ae hw re nA oe ef > ved peas ethenee mre, ay fered ae tina 20 bneea [peared pea wre local Rite viiel 4 gee Nokia artes Sea SS Pa iat e0bt+Obs Badal eel ta pata orapapbad tates re trig stiarcoer Madre qaspencesd carted cane s laendel Sd ie La er Msies pe mani Ve4 beg to sf 4 ‘Sra Vi mar inaty ae et " peat r Jetobe nh REND hpedinate at Ragre wmng 40 Spite Minn Hes eent ald 9 05 nyt merit Mik bred Lida tet, lig Mb tory ee bet) piste rey v6 gies Waly ty Og ha Pad vaerentes g hele yridem ped pntente aioe eae ag Neg My had Cray bAlArasAlnaedint fore) pth leg ¢ Pauanle Atal fas Eee i ever ty) worry. Ld Wy yet aa ae se a ore et gat peace eaeaneen oo natin: “ ye Pete ie | ni helo. Rabie} He Soc Sid sn song fai A ps net pee igh ci deity Pelee Satelaaee sc Panis oy ME Ie bee gate cs Pret sone garer yr nh? 44 4 iesent diy 44 AShekies irae na boluidodl Wey te Moanin atid, 7 \ nyyeyrn tage) aagin ot epreene punk bea prvi ert) O shea ot ety +h 48 lan i seheisiees Hiei a iene io es te Whe bh ae U Within re hg it ar, esekdtear| BAe Her veaadot hs . nets » glad A\'s btecey rrr Aik te betpye fines rth + % “ Vy aie He wy eer end § Pere erent it ed iat abe Porat Bey pee bh ree en Ghd ni eds Ah eah sit 4h wi ae he, Th Talay an vereee So y att PAA Laas sYmdb asitu'tiong sal Ye iB saute ie sis bests ae pet Se stalo rane 4 A seey ‘ oy oa Nea 4 ibe 2 ite es TaVeth aah ood etek vere Va Weve) | jot aw shapes thy frinbies e. soit oh age ‘ isle br at ie Va-feay. xe Hptnid ce tet nr > ee tetas Het el +e bey siete 4y : reat an ns lad p,4 i spay heed bee AN hwy + Reis pie 4 7 alleen 40 eels ala ha Ha Nota aortaty brah oa aah eae Peel ae ihe ety egy pane eta if Mbiveest ‘hac Hi isdn wa! ie aay ate Bat Mh Rad Beet oa Seg de f MM Pai oa may Ber (ry nin + wo ee. i it Me a ees “ y wary WUND rg ol Fae OU pel eee oy 1? vet iire Ween ayaa be ata! Dighebaki eae AW pets use vetar Fhe pe al hehe A Pre aes ite fs ee a bebe! Hine 1V Net b4 ret ae ata al) PO A) SAT Vee be herpae ve oben hin) sign he pth Ribbons ph gp ina tS Nita te 4, “ +f \ Fad are Me «hyn Ris beatin ardead Sar eile id sane a ee Sd 1, Moment Uta HOLM pdb bdeeee pee 1) ey 4 0 ob Ratt ed bw fay! dy we Ha aa tt] WR hae ve yon diy 48 prviens oe ape LAM es hint mae wyeseear at NER M Dry 5 4s bey by Maye (Mea eh nL inang bhp de Hama ey wh Head ia aly pan Sth Hs ’ hs Rav stuabhate na 91 Cede Gi epee Iapelimone Meh! Um WP vey Punta V be oPeq ety wee Aw hin) Phe Wy o> ‘aut at hay Te baht suantshameret ited tye: ec and WY With Wren Fhe 4k fa ra bodaeen ve Peas EMT) trae beriee PUN Rarer ihe BY my tat 19 Oe yh ithe sin ar ato + isle otha Ud aaty ‘ hd Gel piyeyee vine fie ow wry yi rete tard ait pen ater ye eet +h pings ty ewal aha eels mi Hate grin get Oey Ba Dtih 2 4 yar Netra rie neta wie err we paler te weld Wace tate AP a dadh rider 9 As ae pane oA i Cairn aie oy tH ternn shad tet che teseane te) oy fad Hon one NAV pad etsy) vel 1 ee allel Aan Asay Niet Tea t Pe WParenedy ba ett “) Vreee wih » eat ies spans awaits Ath 49) aad i iw Lay ha ate a , het et ch Pon ebe bly iy ys oy ey Hh HH a Ce heheh pp eee ee epee Sy Vondard cai obe hy bad shoal Ue uae i mere P fant ane ue iy wet y Wish) (pisses fy Pepe h ta at Wah dye ¢ Sarid yes mately ley 9 tien Al plein Ney int ele resent Wyststeted t Le } Rit. operat ear tees ae hia e vee ines un nvr oa Ubnerebdtihy, 2) vba Walley Bhd) ty es sees Apr toh yey wer aay Herod aire iP ey ay Sr tt thethP ars | et ho ee he ; ae Hh ‘ He ars Sahel ty beer Mae iigece - ~. BS 3H ~ wi Panty Hii A¥ ote irs * i Hit ae Ns aol tah a Sg 1 Hh) pe _ hdl, se de gat! wie oat “Volume XVI ~ May, 1918 Number 4 rahe ¥° imoke 0 "i Fh ST TECHNICAL PUBLICATION NO. 10 Je OF __ THE NEW YORK STATE COLLEGE OF FORESTRY ap cae AT SYRACUSE UNIVERSITY ts i Notes on Insects Bred from the Bark - and Wood of the American Larch BY M: W. BLACKMAN and HARRY H. STAGE : Il. On the Insect Visitors to the Blos- ~~ soms of Wild Blackberry and Wild | + S$piraea—A Study in Season- one able Distribution . f BY iy M. W. BLACKMAN Published Quarterly by the University : Syracuse, New York Entered at the Postoffice at Syracuse as second-class mall matter ; Volume XVIII May, 1918 Number 4 TECHNICAL PUBLICATION NO. 10 OF THE NEW YORK STATE COLLEGE OF FORESTRY AT SYRACUSE UNIVERSITY ]. Notes on Insects Bred from the Bark and Wood of the American Larch BY M. W. BLACKMAN and HARRY H. STAGE II. On the Insect Visitors to the Blos- soms of Wild Blackberry and Wild Spiraea—A Study in Season- able Distribution BY M. W. BLACKMAN Published Quarterly by the University Syracuse, New York Entered at the Postoffice at Syracuse as second-class mail matter TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS OF THE NEW YORK STATE COLLEGE OF FORESTRY To be had upon application by residents of the State TECHNICAL PUBLICATION No. 1, 1914. Preliminary Report on the Diseases of Fish in the Adirondacks: A Contribution to the Life History of Clinostonum marginatum. By Dr. W. M. Smallwood. pp. 8-27. No. 2, 1916. I. A New Species of Pityogenes. By J. M. Swaine. pp. 8-10. II. Observations on the Life History and Habits of Pityogenes hopkinsi Swaine. By Dr. M. W. Blackman. pp. 11-66. No. 3, 1916. The Development of the Vegetation of New York State. By Dr. William L. Bray. pp. 11-186. No. 4, 1916. The Relation of Mollusks to Fish in Oneida Lake. By Frank ©. Baker. pp. 15-366. Nora.» L917. The Hardwood Distillation Industry in New York. By Nelson C. Brown. No: 65 197: Wood Utilization Directory of New York. By John Harris, Forest Service, revised and rearranged by Nelson C. Brown and Henry H. Tryon. No: 7%, LOL]: The Relation of Birds to. the Western Adirondack Forest. By P. M. Silloway. No. 8, 1917. The Black Zones Formed by Wood-destroying Fungi. By Arthur S. Rhoads. [2] 2 —E Insects Bred from American Larch 3 No. 9, 1918. The Productivity of Invertebrate Fish Food on the Bottom of Oneida Lake, with Special Reference to Mollusks. By Frank Collins Baker. No. 10, 1918. I. Notes on Insects Bred from the Bark and Wood of the American Larch. By M. W. Blackman and Harry H. Stage. II. On the Insect Visitors to the Blossoms of Wild Blackberry and Wild Spirea: A Study in Seasonal Distribution. By M. W. Blackman. TRUSTEES OF THE NEW YORK STATE COLLEGE OF FORESTRY Ex OFFIcIo Dr. James R. Day, Chancellor............+-++: Syracuse University. Dr. Joun Huston Finitey, Commissioner of Edu- CORDS oslo ano Slee Slaedic oo)6 Coro promo ees a o's on Albany, N. Y. Hon. Epwarp ScHornecK, Lieutenant Governor of HG SOMO, dboboods dadddob Soo odeooUoaoaTcO Ch Syracuse, N. Y. Hon. Grorce D. Prarr, Conservation Commis- SHOWER de sions ecko cole dO and sin pia OU Deo no o.oo. New York City. APPoINTED BY THE GOVERNOR Hon. CmArmms ANDREWS .....0...0.2+-50-+528% Syracuse, N. Y. Hon; ALEXANDER T. BROWN.........--+----+20- Syracuse, N. Y. Tétoiny di@txy IRs (CAM (Ores gaa ccaopougesauspOoB ODS Syracuse, N. Y. ign UAROLD! DD CORNWATIGe ies) sys eee oho! one nitell= 0 =liois Lowville, N. Y. Hon. Grorcet W. DRISCOLL.........-2.--.--+4--4. Syracuse, N. Y. Hon. HEANCIS) EIBNDRICKS .... 22-20-0062. e eee Syracuse, N. Y. Hon. Henprick S. HOLDEN..........-----+-+s0: Syracuse, N. Y. Talim, Ibovents) MINS) Gyo anol o ooo So odaouoooooC New York City. MEG BID WWAED) El) O7EUARA tie, si sysisle cloueeyele «6 ete el sine Syracuse, N. Y. OFFICERS OF THE BOARD J ELAINE sed POBIACOD 1Oci oI ORe Od ac Hon. Lours MARSHALL. Wike@-IEPOSUICES bo Gobo Honoc dopo gobs oD uDOD Hon. JoHN H. CLANCY. GU AUSMIRGP o0.6 ici bigs Hn.b.0 6 dior non DjO'O DO Dom Hon. Henprick 8. HOLDEN. [4] ey “ {47 vv MAT FACULTY OF THE NEW YORK STATE COLLEGE OF FORESTRY AT SYRACUSE UNIVERSITY JAMES ROSCOE DAY, S. T. D., D. C. L., LL.D., Chancellor of the University. * HUGH POTTER BAKER, M. F., 1904 (Yale) ; D. Oec., 1910 (Munich), Dean of the College; Professor of Silviculture. FREDERICK FRANKLIN MOON, B. A., 1901 (Amherst) ; M. F., 1909 (Yale), Professor of Forest Engineering, Acting Dean. MAULSBY WILLETT BLACKMAN, A. B., 1901; A. M., 1902 (Kan- sas); Ph. D., 1905 (Harvard), Professor of Forest Entomology. EDWARD F. McCARTHY, B. S.,, 1911; M. S. F., 1916 (Michigan), Professor of Forest Utilization. * NELSON COURTLANDT BROWN, B. A., 1906; M. F., 1908 (Yale), Professor of Forest Utilization. J. FRED BAKER, B. S., 1902 (Michigan Agricultural); M. F., 1905, (Yale), Director of Forest Investigations. LEIGH H. PENNINGTON, A. B., 1907; Ph. D., 1909 (Michigan), Professor of Forest Pathology. SEWARD D. SMITH, B. S., M. S. F., 1910 (Michigan), Director of State Ranger School. JOHN WALLACE STEPHEN, B. A., 1907; M. 8. F., 1909 (Michigan) ; M. Pd., 1915 (Michigan Normal College), Professor of Silviculture. * On leave of absence. [5] 6 College of Forestry CHARLES CHRISTOPHER ADAMS, B. S., 1896 (Lliinois Wesleyan) ; M. S., 1899 (Harvard); Ph. D., 1908 (Chieago), Professor of Forest Zoology. HENRY R. FRANCIS, B.S., 1910 (Massachusetts Agricultural College), Professor of Landscape Extension. SHIRLEY W. ALLEN, B. S., 1910 (Iowa State College), Professor of Forest Extension. HARRY P. BROWN, A. B., 1909; A. M., 1910; Ph. D., 1914 (Cornell University) , Professor of Dendrology. SOLOMON F. ACREEH, B. S., 1896; M. S., 1897 (Texas); Ph. D., 1902 (Chicago); F. C. S., Professor of Dendrological Chemistry. ROBERT CRAIG, Jr., M.S. F., 1910 (Michigan), Professor of Forestry at New York State Ranger School. * REUBEN PARKER PRICHARD, B. S., 1907 (Dartmouth); M. F., 1909 (Yale), Assistant Professor of Dendrology. LAURIE D. COX, A. B., 1903 (Arcadia College); S. B. in Landscape Architecture, 1908 (Harvard), Assistant Professor of Landscape Engineering. HOWARD BLAINE WAHA, B. S., 1909; C. E., 1918 (Pennsylvania State College), Assistant Professor of Forest Engineering. * HENRY HARRINGTON TRYON, A. B., 1912; M. F., 1913 (Harvard), Assistant Professor of Forest Utilization. ERNEST G. DUDLEY, A. B., 1908 (Leland Stanford Jr. University) ; 1908-09 (Yale Forest School), Assistant Professor of Forest Extension. ALFRED HUBERT WILLIAM POVAH, A. B., 1912; Ph. D., 1916 (Michigan) , Assistant Professor of Forest Botany. * On leave of absence. Insects Bred from American Larch 7 CARL JOHN DRAKE, B. S., B. Ped., 1912 (Baldwin-Wallace) ; A. M., 1914 (Ohio State University) , Assistant Professor of Forest Entomology. HIRAM LEROY HENDERSON, B. S., 1915 (Michigan), Assistant Professor of Forest Utilization. * ALAN F. ARNOLD (Harvard), Instructor in Landscape Engineering. CARL CHESWELL FORSAITH, A. B., 1913 (Dartmouth) ; A. M., 1914, Ph. D., 1917 (Harvard), Instructor in Forest Technology. HAROLD CAHILL BELYEA, A. B., 1908 (Mt. Allison Univ.) ; M. F., 1916 (Yale), Instructor in Forest Engineering. EDGAR C. PEDDIE, B. S., 1917 (New York State College of Forestry) , Instructor in Landscape Engineering. RAYMOND F. HOYLE, B. S., 1917 (New York State College of Forestry) , Instructor in Forest Utilization. MERLE R. MEACHAM, B. S., 1913 (Hiram College); B. S. in Ch. E., 1914; Ch. E., 1916 (Purdue University), Research Assistant in Dendrological Chemistry. (Fuller Fund) ALVIN G. SMITH, B. S., 1915 (New York State College of Forestry), Field Assistant in Forest Investigations; in charge of Syracuse Forest Baperiment Station at Syracuse. * WILFORD E. SANDERSON, B. S., 1917 (New York State College of Forestry), Field Assistant in Forest Investigations. DON M. BENEDICT, B. S., 1917 (Michigan), Laboratory Assistant in Botany. C. F. CURTIS RILEY, A. B., 1901 (Doane College); B. S., 1905 Michigan) ; A. M., 1911 (Doane College) ; M. S., 1913 (University of Illinois), Special Lecturer in Animal Behavior. * On leave of absence. College of Forestry LILLIAN M. LANG, Secretary to the Dean. WALTER W. CHIPMAN, B. S., 1893 (Wabash College), Cashier. ELEANOR CHURCH, B. L. E., 1916 (Syracuse University), Librarian. EDNA E. WHITELEY, B. L. E., 1916 (Syracuse University), Recorder. I. NOTES ON INSECTS BRED FROM THE BARK AND WOOD OF THE AMERICAN LARCH — LARIX LARICINA (Plu Roc.) Koch. By M. W. BLACKMAN, Ph. D., and Harry H. Stace, M. S. [9] ie i? i / hie : 7 spn Ree cee 0 ee ‘ea Ae: Lae ee 7 iP Reais bein sé ti Sagi COSI CLEA A eT IBMT VO ) anes Ad VADIREMA ART UO TOOW G A ra: pe (0m WL) AMLITAAL * ad ’ bg | ee ene Th ka? hae 4? a. “arena wa Wiisti rey Fs | i. 7 t ey és Wi y ivi ay ui ; iv - < a Wy. ry, , nee C'S NOTES ON INSECTS BRED FROM THE BARK AND WOOD OF THE AMERICAN LARCH — LARIX LARICINA (Du Roc) Koch By M. W. BLAcKMAN, Ph. D., and Harry H. Sracg, M. S. Several years ago the senior author was impressed by the fact that in comprehensive reports upon forest insects, such as those of Packard (’90), Hopkins (’93, ’99) and Felt (06) a considerable number of boring insects are recorded from pine, spruce and several other conifers but only a very few are reported from the American larch. For instance, Packard (’90) mentions only three borers in larch — Den- droctonus sp. (doubtless D. simplex), Hylesinus opaculus (probably Polygraphus rufipennis) and Tomicus (Ips) pini, — although he treats at considerable length thirty-three in- sects affecting the trees in other ways. Hopkins (93) in his Catalogue of Forest and Shade Tree Insects of West Virginia mentions no insects from larch, while Felt (’06) lsts but three boring insects from larch — Leptura sub-hamata Rand, Tomicus (Ips) pint Say and Tomicus (Ips) caelatus Eich. More recent papers by Swaine (711) and by Hewitt (712) dealing with larch insects list Dendrotonus simplex Lee., Ips balsameus Lec., Dryocoetus autographus Ratz., Dryo- coetus n. sp. and Ips caelatus Eich. as borers attacking recently felled larches or trees weakened by the defoliation of the sawfly. As it was believed that this paucity of forms known to inhabit the bark and wood in the larch was due-at least in part to lack of study of this tree as a host for boring insects, it was decided to take the first opportunity of making such a study. Such an opportunity was offered when the junior author on his return from his home reported the presence of many dying and dead larch near Crittenden, Erie county, [11] 12 College of Forestry N. Y. He was persuaded to return immediately and to ship to the laboratory a liberal amount of material showing as great a variety of conditions as possible. On account of the fact that the infested larch was at a considerable distance from Syracuse (about one hundred and thirty-one miles) the ideal method of procedure in such studies — which should consist of field work and insectary work so co-ordinated as to check each other and to give the best results — were necessarily modified. The field work was reduced to a minimum and all field observations were made by the junior author at such odd times as opportunity offered. However, the work was so planned and conducted that the results obtained were in no way weakened. In fact, m a study of this sort the field work aside from the actual collecting of the infested wood, can be dispensed with much more readily than the insectary work; which, on the other hand, is indispensable because of the impossibility in the present state of our knowledge of identifying the immature stages of many boring insects. The method followed consisted in bringing to the labora- tory generous samples of various parts of infested trees. A eareful and full record of the character and history of each lot was kept and each lot was placed in a separate breeding cage. The cages were then placed out of doors so that the conditions would be normal and as near as possible what they would have been if left mm their original location. The breeding cage used consists of a strong, well-constructed frame of 2x 2 cypress. The top is covered with fine copper wire mesh, while the sides are sheets of glass lowered into grooves In the frame. To the bottom of the frame is attached a metal flange which may either be fitted into an especially constructed base or may be pressed down into the soft earth. In most of our work the latter method was used and this was true of all of the outdoor breeding work. In these cages the sticks were propped up with one end resting upon the loose soil or embedded in it, and, except in very dry weather, the wood absorbed enough moisture from the loose earth to keep it m fit condition for the insects living within. When Insects Bred from American Larch 13 the weather was too dry, water was occasionally sprinkled on the pieces of wood to prevent conditions from becoming too unfavorable. In any event the conditions were doubtless as uniformly favorable as they would have been had the material remained undisturbed in its natural environment. The various breeding cages were examined daily and all insects which had emerged were kept separate with full data. As the exact source of each insect emerging was scrupulously recorded it was an easy matter later to find the various sorts of insects associated in the same pieces of wood and im simi- lar wood from other trees or regions of trees. By supple menting such data with later study of the wood it is often possible to secure evidence to establish either absolutely or probably that certain insects bear the relation of parasite and host to each other. Whenever practicable the exit hole made by an emerging insect was found and marked with the same lot number as the insect which came from there. Later this burrow was opened and the character of the larval mine and pupal chambers studied. Specimens of several sorts of larvee were also taken at intervals; and, by a later careful comparison of such records of adults, burrows and larve as was thus obtained, it was often possible to connect absolutely the various stages of the imsect and the burrow it produced. Descrirprion or Wooptor From Wuicu THe LARCH WAS SECURED With the exception of five pieces obtained from Wanakena, N. Y., all of the infested larch used in this study was secured from near Crittenden, N. Y. Crittenden is twenty-one miles east of Butfalo, im the northwestern part of Erie county. The woods from which the larch was taken is one of con- siderably larger dimensions than is usually met with in that section. ‘The tract comprises about one hundred acres. The larger part of it is owned by the New York Central Rail- road, the rest belonging to the adjoining farms. The greater number of tree species in this track belong to the climax forest type —the principal ones being hard- 14 College of Forestry maple, beech and hemlock. On the higher areas a few white pines are scattered among the hardwoods. Only in two areas is the larch to be found. This tract of timber is practically in a virgin condition, doubtless owing to the fact that it is owned by the railroad. The area has : apparently never been lumbered and presents fairly good forest conditions — that is the general conditions are excellent for tree growth. As previously stated the larch is to be found in two separated areas, a western group having between thirty and fifty trees, and an eastern one of between four and five hundred trees. These two areas, which are lower and there- fore moister than the surrounding woods, are about two hundred and fifty yards apart and between them is a dense undergrowth consisting principally of poison sumach, willow, ete. In these areas, the larch predominates, the total number of larch outnumbering all other species of trees combined. All sizes of larches are present, from saplings up to trees of about 14 inches D. B. H. Reproduction is good although of course many of the smaller trees have been killed by suppression due to shading. A number of the larger larch trees (6 inches D. B. H. and up) have been weakened or killed each year for a number of years by the removal of the bark by farmers. A decoction made by steeping this bark is thought to make an excellent spring tonic for horses and is used by the farmers of this locality for that purpose. On all parts of the tract, trees may be found from which more or less bark has been stripped — these often being completely girdled from the ground up to a height of about six feet. Trees completely girdled in this way are of course killed immediately while trees stripped of their bark on one side only, are not killed outright but are greatly weakened. Both dead and weakened trees serve as favorable breeding places for many different sorts of insects, and’ it is with insects entering the tree under such conditions that we deal with principally in this paper. Aside from these trees killed or weakened by the stripping off of the bark, the larch trees are under conditions such as exist in practically virgin timber. This means that many Insects Bred from American Larch — 15 of the trees have reached their maximum growth — have become matured — and some such trees are deteriorating more or less rapidly. The presence of the excellent breeding places offered by the girdled larch had resulted in an increase of many insect enemies — several of which have increased beyond the danger level. These are already successfully attacking and killing not only the trees weakened by strip- ping off part of the bark but also apparently have in the last year or two killed a number of trees which were over-mature but were otherwise uninjured. Indeed the conditions here are in many respects similar to those reported by Swaine (11) in a larch wood near St. Anne’s, Que. There several trees had been allowed to remain in the forest after felling and these had acted as an excellent breeding place for a number of scolytid beetles. Several of these were bred up to such numbers that they were able to attack and kill the living larches remaining. Of the five bark beetles breeding in this larch, including Dendroctonus simplex, Ips balsameus, Ips caelatus, Dryocoetes autographus and Dryocoetes sp., Swaine considers only the first two as serious enemies of the larch. In the larch woods at Crittenden, the trees which had been girdled by farmers in obtaining bark, had acted in much the same manner — as incubators for a number of insects breed- ing in dying or dead larch. The numbers of several of these had increased beyond the danger level and they were able to attack and kill trees over-mature and deteriorating. Several of the trees from which most of the material for this study was derived had apparently been killed in this manner. In our study Trees I and X, as described later, were trees weakened by over-maturing and their death is believed to have been caused or at least much hastened by insect work. Insects found in both of these trees and in others under nearly similar conditions included the scolytids Polygraphus rufipennis and Eccoptogaster piceae, the cerambycid Asemum moestum, always working very near the base of the tree, and the melandryid Serropalpus barbatus. Dendroctonus sim- plex was present in the bark of the basal twenty feet of the 16 College of Forestry trunk of Tree I and of others examined in 1915 and 1917, but no signs of it were to be found in Tree X. There can be little doubt that these insects working in the trunk together with a number of borers which typically attack the branches and the uppermost parts of the trunk such as Neoclytus longipes, Leptostylus sea-guttatus, Pogonocherus mixtus, and the three species of Chrysobothris — C. blanch- ardi, C. sex-signata and C. dentipes — greatly hasten the death of many weakened trees. Melanophila fulvoguttata and Phymatodes dimidiatus are two other borers which are often associated with them (the latter only in the lower trunk) the first of these being a well-known enemy of weak- ened spruces and hemlocks. However, in the bit of woodland studied, these insects are not working unhampered, but natural forces are at hand which to some extent at least are tending toward the re- establishment of the normal balance of forces and toward the return to a more favorable condition for the larch. The work of woodpeckers is much in evidence and seems to be an efficient agency in reducing to some extent the numbers of the brood of several of the more numerous bark-boring insects. ‘The birds seem to work in two ways — first by making small conical holes through the bark into the sap- wood to obtain the larvee of the larger species of beetles which have gone there to hibernate or to pupate, and sec- ondly by removing practically all of the bark on large areas of the trunk to uncover the brood (larvee, pupze and young adults) of the bark beetles. In some cases this work reached an unusual degree of efficiency. For instance one particular tree forty or fifty feet high and about 14 inches in diameter, had had nearly all of the bark removed from the ground to the very tip. (Figs. 5, 6.) This tree had been heavily infested with * Dendroctonus simplex, Polygraphus rufipennis and other borers, but only a small per cent of the original infestation had survived the woodpeckers’ thorough search for food. Of course all of the infested trees had not been so thoroughly gone over by the birds and a number of such trees had Insects Bred from American Larch 17 apparently not been found by them at all. However, it is safe to say that the woodpeckers were:an eflicient force, work- ing toward the return of the normal balance of nature which had been upset by the breeding of certain species of insects above the danger level, due to the girdling, season after sea- son, of a number of the larches by farmers. It is not believed that the woodpeckers will be able unaided to reduce the numbers below the danger level, as long as more trees are girdled each year, but should this practice cease it is possible that they would be able eventually to obtain the upper hand and that conditions would return to normal. Firtp Work ~The field work consisted in locating the infested trees, securing as many species of insects from them in the field as possible, noting the condition and probable date of death of the host tree, and securing all other data that was thought might be of value. The fact that many of the trees had been partially stripped of their bark by woodpeckers in search of grubs was made use of in readily finding such trees under winter conditions. The infested trees were cut down and samples of the various parts of the trunk, of the top and of the branches were selected. These different lots were labeled and shipped to the laboratory where they were placed in outdoor breeding cages as recorded previously. The larger part of the material was obtained in the field April 28 and 29, 1916, but from this time till April, 1917, as oceasion offered smaller lots were added. The material placed in breeding cages and from which insects were bred out was derived from eleven different trees showing a variety of different conditions. Some of these samples were from standing trees only recently dead, some from standing trees dead 1, 2 or more years and some from trees which had been blown over several years. In the following pages these various trees are described and the insects derived from each are listed. The material from the first eight of these trees was shipped from Critten- 18 College of Forestry den April 29, 1916, while the rest was obtained later, at various times, as indicated. Tree No. I was a large larch of about 14 inches D. B. H. and about 50 feet high. It had probably died late in 1914 from unknown causes as it had not been stripped of its bark. It was the one tree found in the spring of 1916 which con- tained living specimens of Dendroctonus simplex. The lower part apparently had survived longer than the branches as the lower trunk was still somewhat sappy. This tree was rather interesting from the fact that a large part of the bark from the ground to the tip had been removed by woodpeckers in search of various bark boring insects. Under the portions of bark still adhering many specimens of Polygraphus rufipennis and Dendroctonus simplex still remained, but it needed only a casual examination of the bark to discover that a very large percentage had been uncovered and destroyed by the birds. More material was taken from this tree than from any other one source. In one cage was placed the first segment of the trunk, the lower end of which was taken from only 6 inches above ground. The bark on this section was riddled by the burrows of D. simplex and P. rufipennis and the sap- wood contained many larvae of Asemum moestum. These latter were so numerous that just above the root 6 larvae were taken from an area of the wood only 6 inches square. In addition to these, three other species were bred from this section of the tree: the buprested Melanophila fulvoguttata, the weevil Dryophthorus americanus, and a small fly Pol- lema rudis. In another cage was placed the next section of the trunk taken from 18 inches above ground. In the field D. simplez, P. rufipennis and the larva of a clerid, apparently Phyllo- benus dislocatus, and of a cerambycid, Asemum moestum, were taken. The adults of all of these and in addition of Serropalpus barbatus were bred from this wood. In another cage was placed a section of the trunk from 3 feet above ground, this and the two pieces already described having been continuous and forming the base of the tree. Insects Bred from American Larch 19 From it were derived P. rufipennis, D. simplex, several specimens of Phyllobaenus dislocatus and two hymenop- tereous parasites,— a small undetermined chaleid and Spa- thius tomict,—these being parasitic upon the bark beetles. It is worthy of note that A. moestwm so numerous in the first segment and still present in the second is no longer found in this section beginning three feet above ground. In another cage was placed a portion of the trunk taken from 30 feet above ground. Burrows and specimens of P. rufipenmis were quite numerous but none of D. simplex occurred this far up. In the breeding cage this section of trunk yielded in addition to P. rufipennis, one specimen each of the clerid P. dislocatus, the lampyrid Podabrus diadema and a small undetermined chalcid. ’ Another sample was taken of the trunk at its extreme tip about 50 feet above ground. P. rufipennis was taken from this in the field and the engravings were nearly as numerous proportionately as in other regions of the trunk (Fig. 2). No other insects came from this section of the tree in the cages although the bark shows exit holes of both cerambycids and buprestids. These had apparently emerged before the sample was placed in the breeding cage, showing that the tip of the tree had probably begun to die earlier than the lower part — this being in line with the conditions found in the lower branches where H. piceae was breeding and in the lower trunk which was still sappy in some parts. Numerous specimens of the limbs of this tree were taken. These are from 1 to 2 inches in diameter and are from a height of from 18 to 45 feet above ground. The bark upon these limbs is thin with only a small scaly and corky layer and was apparently quite dry and clung tightly to the wood. Some of the burrows in it, however, contained drops of resin showing that the bark had been attact while still sappy. In the field these samples yielded P. rufipennis and the larvae of a clerid, of a buprestid and of a small cerambycid. This material was kept out doors in two separate breeding cages (there being too much for one) during the summer till September 28, and the following insects emerged during 20 College of Forestry that time: P. rufipennis, Eccoptogaster piceae, P. dislo- catus, a small moth Hpicallima argenticinctella Clem., several undetermined psochids, and several parasitic hymenoptera — Cheiropachus sp., Heterospilus sp., Spathius tomict, and also another hymenoptera Prosopis sp. On September 28 this material was moved into the labora- tory, the contents of one cage being placed in tight storage boxes while that of the other was left in cages indoors. Dur- ing January, February and March of 1917, this material both in the breeding cages and storage boxes again became: active and gave rise to a large number of species not previ- ously taken from it. These are the two-year forms and their parasites and comprise the following insects: the ceram- Byers af 99 hea coe Hag sale sex-quitatus, hrysobothris blanch- na. Ce seu- en C. Fetipes Melanophila fulvoguttata, and Anthaxia quercata; the hymenopterous parasites — Phasgonophora sp., Odontaulacus bilobatus and Atoreutus astigmus; and the small fly — Pollena rudis. Tree No. II was a larch of about 8 inches D. B. H. im the west group of trees of this species. It had been killed by having the bark removed from near the base in 1914. No insects were taken from this tree in the field, but a segment about 20 feet from the base was seen to be infested and this was placed in a breeding cage to breed out the inhabitants. The insects derived from this material are P. rufipennis,. Phyllobaenus dislocatus, the supposedly parasitic fly Mede- terus sp. and the siricid Urocerus albicornis represented by a female and a male. Samples of this one region of this tree were the only ones brought from the field. Tree No. III was killed by the bark having been peeled off of it — probably in 1914. Above the peeled portions the bark was well riddles by the engravings of P. rufipennis and also contained the larvae and burrows of several cer ambycids, of species unknown at the time the material was examined in the field. A sample of the trunk of this tree about six inches in diameter taken from about five feet above ground Insects Bred from American Larch 21 was placed in a breeding cage and the following specimens were bred from it: The cerambycids Phymatodes dimidiatus and Leptostylus sea-quttatus; the clerids Phi yllobaenus dis- docatus and Cymatodera bicolor which were preying ‘upon P. rufipennis principally; six hymenopterous parasites in- eluding the two large pimploid forms Rhyssa lineolata and a new species of Pseudorhyssa, both of them apparently para- sitic upon Phymatodes dimidiatus, and four smaller forms; three species of Doryctes (all probably new) and Lurytoma sp. Of these the three species of Doryctes are probably parasitic upon P. dimidiatus and the latter on P. rufipennis. Tree No. IV was a tree which was still living but much weakened. One of the larger roots which was exposed and free of the ground for several inches had been dead about two years (killed 1914). The bark was rather thick and still adherent, although the wood was beginning to decay. Examinations of this root in the field showed the presence of adults of a scolytid — Dryocoetes americanus — and the larva of a cerambycid which later proved to be Leptura vittata. This root was removed without felling the tree and was confined in a breeding cage. During the summer two adults of Leptura vittata and two specimens of a small fly — Phorbia fuscipes — were taken from this cage. This material was left in the breeding cage out of doors until November 2, when it was brought in and gone over thoroughly. The bark was removed, disclosing the burrows and dead adults of Dryocoetus americanus, also a living ¢lerid larva of unknown species. Deeper in the wood were found the larvae of Leptura vittata and the adults of the small weevils Dryophthorus americanus. The sample of root was placed in a tight storage box, and later gave rise to one specimen of L. vittata. This was found dead January 13, 1917, and the exact date of emergence was unknown. How- ever, from the general date of its appearance in the labora- tory it would have appeared under natural conditions in May or early June. 22 College of Forestry Tree No. V had been dead probably three years (since 1913). The tree was about seven inches D. B. H. The lower trunk had been injured upon one side many years beforé (at least ten years), probably by having part of the bark removed. However, it had not been entirely girdled and the tree had survived. The uninjured bark had partly overgrown the injury but not entirely —the result being that finally the sapwood exposed and all of the heart wood was well along in decay. (Figs. 29, 30.) Two specimens were taken from the wood of this tree in the field —an adult of the elaterid Adelocera brevicornis from the decayed heart wood, and a larva of Serropalpus barbatus from the sounder wood. The old burrows of P. rufipennis were numerous, but no living specimens remained. Samples of this tree from two regions were shipped to Syracuse and placed in breeding cages. Several segments of the trunk from four to ten feet from the base contained con- siderable dead sapwood and heart wood well along in decay. Another sample from twenty feet above ground contained only sound wood. ‘These samples yielded the following insects during the summer: The cerambycids Phymatodes dimidiatus and Asemum moestum,; the melandryid Serro- palpus barbatus, these coming from the more recently killed wood; the tenebrionid Tenebrio tenebriodes and the weevil Dryophthorus americanus coming from the decaying wood. In addition two hymenopterous parasites were bred out — the large Rhyssa lineolata which is parasitic upon P. dimidiatus and a small undetermined chalcid possibly parasitic on Dryophthorus americanus. Tree No. VI was killed by peeling probably late in 1913. When examined April 29, 1916, in the field it contained no hving P. rufipennis, although abandoned burrows of this scolytid were very numerous. These abandoned burrows had been utilized by the small scolytid Crypturgus atomus, which habitually starts its own burrows from those of other bark- boring beetles. This one species was the only form taken from this tree in the field. When confined in the breeding cage samples of this tree taken from one foot above ground Insects Bred from American Larch 23 and ten feet above ground yielded numerous specimens of Serropalpus barbatus and nothing else. Tree No. VII was one which had been felled by the wind about four years previously (1912), but the trunk was still free of the ground. The bark was quite loose and showed evidence of some decay. Burrows of P. rufipennis were numerous, but of course the insects responsible for them had long since left this tree. In the field a few larvae of “scavenger beetles,” species undetermined, were found, and also several larvae of a cerambycid, which was later shown to be Monohammus scutellatus. A sample taken from the trunk about forty feet from the base (the trunk had, however, been recumbent but free of the ground for several years) yielded two specimens each of M. scutellatus and Ser- ropalpus barbatus. No other forms were bred from this material. Tree No. VIII was a small tree about ten feet high and having a D. B. H. of two inches. It had been killed by shading. No insects were taken from this tree in the field. The bark was quite dry and tight and altogether it did not form a breeding place which would be suitable for many wood-boring or bark-boring insects. From the general char- acter of the wood and bark one would expect insects to arise from it similar to those coming from the limbs of larger trees. In fact this expectation was realized when in the breeding cage three specimens of Leptostylus sex-guttatus and one of Chrysobothris sex-signata appeared. Later examination of this stick revealed a few burrows of P. rufi- penms, but these were not normal and in only one or two cases were any larval galleries present. All of the preceding material was shipped to the labora- tory from Crittenden, N. Y., on April 29, 1916. In addition to this, material which was obtained at other times or other localities is listed below. Tree No. IX was obtained from the College Forest near Wanakena, N. Y. This tree of about five inches diameter 24 College of Forestry had been blown down by a heavy windstorm late in May, 1916. The roots still adhered and the lower part of the tree was still alive and green in August. The tree had fallen across a trail, however, and the top about five feet from the base had been sawed off to clear the trail. In August this top was found to be heavily infested by Polygraphus rufi- pennis and several sections of the trunk from eight to twenty feet from the base were shipped to Syracuse and there placed in a breeding cage on August 18. During the rest of the season the following insects were taken from this cage: numerous adults of P. rufipennis, a specimen of a small chaleid of undetermined species, Hrytoma sp. and Spathius tomict. On October 24 some of the bark was removed, dis- closing numerous young adults of P. rufipennis and also the larva of a clerid undetermined and the larva of an unknown cerambycid. The material was left out of doors until early in January, 1917, when it was brought into the heated base- ment, and later, in February, was transferred to a cool room, where it remained till June, when it was again transferred to an outdoor breeding cage. On July 3, 11 and 18, speci- mens of Neoclytus longipes emerged. All of the evidence from other sources goes to show that this cerambycid is one which normally requires two years for the completion of its life history. It is believed that the normal life history was shortened by the treatment the material received. The out- door conditions from which it was removed early in January corresponded to the first winter, the month in the heated basement where the temperature varied from about fifty degrees to seventy-five degrees corresponded to the second summer and the low temperature in the storage room from February to June simulated the second winter. It is worthy of note that the specimens of Neoclytus longipes from this material are rather undersized although normal in other respects. The three specimens in question measure 7, 8 and 8 mm. respectively, while those from other lots of larch were from 9 to 9.5 mm. The length mentioned .by Blatchley as characteristic of this species is from 9 to 11 mm. Insects Bred from American Larch 25 During July there was also evidence of the presence of a larvae of Monohammus, probably M. scutellatus, in the con- tinued casting out of the coarse “ sawdust” characteristic of this genus.* Tree No. X was a large tree about eighteen. inches D. B. H., which was not observed to be infested with insects in April, 1916, when. the material from most of the other trees was obtained. This tree had not been killed by strip- ping of the bark.. It stood in a rather moist situation in a dense part of the wood about fifty feet from Tree I. It had died from causes unknown probably late in 1915, or early in 1916. When examined in January, 1917, it still con- tained the brood of Polygraphus rufipennis and of Eccopto- gaster piceae, which must. have entered the bark during the summer of 1916. The wood was still quite sappy and con- tained resin pockets with the contents still unhardened. Also ‘the bodies of several adults of H. piceae were found embedded by a copious flow of pitch in their egg galleries showing that the tree had been attact while still partly alive. A large part of the trunk of this tree from near the ground up to the very tip had had much of the bark removed by woodpeckers in search of the contained brood. Much of this barking had been done quite recently, for when the tree was found on January 5, 1917, the fresh chips covered the sur- face of the snow. The first samples from this tree were taken at this time. These, consisting of strips of the sap- wood with adherent bark, were brought in with the hope of breeding out specimens of Eccoptogaster piceae, the brood of which, together with that of Polygraphus rufipennis, were found in the trunk near the ground. In addition to these two scolytids, the larvae of Serropalpus barbatus was also * During the winter of 1917-18, this material was examined and found to contain living cerambycid larve. It was stored in a cool store room and in the following May and early in June gave rise to a number of specimens of Neoclytus longipes, a single Monohammus scutellatus, a single Chrysobothris dentipes, several specimens of Xylotrechus undulatus Say and to a number of hymenterais parasites which are apparently Odontaulacus bilobatus.. X. undulatus had not been previously bred from larch. 26 College of Forestry taken in the field from near the base of the tree. In the breeding jar these chips gave rise to specimens of P. rufipen- nis, E. piceae, the predator Phyllobaenus dislocatus and the parasite Phasgonophora sp. On February 26 this tree was felled and samples were taken from the trunk at various levels. The first section was taken from about eight feet above ground and gave rise to the following insects when placed in the breeding cages. The two seolytids Polygraphus rufipennis and Eccoptogaster piceae with the hymenopterous parasites Rhyssa lineolata, Doryctes sp. a., Spintherus pulchripennis, Spathius tomici, Spathvus sp., an undetermined pteromalid and the parasitic fly Mede- terus sp.; the predator Phyllobaenus dislocatus, which preys indiscriminately upon all scolytids and upon other small bark-boring insects; the cerambycid Phymatodes dimidiatus, which was parasitized by Doryctes sp. and Rhyssa lineolata ; the melandryid, Serropalpus barbatus; and the siricids Uro-- cerus albicornis and Sirex abbotii. Examination of the base of this tree in the field showed numerous larvae of Asemum moestum. A second section of the trunk taken about twenty feet from the base of the tree yielded exactly the same association of insects. A. moestum is of course missing just as at the eight- foot level. This form, as we have already seen, is one attack- ing only the basal part of the tree trunk and has not been found higher than a few feet from the ground. The third region of the trunk included all of it above a point thirty feet from the ground and consisted of six pieces each a little less than two feet long. The insects taken from this material included the two scolytids and their parasites and predators as in the lower trunk, Serropalpus barbatus and Urocerus albicornis. Tree No. XI was a small tree of about three inches D. B. H. which had been killed several years before (prob- ably 1913) by shading. The wood was partly decayed by a “dry rot” and contained numerous specimens of the cur- eulionid Stenocellis brevis. The wood was in such condition February 26, 1917, that it could be easily pulverized between fod Insects Bred from American Larch 27 the fingers. No other insects were taken from this tree in the field and none were bred from it. Insect AssocraTions IN Larcn Woop Aanp Bark It is a well-recognized fact that in many cases certain species of insects not only live exclusively upon certain species of trees, but also that in many cases it is just as true that a certain insect is to be found only in a definite region of a tree. This, however, by no means holds for all species of bark or wood inhabiting insects, for many seem to attack indiscriminately any part of the tree from the trunk to branches an inch or even less in diameter, just as many insect forms attack a large number of tree species with no apparent preference. There are doubtless several factors which influence the choice by the insects of certain regions for breeding purposes. Perhaps the most important of these is the character of the bark, but actual height from the ground is an important factor in the case of some insects, especially such as are clumsy fliers. The character of the bark may apparently influence ovipo- sition in several ways. The actual thickness of the bark on the lower trunk of large trees undoubtedly deters many borers from ovipositing on account of the mechanical difficulty or even impossibility some find in piercing the thick outer layers and placing their eggs where the young on hatching will find the proper nourishment. Entirely aside from this factor of the thickness of the bark offering mechanical resist- ance to the oviposition of certain forms, the bark on the trunk has thicker layers of the edible and more or less fibrous and spongy inner bark, and this absorbs a greater amount of moisture and retains it longer. This maximum of moisture, while it offers conditions which are favorable or even neces- sary for the proper development of some species of borers, is just as truly unfavorable for other species. We shall presently see that certain borers are characteristically found in the thin-barked tops and limbs which in the next summer 28 College of Forestry after the death of the tree appear to be absolutely dry, but which nevertheless apparently offer conditions which are ideal for certain two-year forms. Moisture conditions dur- ing the second summer in the trunk and in the thinner barked limbs is so extremely different that one would hardly expect to find any forms in common between them. As a matter of fact this expectation is nearly realized, for of the two- year forms, or of forms occurring under the bark during the second summer after the death of the tree, only two species. were bred both from the limbs and from the lower or middle trunk. The Lower Trunk in Dying or Recently Killed Larch Trees. The trunk region itself can be subdivided into two or more regions or habitats upon the basis of the insects found. therein. In the dying or recently killed trees Dendroctonus simplex is perhaps the most characteristic bark beetle inhab- itant of the lower trunk. It was not found in the bark at a greater distance than twenty feet from the ground and was most numerous in the lower ten feet. In felled trees, how- ever, D. simplex occurs throughout the trunk even around the bases of the branches. Apparently, then, the lmiting factor here is distance from the ground, and doubtless the clumsy build of the beetle and its rather poor powers of flight are responsible. Another bark beetle often found in the lower trunk is. Polygraphus rufipennis. It breeds in all regions of the trunk and even in the tops and larger hmbs. It is worthy of note that when it occurs in the same tree trunk as D. simplex it is much less numerous in the lower regions of the trunk where the latter species occurs, than it is in the middle and upper trunk. This is not true of trees not infested by D. simplex. The explanation of this seems apparent. The Dendroctonus enters the tree slightly earlier than Poly- graphus, which on finding the lower trunk already occupied by numerous broods of the other species, seeks other parts of the tree to construct its brood burrows. In trees infested. by both it is interesting to note that as we go farther and farther from the ground the burrows of D. simplex become ta Insects Bred from American Larch 29 fewer and fewer in number and those of P. rufipennis become correspondingly numerous, until at a height of about twenty feet D. simplex no longer occurs and P. “rufipennis j is corre- spondingly numerous. A somewhat similar condition holds for another bark beetle — Hecoptogaster picew. This scolytid breeds most often in the thin-barked tops and lmbs of the larch. How- ever, sometimes it is also found in the thicker-barked, lower trunk, as was the case in Tree X. In this tree it was more numerous in the upper trunk and tops, but some brood bur- rows containing living brood were found at a distance of only a few feet from the ground, where the inhabitants of the bark were predominately P. rufipennis. Still another bark beetle occasionally found in the lower trunk of the larch during the first swumer after the death of the tree is Crypturgus pusillus, although this form is a more characteristic resident of the bark during the second year. This minute beetle seems always to construct its brood- burrow as an offshoot from the burrow of some other beetle. Usually the burrows so utilized are made by some other scolytid — in the larch most commonly by P. rufipennis — the entrance of this beetle being used in gaining access to the inner bark. In other host trees s the entrance burrows of other scolytids are often utilized and in Abies balsameus several cases have been observed where the tunnels of Monohammus scutellatus had been so invaded, entrance to the burrows being gained by way of the “ ventilation openings ” through which the “ sawdust ” of this sawyer was cast out. In the larch, however, the only species with which Crypturgus has been observed to associate itself are P. rufipennis and D. simplex. Several species of predaceous beetles were found associated with these scolytids in the bark. The most common of them is the ubiquitous Phyllobaenus dislocatus, which is the most common clerid beetle bred from wood infested by bark-boring insects in this region. It has been found associated with all four species of bark beetles mentioned above, and specimens of larvae as well as adults have been taken from bark infested 30 College of Forestry with Polygraphus rufipennis and Dendroctonus simplex especially. The clerid Cymatodera bicolor and the lamperid Podabrus diadema were also bred from bark infested with P. rufipennis. Both of these are perhaps predaceous, although no reference to the food habits of the latter species was found in the literature. A number of hymenopterous parasites were also bred from material containing the brood of these various species of scolytids. Of these the most common is Spathius tomict, which was constantly associated with P. rufipennis, H. piceae and D. simplex. It was especially numerous in Trees I, 1X and X. Of these Tree 1X was from near Wanakena and of scolytids contained only the brood of P. rufipennis. Tree X contained numerous brood not only of this bark beetle but also of H. piceae. Tree I contained all three scolytids and all regions of the tree gave rise to specimens of this small parasite. There can be no doubt that S. tomici is parasitic on both P. rufipennis and EH. piceae, as different lots of material which were practically pure cultures of either one or the other of these species yielded the parasite when placed in a breeding jar or cage. We cannot state so definitely that D. simplex serves as its host, for the reason that the Dendroc- tonus infested material from which the parasite was bred contained also the brood galleries of P. rufipennis. How- ever, it seems very likely that a considerable number of small bark beetles may act as host for Spathius tomici. Heterospilus sp., Spathius sp., Spintherus pulchripennis, and Cheiropachus sp. were obtained from material contain- ing both P. rufipennis and FH. piceae, and each may be para- sitic upon either one or both of these bark beetles. Hury- toma sp. was bred from material containing the brood of P. rufipennis and is probably parasitic upon it. Several specimens of a small undetermined chalcid were obtained from material containing P. rufipennis and D. simplex and may be parasitic on either one or both of these or may be a hyperparasite upon their parasitic forms. A number of specimens of Medeterus sp. were bred from material con- taining large numbers of P. rufipennis and some EL. piceae. Insects Bred from American Larch 31 - M. nigripes Loew. has been previously recorded by Hopkins (1899, p. 450) as a parasitic enemy of the larve of P. rufipennis. Other boring insects which oviposit in the lower trunk of the larch either while it is dying or during the first summer after death, include the cerambycids Asemum moestum, Monohammus scutellatus, Phymatodes dimidiatus, and Lep- tostylus sea-guttatus; the buprestid Melanophila fulvogut- tata; the melandryid Serropalpus barbatus, and the two siricids Urocerus albicornis and Sirex abbotu. Of these, Asemum moestum and Phymatodes dimidiatus seem to be the only forms which were bred exclusively from the lower trunk. A. moestuwm is a sapwood borer and was found only in the lowermost few feet of the lower trunk. The eggs are often laid in trees which are merely weakened and without a doubt the work of the numerous larvae in the bark and sapwood greatly hastens the death of the tree. However, oviposition may also occur in recently killed trees, and as the insects require at least two years to develop, the adults are often bred from trees dead two years or slightly more. Phymatodes dimidiatus, the other cerambycid, which was found to breed only in the lower trunk of larch, is more _ typically a dead tree form. Eggs may be laid either in trees recently killed or in those dead as much as a year. The life history requires a single year for its completion and the larvae burrows in the inner bark until it- reaches full growth. This species may be associated with A. moestum then during either the first or second year of the latter’s life cycle. Monohammus scutellatus, Leptostylus sex-guttatus, and Melanophila fulvoguttata are three forms which may breed not only in the lower trunk but also in other regions of the ° tree. All three are two-year forms, the larvae of which feed in the inner bark and sapwood, and which enter the wood only when preparing to hibernate or to pupate. M. scutel- latus and M. fulvoguttata are characteristically trunk inhabiting forms, but on occasion do breed in the tops or limbs of trees. Indeed, more specimens of the latter were obtained from limbs than from the trunk. Leptostylus sex- 32 College of Forestry guttatus, on the other hand, most commonly breeds in the tops and limbs when it infests larch. There can be little doubt that it prefers the thin-barked parts of the tree. The melandryid Serropalpus barbatus is the wood-boring insect most often found in and most characteristic of injured, dying, or recently dead larch. It was bred in considerable numbers from Trees I, V, VI, VII, and X. The larvae are ‘wood-boring inseets which live two or possibiy more seasons in the sapwood or heartwood. This species is found through- out the trunk, but is most common in the lower trunk below the lowest branches. The siricids Urocerus albicornis and Sirex abbotu occur more or less throughout the trunk even up among the branches. It is probable that they may even breed occasion- ally in the larger branches. However, these forms are all typically inhabitants during the larval state, of the wood of the part of the trunk free of limbs, as is shown by the fact that of twenty-five specimens of the two species bred from larch, all but four were from the tree below the level of the first still adhering lmbs. There are several parasites which were bred from wood or bark containing one or more or these borers. These include Ehyssa lineolata, Pseudorhyssa sp., Odontaumerus cana- densis, and three species of Doryctes, all of which are appar- ently new. ‘These six species, four of which are new, were derived from three distinct lots of material in three separate breeding cages. They were associated with P. dimidiatus, M. scutellatus, L. sex-guttatus, A. moestum, S. barbatus, the two predators Phyllabaenus dislocatus and Cymatodera bicolor and with Tenebrio tenebriodes and Dryophthorus americanus (the latter two inhabiting dead and partly decayed wood in one of the lots). However, of these numer- ous wood and bark-inhabiting forms only two (P. dimidiatus and S. barbatus) were derived from all three lots, thus estab- lishing the probability that one or both of them served as hosts for these parasites. A later detailed study of all of the material in these lots was made with very interesting results. When the bark was Insects Bred from American Larch 33 carefully removed, bit by bit, forty-five cocoons were exposed in one lot consisting of a piece about six inches in diameter and two feet long. Nine of these were twelve mm. or more in length and all the rest were below ten mm. Several of the latter were about nine mm. long and all of the rest smaller than 7.5 mm. The smaller ones were found in the burrows of P. rufipennis only and were doubtless the cocoons of Spathius tomict which had emerged the previous season before the material was brought to the laboratory. The cocoons of the two larger sizes, however, were found only in the burrows of P. dimidiatus, although careful search was made in the burrows of other species in both the wood and in the bark. The identity of these burrows was absolutely established by the finding in several of the pupal chambers of dead adults which had never emerged. In the same pupal chambers were found the cast larval skins, the mandibles and head armature of which are quite characteristic. Close to each of the parasitic cocoons, the larval remains of the host were found and these on comparison with the larval casts found in pupal chambers containing dead adults of P. dimi- diatus established absolutely the identity of the parasitized form. By comparing the sizes of the adult hymenoptera taken from this material it was readily established that Rhyssa lineolata and Pseudorhyssa sp. come from the larger cocoons in the burrows of P. dimidiatus (the cocoons of the two being indistinguishable) while the species of Doryctes and probably also Odontaumerus canadensis came from the cocoons about eight to nine mm. long, found in the burrows of the same borer. The Upper Trunk in Dying or Recently Killed Larch Trees contained the same borers with several exceptions as did the lower trunk. Those occurring in this region include the scolytids — P. rufipennis and FH. piceae and their predators — P. dislocatus and C. bicolor, and parasites — Spathius tomict, Spathius sp., Spintherus pulchripennis, Phasgono- phora sp., Cheiropachus sp. and Heterospilus sp.; the 2 D4 College of Forestry cerambycid — Monohammus scutellatus; the melandryid — Serropalpus barbatus; and the two siricids Urocerus albr- cornis and Sirex abbotii. There can be no doubt that Lep- tostylus sex-guttatus and Melanophila fulvoguttata may also breed in this upper trunk region, as each of these is found both in the lower trunk and in the tops and branches, but the limited amount of material confined in our breeding cages did not give rise to any. JL. sex-guttatus breeds by preference in the thin barked tops and limbs and would there- fore be more likely to be found in the upper trunk than in the lower. M. fulvoguttata on the other hand is more typi- eally a trunk-inhabiting form and in spruce and hemlock is found throughout the trunk region and only to a lesser extent in the tops and limbs. It is likely that its preferences in larch would be similar but the small number bred from larch does not allow us to draw an adequate conclusion. D. simplex, as previously stated, is confined entirely to the lower trunk of standing trees, but may breed in the upper trunk of felled trees. The limiting factor here is then very apparently height from ground rather than the character of the bark. The cerambycids Asemum moestum and Phyma- todes dimidiatus are two other beetles which have been bred only from the lower trunk. Of these the former is practi- cally confined to the lowermost part of the trunk and none were bred from wood more than three or four feet from the ground. P. dimidiatus while not confined to such a lmited area of the lower trunk was not obtained from wood more than ten feet from the ground. The Tops and Limbs of Dying or Recently Killed Larch Trees.— The tops and limbs of recently killed larch present conditions quite different in several respects from those in the trunks. In the first place they are inaccessible to a number of forms which are clumsy fliers. Aside from this, the much thinner bark allows the beetles more ready access to the inner bark and sapwood. The inner bark, however, neither furnishes so plentiful an amount of food as does the thick bark nor does it retain so much moisture. However, the thin-barked parts of the tree seem to offer conditions Insects Bred from American Larch 35 which are more suitable for many forms than are to be found in other parts of the tree. This is indicated by the fact that five species of borers were obtained exclusively from tops and limbs while a number of other species taken from other regions occur also in the thin-barked parts. Of these latter two in particular show a decided preference for the newer growths. Most of these forms which characteristically inhabit thin- barked regions are species requiring two years for the com- pletion of their growth. During the second summer of this period the moisture conditions in the thin-barked parts are strikingly different from that existing in the thick-barked regions. Indeed it is hardly conceivable how the bark or sapwood here can be of use as food during times of drought when these parts are apparently dessicated, and indeed it may well be that during such periods the larva ceases feeding and becomes more or less torpid. But however that may be, it is a fact that regions showing such conditions are appar- ently sought by a considerable number of species in prefer- ence to other parts of the tree where moisture conditions are different. Other factors may enter into this choice and it is possible that these may determine the beetle’s choice of breeding places, but our data seem to indicate that this ques- tion of lack of excessive moisture is one of the determining factors. This apples not to the forms requiring only a single year for their life cycle, but to those which remain under the bark for two years. A total of ten species of boring beetles were bred from thin-barked larch. This includes two scolytids, three ceram- byeids and five buprestids. The scolytid most characteristic of larch limbs and tops is Hccoptogaster piceae. This seems to be its favorite breeding place and study of old engravings shows conclusively that there is a larger percentage of larve reaching full growth here than in the trunk region. This is especially true of the tops of a diameter of from 114 to 31% inches, although the larger limbs also offer favorable conditions. The other scolytid P. rufipennis, while often numerous in the tops and occasionally in the limbs is typi- 36 College of Forestry cally a trunk-inhabiting form and is probably found in the limbs only when crowded out of other regions of the tree or when more suitable breeding places are lacking. The cerambycids bred from limbs and tops in the order of the number of each obtained are Pogonocherus mixtus, Neoclytus longipes and Leptostylus sex-guttatus. These are all three two-year forms. Another species which is almost certain to breed in larch tops is Monohammus scutellatus, although none were actually taken.: In pine, spruce, and balsam this sawyer breeds in all parts of the tree from the base to hmbs an inch in diameter, and it doubtless will on occasion breed in larch limbs as well as in larch trunks. Of the ten borers actually bred from thin-barked larch, five are buprestids. These are Melanophila fulvoguttata, Anthaxia quercata, Chrysobothris sex-signata, C. dentipes, and C. blanchardi. Of these only one species, M. fulvogut- tata, was bred from any other region of the tree. All of these forms live for two seasons as larvee under the bark, but groove both bark and sapwood. They enter the wood only to pupate at the completion of their larval growth. Associated with these borers are the predator Phyllobae- nus dislocatus and various parasites. P. dislocatus doubtless invades principally the burrows of the bark beetles P. rufi- pennis and H. piceae, but both larvee and adults have been found in the burrows of cerambycids and buprestids. The parasites Spathius tomici, [Heterospilus sp., and Chetro- pachus, which are probably parasitic upon one or both of these bark beetles were bred from cages containing limbs and _ tops and emerged at approximately the same time as their supposed hosts. Three other parasites of a somewhat larger size were obtained from this material, namely — Odontaulacus bilo- batus Proy., Atoreutus astigmus Ashm., and Phasgonophora sp. These are not only larger in size but also emerged a season later than did the bark beetles and the other parasites mentioned. Therefore it is believed that these are parasitic upon the larger sized species (flatheads and roundheads) listed above. It has been impossible to assign these to their Insects Bred from American Larch 37 hosts, even provisionally, as it was not practicable to identify the species with the cocoon (their size being so nearly sim- ilar) nor was it possible absolutely to identify the burrows in which the cocoons occurred owing to some extent to their not having been completed by the dying larva. Therefore it is not safe to make any more definite statement than that cocoons, which from their size were probably those of one or more of these forms, were found both in burrows which had been made by P. mixtus and also in other burrows made by C. blanchardt. Perhaps the most striking difference between the larch trunk association and that in the limbs and tops is shown when it is stated that the latter includes five buprestids (just half of the borers actually taken from thin-barked wood) while the trunk association includes but one of this family. Thus the buprestids characterize the thin-barked-larch asso- ciation and this might well be spoken of as the buprestid or flat-headed-borer association. All of the borers working in the limbs and tops are bark- borers as distinguished from wood borers. By this it is meant that the larvee work in the inner bark and outer sap- wood, grooving both with their burrows, although making their pupal chamber in the wood. One would expect to find in such a location in thin-barked wood either very flat borers or rather small ones. This perhaps is correlated with the fact that such a great per cent of the larvee here are of the flathead type and that the remaining forms (P. miztus, L. sex-guttatus and N. longipes) are all quite small and of slender form. Decaying Larch.— No very thorough data regarding the later insect inhabitants of dead larch is at hand, but the few observations made should be here recorded. From Tree No. IV was obtained a piece of root several inches in diameter and a foot or more long. This had been dead several years as shown by the fact that the wood had begun to decay. The bark, however, was still adherent and had served as the breeding place for Dryocoetes americanus, the young adults of which were found in the inner bark next to the sapwood. 