THE TEACHING

W. H. S. JONES

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T^ach

J The

Teaching of Latin

r '' T T r* T/"\XTT"M

W;H V S.- JONES. M.A-

PKhSE SCHOOL. CAMBRIDGE

,>,,-- l\

BLACKIE AND SON LIMITED
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PREFACE

IN the following pages I have attempted to show
what a classical course can do for a boy, even
though the time devoted to it be strictly limited.
Many believe that classics are a good thing, but
that they take up more hours of the time-table than
can be spared. This I think is an error.

Chapters II., III. and IV. contain a discussion
of the methods of Latin teaching for the first three
years. I have kept in view not only the boy with
a genius for classics, who will flourish under any
system, but also that often neglected person, the
" average boy ".

The teaching of Greek is not discussed here.
I believe it should follow the lines of Latin
teaching. Progress, however, is much more rapid,
because there is no need to spend time in learn-
ing again principles of language already learnt in
the Latin course.

I have to thank many friends for much invalu-
able help, especially Dr. W. H. D. Rouse, Head-
Master of the Perse School, and the Staff of the
Cambridge Day Training College, at whose
suggestion I attempted the present little work.

W. H. S. J.

CONTENTS

CHAPTER I.

PAGH

CLASSICS IN SCHOOLS, 9

CHAPTER II.
THE FIRST YEAR OF LATIN, 25

CHAPTER III.
THE SECOND YEAR OF LATIN, 44

CHAPTER IV.
THE THIRD YEAR OF LATIN, 61

APPENDIX.
A THREE-YEAR COURSE OF LATIN, 80

THE TEACHING OF LATIN

CHAPTER I
CLASSICS IN SCHOOLS

The recent attacks upon classical studies have
been the result of a desire to make Latin and
Greek optional instead of obligatory subjects for
degree examinations. Now that the opponents
of classics think that they have secured these
concessions, some of them have grown bolder.
They would banish classics altogether Attacks on
from the school 1 curriculum or assign tlie Classics.
to them so meagre a portion of the time-table
that no good results would be attainable. 2 The

word "school", here and hereafter, is used in the sense
of secondary school of the grammar school type. Classics are not
generally taught in primary schools. Arguments proving the useful-
ness of classics in grammar schools will usually apply a fortiori to
the great public schools.

2 This remark is certainly true now ; some thinkers saw signs of
a similar position 40 years ago. See Jebb, Humanism in Education^
p. 35 : " The danger was lest the powerful alliance between insurgent
men of science and disaffected humanists, aided by the legions of
Philistia, should force on a movement for imposing such restrictions
as these in a spirit altogether favourable to the new studies, but
unfriendly to the old ; with the result that classical studies might
be so narrowed, so hampered, so maimed, as to lose nearly all their
distinctive educational virtue; and, after languishing for a time,
might virtually die out of the schools ".
9

io THE TEACHING OF LATIN

extremists in fact maintain that classics are out
of touch with modern life, that the culture they
afford is out of date and purchased at far too
high a price in time and labour. These criticisms
are the inevitable outcome of the enormous strides
made by natural science in recent years. There
has grown up an army of specialists in the several
branches of science, each absorbed in his subject
and deeply conscious of the possibilities of further
progress. What wonder that they wish their sub-
ject, or at any rate a propaedeutic for it, to be
taught in schools to the exclusion of studies the
benefits of which they are not in a position to
appreciate ?

The scientists have found valuable helpers in
their onslaughts upon the classics. The teachers
of modern languages have not been slow to urge
the claims of their favourite studies, timidly at
first, but gaining in boldness at every concession
granted by the classicists, until at last many of
them would fain see Latin and Greek eliminated
altogether from school curricula. The most per-
tinent of their criticisms may perhaps be stated
as follows. Latin and Greek are rarely sufficiently
mastered at school to enable a boy to pursue the
study by himself afterwards. But with French
and German this is not so. They may be pursued
at school to such a point that the scholars can
easily continue their studies in after life. Modern
languages, in fact, have four great advantages:

CLASSICS IN SCHOOLS n

(i) they provide linguistic training at school; (2)
they supply a key to open many books of great
importance to Englishmen; (3) they afford a
pleasant relaxation, when professional or business
life has begun, in the shape of two fine literatures ;
(4) they enable a boy to make himself under-
stood when in the company of foreigners.

From yet another side have the classics been
assailed. The study of our own language has
made huge strides during the last 100 years.
Poets and prose writers have proved that the
vernacular can be used artistically. Scholars have
studied the history of the English tongue and
traced it from Anglo-Saxon times to the present
day. It is true that teachers have not yet learnt
how to teach English to young people that is
a problem for the near future to solve but it is
becoming more and more felt that a formidable
rival has arisen to dispute the supremacy hitherto
held unchallenged by the great classical literatures.

Nearly everyone considers himself a competent
critic in educational matters, and parents, eagerly
snatching at the bait temptingly held out by the
opponents of classics, have joined in the general
outcry and demanded the useful (i.e. what will
"pay") as the norm to be followed in the forma-
tion of a curriculum.

And so theorizers in educational science have
mapped out the course to be followed by a
schoolboy for the development of his intellect

12 THE TEACHING OF LATIN

On every side he is brought face to face with
a material universe : he must learn mathematics
and natural science. He is an English citizen :
he must learn the history of his fatherland and
study the literature of his mother-tongue. There
are other nations in the world besides his own:
he must learn the languages of those with whom
England is most closely connected. He will have
a special part to play in the world : he must
therefore receive the special training necessary for
this purpose.

' What room, say the opponents of classics, is left
for Latin and Greek ? Can the precious years of
boyhood be thrown away on the dry technicalities
of two dead languages, while the living knowledge
of the twentieth century is ready to hand and
clamouring to be used? Before attempting an
answer it is necessary to examine the question on
its historical side.

The early humanists "discovered" Latin and
History of Greek literature at a time when they
classical were disgusted with the science of the
education. day TQ thg imperfect s j ght of newly

opened eyes, the ancient world presented a civiliza-
tion infinitely superior to their own. " Within these
two literatures ", says Erasmus, " are contained all
the knowledge which we recognise as of vital im-
portance to mankind ", l And again ; "I affirm

*De ratione studii, translated by Woodward, Erasmus concerning
Education, p. 163.

CLASSICS IN SCHOOLS 13

that with slight qualification the whole of attainable
knowledge lies enclosed within the literary monu-
ments of ancient Greece "- 1 The classics were to
be studied for their matter, not their style only.
Milton, in the next century, held much the same
view. 2 With the discoveries of science came the
conviction that the dicta of Erasmus were no longer
even approximately true, but thoughtful men still
held that the ancient world had many lessons to
teach us. " Aristotle, and Plato, and Thucydides,
and Cicero, and Tacitus, are most untruly called
ancient writers ; they are virtually our own country-
men and contemporaries, but have the advantage
which is enjoyed by intelligent travellers that their
observation has been exercised in a field out of the
reach of common men ; and that, having thus seen
in a manner with our eyes what we cannot see for
ourselves, their conclusions are such as bear upon
our own circumstances, while their information has
all the charm of novelty, and all the value of a
mass of new and pertinent facts, illustrative of the
great science of the nature of civilized man ". 3

Side by side with the belief in the value of the
content of classical literature there has existed a
tendency, now waxing, now waning, to study it for
the sake of style. At the revival of learning were

1 De ratline studii, translated by Woodward, Erasmus concerning
Education, p. 164.

8 Tractate passim.

* Arnold in the Quarterly Journal of Education (1834).

14 THE TEACHING OF LATIN

the " Ciceronians ", with Bembo at their head.
The universities have always insisted upon skilful
imitations, not of ancient prose-writers only, but of
the poets as well. At the present day the worship
of the " elegant scholar " has begun to decline.
The scientific spirit is abroad, and the classics are
being more and more studied as material for
philology, history and archaeology. 1

All these aspects of classical study are admit-
tedly useful when pursued by the professed scholar,
but a further inquiry is necessary before they can
be said to benefit schoolboys.

If we look at the course we have mentioned
above as usually given by educationalists, it is
noticeable that little attention is bestowed upon the
past. Contempt for antiquity is a characteristic
mark of the present age. Because the ancients
Why classics were fools in natural science, it is
are valuable, blindly inferred that they were fools in
everything else. But it ought to be a truism to say
they were not so. In many respects they were
strikingly modern, had modern problems to solve,
and solved them in such a way that moderns can, if
not copy them, at least learn from them. Arnold has
already been quoted to this effect. But one may
quote a later thinker. " The intrinsic value of the
classical literatures depends, further, on their con-
tents. The claim made for them on this score at

iThe new regulations for part i of the classical tripos ar$ cl em-
evidence of this.

CLASSICS IN SCHOOLS 15

the present day is much more limited than that
which was made by the humanists of the Renais-
sance; but, within these limits, it is as valid as
ever. The observations and discoveries of the
Greeks and Romans in particular sciences, such as
Mathematics or Medicine, have been incorporated
or transmuted in modern work, and no longer form
a practical reason for studying the literatures,
though still investing them with a special interest
for some students who would not otherwise be
drawn to them. But an universal and abiding
interest belongs to another and far larger element
in their contents. That element is the store of
experience and observation accumulated by keen
watchers of human nature and conduct through all
the centuries, from Homer to Justinian. And the
utterance of this varied wisdom of life is precisely
one of the regions in which the distinctive excel-
lences of classical expression shine most. This is
a kind of literary wealth which, as John Stuart Mill
said of it, ' does not well admit of being transferred
bodily' into modern books, and 'has been very
imperfectly transferred even piecemeal '. " l

Here then is one reason why it were as well to
teach boys something of the ancient world. Human
nature is much the same now as it was 2500 years
ago. Much the same problems in politics, in
ethics, in education, presented themselves then as
now, and in the childhood of the human race they

1 Jkbb, Humanism in Education^ pp. 39, 40. M '

16 THE TEACHING OF LATIN

presented themselves in a form more easily appre-
ciated by the young mind than the same problems
in a modern setting. The conditions are usually
simple; the questions which were solved were
elemental, and appeal to the primary instincts of
head and heart. And the lessons of the ancient
world are complete lessons; cause, progress, and
result may be viewed in proper perspective, and
stripped of everything irrelevant. The fall of the
Roman republic might be taken and expanded into
an argument confirming the foregoing remarks, but
perhaps the best example of a lesson to the modern
world is given by the life of Socrates. To many
the teaching of Socrates has been a revelation, a
dropping of scales from the eyes. What is meant
by sham knowledge, the conceit of wisdom without
the reality, the necessity of weighing well the exact
meaning of everyday words may be learnt better
than anywhere else in the Memorabilia or the
Apology. The present writer has often been told,
by men who were not classical scholars, of the
intense interest excited by the latter work when
read at school. It opened up a new world. It
let light into their minds, and altered their entire
outlook upon life. Surely it is something to come
into contact with a wonderful mind. Scientific
men may not grumble, for the spirit of Socrates is
the spirit of science.

