte. An egg sinks to the bottom of a cup of water if fresh. 


Meats 


1. How to select good meat. 2. Which cuts to buy. 3. How to 
fry beefsteak without fat. 4. How to ecok meat slowly. 5. How to 
cook pork thoroughly. Cooking stews, roasts, steak, bacon. Left- 
over dishes. 

Nore. Cheap meats are just as good if properly cooked. 


DOMESTIC SCIENCE 109 


Soups 


1. Made from meat. 2. Made from milk. 3. Made from vegetables. 
4. Made from dried peas and beans. 

Note. Milk soup is nourishing. Clear beef soup is not nourish- 
ing, but good for the stomach before a meal. 


BREAD 


1. Why bread is good for us. 2. Different kinds of flour. 3. How 
to select good flour. 4. How to make good bread. 5. How to bake 
it well. Muflins and gingerbread. 

Note. Clear directions for bread making should be given and 
children allowed to try it at home. 


SETTING THE TABLE 


1. Table in center of room. 2. Silence cloth of old clean blanket 
for quietness and protection. 3. Even tablecloth. 4. Centerpiece in 
the center. 5. Flowers on the table. 6. Position of napkin, plates, 
knives, forks, spoons, and water glasses : first five same distance from 
edge; fork on left side with tines turned up; knife with sharp edge 
toward plate ; water glass at tip of knife ; napkin folded square and 
placed at left side. 

Note. A clean tin can with geranium in it and clean white paper 
pinned around it may be used for center of table. Be sure that table 
linen is clean. 


Launpry Work 


1. Necessity of washing once a week for cleanliness and health. 
2. How to mend clothing before washing. 3. How to take out stains 
before washing — coffee, tea, fruit, and medicine. 4. Sorting and 
order of washing. 5. How to hang clothes on the line. 6. How to 
damp, fold, and iron. 

Norr. Washing and boiling sets the stains. Wash flannels in 
lukewarm water, rinse in lukewarm water. Overalls or dirty coarse 
clothing rubbed with a brush. Wash dish cloth and towel. Clothing 
used in sickness must be washed separately. 

Rub and keep irons clean with sapolio and water. Wash and iron 
handkerchief and napkin. 


110 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 


Brep MAKING 


How to make a bed: sheet over mattress to protect it; tuck sheet 
in all around nice and smooth; tuck the clothes in at the foot ; stand 
the pillow up straight; turn the mattress every week; air the bed. 

ILLUSTRATION. Give a doll a bath and put in bed in comfortable 
position. Dress doll in night clothes without underwear. 

Nore. Doll’s bed or bed made of boxes may be used ; mattress 
of cheese cloth filled with straw; sheet of cheese cloth. 


SEWING 

1. How to sit properly. 2. How to hold scissors. 3. How to use 
the thimble. 4. How to thread needle. 5. Basting. 6. Folding hem 
on paper. 7. Running stitches. 8. Backstitching. 9. Overcasting. 
10. Gathering. 11. Cutting a straight line. 12. Making buttonholes. 
13. Sewing on tapes. 14. Hooks and buttons. 15. Darning woolen, 
cotton, linen. 

Ilow to spell terms used in sewing. Hem duster. Make holder, 
sleevelets, gingham apron, pillowcase, plain featherstitching. 

Nore. This may be started in school and done at home. 


* 


Dressinc WELL 


Colors. 1. Quiet colors. 2. Colors that harmonize. 3. Certain 
colors with certain complexions. Material. 1. Kinds that wear well. 
2. Suitable material for dresses. 3. Stripes for short people. 

Clothing. Comfortable clothing. Warm underwear in winter. 
Rubbers in damp weather. Dresses suitable for school, church, and 
parties. Care of one’s clothes. 


How Tro rurnisH A House 


Simplicity: plain things, very little bric-a-brac. Good material. 
Plain washable curtains; no plush curtains. Iron beds. Furniture 
that won’t catch dust. Plain floor with rugs that can be lifted. 
Quiet colors in furnishings. Good books and good pictures. 