38 College of Forestry The wood served as a breeding place for the curculionid Dryophthorus americanus, the cerambycid Leptura vittata and an unidentified elaterid. The larvee of L. vittata tunnels longitudinal burrows in the sapwood and outer heartwood thus hastening decay materially. From the same region of this punky wood adults of Dryophthorus americanus were removed the following fall (November 2, 1916). These had not appeared in the breeding cages during the summer but there was evidence that they had bred in ‘the wood two or more generations without change of host. Several specimens of the fly Phorbia fuscipes Lett. were also bred from this root. The larvee probably lived either under the decaying bark or in the punky wood as scavengers although they may possibly have been parasitic upon some of the other insect inhabitants. Our records also furnish data of several other species of insects from decaying wood or from wood dead several years. Tree V had been partly stripped of its bark several years before its death and the exposed wood had never been over- grown. This wood was well along in decay and contained the burrows of former insect inhabitants, probably Serropal- pus barbatus among others. In the field a single adult of Adelocera brevicornis was taken from this punky wood and in the breeding cage it gave rise to adults of the cossoninid Dryophthorus americanus and the tenebrionid, Tenebrio tenebriodes. Other specimens of Dryophthorus americanus were found under similar conditions in other trees and in the same sort of wood numerous specimens of another cos- soninid, Stenocellis brevis, were taken. The following tables will show something of the relations of these various insects to each other as well as something of their habits and the character of the material in which they breed. * € re | ' saw , . f Pay by ai, eee ease ity Seto yee peree ss "3 - . AA 1s ma) a4 \ i ' ‘ As Jee / ” ew | ha | iis } l ysl PD ney “ } ' | v Pel f f (t * th » 4 y's ' ‘ . r \ a, ‘ f fe, we , . ' 7 ; , i io i are an . “i ‘ Ru . a > A iy - i iy, 14 ‘ ‘ ‘ ‘ b) PALS ape, é aa 7 Se 1 i % al rr) u 4 , \ i . ha 1a. "t in) — i) ‘ ‘ * ¥igvas Wing yy ahy: TED . ie : oe 4 : 4 lt mo . re 7 ae Mavi ih ead 4)2 wh ite | Lak. | Cte . he : rehab ol f 7 . rey dl ie APs Vin atta ‘att } Newey] 8 is ray, eT he oe - oh? pee, | eb aye? , ‘ee egbr i, le ‘ar tyne : i. , seer) Midna ayy y wiht: null ; if ies’ v4; PAM rrsee fi ply rn. 3 yee Premera 3 - eyed $C aw) WR. Gacate tAed JOY beth jae aie ons ener, j Ab POO: PR ay.” ‘ a aoa owevhiwk 4 AMG 1 (ioe lhe p hapa we on lamas Ecotocicat Associations or Various Prepators AnD PasasitEes 1x Larcn. NAME OF PREDATOR on PARASITE BoRERs WiTH WHICH ASSOCIATED CERTAIN OR PropaBLe Host PREDATORS AND PARASITES ASSOCIATI Phyllobanus dislocatus Say. Polvgraphus rufipennis, Dendroctonus Be Phymatodes dimidiatus, Eccoptogaster picex, Crypturgus pusillus, Leptostylus seq-guttatus, Neoclytus longipes, Pogonocherus mirtus, Melanophila fulvoguttata, Chrysobothris blanchardi, Chrysobothris dentipes, Chrysobothris sexr-signata, Anthawvia quercata, Serropalpus barbatus, Sirer abbotii, Urocerus albicornis. P. rufipennia, D. simples, BE. picer, Probably others. Cyumatodera bicolor, Podabrus diadema, Spathius tomici, ‘eterospilus sp., Cheiropachus sp., Eurytoma sp., Rhyssa lineolata, Pseudorsyssa sp., Doryctes sp, a,b, c, Phasgonophora sp., Odontaulacus bilobatus, Atoreutus astigmus, Small chalcid (undetermined). Medeterus sp. Cymatodera bicolor Say. Polygraphus rufipennis, Phymatodes dimidiatus, Leptostylus sexr-guttatus. P. rufipennis. Phyllobaenus dislocatus, Doryctes sp., a, bd, ec, Pseudorhyssa sp., Eurytoma sp., Rhyssa lineolata, Podabrus diadema Fab. Polygraphus rufipennis. P. rufipennis. Phyllobaenus dislocatus Small chaleid (undetermined). Rhyssa lineolata Kirby. Phymatodes dimidiatus, Leptostylus sexr-quttatus, Asemum moestum, Serropalpus barbatus, Urocerus albicornis, Siren abbotii, Polyoraphus rufipennis, | Eccoptogaster picee, Phymatodes dimidiatus. Phyllobaenus dislocatus, Cymatodera bicolor, Pseudorhyssa sp., Doryctes sp., a, b, ¢, Burytoma sp., Spathius tomici, Spathius sp. Pteromalid (undetermined), Medeterus sp. Paeudorhyssa sp. Phymatodes dimidiatus, Hee ser-quttatua, Serropalpus barbatus, Polygraphus rufipennia. Phymatodes dimidiatus. Same as above except the last three. Odontaumerus canandensis Prov. Same as for Pseudorhyssa sp. above. Phymatodes dimidiatus. Same as for Pseudorhyssa sp. above. Odontaulacus bilobatus Proy. | Melanophila fulvoguttata, Chrysobothris blanchardi, Chrysobothris sex-signata, Chrysobothris dentipes, Anthawia quercata, Pogonocherus mintus, Neoclytua longipes, Leptostylus sex-guttatus, Polygraphus rufipennis, Eccoptogaster picee. Chrysobothris blanchardi, Melanophila fulvoguttata, Pogonocherus mirtus. Phyllobaenus dislocatus, Phasgonophora sp. Cheiropachus sp. Atoreutus astigmus, Heterospilus sp. Spathius tomis Pollenia rudis. Spathius tomici Ashm. Same as above; also Dendroctonus asp lea, Phymatodes dimidiatus, Serropalpus barbatus, Urocerus albicornis, Siren abbotii. P. rufipennis, EB. picer, D, simpler. Same as aboye, except Pol- lenia rudis. Spathius sp. Doryctes sp., a, b, ¢ Polyoraphus rufipennia, Recoptogaster picea, Phymatodes dimidiatus, Serropalpus barbatus, Urocerus albicornis, Sirew abbotii. Polygraphus rufipennis, Eeccoptogaster picea, Phyllobaenus distocatus, Spathius tomici, Rhyssa lineolata, Spintherus pulchripennis, Doryctes sp., a, Undetermined pteromalid, Medeterus sp. Phymatodes dimidiatus, Leptostylus sex-guttatus, Polyoraphus rufipennis, (Sp.0, also with Eecoptogaster picew, Serropalpus barbatus, Urocerua albicornis, Siren abbotii). P, dimidiatus. Phyllobaenus distocatus, cy mata ere bicolor, Rhyssa lineolata, Pseudorhyssa sp., Burytoma sp., Sp.a also with pintherus pulchripennts, Spathiua sp, and edeterus sp.). Heterospilus sp. Atoreutus astigmus Ashm, Same as for 0. Ddilobatus above. ame as for O. bilobatus above, P. rufipennis, B. pice. Same as for 0. dilobatus. Chrysobothris blanchardi, Pogonocherus miztus. Same as for 0. bilobatua above, Spintherus pulchripennis Cwfd, Same as for Spathius sp. above. Polyoraphus rufipennis, Eccoptopaster picee, Same as for Spathius sp. above, Eurytoma sp, Polyoraphus rufipennis, Phymatodes duntdtatue Leptostylus ser-guttatus, Neoclytus longipes. Polyoraphus rufipennis. PhyUlobaenus dislocatus, Gymatosera bicolor, Rhyasa Uneolata, Preudorhyssa sp., Doryctes sp,, a, b, ¢, Phasgonophora sp. Same as for 0. bilobatus above. Chrysobothris blanchardi. Cheiropachus sp. Small pteromalia (undetermined) Medeterus sp. Same as above. Same as for Spathius tomici. Polygraphus rerneants, Eecoptogaster a cer, Phymatodes dimidiatus, Serropalpus barbatus, Urocerus albicornis, Sirer abbotii, | | Same as for O. bilobatus above, rufipennis, » picen, Same as above. ru, nis, pete simplez. Same as for Spathius tomici. rufipennis. Phyllobaenus distocatus, 8 aries SD. loryc' SD., a. Rhyssa Tineolata. ne Hy. 7 | a | eae?” ‘ot . } \ A) 4 hy ' eivig'e) Hae ; vs wal ing Wu ee 4 0 Ue uy bea . mp ery binats (1 , @ i 9 y ev AY iv ‘1 2 : her ; J Hi y/ un th 4 hit: youn 4 " , . Pid Bie my * > 7 ' Ly Ayam ih pueyr Ye aI AD | OR Lie ' -enh-que yeS » ey 4 s'4 pans i , . earthed eas \ : v q pebrewys! \ ee “ | ) ea LOWITO as Be at a l " shan seit ° a4 ? 2 Tea at ty : . cyte ae | cae Pyyhei : ve Bae oyy x * Heageeees Papa t tan ‘4%; + ae” . : : ARS ONG A iu nap ms rt fF . } ; AN + % ‘ Bee HY, mt ed a aes ee ager 1 doin AD Hehagaiiy Ponte whe a: Ayam ig a ieaetial wo i Th ie, MeV wd Wie’ ad ps Salta Ecorocicat Retations anp AssooraTions or THE Varrous Borers 1x Laron. Conpition oF TRED Locatiax oF Location oF DATES oF Nase oF Boner Reoion or Tare | Tose, wines Boos ae |) RE || ee Jie tCle Associaten Borers ASSOCIATED Prepatons ASSOCIATED Panasires | May 25, 20 Polypraphus rutpennis Phyltodnenus distocat sremalt ckateld (undet) two gener- | Inner bark. Inner bark. fay 25, 20. elupraphus ruftpennis, yllodaenua distocatus, small chateld (unde droctonus simplea Lec. | Lower frank. TA ES (CLD Orynturous pusittua, (both probably parusitie on a cyan atone ese, Asemummoestum, rufpennis). Metonopniia, Jutvdputtata, Serropalpus barbatus, : xa r | Toner bark. Toner bark. May 22, 25, June | Dendroctonus simplex, Phyllobaenus distocatus, Spintherua putehripennia, Bl rn cre | eee ee sre || ee = 2, Oct. 34. Gropturgua quail, Symatodera bicotor, Bpathius tomict, Eccoptopaster pice ‘adabrus diadema. us sp moa tebe CSIC DE ap Asemum moestum, feteronpitus’ sp,, onohommus scutetlatus, Oheiropachus sp, Phymatodes dimidiatu: Burytoma sp., Pooonocherus mirtu Pteromalid (undet.), Leptostylus sczr-guttatus, Medeterus sp. Neoclytus lonpipes, Serropatpus barbatus, Aelanophita fulvoouttata, Chrysobothria dentipes, Chrysobothris sex-m pis Ge NOD OIALEE blanchardi, Anthazia quercata, Trocerus albicornis, Sirez addotit. | Entire trunk and | Dying, recently | One generation per | Inner bark. Inner bark. Tone 6, July 8, | Same ax above except Phyllobaenua distocatu Spintherus putchripennis, Tedd alt caer || |Pat sir esl | BEEP year. 12, 31. D. aimplez, a Spathius tomict, clally thin- A. mocatum, and Spathius sp., barked portions. M. noutellatus. foteroapilua’ sp, Chetropachus sp, Medeterua sp. Trunk (possibly in | Dead, One generation per | Inner bark. Inner bark. Taken from bark | Dendroctonua stmplez, Phyllobaenus distocatus. None taken. rey lenges) oseitian Cy) tops and Imbs year. April 29, Sept. | Potyoraphus rusinennts, also). 1 Eecoptopaster pleca, Asemuim moestum, Serropatpus barbatus. fi . i. | Exposed root, Dead. One generation per | Inner bark. Inner bark. June 8 (from bur- | Leptura vittata, None taken. None taken. Ricoh se MOP TOBRERTELO DE =n year, 2 rows April | Dryopnthorus americanus. Sept. 28) Dryophthorus americanus Root and lower | Dead and| decay- | Probably one gen- | Decaying wood. | Decaying wood. | Juty 3, 7 (trom || Drvococtes amerleanue, None taken. None taken. a trunk, ing. eration per year, Woo! Nov. 2). | Leptura vittata, Tenebrio tenedriodes, Adelocera brevicornis, Stenoscelis brevis. Stenoscetia brevis Bob. Trunk. Exposed denying | Probably one gen- | Decaying wood. | Decaying wood. Dryopthorus americanus, | ‘None taken. None taken. ‘wood. eration per year, Tenebrio tenebriodes, Adelocera brevicornts. Phymatodes dimidiatus Kirby. Lower trunk, Recently dead. One ceneration per year. Inner bark and sapwood. Outer sapwood. May 26, June 8, 16: 20, 31, Polyoraphus rufipennia, Becoptopoater picem, Leptostylus sez-guttatus, Asemum mocatum, Serropalpus barbatus, Urocerus albicornis, Sirer abbotii. Phyliobaenua distocatus, Cymatodera dicolor. Rhyaea lineolata, Paeudorhyasa sp. Doryotes (three ‘undescribed species) Odontaumerua canadenats, Burytoma sp. Atcmum mocstum Hald. Base of trunk. Dying or recently | One generation in | Sapwood and Outer sapwood. May 29, June 15. | Dendroctonwa simplez, None taken. None taken. dead. two years. eartwood, Polyoraphua rufipennis, Eccoptogaater picea, Fhpmatods a dimidiatus, Melanophita sulvoguttata, Serropalpua barbatus, Aonohammus scutellatua Say.| Trunk and tops. | Recently dead. One generation in | Inner bark and | Sapwood or heart- | June 6, 20, Eccoptogaster pice, None taken, None taken, oneortwo years. | sapwood. wood. Polyoraphus rifipennis, Serropalpus barbatus. Leptura vittata Olly, Exposed root Dead. One generation in | Sapwood and Outer sapwood. | June 15, 28. Dryocoetes americanus, None taken None taken, two years, eartwood. Dryophthorus americanus. Teptontylus see-guttatus Say. | Trunk. tons or | Dying or recently | Oue generation in | Barkand sapwood. | Outer sapwood. | July 6, & Phyllodaenua distocatus, Phosponophora sp., limbs (usually | dead. two years, Cymatodera bicolor. Odontaulacua bilobatus, eee arked Atoreutus astigmus. Melanophila fulvoguttata, Chrysobothris Blanchard, Chrysobothria aex-signata, Chrysobothria dentipes, Anthazla quercata. Neoclytua longipes Kirby. Tops and limbs. | Dytng, or recently | One generation in | Barkand sapwood. | Outer sapwood. | July 3, 11, 18. Polyoraphus rufipennis, Phyllodaenus distocatus, Same as above dead. two years. Eccoptogaster picer, Leptostylus sez-outtatus, Pogonocherua miztua, Chrysobothrie Blanchardt, Chrysobothria sex-signata, Ohrysobothris dentipes, Melanophila fulvoguttata, Anthazia quércata. Poponocherus miztus Hald. | ‘Tops and limbu, Pyjae,or recently | One generation in | Bark and sapwood. | Outer sapwood. | June15 to July16. | Same us for Leptostylua Phyliobaenus distocatua. Same ns above, lead. two years. sez-guttatua. Melanophila fulvoguttata Pett, * ANd | Dying oF recently | One generation in | Barkand sapwood. | Outer sapwood. | June10, 13, 24, In the trunk — Phyllobaenus dislocatue. Samo as above. Harr. Aum dead. two years. Dendroctonus simples, Polyoraphus rufipennis, ‘Aactium moestum, In the top and Tihs — Same as for NV. longipes, above. Oneyrodothria blancharde Tops and limbs, | Dying, or recently | One keneration In | Barkand sapwood. | Outer sapwood. | June 16 to July 16. Same ns for N. tonoipes, Phyllodaenus distocatus. Same as above. . I: above. Ohryrobothris dentipes Germ. | Tops and limbs. Pager Tecently | One generation in| Barkand sapwood. | Outer aapwood. | June 16 to July 15. | Same as for N. tongipes, Phyliobaenus distocatua, Same as above. i years. ‘above. Oneyrodothris sexsignata Tops, and limbs | Dying, or recently Ones enezation in | Bark and sapwood. | Outer sapwood, | June15 to July 15. | Same as for V. Tonpipes, Phyliobaenus dislocatua. Same as above. barked — trank oe Buoy 2% In. dia), Anthasia quercata Fabr. Tops and limbs. Dying or recently ena raat in | Barkand sapwood. | Outer sapwood, June 22, Same as for N. longipes, Phyllobacnua dislocatus. Same as above. Serropalpus barbatus Schall, | Tntire trunk, raed RE, Of | One eneration In | Sapwood. Outer sapwood. | June 5, 6, Fy B 13: | Dendroctonus simptes | Phytiobaenus distocatus, None taken, years: . ‘ul a Ie 16, Aug. 3. Eccoptogaster picea, Crypturous puaitiu Asemum moestum, Monohammus scutetlatus, Phymatodes dimidtatua, Stelanophita futvoguttate, Urocerua alblcormis, Strez abbott. Urocerus albicornis Pabr. Entire trunk. Recently dead, One generation per | Sapwood and Sapwood. Polygraphus rufipennis, Phyllodaenus distocatus, None taken. ‘year, leartwood. Eeccoptogaster Fear Phymatodes dmidiatus, Serropalpus barbatus, Birex abbots, | Entire trank. Recently dead. ‘One generation per Sapwood and Sapwood. | = Same as for V. albicornis. | Phyllodaenua dtslocatus. | None taken. ebrio tronk. wood. Tenedrio tencbriodes Beau. Lower Decaying No new data. No observations. | No observations. | July 7, Dryophthorus americanus, | None taken, None taken. y ‘Adelocera brevicornts, Adelocera drevicornts Lee. Lower trunk. Decaying wood. | Ni; fo new data. No observations. | No observations. ril 28 (from | Tenebrio tentdriodes, None . AFvood in fald):” | Drgephtnerus aatconus, | Nove taken, ca Insects Bred from American Larch 39 DISCUSSION OF SPECIES In the following pages each of the species of insects bred from larch are discussed in some detail. In writing this discussion all of the material upon the habits and biology of each species which was available has been read and much of it incorporated. In addition considerable new material in the way of biological notes will also here be found, in fact, for a number of species practically all of the account here given is new and in all except a few cases much of it is new. I. Dendroctonus simplex Lec. Dendroctonus simplex is distributed throughout the north- eastern part of the United States and eastern part of Canada apparently occupying the same range as its host plant, the eastern or American larch. Its most southern range: is reported by Hopkins (’98, p. 343), who has taken it from West Virginia. He also (’09, p. 120) records it from sev- eral localities in Michigan, Maine, New Hampshire and Canada. Swaine (1910 a, p. 81) also reports having seen specimens of this species from Mackinac, Man., and (1909, p- 99) records it from Colorado, California and New Mexico. That the record for the latter three localities is a mistake is claimed by Hopkins (’09, p. 118). This species apparently confines its attacks to the Ameri- ean larch Larix laricina, Hopkins (’09, p. 120) although Swaine (’09, p. 99) gives Larix and Picea as hosts. Dendroctonus simplex attacks injured, dying and felled trees, excavating long, slightly winding egg galleries in the inner bark which slightly groove the surface of the wood. The eggs are placed in groups of three to six or more, alter- nately along the sides of the galleries (Fig. 1). The larval galleries are short and extend out perpendicularly from the ' main egg gallery. According to Hopkins (’09a, p. 104) “The broods occupy the bark of stumps and logs and the trunks of standing trees from the ground to the branches or on into the tops. Fresh attacks on living trees cause a flow of resin or red boring dust in the loose bark and around 40 College. of Forestry the base of the trees. This species is capable of extensive depredations on the largest and best larch, but apparently prefers to infest injured, dying and felled trees,” The winter is passed principally in the adult stage, within the inner bark of trees and stumps in which the larve have spent the preceding summer. Activity begins with the first warm weather in the spring. There is apparently but one generation annually, although under certain circumstances there may be at least a partial second generation. The larvee of the first generation begin to transform to the adult stage at Crittenden during August, and by the first of September practically all the brood are callow adults. In our work this species was taken during three successive seasons but in each year was found only in one tree. In the springs of 1915 and 1916 the wintered-over brood was found under the bark of the lower part of the trunk associated with Polygraphus rufipennis. No pitch tubes were seen and while the egg galleries in many cases did contain some pitch, there was not evidence of a copious flow of the material. In mid- summer, 1917 (July 24), a large larch tree was observed which had numerous streams of pitch from one to seven inches long running down the bark. No pitch tubes were present but this material came from recently made burrows of D. simplex. On examining the inner bark, many dead bodies of the adults were found embedded in the pitch which completely filled many of the egg galleries. Other egg gal- leries had been kept free of pitch i the work of the adults. The larvee were nearly full grown but no pupze were observed. This tree was about one foot in diameter. ry Al ae Psammochares luctuosus Cresson..|,....|.....|....-|..--- 1 SIP |e 2 2 Oran emelisops CXesson. a... ||. 52 .|5 2 .cfoses [aces cleo eelaenc cis vs cclew ss: 1 POSER MOT OUNAMS SAY. 4 <1) -.5< | oe ee w|ade-n)s<2scle. aee|s asenife wee U5 Wocca Odynerus catskilli De Saussure...}..... leap ie semowrl | aa hep 2 5 Ad ee eps |e Odynerus walshianus De Saussure..|.....|.....).----|.2+--]e0-+-[e-- +> Tlie Steet CU PGALS Giined DEUS TES CRE S aes De ae Rs Ie es bao eal se cieal |aoeicc rhe |e i memrecolegae le Saussure, 2.) ok IN Si). Afetg « tilesiacd'eciss 2 |oeine fine oat i Odynerus albomarginatus De Saus- RIUMERS MEMS eat steele colelntelalaiala peels clei] ele Sic:s |'ela elm ioiflein. er=.0 flelal a} oyaifi» 5 OR PSE SM ee Moree UTNE R TIES ACTION oa any cisco able [arcieictsitie yo belle o:ssye [ie 19 sueue [retelars 4 Aen | Sera) Bea Solenius (Crabro) singularis Smith]. ....|.....).....[..---]--ee- [eee elecees i Oe Cerceris fulvinediculata Schlett....).....|.....)---..|..-.-]eeee- 1 1 1 PEIRPIREVIESIEDD cole wate s cic, oie, oe s.he «3's PS re se Wao = alice heave ero eke Pil avesetes Ire slsion a [eanalert Otis tenats Halictus provancheri Dalla Torre..| 1 Pye eee S ihiees- 5 Dee toler PERIAPLBMICOT ISIS ELODETESON, «54 5 )1/-)512.02 |e ote oleeic.o) cee ee llewavas[le'o «6 olin oye os 1 Tey Gl |Raeee SUITE CTA OS BRIE DBO III are yaa a ae ASS Waeee cPsilgs allele suns 1 i sete Hylaeus (Prosopis) modestus Say..}..... 1 2 OAT ee SOF) ist execac 2 2 Hgimens (EP TOsOpi8) SP. sic. ee asa s|is scans lac siare 3 De er echal hate bee lavevedet lekecer's Ale cctee Osmia lignariaSay..........+..-. Me eee ea eee caeeea Peter cea [lchene sllererecpall ae cle sifletetere MIETINEAIE SYN SS ool charc Sia.s siciSL ais ate\[l sieve ip Al Bee SE Oo oe aiie lsranc)| acts oer Bremus (Bombus) vagans Smith...].....|.....]....- 1 vg (aaa 1 + + Bremus (Bombus) terricola Kirby..|.....|.....|-..-.- 1 1 2 iE + AF Bremus (Bombus) ternarius Say...|.....).....|2-0+e|eseec]ecees 1 1 + 35 Formica fusca fusca Linn var. subaenescens Emery....... ae Te eee ic Nee ccance [a evae SE Re RSEN Inte ee I SUIERCIEIS URL PIUESCE MAINTE 5, h-0 cates aN c acs'aoille seis viflcia o'e'o [ie ele © all's ie aiels ae ocle soillerees ait a Formica neogagates neogagates SBOE VER PET reine, 2 cs one UN ees ake G Wen seen s ST ehas dallba tonabal’e | terajofe eifleistace’< + + Camponotus herculaneus Linn ; REE ODEDOTALENRSE SMM TECH nce ota fas ciets||lormie:< a i tatete |e eee eei [ite eels, alere.saleteree VUe SECs pany Aes wie 8 Sins ty See RRS Syracuse, N. Y. Hon. Grorce D. Pratr, Conservation Commis- SUON CTE ei ee enero CRUE = oy vais Cee eee New York City. APPOINTED BY THE GOVERNOR Hon. CHARLES CANDRENVS) ch. etsy sicieie cr eels inet Syracuse, N. Y. FEV OT PAUUEERCA NID HR elie) JESIROWGN( otal oles eeke etn een Syracuse, N. Y. Eons yd OHI iu CLANCY iene rail oteieretientede ie ere Syracuse, N. Y. TONS eELAROLD ACORN WeAlibiae: telnet ein tenet ese Lowville, N. Y. Hon iG HORGE WeeDRISCONL- en neice er eerie Syracuse, N. Y. ony RAN CIS AmMNDRICKS aa7 peer earn cere Syracuse, N. Y. laloyie Labo (iri oKessy WalOOUN4 5G Gabe Goaooo ge noo 6 Syracuse, N. Y. leloynly I(OVOnTS! WMD NasheW Ny Bo Gan Gd eionab comes Gabe ade New York City. Ii, Mp wap ie OEUA A eke ec cals tisicte cee ones vce ones Syracuse, N. Y. OFFICERS OF THE BOARD IPRCSUC CIE cn Moston COC oe ee ets Hon. Lours MARSHALL. VACE=PTLESi@eNnt en 1. me eee nee Hon. JoHN H, CLANcy. TEP CESURCT Sta. Ie Re cea eke Hon. Henprick 8S. HOLDEN. [4] FACULTY OF THE NEW YORK STATE COLLEGE OF FORESTRY AT SYRACUSE UNIVERSITY JAMES ROSCOE DAY, S. T. D., D. C. L., LL.D., Chancellor of the University. *HUGH POTTER BAKER, M. F., 1904 (Yale) ; D. Oec., 1910 (Munich), Dean of the College; Professor of Silviculture. FREDERICK FRANKLIN MOON, B. A., 1901 (Amherst) ; M. F., 1909 (Yale), Professor of Forest Engineering, Acting Dean. MAULSBY WILLETT BLACKMAN, A. B.,. 1901; A. M., 1902 (Kan- sas); Ph. D., 1905 (Harvard), Professor of Forest Entomology. EDWARD F. McCARTHY, B. S., 1911; M.S. F., 1916 (Michigan) , Professor of Forest Utilization. *NELSON COURTLANDT BROWN, B. A., 1906; M. F., 1908 (Yale), . Professor of Forest Utilization. J. FRED BAKER, B. S., 1902 (Michigan Agricultural); M. F., 1905 (Yale), Director of Forest Investigations. LEIGH H. PENNINGTON, A. B., 1907; Ph. D., 1909 (Michigan) , Professor of Forest Pathology. SEWARD D. SMITH, B. S., M. S. F., 1910 (Michigan), Director of State Ranger School. JOHN WALLACE STEPHEN, B. A., 1907; M.S. F., 1909 (Michigan) ; M. Pd., 1915 (Michigan Normal College), Professor of Silviculture. * On leave of absence. 1919 [5] MAR 6 College of Forestry CHARLES CHRISTOPHER ADAMS, B. S., 1896 (Illinois Wesleyan) ; M. S., 1899 (Harvard) ; Ph. D., 1908 (Chicago), Professor of Forest Zoology. HENRY R. FRANCIS, B.S., 1910 (Massachusetts Agricultural College) , Professor of Landscape Extension. SHIRLEY W. ALLEN, B. 8., 1910 (Iowa State College), ' Professor of Forest Extension. HARRY P. BROWN, A. B., 1909; A. M., 1910; Ph. D., 1914 (Cornell _ University), Professor of Dendrology. SOLOMON F. ACREE, B. S., 1896; M. S., 1897 (Texas); Ph. D., 1902 (Chicago) ; F. C. S., Professor of Dendrological Chemistry. ROBERT CRAIG, Jr., M. S. F., 1910 (Michigan), Professor of Forestry at New York State Ranger School. *REUBEN PARKER PRICHARD, B. S., 1907 (Dartmouth); M. F., 1909 (Yale), Assistant Professor of Dendrology. LAURIE D. COX, A. B., 1903 (Arcadia College) ; S. B. in Landscape Architecture, 1908 (Harvard), Assistant Professor of Landscape Engineering. HOWARD BLAINE WAHA, B. S., 1909; C. E., 1918 (Pennsylvania State College) , Assistant Professor of Forest Engineering. *HENRY HARRINGTON TRYON, A. B., 1912; M. F., 1913 (Harvard), Assistant Professor of Forest Utilization. ERNEST G. DUDLEY, A. B., 1908 (Leland Stanford Jr. University) ; 1908-09 (Yale Forest School), Assistant Professor of Forest Extension. ALFRED HUBERT WILLIAM POVAH, A. B., 1912; Ph. D., 1916 (Michigan) , Assistant Professor of Forest Botany. CARL JOHN DRAKE, B. S., B. Ped., 1912 (Baldwin-Wallace) ; A. M., 1914 (Ohio State University) , Assistant Professor of Forest Entomology. * On leave of absence. The Biology of Polyporus Pargamenus Fries a HIRAM LEROY HENDERSON, B. S8., 1915 (Michigan), Assistant Professor of Forest Utilization. *ALAN F. ARNOLD (Harvard), Instructor in Landscape Engineering. CARL CHESWELL FORSAITH, A. B., 1913 (Dartmouth) ; A. M., 1914, Ph, )., 1917 (Harvard), Instructor in Forest Technology. HAROLD CAHILL BELYEA, A. B., 1908 (Mt. Allison Univ.) ; M. F., 1916 (Yale), Instructor in Forest Engineering. EDGAR C. PEDDIE, B. S., 1917 (New York State College of Forestry) , Instructor in Eandscape Engineering. RAYMOND F. HOYLE, B. S., 1917 (New York State College of Forestry), Instructor in Forest Utilization. MERLE R. MEACHAM, B. S., 1913 (Hiram College) ; B. 8. in Ch. E., 1914; Ch. E., 1916 (Purdue University) , Research Assistant in Dendrological Chemistry. _ (Fuller Fund) ALVIN G. SMITH, B. S., 1915 (New York State College of Forestry), Field Assistant in Forest Investigations; in charge of Syracuse Forest Experiment Station at Syracuse. *WILFORD E. SANDERSON, B. S., 1917 (New York State College : of Forestry), ° Field Assistant in Forest Investigations. DON M. BENEDICT, B. S., 1917 (Michigan) , Laboratory Assistant in Botany. C. F. CURTIS RILEY, A. B., 1901 (Doane College) ; B. S., 1905 (Michigan) ; A. M., 1911 (Doane College) ; M..S., 1913 (University of Illinois), Special Lecturer in Animal Behavior. * On leave of absence. College of Forestry LILLIAN M. LANG, Secretary to the Dean. WALTER W. CHIPMAN, B. S., 1893 (Wabash College) , Cashier. ELEANOR CHURCH, B. L. E., 1916 (Syracuse University) , Librarian. EDNA E. WHITELEY, B. L. E., 1916 (Syracuse University), Recorder. THE BIOLOGY OF POLYPORUS PARGAMENUS Fries. A THESIS SUBMITTED TO THE FACULTY oF THE New York STATE COLLEGE OF ForRESTRY AT SYRACUSE UNIVERSITY IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF Docror or PuinosopHy, May.1, 1917. BY ArTHUR S. RHOADS, M. S. [9] rian CONTENTS. PAGE a HLLTGLCLIETONM. y.6ibis: Sak, Sahin haat as a en APR tea sets Bites cer rutin i AS iat 15 Geographic distribution and host woods......:....-.-.--2+++e+s+e- 17 SE METE ATLOMMOTING Woo tfoigh vg ke oss + oe ate a bates eed wore ee eevee 33 Tie TNL, Acs oleae orice ape a a i eet A been PLA iS 38 Preacriiion Ol the SpOropmore.. ¢..<,.. Vers cceete ceed wees eer le 38 SRECHIICAINGESCTIND LON er tes: oh ch rite, cckcere ieee Piet hehe are tise 38 Variation exhibited by the sporophores of Polyporus par- [OU A LU RS CROC Re To Se RE CERES OnE rene 39 Relation of environmental factors to the morphologic varia- PLOMGOM ME SPOLOPNONES eee. erie aivie yaifec addesnevec-la cc Sebese 40 Polyporus pargamenus Fries versus Polyporus abietinus Fries..... 41 Srorpuolory of the BPOTOPHOTe, 22.6665. 4s. ce ova ceeds cue ees 44 OEM OME SWONOPMORGs ice: saystae eM iuuarseraieh Aas ch «cis Suatstovel ae i 44 Development of the sporophore: . aio: as eka a ege Les 45 Cansistenty of the sporophore:... .: 4... 02s se.sc se csue ee! 53 Ree CaE MNES UWE Ge Seed aha he duahy crag) caries dies; Seek Ges buaew. deo ‘53 PINPLACS WIOUINCALLONE «ae we liata a ctsle = Sklep oicarena resis iel eas 53 BP CORVINICTLOD MOLE) tar iak oe ns accreted ele as ces oie nica eens NG 56 iMevelopment. OF ThE: POLERi is. .04 te 250 nay he es oo db ao as 56 Relation of the hymenophore to the pileus................. 57 Se Gerncren wa llac A, | ieee hte tees Berne ae Sk renee are 57 Le BAe er pe re PRR ee de EPP shh RRR ate ie 58 The elements of the hymenium............. Peat eens hag LS 59 RaROVGs CMTC AEG Nes wiiiun Sia sisrd te eee oie ete or MOAT eel oat ae 61 AGE MAEMTICL LOM OF GAG: SPOTS) yc <5 suareasugis, to's joP 3s clan die aadiep sige blk os 66 PRA EHLUOGLN WS Pe AN oe Bhs Sis Aas tiny wis twos Sa, wa Ruste, date wedee 66 Description Of Serminatons: 2. iia Cia wigews ond aaa let 66 Culture media used and results obtained... ............... 69 dtaliby Of Wesmienten SHORCR I. |. 5 a.3\ ives «.nco scutes male cae wees 70 Characteristics of the mycelium in pure cultures............... 71 PoC NRL TERS IEP ERC Ri oat Sabana, si ard Ake sos ahs Sy ee be oe 71 GIES ET LOUNGE EMER Six. 0, cit tks Vhs 0 a WS oe Ae dos 73 SSG VEE bettie man VCO UIUMIIN eae 2! are avs oh he x a! < 3). wend ek Recast ote Rene REE ae te one a) a “a DAI MOS PONG R eaect Pci eck eaters ols ina RMR oh Sea wake so 79 [11] 12 College of Forestry The fungus — (Continued) : PAGE Reaction of the sporophores to external stimuli................. 82 Relation so waters cep ne cee vee: cere ee thee 82 Relation: to ‘grawityenc sce: acd cele mcs 2G de eels ee 85 Relation towight,.n. 02 set ewan. oe 2 ose 86 Relation: to) chemotropismis scien selene ec ee eee 88 Regeneration of lost parts of sporophores.................. 89 The destruction of wood by Polyporus pargamenus............++.0-- 89 Chemistry and physics,of the decay....-.2.<<:..-+.. 5. + -s eee 89 The decayaot syellowsbirchwoods.... 455-12 + .-)ner kit eee 91 Stimicture of normal wood... i... ca02.2%.2. «45 = oe 91 Microchemical reactions of normal wood.................. 93 Macroscopic appearance of decayed wood................. 95 Microscopic characters of decayed wood..........:........ 98 Mherdecay:ot-sucananaple wood... a2 se see eee eee 102 Styucthureror normal woods. =. ces 0.3.30 4 eee 102 Microchemical reactions of normal wood.................. 103 Macroscopic appearance of decayed wood...............-. 104 Microscopic characters of decayed wood................... 106 Thedecay of-bittcrhut hickory wood.......4.02.- a.) 62 een 107 Structure of normal-wood..00. 7! 2.02. : eet >: os eee 107 Microchemical reactions of normal wood.................. 110 Macroscopic appearance of decayed wood................. 111 Microscopic characters of decayed wood................... 111 Mhewdecaysol chestimmonks wOOdns mae see rieceie ee acre trentenne 114 Structure of morimalswoods+ ssn. ee eeekeeee ae cee eee 114 Microchemical reactions of normal wood.................. iUiLi/ Macroscopic appearance of decayed wood.................. 119 Microscopic charatters of decayed wood.....:............. 120 The decay of hemlock wood: ..). ce 4 Sv vase. 7 acs oe ee ee 122 Siructure of normal wood: < :2\0-h.ts2: .... -agtae > Cen 122 Microchemical reactions of normal wood.................. 123 Macroscopic appearance of decayed wood................. 124 Comparison of the decay of hemlock wood by Polyporus porgamenus and P, QbveHi NUS... 2. «ns. en oe ee 127 Microscopic characters of decayed wood.................+.- 127 Mherdecayaol otherswoodsere saci ce hess =. ose eee 131 Summary of the physical and chemical changes in decayed WiOOGs easter cnd DERE R eRe eines trsbe te che ine io eee an 132 Macroscopic characters..6 oy 0.32 ovens ale es cs a oe 132 Microscopic characters.............. © og agate Rats eee 135 ocalizationrol therdecayncssseisemicmece ene noe Cee eee 140 The Biology of Polyporus Pargamenus Fries The destruction of wood by Polyporus pargamenus—(Continued): The metabolic products of Polyporus pargamenus............... Enzyme activity in Polyporus pargamenus...............-. The black zones formed in decaying wood................. Chemical origin of the brown decomposition product....... Chemical affinity of the brown decomposition product...... Mieansiotientrance and rate of decay..:...s..006cne ——— Bullock Co., R: M. Haxper, in) June, 190L (Ellis’ N. A. Flora, No. 884d); Locality unknown, H. H. Bartlet (Herb. C. G. Lloyd, Nos. 08+ 210, and 08- 211); Cornelia, G. C. Fitch (Herb. C. G. Lloyd, No. 12814); Vienna, C. J. Humphrey, in July, 1909 (F. P. 5153). IDAHO: On Populus tremuloides. Salmon National Forest, G. G. Hedgecock, in August, 1910 (F. P. 4483); Priest River, J. R. Weir, in Sep- tember, 1915 (Herb. J. R. Weir, No. 700). On Populus acuminata. Salmon National Forest, G. G. Hedgecock, in August, 1910 (F. P. 4480). On Populus trichocarpa. Priest River, J. R. Weir, in September, 1914 (Herb. J. R. Weir, No. 702). On Betula occidentalis. Priest River, J. R. Weir, in September, 1914 (Herb. J. R. Weir, No. 697). ILLINOIS: On Quercus alba. Jacksonville, E. Bartholomew, in September, 1907 (Fungi Columbiani, No. 2513). On Quercus prinus. Cobden (Herb. N. Y. Bot. Gard.). On Quercus sp. Cobden, F. 8. Earle, in March, 1887 (Herb. Path. Coll.) ; Edgemont, L. O. Overholts, in 1912 (Herb. L. O. Over- holts, No. 594); Cerro Gordo, L. O. Overholts, in 1915 (Herb. L. O. Overholts, No. 3213). On —,. Grand Pass, Trelease, in March, 1899 (Herb. Mo. Bot. Gard., No. 4433) ; Joliet (Herb. C. G. Lloyd, No. 05298) ; Chicago, L. H. Watson (Herb. C. G. Lloyd, No. 05333). INDIANA: On Salia nigra. Scottsburg, J. R. Weir, in May, 1912 (Herb. J. R. Weir, No. 693). On Hicoria glabra. Scottsburg, J. R. Weir, in May, 1912 (Herb. J. R. Weir, No. 703). On Fagus atropunicea. Weirtown, J. R. Weir, in 1912 (Herb. L. O. Overholts, No. 3529). On Quercus rubra. Weirtown, J. R. Weir, in May, 1912 (Herb. J. R. Weir, No. 696). On Toaylon pomiferum. Little York, J. R. Weir, in November, 1917 (Herb. J. R. Weir, No. 5211). 22 College of Forestry INDIANA — Continued: On Prunus serotina. Brownstown, J. R. Weir, in April, 1912 (Herb. J. R. Weir, No. 692). On Cercis canadensis. Weirtown, J. R. Weir, in November, 1906 (Herb: Ji. KR. Weir, No. 5215): On Gleditsia triacanthos. Scottsburg, J. R. Weir, in November, 1917 (Herb. J. R. Weir, No. 9556). Iowa: On - - Decorah, KE. M. Holway (7), in June, 1882 (Herb. N. Y. Bot. Gard.) ; Ft. Dodge, O. M. Oleson (Herb. C. G. Lloyd, Nos. 383, 561 a, 12174, and 12720). IXKANSAS: On Quercus sp. Bourbon Co., A. O. Garret, in August, 1902 (Herb. En. A. Burt)? On Ulmus americana, Strong City, G. G. Hedgcock, in November, 1910 (BF. P. 4947). On . Manhattan, Kellerman and Swingle, in August, 1897 (Kansas Fungi, No. 1091) ; Rockport, E. Bartholo- mew (Herb. C. G. Lloyd, No. 6038). KENTUCKY: On Quercus alba. Ft. Thomas, J. R. Weir, in April, 1912 (Herb. J. R. Weir, No. 699). On Quercus sp. Berea, L. O. Overholts, in 1915 (Herb. L. O. Over- holts, No. 2767). On Tilia americana. TWouisville, J. R. Weir, in April, 1912 (Herb. J. R. Weir, No. 685). On . Mammoth Cave, C. G. Lloyd, in June, 1896 (Herb. Mo. Bot. Gard., No. 4439) ; Crittenden, C. G. Lloyd (Herb. C. G. Lloyd, Nos. 001, 0014, 07079, 1222, and 07355). LOUISIANA: On Pinus sp. Hast Louisiana, March, 1886 (Herb. Path. Coll). On Salix sp. Baton Rouge, C. J. Humphrey, in August, 1909 (ARI IRS yesh) On Quercus virginiana. New Orleans, G. G. Hedgecock, in March, 1909 (F. P. 343). On Quercus palustris. Bogalusa, G. G. Hedgecock, in March, 1909 (F. P. 367, 392, and 409). On Quercus nigra. Baton Rouge, C. J. Humphrey, in August, 1909 | (CR P. 5393). On Ulmus sp. Loeality and collector unknown, in November, 1889 (Herb. Path. Coll.). On Nyssa sylvatica. Locality unknown, G. G. Hedgecock, in March, UO (LD 12, 70S) The Biology of Polyporus Pargamenus Fries 23 LOUISIANA — Continued: On . Ville Platte, A. B. Langlois, in May, 1886 (Herb. Path. Coll.) ; Slidell, C. J. Humphrey, in July, 1909 (F. P. 5376). MAINE: On Salix sp. Kittery Point, A. 8. Rhoads, in April, 1918. On Populus tremuloides. Kittery Point, A. 8S. Rhoads, in June, 1918. On Betula populifolia. Kittery Point, A. S. Rhoads, in April, 1918; in July, 1918 (F. P. 23681). On Betula lutea. Hastings, G. G. Hedgecock, in July, 1913 (F. P.). On —. Orono (Fungi of N. A., No. 140 a). MARYLAND: On Pinus virginiana. Takoma Park, A. S. Rhoads, in November, NOE Bs 23651). On Betula nigra. Takoma Park, G. G. Hedgcock, in September, 1908 (F. P. 4020) ; Great Falls, A. S. Rhoads, in October, 1917 (F. P. 23650) ; Cabin John Creek, A. S. Rhoads, in November, 1917 (EB. P. 23656). On Carpinus caroliniana. Takoma Park, A. S. Rhoads, in Novem- ber, 1917 (F. P. 23649); Cabin John Creek, A. S. Rhoads, in November, 1917. . On Fagus atropunicea. Cabin John Creek, A. S. Rhoads, in Novem- ber, 1917. On Castanea dentata. Takoma Park, G. G. Hedgecock, in September, 1908 (F. P. 253 and 411); in 1909 (F. P. 467). On Quercus alba. Takoma Park, G. G. Hedgecock, in April, 1911 (F. P. 9006). On Quercus prinus. Cabin John Creek, A. S. Rhoads, in November, 1917. On Quercus rubra. Glen Echo, A. 8. Rhoads, in August, 1917; Great Falls, A. S. Rhoads, in October,. 1917. On Quercus palustris. Cabin John Creek, A. S. Rhoads, in October, 1917. On Liriodendron tulipifera. Takoma Park, G. G. Hedgecock, in June, 1910 (F. P. 4001 and 4006) ; Glen Echo, A. S. Rhoads, in August, 1917. On Prunus serotina. Chain Bridge, A. 8. Rhoads, in October, 1917. On Acer rubrum. Great Falls, A. S. Rhoads, in October, 1917; Cabin John Creek, A. S. Rhoads, in November, 1917. MASSACHUSETTS: On Salix sp. Mt. Auburn, E. A. Burt, in November, 1893 (Herb. HH. A. Burt). 24 College of Forestry MASSACHUSETTS — Continued: On Hicoria sp. Mt. Holyoke, P. Spaulding, in September, 1912 (RP 2746): On Betula lutea. Mt. Holyoke, P. Spaulding, in September, 1912 (EPs 2143): MICHIGAN: On Populus sp. Houghton, L. H. Pennington, in July, 1906 (Herb. L. H. Pennington). On Betula papyrifera. Marquette, L. H. Pennington, in August, 1906 (Herb. L. H. Pennington). On Betula lenta. Locality and collector unknown (Herb. N. Y. Bot. Gard.) . On Platanus occidentalis. Reported by C. H. Kauffman (1917, p. 156). 0) ——————————— Ann Arbor, Cs bl. skeaniimr aries eterno ome Lloyd, Nos. 45 and 10590); Detroit, O. E. Fischer (Herb. C. G. Lloyd, No. 10328). MINNESOTA: On Populus tremuloides. Cass Lake, G. G. Hedgecock, in July, 1910 (F. P. 4171) ; Park Rapids, G. G. Hedgcock, in July, 1910 (F. P. 4161); Itasca Lake, G. G. Hedgecock, in July, 1910 (F. P. 4095) ; Minnetonka Lake, G..G. Hedgecock, in July, 1910 (F. P. 4064 and 4066). On Populus grandidentata. Cass Lake, R. G. Pierce, in June, 1915 (F. P. 18068). On Populus balsamifera. Cass Lake, J. R. Weir, in June, 1912 (Herb. J. R. Weir, No. 701). On Betula papyrifera. Wake Itasca, G. G. Hedgecock, in July, 1910 (F. P. 4091 and 4125) ; Cass Lake, G. G. Hedgecock, in July, 1910 (EF. P. 4201); J. R. Weir, in June, 1912 (F. P.). On Quercus coccinea. Lake Minnetonka, G. G. Hedgecock, in July, 1910 (F. P. 4070). On Tilia americana. Cass Lake, J. R. Weir, in June, 1912 (Herb. J. R. Weir, No. 694). MISSISSIPPI: On Persea pubescens. Sandy Hook, G. G. Hedgecock, in March, 1909 (it; 124) On ————————. Biloxi} ©. M. Oleson (Herb: 'C"Gaiiiove No: 579). MISSOURI: On Hicoria sp. Creve Coeur, P. Spaulding, in December, 1905 (Herb. Mo. Bot. Gard.). On Betula nigra. Williamsville, B. M. Duggar, in October, 1902 (Herb. EH. A. Burt). The Biology of Polyporus Pargamenus Fries 25 Missourt — Continued: On Quercus velutina. Perryville, C. H. Demetrio, in April, 1883 (Rabenhorst-Winter’s Fungi Europaei, No. 3331). On Quercus sp. Jefferson Barracks, L. O. Overholts, in 1913 (Herb. L. O. Overholts, No. 529); Bismark, L. O. Overholts, in Decem- ber, 1913 (Herb. Mo. Bot. Gard., Nos. 1780 and 21994). On Prunus sp. Perryville, L. O. Overholts, in 1915 (Herb. L. O. Over- holts, No. 2704). On ———————.. O’Fallon, Wm. Trelease, in November, 1895 (Herb. Mo. Bot. Gard., No. 4714) ; Valley Park, H. von Schrenk, in October, 1896 (Herb. Mo. Bot. Gard., No. 42838) ; Cliff Cave, J. B. S. Norton, in April, 1898 (Herb. Mo. Bot. Gard. No. 3864) ; Meramec, P. Spaulding, in April, 1906 (Herb. Mo. Bot. Gard., No. 4186); Poplar Bluff, F. W. Dewart(?), in August, 1892 (Herb. Mo. Bot. Gard., No. 4086); Creve Coeur Lake, L. O. Overholts, in 1912 (Herb. L. O. Overholts, No. 482). MONTANA: On Salia lasiandra. Belton, J. R. Weir, in September, 1912 (Herb. J. R. Weir, No. 691). On Populus trichocarpa. Ashland, J. R. Weir, in September, 1913 (Herb. J. R. Weir, No. 690) ; Wisdom, J. R. Weir, in September, 1914 (Herb. J. R. Weir, No. 688). On Alnus tenwifolia. Missoula, J. R. Weir, in May, 1914 (Ilerb. J. R. Weir, No. 689). New HAMPSHIRE: On Juglans cinerea. North Conway, A. S. Rhoads, in August, 1918 (Herb. A. S. Rhoads). f On Salia discolor. North Conway, A. 8S. Rhoads, in August, 1918 (Herb. A. S. Rhoads and F. P. 23684). On Populus tremuloides. Willey House, A. 8. Rhoads, in August, 1918. (Herb. A. S. Rhoads) ; North Conway, A. 8. Rhoads, in September, 1918 (Herb. A. 8. Rhoads). On Betula lutea. Gorham, G. G. Hedgecock, in July, 1913 (F. P. 8608). On Betula papyrifera. Gorham, P. Spaulding, in September, 1910 (F. P. 2319) ; North Conway, A. 8. Rhoads, in September, 1918. On Fagus atropunicea. Willey House, A. S. Rhoads, in August, 1918; North Conway, A. 8. Rhoads, in August, 1918. On Prunus pennsylvanica. Gorham, G. G. Hedgecock, in July, 1913 (F*. P. 8645). On Acer saccharum. White Mountains, G. G. Hedgecock, in July, 1913 (F. P. 8628). On Acer pennsylvanicum. Gorham, P. Spaulding, in September, 1910 (F. P. 2342). On Acer rubrum. North Conway, A. 8. Rhoads, in September, 1918 (Herb. A. S. Rhoads). 26 College of Forestry New JERSEY: On . Newfield, J. B. Ellis, in November, 1876 (Mycotheea Universalis, No. 1304); Ellis and Everhart (Fungi Columbiani, No. 302); Trenton, E. B. Sterling (Herb. C. G. Lloyd, Nos. 08 + 452, 08 + 492, 08 + 459, 08 + 499, 05844, and 07656). New Mexico: On Populus tremuloides. Manzano National Forest, G. G. Hedg- cock, in June, 1908 (F. P.); Mogollen, G. G. Hedgecock and ' W. H. Long, in October, 1911 (F. P. 9888); Sandia Mts., G. G. Hedgecock, in June, 1908 (IF. P. 456 and 462). New York: On T'suga canandensis.. Ithaca, B. B. Higgins, in October, 1911 (Fungi Columbiani, No. 3616); Jamesville, A. S. Rhoads, in November, 1915 (Herb. A. S. Rhoads). On Hicoria glabra. Syracuse, A. S. Rhoads, in November, 1916. On Hicoria minima. Jamesville, A. S. Rhoads, in October, 1916. On Populus tremuloides. Center, C. H. Peck, in September, 1879 (Ellis’ N. A. Fungi, No. 312 a); Saranac, P. Spaulding, in May, 1909 (F. P. 2041) ; Glenn Falls, G. G. Hedgecock, in August, 1913 (I*. P. 8660); Dobson’s Camp, A. 8. Rhoads, in June, 1916 (Herb. A. S. Rhoads). On Populus grandidentata. Jamesville, A. S. Rhoads, in October, 1916. On Betula lutea. Copake, C. H. Peck, in October, 1877 (Mycotheeca Universalis, No. 1102) ; Cranberry Lake, A. 8S. Rhoads, in July, 1916; Fayetteville and Jamesville, A. S. Rhoads, in October, 1916. On Betula papyrifera. Glenn Falls, G. G. Hedgecock, in August, 1913 (ES Bs 8666). On Fagus atropunicea. Alcove, C. L. Shear, in August, 1893 *(Shear’s New York Fungi, No. 38); Apulia, A. 8. Rhoads, in September, 1916. On Castanea dentata. Verona, C. H. Peck, in August, 1879 ( Ellis’ N. A. Fungi, No. 312b). On Quercus alba. Glenn Falls, G. G. Hedgecock, in August, 1913 (i P-)8663))- On Quercus rubra. Glenn Falls, G. G. Hedgecock, in August, 1913 (EPS 8662) On Prunus serotina, Apulia, A. 8S. Rhoads, in October, 1916. On Prunus pennsylwanica. Phoenix, A. 8. Rhoads, in September, 1916. On Acer saccharum. Cranberry Lake and Jamesville, A. S. Rhoads, in August, 1916. On Acer pennsylvanicum. Cranberry Lake, A. S. Rhoads, in July, 1916. On -. Long Island, G. C. Fisher (Herb. C.°G. Lloyd, No. 08 + 238). The Biology of Polyporus Pargamenus Fries 27 Nortu CAroiina: On Hicoria glabra. Bald Rock, A. H. Graves, in August, 1910 (Ff. P. 3687); Fairfield Lake, in August, 1910 (F. P.). Nortn CaroLtrna — Continued: On Fagus atropunicea. Salem, R. K. Beattie, in February, 1913 (in, I2e feisile On Acer rubrum. Marion, A. Ames, in October, 19— (FI. P.). On Quercus sp. Leicester, B. B. Higgins, in July, 1909 (Fungi Columbiani, No. 2924). Nortu DAKorTa: On Populus tremuloides. Near Fargo, J. F. Brenckle and O. A. Stevens, in June 1915 (Fungi Dakotensis, No. 412). Outro: On Betula sp. East Cleveland, KE. Claassen, in 1911 (Herb. L. O. Overholts, No. 269). On Quercus sp. West Elkton, L. O. Overholts, in 1912 (Herb. L. O. Overholts, No. 476). On Prunus sp. Lorain Co., E. C. Mosely, in 1911 (Herb. L. O. Overholts, No. 318). On Acer sp. Oxford, L. O. Overholts, in 1909 (Herb. L. O. Over- holts, No. 6). On . Cincinnati, D. L. James, in October, 1879 (Ellis’ N. A. Fungi, No. 312 ¢c) ; Oxford, L. O. Overholts, in 1910 (Herb. L. O. Overholts, No. 7); Sugar Grove, W. G. Stover, in 1911 (Herb. L. O. Overholts, No. 166). OKLAHOMA: On . Poteau, I. T., Wm. Trelease, in February, 1901 (Herb. Mo. Bot. Gard., No. 4732). OREGON : On Quercus californica. Grants Pass, J. R. Weir, in September, 1916 (Herb. J. R. Weir, No. 686). On Quercus garryana. Portland, J. R. Weir, in August, 1913 (Herb. J. R. Weir, No. 698). PENNSYLVANIA: On Tsuga canandensis. Philadelphia, A. S. Rhoads, in September, 1916 (Herb. Penna. State College). On Hicoria alba. Near State College, A. S. Rhoads, in 1913 (Herb. Penna. State College) ; A. S. Rhoads, in September, 1916. On Hicoria ovata. Lemont, C. R. Orton and A. S. Rhoads, in 1915 (Herb. Penna. State College). On Betula lenta. Near State College, A. R. Bechtel, in 1913 (Herb. Penna. State College) ; Philadelphia, A. S. Rhoads, in September, 1916. On Betula lutea. Carbondale, E. A. Burt, in December, 1898 (Herb. E. A. Burt); near State College, A. S. Rhoads, in 1915 (Herb. Penna. State College). 28 College of Forestry PENNSYLVANIA — Continued: On Castanea dentata. Near State College and Ephrata, A. S. Rhoads, in September, 1916. On Quercus alba. Near State College, A. S. Rhoads, in 1914 (Herb. Penna. State College) ; A. S. Rhoads, in September, 1916. On Quercus phellos. Philadelphia, A. S. Rhoads, in September, 1916. On Quercus prinus. Ephrata and Philadelphia, A. 8. Rhoads, in September, 1916 (Herb. A. S. Rhoads). On Quercus coccinea. Near State College, A. S. Rhoads, in Sep- tember, 1916. On Quercus velutina. Philadelphia, A. 8. Rhoads, in 1915 (Herb. Penna. State College). On Prunus sp. Petersburg, G. G. Hedgecock, in June, 1914 (F. P. 15478). On Glediisia triacanthos. State College, C. R. Orton and L. O. Overholts, in 1916 (Herb. Penna. State College). On Acer rubrum. Mont Alto, J. S. Illick, in May, 1913 (F. P. 8346) ; Hammersley Forks, M. E. Muller, in January, 1914 (F. P. 15248) ; near Boalsburg, A. S. Rhoads, in 1915 (Herb. Penna. State College) ; State College and Philadelphia, A. 8. Rhoads, in September, 1916. RuHope ISLAND: Locality and other data unknown. Several collections in herbarium of Brown University. SouTH CAROLINA: On Hicoria sp. Aiken, H. W. Ravenel (Fungi Americani Exicatti, No. 423). On Nyssa sp. Lanes, C. J. Humphrey, in July, 1909 (F. P. 5040). On = . Locality unknown, H. W. Ravenel, in 1852 (Fungi Caroliniani, Fase. I, No. 13). SoutH DAKOTA: On Populus tremuloides. Custer, G. G. Hedgecock, in September, 1914 (F. PB: 15818). * TENNESSEE: On Quercus sp. Jonesboro (Herb. N. Y. Bot. Gard.). On == . Rugby, M. S. Percival (Herb. C. G. Lloyd. Nos. 7142 and 10831). TEXAS: On Quercus nigra. Quitman, W. H. Long, in November, 1911 (ERP T2089)\e On Quercus texana. THouston, G. G. Hedgecock, in March, 1909 (ae 220 On Liquidambar styraciflua. Joaquin, H, Bartholomew, in October, 1913 (Fungi Columbiani, No. 4620); Quitman, W. H. Long, in November, 1911 (F. P. 12051). The Biology of Polyporus Pargamenus Fries 29 Texas — Continued: On Nyssa sylvatica. Houston, G. G. Hedgecock, in March, 1909 (ie es kOe ! UTAH: On ———————.._ Locality unknown (as Coriolus subcharta- ceus Murrill in North Am. Fl. 9:24, 1907. VERMONT: On Populus tremuloides. Bethel, P. Spaulding, in May, 1908 (I. P. 2067). On Populus grandidentata. Bethel, P. Spaulding, in May, 1909 (Hee be 286) On Betula lutea. Middlebury, E. A. Burt, in October, 1895 (Herb. i. A. Burt); Bethel; P. Spaulding, in November, 1912 (F. P. 2561); Walden, C. R. Orton, in 1913 (Herb. Penna. State College) . On Prunus sp. Bethel, P. Spaulding, in January, 1912 (F. P. 2573). On Acer saccharwm. Bethel, P. Spaulding, in October, 1910 (F. P. 2423). On Acer saccharinum. Bethel, P. Spaulding, in November, 1912 (AND Hes lie VIRGINIA: ‘On Betula nigra. Great Falls, P. Spaulding, in January, 1911 (F. P. 2395). On Quercus prinus. Rosslyn, R. G. Pierce, in December, 1914 (EP. ):. On Quercus velutina. Rio, G. F. Gravatt, in February, 1915 (F. P. 17281). On Quercus rubra. Chain Bridge, A. S. Rhoads, in October, 1917. On Quercus marilandica, Chain Bridge, A. S. Rhoads, in October, 1917. On Sassafras sassafras. Chain Bridge, A. 8. Rhoads, in October, LOL (Hs Ps 28643): On Prunus americana, Chain Bridge, A. S. Rhoads, in October, 1917 (EF. P. 23642). On Prunus serotina. Chain Bridge, A. S. Rhoads, in October, 1917. On Rhus verniaw. Vienna, A. 8. Rhoads, in January, 1918 (Herb. A. 8S. Rhoads). On Acer rubrum. Chain Bridge, A. S. Rhoads, in October, 1917. On Fraxinus americana. Great Falls, P. Spaulding, in January, 1911 (F. P. 2461). WASHINGION : On Quercus garryana. Near Bellingham, J. R. Weir, in September, 1916 (Herb. J. R. Weir, No. 687). WEST VIRGINIA: On Betula sp. Cranberry Glades, Pocahontas Co., J. L. Sheldon, in August, 1909 (Fungi Columbiani, No. 3655). 30 College of Forestry WEST VIRGINIA — Continued: On Fagus atropunicea. Albright, J. L. Sheldon, in August, 1908 (F. PB. 9102). On Quereus sp. Cranberry Glades, Pocahontas Co., J. L. Sheldon. in August, 1909 (Fungi Columbiani, No. 3621). WISCONSIN : On Saliz sp. Madison, M. C. Jensen, in October, 1910 (F. P. 6711). On Populus sp. Oneida Co., J. J. Neuman, in 1904 (Herb. Mo. Bot. Gard., No. 42712). On Betula papyrifera. Trout Lake, P. Spaulding, in June, 1915 (REPS 2691): . On Quercus sp. Madison, C. J. Humphrey and E. Bartholomew, im October, 1911 (Fungi Columbiani, No. 3907). On Alnus incana. Elmside, R. A. Harper, in September, 1902 (Herb. Univ. Wisce.). MEXICO. On Pinus sp. Locality unknown (Herb. N. Y. Bot. Gard.). On ——_————.. Locality unknown (as Polyporus Xalapensis Berk, in Jour. Bot. & Kew Misc. [:103, 1849); Jalapa, Chas. L. Smith, January—June, 1894 (Central American Fungi, No. 122) ; W. A. Murrill, in December, 1909 (Herb. N. Y. Bot. Gard.). CUBA. On ———————.. Locality unknown (as Polyporus Flabellum Mont. in Pl. Cell. Cuba, p. 388, pl. 15, f. 2, 1842) ; (as Polyporus laceratus Berk. in Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. 3:392, 1839, according to Saccardo, Syll. Fung., 6:231, 1888). DISTRIBUTION IN SouTH AMERICA. BRAZIL: On —. Sao Francisco dos Compos, in Province of Sao Paulo, F. Noack, in 1896-1898 (No. 292), according to Hans and Paul Sydow (1907). DIsTrRIBUTION IN EUROPE. SPAIN: On . Northern Spain (Herb. N. Y. Bot. Gard.). FRANCE: On . Carqueiranne, EK. Jahandiez (Herb. C. G. Lloyd, Nos. 09227, 08 + 48, and 11282; New Caledonia (Herb. C. G. Lloyd, No. 0608) ; locality unknown, N. Patouillard (Herb. C. G. Lloyd, No. 3931). GERMANY: On . Dresden, O. Pazschke (Herb. C. G. Lloyd, No. 13101). The Biology of Polyporus Pargamenus Fries 31 AUSTRIA-HUNGARY: AUSTRIA: On . Tirolo, Rev. Bresadola (Herb. C. G. Lloyd, No. 3903); Wien, von Hoéhnel (Herb. C. G. Lloyd, No. 08725). HUNGARY: On . Traynik, E. Brandis (Herb. C. G. Lloyd, Nos. 08846, 08847 and OSS862). On Populus tremula, Quercus sp., and Tilia sp. Kmet, in 1891 (Herb. N. Y. Bot. Gard.). RUSSIA: On Betula alba. Viro B. Eichler (according to Bresadola, Ann. Myc., 1:76, 1903). On Betula sp. Bialowiezan Lithuania (as Polyporus simulans Blonski in Hedw., 1888, p. 280, according to Saccardo, Syll. Fung., 9:185, 1891). On . Majkop, N. Schustenow (Herb. C. G. Lloyd, No. 1703). DistrriputTion In AsIA. JAPAN: On Pinus sp. Settsu, Ch. Tanaka, in August, 1908 (Polyporaceae of Japan, No. 62). MALAY PENINSULA: On ————_—————.. Perak (Herb. N. Y. Bot. Gard.) . PHILIPPINE ISLANDS: LUZON: On —————————. Lamao Forest Reserve, Bataan Pro- vince, H. M. Curran, in July, 1907 (Flora of Philippines, Herb. Bureau of Science). DISTRIBUTION IN OCEANICA. AUSTRALIA: On . Victoria, De Miller (as Polyporus dispar Kalchbr. in Symb. Myc. Austral., II, n. 82, according to Saccardo, Syll. Fung., 6:262, 1888); Queensland (according to D. C. McAlpine, Syst. Arr. Austral. Fungi, 1895, pp. 48-49). Von Schrenk and Spaulding (1909, p. 57) state that they have collected Polystictus pergamenus on Quercus tmbricaria Michx., a species not included among the host species cited 32 College of Forestry in the above list of exsiccati. Furthermore, Kauffman (1918) reports the sycamore (Platanus occidentalis Linn.) as a host for this fungus. From the foregoing data it is evident that the following woods* are attacked by Polyporus pargamenus: Pinus virginiana Tsuga canadensis Juglans cinerea Hicoria minima IHicoria ovata Hicoria alba Hicoria glabra Salix nigra Salix discolor Salia lasiandra Populus tremula Populus trenuloides Populus grandidentata Populus balsamifera Populus acuminata Populus trichocarpa Betula alba Betula papyrifera Betula populifolia Betula occidentalis Betula lutea Betula nigra Alnus incana Alnus tenuifolia Carpinus caroliniana Fagus atropunicea Castanea dentata Quercus alba Quercus garryana Quercus prinus Quercus virguuana Quercus rubra Quercus texana Quercus coccinea Quercus velutina Quercus californica Quercus palustris Quercus marilandica Quercus nigra Quercus imbricaria Quercus phellos Ulmus americana Toxylon pomiferum Liriodendron tulipifera Persea pubescens Sassafras sassafras Liqudambar styraciflua Platanus occidentalis Prunus americana Prunus pennsylwanica Primus serotina Cercis canadensis Gleditsia triacanthos Rhus vernia Ilex opaca Acer pennsylvanicum Acer saccharum Acer saccharinum Acer rubrum Tilia americana Tilia platyphyllos Nyssa sylvatica Nyssa aquatica Rhododendron maainum Fraxinus americana The above list of host species is but a meager indication of the commonly known ones. Unfortunately in most of the available collections the host species are either incompletely, or more often not at all, given. developing into mature, spore-producing basidia. This view is supported by reason of the fact that spore forma- tion continues for a long period, and careful examination of sporophores of various ages has shown that the spores produced by a basidium mature at approximately the same time. The spores, however, are shed intermittently over long periods, and from this fact it follows that the basidia prob- ably develop successively during moist periods, a cireum- stanee which would account for the continued spore forma- tion. The examé‘nation of sections of sporophores developed in a moist chamber likewise gives evidence that the basidia mature successively. This view is further supported by the faet that sporophores sometimes revive and produce a new hymenium the second year due to accelerated growth of cer- tain hyphee in the hymenial layer The basidia are more or less regularly disposed throughout the hymenium. On the enlarged end of each basidium are four minute spine-like sterigmata, each of which bears a basidiospore. Scattered irregul: arly among the basidia there sometimes occur conspicuous, blunt cystidia usually capitate with an incrustation of mineral matter. Cystidia may be defined as the more or less conspicuous sterile organs found either in the hymenium or in the sub- hymenial tissue of various basidiomyeetous fungi. They are the modified ends of some of the tramal hyphee which extend into the hymenial layer and usually project beyond The Biology of Polyporus Pargamenus Fries 61 the layer of basidia with their spores. As Overholts (1915, pp. 684-685) states, in Polyporus pargamenus the pres- ence of cystidia is a variable character, and that they are abundant in some specimens but very scarce in others. In such eases he recommends the making of longitudinal sec- tions of the tubes as the eystidia are sometimes more abun- dant in one part of the tubes than another. The ecystidia resemble the basidia in shape but are con- sider: ably larger and longer, sometimes reaching a length of twenty microns and a breadth of six microns, as stated by Overholts (1915, p. 685). They are further characterized by being distinctly capitate — probably with minute crystals of calcium oxalate although no crystalline structure is visi- ble even under the highest power of the microscope (Fig. 1). These colorless cystidia are rendered very conspicuous by reason of their capitate tips. Sometimes they scarcely extend beyond the basidia, although they usually project sufficiently far that one can distinguish them re: adily with the low power of the microscope. In the sections examined none of the evstidia projected more than ten microns beyond the sterig- mata of the basidia. Spore Characters.— The sporphores of Polyporus parga- menus were found to begin the production of spores even before they measured as much as 1 em. in either dimension, and to continue to shed viable spores intermittently until old age. When a fresh sporophore is placed on a glass slide or paper the falling spores rapidly accumulate and a plen- tiful supply is obtained within a few hours. The spores may be seen to best advantage macroscopically on black paper, where the numerous little white heaps look hke an imprint of the hymenial surface of the sporophore. Owing to their pronounced adhesiveness they adhere to one another and to any surface with which they come into contact with consider- able tenacity. Spore-deposits, therefore, cannot be shaken off paper or glass upon which they have collected. In fact they adhere so tenaciously that, when shed upon g glass and - dried, they can be scraped off as ribbons 4 or 5 mm. long. 62 College of Forestry The rate of accumulation of a spore-deposit is dependent upon several factors — for example, age of the pileus, amount of moisture present and the rate of dessication, tem- perature, ete. By moving a pileus from one place to another every hour and thus securing successive spore prints, one may be convinced readily of the continuity and regularity of the spore discharge. Spores which have just been liberated always have a fresh and turgid appearance and even liberated spores of long standing quickly acquire it upon being placed in water for a few minutes. WRK AWN 2 ag iS Pie. 2. Basidiospores of Polyporus pargamenus shown in longitudinal ‘section, X 5,000. A. Dorsiventral section, the spore being in lateral position.— a, apiculus; y, apex; c, geometrical center; ay, organic axis; #y, geometrical axis; Gg, organic section; , ventral spore-half ; Ske dorsal spore- half. B. Bilateral section, the spore-half being in ventral position.— a, apical spore-half; b, basal spore-half; ¢, geometrical center; wy, geometrical axis; , left lateral spore-half; DAE right lateral spore-half. This section represents the only symmetry plane possessed by the spore, The Biology of Polyporus Pargamenus Fries 63 gi Yd gd Microscopic examination shows each spore to be a color- less, unicellular body measuring 5—6.5 microns long by 2—2.25 microns broad, the protoplasmic contents of which are homogeneous and usually devoid of vacuoles. In the spores of Polyporus pargamenus we distinguish first a base (Fig. 2, A), the point at which the spores are attached to the sterigmata and at which their abcission occurs at maturity." The organic center of the base is the apiculus (a), which is usually situated excentrically and as a general rule does not coincide with the geometric center (x). The organic center of the top is the apex (y), which coincides with the geometric center. The line (ay) which joins the apiculus “with the apex is the organic spore-axis. The line (xy) which joins the geometric ‘center of the base with the apex is the geo- metric spore-axis. The symmetry plane (qq) running trans-: versely through the spore at the central point (c) of the geometric axis 1s to be regarded as the spore cross-section. As seen from the base and apex, every basidiospore is oriented in a definite manner, and we distinguish therefore four surfaces: a dorsal and a ventral side as well as a right and left lateral surface. The spores on their basidia are directed with their dorsal surfaces toward the outside and with their ventral surfaces toward the inside, while they limit one another laterally with a side surface. The dorsal and ventral sides are divisible into two symmetrical surfaces by a basipetally running symmetry line (Fig. 2, B) (xy). The plane formed by the union of the dorsal and ventral sides is the bilateral symmetry plane which divides the spore accordingly into two symmetrical halves, a left lateral (1) and a right lateral (r) part. This is the only symmetry plane always possessed by each basidiospore. A plane running through the geometric center at right angles to the bilateral section guile the dorsal and ventral sides, the dorsiventral section (Fig. 2, A) (xy), divides the spore into a dorsal and a ventral spore half which are never “The form of the geometrical description of the basidiospores is based upon that given by Falck (1909, pp. 76-79) for the spores of species of We +4 8 NA PP Pp iu senzites. 64 College of Forestry perfectly symmetrical. If we see the basidiospore from the dorsal or ventral sides (Fig. 2, B) in the outline of the dorsiventral section we denote its position and its ecross- diameter as dorsiventral (either dorsal or ventral); on the contrary, if the side surface is turned to us we see it in the contour of the bilateral section (A) and we denote its posi- tion as lateral (either left or right). The spore cross-section lying at right angles to the bilateral and dorsiventral section (B, lr) divides the spore into two more or less unequal halves, a basal half (a) with the apiculus and an apical half (b). If these two halves as seen from the apiculus and the apex (also observed from the dorsal side) are shaped alike or approximately alike we denote the basidiospore as being basally equally halved, in other cases as basally unequally halved. If we see the spore from above or below in the outline of the cross-section we denote these positions respectively as the apical and basal views and the diameter of the cross-section as the basipetal diameter. These symmetry proportions, which correspond with the definite spacial orientation of each individual spore, are possessed by the spores of all Basidiomycetes. In the microscopic examination the spores of Polyporus pargamenus appear according to their positions in a given view. In general we see them in the lateral view with the contour of the bilateral plane (Fig. 3, 1 and r). In this sidewise position the spores have the form of a small kidney. We distinguish accordingly a convex dorsal side and a con- eave ventral side. According to the position of the apiculus we can distinguish a left (1) and a right (2) lateral posi- tion. Moreover, the various lateral deviations from the sidewise position are to be judged according to the orienta- tion of the apiculus. Tn both the dorsal and ventral positions we see the spores in the contour of the dorsiventral section as symmetrically formed, straight rods with both ends rounded (Fig. 3, v and d). By vertical orientation of the spore with the api- culus above we may determine whether the dorsal side hes toward one. The more the spore is shifted from the dorsal Basidiospores of Polyporus pargamenus in different positions, X 3,000. ew, the apiculus lying to the right side; r, right lateral view, the apiculus lying to the ft side; v, ventral view, the apiculus lying in the symmetry plane; d, dorsal view, the piculus not being visible in this view; g, transverse section at the central elevation. The Biology of Polyporus Pargamenus Fries 65 or ventral side to the lateral position, just so much the more does it approach the exact symmetry of the allantoid form, while the apiculus changes again to the lateral position. The transverse diameter of the spore remains approxi- mately the same in the different changes of the indicated positions; at least no noticeable differences could be detected with the measuring devices at my disposal. Therefore it may be inferred that the cross-section (basipetal view) must exhibit an approximately circular contour, which can be corroborated by direct microscopic examination from above or below (Fig. 5, q). The spores consequently are basipetally bilateral in trans- verse section; in longitudinal section they are bilaterally symmetrical dorsiventrally and strongly unequally halved laterally. They appear colorless by transmitted hght and white by reflected hght. Era.. 3. 9 v 1, left lateral 66 College of Forestry GERMINATION OF THE SPORES. Methods.— Spores were obtained in most cases from sporophores (dessicated or otherwise) gathered as needed from a nearby tree. The sporophores on this particular tree remained in a state of dessication throughout the winter, so that spores could be obtained whenever needed. In some instances dessicated sporophores were stored in the labora- tory and revived at will by soaking in sterile distilled water, after which they were placed in sterile petri dishes. In this way the spore prints were obtained on sterile glass plates. The germination tests were made in the usual way in van Tieghem cells, using various nutrient media. All cultures were made in the laboratory at ordinary room temperatures. It was found that germination of the spores took place readily in any medium that was reasonably suitable for fungous growth. As a general rule a few spores invariably germi- nated after eighteen hours’ time. Occasionally a few spores germinated as early as sixteen hours after their introduction into the hanging drop culture. In general, at the end of twenty-four hours the majority of the spores were germi- nated. Temperature seemed to be the main factor govern- ing the time required for germination. The presence or absence of light made no perceptible difference in the length of time required for germination. The effect of direct sun- light, however, adn Buller (1909) showed to retard the germination of spores of Schizophyllum commune Fr., was not tried. The use of different culture media did not “have any marked effect upon the interval of time between the introduction of the spores into the hanging drop and the first signs of germination. The percentage and regularity of germination, howev er, was directly proportional to the suit- ability of the culture medium used. The germination of the spores, of course, was studied in the more favorable culture media. Description of Germination.— Germination was found to occur generally, although by no means always, at the apicu- late end of the spore. “Almost always a single germ tube is The Biology of Polyporus Pargamenus Fries 67 put out at one end of the spore and very shortly after this another one is put out from the other end. Occasionally germ tubes are put out simultaneously from both ends, but in general one seems to precede the other. In some instances, however, the one germ tube makes considerable growth before the spore puts out one from the other end. Germination from the side of the spore is of rare occurrence. No instances were observed in which more than two germ tubes were put forth from a single spore. The spores were not observed to become vacuolate before germination, although spores which failed to germinate became 2-vacuolate and more or less distorted after lying in the hanging drop culture for a few days. After several days they were found to have collapsed. Even after several weeks the col- lapsed spores could be clearly detected in the drop. Before putting forth germ tubes the spores swelled up to less than twice their original size. The germ tubes are nearly as wide as the spores and germination seems to be merely a gradually tapering prolongation of the spore wall. After a few days’ growth it was usually impossible to distinguish the position of the original spore wall in the mycelium. In many instances, especially in slowly growing plants, small globular inflations or cysts were noticed on the mycelium, some being lateral and others terminal (Plate VIII, h; and Plate IX, 2,3, 4, and 5). These local enlargements of the hyphe evidently were peculiar to this particular fungus for they were observed to occur after forty hours’ growth in a number of hanging drop cultures in practically every medium used in which germination was secured. No such abnor- malty, however, could be detected in any of the numerous cultures made on solid media. It was clearly evident that these peculiar cyst-lke bodies were not reproductive bodies. It is the writer’s opinion that they occur solely as a result of the physiological response of the mycelium to the excessively unnatural conditions of the nutrient medium for its growth. The mycelium invariably developed large numbers of these globular enlargements in the younger stages of its growth, but ceased to develop them 68 College of Forestry and became more regular and constant in its growth as it grew older. Such a physiological response of the mycelium is not phenomenal, since the mycelium of the fungi in gen- eral must necessarily be very plastic and susceptible to re- sponse in order to more nearly bring it into harmony with the extremely varied conditions under which it must grow. In those hanging drop cultures in which the growth of the mycelium seemed to have come to a standstill, due probably to lack of sufficient nutriment for further growth, it was noticed that the mycelium invariably became strongly vacuo- late. In hanging drop cultures of basidiospores grown in sugar-wood decoction it was observed that the mycelium, after two weeks’ growth, began to break up into oidia. The germ tubes develop rapidly into an extensive primary mycelium characterized by the total absence of clamp con- nections and the rare occurrence of cross-walls. In thriving cultures the mycelium branches profusely soon after the germination of the spore. After five or six days’ the hyphz of the primary mycelium give off branches which differ from those of the primary mycelium 3 in that they possess abundant clamp connections and cross-walls. These hyphe constitute the secondary or mature mycelium which at first grows inter- mingled with the primary mycelium and sometimes anasto- moses with it. The latter, however, soon loses its contents and disappears from the culture. This change in the myce- lium oceurs regularly in all cultures, both thigenta hanging drops and those on agar plates, and apparently is not influ- enced by the nature of the culture medium or by other external conditions. The germination of the spores and the method of growth of the mycelium is illustrated by camera lucida drawings on Plates VIII and 1X. In connection with each of these plates the age of each germinated spore is indicated approximately. The size attained by the mycelium varies greatly according to the suitability of the culture medium used and the con- ditions for growth. In general the drawings represent the % Usually longer in hanging drop cultures. The Biology of Polyporus Pargamenus Fries 69 maximum growth obtained in the indicated time with the best media used. Culture Media Used and Results Obtained.