J So much for the matter of the classics : can their
form teach schoolboys anything valuable? The

(B 266)

CLASSICS IN SCHOOLS 17

teacher can certainly do much good if he insist
earnestly, yet simply, upon the beauties of what is
being read. Besides, much will be learnt uncon-
sciously, for there are Latin poems which can be
read after six months' study of the language, and
which yet are models of literary excellence. It is
not denied that much can be done by the intelligent
study of English literature. But the classics are
strong where English is weak. Their beauty is
simple, statuesque, severe, and easily appreciated
and understood by the young. Their merits are
obvious, and closely compacted. More style could
be learnt from a book of Homer than from a book
of equal size in any other language. Is not this
discipline very necessary in an age when the
vicious, the tawdry, and the sensational are so
common in periodical magazines and cheap novels
that sell by hundreds of thousands ? " Classical
studies help to preserve sound standards of litera-
ture. It is not difficult to lose such standards,
even for a nation with the highest material civilisa-
tion, with abounding mental activity, and with a
great literature of its own. It is peculiarly easy to
do so in days when the lighter and more ephemeral
kinds of writing form for many people the staple of
daily reading. The fashions of the hour may start
a movement, not in the best direction, which may
go on until the path is difficult to retrace. The
humanities, if they cannot prevent such a move-
ment, can do something to temper and counteract

(B 266) B

i8 THE TEACHING OF LATIN

it ; because they appeal to permanent things, to the
instinct for beauty in human nature, and to the
emotions; and in anyone who is susceptible to
their influence they develop a literary conscience.
Nor is this all. Their power in the higher educa-
tion will affect the quality of the literary teach-
ing lower down "- 1 Thring says : " Later on, as
soon as a little progress is made, the exquisite
beauty of words set forth in perfect shape, as the
beautiful dress of noble thought, begins to be dis-
cerned. The fascination of clear-cut, crystalline
speech, reflecting and embodying feeling, and life,
and delicate perceptions of mind, is felt. None
can tell why, but none, who has ever seen it, can
forget the charm, the magic charm, of perfect
words ". 2

The purely scientific aspect of classical study,
and the training thereby afforded in logical reason
ing, have been much emphasized of late years,
although often with slight regard to the results of
modern psychology. The elements of general
grammar are best learned, indeed, in the mother-
tongue, but they are driven home and made a part
of the mental life by being applied to an inflected
language. A firmer grip of the powers of artistic
speech is the result of seeing clearly the two things
to which a language owes its flexibility order of
words and inflexion. Grammar is the scientific

1 Jebb, Humanism in Education, pp. 41, 42.
^L 2 Thring, Thtory and Practice of Teaching, p. 117.

CLASSICS IN SCHOOLS 19

classification of words, and no little of scientific
procedure can be learnt from its study.

Translation has fallen upon evil days. No
doubt it has been misused. By itself it cannot
teach a foreign language. But it is none the less
a most useful educational instrument. To trans-
late involves the laying bare of the thought
enshrined in language, and reclothing it in gar-
ments of a different fashion. "The construing
lesson ", says Barnett, " is a most convenient road
to knowledge, to logic and to literary style". 1
And again, speaking of the same lesson, he
declares, "It is an incomparable training for
thoroughness and the honest weighing of the force
of every bit of evidence that can be brought to
bear on the task of interpretation". 2 "If what
is called "science" teaching would only take a
leaf from the classical book and model itself on
the ordinarily good construing lesson, it would do
much more to deserve the supreme place in the
curriculum which some enthusiasts claim for it ". 3

Quite as valuable an exercise, for the more
advanced boy at least, is the writing of Latin
prose. Those who have been through this dis-
cipline under a capable teacher are practically
unanimous in their testimony. For to be success-
ful a boy must be wide awake and keep his wits
about him. Slipshod thought is fatal. The exact

1 Barnett, Common Sense in Education and Teaching, p. 214.
p. 913. (bid. pp. 19, 20,

20 THE TEACHING OF LATIN

meaning of the English must be unearthed before
it can be expressed in the business-like Latin.
" No Englishman who only knows his own language
is in the least aware how very seldom a sentence
in English correctly expresses the real meaning
intended to be conveyed ; as many a boy has
found to his cost, who has hammered English into
Latin words regardless whether he had found out
the true meaning or not. The English language
is full of power, and full of feeling, and produces
its great effects by the use of very pregnant
epithets, and strong substantives, which teem with
undefined vigour and life. The Latin language
is strictly logical and precise. Two more opposite
instruments for the expression of thought cannot
be imagined. The moment the subtle Latin probe
comes to be applied to the English sentence the
discovering the exact sense contained in the forc-
ible, inaccurate English words becomes a most
curious exercise of mind. It is no answer to this
statement to say it is not done. ... It is one
of the principal facts of language-study, and it
ought to be done "- 1 It may be added that com-
position, whether in prose or verse, has another
great advantage. It does not admit of cram. It
encourages, more perhaps than any other study,
independent thought. " However poor the results,
they are the produce of independent efforts. The
writer can always say in all humility what Touch-

IThring, Thory and Prcctice of Education, pp. 115, 6.

CLASSICS IN SCHOOLS 21

stone said of Audrey, 'A poor thing, sir, but my
own'." 1

It is not necessary to employ the exploded
" faculty-psychology " in the defence of the classics.
The pertinent question in estimating the value of
any course of study is this : does it increase the
learner's stock of ideas, clarify these ideas, and
arrange them into well assorted and intimately
connected groups, easily called into the foreground
of consciousness when occasion requires? Now
granting that there are some groups of ideas,
"apperception masses", as the Herbartians call
them, which are left almost untouched by a
classical training, yet the classics are chiefly con-
cerned with such as are the most important and
comprehensive in the human consciousness. Ideas,
clear, crisp ideas of human character, social science
and ethics are ever ready to hand in the best
Greek and Latin literature. The vital and ele-
mental canons of artistic beauty are best learnt
from those who have illustrated them most simply
and most clearly. The formation of ideas largely
depends upon the clear understanding of the mean-
ing of words, and no one can deny that a rational
teaching of the classics firmly fixes the habit
of examining what the words precisely signify.
Logical procedure, and the laws that determine
the validity of thought, are constantly exemplified
in every construing lesson. Latin grammar, taught

1 Roopcr, Schol and Home Lift, p. tyj.

22 THE TEACHING OF LATIN

by induction from the books read, enforces the
same training. It is useless to argue that other
branches of study exhibit one or other of these
qualities to a greater extent than classics. The
classics alone possess them all to any eminent
degree. Therein lies their strength. They appeal
to three sides of the human mind, and form in-
numerable links binding together the ideas belong-
ing thereto. No one will dispute the significance
of this who is aware of the importance attached
by modern educational science to a proper cor-
relation of studies.

It has been deemed advisable in the present

discussion not to sever Latin from
Value of

(a) Latin, Greek. This is not meant to imply
that both languages are equally valuable
in the three respects mentioned, but only that they
possess the same merits to an appreciable degree.
For the schoolboy Latin is chiefly valuable for the
logical training it affords, less valuable on the
score of " content " and artistic merit. Greek does
not equal Latin in the first respect, but is very
strong in the other two. Both of them, however,
it is well to repeat, unite the three characteristics to
a greater extent than any other subject. But it
may be objected, "However valuable a classical
education is, can boys in secondary schools afford
the time it requires?" Because a thing is bene-
ficial and pleasant, it does not follow that we can
purchase it. Now the standard of attainment

CLASSICS IN SCHOOLS 23

which may reasonably be regarded as the mini-
mum consistent with any adequate return from a
study of the classics is (i) the power Can c i ags i cs
to translate with fair ease the moder- &e profitably
ately difficult Latin and Greek writers; secondary
(2) ability to write a fair Latin prose, schools?
If a boy of 15 or 1 6 has advanced so far, he has
had a magnificent training, and also laid the foun-
dations for future scholarship, should his tastes and
opportunities permit him to specialize.

The present writer's experience tends to prove
that the average boy, with one hour a day for
home-work and school-work combined, can attain
to the requisite standard in Latin at the end of a
three years' course. For the Greek, allowing the
same time per day, two years are necessary, which
will of course partly overlap the three years of
Latin. To put it briefly, one hour a day from the
twelfth to the fourteenth year, and two hours a
day from the fourteenth to the sixteenth, are
sufficient. If the extra time for Greek cannot be
afforded, one hour a day at Latin for three or four
years will produce results that are well worth the
expense. These are the periods required of the
average boy. A sharp boy will do the Latin in
two years and the Greek in one.

But two conditions are necessary. The teacher
must concentrate his energies on the end in view,
and refuse to be led away into by-paths. There
must be, for instance, no learning by heart of un-

24 THE TEACHING OF LATIN

important exceptions in accidence or syntax. In
the second place, the most must be made of every
improvement in language teaching that has been
brought to light by the experience of the last thirty
years. Whenever time can be saved without sacri-
ficing thoroughness the teacher has his opportunity
to diminish the expense of a classical training.
Many such methods each teacher must think out
for himself; one or two, proved to be useful in the
experience of the present writer, will be described
in the following pages. But too much cannot be
expected from method alone. A teacher who be-
lieves in his subject is a more potent instrument
than any system, however scientifically correct
that system may be. The man who is genuinely
interested in classics will accomplish much, even
though his method be faulty; a perfect method
worked by one who thinks and acts as though
classics were useless will have but a poor result.
For true success both a good method and an in-
terested teacher are alike essential.