Nore. Use linoleum for the kitchen. 


PLANNING A MEAL 


Cooking and serving. Meat balls. Tomato sauce. Muttins and cocoa 


DOMESTIC SCIENCE 111 


THE Last Lesson 


For the last lesson let the children bring in an exhibit of work 
they have done at home. Invite all the mothers and friends to be 
present. Let the children make and serve cocoa and sandwiches. 


A SAMPLE LESSON: SETTING THE TABLE 


1. The table should be in the center of the room, the table- 
cloth on straight and smooth over a blanket or heavy cloth. 

The centerpiece, if used, must be exactly in the center of the 
table; fruits or flowers in the center of the centerpiece. 
The napkin should be folded square and laid at the left of 
the plate next to the fork. The open corner should be placed 
at the lower left-hand corner of fork. 

2. The knife must be placed at the right of plate with the 
sharp edge turned toward the plate. The spoons are always 
placed at the right of knife with the bowls turned up. The 
forks should be placed at the left of the plate with tines 
turned up. The plate should always be placed between the 
knife and fork, right side up. The handles of knives, forks, 
and spoons should be placed one-fourth inch from edge of 
table. The glasses should be placed at the upper right hand 
and at the point of the kmife. They should be filled three 
fourths full before the meal is announced. 

3. Cold food should be served in cold dishes. 

4. Hot food should be served in hot dishes. 

5. Dishes which permit of choice should be passed from 
the left. Plates must be removed from the right and food 
put down from the right. 

6. Soiled dishes must be removed first, then the food, then 
the clean dishes, then the crumbs. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY FOR AGRICULTURE AND 
NATURE-STUDY WORK 


The following named books will be found most helpful to 
the rural teacher in preparing lessons which the manual out- 
lines. Encourage the district board to place in the district 
library such books as you think will be of greatest value for 
reading and reference use. 


A Primer of Forestry, G. Pinchot. Bull. Nos. 1 and 11, Bureau of 
Forestry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. 

Agriculture for Beginners, Burkett, Stevens, and Hill. Ginn & Com- 
pany. 75 cents. 

Agriculture in the Common Schools, F. G. Adams. U.S. Dept. of 
Agriculture Bulletin. 

Agriculture through Laboratory and School Garden, Jackson and 
Daugherty. Orange Judd Co. $1.25. 

Among Country Schools, O. J. Kern (Supt. Schools, Winnebago 
County, Ill.). Ginn & Company. $1.25. 

Animal Studies, Jordan, Kellog, and Heath. D. Appleton & Co. 
$1.25. 

Bacteria, Yeasts, and Molds in the Home, H. W. Conn. Ginn & 
Company. $1.00. 

Birds of a Maryland Farm, U. 8S. Dept. of Agriculture. 

Book of Alfalfa, F. D. Coburn. Orange Judd Co. $2.00. 

Botany, L. H. Bailey. The Macmillan Company. $1.10. 

Bulletins from the states growing field crops (address State Experi- 
ment Station). 

Bulletins of State Agricultural College, Fort Collins, Colo. 

Care of Children (Health Education League Booklets). Whitcomb 
& Barrows, Boston, Mass. 3 cents each. 

Cereals of America, Thomas F. Hunt. Orange Judd Co. $1.50. 

Citizen Bird, Mabel Osgood Wright. The Macmillan Company. 
$1.50. 

115 


114 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 


Colds (Health Education League Booklets). Whitcomb & Barrows, 
Boston, Mass. 2 cents each. 

Colorado State Experiment Station Bulletins. 

Colored Plates of Vegetables, Fish, ete. Whitcomb & Barrows, Bos- 
ton, Mass. 2 cents each. 

Cornell Nature Study Leaflets, Corr '’ University, Ithaca, N.Y. 

Course in Cooking (Hartford Pub:. + ‘ools, Hartford, Conn.). Free. 

Course of Lessons in Domestic Science (Seventh Grade, Public 
Schools, Grand Rapids, Mich.), Fuller. Whitcomb & Barrows, 
Boston, Mass. Free. 