— Spores ger- minated as quickly in both distilled and tap water as they did in the nutrient media used. Germination in distilled or tap water was by no means so abundant and the growth of the mycelium was by no means so great as was obtained by the use of suitable nutrient media. It was surprising to find that one spore germinated in distilled water attained a length of 315 microns. Its subsequent growth, however, was not followed farther. The spores, whenever tried, exhibited more or less germination in distilled water. It is evident that an external food supply is not necessary for germination of the spores of this species, although it greatly accelerates the power of germination and serves to sustain subsequent growth. A good culture medium for the germination of spores in hanging drop cultures was made up as follows: Finely divided basswood (any other dicotyledonous wood may be substituted) to the extent of 15 gms. was boiled in tap water, the extract filtered, and water sdeied until it measured 200 ec. To this filtered extract was added 200 cc. of a 2 per cent solution of cane sugar and the resulting mixture was tubed in small quantities and sterilized. An even better culture medium consisted of a 3 to 5 per cent solution of Merck’s malt extract. A number of germination experiments were performed, using many unusual substances largely out of curiosity to see how resistant the spores would be to adverse conditions. It has been reported frequently that the germination of spores was stimulated by slight quantities of ether or alcohol, but such did not prove to be the case with spores of Polyporus pargamenus. Germination in a 0.5 per cent solution of ether was greatly retarded and only rarely was it observed even after eighteen hours. The mycelium from the few spores that germinated apparently grew well for about two days, but soon became extremely vacuolate and formed numerous 70 College of Forestry globose swellings. _Ungerminated spores usually became 2-vacuolate. Germination in 0.5 per cent ethyl alcohol was greatly retarded — even more so than by the use of ether — and confined entirely to a few spores. Subsequent growth and behavior of the mycelium was the same as described for the use of ether. Germination in a 0.5 per cent solution of dipotassium phosphate was retarded to about the same extent as by alcohol, but occasional germination was to be seen. The growth of the mycelium was poor and highly irregular. After the escape of the protoplasm from the spore, through the germ tubes, it was noticed in a few instances that a cross wall was formed through the center of each spore. Spores germinated and grew vigorously in a 0.5 per cent solution of sodium chloride (Plate X). No germination could be observed in the following solutions: 0.5 per cent potassium nitrate, 1.0 per cent tartaric acid, 1.0 per cent ammonium phosphate, 1.0 per cent sodium carbonate, and 1.0 per cent citric acid. Vitality of Dessicated Spores.—A_ plentiful supply of spores was shed on waxed paper and the paper was folded up and filed away in a desk on November 8, 1915. It was found that these spores germinated readily after being kept in this condition for two weeks and it seemed desirable to obtain data on the duration of vitality of dessicated spores. As a result of germination tests made at various intervals from these spores, using hanging drops containing a 5 per cent solution of Merek’s malt extract, they were found to germinate as readily at the end of six months as when first shed. The growth of the mycelium, however, was very rapid and profuse branching occurred. The spores were again tested at intervals and were found to germinate readily at the end of ten months. Further tests were not made until twelve months had elapsed since the spores were shed. ~ At this time several tests for germination all resulted in failure. The dessicated spores swelled up in the nutrient solution as they had done before, but not a single case of germination was observed. The Biology of Polyporus Pargamenus Fries 71 It is remarkable that such minutely microscopic plant structures as these fungous spores should retain their vitality, germinate, and develop into infectious plants after being kept for ten months in the state of extreme dessication afforded by their storage in a warm room. That these results are not out of accord with the vitality of the spores of other wood-destroying fungi are shown by the experiments of Falek. Falck aC 1909 ) succeeded in germinating spores of species of Lenzites, some of which had been preserved in a state of dessication on glass slides for one year and nine months. He found that in general the spores of Lenzites species retained their vitality longest when they were col- lected in thick layers on dry glass slides and carefully pre- served dry. When the spores beeame wet by the moisture expelled from the fruit-bodies in the process of shedding, Falck found that they stuck together and died in a propor- tionately shorter time. If the waxed paper containing the shed spores of Polyporus pargamenus had been stored in some cool place or out of doors it is quite likely that they would have retained their vitality for a considerably longer period than when stored in a warm room. Under natural conditions it stands to reason that the shed spores may be blown hither and thither for weeks and months without los- ing their vitality. As a result of their ability to retain their vitality after being subjected to dessication for long periods, their chances for becoming lodged in favorable situations are greatly enhanced. CHARACTERISTICS OF THE MycreLIumM In PuRE CULTURES. Culture Methods.—The basidiospore was employed as the source for most of the cultures used in the present investiga- tion. Owing to the thin leathery nature of the sporophores, they are not well adapted to the making of pure cultures by the tissue method. Furthermore, in securing pure cultures from very thin, leathery sporophores one is almost obliged to use the spore method since it is usually very dificult to obtain pieces of uncontaminated tissue from such thin sporo- phores. In addition it was found to be very difticult to 72 College of Forestry transfer bits of rotten wood to agar plates and secure a con- tinuation of the growth of the ‘mycelium, since under the increased moisiire content of the new envir ‘onment the myce- lium usually became sodden and died. Without regard for the ease with which pure cultures can be obtained from basidiospores, the basidiospore was regarded as the most logi- cal point to begin the culture study, since the possibility of error would be | less than if the culture was obtained in some other way, and it was thought that the young mycelium aris- ing from the basidiospore might possess properties and means of reproduction not seen in the more mature stages of the fungus. To obtain the basidiospores, fresh sporophores of the fungus were collected in the field, wrapped in waxed paper, and brought into the laboratory. The sporophores were rinsed in sterile distilled water, which served not only to remove some of the bacteria and spores of foreign fungi, but also to thoroughly saturate the sporophores. The sporophores were removed with sterile forceps and the excess water was sponged off with bibulous paper which had been previously sterilized, and were then placed, hymenium downward, in large, dry, sterile petri dishes. As Zeller (1916, p. 442) has pointed out, the moisture in the sporophores serves two purposes other than reviving the tissues, in that it keeps the air in the dish sufficiently humid to prevent too rapid des- sication, and it also tends to retain foreign spores on the surface of the sporophore, the latter being beneficial in secur- ing a fairly pure dispersion of spores. After twenty-four hours the sporophores had discharged enough spores to make a white spore print. Where the ungerminated spores were inoculated directly upon poured agar plates, the spore dispersion was made in sterile distilled water. Several loopfuls of sterile water were transferred to the spore print by means of. a platinum loop. By stirring a little with the loop the spores were so dispersed that when a loopful was transferred to the center of a poured agar plate it produced a cloudy drop. Where the spores were previously germinated in hanging drop cultures so that their The Biology of Polyporus Pargamenus Fries res) germination could be observed the spore dispersion was made in the same way except that a ntimber of loopfuls of the spore dispersion were transferred to a blank of the sterile nutrient medium in a test tube which was well shaken by rolling between the palms of the hands. Two or three loop- fuls of this diluted spore dispersion were transferred to the cover glasses of sterile van Tieghem cells prepared in the usual way and these were sealed. The germination studies were performed entirely from cultures made in van Tieghem cells. In some cases a platinum loopful of germinated spores was transferred from the van Tieghem cells to poured agar plates as was done in the case of the ungerminated basidio- spores. In both cases characteristic colonies were produced on the agar plates, the tufted growth of the mycelium of course appearing on the plates sooner where germinated basidiospores were employed. Description of Cultures.— Both spores germinated first in hanging drops and ungerminated spores, when transferred to poured plates of prune or malt extract agar, developed into a little tuft of mycelium which gradually spread out over the surface of the plate, making a floccose tuft of mycelium. In some cases the floccose growth of mycelium continued (Plate XI, Fig. 1), while in others, where the mycelium grew under apparently the same external conditions except that a richer culture medium may have been employed, it was found to be breaking up into oidia four days after the inocu- lation of the spores on the plates. In general it may be stated that when basidiospores were inoc ulated upon the agar plates there was a tendency for filamentous vegetative mycelium to result (Plate XI, Fig. 1). In some cases, however, the fila- mentous vegetative mycelium gave way to mycelium that continued to break up into oidia. On the other hand, oidia (both ungerminated and those previously germinated), when inoculated on agar plates, instead of producing filamentous vegetative mycelium always produced mycelium that con- tinued to break up into oidia. (Plate XI, Fig. 2, and Plate eeVIIT, Fig. 1.) 74 College of Forestry In the case of attempts to infect sterile blocks of wood by inoculation with spores, both germinated and ungerminated, it was noticed that the resulting infection and spread of the mycelium was either very slow or failed altogether. Evi- dently there are some conditions for the ready development and spread of the mycelium in wood under natural environ- ment that are difficult to duplicate by artificial means. Otherwise wood would not be attacked so readily in nature. A far easier and more reliable means of infecting blocks of wood was found in the method of placing in contact with them a piece of decayed wood containing active mycelium. Upon examination of some successful infections, at the begin- ning of the appearance of the mycelium, it was found that the mycelium had partially broken up into oidia before any considerable mycelial growth had been made. Learn (1912, p. 544) observed tint oidia were present in cultures of Pleurotus ostreatus Jacqu. on blocks of wood and that new growths arose at the base of these blocks, apparently due to the shedding of the oidia from above. It is not improbable that in nature the formation of this secondary spore form may be a useful and additional means of propagation. The growth of the mycelium on inoculated blocks of sterile wood always gave uniform results. In both methods of inoculation (by the use of germinated basidiospores and by contact inoculation by pieces of infected wood) the mycelium spread over the surface of the wood in the form of irregularly running, white mycelial strands of varying (hide, (Plate XII, Fig. 1.) A microscopic examination of these strands showed that they were composed of smaller strands of hyphze which had anastomosed irregularly to form the larger strands. The smaller strands of hyphee were com- posed of. varying numbers of colorless hyphee which were fused together in a highly irregular manner. The individual hy phee exhibited a large number of cross-walls and clamp connections and innumerable branching of an exceedingly irregular character. As the strands of hyphze spread over the surface of the blocks, they gave rise to more or less rounded, compact masses of mycelium (Plate XII, Fig. 1), but the yr The Biology of Polyporus Pargamenus Fries (5 strand formation persisted for a long time. Two blocks (1x 1x4 inches) of the sapwood of sugar maple (Acer sac- charum Marsh.), inoculated with germinated spores of Polyporus pargamenus, exhibited but very little evidence of decay even after six months. A similar block of yellow birch (Betula lutea Michx. f.) wood, inoculated by placi ing a piece of decayed wood in contact with it and keeping it ina euliure tube plugg ged with cotton wool, exhibited considerable decay in this period. Very successful cultures on wood were obtained by making inoculations on a larger scale, using fresh sapwood. A living yellow birch sapling about two inches in diameter was cut up into two-inch blocks, and these were split up into quar- ters, leaving the bark attached to the wood. ri + = Lal ~~ SS S ° 6 Ss or 23 S18 a IN ie ni Ari O19 Wop le} er ox co BS to a OHA HIS OO G | bet LL°0 oe oe (OSs Zi OLi0G 6 | g6s cO'F 96'0 i | 8OSE | 82:0. | ck 00’SL | 68°0 S =H a nm for) = i) volve) -“-i= "dig l=) noo at ~oo ro19 Pree _, | Saaayo | fazoyo | aydeur | ofdeur | ag | oonads | aonads | aonads | ouyd | oud | ourd | Sout qoood | WOdSV | “Sing | yoerq | pow | avsng |uresteg| poy | entq |cemaon| sjoog | poy | omar me ue - dIvLG GIUtdIIvO 40 sauOW ZG NO aaSvgq “XK ‘N ‘AINQOD NITNNVUT ‘NUFAMVAA SVAN FOGT GHINVIG ‘NOILVINVIg 40 GUOV uad Saal, dO waGNWAN XI WTIAVio The New York State College of Forestry a2 *PpaAIND JOU { A[WO SOSBIOAB [VITFVUIIYIVIY ee 0—_ 0—0—0—9$Nn9mmasMwl_wqM»>0000OOOODWw>Tr>wom''"'" pom -Svoul| Joos UL $901} |JUSloy] x JO °ON ~~ a pean -SRoul sod} $0 “ON oan lng C6 6L OG , pean yooy UL | -SBout WSOH » | S0oa} Jo ON yooy Ul VUSIOH + SUSSVID HONT 0G os 'ca | OG cO'ss | 0G av 1 ee PL OF IG OG os Coo Sn ae Gz'Tz | 02 A paleod OG cG'ie@ | 06 ¢ 00°GG 6. 09°LE | .0G 0G OL°0G 0G 0G°9LT | OG 0G OS’ FL 0G Gc tL OG poan pork porn -svout | Joo ur | -SBEUL| yoaz ur | -SBOUL soot} [FUSE ,| $904} |yyStoF],.} S904 JOON JO ‘ON JO "ON v € 0G 6 GL 6L Go '6I G3‘ OL GG" FL 06'S co TL yoo} UT 0G GQ°SE jo °° ** Aqqeyo yoRrg 0G Ole else OBO por 0G ORS L fs) asso deur TBA 0G OOF | eae Vode NOT 0G GS OL |**°*** eonads ABAION 0G CGVONe | ees 2) OL OuTTIAN 0G Gia Rin |b ee OULU OOO N porn A -SvoUl| Joos UL JYSIOH «| Soar} |yYSIoH x JO "ON + sa1oddg b (40) ‘H ‘d “cd GIGI ‘AIO NENVY, SENGWOEASVayT “A “N “ALNOO) NIT -INVU ‘NAGIAVA\ UVAN ‘NOMVINVIG FOG NO SAIOGAg IvdIONINd AHL YO SASSVID YALANVIC AT LAA NT ,LHSTaPL X WTaVL SU) SC} Yellow Birch and the Adirondack Forest INFLUENCE OF BURNING ON THE FOREST Reproduction on burns is influenced by the size of the area, the severity or number of times burned, and the amount and size of reproduction started at the time of the fire. Type also influences the time necessary for reclaiming such an area. A large burn on the College forest near Wanakena in St. Lawrence county, was selected for study. The fire occurred in the fall of 1908, and followed the logging operation by about five years. This gave opportunity for hardwood reproduction to start. An area varying in width from eight to twenty. chains was covered by strip survey, with square rod sample plots at two- chain intervals. The fire had killed all vegetation except a few large trees in wet spots, but did not destroy the humus except on the outcropping ledges. The area faces in a gentle slope to the southward, and is intersected by one dry watercourse. On the north boundary, near the top of ridge, the fire was checked, and left untouched a stand of hardwood timber. From this a zone of young growth had started, having a width of three to five chains along the edge of the live timber. This zone was not included in the study, although it represents the common condi- tion along the edge of burned areas adjacent to standing hard- wood timber. The presence of such a large number of permanent hard- woods, which is a pronounced feature of this burned area, is probably due to the period of time elapsing between the cutting and burning. s ssSssaoas“—wer——“»e 6161 ‘AIW] AWITANVYD YVAN ‘ALINQNOD AONAYMVWT “LG ISvanLaAog ‘Hourg MOTIAX JO GNVLG AIO AWOY Wd SATU, AAT AO utaWwaAN AIX WTAVL ourd ie ulBs[eq | vonadg OUAA SSVID H & ad 44 The New York State College of Forestry 10 00° Tse OG OTE | 00°G OG’ GL og’s pee ELON; COMORIAN TAIOMNCO MA =) a) nm C1919 lg O19 O1xgoiwwoo19 ri So Ye) o S 10 COTO ANS S So nm S ite) ONn”A . Chino CeO . we wee . Orbea oO oes. SAR pa see Sere oO Se lt eee «la ae PM act cone ee ae lo Roe ep aie ese | ogee se axa REE eet oaha oe" Sebanaes |e Nee tentae| hace aa |e Deere ies ee Perea NGO paieeen: [ere he logan St laine cs one peor BOT | are Erg rents [ane tee | Aereate Ue querer etd sso gnats Bogs [eee Reco Op etry callie ane ec N60 alae nore Bart tian ba ae ai peer otal ees peas peas Wee Ne Siar nang eter nel Eee IDEN ote Caen oe aot tone ene aoa depslnaeakeers Neat eeme ont, en Gano Cone ainsi nace Aouad eapee Hiphe peer occ || Oaek Lehi epe eee te Serene pee rivets) oe oremeca lt at Gea beben area reas Begcalencas Cue eee oso sneielee ee rr See (Ree eae ae Saghenm leer 0G- TEL. Pts eall ogee Based alse sees Peohae ewer oleggatare |p seanenalequne nici OR Geeeae Deh s/ceiks) oe eee eee AIIOYO S[B107, ood, aria eldeut IBSnS aldeur DOW uodse uodse 00} Sul[q Wen WeS[eg vonads Sig -Wd1,L, Salogddg AIX STAVE, SV GNVLG ANVY “AMV Wa saa, avaq ao wauIWwAN AX WIEAVi HAMTIOSrHOD Yellow Birch and the Adirondack Forest. 409, rounded by standing timber may be expected to reproduce readily to birch in addition to the aspen, and that these two form a nurse*crop under which the more tolerant hardwoods and softwoods enter. The subsequent history is not clear since areas burned more than sixty years ago were not found. TABLE XVI REPRODUCTION PER ACRE LESS THAN ONE-HALF INCIT IN DIAMETER BASED ’ ON REPRODUCTION CoUNT OF TWENTY-THREE PLors ON TWENTY-THREE ACRES, SOUTHEAST Sr. LAWRENCE County, NEAR CRANBERRY LAKE, 1919 | * SPECIES No. per acre SPECIES No. per acre - ees 5 WHEEG PINE... see ces 14 sig toothed aspen... . 175 SURGGCERGieils wcieieccs ca 202 Yellow. birch......... 2805 Ley (Sian) Ae Bae eee ae 243 Hire cherry. ..2.- se 153 Sugar REPL to ons eee foe 335) BACK TCHeLLY. yes ees = 27 Red" maple... i... Dopar 3995 ses COGS aoe t gags) 1s) aie) miele 291 Trembling aspen..... 222 j Total number per PICTOU «teenies 3 8462 TABLE XVII COMPARISON OF DEVELOPMENT OF YELLOW BIRCH AND ASPEN, SAME’ AREA i AS IN PRECEDING THREE TABLES - YELLOW Bircu Bie TooTH ASPEN OP oP sk e AVERAGE VALUES (CURVED) AVERAGE VALUES (CURVED) CLASS j ob. ie ontside | Cha, | Petal | Qutside | yeCha, | Zeta Hark ength neigh "hark eng heig ARERR Raustesir costa aestercel| lew tere cass. 4.0 EL Os | Cox geraretens 6.0 9.0 Bee es Gia he eno 2.0 igs) MOK Oh Waits acters 9.5 16.5 ie ACS Re Big ll 10.3 POs Ole jen craterens 13.0 22:05 APO eles cs. ke 5 3" 2 Paes! Dat: Sle Gini Gaara oe 16.0 28.0 DME kese “che, 6 Sas) ates 5.0 15.0 SOQ eds cisye ce 18.5 33.5 Guanes ab cthsethe es 57 16.5 40.0 6.0 20.5 38.0 MGM ile siavere ees ans 7.0 18.0 43.0 Cau PPA 42.0 Cole. > 0. ce EE See Gaocioe aets 19.9 44.5 8.1 24.0 45.5 Oho. 5.5) eee 8.7 19.5 AGRO | watatuecns ASFA 48.5 SU) RMN EY is spas (ay clon | acer ate alec al! ofl vastickere Risye' Booa-8 Suet s 10.3 26.5 Dile..0 HELE ae tare rool secar ectshales [irakiay“s Ryac a> ||| tac ieito'en Se Apt) 27-5 53.5 siya Pree AS ul Se eb ll aie a staat ls aacacs. a cha nip ior 28.5 55.0 AS MEER cl cyerrel ateuets, Cilidacusecesere, IllmaGis air ocd | ewe auee's 13.0 29.5 56.5 EMMETT ere cmt Homa namtheror illi era adeste (+ | ss Slaw ae 14.1 31.0 S76 Sate SPEER Poise ciecll| | wie abehe AGE. Whos tus cs tecsua. [uci ab eve 14.9 BAM) 58.5 Ula 5 2 dG Gmate GeeO ChelOrcl IRGPE CONG IOR INN [RSCRNC Ae ara nem) Inet e me neD IRC 15.9 34.0 Ort ‘sypRpUOLIPY ULOYAON ‘sivok ooryy-AjUEMy UT atoe red spIOd Ud9zI11Y} Surpperd puv] yuo uvep uo uorjonporder [einyeN prect:dabsy as URE 8 1 ¥ xu rg | 3 ac > ac 3 ay = = 2 i@) mb uy ae) m 2 4 oO jex a =| 5 4 I ay =| | —_ ) Pe =| S) ae —s = ~~ oO 4 S) rol) =| Sp oO fe) = ao) fo) 2 4 ~~ Set fe) n aS, q 3 z ps 3s oj on S| —_ S iS) (| ee fs) Cent ~ 3 5) Pm so} S| fe) oO oO n | = q S) = ~ Oo = Lo) 9 = ay oF) fata} 48 The New York State Collegeof Forestry. A study was made of the volume of mature yellow birch on the logging operations of the Emporium Forestry Company in southeastern St. Lawrence county. Trees were measured as cut in the regular logging operations of the Emporium Forestry Company, nae scaled in the log lengths found by Scribner Rule. Utilization in the tops approximated eight inches and long logs up to twenty feet were cut. The close utilization in length of the logs tended to decrease the volume for individual diameter classes. This table is submitted as showing the volume ruled of an actual logging operation under present conditions of utilization. Growth, height, diameter and volume were computed by cor- plete stem ioe of the trees. TABLE XVIII VOLUME TABLE FoR YELLOW BircH BASED ON MERCHANTABLE CONTENTS IN Boarp EET, SCRIBNER RULE, ON MEASUREMENTS ON 351 TREES, TOWN OF COLTON, COUNTY OF ST. LAWRENCE, N. Y.- VOLUME IN BOARD FEET—SCRIBNER RULE D.BH NUMBER OF SIXTEEN FOOT LOGS outside seahe u bark | } 1Tlog | 1% logs] 2logs | 2% logs| Slogs | 3% logs afieeds OFS estevartee 32 43 55 2 Jia NS ae 36 48 60 72 5 TR Gets 41 53 66 80 27 Aisa 47 60 75 95 Aree 24 ae ee 54 67 86. 106 38 Medes, ash et ale 51 T7 97 122 145 168 23 Gio ch esate 68 84 107 140 166 198 133 Life cree ts 76 96 123 158 193 229 31 18 84 108 139 175 217 262 18 ORs ct 93 1PAl 157 200 246 300 27 ON eas eis 102 3 ine 224 281 345 23 721 ee eee ulin We 150 198 254 317 392 aL 22 123 169 222 285 357 445 18 ew pavers aie 13 186 245 317 400 496 9 A re ecatehtont 148 206 271 350 441 550 18 P45 eR eRe ae 162 223 296 385 495 621 10 rae a ire 1 abcde 243 324 418 538 678 4 tele: Sec ¥)i% 193 264 351 452 590 750 9 eis. eos 210 286 382 500 645 830 5 Oe ieee the 229 310 420 549 710 920 5 a as ete % ers 250 336 452 598 15 1050 8 Total.. 351 Yellow Birch and the Adirondack Forest 49 TABLE XIX YIELD TABLE YELLOW Bircn, Town or Couton, St. LAWRENCE County, N. Y. (BASED on 208 TREES) Yield in Total Clear length | Merchant- | board feet, AGE IN DB. eH. ob height in feet able length Scribner YEARS in inches in feet (curved) in feet Rule (2’ stump) (to 8” top d.i.b AD Reeve iss 6:26 0.25 5.5 PAE He oe a reretiete ahs al ni) bye an at 30, cog aeaegeRere 1.9 19.5 Tao Bt ae G10 )5 3 Seno ep nee 2.9 26.8 9.8 ne ae DROS eoang, ava 3.8 sock 11.8 Die oie GO Gere orelece ov 4.9 38.5 USIOYs oye iota One es. 5.9 43.8 Ab AG Be Be Ets cranks 6.8 48.2 Lio ae ae Oates a, 6) 6h rapoatl 50.9 19.0 oie ies 100. oie are 8.9 Doc 20.5 8 10 BELO Er Wireite. ae: 3 (255 Seu 22.0 12 25 10S ae ee aaa 58.0 32.4 16 44 plies Oeehenetaras vie 125 60.3 24.9 24 64 A ae 13.4 62.5 26.0 30 87 MAO RS eiae ceo: 14.5 64.6 ihe 32 112 HOO Seyebe, auch s,s 15.6 66.6 28.2 32 139 EGO atin te wp 2s 16.6 68.6 29.2 40 175 BES Ovrtce ac ove coum li(peuts 70.5 302 42 210 OOS eho sie ls: aia 18.7 ie oL.d 48 250 BOO marie as cs. 8 19.8 73.9 on) 50 295 PV aS eae 20.8 Lo 32.8 52 345 De Wee oiaaran's ql aire 76.1 Son 54 399 D3 Ua ern 22.6 a 34.3 56 450 EL ee hist a,a\'el'sirs 23.6 WhaD 35.0 56 500 15) 0 A OS 24.4 78.7 Sot 58 553 PEE ewes, oc)'s 2.5 Dae 79.4 30.0 58 600 PUT Ohare oiae) 2.3 25.9 80.1 36.9 60 637 ea etcheacs wikenier'sss 26.6 80.7 37.5 60 668 20 55 cackorenenene Pa Gear 81.2 38.0 60 695 S100 Aonnaeree 28.8 Sig 30.0 62 720 50 The New York State College of Forestry BIBLIOGRAPHY 1. Graves, Henry Soton. Practical Forestry in the Adiron- dacks. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Division of Forestry, Bulletin 26. Washington, D. C., 1899. 2. Hosmer, Rateu S., and Brucr, Everns 8.’ A Forest Working Plan for Township 40, Totten and Crossfield Purchase, Hamilton County, New York. U.S. Depart- ment of Agriculture, Division of: Forestry, Bulletin 30. Washington, D. C., 1901. ices rah rm: as ate FU FRANKLIN MOON, Dean ~ Pablishea Quarterly by the University, ‘ ae Ges QUAQwyyweawys SQ NF g By LW - i oe Volume XXI June, 1921 Number 2 PeCHNICAL PUBLICATION NO. 13 OF The New York State College of Forestry SYRACUSE UNIVERSITY FRANKLIN MOON, Dean HISTORY OF FOREST -DEVELOPMENT ON AN UNDRAINED SAND PLAIN IN THE ADIRONDACKS BY WIELIAM EO BRAY, Ph: D: Published Quarterly by the University, Syracuse, N. Y. Entered at the Postoffice at Syracuse as second-class mail matter CONTENTS PAGE aHECI TIC HLOM empresa ksi fh ek te ye Sk le | SERN NE ae oe: 5 The development of vegetation on peat beds..................-e eee eeeeee 9 SOMC ENARCHRUIVCIADOR y= tik Morse a ttetoc tee A see) se Dee Eee ee 12 The peat beds of the Grasse River sand plain...............0.02.c0e scenes 16 iMhesplant associations: of the peat beds:......-....0...9.22 7.294. oh a. 19 ihe sphaenum-sedreassociation= . ~~ F225 8 ob. ts Sete es eke 19 @he sphagnum-heath shrub association. ..:.....2....2.0--.-+-.6--- 20 Method oindevelopment....22r.s.- ccles chee ee cere ee ee arene 21 iheibopashrulbrspecies Soya.) os Maas ion «fies ee ee 22 Growth and vegetative propagation.....................0.45e00- 23 The black spruce-tamarack association — Bog Forest................ 23 Stages in the invasion of the sphagnum-shrub association by bog COMMLET Samar ieee tee conse 0 JET A ORT IVA se ee ere area 23 The closed stand of young black spruce-tamarack forest........... 26 The closed stand of older black spruce-tamarack forest............ 27 Transition stage from bog-conifer to balsam swamp forest.......... 28 Review of vegetation development on the Grasse River peat beds........... 29 Vegetation of the non peat covered sand plain..................-..-.--+-- 31 Wharacterishicispecies eet teeter tls oe cee ee le Late ae ne ee a 32 The vegetation of the flood plain. Beaver meadow....................... 34 spe pmaArS limes OWs street: eae tas CM Lr meets en leile SS atee ce Serres uP? Aa 35 Milter dersthicketa tesa eat Acts pce ee See See ae tee Ere a ere 36 Eimiennce or Spiasnim. 224.2 094 SMe a OS oe TPO EE, eee 37 Competition between sphagnum and vascular bog species................-. 40 Weretsiivesproparation inthe bOgs.....).2.20hce, sess beeen ee anas See 40 Comparison of Grasse River sand plain with other sand plains of New York.. 42 "SVE RUSTYE TEN | cal ches bas tai AS A eke ar a AE Shh PR 44 REITER CERES TA tf MUmrtL AM enr. meee ce TL eo aa Se Sane hea 47 ILLUSTRATIONS Text Figures OPP. PAGE Figure 1. Topographic map of the Grasse River Marsh Region. Frontispiece 1 2. View of Grasse River Bog from ridge above Town Line Pond..... 14 3. The bog seen in relation to Massawepie Lake................... 14 4. View of southern section of Grasse River bog............:...... 19 5. A plug of peat showing the firm sod in sphagnum-sedge association. 19 6. The bog between Grasse River railroad and Town Line Pond. A more advanced stage of shrub invasion...................... 20 7. Closing in of the invading shrub association.................... 20 8. Closed sphagnum-shrub association. Conifer bog forest in back- PTOUN «6.25 22 ete hs abo atehactc aeck sys, aueg ere: Cee 21 9. Deer trail across closed shrub association.....................-- 21 10. Dissection of a sphagnum-shrub mound........................ Bye 11. Remnant of charred stump under sphagnum-shrub blanket....... 22 12. A wet area of the bog with Carex stricta; standing firescarred snag. 24 13. Invasion of bog-shrub association by black spruce and tamarack.. 24 14. Spreading habit and layering of black spruce................... 26 15. Dissection of black spruce clump to show layering and suppression Of sphagnum nati cepa ds nos tee tio eiaelo eee eee 26 16. Oldest stage of conifer bog forest. A very large black spruce..... 28 17. Transition stage from bog conifer to balsam swamp forest........ 28 18. An island of timber on non peat covered sand.................. 32 19. Grasse River flood plain and destroyed balsam swamp forest on low non peat covered sands’... oo... 2<. 50 wt shy ae 32 20. Willow-alder association invading marsh meadow on low non peat covered ‘sands Mec BAW Poot Acco eee a ehtas Sees 34 21. Typical beaver meadow and alder thicket on the Grasse River flood plains,, Nowsphagntim::... ootys clade J ys cit deere eee 34 22. Harvesting hay on the beaver meadow. Grasse River flood plain. 42 23. Shrub heath and pine heath of Plattsburg sand plain............ 42 Maps AFTER PAGE 1. Base map of Grasse River bog with data of E and F profiles..... . 42 2. Map of vegetation types of Grasse River bog and surroundings... 42 oS ae THE HISTORY OF FOREST DEVELOPMENT ON AN UNDRAINED SAND PLAIN IN THE ADIRONDACKS ; - y jy > By Wittiam L. Bray, Ph.D, NEW YORK : } BOTANICAL ntroduction GARDEM In a previous bulletin, (2) the writer has discussed in a general way the development of the vegetation of New York State. The bulletin attempted to show, and the use of the word development was meant to imply, that the history of the oceupa- tion of the land by plant life is in more or less obvious reality the historv of the establishment of plant societies, or, more exactly, plant associations in the course of which one associa- tion succeeds another until a more or less stable type of vegeta- tion or plant society is established which is spoken of as the elimax association. So far as New York State is concerned, conditions of rainfall and humidity are such as to insure the presence of a forest as the final type of vegetation, as con- trasted, for example, with grassland of the “ short grass” type which inevitably forms the stable vegetation cover under the sort of rainfall and humidity conditions which prevail in the Great Plains region of western North America. In the bulletin above cited it was pointed out that even if the lands of New York State were wholly occupied by the final stable or climax forest, this would not be uniform as to its associated species. In the milder region of the lower Hudson with its less severe winters, and especially its long frostless season, such species as Liriodendron, sweet gum, chestnut and many species of oaks and hickories form the dominant ele- ments of the forest, while in the Adirondacks generally none of these species figures in forming the forest cover, but instead, the well-known associates, hard maple, yellow birch, beech, white pine, hemlock, red spruce, and sometimes balsam, form the controlling or characteristic elements of the climax forest, [5] 6 The New York State College of Porestry at least up to 3,000 feet elevation. Now, of course, New York State, even before the coming of Europeans, was not all forest.* Even the Adirondack region, with which we are here especially concerned, was not pie forest land though very generally so, and the forest cover was not all of the climax type composed of we * This statement is not to be taken as intimating that any consider- able area of New York State was not heavily forested at the beginning of the period of colonization by European nations. As a matter of fact the ‘State was peony a vast forest wilderness in common with the Atlantic region generally. The forests were regarded in those days as the great obstacle against colonization, since the land had to be cleared of this dense growth in order to extend the farming areas and in estab- lishing sites for homes and villages. Rightly to understand the situation one should bear in mind that ‘climatically considered, the region com- prised in the present area of New York State was all potentially forest and that the natural trend of vegetation development was to culminate in a forest stand as rapidly as the lowlands were built up by depositions of plant growth and other agencies, or as soon as the rocky uplands, notably mountain slopes and summits had been covered by a humus blanket. During the centuries preceding the coming of white men the course of vegetation development had been carried forward to the point where not only nearly all of the valley and upland areas were in the final or climax forest stage, but large areas of swamp and marshland, even many of the shallower lake basins, had been filled to a level which could sup- port swamp and bog forest. There were still stretches of marsh meadow notably near the coast (see Van Derdonk’s New Netherlands, 1656) and vlaies and “beaver meadows” along certain streams and on the borders of glacial lakes. It must be remembered that the influence of man was felt even in these prehistoric days, for the Indian tribes had their cleared cornlands and their hunting grounds which in some sections at least they periodically burned over (Van Derdonk speaks cf them as “bush burnings”). A noteworthy instance of this sort seems to be implied in the existence of open grass lands studded with groves of oak in Erie county back of the escarpment bordering the Erie basin (see E. H. Perry Hist. Buffalo and Erie Co.). It appears to be con- firmed that the Buffalo ranged eastward along the lake region into Western New York (see Hornaday, Extermination of the Buffalo: Smith- sonian Report, 1887). Sometimes these fires gained such headway as to become vastly destructive forest fires which! not only destroyed the forest stand but the humus blanket, thus entailing conditions with which in more recent times we have become all too “familiar. Forests were destroyed then as now also by fires set by lightning, by fierce wind- storms, by ‘fungus and insect pests as in these days, so that there were always areas where the forest cover was broken or destroyed. In the normal course of events, however, these losses and setbacks were replaced generally with surprising rapidity, so that the “high tide of vegetation,” the virgin climax forests, may really be said to have covered the whole area of New York State. As to the several types and zonal boundaries of these forests see Bray’s Development of the Vegetation of New York State, above cited. Forest Development in the Adirondacks . i the associated species above listed. Present conditions in the Adirondacks abundantly illustrate this diversity of vegetation, though in surveying the region one has constantly to bear in mind that with difficulty do we find a vegetation type wholly unmodified by the hand of man. Every one who has traversed the Adirondacks is familiar, for example, with beaver meadows, alder thickets, peat bogs covered by sphagnum and heath shrubs or by black spruce and tamarack; with balsam swamps, with spruce covered mountain sides, with vast areas of nearly pure hardwoods from which pine, hemlock, and spruce have been removed and with more nearly virgin tracts in which many soft woods are still left; and finally with the apparently end- less tracts of popple and fire cherry, of bracken and blueberry, of red raspberry thickets, which with blackened snags and stumps and bare granite, mark the path of lumbering followed by burning or of greatly destructive fires in virgin tracts. Theoretically, the Adirondack forest should, from the stand- point of climate and with the lapse of centuries, be of the stable climax type. Actually and quite independent of human agency, it showed, when white men first entered it, the varied types of vegetation above mentioned, for there was diversity of soil and topography, and of course, even in areas of climax forest, fires and disease and storms wrought their destruction before man became a competitor in forest devastation. The causes of this diversity of vegetation types in a region which climatically favors the establishment of a stable, more or less uniform forest are to be sought chiefly in the nature of the ground which vegetation is seeking to occupy. Looking at it as a.static phenomenon, a peat bed, a shallow lake bottom, a deposit of sand, an area of bare granite, a precipitous mountain side, a cover of easily dried out duff and a rich, moist sub- stratum of leaf mould is each sufficient cause to explain the presence severally of a bog heath, a bed of water weeds and rushes, a cover of bracken or blueberry, a patch work cover of rock mosses and lichens, a stand of red spruce, of red pine, and finally of the mixed hardwood and conifer climax forest. But exactly the point to be emphasized is that the phenomenon 8 The New York State College of Forestry is not static but dynamic, 1. e., it is a “‘ moving picture ”’— a matter of social evolution so to speak. The bog heath will presently (speaking in terms of decades or centuries maybe). become a dwarf forest of black spruce and tamarack. The bed of water weeds and rushes will become perhaps a beaver meadow, a balsam swamp and possibly utimately a climax forest. The bare granite will ultimately be covered by a moisture holding blanket laid down by the vegetation itself and capable of supporting a forest growth. The expression ‘ development of vegetation” therefore is meant to suggest the progressive steps or stages by which vege- tation comes to occupy the land. Vegetation is essentially a social organization and the sequence of plant associations from the pioneer state — for example a shallow lake bottom — on through the successive stages to the climax forest — its mature stage — has been compared to the life history of an individual organism. (3, page 3.) While theoretically the ultimate type of vegetation in this climate should be a climax forest of certain hard woods and conifers, actually the continuing, though decreasing, diversity of soil conditions will perpetuate the diversity of vegetation types. But this theoretical consideration should not be allowed to obscure certain very practical considerations; namely, that all the energy and momentum of plant life in this region tends toward the establishment of a forest; that the process of forest establishment is a more or less fixed course of development starting in widely differing situations and following different sequences but all tending to converge toward a uniform type; finally, and more especially important, that during the course of its development vegetation itself brings about changes in the soil which cause or contribute to the succession of one type of vegetation by another and which lead to the uniformity of soil conditions —the thick blanket of forest humus — which is able to support the stable, more or less uniform climax forest. One must not conclude from this that the Iumbered and burned areas of the Adirondacks are speedily returning again to the desirable status of climax forest. In some cases where ) Forest Development in the Adirondacks 9 the balanced association of species has not been too greatly broken up and where the soil blanket has been preserved, the return, speaking in terms of tree growth, will be prompt. Large areas are coming to what. seems a stable condition with only hard wood species in the association. It may be that the soft wood species are starting under the present close crown and will endure until some veteran hardwoeds fall and thus opening the canopy give them a chance to assert their place as associates in the forest stand. This, of course, is a question of too great economic concern to remain in the field of mere speculation. As foresters have shown, the forest policy for the Adirondacks rests very largely on the question as to whether the soft woods will reappear under present methods of cutting. Then there remain- those vast areas where lumbering and especially severe fires have destroyed both forest stand and the humus blanket. For such lands the return to climax forest through the slow stages of the normal course of vegetation development involves a time schedule beyond any except mere academic interest of present generations. With such lands the way lies through shortening the period of development by human agencies. The Development of Vegetation on Peat Beds The present bulletin gives an account of certain investiga- tions having for their object to determine some of the condi- tions under which peat beds are formed and especially to fol- low the course of vegetation as it develops upon and contributes to the formation of peat. Such a study cannot be said to have any very great economic bearing as compared with investiga- tions of conditions under which the more valuable commercial forests develop, for even when peat beds or bogs become covered with forest growth this forest consists chiefly of dwarfed black spruce and tamarack of relatively ttle commercial value. This investigation seems to show, however, that in the long run the vegetation on peat soils may build the soil up above the water table so that with better drainage and aeration the substratum becomes transformed in such a way as to support 10 The New York State College of Lorestry not only a better growth of the black spruce and tamarack but to allow the entrance of species — balsam for example — of greater value. In any event such an investigation serves to add to our knowledge of the phenomena of forest development. There are also these considerations that the peat itself has a very large potential fuel value and that where drainage is feasible, peat beds may become valuable agricultural soils. The zericultural value is, however, of uncertain status in the Adirondack region because of the prevalence of killing frosts late in spring and early in fall. The season of probable freedom from killing frosts would apparently not exceed sixty days and in many situations would fall below that. Before Adirondack peat lands are exploited for agricultural purposes it will be necessary to determine the extent of risk of killing frosts and _ to find what crop plants would be suitable for the conditions which obtain in the low lying areas where peat beds oceur.* 30g areas, that is, areas where peat beds are formed and consequently where bog vegetation occurs, constitute a very con- siderable percentage of the total area of the Adirondacks. That is to say, the Adirondack region is a part of the large area in the northern States and Canada where conditions of climate and topography and possibly also the postglacial status of plant species favor bog development. The vast scale on which glacial leveling and filling occurred which resulted in inter- rupted drainage and in a multitude of lakes resulted also in low lving poorly drained areas where, either at the beginning of vegetation invasion or after the pioneer vegetation had wrought certain changes in the substratum, the peat nosses — Sphagnum species— entered and thenceforth dominated the “While it is not within the scope of this bulletin to consider in detail the agricultural utilization of peat lands, the extensive areas of such lands not only in the Adirondack region, but throughout New York State, offers a field of agricultural development whose profitable outcome is being demonstrated by numerous truck gardening projects outside the Adirondacks. In the further expansion of this reclamation of peat lands, it is, of course, only a matter of time when the peat soils of the colder Adirondack districts will come into consideration. Readers interested in this aspect of the subject will find a valuable reference in a recent bul- letin by F. J. Alway on Agricultural Value and Reclamation of Min- nesota Peat Soils, The University of Minnesota Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 188, pp. 1-136, 1920, with its extended list of references. Forest Development in the Adirondacks 11 situation, resulting in peat formation and in the elimination of all except a meager list of species tolerant of the uncon- genial conditions incident to peat soils and ordinarily desig- noted as bog plants. As just stated, the list of species is not long and the unifermity with which nearly all of them occur in bogs throughout northern North America arouses specula- tion as to their history and of the nature of their preference for or tolerance of bog conditions. Recent investigations (15) seem to show that among the conditions thus to be endured and as a result of which many wet land inhabiting species are eliminated from bogs, the most notable and controlling item lies in a condition of toxicity of the bog water. It is generally assumed that the sum of edaphic conditions present in a bog results from a situation attended by lack of free drainage. A comparison of three units deseribed in this bulletin seems to support this view. It must be noted, how- ever, that so far as New York State is concerned the tendeney toward bog development as contrasted with marsh and swamp is more pronounced in the Adirondack region than elsewhere and that the species eliminating factors are more potent, result- ing more frequently in what may be designated as extreme types of bogs where not only are the tolerant species few, but they show marked dwarfing effects as well. This suggests that temperature conditions play an important role in determining the tendency to bog formation on the one hand and marsh formation on the other. Again, those regions in New York State outside the Adirondacks where the tendency toward bog development is pronounced are areas of sand beds such as prevail over the old Iroquois lake basin between Syracuse and Oswego. Since Adirondack bogs also are very generally formed upon sand beds it seems obvious that the nature of the original substratum plavs likewise a role in determining whether a bog sequence or a marsh and swamp sequence — 1. e. a toxic water as contrasted with fresh water sequence of associations — shall develop in a given basin or on low flat terrain. Rowlee (16) has called attention to the acidity or softness of water occupying basins in sand deposits as con- 12 The New York State College of Forestry trasted with the alkalinity or hardness of water in basins in limestone areas of New York. He has shown that marl for- mation is abundant in the ponds and lakes of the limestone region and states that marl formation is lacking in most of the peat bogs of the Adirondacks. My observations confirm these statements, and they also show that marl formation indicates the agency of a heavy growth of submerged water plants (vascular plants lke Potamogetons accounting for quite as much marl as Chara). The marsh and swamp sequence in my observation tends to persist upon marl beds and as I have shown (2) in the case of Tully Lake Bogs only after the vegetation has created a situation involving lack of free move- ment and areation of the water does peat formation set in upon a marl bed. On the whole, my observations would indicate that the dominance of marsh and swamp plants in certain situations and of bog plants in topographically similar situations, is to be accounted for on the basis of factors now operative rather than as phenomena of post-glacial floristic relations. (17.) The Grasse River Bog The area here dealt with is locally known as the Grasse River Marsh.* It is a tract comprising several hundred acres lying along the south fork of the Grasse River some ten miles east of Cranberry Lake Village. It is traversed by the Grasse River railroad and is thus easily accessible. It is within easy walking distance of Grasse River Club station, Silver Brook stop, and Shurtleffs. Massawepie Like lies adjacent to the bog at its northeast limit so that Massawepie Park offers easy access to the bog region by auto and to the bog itself by boat or easy trail. The road from Massawepie Park to Conifer, and especially the branch to Grasse River Club passes just. back * These details of location and accessibility are given with the idea that this area in common with many other special features in the Adirondacks may become the object of closer study by those who spend seasons of recreation in the North Woods. It will add to the satisfaction of such experiences if one can gain a closer understanding of the region and its different types of vegetation. Forest Development in the Adirondacks 15 of the crest of the sand ridge which forms part of the eastern boundary of the bog. At its nearest point it is only a few steps from this road to a fine outlook above Town Line Pond. From this outlook nearly the whole of the bog may be seen as well as the relation topographically of Town Line Pond to the bog. (Map, fig. 1.) By the courtesy of the Emporium Forestry Company, the students of the New York State College of Forestry Summer Camp of 1919 were permitted to establish camp on, and conduct a survey of the Grasse River bog. From this survey two maps were made, one showing contours and two lines of levels across the eastern section of the bog, the other a plotting of the vege- tation types. These maps are used in this bulletin. (See Maps 1, 2.) The section of the bog west of Grasse River was not surveyed. The writer is personally indebted to Mr. W. L. Sykes, President of the Emporium Forestry Company for personal co-operation and facilities, to Director W. E. Sander- son of the Summer Forestry Camp at Cranberry Lake, and to Mr. H. S. Andrews who was in charge of the survey. The Grasse River bog region differs from the usual types of bog areas in the Adirondacks which are commonly associated with glacially filled valleys and shallow undrained basins. Physiographically it is to be classed as one of the sand plains of which there are striking examples on larger or smaller scales in New York State. Thus, as pointed out in a previous bulletin (2) the Hudson—Mohawk sand plains in the Schenectady— Albany region, the sand plains of the Saranac at Plattsburg, and of the Black River below Carthage (Pine Plains) are major features of this type while within the Adirondacks the plains at the junction of Benedict Creek with the south branch of Moose River several miles east of Lime Kiln Lake and “ The Plains” of the Oswegatchie south of Wanakena in the vicinity of High Falls are fairly well known examples of the smaller sand plains. The last formed: the subject of a report by the State Botanist (12) and was also deseribed in the bulletin above eited (2, page 144). In all the above cited cases, the sand Tt The New York State College of Foresiry plains lie well above the water table and are subject there- fore to extreme drying. In such cases the vegetation is of the dry heath types. In the case of Grasse River bog, the sand plain lies so low that if one could see the original sand bed, now of course covered by its peat blanket and the living vegetation growing thereon, it would be seen to be covered by water much of the season, emerging only during dry periods of midsummer. Thus, in August, 1918, and again in 1919, borings in the shallower parts of the bog showed no free water at the sand level, though, of course, the peat was wet. In October of the same season, nearly all of this sedge meadow part of the bog was flooded. This relation to the water table insuring constant wetness is the primary cause of the bog vegetation as contrasted with the characteristic dry heath type of the better drained sand plains. As above stated, the Grasse River bog lies in_ part along the course of the upper Grasse River where this small stream emerging from narrow valleys in the hills follows a slowly meandering course acress the sand plain, and eseapes through a narrow gorge with rapids at Shurtleffs. (Fig. 1.) It is somewhat as if a lake had been interposed in the river’s course, and with but a few feet less of cutting in the gorge at Shurtleffs this would actually be the case. A low, temporary dam at the latter point makes still water as far up as Burnt Rock — about two miles. This is the Grasse River Flow. The stream has done very little cutting through this portion of its valley —i. e., the bog—in post glacial time, its actual channel being a low banked sinuous cut with a flood plain of only a few hundred feet in width. The sand plain itself is not merely river valley. It occupies a peculiar relation to a series of ponds and lakes Iving along its eastern and northeastern margin. The largest of these, Massawepie Lake, represents a basin of considerable maximum depth, said to be more than 100 feet, whose southwest shore line is the border of the bog itself. -.( Fig: 3.) The outlet of Massawepie Lake skirts the northern edge of the hog being almost flush with its surface, escapes through Fig. 2. Part of Grasse River Bog seen from ridge above Town Line Pond. At high water the pond spills out over the bog in an ill defined seepage from the bog at right of figure Fig. 3. The bog seen in relation to Massawepie Lake. The outlet is the channel at right of figure. Most of this portion of the bog is covered by an open black spruce- tamarack association, but a tall shr ub association lies adjacent to the lake at this point. The sand plain is about level with or slightly lower than the lake surface. Forest Development in the Adirondacks al a channel behind Hard Wood Island, and joins Grasse River to the northwest of this granite ridge. Town Line Pond is a small lake occupying a basin at the base of the sand ridge which forms part of the eastern boundary of the bog. This pond also lies flush with the bog, and indeed, spills over upon it at high water. Boot Tree Pond lies on the bog side of the sand ridge, but its surface is about 15 feet above the bog and of Massawepie Lake. Deer Pond and Horseshoe Pond lie on the opposite side of this sand ridge. (Figure 1.) It should be noted that the water of these ponds and of Massawepie Lake is very clear, in sharp contrast with the brown bog water of the peat beds and mountain streams and ponds of the Adirondacks generally, and notably of Cranberry Lake. The salient physiographic features of this project embrace then the above described items together with certain others all briefly specified in summary as follows: (1) The sand plain whose area generally is very low and flat but with occasional slight ridges traversing its eastern section (indicated by islands of balsam and other non-bog species) and larger “ island ” areas (see contours of map figure 1) of low but still fairly well drained undulating surface (indicated by stands of willow and alder and by remnants of a former forest stand of apparently the balsam swamp type); (2) The meandering stream and its narrow flood plain covered by beaver meadow grasses and alders. (Figure 25.) (3) Massawepie Lake and outlet and Town Line Pond parts of whose shore lines js the bog itself; (4) Finally, and most significant as a controlling topographic feature, a low sand ridge paralleling the Grasse River on the east and just outside its flood plain. This ridge (see contours and trail Figure 1) is apparently a glacial esker whose position and elevation are such as virtually to constitute a dam holding back, or at least intercepting, the drainage of the bog. In October 1919 when the project was visited after heavy fall rains, the intercepted water of the marsh was spill- ing over this eskerlike ridge at certain low points. Slght channels were thus being cut in the dam. A well defined drain- 16 The New York State College of Forestry age has been established adjacent to Hard Wood Island. (Figure 1.) The intercepting barrier at this poimt has been cut away by a wide channel quite down to the river level. It is interesting to note as bearing on the causes of vegetation types that about the head of this established drain- age and quite within the bog area, thickets of alder replace the bog vegetation proper. It is assumed that this difference is associated with the freer drainage. In order to emphasize the role which edaphic factors play in determining types of vegetation, we may specify three edaphic units as follows: (1) The flat undrained sand plain; (2) The low, but well drained sand mounds and ridges inelud- ing the eskerlike ridge. (3) The flood plain of Grasse river. Of these, only the first bears any relation to the development of bog vegetation though all constitute features of the Grasse tiver Marsh as locally known. It must be borne in mind also that while historically considered the origin and early course of vegetation on the low sand plain is the most import- ant aspect of the problem of the development of vegetation with which we are here dealing, at the present time this originally flat, undrained substratum of sand is covered by a blanket of peat, and that this peat substratum rather than the original sand substratum determines the plant associations which form its present vegetation cover. In describing the relation of the present vegetation to edaphic conditions, therefore, we shall speak of the peat beds rather than of the original wet sand plain. The Peat Beds of the Grasse River Sand Plain The main area of the sand plain on the east side of Grasse River and abutting on Massawepie Lake and outlet and Town Line Pond is covered with a peat blanket varying in thickness from more or less eighteen inches at the south end to seven or eight feet over the center of the north east third of the bog.* The smaller section of the plain west of the river appears to be covered with a rather uniform depth of peat averaging about * At the southern end of the marsh the peat becomes very shallow and finally disappears as the sand bed rises into the bordering eskerlike ridge. Forest Development in the Adirondacks Ay three feet. This section, however, was not so thoroughly sur- veyed, soundings having been made only along the line of the railroad and from this southward to the bordering ridge in the heavily timbered zone. Two lines of levels were run with the transit at right angles to each other across the east section. These are indicated on the survey map. (Map 1.) The E-profile runs from the-river at Burnt Rock to Town Line Pond; the F-profile from the south western end of the marsh to its northeast limit at Massawepie outlet very near the lake. The elevations are indicated at stations 180 feet apart. It will be noted that E-profile shows a difference of elevation between the river at Burnt Rock and the edge of the peat covered sand plain of about seven feet, the approximate depth of the drainage cut shown in Figure 27. It shows also that the surface of Town Line Pond is about twelve feet above the river level at Burnt Rock. There is an obscure drainage from Town Line Pond to the well defined channel of Figure 27, whose location is indicated by such marsh species as Carea- stricta, Calamagrostis canadensis and alders. F level shows a rise from 1,617 feet at the south end to 1,622 feet at sta- tion F'40. Peat soundings were made with a Davis peat sam- pler at each station along the lines of level. Along the F level these indicated a depth of peat of only 3 or 4 inches at station F1 but of 8 feet at station F41 in the center of the northerly third of the bog. It seems evident, therefore, that the increase in elevation northward is due to the peat cover. Thus while the sand plain is a uniformly flat, level floor (except for cer- tain slight ridges rising above the peat forming level, see Figures 1, 22, 23) the peat forming vegetation has built up a raised bog upon the northerly half of this section of the plain. In general the peat blanket is a typical bed of sphagnum peat varying from the fully preserved dead sphagnum under its living cover, to the finally disintegrated brown peat of the bottom. It varies, however, with the type of vegetation upon it as will be shown, being blacker and quite compact under a pure sedge cover (Figures 5, 6) where the sedge binds it into a firm sod; coarser and with more woody material under the ear BD The New York State College of Lorestry shrub cover where the surface is built up in tussock lke mounds. Under the heaviest forest cover of the bog the peat is more decomposed, being blacker and muckhke. Important as bearing on the history of the vegetation cover is the fact that throughout the marsh under the present sedge cover, as well as under the shrub and conifer associations there are buried legs and the stumps of black spruce and tamarack. (Figure 13.) All of these so far as examined, showed tlre charred effects of burning. In some places fire charred snags still stand (Figure 14), showing that a conifer bog forest formerly occupied the area. As in typical basin peat bogs the peat blanket is ordinarily water soaked and the living sphagnum cover reeking wet. ‘The free water table fluctuates, however, so that after long sum- mer drouth the surface of the bog, especially in the sedge zone, becomes dry and crisp. That is, the dead but not disintegrated sphagnum layer becomes dried out and then, of course, the top layer of living sphagnum is more or less completely killed by drying. No doubt this recurrence of summer droughts mate- rially checks the aggressiveness of sphagnum in what appears to be its tendency to smother out the sedge and shrub species.