CHAPTER II
THE FIRST YEAR OF LATIN

Before discussing the methods that should be
employed with beginners in Latin, it is advisable
to keep clearly before the mind, not only the
subject to be studied, but also the state The ideal
of the pupil who is to study it. It is beginner,
essential for the teacher to know the foundation
upon which he has to build. The ideal material
for the teacher's hand would be a pupil who had
come to take an interest in the Romans and their
language. It were well for him to have read some-
what of Roman history, to be aware of the relations
between Rome and his own country and between
Rome and France. He ought to know that a vast
number of English words are of Latin origin, and
that French, a language which he will probably be
studying, is a daughter of the Roman speech.
It will be much to his advantage if he have some
linguistic training before coming to the severe
mental strain of a highly inflexional language.
French ought certainly to begin two years before

25

26 THE TEACHING OF LATIN

Latin. In this way the pupil becomes familiar
with the force of inflexions. Moreover, it is
obviously both confusing and discouraging for a
young child to begin two new languages together.
Our ideal novice should have received some
practice in the analysis of English sentences, so
that he is familiar with the different functions of
words, phrases and clauses, and with the way in
which a complex sentence grows out of the con-
junction of a simple subject and predicate.

If the teacher had such material to work with, he
might show excellent results in a very short time.
But unfortunately, as every teacher in secondary
schools knows only too well, the pupil who is
beginning his Latin is " raw material " indeed,
from whom neither knowledge nor interest can be
expected. He has usually the vaguest kind of
idea who the Romans were, and cannot see why it
is interesting to learn their language. French and
Latin are usually begun at about the same time, so
the beginner has to learn from the beginning the
meaning of inflexion, declension, conjugation.
Finally, owing to a reaction from the excessive
care bestowed upon mere formal analysis and
parsing by the previous generation of teachers,
the scholar is deprived of the great help in
language study which is secured by the power
to analyze a sentence into parts determined by
function.

It would of course be much better were boys to

THE FIRST YEAR OF LATIN 27

begin their Latin somewhat later than they actually
do in most schools. But so long as they do not,
and while analysis is neglected, the teacher of
Latin must utilize the increased time at his com-
mand in laying the foundations firmly, and in
bringing home to his scholars' minds those ideas
that were better grasped in the study of French
and in analysis of sentences.

In the first place the pupil must learn that Latin
is the language of a people, who had a distinct
civilization of their own and who lived lives very
different from those we live at the present day.
Herein the teacher of Latin labours under a dis-
advantage as compared with a teacher of French
or German. The Frenchman passes his life under
conditions that are not very unlike our own.
Hence the beginner in French is not introduced to
many strange ideas, except such as are inseparable
from any foreign tongue. But it requires a great
effort of the imagination to appreciate Roman
civilization, and a child cannot do so without help
and guidance. His natural impulse is to associate
miles with a scarlet coat, toga with some " gown "
which has come within his own experience, cer.
tainly not with the Roman article. This difficulty
is solved by a judicious use of pictures.

The recognition of this need has caused a deluge
of illustrated editions of classical authors to be
published within the last few years. They have
their advantages, but their use is not free from

28 THE TEACHING OF LATIN

danger. 1 Pictures in a reader may, unless great
care be taken by the teacher, distract attention
from the matter in hand. But at any rate either
each boy should be provided with a book of illus-
trations such as Hill's, 2 or (better still) the walls of
the class-room should be covered with diagrams. 3
Models of Roman soldiers can be obtained, and it
goes without saying that maps of Rome, Italy and
the Roman Empire are indispensable.

During the first lessons it is perhaps as well to
steer clear of words which might create a miscon-
ception in a boy's mind, and to confine oneself to
such ideas as are common to Roman civilization
and our own. The Romans, as Englishmen do
now, saw with eyes, rode upon horses, and marched
along roads. Peculiarly Roman ideas must be
introduced gradually, with appeal to models and
pictures. Above all it is very desirable to avoid
the slackness of thought that is encouraged by the
association of quasi-synonymous words. To tell
a boy that tormentum = " cannon " is to give him
a lesson in confused thinking.

1 Professor P. Gardner, in his pamphlet Classical Archaeology in
Schools, p. 7, attacks illustrated editions upon (to the present writer's
mind) unfair grounds. " I am sorry to say that the illustrated classics
. . . are produced with a quite insufficient knowledge, and in
most cases full of bad blunders, and show great want of judgment".
It is to be noticed that these faults, incorrect execution and bad
choice of subject, are not inherent, but might be removed with fuller
knowledge.

2 Illustrations of School Classics (Macmillan).

3 Cybulski's Wall Diagrams.

THE FIRST YEAR OF LATIN 29

The lessons with beginners should be for the
most part viva voce. The amount of Fir S t
time that can be saved by using the principles,
spoken speech for grammatical drill is very con-
siderable, and there is the additional advantage
of making Latin appear like a living tongue. The
benefits arising from the use of viva voce methods
will be increased if the reformed pronunciation be
adopted. If used from the first boys experience
no difficulty in it. The kinship between Latin and
French is more easily appreciated if the original
pronunciation be restored. Later on, when the
poets are being read, the rhythm is more readily
felt. Besides this, the pronunciation being practi-
cally phonetic, the use of viva voce methods is
facilitated, and much needless writing saved.
Before adopting the revised pronunciation the
present writer often saw in written exercises paenae
for paene, obviously the result of the difficulty of
discriminating between at and e when pronounced
nearly alike. When ae is pronounced like the
English diphthongal /', such a mistake becomes
impossible. Quantity, both visible and " hidden ",
should be carefully marked in pronunciation from
the first. If a boy never hears a false quantity he
will not be tempted to make one. Some boys may
turn out classical scholars and an accurate know-
ledge of quantity will be essential for them. How
can a boy appreciate the sound of Latin verse,
much less write verses himself, when he is taughi

30 THE TEACHING OF LATIN

to say bonus, miles ? Books for beginners should
have all the naturally long vowels marked. The
pupil will then clearly understand that all other
vowels are short, and the mark for a short vowel
becomes a superfluity. American teachers gener-
ally adopt this plan ; it has not yet found favour
in England, although recommended by Professor
Postgate. 1 No time is lost by attending to quantity
early. It is as easy to learn a correct pronuncia-
tion as an incorrect one, if only the former be
taught from the first.

So much for general method. As soon as par-
ticulars are to be discussed, one is met by the
inadequacy of the attainments achieved by the
average beginner. If only Latin were begun later
than it is, say at thirteen, and were preceded by a
thorough grammatical training in the mother-
tongue and in French, the pupil might be reading
Caesar within a year. It is done in Germany, and
could be done in England. Under the present
conditions a much less ambitious programme must
be undertaken. At the end of the first year a
pupil ought to have mastered the simple sentence,
and possibly simple adjectival clauses. He should
know the fundamental parts of the accidence up to
and including the four regular conjugations.

There have been many beginners' books cover-
The begin- i n g about this amount of ground
ner'sbook. published within the last five years.

1 Classical Review, Nov. 1903.

THE FIRST YEAR OF LATIN 31

These may be divided into two classes, according
as they do, or do not, take a continuous story
as the foundation of the teaching.

As typical of the former class may be taken Prof.
Sonnenschein's Ora Maritima^ in which ora
a description in Latin of a boy's holiday Maritima".
at the seaside is made the vehicle of instruction.
The story is extremely simple, and new declensions
and tenses are introduced very gradually. The
object of the writer is to introduce the learner to
several examples before a rule is formulated. The
rule is then appreciated much better, because it
appeals to past experience, and the child accepts it
as a summing up of facts which have been already
observed. There can be no valid objection to a
book of this class on the ground that the Latin has
been written by an Englishman and not by a
Roman. Since the Romans have not provided us
with a Latin primer, we must perforce make our
own. But the atmosphere of such a story is not
Roman, and this is a far more serious matter.
There have been attempts to write stories with a
Roman setting. It is a difficult task to make them
interesting, and no attempt can up to the present
be called a real success.

A book on the plan of Prof. Sonnenschein's
would be more practically useful if more ground
were covered. During the first year the main
object is to secure familiarity and facility in under-
standing and composing simple sentences, such as

32 THE TEACHING OF LATIN

occur in ordinary Latin authors. To do this
adequately considerable ground must be covered
in accidence. Ora Maritima uses only the active
of the first conjugation. Now it is proved by
experience, if proof were needed, that most boys,
after spending a year in complete ignorance of the
existence of the three other conjugations, have the
habit of looking upon every verb they meet as
belonging to the first. It is a long while before
they become reconciled to the existence of four
conjugations, and it is longer still before they cease
to intrude -a conjugation forms among verbs be-
longing to the other three. For this reason it is
perhaps better to spend the first year upon Scott
"Scott and an d Jones' First Latin Course}- This
Jones ". book provides a series of exercises upon
the declensions and the active of the four conjuga-
tions, the syntax contained being the simple
sentence. The principle adopted is to give Latin
sentences illustrating fundamental rules, e.g. via
Romano, est lata, and to ring the changes upon it.
Via may become viae, or its place may be taken by
hasta, when lata will change to longa. Servus est
matus, scutum est magnum, are similar typical
sentences. When exercises have been given on all
the cases, but not before, a paradigm is given
summing up what has been learnt. At the end of
the book are a few pages containing all the
declensions and tenses used in the exercises.

Blacki* i Son.

THE FIRST YEAR OF LATIN 33

Interspersed among the translation are conversa-
tions consisting of question and answer. Similar
conversations are also proposed without being
worked out. The advantages of conversations
between teachers and^upil, or sometimes between
pupil and pupil, are considerable. They are lively,
and help to make Latin a more living language.
A good deal of ground may be covered in a short
time when everything is viva voce. And finally, the
importance of order of words is early impressed
upon the class. Nowhere has classical teaching
shown itself so stupid as in the absurd way in
which it has allowed a wrong order to be learnt
in order that it might be unlearnt afterwards.
But suppose a boy has just learnt the sentence,

pater meus rosam pulchram in horto suo habet.
The teacher may ask the following questions :

(1) quis rosam habet?

(2) qualem rosam habet ?

(3) quid in horto suo habet ?

(4) ubi rosam habet ?
The answers are :

(1) pater meus habet rosam.

(2) pulchram habet pater meus rosam.

(3) rosam in horto suo habet.

(4) in horto suo rosam habet.

The importance of attention to order is seen at
once.

Of late years it has been the custom to disparage
translation, especially during the early stages of

(B 2i-,C) C

34 THE TEACHING OF LATIN

language teaching. It would certainly be possible,
by systematic use of spoken Latin on all occasions,

to achieve in a short time the re-
Translation. , r -V *. -^i T ,-

quired familiarity with Latin sentence-
construction. It is certain that the teachers
of the Renaissance relied on this method.
I There is no mention in Erasmus of translation
either to or from the vernacular. But now that
Latin is not, and cannot be, spoken upon every
occasion, it is impossible for the power of un-
conscious generalization, which enables us to
"pick up" a language, to have a sufficiently
wide experience upon which to work. The
teacher of a dead language must nowadays
utilize the knowledge of the principles of lan-
guage his pupils have already gained by the study
of grammar in their mother tongue or in some
other language. In other words, he must employ
translation, not only as a test, but as a means of
imparting the grammatical structure of the language
that is being taught. Whenever, as is nearly
always the case, grammatical knowledge is im-
perfect, the "natural" method of teaching has
to be employed until a grammatical conscience
has been formed.