Economic Entomology, J. B. Smith. J. B. Lippincott Co. 

Elements of Botany with Rocky Mountain Flora, J. Y. Bergen. 
Ginn & Company. $1.50. 

Elements of the Theory and Practice of Cookery, Williams and 
Fisher. $1.10. 

Experiments with Plants, Osterhout. The Macmillan Company. 

Farm Grasses of the United States, W. J. Spillman. Orange Judd 
Co. 81.00. 

Farm Poultry, George C. Watson. The Maemillan Company. 

Farmers’ Bulletins. U.S. Dept. of Agriculture. 

First Book of Forestry, F. Roth. Ginn & Company. 75 cents. 

First Steps in Food and Diet, ENen H. Richards. Whitcomb & 
Barrows, Boston, Mass. 40 cents. 

First Steps to Scientifie Knowledge, Paul Bent. J. R. Holeomb & 
Co., Cleveland, Ohio. $1.25. 

First Studies of Plant Life, George F. Atkinson. Ginn & Company. 
60 cents. 

Forage and Fiber Crops, Thomas F. Hunt. Orange Judd Co. $1.50. 

Forage Crops, E. B. Voorhees. The Macmillan Company. $1.50, 

Forage Crops, Shaw. Orange Judd Co. $1.25. 

Fur-Bearing Animals, John Burroughs. Houghton, Mifflin & Co, $1.10. 

Garden Making, L. H. Bailey. The Macmillan Company. 1.00. 

Good Luncheon for Rural Schools without a Kitchen, Ellen H. 
Richards. Whitcomb & Barrows, Boston, Mass. 10 cents. 

Handbook of Colorado, Thomas Tonge (Denver, Colo.). 50 cents. 

Healthful Farmhouse, Helen Dodd. Whitcomb & Barrows, Boston, 
Mass. 60 cents. 

Healthful Homes (Health Education League Booklets). Whitcomb & 
Barrows, Boston, Mass. 3 cents. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 115 


Hints for Health in Hot Weather (Health Education League Book- 
lets). Whitcomb & Barrows, Boston, Mass. 2 cents. 

Home and School Sewing, Francis Patton. Whitcomb & Barrows, 
Boston, Mass. 68 cents. 

Home Studies (Series No. 2, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Nebr.). 
Whitcomb & Barrows, Bost Mass. 

How We Are Clothed, J. F.'» uberlain. Whitcomb & Barrows, 
Boston, Mass. 48 cents. 

How We Are Fed, J. F. Chamberlain. Whitcomb & Barrows, Boston, 
Mass. 48 cents. 

How We Are Sheltered, J. F. Chamberlain. Whitcomb & Barrows, 
Boston, Mass. 48 cents. 

Insect Enemies of Shade Trees. Farmer’s Bull. No. 99, U.S. Dept. 
of Agriculture. 

Insect Life, J. S. Hunter. 

Insecticides and Fungicides. Farmer’s Bull. No. 146, U.S. Dept. 
of Agriculture. 

Insects Injurious to Stored Grain. Farmer’s Bull. No. 45, U.S. 
Dept. of Agriculture. 

Irrigation in Field and Garden. Farmer’s Bull. No. 138, U.S. Dept. 
of Agriculture. 

Judging Live Stock, John A. Craig. San Antonio, Tex. $2.50. 

Key to Rocky Mountain Flora, A. Nelson. D. Appleton & Co. 
50 cents. 

Landscape Gardening, F. A. Waugh. Orange Judd Co. 1.00. 

Laundry Manual. Proctor & Gamble, Cincinnati, Ohio. Free. 

Lessons with Plants, L. H. Bailey. The Maemillan Company. $1.50. 

Life Histories of American Insects, C. M. Weed. The Macmillan 
Company. $1.50. 

Meat and Drink (Health Education League Booklets). Whitcomb 
& Barrows, Boston, Mass. 3 cents. 

Milk (Health Education League Booklets). Whitcomb & Barrows, 
Boston, Mass. 3 cents. 