* On the other hand, in wet seasons, as observed for example in late October after heavy fall rains, the water table is high enough to lie free above the sphagnum surface throughout the sedge zone and between the mounds in the shrub zone. Borings made at the end of a severe drought period and again at the same locations after heavy rains showed that the whole peat blanket shrinks and swells with the fluctuations of the water content or of the water table. Thus at station 10 on the F profile (see Map 1) the peat depth on August 12, 1919, atter more than two weeks of hot dry weather, was 24 inches; on August 19 after a heavy rain, 30 inches, and on Novem- *It should be noted that as the bog surface becomes built up so that, it is permanently above even flood water level, the moisture demanding Sphagnum recurvum, generally dominant in the open bog, becomes replaced by the more xerophytic species, S. capillaceum var. tenrellum and S. fuscum. On the other hand, during flood water periods the habitually submerged Sphagnum cuspidatum enjoys a season of notable vegetative activity apparently becoming dormant as the water subsides. Fig. 4. View of the southern portion of the east section of Grasse River bog. Sphagnum-sedge association is dominant but some dwarf heath shrub colonies occur. The conifer forest here occupies slightly higher non- peat covered ground. Fig. 5. water on the marsh, 33 inches. The Plant Associations on the Peat Beds While the vegetation complex seems diversified and of more or less haphazard occurrence, it may on closer inspection be referred to a few aspects or stages constituting a developing sequence with pure sphagnum sedge meadow as the apparent pioneer association and the old stand of black spruce and tama- rack forest as the temporary, edaphic climax. It should be remembered, however, that in speaking of the sphagnum sedge meadow as the pioneer association, it is not to be inferred that this was the pioneer vegetation of the original sand plain, but only of the peat blanket which covers the sand and which is itself a vegetation product. Moreover, the evidences of a former bog forest as shown by the presence of fire charred logs, stumps and occasional standing snags show that we are here dealing with a secondary though normal bog sequence. (1) The Sphagnum-Sedge Association (Figure +) This is a low, very flat bog-meadow type of vegetation with a close and almost pure stand of Carex oligosperma growing in a continuous sphagnum matrix. There is a sparse occur- rence of tussock sedge, cotton sedge, Vagnera trifolia, Viola blanda, dwarf cranberry, closed gentian and certain others, not all characteristic bog species it will be observed. The failure to note such expected species as sundew, pitcher plant, rose pogonia, and calopogon is noteworthy in this asso- ciation, and may no doubt be ascribed to the effects of burning and pasturage and the summer surface drying to which this section of the bog is now especially subject. Where the sedge meadow is partially broken up by sphagnum-shrub mounds and where the sedge mat is therefore wetter and unburned, these species occur about as in typical open bogs. The peat here is shallow, being from 8 inches to 2 feet in depth and is bound by the sedge roots into a firm sod. (Figure 6.) In this association the peat is darker and approaches more the quality 20 The New York State College of Forestry of muck soil. This is no doubt in part due to the faet that in midsummer drouths the water table sinks quite below the sur- face of the underlying sand thus favoring more thorough decomposition. It is favored also by the fact that the sedge meadow is lightly pastured by stock while the new sedge shoots are tender. To improve this pasturage it appears to have been the practice to burn over patches of the meadow at a favorable time in the spring. One such burn of the spring of 1919 was closely examined in July of the same season. It was noted that the fire had killed back the old sedge, the few encroaching shrubs and most of the sphagnum to the level of the wet, dead sphagnum cover. All of these elements of the association were sending up new shoots, but it was obvious that the sedge stand recovers most promptly and that by this treatment its period of dominance is prolonged. With regard to the sphagnum matrix in general, it may be said to control the situation first because its dead and disin- tegrating shoots form the substratum upon which sedge and other species have to establish themselves and second, because its vigorous growth tends to submerge and smother them. While the bog surface is flatter in the sedge zone than else- where, even here sphagnum tends to form mounds by its vigor- ous climbing among the sedge shoots. What outcome this might have for the future of both sedge and sphagnum if left otherwise undisturbed was not clear, for with this increasing unevenness of surface the shrub invasion of the sedge meadow becomes notable (Figure 7), and the conclusion is drawn that this interaction between sedge and sphagnum whereby the sur- face becomes built wp mound-wise, accelerates the coming of this second stage in vegetation development whose culmina- tion is a close shrub association; i. e., temporarily a complete occupation of the ground by sphagnum-heath shrub vegetation. (2) The Sphagnum-Heath Shrub Association Relatively little of the eastern section of the bog, and none of the west section is at present wholly occupied by the meadow like sphagnum-sedge association. Figures 7 to 11 show the Fig. 6. The bog between Grasse River railroad and Town Line Pond. Well advanced stage of dwarf heath shrub invasion. The surface of Town Line Pond may be seen at the point where it spills over the bog in an ill-defined seepage swale. Fig. 7. The invading shrub association is closing in over the sedge meadow. Dominantly Chamaedaphne calyculata with some Viburnum cassinoides at this point. Fig. 8. Closed sphagnum-shrub association in foreground; advanced stage of black spruce-tamarack bog forest in backg ground. The abrupt line of demarkation may be due to a burn. Looking moneneaee from about the center of the east section of Grasse River Bog. Fig. 9. Deer trail across the closed shrub stage. The mound effect is shown. The surface of the bog is a deep spongy cover over which walking is extremely fatiguing. Northern third of east section of bog looking toward Hardwood Island. Forest Development in the Adirondacks 21 progress of shrub invasion from an occasional plant or colony to a closed shrub association. In general, the south one-third of the main marsh may be described as a complex of pure sphagnum-sedge and sphagnum-sedge-shrub associations with sedge predominating; the middle third as an association com- plex varying from a bare predominance of shrub to a closed sphagnum-heath shrub association, while the northern third is a complex of sphagnum-shrub-conifer with conifers pre- dominating at the northerly boundary. (Figure 15.) Method of Development. The energy and rapidity with which the shrub elements invade the sedge association would lead one to expect to find abundant examples of shrub seedlings or individual plants recently established. Repeated examina- tions have however not borne out this expectation. Small young plants of Chamaedaphne and other shrubs may be found, but in the main the original plant has become a clump or colony by its rapid vegetative propagation under the sphagnum. Con- ditions for the germination of seed and establishment of the invading shrubs would appear to be favored by the creation of sphagnum mounds in the sedge zone. In any event, when a shrub gains foothold the interaction between sphagnum and shrub — the race to avoid suppression as it would seem,— results in building up a higher mound of sphagnum which in turn leads to a more vigorous vegetative expansion of the shrub colony for here as will also be shown for the invading conifer zone, the moist sphagnum stimulates a most vigorous develop- ment of shoots and of abundant roots from these which in effect (and in black spruce actually) is rapid reproduction by layering. Thus it comes about that the shrub colonies and the sphagnum-shrub mounds which their interaction creates increase rapidly in height and especially in diameter so that progress is rapid toward a complete dominance of sphagnum- shrub vegetation as well as in building up the surface of the bog. Figure 12 shows a dissection of a mound formed by sphagnum and Chamaedaphne. The spreading shoots of the shrub appear all to be related to a single original plant. The sand substratum is shown. There appears to be no growth of 22 The New York State College of Forestry the roots of Chamaecdaphne in the sand. Indeed, no case has been found anywhere in the bog where the roots of the present bog vegetation penetrate the underlying sand. The surface becomes much more uneven and more loose and spongy than in the sedge zone and although mounds by expansion become confluent, there still remains an endless succession of mounds and intervening depressions so that walking across this part of the marsh becomes a difficult and exhausting task compara- ble to floundering through 2 succession of snow drifts. Figure 11 shows this condition in an interesting way, where deer in crossing the marsh have tramped a trench like trail in the spongy surface. Figure 13 shows the stump of a burned spruce left partly exposed in a zone of rapid growth in thickness of the sphagnum-shrub blanket and the underlying fibrous peat. The Bog Shrub Species. ‘The shrub species which play a role in this invasion of the sphagnum-sedge association are chiefly heaths though Spiraea latifolia is of frequent occur- rence in the pioneer stages, especially when burning has been a factor in delaying shrub invasion. Of the heath shrubs, Chamaedaphne calyculata is the most abundant and aggressive. Ledum groenlandicum plays a vigorous role especially at a later stage when the conifer invasion begins. Vaccinium angustifolium, Kalmia angustifolia, end polifolia and even Andromeda polifolia are frequent and often prominent, though on the whole of rather secondary importance. Of the non- heath shrubs, witherod (Viburnum cassinoides) and mountain holly (licioides mucronata) are important species notably in the older sphagnum-shrub association. They seem to reach their greatest abundance and highest stature even after condi- tions have favored the invasion by conifer species. The expression dwarf heath-shrub association is applicable here for in the pure sphagnum-shrub asso¢iation all of the shrub growth (both ericaceous and non-ericaceous) is of dwarfed stature. Cassandra and Labrador tea persist in the conifer association and here are of habitually taller stature than in the dwarf heath shrub association. Fig. 10. Dissection of a sphagnum-shrub (Cassandra) mound. The sphagnum is chiefly S. recurvum in such mounds. Its rapid upward growth among the shrub branches induces a sort of layering resulting in an expanding shrub colony. The sand bed is seen below. The shrub roots do not penetrate this. Fig. 11. The heavy sphagnum-shrub blanket has been torn away revealing the fire scarred stump of a black spruce-remnant of a bog conifer forest which was destroyed by fire. Forest Development in the Adirondacks 25 Growth and Vegetative Propagation. The shrubs named pos- sess in common the quality of vigorous and rapid vegetative multiplication which results as previously mentioned in the formation of spreading colonies and accounts, apparently, for the spotwise occurrence of them. .These phenomena are dis- cussed in a separate paragraph. (Page 40.) The Black Spruce — Tamarack Association. Bog Forest At the present time there is only a small portion of the west section of the Grasse River Marsh which may be said to have reached the culmination or bog climax stage of closed high forest. Most of the west section and the north end of the east section are covered by young conifer stands and while most of the northern third of the east section may be character- ized as an open stand or even quite scattered occurrence of black spruce and tamarack in the invaded shrub zone, viewed as successive aspects of vegetation development this transition from pure sphagnum-shrub association to the black spruce- tamarack association presents exactly the situation previously described in tracing the succession from pure sedge meadow through various stages of invasion and complete dominance by the heath-shrub and associated species. (a) Stages in the Invasion of the Sphagnum-Shrub Associa- tion by Bog Conifers. The northern third of the main marsh area presents for the most part a scattering or fairly open stand of black spruce and tamarack among a heavy growth of bog shrubs in their characteristic mound forming colonies. (Figures 15, 16.) Toward the north boundary the conifers form a closed stand of young forest. The explanation here set forth is that in this part of the marsh we have a concrete exam- ple of the continuing, normal course of vegetation development in which species of bog conifers invade the sphagnum-heath shrub association and establish a bog conifer forest in its stead just as in the preceding step the shrub vegetation had over- come and replaced the sphagnuim-sedge stage. From this point ef view, the vegetation is regarded as inevitably moving for- ward toward a stage of stable equilibrium — seeking its high- 24: The New York State College of Forestry est level as one may say — which in ecological terms is a type of plant association that presents the highest degree of mesophy- tism of which the region as a whole is capable (10), but whose forward movement is locally controlled by soil condi- tions (edaphic factors) in this case the complex of conditions which a peat bed offers when its surface has been built up to the mezn level of the water table. When, in tracing this vegetation succession, one speaks of invasion and of the sup- pression of one species or type by another, a condition of antagonism is of course implied which is scarcely the status of a normally developing organism to which the phenomena of plant succession have been compared. It is true neverthe- less that each association tends to bring about changes in the substratum which, however difficult to detect and measure, throw the balance against the present occupants and in favor of certain other species. We may say that the defense breaks down and the attack succeeds by reason primarily of conditions created by the defense itself. The sharp line of demarka- tion between pure shrub and an advanced stage of invasion by conifers shown in Figure 10 would suggest that this is the boundary line of a burn. The normal encroachment of conifers upon the shrub stand is clearly shown in Figure 16 where the aggressiveness of black spruce is especially obvious. This species is here, as generally in Adirondack bogs, the foremost conifer in the invasion. Very often, if not generally, the forest stage is a pure stand of black spruce. This condition is clearly related to its aggressive growth habits as well as to its toler- ance of bog conditions. This aggressiveness expresses itself in the rapid growth and wide reach of the lower branches in pro- portion to the main axis which enables it to overcome the shrub species. The rapid upward growth of sphagnum among the wider reaching branches creates a wet blanket about them which induces prolific root development (4) (8) and so as in the case of shrubs previously described, a colony is formed. In the course of time, the growth of the several branches each with its own root system may result in a clump of spruce trees. The compactness of growth in this low spreading habit, Fig. 12. A wetter area of Grasse River Bog between the center of the raised bog and Hardwood Island. Carex stricta, iris and a few other marsh plants occur here. At the center a fire-scarred snag indicates the earlier bog conifer forest which occupied this section of the bog. Fig. 13. Typical view of the northern third of the east section of the bog. Black spruce and tamarack rapidly succeeding the sphagnum-shrub association. The spreading habit of black spruce is conspicuous and reproduction by layering is common. The peat is seven feet deep here. bo Or Forest Development in the Adirondacks the density of foliage and the opaqueness of it result in creat- ing a twilight zone beneath the single young spruce or its newly formed colony or clump such that the shrubs and the climb- ing mound forming sphagnums are gradually suppressed and finally largely eliminated. Thus one may find situations where the spruce has retarded or eliminated shrub and sphag- num growth so that while the general upbuilding of the spongy bog surface has continued all about, there will be underneath the clump a depression, which if the spruce were removed, would appear as an excavation one to two feet below the gen- eral level of the bog. Figure 17. Shrubs, if they still per- sist, will be found to send up shoots only around the margin of the spruce or more or less etiolated shoots through the gaps in the dense foliage. The bottom of the depression may continue to be occupied by living sphagnum, but this is strongly tolerant of shade and possibly represents the beginning of the sphagnum carpet which comes to occupy the shaded floor beneath the closed spruce stand. (See below under (c¢), and p. 37 under the role of sphagnum. ) The réle played by tamarack in the invasion of the snrub association of Grasse River Bog is rather secondary to that of black spruce, and this appears to be the case pretty generally in Adirondack bogs. However, tamarack is a constant if more seattered associate in the conifer invasion and in places estab- lishes pure stands. In bogs of the less extreme sort this species becomes the dominant conifer, but in a more extreme type, as for example the Bean Porid Bog (Bray [2], p. 125, and Fig. 20) near Wanakena, tamarack is but infrequently represented while black spruce though much dwarfed persists in abundance. Contrasted with the secondary réle of tamarack in the invad- ing conifer stage and the young forest, is its prominence in the old bog forest as noted below. The habit of reproduction by layering in the case of tama- rack which has been reported by other observers (4) has, if it occurs in the Grasse River Bog, escaped my observation. There is apparently every condition present to favor this for the heavy sphagnum growth imbeds the lower branches in a 26 The New York State College of Forestry wet sponge more aggressively than in the case of black spruce, since, of course, tamarack lacks the compactness of form and the opacity of foliage which tend to retard or suppress the sphagnum encroachment noted in the former species. Tama- rack, moreover, loses its foliage at the season when sphagnuni was observed to make its greatest gains and in this respect appears to be threatened with suppression by the sphagnum blanket as black spruce is not. A compensating feature appears to lie in the more rapid height growth of tamarack, its slender spire contrasting with the spreading habit of black spruce at the period of invasion of the sphagnum-shrub association. The critical stage for the conifer species is, of course, that in which seed germination and the establishment of the young seedlings take place. The whole question of the time when the vegetation sequence proceeds in the direction of conifer forest rather than remaining static as a closed sphagnum-shrub association turns on this. Unfortunately as had to be admitted before in discussing the pioneer stage of shrub invasion of the sphagnum sedge association, data are lacking notably in find- ing seedlings of the current year or very young conifer plants. It is evident however that the chances of germination and establishment of the conifer seedling are increased as the gen- eral bog surface becomes diversified by being broken up into mounds with dense shrub and slopes and depressions of exposed sphagnum. In its most vigorous and apparently earlier stage the shrub stand may become very compact and continuous. See figure 10. In such a zone there are obvi- ously fewer chances for conifer seedlings to secure a start and no specimens of conifers have been noted in this zone although it lies adjacent to the area now being invaded. (b) The Closed Stand of Young Black Spruce and Tamarack Forest. This expression refers to the stage at which conifer species have closed in over the bog but have not lost their lower branches by crowding and shading. There is not yet 2 closed canopy with its under story of more or less clear boles, Figure 18. The northern end of the main bog and the greater part of the western section of it have reached this stage. As Fig. 14. Showing the habit of black spruce where it invades the deep sphagnum-shrub cover of the bog. The central figure is a black spruce colony. White strips were tied to two branches which by striking root in the sphagnum have become independent though not yet detached young trees. Fig. 15. Dissection of a black spruce colony to show suppression of heath shrubs and sphagnum by shading and smothering. The depression in the bog surface is conspicuous but the shade was too dense to permit this photograph to show it. =~] Forest Development in the Adirondacks 2 previously stated much of this is approximately pure black spruce stand, the tamarack being scattered and often infre- quent. Arbor vitae occurs infrequently only in the western section of the bog. With the arrival of this closed stage of young forest the sphagnum-shrub asscciation has been very largely suppressed or at least dominated. The diversified bog surface with its mounds and depressions and its loose spongy texture becomes leveled and more compact. At this stage few other species of the conifer association have xppeared. It is rather the phase of elimination of the species of the sphagnum- shrub association. This in time passes into (c) The Closed Stand of Older Black Spruce-Tamarack Forest. This may be regarded as the culminating phase of the purely bog series of associations. Figure 19 shows a remnant of a rather old stand of black spruce and tamarack in which tamarack has made the better growth. Very often this stage will be represented by a pure spruce association. At this stage well recognized forest conditions have been established with respect to the forest canopy, to the semi-twilight zone beneath it (now a more roomy space with boles partially or wholly self pruned to a height of ten feet and upwards) and with respect to the bog surface now to be designated as the forest floor. A fairly uniform pure stand of black spruce over fifty years old presents instructive features in this connection. Bog shrubs have been very largely suppressed though tall spindling shrubs of Ledwm groenlandicum and Kalmia angus- tifolia are scattered here and there while Vaccimwm canadense almost or wholly wanting in the open bog is relatively frequent in the forest shade. The floor is covered by a level, deep carpet of living sphagnum — chiefly Sphagnum magellanicun: which makes a very rapid spindling growth that quickly covers the annual fall of spruce twig and needles, these lying as imbedded layers in the dead sphagnum. ‘The log of a fallen spruce some six inches in diameter was also thus quickly covered. Slight elevations of the forest floor —fallen logs, stumps and the broadened bases of living trees —are becoming occupied by forest floor species commonly found in balsam 28 The New York State College of forestry swamps— bunch berry, creeping snowberry, American twin flower and occasional cinnamon fern—thus showing ‘tlie pioneers of a later association which carries the sequence of development beyond the strictly bog series toward the balsam swamp forest type. (d) Transition Stage from Bog-Conifer to Balsam Swamp Forest. The oldest phase of vegetation now to be found on the Grasse River bog hes to the south of the railroad beginning near Silver Brook station. Specimens of standing dead tama- racks were found here measuring nearly 18 inches DBH and estimated to be approximately 100 feet tall. Apparently all of the old tamarack in this stand is dead. A gigantic specimen of black spruce in this vicinity, shown in fig. 20, measures over 20 inches DBH. ‘Some arbor vitae is found in this stand. Balsam is rather frequent and red maple oceurs sparingly. A single specimen of red spruce was noted. To one who has become accustomed to the monotony of a black spruce tama- rack association, these added species are striking signs of a changed status of affairs in the bog. Inquiring into the nature of this changed status, one finds that while the peat bed is here some 3 feet deep, it is obviously more decomposed, beimg blacker and more mucklike. The surface of the bog—the forest floor — is broken up by the massive roots of trees, elevated about their buttressed bases and upon uprooted specimens (fig. 21) or on rotting stumps. A heavier forest litter covers the ground. Thus, while it is a wet habitat, the upbuilt sur- face at least is fairly well drained and aerated during much of the growing season. Sphagnum is still abundant, but is often suppressed by incoming: species, notably cinnamon fern. Fig. 20. Patches of Oxalis acetosella wpon the uplifted sphag- num covered forest floor give the appearance often seen in stands of red spruce. Fig. 21. The list of non-bog species is now fairly large. It ineludes the bunchberry, American twin flower and creeping snowberry mentioned in the preeed- ing phase (c). Beside these and the oxalis and fern just mentioned there are Dalibarda repens, Coptis trifolia, Unifo- lium canadense, Gaultheria procumbens, Aspidium inter- Fig. 16. ‘The oldest living stand of black spruce-tamarack forest on the Grasse River Bog. The specimen of black spruce is over twenty inches in diameter. Gigantic dead tamaracks were found near this. Cinnamon fern and numerous other forest floor species together with occasional red maple and balsam indicate the transition to balsam swamp forest. Fig. 17. The most advanced condition of the bog showing how the sur- face is elevated and better drained. Note the abundance of Oxalis aceto- sella. See text p. 28 for numerous balsam swamp and climax forest spe- cies occurring here. The peat is three feet deep and rather mucklike. This is regarded as showing conclusively a transition to balsam swamp forest. Forest Development in the Adirondacks 29 medium (occasional small specimens), LHabenaria obtusata, Aralia nudicaulis, patches of a tall growing Polytrichum and mats of the liverwort Bazzania trilobata, Abundant seedlings of balsam, red maple and arbor vitae and even yellow birch are becoming established in the moist sphagnum carpet cover- ing buried logs and stumps, so that in this type more than in any of the preceding associations one is able to find evidences of the actual current progress of the new association which is replacing the old. Single erect shoots of the bog shrubs Ledum groenlandicum, Kalmia angustifolia and Viburnum cassinoides serve to emphasize the contrast between conditions in this habitat and the bog shrub associations where these species play an important role. In their occurrence and changed growth form here one is easily led to regard them as survivors of a former vegetation which occupied this same ground which indeed they are, as representatives if not as individual survivors, if we are correct in regarding this old forest as the end of a sequence of bog development. When it is recalled that this transition stage from black spruce-tamarack bog forest to a semi-balsam swamp type occurs on the same physiographic unit hitherto considered —the peat covered sand plain—the conclusion seems warranted that the foresters’ balsam swamp type of forest may in some cases be the temporary climax of a bog sequence of associations. It will require further investigation of other areas to determine how generally this is the case in the Adirondacks. REVIEW OF VEGETATION DEVELOPMENT ON THE GRASSE RIVER PEAT BEDS In review it appears that the present vegetation cover on the peat beds falls into a series of well defined types or associa- tions, as follows: 1. The sphagnum-sedge meadow. 2. The sphagnum-heath shrub association. 3. The black spruce- tamarack association. 4. The pioneer stage of balsam swamp forest. There are all stages of intergradation between these types representing the invasion of the sphagnum-sedge meadow by dwarf heath shrubs tending to form colonies and showing 30 The New York State College of Forestry sphagnum-shrub mounds: the succession of tall shrubs in the well established sphagnum-dwarf shrub association; the early stages of black spruce-tamarack invasion of the older shrub type; the closed conifer association before pruning; the true forest stand of black spruce and tamarack and finally the more complex association of these species with balsam, red maple and a larger series of forest floor associates. These have been presented with the purpose of showing that peat bed vegeta- tion is of a specialized kind involving the elimination of many species otherwise occurring in wet situations and the selection of a restricted list of bog tolerant species —— phenomena, of course, already well known among botanists; second, that the several types and their intergradations represent a sequence of vegetation development — the so-called bog sequence.* The term sequence or succession 1s meant to ee that all these associations are developmentally related, i. e., that each phase of vegetation or association causes changes it the substratum which literally prepare the ground for species of different soil requirements. It appears that in the oldest and apparently most stable association —the early balsam-swamp type— the substratum is approaching a condition where the percentage of balsam may be expected to increase and it is conceivable that the further upbuilding and differentiation of the still wet substratum with the consequent appearance of greater numbers of less hydrophytice forest floor species, may be creating con- ditions which will more and more favor the entrance of yellow birch (numerous seedlings of which are found on decayed and half buried logs), of white pine and gradually of hemlock, beech and hard maple—that is the regional climax associa- tion with its characteristic well drained and aerated crumbly leaf mold soil and equaily characteristic forest floor species. The writer has not, it must be repeated, observed any case In the Adirondacks where such a regional climax forest has devel- oped upon a peat bed, so it appears that the balsam swamp type of forest is the persistent if temporary edaphic climax of a bog sequence. This does not bear the inference, however, that in the Adirondacks balsam swamp forests are generally * See, for example, Dachnowsky (7), 237. Forest Development in the Advrondacks OL found to be underlaid by sphagnum peat. Indeed, the Grasse River sand plain itself gives indications that this type may develop on low, rather wet sand beds. See pages 32, 33. It must not be understood that this presentation of the vegetation sequence of the peat beds of the Grasse River plain assumes the tracing of an uninterrupted original succession, As has been stated, recent fires in the sphagnum-sedge and in the open dwarf shrub zones havé materially affected the course of vegetation. In the east section of the bog in the sedge zone to a less extent, but notably in the pure shrub zone, there are still to be found standing, fire charred snags and numerous buried logs and stumps also party burned which indicate a former black spruce-tamarack forest over the whole of this area. Fig. 14 shows a standing burned snag and fig. 13 a burned stump of trees that must have been over 50 years old and represent remnants of a growth that had established forest conditions including clear boles, a canopy and heavily shaded forest floor. No doubt the local history would reveal notable changes in the vegetation of the bog within the memory of the long time residents of the vicinity. VEGETATION OF THE NON-PEAT COVERED SAND PLAIN The locally descriptive name Grasse River Marsh refers especially to the low lying peat covered lands—the bog as just described. The sand plain considered as a whole presents also low elevations from flat scarcely discernible rises barely above bog level to well defined undulations or low ridges. The esker like ridge separating the bog from the flood plain has been pointed out already as an important feature. Finally one-half of the west section of the plain —notably between Burnt Rock and the mouth of Silver Brook— les above the peat forming level, though it is still to be classed as low land. No attempt is made here to analyze the vegetation cover of these sand beds minutely or to establish except in a genera! way its successional aspects. It is particularly cited in con- trast with the situation just described, where the bog sequence of vegetation is determined. Figs. 4, 5, 22 show what appear 32 The New York State College of Forestry to be patches or strips of conifer bog forest. They represent in fact “islands” or very flat ridges just high enough to be above the peat forming level. They are occupied by a vigor- ous young timber growth in which black spruce and tamarack are prominent — occasionally tamarack alone in rather open stand, just as they are on the peat soils, only of taller, moze rapid growth. With these are also balsam and an occasional white pine and popple. There is no ground cover of sphag- num as in the surrounding bog and the floor is sand, strewn thinly with forest litter or with a thin layer of quickly dried duff. It is quite conceivable that if the surrounding bog were to develop into the closed shrub stage with its more elevated surface the sphagnum would invade these islands. Possibly they may formerly have been covered with sphagnum and peat which has been burned down to the sand. Of the larger strip of shghtly elevated sand beds lying along Grasse River from the railway bridge to Silver Brook, a portion is still covered with forest which, while rather of the character of balsam swamp, presents, beside balsam, black spruce and tamarack, a noteworthy frequence of yellow birch and white pine, and red spruce. This seems to have been the compo- sition of the entire stand of this area which in recent years has been destroyed apparently by the back water of Grasse River flow. The point to be especially noted, however, is that the secondary sequence following destruction of the old forest is not at all dominated by sphagnum; that while dwarf heath shrub occurs — Chamaedaphne notably —on the flattest of it, the prominent vegetation is composed of associations of grasses and sedges with composites and other herbaceous species and with Polytrichum, Lycopodium clavatum and L. complanatum on the drier, bare sand exposures. Characteristic Species of the Non-Peat Covered Sand Plain On Wet Sand On Dry Sand Osmunda regalis (dwarfed) Polytrichum sp. (forming mats) Calamagrostis Canadensis Lycopodium clavatum Panicularia lava Lycopodium complanatum Carex stricta and other sedges Spiraea tomentosa Fig. 18. One of the “islands ” of timber on the very slightly elevated non peat covered sand areas of the Grasse River Bog region. Explanation in text. Fig. 19. Grasse River flood plain below Hardwood Island, looking toward the flow. The dead snags beyond the flood plain represent the remnant of a destroyed forest (balsam swamp) which occupied the slightly elevated non peat covered sand plain at this point. . . oy Forest Development in the Adirondacks D0 On Dry Sand On Wet Sand Juncus effusus Vaccinium augustifolium Iris versicolor Some introduced species, such as Ibidium cernwum strawberry and pearly everlasting Coptis trifolia Rubus hispidus Triadenum virginicum Spiraea latifolia Viola blanda Epilobiwm lineare Lysimachia terrestris Gentiana andrewsii Solidago uliginosa ELuthamia graminifolia Occasional leather leaf, Andromeda, cranberry and rarely a_ tuft .of sphagnum. Willows (several species including Salix bebbiana and dis- color) and alder (Alnus incana) have invaded the earlier asso- ciation and over many acres of the former forest area have established a shrub thicket. The shrubs are more dwarfed than where these species grow in wetter swamp-shrub associa- tions, forming low, compact clumps as shown in fig. 20. The occurrence of black spruce, tamarack, dwarf heath shrubs and even of occasional patches of sphagnum indicate that this portion of the sand plain is almost at the balancing point as between a bog sequence and a swamp sequence. It seems quite obvious that the deciding factor in such a sequence is simply the difference in the lie of the land; the slightly higher or at any rate better drained tending toward the em water marsh and swamp succession, the lowe lying or at any rate habitually ill drained terrain tending to favor sphagnum and its consequent peat bed with resulting bog succession. Here again it would seem that adjacent areas of sphagnum dominated associations (sphagnum-sedge, sphagnum-heath shrub or sphagnum-conifer forest) may develop a thickness of spongy sphagnum blanket which would enable the sphagnum to invade the marsh and swamp area and thus reduce it virtually to a bog condition. Possibly the former cover of balsam-swamp like forest was marked by the presence of 2 sphagnum ground cover and it is not unlikely that the present willow-alder association will be succeeded by a mixed balsam 34+ The New York State College of Forestry and black spruce-tamarack forest with sphagnum: present as the dominant ground cover. The esker like ridge which it will be remembered is the con- trolling physiographic feature with respect to creating an undrained condition of the east section of the bog, see fig. 1, rises high enough above the general marsh level to permit its climax vegetation to approximate that of the uplands of this portion of the Adirondacks. A recently logged forest cover consisted of white pine, vellow birch, red maple, red spruce, tamarack and balsam. Smaller examples of these species still remain, but mostly the ridge presents species of a secondary succession characteristic of burns or of logged sand areas in which the previously mesophytic conditions of an edaphic climax forest have been reduced to a semi-xerophytic status, the sand floor lacking the moisture holding blanket of forest humus and litter. These secondary species include Poly- trichum, bracken fern, blueberry (especially Vaccinmum Cana- dense), trembling poplar and large toothed poplar. Finally by way of the sharpest contrast with the prevailing hydrephytic conditions of the area in general, a sand mound on the west of the river at the railroad crossing (the roadbed was cut through this mound) exhibits the marked xerophytie conditions of quickly drained, loose lying sands. “The summit of this mound is very nearly bare sand while the sides are fully covered either by bracken fern or blueberry or by a close stand of young popple—a condition notably frequent throughout the Adirondacks where the forest cover and its protecting soil blanket have been removed by lumbering and burning. THE VEGETATION OF THE FLOOD PLAIN; BEAVER MEADOW In the preceding instances emphasis has been placed upon the contrast between the vegetation of a low, undrained or poorly drained sand plain, and the slightly elevated better drained sands. A still more notable contrast with the bog vegetation is furnished by that of the flood plain of Grasse River. This flood plain presents a typical example of the vlaie or beaver meadow of the Adirondacks. Fig. 21. While it is quite level and lies several feet lower than the bog its surface Fig. 20. A marsh meadow with its successor, a willow-alder association following the destroyed forest on better drained non peat covered sands of the Grasse River sand plain. Fig. 21. Typical beaver meadow (Calamagrostis canadensis and other grasses) occupying the flood plain of Grasse River adjacent to the bog. The absence of sphagnum and peat is noteworthy. The alder invasion is checked by mowing the meadow, but note greater abundance of it in mid- dle background. er BP ane ’ Fe a ary ro i er ¥ Forest Development in the Adirondacks 35 soil is well drained. The water table lies very near the surface —in July, 1920, it was only six inches below the surface — except in very dry seasons when it sinks 18 inches or more. ‘The soil is a very rich black alluvium almost muck like in places, covering the underlying sand to a depth of some two feet. Much of it is the product of the vegetation itselt, but in flood periods, as for example in the spring of 1920, the river cuts away its low bank and the black soil is deposited as mud over the flat meadow. It is well mixed with mineral constituents. Angle worms are found under the close meadow sod as in rich cultivated fields. These qualities stand out in sharp contrast with the soils of the sand plain generally and one is Impressed at once by the absence of sphagnum, heath shrubs and all the constituents of the bog series. Perhaps no more striking example could be cited of the role of edaphic factors in determining the vegetation cover and its course of develop- ment (sequence of associations). There are two prominent associations — (1) the marsh meadow, (2) the alder thicket. See fig. 25. (1) The Marsh Meadow Within the area covered by Grasse River sand plain, the marsh meadow occupies the greater part of the flood plain. It forms a series of pastures in the bends of the widely mean- dering stream. Its extent and persistence (freedom from shrub invasion) are promoted by the practice annually of mowing the hay for stock feed. In general the beaver meadow grass, Calamagrostis canadensis is the dominant species in the association, but where the meadow has been pastured and longer mowed, other grasses have become even more prominent. Thus there are almost pure stands of northern manna grass (Panicularia laxa), of fowl meadow grass (Poa triflora), and silk grass (Agrostis hyemalis), while the constantly wet ground is covered by tussock sedge (Carex stricta). Other grasslike marsh plants occur in considerable frequence, e. g., Scirpus cyperinus, Carex intumescens, and there is the usual scattering occurrence of such marsh herbs as [ris versicolor, Thalictrum 3G The New York State College of Forestry polygamum, Comarum palustre, Rubus triflorus, Viola blanda, Scutellaria galericulata, Veronica scutellata, Campanula apari-- noides and others. Of mosses, the entire absence of sphagnum has been noted. There are occasional mats of the tall spindling growths ot Polytrichum (species) growing in very wet shaded depressions. The meadow floor is a compact, firm sod, and it is interesting to note that at certain drier spots Kentucky blue grass (Poa pratense) and orange hawkweed (Hieracitum aurantiacum) have become established. Of the pioneer species of shrub invaders, Spiraea latifolia is fairly well established and main- tains itself by vigorous shoot production in spite of the annual mowing. Sweet gale (Myrica gale) occurs in small clumps where a wet spot is avoided by the mower. (2) The Alder Thicket; Alnus incana Association Within the limits of the sand plain—the Grasse River marsh as here designated —the alder thicket is confined to the stream margin and to the sloping bank of the flood plain. The ageressiveness of the shrub invasion is not fully expressed because, as explained above, the meadow stage is prolonged by the annual hay cutting. Spiraea latifolia has gained and maintains a foothold by vigorous sprout reproduction and Myrica gale and alder form small clumps in wetter depressions in the meadow. Willows, though frequent along the outer slope of the flood plain, play at the present an inconspicuous role. The vigor and aggressiveness of alder as a successor to the marsh meadow association may be seen farther up the Grasse River where opposite the Grasse River Outing Club the flat flood plain has become fully occupied by an almost impenetrable alder thicket of many acres. The dense alder growth virtually hides the stream itself, rendering the passage of a canoe impossible and forming a most difficult obstruction to passage along its banks. The writer is not informed as to the recent history of the establishment of this “alder flat,” nor as to the vegetation which preceded it. It is probable that so dense a growth will rapidly bring about changes in the sub- Forest Development in the Adirondacks 3” stratum favorable to the establishment of balsam and com- parison with other somewhat similar situations confirms the belief that a balsam swamp forest will be its natural successor. Such comparison would justify one in concluding that the entire flood plain in this region from the flats above the Grasse River Outing Club to the flow had at an earlier day been occupied by balsam swamp forest. It suffices for the present purpose, however, merely to re-emphasize the contrasting soil conditions of these two adjacent units of the Grasse River sand plain. THE SIGNIFICANCE OF SPHAGNUM The foregoing description of the behavior of the vegetation on three physiographically distinct units of the Grasse River sand plain serves not only to emphasize the importance of soil factors in determining vegetation types and sequences. It focuses attention especially upon the important role played by sphagnum mosses. It is obvious that under certain con- ditions-— primarily an undrained terrain—the entrance ot sphagnum determines the whole subsequent course of vegeta- tion. This we have seen in the sequence of associations in the sand plain bog from the open sphagnum-sedge meadow to the old conifer forest. Sphagnum is the dominating element in this entire sequence. First by reason of the lving plants, second by reason of the blanket of dead, undisintegrated sphag- num and its underlying peat. Sphagnum forms practically a continuous living cover over the entire bog in closed, dark forest as well as in the open sedge meadow. Its upward growth among sedges, shrubs and conifers greatly influences their mode of growth. The entrance of new plants into the associations by spores or seeds is conditional always upon gaining a foothold in the living sphagnum ground cover excepting that in the conifer forest stage fallen logs, stumps, and other elevations not yet sphagnum covered, furnish a starting place. The roots of the vascular plants are imbedded in the sphagnum blanket. Their absorption of water and mineral nutrients takes place in the superficial zone composed of the living sphagnum and its erect 38 The New York State College of Forestry dead stems, the compressed but not disintegrated sphagnum and the upper zone of peat. The environment thus created by the presence of sphagnum and its accumulated products is of a very specialized character. It is permanently wet and this fact increases the chance for seed germination and promotes constant vegetative multiplication. It is not well aerated and this fact entails a train of consequences of disadvantage to the associated vascular plants and affects the condition of the sub- stratum itself. It is deficient in the mineral constituents which one commonly associates with soil. While the nitrogen content is high, most of it is in forms not available for plant nutrition. It is peculiar in its chemical reaction. The peat soil of the Grasse River bog is strongly acid—a condition apparently always present in bogs. The temperature has been shown to run lower than in mineral soils. (6.) Finally, by reason of the peculiarities of sphagnum cells or of the conditions under which sphagnum peat is formed there appear always to be present chemical compounds or a condition of chemical ele- ments actively toxic to plants growing in this substratum. (15.)* The total result of these conditions is seen in the elimination of species from the habitat and in certain pecu- liarities of structure and growth of those tolerant of it. Xerophytism and dwarfing are well known phenomena in bog plants. It should be moeds however, that these conditions are not equally extreme in all phases 4 the sphagnum-peat sub- stratum. For example, in the older conifer forest association where the massive roots of trees, the fallen logs, stumps, uprooted trees and forest debris have elevated and loosened up the peat blanket and where there is consequently better drainage and aeration, the peat itself is blacker and more muck- like (decomposition has progressed farther) and many species, including balsam, appear. See list, p. 34. Even in wetter portions of the bog, if there is a fairly marked movement of the water one finds such marsh species as Calamagrostis cana- densis, Iris versicolor and Alnus imcana occupying the sphag- num-peat soils. * See also Rigg (13) Summary of Bog Theories. Forest Development in the Adirondacks 39 While edaphically considered sphagnum represents pretty uniformly the conditions just described, there are, in fact, several species of this important genus which play a more or less distinct role in the course of vegetation development of this bog. Thus where open water stands between the mounds or where after fall rains the bog is partially flooded, the finely divided algalike growth of Sphagnum cuspidatum is abundant. Its occurrence and abundance consequently fluctuate with the season. It may be supposed that this and other species capable of growing wholly submerged would figure in the early stage of establishing a vegetation cover upon the original constantly or seasonally submerged sand plain. The tall, vigorously growing sphagnum which makes the deep carpet of the open sedge zone is mostly Sphagnum recurvum and this species is the active one in forming the rapid upgrowth among heath shrubs. Fig. 12. The soft, deep carpet under shade of high shrubs and in the conifer bog forest is S. magellanicum and this species appears to persist often as the main ground cover in the oldest association where balsam, red maple and numerous forest floor species of balsam swamp associations occur. But in the transition from conifer bog forest to balsam swamp type where numerous forest floor species (see previous list, p. 34) have entered the association, Sphagnum girgensohni was found to be the main ground cover. This was found to be the case also in balsam flats outside the bog area.* In the shrub zone where the sphagnum blanket is very thick and spongy and where mounds are built up so that drying out is a period- ical phenomenon, the two so-called mound formers, S. capzil- laceum var. tenellum and S. fuscum make a very close, com- pact mat. In my observation, however, the mounds them- selves are frequently formed by the taller growing species — especially S. recurvum and the two previously named species then become established upon these mounds. (11, p. 422.) * Sphagnum girgensohnii has been observed by the writer to be the first of its genus to invade a marsh meadow (Calamagrostis canadenssis and its marsh associates) which has for two years been flooded by back water caused by beaver dams across Sucker Brook (Cranberry Lake). In this case the suggestion arises that this species is a pioneer in the transfor- _ mation of a marsh into a bog. : 40 The New York State College of Forestry COMPETITION BETWEEN SPHAGNUM AND VASCULAR BOG SPECIES With regard to the interaction between vascular plants and sphagnum, it should be noted that the taller growth and shad- ing effects of the former — notably of shrubs and young black spruce —tend to suppress the sphagnum. In, this connection it has been mentioned that S. recurvum makes a tall climbing growth about the stems of the vascular plants thus starting the mound formation. A study of the bog in late autumn (November 1) after leaf fall, showed that all the species of sphagnum had made rapid growth during the cooler months of September and October and that thus they had materially increased the thickness of the living sphagnum cover while free from the shading effects of competing shrubs and_ sedges. Thus by reason of their continued growth, during the dormant stage of their competitors, they were able to make gains which would be compensated for by the rapid development of new shoots and leafage of the vascular plants in the following spring. In the case of black spruce, however, where the opaque foliage is permanent, no such compensating growth of sphag- num occurs and thus it becomes suppressed beneath these dense widely spreading young trees. The rise of the sphagnum blanket about them is very notable so that the spruces seem to stand in depressions in the general bog surface. Fig. 17. VEGETATIVE PROPAGATION IN THE BOG The ability to multiply and oceupy ground by rapid vegeta- tive propagation is pretty nearly a universal characteristic among plants in the Adirondack bogs. The sphagnums are, of course, notable for the vigor and rapidity of their vegetative propagation. The whole scheme of bog evolution rests upon this fact. The living surface carpet of sphagnum is made up of shoots from old plants gradually dying below where for a season the old stems retain their more or less erect position, becoming flattened and compressed by the weight of the surface erowth and especially by the winter load of snow and _ ice. Forest Development in the Adirondacks 41 Below this zone the dead sphagnum becomes more and more disintegrated, retaining, however, for a time its lighter color and spongy texture. Beneath this is the newer layer of brown fibrous peat which at greater depth becomes more or less decom- posed, taking on a blacker mucklike character in situations where periodic lowering of the water table permits better aera- tion during part of the growing season. Over the greater part of the area here considered, tall growing sphagnums, such as S. recurvum and S. magellanicum, form the living carpet, so that this living layer may be as much as five or six inches thick. The layer of dead but not disintegrated sphagnum is often of equal thickness. These two layers, together with the upper stratum of newly forming peat, constitute the medium in which the actively absorbing roots of vascular plants develop. In no case, even in parts of the marsh where the peat bed is very shallow, e. g., parts of the sedge meadow, have the roots of bog species been observed to penetrate the underlying sand. ‘As previously mentioned, this substratum of living and dead sphagnum offers a medium in which vigorous development of both root and shoot organs is stimulated. In the sedge meadow, Carex oligosperma by vegetative propagation forms an almost exclusive community, binding the substratum into a close, com- pact sod. Fig. 6. Without exception the bog shrubs spread rapidly by vegetative means. This may occur as for example in Vaccinum augustifolium by normally subterranean rhizomes, but also as in Cassandra and black spruce as a result of vigorous root development from normally erect or leafy shoots, where the stem back of the newly formed roots ceases to grow and, becoming atrophied or dead, leaves the newly rooted branch as an independent plant. As a matter of fact, these old stems, though probably functionless, persist for an indefinite period, so that the result of vegetative propagation is to create expanding colonies of each species and thus brings about the spot wise occurrence of these associates in the bog shrub zone. Thus it will be noted that the conditions created by sphag- num as a growth substratum result in phenomena of vegetative propagation as noteworthy as in the case of submerged vege- tation of shallow lakes and ponds. 42 The New York State College of Forestry It has not been observed that this prevalence of vegetative propagation is attended by a marked lessening of seed pro- duction except perhaps in the case of Vaccinium augustifolium. Observations covering three seasons seem to indicate that this species fruits very sparingly in the marsh, while in at least two of these seasons, it has yielded full crops of blue berries where it occurs on drained sandy soils. In general, however, seed production seems abundant in this bog, but insufficient data are at hand as to viability and the extent of reproduction by this means. COMPARISON OF THE GRASSE RIVER SAND PLAIN WITH OTHER SAND PLAINS OF NEW YORK It will be recalled that the special interest of the present study of bog vegetation les in the physiographic character of the region. It is clearly one of the so-called sand plains of which other examples are found in the case of “the plains” of the upper Oswegatchie and on a much larger scale in those of the Hudson and Mohawk drainage near Schenectady and Albany, of the Saranac at Plattsburg and of the Black River below Carthage at Pine Plains. In the case of the Grasse River Marsh, as it is called, the plain lies so low that distinctly hydrophytic vegetation results, becoming a normal bog sequence in the lower undrained portion and showing a_ secondary sequence of marsh or semi-marsh grasses and sedges and of willows and alders following the destruction of a swamp or semi-swamp (probably a balsam swamp) forest on the slightly elevated and non-peat forming section. On the other hand, the vegetation of the higher lyimg sand plains mentioned is distinctly xerophytic. In the ease of the Hudson-Mohawk, the Saranac and the Black River sand plains, the present vegetation is prevailingly pine heath, a phase of secondary suc- cession following the destruction of an (apparently) edaphic climax formation of white pine. Pitch pine is the dominant species in these cases though heath shrub associations are still strongly represented, notably by Comptonia peregrina, Vaccin- ium vacillans, Gaylussacia resinosa and Arctostaphylos wva-ursa Fig. 22. By yearly mowing and trampling the beaver meadow (Cala- magrostis association) is perpetuated, yielding a heavy and valuable hay crop. Fig. 23. Pine heath vegetation on the well drained sand plain at Platts- burg, N. Y. Pitch pine is becoming dominant over the heath shrub and sweet fern association. The previous virgin forest on this site was doubt- less white pine. ; \ 3! » TOPOGRAPHIC MAP A PORTION OF THE GRASSE FIVER BOG SURVEYED BY NYSC“F CLASS 192) Rea leo ET Cortour bnkral 10/7 Les a AUGUST 79/9 Draven by ME Aoaboer Freee by EM: TYPE 1 Pure meadow of Sage and Sphagnum 2 Sedge meodow with scattered Heath shrub leather-leaf etc , or scoltered clumps of shrub 3 Mued meadow and shrub (Shrub ' fo ¥ ot Stand) 4 Pure shrub, practically all Leatherleat Ledum, Blueberry , dead Sphagnum, Mound or Terssock 5 Pare shrub. with taller species lhe Visenum cassinoides ard scatfered conifers 6 Belsam s/rine - apparently on very lor sand ridges 7 Block Spruce, Pomorack , and Bolsam, yoing coniher Forest new largely covering noth end of east section and in mare adaxed stage on shrictly bog part of western sechoo & Beaver meadow of nverbattam 9 Alders of river bHom, 10 Alder, Willow stand on cutover area adjacent +o Grass River Flow ard Silver Brook. 1 Aspen, Pirs, Bolsom ete. of low sand ridye porelle/ to river. 12 Hardwood type , mired stand, mostly mature (5 Mixed confer type, mature \ TYPE MAP A PORTION OF THE GFRASSE TIVE? BOG SURVEYED By NYXSC Sf CLASS of /92/ Scale 8°=/ Mle See Zastshons” be Type Numbers AUGUST 19/9 vt by HL An truae by 5. Rigps Forest Development in the Adirondacks 43 at Plattsburg and these species (excepting bear berry) with two shrub oaks, Quercus ilicifolia and (. prinoides, in the Albany pine Peaths: The sand plain of the Oswegatchie is rather unique in this that while it presents certain species characteristic of bogs or swamps (Oryzopsis aspertfolia, Solidago wliginosa) it supports in reality a dry-heath like vegetation of more pro- nounced character than any of the others. This is shown notably by the extent of the ground cover of lichens (Cladonia rangiferina, alpestris and pyxidata), Polytrichum and by Vac- cimum augustifolium, canadense and vacillans (though the first two of these occur in sphagnum bogs). The fact was pointed out in bulletin 3 (2 page —) that tamarack is the dominant invading forest species. All this points to the interesting fact that while this sand plain lies high enough above the water table to become very dry at the surface, it is in fact so low and flat as to shelter wet lands species, and while sphagnum does not occur and there is no peat formation, a very slight rise of the permanent water table would result in bog forma- tion quite as marked as in the Grasse River area. It should be mentioned here that in the Grasse River bog, Polytrichum (apparently the same species as in the Oswegatchie sand plain) is prominent in the drier mounds of sphagnum sedge meadow and that this moss and the lichens Cladonia rangi- ferina and pyxidata appear on the very slight elevations of the bog where sphagnums are excluded. While Cassandra does not occur on the Oswegatchie sand plain it often occurs in ereat abundance on non-peat and sphagnum covered sands (e. g., east end of Oneida Lake), so that really the difference between the dry heath and the wet heath is reduced merely to the occurrence of sphagnums in the latter case and its absence in the former. Floristically the two groups of associations are very similar. The suggestion arises that the edaphic con- ditions in the low sand ee despite the periodic surface drying are similar to those of sphagnum bogs. This suggestion is strengthened by the frequent occurrence of black spruce on the dry heath and by the aggressive invasion of it by tamarack, which as shown in bulletin 3 (2 fig. 30) is one of the note- 44 The New-York State College of Forestry worthy features of the plains of the Oswegatchie and has been noted also in other similar dry heaths of the Cranberry Lake region. SUMMARY 1. The Grasse River Marsh area physiographically con- sidered is one of a series of sand plains occurring in or on the borders of the Adirondacks, formed under certain drainage conditions (presumably glacial) which have ceased to be operative. 2. By reason of its low lying position and of the presence of eskerlike sand ridges which intercept its drainage, the larger part of the area here considered is covered by peat which at present is occupied by a vegetation complex in which sphagnum is the controlling element resulting in typical bog conditions. 3. The bog vegetation presents a series of plant associations which appear clearly to stand in a developmental relation begin- ning with open sphagnum-sedge meadow and culminating at the present time in the initial stages of a balsam swamp forest. 4. This study supported by evidence from other situations in the Cranberry Lake region appears to warrant the conclusion that while black spruce-tamarack-arborvitae bog forest is a persistent association and may remain in effect an edaphic climax association, it nevertheless tends to create soil conditions which introduce balsam and its swamp forest associates and may in fact go over definitely into balsam swamp forest. The more thorough decomposition of peat into a blacker more muck- like condition indicates better aeration at this stage of transi- tion to balsam swamp. What relation such a bog originating balsam swamp forest may bear to balsam flat and to the Adiron- dack Climax forest has not been determined. 5. A second feature of the Grasse River Marsh area consists of flat and very slightly elevated or low undulating sands which while they must be classified as wet lands are still well drained enough or lie high enough above the summer water table so that sphagnum is excluded. Hence, true marsh or semi-marsh as contrasted with bog conditions prevail as shown in the present secondary associations of grasses, sedges and Forest Development in the Adirondacks 45 herbaceous species followed by a close willow-alder association which is progressing toward the (presumably) balsam swamp forest which has relatively recently been destroyed by human agency. This situation in its early vegetation stages appears to be intermediate between the wet heath of the low lying undrained sand plain and the dry heath illustrated by the Oswegatchie sand plain. 6. A third feature of the region here dealt with, consists of the flood plain of the Grasse River which by reason of its better drainage and its deep alluvial soil exhibits a lvely con- trast with the bog in its total lack of sphagnum, its early association of Calamagrostis and associated species forming a typical beaver meadow (ecologically a typical marsh meadow) and a vigorous invasion (checked in certain places by annual mowing) of alder thicket. It is regarded as not unlikely that this flood plain may in earlier times have been covered by balsam swamp forest and the assumption is made and strengthened by observations elsewhere in the vicinity that the normal course of vegetation here would be toward this type of forest as its edaphic climax. 7. The living sphagnum cover of the bog (ecologically the sphagnetum) is composed of a number of species of sphagnum differing in habits of growth and in light and moisture require- ments. Thus certain species are predominant in different stages of the vegetation sequence, e. g., in the open sedge meadow and forming the climbing growth among shrubs, in the shade of old conifer bog forest, and on the drier tops of mounds in the uneven surface of the heath shrub associations. €, The actively functional roots of vascular bog plants are distributed in the superficial zone of newly formed peat, the dead but not disintegrated sphagnum and the hving sphagnum cover. Apparently they do not penetrate the underlying sand in the case of any species. 9. Vegetative propagation is almost universal among bog plants. Vegetative propagation by sphagnum reaily forms the basis and controls the method of bog evolution. The sub- stratum created by it stimulates active production of roots and 46 The New York State College of Forestry normally rhizomatous stems, and by the upward growth of sphagnum among foliage bearing stems, thus investing them in a constantly wet but porous blanket, stimulates active root development along these stems and thus each branch becomes potentially a new plant. This leads to the development of expanding shrub colonies, especially of heath species, promotes the succession of heath shrub upon sedge meadow and accounts for the spotwise occurrence of these shrub colonies. This layer- ing method of reproduction in black spruce seems at least in part to account for the dominance of this species in many Adirondack bogs. 10. The interactions of growth between sphagnum and the vascular bog plants, although in the nature of communal adjust- ment, is in reality a competition for advantage of position and exposure. It appears that the vigorous upward growth of sphagnum takes place especially in September and October at low temperature after the shading effect of vascular plants has been reduced by leaf fall. The compensating growth of vas- cular plants occurring of course during the following growth season. The special aspect of vegetative propagation from stems imbedded by the upward growth of sphagnum (layering) is associated with this phenomenon. 11. A comparison of different sand plains associated with the Adirondack region indicates a very close correlation between the vegetation ‘sequences and the drainage conditions. Cer- tain edaphic conditions due to sand deposits of this nature are common to all as shown by the occurrence of certain identical or ecologically similar species in each, but the height of the water table in connection with a small degree of unevenness of surface due to wind and water erosion determines a series of different association complexes from typical bog in the low lying undrained plain, to semi-marsh meadow and willow-alder associations devoid of sphagnum, to low lying but dry heath with Polytrichum and Cladonia rangiferina apparently replac- ing sphagnum in the pioneer stage, finally to pine heath, in the sense defined by Harshberger. (9) Forest Development in the Adirondacks 47 12. This and similar studies have a value in respect to the elaboration of a forest policy in that they show not merely the general tendency of our vegetation development to culminate in forest but especially how closely this development is asso- ciated with conditions of soil, drainage, ete., 1. e. with edaphic as contrasted with climatic conditions. Any forest policy based on natural regeneration of the forest must have in mind the limitations which edaphic conditions impose upon the rapidity and end result of such natural reforestation. REFERENCES (1} Bergman, H. F., and Stallard, Harvey. The development of climax formations in northern Minnesota. Minnesota Bot. Studies. 4: 333-378. Pell 1G. (2) Bray, William L. The development of the vegetation of New York State. New York State College of Forestry, Tech. Pub. No. 3, pp. 1-186. f. 1-52 and colored map. 1915. (3) Clements, F. E. Plant succession. Carnegie Inst. Wash. Pub. No. 242, (4) Cooper, William S. Reproduction by layering among conifers. Bot. Gaz. 52: 369-379. f. 1. 1911. (5) — —. The climax forest of Isle Royale, Lake Superior, and its development. Bot. Gaz. 55: 1-44, 115-140, 189-235. f. 1-55 and map. 1913. (6) Cox, H. J. Frost and temperature conditions in the cranberry marshes of Wisconsin. Bull. T., U.S. Dept. Agr. Weather Bureau. 1910. (7) Dachnowski, A. Peat deposits. Geol. Sury. Ohio Bull. 16, Fourth Series. 1912. (8) Fuller, Geo. D. Reproduction by layering in the black spruce. Bot. Gaz. 55: 452-457. f. 1-6. 1913. (9) Harshberger, J. W. American heaths and pine heaths. Mem. Brooklyn Bot. Gard. I: 175-186. f. 1-8. 1918. (10) Nichols, Geo. E. ‘The interpretation and application of certain terms and concepts in the ecological classification of plant communities. Plant World 20: 305-309, 341-353. 1917. (11) The flora of northern Cape Breton Island, Nova Scotia. Trans. Conn. Acad. Arts and Sciences. 22: 249-267. f. 1-70. 1918. (12) Peck, C. H. 47th Rep. N. Y.S. Mus. pp. 133-4, 1894. (13) Rieg. Geo. B. A summary of bog theories. Plant World 19: 310-325. 1916. (14) ————— ——_——_-._ Forest succession and rate of growth in sphagnum bogs. 15: 726-739. 1917. See also ‘Bot. Gaz. 65: 359-362. 1918. (15) . Colloidal properties of bog water. Bot. Gaz. 68: 367-379. 1919. (16) Rowlee, W. W. — Relation of marl ponds and peat bogs. Mem. Brooklyn Bot. Gard. 1: 410-414. f. 1-3. 1918. (17) Transeau, E. N. On the geographical distribution and ecological relations of the bog plant societies of North America. Bot. Gaz. 36: 401-420. 1903. Stallard, Harvey and Bergman, H. F. See (1). np ty = eee ney At Art “aeadsded pileig al ity cE ei a onde Poveee hy pect eer eit Bip eae rar (eileen ts eerie ite nt: dye Bib ft “holt re “av Aanh i ai af Pa 3 ig é\ pera nih aa Ty li at ‘ne st, pet? 7 ' Te) ee Ti ae ig eh it ya! talviceriy e+ ine 4 7 ¥H 4 Paki ity a) eee abe esi Va a | sport Ae mS pewient: Be)’ role verre ad aa (erry erie AK oP ptert iq bia Chor uretwrryniest fF erg el Aree Wowk TURAI LH ‘ie ee rh (ST) tewollaus be « tabs M j i] ie tidy A. rial (Sites it Oey oe ree f ‘es ee é 4 eee Vir ‘wei tA") Oven ml wtikwree’ | fo wera part “4 heart § : F Cate (ah j nt « yy eetl | we t' ae ae mG ts Site Pei cai bir iVae fall ‘ ) wns r ‘vale, viwereN? De Seda « a @. . Ss rt. wad Fee ve F pits ral &y Li Aleta) eee Gants’ ’ aul r i da 4 ; i 4 , P et 700" te 7 {4.9 $ : Bs Peas at an aw ie De: zie ital 4) mhithhid jae ' PAld Alte wiht wf Py fin Veh ivan Ve ckduell PGR aa AY tebe : That dered eerie gata ‘ Ab igi At), Met by Moyet tt Wage MK, at; ie ED : cee een ere eee €5 Crm Constructions (lable) eo". ets. soc. fe ak ws Coe eee ee 70 BhaderncalvVinpyrollersh (Mable LOVER... so 5 5c eens Se eo ee eee 74 (CasketsrandmCofins:(Rable UD). c-. soc oany 25. oo ae aoe oe eee 75 Chairs Ghablevli2) Rages stokes Lo etese Sane So) 7S MiGconmVehicles (ables). eit i ii a bet eee A 80 mEniCuliunalimplementss(hable:I4): 3.02.5. 4 55.52. 00852 see eee eee 83 mead shoe Lindines (Table 15) /22.00..245004.).22. 5.4 eee 85 Mittchess@hablerliG) isn. cancsa tall ehhebe bees lie ee 89 MWieadenwarerand Novelties (Mable l7)22 2:.....4...52260 5. een ee eee 90 Memdlesm@ablewlS)s 22.2 vrs seas to hs 8 a 92 Refrigerators and Kitchen Cabinets (Table 19).......................... 95 HipstunessCRablerc)). nck bkits ret tl ks a 97 Professional and Scientific Instruments (Table 21)....................... 100 [3] 4. Contents Discussion of Secondary Wood-Using Industries — Concluded PAGE Basketsiand! Hruit. Packages! (Mable 22)r 9042. osces. eee ane 102 Vehiclesiand Vehicle Parts (Table:23)ime2.. 22.4 oe ee eee 104 Dairymen’s, Poulterers’, and Apiarists’ Supplies (Table 24)............... 108 Tanks'and Silos (Table 25)... 229.05. Je 6. ee ee, eee 109 Toys (Table 26)).\1.jankloes eve on in eh tages Ge Je er 112 Picture Bramessand Moldings (Rable 27); ............... 5 eee 115 Plumbers’ Woodwork (isble 28)... ..... 5... eee eee 116 Pumps'and Piping (Table: 29)- 2.6. as cn0s ee. oes eee oo rr 118 Laundry Appliances (Table 30)-) Stne55.....2.2.0.0) 45.006 eee 119 Trunks and Suiteases (Table Sl) 5. cee sy octeeene ae). 4-0 oe ee 120 Cigar’ Boxes (Table: 32)).2 05222. ces ths tsiuc serials cu.R > meicad ae ee 121 Patterns and Plasks' (Table 33): 2... 6 cee oe.2 ese ble - a i Eee 123 Brushes:and Brooms (Rable(34)). .. 5.24: aaeko:te es ele eee 125 Shuttles: Spools; and Bobbins (Tablesb).. .-.. 2... +) - eee eee 127 Electrical Machinery and Apparatus (Table 36)......................... 128 Machine @onstructionn¢hablers”)saemre ater en teen oe “i, Secu aoe 129 Pulleys'and ‘Conveyors:(Table 38) >. 2.2... 524.042.5552. 502 eee 131 Airplanes (Table:39) <6 ee... ee eee: nro. co ond oak o 62 Oe 133 Elevators ((Table’40). . 2. o..03. anc ces i seid sens sh ma soe 138 Glocksi(Table: 4b) koa se orc tea nad wernt adits he Leer 139 Sporting and Athletic Goods (@able42)y 2.0. 7... 5.) eae eee 141 Dowels:and Skewers’ (Table 43)\.).°....---.-ses.. s+ ote eee 142 Firearms’ (Tablev44)), fr... oc oan g sree ls be oe oats One oe ee 144 Whips'and’ Umbrella Sticks\(fable 45)" 0. n.. 0. ae 2) ee See 145 Printing Material\(Table46).0.:-..5.+-....>-00-50- 5+.) 40 ee eee 146 Miscellaneous: (Table47).. 520 fons lace nN os cs ee oe ree 147 APPENDIX Forest Products of New York). on. sin. 622 oe oe teal soe see eee 150 Pulpwood ‘Consumption. 2°. 2 $55 4 Ah | aS - 3 Sas ~ ~~ Forest Management Required 23 farmers and foresters have a common interest, because the business of each depends upon using the soil to the best advantage. PosstsBiuiries or Farm Wooptorts The increasing scarcity and value of wood, as has been said, now makes conditions more favorable than they have ever been for the taking of active measures to grow timber. In their woodlots the farmers have in their possession one of the State’s most valuable and least developed natural resources. The demand for wood by the industries is from three to five times as much as is now being grown in the State. New York soils are fertile and second-growth forests under proper care develop rapidly. A great variety of native woods of high grade could be supphed from this source with relative ease, and farmers by devoting a part of their winter time to this work could produce a crop of useful, worth-while trees at the maximum rate of growth. Forests are by nature self-perpetu- ating and yield an unlimited number of crops under suitable care. The College and the State can furnish information and demonstration of the proper methods. In 1920 the “ Free Tree Bill” was passed, which provides for the raising of trees by the Conservation Commission and their free distribution to _ persons desiring to reforest. This is a commendable step and should stimulate planting. There is already sufficient man- power to handle the lands to advantage. In addition to the better utilization of time, the rising price of lumber would be all in favor of the farmer, and it is recognized that stumpage values are moving steadily upward but seldom downward. With this crop there is never the need of sacrificing the profits of a season’s toil, because the timber can ordinarily be held without deterioration until the market prices are sufticiently attractive to warrant cutting. That is one thing which most people do not consider in regard to timber lands. Improved timber lands are increased in value as much as the improve- ment adds to them, regardless of whether the present owner ever cuts the crop. rst favor- ber. such as red oak, ash, hickory, c fungous dise cut and marketed at the Im should | hence they NT CUTTINGS oD} be; will c3) i = & > = z A Yi = — lumber LSi « inere awan 000 £60 €9 000‘S982‘¢ €c%‘TOF‘9 Is £6 sec 000‘ 628‘89 Pur LI nc eye pq] snaian?) olutsl.ece) miele es Sate “Ro ov. 2 000‘ 882‘ 92 000‘ 869‘ LF 690'Sz0'F TO ¥¢ 68'S QOORTS Pak el eee uinwoyoons Wany | e ajdeur pre yy S GQOOESSO-O0 teen tee nee ee aoe o98‘TEs'9 ce 6S rE'8 OOO: SSOe OOD Gls cnc an ee, sawods snug |°** ‘outd Mold UTOyINOS a) 000° 200‘ ZIT eee ew ter ere . 196‘ ZLFE'S 98 SF c.'s8 000‘ 200‘ZIT se eee PORN a} 1) snuig ee amid ATIOLAO'T Q «000; 81a Gat 000‘ est ‘0z T99‘TTL‘2 €9 1g 19°11 G00: SLE ORL el tee ee RAIOSUE eneTey| oye een eee aonadg 000 916 cog 000‘ 69¢ ‘ 22 9c. OFOS LIE Fc ecg cy: CZ 000‘ Cyr 6ZE a ee sw Léueuele tal 6 snqgo.ys snug SOO GrOnOR ceo CRG ourd ovIUM 0S2‘989‘060'T | 000‘ 60T*68T 069‘ 982° L213 82 09$ 00° 001 aeRO VAL a ao || aera NR b eKa.s 6 SMe he eihip e)« Babe pag h) » ate 0 mee *yIOMpoom Sioquin|{ 46 Discussion of Industries Boxrs aNp Cratss, Packing Table No. 83 includes box shooks, packing boxes, piano and organ shipping boxes, packing crates, and all kinds of material used in the industrial establishments for the storage and ship- ment of factory products. New York is truly the Empire State in manufacturing, and naturally the demand for boxes and crating is enormous. The total annual output of the box factories in New York amounts to 324,219,000 feet. Among the secondary wood-using industries this one is now first in the State in point of quantity of wood consumed, having sur- passed the planing-mill industry by 94,000,000 feet in 1919. Adding the wood material put into “Baskets and Fruit Packages,” including baskets proper, berry crates, and pack- ages, the total output of wooden containers comes up to 332,- 746,000 feet. These combined industries form a true index to the relative importance of New York in manufacturing, leay- ing out of consideration the cigar and tobacco box industry and the manufacture of cooperage. Table 3 shows the consumption of 29 different species of wood, the average cost of which delivered at the factory is $47.48 per thousand feet. Boxes and crates can be produced generally from low-grade stock. From the standpoint of wood utilization, this is one of the desirable features about modern manufacturing business. The enormous development of manu- factures has naturally resulted in the increased consumption of lower grades of lumber for boxes and crates. Frequently as much lumber is needed to crate a wooden article, such as a piece of furniture, as is used in making the article. The kinds and sizes of boxes and erates are so numerous that dis- cussion of their form is impracticable. Box material is gen- erally consumed in the vicinity of its manufacture, because freight rates discourage long hauls. Some of the Southern States, however, such as Virginia, produce large amounts of box material in the form of shooks that can be shipped in a knock- down form by carloads to great distances. The differences in the physical and mechanical properties of the various species are not so important in boxes and erates. Boxes and Crates, Packing 47 Almost any kind of wood can be used in some form or other for crates, the principal recommendation being that it is cheap, light, and capable of holding nails without splitting. Strength, while desirable, is not the first requisite of a box material. In New York, white pine naturally combines all the qualities of good box wood and contributes over 40 per cent of the raw material consumed by this industry. Only 10,000,000 feet of the white pine is grown within the State, while over 120,- 000,000 feet is now imported. With a few exceptions, the dominant species in any locality contributes most of the material going into boxes. While white pine leads in New York, Wisconsin, Massachusetts, and Michigan, it is noticeable that in other States, like Virginia and North Carolina, southern yellow pine contributes the larger amount to the industry. In Louisiana, where longleaf pine is the principal species, it con- tributes most to the box industry. In Kentucky and Arkansas red gum leads all others. This utilization of the most abund- ant species in a community clearly indicates that the industry does not demand special qualities in woods, but utilizes the nearest suitable wood that is cheap and abundant. In New York other important local woods contributing to the industry are spruce, hemlock, basswood, cottonwood, hard maple, beech, bireh, chestnut, and elm. Yellow pine is the principal wood shipped into the State for boxes, the contribution amounting to 101,000,000 feet annually. As will be noted, the first five species are softwoods. Softwoods are generally of sufficient strength for shipping cases and have the additional advantages of being light, easily worked, and comparatively free from shrinking and warping. In some respects white pine excels lobolly and shortleaf as a box material. Although not par- ticularly strong, it tends to dent rather than to break or split ‘upon impact. For this reason it was formerly used by the Army for ammunition cases and is now used for shipping cases for Government transits. It is not so resinous and hence is better for shipping foodstuffs; its color, being nearly white, is admirable for the display of brands and firm names on pack- ages; and it is more workable than the other species. New 48 Discussion of Industries York woodlots and forests, if properly cared for, will always be important producers of white pine, spruce, hemlock, cotton- wood, and the other important species so much in demand by the manufacturing industries of the community. Here is one of the finest opportunities for the sale of small-sized and low- grade timber cut from young plantations in making improve- ment thinnings. Some of the less important species, such as beech and elm, are very desirable for certain kinds of crating because of greater strength and toughness. Elm crating, when properly secured by metal cleating, is especially satisfactory where strength and toughness are required. The box industry offers exceptional opportunities for the close utilization of low grades and waste. New England box- board custom is to saw the log through and through. This, of course, is always second-growth material, and consequently they cut it this way. The board is cut into lengths and edged just sufficiently to take off the bark on each side, with the result that many boards are narrow at one end and wider at the other. This practice of making box boards permits the closest utiliza- tion possible. Some mills are manufacturing box boards from slabs that would otherwise go to the hog, slasher pile, or refuse burner. Some industries work up veneer cores as box boards. Many industries instead of buying box material or boxes use their otherwise waste pieces or poor ends of the grades for this purpose. All of these expedients save money and permit the use of better lumber for more exacting purposes. Boxes and Crates, Packing 49 TABLE 3 BOXES AND GRATES, PACKING Quantity Usrep ANNUALLY Amerage Total cost Kiyp or Woop s f.0.b per 1,000 factory eet Feet b. m. / Per cent Motaliee 922 «3: 324,219,000 | 100.00 | $47 48 |$15,394,009 White pine: ...2.... 