An example may make this point more clear.
Suppose a teacher is beginning work with a

class of young scholars who know

no grammar, and cannot yet under-
stand what a declension is. It would be folly for

THE FIRST YEAR OF LATIN 35

him to start with "nominative mensa, vocative
mensa, accusative mensam", and so on. The
class could not be interested, as the matter of
the lesson would be quite unintelligible, and, to
their minds, directed to no useful purpose. In
fact, boys have to be taught the meaning of case-
function and case-form. This might be done by
making the class consider sentences of the follow-
ing type with their translations :

Mensa hie posita est the table is placed here,
Tango mensam I touch the table,

and so on. But it is obvious that there will be a
much better chance of success if translation be
allowed to sink into the background as much as
possible, and if instead dramatic action be used as
far as possible to explain the force of the inflected
forms. Mensa longa est, tango mensam, color men-
sac niger est, and so forth, could easily be either
accompanied by dramatic action or otherwise
accommodated to the sense-experience of the
class. Translation, of course, may be given in
addition. In this way the fundamental idea of
the accusative, " extension over space " or " motion
towards" is indelibly impressed upon the pupil's
mind, for " things seen are mightier than things
heard." When the meaning of each case has been
thus mastered, the teacher may give the declension,
with the names of the cases. He will find that
the boys learn it with eagerness, for it answers a
need they are beginning to feel; it is in fact

36 THE TEACHING OF LATIN

a convenient summary, easy to remember, of what
they have already learnt.

One other instance may be given. When the
time comes to teach the different tenses it may be
as well not to name them at first as they are in the
grammar, but to introduce each form in an appro-
priate context. For instance :

Olim Londini habitabam. nunc Eboraci habito.

mox Cantabrigiae habitabo.

But it must be clearly understood that this method
is merely a crutch, a concession to grammatical
weakness. It is not intended to be prolonged.
When once a boy thoroughly understands what a
paradigm is, and knows how to use it, he may
learn similar paradigms at once. It is as well,
however, to avoid artificial technical terms as
much as possible. At this stage a boy's gram-
matical knowledge should indeed be thorough and
accurate as far as it goes, but the teacher must
never forget that it is meant to serve a practical
purpose, and must not be encumbered by facts or
nomenclature useful only in the study of com-
parative philology. In learning the third declen-
sion, for instance, the accurate analysis of each
form into root, stem, suffix, or the like, may be
omitted. Let the pupil learn by heart pastor,
civis, mare, etc., and when he meets a third de-
clension word he should be made to say, "This
is declined like civis", or whatever be the typical
word that he has learnt as a paradigm,

THE FIRST YEAR OF LATIN 37

The teacher must not forget that he has a
certain amount of ground to cover during the
year, and that to ensure this a carefully planned
scheme of work, not too ambitious, but assigning
a certain proportion of the year's work to each
week or month of the term, must be made out
and strictly adhered to. A book like " Scott and
Jones " lessens but does not obviate the need for
such a scheme. The teacher will probably find
his book imperfect in some particular; "Scott
and Jones ", for instance, does not contain the
subjunctive and only uses the third person of the
passive voice.

The teacher will do well to remember that
during the first year of Latin the foundation of
knowledge is being laid ; success or failure in the
future depend, then, to a great extent upon his
labours during this stage. Boys of about twelve
have often a most strong impulse to learn new
languages, and they will not turn away from Latin
unless it be served up in a most repulsive form.
The great thing is not to disgust the beginner by
an unintelligent procedure.

It has been stated above that it is necessary to
utilize the pupil's knowledge of English grammar.
This does not imply any recommendation of the
plan by which a general rule is stated and then
examples or exercises follow. Bright boys may
surmount the difficulties of this method and make
good progress, but the average boy will soon be

38 THE TEACHING OF LATIN

discouraged. The mind must have material before
it can appreciate a generalization. Examples first,
Examples ru ^ e a f terwar d s > then more examples,
rule, Whether the teacher take a story as

examples. the bagis of teachmg or a geries of

exercises, it is essential never to give the rule first.
If some examples are given, a boy will begin to
feel the need for some general statement summing
up the facts put before him, and this feeling of a
want is a guarantee that he will learn the rule when
it is given.

"Examples before rule" may be taken as the
first great principle in the early teaching of Latin.
The second is, after the examples, to be sure that
the rule is given, and learnt thoroughly. To
secure future progress the beginner must have
firmly fixed in his mind the fundamental principles
of accidence and concord ; he must have digested
them so well that he can recall them at will with
perfect accuracy and without the slightest hesita-
tion. And when the rule is learnt the pupil must
be made to use it, as indeed he will be ready
enough to do. And in this way the three stages
in the acquirement of knowledge are equally em-
phasized, (i) the need of a general law, arising
from the collection of many facts ; (2) the formu-
lation of that law; (3) the use of the law when
discovered and formulated.

Another essential principle during the first stage
will be the use of oral methods. This impresses

THE FIRST YEAR OF LATIN 39

upon the beginner the fact that Latin was once
a real language, used to transfer thought from
mind to mind. Time is saved, and oral
rules are grasped more easily. A boy teaching,
may be told twenty times that the verb in a sub-
ordinate question is in the subjunctive mood, and
yet continue to make many mistakes. But if he
be answered by the words nescio quid dicas every
time he expresses himself inaudibly, he will soon
begin to obey the rule. Indeed there should be a
stock of phrases descriptive of the business of the
class-room which teachers and pupils may use
instead of English. Claude ianuam, noli fenestram
daudere, and the like, suggest themselves at once. 1
Composition during this stage should consist
chiefly of Latin answers to questions, and of

ringing the changes upon easy Latin

' . , / Composition,

sentences. The task in the latter ex-
ercise consists of changing the subject from one
number or person to another, or the verb from one
tense to another, and so on. A boy makes fewer
mistakes in such exercises, and he is forming the
habit, by continuous practice, of writing correctly
and with due regard to the order of words. Per-
haps the most pertinent criticism of too much
translation from English into Latin during the first

1 Roger Ascham in his Schoolmaster condemns the speaking of Latin by
beginners on the ground that they must frame barbarous sentences.
But his objection does not apply when the master composes the
sentences used, or at least gives a model upon which they are to be
formed.

40 THE TEACHING OF LATIN

stage is that it engenders the habit of writing bad
Latin. It is perfectly true that a boy learns to
compose by avoiding the mistakes he has already
been reproved for making; but he must get into
bad habits if he is set tasks that demand much
more knowledge and skill than he possesses.
And it is precisely such a demand that translation
from English into Latin makes upon a boy who
has insufficient experience of correct Latin. But
nevertheless if care be taken that the work is well
within the power of the class, and if too much time
be not devoted to it, a few easy sentences to be
turned into Latin serve as a good test of the
thoroughness with which past work has been done.
The point to remember carefully is that such
translation cannot teach Latin.

Many of the particular difficulties of this stage
Use of ma y De lightened by a sparing use of

analogy. analogy. But it must never be for-
gotten that analogies do not prove or explain
anything ; they can only make proofs or explana-
tions easier to understand. The present writer
has helped boys to remember that nauta^ poeta^
and agricola are masculine, although nearly all -a
nouns are feminine, by suggesting that the words
in question are like men masquerading in woman's
dress. But perhaps the most useful hint of this
kind is that given by Thring, who compares termi-
nations to the labels on parcels, which give the
destination of the word to which they are attached.

THE FIRST YEAR OF LATIN 41

" These variations are only badges which, like the
address on a parcel, tell where each word ought to
go "- 1 " The ancient languages got over much of
this difficulty" (namely the adjustment of gram-
matical order and the order of thought) "by
labelling, as it were, every word, ticketing it with
its proper value and sense, by changing the last
syllable, or more. In this manner, . . . the
forcible part of the thought can be put first in
the sentence, though its grammatical place may
be last ". 2

The first stage is not the proper one for lessons
in etymology, but boys are much interested in
derivations, and they are less likely to forget a new
Latin word if its English derivatives be given.
Thring again puts the point in a picturesque way.
" Few are aware, when a little boy is groaning over
his Latin with about the same feeling of relation-
ship to it as to ' Anthropophagi, and men whose
heads do grow beneath their shoulders ', that from
eighty to ninety per cent, of the main words, which
occur in a Latin author, are found in English also,
and are always skipping in and out over his native
tongue ; and that instead of being a strange
novelty, a kind of wild beast, the hateful appari-
tion is only English in an old coat, a toga, and
a tame domestic creature enough. But what a
light this kind of fact may be made, at the same

1 Thring, Theory and Practice of Teaching p. 100.

2 Ibid. p. 114.

42 THE TEACHING OF LATIN

time that it not only takes the weight off, but also
fastens the work on to things already known "- 1
'' But when every means has been tried to arouse
interest, and every care taken by the teacher to
present his lessons in a scientific manner, the fact
remains that Latin is a difficult language for a
beginner. And this is a fact that the teacher must
make the most of. The interest of the subject
should lie in its very difficulty. Boys do not object
to tackle hard problems ; in fact they are apt to
despise work that is too easy. What produces
despair in a boy's mind is not difficulty, but the
lack of means to solve it. Such hopelessness is the
teacher's worst enemy. But if a pupil is put upon
the right track, and if he is led to believe, both by
precept and example, that he can reach the goal if
only he exerts himself, difficulties become incen-
tives to effort, the overcoming of difficulties a fresh
stimulus as well as the most satisfying reward.

It may be objected that the principle of grammar
teaching adopted in this chapter, and, with
necessary modifications, in subsequent chapters
also, is unsystematic. This is really a most unfair
charge. The present writer has nothing to urge
against the learning by heart of declension and
conjugation as given in ordinary grammars. In
fact he insists upon it as being, in most cases, an
absolute necessity. The fault lies in setting a pupil
to learn by heart before he knows the meaning and

1 Tbring, Theory *nd Practice of Teaching, pp. 99, 100.

THE FIRST YEAR OF LATIN 43

the purpose of what he is doing. But let a boy once
see from the contemplation of examples occurring
in sentences, that a paradigm is merely a shorthand
summary of certain facts of language, and he will
learn that paradigm readily enough. Between this
and parrot-like repetition of half-understood
formulae there is a whole world of difference. It
is because learning by heart is a simple process,
while the preliminary collection of experience is
more complex and also generally neglected, that
stress has been laid upon the latter.