Milk and its Products, H. H. Wing. The Macmillan Company. 
$1.25. 

Nature Studies on the Farm, W. A. Keffer. American Book Com- 
pany. 50 cents. 

Nature Study and Life, C. F. Hodge. Ginn & Company. $1.50. 

Our Domestic Animals, C. W. Burkett. Ginn & Company. $3.50. 


116 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 


Outlines of Lessons in Cookery (St. Louis Public Schools). Free. 

Plague of Mosquitoes and Flies (Health Education League Booklets). 
Whitcomb & Barrows, Boston, Mass. 2 cents. 

Plant Life on the Farm, Dr. M. T. Masters. Orange Judd Co. 
50 cents. 

Plants as a Factor in Home Adornment (Reprint from 1902 Year- 
book). U.S. Dept. of Agriculture. 

Principles of Breeding, E. Davenport. Ginn & Company. $2.50. 

Profitable Home Farming, Yoeman. Cassell & Co. 

Reading Course Bulletins prepared by Cornell University (School of 
Agriculture, Ithaca, N.Y.). 

Rural School Agriculture, C. W. Davis. Orange Judd Co. $1.00. 

Rydberg’s Flora of Colorado. Bull. No. 100, Colorado Agricultural 
Experiment Station, Fort Collins, Colo. 

Sanitation in Daily Life, Elen H. Richards. Whitcomb & Barrows, 
Boston, Mass. 60 cents. 

Seed Dispersal, W. J. Beal. Ginn & Company. 35 cents. 

Sheep Farming in America. Sanders Publishing Co., Chicago, Il. 
$1.50. 

Soils, C. W. Burkett. Orange Judd Co. $1.25. 

Story of a Grain of Wheat, W. C. Edgar. D. Appleton & Co. $1.25. 

The Book of Corn, Herbert Myrick. Orange Judd Co. $1.50. 

The Boy and the Cigarette (Health Education League Booklets). 
Whitcomb & Barrows, Boston, Mass. 5 cents. 

The Brook Book, Mary Roger Miller. Doubleday, Page & Co. 

The Farmer’s Interest in Good Seed. Farmers’ Bull. No. 111, U.S. 
Dept. of Agriculture. 

The Fruit Garden. Farmer’s Bull. No. 154, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture. 

The Home Vegetable Garden. Farmers’ Bull. No. 255, U. S. Dept. 
of Agriculture. 

The Home Vineyard. Farmer’s Bull. No. 156, U. 8. Dept. of 
Agriculture. 

The Horse, I. P. Roberts. The Macmillan Company. $1.25. 

The Horse Book, J. H. S. Johnstone. Sanders Publishing Co., 
Chicago, Il. 

The Nature Study Idea, L. H. Bailey. Doubleday, Page & Co. $1.00. 

The Outlook to Nature, L. H. Bailey. The MacmillanCompany. $1.50. 

The School Garden. Farmers’ Bull. No, 255, U.S. Dept. of Agri- 
culture. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY al Ly 


The Successful Woman (Health Education League Booklets). Whit- 
comb & Barrows, Boston, Mass. 4 cents. 

The Teaching Botanist, Ganong. The Macmillan Company. $1.10. 

The Vegetable Garden. Farmers’ Bull. No. 94, U.S. Dept. of Agri- 
culture. 

The World’s Great Farm, Selina Gaye. The Macmillan Company. 

Theory and Practice of Cookery (Health Education League Book- 
lets). Whitcomb & Barrows, Boston, Mass. 

Thirty Poisonous Plants. Farmers’ Bull. No. 86, U. 8. Dept. of Agri- 
culture. 

Tree Planting on Rural School Grounds. Farmers’ Bull. No. 134, 
U.S. Dept. of Agriculture. 

Twelfth Census of the United States (Vols. Vand VI). U.S. Dept. 
of Agriculture. 

Types and Breeds of Farm Animals, C. S. Plumb. Ginn & Company. 
$2.00. 