132,286,000 40.80 | $49 94 | $6,606,363 Loblolly pine....... 93,814,000 28.94 46 84 4,393,768 Spriceias. . 5.2.2.5. 59,388,000 18.32 46 27 2,747,883 Hemlock... .+.... -; _..| 8,098,000 250 36 21 293,229 Southern yellow pine| 7,348,000 227 45 04 330 ,954 ISaRSWOOW. 6s 026. «=: 4,769,000 1.47 45 81 218,468 Cottonwood........ 2,651,000 .82 47 67 126 ,373 Rec giMiset.)s see sss. 2,371,000 AWS 40 62 96,310 Yellow poplar....... 2,340,000 Ay iA 44 28 103,605 Hard maple........ 1,836,000 aii 29 45 54,070 Beech..... ie CI RAGOS 1,429 ,000 .44 34 22 48,900 Western white pine..| 1,418,000 -44 50 54 71,666 (Gago: 2} 6 Oana oe 1,356 ,000 42 39 76 53,915 Chestnuts) ca: 1,169,000 .36 36 57 42,751 iii 5 24. teen 914,000 .28 35 42 32,374 Redapwmers-c.)-t-.'- 625,000 .19 38 00 23,750 NTRPAA OR: ot eye oe crate 454 ,000 .14 31 18 14,156 Willow 351,000 11 37 00 12,987 White oak 338,000 -10 | 130 00 43,940 Redwood....... 300 ,000 .09 60 00 18,000 Wouplasiin.: A.0 tess = 290 ,000 .09 46 40 13,456 Alora e503 Ae ons 250,000 .08 43 00 10,750 [NEN A Sar ea 130,000 .04 | 200 00 26 ,000 Sugar pine. ........ 90 ,000 02 36 50 3,285 Balm of Gilead..... 65,000 -02 37 00 2,405 IBUckeyes cc esses: 60,000 .02 37 00 2,220 PAMIATAGISA sihi42 «3/4. 40 ,000 -.01.| 41 00 1,640 Soft maple:s::..... . 38,000 .O1 19 73 750 Cherry (black)...... 1,000 * 41 00 41 Grown in |Grown out of New York. | New York. (Feet b. m.) | (Feet b. m.) 16,492,000 | 307,727,000 9,996,000 | 122,290,000 se re 93,814,000 1,200,000 58,188,000 1,065,000 7,033 ,000 akk: tectaee 7,348,000 964,000 2,805 ,000 62,000 2,589 ,000 hos ALA 2,371,000 2,000 2,338,000 892,000 944 ,000 1,072,000 357 ,000 SE ETA cick 1,418,000 5 eer, 1,356 ,000 342 ,000 827,000 635,000 279 ,000 20 ,C00 605,000 176 ,000 278,000 1,000 350 ,000 62,000 276 ,O00 Shee ey aces ute 300 ,000 LPR. noses 290 ,000 5 oe 250,000 2,006 128,000 =, ave, Ove eee 90 ,000 sia hate ee 65,000 hee ee 60,000 SRIF EERE 40,000 dacs aaa 38,000 TS OOOMi kee rapnetteaer * Less than,1/100 of one percent. 50 Discussion of Industries Pruaning Mitt Propucts Planing-mill products are those considered as finished upon leaving the planer, such as flooring, ceiling, siding, molding, base boards, and dressed and matched material. Undoubtedly some plain surfaced lumber and dimersion stock has uninten- tionally been included in these returns. A certain amount of such duplication in the returns is unavoidable. Of the 230,259,000 feet consumed in the planing-mill indus: try, only 31 million, or 13 per cent, was found to be home- grown. This is in striking contrast to the returns of 1912 which showed 47 per cent of the planing-mill products grown in New York. In the short space of eight years a great change has taken place. No longer are the New York forests supplying even a considerable percentage of the home demand for build- ing material. The total white pine, spruce, and hemlock from New York in 1919 is only one-sixth of the amount supplied from sources within the State in 1912. The amount of these three woods brought in from other States was over 40 per cent greater than in 1912, although the total production of planing mills in 1919 was 40 per cent less. The planing mills report the use of 31 different species, the average cost of which at the planer was $54.53, an ierease of 100 per cent in cost. Of these only 2 are not imported, elm and balsam fir, and these are insignificant in quantity. Out of 13 species indigenous to New York, 7 were imported — in quantities greater than the State supplied, while 2 were imported in total. The remaining 4 include hard maple, birch, and beech, and even of these staple hardwoods more was pur- chased elsewhere than was cut in New York. In 1912 every one of the 13 came in larger quantity from home sources thau from outside, and 3 of them came entirely from the State. White pine is the most popular wood for general house building purposes in this country. It has all the desirable qualities, being sufficiently strong and having a fine, straight grain and even texture. It is also easily worked, comparatively free from shrinking and warping, very light in color, only Planing Mill Products 51 slightly resinous and capable of taking paints and oils, and stains well. It should be remembered, however, that white pine is falling off in quality, and that only a small proportion of it now comes from New York. Spruce is light, soft, straight-grained, of uniform growth, easily worked, and takes paint well. Hemlock was neglected in lumber operations for many years until the scarcity of other woods caused manufacturers to utilize this abundant species. It is used chiefly for construc- tion work, but it is also valuable for floor lining, siding, and panel work. . The wood is strong, straight-grained, and fairly hard. It finishes smoothly and works fairly well. Its tendency to splinter is one feature which has made it unpopular in com: parison with pine. With the steady shrinkage of the supply of northern species has come the increasing reliance upon southern and western species. The southern yellow pines — longleaf, shortleaf, and loblolly — constitute valuable materials for house construction. Longleaf wood is heavy, hard, very strong, straight-grained, compact, very resinous, and is highly desirable for flooring. For interior finish, ceiling, partition, and flooring, longleaf is extensively used where formerly high-grade hardwoods were largely employed. Shortleaf pine comes from the South Atlantic and Gulf States. It is particularly suited to interior finish and door con- struction on account of its fine grain and easy working quali- ties. The so-called North Carolina pine consists mainly of lob- lolly with an occasional small percentage of the other species of southern pine. : Bald cypress is of great commercial importance in Louisiana and throughout the southeastern United States. It is put to almost every use as an interior trim for houses and is finished in natural color or stained. Containing little resin, it affords a good surface for paint. It is much used for ceiling, wainscot- ing, panels, and to some extent for flooring. It shrinks and warps but little and is therefore used for drain boards, sinks, “ST[TULAVeS ULOPOU 0} I[QIJSNVYXOUL ST 4YSaIOJ ON “patO}SaI Ua oAVI, S}So1OF Uto}SBI otf} [IFUN des otf} aspiaq uvo Ady} TayZEYAM [NJIQnOp SI 41 ‘jUa}Xa UL JSBA JIB 4SVO) OYfoV_ oY} JO $}sSa10}F ay} ysnoyyy “O “GM ‘WopsuryseA\ ‘“SuIpIng UwotaWy-uRq “IY sepsnog Ur peystuy Woot SLOAdONd THT DNINVIdG Planing Mill Products 53 kitchen cupboards, and in places where it is subjected to damp- ness and heat. or parts of houses exposed to weather it is most serviceable, and as siding it practically wears out before it decays. From the West, New York receives considerable quantities of the so-called western white pine, which is the yellow pine of the Inland Empire (Pinus ponderosa) with a slight admixture of Idaho white pine (Pinus monticola). Idaho white pine also appears in New York markets, both separately and as a substitute in the wood sold as eastern white pine. Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga taxifolia) is also coming in increas- ing quantities from the far West as the supply of southern long- leaf becomes more restricted. It is a rather heavy, strong wood, obtainable in almost any reasonable length, and will in future be one of the main market species, if not the most important. It is used for many purposes, from bridge timbers to interior finish. Redwood, shipped from California, is used largely for interior finish and shingles. It takes stains well and is very resistant to decay. Of the foreign woods, mahogany, teak, and Cireassian walnut are used mainly as thin veneers for parti- tions and panels. Teak at $707 per thousand is the most expensive wood in the list. Black walnut at $203 is the costhest native wood. The larger planing mills situated in the commercial centers are now saving much material that hitherto was thrown away. Today nearly all establishments sell their shavings and sawdust for one purpose or another, especially for bedding horses, pack- ing ice, and distillation, while the slabs are generally made nto moldings; hardwood strips and blocks are converted into novel- ties, brush backs, mirror backs, ete.; while the softwood ends and strips are frequently turned into articles such as balusters, posts, railings, dowels, hamper covers, slats, and cratings. Basswood ends are resawed into ironing boards, while other hardwoods go into such articles as swinging chairs and dimen- sion stock for all other industries using small pieces. The high price of lumber in manufacturing centers encourages close BK 54 Wood-Using Industries of New York utilization and New York establishments should set an example, both in shop economies and in the advantageous disposal of waste. TABLE 4 PLANING Mitt Propucts Quantity Usep Grown out of New York. (Feet b. m.) ANNUALLY Kinp or Woop Feet b. m. | Per cent MRObalA.. as yatetateterakehe 230,259,000 | 100.00 White pine::..;...- 84,310,000 36.62 SULUCCS: Gyssciies cise 49 ,868,000 21.66 lem loeke. asters oe seu ...| 28,866,000 12.54 Southern yellow pine| 20,679,000 8.98 Loblolly pine....... 10,983 , 000 4.77 Hard maple... ...... 6 , 852,000 2.98 White oak..........| 5,314,000 2.31 IB IECHe a. Se eetcrs:s see] 4,755,000 2.07 Western white pine..| 4,605,000 2.00 Cy Press sso 12/= is, «esse 3,303,000 1.44 BQ GCI cccpoA ctots Syoretens 2,571,000 eat Yellow poplar...... 1,964,000 .85 C@hestnutie.... ssc e 1,770,000 eihisi IBasswooG.cs2 2 eee 1,151,000 .50 VECHIPINE Hsien eer 1,000 ,000 .43 Douplasvirss..1 0a 910,000 -40 Redwoodn ene ne 390,000 oils NEL V5 SG Eee ip ers Ss 2 319,000 14 Realaums oA. eee 250,000 ail AT DOLVILAC)s siere-ielee 69 ,000 .03 Med onlay sae eco 50,000 .02 IRCKOLYmstation cee 50 ,000 .02 Balsamfnd on aerate 44,000 -O1 ne etree 41,000 .O1 Cherry (black)...... 36 ,000 .O1 Mahogany......... 28,000 C1 WWMOCUSERO et ete 25,000 .O1 Western red cedar... 25,000 -O1 leaks ey ate acet 21,000 AOI Black walnut....... 8,000 * Circassian walnut... 2,000 * * Less than one-hundredth of one per cent. mueteee Total cost Grown in per 1,000 f-10:.D New York. ear factory (Feet b. m.) $54 33 ($12,509,017 | 31,241,000 $54 44 | $4,589,836 2,775,000 52 95 2,640,511 | 11,583,000 40 68 1,174,269 7,739,000 61 88 e279) OS: || 2 hres ewes 58 92 647s LLSinl\ estes See 49 57 339 , 654 3,493 ,000 95 25 506 , 159 555,000 38 25 181,879 2,632,000 69 78 BYP BY Millbeee sc Renae, 6 60 06 TOSS TS: let ccs oct 30: 35 90 ,885 1,493,000 73 46 144 ,275 40 ,000 59 68 105,634 228,000 48 91 56,295 457 ,000 45 00 45 OOO). cnc eects me 70 55 64,200 Neeser 108 00 AZ 20) Ne eee ee 36 84 Vl 752 146 ,000 103 33 25 Spoil leita ee 50 00 S450 sens oto caete 87 25 7. SEOs Bal Me OO 52 00 Pi GOOV| | tae kh Serer 26 08 1,147 44,000 35 00 1,435 41,000 63 33 2,380 15,000 196 52 Hho.) B al eet horcu cs 68 74 De 19 il| eerake ee eee 120 00 38.0.0) Ohi ee ereeerces Gee 707 14 145850) || toi ener 203 33 T6274) vec 600 00 200 ))}) poner 199 ,018,000 81,535,000 38,285,000 21,127,000 20,679,000 10,983,000 3,359,000 4,759,000 2,123,000 4,605,000 3,303,000 1,078,000 1,924,000 1,542,000 694,000 1,000,000 910,000 390,000 173 ,000 250,000 69 ,000 50,000 50,000 Discussion of Industries 55) Sasu, Doors, Brinps, anp GeneraL Mintiwork New York wood users report the consumption of 34 different species in the manufacture of sash, doors, blinds, and general millwork, with a total annual consumption of 200,000,000 feet, the average cost of which is $67.49 per M. feet f. 0. b. factory. This industry overlaps the planing-mill industry to some extent. These factories consume raw material that is one step further removed from the forest, as compared with planing- mill products, and the cost of the raw material is over $13 per M. in excess of the latter industry. Generally the establish- ments manufacturing sash, doors, and general millwork are located in cities and villages where the raw material comes to them in the form of rough and surfaced lumber, whereas the planing-mill products use a great amount from the logs. General millwork establishments manufacture a great variety of articles, but the most important items turned out are bal- usters, baseboards, blinds, cabinets, columns, cornice work, doors, grills, mantels, newel posts, porch work, posts, railing, sash, screens, scroll work, shutters, stairwork and window frames. Workableness and ability to hold its shape, combined with the capacity to take oils and paints well, are the principal requirements of woods that go into general millwork. White pine is unexcelled for this industry and occupies first place. For articles such as balusters, columns, posts, scrolls, and stair- work white pine is used almost exclusively. Its clear grain and the ease with which it may be cut makes it a favorite for scroll and cornice work, and it is preferred above all others by cabinet makers. It occupies a leading position in all of the States where the wood grows and not infrequently it is a leader in contribution to many of the industries in States where no white pine is grown, where it is given preference over all other woods for the manufacture of sash, doors, blinds, and patterns. Its desirability as compared with most native woods of other com- munities for general millwork is patent when more of it 1s con- sumed in many States than of native woods. Next to the white pine comes bald cypress of which nearly 20 million feet were 56 Discussion of Industries used. It is particularly suitable for construction where resist- ance to decay is of importance. Third comes southern yellow pine, embracing longleaf and shortleaf. Longleaf pine is used extensively in doors, espe- cially for the panels on account of its ornamental grain, though a solid longleaf door would be too heavy for convenience. It would take two men to hang it. Therefore, shortleaf and white pine are used more extensively than longleaf in door construc- tion. Frequently longleaf is combined with white pine in the same door, the white pine forming the rails and stiles. Im- mense quantities of southern pine are made into sash and doors, while smaller quantities are used for railing, balusters, stairs, newel posts, and columns. Because of their hardness, sugar maple and longleaf pine are favorite woods for doorsills. Hemlock, a native species, is fourth in importance, and here again the ominous condition is seen that the State produced only about one-seventh of the amount consumed in 1919. Hem- lock, like spruce, is in heavy demand for pulpwood. Yellow poplar has come up from tenth place to fifth, and this may be taken as a tribute to its pleasing appearance and workable qualities. It is frequently preferred for columns, newels, and screen frames. White oak is used largely for high-grade finish, such as mantels, on account of its beautiful grain. It is capable of taking a high polish and when quarter-sawed it has a conspicu- ous “ silver grain,” which makes it most attractive for exterior parts of interior finish. Unless seasoned with care it checks and honey-combs badly, but next to mahogany it is considered by many to be the most beautiful wood for interior finish. Red gum, imported from the Central Southern States, is extremely popular because it can be made to take a beautiful finish, especially in imitation of Circassian walnut. The raw material comes into the State at prices that compete with local woods, and it is used in nearly all of the larger hotels and apart- ment-houses in one form or another as decorative material. Red eum was formerly considered a weed tree or practically so, until lumbermen learned how to dry it by special methods which overcame its tendency to warp and twist. It is now so Sash, Doods, Blinds, and Millwork 5G valued that in order to use it to the best advantage large quanti- ties are made into veneers for ornamental work. Many woods give evidence of their suitability for certain uses in this industry by coming extreme distances, among them being Douglas fir from the northwest, sugar pine from southern Oregon and California, western white pine from the Inland Empire, and Western red cedar from Washington. Mahogany, Cireassian walnut, and other high-priced foreign woods are brought from the ends of the earth for the ornamentation of interior trim, carvings, cabinets, ete. Mahogany is a favorite wood for revolving doors in large hotels and office buildings. The hard foreign woods such as ebony, rosewood, and teak take a high polish and are made largely into carvings for interior decoration. Mahogany, Cir- eassian walnut, English oak, and white oak are used largely in the form of veneer, with chestnut and yellow poplar for backing or cores. Chestnut is used principally, however, for interior finish and for doors. Western white pine (P. pond- erosa), sugar pine, and Idaho white pine (P. monticola) go largely into sash and doors. Cherry is in great demand for casings and cabinets. The large amount of birch consumed is indicative of a very wide range of uses, but it is generally used in connection with mahogany as an interior finish. Several woods, including elm, pitch pine, arborvitae, and hickory appear to be rather out of place in this industry because their special qualifications are not those of workability, beauti- ful grain, and capability to take a high finish; but their presence in small amounts is accounted for by the wide range of the industry, including everything from the repairing of porches in humble cottages to the finishing touches on the most expensive grills in New York City. This industry more closely utilizes waste than general plan- ing mills located in rural districts. In the large commercial centers the general millwork establishments have very little waste, selling their sawdust, kindling wood, and shavings, and manufacturing very small articles. The best waste lumber is made into cores or fillers for veneered doors, while small strips are made into mouldings, dowels, lattice, etc. Small blocks K 58 are turned into brackets, corners, ties, and brush and mirror backs. Wood-Using Industries of New York base blocks, carvings, novel- The contribution of New York’s forests and woodlots to this industry, which in 1912 was 27 per cent, has fallen in 1919 to less than 7 per cent. Although the total quantity of material used was only about 60 per cent of the amount used in 1912, the cost to the manufacturers was increased by two million dol- lars, owing to the fact that the average cost per thousand had increased a little over 100 per cent in the period closely fol- lowing the world war. SAsu, Doors, TABLE 5 BLINDS, AND GENERAL MILLWORK Kinp or Woop White pine......... Cypress..... Southern yellow pine Hemlock White oak....5...... SPLUCe assem. ce ee Red joimk tye... on C@hestuut iis ye es oe BUC ores on steheeen eee Tupelo.. SEAMS Tioblolly. pine. Porsche Hard maple........ IDYoie ALY ie Goud. Basswood.......... Sugar pine......... Western white pine.. Soft.maple. 2.4... As Rediaakte . a ehicw-s Cherry (black)...... Southern red cedar. . Black walnut....... Redwood.. a Western red ‘cedar. i Piteh! piney. eetes.yes Butternut SSAA S ee oP Lia) eae Esta te. otha tee Beco 52 Circassian walnut... ; Quantity Usrp ANNUALLY Average * Less than one-hundredth of one per cent. baat Total cost Grown in per 1,000 £.'0. bt New York. feet factory (Feet b. m.) Feet b. m. | Per cent 200,504,000 | 100.00 | $67 49 |$13,532,772 | 18,273,000 44,689 ,000 22.28 | $60 60 | $2,708,153 4,411,000 19 , 707 , 000 9.83 75 38 L485), OAR | oy cecrencmetete 16,759,000 8.36 58 06 973,028.22 ALE 15,332,000 (oils 40 45 620,179 2,163,000 14,849 ,000 7.41 87 74 1,302,851 5,000 14,607,000 7.29 | 106 34 1,553,308 883 ,000 13 ,932 ,000 6.95 51 56 718,334 361,000 11,044 ,000 §.51 68 37 VH5O7S A bide ae aes 9,040 ,000 4.46 to BS 664 ,982 420 ,000 8,504,000 4.25 74 67 634,994 2,018,000 6,025,000 3.00 63 20 S807 80: |W io et eetee 5,279,000 2.63 62 07 Oe, O08) ||". = ceases 3,966, 000 1.98 41 00 162 ,606 648 , 000 3,391,000 1.69 62 89 DLS TAG) I voiccee here 3,031,000 1.52 50 86 154,156 929, 000 2,622,000 i eih 60 70 als neuer Goma ud ac 2,507,000 1.25 81 54 204-427 |" 6 eo ese 2,085,000 1.04 66 25 138,131 1,083,000 667 .000 ‘83 53 68 35,805 82,000 633 , 000 .32 40 70 25,763 233,000 589 ,000 .29 | 254 74 50; O42 chess Sesh tee 510,000 26 |) 1382 638 6%, O40) |e ae cue 243 ,000 2 Le 41 40,681 10,000 150,000 .O8 | 110 00 LGe DUO) tte ote 25,000 .06 | 178 23 221279) lee. 4 eevee 103,000 .05 75 00 (0B PER os ce 35,000 .03 | 120 00 4S ZOOM) aes etevearte 25,000 .02 35 00 875 25,000 25,000 .02 74 00 1 SO" | 8 cae 16,000 01 75 00 1s 200 allot. teeter eee 10,000 * 46 20 462 2,000 2,000 * | 200 00 AOO" IM Gay ee tets 1,000 * 51 00 BL Beereaasaee 1,000 * | 500 00 BOO! ||, entice eters Grown out of New York. (Feet b. m.) 187, 231,000 40,278,000 19,707 ,000 16,759 ,000 13,169,000 14,844,000 13,724,000 13,571,000 11,044,000 8,620,000 6,486 ,000 6,025,000 5,279,000 3,318,000 3,391,000 2,102,000 2,622,000 2,507 ,000 1,002,000 585,000 400 , 000 589 ,000 510,000 233 ,000 150,000 125,000 103,000 35,000 Discussion of Industries 59 FURNITURE The furniture industry in the State is extremely important, ranking all but the three general industries of boxes, planing mills, and sash, doors, and general mill-work. The kinds of furniture referred to in Table 6 include cabinets, bookeases, chests, bed frames, dressers, chiffoniers, couches, folding beds, davenports, desks, china cabinets, toilet cabinets, buffets, file boards, tool chests, general bedroom furniture, sideboards, tables, table pedestals, wardrobes, divans, cradles, stretchers, filing cabinets, desks, office, bank and store furniture, library, school, and college furniture. Furniture calls for a great variety of woods of good quality. No industry better illustrates the natural location of wood- working establishments within a State capable of producing the raw materials needed. Most of the 29 species reported can be grown locally. The idle lands of the State could be producing this raw material. This report, however, shows but one quarter of the material as home-grown. White oak still holds the leading place, as in 1912, in quan- tity consumed. The wood is strong, hard, with very large pith rays, giving a conspicuous “ silver grain ” when quarter-sawed. A good deal of white oak enters the furniture trade as quartered stock. Although white oak is preferable in many respects to red oak, since it is less porous and therefore lends itself better to finishing processes, that feature is seldom considered by the ultimate purchaser. Considering the same grades, there is very little difference in price between these two species. The importance of red gum in the furniture trade is shown by its rise from ninth to second place. Red gum both as plain and quarter-sawed stock is frequently used for imitation mahogany and walnut which are now much in demand. Gum is also used as a core wood for mahogany veneer facing. The average cost of $81.65 per thousand, which is high in com- parison with other native hardwoods of similar grade, shows the demand for this wood, once considered a poor material, and also the marvelous way in which it has succeeded in com- petition with other vanishing species. 60 Discussion of Industries Birch, while now taking third place in quantity used, con- tributes a slightly larger amount than in 1912. New York, however, is supplying a much smaller quantity than seven years ago. This seems strange because birch is one of the principal New York hardwoods. Birch is a splendid wood for furniture and is comparatively cheap, as shown in these tables, because some plants own their stumpage. Its popularity over some other high-grade woods is largely due to the fact that it is used in veneers for imitating mahogany. Birch might well be called a companion of mahogany in the furniture and fixture trade. Beech has risen to a point of greater importance than formerly in the furniture industry, contributing a large amount at the remarkable price of $29.86. This low figure is due to the fact that such a large amount of the material is home-grown and owned in part by the manufacturers. Hard maple has lost considerable ground in the furniture trade. Nearly twice as much is imported as is produced in New York. Wisconsin and Michigan supply much maple and birch to this trade. The grain of maple is fine and compact, sometimes containing curly or speckled pith-flecks giving the effect known as birdseye maple. The wood has a satin-like luster, and when cut into veneers is one of the most beautiful of our native species. It is especially attractive as bedroom furniture. The demand for mahogany-finished furniture in the larger centers, such as the metropolitan district, is exceedingly great. Birch, maple, and gum are frequently stained to represent mahogany. Yellow poplar is used principally for backing and cores. Drawer bottoms and sides are made chiefly from basswood, red gum, and yellow poplar, while drawer fronts use sugar maple, walnut, oak, birch, and cherry. Mahogany, Circassian walnut, teak, and English oak are the foreign woods entering this indus- try. These are all very beautiful woods and capable of taking a high polish. The average price of $80.52 per thousand is rather high in comparison with the other industries. This fact is accounted Furnture 61 for by the high grade of stock required and the fact that some furniture stock enters the factory in dimension form. In addition to the 76,963,000 feet cut up by the furniture trade, a considerable number of million surface feet of hard veneers are used in furniture. This quantity has not been added to the tabulation, which shows only lumber. Birch, gum, oak, mahogany, and black walnut are the important vencers, which form the surfaces of our most expensive furniture. Inferior species and grades enter the trade as core stock and backing. Some of the quantities reported in the table are used for frames, braces, drawer bottoms and sides, and other invisible parts, using poor stock. ‘“‘ Built-up” (laminated or veneer) material not only gives a rare beauty of grain and figure but makes a stronger article, which is lighter, less lable to warp or split than a solid piece, and at the same time uses inferior pieces to advantage. The use of built-up stock is increasing to a large extent not only because of the cali for stronger material, but also on account of the necessity of closer utilization. Wormy chestnut is no doubt the species used to the greatest extent as core wood, because the small holes in the chestnut which make it unsightly for exterior use, give extra holding strength to the glue, and for that reason are actually a desirable feature. A few concerns in New York devote most of their time to the manufacture of built-up panels which are utilized by the furniture and fixture trades to a large extent. The number of firms reporting in 1919 is 31 per cent less than in 1912. The total consumption of lumber by this indus- try has decreased 26 per cent. These figures seem to indicate that the industries though smaller in number are individually of about the same size as to lumber consumption. New species entering into the industry are witch hazel, hickory, arborvitae, and teak. One correspondent wrote that on account of the increased cost of labor, power, and rent it had been necessary to discontinue practically all of his manufacturing from raw 62 Wood-Using Industries of New York material and to work upon completed or semi-completed furni- ture imported from other States. This was an instance illus- trating the effect of the war combined with the excessive price of hardwoods, which cost almost 100 per cent more in 1919 than in 1912. A few months later, in February, 1920, gum was sold at $195 per M. and quartered oak at $400 per M. whole- sale. Yet there was no great decrease in the demand for luxury products. The main problem of the dealers was to obtain the goods. TABLE 6 FURNITURE Quantity Usep ANNUALLY pee Tota cost Grown in |Grown out of Kinp oF Woop per 1,000 fr105j02 New York. | New York. Fane factory (Feet b. m.) | (Feet b. m.) Feet b. m. | Per cent = Motaliweries ss see 76,963,000 | 100.00 | $80 52 | $6,197,300 | 15,828,000 61,135,000 White oak........ 14,484,000 18.82 |$104 92 | $1,519,661 $435 ,000 14,049 ,000 ed puims fee se-iec.cis 12,530,000 16.28 81 65 102370700 |0 shoe tater 12,530,000 SIR CH. ese stew ronnie 10, 393,000 13.50 52 48 545,525 4,944,000 5,449 ,000 G@hestnitterct ete 9,297,000 12.08 49 06 456,111 94 ,000 9,203,000 Beechs a--rke se eee | MD sio 000 8.02 29 86 184,385 4,689,000 1,486,000 Hard maple........ 4,987,000 6.48 52 23 260,471 3,242,000 1,745,000 Mahogany......-.- 4,398,000 5.71 | 204 96 QOLGATA || akan.c tegen oete 4,398 ,000 Yellow poplar...... 4,250,000 5/52 52 94 224,995 22,000 4,228,000 Black walnut....... 2,512,000 3.26) |) 205) 7 541,864 2,000 2,510,000 Basswood .2t.%. .-h 1,534,000 1.99 57 62 88,389 890 , 000 644 ,000 Southern red cedar..| 1,000,000 1.30 | 125 00 2 5; OOOM |. neva 1,000,000 SDIENCEse eeeteelaysutee 931,000 1.21 43 47 40,471 331,000 600 ,000 Soft maple......... 820,000 1.07 43 91 36,006 183,000 637 ,000 Dt ene am Ha eitee perc 812,000 1.06 46 46 37,726 271,000 541,000 Wihite pines*.ade.: 730 ,000 .95 45 02 32,865 378 ,000 352,000 PAS Wy seeae reuctorexseiedotas 574,000 515) 67 50 38,745 186,000 388 ,000 Southern yellow pine 560 ,0CO 13 65 00 S67 400" |) ds. 5 eee 560 ,000 Redioakiey oss 4iene a 543,000 ola 68 39 37,136 100,000 443,000 Cherry (black)...... 223,000 -29 92 12 20,543 46 ,000 177 ,000 Witch hazel........ 60 ,000 .08 | 475 00 DS sDOOS <4 ces aaereers 60 ,000 C@YPress terest neck oes 53,000 07 Weel Bic OPE Baek lace 53,000 Buckeye: sos .8. 37 ,O00 05 45 00 ft (G6 5mlat tebe eee 37,000 Hemlock RSNA E ashe 15,000 02 27 50 413 155000) i>. cee ete Arborvitae......... 12,000 .02 91 66 TETOOR MEE 2s abo 12,000 Circassian walnut... 11,000 .O1 | 475 00 SE QZOIVE Tee tae: ok 11,000 Loblolly pine....... 10 ,000 .O1 65 00 GHSOAIE.S.. Wetec 10,000 Butternuts:. oe. 8,000 .O1 | 180 00 Pe eee & Bee a 3 5 8,000 Mele enc: ae 2,000 * | 900 00 1, S000}: 2. ees ae 2,000 English oak........ 2,000 * | 980 00 1960) echoes 2,000 * Less than one-hundredth of one per cent. Discussion of Industries 63 Sure anp Boat Buitprng Ship and boat building is another important wood-using industry in the State, the consumption of nearly 63 million feet for this purpose placing this branch of trade seventh from the top when considered from the standpoint of quantity of wood consumed annually. New York is normally the leader among the shipbuilding States. Possessing the finest harbor in the world and with the Hudson and other large rivers, the Barge Canal, and the Great Lakes supplying water transportation for passengers and freight from border to border, it is not strange that such craft, ranging in size from enormous battle cruisers and palatial passenger steamers to the innumerable and expen- sive private yachts, are the product of her shipyards. In fact there is every reason why ship and boat building in this State should stand at the forefront. In the table southern yellow pine (mainly longleaf) leads, contributing over 50 per cent of the raw material used in the industry. This wood goes largely into ships, its availability in large structural sizes, its strength and hardness recommend- ing it above homegrown woods. White oak is used in large quantities (especially at this period) in construction of wooden shipping for the U. S. Shipping Board. Douglas fir comes cntirely across the continent to supply ships with spars, while mahogany, teak, Circassian walnut, lignum-vitae, and balsa (cork) wood are imported from foreign countries, the balsa being important in the equipment of boats with life preservers. ‘The foreign woods are generally used for decorative parts of ships and yachts, but not always so. Lignumvitae, for example, is used for steering wheels, tackleblock wheels, and pulleys. Teak is a fine material for wooden decks, as is also white oak, but neither of these woods has been easily obtainable in recent years in lengths desirable for the purpose. Douglas fir is being used as a substitute, as well as southern yellow pine. For this purpose, as well as for planking, the hard pine is preferred to the softer fir because it resists denting better. For small craft, such as rowboats, the southern white cedar is considered the finest of woods, because it is light, can be 64 Wood-Using Industries of New York struck without serious indentation, resists decay in contact with water, and finishes well. Its capacity to resist splintering when bumped is important. Ship and boat building is an industry in which substitution has been going on steadily. have taken the place of wood to a great extent. In larger vessels steel and iron For pleasure boats of less than 80 feet in length, however, wood is preferred. TABLE 7 Suip AND Boat BUILDING Quantity UsEep Grown out of New York. (Feet b. m) 61,836,000 32,342,000 9,162,000 6, 200,000 4,190,000 3,199 ,000 320 ,000 292,000 285,000 233,000 204,000 150,000 142,000 75,000 97 ,000 82,000 53,000 40 ,000 34,000 30 ,000 32,000 30,000 23,000 ANNUALLY svernEe Total cost Grown in Kinp or Woop Ty o00| £0: b- New York. oe F factory (Feet b. m.) Feet b. m. | Percent oe LY bos) eter ache 62,815,000 | 100.00 | $65 52 | $4,115,727 979,000 Southern yellow pine| 32,342,000 51.49 5AVS6 bl 074, 2825) o : ole ee Wihiteoak..o..:2. 52 9,838,000 15.66 76 09 748 ,573 676 ,000 Douglas fir......... 6,200,000 9.88 43 28 2687336" liebe e. a ee White pine......... 4,399 ,000 7.00 85 72 377 ,082 209 ,000 SpPEUCE=: fe 26 )-fers chore, « 3,207,000 5 1L 59 09 189 , 502 8,000 IB aleaacicrssgtascisreer. 2 2,500,000 3.99 | 110 00 2753000) |, «ten eeeee Western white pine. . 752,000 1.20 82 91 62,348: ra ae ase Sitka spruce........ 500,000 .80 92 50 46,200) |y Groeten oak eee Gypresse sc: 2 acbnes.- 493 ,000 .79 88 61 43,000.)|\ esac ees Agha) Sa cece Seth: se 325,000 .52 | 168 68 A S214 lever ee Yellow poplar....... 320,000 .51 | 157 23 60,314. |) 22 epee Mahogany......... 292,000 47 | 214 14 625529. | se. eae Loblolly pine. ...... 285,000 .46 67 74 19/--306.|02.. soa Arborvitae........- 258,000 .42 88 85 21,923 25,000 Southern white cedar 204 ,000 230 84 90 14,320) | «tac noee Port Orford cedar... 150,000 .24 | 150 00 22,500: |: ae Sepa @hestnute. 75 so. oes 146 ,000 sue 41 81 6,104 4,000 Birchng sacs ste or 4 115,000 .18 | 100 00 11,500 40,000 Hardamaple. osche.- 102 ,000 .16 58 27 5,944 5,000 ENnCKOLYes sees erst 83,000 13 | 116 66 9,683 1,000 Hemilocke- acres be: 53,000 -08 45 00 2.3851 | jaiteceee® LO ins o aaah se Gas 40,000 .06 48 00 1';920 °°) ~. ieee Sugar pine......... 34,000 .05 | 101 18 3,440 9 be coehon eee Butternut: - Poko oso. 33,000 .05 | 225 00 7,425 3,000 Male gs Secterea che ees 32,000 .05 | 709 52 2275 705 Ww cx. rca serdonegs Western red cedar... 30,000 .04 95 65 2, BO At beer WEOCUBELE Cats jee as 23,000 .03 75 00 VAGZ5 |) wom seer Southern red cedar. . 20 ,000 .03 90 00 J, SOO; jl\,..2s +4 as opie Tamarack.......... 18,000 02 52 50 O45 os ee eee Basswood.......... 10,000 .01 | 170 00 1,700 5,000 Lignum-vitae....... 6,000 .01 |. 300 00 900) '| (Arar eaee Redioalkes: ccd) aces 2,000 * | 200 00 400 a cctecrs ctor Cherry (black)...... 2,000 * | 175 00 350 2,000 Black walnut....... 1,000 * | 180 00 180 1,000 * Less than one-hundreth of one per cent. Discussion of Industries 65 - Small steel vessels are stiff and vibrate so badly that they are much less comfortable for passenger service. The fact that 34 species are shown in Table 7 is evidence of the varied kinds of water craft produced in New York. Only one-ninth of the raw material is home grown, but this is partly accounted for by the location of the leading plants along New York harbor where shipments by water are very economical from South Atlantic ports, and the exacting nature of some of the requirements. It should be noted that this report was sub- sequent to the rush period of the World War, during which a much larger quantity of timber and lumber was consumed in construction of the wooden fleet of the U. S. Shipping Board and extension of docking. Musicat InstrRUMENTS It is not generally realized that New York is the leading State in the production of musical instruments, her consump- tion of wood for this purpose being about double that of her closest competitor, Massachusetts. In 1912 the relative stand- ing of the leading States was as follows: Feet PEPE 5. oe fas Sid «eein.|. . . = 58,816,550 IMEI SereenVISeTIGR Et. at seat, +. «eiepso)- «= « 27,463,412 I eg Ghee alee a ee re 15,582,316 GEIRaSET +. lA eve HERP ER. « Gatco 3° 12,274,010 a ouhie cin CE! Ai. soi oa A 11,811,927 Ute Ar Sh: ee Se 8,643,000 Jute, 1k nS ee 8,583,000 eM AMIE. 6). We oom wt oo Bie ws yetene rs 2,945,000 All other States are insignificant in output compared with those named. While the factories of New York produce many kinds of instruments, such as accordions, banjos, drums, flutes, guitars, harps, mandolins, music boxes, phonographs, and violins, the great bulk of wood consumed goes into piano and organ cases and action parts. New York City, Buffalo, North 3 ANNAN’, SS “llth BQO Oss SNS UUltl 7:24, WN ‘<4 ell Dif 7, = IN A PLAYER PIANO ARRANGEMENT OF PARTS This complicated musical instrument Wood is essential ine a concrete violin or This world would be a would not be possible if or > Can you ima much less enjoyable place without music. a cathedral organ built of steel? to human happiness. there were no wood. Musical Instruments 67 Tonawanda, Rochester, Syracuse, and Utica, are among the important centers of piano and organ manufacture. The number of active plants in the State is very small com- pared with the number of firms engaged indirectly in the pro- duction of instruments. This is because one active plant, such as a large producer of action parts, will sometimes supply scores of firms with its output. Likewise, one large plant manu- facturing piano cases will supply a large number of wholesale assemblers. ‘The piano industry is specialized and the firms engaged in the business are mainly manufacturers of one part of the instrument, such as action, case, or sounding board, while the great majority of wholesale firms are only assembling establishments. New York is also the headquarters for a large number of corporations that have active factories in other States and whose consumption of wood is not included in this study. Sugar maple is the leading species and contributes over one- fifth of the raw material, one-half of which species is reported as homegrown. It is one of the high-grade woods required by the industry, and no doubt its local abundance is one of the reasons for the concentration of the industry in the State. The industry consumes a great variety of woods, but most of them are used to meet the various styles in cases. ‘Such woods as maple, chestnut, white oak, mahogany, birch, walnut, cherry, rosewood, satinwood, Circassian walnut, and others are largely used in the form of veneer for outside finish and give a great variety of styles. Some weods, however, are used because of their special qualifications for certain parts. Spruce, for example, is perhaps the most resonant of woods, and its capability of amplifying sound makes it the most valu- able wood for piano sounding boards, organ pipes, and ribbing on smaller instruments, such as guitars and mandolins, as well as for essential parts of violins. One violin maker stated that in order to get old, well-seasoned spruce he was in the habit of buying spruce timbers from old buildings which were being torn down. Rosewood and other foreign woods in the form of veneer are important, supplying much of the material used in guitars and mandolins. Sugar maple and yellow poplar strips 68 Discussion of Industries are in great demand for banjo necks. White pine is not con- spicuous here as in other industries, but a small amount is used for pipes of church organs and bottoms of piano keys. Red gum and sugar maple are especially suitable for action parts and a very large amount is used in this way. White ash, white oak, and red oak, in addition to service for framework of larger instruments, are used for keyboards. White pine also appears in keyboards, maple in bridges and bottoms, gum for cores and trim, yellow poplar for cores and edgings, and spruce for bar stock. Basswood is a favorite for keys, birch is used for key- rails and hammers, beech, elm, and Douglas fir for backs of pianos and organs and small instruments, and beech for bot- toms. Mahogany is prominent in the industry, contributing 4,000,000 feet board measure. Its use is very general for veneering in all industries and this amount of lumber repre- sents probably 80,000,000 feet, superficial measurement. One large importing establishment in New York reports a local consumption of several million feet of mahogany logs. This enormous quantity of mahogany is converted largely into standard veneer 1/24 to 1/28 of an inch thick, and much of it goes into the piano and furniture industries in the States of New York, New Jersey, Connecticut, and Massachusetts. In the recent development of the phonograph business great numbers of these instruments are built by the musical instru- ment factories, often on the same floors with pianos. Built-up panels and veneer are consumed in vast quantities in this branch of the industry. Practically all of the sounding boards for, this industry are furnished by two factories in the Adiron- dacks. Eastern spruce is as good if not even better than west- ern spruce for sounding boards, as its ring grain is more even. Although western spruce can be obtained in greater widths, narrow strips are preferred, consequently eastern spruce meets this need with the utmost satisfaction. One of the best devel- oped machines in the wood-working industry is found in the plants manufacturing piano parts. Strips of wood are fed in the form of molding and after a series of operations the material comes out at the other end of the machine worked into Musical Instruments 69 delicate piano parts. Other industries could profitably intro- duce specialized machinery such as this on account of the great saving in labor effected and the interchangeability of the finished parts which constitute the product. Among the more striking features of Table 8 are the enor- mous amounts of raw material consumed, the variety of woods used, and the relatively large proportion of home-grown woods used. Next to planing-mill products musical instruments con- sume more material from our own woodlots and forests than any other industry in the list. The annual use in 1919 was TABLE § Musica INSTRUMENTS Quantity Usep ' I ANNUALLY Rverege Total cost Grown in |Grown out of Kinp or Woop = |——_______—_ 7.000 f. 0. b. New York. | New York. pe Bet factory (Feet b. m.) | (Feet b. m.) Feet b. m. | Percent 1) eee 53,569,000 | 100.00 | $89 03 | $4,769,358 | 16,533,000 37 ,036 ,000 Hard maple........ 11,228,000 20.96 | $66 31 $744,529 5,736,000 5,492 ,000 ESDEUCEC Seeds cle bie a 8,767 ,000 16.37 88 23 773,512 5,980,000 2,787,000 Yellow poplar....... 8,213,000 15.34 89 19 732,517 37 ,000 8,176,000 Whestmitiss.cctc. a 053 ,000 13.13 56 79 400 , 540 238 ,000 6,815,000 Tes (fa hia re 5,256 ,O00 9.82 OF 11 SIO ALO) Ie sorta eects 5,256,000 Mahogany..........] 4,172,000 7.78 | 208 73 S705822) |i) ty. ee 4,172,000 Ley ivi je Sees 3,891,000 7.26 62 34 242 ,565 2,958, 000 933 ,000 iWihitte pine .:.5.'. >... 1,443,000 2.69 84 69 122,178 786 ,000 657 ,000 Wihiteroake 54. 2%... 1,181,000 2.22 | 154 40 1825346). .ae4e aac 1,181,000 Laer Te ae Ree eae 662 ,000 1.24 64 68 42,818 545 ,000 117,000 SBD Se eiippo ht oeeee 484 ,000 .90 69 41 33,594 100 ,000 384 ,000 Basswood...... Scat 353 ,000 .66 85 74 30 , 266 103 ,000 250,000 Sitka cae He 200 ,000 38 92 50 1S 5500). th serena 200 ,000 Ash... Spratt ss 183 ,000 .35 83 18 15,222 12,000 171,000 Redwood. eee iefnvete 89 ,000 sa ly( 49 12 A SIZ iW cies sets cieiete 89,000 Black walnut....... 78,000 .15 | 134 09 10,459 1,000 77,000 Soft maple.... 7 70,000 “2183 50 71 3,549 37 ,000 33,000 Loblolly pine 65,000 212 46 46 30208 | «3-cen eee 65,000 Cherry (black)...... 56 ,000 .11 | 140 00 1840 tA eee 56 ,000 Wowelas Gr... ces 43,000 .08 81 84 S7DIGM ya atom ace 43,000 Western red cedar... 30,000 .06 | 110 00 UR) error s.oc. 30,000 Witch hazel........ 23,000 .04 66 52 ais Fe ster’ 23,000 GOSeWOOd.........'s 10 ,000 .02 | 900 00 10 ,000 Bupar pmnels..). . sa. 8,000 .01 | 200 00 8,000 Holly (American)... 7,000 .01 | 150 00 T3QD0F ln e5 eerers ee 7,000 Nh ee eee 3,000 L 65 00 nL? ial | pee eelrse 3 3,000 PeCIOAK! f:. soo 2 2). 1,000 * | 105 00 LOB asec tea te 1,000 * Less than one-hundredth of one per cent. 70 Discussion of Industries over 16,000,000 feet of local raw material. The average price for the whole industry, $89.03 per thousand, is only exceeded by eight other industries in the State and is indicative of the high lage of material demanded for musical instruments. There is no great waste in the factories. While only the clear stock free from all defects can be used, most of the small ends and blocks can be utilized. Yellow poplar, maple, and gum waste generally can be turned into small parts for interior of pianos, while the waste from the dimension stock of the high-grade woods is used for ornaments, carvings, corners, moldings, ete. The cost of assorting is the great obstacle to economically handling such waste for the productim of some valuable by-product. Car ConsTRUCTION Car construction is one of the most important wood-using industries in the State. It ranks seventh in the list of indus- tries reporting and consumed 34,476,000 feet of lumber and dimension stock. The wood is used in the manufacture and repair of freight, passenger, Pullman, and baggage cars, and in the cabs of locomotives. Several large railroads have impor-»* tant establishments and repair shops within this State. Some material entering the repair trade comes direct from the mill all worked and is consequently not reported in this industry but has been included with planing mills and general mill work. A large amount of material, especially in dimension form, is used in the maintenance of way; none of this material is reported in this table. Southern yellow pine contributed about two-thirds of all wood entering this important industry at an average cost of $63.86 per thousand or about $4.50 per thousand less than the average cost for all species. These southern yellow pines find a great variety of uses in the car trade. Especially they are used for heavy framing and construction, siding, flooring, roof- ing, decking, and grain doors. The oaks are used largely for car frames, posts, and locomotive woodwork. White oak is very “UOTPONA}SUOD [9948 AQ apvUL SpBOLUT ay} SurpueysyzIMjou “Surrooy pue SomBIY IOF posn ATOSIV] TITS SL PooAA “UOTZONAYSUO. Jo asanoo UI Bd Jods BV JO WRAY NOLLONULSNOD AVO i 1 are. ACFE i I (o Discussion of Industries important in high-grade repair work where great strength is re-! quired. Some specifications demand oak only for the framework of pilots and for passenger-car draft-timbers and sills, while either oak or ash must be used for car trucks. Oak is demanded generally for end sills of tenders and bumper beams of locomo- tives, car bearers, bolsters, posts, and braces. Spruce is mainly used for running boards. White pine, in addition to general construction uses such as siding and framing, is used for tool hoxes, core hoxes, and trim. Yellow poplar, one of the higher- priced woods, is used along with mahogany, maple, and the oaks for passenger car finish, The higher-grade quarter-sawed oaks, showing such beautiful grain. in interior finish, come from the central western States. Hard maple is used in con- siderable quantities for car platforms. Douglas fir, like yellow pine, is used for sills and beams where strength is required. Mahogany, supplemented by imitations from birch and other woods, is the principal finish of passenger ears. The average cost of all woods, $59.32, is lower than in most industries. Among the reasons why the cost of car stock 1s comparatively low, notwithstanding the fact that a ‘good grade of material is demanded, are that the stock for car repairing need not be dressed and that the railroads can haul stock from distant States without paying heavy charges for transportation. The form of the raw material is generally rough planks, but much of it is dimension stock for posts, sills, ete. The lengths, widths, and thicknesses of the rough planks are generally cut to order. The standard lengths for car and dimension oak are 8, 9, 10, 12, 14, and 16 feet. Dimension-sawed common oak plank and timbers used for car building purposes must be free from wind shakes, dry rot, rotten knots, or defects which impair the strength of the piece. While New York contributes but 1,335,000 feet of the raw material, there is a great possibility of developing a splendid market at home. Railroad companies prefer to buy local stock whenever it is available and New York woodlot owners should endeavor to ascertain the form, grade, and species desired by purchasing agents in their vicinity. Only a few of the 18 species needed by the railroads are necessarily purchased Car Construction 13 abroad and in very small amounts for interior finish. The total expenditure of over $2,000,000 annually by the railroad companies for woods should attract the attention of our local lumbermen and bring about a greater consumption of home- grown mature timber especially along the railroads. The species in order of importance contributed by New York are white oak, birch, hard maple, and red oak; other species contributing but small quantities are yellow poplar, beech, chestnut, basswood, and hemlock. TABLE 9 Car CONSTRUCTION Quantity UsEep emai? sia Total cost Grown in {Grown out of Kinp or Woop |————-——|ner 1,000| ‘£9: D- New York. | New York. e eat factory (Feet b. m.) | (Feet b. m.) Feet b. m. | Per cent “blog: aoe 34,476,000 | 100.00 | $59 32 | $2,045,035 1,335,000 33,141,000 Southern yellow pine| 22,652,000 65.71 | 363) 86 |. $1,440,550 |. 0. 2-268 22,652,000 Wihitecak...c5..... 6,564,000 19.03 52 86 346 , 983 380 ,000 6,184,000 White pine......... 1,166,000 3.38 55 83 GBS O9Se | wind medtew ae 1,166,000 Hard maple........ 545,000 1.58 30 41 16,573 270 ,000 275,000 Yellow poplar....... 531,000 1.54 | 101 59 53,944 10,000 521,000 Bia Nias ote Sait... 530 ,000 1.53 34 17 18,100 288 ,000 242,000 PREGEORICS, Clo. dhaieiele so 500 , 000 1.46 40 00 20,000 250,000 250,000 Bectiwewarhtatl. «250 470 ,000 1.36 30 08 14,138 50,600 420 ,000 Chestnuts vert. ccice 452 ,000 i Aer 31 09 14,053 50,000 402 ,000 Basswood.......:.. 352,000 1.03 30 75 10,824 25,000 327,000 UENEI 850 Teo Pee 220 ,000 .64 59 38 T3064 hh sets eee 220 ,000 SDRUCE. mee iaec Be er 213,000 .62 41 O01 85080 oon eee 213.000 DG TISSHAD cgi 5. 128 ,000 37 32 00 4096.1. se3eeeeee 128 ,000 Western white pine. . 50,000 15 | 1385, 00 GaCDOR | ere 50,000 Mahogany.......... 28,000 .08 | 215 00 60201). ty. a.80tetone 28,000 REG MING ay. veces es 25,000 .07 | 120 00 SOOO Nae terion 25,000 itemlockie est... 5% 25,000 O07 34 00 850 12,000 13,000 KE DTESS ae che ss. o.5-6's 25,000 07 90 00 220) 3|\ eos deere 25,000 The total quantity of lumber reported by the car trade is but one-half the amount in 1912. This decrease is due to a smaller number of establishments in the State, to the excessive cost of labor and materials, and to the displacement of wood by metal. It is a fact that steel has forged ahead tremendously as a car-building material within the past ten years. “ The Rail- road Tie Producer” for March, 1920, quotes an authority as saying that, because of a lack of 500,000 freight cars, it will take the car manufacturing plants at full time three years to 74 Wood-Using Industries of New York catch up with the demand for new ears. This statement indi- cates that in the near future the car industries will be calling for a greater quantity of wood than was used in 1919. SHADE AND Map Roxiers Table 10 refers to curtain poles, rug poles, map rollers, and shade rollers, the consumption of such articles being 29,946,000 feet annually. The manufacture of shade rollers is a special line, and several firms are engaged exclusively in the produc- tion of this article. A large part of the white pine reported is used by such establishments. Some plants are equipped only to manufacture shade roller blanks bored and fitted to receive the spring. The dimensions of shade rollers used in large quantities are 15/16 of an inch in diameter and 5614 to 42 inches in length, bored in one end to a depth of 9 inches to receive the spring and chamfered on the same end to receive the ferrule. The raw material is largely shipped in from Canada and is well-seasoned and kiln-dried white pine. Some of the rollers are made of two pieces and joined together with a plug splice which is, of course, glued. Local manufacturers have for years reported a scarcity of suitable clear stock. There is no reason why the clear, soft, light, white, nonresin- ous, workable white pine of New York’s forests should not supply all their needs, if it were always available in sufficient quantities. TABLE 10 SHADE AND Map ROLLERS Quantity USED ANNUALLY ah ereee Total cost Grown in |Grown out of Kixnp or Woop e000 f.0.b New York. | Ne» York. is Soak factory (Feet b. m.) | (Feet b. m.) Feet b. m. | Per cent Totals ce ee 29,946,000 | 100.00 | $44 23 | $1,324,434 2,523,000 27,423,000 White pine. .... ..-| 26,226,000 87.57 | $44 40 | $1,164,434 1,923,000 24,303 ,000 Basswood ee ee 1,100,000 3.67 42 00 46 , 200 100 ,000 1,000 ,000 Redipine=. 2sac. 4. 1,000 ,000 3.34 42 00 AD OOO Fone ee cee 1,000 ,000 Souruces! 7.2544 .. 1,000 ,000 3.34 42 00 42 50008 |) ccc ots cane 1,000 ,000 Hard maple........ 250 ,000 .84 45 00 11,250 250, 000%)" 22s eee Beech. secre: = etree 250 ,000 .84 45 00 11,250 250 ,000"| 22 ee eee 13720 OF ahr eae ee 100 ,000 . 34 55 00 5 500) | unctechs 5 eae 100 ,000 Nea tee ei = tee 20 ,000 -06 90 00 1 OOO: [cere meee 20,000 Discussion of Industries 15 The hardwoods contribute the raw material for the curtain poles and trimming. Red gum is used exclusively for curtain poles, while basswood is used only for rug poles. Beech, ash, and sugar maple contribute to the production of both curtain and rug poles, but the principal raw material used for rug poles is beech. In 8 years this industry has undergone a tremendous expansion, as twenty times as much is now con- sumed in a single year as was reported in 1912. CASKETS AND COFFINS Twenty-two woods are consumed locally for the production of caskets and coffins, and 29,230,000 feet of raw material brought an average price of $65 per thousand during the high- market period of 1919. The industry includes not only caskets but also the rough outer boxes, which explains the use of a large quantity of very ordinary wood. The more expensive veneers, such as mahogany, are imported from the tropics for the outside finish of the highest-grade caskets. Two styles of caskets are made, usually the finest class being finished in natural wood, while the others are covered with dark woolen cloth. Since the cloth-covered caskets are in more gen- eral use, the woods which are suitable for this purpose include chestnut and white pine, the principal species contributing to the industry. Chestnut has the capacity to resist decay and contributes more than 50 per cent of the raw material for the whole industry. Some of the larger factories depend almost entirely upon chestnut and white pine. Because chestnut resists decay and because minor defects, such as worm holes, do not interfere with usefulness in this industry, its utilization in the form of very low-grade stock is possible. The standard grade known as “sound wormy” is consumed in very large quantities and at prices well below the average for the industry Well selected high-grade chestnut stock is sometimes used as outside material, but generally it is used as a backing with a veneer of the more expensive woods or as the body of the cloth- covered coffins. Mahogany and yellow poplar, white and red oak, and birch are all popular woods for the outside finish. ‘poOM JO apeuUt sepoIzAR [eTyuesse Aq “OABIS OY} 0} B[PBID OY} Wo1F ‘popunoLiMs 1B sSuieq uRMMY YVY} SYAvuter AZTIoYJNR JuuTWIa UY “ALOJBF JoYSvo BJO WOOL SuUIT(Uasse SNIG4OQ GNY SLAMSV/) el Caskets and Coffins al TABLE 11 CASKETS AND COFFINS R QUANTITY USED ANNUALLY Average ma Total cost Grown in |Grown out of » Kinp or Woop er 1,000 f'0: |: New York. | New York. Pp fact factory (Feet b. m.) | (Feet b. m.) Feet b. m. | Per cent STOUR. shar ch ova)» a 29,230,000 | 100.00 | $65 41 | $1,911,838 360,000 28,870,000 Chestnut ten. ..4.28 Fs Shu 15,689,000 53.67 | $56 40 $874 , 860 150,000 15,539,000 Wihite pine. ........>- 5,983,000 20.47 62 72 SUG yoDE sect oeists 5,983,000 Rettaaleers 2 yfecs. «5% 1,704,000 5.83 | 106 74 183,485) |e ayes eee 1,704,000 Western pine Ene 1,677,000 5.74 52 10 SU OUS NW te.o aerdesrs nm a7 1, 677, 000 White oak.. 1,340,000 4.58 90 73 1216 578) har Fees. 1,340,000 @ypresse sch b icine i. 978,000 3.385 71 68 OOS ul¥erseis tea. © - 978,000 Mahogany......... 656,000 2.24 | 174 68 il: LAOS | ee Ss 656 ,000 Yellow poplar....... 298 ,000 1.02 69 54 20) Taal ate ok ares 298,000 TROEGWODG 6 cit cele es 0% 247 ,000 .85 64 93 VG ROSS Wi aa reuteeteras 247 ,000 Spruce............. 125,000 .43 | 48 00 6 OOM riegeeehont 125,000 Bir lipyterrsiae ie) kes 115,000 .39 70 00 8,050 95,000 20,000 IBBSSWOOG: © -.'....-\s:s 100,000 .34 73 00 7,300 100:;000::|\< taeaeceee Black walnut....... 53,000 -19 { 119 62 63340 Nata eee 53,000 Douglas fir....... Ae 50,000 .17 | 70 00 3 500i ses 50,000 Southern yellow pine 50,000 17 59 00 29601 see: fae 50,000 IBIGK BV rhs ayia) shee ov 44,000 215 67 50 2 OFO 4) (esc aieee ae 44,000 Tupelo.. 30,000 .10 60 00 S00) Wes acereatoce 30,000 Southern ‘red cedar. 26,000 .09 | 135 00 3 SLO pers. Meeres 2 26 ,000 aoa ate oe o siaitie a0 25,000 .08 65 00 T6205 oie o 45 fee 25,000 Hand Diaple...scikere i 20,000 .07 72 00 1 440. Ajeet sc 20,000 Beecher sd deus 65:45 15,000 .05 60 00 900 15; OOOK |) taras tea tee Red gum 5,000 .02 90 00 4500 io aceerelen 5,000 For the outer boxes and shipping cases white pine, yellow pine, and yellow poplar are generally used. Cypress is also used on account of its resistance to decay in contact with the soil, and throughout the United States it is one of the principal casket woods. Red cedar, like cypress, is one of the most enduring woods. It has the further recommendations of hold- ing its form well, taking a pleasing finish, and having an agreeable odor. The comparatively small amount used at this time is evidence of the scarcity of the wood, as it formerly was extensively employed everywhere for the burial of the dead. Two million feet of California redwood finds its way across the continent for use in this industry on account of its ability to resist decay in contact with the soil, and it is supplied at a 78 Discussion of Industries price below the average. Black walnut is, on account of its workable qualities, a desirable material but too scarce and expensive to be utilized to a large extent. With the exception of southern red cedar, it is the most expensive native wood used in the industry. There is much chestnut in the woodlots of New York that might be utilized in the casket and coffin industry were it not for the fact that the large corporations in the business generally prefer to obtain their stock from wholesalers located in the larger timber areas of West Vir- ginia, Kentucky, and North Carolina. Chestnut which has suffered chestnut blight makes very satisfactory material. Large factories are located in New York, Brooklyn, Buffalo, Rochester, Elmira, Oneida, Syracuse, Webster, and other points throughout the State. CHAIRS Table 12 accounts for 22,300,000 feet of raw material con- sumed. This industry is really a part of the furniture manu- facture; but certain manufactories make a specialty of chairs, and it is possible to fairly well distinguish these plants from the general furniture establishments. Hardwoods contribute almost all of the woods going into chairs. The seats and backs are generally of veneer and manufactured as a separate com- modity by some factories. Usually three sheets of thin veneer are glued together, and the articles are generally perforated. Such built-up stock for three-ply seats and backs, having the grain of the middle sheet at right angles to those on the outside is much stronger than a solid wood construction of the same thickness. New York turns out all kinds of chairs, from the cheapest camp chairs to the finest office and lodge furniture. Mahogany and black walnut are the most expensive woods employed, and beech is the cheapest. The rather low price, as reported in this table, is due to the fact that one of the largest firms using several million feet of Adirondack hardwoods, owns its stumpage. This is an example for the trade. There is no cin Chairs 79 insurance against a wave of high prices that can compare with the ownership of forest land. To some extent the employment of standard dimension stock also helps to keep moderate the price of this class of lumber. Other classes of furniture change so rapidly in styles and forms, as fashion may dictate, that it is difficult to conduct a furniture factory on an economical basis of production. The chair industry is not wasteful, the plants being able to utilize very small pieces. This is an industry in which home-grown material predominates on account of the relatively large amounts of birch, maple, and beech employed. Nearly 60 per cent of the chair stock reported was grown in New York State. The chair industry has within the past 10 years become highly specialized. There are three distinct divisions: First, the manufacture of chairs of the cheapest variety, such as kitchen chairs, dining-room chairs, nursery chairs, and living- room chairs made to meet the demand for the lowest priced article that can be produced; second, the manufacture of a medium grade of chairs for living room, library, and parlor use which are known to the trade as “ fancy chairs”; third, the manufacture of chairs which are partly or entirely covered with upholstery, which are known to the trade as “ upholstered chairs.” The latter division, however, can not be clearly defined because all three classes use more or less upholstering in their product. The first class employs beech, gum, and maple to a large extent. The second class uses principally birch, gum, and mahogany. The third class employs birch and mahogany for the exposed parts of the frame, while those parts which are upholstered are made largely of sound wormy chestnut and of elm, beech, and maple. The use of built-up . veneered seats and backs is largely confined to the first or cheapest class and to the manufacture of store and railroad station furniture, such as settees. Chairs designed for the furnishing of school rooms are of special models suitable for the purpose and are made largely of oak, but to some extent employ the veneered seat. 80 Discussion of Industries TABLE 12 CHAIRS Quantity UsEep ANNUALLY Aver mg Total cost Grown in |Grown out of KiInp OF Woop 000 f. 0. b New York. New York. var a factory (Feet b. m.) | (Feet b. m.) Feet b. m. | Per cent Ce ——— | — | | | dl a 8 Ee SRS eI 22,318,000 | 100.00 | $58 35 | $1,302,410 | 13,073,000 9,245,000 Birches owe! oats s,s 4,938,000 22.13 | $48 05 $237 ,271 2,349,000 2,589,000 Hard maple........| 4,270,000 19.13 45 49 194,192 4,055,000 215,000 IBeegne ops. one 3,270,000 14.65 34 71 113,502 3,210,000) | 2-4 eta Whhiteioak:4).2 5.25: 3,212,000 14.38 93 10 299 ,037 250,000 2,962,000 LO iTae eee ees cae 1,686,000 7.55 39 25 66,175 930 ,000 756 ,000 Basswood.......... 1,128,000 5.06 39 82 44,917 1,086,000 42,000 Red gamit sae: Aee5 1,070,000 4.80 79 23 SE S016) Dales cats clare 1,070,000 Mahogany. 5 .2c- «=. 795,000 3.56 | 191 32 152-0900) be.o ss cee 795 ,000 Cherry (black)...... 783 ,000 8.51 39 79 31,156 760,000 23,000 JACI OSES SER eee 610,000 AAT (3 48 68 29,695 348 ,000 262,000 IREQ OBA eh. 6s.05.0 276 ,000 1.24 77 63 PASE: Lin PercnoiahS Oe 276,000 Black walnut....... 185,000 -83 | 129 65 23,985 || 24 Sete 185,000 Buckeye. as: f. 5... ss 38,000 Aily/ 45 00 A OPH at Roos seis 38,000 Sprices.¢45..8ial es 30,000 .14 | 40 00 T5200)" be, cota 30,000 Chestnut. 2224... 2. 27,000 a, 47 00 1,269 25,000 2,000 Motor VEHICLES The phenomenal increase in the use of motor-driven vehicles has so outstripped the manufacture of horse-drawn vehicles that the wood consumption of each line of industry is tabulated separately for the first time in this study. Trade statistics show that in New York the ratio of motor vehicles to popula- ion is now 1 ‘o 19.12, while in the United States the ratio is 1 to 14.14. Canada comes next in order with a ratio of 1 to 21. In 1919 the manufacturers of automobiles, trucks, auto _ bodies, truck bodies and wheels, together with the repairers of motor-driven vehicles report the consumption of 20,813,000 feet of wood. The high grades necessary for this exacting service are indicated by the very high average price of $101.08 per thousand paid for the raw material. White ash with a consumption of over 7,000,000 feet or 35 per cent of the total is the wood in greatest demand. Northern grown ash has qualities of toughness and resiliency which Motor Vehicles 8] render it matchless for the purpose. It is the king of woods for the motor industry, being used for more purposes as well as in greater quantity than any other. Several manufacturers note their appreciation of this wood and regret that a larger supply is not available having the qualities of that grown in New York. It appears in the bentwood bows for tops, seats, bodies, wheels, and even in the chassis of certain well known ears. Maple and oak go into bodies of both pleasure cars and trucks, with paneling of ash, oak, maple, elm, and poplar. Seats are of yellow poplar, ome and ash. Bodies of heavy trucks have frames of oak, mpl, and yellow pine, with floor- ing and steering-wheel rims of maple. Hickory, ash, and oak are the main components of motor wheels, and here again the makers call for a larger supply of New York-grown hickory, as well as basswood for panels. In the bodies of light trucks and in repairs, the other species mentioned are all utilized, except mahogany which is reserved for trimmings of the finest touring cars. Rosewood, though not tabulated, is also used for this purpose. Recently the Forest Service canvassed all the automobile manufacturers of the United States, asking what woods were best adapted to the different parts of the wooden construction. The following table is a condensation of the major part of the replies received. The figures opposite each species indicate the number of makers who choose that wood for the purpose at the top of the column. Woods Chosen by Manufacturers of Automobiles and the Purposes to which They Are Adapted Bopy Parts Run- 2 Door Floor Seat P Top Spokes} Rims frames | boards | boxes Beads bows Straight| Bent Pstinee tay. < Aetna oe s 7 41 28 36 26 11 16 33 Oak 7 23 10 10 27 14 13 26 BT SO ee Sen 4 15 23 AE Wears ae 9 1 6 Ewe 22 18 15 5 Cll hie ge 6 2 2 5 6 2 1 Yellow POAT isa tai lee d-1~1- sachs 9 1 2 7 iC Hi) Neeereet ord (accused BAICKOTY/2i052 2 ss's'e s 55 OE s: eehelcte We [ee ahatelsiavern [phe sate oe |+ aercilere. wine) | erases 5 82 Wood-Using Industries of New York The heavy majority in favor of hickory for spokes should be noted. The failing supply of this wood has resulted in the application of much inventive genius to the evolution of wheels which could dispense with hickory. Wheels made of steel disks are seen not infrequently, and other plans are being tried, notably along the line of laminated wooden construction. The repair of motor cars and trucks and the building of delivery bodies adapted to transform old automobiles into lght trucks constitute an enormous business, which occupies many of the shops and the men who were formerly in the wagon- building and repair trade. The 566,511 motor vehicles reported in New York State will continue to require great amounts yearly of ash, oak, hickory, maple, elm, and _ bass- wood. The racking strains of motor service demand the finest quality of wood to be had, both for repairs arid in new cars and trucks. . Out of the 19 species tabulated 14 can nowhere else be grown to better advantage for quality than in New York. Yet the TABLE 13 Moror VEHICLES Quantity UseD Average : = Total cost Grown in |Grown out of Krnp or Woop ANNUALLY pate f0Nb: New York. | New York. IY eet factory (Feet b. m.) | (Feet b. m.) Feet b m. | Percent otaleees. f9eiee 20,813,000 | 100.00 |$101 08 | $2,103,699 5,592,000 15,221,000 elt ccs tase aso Loeee O00 35.18 |$140 77 | $1,030,718 2,329,000 4,993,000 Hard maple........ 