CHAPTER III
THE SECOND YEAR OF LATIN

After two terms, or at most a year, spent in the
way described in the previous chapter, a boy
should have thoroughly learnt Latin accidence up
to and including the regular conjugations. He
should be able to understand and compose simple
sentences involving the ordinary case-usages.
Complex sentences (except adjectival) are un-
touched in this stage; the subjunctive mood is
studied only in so far as it is used in wishes,
modest assertions and the like. During the next
year the complex sentence must be mastered, so
that by the end of it any Latin author of moderate
difficulty can be read with tolerable facility.

The general principles are much the same as
those of the first stage viva voce whenever possible,
General examples before rule, composition to
principles, consist in practice on the rules learnt.
But the Reader is here of great importance. A
knowledge of Latin can only be acquired by read-
ing Latin books. By these the rules of grammar,

THE SECOND YEAR OF LATIN 45

as well as the rules of idiom and style, must be
made familiar to the learner. So the sooner he
can study some part of a Latin author the better,
and all the teaching should be based upon what-
ever work is being read.

The first term of the second stage requires most
care at the teacher's hands, and must be fully dealt
with in the present discussion. In the first place
what book shall be read ? Two suggest themselves
at once as being much simpler than any others
Eutropius and Nepos. A fair beginning may in some
cases be made by either of these two writers, but the
present writer has found that they are
rather too difficult, Eutropius because
the subject matter is a little beyond the adequate
comprehension of a beginner, Nepos for linguistic
reasons. Something more simple is wanted.
Another objection may be made. Neither
Eutropius nor Nepos can be called first-rate
stylists. If one object in learning Latin be to
familiarize the pupil with beautiful literature, the
sooner he comes into contact with it the
better. But there is no Latin author who,
throughout a whole work, combines artistic per-
fection with the required degree of simplicity. So
recourse must be had to extracts. It is fortunate
that in Catullus and Martial the material is to be
found. The most suitable among the hendeca-
syllables of these poets provide the beginner with
short works of art which are sufficiently numerous

46 THE TEACHING OF LATIN

to last him for some weeks at least. To these may
be added a few of the shortest and easiest of
Cicero's letters. The earlier books of Livy contain
many stories, beautifully told, which with but
slight alteration are within the powers of beginners
at this stage. But it may be as well to keep Livy
until later in the course. The Cambridge Univer-
sity Press has published a little work which serves
admirably when boys are ready for Livy. 1

All that is wanted in the way of a Reader during
the first term of this stage is a series of such ex-
tracts, having the long vowels marked, but without
illustrations, notes, or vocabulary. The proper
time and place for annotated and illustrated works
will be discussed later. They are particularly liable
to be misused, and the pupil has to be taught to
use them properly. So the teacher must take his
plain text and supply all the necessary information
himself. The present writer has published for his
own use a series of extracts such as have been
already described, interleaved for annotation, and
with a broad margin for references. Extracts may
be written on the black-board and copied by each
boy into an exercise book, with one side of each
page left blank to receive notes. Time is taken
up, certainly ; but the boys are trained to accurate
copying and are compelled to look carefully at
every word of the Latin.

A concise but fairly full Latin syntax is a neces-

1G. M. Edwards, The Story ofth* Kings of Ron*.

THE SECOND YEAR OF LATIN 47

sary book for this stage. It should be .used in a
manner analogous to that which obtained in the
case of the accidence. After several Grammar
instances of a particular construction (Syntax),
have occurred and been explained, the rule should
be thoroughly mastered. Hence a very useful
plan is to interleave the syntax, and to make the
class insert in the proper place examples they
meet with in their reading. After a while, when a
sufficient number of examples have been collected,
a special grammar lesson may he given on a par-
ticular construction.

To explain the working of the principles here
given let us briefly describe a lesson on the lines
proposed. We will suppose the class Example of
to have no knowledge of complex sen- lesson<
tences, but to be armed with an interleaved text
and an interleaved syntax. The following poem
of Martial is the subject of the lesson, and the
class have just studied the poem of Catullus be-
ginning " Lugete, o veneres cupidinesque ".

Issa est passere nequior CatullI,
Issa est purior osculo columbae,
Issa est blandior omnibus puellls,
Issa est carior Indicis lapillis,
5 Issa est deliciae catella Publi.
hanc tu, si queritur, loqui putabis ;
sentit tristitiamque gaudiumque.
collo mxa cubat capitque somnos,
ut suspiria nulla sentiantur.
IO hanc ne lux rapiat suprema totam,

48 THE TEACHING OF LATIN

picta Publius exprimit tabellai,
in qua tarn similem videbis Issam,
ut sit tarn similis sibi nee ipsa.
Issam denique pone cum tabella :
15 aut utramque putabis esse veram,
aut utramque putabis esse pictam.

We will suppose that the class have already some
idea of the rhythm of hendecasyllables. The
teacher will accordingly begin by giving a fluent
translation of the whole, the class merely attend-
ing. He will then read over the poem in Latin,
paying great attention to quantity and to proper
emphasis. Then he may ask a boy to do the
same. Next he will write on the board all new
words, parts of verbs, etc. These the class will
copy neatly on the blank page. There remain the
grammatical points. These are fairly numerous,
and although the teacher must lay stress upon one
or two only, he should omit none of importance.
But those the class already know (for example, the
construction with a comparative adjective) will be
passed over with a bare mention, or maybe a
question to a member of the class, but some will
be discussed more fully. It will be noticed that the
poem contains two consecutive clauses, one final
clause, and three instances of "accusative and
infinitive". All these should be inserted in their
proper place on the blank pages of the grammar,
while marginal references should be made at the
side of the text. But whereas the consecutive and
final clauses are all primary, it is advisable to delay

THE SECOND YEAR OF LATIN 49

a full explanation until other instances, such as
involve historic consecution, have occurred. But
everything necessary for the understanding of the
Latin in hand must be explained, in this case that
clauses expressing purpose or consequence require
the verb to be in the subjunctive. The teacher
may, if he think fit, remark that ne instead of ut
non is to be used in final, though not in consecu-
tive clauses, or that a change from cubat to cubuit,
or from exprimit to exprimebat would involve
changes in sentiantur and rapiat, which become
sentirentur and raperet respectively. In this way
the class may acquire a general notion of what is
meant by a " subordinate " clause, and after
sufficient examples of subordinate clauses have
occurred, a special lesson should be given and a
general definition of such clauses arrived at by an
inductive process.

The two sentences "utramque putabis esse
veram" and "utramque putabis esse pictam" form
an excellent introduction to the study of indirect
speech. In the first place, they can be translated
in two ways : " You will think each to be real
(painted) " ; " you will think that each is real
(painted)". In fact the English and Latin con-
structions here overlap. When this has been ex-
plained, the teacher can point out how the actual
thought would be " utraque est vera " or " utraque
est picta"; then he can ask what the thought
" utraque fuit vera " would become when governed

(B ?66) P

50 THE TEACHING OF LATIN

by putat. The teacher should then discuss line 6
in a similar fashion. The difficulty of the tense of
the infinitive when the governing verb is of past
tense should wait until the simpler forms have been
thoroughly assimilated.

The above will certainly be enough for one
lesson \ indeed it may be advisable to divide it
into two ; but the next step is for the class to learn
as home-work the information given by the teacher.
In the next lesson he should test whether this has
been thoroughly done, and then proceed to ask
questions of such a kind as to drive home the rules
illustrated by the poem. For example : Express
the first line by using quam instead of the ablative
case. Suppose there were two dogs instead of one,
and that the second was called Bella, what does the
Latin become ? Translate into Latin : " You think
that each is painted " j " Publius will paint a pic-
ture of Issa". Many other similar exercises can
easily be devised, e.g. questions on the text in Latin
to be answered from the text.

Finally (though this step may be omitted some-
times, if thought desirable) the piece ought to be
learnt by heart. This is a very different thing
from learning by heart anything that has not been
carefully studied beforehand a most dangerous
practice at this stage. Even if learning by heart is
not demanded of the class, they should at least
know the Latin so well that they can repeat it
accurately when supplied with an English version.

THE SECOND YEAR OF LATIN 51

After some two months have been thus spent in
the careful analysis of easy Latin extracts, each boy
will have collected in his interleaved syntax a
sufficient number of examples to enable him to
follow with profit a series of lessons, say two per
week, on the most important rules of Latin syntax.
By the end of the first term, or early in the second,
the ground should have been covered once. But
constant repetition is absolutely necessary. When-
ever an important construction occurs it should at
least be referred to the rule as given in the
grammar, even though it be not thought necessary
to write the Latin on the blank page. Practice in
using the rules is the best means of remembering
them. Every instance of oratio obliqua should be
turned into oratio recta ; sentence after sentence
should be governed by dico^ dixi, rogo num, rogavi
num, tmpero, imperavi^ iubeo^ and so on. Most of
this can be done orally. Ten minutes at the begin-
ning or end of each lesson will be enough to impress
vividly the greater and more important part of the
syntax upon the pupil by the time he has finished
the second term of this stage.

Up to the present no mention has been made of
" unseens ". In the opinion of the present writer
they should not be attempted until after the second
stage. Even the Reader should be prepared by
teacher and class together, before being learnt as
home-work. Boys must be shown the right way
before they can be trusted to translate correctly by

52 THE TEACHING OF LATIN

themselves. But nevertheless the teacher ought to
bear in mind that he is paving the way for a stage
when more will be left to the initiative of the pupil.
In going over a new piece with the class he need
not translate everything himself. Any sentence that
is well within the powers of the boys he may give to
one of them to translate. The guiding principle is
to eliminate as many chances of error as possible,
so that there are no bad habits to be unlearnt
afterwards.

Some are sure to reply to this that it is good to
throw boys upon their own resources; that they
ought to be left to themselves, solve their own
problems, and learn by their own mistakes. Now,
under certain conditions, this principle holds good.
We learn by mistakes ; but not by those which we
could not avoid making, only by those which we
could have avoided but did not avoid. To leave a
boy to solve his own problems before he has the
means to try successfully is sheer madness. Nobody
would ask a pupil to solve a rider requiring a
knowledge of Euclid, Book II., before that book
has been studied. One must learn to walk before
learning to run. After a while more initiative may
be expected, but at the early stage with which we
are dealing its proper sphere lies in the ready
answer to the oral questions on grammar and com-
position which the teacher asks as soon as a new
section of the Reader has been mastered. However,
there is another means of encouraging initiative at

THE SECOND YEAR OF LATIN 53

this stage which the present writer has found very
useful in other ways, viz. free composition, based
upon pictures or models.