Vegetable Gardening, Professor Samuel B. Green. Webb Publishing 
Co., St. Paul, Minn. $1.00. 

Wake Robin, John Burroughs. Houghton, Mifflin & Co. 

Wasps, Social and Solitary, George W. and Elizabeth G. Peckham. 
Houghton, Mifflin & Co. 

Weeds and How to Kill Them. Farmers’ Bull. No. 28, U. S. Dept. 
of Agriculture. 

Wild Life in Orchard and Field, Ernest Ingersoll. Harper & Bros. 
$1.50. 

Yearbook of Department of Agriculture (1900, 1901, 1902, 1903, 
1904, 1905, 1906), U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. 


AGRICULTURE FOR 
BEGINNERS 


By C. W. BURKETT, Professor of Agriculture; F. L. STEVENS, Professor 
of Biology ; and D. H. HILL, Professor of English in the North 
Carolina College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts 


1z2mo. Cloth. 339 pages. With color pictures. Illustrated 


such widespread interest and been so universally com- 
mended as this little volume. Its adoption in two great 
states before its publication, and in still another state immediately 
after its appearance, indicates the unusually high merit of the work. 

The authors believe that there is no line of separation between 
the science of agriculture and the practical art of agriculture, and 
that the subject is eminently teachable. Theory and practice are 
presented at one and the same time, so that the pupil is taught the 
fundamental principles of farming just as he is taught the funda- 
mental truths of arithmetic, geography, or grammar. 

The work is planned for use in grammar-school classes. It thus 
presents the subject to the pupil when his aptitudes are the most 
rapidly developing and when he is forming life habits. It will give 
to him, therefore, at the vital period of his life a training which 
will go far toward making his life work profitable and delightful. 
mine text is (clear, interesting, and teachable. While primarily 
intended for class work in the public schools, it will no doubt 
appeal to all who desire a knowledge of the simple scientific truths 
which lie at the foundation of most farm operations. 

The two hundred and eighteen illustrations are unusually excel- 
lent and are particularly effective in illuminating the text. The 
book is supplied throughout with practical exercises, simple and 
interesting experiments, and helpful suggestions. The Appendix, 
devoted to spraying mixtures and fertilizer formulas, the Glossary, 
in which are explained unusual and technical words, and the 
complete Index are important. 

In mechanical execution —in the attractive and durable bind- 
ing, in the clear, well-printed page, and in the illustrations — the 
book is easily superior to any other elementary work on agriculture. 


N° book for common schools in recent years has aroused 


GINN & COMPANY PuBLIsHERs 


HODGE’S 
NATURE STUDY AND DiGe 


By CLIFTON F. HODGE 


Assistant Professor of Physiology and Neurology in Clark University, Worcester, Mass. 
With an Introduction by Dr. G. Sranrey Hai. Cloth. 514 pages. 
Illustrated. List price, $1.50; mailing price, $1.65 


ATURE STUDY AND LIFE has twice formed the basis for 
nature-study courses in the Clark University Summer School ; 
it has further stood the more practical test of teachers’ institutes 

in various states; and, finally, its most important suggestions have 
been tried thoroughly in the schoolroom. The work contains the 
results of five years’ special study. In the point of view, in the selec- 
tion of the subject-matter, and in the presentation of methods of 
conducting the work, this book marks a definite advance over other 
publications on the subject of nature study. 

It is a determined reaction against the special and technical, and 
forms an earnest effort to give fundamental and universal interests in 
nature their deserved place in our system of public education. After 
presenting this point of view clearly in the opening chapter, the book 
takes up concrete lessons on the animals and plants that form the nat- 
ural environment of the home, and group themselves most closely about 
the life and interests of the child. Each form is studied alive and at 
work, as a life story to be read at first hand in nature and especially in 
its relations to man. 

The book is a 12mo, bound attractively in blue and gold, so that the 
volume is eminently appropriate in appearance not only for the school- 
room but also for the home reading table or bookshelf. The illustra- 
tions are of unusual value and interest. The whole plan and make-up 
of the book have been kept in as close harmony as possible with the 
excellence and high character of the text itself. 