3,126,000 15.02 87 99 275,057 789 ,000 2,337,000 White oak..........; 2,905,000 13.96 | 105 63 225,855 681,000 2,224,000 Yellow poplar....... 1,319,000 6.34 | 116 48 153,637 12,000 1,307,000 Southern yellow pine] 1,204,000 5.78 71 44 861, ONAN crocs vetoes 1,204,000 IB inc hematite pair. 1,151,000 Bee 60 95 70,153 1,000 ,000 151,000 Basswood.......... 860 ,000 4.13 66 72 57,379 313,000 547,000 Finck ony eer seers 831,000 3.99 | 100.14 83,216 165,000 666 , 000 Soicogeeone oo omne 536 ,000 2.58 83 04 44,509 4,000 532,000 TRic(elifabboalyeye Gina cleo 424 ,000 2.04 38 81 16);4:5 5%) Bane 424,000 Beechit secic cence 400 ,000 1.92 40 00 16,000 160,000 240,000 T.oblolky pine....... 314,000 1.51 38 61 1 Wp ean ere oe 8 314,000 1D) ba leet sic eoOe Neen chore 148 ,000 .69 65 11 9,311 37,000 106 ,000 White pine......... 105,000 .50 90 006 OC ABO 4. ce aoe see 105,000 Red! oaks bie. pn aay 100,000 -48 60 00 6,000 100) 0005| (eee aaeeeee @ypresseee.. sere cpoore 38 ,000 .18 99 82 BeOS be sels sesh 38,000 Cottonwood........ 25,000 alle 60 00 : L2500)"|) 4.2 3) eee 25,000 Mahogany......... 8,000 .04 | 300 00 SA OOtie BES see ee 8,000 @hestnut:.. 5. 1-5 55- 2,000 .O1 64 00 128 2, OOO) is 52 a ese Discussion of Industries 83 State produced only one-fourth of the total amount consumed This would seem the finest opportunity possible for the owners of New York woodlots to keep within the State nearly $1,500,- 000 which was paid out to other States for wood used in motor vehicles. AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS New York is prominent in the manufacture of agricultural implements. The factories cover a broad field of activity, pro- ducing general agricultural implements, such as threshers, binders, corn cutters, cultivators, drills, ensilage cutters, grain cradles, harrows, harvesters, hay loaders, hay racks, hay tedders, hay presses, hoppers, lawn mowers, planters, plows, spreaders, windmills, ete. This industry is closely related with handles and vehicles in that most of the material going into the agricultural-implement stock consists of vehicle poles, single trees, whiffletrees, or handles for articles such as plows, cultiva- tors, and drills, while only the conveying or vehicle parts con- sist of wood. The manufacture of agricultural implements in the State is extremely important, the amount of wood con- sumed being only a small proportion of the raw material used in the production of the finished article. The total consump- tion amounts to 19,000,000 feet annually and the average price paid by the manufacturers $62.83 per thousand feet in 1919. About one-third of the raw material is home-grown and the various establishments are so generally distributed over the State that woodlot owners are in a position to supply the needs of factories at their doors without heavy transportation charges. The southern pines have superseded maple in first place since 1912, relative to quantity consumed. Longleaf pine is imported in large quantities for use as implement poles, where its strength makes it a desirable material. Sugar maple is consumed in larger quantities than any other wood except yellow pine, and is used largely for singletrees, neck yokes, eveners, drill frames, lawn mower handles, drill boxes, and seed boxes of general agricultural implements. Its hardness recommends it also for ensilage cutter frames and 84 Wood-Using Industries of New York cutter blocks. Two-thirds of the sugar maple used in the industry is home-grown. White oak is needed for the framework of articles such as hay presses and hay racks, and as beams for handles. Ash takes its place in the handle parts of cultivators and along with oak in plow beams, plow handles, and tanks of the heavier farm machinery. Many of the woods, such as spruce, bass- wood, beech, white pine, hemlock, and yellow poplar, have no special qualifications for a particular use in the industry but are used indiscriminately for all kinds of framework. Red gum is imported in large quantities and finds use mainly as box material in threshing machines and other smaller articles. Hickory is used for maul and hay fork handles and for repair work of vehicles, especially the replacing of spokes. A small amount is used for rods connected with threshing TABLE 14 AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS Quantity UsepD ANNUALLY Aver re Total cost Grown in |Grown out of Kinp or Woop er 1000 f1OF Ds New York. | New York. Pp feet factory (Feet b. m.) | (Feet b. m.) Feet b. m. | Per cent Matas cyacuvernels 19,064,000 | 100.00 | $62 88 | $1,197,890 6,551,000 12,513,000 Southern yellow pine} 4,117,000 21.60 | $80 97 $333,353) || Pasa 4,117,000 Hard maple........ 3,495,000 18.33 63 06 220,395 2,390 ,000 1,105,000 Gorices ie erases 2,620,000 13.74 38 00 99 , 560 20 ,000 2,600,000 Birch). eee ei ee 1,427,000 7.49 iy ays 78,728 1,290 ,000 137,000 White oak..........] 1,308,000 6.86 (al val 93,797 866 , 000 442,000 BaSswOOGeirase tes = 1,271,000 6.67 71 52 90,900 178,000 1,093,000 Wihtte pines. cfs. > ac 1,265,000 6.64 43 82 55,432 352,000 913,000 Beech stint oe eee 1,238,000 6.49 45 06 55,784 1,127,000 111,000 HAC Lie eels Cee 348 ,000 1.83 74 42 25,898 188 ,000 160 ,000 Or OO oe. SPP Se 340,000 1.78 66 04 22,454 75,000 265,000 Yellow poplar...... 319,000 1.67 76 51 24 AQT NEARS «dt Bd 319,000 Western white pine.. 300 ,000 1.57 70 00 AAC OO (HENS eiceeee oe 300 , 000 Cottonwood........ 270,000 1.42 70) 55 19) 049) 3 2455" ce ee 270,000 Hemlock 32s. west: 165,000 .87 40 00 6,600 65,000 100 ,000 Red gums star . sree 165,000 .87 79 70 ae Ye Ua Ts rs eee 2 165,000 IALCKOLy:s teint ehh oe 125,000 .66 87 00 LO S756] bagsp- ote 125,000 @YPLOGs saci Safeco steer 116,000 .60 71 40 Be Bees arent 116,000 Loblolly pine....... 100 ,000 .52 | 1380 00 LS SOOO we geese cs eee 100 , 000 Dongias fre)... 50,000 . 26 82 00 A SOON |S 2s aoe 50,000 Chestnut... Was Geshe 25,000 .13 45 00 pee S| aes ee eee oe 25,000 Discussion of Industries 85 machines, where extreme toughness and capacity to resist shock are essential properties. A small amount of bald cypress is imported into the State and is used principally for tanks in the threshing line. Elm is used chiefly for hay racks and ensilage cutter frames. Hickory is the highest-priced wood ~ consumed in the industry, the entirely disproportionate price tabulated tor loblolly pine being caused by a freak of the market at a time when astonishing prices were paid occasionally for material to keep factories up to the demand. Boot anp SHOE FINDINGS Boot and shoe findings include principally lasts, last blocks, shoe forms, shoe trees, fillers, and pegs. Sugar maple is the principal last stock for all factories and contributes 90 per cent of the wood used. The list of last woods includes persim- mon and beech, but these woods are not important in the indus- try. Basswood is used occasionally for lasts, generally as a filler, in the blocks, and for hollow forms. Sugar maple so admirably meets the requirements of the last industry that comparatively little other wood is used. All the woods used are home-grown except persimmon, which is brought from Arkansas, Tennessee, and other States. The short haul and the use of bolts or logs at the factory instead of rough-turned last blocks are factors of great aid in keeping down the cost of the high-grade wood demanded. Maple is_ preferred because it is hard, smooth-grained, tough, capable of high polish, does not warp or shrink, holds metal clamps well, and resists the severe wear to which it is subjected. The fact that New York’s woodlots and forests contribute 84 per cent of the maple consumed in the manufacture of lasts is evidence of the natural economic location of these factories. The industry is growing and will need all the bolts and rough dimension blocks available from our local woods. One of the features of remark in this industry is the increase of factories making wooden heels for women’s shoes, of which there are about 15 in New York and Brooklyn. This branch of the industry demands large quantities of high-grade hard MANUFACTURE OF WOOD ALELS DQ/IAGHAM /LLUSTRATING CUTTING OF BLANAS (ROM LUMBER ALAA ELLEVAT/ON Boot AND SHOE FINDINGS Successive steps in manufacture of a wood heel. Boot and Shoe Findings 87 maple which is cut into small blocks before being fed to turn- ing machinery. The waste in turning amounts to 70 per cent or more on account of the deeply curved surfaces. This is apparently a line of work which might use to advantage clear maple blocks, the by-product from other industries. As seen in one factory the procedure is as follows: The raw material consists of rough hard maple, No. 1 Common, 12 inches wide and 1-7/16 inches in thickness. The planks are sawed lengthwise into strips 214 inches wide, and these strips are then cut off into blocks of dimensions which will just enclose the largest size of heel. The diagram above illus- trates the plan on which the sawing is done, while figure 1 in the illustration shows the block immediately after it has been sawed. These blocks are taken one at a time by workmen and fed into a machine which quickly cuts out the curved surface of the front face of the heel, as shown in figure 2. The block is then fed to a second machine in which it passes before curved revolving knives. These produce the graceful curved surfaces of the rear side of the heel, leaving it with the usual narrow neck. This neck is a weak spot, and although care is taken to have the grain of the wood follow the most advantageous planes, there would not be sufficient strength to withstand the strains to which a heel is subjected if it were not for the addi- tional stiffness rendered by the dowel shown in figure 4. A hole is bored vertically through the heel, and the dowel dipped in glue and driven into the hole as shown in figure 5. Fol- lowing this process the bearing surface of the heel is sawed off, dowel and all, at the proper plane to meet the ground squarely in the act of walking, as illustrated in figure 6. In this stage the upper surface of the heel is flat, which would be uncomfortable to the foot of the wearer. Therefore it is passed through another machine which produces a suitable hol- low to receive the heel of the wearer as shown in figure 7. Figure 8 shows the small piece of sole leather which is used as a cap to receive the wear of the pavement and also aid in preventing splitting in the vertical plane. This is put in place and fastened securely with a screw and several nails. In 88 Wood-Using Industries of New York figure 9 we see the finished heel, which has been covered with an enameled metal jacket, or else with leather, as in the case of white kid heels. The heels are then assorted for size, wrapped in tissue paper, and packed in paper boxes for sale to users of boot and shoe findings. The statement is made by manufacturers that approxi- mately 60 per cent of the wood purchased goes into waste, but as far as might be judged by noting the reduction in weight from a block to a finished heel, 78 per cent of the block goes into chips, in addition to the considerable loss resulting from the numerous saw kerfs when the plank is cut into blocks. In the diagram, figure 2 is a side elevation of one of the blocks, the shaded portion indicating the part which is cut away by the machines and goes into waste. Figure 3 is a rear elevation of the same block indicating the waste in that plane. It would seem probable that only about one-fourth of the lumber pur- chased for this industry ever becomes part of the finished product. The rest is chips and sawdust. TABLE 15 Boot AND SHOE FINDINGS Quantity Usep | ANNUALLY ceopee Total cost Grown in |Grown out of Kinp or Woop cos es 8 Now weie owt owe per 1,000) factory | (Feet b. m.) | (Feet b. m.) Feet b. m. | Per cent Motaleekes at. 14,705,000 | 100.00 | $65 44 $962,280 | 12,465,000 2,240,000 Hard maple........} 13,090,000 89.01 | $66 15 $865,903 | 10,960,000 2,130,000 IBSSSWOOKW. foe cn ven 1,055,000 eles 56 22 59 , 312 1,050,000 5,000 IBGeChinaiacas tera 385,000 2.61 52 00 20,020 385, OOO" |) cas sae eae RerginnOne se ia: 105,000 he een OL T2299 il teeteeeee 105 ,000 Birch’; eerie ear 40 ,000 20 73 00 2,920 40000 lo neesee ee 1D) oe ee a ee 25,000 .18 35 00 875 253000) a2 .2 oe steeree ickony.e ses es: 5,000 04 52 00 260 5), OOO) scree cos peneenere In view of the large percentage of waste, this industry would seem to be one in which the waste hardwood blocks from other industries might be utilized to advantage, because the increas- ing price of material might now warrant the sorting, shipping, and resawing. Discussion of Industries 89 MatcHes Wood for the production of matches and match splints must be easily worked and capable of producing a moderate flame and must also have the capacity of holding the dipping material well. Many types of machinery are used for match making. To produce the matches, the boxes into which they are packed and the labeling of boxes requires a very ingenious mechanism. There must be machines for cutting the lumber into strips and small blocks, for dipping the sticks, drying the matches, and packing and labeling the boxes. Some inventors have devoted the whole of their lives to the perfection of apparatus for the manufacture of matches. It is reported that the machine for filling the boxes with sticks alone took ten years’ time of one skilled inventor. The United States is the only country in the world which makes and uses a round mateh. For this purpose white pine is used in great quantities by large match factories in the northern portion of the State. This industry calls for 2-inch boards or deals of clear stock free from all defects, and it is largely shipped from Canada, the Lake States, and the far West. The soft wood of clear white pine is necessary for this process because the machines in common practice punch the sticks from blocks of the proper length. The square matches of the “safety” type, which are com- monly used throughout foreign countries, and to an increasing extent in the United States, are made by turning logs into veneer and then chopping the veneer into suitable sizes for the splints. Basswood and aspen are the species mainly employed, derived from Canada, New York, and Vermont. No aspen was reported in 1919. The subsequent process of placing the chemical tip on the splints is carried on in specialized factories, which also make up the boxes from veneer and paper. The United States pro- duces its own square matches to some extent but imports over 5,000,000 gross of boxes annually from Scandinavia, Japan, and other foreign countries, where very many styles of matches 90 Discussion of Industries and match-box attachments are produced. New York, how- ever, uses many millions of feet of lumber in her own factories for the production of matches and vies with other States for first place in the industry. Square match splints are exported to England, France, Mexico, Venezuela, and other South American countries. The use of spruce in the industry is accounted for by the consumption of veneer in the manufacture of the match boxes. The average price of $52.32 per M. quoted in the table is very moderate, as it is known that white pine of high grade cost up to $200 per M. at the period of this report and shortly thereafter, while the other species, in the log, went as high as $80. The most remarkable aspect of the situa- tion in this industry is that New York State should be com- pelled to import all of the white pine and spruce used. Is it not an absurd situation, for a state which once stood foremost in production of these species ? TABLE 16 MATCHES Quantity UsEeD ANNUALLY averaes Total cost Grown in |Grown out of Kinp or Woop aa ogo. eee: New York. | New York. Pp Rack factory (Feet b. m.) | (Feet b. m.) Feet b. m. | Per cent otal. cee ae 14,250,000 | 100.00 | $52 32 $745 , 500 300 , 000 13,950,000 White pine......... 10 ,000 ,000 70.18 | $52 50 $525,000) --anceeeee 10,000,000 Western white pine..| 2,000,000 14.03 52 50 1053000))|( 223 5ee eee 2,000 ,000 DEUCES ec carpe cree 1,500,000 10.53 50 00 ToO,OOO) || sete cee 1,500,000 Basswood.......... 750,000 5.26 54 00 40,500 300,000 450 ,000 WooDENWARE AND NOVELTIES Probably. no industry in the whole report contains so many separate, distinct articles of commerce as are tabulated under the above heading of Woodenware and Novelties. The ordinary household articles known as “ woodenware” and the more ornamental article known as a “novelty” are not so. much confused in their makeup and uses as in their production. Establishments that make one are so frequently manufacturers Woodenware and Novelties 91 of both classes of material, consuming similar stock and report- ing their consumption of raw material together, that it is not an easy matter to compile the data separately. The best way to outline the scope of this classification is to enumerate many of the articles included in the total of 13,000,000 feet reported in Table 17. The principal wood-consuming products are: Bread boards, buckets, butter dishes, butter moulds, cloth boards, coat hangers, clubs for policemen, cutting boards, scoops, doilies, ladles, door’ knobs, drain boards, gavels, reels, rolling pins, snow shovels, tent stakes, tent toggles, small tubs, and sugar tubs and boxes. Thus the industry includes all kinds of serving utensils and other culinary articles of the smaller size, together with semi-useful and more ornamental articles such as wooden candle sticks, paper weights, carvings, jewel boxes, etc. Much of the material going into these articles, especially such as dishes, is made of rotary-cut veneer, pro- duced directly from the log, and is very cheap since the finished articles are intended to be used only once and then thrown away. Among such articles are dishes used by grocerymen for the handling of butter and lard. The hardwoods that are cheap, easily veneered, free from odor and stain, are in general demand, the principal contributing species being basswood, beech, and sugar maple. In some novelty lines the softwoods are very important, most of the southern yellow pine and white pine reported going into such articles as small flag poles. The hardwoods, particularly ash and maple, are turned into rustic novelties. The major portion of the consumption of birch, sassafras, and black walnut goes for the production of rustic and other novelties. Ladders are manufactured by many firms, and the principal contributing species are ash, maple, and oak. Most of the ash and maple is used for ladder rungs. The foreign woods are used for carvings of the more ornamental kind and for gavels, police clubs, ete. New York manufac- turers expend annually over $250,000 for the raw material going into these small wares and most of this money goes into the purses of the woodlot owners of the State. 92 Discussion of Industries TABLE 17 WooDENWARE AND NOVELTIES ' Quantity UsED ANNUALLY AYerBEE Total cost Grown in |Grown out of Itinp oF Woop oq 000 f. 0. b. New York. | New York. Pp Fa factory (Feet b. ra.) | (Feet b. m.) Feet b. m. | Percent Motallae- oxies 2 13,745,000 | 100.00 | $39 94 $548 ,981 9,270,000 4,475,000 Hard maple, nits bythe eete 4,404,000 32.04 | $31 23 $137 ,537 3,705,000 699 ,000 Beech. . 2,649 ,000 19 27 27 42 72,636 2,568,000 81,000 Birch ee cc eee 2,340,000 17.02 28 70 67,158 2,226,000 114,000 DEUCE. eerie rsteter 1,798,000 13.08 33 42 60,089 75,000 1,723,000 Basswood.......... 746,000 5.43 59 32 44,254 347 ,000 399 , 000 White pine......... 435 ,000 3.16 69 16 30 , 085 150 ,000 285,000 Ash.. a Raabe 235,000 beri 48 65 11,433 106 ,000 129 ,000 Yellow ‘poplar OO hore 190 ,000 1.38 66 93 TP LGEN E hee eke cd 190} 000 Loblolly pine. ...... 176,000 1.28 32 00 Sa os i8 || ee Ee a 176,000 Mahogany......... 131,000 .96 | 250 00 S2aTSOE|s . setae eee 131,000 Lignum-vitae . 121,000 .88 | 300 00 SGOnSOO Nets Aker. sae 121,000 Southern yellow pine 100 ,000 .73 | 100 00 a KO}, (01010 i la ee canton 100 ,000 CWYPLEsSs.\ «stots eee 90 ,000 .65 50° 00 A500 Iith.. Sete 90 ,000 Buckey@ecm.es- se on 75,000 Atay5) 71 50 DOO sc aetna 75,000 Douglas firs 2% s-..-0 . 70,000 Roll! 68 00 AC TGQ oe ee 70,000 Cherry (black)...... 56 ,000 -41 38 13 2,135 56, 0000!) she eee ere Wihiteioak....5..... 44,000 Omm aid ala: bye sy: RUS ererene eset 44,000 1D) beatae RA Re coat 37,000 a7 25 81 955 37000) || nce ae eee Chestnutticccprctesne 25,000 18 50 00 Le 2OO ie assets areeeete 25,000 Black walnut....... 21,000 .15 | 200 00 A200). tac tee 21,000 Sassatrasevcy: «cer ee 1,000 .O1 21 00 ZA Wess ayy te 1,000 Arborvitae......... 1,000 .O1 52 00 | 52) lye aoteters Stee 1,000 HANDLES New York, though not a leading State, is an important one in the production of handles. The Lake States and other central western States have the principal factories of the larger well known corporations manufacturing fork, hoe, and axe handles. Nearly every large manufacturing establishment has need for handle stock in one form or another. A number of industries like broom factories and cutlery stock occupy a prominent place. Establishments producing farm tools, files, saws, cutlery, and other metal implements call for a great variety of woods. Maple and beech lead all species in the amount of wood con- sumed. because the principal handle business from a standpoint Handles 93 of quantity is that of brooms. Broom handles also consume a large amount of birch and white ash. Shovel handles are made largely of sugar maple, while snow shovels consume a great deal of white ash. Axe handles are made of hickory, brush handles of sugar maple, pick and peavy handles of white ash, hickory and yellow birch; while handsaws consume only apple- wood and beech. Fork and hoe handles are rarely ever made of any wood except white ash, of which a large amount is con- sumed for this purpose in other States, and most of the two million feet reported in New York goes into these articles. White ash is used for fork and hoe handles because it is tough, strong, and white. Hammer handles are made of hickory generally, this wood being almost indispensable for slender tool handles where strength and elasticity must be combined with toughness. Hickory is used in the rougher forms for mop handles, handrakes, sledge hammers and pick handles, along with white oak, white elm, and ash, where strength and resistance to sudden shock are essential requirements. Handles for coal sieves are made of basswood, beech, soft maple, and white ash. Many of the firms reported several woods under the general use of “‘ handles” and the relative importance of each wood in the production of a given style of handle cannot be accurately determined. broad conclusions are easily reached, however, relative to the specific uses of such woods as ash and hickory, the former being very generally used here for fork and hoe handles, while hickory is used universally for small tool handles and for axe handles. Saw handles also depend largely upon apple and beech, while the ordinary cutlery or knife handles consume all of the foreign woods such as cocobola, ebony, rosewood, granadilla, and lgnum-vitae. Cocobola is rather oily and not subject to much swelling or shrinkage in water and when exposed to heat. The form of the raw material going into handle factories is so varied, owing to the extremes in the dimensions of the finished articles, that detailed descriptions cannot be given. The class of handles, including the stock for hoes, forks, rakes, spades, and shovels, calls for squares of about 2 to 214 inches 94 Discussion of Industries and the extreme length of 5 feet. One large plant producing fork, hoe, and rake handles uses clear white ash in the form of rough squares or strips 15g by 15 inches and 5 feet in length. ‘Saw handles, on the other hand, are made from rectangular squares about 444 inches wide, 144 inches thick, and only 12 inches long, while from this small block two saw handles are cut. Broom handles are usually made from 2-inch squares about 5 feet long. Axe handles call for an entirely different class of raw material, which is generally purchased by the cord and in the form of billets or bolts, either split or in round timbers, and cut 40 inches long. Small tool handles, cooking utensil holders, brush and pump handles, all eall for different forms of raw material, according to their special needs. TABLE 18 HANDLES QuantTITy UsED ANNUALLY Average ont Total cost Grown in {Grown out of Kinp or Woop er 1,000 fans New York. | New York. BD fee factory (Feet b. m.) | (Feet b. m.) Feet b. m. | Per cent Motal sete s si 11,986,250 | 100.00 | $37 95 $454,814 | 11,293,000 693, 250 Hard maple......... 3,402,000 28.38 | $31 98 $108,796 3,359,000 43,000 IBeechieee on ween 2,876,000 23.99 32 13 92 ,406 28165, 0000 See anne Birch awscqeuarcttees 2,616,000 21.83 30 58 79,997 2) 61.6; 000) ievaeere nee ASHE cece tee) “ot o42e000 19.53 49 67 116,327 2,192,000 150,000 ICkOnv ceteris 468,000 3.90 58 57 27,411 16,000 452,000 IBASSWOOG a suctorel erect 76,000 63 27 68 2,104 76); OOO Mi cheoeieerer: Applewood......... 33,000 .28 36 36 1,200 33; Q00ON Sete eres Cherry (black)...... 27,000 23 35 18 950 20 ,000 7,000 Yellow poplar....... 25,000 21 17 00 425 25; 000HP aeer cee SDENCCL eb sacri cyan 23,000 .19 33 05 760 20,000 3,000 Wocobola acces ae oc 21,000 .18 | 525 00 nn O25U Sah eege 21,000 White birch. .: 2... 20 ,000 Abe 20 00 400 20000 Pane meee Hemlock sae 20,000 Slee 23 00 466 20,000)... a1..7 cece: Wihitevoalepiecstios. 11,000 .09 | 100 00 1,100 10 ,000 1,000 DON en vant Gbisidor oc 11,000 .09 | 900 00 GQ 'GOON | Pavensceccese eine 11,000 impact seise ne 8,000 07 20 00 160 $}000 ly fete cussieese ck Black walnut....... 4,000 .03 92 50 368 2,000 2,000 Granadilla,......... 1,000 .01 | 400 00 AQO Aon crspeteraens 1,000 Lignum-vitae....... 1,000 -01 | 300 00 BOO Aes a scheiate 1,000 C@ypresseis. 5 05, dome 1,000 -01 | 100 00 LOO piaauetotetren ae 1,000 Rosewood.......... 250 * | 900 00 PPA MEE Pe otc 250 * Less than 1/100 of 1 per cent. Handles 95 There is much waste in some branches of this industry, espe- cially the manufacturing of handle stock from bolts. The public has always demanded an ivory-white axe handle to the exclusion of all heartwood. Specifications calling for all clear sapwood results in extreme waste. Exhaustive experiments conducted by the United States Forest Service have shown red hickory to be just as strong, weight for weight, as white hickory and highly suitable when of proper density for all types of hickory handles. Specifications that cover this point and also the inspection of hickory handles on the basis of rate of growth have been prepared by the Forest Service, and have been adopted by the War and Navy Departments, the Panama Canal Commission, and several of the leading railroads. On the other hand, some lumber mills in this State are manufac- turing handles from stock which would otherwise go to the slab pile. The handle industry offers excellent opportunities for the utilization of small waste pieces. REFRIGERATORS AND KircHEN CABINETS This industry includes ice chests, kitchen cabinets, kitchen safes, dumb-waiters, kitchen counters, ice-cream freezers, and refrigerators. Seventeen species are reported and the consump- tion amounts to nearly 12,000,000 fect. Five species, chestnut, white oak, red oak, spruce and white pine, contribute over 80 per cent of the raw material. Table 19 is designed to cover that class of articles used in the storage and preparation of foodstuffs for cooking, except- ing the woodenware articles such as tables and spoons. Much of the wooden material used in refrigerators and kitchen cabinets and similar receptacles for food must be free from stain and odor. In addition to these qualities, especially for such uses as inside parts of refrigerators, woods must stand dampness and must scour well and give effective service where constant washing is necessary. Thus woods of quite different qualities are consumed in the production of these articles. A large percentage of all the lumber used goes into re- | frigerators. Here, especially for outer parts, the combination 96 Discussion of Industries of strength and capability of taking a good finish is essential. The oaks are best suited with ash following closely. Outside finish also consumes a small amount of mahogany, maple, birch, and chestnut. Ash and elm are especially suited for slats in refrigerators, for ice counters or frames, where great strength, stiffness, and damp-resistance must be found in slender strips of wood. For inside partitions where the wood is hidden by metal linings, chestnut, spruce, and white pine are generally used. There has been recently a heavy increase in the amount of chestnut used for this purpose. Ordinary ice boxes for cellar use are sometimes made entirely of spruce. Ice-cream freezers are made of redwood, this species coming all the way from the Pacific Coast as the sole raw material going into this article. Ice-cream cabinets are made of the various pines. A large amount of white pine is used for refrigerator backs, and much of the yellow pine reported is also used for this purpose. The second largest item in the table is that of kitchen cabinets, the rather modern earry-all or storage place for cook- ing utensils and dry foodstuffs. Generally speaking, the prin- cipal species used for this branch of the industry are white oak, red oak, yellow poplar, sugar maple, basswood, birch, red gum, and yellow pine. There is much confusion in the uses of the woods, but the particular uses of some can be pointed out. Red gum, for example, is very generally used for drawer bottoms. Maple, basswood, birch, and ash are generally used for inside construction, and the oaks for exterior finish. A large amount of yellow poplar is consumed for kitchen-cabinet tops. Spruce is, next to ash, the most important home-grown wood in the industry, and the principal woed used for interior walls and partitions of refrigerators. It is the lowest priced wood in the list. There is not much waste in this industry. Larger firms report the manufacture of brackets of various kinds from re- frigerator dimension stock. Small blocks for brackets, carv- Refrigerators and Kitchen Cabinets 97 ings, and turnery for decorative purposes make close utiliza- tion of the odds and ends of the valuable domestic and imported woods. TABLE 19 REFRIGERATORS AND KITCHEN CABINETS Quantity Usrep | ANNUALLY perce Total cost Grown in |Grown out of Krinp or Woop er 1000 éo. b. New Yorl.. | New York. P ey factory (Feet b. m.) | (Feet b. m.) Feet b. m. | Percent Alco tellievs sieves. «iesbys 11,562,000 | 100.00 | $71 59 $827 , 767 145,000 11,417,000 Chestnut sar. 36 oi, 210. 2,665,000 23.04 | $77 07 $205,392: |e. jen season 2,665,000 Rediogk:.s.6.......| 2,000,000 17.29 87 00 VTA OOOW IY carte 2,000,000 Spruce...... 1,912,000 16.54 41 40 79,157 30,000 1,882,000 White pine. . a8 1,545,000 13.38 56 81 Sli daeke |P as, suegeereie he 1,545,000 Wihiteroak crash s 1,525,000 13.18 98 21 14957 TOUS 2 hese ae 1,525,000 NSRP aoe cone iaielei's ¢ 6 4c 1,085,000 9.38 80 50 87 , 342 115,000 970,000 Yellow poplar....... 397 ,000 3.43 47 20 18,738 397,000 Western yellow pine. 250,000 2.16 38 00 9,500 250,000 PREGMCUIMN ce ess 50 , 000 .43 | 102 00 5,100 50,000 Hemlock. «ass. 0s. 32,000 .28 48 00 1,536 32,000 Hardimaple. i. 6...) 26 ,000 523 35 05 911 26,000 (Chota= hs See 15,000 13 71 00 1,065 15,000 Black walnut....... 15,000 13 | 175 00 2,625 15,000 Cherry (black)...... 15,000 .13 | 125 00 1,875 15,000 Mahogany, sles. ss. 10,000 .09 | 190 00 1,900 10,000 Ba. SL Oe 10,000 .09 47 00 47TOv ceo seas 10,000 HBO Winn creree'sc sieve 10,000 .09 61 50 GUD svevancctaisieceee 10,000 FIXTURES The manufacturers of fixtures consume 26 kinds of wood, using nearly 11,000,000 feet and paying for it the handsome average price of $85.44 per thousand feet f. o. b. factory. The industry is closely allied to those of furniture and interior house finish. The products referred to in Table 20 include articles that are at least temporarily fixed to the interior part of the house and not readily movable like furniture. Fixtures herein tabulated include equipments of banks, offices, stores, lodgerooms and churches and consist of altars, counters, drug cabinets, pews and pulpits, shelving, show cases, black- boards, billiard racks, wall cases, special telephone booths, window seats, specially made desks, tables and racks, glass-and- 4 98 Discussion of Industries sash partitions, and other articles made to order for a par- ticular room and not to be used elsewhere. The fixtures occupy a middle place between furniture and interior finish. The latter, when put in place, is permanent and becomes part of the building; fixtures may be moved with more or less remodel- ing. Still another industry, ‘ General Millwork” overlaps ‘“ Fixtures,” because many woodworking establishments have included special orders for cheap fixtures in their reports of annual consumption for “ General Millwork.” White oak leads all other species in quantity. Under ordinary market conditions oak is one of the most expensive woods, its cost being exceeded only by the cost of black walnut and imported woods such as mahogany, Circassian walnut, and rosewood. Yellow poplar occupies second place and its work- ableness and smooth, even grain and texture recommend it for backing, shelving, drawers, counters and interior parts of store fixtures. Chestnut is used along with many other cheaper woods for interior frames, shelving, and cores for veneer panels, forming the middle sheets upon which high- grade veneer woods are glued. It is also used for blackboards, mission fixtures, and telephone booths. Fixtures consume many of the high-grade woods in the form of veneer, the broad panels of show cases and tops of many articles calling for veneers from white oak, red oak, black cherry, mahogany, red gum, black walnut, Circassian walnut, and rosewood for use as outside finish. Sugar maple is used in every way for the exterior parts of store and office fixtures, but by far the larger items are reported for the production of church and school furniture. Birch and cherry are used largely for cabinet work in connection with wall fixtures, but a con- siderable amount goes into solid parts in imitation of mahogany. Red gum occupies the same position, in imitation of Circassian walnut. Much of the Circassian walnut used in New York comes from the shores of the Black Sea. Its high price of $800: per thousand feet limits its use to the very finest fixture, furniture, and cabinet work, and it was naturally difficult to obtain dur- Fixtures 99 ing the war period. The wood weighs almost forty-five pounds per cubic foot, is hard, compact, easy to work and split, moder- ately tough, durable, shrinks little in seasoning, and does not warp or crack. Burled and other highly figured forms of the wood take a beautiful polish. There are about seventy-five establishments in the State that specialize in the manufacture of fixtures and the industry is an important user of several home-grown species, including white oak, red oak, chestnut, birch, and white pine. Substitu- tion has been general in the industry, the combination of metal strips and glass for show cases having become most extensive. The fixture industry used only half as much wood as in 1912, TABLE 20 FIXTURES Quantity UsEeD ANNUALLY sa Total cost Grown in |Grown out of Kinp oF Woop er 1,000 fab: New York. | New York. Is a factory (Feet b. m.) | (Fee tb. m.) Feet b. m. | Percent Motalsses coi. s 10,739,000 | 100.00 | $85 44 $917,587 1,929,000 8,810,000 Wihiteoak.c<.- 2.4. 2,023,000 18.83 |$135 47 $274,056 120,000 1,903,000 Yellow poplar....... 1,652,000 | 15.38 | 87 95 145, 303° 5) cee 1,652,000 (Bch. os, false. dpi 1,585,000 14.82 70 68 102,028 432,000 1,153,000 Hard maple........ 1,125,000 10.48 27 39 30,814 532,000 593 ,000 Loblolly pine....... 880,000 | 8.19] 50 49 Ady Atta, ea Ganen’ 880,000 CGhestnube seis oe. << 600 ,000 5.58 57 27 34,362 120,000 480,000 Redioak? =). 2.0265. 500 ,000 4.65 65 00 32,500 SOOOOO FT coe ee SDEUCE Ss a2 «cis S01. y0i 498,000 4.64 48 10 23,954 75,000 423,000 Mahogany......... 462 ,000 4.30 | 233 63 LOU 930" eee 462,000 Douglas fir......... 310,000 2.89 51 84 G5 O70) te cece ae 310,000 Basswood.......... 210,000 1.96 50 83 10,674 40,000 170,000 Wihite:pine. s....>. 183,000 1.70 87 99 16,102 42,000 141,000 Ce 145,000 | 1.35] 55 00 FDIS ect ace ae 145/000 15 Ua 139 ,000 1.29 | 150 86 20; 970) | eee 139 ,000 Black walnut....... 123,000 1.15 | 209 09 PAA Tt |e ae se oe 123,000 Cherry (black)...... 79,000 .74 22 50 aA KEM | Cacao 79,000 Soft maple......... 75,000 .69 52 00 3,900 25,000 50,000 Southern yellow pine 72,000 .67 | 197 22 JA ZOO). chard acgaorees & 72,000 PRED St icsveic eters scree. o's 39,000 .36 32 82 1,280 35,000 4,000 Buckeyes) ss iae%)» sis). 20,000 18 52 00 1 O40 WM erctate aaron 20,000 Hemlock soc 5.e% 24 8,000 .07 35 00 280 § OOO antec ss Butternut.......... 5,000 04 75 00 SUD) See sete 5,000 Southern red cedar. . 2,000 .02 | 110 00 220i Werpeetetdevas oe 2,000 Witehhazel......... 2,000 .02 | 160 00 B20 cose nae 2,000 Rosewood.........- 1,000 * | 500 00 SOO iWack oe aeeres 1,000 Circassian walnut... 1,000 * | 800 00 00 jaetoinena aot 1,000 * Less than 1/100 of one per cent. 100 Discussion of Industries put tne cost of the material was nearly as great. No doubt the high cost of wood as well as the decrease in demand for barroom fixtures had a great deal to do with the apparent shrinkage of the industry. PROFESSIONAL AND SCIENTIFIC INSTRUMENTS This industry consumes nearly 10,000,000 feet, at an average cost of $82.47 per thousand feet f. 0. b. factory. Table 21 refers to such articles as are used by artists, engineers, mechan- ics, professional and scientific men, among them being photo- graphic equipment, drawing boards, blackboards, erasers, geometrical blocks, gauges, calculating machines, mallets, map globes, mathematical instruments, mitre boxes, pencils, pencil boxes, palettes, penholders, pointers, leveling rods, rulers, measuring scales, recording instruments, spirit levels, T- squares, transit tripods, etc. Southern red cedar contributes approximately one-fifth of the wood consumed by the industry and costs $150.00 per thou- sand feet. Red cedar is not suitable for most of the articles reported. Its use, however, is found in the production of lead pencils, and several establishments consume large quantities in the manufacture of this article. Southern red cedar (Jwni- perus virginiana) meets the requirements of the best lead pen- cils. Its commercial range extends from the Ohio River on the north as far east as eastern Tennessee and central Georgia, as far south as Tampa Bay on the west coast of Florida, and as far west as eastern Texas and central Arkansas. The require- ments for lead-pencil material are very exacting — a soft wood, fine and straight-grained, free from defects, which will not warp or check. The heartwood of red cedar meets these re- quirements and has the additional special qualities of being light in weight, non-resinous, slightly aromatic, whittling well and having an agreeable taste. One of the earliest woods used for lead pencils abroad was red cedar grown in Virginia and Florida. After red cedar became the expensive pencil-wood, foreign manufacturers forfeited their position of importance to America. Professional and Scientific Instruments 101 The first successful plant in this country was started by Eberhard Faber in 1861 in New York City. His cedar-and- graphite pencil deposed the quill pen. The raw material for pencils is known as pencil slat and is 714” x 214” x14. These slats are manufactured in the southern States and are shipped in bundles or crates to the manufacturers, a crate containing the raw material for 100 gross of pencils. The details of the manufacture of a pencil are simple but interesting. 15,000 20 80 00 1,200 TH2O008 Rasen ee OUOBGe hye iarsis css: 5,000 07 65 00 B25) cca Sees 5,000 TANKS AND SILOS Table 25 includes silos, all kinds of water tanks, such as cisterns, vats, rough tanks, wagon tanks, sprinkling boxes, water troughs, and framework supporting tanks. The modern silo and its construction are important items in farm manage- ment today. Its history dates back to those of French con- struction sixty years ago. Several forms have been used, but the round silo is considered to be the most nearly perfect, being free from accumulations of decaying and poisonous ensilage in corners. Most silos in this country are made of wood, but the high price of wood has led to the substitution of other material, such as metal, stone, and cement. A typical silo has a diameter of about 16 feet, a height of 23 feet, and a capacity of 100 tons of ensilage, consisting of mixed corn, grain, and hay, which ‘will feed about 30 cattle for 180 days. It requires about 114 staves and a total of about 3,000 feet of lumber to produce it. Tt is said that a silo will more than pay for itself in economy ‘pueys [BUISIAO oY} URYY JaquIT, Jeqjeq sonpord 0} epBUL aq UB SPURT dSoY} “JUIMAHVURUT yseI0J BdIOFUS PUR SABA SSO] -91@) P[O dy} UopuRge 0} aeproop afdoad ay} Woy AA “SIY} PAI] YOO, BruvapAsuusg puv YOK MON UL Satov JO spuesnoy} JO spatpuny ‘SNVIHOVIVddW NUAHLYON FHL NI SNINGMWOT JO SLTASaY Tl 2 RO a a Tanks and Silos 111 the first year. Besides the great advantage of increasing the fattening capacity of the food there is the great economic sav- ing of long daily trips for feed through the fields in mud, snow, and cold. Retail lumbermen have developed a prosperous industry in farming communities. Formerly extensive silo manufac- turers went into the south, purchased their lumber, manufac- tured the articles, and sold directly to the farmer through their agents. Today many retail lumberyards devote their slack time to the production of these farm articles. There is not much additional space required for the storage of a few silos within the lumberyards. Bald cypress is the most desirable tank and silo wood. It is found in commercial quantities in Alabama, Arkansas, Florida, Georgia, Kentucky, Louisiana, Mississippi, Missouri, North and South Carolina, Tennessee, and Texas. The cut has been far in excess of its slow growth. It is claimed for it that the wood imparts no taste and that it is sufficiently dense to prevent leakage, strong enough to withstand rough usage, and has the greatest capacity to resist dampness, excessive heat, and all the elements that hasten decay. Water and feed troughs for farm stock are made of it. Owing to the high cost of cypress and the difficulty of trans- portation in 1919 somewhat more spruce than cypress was employed for this purpose, but this change may not be permanent. Spruce is used largely as supports and framework for tanks. Hemlock, ash, and several other woods are also thus used. White oak goes into slats for tanks and water elevators or sup- ports. White pine is used largely in the construction of ordinary rough tanks and for frame cisterns. One user of hemlock, spruce, fir, and cypress says that he could use New York spruce, white pine, and hemlock almost exclusively if he could secure them at competitive prices and in sufficient quantities for this industry. The form of stock that this industry uses ranges from 1 inch to 6 inches thick, most of it being 2 inches to 4 inches thick. 112 Discussion of Industries TABLE 25 TANKS AND SILOS Quantity UsEep ANNUALLY Average t Total cost Grown in |Grown out of Kinp or Woop er 1000 310.40: New York. | New York, Pp ack factory (Feet b. m.) | (Feet b. m.) Feet b. m. | Percent Totals: biat cae 7,471,000 | 100.00 | $66 65 $497 ,950 632,000 6,839 ,000 Spricese-.. 0 at ees 2,043,000 27.35 | $54 46 SLM ASN) eiivcchiewiere 2,043,000 Cypress sha eoeee 1,995,000 26.70 85 33 1705235! fe Se wists yeyete 1,995,000 Douglas fir ssc 1,858,000 24.87 63 75 L1IS<400) | tects cca eee 1,858 ;000 Wihite pines .scee- 677 ,000 9.06 60 52 40,975 257 ,000 420 ,000 Hemlock223 23-22 450,000 6.02 44 33 19,950 350,000 100 ,000 Southern yellow pine 200,000 2.68 62 00 1D A0OU ast oie ctaee 200 ,000 Wintetosk: <5. .0/aeeo 85,000 1.14 | 126 47 10-750 cee ainecer 85,000 Yellow poplar...... 50,000 .67 | 100 00 500021) .weteces ee 50,000 Arbor Vithesesss sees 40,000 .54 92 50 B00 NW Ssccrtoeeee 40,000 Red woods. a..-i0 =e 28,000 .38 92 86 2600s «2 iieazeie sic 28,000 Chestnut... see. 25,000 AAR 35 00 875 25,000) 1) Stopes ae Southern red cedar. . 10,000 .13 | 125 00 A 2500) coe ween 10,000 Tamaracks'.i« s....< 10,000 .13 60 00 GOO.) Saad ee 10,000 Toys Toys may be divided into a dozen general classes as follows: Amusement, architectural, educational, games, household furni- ture, kitchen, musical, natural history, trade, wagons and sleds, watercraft, and wheelbarrows. The industry was slow to develop in the United States, because much of the work was done by hand in years past and America did not have the skilled workmen, and also because German manufacturers in the vicinity of Nuremburg had an advantage over the American employer in that they could employ German peasants who worked in their homes for almost nothing, thus enabling the German manufacturers to quote prices far below the cost of production in this country. With the advent of improved machinery, however, New York manufacturers found a field of good business venture along certain lines and embarked suc- cessfully upon the manufacture of toy blocks, dominoes, checkers, handsleds, children’s wagons, doll carriages, coasters, toy shovels, carriages, ete. Toys 113 As the result of the world war much of the former suprem- acy of Germany was taken from her in certain industrial lines, such as chemical manufactures. The toy business is another instance. America demanded toys, and was cut off from the German supply for several years. The result was a stimulation of this industry, which may be roughly meas- ured by the increase in wood consumed, amounting to nearly 130 per cent. Our local factories, it will be noted, produce articles that are largely made of hardwoods and from raw material that comes in the form of lumber or small, sound strips. Much of our product may be made from the waste of certain larger industries, such as that from furniture factories. Some other classes of wood users report the sale of small- dimension waste to toy manufacturers, while others utilize their own waste by manufacturing toys. Manufacturers of piano actions, for example, report the use of a large amount of birch and basswood waste for toys and games. Thus, the toy industry is a natural by-product of wood-using industries and has become of great importance in New York, where wood- using industries are prominent and where problems of closer utilization are becoming of great interest. With modern ma- chinery and raw material in abundance that is now practically waste, New York wood-users should make a close study of the opportunities afforded jin this large and growing field of manufacture. Paris supplies many of the metal toys, Germany and other nations do much hand work, but there is an excellent field here for profit in closer utilization of wood waste. Table 26 lists eleven species, all of which may be obtained in abundance in New York, and but one of which was pur- chased from outside the State entirely, yellow poplar having been shipped in from West Virginia. Hardwood toys have gained in importance of late years in response to the demand for more durable and substantial playthings. The species used must have the general qualities of being easily worked and of being tough. Much of the economy of utilization consists of preparing the stock in dimensions so that the machines, lathes, swing cut-off saws, rip saws, etc., may work on standard lines 114 Wood-Using Industries of New York and on pieces of wood that will turn out toys designed to util- ize every inch of the wood. Toy blocks exemplify the most perfect utilization attained in toys, especially where a thin board is made into puzzles, and there is no loss of wood except the kerf loss of a very thin saw. Wood users could hope for no closer utilization than toys. Table 26 shows the consumption of nearly 7,000,000 feet, approximately one-third of which is basswood. The principal product is children’s wagons and carts, in which basswood forms largely the bottoms, while sugar maple contributes the seats and sides. In this branch almost all of the woods take part, red and white oak going into axles, spokes and rims, ash into spokes and frames, and chestnut into sled tops. Domi- noes and checkers consume great quantities of sugar maple and basswood, one firm using basswood only for dominoes. Toy blocks are chiefly made of basswood and small amount of yellow poplar. Much of the birch used is paper birch and goes with basswood into toys and games. ‘T’oy snow shovels, and garden tools, in imitation of the man’s working implements, utilize mainly white ash, just as do the large hoe and fork-handle plants. A small amount of yellow poplar is also used in these manufactures. TABLE 26 Toys Quantity Usep ANNUALLY Avera’ Total cost Grown in |Grown out of KiInp oF Woop ee 000 S Onde New York. | New York. p eset factory (Feet b. m.) | (Feet b. m.) Feet b. m. | Percent Totalj. teeird ots 6,864,000 | 100.00 | $45 79 $314,313 3,195,000 3,669,000 Basswood.......... 2,315,000 33.72 | $51 71 $119,699 900 ,000 1,415,000 Sheesh 100.000 21.86 51 00 ; 600 ,000 100 , 000 Hard maple........ 1,253,000 18.26 40 88 51,223 1,000,000 253,000 FRiedigwmis sfec eects crac 650 , 00! 9.47 33 46 21, 4EOR 2 Stele os 650,000 Beech tesci scas eae 353,000 S212 37 57 13,262 350,000 3,000 @hestnuts. xs. eee 260 ,000 3.79 40 77 10,600 100,000 160,000 Yellow poplar....... 250,000 3.65 35 00 COO ihc wate ate 250,000 Archisete aye ciao eae 138,000 2.01 40 00 5,520 135,000 3,000 Redioalks Ae 100,000 1.46 50 00 5,000 1003000") 452-neeeeee Wihitewak: .cassee- 40,000 .59 45 00 1,800 10,000 30,000 White pine......... 5,000 .07 42 00 PAO Hv reve ve stoners 5,000 Discussion of Industries 115 PicturRE FramMrEs anp Mo.prnas. The products included in Table 27 are mirror frames, pic- ture frames, mirror backs, picture moldings, and picture backs. As can be seen by the nature of the article produced, there is comparatively little waste. Indeed, much of the material consumed by this industry is the waste of the larger woodworking establishments, such as planing mills products, sash, doors, blinds and general millwork. While the latter establishments sometimes produce these smaller articles from the waste of their mills, there are many minor plants in the cities and towns that specialize in such articles. A great many of the small picture-frame shops of New York buy their mold- ings from molding factories in Chicago, with the finish already on them. The total of 6,647,000 feet is probably far short of the total consumption for such articles in the State, but the real consumption of wood cannot be separately shown because planing mills and general millwork establishments make their reports without distinguishing the exact amount going into such by-products. These figures indicate, however, that the aggregate production of the State for picture frames and moldings is enormous when such a large total can be accounted for through the reports of the small specialty fac- tories. The industry consumes 14 woods and pays the average price of $83.57 per M. feet f. o. b. factory. Yellow poplar is by far the most important species con- tributing to the industry, white oak having fallen to fourth place in quantity consumed. Basswood is reported in second place. Other woods that are used entirely for moldings are sugar maple, mahogany, and black walnut. White pine is suitable both for the facing and for the backs of picture frames because it is light and very workable. When used as moldings it takes oils, paints, and enamels well. The white oak is gen- erally stained in such a way as not to interfere with the natur- ally pleasing appearance of the grain of the wood. It is gen- erally quarter-sawn from No. 1 stock free of defects. Birch, chestnut, sugar maple, red gum, mahogany, black walnut, and 116 Discussion of Industries cherry are popular in the manufacture of hand mirrors where both the facing and backing must be highly ornamental. The industry is rapidly growing in the State and the consumption is far in excess of the amount reported in any other State for such articles. The amount of wood reported as consumed has decreased only 11 per cent since the previous report, but the amount of | raw material supplied by the State has decreased by 90 per cent. In 1912 the State imported two-thirds of its picture frames and moldings. In 1919 it imported thirty-three times as much of the “tied as it supplied, though 77 per cent of the vee is of species indigenous to New York. TABLE 27 PictuRE FRAMES AND MOLDINGS Quantity UsEepD ANNUALLY safe Total cost Grown in |Grown out of SESS ® Op WYO. eee iy 000 f. 0. b. New York. | New York. Pp J factory (Feet b. m.) | (Feet b. m.) Feet b. m. | Per cent Motels «crane bloke 6,647,000 | 100.00 | $83 57 $555 , 474 186 ,000 6,461,000 Yellow poplar....... 1,784,000 | 26.83 | $63 29| $112,909] .......... 1,784,000 BasswOOGs,- scecre 1,401,000 21.07 64 66 90 , 590 135,000 1,266,000 EUR UT. foiet-) sreiehar- > 902 ,000 13257, 88 13 UOvAOS alt Peas. eee 902 ,000 Wihite Oak..ecc26 cc. 900 , 000 13.53 93 42 84,078 15,000 885,000 (Cif a boo obras 465,000 7.00 76 87 BD MAD .6 eete ee 465,000 Birches... seit tases eke 262,000 3.94 } 185 14 48,507 28,000 234,000 Witch hazel........ 240 ,000 3.62 62 00 py: Tarot) UI Whaesee ete Sete 240 ,000 White pine..:...... 208,000 3.12 80 31 16,704 5,000 203,000 Hard maple........ 144,000 2.18 | 136 44 19 ,647 3,000 141,000 C@hestnutija. 44--bek 140 ,000 Palit 56 78 Ta QA9 | kteetd ce deae 140 ,000 Mahogany. . a re 134,000 2.03) 277. 07. Ol pee A erscte cae 134 ,000 Ashi. ester 50,000 15 80 00 4;000 | 2.2820 eea 50,000 Black walnut....... 16,000 24 | 228 33 30581 new oct toes 16,000 Cherry (black). . 1,000 .O1 98 00 OSA **8. nee eee 1,000 PiumrReERS’ Woopwork. A few firms specialize in the production of woodwork for The industry includes toilet tanks, seats, washtray frames, drain-boards, bathroom cabinets, and general plumbers’ the plumbing industry in the State. equipment. Formerly the Plumbers’ Woodwork HIT bath tub was the principal wooden article manufactured, but the advent of the more sanitary metal substitute for bathtub material brought about a decrease in the total consumption of wood. Other articles, such as toilet tanks, grew in importance for a while, but are now being replaced by china or metal con- ‘struction. The utilization of wood in this class of goods still makes the industry a factor in the sales of high-grade oak. White oak together with birch (the latter often being stained in imitation of mahogany) supply the closet toilet seats and fronts or visible parts of the tanks. Ash is a favorite wood for seats, tanks, washtray rims or frames. Chestnut is reported for use as backs for tanks. Sugar maple is used extensively for bathroom cabinets and minor equipments. The white pine goes mainly into drain boards. Since the woodwork is relatively a very minor item in the plumbing industry in New York, the 5,424,000 feet reported is indicative of a very large manufacturing business in the State. The increase of over 200 per cent in the amount of wood consumed is probably an evidence of the extension of more and better plumbing in residences of all grades. The average cost of $85.13 per thousand feet for the raw material used by this class of manufactures is an increase of $47.79 per thousand since 1912. TABLE 28 PLUMBERS’ WOODWORK Quantity UsEp ANNUALLY Hv eraes Total cost Grownin |Grown out of ee a Oo 000 fis 02 BD: New York. | New York. Pp feat factory (Feet b. m.) | (Feet b. m.) Feet b. m. | Per cent otal we. $a. e. 5,424,000 | 100.00 | $85 13 $461,792 1,170,000 4,254,000 White pine......... 2,340,000 43.14 | $44 00 $102,960 1,170,000 1,170,000 White oak:......... 1,110,000 20.47 | 120 00 133; 2008 eee eee 1,110,000 ISIE SGP AES ae Bones 950,000 17.51 80 00 7G), OOOH Patt. ... |... 175,000 9.83 43 07 7,537 161,000 14,000 IBSSSWOOU ss <3. boss: 144 ,000 8.09 56 66 8,159 21,000 123,000 SLC iN 4 Oe ee eee 122,000 6.86 49 00 53978) |) aaa okaaaer 122,000 Beech 119,000 6.69 32 91 3,916 60,000 59 ,000 DNAS Oe eee 91,000 5.13 56 35 5,128 28,000 63,000 Hemlock......... ae 85,000 4.78 50 00 4,250 30,000 55,000 Southern yellow pine 71,000 3.99 58 88 B= 180) | ae ouy eres 71,000 IBinchina Por t.. 24s3<,. 59 ,000 3.31 33 33 1,966 45,000 14,000 1B oo oB 2:3 Getieee 50,000 2.81 34 80 1,740 50) OOO8 |P tence eres Loblolly pine....... 43,000 2.42 71 00 305358 aee re 43,000 @ypress s,s ss 31,000 1.74 73 87 2290) pois ae eee 31,000 CRestnutiesty icles cc 12,000 .68 30 00 360 10,000 2,000 Cherry (black)...... 2,000 vil 40 00 SO Bekiees. eee 2,000 Sort maple... :...... 2,000 ala 40 00 80 2), OOO) ae eertrie. fe PuLLEys AND CONVEYORS There are so many different kinds of pulleys and conveyors that a detailed discussion is impracticable in a report of this kind. Table 38 contains the data relative to two rather dis- tinct classes of articles, the one having to do with the amount of wood consumed for the conveyance of belting, while the second class shows the amount consumed in the manufacture of “tackle blocks’ and tackle-block shells used for construc- tion purposes. Pulleys were formerly very crude articles consisting of rough boards nailed and glued together. With the development of modern mechanics, great ingenuity was brought to bear on his branch of shop equipment and several factories put im- proved wood pulleys on the market. It required much time to construct them properly and for a while iron made great inroads as a substitute. Good dry-kilns, modern woodworking machinery, and special lathes developed the modern wood 132 Discussion of Industries pulley, with interchangeable bushings. It has certain advan- tages generally recognized. The wood is much lighter than iron, much less apt to break through high-speed centrifugal force, it does much less injury in the event of a break of a large fly-wheel and comphes with the insurance and accident regulations of many States. On the other hand, the iron pulley has some advantages, one of them being that it does not warp or twist so much as wood in outdoor places and where exposed to extreme moisture. The general class of pulleys and conveyors consists of the larger fly-wheels in factory work and what are known as “cone pulleys” or graduated steps or blocks on which the smaller leather belts are carried. Large fly-wheels 20 to 30 feet in diameter and 5 to 9 feet across the face are built up with a great deal of care. The lumber enter- ing these large wheels must be thoroughly kiln-dried in order to hold its shape, and many courses of lumber are necessary to build up these wheels which are subjected to great centrifugal strains at high speeds. Cone pulleys to be really strong and serviceable need to be “built-up” also, on a regular raceplate and of very thin material. The article thus produced is non-shrinkable and. designed to stand the wear and tear of many years. The smaller ones generally consist of at least six segments. White pine may be used because it takes glue well and holds nails without splitting, but in New York hardwoods are preferred. Maple will stand very satisfactorily the severe wear and tear of the industry. Tackle-block shells use a large part of the raw material in this industry. They are the hollow forms in which metal strips and rollers are placed for lifting heavy weights, their useful- ness consisting of their capacity to multiply the pulling power - of machinery and animals. Metal has been used extensively for the smaller block shells, but in the larger compound tackle blocks metal is entirely too heavy. Wood is generally recog- nized as the most satisfactory tackle-block shell. 3irch is the wood reported as used to the greatest extent in the manufacture of tackle-block shells, nearly one-half of the amount reported having teen devoted to this purpose. Ash Pulleys and Conveyors 133 was the wood formerly used; but, because of increased prices and difficulty in obtaining required widths, birch has been substituted. Good block wood should be straight-grained and easy to work, should air-dry readily, and have a good color when covered with shellac. Also it-should not warp, twist, or check when cross-cut into small pieces. The Adirondack hardwoods and basswood contribute heavily to this industry, red gum being the only wood which is not native in New York, but in spite of this fact little of this wood is reported as homegrown. This industry has nearly doubled in amount of lumber used since 1912, while the number of manufacturing plants is the same. These facts seem to indicate that there has been an increase of industry and that metal substitutes are not making an inroad upon wood in this field. The average price paid in 1912 was $46.45, while in 1919 it was $53.42, a surprisingly small increase. Lignum-vitee, beech, and ash were reported in 1912; but these are absent now, while basswood and red gum have been introduced. TABLE 38 PULLEYS AND CONVEYORS Quantity UsEep ANNUALLY ey Ee Total cost Grown in |Grown out of Kinp oF Woop = |——-—_ - + 000 f. 0. b. New York. | New York. een factory | (Feet b. m.) | (Feet b. m.) Feet b. m. | Per cent otal) t,o? 1,614,000 | 100.00 | $53 42 $86 ,221 33,000 | 1,581,000 Beets) 700,000 | 43.38 | $66 00 $46,200 18,000 682,000 Hard maple... _.... 427,000 | 26.46 | 45 04 19 232 15,000 412/000 Basswood.......... 250,000 | 15.48] 45 00 1a 25Gal, Aes eee 250,000 Hptarit:2) cc. . : 237,000 | 14.68 | 40 25- 95530) Ics... ae 237/000 AIRPLANES The industry which has made the most rapid strides since 1912 is airplane construction. In 1912 this industry reported 31,400 feet of lumber, used by three manufacturers, while in 1919, 1,427,000 feet are reported as used by five manufac- turers. If this study had been made during the war the quan- 134 Discussion of Industries tity would have been very much larger, and instead of five builders of airplanes and airplane parts dozens would have been listed. Although the airplane industry is still in the formative period, it is certain that it has come to stay. Some manufacturers believe that.metal will be substituted for wood to a very large extent, while others are uncertain whether, after a trial of substitutes, wood will not yet be the substance finally chosen as the best all-round material. The airplane industry is highly specialized, each firm getting many of its parts from numerous other makers. Not only must the workmanship of a plane be of the highest grade and very carefully inspected, but the- wood used must be of the very best quality possible to obtain, and selected with the utmost care. At the opening of the war the industry knew little about the proper kiln-drving of airplane wood, the proper construction of laminated or built-up parts, the proper use of glues, the detection of hidden defects, and the weakening effect of spiral grain. All of these poimts and many more were studied during the war, especially by the Forest Products Laboratory of the United States Forest Service, at Madison, Wisconsin, where a large force of men with good equipment was constantly at work to help perfect military planes. Con- siderable quantities of veneer are used in airplanes; but this material does not appear in the table, veneers being discussed in the appendix. Strength and lightness are two prime requisites of the air- plane, and the woods used are selected on that basis. The cost of the wood is a secondary consideration. In order to obtain certain qualities, laminated wood, always stronger than single grain, was resorted to and cut from clear stock of the species listed in the table. Sitka spruce, which is abundant in Washington and Oregon, contributed over two-thirds of the wood reported. This wood is favored because it is more uniform than many others. It contains few hidden defects and surface indications are gen- erally a good criterion of the quality of the piece. It is possible that some eastern red spruce from the Adirondacks Airplanes 135 has been reported as Sitka spruce, but the quantity is rela- tively small. Sitka spruce is a much larger tree and yields larger pieces of clear stock. During the war period experts searched the Adirondacks for air-plane spruce, as it was termed. These men worked at spruce operations, marking logs which they thought were of airplane quality. Generally the butt log only was chosen from the tree, as the next log above was often knotty. The logs had to be not only free from knots and other defects but straight- grained as well. The grain of a board generally shows, but it is an entirely different matter to tell whether a tree will cut clear boards as it stands on the stump. Straight-grained spruce trees can, however, be chosen with a high percentage of accu- racy after a considerable amount of practice and close inspec- - tion and a checking up of results. A study carried on in the Adirondacks during the war period shows that on the areas examined 52 per cent of the trees were straight-grained enough _to pass the airplane specifications; but, because of knot condi- tions, few trees under 14 inches in diameter were of value, and of these trees about one-third were defective from other causes. Consequently the amount of timber actually available for air- plane purposes in the Adirondacks is probably comparatively small. Spruce is used largely in the fuselage shell, wing beams, wing posts, cap strips, engine beds, struts, and all other beams. Ash is used to a large extent in longerons and in parts requir- ing toughness and elasticity. Mahogany is used largely for propellers in the form of built-up stock of several thicknesses, from which the propeller is carved. White pine, both eastern and western, is used mainly in ribs and webs. Douglas fir is substituted for spruce in beams. Mahogany is the only propeller wood reported in New York, but black walnut and oak are also desirable material. Experi- ence shows that stock for this use should be quarter-sawn. Propellers or “screws,” as they are called, are built up of lam- inations, each being sawed to size and carefully chosen so as to YIOK MIN WatTM SI} OTT YOO] [ITM SySatOy YIOX- ‘sjoyivuL pue VIUBAPB 4Soeq oY} OF} SpURT JSeOF Loy [[B eZIpIN OF MAN “qyord YIM spoyzout [VInzeu Aq poonpoidet pue weysss U OTpIeTeS otf} : CJITIGISseod¥ 0} SB SeSVJUBAPKSIP aS ay} SVY PUL SYBpUOLIPY olf} OAT] Youtua UOISIL SNOUTBJUNOUL MOT B ST JSalOY YRe_ op, TWUOUODE PUNOS JO dinsvou B SB sUBITIEIUW Aq pezeot[dnp eq ud AyTsse09u Jo ainsseid iapun poyst[duoo.e savy suvodoing yey AA “XNVINUGY) NUALSAA\ AO MOVIG: AUL NI ANAS SOUTULTO}Op IapUN pasvuUvUt ST 4SelOF SIG} JOR SR see ae MAK lias ia We "gina 2 Rey — ve ule emma d OF iP oh Discussion of Industries 137 avoid all defects and to have the grain and density at each end the same. In some plants each lamination is weighed, matched, and balanced against the others, and by this means it is pos- sible to make the blades of the same propeller uniform as to weight, grain, texture, and yielding of the wood under stresses. At the high speeds used, the matter of accurate balance is essential to prevent racking vibrations. The laminations are glued up in a certain temperature and dried for a certain period. By means of a rotary cutter with a guide following a form whose outlines are exactly the same as the screw, the curved surfaces are formed much in the same way as gunstocks, The screw now goes from the outline machine to the duplicator, which turns out the screw with a shape very nearly as desired. The screw is again dried, surfaced, balanced, sanded, and inspected in detail, and is then ready for finishing, which is a careful, detailed series of applications and inspections. Spruce and ash as reported in 1912 hold the same relative place today; the other woods listed were introduced since the previous study. The average price paid in 1912 was $30.83 while in 1919 it is $230.34. This is the greatest increase in cost seen in any industry, and is the highest average paid by any industry listed. TABLE 39 ATRPLANES Quantity UsEp ANNUALLY Average dat Total cost Grown in |Grown out of Kinp oF Woop er 1,000 f. o. b. New York. | New York. sg factory | (Feet b. m.) | (Feet b. m.) Motaltaaat< seer 1,427,000 |} 100.00 |$230 34 $328,693 105,000 1,322,000 Sitka spruce........ 1,066 ,000 74.70 |$250 00 $266 500) |oiac ca asmiae 1,066 ,000 IASI otrte cre tie eae hobs 109 ,000 7.64 | 148 81 16,220 105,000 4,000 Mahogany........- 100,000 7.01 | 250 00 20 OU0L erates auc 100 ,000 White pine......... 74,000 5.19 | 140 00 LOSS Peers setae 74 ,000 Western white pine. . 50,000 3.50 | 150 00 GOOD ava tortaiiaeee 50,000 Wonglas arsed ss =. 20,000 1.40 | 95 00 LS 900M eveckes lie 20,000 IBABSWOOG.-scrac se. 5,000 .35 | 150 10 CDI “|p eae seh 5,000 Port Orford cedar... 