" The art of composition ", says Thring, " that is,

of intelligent arrangement of thought,

-- .,, , , Composition,

is more effectually illustrated by a

picture than in any other way". To describe
a picture is the next best exercise to describing
actual events that have taken, or are taking,
place before our very eyes. The present writer
has published and used with considerable suc-
cess series of pictures printed upon cards. Each
card contains six pictures giving the "moments"
of some story from Roman history or legend.
One of these may be described as follows :

Picture I. The Roman fleet approaching the

coast of Kent.
Picture II. The Britons on the shore awaiting

them.

Picture III. The Romans hesitate to land.
Picture IV. The standard-bearer jumps into the

sea, carrying the eagle with him.
Picture V. The Romans follow.
Picture VI. The Britons are put to flight.

A composition lesson on such a series of pictures
is most successful when the original has been
studied in the Reader some considerable time
previously. If the class are unfamiliar with the
story the teacher must at some point or other

S4 THE TEACHING OF LATIN

in the lesson give such information as is not,
or cannot be, given by the pictures, for instance,
the words of the standard-bearer as he leaps into
the water.

With boys who have reached the stage with
which we have been dealing and who know some-
what about complex sentences, the lesson might
take the following form. Each boy has before
him a copy of the pictures and an exercise book
into which he is going to copy a Latin version
of the story on one side of the page and any
grammatical information the teacher thinks neces-
sary upon the other. The teacher asks the class
to look at the first picture and to think of a
subject about which a sentence can be composed
in Latin. A boy may give the answer Caesar.
Whereupon the following dialogue might take
place.

Q. Quid facit Caesar 1

A. Caesar mare transit.

Q. Quo transit?

A. Ad Britanniam transit.

Q. Cur transit 1

A. Ut Britannos puniat.

Some of these answers may not be forthcoming
at once. In that case it is the teacher's business
to suggest an answer, to bring about the amend-
ment of a faulty one, to encourage the class to
bring forward for the general good any useful
suggestion that occurs to them. For example,

THE SECOND YEAR OF LATIN 55

after the present writer had treated the picture
in the way outlined above and received very much
the same answers, he pointed out (in English, of
course) that no direct mention of the Roman fleet
had been made, although ships were the most
prominent thing in the picture. He then showed
that if the sentence describing the picture was
going to be of the form Caesar in Britanniam
transit ut Britannos puniat, there seemed to be no
place for the ships. What was to be done ? The
answer was immediately forthcoming: "Use the
ablative absolute, multis navibus collectis'\ which
words were accordingly inserted after Caesar and
the whole sentence written on the board, being
copied by each boy into his exercise book. Un-
known words, parts of verbs, etc., should of
course be inserted on the page opposite to the
Latin. The whole story may be described in this
way in the course of half an hour. Great atten-
tion should be paid to the order of words, for
the boys will quickly begin to see that the order
of words is roughly the order of the ideas suggested
by each picture. When the whole has been tran-
scribed into their exercise books, the class (or
a few of them) should translate the story into
English. This is a test to see whether all the
constructions are understood. The Latin had
better be learnt by heart as home-work.

It is natural to tell the story in the first in-
stance in the present tense, because the pictures

$6 THE TEACHING OF LATIN

gradually unfold the story to the eyes of the pupils.
But it is excellent practice to make the class at
a subsequent lesson put away the pictures and
turn the story into the past, that is, they must
describe what they saw on a previous occasion.
They may or they may not have before them
the story as told in the present. This exercise
requires great care and discrimination. Some
presents will become perfects, other imperfects;
sequence of tenses must be observed throughout.
But the good to be obtained from the Latin is
not exhausted yet. A fresh exercise can be made
by telling the story as it would be told by the
standard-bearer, or even by one of the Britons.
Each variation will require thought, concentration,
and the exercise of common-sense, while scope is
afforded for the display of any originality a boy
may have. But the teacher must not allow too
much freedom in these "free" compositions. If
left entirely to himself the average boy will either
write nonsense or systematically evade every
difficulty.

This type of lesson has two great advantages.
In the first place it gives plenty of opportunity for
co-operation between teacher and class. They
work together, the class suggesting, the teacher
suggesting, checking and guiding. The interest
aroused is of the keenest and most pleasant kind.
The class work with a will because they see that
they are being led, not driven. They improve

THE SECOND YEAR OF LATIN 57

in skill because they see the working of a mind
that is more trained than their own. In the
second place free composition is an excellent
antidote for the mechanical word-for-word process
into which translation from English into Latin is
apt to degenerate. "Things seen are mightier
than things heard". To associate a Latin word
with some person, thing or action, even though
these be merely portrayed in a picture, is to learn
that word much more thoroughly than if it be
associated only with the corresponding English
word.

Of composition other than " free " the teacher will
do well to beware until the last term of the second
year. This does not mean that the class will do
none. Every lesson will contain a certain amount.
Instances are sure to crop up when the teacher
thinks it advisable to ask for the Latin of certain
English sentences. Examples of this have been
already given in the discussion of the lesson on
Martial's little poem. But here there is no chance
of the learner's forming bad habits. The teacher
is on the spot and can strangle such in the birth.
One advantage of adopting the oral method is that
mistakes are not likely to become stereotyped by
being written down. Once more are "things
seen " mightier than " things heard ". Occasion-
ally, say once a fortnight, a piece of English may
be given to be translated into Latin. But it must
be simple and well within the powers of the class.

58 THE TEACHING OF LATIN

It should contain instances of constructions re-
cently learnt. Each boy's exercise should be
scrupulously corrected and returned, the mistakes
pointed out, and, more than all, a fair copy given
and learnt by heart. Books of exercises, useful
enough later on, are to be avoided as yet. One
cannot make bricks without straw. Material,
abundance of material, must be collected before
translation from English into Latin, with the excep-
tions already given, becomes a profitable or even a
possible exercise. Take any set of exercises done
by an average class out of a book such as is com-
monly used, and a feeling of surprise will result
that any boys are capable enough to cast away the
bad habits of faulty order, clumsy constructions,
and wrong choice of words that are simply
encouraged by a use of this method before a
boy has reached the stage when he can really
profit from such translation.

During the third term of the second stage the
object of the teacher will be to impress more firmly
still upon the minds of the pupils the salient points
of Latin syntax, and to provide them with material
so that they can begin the serious study of Latin in
their third year. There are several books in the
market which provide a good Reader for this stage.
Silver Latin is a great storehouse. Apuleius, for
instance, has been utilized, in extracts, of course.
Whatever Reader is used it should be provided
with notes and a vocabulary, in order that it may

THE SECOND YEAR OF LATIN 59

serve as a step to the next stage, when the pupil
has to learn how to use both notes and a dic-
tionary.

The study of accidence during the second stage
should be on the same lines as during the first.

There are gaps to be filled up. The

Accidence,
irregular verbs possum^ volo, and the

rest of them, irregular declensions and comparison
of adjectives and adverbs, are instances. Now
as before the pursuit of accidence is strictly
utilitarian. If a little scientific analysis of the
form of a word helps the beginner to remember
this or similar words better, so much philology
is justifiable, but it is not yet the time to devote
any time to philology for its own sake. That may
come later; for the present an admirable, indeed
the best, preparation for the successful pursuit of
philology lies in the careful classification of Latin
words according to their form. Words are to be
taken as types, and other words associated with
one or other of these types. A boy should still be
made to say "Such and such an adjective is de-
clined like tristis ".

During the second stage the acquirement of a
vocabulary by the pupil becomes a matter of great
importance. Although, being chiefly an exercise
of memory, it is a secondary matter in itself, yet
real progress in the next stage becomes difficult if
recourse to the dictionary is too frequent. It is
now that a strong foundation must be laid, and the

60 THE TEACHING OF LATIN

pupils trained to learn new words with care and in
a sensible manner. Words are best learnt in their

context, upon which depends much of
Vocabulary. .

their meaning. The learning of mere

strings of words is condemned. The simplest
and most efficacious plan is to insist that every
new word that occurs be thoroughly learnt. Par-
ticular attention must be paid to the gender of
nouns, the nominative and genitive of nouns and
adjectives, and the principal parts of verbs. It is
an excellent practice for each boy to make out
roughly alphabetical lists of nouns, adjectives, and
so on, which he will be expected to have at his
fingers'-ends. Continual practice in using these
words during the composition lesson, and a few
periodical examinations, either viva-voce or written,
will rapidly increase the vocabulary at the boys'
command. In examinations two kinds of questions
should be asked : (i) to give the English of a Latin
word ; (2) to give the Latin of an English word.

CHAPTER IV
THE THIRD YEAR OF LATIN

We suppose that after two years a boy has a
thorough acquaintance with Latin accidence and
the chief rules of syntax. He has now reached a
stage when he can work more on his own account.
Three kinds of lesson can now be sharply dis-
tinguished : construing, composition, and "unseen"
lessons. With six Latin lessons per week, one
should be reserved for composition, and one for an
unseen, the other four being taken up by the
Reader.

THE CONSTRUING LESSON

The old Eton curriculum reserved Caesar for the
sixth form. It is now often the first book to be
read in schools. The Etonian plan is decidedly ^
the better. However easy in parts, the Gallic War
is in many places most difficult, especially where
oratio obliqua occurs. Its subject matter is of a
kind which appeals far more to the man than to
the boy. Since Caesar's style is so excellent the

61

62 THE TEACHING OF LATIN

pupil ought to study one book, or a part of one, in
order to benefit his Latin prose, but this is a far

different thing from making the Gallic
The Reader.

War the entire mental pabulum of a

boy for a year or more. A life or two from Nepos
might be taken at this stage, as has been suggested in
America. An excellent book has recently appeared
in England consisting of stories taken from
Apuleius. Silver Latin might very well be more
read by beginners than it is. Its Latinity is not
outrageous enough to corrupt the pupil's style, and
much of it, Pliny's Letters, for instance, is ex-
tremely interesting. Roger Ascham used the de
Senectute as a beginners' book, and it would be
possible to go farther and fare much worse. What-
ever book be read first, the curriculum for the
whole of the Latin course from this point onwards
must be determined by three considerations : such
works must be chosen which (i) are most typical of
Roman life and character, (2) are literary master-
pieces, and (3) give the best help to the acquisition
of a good prose style. Many lists might be made,
but perhaps most of them would be taken from the
following list :

Caesar: Gallic War.