From the School Review, Chicago 

The publishers do not overstate the merits of this book when they say that it is one 
of the most notable nature-study books now published. The emphasis is upon ature, — 
not upon study, —and life is never sacrificed to some fancied correlation or some narrow 
scientific application. The illustrations are singularly felicitous in that they show us not 
only nature but also human nature in the persons of interested girls and boys. This is a 
book for the home as well as for the school. It is scientific in its knowledge, simple 
in its phraseology, and fascinating in its style. 


GINN & COMPANY PvuBLIsHERs 


NATURE STUDY 


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eleittie brotherto the Bear isu ss) Resse cess “so 6¢ 3 else 650%) 4.00 
WeysiouVioods Holle sate) ie 2 Gr ats) i ws # 16 6 cals» “50 <60 
WHderneSSm\VaAV Sere nsmemne ne clash ict vue Ges le ve ets, fe 9 eS, 450 
Becretson the WOOdS ss Weiss s) chien So « Gs « « ee 250) .60 
NyocdeHolkgat SChOOl vase me atc smee a) ie) ale el ee: wy, “50” 60 
Mionleyzs elttle" Wanderers "sigs a me (cues sss 2 4 he a ow «6 BO) RS 
Morley’s Insect Folk. Vol.I . . Dale en eee, 
Morley’s Butterflies and Bees. Insect Folk, Vol.Il .. .. . .60 70 
Porter’s Stars in Songand Legend . . . . PETRIE xe) xp, heSO!. 1 155 
Roth’s First Book of Forestry . . ch eg. SOC Ry Le 
Stickney’s Study and Story Nature Readers: 
Earth and Sky, No.I. . Sees. Ghee 301 EBS 
PGE ANCES K Vem NOsgLLe gst ach) ieiie: Gell Sele eo ceil essa er or ee «RO!» 685 
Barcheanduskys NO Ell ey ee ewe ss ee oe 635, =f 
etsiandsGompanionsS 2.6 % «© 6 aoe «© + « 2 # » 430 ‘440 
Bird World . . Se rans ace 1400) 470 


Strong’s All the Year Round. ” Part Ty “Autumn. Part II, Winter. 
Part III, Spring. Part IV. Summer ruse OP ies) CAC gO. 35 


Weed’s Seed-Travellers . . . Ab Xi, eames Ce red te. 
Weed’s Stories of Insect Life: 
First Series. USN Lei) ens) eure e250 eg 


Second Series. (Murtfeldt and Weed) Seemed ta Ss oo verte os 630° 3S, 


GINN & COMPANY PuBLisHeErs 


AMONG COUNTRY SCHOOLS 


By O. J. KERN 
Superintendent of Schools, Winnebago County, Illinois 


12mo. Cloth. 366 pages. Illustrated. List price, $1.25; mailing price, $1.35 


HE author’s endeavor in preparing this work has 
been to create a new ideal in the training of the 
country child. 

The book is the result of seven years of very earnest 
thought and hard work in an endeavor to secure for the 
country child his rights so far as an educational opportunity 
is concerned. The country school should have that freedom 
which country life affords. This book has but little to say 
about the mechanics of school management. 

In the training of children and the development of char- 
acter no greater opportunity can be offered than that now 
presented to the teacher in the country school. The author 
hopes that this book will prove suggestive to the teacher and 
school officer who are striving for the spiritualization of 
country life through the medium of the school. He believes 
that a careful reading of its pages will show a practical way 
of interesting the “farm child through farm topics.” 

Some of the chapter titles, indicating the suggestions given 
in this distinctly novel treatise, are: 


THE RIGHTS OF THE COUNTRY Clr 
OUTDOOR ART — BEAUTIFYING SCHOOL GROUNDS 
INDOOR ART AND DECORATION 
A FARMER BOY’S EXPERIMENT CLUB 
THE COUNTRY SCHOOL AND THE FARMERS’ INSTITUTE 


GINN & COMPANY PuBLIsHERs 


LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 


ii