3,000 .21 | 154 00 ABD eats eee ea 3,000 138 Discussion of Industries ELEVATORS Under this head are included passenger and freight elevators and the necessary accompanying parts, such as guides, frames, gates, and platforms. The 1,288,000 feet credited to these uses is less than the actual quantity consumed, because a con- siderable amount of the material is the product of the planing mill and is hsted under that industry. In 1912 the pines contributed about 50 per cent of the total amount used, but this percentage is now much lower. Pitch pine which was reported in by far the largest amount in 1912 was not reported in 1919. Hard maple, which held third place in 1912, is the principal wood now used. ‘This species contributes nearly one-half of the total amount entering the elevator industry and is used principally for elevator floors, guides, and frames. Spruce stands next in amount consumed and has risen from ninth place in 1912 to second place in 1919. This wood also finds use as flooring and framing. Yellow pine occupies the third place of importance, being used to a large extent for guides and frames. Chestnut, hemlock, cypress, and elm are species listed which were not reported in 1912 and those reported in 1912 which do not appear in the accompanying table are pitch pine, red oak, silver maple, birch, and basswood. The total consumption of wood by the elevator industry is less than half that of 1912, while during the same period there has been only a small reduction in the number of establish- ments. It is probable that metal has displaced wood to a con- siderable extent in the industry, which may account for the decrease in wood consumption. There has been a considerable change in the order of importance of the different kinds of wood used since the last report in 1912. This is doubtless owing to the difficulty of securing suitable stock, at a period when manufacturers found it necessary to adapt to their needs the timber which they found available. The average price of raw material has increased from $31.06 to $79.93, which is a relatively greater increase than took place in many other indus- tries during the same period. Elevators 139 TABLE 40 ELEVATORS Quantity Usrp ANNUALLY average Total cost Grown in |Grown out of Kinp oF Wood = |————— er 1.000 Tip To LO New York. | New York. D fact factory (Feet b. m.) | (Feet b. m.) Feet b. m. | Per cent M6) il 1,288,000 | 100.00 | $79 93 $102,078 160,000 1,128,000 Hard maple... ...... 524,000 40.69 |$114 39 $59 ,940 35,000 489 ,000 SPIMcCesen. =e s bie 222,000 17.24 55 O00 PAGAN ee eataene, Sloe 222,000 Southern yellow pine 185,000 14.36 50 00 OR 25 OVE acoe etree 185,000 Whesthuiwe. oss... 68 , 000 PH 5253 3,504 30 , 000 38,000 White oak.......... 63,000 4.89 66 66 4,200 50,000 13,000 1g lsyeal UefG'9 5. cae ee Re 50 , 000 3.89 41 00 2: OO0\.|\ i>. 50,000 Gypressecwe-<.- si: 40 ,000 3.11 65 00 2600) | 228 8eie 40 ,000 Loblolly. pines oss ska: 38,000 2.96 49 00 Li 826i)|\ tte nace 38,000 Wintepme').2...3.. 32,000 2.48 45 00 1,440 15,000 17,000 13) bial ane to Sacre ae ne 30,000 2.32 30 00 900 SOOOQO) cone etree ote | INGO 5G cadiy BES Renee 26,000 2.02 | 125 30 BijZ08 Il cers abate meane 26,000 Yellow poplar....... 10,000 Cts 90 00 HOON. eee 10,000 CLocks New York is one of the most important States in respect to the amount of wood consumed for clocks, although the total amount of wood used for this purpose is not large when com- pared with other industries. Connecticut probably holds first place in the clock industry. During the past several years the substitution of wood for metal and marble in clocks has become quite popular. Clock cases with a variety of decorations, such as leaves, flowers, scrolls, and other figures require a high class of cabinet work. Ease in working and attractive appearance are desirable qualities for woods used for this purpose. Table 41 includes clock cases only, and not shipping cases as in the report of 1912, when nearly a million feet for the latter pur- pose was included. Black walnut, cherry, mahogany, gum, and birch are used mainly for the decorative parts of the cases. Birch is espe- cially valued for turned pieces. Oak is used largely for exterior work which may be given a natural finish or darkened by fuming or stains to produce a mission finish. Yellow 140 Wood-Using Industries of New York poplar, which heads the list, was not reported at all in 1912. This wood is used for backs and bottoms of cases, because it holds its shape well and is easy to nail and work. Yellow poplar is also much used for enamel work. White pine, the second wood: in quantity used, is also employed for enamel-finished clocks. The bottoms of clocks are generally of high-grade white pine, because the softwood bottom improves the tone of the striker which is fastened to the bottom part. This industry like many others has shown a decided falling off, the amount used for cases being less than one-third the amount used in 1912, although the same number of firms reported. Loblolly pine, red oak, basswood and beech which were used in 1912 are not now reported, while yellow poplar, which was not reported in 1912, now holds first place in importance. The average price paid in 1912 was $31.93 and in 1919 $82.17, a very decided increase. Only 8,000 feet of material is reported as grown in New York, while in 1912 the home-grown wood amounted to 171,227 board feet. Mahogany is the most expensive wood reported at $250 a thousand board feet. TABLE 41 CLOCKS QUANTITY USED 3 ANNUALLY avemee Total cost Grown in |Grown out of Kinp or Woop E1000 f.o.b New York. | New York. P f ei factory (Feet b. m.) | (Feet b. m.) Feet b. m. | Per cent : PROta ee thats 896,000 | 100.00 | $82 17 $73,625 8,000 888 ,000 Yellow poplar..... 354,000 39.50 | $94 93 $337,605) Psee ete 354,000 White ime. he ee 250,000 27.91 58 00 1450064 oth a aps 250,000 White oak... . 200 , 000 2258 80 00 1G O00 fae ae 200 ,000 Birch Sister tet. sect 40 ,000 4.46 90 00 SsGOOml .. Heh ee tees 40,000 Red gum 20,000 2.24 | 90 00 TSSOO | eaeaeys ee 20,000 Black walnut....... 20,000 2.24 | 140 00 D800) (eee ee 20,000 Cherry (black)... .. 8,000 .88 40 00 320 8,000) il ppd Face Mahogany........ 4,000 .44 | 250 00 LOOO RI Se 2 6 ae 4,000 Discussion of Industries 141 Sporting anp ATHLETIC Goops Eight firms have reported their activities as manufacturers of sporting and athletic goods. The articles manufactured are bowling-pins, dumb-bells, skiis, billiard tables, and cues. The study in 1912 included wood used for bowling alleys, but in the present report this material is mainly included with millwork. The woods used for billiard cues are maple, walnut, hickory and mahogany. Billiard tables are made up of chestnut and poplar frames, with oak tops and ash rails. Ash is used largely in the making of skiis. Maple, because of its hardness, close grain, strength, toughness, and ease in turning, is used largely for bowling pins. Experiments are being made by the Forest Products Laboratory in the use of bowling pins of laminated construction. Athletic goods, as reported, require but a small number of woods for their manufacture. Special qualities are necessary, however, to meet the requirements of these products. In 1912 the oa listed twenty-one woods used in this industry.- In 1919 but ten were reported, and the total quantity dropped from 4,230,100 feet to 429,000 feet, while the number of manu- facturers reporting decreased from twenty to eight. Hard maple, as in 1912, still holds first place; and birch, which is now second, was not included in the earlier report. White oak which formerly held second place is now eighth, and shortleaf pine and red oak which were formerly used in considerable amounts are not now included. All of the woods now reported are native except mahogany. The species not native to New York State, as reported in 1912, were shortleaf pine, lignum- vitae, haea mahogany, Circassian walnut, rosewood, long- leaf pine, and teak. The average price now is $74.62, while in the former report it was $61.04. The increase in cost would have been greater had it not been for the reduction in use of the more expensive imported woods. Stock used in this industry generally ranges from 1 inch to 4 inches in thickness. Discussion of Industries TABLE 42 SPORTING AND ATHLETIO GOODS Quantity *Usrp ANNUALLY nvernee Total cost Grownin |Grown out of Krnp or Woop per 1,000 1S 18% New York. | New York. | aap factory (Feet b. m.) | (Feet b. m.) , Feet b. m. | Percent MRotale seen cokes 429,000 | 100.00 | $74 62 $32,010 212,000 217,000 Hard maple........ 304,000 70.86 | $66 43 $20,195 166 ,000 138,000 IBinch Acer: Sartre 30,000 6.99 30 00 900 15,000 15,000 Yellow poplar....... 30, 000 6.99 | 150 00 AS SOON 2 eee 30,000 clits Srbe 5 be ornate 25,000 5.82 60 00 1,500 25,0005) =33 eee Black walnut....... 10 ,000 2.34 90 00 900: i) Bo See 10,000 Mahogany......... 10 ,000 2.34 | 100 00 L000) tees See 10,000 @hestnutta-cer ee 6,000 1.39 90 00 540 2,000 4,000 White oak. ...-:..:. 5,000 f. U7 12175 00 STOCHE. . Sess 5,000 ine kory aes, tees oe 5,000 1.17 | 160 00 SOO! tee eee 5,000 Sprucete.. 4... iaue ke 4,000 .93 | 200 00 800 45000 yatta ee DowrELs AND SKEWERS Dowels are small wooden pins or rods, usually circular in eross section, used to connect pieces of wood by being sunk in the edges of each to keep them permanently in their proper relative position. They are made of many diameters and vart- ous lengths and generally used by chair and furniture makers and door and sash manufacturers. The major portion of this product goes into the manufacture of chairs, but the tops of tables and counters and parts of doors are joined edge to edge by the employment of these dowels or pegs. This method of joining parts is older than the use of iron and copper. The art of manufacturing wooden pins was highly developed many centuries ago. A striking modern instance of the use of dowels is seen in the great Tabernacle of the Latter Day Saints at Salt Lake City, Utah, which structure, including the very extensive arched roof, is stated by the Mormons to have been built, after the plan of Solomon’s Temple, without the use of metal fasteners. The product today is no more finished than in ancient times, but the introduction of modern machinery has made it possible for one unskilled man in charge of a machine to produce more pins than a large force of skilled workmen who cut them by hand. Dowels are made in long rods and then re-cut to suit the exact use to which they are to be put. Some Dowels and Skewers 143 times they are threaded to hold like screws, but instead of being turned into the wood they are driven in like pegs, the threads giving a better hold upon the sides of the auger holes. New York State is an important producer of cooperage stock, and dowels naturally assume importance as an allied trade. Some minor industries, such as the production of shipping crates and poultry-coops, are also important in the State and consume much of the dowel stock. Some shipping crates are made wholly of these small rods and give great strength to the crate. It is estimated that a good coop or crate made of birch rods is approximately twice as strong and only half as heavy. as the small lumber formerly used. Chairs, cribs, and small beds consume much dowel stock. Skewers are pointed wooden pins or rods similar to dowels. used by the meat trade to hold meat to a spit or for keeping it in form while roasting. The manufacture of skewers, like dowels, is a machine operation. Thin boards are fed into the machine and the skewers come out at the other end. Dowels and skewers must be of hardwood and all of that used in 1919 came from within the State. Beech, birch, maple, ash, and basswood all furnish suitable material. These species are so readily obtainable that the cost of dowel stock was low. the average price being $55.94. The price in 1912 was $34.38. The quantity reported has decreased over 50 per cent and the number of firms reporting diminished in about the same ratio. Metal skewers are now used in large quantities. TABLE 43 DOWELS AND SKEWERS Quantity Usep ANNUALLY Avert Total cost Grown in |Grown out of cos K Woo fo. b: New York. | New York. 7 as. om per eee factory (Feet b. m.) | (Feet b. m.) potas sere. - 377,000 | 100.00 | $55 94 $21,080 S00 O008 | dstae cpaeite rare PN GIMaianerage ra sense eo 200,000 53.05 | $70 00 $14,000 200% COO) | Parmer Hardimaple.... 3:4... 67 ,000 ya ehr/ 40 00 2,680 67,000) pin ios eine IBIFCH AP anche = «ots oe 65,000 17.24 40 00 2,600 Go O0GN errr eet INGGGRiaeielyo 4 deine 45,000 11.94 40 00 1,800 455000) |\has cosets ye 144 Discussion of Industries FIREARMS Black walnut is the only wood reported for the preduction of gunstocks, with the exception of 2,000 feet of Circassian walnut. The selection of the most suitable gunstock wood has been carefully considered, and American black walnut has always been given preference for arms of the ordinary grade. For high-grade shotguns and rifles the beautiful Circassian and Italian walnut is imported. Black walnut is easily worked, moderately heavy, polishes well, and has a pleasing appearance. The rough blanks are first rough-sawed from thick lumber and the ends painted to prevent checking. The blanks are then shipped to the factory where they are seasoned in dry kilns. A large number of operations are required to produce the finished stock, including, in addition to these preliminary steps, shaping edges for guide surfaces, routing and chamber- ing, cutting of recesses for attaching the butt swivel-plates, routing out the space for the magazine, trigger guards, or tangs, and the final staining, hard finishing, polishing and dipping in linseed oil. They are then ready for the assembling room. The turning of the curved surfaces of stocks is accomplished by the most ingenious automatic machinery. Black walnut for gunstocks generally comes from the wood- lot areas of the Central West, the original heavy stands having long since been cut over for furniture for which the demand has been very large. The main walnut supply is now located in Missouri, Illinois, Kentucky, Ohio, Iowa, Tennessee, and West Virginia. Sapwood is now used as well as heartwood for most rifle stocks, and staining gives it a uniform color. It will serve the purpose, but is not nearly as satisfactory in feel and appearance as the denser heartwood. In the old Missouri muzzle-loaders curly maple was sometimes used. Yellow birch and red gum are also used for gunstocks but are not reported in New York State. The difficulty in using birch is that it is hard to find a satisfactory method of stain- ing the stock a walnut color which will penetrate and not wear off. Experimentation has been made upon laminated construc- tion for use in military stocks, which are subject to heavy strain both from recoil and during use of the bayonet. Firearms 145 Establishments making sporting firearms receive their wood as plank or in rough-sawn blank stocks approximately 2 inches thick, 6inches wide and 18 inches long. When the stock is bought in blank form, it is paid for on a piece basis and not according to the thousand board feet. Military stocks, which include the fore-end, are about 3 feet 10 inches long and require much larger stock in order to secure satisfactory blanks. Ji would seem feasible to construct all rifles with separate butt- stock and fore-end, since one of the British military rifles was built on this plan; yet the general preference of ordnance experts is apparently for the long one-piece stock. The change to the use of short stocks would permit the utilization of a large amount of material which otherwise could not meet the specifications. The number of reporting firms is greater than in 1912, but the quantity of wood reported is 30 per cent smaller. The price of $147.78 is an increase roughly proportional to that noted in the other industries. TABLE 44 FIREARMS Quantity Usrep ANNUALLY menace Total cost Grown in |Grown out of Kinp or Woop ee 1000 1s (5 195 New York. New York. Pp feet factory (Feet b. m.) | (Feet b. m.) Feet b. m. | Percent ; i Noy Wt A caiet Aia Re 258,000 | 100.00 |$147 78 $3811) 3800/2 258,000 Black walnut....... 256,000 99.22 |$145 31 S3te 2104 vate eee 256, 000 Circassian walnut. . . 2,000 .78 | 460 00 920)"| Soros era 2,000 WHIPs AND UMBRELLA STICKS A large proportion of the wood listed in the table is used in making umbrella handles and a small amount goes into whip butts. In 1912 2,237,000 board feet of material were used for these purposes. The present figures show a decided decrease, although one more firm is listed than in 1912. Beech furnished over 90 per cent of the wood material in the former 146 Discussion of Industries report but is now superseded by birch and maple, which con- tributed equal quantities. Several woods given in the 1912 table do not now appear, including hickory, ash, basswood, walnut oak, mahogany, ebony, and red cedar. Many of these woods are now much higher in price than the average cost given for those in the table. Rattan and reed used in the whip industry are bought by weight and are not included in this table. The price for this material ranged from 14 to 32 cents per pound, while the hardwoods listed cost $50 per thousand. Statistics for canes were included with whips and umbrella sticks in the 1912 study, but no wood was reported for this use in 1919. TABLE 45 WutpPps AND U'MBRELLA STICKS Quantity UsEp ANNUALLY mvenee Total cost Grown in |Grown out of VEGRESOHY COE MA/CO) 81) 9) COON £:0-1b: New York. | New York. Pp feet factory (Feet b. m.) | (Feet b. m.) Feet b. m. | Per cent Moats. ais sce 250,000 | 100.00 | $50 00 $12,500 250; 0008). secret BITCH esc esi evers eer t 100,000 40.00 | $50 00 $5,000 1003000) |) tere cere Hard maple... ... 100 , 000 40.00 50 00 5,000 NOOO | As se cocosne Beech ngs 1ac oes 50,000 20.00 50 00 2,500 505000) oankee cnet Wood bought by weight — Rattan. Printing Mareriau This industry is relatively unimportant, largely because the wood is in the form of small pieces and for small articles. Black cherry is the most important wood, as it also was in 1912, but yellow pine, birch, beech, and hickory, which were reported in 1912, were not reported this time. The articles included in this industry are printers’ supphes, wood type, bases for mounting cuts, electrotype blocks, engraving boards, engraving blocks, and printing-press attachments. The essen- tials of woods for bases of electrotypes and cuts include the qualities of being hard, free from warping, and capable of Printing Material 147 holding nails without splitting. There has been a pronounced decrease in the amount of material consumed since 1912, although the number of reporting firms is the same. This industry, though small, offers a good opportunity for the utilization of small and otherwise waste pieces of lumber. Blocks of the more expensive woods, such as cherry and hard maple, can sometimes be worked out of stock which has been discarded by another factory. TABLE 46 PRINTING MATERIAL Quantity UsEep ANNUALLY svenaee Totaleost Gidley jae ae X Kinp or Woop er 1,000 1s hy 19H New York. | New York. z feet factory (Feet b. m.) | (Feet b. m.) Feet b. m. | Percent Gti C1 a ne 72,000 | 100.00 | $87 29 $6,285 48 ,000 24 ,000 Cherry (black)...... 21,000 29.16 |$140 00 $2,940 14,000 7,000 Ghestnuts osc. 8. 15,000 20.84 40 00 600 MUU 5 aoe Geo Basswood. « <<... ..:,- 15,000 20.84 35 00 525 V5 OOOR an sean White oak.......... 10,000 | 13.88 | 75 00 7500 Se. See 10,000 Hard maple........ 5,000 6.95 | 230 00 1 50 beers eee 5,000 Yellow poplar....... 4,000 5.05) 35 00 140 4.000% naar hi sarees Maghogany....:.... 2,000 2.78 90 00 LSOr' | twaoet a eee 2,000 MiIscELLANEOUS The miscellaneous table includes the reports from a number of minor industries in which the annual consumption of wood is too small to justify the publication of separate tables. It also includes larger industries, some of which are of much importance in the State, but the number of firms engaged is so small that the publication of their figures separately would reveal the identity of those making the report. These data inelude the manufacture of playground equipment, signs and supplies, florists’ sticks, bottle stoppers, artificial limbs, hinges, mouse traps, butchers’ supples, mop wringers, cores, plugs, and reels. (See paragraph 2, Electrical Machinery and Appa- 148 Discussion of Industries ratus.) The 1912 report included playground equipment in a separate table as well as signs and supplies, but owing to the smal] number of firms reporting for 1919 these two tables are now included under the miscellaneous heading in order that the reports may be kept confidential. The report of 1912 shows a total consumption of 30,790,300 feet reported by 24 firms; in this report 3,708,000 feet are reported by 18 establishments. This marked decrease in con- sumption is due in part to the smaller number of firms report- ing and to the exclusion of dynamite made of wood-flour and fibre-board made of spruce, both of which were included in the former report. These industries are now included in census reports. Matches, formerly included in the miscellaneous table, are now tabulated separately, which makes a difference of over 14,000,000 feet. White pine still holds first place in the miscellaneous table with 785,000 board feet purchased at a cost of $156.27, a price which indicates that a good grade of material was used. This is a marked increase over $32.80 in 1912. Hard maple is the second wood of importance; this wood was in ninth place in the former report at $30.04 a thousand and now is $33.76, which is a surprisingly small increase. The reason for this small increase probably is that formerly it was all brought in from outside the State, but now it is all State-grown, coming largely from small timber tracts. Beech is now in third place instead of sixth as formerly; in this case also a much larger proportion of the material was home-grown with only a slight increase in price. The woods used principally for florists’ sticks and plant supports are beech, birch, maple, and chestnut. Cork is received in rough form from Portugal and is 2 to 3 inches thick. It is used principally for bottle stoppers; and the waste goes into composition material, such as floor coverings, and is used also for refrigeration purposes. Willow is utilized almost exclusively in the manufacture of artificial limbs. The prin- cipal requisites of wood for this use are freedom from check- Miscellaneous Industries 149 ing and warping under varying moisture conditions. The manufacture of artificial limbs requires a long period of dry- ing, as thick stock is necessary for this use and the drying must be sufficiently gradual to prevent checking of the wood in the round. The manufacture of artificial limbs is practically all hand work and each part must be made to measure. Quite a large amount of material is reported as being used in the bung trade, and yellow poplar and spruce are the favorite woods in this industry. Beech and basswood are the main woods con- tributing to the mouse trap industry. Spruce, ash, and maple are used for butchers’ supplies, and the hard maple goes mainly into built-up butchers’ blocks, because of its white, clean appearance and its hardness, toughness, and fine grain. Adirondack birch and maple contribute largely to the mop- wringer industry. Beech, birch, maple, elm, and basswood are used in about equal amounts for the manufacture of reels for wire used in conduits. Beech, birch, maple, and elm are utilized largely for cores and plugs used in the paper industry. Signs and supplies draw upon sycamore, tupelo, and red gum; and playground equipment requires yellow poplar, white pine, Douglas fir, ash, and basswood. The average cost of material lsted in this table is now $72.32, as compared with $2.80 in 1912; and the three notable increases are in white pine, yellow poplar, and ash. It is encouraging to note that the beech, birch, and maple, the staple hardwoods of New York, were nearly all obtained within the State. On the other hand there is food for serious reflec- tion in the fact that in New York, once the home of the white pine, it was necessary to import every foot of the 740,000 feet consumed. Is not something seriously wrong with our economic planning ? 150 Wood-Using Industries of New York TABLE 47 MISCELLANEOUS Quantity UsED ANNUALLY aypmze Total cost Grown in |Grown out of Kinp oF Wood = [| — FAH i 0. D- New York.| New York. 4 gfe feat factory (Feet b. m.) | (Feet b. m.) Feet b. m. | Per cent C Motalsc pies =e rce 3,708,000 | 100.00 | $72 32 $268, 153 1,652,000 2,056,000 White pine... 2. -.- 785,000 21.16 |$156 27 $122,675.) . «cs seer 785,000 Hard maple........ 603 ,000 16.25 33 76 20,357 603,000") Sate iBecehth. ee. eee 460 ,000 12.40 30 80 14,168 434,000 26,000 Biren eet. 2425: 362,000 9.76 33 20 12,018 362,000) |. Seep Sycamore.....-..-- 300 ,000 8.09 48 00 1A. 400) |) cree isrorate 300 ,000 EDATSELO eerste se haere 250 ,000 6.74 45 00 1 BG Onl eae geo 250,000 Yellow poplar....... 240 ,000 6.47 | 135 62 Savooo Hee i ciagece 240,000 Sprucetn e .tocee SOE 225,000 6.07 60 00 13,500 150,000 75,000 Southern yellow pine 160,000 4.32 48 00 12680) | ihe see 160,000 Redicum-c ose -2o-ee 150 ,000 4.05 45 00 63750 oe eee 150,000 TA pene ae Reka 51,000 1.38 25 10 1,280 51,000) saceeeeere Basswood.......-.. 48 ,000 1.30 32 60 1,565 41,000 7,000 TNE Tn 5 RUS SE Bee SS 48 ,000 1.30 | 172 29 8,270 8,000 40,000 Douglas fir......... 20 ,000 54 65 00 1; SOON Mes! eee 20,000 Walloweee tate. sone 3,000 -08 40 00 120 3,000) oho Southern red cedar. . 2,000 .06 | 110 00 2201S (ene,seon. eee 2,000 Chestnut. «<6 tae 1,006 .03 50 00 SOU Rie eee ,000 Cork*s fee. pee]! A. ea tae Se Ee let SE). opi eet, See * 300,000 pounds. APPENDIX The foregoing tables show what becomes of the lumber after it leaves the sawmill, following the various steps in manufae- ture until the finished commodities are produced as furniture, toys, handles, ete. There are various other forms of forest products in addition to lumber, and the purpose of the follow- ing pages is to give a brief synopsis showing the production of some of these other forms, the data being taken from the latest available sources as indicated. FOREST PRODUCTS OF NEW YORK The following tabulations are copied from the 1919 report of the New York State Conservation Commission, showing the production of lumber in 1918 from the principal softwoods and hardwoods. The last table shows the consumption of wood in the production of shingles, lath, heading, staves, posts, poles, Fan Forest Products of New York 151 ties, pulpwood, and wood for acid, excelsior, kilns, ete. It includes both lumber and round wood expressed in board feet. Lumber Production of New York Table A. 1918 Feet B. M. PPP At rh dd und dts ons Alten a ae eee 25, 874,690 REC AMM 0 os 2 on sls, cosscik Gilg eee Anne ene ee 75, 005, 150 TRG 2 6 3.0: 9 Dae ear oe ira tren Siete gine as ok ote 62, 653, 500 LODLORSL 2 «22 Gi ea ener RE aerte Derr ane Rebels hte 2 1, 505, 094 CITT 2.0 SRS ae eee Rel an AAS Seer be a 227,568 (Pomel. 2 57 he ne gee ayer ene eee? RD eee eee 91, 114 MIEN Soo se ow 2s ne Sed Pa be Cee Rae eee 55, 789, 225 IDAGCLO .29 Se ee nee neg, Aer Boe cy 37, 196, 320 it ME So (has 9 Nove Sain wis Sia wT ae ee ER OPO 26,895, 820 LADIVGL 2 3 anette ah ane rt re Mee te Rie Mey tb eer ie. Sh i 25,505, 900 CLSHSIVIN 5 ge ne oe cree mee fe 15, 370, 950 [SSUSER CGO! Ly anche ea gee ea RCo Be eaenen ea a amare erin, a Mare” 14, 533, 350 PUR MEIER Panes 8 oof oi8.2 dss. vden A eh ternal coo hee aey oa. ee 9, 696, 750 in CUE 059.05 7{2 1). 3id0) SLR eee te sabe ci. Sate. eta 7, 314,180 TLGICUEIR . 2 toi5 ota cn Reece an eee vata rte eae! 2, 085, 690 LEO SIEY? ., 4.3 SNe eae eR cee ie do a dt Ay ARR SE roc 1, 167, 300 REMPREUMMNAR, IAS Ls, 042. 02% carat he « nihial ees eda at bietha ad ee 898, 270 WMI 5 oS foyin 6 = Shayna afd ise ae AE. << 5 ge aa es 763, 885 SD oc 8S SERS See eee Ph eae aeons Peru. A is 2 223,165 ieenIn OTC MEE SS SAE AD ATLL: eh, DOR. Stk SS eS eee 160, 900 RMS NS Ooh ene. 3.8 nc sai ce clue ous Soha a= acoPhe ene 74, O75 363, 132, 896 Pieces Plimoleamen . x tctotes os. ahs kotge elas ohio. sitios Shae ae eee 5, 712, 000 WEES aes CES 3 ich yi ove) otoyst vars pate cascik sR Oe ee 4, 179, 300 MERLIN BS rs SEIS! Sos osu i tye) < cope olerBosiereic 2.5 sw ni aueear allstar Deer ae hameneeate 8, 296, 366 SiC SBE. At. le. LA BAL Oe ENS LAs St i eg See 453, 000 IRIOSUESY” 2 gy ES eaten ee a Se rete Stat te Nee Laie ey 91, 462 Ole RemPI Mier a 8 So Sucle ais iniestld eee otek ed eee Pe oh ie! -. 19,218 vi Cordwood Homacas excelsior, Kilns, 6tC2. <2 5... sss see 225, 420 Cords Forest Products by Years ht) SRM pt ce, ESE ee) canst: acmays 2 :AGaee syore eae torent ree tore 1, 226, 754, 365 WD. od o OBO RSS Binks GRA RM Se core rela s 28 ee | 1, 091, 164, 710 LEDUC) 5 Gee AE Bas Aho ecco eee CREEL TE aOR Rey ae seer aren tte 927,933, 291 NSIC Sees Sis hs KIM Ste Anse iat eons Gear costs ys OER nee 972, 596, 685 DN, cap bel GRA eee Ars RP ERO ee MERE Saar RL STS A 942,545, 269 DLS . . 0.5 Sic BS a Bap ped Ob otso Goto ah Fan DO Sart coe meee se 851, 391, 367 eee StS - .12 2 dpennias ceo tatatera softies sicko ae Oe ee 855, 658, 389 LSE, -sig. ae ee aaA Ne ee Rie ee cee er a AL ce ahh Ree? ba ok} 804, 142, 388 TUG" gs A De ea OIE DEES oae oa mr ene: Ceci ait 863, 932,860 OLE cco SS EEE SEO MIT FERS etc pe eH ae ee aa ee 861, 870, 781 LILES. 4 Soames mire octet te cop oaiere obit te eee. 762,289, 934 152 Appendix With regard to lumber, as recorded by the Forest Service in 1918, New York does not occupy the lead in the production of any single species, but has third place in the production of birch, fourth in maple and basswood, fifth in beech, sixth in ash and hemlock, seventh in balsam fir, eighth in white pine, spruce, and chestnut, and ninth in elm. In 1919 over 1,200 sawmills were in operation. PuLepwoop ConsuMPTION The pulp industry in New York is enormously important. In 1918 New York consumed 1,003,742 cords of pulpwood, one-half of which was imported from Canada or other States. - The only State consuming more pulpwood is Maine, which used 1,234,929 cords. New York, however, has over twice as many mills as Maine, and probably the greater capitalization. The ever-increasing demand for pulpwood is one of the important factors which must be reckoned with in planning the future forest policy of the State. The pulp mills utilize small and inferior trees as well as those which are large and mature, but in certain species the pulp mills compete with the sawmills as_ to which shall obtain and manufacture the wood. For instance, in 1912 the secondary wood-using industries used 76,000,000 feet of home-grown spruce and in 1919 only 20,000,000 feet. This very appreciable decrease in seven years is no doubt due in part to the consumption of this valuable tree for pulpwood. The industries of the State are still using large quantities of spruce, but much of it is now necessarily imported. Spruce once occupied a distinctly inferior position to white pine in the estimation of lumbermen, but the excellence of spruce fibre for pulp purposes has now made it very valuable. In these days the pulpwood is, often transported from dis- tances of 500 miles or more, the supplies near the mills having been exhausted in previous years. It is reported that 60 per cent of the New York mills have no supplies of their own, but must depend upon purchase, largely from sources outside the State. Canada has always been the main reliance for imported spruce, but since 1910 several Canadian Provinces have found it desirable to forbid the export of pulpwood cut from their Pulpwood Consumption 153 Crown lands. Sixty per cent of the remaining spruce pulp- wood in New York is on the State Preserves, where no cutting is allowed. Pulpwood Consumption in New York Wood | Total Pulp YEAR Mills consumed, cost, produced, ~ (cords) (dollars) (tons) Slot eno. OOO ces a 90 921,882 9,630,575 686 , 323 STL ee ARERR Ne citys cvapens ta s ceo ees E 75 1,094,513 12,098,608 787 ,397 UTS cls Sac. Gi ee 79 1,056 , 556 15,270,142 798,616 USS De, 5 eras otto eee 75 1,003,742 17 , 954,934 749 ,176 The amount of pulpwood produced annually by the State is now utterly insufficient to supply the mills, as indicated by the following statistics of the Conservation Commission for 1918, being less than 50 per cent of the annual consumption. Species Cords SILIGEMPUE a ei eercicrs| fcr cused «ao spe big oh crs a Mowsrecharweus ¢ 335, 423 Ee aS IIE IM Stes ir e',5, a) cis. reijoc Sa iota m Ab uum choneretene ecnsucnae 54, 460 TElavaailoelle 2. PRES ee Aan ae Pe Neu NDT an STA Se ayes, 1A: PIM WAS abe: bs. ose cancer 1.3 ay Sprices= (ae; Aver ee es 6.573) Red. cum; 228). 2 Bee ee eA Ae BITCH A ap hie.. APR eeaciee: 32:5) as Hemiloelk, 14-7. « s.r 8 Di WIGe = OBKiia: teyarcrousysusievone 32.0 | 15. (Chestnus. 1.2: -(. 25 een 6 6. Southern yellow pine. .. 2.7 16. Mahogany ............. 3 ip. BABSWOOO 3.15, crore tere lo\< 223) “Vie Doulas, fir®.. 2)... ereeeere 7) Se DODIOllY PIE het. cnt se Lee) 18. Bb i. oe 2 GrrBeechi sts: 5 secre eee IS A9Redi: oaks... nick ieee al ip: Yellow poplar. 235 cigs 1.7 20. Black walnut. . 3. 22m ai! No doubt this list is subject to criticism in some respects. Usefulness is a quality which can not be precisely rated by mathematics or conventional means, especially where it is impossible to take cognizance of all the facts which should have a part in the conclusion. Yet in the lack of a better, the list above will serve as a fairly reliable guide in appraising the service performed by these species. Out of the twenty species listed, thirteen, including the first five, are the natural product of New York’s splendid forest soils. Kinds of Wood Used by the Industries 163 KINDS oF Woop USED BY THE INDUSTRIES Handles Applewood Handles, saw Arborvitae (Northern white cedar) Boat bottoms Boat decking Furniture _ General millwork Planing mill products Roof tanks Aeroplanes Agricultural implements Automobiles Baskets Bodies Bolsters Bows, auto-tops Boxes Box springs Brush backs Buggies Butcher fixtures Butter packages Butter tubs Cabinets Candy pails Car construction Carts Caskets Chairs Cheese boxes Coal screen frames Crates Curtain poles Desks Dowels Dumb-waiters Elevators Finish Fixtures, store, office Furniture Handles Hand rakes Hoops Interior trim Ladders, round Machinery, frames Machinery, rods Motor vehicles Musical instruments Row boats Shiplap Siding Signal devices Woodenware Yachts Ash Novelties Grgans, frames Panels Patierns Picture frames Playground equipment Plow beams Plumbers’ woodwork Plywood Poles, vehicle Pump rods Refrigerators Rollers, farm machinery Scientific instruments Ships Singletrees Skiis Skids Sleds Sleighs Snow shovel handles Sofas Souvenirs Stakes, wagon Stanchions Steering wheels Threshers Toilet tanks Toilet seats Tongues Toys Tripods Trunk slats Trunk strips Turnery Wagon poles Wagon, coasters Whiffletrees W oodenware 164. Boxes Crates Boat equipments Life preservers Refrigeration, cars Boxes Cheese box heads Crates Aeroplanes Agricultural implements Automobiles Baby carriages Bank fixtures Basket covers Basket splints Beehives and bee supplies Berry baskets Billiard-table beds Boats Bookcases Boxes, fancy Brooms Brushes Butter tubs Cable reels Cameras Candy buckets Cars Car construction Casing Caskets Ceiling Chairs Checkers Cheese box heading Children sled tops Cigar boxes Corn planters Crates Dominoes Drawer bottoms Drafting furniture Drills Dumb-waiters Hegg carriers Egg cases Appendix Balm of Gilead Packing Balsawood Refrigeration, ships Refrigeration, trucks Balsam Fir Dairy supplies Planing mill products Basswood Excelsior Filing cabinets Fixtures Furniture Games Go-carts Graders, peach Grain hoppers Grass seeders Handles Hand sled tops Hay racks Hobby horses Ice tools Incubators Indian clubs Instrument cases Ladders Lasts Lawn furniture Machine construction Matches Milk racks Molding (Mousetraps Motor vehicles Musical instruments Novelties Packing boxes Pails Panels Patterns Pianos Piano players Picture frames Playground equipment Plywood Printers’ cabinets Kinds of Wood Used by the Industries Pulleys Reels, cordage Rulers Scientific instruments Scoops Shade rollers Shirt waist boxes Shoe-trees Shoe forms Shop patterns Showcases Skids Sleigh bodies Agricultural implements Automobile seat frames Baskets Beater paddles, paper mills Bobbins Boxes Brick molds Broom handles Brushes Built-up panels Bushel crates Butchers’ blocks - Butter dishes Cable reels Camp furniture Cars Caskets Chairs Chair bottoms Cheese boxes Clothespins Coat hangers Cores Crates Crating Dowels Farm machinery Fixtures Flower supports Furniture Handles Hat racks Kodaks Ladders Ladles Lasts Laundry appliances Lawn swings Spools Store fixtures Threshing machines Toys Trunks Turnery Wagons Wagon boxes Wheelbarrows Window frames Woodenware Yardsticks Beech Machine construction Map rollers Meat boards Motor vehicles Mousetraps Musical instruments Novelties Pails Panels Patterns Pencil boxes Pianos, backs and bottoms Pipe organs Plugs, paper mill Plumbers’ woodwork Reels, cross Reels, rope Refrigerators Rulers Sash Sectional bookeases Scientific instruments Showeases Shuttles Stanchions Tables Toys Trunks Umbrella handles Vehicles Wardrobes Washing machines Wheelbarrows Whip butts Window screens Woodenware Yardsticks 165 166 Agricultural implements Automobile rims Baskets Boat finish Bobbins Bookeases Bowling pins Boxes Brick molds brush backs Built-up panels Butter boxes Butter molds Cabinets Cable reels Cameras Camp furniture Car finish, vestibules Carts Casing Caskets Ceiling Chairs Cheese boxes, hoops Clocks, turnery parts Clothespins Couch frames Cores Crates Crating Desks Dowels Duck pins Dumb-waiter cars Fixtures, exterior parts Flooring Furniture Games Handles, broom, umbrella Hand sleds Harvesters House trim, general Hubs, wheelbarrow Hubs, wagon Interior finish Baskets Beds Boat finish Bookcases Boxes A ppendia Birch Ladders Machine construction Mantels Meat boards Mirror backs Molding Mop wringers Motor vehicles Musical instruments Office fixtures Panels Parlor furniture Partitions Patterns Peavey handles Picture frames Plugs, paper mill Plumbers’ woodwork Pulleys Reels, cordage Refrigerators Scientific instruments Scoops Screen frames Settees Slice-trees Showcases Shuttles Sleds, hand Sleighs Sofas Spools Store fixtures Swings Tables Thresher parts Toilet seats Toilet tanks Toys Tripods Trunks Wagon bodies Wheelbarrows Whip butts W oodenware Black Cherry Brick molds Brushes Bushel crates Cabinets Camera boxes Kinds of Wood Used by the Industries Cars, finish Casing Chairs, posts, rounds Clock cases Counters Desks Doors Dressers Electrotype blocks Engraving blocks Fixtures Flasks Flooring Furniture Handles Interior finish Kitchen cabinets Kodaks Library furniture Machine boxes (Molding Musical instruments Office fixtures GT Panels Partitions Patterns Piano actions Piano cases Piano players Piano rails Picture frames Pipe organ, cases, actions Printing material Sash School furniture Scientific instruments Scoops Settees Spindle stock Store fixtures Tables Table drawers Table legs Trim Typewriter tables Woodenware Black Walnut Billiard cues Gunstocks Bookcases Handles Brush backs Interior finish Bureaus Miter boxes Cabinet work Molding Caskets Organ cases Chairs Parquetry flooring Chair legs Pianos Chiffoniers Piano benches Clock cases Piano cases Coffins Piano players Couches, legs Picture frames Desks Plywood Doors Ship trim Fixtures, exterior parts Sideboards Fixtures, office Side tables Fixtures, store Vehicles Furniture Woodenware Boxwood Brush backs Scientific instruments Buckeye Boxes Interior finish Caskets Ladders Chairs Trim Fixtures Vehicles Furniture Woodenware 168 Boat decks Boat finish Boat seats Cabinets Excelsior Agricultural implements Automobiles Baskets Billiard tables Car construction Caskets Chairs Cheese boxes Coffins Doors Dumb-waiters Elevators Fixtures Flooring Florists’ sticks Incubators Casing Doors Fixtures Furniture Brush backs Cutlery handles, general Agricultural implements Berry boxes Boxes Brush backs Bushel crates Agricultural implements Baseboards Blinds Boat doors Boat frames Boat lockers Boat panels Boxes Burial caskets, outer boxes Cabinets Appendix Butternut Furniture Instrument cases Interior finish Panels Scientific Instruments Chestnut Machine construction Molding Musical instruments Picture frames Planing mill products Plywood Printers’ Cabinets Printing material Refrigerators Ships Toilet seats Toilet tanks Toys Toy wagons Vehicles Woodenware Circassian Walnut Furniture, office Interior finish Kitchen cabinets Office fixtures Cocobola Knive handles Cottonwood Cheese boxes, heads Crates Excelsior Grape trays Matches Cypress (Bald) Cab tops, locomotive Cameras Car roofing Cars Car siding Caskets Cheese vats Churns Coffins Cornices Kinds of Wood Used by the Industries Doors Elevators Exterior finish Finish Fixtures Furniture Greenhouses Gun cases Handles Interior trim Launches, sides Laundry tubs and appliances Machine construction Machine walkways Motor vehicles Moldings Musical instruments Office fixtures Patterns Bobbins Aeroplanes Agricultural implements Boat decking Boat flooring Boat siding Boxes Car construction Caskets Ceiling Derrick poles Doors Exterior finish Fixtures Brushes Cutlery, handles Agricultural impléments Baskets, bottoms, covers Boxes Broom handles Butter tubs Bushel crates Chairs Cheese boxes, heads, hoops Cable reels Crating Couch frames Elevators Picture frames Plumbers’ woodwork Pump covers Refrigerators Sash Scientific instruments Screen frames Ships, sash, panels Siding Signaling devices Silos Store fixtures Store fronts Tanks Trim, boat Vehicles Washing machines Window frames W oodenware Dogwood Shuttles Douglas Fir Interior finish Ladders Musical instruments Piano backs Playground equipment Sash Ship beams Ship siding Ship sills Silos Spars, ship and boat Woodenware Ebony Knife handles Elm Fruit cases, handles, hoops Furniture Go-devils Handles Hayracks Hub, vehicle Instruments, musical Ladders Lasts Machine construction Motor vehicles Planing mill products 169 170 Plugs, paper mill Plywood Rockers Sash Ships Sleighs Furniture Interior finish . Granadilla Cutlery handles Agricultural implements Baskets Blinds Boxes Car construction Cheese boxes Crates Doors Electrical machinery and appa- ratus Agricultural implements Automobile wheels Axles Billiard cues Boats Bolsters Buggies Buggy shafts Buggy spokes Doubletrees Eveners Handles, tool Brush backs Musical instruments Bowling balls Bushings Caster wheels Handles Agricultural implements Automobiles Boxes Crates Doors Appendix Stanchions Trunks, slats Vehicle poles Whiffletrees W oodenware English Oak Interior trim (Cocowood) Knife handles Hemlock Elevators Flasks Flooring Fixtures Furniture Handles Machine construction Patterns Refrigerators Ships Hickory Instruments, tripods Lasts Mallets Motor vehicles Rakes, hand Singletrees Skiis Sleighs Spokes Vehicles Wagon rims Wagon tongues Holly Piano actions Lignwm-vitae Mallets Rollers Scientific instruments Woodenware Loblolly Pine Elevators Finish Fixtures Furniture Garden implements Kinds of Wood Used by the Industries Kitchen cabinets Ladders Machine construction Musical instruments Packing boxes Refrigerators Sash Brick molds Flasks Aeroplanes Automobile trim Beds Billiard cues Bookeases Brushes Cameras Car finish Caskets Chairs Clock cases Engraving blocks Fixtures, exterior Furniture Instrument cases Instruments, musical Agricultural implements Automobile steering wheels Axletrees Axles Baskets Bedroom furniture Billiard cues Billiard tables Blueprint frames Boat finish Bobbins Bobsleds Bolsters Bowling alleys and pins Boxes Brick molds Bridge sticks Brush backs Butcher blocks Butter ladles Butter molds Camp furniture Car finish Car flooring Ships Silos Tanks Trim Vehicles Woodenware Locust Patterns Ships, treenails Mahogany Instruments, scientific Interior finish Kitchen cabinets Lamps Machinery, electrical, bases Mantels Molding Parquetry Patterns Picture frames Plywood Printing material Ships Smokers’ furniture Vehicles Woodenware Maple (hard) Caskets Ceiling Chairs Chair bottoms Chair rods Checkers Cheese boxes Children’s wagons Clothespins Coat hangers Corn planters Corn shellers Cot frames Crates Curtain poles Desks Dishes Doors ~ Dominoes Dowels Drill frames Dumb-bells Dumb-waiters Dump-wagon boxes af 172 Electrotype blocks Elevator guides Eveners Fixtures Flasks Flooring Furniture Gears, wagon Handles: cultivator broom brush parasol umbrella Interior finish Kitchen cabinets Ladders Lasts Laundry appliances Machine frames Map rollers Matches Meat boards Milk racks Mop wringers Motor vehicles Molding Musical Novelties Office fixtures Organs Paddles, boat Parquetry flooring Patterns Pianos Piano bottoms Piano bridges Piano players Picture frames Plugs, paper mill Plumbers’ woodwork, tanks instruments Baskets Bassinets Fixtures Shoe lasts Finish Appendix seats and Maple Plywood Printing material Pulleys Pumps Pump buckets R. R. signal boards Reels, cable Reels, cordage Refrigerators Rollers, caster Rollers, land Rollers, road Rules Sash Scientific instruments Scoops Shoe forms Showcases Skids Skiis Sleds, hand Sleighs Spools Sporting goods Stanchions Surveying rods Toys Toy wagons Tripods, surveyors’ Turnings Vehicles Wagons Washing machines Wedges Wheelbarrows Whiffletrees Whip butts Woodenware Wood heels Wood pulleys, split Wood type Yardsticks (Soft) Furniture, drafting Instruments, musical Washing machines Persimmon Shoe lasts, infants Pitch-Pine Trim Kinds Ships Aeroplanes Furniture Boats Caskets, burial Chests Fixtures Furniture Agricultural implements Automobiles Baskets Boat finish Bookcases Boxes Cabinets Cars Chairs Clocks Curtain poles Desks Doors Drawer panels” Dressers Finish Fixtures Furniture Instrument cases Instruments, musical Instruments, professional Kitchen cabinets Automobiles Bows, auto tops Boxes Car construction Caskets Chairs Coffins Interior finish Fixtures Flooring Furniture Boxes Car construction Ladders of Wood Used by the Industries 173 _ Port Orford Cedar Rattan Whips Red Cedar Red Interior finish (Marine borer plugs Pencils Sash Siding Gum Kodak film spools Machinery, frames Mantels Office fixtures Pianos, actions Piano benches Piano players Picture frames Plywood Signs Smokers’ furniture Refrigerators Tables Threshing machines Tool chests Telephone stands Toys Vehicles Weather strips Wheelbarrows Wood pulleys Red Oak Red Machine construction Magazine cases Motor vehicles Molding Musical instruments Refrigerators Sash Ships Toys Toy wagons Pine Mill work Shade rollers 174 Appendix Redwood Boats _ Interior finish Caskets Musical instruments Cigar boxes Patterns Coffins Sash Doors Shirt waist boxes Flasks Whips, reed Rosewood Automobile trim Fixtures, store Brush backs Knife handles Fixtures Musical instruments Sassafras Novelties Woodenware Souvenirs Satinwood Brush backs Inlaid work Sitka Spruce Aeroplanes Sounding boards Musical instruments, backs Southern White Cedar Ships Southern Yellow Pine Agricultural implements Harvesting machines, poles Automobiles Interior finish Boats Machine construction Boxes Partitions Box car decking Patterns Box car framing Reels, wire Box car siding Road-building machines Car sills Sash Coffins Ship spars Crates Silos Doors Spraying machines, poles, tanks Dump wagons Tanks Elevators Threshing machines Flooring Trim Fixtures Vehicles Furniture Woodenware Spanish Cedar Cigar boxes Kinds of Wood Used by the Industries Agricultural implements Aeroplanes Baskets Boats Boat oars Boxes ‘Box springs Bungs Butcher fixtures Cable reels and spools Car sheating Caskets hairs Cheese boxes Grates Doors I'levator platforms Yarm machinery Fixtures, backing - Fixtures, linings | Fixtures, office Fixtures, store Flooring Furniture, hidden parts Handles Ice boxes Instruments, musical Instruments, scientific Ladder sides Blinds Doors Interior finish (Millwork, general Moldings Musical instruments Blackboards File boards Ships Flooring Ships, bearings Boxes Caskets Cigar boxes Crates Spruce Laundry appliances Machine construction Moldings Molding flasks Motor vehicles Paddles Patterns Piano backs Piano benches Piano cases Piano ribs Piano sounding boards Pipe organs Player, actions Refrigerators, inside partitions Road machinery Shade rollers Ships Shiplap Silos Skids Spars Tanks Tripods Vehicles Wagon bottoms Wedges Woodenware Sugar Pime Organs Patterns Sash Ships Trim Window frames Sycamore Scientific instruments Signs Tamarack Ship knees Teak Ships, decks Parquetry Tupelo Packing cases Shipping cases Scientific instruments Signs CH 176 Appendix Western Red Cedar Blinds Professional instruments Boats Rowboats Doors Sash Interior finish Ship hulls Musical instruments Siding Pencils Western White Pine Aeroplanes Caskets Agricultural implements Matches Boxes Ships Car construction Western Yellow Pine Refrigerators White Oak Aeroplanes Mallets Agricultural implements Molding Athletic goods Motor vehicles Automobile wheels Musical instruments Baskets Parquetry Bookcases Patterns Boxes Picture frames Brushes Plow beams Butter tubs Plumbers’ woodwork, toilet seats Car construction and tanks Caskets Plywood Chairs Pool tables Clocks Pool table tops Coffins Printing material Dressers Pumps Dumb-waiters Refrigerators Elevators Rollers, land Instrument cases Sash Interior finish Scientific instruments Fixtures Ships Flooring Sleighs Furniture Spokes Handles, plow Telephone stands Harvesters Threshing machines Ladders Typewriter tables Laundry appliances Toys Locomotive bolsters and bumpers Vehicles Machine construction Woodenware White Pine Aeroplanes Bee supplies Agricultural implements Blinds Automobile bodies Boat flooring Backing, pictures Boxes Baskets Buckets Battery boxes Burial boxes Kinds of Wood Used by the Industries 4 Car construction Caskets Ceiling Clocks Doors Drafting furniture Drawing boards Egg cases Elevators Fixtures Flooring Foundry flasks Frames Furniture Interior finish Kitchen cabinets Ladders Laundry appliances Machine construction Matches Molding Motor vehicles Musical instruments Office fixtures Patterns Piano key beds Picture frames Artificial limbs Fixtures Furniture Molding Musical instruments Aeroplanes Agricultural implements Automobile bodies Baby carriages Bamboo novelties Baskets Billiard tables Boxes Brushes Bungs Butter tubs Cabinets Cameras Caskets, boxes Cars, finish Chairs Cheese boxes Pipe covering Plumbers’ woodwork Playground equipment Porch columns Pumps Reels Refrigerators Sash Scientific instruments Shade rollers Ships Siding Silos Store fixtures Tanks Threshers Toys Trunks, boxes Tubs Vehicles Washing machines Water pipe Well curbs Wheelbarrows Wire reels W oodenware Willow Boxes Witch Hazel Yellow Partitions Picture frames Trim Poplar Churns Cigar boxes Clocks Clothes hangers Drafting furniture Drills Dumbwaiters Egg carriers Elevators Excelsior Fixtures Furniture Handles Hat blocks Instruments, musical Instruments, professional Interior finish 178 Kodaks Ladders Lamp standards Laundry appliances Mantels Molding Picture frames Playground equipment Plywood Pool tables i oenecee}. i XY. IcaTTaravaus: HAUTAUQUA] . i | ! fe i ti WS. hy HD) aN lomonouas . ae, ‘i ONTARIO | o ) ae Vejearsenlg.— foes; / A —-—! % % x, pnenanal jatteaany| STeUBEN “¢ . ee “tings F \ dike ns ontene / Fi =x: roaa{ sacome po ee stl 9 : a Appendix Printing material Refrigerators Sash Ships Spool heads Toys Vehicles Wheelbarrows W oodenware ePweltela' eisesao } \ mamictonl ty] \ Wannan i Fe 5 } ) ommipa ¢ t—~4 i / a Laan FA cana See ne —a8 y s orsec0 ae (naan) & € ee ee pala LOCATION OF CoUNTIES IN NEW YorK STATE Directory of Manufacturers 179 Directory oF MANUFACTURERS The following is a list of the manufacturers who cooperated in the collection of the data contained in this report. Manu- facturers who produce several products will appear in this lst under more than one industry. Many manufacturers make boxes and crates for their own use only. Aeroplanes Curtiss Aeroplane & Motor Corp., 65 Chur- MES AIP ocr ysicnacctoleveys, SY % oo eee ciedaate cee Buffalo, Erie Co. The Curtiss Engineering Corp............ Garden City, Nassau Co. Thomas‘Morse Aircraft Corp............. Ithaca, Tompkins Co. Loening Aeronautical Eng. Corp., 351-355 NE AGM enc (os, sc. 5 Sie Scie ise ee New York, New York Co. POMBE ANU. So sao ou oasis ov ae ws a ee we Springville, Erie Co. Agricultural Implements PM TTEMEST ORC (25 2.000 = 6 6 « acelajele em cele miele 2 Akron, Erie Co. Boggs Potato Grader Co., Inc...........- Atlanta, Steuben Co. nia niy ta: AI Ties SRA BR IBIo eric cco cinco dc Auburn, Cayuga Co. International Harvester Co.............. Auburn, Cayuga Co. Guiclkwore Phomas (CO... sc). - oleic cies nice a icie Auburn, Cayuga Co. Batavia Machine \Co............--+-sceee Batavia, Genesee Co. Massey—Harris Harvester Co., Inc........ Batavia, Genesee Co. Warsaw—Wilkinson Co. . ..........+.----: Batavia, Genesee Co. Warne Lo we On Abie. athe crete lovee oc arteausadaare Batavia, Genesee Co. Pe peekennehan Ones Cli.) <1. 6 12 ae eee « Brasher Falls, St. Lawrence Co. Bean Harvester COM. ASIN etd ignore Caledonia, Livingston Co. Toy, 1cGareyinn ca (Cf) scnescieeeac Maya latevedene oye leyavertetenekers Cassadaga, Chautauqua Co. S. K. Campbell Co., Inc..........-.--++-- Central Bridge, Schoharie Co. ATT ETS MUA Viento ahoteals te ietalleile (evo leilale!s oieseele’ East Pembroke, Genesee Co. VDT OGG SOM. < clare s io) e ctepe is) nfs slave lstepenete © East Pembroke, Genesee Co. OntarigmDrwlNiGons seeisclele = << 22 sse ec East Rochester, Monroe Co. Field Force Pump Co............+-++++-- Elmira, Chemung Co. Friend Mfg ENS ea bic fokato ds siya e's aletichane heysrs Gasport, Niagara Co. Gowanda Agrl. \ Wore iin, 6 5 Gein OOo Clon Gowanda, Cattaraugus Co. Sirti eM OMAS) cc. «211s oles 01 © seem) «isis sles Greenport, Suffolk Co. W. Eddy Plow (OGY, Seki S OS GOOG nr io oicicee Greenwich, Washington Co. aA DerkdnS: hye. clrustetale = sisters site © Harford Mills, Cortland Co. Tk TEL. BSH PSS) ed Oona cio Gonos PickD ORbia Ie Cio oicen: Hemlock, Livingston Co. Ve 1 Cael oat eee ee ee Hemlock, Livingston Co. W. A. Wood M. & R. M. Co.........--.--- Hoosick Falls, Rensselaer Co. 180 Appendix The Babcock: Mic ai@oses tus him -re 4 three Leonardsville, Madison Co. ie Roy ge lowe Co 0 erie apie ore le eet ate Le Roy, Genesee Co. Richmond. Vibe Cone oh ie? gis tals cai s:cle stb es Lockport, Niagara Co. H. U. Scoville Co...............-..-.2... Manlius, Onondaga Co. Munmsvalles Plowi@oser rises cleo cts Munnsville, Madison Co. Coldwell Ahawn Mower lCoueness eo eeeeeee Newburgh, Orange Co. Newfane Lumber & Mfg. Co.............. Newfane, Niagara Co. Garley Heater Co. Inc. «2... eee Olean, Cattaraugus Co. Crowat, Mis 6. an coy ui enlace toot etat ae Phelps, Ontario Co. Moline Plows Okman ceteris oc oe Poughkeepsie, Dutchess Co. BBS (Peasen@ane tacccacs nent amincsem oes Rochester, Monroe Co. SlarkMaehine: Contre sec are non ones St. Johnsville, Montgomery C Westinghouse (Cas © toe uo oi ates te = cise eto Schenectady, Schnectady Co. iPapec, Machines Commerce comic ee Shortville, Ontario Co. Star Seeder von sores ccr cee iek orcas Shortville, Ontario Co. Syracuse Chilled, Plow Oo. * ca... - 4.2 oe ee Syracuse, Onondaga Co. Hoh. Melntyre's..jnm oc 6 eee ie ah eee Union, RFD 2, Broome Co. Mur eka! Mowers Gon sec cuisine oe fel austere Utica, Oneida Co. BS Benbamiigccvatt tj caieykoke os sete sooner Warsaw, Wyoming Co. See, Eiarity cee p ae eye ie eee Suc oneie nee Webster, Monroe Co. Ch, (Mottemmioncnak i: acest oie cee Westdale, Oneida Co. Baskets and Fruit Packages Albert’ Sparvowiaesh: Seyret «nes cues ae Amagansett, Suffolk Co. yuueey dehyclkee "OOo 4 og cd00 vdewoo sooo eb OUE Attica, Wyoming Co. Biceinmdians Wood Products Wo...) -1-% ‘Big Indian, Ulster Co. MeltondkiGallkcimsy se. .,cpaeeterci eiersuscronviensmehokayell= Brant, Erie Co. Bly BROS NM Ce FE SAE ee sen. eset oh otoratray siohny ers Central Square, Oswego Co. We mustetson Co. ot see a tcoerne ren nc Cherry Creek, Chautauqua Co. RMWeNBarkent Yate iteee @ hee = as ercrye onersserane Coopers Plains, Steuben Co. AA. MER ea rvalbtiy Tt SR eR. BIE, «ht aman atin et etek aes Demster, Oswego Co. Digi Ayiidore, [EVs (Oo ocadasacocaddacos East Aurora, Erie Co. MneB Rrnetaee Some « sciatic ct en eciate oe East Pembroke, Genesee Co. @eor (Brasserie Som eee ate shoes aioe East Rochester, Monroe Co. \WVenniN Rane, OM BuO kere bss gosta othe obo OSIe Forestville, Chautauqua Co. IBACOMg Gas OOn atten eioe ete Deieie eeeoees Gasport, Niagara Co. Gloversville Woodenware Co............. Gloversville, Fulton Co. Directory of Manufacturers 181 WrieeeAmis eric sien) 26s, cietavlesil.c gua sectors Harford Mills, Cortland Co. VIEWS ALES = cfaycts cis. «, 28=) 4 siesays Se Sei see ae,» Hemlock, Livingston Co. Witte le tGher Wer 36, <,sryd dlais Ws ake ee dunes Hemlock, Livingston Co. Cromer brat th SON" i3:4 2,sre2fs a5 > soe eg isi Highland, Ulster Co. eee er WilliPer. ow 25.55 os eGR. neared. Highland, Ulster Co. mt. mepis Indian Trading Co............. Hogansburg, Franklin Co. SEMEL GUE SOM sc aisicsk.c ci ood 6.a0d 4s ae eerawe Holland, Erie Co. iRemeomhHerny Mall Coo. 2 oo... ee Ab ce King Ferry, Cayuga Co. (RCOMPUDMICLVED y wsc cs fsa a bce lessee caeads Loyd, Ulster Co. Wuelimietonm MSLISSET 2... et ee eee Lyndonville, Orleans Co. Covi G0%t), (COeA. 0 b CR SR InInISeSS Gi einen Leer Mallory, Oswego Co. Woyaltonm basket Co... 2. ts. cesses 6 eee Middleport, Niagara Co. 0 NS ee ee New Haven, Oswego Co. REP ANINT, 3. 2). 5.0 bla «S26 8S idol 25s eee oe New Haven, Oswego Co. Acme Veneer Package Co., Inc........... Orchard Park, Erie Co. Bascermesuaresshacks (Co. 226 250.028. age 2 Orchard Park, Erie Co. Oxford Basket & (Mfg. Co................ Oxford, Chenango Co. Bancenmnobpeson Corp... :.2.-e sein tase be Pen Yan, Yates Co. CMMewVVANONAIE Ses sess. ekece ede e Pen Yan, Yates Co. Mauss) Ibid oe (Claas Seen eos Pen Yan, Yates Co. EAGRPe er MOOLYEl. <3. 5 cls esse eects cases Prattsburg, Steuben Co. Weebeenickenbrode Son... . oc cta Dd 2 SIGS ORIN IIE ORO eee Der Queensboro Box & Lumber Co., 300 Richard- Gi, Blin cochem de SO Se Gee oe Deon Geo. H. Reeves, Inc., 290 Green st........ OmSaettichardsy Corp. (52.4025. Corbettsville, Broome Co. Brockway (Motor Truck Co.............:. Cortland, Cortland Co. Champion’ Malk Cooler Co...2¢ 2.2525 eee Cortland, Cortland Co. Hdlund=MachineryeCo, snc. 22). 2. -pi.s Cortland, Cortland Co. WW Newtonttors Ata eens 2 oi Severo the et Cortland, Cortland Co. Wickwar eoBrosta fits, sets liver © =o <0 bis% 2 Cortland, Cortland Co. American Vigilver Come ep per went ote entee cic Coxsackie, Greene Co. American Assembling Mch. Co........... Croton Falls, Westchester Co. American Locomotive Co................ Dunkirk, Chautauqua Co. Atlas Crucible Steel’ Coie. 2.2 ess: Dunkirk, Chautauqua Co. Continental YHeaterh Corres state soll aie el Dunkirk, Chautauqua Co. Empire Asem Compe ses bur eteae, c,ic, fageraxs niags Dunkirk, Chautauqua Co. Wssex dG lass Goat. oelieers ievlewe oe gi cic here Dunkirk, Chautauqua Co. George TH wGralee sd eh. ees + ss nie Dunkirk, Chautauqua Co. Eantord. Bros ae? “tact i Ghaetle « siecw sce se East Meredith, Delaware Co. Prerce;. Butlerxés Bietcestceetiece + -Cace soe Eastwood, Onondaga Co. stickley Mic: Co «inc. .abeh ried oe = sty sees Eastwood, Onondaga Co. Ae DS OMOrtOnion aoe ae eee. niet ee ee te Eaton, Madison Co. Dwicht, Devine @asonseeeces: «ere ec. ce Ellenville, Ulster Co. Be Mi, Howell! &: Comte... 5/2500 2 Us chies bea whe REC SMHOUGS GOS iso. .cis le tle. tbe wideee eta. Library Bureau A. N. Russell & Sons Co....... iy 2 yn kee Hornell, Steuben Co. Horseheads, Chemung Co. Ilion, Herkimer Co. Ilion, Herkimer Co. Advance Hurniture Co:, Inc...........6.. Jamestown, Chautauqua (Co. ‘Art, Metal Construction Co............ _... Jamestown, Chautauqua Co. Pememarnnnure COlS.. Sa 2. ee eee nes Jamestown, Chautauqua Co. imapire Case Goods Co. .2))..........2050. Jamestown, Chautauqua Co. International Casement Co., Inc.......... Jamestown, Chautauqua Co. emnesiowmme Cian CON. ine. . cs Beek Jamestown, Chautauqua Co. Jamestown Period Furniture Co.......... Jamestown, Chautauqua (Co. Monaro nMirnibure COs. 2. cces ccs cies eee Jamestown, Chautauqua Co. eam Or IN ONGUIS ICO. 2). cts Giclee oicleie’e Jamestown, Chautauqua (Co. BECTON CO 502... Bol. oe oe ole ln ele Jamestown, Chautauqua Co. inensiar hurniiure Co., Inc. ..2.)s. 22-60. Jamestown, Chautauqua Co. Puipeemon eurmiimure (CO. 0.) 15. c oe es Jamestown, Chautauqua Co. Weborg Bros. Spring Bed Co............ Lestershire Lumber & Box Co............ DP eeMMMMECOR Fis. se 2. cy. as Haka shee Jamestown, Chautauqua Co. Johnson City, Broome Co. Jordan, Onondaga Co. Ausable—Hssex Horse Nail Co............ Keesville, Essex Co. Onerda Community, Ltd. ¥.......25 0.26% Kenwood, Madison Co. Herberte Brust Mio.r'Co. 22... i. Be ielskie Kingston, Ulster Co. ACA VY et OUTOer: 1215282. PINS. scree foc indiscrial Gillies. Com... $60. ..0..03.F eee Lancaster, Erie Co. Lancaster Machine & Kniie Works....... Lancaster, Erie Co. National Enamel & Stamping Co......... Laurel Hill, Suffolk Co. American Laundry Machine Co.......... Lincoln Park, Monroe Co. rank Bowman Little Falls, Herkimer Co. Lafayette, Onondaga Co. Daeteetbumrelle a Core Ini es foc. e245 ce een Little Falls, Herkimer Co. Cae laudatrom® Mic. Cols... 0.2.02 eke Little Falls, Herkimer Co. Momenemyaere Mig, Co... c...cses tae eases Little Falls, Herkimer Co. Minaya TOSSce) Es 6. 2a Me hies e ee eas aes Cochrane Box 1& Mifos\Co.s Ime... 2.2... JDRATHNS (oo, VOOR Merritt Mfg. Rachmiond® Mies Co... Trevor Mfg. Joseph Turner UNICrrey LBS 5 ills ee Livonia, Livingston Co. Lockport, Niagara Co. Lockport, Niagara Co. Lockport, Niagara Co. Lockport, Niagara Co. Lockport, Niagara Co. Niagara Co. Central Paper Box Co........ cay oaeh, iikey@ourbot Co. Ines. ee. ..2 245245855 McGraw, Cortland Co. Mallory, Oswego Co. SemGuoney: Gf SOn Ae. 3 TIES... ee eat ee Manlius, Onondaga Co. HinwmitkamMOnrisonl .ahtie ns sles. wa TT Marion, Wayne Co. GeoreepO loppinpie Wise. .2e nen ate eters Marion, Wayne Co. Rhea laisdell Mig? (Co. fe G 0b. Ue dada a0 ae Se Martville, Cayuga Co. 186 A ppendia New York Rubber Co................... Matteawan, Dutchess Co. Medina Wood Working & Fur. Co., Inc.... Medina, Orleans Co. Ideal Wrapping Machine Co............. Middletown, Orange Co. Morgans & Wilcox Mfg. Co.............. Middletown, Orange Co. Cronle/tCarrient Mig m@ag se ee seca ks Montour Falls, Schuyler Co. Shepard Elec. Crane & Hoist Co.......... Montour Falls, Schuyler Co. HmpiresViachune: VWorlksemeas. 2.22. e eis oe Mount Morris, Livingston Co. Grubb. & Kosevarten’ Bros: 2... 0...)..-...- Nassau, Rensselaer Co. American Can Co., 120 Broadway......... New York, New York Co. «merican Hard Rubber Co., 11 Mercer st.. New York, New York Co. Artists Packing & Shipping Co., 139 W. A Chy ieiee® Pelee | Pee ePID Tara acralctattebe cae New York, New York Co. Semon Bache & Co., 636 Greenwich st..... New York, New York Co. L. Baldasky & Co., Inc., 537 E. 15th st.... New York, New York Co. John, A. Bank & Bro:, 510 B®. 72d st...... New York, New York Co. Fred Bieg Box Co., Inc., 40-42 Gold st... New York, New York Co. Estate of Frederick Buse, 1110 First av.. New York, New York Co. Carolina Box & Lumber Co., 38 Commerce Bb ety PEL ESO eof Cee ie sale New York, New York Co. Carroll Box & Lumber Co., 627 E. 18th st. New York, New York Co. City Packing Box Co., 624 E. 19th st.... New York, New York Co. Consolidated Packing Box & Lumber Co., Ine., 568-572 Washington st.......... New York, New York Co. De La Vergne Machine Co., Foot of E. US Sith sty ee sett k Me eae ster ee seeds. sears. New York, New York Co. . Downtown Packing Box Co., 79-81 Cliff st. New York, New York Co. Dunbar Box & Lumber Co., 551 W. 28th st. New York, New York Co. Eagle Box & Lumber Co., 128 Greene st.. New York, New York Co. Epstein & Vollweiler, 814 EK. 5th st....... New York, New York Co. James Fagan & Sons, 202 West Houston st. New York, New York Co. Faultless Box & Lumber Co., 301 E. 21st st. New York, New York Co. Finkelstein Packing Box Co., 131 W. 3d st. New York, New York Co. J. H. Fitzgerald, Inc., 582 W. 20th st.... New York, New York Co. Forest Box & Lumber Co., 149 Mercer st.. New York, New York Co. E. Gerow, 450 Eleventh av.............. New York, New York Co. M. Gerow & Sons, 450 Eleventh av........ New York, New York Co. M. Gershowitz, 128 Greene st..........:. New York, New York Co. Je ea Gilmounse 230 Ondumbrey-v-/bet.tetext atte New York, New York Co. M. Gottlieb & Sons, 20 Clarke st........ New York, New York Co. Harlem Storage Warehouse Co., 211-213 BEMUOOCH Stee ete Flare oer. rotator New York, New York Co. Charlesmicornys #bondinsteat1otse ete & New York, New York Co. The Laffargue Co., 134th st. & S. Boulevard New York, New York Co. The Manhattan Box Co., 410 E. 32d st.... New York, New York Co. Manhattan Show Case Co., 359 Canal st.. New York, New York Co. DV ehy a eVVoee liste atte tic yele ces ere New York, New York Co. Terence Montagu, 10: York st...........: New York, New York Co. John EK. Moore, 588 Greenwich st........ New York, New York Co. T. G. Patterson Lumber Co., 637 W. 55th st New York, New York Co. Rosenthal & Cohen, 53 Great Jones st.... New York, New York Co. Pa Ryan, 556.Washinetoni ete... ....-...- 5. New York, New York Co. Shwab, Bros. iCo:s31 0) Rie Oth st... 2. .c. New York, New York Co. Star Box & Lumber Co., 81 Tompkins st.. New York, New York Co. Stulman Box & Lumber Co., 20 Wooster st. New York, New York Co. Tutt, Buros., 2 Broadwpays eas h st, %\ s, epee, 01 5,0,0,.00 Hancock, Delaware Co. ernment. brushes Mig: G0.) cion5. 1220s ese oe Kingston, Ulster Co. Ieleaaryy IPS Gb os a ee ere Long Eddy, Sullivan Co. Pee ermeatimnme 1h VCOl si. 2. ss.) 2. as oe wile North Troy, Rensselaer Co. RPMI OMPAGE SON Sin tym),. ar v6 oye © Barnard & Simonds Co balay eh outlay ocatties sue shewanere Hubbard, Hldredge & Miller.............. Cc. M: Lenhard = et Oe Ney oe Sen ene toe Ge GE VE: GHALT MOO. 25. Sea /cege ere oes sero odode Hrd. Montgomery Mfg. Co...:.........: WeehHeomeanlock Chair OO.l.... sss. 0s ss ele. RIS OR OC Foo ons ate lave aie eres Clocks Ansonia Clock Co., Seventh av. & 12th st.. John A. Bank & Bro., 510 E. 72d st...... BAOMRSMIZACT To os ae oes ots es ee sens Cigar Boxes iLaurs (ios od ae ee Pee res Are che EUG 2 5 ciate pss ses 2 eigen 8 ese Boyame Mite: Col. fe oe oo 8s ole ona stele 10's ole (McConnellsville, Oneida Co. Medina, Orleans Co. Milford, Otsego Co. Mottville, Onondaga Co. Mottville, Onondaga Co. Newburgh, Orange Co. New York, New York, New York, New York, New York, New York New York New York New York New York Phoenix, Oswego Co. Poughkeepsie, Dutchess Co. Rochester, Rochester, Rochester, Rochester, Monroe Co. Monroe Co. Monroe Co. Monroe Co. Sherman, Chautauqua Co. Silver Creek, Chautauqua Co. Wayland Steuben Co. Westdale, Oneida Co. Brooklyn Kings Co. New York, New York Co. Springville, Erie Co. Buffalo, Erie Co. Buffalo, Erie Co. Elmira, Chemung Co. Hudson, Columbia Co. Lyons, Wayne Co. 192 Appendix Nic. Althaus Co., 637-641 E. 17th st...... New York, New York Co. S. Elkeles Cigar Box Co., 535 E. 79th st.. New York, New York Co. Schwarzkopf & Ruckert, 413-415-417 E. SOC} Sbwen ih Ne cee Eee « Peele «Soca ewelic New York, New York Co. S. Sladkus & Son, 392 Madison st........ New York, New York Co. Charles Stutz Co., 283-289 Monroe st..... New York, New York Co. J. C. Van Brunt & Son, 291 Monroe st.... New York, New York Co. Louis Walter, Inc., 132d st. & Lincoln av... New York, New York Co. L. F. Schlecht, 316-318 E. Water st...... Syracuse, Onondaga Co. Dairymen’s, Poulterers’, and Apiarists’ Supplies Gilbert “Gaillemereee tyte etic soe eG oe oe Barnerville, Schoharie Co. Charles Quackenbush? )o.¢2.2 082 ticdet ice Barnerville, Schoharie Co. PAW OA: MRIPON CHE ay sere Gere ea ee ie Black River, Jefferson Co. Di aiSarlene Myers eh be oe ire tare Be Leet co Bijoonville, Oneida Co. HEM WiC OGt retro it aie wiareia crue 6 ue se Be tice Cape Vincent, Jefferson Co. Oakes & (UE Ser "COsas rine siesta nee a Cattaraugus, Cattaraugus Co. Cy Hus SACOM. 7 Hore de wae oie cee» Chateaugay, Franklin Co. Ws HS hCLSON COs 925 oe cnt etait Sheree oe Cherry Creek, Chautauqua Co. Veldinim> IBTOs tek ta Ne neni ee oe ca ha Cincinnatus, Cortland Co, CEN Payments pe Ne cists rye cite coaches Cold Brook, Herkimer Co. athe Steam, MIM COrse +. seuss tn te Constableville, Lewis Co. CRUVIS. POC ae Bt ec ME nd oie ihe BR eet 5M cata Cortland, Cortland Co. POSEPN POMEL. we ace ake: Ales cre Hee Croghan, Lewis Co. Stanley GC. Switt Mig: Core... 53.0. 5006. Cuba, Allegany Co. Stemuliers Bros. 6: 00-0: 2 see ee hoon Depauville, Jefferson Co. American Mis "CONGCELMy cdi ss as > os = Falconer, Chautauqua Co. HotlenbeckwiG" Sone. eee sst cree. thoes on Ft. Jackson, St. Lawrence Co. Hdward WieiGossethen ts aeheitenle ys sisi ss Frewsburg, Chautauqua Co. rede Salen .SOURen eis ciiceerl ie ane eee Glenmore, Oneida Co. LO LeWiLOM™ corse tea cie aero eee eerie lee Gouverneur, St. Lawrence Co. Blok: BROS 24. 2 Aina ee Ree eee Great Valley, : Cattaraugus Co. G: BS ‘Gerard “Millet, Geert. co au ah eas. & Holland Patent, Oneida Co. Edward 1h: Gossett. 47.805. 92% ond. ses sete Jamestown, Chautauqua Co. Wirt, PO ATEIOOME «a. sos ols vg cia oe Ore Ais sr eirhee Johnstown, Chautauqua Co. (CSMAT OT AVE)... ois «n'a «ets widteus e.crape age eisrerone das Laurens, Otsego Co. Ast. SROG ETS: oS S59 alsin oi a ace eee Le Roy, Genesee Co. Hall Mammoth Incubator Co............. Little Falls, Herkimer Co. The Courbot (Coswctiot -c1-n Gerke ito ce ate os Mallory, Oswego Co. DE Se Va WSOMncsr SOUS: c,. + cys lrareee teen: Pyeteras Manlius, Onondaga Co. Ge SEL Wi bithaken pete i. styt apa eve.cicke qe cyoseycycue Marcy, Oneida Co. Lie Ja RC) Sha Poa ibe 2 eRe Oba en tas oe etin; Morris, Otsego Co. WEEN S Gardner. Scere cmererererorree New Woodstock, Madison Co. Gharles, (GUE wer eee saeteetels cletevs cteisuayets North Western, Oneida Co. Directory of Manufacturers 195 PREM EBCA COC. ios. Coole s the ER peg Bh Orwell, Oswego Co. SREMMESEOUIES. Soar... oe pun oe ad Dalen 2 eelestaleee Philadelphia, Jefferson Co Monmnisone blair, & Co. os2.....5s5425 bbs on Rensselaer Falls, . St. Lawrence Co. emma Peles Pe I ee as hala Richfield Sprgs., Otsego Co. JonmG. Hlbs, 397 Main st:.......5....+.5 Rochester, Monroe Co. em Com MICH eniyn yet «2c GRE ede cae os ones Rushford, Allegany Co. [Dig tS), “LIL RYO} 0 Se see ea aoe Vanhornesville, Herkimer Co. RAC aris. 50/5, cisbeveys's 2 she dv oe ca dae ed Varysburg, Wyoming Co. Pelarmate eM eMIACSB 8.4 215 Gis. anh. oir Sa clsvecutale Vernon Center, Oneida Co. TEL LR, INNGINSS Sea Seen Waterville, Oneida Co. Wellsville Castom! Co... . 2 ste. oe Wellsville, Allegany Co. CPO hee Wellin etn... 4.§.\-2%,2 2 sta < West Stockholm, St. Lawrence Co. EPO rs eins a. + aise Bie eheie A oisie West Valley, Cattaraugus Co. fe nS CTS West Winfield, Herkimer Co. Cri CMINS OMe. str a te act ee oth tad Whitney Point, Broome Co. (CVA SI SKIUEK «3:50, 5 «: aysiee cuene Geese sie - Wiscoy, Allegany Co. Dowels & Skewers Horronw lam bers CO. :,.)- iis ice ene ewes se ee Altmar, Oswego Co. Wis, lh, (COR eC i eno Berlin, Rensselaer Co. BS CHIATEMISTOSs GO) eis cs ees Selec ss 82 ew a Cattaraugus, Cattaraugus Co. PAGE TIVE MMRC ECan (GON. =. 28505. b Sian niate wietetioiele te Aces, ois Woodside, Queens Co. Electrical Machinery and Apparatus Gomlde Gauplere@ose i). tj.) bes ce eee es Depew, Erie Co. Gen» Railway Signal Co.......:......