Cicero : the easier dialogues and speeches
with some letters.

Tacitus : Agricola y Germania.

Pliny.

Livy.

THE THIRD YEAR OF LATIN 63

Vergil.

Horace : Odes.

Tibullus or Ovid.

Lucretius.

Many would add Terence and Plautus to the list,
but the present writer feels convinced that they
ought to be left for the few who will specialize in
classics. It is a fact that at Westminster, for
example, Terence in the old days used to be one
of the first authors read. When it is considered
that the reason was to make the boys acquire a
knowledge of colloquial Latin, the omission of
Terence here may be regarded as still more re-
markable. But the mva-voce method of teaching is
not recommended by the present writer to enable a
class to converse in Latin. The object is to save
time. The Latin which it profits a boy to read is
to a large extent a literary dialect. This may be
learnt colloquially, but it is of no great help to
study especially the colloquial speech.

To discuss the merits and defects of the numer-
ous kinds of annotated editions now flooding the
market is far from being an easy task. Teachers
differ considerably in their powers of using or
rather making the boys use a text book. Some
prefer one type, some another. But the general
principle holds good that an annotated edition
should contain such information as the class cannot
get from their dictionaries or grammars, but which
is essential for the understanding of the work that

'.4 i nr TEACHING Of LATH

.hi'li. -I I h' MIIIIIK nl . -.I Mi-

-Jir.lll. I lir (hire tr(l lo-
ll' . .1 . '-i i.i . , i .. , . \.. editoi mtttf iddn

.HI. IP 'iiii . .tit., i . j.r. I. i to

.I,., it .In:-.,, .ill- null : . '.lln-i . ,11. .h .' Ill

; .i,. . MM pro^i .M. i . on'i "i diiii. i,
Hotli liiml are ' ' HIM .h nut Him

ly .ill .Ir.piil. (I |i>, n ; would In- i in| .v.il !
in . .. l.'.'.l bOOkt .ni'l il i ' ' rl.iinly wr,- i I-, n ti ,u,
Iroill >ll ' " :i(!l illnjM II,. I III. in \n hunt'. l',iw.ur|
Ollly i II I" lion .,( tin- . Vl.l- IK .' ,IM(I [il'.linilli. .

MI. ill IK. 111 III il I I,' I,M. IH-I l.i.i,

In ft. mi In . ' \.\:;-.. In Inni, ii .li |r i iJofl I'll' "!>

i \v.,ii thi n iii I- 'iiiii- niii ii-

nl tin ir.llly |.< till y I >'<

I I- K i" "II.. i r.'im-i;

i i|n n| Hi. inn .1 iilinii
... in. pirl. r.ilil'

1 1,. Mfoi I-- ibl< i mil -.1 note ' ii> 'i win* ii

nil. i . lli. In l|. lh. it tic- pupil in iy i. i .mi il.ly lr
. ,|,. . I. .1

In .h i .'! .itl'-nlinn In (.nilil . lli.it tin pupil * nuLI
nv i in In . I r. fririu r, tic

ii'l'.' -tiv nnly " Why i.q tin . Stl( l>
.nul p| nl .innnl ilmn will' h

I,. II .- fill & ' ' .I"M..|I V A ' nil,,, I. I

fill.' linn In. n. Ill .1 nf Mi ' < M 1 1 1 1 1.1 1 inn
p.ip. I, I. Hi
I, lit .il ... pnint mil lh' i |'iir. It I'..

.1 l.ny MM. It Any

* THJKD YEAR OF LATIN ',-,

Atof th*i toduoef fetal to throw away hit crutchef
Mid fto hfe ftatefftJ powcn exercise is to be

rtinfff to modern method! of teaching is leet
too tittle feted be ptid to the eocotttagemertt of

HMMpHttJetf* ff'rt I h' Mjepoi of th*- rod of iron
ha* piiied w*y; Iti successor, the gospel of
Interest, fas not yet been ocompanied by satis-
Actory foMtks. DmMm -* in due to
ejletftken view of interest which conscious)

unr on^' lonely irV'ntififs it with :urnK mmf. I'ut

until -.' "f mtereitri*beengati:.f;''t'.r,iy

ipptied In practice! a ii|i m..-;t i- ..... u.ai r ,oi
interesting problems only reward the successful

,,l.<, . l.rl,, -- V III l|ll|ll..- , ,.,! .

Mid It is preci*< ly 'I,,-; kind of help that is given l.y
a note In the for... -.1 ; . -IM- HJeH

I h. in* nhon ..I tin in r,| mrhvi'hi.il r-f|..tl

MUttfltty leads tO :ilh<r |.inl 'I h'- tisc of a

|. him l Kl, Wlthnilt Ii'. I'

M . nmiiH ml il ( >l ' ..

jfl Cttl wnik with .1 |.l..iii I-

n < w i.lhi i I MM i|< ; ly tlir help '|

...:. I. ill Ih. M.I.III I MM |i M hi .

Iho hrllri. At l'jr:1 nnr hook ,\

.id in Ihr. u .i\ Ni. I- Id i lunninr.
,1 l.r d. vi .. .1 I h. |.u|,il h.i . in my
ilillx nil.. . In ...l\. \\.lli .In In. ii u y. ;< |] iinin u .
m d I.. iiWII I" litl '" -<id him In. I. |>. ml. -ill

. . limn ili.Mi .i' | in | MI . lh. I. ...M. . Ih. ,. . . no
IP | g

66 THE TEACHING OF LATIN

room here for cram. A necessary part of classical
education is to accustom the pupil to locate diffi-
culties. In an annotated edition this is done by
the editor; with a plain text a boy must do it
himself. A teacher may, if he think this method
of study too hard for his class, give before private
preparation any help he may believe advisable.
Perhaps the best kind of help is for the teacher
and class to work out the next lesson together.
The teacher will give any information none of the
class know, while the boys translate such parts as
are well within their reach.

From this point onwards in the classical course
the methods advocated by the present writer
approximate ever more and more to the traditional
system. However, as the teacher has always to
consider the foundations and lower storeys when
rearing his superstructure, some discussion of
method will be necessary.

Oral methods of teaching are of the essence of a
The constru- construing lesson. Questions may be
ing lesson, asked and answered in Latin; the
extent to which this can be done will depend
greatly upon the amount of similar practice the
class has had in the previous stages. Consider-
able facility in composing easy sentences can be
acquired in this way, but the present writer has
doubts about its power of imparting accurate
scholarship. Nevertheless, for grammatical drill
such questions are invaluable,

THE THIRD YEAR OF LATIN 67

What are the objects to be aimed at in the con-
struing lesson ?

The primary object is the knowledge of a parti-
cular classic, but besides this the class has to be
trained in English, material for Latin composition
must be collected, gaps in grammatical knowledge
must be filled in, and old grammatical knowledge
enriched and enlightened by additional examples.
The actual course of the lesson will accordingly
vary with the particular needs of the class, but
three parts may be roughly distinguished revision,
the lesson proper, recapitulation and teacher's
translation. In a lesson of three quarters of an
hour, the first might take five minutes, the second
half an hour, the third ten minutes. Revision
consists of a few questions for the purpose of find-
ing out whether the chief points of the last lesson
have been understood and remembered, the last
section will comprise a summing up of the chief
fresh points illustrated by the lesson in hand, fol-
lowed by the version of the teacher, which should
be carefully prepared and effectively delivered.

Most teachers find that the first fault to be dealt
with in a young class is the habit of guessing at the
meaning of the words in front of them. In order
to translate correctly a moderately complex Latin
sentence a great number of hypotheses have to be
formed, tested, and confirmed or revised. Now
the child-mind does not easily adapt itself to rigid
logic, it jumps to conclusions, and impatiently

68 THE TEACHING OF LATIN

refuses to examine all the evidence. Hence the
teacher's difficulty. Hence also one of the greatest
advantages to be derived from the construing
lesson, for in nine cases out of ten the strength of
the evidence from case-endings and the like is so
great that the correct conclusion may be worked
out with the certain reasoning of a proposition in
Euclid. The present writer has found the follow-
ing rules of great service if continually impressed
upon a young class :

(1) Never let your translation make nonsense.

(2) Never admit a translation, however excellent

the sense, unless the grammar of the Latin
accounts for every part of it.

The correct adjustment of these two principles is
more than half the battle, and they should be
insisted upon until it becomes automatic to obey
them.

Subordinate clauses often present a great
difficulty, although they should not if the work
of the preceding stages has been properly taught.
When any difficulty is experienced it should be
pointed out that any subordinate clause is a
sentence by itself, with subject and predicate of
its own, and that the construction of the principal
sentence is not resumed until the subordinate
clause is completed.

The translation should be of the highest quality
possible. All expressions that are un-English

THE THIRD YEAR OF LATIN 69

must be checked at once. On the other hand
the tendency to paraphrase will need to be guarded
against ; every boy should be able to give a literal
construe when required, and the teacher will easily
see when this is necessary, since a boy who does
not know the construction of the sentence he is
translating is morally certain to "give himself away".
Occasionally a difficulty may occur the solution of
which is above the comprehension of the class.
In such cases the explanation must be taken upon
trust.

During this period of the course there ought
to be intelligent co-operation between the Latin
master and the teacher of English. Either can
help the other. The study of Latin will force boys
to weigh carefully the exact meaning of English
words, while it is from the study of English
classics that vocabulary and general style are
learnt for use in the construing lesson. The
older English writers, Shakespeare, Milton, the
Authorised Version and the chief prose-writers
of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries are
invaluable. It is now that a boy should read that
stimulating work of Trench On the Study of Words.

Each boy should have an exercise book in which
to take down such notes as the teacher may think
fit to give. At first they must be dictated, but in
a short time boys can be trained to take down the
substance of what is told them. This is an
invaluable practice.

70 THE TEACHING OF LATIN

How much attention should be paid to subject
Subject matter is a much debated question.
Matter. Isolated facts of ancient civilization
arouse but an evanescent interest, and are valueless
except in so far as they make the text more
intelligible. On the other hand considerable stress
should be laid upon the problems in art, politics
or history that happen to present themselves.
Lengthy discussion is unnecessary and out of place,
but a word in season or a pertinent question may
bring home to a class the fact that the ancients
were men and women, not fossils whose only
purpose was to plague generations of unborn
school-boys. Boys often miss the general drift of
their Reader, a fact which is chiefly due to the
attention being concentrated upon the grammatical
structure of the language. Accordingly the teacher
should occasionally ask a boy to give a short
summary in English of a chapter or section. In
time this summary may be given in Latin. A
running analysis by the teacher, copied by the boys
into their note-books, will often prove of service.