+-... Rochester, Monroe Co. exehesleumber Co. pes: cciccate oe aecs = «ere mete Rome, Oneida Co. | (Genenaleitlectnic! Com. 3.35.62 = <6 ee cia 2 = Schenectady, Schenectady Co. Elevators Opa ev AtOTe Oren 2s sven o e's Fle osiars oes sere Buffalo, Erie Co. Smith Elevator Co., Inc., 301 Liberty bldg. Huffalo, Erie Co. Acme Road Machinery Co............-+>- Frankfort, Herkimer Co. Ant Lar & Sons, Brook ay. & 134th : ats we. SSN ea Peer eid eae or New York, New York Co. Republic Elevator & Machine Co........- Rochester, Monroe Co. Warsaw, Wyoming Co. Yonkers, Westchester Co. Warsaw Elevator Co.........--:-++++-+08 Otis Elevator Co.........2----2-se0s- +s c 194 Appendix Eacelsior Big Indian Wood Products Co............ Big Indian, Ulster Co. Chateaugay Excelsior Co......../........ Chateaugay, Franklin Co. New, York :@ixcelsior (Cocccte on fs Kast Branch, Delaware Co. i /M.. Blystone, ucre coe. een as eee Elmira, Chemung Co. ChasvM. ‘Allene Liane... Poca as Fulton, Oswego Co. David! &. Mason oeis. iy eines eins wees Fuiton, Oswego Co. National’ Desa (Uore. ..- oss tse o eee Herkimer, Herkimer Co. Hentone a eWenceksine=f- ere oe pmerenerce TLowville, Lewis Co. Port, Leyden. Excelstor iC0.452...55 cess cc ies Lowville, Lewis Co. Chag.| Harden jWetates so. criss... s es. « McConnellsville, Oneida Co. — TE Oe eis ity (=) Ko De awe nests aie toies oe tere eres a Mooers, Clinton Co. ETE Fo cel MOLMOM ee kTs npc SGRIAE oye.5 50s ese oe Fc Narrowsburg, Sullivan Co. Boston Excelsior Co., Eleventh av. & 29th ISSES OMEN oy OC REGIE noir antenna thn esc era” New York, New York Co. Northt River. Mite, (Coin: ssid tosis dine ciate North Creek, Warren Co. Des al Rea \ ACT ks Coy de aeterestees Srey gene cen ater Petries Corners, Lewis Co. Grom] Gy pla DOs sea csp Siac co oe 2 is de ee Phoenicia, Ulster Co. Harry Gonningham. 5. oc 2%... «see oes sae Warrensburg, Warren Co. Firearms ithestunter nme (Co: ines. - cere Fulton, Oswego Co. The Remington Arms Union Metallic Cartridge @6.. .cet hte 2 Pee ORG Ilion, Herkimer Co. hace, Giimig CO Ws crpeeacreckd cls cos se eee Ithaca, Tompkins Co. Savage Arms: Corpy os) ie os seis ieleeie pleas nie Utica, Oneida Co. Epp Es e6 WEN aie). USNOOM 5 coc cele eis, 2 etalean es) le Auburn, Cayuga Co. American Show Case Co., 289 Greenport av. Brooklyn, Kings Co. Columbia Mantel Co., 274 Leonard st..... Brooklyn, Kings Co. Eagle Show Case Co., 899 Myrtle av...... Brooklyn, Kings Co. Eastern Show Case Co., 470 Park pl...... Brooklyn, Kings Co. Kichmani:Co.,.7 McKiloben...,.. 02. 0-22. Brooklyn, Kings Co. Frederick Elflein & Sons, Inc, 216-226 DICH, heii e~ cadariewnig ses a tee ie Brooklyn, Kings Co. E. Hamburger & Co., 139 Emerson pl.... Brooklyn, Kings Co. Interstate Parlor Frame Co., 280 Leonard Bliseten acai tad ogee eee ais, speysfagane ee hea oes Brooklyn, Kings Co. Manhattan Show Case Co., 265 Calyer st.. Brooklyn, Kings Co. Directory of Manufacturers Schwartz & Co., 87-105 Richardson st.... Toyeson Partition Co., 291 Adams st.... M. J. Bernhard Co., Inc., 712-720 Jefferson Sih. om, 90'S DCE eae eae arora gene gas = A en A Dutch & Co., 148 Seneca st............ A. F. Meyer & Sons Co., 408 Broadway.... Queen City Store Fixture Co., 431 William RMI sarcs. 3 os. sw ve a ada cathe to ae George W. William Schwarzwaelder & Co., Inc....... Pee EGER UTIRIOS ODN 6 2 ey 5.5m eet iw ay a) a spn mp aiae Ae Ne UISSE] Qi SONS, CO mci cs sce ceo 6 de Acme Wood Working Co., Inc., 514-516 W. UBD SEs Ae = ie Bee eee Ammann Mfg. & Const. Co., 155-163 Av D. C. W. Anderson, 449-451 W. 41st st Beckersd; 1Korb, «553° W.. 35th st......1... Bubeck & Guerin, Inc., 161—163 W. 18th st. Drosin’ Bros., 2076 Second av........:.... Honiss KR. Hisher, 227 Mercer st........... P. H. Gellman & Co., Wooster bet. Canal & \Siraiaial Gib S 6 Sane Bienen e a eee ee on Homekman Bros. & Co., 820 E. 5th st.... Wm. Kleeman & Co., Inc., 101 Park av.... Manhattan Office Partition Co., 143 Front Shin 6 0805 6. Ot DOR TE CE RER CE EOR IRIE a ane Ion Manhattan Show -Case Co., 359 Canal st.. Mount & Robertson, 41 Beaver st......... N. Y. Store Fixture Co., 9-11 Ei. 137th st.. N. Y. Wood Working Corp., 506 E. 19th st. Hi. Pearlman, 858 Eighth av............. Queensboro Cabinet Co., 1110 First av.... Ely J. Riesser & Co., Inc., 28th st. & First ONS Charles R. Ross & Son, 12 Cedar st...... Wm. B. Rummler, 367-369 W. 11th st.... Benjpekyoakoi,1229 He. 22d st....5.2.5i.. Robert Wick Lumber Co., 556 W. 52d st.. PEG eMNUIROM COLD... cs en ccs oe ene mn Veale Tee TIN OO neta ych oso.) covey ores sie bi cess Be American Drafting Furniture Co........ Rochester seabinet Co. Inme>...2.5.::5.-:... Rochester Show Case Works, 404 Platt st.. Stromberg—Carlson Tel. Mfg. Co.......... Je Ver scoranlce Mion CO). ce... sees cg me KE. M. Allewelt, 416 S. Salina st.......... Syracuse Show Case Works, 109 Decker st. Brooklyn, Kings Co. Brooklyn, Kings Co. Buffalo, Erie Co. Butfalo, Erie Co. Buffalo, Erie Co. Buffalo, Erie Co. Camden, Oneida Co. Chichester, Ulster Co. Hempstead, Nassau Co. Ilion, Herkimer Co. New York, New York Co. New York, New York Co. Co. New York, New York Co. New York, New York New York, New York New York, New York New York, New York New York, New York Co. Co. New York, New York Co. Co. New York, New York Co. New York, New York Co. New York, New York Co. New York, New York Co. New York, New York Co. New York, New York Co. New York, New York New York, New York New York, New York Co. New York, New York Co. New York, New York Co. New York, New York Co. New York, New York Co. New York, New York Co. Penn Yan, Yates Co. Rochester, Monroe Co. Rochester, Monroe Rochester, Monroe Rochester, Monroe Rochester, Monroe Syracuse, Onondaga, Co. Syracuse, Onondaga Co. 195 196 A ppendia Furniture Auburn. PRISOW wi; cee wrasse ols ee te od Auburn, Cayuga Co. Kroehler Mig Com sinen rr. as chen cs. Linghamton, Broome Co. Brooklyn Parlor Frame Co., Inc., 189-191 1 Wellgo wty tet: Pips. as pasa attests so fou tee Brooklyn, Kings Co. Colonial Mantel & Refrigerator Co., 494 DMO MA sree ys. sic oles apaeiats,2 se authede’s Brooklyn, Kings Co. Gasau-Thompson Co., 16 Ashland pl...... Brooklyn, Kings Co. Gluck: Bross738 Mayer sts... ci orc tek Brooklyn, Kings Co. Manhattan Mantel Co., 55 Humboldt st.. Brooklyn, Kings Co. National Parlor Suit Co., 71 Raymond st.. Brooklyn, Kings Co. Romer Mfg. Co., Ine., 205-209 Deamond st. Brooklyn, Kings Co. Royal Table Co., 24 Boerum st.......... Brooklyn, Kings Co. Schneider & Sons, 156 19th st............ Brooklyn, Kings Co. Schwartz & Co., 87-105 Richardson st.... Brooklyn, Kings Co. Weber & Co.;5 LaGrange st..........:.. Brooklyn, Kings Co. Barcalo Mfg. Co., 225 Louisiana st....... Buffalo, Erie Co. Board omebdircationt se. aseesiasecsoe see Buffalo, Erie Co. Che Botte hunns Co. li7Oebeshie: sty) Buffalo, Erie Co. Bufialo “Bed -Springs@o; 9x, ee en eS Buffalo, Erie Co. Butta loviounper Cony e® «eats ale stletsa ssi Buffalo, Erie Co. Cutler Desk Co., 20'Church st............ Buffalo, Erie Co. Doll, sBrown Co; dines. 5. assent eon Buffalo, Erie Co. Hersey & @o.,.303. Ellicott st..........., Buffalo, Erie Co. Kittinger Co., Inc., 1893 Elmwood ay..... Buffalo, Erie Co. Pezold’ Furniture (COMP OMB MS 0 hctoe see Buffalo, Erie Co. Steul.& Minumen) Con sacs ce eee ee ae Buffalo, Erie Co. Krank, Ss Hardens Coss eevee ce eeu vise eset Camden, Oneida Co. JHOUISME STAN Q SONS a. eat merino aon creuener ken ch ers Camden, Oneida Co. kee: Chair COncewe a arreeincr ice) rere cee Canastota, Madison Co. henox Shops, lm Chae tate oer aie cheie «yoeinnere olsen Canastota, Madison Co. Onientalleek unm uncm Comes ire rei Canisteo, Steuben Co. AVE. SHO CAMBY, 5... stn yonoaste moter rere kere Cedarhurst, L. I., Nassau Co. W. Hoffer Furniture Co., 180-182: Lancas- GET Ste le pepo nse tetre case ase eieve shea Cohoes, Albany Co. AL Wis Eliawil Givi eras Sa easyae aaa) thave sieie «antes Colton, St. Lawrence Co. Contland: (\Cabimet Comes e suas) aan oe Cortland, Cortland Co. Cornell Walbles@oss liner pases oe ueienioere Earlville, Madison Co. PHO UROYCROLLETS) trcees a re en eRe K. Aurora, Erie Co. Stickley Mir.) Cont) .i% ofaatias faieets Sola Eastwood, Onondaga Co. TATED EEMOTUONIES, 6 a's cts Ree eter ates Eaton, Madison Co. Hibridges Chain Cone cetyie ieee serail Elbridge, Onondaga Co. Rublic Sehoolsgy . .tenieise oo ae wena s he Elmira, Chemung Co. American, Mie. (Conceited...) 40... acta aces Falconer, Chautauqua Co. Chaws tHlenrielcs, Miler. (Copii « 65 5. vane docs one Falconer, Chautauqua Co. Stina Munn Woe oaeccoguacucaacaer Faleoner, Chautauqua Co. Te Gen tickleye nes seis «tae cet en ora Fayetteville, Onondaga Co. Avté (C.) As (Tie. 2 Ch ancy pegtert ove hie armies Fort Plain, Montgomery Co. Directory of Manufacturers Moupleday, Page, & (Cows. sere ceca den oe os fee MENLO a0 s5) «vores ons asia iver, cierecens on ehe os Koons Bros é Garden City, Nassau Co. Greene, Chenango Oo. Grooville, Sullivan Co. Groton, Tompkins Co. ERE ELA es MPO COs, «3.5 cose snarecderscies sate Herkimer, Herkimer Co. 1s Forsirayel eye D 1 al Oe eee Herkimer, Herkimer Co. PHN DOR CO aas 55 sie: oss jas o olc-ch oe aaboleisios Herkimer, Herkimer Co. SiandandwMuEnItUre: CO... . 5... ck eee cee Herkimer, Herkimer Co. Meener Hurmiture Co... 6... eb ees PP TPEMTETENNOO! oi) 5 a). siseiln''s «5 Taj acl ate « F. L. Casper Metropolitan Furniture Hlouse........... PRT AVE Tat OcamA CUMULUS). c)2) sj eyc\'e satel ene. «aye o:s¥Sin vale Library Bureau Ape NERUSSell G5. Sons: CO. 6.0.26 0s « as ese Eee me OO lus COeretah « cieia as oxy e 18,8 %18,5, © dave rele ATCHIV CaM ENILGMIP ITC O ohpslsi's sche thse, cys sys seta Jamestown, Advance vHurnitire (CoO. oj. yieie sae s ssies oe oie Jamestown, Auliancesburniture (Co. .. <2. aameais+ oe - Jamestown, PAiiiedmebmrmIt une CO) 356 «2 oc Peter Duerr iG Bros). 2... 2s: 2 diese Charles Raupach IGlem TOS tie Wotan the Mig Rane dct Pa arensveys Jeb Haberer Hurnittre’ Cov... ..s a: sce cwetate!@ alee @) 0 040) 258) 6) 8 \eje..0, sie 816 Herkimer, Herkimer Hornell, Steuben Co. Howe Cave, Schoharie Co. Hudson, Columbia Co. Hudson, Columbia Co. Ilion, Herkimer Co. Ilion, Herkimer Co. Ithaca, Tompkins Co. Chautauqua Chautauqua Chautauqua Chautauqua Chautauqua Chautauqua Chautauqua Chautauqua Chautauqua Chautauqua ° Chautauqua Chautauqua Chautauqua Chautauqua | Chautauqua. ° Chautauqua ° Chautauqua Chautauqua | Chautauqua ' Chautauqua. ° Chautauqua ' Chautauqua Chautauqua Chautauqua Chautauqua Chautauqua Chautauqua Keeseville, Essex Co. Kenwood, Madison Co. 197 Little Falls, Herkimer Co. Liverpool, Onondaga Co. Liverpool, Onondaga Co. Long Is. City, Queens Co. Lowville, Lewis Co. 198 Medina Wood Working & I'urn. Co., Inc... Niagara, Purmitire CO... ue sev piel s sess os Giles elles: CO ere may Ceca ei et Charles J. Armstrong & Sons............ W. S. Stevens Hallagan—Thompson Co.................. American Parlor Frame Co., 499 Staff st.. Wm. Baumgarten Co., 715 5th av........ Aug. Casiraghi,-725 First ‘av... ..c0..4. Ernest Distelhorst, 522-524 E. Slst st..... Dubois Refrigerator Co., 107-111 W. 18th st. E. Eckenroth & Son, 921 E. 5th st........ Henry Fuldner & Sons, 404 EH. 14th st.... John Helmsky, Inc., 637 W. 55th st...... Hofstatter’s Sons, Inc., 362-372 Second av. Hes ehuiber 1 Co:, s627- tbe Sth ist....).25 6% L. H. Maée & Co., Inc., 55 E. 150th st.... Manhattan Table Mfg. Corp., 34-47 Broome SG OR RRR Retire tets, thet avoraricttetet tiie Wise bai M52 Avy SD ROM ENS ciocw a talaratens The Nahon Co., 53d st. & E. River....... National’ Parlor Frame 'Co/.............. New York Couch Frame Co., 652 KE. 12th st- Palmer & Embury Mfg. Co., 9 Gouverneur SL pt RAL A SOT Bh marer constants M. Reischmann & Sons, 135th st. & Willow CNS TECRI Seay cic hoo chan ign) ah b a TE re M. Reischmann & Sons, Ine., 138 Willow av. Richter hurniture Col a2 He T2d0st... 1.6 Theodore Sauer Co., 417 E. 47th st...... Schilling Bros. Table Co., Inc., 631 E. VG th Ste Mea. ale eres ees ee ee Ge ie ef Schloss Bros, Inc., 637 W. 55th st Schmete hy “Com sal Re eanen...0 ate Skrivanek & Tannhauser, 1110 First av... Philip Strobel & Sons, Ine., 53 Elizabeth st. Ree VOrele cn Con 222 ME aroithist. iene ees ¥ S. W. Johnson & Son IndiansehivermVito: iGomeemeree esc eies ere Salmon River Table Co Seneca Furniture Corp Cuntias iBROS ete: atloatone hl eet een tee American Drafting Furniture Co Dhembiayden Go. 2 ge Mies eke. eee Dangslow- Fowler Co." /iri3- Jes setae C. M. Lenhard, 21 Weicher st George J. Michelson Furn. Co Miller) Cabinet Corey. ch ters 8262 ease H. P. Sickles Co., 840 University av Yawman & Erbe Mfg. Co Roscoe Ten Pin Co 2) (0:50.06; (a! . +90) sts) Booneville, Oneida Co. Buffalo Pitts Go., 27 Carolina st......... Buffalo, Erie Co. Alphonso (Walrath) CoM) i x ocs00:s)0501<0 Fort Plain, Montgomery Co. Acme Road Machimenys Coe eccrine ses ee Frankfort, Herkimer Co. American Road Machinery Co............ Groton, Tompkins Co. Eilledale Plow: "Gor. fs 2A see aseneee Hillsdale, Columbia Co. Noble & Wood Machinery Co............. Hoosick Falls, Rensselaer Co. Gator Wood Co...) sk no82 ee (zee ae es . Hudson, Columbia Co. Walltantis Dros: s.r. ts 00h on eh Ones Ithaca, Tompkins Co. Universal Road Machinery Co............ Kingston, Ulster Co. Directory of Manufacturers ‘201 OnmENE WOCKS co... sek sree eee ees Lockport, Niagara Co. upeneet Ge NU se neon den Lyons, Wayne Co. American Road Machinery Co............. Marathon, Cortland Co. Buaaney Machine: Co. ..........0..e.ee ee Middletown, Orange Co. Shepard Electric Crane & Hoist Co....... Montour Falls, Schuyler Co. U1 2 (Le C0) el a a Morris, Otsego Co. Ireland Machine & Foundry Co........... Norwich, Chenango Co. American Laundry Machine Co........... Rochester, Monroe Co. PAW IIUTLG aes OO te 6 ams sje we we slave e's alec Silver Creek, Chautauqua Co. Invinetble Grain Cleaner Co.....:.:....:. Silver Creek, Chautauqua Co. Biasis ieeytool Works: ...2..........0026. Staatsburg, Dutchess Co. Boomer & Boschert Press Co., 329 Water st. Syracuse, Onondaga Co. Reber rrMer 10. 2025. i. eda Seas Syracuse, Onondaga Co. WieGOnMeeHOUNdty: OO. scl sk. af le wl esate Walton, Delaware Co. Matches Northern Match Splint Co., Inc.......... Constantia, Oswego Co. DihesDiamond Match: Co. . 2... .6.6.-.00s Oswego, Oswego Co. Northern Match Splint Co., Inc.......... Oswego, Oswego Co. Motor Vehicles Meee SCMUpP OF SONS). 2.5 ses ee ee ee ees Albany, Albany Co. pemerminciasie 45 8 eS ep ta OS Albany, Albany Co. HOnnOnmUMber COL... 5.042080. cece ane Altmar, Oswego Co. Geom. Broadbooks Co., Ines. 2.5.2.2... Attica, Wyoming Co. Hamicm Wagon “WOrkKS 5... ones icine cle es Auburn, Cayuga Co. OTA Va ee CUCKSOMY, Sites sf Csr dew euch eneier ane Beacon, Dutchess Co. GAGE MEMOS IRL steels & sinters aia Ss ayeltealaaen Beacon, Dutchess Co. -Larrabee—Deyo Motor Truck Co., Inc..... Binghamton, Broome Co. Borden’s Farm Products Co., Ine, 992 SEPM IO EUN DB Malco a's s) Sats eosin a uaa aha ae ate Brooklyn, Kings Co. A. Kreinbrink & Co., 46 Bergen st........ Brooklyn, Kings Co. Thos. Rockford, 1066 Bedford av.......... Brooklyn, Kings Co. Shadbolt Mfg. Co., 68-78 Flushing av.... Brooklyn, Kings Co. J. A. Shephard & Son, Atlantic & Fountain VARGA Na ect onesie ctr av eesicaalst Bho, afl aeionatess Brooklyn, Kings Co. American Body Co., 1200 Niagara st...... Buffalo, Erie Co. Atterbury Motor Corp, Elmwood & Hertel DP ss Bl OE ie Peake NP ance gr Buffalo, Erie Co. Buffalo Body Corp, 838 Seneca st........ Buffalo, Erie Co. Buffalo Wagon Works, 111-115 Carroll st. Buffalo, Erie Co. J. Christensen, 635 Genesee st........... Buffalo, Erie Co. IDL, JA, (Goals \uve exer (Clore ow boo pics On odio por Buffalo, Erie Co. The Thomas Derry Co., Inc., 466 Vermont SMe Pep Ars eiTy Sieais ish eave ls tartckes co. iVicte Eda Se Buffalo, Erie Co. Harvev Top & Body Co., 918 Main st...... Buffalo, Erie Co. Hill Mfg. Co., 27 Fuller st............0. . Buffalo, Erie Co. 202 A ppendia Henry Landsheft, 1202 Jefferson st....... Buffale, Erie Lo. Meyer Wagon Works, 216 Elm st........ Buffalo, Erie Co. Pierce—Arrow Motor Car Co., 1695 Elm- W Gdns Min Pe Pe eel oe ’... Buffalo, Erie Co. Watkins Commercial Body Corp, 666-668 Genesys Sb ara set ee Bee bbe tae 6 op bins Buffalo, Erie Co. Wurster Wagon Works, 314 Seneca st.... Buffalo, Erie Co. The Brewer—Titchener Corp............. Cortland, Cortland Co. Brockwayr Motor WUruck (Con... 2... ee. Cortland, Cortland Co. James: Biblinitataeswgtckk beer ss stone Geen Cortland, Cortland Co. VASO sibs ti cul DS Se sic g amie oct cloromen aia aid c Dansville, Livingston Co. Milne! Coe sb es oouSecosadgdodaqsed Dunkirk, Chautauqua Co. EE LMP ORG ere eo eo tees & ales oa nel Farmingdale, Nassau Co. Geneva \WagoneCo!. .ceisupnp tte. demic ts ae Geneva, Ontario Co. BY 2 Se osteo asen dog jo Ib oodcoOd woe Hempstead, Nassau Co. DASE SSG BR ay erin eae ees © aces peiets eri et ates a ee Highland, Ulster Co. de U., Cantrenie oOo... ncteeehe aie Huntington, Suffolk Co. Brewster’ GaGo ly ePsMe eee ad hile 30 5 a Long Island City, Queens Co. Washington) Talones brie. ore a. . 21n,~ ions Mt. Vernon, Westchester Co. Wayie WheelWonr sn oe cass matey: 26) ot ota sss Newark, Wayne Co. Arinur (Colvilltiepee sets sect tierce Newburgh, Orange Co. Demarest & Co., Inc., 521 E. 72d Steere New York, New York Co. Earnest Distethorst & Co., 522-524 EH. 81st SG 6, pas: cA ee So EIR ohece oe eerie is New York, New York Co. Healey & Co., 1622 Broadway............ New York, New York Co. Saixatsure Cons ll Glmgbinsinayes sae = eeere cr New York, New York Co. Wm. Koenig, 24 St. Lawrence st.......... New York, New York Co. J. Kramer & Sons Mfg. Co., 673-679 Water [SIRES Cte oo ern DN 4 6 on ee EPR ate New York, New York Oo. Liberty Wagon Works, 540 W. 40th st.... New York, New York Co. Chas. Scheidler Est., 352 W. 53d st....... New York, New York Co. Sebastian Wagon Co., 422 E. 54th st..... New York, New York Co. J. A. Shephard & Son, Atlantic & Fountain CT ee RS con ae Rais oo 28 on Oe ete EO New York, New York Co. John Theurer Wagon Works, 609-615 W. DGth sts. Sas ae eee, A.) 2 ee New York, New York Co. Niagara, Motor Boat! Co... 3... sjaaieeey). No. Tonawanda, Niagara Co, August Schubert Wagon .Co.............. Oneida, Madison Co. Champion Wagon Works... disecls> of Owego, Tioga Co. eo) DERM 00) [RES SES RRR Rr SOFT oat Ie I Owego, Tioga Co. Ronvaiemith « CoDprnr..aceicee «se ee rite. Poughkeepsie, Dutchess Co. Wath Gs L. Gallister= .:-1.2.c etal soe ere Queens, Queens Co. Caley & Nash, Inc., 1828 East av........ Rochester, Monroe Co. James Cunningham Son & Co., 13 Canal st. Rochester, Monroe Co. Dowsing *d Zieres A. Pes gis Tiere... otoravenetelo ee Rochester, Monroe Co. Rochester Carriage Co., 1701 East av..... Rochester, ‘Monroe Co. Directory of Manufacturers 203 Weel Rowedink, 80: North st........<..; Rochester, ionroe Co. Peldon Motor Vehicle Co... ..4).5.5% ss. Rochester, Monroe Co. A\. ile: TSC 9 a en rene Rochester, Monroe Co. Cortland Cart & Carriage Co............ Sidney, Delaware Co. MERBTEMAV LOIN OT or aa ante sds Aes RE Rika Bad oes Sodus Center, Wayne Co. EieiteeHiranklin: Mie. Co. oj. .s. hock nese Syracuse, Onondaga Co. Weavienh Sons, 332 S. West st. ..... 2... Syracuse, Onondaga Co. Menangle Body) Corp: :.. 2:2 ..6. 5 +60 een see Tarrytown, Westchester Co. UGE. als IW Cros) oe Troy, Rensselaer Co. (CGS. US) TACO eee Troy, Rensselder Co. DPI OW NC so 5, ocho son ate coin « cfaialejw 6 he Utica, Oneida Co. OTE Utica, Oneida Co. Warerloo Warn, Co. ...). 0.2... eecc0 tecee Waterloo, Seneca Co. dle TES ADCOCK 6 OO ois. < ans ac, ccegs 2 o's ev wid oon arcs Watertown, Jefferson Co. Maer PINMCRETIOCKED «5. . enane . «5.0 6 552 siieere Watervliet, Albany Co. Musical Instruments Sohmer & Co., Jamaica av. & Boulevard.. Astoria, L. I., Queens Co. French Cabinet Corp., Metropolitan av... Brooklyn, Kings Co. Jordan Cabinet Wks., Inc., 129 Degraw st. Brooklyn, Kings Co. Reuben Midmer & Son, Inc., 375 Fulton st. Brooklyn, Kings Co. Otto Wissner, Inc.. 1072-1108 Atlantic av. Brooklyn, Kings Co. C. Kurtzmann Co., 526 Niagara st........ Buffalo, Erie Co. WVinerié Son, 1375. Niagara st............ Buffalo, Erie Co. (OOne@. ILS Sees Apes Gee om eee or: Callicoon, Sullivan Co. A. C. Cheney Piano Action Co............ Castleton, Rensselaer Co. NEE Mamimnaciumine) (CO .< 6.66. sme eo Cohoes, Albany Co. Pe Srecawoldinas (Gor... tases a <6 cies a aeyine Dolgeville, Herkimer Co. PPE NOMNOLS eictacis ss o's: die ge ole 50 ene ade Dolgeville, Herkimer Co. Bosker —Armetrone CO... ...s0e< sence see East Rochester, Monroe Co. damestown Mantel Co... .0.....0.c0005: Falconer, Chautauqua Co. Mernam Cabinet Co., Inc... .........2. 5. Falconer, Chautauqua Co. MENEAME COL tape slave's sn eK ee ve PROS Ithaca, Tompkins Co. Ahi Siromipetano (Co... .), .te ae soos a Jamestown, Chautauqua Co. WevelmbunemitiinTe Cots. anyepateis cs i0 8s 5 cin eee Jamestown, Chautauqua Co. Caawiuimdstrony Mig. Co. ccic0s 222s. ae: Little Falls, Herkimer Co. Jos. N. Courtade & Sons, Inc., Webster & SAEED UALS VAS cars cplats xs setters ias-g -=- New York, New York Co. Hardman, Peck & Co., 433 5th av........ New York, New York Co. E. G. Harrington Co., 433 5th av......... New York, New York Co. Kindler & Collins, 520 W. 48th st........ New York, New York Co. Kohler Industries, 601 W. 50th st........ New York, New York Co. Krakauer Bros., 191 Cypress av.......... New York, New York Co. Kranich &sbach. 2ao0hs 2aash. .25...5-..45 New York, New York Co. The Laffargue Co., 134th st. & S. blvd.... New York, New York Co. Ludwig & Co., 748 E. 136th st.:.......... New York, New York Co. Paul G. Mehlin & Sons, 27 Union Square... New York, New York Co. J. H. & C. S. O'Dell Co., 407 W. 42d st.... New York, New York Co. Ricca & Son, 99 Southern blvd............ New York, New York Co. The Schubert Piano Co., 1 W. 139th st.... New York, New York Co. The Staib-Abendschein Co., 500 E. 134th st. New York, New York Co. Standard Pneumatic Action Co., 638 W. HOCUS Uae a ee Toe eee iene gs sar New York, New York Co. Strauch (Bros., Inc., 30 W. 10th av........ New York, New York Co. Stultz & Bauer, 338-340 E. 31st st....... New York, New York Co. Wessel, Nickel & Gross, 457 W. 45th st.... New York, New York Co. North Tonawanda Musical Instrument RVIGUKG ras ape eee agens cats N. Tonawanda, Niagara Co. The Rudolph Wurlitzer Mfg. Co.......... N. Tonawanda, Niagara Co. Ben Werrara’ coe ene eee eee eee Oneida, Madison Co. irr Ine LOGE Clare cae terete che ee aes [oy bey Pulaski, Oswego Co. Fred Englehardt Piano Co-.......:....:. St. Johnsville, Montgomery Co. The Amphion Co., 618 N. Clinton st...... Syracuse, Onondaga Co. Paiman "BONS ot see eer cee’ ere aeie e Thendara, Herkimer Co. @entury™ Cabinet Cort seers ot ater er Utica, Oneida Co. COE B MOTCY ee ora tier erie ener Utica, Oneida Co. Mare & ‘Colton 1Co. s.. > pee o bela sot Warsaw, Wyoming Co. Patterns and Flasks Westinghouse Elec. Mfg. Co.............. Attica, Wyoming Co. Morris Machine. Works. ..-..- q-csa-ecre Baldwinsville. Onondaga Co. DinbChesss LOOM O Occ setae. aoe ae Cima serercusters Beacon, Dutchess Co. Foster Pump Works, 36 Bridge st........ Brooklyn, Kings Co. FAMMETICATH IRROTATOT: “WO, fa. lee ces oe eres ate Buffalo, Erie Co. UNS NAN aly) OF Pars rs re te tote = ast. o/s tee are ee Buffalo, Erie Co. Board Jot Mducationoy. .c...eeee oe ete tes Buffalo, Erie Co. Buffalo Pattern Works, Inc., 830 Hertel av. Buffalo, Erie Co. Directory of Manufacturers 205 Buffalo Pitts Co., 27 Carolina st.......... Buttalo, Erie Co. W. A. Case & Son Mfg. Co., 174 Kensington IT. 20 ote docs ORES Oe aR IEEE eee eee Buffalo, Erie Co. F. A. Colson Pattern Works, 89 Main st.. Buffalo, Erie Co. MEOMALOL COS nif e ce tc eas eee ok Buffalo, Erie Co. Peerless Pattern Works, 1139 Main st.... Buffalo, Erie Co. Pierce Arrow Motor Car Co., 1695 Elmwood RUM ES MUA oud =o. es. evoys iaie as AG sees eee Slee Buffalo, Erie Co. American Locomotive Co................ Dunkirk, Chautauqua Co. Agape Orucible Steel Co... .2.. 6 esse east Dunkirk, Chautauqua Co. Commimental Heater Co......5.....5.0000. Dunkirk, Chautauqua Co. Pierre Sutler’& Pierce. .:..... 2.0. 0..50% Eastwood, Onondaga Co. Eee eeHOGICN sf. fos oie fee we oe oe eee Elmira, Chemung Co. Pepe PMACHIMe HOP: 6c sd ieee eaten Fulton, Oswego Co. PemOMOE AG SOM. 2.6... ss eee ee ewe Goshen, Orange Co. Gowanga, Apr. Works... 6.00 5.06 cele eee ews Gowanda, Cattaraugus Co. American Road Machinery Co............ Groton, Tompkins Co. eR STIPE MOGI ocd 5; cave von os tuys 80a Groton, Tompkins Co. Gusreerand Noundry Co..............:..- Guilderland, Albany Co. ISAO MELO Wi COut se cisis dopecdle ssc e eee eos Hillsdale, Columbia Co. AE PET OOC GO nats: c, oie ove oieis 2 + abel alo oc -vehsi a; Hudson, Columbia ‘Co. aca wannae Steel (CO s..5 lec siv ocoe ss sna ate Lackawanna, Erie Co. Amenican iWalleable Col. o..s63%. 566.5 6+ sien Lancaster, Erie Co. Lock City Pattern & ‘Mach. Co........... Lockport, Niagara Co. PRGEV OMNES OO)se oe 6. oes: o cciee sce es en Lockport, Niagara Co. Pemeney We SOUS. 6... 5...5.5..56% An aes Manlius, Onondaga Co. ie yes Cac aero COW. 2 fhcow ce ei wanes Middletown, Orange Co. Shepard Electric Crane & Hoist Co....... Montour Falls, Schuyler Co. Tey dia tee. LS 18 DGS 6g BA eee ee eer New Hamburg, Dutchess Co. De La Vergne Machine Co., ft. of 1. 138th Ree erate aya, aya) sana Byes: «230/48 ¢ ... New York, New York Co. ATHTESPELOUM VOLS i e cyac eye sic tvs cies vey aa Oswego, Oswego Co. Corning Foundry, Inc.............-...-- Painted Post, Steuben Co. Painted Post Development Co...... Eheiae Painted Post, Steuben Co. ie Garlock Packing Co::.... 3.0.2 5..2+- Palmyra, Wayne Co. Bayles Shipyard, Inc..................-- Port Jefferson, Suffolk Co. American Laundry Machine Co........-- Rochester, Monroe Co. Co-operative Foundry Co........---.+-+-- Rochester, Monroe Co. Gen. Railway Signal Co............--+--- Rochester, Monroe Co. National Car Wheel Co.........-.------- Rochester, Monroe Co. The T. H. Symington Co............---- Rochester, Monroe Co. American Locomotive Works......-.-.--- Schenectady, Schenectady Co. Gene lectric’ Cow cers c\s\s 6s cles afsiaiarel-1a-) = = Schenectady, Schenectady Co. 206 Appendix Eluntley: MioxiCorer th cern Serge mene Silver Creek, Chautauqua Co. Haleomb Steel Co., Geddes sf............ Syracuse, Onondaga Co. Hing erber orale Con er yete ee eee Syracuse, Onondaga Co. Syracuse Pattern Works, Inec., 107 N. Franklin Ost. 73ers on tia: ia Syracuse, Onondaga Co. The Straight Line Engine Co............ Syracuse, Onondaga Co. BAscomybattennh WiOhks) oem seer. © sae - Troy, Rensselaer Co. Cluett, PeabodyrwyCorpincwed.s....-2. 522 Troy, Rensselaer Co. Ross. Pattermip Works... eres: . 2: a=) Troy, Rensselaer Co. Board of Education, Manual Training..... Utica, Oneida Co. Rider-Ericsson Engine Co................ Walden, Orange Co. George B;, Mentzer, . aatiaiel.«--- 2.02 ss Wallkill, Ulster Co. Otis.Hlevator) Contec: eee ston «oes eeu s 0s Yonkers, Westchester Co. SAUNGers eUrAG es mS CMOOllewryeeys oleic eect Yonkers, Westchester Co. Picture Frames and Moldings Empire Moulding Co., 391 Leonard st..... Brooklyn, Kings Co. Gottl-Weber Co., 5 La Grange st.......... Brooklyn, Kings Co. Greenpoint ‘Moulding Co., Cuyler, Newell & (Dranniond sts. ae ee ere ere te, Se Brooklyn, Kings Co. Greenpoint Picture Frame Works, 106 Mend Bhabha oan ches Gedo Sano nmae ddd Brooklyn, Kings Co. National Mldg. Co., 39th st. & 2d av...... Brooklyn, Kings Co. CH. Pearson, Co. 34 Wormer St." 4-2 - Brooklyn, Kings Co. Union! MilltCons2diave, Cor. otn iste. RRA A oc ei eae Clymer, Chautauqua Co. Néate Shope rs aes? aaa s. site sks es Cohoes, Albany Co. Kraemer "Bross 06. fs. R ii ie 2 ee Se College Pt., L. I., Suffolk Co. Johengen, Johnson & Schmitz............ Collins Center, Erie Co. Wihite ’& *Viorelia eta VRURES BO sk ee Comstock, Washington Co. Eniporiunt Borestrys COM CCCs... cc asn aks Conifer, St. Lawrence Co. PheeSteanmiVal aC oy ae ee hers ek. sees ae tole Constableville, Lewis Co. Joseph PM Bradyieneee, sehen Gs toe hh pier Cooperstown, Otsego Co. H.R. TaylortCorpet etek. on eae tenet Cornwall, Orange Co. Croghan Flooring & Mfg. Co., Inz........ Croghan, Lewis Co. Benj idl.: Zelir SEEM Ac Ua, aod ate x tts Croghan, Lewis Co. ECON Wibnarezin Cs [Slee aanuacceesacoobuGaes Croton Falls, Westchester Co. Js Woy PRR ed: RIOD, on ciw see Crown Point, Essex Co. J. We OPondGiSon Bee Pea eee eee Crown Point, Essex Co. Phelps: & Sibley sense. ah0he tet. 2 aise t v.05 ts Cuba, Allegany Co. ohm 1G. AM Omitaininey iy ser ete avers leis (afoot lots Dansville, Livingston Co. . Deposit dumber Mock. 4 PEM. ator tre 4 tear Deposit, Broome Co. Atlas Crucible: Steel’Cos sully. 3.2%... e Dunkirk, Chautauqua Co, Dunkirk Lumber & Coal Co.............; Dunkirk, Chautauqua Co. Madican’ bumiber Cosa se stata ons 0-7. i Dunkirk, Chautauqua Co. Aimer Trumiber Gop sais steer ere. txt hate hat se East Aurora, Erie Co. ACA EAL. SUC WHE UMaine a cats alot tle tnery East Randolph, Cattaraugus Co. eT. “Guintow ses. 42 eee enc es eee Eden, Erie Co. Rust: -&. Olin). SAS ah Ae eee es ssh ee Ellicottville, Cattaraugus Co. The Doane & Jones Lumber Co.......... Elmira, Chemung Co. Walla: ‘Schonckle* tee 3e v.. rere oelete fateh Far Rockaway, Queens Co. Crosby Kelly Sathte Ae eee ee terete is ~ Fleischmanns, Delaware Co. EV DOLLY os an ere ere eae eee te ian ee aaa Fort Plain, Montgomery Co. napure "Mie. (Coie ee iaante at. cc etecs eter bras Franklinville, Cattaraugus Co. ID GUU ee (Creal BOW (UH Neda Signs asia ee duccoans Fredonia, Chautauqua Co. Re pevopers amper GO rem tterer cere ee nate Geneva, Ontario Co. RUVen OUT BNOS iets ase tate cusiselsisr oietets 261s Germantown, Columbia Co. Cran busine oar cect ah tas tee aie Gilbertsville, Otsego Co. WA Gam tieamer Clits nccs ere aes cueieten efector em aate Glenfield. Lewis Co. TDA a Lear PH a alle rm C0) shalertyrotclencaben aralo ao 6 evo ewe Glens Falls, Warren Co. JBUTAR, WyheWl Ose (OO eimroalaoemedind Had co COR eC Gloversville, Fulton Co. Holden: TMumiber’ Cot er asso aa see ere eer: Gloversville, Fulton Co. Horbush Planine Mills" Cole tee Gowanda, Cattaraugus Co. ined OGbeIL Se ae een tie oacls Sioaheras eitere Granville, Washington Co. ivon Eron “WOrks: 0. <2... ers > ce aaa Greene, Chenango Co. Hamburg Planing, Mill“Co. 3... oe Hamburg, Erie Co. [eA Kar bOUrMe ao OMS tse sis eee ol eieie el ere Harrisville, Lewis Co. Directory of Manufacturers 209 CC PPS TCU GS SON'S. oo. 6 ep 6 a corbin 0 oes ale ep geass ls Herkimer, Herkimer Co. Wesp Canada Lumber Co................- Herkimer, Herkimer Co. CHET TDs Diva 0° i Os Ree Hudson Falls, Washington Co. epon trmper CO... kc eee ee e's Hudson Falls, Washington Co. PEROIAGU DICE, ose wie ec ee eee ee oaks ce Ilion, Herkimer Co. Oneida, Community, Ltd.................% Kenwood, Madison Co. jitemBlount. umber Co...........6< wis. \ was ii Middletown, Orange Co. Frend Ungford Chambers Co., Inc........ New York, New York Co. Roscoe? Tent sPimn Coat jac. cece Roscoe, Sullivan Co. Professional and Scientific Instruments Ansco Co—Camera, Works..........:..... Binghamton, Broome Co. Eberhard Faber, 37 Greenpoint av........ Brooklyn, Kings Co. Up-To-Date Advertising Co.............. Canisteo, Steuben Co. PRD UR ox CO ia iatt yes oases eR i enero Endicott, Broome Co. American itch Concern merrriein riots: Falconer, Chautauqua Co. N. Y. Mallet & Handle Works............ New York, New York Co. Chanles®.Tallners) i.e sickegese see ac cine Pulaski, Oswego Co. Bausch & Lomb Optical Works........... Rochester, Monroe Co. Hastman WModak Goren cacti ccisusls oti Rochester, Monroe Co. semeca, Camera Mig, OO. ieee os) shee aes oe Rochester, Monroe Co. Taylor Instrument Co., 95. Ames st....... Rochester, Monroe Co. Mucus. Tuttle: Mig COs rte. soo. state alates Silver Springs, Wyoming Co. \iNV Gating IDE SIDES Tih all aii un co 4 LaeeCenen Con ener Troy, Rensselaer Co. Pulleys and Conveyors Hxeelsior Pulley? Coxe 1 iW (hi vwsssvaidacrono sons Cuba, Allegany Co. Western, ‘Block sCowtidunti 2 vies cubs ieas Lockport, Niagara Co. Oneida Wood! Pulley Co., Inc............. Oneida, Madison Co. John M. Tousten Co., 110 Mill st......... Rochester, Monroe Co. Pumps and Piping Aly NN VEKOMG, SOM CO creo. Sceit oe eee Elmira, Chemung Co. IRODERG ME OCS Men wre. are coterie fe eee Malden Bridge, Columbia Co. American District Steam Co............- No, Tonawanda, Niagara Co. flr Yas BENE CO.< lefunahey (CO Gauageeeenuesa od Ogdensburg, St. Lawrence Co. eyamien | Chien Gnival eee ay ei chet ia. oo s.es cise c Springlake, Cayuga Co. AL WO WAInteDrseedin: weal hs chee eis socio coche ate Unionville, Orange Co. Oo Directory of Manufacturers 21: Refrigerators and Kitchen Cabinets Colonial Mantel & Refrigerator Co., 494 MAPUTO ML pee Va MR Stnsed Ara sPeale os. oa yVitieysloeacioke Brooklyn, Kings Co. Meee hetrigenator CO. vith... cee alee se Brooklyn, Kings Co. SZC MMVII NAILER.) 2 oo. sc oss win ,ece claw Hoke Buffalo, Erie Co. wewett Refrigerator Co... :.). 0.05... 000% Buffalo, Erie Co. A. F. Meyer & Sons Co., 408 Broadway.... Buffalo, Erie Co. Hpnyetie valle Nite: COl) sce. de:2.s ag als oceans Fayetteville, Onondaga Co. Garland Refrigerator Co., Beech st....... Mt. Vernon, Westchester Co. Dubois Refrigerator Co., Inc., 107-111 W. Sn Seen Neeser ene, co I aA eee New York, New York Co. Anton Larsen & Sons, Brook ay. & 134th st. New York, New York Co. Lorillard Refrigerator Co., Madison ay. at AUSHETO EAB ochhe dle Cadi REE eee New York, New York Co. James McLean, Inc., 537 W. 53d st...... New York, New York Co. ita Mace aeCo:, Inc:, 55. 150th st.....- New York, New York Co. J. M. Saulpaugh Sons, 705 E. 11th st.... New York, New York Co. William Williams Co., 312 KE. 95th st.... New York, New York Co. inosemenermeerator OO... vias csoees ce ccs Rochester, Monroe Co. Sash, Doors, Blinds, and General Millwork O, ID, GhOaieniatae Ree eee ee pe rien bice Adams, Putnam Co. ankemvyaumbonme lrue Co. si... sects: Addison, Steuben Co. plakeslecm umber CO... 3. sy. cise 2s ses exes Albany, Albany Co. (CUTTS OTA Le | 0 eS Albany, Albany Co. ARPA ML Meum Cents ett es ks sv ecosusts a ale ele a cisternae Albany, Albany Co. Ce ees Viren OT ge teh ise, ehelcio, cuore side ais evasive e Albion, Orleans Co. Ee DRDISLOWISGOLM ster. sien: os eello. sa) ci chee sicherore Amenia, Dutchess Co. Gel liy GO MEC I OO. gia e cia oy ein cle wiser ole os es) « eve oe Amsterdam, Montgomery Co. TDN) Si Amsterdam, Montgomery Co. IVIRS Ne TI eVIhOrs CORY Lye: 2, <4, aay cera cs ernlorvens Amsterdam, Montgomery Co. (Georee 1D. IGG -leeeeOB ae poe ene Sprecicn Antwerp, Jefferson Co. IRIE Tee Bi SDEDCOLN oe = s\..5 2. sys ne ere sic ore Arcade, Wyoming Co. Emma Aone VLNTScees reteset sets! cycle "aa sierepete ve one fe’ ole Argyle, Washington Co. Wrreesbumo— Baler tCOn eis ec ecg ce ees ee ee oe Astoria, Queens Co. WGSleveRANO CL setts ieee a oc ic vicielele Se ersteie Attica, Wyoming Co. (Clas Iiphnlooe 4 Cie Sis cece Dee aenInioiD noc Auburn, Cayuga Co. Ibiwis, 18), \AVllilnig wensts Ae eiS ice py areeeneRe en oleioiol oe Auburn, Cayuga Co. He WemeCaunenStOMn. © secs 6 oc st Gs outliers Mee Au Sable Forks, Essex Co. Simeevers lumber Co... 3. tee acer oes Ballston Spa., Saratoga Co. WaaWeanlteelerne: “Somme. 2 als sie «wie eke cree ae Bangor, Franklin Co. The Batavia & New York Wood Working (CO etd et OE ae ok Ea ae Batavia, Genesee Co. Batavia Lumber & Coal Co.............. Batavia, Genesee Co. ONES SESROS come A EKel ty slo ess «oie © ae einieielere Bath, Steuben Co. Gharlesi be Marka ster siete « 31s «acl oe pel Bay Shore, Suffolk Co. Bantletbe coe COma meee «osc e chee dis siete eleqeuauaets Binghamton, Broome Co. JUNE) Mo ATEN, o coo ombooo Bouin odo colT Binghamton, Broome Co. Mobira gels, We Ws erste cries c's fc tea e, aPolatesehepane .. Binghamton, Broome Co. 214 Appendix James: O’Nell:.:.. cc see oe eee eee cee Binghamton, Broome Co. Rid, & Wom, Van Antwerp sc cis sivin- aivteee > Binghamton, Broome Co. Barber /&, Robinson]. 255.4... en. one ee Bolton Landing, Warren Co W... M. Hibbard 7)... ABR reel ns wc sive e's ees Brewerton, Onondaga Co. John: De Morehouse JOR Rier ¢siscesc cece Brewster, Putnam Co. East Hampton Lumber & Coal Co........ Bridgehampton, Suffolk Co. Charles Vatlig a0 Seer ee cee ee cee Broadalbin, Fulton Co. Alpert Woodworking Corp, 410 Snediker av Brooklyn, Queens Co. Louis Bossert & Sons, Inc., 1335 Grand st. Brooklyn, Queens Co. M. J. Britt, E. 17th st. & Emmers Lane.. Brooklyn, Queens Co. Louis Brook, Inc., 148 India st.......... Brooklyn, Queens Co. Brooklyn Fireproof Sash & Door Co., 87— 105: Richardson#st-\356 14-2). San. epee Brooklyn, Queens Co. Cross, Austin & Ireland, 1246 Grand st.... Brooklyn, Queens Co. Se avis, 222 Newellista sa ctericias,souepkcys opers Brooklyn, Queens Co. Eastern Fireproof Sash & Door Co., 826 WTShinNG aye ppt sete eee se weer ree 6 Brooklyn, Queens Co. Eastern Woodworking Co., 820 Stone av... Brooklyn, Queens Co. East N. Y. Sash Door & Trim Co., 245 Bel- MONG AV en, ce here Shi e Oe o Sie eisicerae Brooklyn, Queens Co. Eichmann Co., 7 McKibben st............ Brooklyn, Queens Co. AV vhntenman: ime. "6b R od. Stra neces area. - Brooklyn, Queens Co. Samuel Feldman, 511 Flushing av........ Brooklyn, Queens Co. I. Feldman & Son, 98 Engert av.......... Brooklyn, Queens Co. Fisher & Voorhies, Av. S. & W. 10th st... Brooklyn, Queens Co. Haugard Bros., 1429 Metropolitan av...... Brooklyn, Queens Co. Benj. G. Hitchings, 999 E. 34th st........ Brooklyn, Queens Co. Prank: Hockin, -lOss (Pine sster. = = wens 2-5 - Brooklyn, Queens Co. Interboro Sash & Door Co., 352 Junius st.. Brooklyn, Queens Co. S. Jacobs & Sons, 1365 Flushing av...... Brooklyn, Queens Co. C. R. Macaulay Co., 18th st. & Fifth av... Brooklyn, Queens Co. John P. Milliken Co., 560 Willoughby av.. Brooklyn, Queens Co. Jacob Morganthaler & Son, 663 Sackett st. Brooklyn, Queens Co. ‘the Mortonsen Wood Working Co., Inc., 5540 Hamuiltony av, cota ee. . Gee oe tere Brooklyn, Queens Co. National Sash & Door Co., 137 Bayard st.. Brooklyn, Queens Co. J. P. Oates, Provost & Greenpoint av..... Brooklyn, Queens Co. Prims & Klein, 158-160 Walworth st..... Brooklyn, Queens Co. Reliance Fireproof Door Co., 78 West st.. Brooklyn, Queens Co. Robins Dry Dock & Repairs Co., Foot 15-7272 0 Rae | POEMS Re PSOE ONC RNR aN aap a Brooklyn, Queens Co. J. Sklar Wood Work Co., Inc., 672 Hopkin- BOM AAV =, tps ener ANE oie ge oa een Brooklyn, Queens Co. Has smith, 420: Oaklandestee cee saee stele Brooklyn, Queens Co. Star Wood Turning Co., 276 Newport av.. Brooklyn, Queens Co. Estate of S. Weinstein, 95 Frost st...... Brooklyn, Queens Co. Behringer Bros., Inc., 167 Imson st....... Buffalo, Erie Co. Charles: Boller & Sous Co. 2). acces eee Buffalo, Erie Co. Buttalo- Grille. Cont ccbAagieah-. 2s «0s eee Buffalo, Erie Ce. Dohn, Fischer & Beyer, Inc., 1340 Niagara Si eh WeraSet BO Oe GCA ic 5. Tene ETERS Buffalo, Erie Co. Comb Nias SiBrowy lnc - ap alB is, crs. tease Buffalo, Erie Co. John Feist & Sons Co., 111 Ash st........ Buffalo, Erie Co. Christian Flier] Co., Inc., 1352 Genesee st. Buffalo, Erie Co. John E. Grenzebach, 2745 Seneca st...... Buffalo, Erie Co. Directory of Manufacturers 215 E. M. Hager & Sons Co., 141 Elm st...... Buffalo, Erie Co. William Hendrich’s Sons Co.............. Buffalo, Erie Co. Huntington & Finke Co., 625 Tonawanda st Buffalo, Erie Co. International Cabinet Co., 39 Henry st.... Buffalo, Erie Co. Morse Sash & Door Co., 340 W. Main st... Buffalo, Erie Co. Mosier & Summers, 1266 Seneca st....... Buffalo, Erie Co. Smith Elevator Co., Inc., 301 Liberty Bldg. Buffalo, Erie Co. L. N. Whissel Lumber Corp., 577-615 Cam- UD SESS See rrr ree Buffalo, Erie Co. enrol OOK (CO. c nas 3% arte 0 os ade oe Caledonia, Livingston Co. CREAT EOIN ATIN oc 5.:5 5 s,0 2 cee bcm s es se ore Callicoon, Sullivan Co. PeSEEACMVVicm ATED os 5 panne Chavet: sos cle lensievete ets Camden, Oneida Co. PUPS EAP DOMUDSON 66 5.05.6. 2-2 sc oe cleterne Canandaigua, Ontario Co. ILGTnnS, MUG), Ss yer ane ener ae Canandaigua, Ontario Co. ANI ECT SDB DE ACCS 0) 1 a Canastota, Madison Co. UD CONTE A eee ey ae te eat Canton, St. Lawrence Co. PHN Veal RITSINOS 2s ciclerers («deletes 2 o/eltn s eve ies Canton, St. Lawrence Co. Elppemsbamcweather...... 22s cwasceees soe es Carthage, Jefferson Co. Ghamlesm bean dsley: ar, 2,4 scaisse «5 des a ote oa Catskill, Greene Co. eee SPO... «5,5 apcty vo ew tis cms oe Catskill, Greene Co. AV RINesaxT om ESD MS Sees, «osc sate 2. ciencucneveych ue eure Central Islip, Suffolk Co. iiglita TBE” 282 C-Saene aeeecle SNe ae voir ease Champlain, Clinton, Co. ihesOties Brooks Wumber Go.:..........- Clayton, Jefferson Co. Je Wein Tr re eae Cobleskill, Schoharie Co. (Crpbipen@ mama, (CO. yore. 32.0, 5/r0, 2 41 0 sin a0 os Cohoes, Albany Co. REN MOTE TINNIST OS, COMO: cavers «a cusis xd de ere oa oisee ¢ College Pt., L. I., Suffolk Co. TOE ESBS EG he ee gee Per Cooperstown, Otsego Co. eaerperi) Bilin C0... oa cfa)s cece tees oe ase Corning, Steuben Co. Re AUGIOPOORDY 5. oo nc aay a0 nano oe Be Cornwall, Orange Co. MPR AMBION. 55 co «2 sim oo aiehe Se sie! See Cornwall Landing, Orange Co. PLOMUAOMGs DCTNSEON... .c0i.y adhe cos oes fase Corona, Steuben Co. Heats Benton barmber. Co... 75. < 2 sear. fatto’ Cortland, Cortland Co. Jel. \A¥ NIG AS eee oe oe Cortland, Cortland Co. Che Wie UEC aie SS Se een eee cl Cortland, Cortland Co. BDO NS AC SUDLO YI sr 5 ora o05e yond 6 <0 sae fel ai 5'0) Cuba, Allegany Co. LEE 0 ee oe emer erie Cuba, Allegany Co. Pet Compe Caer, 5 29-5 cue, 5 Fon) sora enn alot e's Depew, Erie Co. Dexter Woodworking & Bldrs. Sup Co.... Dexter, Jefferson Co. ei Hamill cUasTE TTA TUS Ree A as. Fey cos hn; c.5, 0res"ehchloy evap aye Dobbs Ferry, Westchester Co. Dunkirk Lumber & Coal Co...........-.. Dunkirk, Chautaqua Co. Madigan amber CO. 0-:e.04 6a en vt aee Dunkirk, Chautaqua Co. ieee Neo Weeks OTM sro ccey ages =. aos ey oct an ov 220 o, . oe each s - srevtis rere ate Far Rockaway, Queens Co. Betlpl. ‘OF ROUKG oe aie cetsie cian oreuaciae huleis ete teae, = Far Rockaway, Queens Co. Wi by Durhamise set ccs cite oe start ore rete Fayetteville, Onondaga Co. Ailerany Gumbet (Cote «crete eters Fillmore, Allegany Co. MOU A SURAGCOM. sep mesa s 6 esc ie Flushing, Queens Co. IAEENS, 65 al Olkire Meee eseeie se eisin rele oieress Fredonia, Chautauqua Co. DARKELD SCLEEN QCOne eacrse cme cie aces stele e oe Fredonia, Chautauqua Co. Siltso Machine SO pee esa see nee Fulton, Oswego Co. Georce Deis, 6 SGM S00. pace ss 2 aide peel Fulton Chain, Herkimer Co. Hees irmiler?-. cy ary mantener eine ene Gardenville, Erie Co. Je Aae ELON. oryece cy Sastentay ograstes sae elaine oiehereseie aie Geneva, Ontario Co. Roland 2by.. Masher actrees ste ete Germantown, Columbia Co. Kendricdkic Brow Orr. cates cere ret cise Glens Falls, Warren Co. Biter im bere On sana ee iteei ae ce nie Gloversville, Fulton Co. Holden’ lumber Comer scree: ot ce Gloversville, Fulton Co. Hee Wis JS ACKSONS ey, Sceeaeaeeiben acts cel cree. coe Good Ground, Suffolk Co. samuel, Co Warner. occ neces sc: fclsise sie Good Ground, Suffolk Co. ClvA” Corwin, NOM eccterttes cus cote eieicue are Greenport, Suffolk Co. Henry “A; SHedpesin. ecm +o seitiene sn Greenport, Suffolk Co. SUE WANG TN ONTAS erristee steers “veel grease ieioiecese Greenport, Suffolk Co. Harriman Industria Cones. cate veleiie ss. Harriman, Orange Co. Clark & Bennett Lumber’ Co.............. Haverstraw, Rockland Co. cl eg Ug 8 11S eae ae See esos varie dart acho orn Hensonville, Greene Co. GR Snellea SOlSiiuccrrercein ci eee ne Herkimer, Herkimer Co. West Canada iamber Cope... .2.ee0-e Herkimer, Herkimer Co. Hstatke of Charles Ha VOlttecne. ei. : aoe Hicksville, Nassau Co. ees Kila, UC. vc. eee aoe eis seine oe Hornell, Steuben Co, Honnell MumbersCor serrate mae cere Hornell, Steuben Co. Weaver Building & Supply Co., Inc........ Hudson, Columbia Co. Brookside Planing Mill a> os ace sts ie Huntington, Suffolk Co. Huntimgton Sash & Door Co. 5.°-7..... 1. Huntington, Suffolk Co. Wonrady Kipper <2... neem meee Tlion, Herkimer Co. ASE Mes EUInter Ww, (SOUS. a. a6 A cae tacohs anette . Irvington, Westchester Co. Hondcs bs iunnhamin Gore see eee Irvington. Westchester Co. Be See RaVNOr oss te Me ete Ce eee eee Islip, Suffoik Co. Cornell University Repair Dept.......... Ithaca, Tompkins Co. N. Y. State Agricultural College at Cornell. Ithaca, Tompkins Co. Rotters & Alien. scr ecn scree trees Ithaca, Tompkins Co. obinsongdc Canpenters sar eo sete ates ert Ithaca, Tompkins Co. WACO SEIS Oe nec fate cree: cos ots a roket eaten Ithaca, Tompkins Co. oun he Warpentere noe eeleck eee ine Jamaica, Queens Co. HS. de DOrt Son Concer ee ee rsmrecinaes Jamaica, Queens Co. as Directory of Manufacturers 217° ANIGSS, LRTI Ae eet nee ee ee ea Jamaica, Queens Co. SRE StONSDUTY... oo ss ster oe cs ses ce. Jamaica, Queens Co. Lindbeck Lumber & Mfg Co.............. Jamestown, Chautauqua Co. RMIT REDS cg oo Syd on a cs, soe puesta @ oes > sek ... Jamestown, Chautauqua Co. Ree ACO ies ace cb jniate ss oo oe a Sis oe Jamestown, Chautauqua Co. metate gloun) LT. Wilson..........+:-3.+-.6. Jamestown, Chautauqua Oo. Lestershire Lumber & Box Co............ Johnson City, Broome Co. Ca a Johnstown, Fulton Co. PREURECOMCTIROID 2 >. oicisedioev ev dees acess Johnstown, Fulton Co. Stephenson & Newnham.................. Jchnstown, Fulton Co. Oneida Community, Lid............6 00+. Kenwood, Madison Co. ge CSS ae Kingston, Ulster Co. EOS S00 nr ro Kingston, Ulster Co. Taga, WM USS aR TS 0) 1 een ee Kingston, Ulster Co. LH EMPARMPNLOMIUANLYO i) « afeis.ss a/siciets oye. 0.6 26 eae 5 3 Lacona, Oswego Co. Lake Hill Wood Products Co............. Lake Hill, Ulster Co. eae mCi COMA: » aa.) a< sylalstestieop0v ss aes Lake Placid Club, Fssex Co. SIGUMIBIN ANIC TgEy. 227 5) « iyetowts Mount Upton, Chenango Co. 218 Appendix Bengstonies Nord olin ce er cieie cietetet erie re Burton Gplentoniy. sees are bianca KappacmNordholm ions. eer oir er once De Van bon oc SOUS +. i. ep ents ieee Norman: Wess? 41.5 Coie cai eit: ioe cis ee ice Walson ccc AdamnsiC One tote gre ee Gee cies SseN:;. Keener! Coser ees 26 ot es Bh Newburg Plaining Mill Co................ Newiane! Lbr: (GV Mign Corel. one. sae Hubbell Hardwood Door Co.............. The J. A. Mahlstedt Lumber & Coal Co... Ahneman & Younkheers, 3320 Bailey av... Bardsley Bros. Co., 147-151 Baxter st.... Baumgarten & Co., 715 Sth av..........-. Charles F. Biele & Sons Co., 381 W. 12th Sif, Vie pci ewes ori ite eaees ete we hots Ea tele Bronx Sash & Door Co., 180th st. & E. Tremont ave wes. ae cee oe eeacietoereters ele tere John H. Carl & Sons, Inc., 514 First av.... A. C. Chesley Co., Inc., 277 Rider av...... City Kalamein Co., Inc., 4485 3d av...... Dunbar Box & Lumber Co., 282 1lth av.. F. Eckenroth & Son, 921 E. 5th st........ Eureka Woodworking Co., 318 E. 75th st.. Fischer Bros., 5th av. & 137th st......... James! ©! HMorbes) "Beach! wiv... - 26 eis Jacob Froehlich Cabinet Works, 1041 Leg- TORRE BAD doodle ad I> COU atO Oo 2IF OOK rank G, Hall; 310 Ky 75th st......----.. Hogan & Di-Genno, 1616 Webster av...... lemitern:, 422 abd. Siar - clea tele tome tolekets Kessler Bros., Inc., 312-316 E. 95th st.... David Kramer, 43 Broad st........-..---- J. F. McLaughlin, 314 E. 75th st........- Manhattan Woodworking Co., 281 Rider av. Matteawan Mfg. Co., 392 5th av.......--- Henry H. Meise & Son, Inc., 192 Southern Te pe aS She amie ame od Mopocos soe Mount & Robertson, Inc., 41 Beaver st.... New York Woodworking Corp., 506 E. 19th AES) See ROL Sa Ls SN BOO OED PT OD H. Pearlman, 858 8th av......-...-.----- J. M. Prudvosky, 432 E. 10th st...-....-- Charles Read, 406 W. 30th st..........-- J. & W. Robb, 245-247 W. 28th st.......-- Salom & Wuthe Co., Inc., 521 E. 72d st.. J. M. Saulpaugh Sons, 705 E. 11th st..... F. Schaettler, 533-537 W. 34th st......--. Schoeller & Richter, Inc., 537 W. 53d st.. Sherwin & Berman, Inc., 405 E. 4th st.... Sol. S. Silver & Co. Inc., 101 Park av..... Skirwanek & Taunhaeuser, 1110 First av.. Sloane & Moller, Inc., 316 E. 65th st...... Star Fire Proof Door & Sash Co., 2650— ise ahd eat h Gata s Geode Como monannOT Mt. Vernon, Westchester Co. Mt. Vernon, Westchester Co. Mt. Vernon, Westchester Co. Mt. Vernon, Westchester Co. Mt. Vernon, Westchester Co. Mt. Vernon, Westchester Co. Newark, Wayne Co. Newburgh, Orange Co. Newfane, Niagara Co. N. Rochelle, Westchester Co. N. Rochelle, Westchester Co. New York, New York Co. New York, New York Co. New York, New York Co. New York, New York Co. New York, New York Co. New York, New York Co. New York, New York Co. New York, New York Co. New York, New York Co. New York, New York Co. New York, New York Co. New York, New York Co. New York, New York Co. New York, New York Co. New York, New York Co. New York, New York Co. New York, New York Co. New York, New York Co. New York, New York Co. New York, New York Co. New York, New York Co. New York, New York Co. New York, New York Co. New York, New York Co. New York, New York Co. New York, New York Co. New York, New York Co. New York, New York Co. New York, New York Co. New York, New York Co. New York, New York Co. New York, New York Co. New York, New York Co. Yew York, New York Co. New York, New York Co. New York, New York Co. New York, New York Co. New York, New York Co, Directory of Manufacturers 219 Superior Fire Proof Door & Sash Co., 1811 INS oo ones ps0 Moysaapeye,> = tae sito See = New York, New York Co._ Tiger & Dreeben, 4 & 6 Tompkins st...... New York, New York Co. Unionport Woodworking Co., West Chester Mim IGE: PIASSIS Td'-.3..21-..80<6 . 26 oe New York, New York Co. Geswwtserson, Inc:, 941 Gth av.......-.- New York, New York Co. Cheseboro Whilman, 1167 Ist av.......... New York, New York Co. mAuumed Vick, 276 Oth av... .....0.scs cus New York, New York Co. Charles Wollersen, 514 W. 46th st........ New York, New York Co. Wm. P. Youngs & Bro., Ist av. & 35th st.. New York, New York Co. F. E. Zimmerman & Co., 13 Baxter st..... New York, New York Co. PePeOUBSONL © SON... . oe ae eo ae wie Nichols, Tioga Co. REGINA OWAUISI. 0.0.55 s,s vs. 6c cece ee ee gee North Collins, Erie Co. nay Ht. Bennett Lumber Co...........°..% No. Tonawanda, Niagara Co. ODER MCmIVICVOTR Sis 3). 0 asc yr «a/v a )oenge oe No. Tonawanda, Niagara Co. immer SAINT LINC soy, «= >. ccyas ss vseaeee No. Tonawanda, Niagara Co. 1D), cll, TERING tr aot ete em ceo ee On We le “Norwich. Chenango Co. FRUIT SROCM scot. «se cays Soya eo eee Norwood, St. Lawrence Co. Wemdeeecolertrtn «6 0. .se het ne Bek ets Ogdensburg, St. Lawrence Co. Pare ore Wty “(Clo ea a ee eee Ogdensburg, St. Lawrence Co. Pemeecneenugmiper CO... . 2... eee. se Olean, Cattaraugus Co. EMME DVR CI CC Ieee cays. - ss acigit ve oles ene ven Ossining, Westchester Co. WiRMPEG ROME. oc... sw ess 0 eicleiw ee eve Ossining, Westchester Co. Hoa CeMlerwillIeer Ss SONS... 2... 25s eee es Ossining, Westchester Co. PP LLOUNTIET Ae toy... oso dd Grae fo hae Oswego, Oswego Co. UemMmese Handing SOM. 1.0.5. 260gaac ees Oswego, Oswego Co. PEACE HOHE C8... sain wale ss le woh Oswego, Oswego Co. Ostet Eengerson-.. .... . « wc ccces oe awe ee Oswego, Oswego Co. CREIREVMOOManN. oes s,.. .. 2,0 veh. sleek Patchogue, Suffolk ‘Co. Eendletonme, Downsend!.:..:../%..5s4 208 Patterson, Putnam Co. Raiesmighs Hotel CO... ans. ce apes eee Paul Smiths, Franklin Co. Walliamisbrotherton’s SonsS......:.2-....- Peekskill, Westchester Co. We ePAMOMUI Sesh ,. ccc veccm ene tances Perry, Wyoming Co. Lk» lig fSiQ ON TG lah ee naan a a ae Perry, Wyoming Co. emi sone mOOUStrae . cc's. &: Sons jis. dct geek Brewerton, Onondaga Co. Brooklyn Spar Co., foot of Columbia st.... Brooklyn, Kings Co. — Ira S. Bushey & Sons, Inc., 764 Court st.. Brooklyn, Kings Co. Theo. A. Crane’s Sons Co., foot Columbia st Brooklyn, Kings Co. C. M. Englis, Inc., 245 Greenpoint av.... Brooklyn, Kings Co. Furman Dry Dock Co., foot of 20th st..... Brooklyn, Kings Co. Wm. J. Gokey & Co., Inc., Pier L, Erie Basin Oly, sp er tetas ce pee ta etnale ole wees ee Brooklyn, Kings Co. Jakobson & Peterson, foot 24th st........ Brooklyn, Kings Co. Kells Mill & Lumber Co., Java & Provost BUST? ayer ets er tae cciyasetn Brooklyn, Kings Co. Thomas F. Meehan & Son, 43 Van Brunt.. Brooklyn, Kings Co. Morse Dry Dock & Repair Co., foot 56th st. Brooklyn, Kings Co. Robins Dry Dock & Repair Co., foot Beard SIG BEL k 5. Scape aiee ts oe aoass hae bticentg eds stews a5 Brooklyn, Kings Co. Schuyler & Caddell, pier 2 Erie basin..... Brooklyn, Kings Co. James Shewan & Sons, Ine., root of 27th SOME DO aoe ee Oe Otro Cio enone Brooklyn, ‘ings Co. Bionaeboy IDigye ID (OMB GEA becoo User OOL Buffalo, Erie Co. Cowles. Shipyard: Cot. tiffie s+ 2 accuse 2 me Buffalo, Erie Co. Hix Bros, toobnot Amberstyst.. -.- 6-4: Buffalo, Erie Co. Great Lakes [Dredge & Dock Co., 1100 Mor- Can DIAG) crmia-b-.cteiebe de <) -.20 Vets, es 07 Buffalo, Erie Co. Wee si. DOdabtagt: . so Semasip pes .s,2,5 600 a alee os Cape Vincent, Jefierson Co. Teg enDUrg (BTOS. = aioe: sews a oe aes gece nie Champlain, Clinton Co. Robert Jacob, City Island av............ City IsInd, N. Y., N. Y. Co. iReylew& Pardiyae Ine). y.a ieee ae cnt ieceiuewe mania City Islnd, N. Y., N. Y. Co. The Otis Brooks’ Lumber Co. ......5....-.0- Clayton, Jefferson Co. Walter E: Abrams ..°0.2.0.. Rab GRE To Cold Spring Harbor, Suffolk Co. Collese Point Boat: Corp na a easier e/rreyicrevoe College Point, L. L., Queens Co. Jee Newitontand: Sree. sete area ne iteuirte East Moriches, Suffolk Co. Charles vile Allen’: Imene presser eee el Fulton, Oswego Co. lin Ca Ito len Coben daeeordogod oo oe Geneva, Ontario Co. iydes (Shipyard) 2222s ates Aes ae ae Clenwood Landing, Nassau Co. Albertson Construction Co..............-- Greenport, Suffolk Co. Kastern Shipyard! Co. .... ..jj.0. - 20 3% e's Greenport, Suffolk Co. Greenport Basin & Construction Co....... Greenport, Suffolk Co. Greenport Ship Co., Inc..........- Cie t es Greenport, Suffolk Co. Tis WWE AR@EDIETIIS < Sots edo ole uid |e og oc Greenport, Suffolk Co. Directory of Manufacturers 223 Hamman Industrial Corp.,........-:.<.. Harriman, Orange Co. ruaghardi ber @hiter JT... oss. ots oaetee che Huntington, Suffolk Co. Wheeler Shipbuilding Co., Inc............ Huntington, Suffolk Co. RM PMOTIOW AN os ce oe sce aie ee ste ict sae Kingston, Ulster Co. ANG Fe se one Lge eee ete 4 Kingston, Ulster Co. Kingston Shipbuilding Corp............. Kingston, Ulster Co. Meebenanam OO... lee eee es Elceeryeraie cs Kingston, Ulster Co. aa ITC sa Sais [a npc eRe. s «a spose 8 ear Kingston, Ulster Co. MMO ERIC OW oa oi é seed gelehs sso bee eo 0 wes Kingston, Ulster Co. Seuoonmaker.& Connors. ..............-. Kingston, Ulster Co. Seria UGK (CO... oats as opsicty nde oiee Kingston, Ulster Co. IRM OO) 5 5 Sa5,0 cy acaiare as in 6 0 ornate cea Kingston, Ulster Co. Pa R MANES) 5. seid. So. ek oe see Lake Placid, Essex Co, Onienta, spot Vardst). Yoo. 6s cck ake ans Mamaroneck, Westchester Co, Sounds Machines Shop. ss. 55+5 55556555 Mamaroneck, Westchester Co. See | Oia gl 8 UT es ee a ee ee Mariners Harbor, Richmond Co. NEUMAN Se ELOUPNEOUL. <\. 6).hee ons sleere) = ayes oe Mariners Harbor, Richmond Co. Jotmsons Shipyards Corp........,....+-: Mariners Harbor, Richmond Co. Staten Island Shipbuilding Co........... Mariners Harbor, Richmond Co. Consolidated Shipbuilding Corp.......... Morris Heights, N. Y., New York Co. Neve vacht, Launch & Eng. Co.......%-. Morris Heights, N. Y., New York Co. National DD. D? & Repair Co... 0225.55.08 New Brighton, Richmond Co. COMES LOMO DUNE dire. ss) uy stescrd He. eras New Rochelle, Westchester Co. American: Balsa Co., 50 H. 42d st.......... New York, New York Co. W. F. Ruddock Boat & Yacht Works, Inc., NAS Stow 65, garclem pRiverian = sarecu.-te selon New York, New York Co. Henry Steers, 17 Battery. plas... .-ese. «cs New York, New York Co. James Tregarthen & Sons Co., Inc., ft. E. TEN SiC, esis Saya t MGS wh 5 cuss) ceeds ames yes 9. eee eyoue oss das New York, New York Co. Wniutedn States Navy ward 4h... - o>. 5. See New York, New York Co. Northport Shipbuilding Corp............. Northport, Suffolk Co. Richardson! Boat, Com. eis msscejoi4 0 o: eral ee No. Tonawanda, Niagara Co. International Shipbuilding & Marine Engi- MEST IMG ya. COND he Reston ois ete o-<. «4, 018, OM MOR Nyack, Rockland Co. Nyack Shipbuilding OCorp................ Nyack, Rockland Co, Ulises Pabersonmaec coe ees oi lame ok etwas Nyack, Rockland Co. beyane Boatm Wome ico. a.cin silt aouus acetate Ogdensburg, St. Lawrence Co. St. Lawrence Marine Railway............ Ogdensburg, St. Lawrence Co. iHuilttonaN aya cation CO. 5c). .5 ccter aoe eae Old Forge, Herkimer Co. Parsons) sBrosaene see aso 2 aa wid tay Be Old Forge, Herkimer Co. George TD Bishop rsrwstae siecle 2% are-sroieion Patchogue, Suffolk Co. Daw att SseComklige i. cs : o 4 Oe Seward, Schoharie Co. CE LOMITA IAES ES. .c 2 Izps <'2isiSShe-- State 2G Syskels Sidney, Delaware Co. NICS) a ea Solsville, Madison Co. Samuel Wandell, Wythe Av. & N. 15th st.. South Brooklyn, Kings Co. Greenday Silo OO. .4:c1 Stl. nthe - «ss. Buffalo, Erie Co. John D. Davis Wagon Works, 172 Elk st.. Buffalo, Erie Co. Fred L. Grampp, 206 Chicago st.......... Buffalo, Erie Co. Handel Wagon Works, 314. Seneca st...... Buffalo, Erie Co. L. Noellers Sons, 43-47 Locust st........ Buffalo, Erie Co. John B. Voet, 268) Jefiersontst........+ - us Buffalo, Erie Co. Wurster Wagon Works, 314 Seneca st..... Buffalo, Erie Co. Wim Garrett; ics. e ced d aise Setaielels atslese zi Canadaigua, Ontario Co. Charles. Tis Wheelers... ceccitijees © «cis see Canaseraga, Allegany Co. 125 Wily ECR p ho amen Oe acc ooo.o Be Canaseraga, Allegany Co. Watson! Products. Corp eer =... <6 22 «le Canastota, Madison Co. Alfmed = Slawson) SHS. 2c snc] coke oe oe Canisteo, Steuben Co. JBL, dpe Cer ciniVeR ile) Oe 5 05.6 cok Roe Coun eri de G0 5 Cato, Cayuga Co. Hdwand skennediys 22% 26)- stop necro eie Cato, Cayuga Co. OA. Sancombes sees 7 eR. «Eee Chateaugay, Franklin Co. Wire NSIS mig Be “cea. ctta tte’ & 6. Eoehiereeaue eae Claverack, Columbia Co. TB varvaissl «05. Sta Pelee he S55. suesegeneretets Clavville, Oneida Co. Charles GNLVETS 2:5 2 2.2e steieiela aisl+ 4.7 = amr teuna Clifton Springs, Ontario Co. Buckleyadé WWermaml 2-8 siete cece cos weeiiieie Cortland, Cortland Co. Directory of Manufacturers 227 PBLIPM VV ALGLINGAN, 2/04 sc. c6. ccc aeceee ce ene os Deansboro, Oneida Co. Eber) Carriage Works......,...2s2.:.+- Delhi, Delaware Co. OAT POINLCT 6 5 oo ors: so nieiaeies see ee ses Delphi Falls, Onondaga Co. PRP CATES OS Se de. ie teueiis atone, spueauehe'e aiaie) Siar eis) arses East Bloomfield, Ontario Co. UR LEEOO CO on. 5S opaayal is hada dene East Otto, Cattaraugus Co. PREV V PMS VIRES Cty o¥el 315 oi Srenaia ey elcie si Sic sees suave East Otto, Cattaraugus Co. Jatin Enema ey oo oucade + nooctocomec ona at Elton, Cattaraugus Co. CORP CM ATSONS) oj. vaye\sys%s «als sisi Qatari Kingston, Ulster Co. PAGE EUUDTET OT. yee cce) vcsi's os obgiele: oc oles asvee\lei LaFayette, Onondaga Co. \\ iii, LOIN EVENT a TGs is oe aOR ce Anessa IDES Cc Livingston, Columbia Co. Piaiip Wenenlenreds SOM. . 6. a2 0 aes eee ae Lyons, Wayne Co. IDE ADL: (Crosivelll ages Eee eC oeneeier eee Manlius, Onondaga Co. \ WHS, TMi On bee Mapes oo cnoabonoe oC Marietta, R.D. No. 2, Onondaga Co. Iieaks, Wideaiia yy ae Bee coo Aon otomcoo cas Merrifield, Cayuga Co. Georrens mOaGiyirGs ON... 2.3. os 0-6 oon me Moravia, Cayuga Co. CeorreghibzsUOMMONS)) Nels ae iiellsu exe = = Morrisville, Madison Co. De eee OTL CC ERS RINOIHSE 6/5, 08S AE Els. osc yore ete nose eves Morrisville, Madison Co. TOS SIR, TBWENCKZS S o onc 6 Arama eacnn as RCE nA nea Mt. Vernon, Westchester Co. ECO CUMN NN Ce Seyeneras 4) 6) <: 526 0.0'0:6 oie ho arora Nassau, Rensselaer Co. vere tim onie COR citer a lc ths ctalieia\ lc. c -1s «ts syenis Newark, Wayne Co. AG are MC Ol yee ee) = avai ae yareis lea ew 2 + 2) seein Newburgh, Orange Co. George Anthon, 507 W. 54th st........... New York, New York Co. Wie Lior, 207 10), ue Gia Seana oo oc New York, New York Co. Wm. Koenig, 24 Lawrence st............. New York, New York Co. J. Kramer & Sons Mfg. Co., 673-679 Water SHS S565 6, nb cx Gani G UICC CRC RRS NAC New York, New York Co. Liberty Wagon Works, 540 W. 40th st.... New York, New York Co. New York Wagon Works, 1924 Ist av.... New York, New York Co. Peters & Heins, 503-505 E. 82d st........ New York, New York Co. Henry Reinmuller & Sons, 521 W. 47th st.. New York, New York Co. Measabrels92 Hanstmaven. -ol2- «sl alone New York, New York Co. Yorkville Wagon & Auto Body Bldg Co., ; SA GME GLC Mabe ee eo .)s os dies on erelem aleve ot New York, New York Co. MhorBiumalop sleds Con a: - \ slys ect steele North Tonawanda, Niagara Co. 228 A ppendia James McCasland ...... asceescceccccces Ogdensburg, St. Lawrence Co. @Gonklin “Wagon ‘COM iam resale crete Os Olean, Cattaraugus Co. (GAWie Wayne. ra cteeiattaercnpors eciers csr ocrers Otto, Cattaraugus Co. Champion Wagon Works............++.- Owego, Tioga Co. Viigo lO hal SMUG OED THOL Sa crates ois awe" Craiecsatplaldtotota Pompey, Onondaga Co. IVI He KON ARVO NA cie, deerroloo nicl oxic vidio Poughkeepsie, Dutchess Co. DN aE yr iit te iter ie cra eaten srod fede tenenatehs ta! Remsen, Oneida Co. As Veil apolar 50 bods 60 on OGM ma Dicer Remsen, Oneida Co. BAR GACLLOCKO st eeteee Mire tte eer emee os Gaerne Richville, St. Lawrence Co. Caley & Nash, Inc., 1828 E. av........... Rochester, Monroe Co. Weusine hs) Zener alert: emesis ene oleae === Rochester, Monroe Co. George A) Name tac otac.-\ are ear eee = oe Rochester, Monroe Co. telen GQeaT (CO rey) meters caus ere caverta ne Rome, Oneida Co. ING OTC 3 cpa sin out cues ge cbs hate ts sarin Salat oboic Roslyn, Nassau Co. 1, Wail dap (ee SoMa cas oe eeo d's poo uo Onno Salisbury, Herkimer Co. Re M. Whitney Co.; Inco. sys. -/c mis b= on Salisbury Center, Herkimer Co. Adelbert, Wellepa.ve: fee: se tyes «siren see ss Salt Springville, Otsego Co. Jey. Baler ys os cae wets cytes tiem = 9° Sanitaria Springs, Broome Co. Winners Repaie Sl oplrrn- tia cteret etait: ore. Schoharie, Schoharie Co. Jolin JQ IWelniniyih. 66 csapls bocce poudoatsene Seward, Schoharie Co. Di sdloe Wenale WIEVES, cinmoropd'c 6o no smpO Oooo Silver Creek, Chautauqua Co. IDOE IN DUM Sy eeiheae cad datblatd cd!" Sarog.o Dia Gbidle Solsville, Madison Co. Sor dig Lahti edahalaeritactcadtn ue", wodiais Ac-ain er Somerset, Niagara Co. AGT INOS SCONES ANT terrestres clare ohereersrer Stapleton, Richmond Co. Hea Moyer; 24) Wolf Stee way. - scree Syracuse, Onondaga. Co. Woallentin es Gaet zara avis caterers (atenolol eiteleleL= Troy, Rensselaer Co. Wralliness Cammiaige AVWiorlksiterstscs.cliicier ler Utica, Oneida Co. Charles Ga hicheneeererastatlencieieierelerar Watervliet, Albany Co. Dep dicx MEISDe Iyinha ster oj tonne PteeMet bet: sjejeys eielsta: sites Woodbourne, Sullivan Co. lelewolepelll Majin, (lox, INMOn. soe cogaaobuDd 6 ae Worcester, Otsego Co. Veneer CrandailliPaneliCox Unicare seer cies Brocton, Chautauqua Co. Standard Veneer Panel Co., 241 37th st.... Brooklyn, Kings Co. AmeTCAN Eat Cla CO sersyto-oisrei o Fae sc ets Cattaraugus, Cattaraugus Co. Jamestown Panel Co., Inc................ Jamestown, Chautauqua Co. Whips and Umbrella Sticks Buffalo Whip Co., 335 Glenwood av...... Buffalo, Erie Co. Wilstenmvioods brodtuctsn Cone.) sehen Ellenville, Ulster Co. Mmpire, (Gipte pV Hip CO. acta. «eo satel Windsor, Broome Co. WHndsOr NV HED. OU. stat eye cues eels) ein eters Windsor, Broome Co. Directory of Manufacturers 229 Woodenware and Novelties SpieseDros. yer Gould, Ine. sls. sc5e8. nen. Adams, Jefferson Co. INO eye nos om ccoin ayett see Hose od 6 Albion, Orleans Co. PASO HIME CAG MIU) 6%. «ots arse) s Jerse stentiee eetecae Albion, Orleans Co. WEEE UDGOGK (CO. 2... crs uss os ee eons « Bath, Steuben Co. Big Indian Wood Products Co............ Big Indian, Ulster Co. Glidden, W. L., 1035 Atlantic av......... Brooklyn, Kings Co. Show Woodworking Co., 14 Dunham pl.... Brooklyn, Kings Co. Standard Wood Turning Co, 661 Margan MN me LT LoVe 4.8 23 po) cpanctichs 5.0.32 eet eae Brooklyn, Kings Co. imeem Metre host bleh:oy's evancue ole ole ato acre sen Cairo, Gireene Co. ESPNS em GEICO eo oie, osissunvsisieShs, © vim Gud lola eva a # Cairo, Greene Co. HGR EOUDTOOK CO... sos. ls ves cee ols 6 Caledonia, Livingston Co. Up-to-Date Advertising Co............... Canisteo, Steuben Co. SRGMCMMEMOCM er Ge oss 6 sk eis \he ce oes ees es Cattaraugus, Cattaraugus Co. VARS SOE STC CMe ewe el cl cy/ors. ee Vii hued Vinee) | Ooh anit Sere e ; ‘abwuwanel iar. ies <9 Wl - iii) 0 6289 ene rt) 588 ep tags bpd de Hs 40 Meher ye gh 1) DHA t ie ny edad dead thay ye eri reeset hu 4 - Yresrellovrs esha e prgeee? 7 4yndh Born babead zens sieve Leyte oy Pa dabhinas) oh aie + srt ry, Rain ia slibiawy 4 mt ood yt ye hy be ve Novatel sell eat AMEN te whe rk a rurayat Se ei z ir sis yi set f ae th wy SV by risa) be, oer ovis eeu al He 1 = / fee ed atin th ‘s it eaeeeie OL A i Hea ial tee Bertin ah " I, ,, i ei VGH HEE oe +4 Nie Peah Ve thdpes cavavy phir deka Hater A AoLod Ladakh 1d | + OB ALN bh 08 beer wre ree elt i haa VEphe heen reve ea? Aedelt/ heap dhe “4 ALDOR bE dn of ‘ ve cre 4F i ! pers tees Pal ' x esrb ERY toy of Ph wes coed , Bee Bd teh eR ay pi co OF i piv A Be f ihyin\ ety SaaS ian badnrad y Di ; haha st Penh polUih oh uy WPI eee, " " Aabhene orl . ‘ ni aang Rey HOE if oamie de . / ; Ty abore Have @ LVN ook rade the “ bi b 1 AU 40m 7 au yd pire ori ae cyst be bestest a Phe epeh re ‘ ’ " 4 5 TAPES BBL He ale VEAGb PLE Ne bbetay nga 4 knoren eed 4 Wp 8 yt i et yin ey heed be mel § 1A Coping) prim ew ‘ / ‘ . a bela ae HF rgd bn ey Wp MPedL I ’ ae ares Chg PtP erage OD MD ROH re ytd : dai A yar POE DDD Han cel aby CePA LORD uae , 74) r ‘ yeaa é syne red Hefti dir b eyay Fane ut oe ane r J my ep 17 Hen oy { +, j wife, tye? : ‘ ’ } lake kee | Ji Maye val vole oa se ; / , M ¥¢ ereny Mpa cubeiiyy riba "7 ‘ f ‘ as ae Fale it bap Uh p ¢ ; we . . Lute! y yy Alar ue pi . ft! Uf fattest aad a uy i" fat » pitas cola ' : : seater pate. YEyoay pees “ ye ites fanaiyien Ce wineraeiet ’ 4 . fh ae; at sh ey dd vee ghee bin/y be fies “ ee Rel et enor ss ante 4 ‘ ‘ city ethiaee ihe An ve. feeb M1 aad Wed My ree ; " * ¥ rf « tr ‘ fee is el hiya Ua ry Fhe hae ola y ‘ fins hn ft Se: Leghaeed iol Waenetites 4 fe ds . oT eladd J ° ‘ e if ae + Fey } A ~ is OP WON DE HT 9) Us Reset pr etal Hb MUR 4 Ne yg “i tie firiabe) ane per: (008 6 win abeipal rosy ay oe , ’ 4 ’ sal haa tae + +9 Op th ef Bean ne aay ty beh reny “ah hye hah Thvethes teas 6 He USON rine . Henk ey hae Noted OE Oat Oho re fa 5 f Wiyre ¢ satiety Uy atari be ee shh Ay ie oe dad G fy ’ “ iy PPD sash angh nn re mele sty, het iva OTK se Oe : Citta aes By andy “8 ie sushyeyi ’ ! inst Woks Bebe ve hake at ‘ p Hi yf (ors Per yer ; ‘ i Cidet ts a (is 4 ae Fed rab b Teer ena widjee. ‘ Peay tak tke " bactlp es sere in pepe ere eres antes 5 44 Ws aie a br Pia ey Sheer} eas atten hs ay ied nyaey yay 7 ty Whiter: ‘ Whey Be tes bats foley ps ie . 28 ae Art vty a Lil sty i shane ia ARISEN a i oe ty ' ( * ithe bee cf wll orn pr tyne at enacts beta . Owe ¥ at Ndr ibe tasks ad +o —n 4t j ; ‘ ' f cn La mAcatia Treat . ; Py: oe ou mat on Corvin . soe ; ie te Re rhe Pee 4 ‘ ar, , ae fend eee pry see 4 ” hat $F 48 5 CR Ot O wth he yal ny 4 we ‘ ‘ pie heaighs \ ade ihe Sie Avenpa Weirens: 4 ¢ ; A ratios g “ai Pacer re ir Oak tenytd oe Shiche rR , =i or acct Ay ane > wT) $e sell ne 4 praia rat ia y! 45 . , » 4 Nise he Niobe Wee of ae ‘ + 23 Sy edd) Hob toll * sistent eae Ma mK he Sh savas ced pou a ns pi! o pik LBs ted ae cae ee ihens WYRE NE Gs eg ay bagi ke yep ee 4 Ue babe y As: #7 Py) ) vias ’ ’ 3 (ERO * * Ne me pare peer ; , a uy Ariane ste Aig ae ee LR ) We dies sh dat ee AWA IE ides Sua eg {ite tered vee / ; ui p44 MPT Cir why wl bead haaeal iakod at a een ‘ ‘ : ‘ y Nee ey bad rity ’ " i ats! ron Pe emene ‘9k yorih to tet wey , (cae . Sater ninety ane mn fen ese) Bt hye ” , “aia ’ vee fey thy j \ y; Hb hy heap A ACs WH ahh o> ye iho r/ j ‘ Lert acl rs 4 ! | : bly LRN rey vie PHONE Be og No ‘ : ¢ vobesttnerrnaeas : y oie A sits dadadiedladees de tat te ae ¢ , “ bite shorty nw eaves FAAP (SRM oF AE bron Atte. FH CRE Dd Creed as chan gta ie HesL PPO Pb tte the ' igs Jey tae yy Vartadagad s4therns aeepeshay Ma hase A aed age fieb lit ia ty ueeinne doe Py ener Sh 0b POEL N net 4, ful Hey UG ALY ednete t yar Lee het neetihedats * anit OTLEY AV afc EB at ye Ip : ah weal evel ihe ey a ey AVG DP HE ly vb hevirty ‘ ‘ rs Piieetis Nace hat j Ne pesky by metals Reg 1g: Lo Petyey: “ ehebersh athe Ren MMP YA ahAM ed: Hees en : p pret LWA srk tag we aa PHD OP od whinFe LOE 0 VW yay, wry R A. * WD VEIN Hater ade » a ‘ 4 / 4" Maton wel Rap teey , 5 trey bi ha Wha i, Cin dled cae , Pes ine smerny D “ eye y hie ¥ ohne ae sad 4 Wore Wrens) tyeude maleh Cn HIN Hate MAA aaa o ; : pi! a He jaye ts ita Beare scenery Waste F 1 W ter thet OF UP preety A et 3 vet - Soh aes 9 Aetenipe: Peat vtehs bbvas) 9170) Sr PRI PPLE ks pak 6) ah notte 4 4 popad , oe . naheiere Patt oirte) a & if ana | heb ubelalil eee J * ‘ wre one ad fea 4 Crete yey oreo MP ee 1 of ‘ p rug 3 oh g kt Hey » : we. e ¥ well qa rie , oe y ie Ver sinew WP 04h gt 9 bos . y y 14 Koti & ost teres hy : ' “ne ‘ YALA pr ab e dN AF MUM ALA teh Boh we 4 re eerste mh tut miph-shessh 1 Hehe tees 40 Lay wel divbiste a ‘ add ‘ ve Vettes hp ee0g ed ‘ . . AD anhet gerber beth ap Pini a € F , vs a ead, Ste PEM rowan’ rn ‘ ' per “tev, vb + ‘ A Hebe pis Hw 4 tnrshy be Y robe, by Meera & + Ste aaett t fein paslohpsis Mitraalaiate tin vty seen ¥ vibe oy" realty he ety vag WA hey Dots | header Nf" byte ewents 44k oy 3 sata pits Byer dba daw onl ifensl mi be m1 Pine Aaeerhe sees win nights ties Meh) thereat nny le ¢ a eetneeen te Ate Ldeleiaiesinld ries it one seek: So baie 4 9 ne al pty H reer PA re ssd 8 ctenemltiel ys Pe sive yy iv poner 3 a eeiieae atcemanantt amar th spore Huss rapa snseeodos ba) soy yiecval ots. en os eae . 44 des Py yy eel ea Machbides ha Kid slat aty Love biome mace oeee ott * a “ marry ios ie . Melb: Votes 4 AE Pde, Licebiadio! Whe, HPyliny baba yngs Weustis Leia Moran ns en AU tA a sau hee Heyebperd F wr) ort Popes. £ br). bat alan iets a dadalalacdlict ?) 4 ebb Pad apobenebbraby nc i " NER Ton weal a aliasel pore ries Rater ata Tas bee rade ‘ pikes Veeiehe'e here drem HO Bw beds BG Hee be die wane filet Ser shire Mer /iiie Mewodemtile zi OE Nm Ae CV oe say pens Metin bd beal hea ORs tage Fhe 4h WH) 064 4 A Hp Abo bene i) vi bs jhe el 4M Aer lyf ohh s ober ee Nr atete be Be aad tid hittin acti) ye balekaaae ty Dr hab ddnal Nae by Ay Fr Reweay beia By apohe 3) le Lphrtet ely of 64» Fee easy whe bitigs a Wr Vie lsne int eb VFO Nae ab+baheh boy Gels he dealedtahal dale! sheng» PL Jabaedeter Te pabueeeldicla adahalieal heyy es “eve ‘ tpl cactont he Ge Aen aey Houawioeas Widlaualnaes Rist Ka seisotett vee tals shi he +0) Sener bey Cyrene seer FY pe cae yh ayy feet eons “ith ryt ab ead es th avr eidulddadiene a reel ee wr een hae vgs shay Phineriere # bene