During the translation lesson each scholar should
be storing up words, phrases and modes of
sentence-structure for use in his composition. At
first this is a conscious process, but in course of
time it becomes automatic. The teacher can point
out that commeatu interdudere is equivalent to the
English " to cut one's lines of communication ",
and say that the English phrase should be rendered

THE THIRD YEAR OF LATIN 71

in a piece of Latin composition by the Latin one.
After a lesson it is a useful plan to make the class
close their books and answer either viva-voce or on
paper, questions consisting of English phrases to
be turned into the Latin of the passage just
studied. This may take the place of the ordinary
"recapitulation". It is astonishing how much
practice can effect in sharpening this kind of
memory. Boys can be so trained that the con-
struing lesson comes to mean so much Latin
practically learnt by heart.

This stage is the one in which a boy should be
taught to study for himself. He ought to be
supplied with a small dictionary and: a dictionary
of antiquities. " Thumb your dictionary " is advice
which cannot be impressed too strongly upon the
young scholar. What a boy discovers by his own
efforts he rarely forgets.

It need scarcely be said that during the con-
struing lesson some stress should be laid upon
grammar. No special grammar lesson is included
in the scheme for the third year. It is supposed

that the accidence and the main out-

Gr&nun&r.
lines of syntax have been learnt in the

previous stages, while the class is not yet ready for
the scientific study of grammar. This can only be
attempted by boys who intend to specialize in
classics, and its discussion lies outside the scope of
the present book. What is required at the present
stage is constant revision of rules already known

72 THE TEACHING OF LATIN

and the filling in of any important omissions.
This can be best achieved by (i) attention to
grammatical points that occur in the Reader; (2)
occasional test questions in grammar to be an-
swered in writing.

The acquirement of a vocabulary becomes of

great importance at this stage. Not
Vocabulary. J

only does the pupil need a wide com-
mand of words for the very practical purpose of
examinations, but the constant use of a dictionary
becomes, beyond a certain point, both a source of
irritation and a loss of time. Since a great part of
the meaning of a word depends, in most cases, upon
its context, the Reader should be the mine for the
scholar to work. Periodical tests in the form of
short examination papers will do much to make
this part of the work systematic. Finally, the
teacher cannot impress too much upon his class
the benefit to be derived from studying the whole
of the article upon a word when he looks up that
word in his dictionary.

The construing lesson affords numerous oppor-
tunities of increasing what may be called the
working-vocabulary. Every one has two vocabu-
laries; one consisting of words the meanings of
which he knows, but which he does not use, the
other consisting of words which he both recognises
and uses. An important part of education is to
turn words of the former class into words of the
latter. Boys are very apt to render a Latin word

THE THIRD YEAR OF LATIN 73

by the same English word on all occasions.
Taceo is always " I am silent ". But " I am mute "
may be a better rendering, and "to be hushed "
is often a fit translation of the same word in a
poetical context.

THE COMPOSITION LESSON

To translate well into Latin it is necessary to
comprehend both the thought underlying the
English and the way in which the thought would
be expressed in Latin. This is a truism, but a
truism that is not seldom overlooked. The double
process, language to thought, thought to language,
is a highly complex one. A young boy's intelli-
gence, with rare exceptions, is not ripe for it. Up
to about his fourteenth year the average pupil can
achieve nothing beyond the mechanical finding of
Latin equivalents for English words. Hence,
during the first two stages, the present writer has
recommended but little translation from English
into Latin ; composition has been practically
limited to ringing the changes upon well prepared
sentences or stories. But after two years of Latin,
when our ideal novice has reached the age of four-
teen, and has acquired an accurate though limited
experience of the language, something more ambi-
tious may be attempted.

The traditional mode of teaching Latin prose is
to make the pupil work through a long series

74 THE TEACHING OF LATIN

of exercises consisting of single sentences to be
translated into Latin. Each exercise is designed
Two to illustrate some special construction,

methods. Then, after months or years of this
drill, the pupil is suddenly plunged into pieces of
continuous prose taken usually from some English
author.

The great flaw in this system is that the first
stage is a most inadequate preparation for the
second. The full meaning of a sentence very often
depends upon its context, and in Latin sentence-
structure is considerably influenced by what has
gone before and what is still to come. Accordingly
text-books of another type have been commonly
used of late years. In these all the chief gram-
matical rules are summed up in a sort of introduc-
tion, to which are added hints upon style. The
exercises consist of continuous passages, graduated
in difficulty, with references to the rules already
mentioned.

This system is often objected to on the ground
that it is unsystematic, and that the grammatical
rules are not learnt. It is a sufficient reply that
the rules should have been learnt already (by
viva voce drill) before such a book is begun. The
introduction serves as a work of reference accessible
to every pupil who uses the book. But there is a
defect common to both systems. In neither case
is composition made dependent upon the Reader.
In course of time the general reading of the pupil

THE THIRD YEAR OF LATIN 75

will be sufficient to supply him with the requisite
material, but at first a more direct connexion
with the Reader seems necessary. So scheme of
the present writer recommends the composition,
following scheme for the third year composition :
First term. Sentences illustrating syntactical rules.
Second term. Simple continuous pieces composed
by the teacher and based upon the
prose author (by preference Caesar)
that is being read at the time.
Third term. Continuous pieces from some text-
book.

If the teacher likes he may employ Ascham's
system for the second term. This old teacher, as
is well known, recommended the pupil to translate
a passage from Cicero's de Senectute or the letter
ad Quintum fratrem^ and, when this translation
had been corrected by the teacher, to re-translate
it after an interval into Latin. A modification of
this method was tried at King Edward's School,
Birmingham, when the present writer was a school-
boy there. Every week the Ilnd class (Vth form)
were required to learn by heart some twenty lines
of the de Senectute, in such a way that with an
English translation before them they could repeat
the exact words of Cicero. The present writer is
quite convinced that he was hereby for the first
time impressed with the great truth that inspiration
must be sought directly from the classical models

76 THE TEACHING OF LATIN

to ensure real progress in composition. A similar
course would be of great service to any form at the
stage we are now considering. In default of this
the teacher should write a short piece of English
containing words and constructions that the class
have met during the week's reading.

The ideal method of correcting exercises in
Latin prose is to go over it with each boy sepa-
rately, and explain the particular errors into which
he has fallen. In the great majority of cases the
size of the class makes this method an impossi-
bility. The next best plan is for the teacher to
note the most instructive mistakes and to make
them the basis of a short lesson, taking care to
insist rather upon the correct translation than upon
the blunders made. The sooner the pupil can
" forget those things which are behind ", and press
onwards to greater accuracy, the better. Order of
words and clauses should be carefully observed
now as in the previous stages. "Fair copies"
must be dictated to the class and learnt by heart
for the next lesson.

The numerous errors made by most boys when
they begin Latin prose seriously for the first time
not only discourage the learner but also help to
perpetuate mistakes. The mere writing down of
what is incorrect strengthens the erroneous idea
and makes it more difficult to eradicate. Hence it
is a very good plan to work each exercise at first
viva voce. When the class has seen how to do it

THE THIRD YEAR OF LATIN 77

by co-operating with the teacher, the exercise may
be written out as home-work. After a few weeks
the class can be left more to its own devices.

Composition from pictures is best dropped at
this stage. The benefit to be derived from it has
been practically exhausted in the previous year, for
it will be found that the class is scarcely ripe for
" free " composition that is unaided by the teacher.
Later on such composition will be most useful,
but to introduce it prematurely is but to accustom
the boys to bad work.

THE UNSEEN LESSON

It is to be feared that the unseen lesson is
usaully regarded as a mere test of knowledge.
It is that, certainly; but it may also be some-
thing much more important. The essence of an
unseen lesson is the limitation it imposes upon
the scholar in his translation. In the preparation
of his Reader a boy should be encouraged to make
use of every help he can obtain, short, of course,
of a "crib". But the teacher keeps value of
the aids to an unseen within strict unseens,
bounds, and only gives such help as he thinks
absolutely necessary. It will be seen that there
are two special points to be noticed by scholars
and teachers : (i) the choice of the right English
word when the general meaning of the Latin word
is known ; (2) the inferring of the meaning of a

78 THE TEACHING OF LATIN

word from its context. There are other exercises
in the unseen lesson, but as they are included in
the construing lesson they need not be noticed
here.

The points mentioned may best be illustrated
by an example. Suppose that the : unseen is
from the story of Nisus and Euryalus in the ninth
Aeneid,

Volvitur Euryalus leto, pulchrosque per artus
It cruor.

A boy may know that volvo means " I roll ", but
here the most appropriate expression is not "rolls"
but "writhes" or "is convulsed", and it is his
business to think of some such expression. Of
course, the same principle holds in the construing
lesson, but in the preparation of that lesson so
much help is given by books of reference that
the boy's ingenuity does not receive similar scope
for exercise.

From these remarks it follows that the teacher
must insist upon the exercise of common-sense
and correct expression; the chief faults to be
combated are guessing and slip-shod English. If
these principles are borne in mind, it is impossible
for him to go very far wrong.

One or two points remain to be noticed. Un-
Help may be seens should not be too difficult,
given. especially at first. They are certainly

not meant to be an exercise to prove how little
the boys know, A few words may be given, or

THE THIRD YEAR OF LATIN 79

even the use of a dictionary allowed, but this
should be abandoned at the first opportunity.
Independent effort is always to be encouraged.
Another kind of help may be used occasionally,
but it sacrifices one of the greatest benefits to
be derived from unseens. The general drift of
the passage may be told the boys, and this infor-
mation will make the unravelling of the separate
sentences much easier. A very little experience
will convince a teacher that the average boy
seldom cares whether his translation is self-
consistent; he is usually content with sheer non-
sense. So it may be necessary to give the general
meaning at first, but this help should be gradu-
ally diminished and at length discontinued. When
the text-book used in the construing lesson is the
plain text of a complete work, the unseen may
with benefit be taken from a part of the book
that is not being read in class. Familiarity with
the writer's style is of some help.

A practical hint may be given in conclusion.
The unseen lesson consists of two parts, the
correction of the old unseen and the translation
of the new one. To prevent hurry on the part
of the class, sufficient time, say half an hour,
should always be reserved for the fresh piece.
In the short time remaining for discussion the
teacher will find that showing the boys how they
could have solved their difficulties will yield more
fruit than too much insistence upon errors.

80

APPENDIX

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