A Text Book

OF

Agricultural Entomology

E.A.Ormerod

m.

A TEXT-BOOK

AGRICULTURAL ENTOMOLOGY.

WEST, NEW-MAX AND CO., PEI.NTEES,
54, HATTON GAEDEN, E.G.

5£
.fa/

'i 73<: A TEXT-BOOK

AGRICULTURAL ENTOMOLOGY;

% (Baittn> to ffrtljotrs of Insert life

AND MEANS OF

PREVENTION OF INSECT RAVAGE.

FOR THE USE OF

ELEANOR A. ORMEROD, F. R. Met. Soc, &c.

1,ATE CONSULTING ENTOMOLOGIST OP THE EOY.AL AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY OF ENGLAND, ANL

HON. MEMBER OF FARMERS' CLUB; HON. AND CORK. MEM. OF ROYAL AG. AND HORT. SOC,

S. AUSTRALIA; HON. MEM. OF ENT. SOC. OP ONTARIO, AND CORE. MEMIiER OF

FIELD NAT. CLUB OF OTTAWA, CANADA; MEMBER OP EASTERN PROVINCE

NATURALISTS' SOC, CAPE COLONY;

ALSO y

MEMBER OP THE ASSOCIATION OF OFFICIAL KJoN^^BSfyiM'dili
WASHINGTON, U.S.A.,(&C.

SECOND EDITI

LONDON:
SIMPKIN, MARSHALL, HAMILTON, KENT & CO., Limited.

1892.

strive on, and if a shadow fall

To dim your forward view,
Think that the sun is over all,

And will shine forth anew.
Disdain the obstacles ye meet,

And to one course adhere ;
Advance with quick, but cautious feet ;

Hope on, and persevere.

J. Crdtchley Princk.

THE MANY FEIENDS

TO WHOM I AM INDEBTED FOR HELP AND ENCOURAGEMENT IN
MY WORK

'nrhis ^ittlc 'Dohxinc
IS GRATEFULLY INSCEIBED

BY

THE WEITEE.

PREFACE.

The first edition of this little volume consisted of
ten lectures delivered in 1883 at the Institute of Agri-
culture of South Kensington, in compliance with the
request of the Director that I would prepare some
simple and plain information regarding the methods
of life of crop insects, and means of prevention of
their ravages, such as might be of service to school
teachers.

At that time there appeared to be but little call for
such a compilation, but I complied with the request
in the hope that the work might be useful for farm
service ; and that in its published form it might be
carried to the field, or taken up at an odd minute, and
give a little information without burdening the reader
with a need of looking elsewhere for explanations.

The work, however, appeared likely to remain
nearly useless, until, in the course of last year,

VIU PREFACE.

attention was drawn to it as conveying information
in one of the branches of agricultural instruction
brought forward under the arrangements of the new
County Councils, and the little book sold off so rapidly
as to necessitate the preparation of a Second Edition^
which, under the circumstances, is now issued under
a slightly altered and more appropriate title.

Since 1884 (the date of the first edition), knowledge
of the habits of our farm insects, and also knowledge
of how to cope with them, has made great advance,
and some of the most important of these points h ave
been alluded to. Amongst these, orchard fruit-
growing, as a distinct agricultural industry, is almost
a new branch ; and in its train has come, from across
the Atlantic, much useful knowledge as to insecticides,
and implements for their application. Great advance
has also been made in information regarding habits
of some of our commonest cattle insects, and notes are
given in the following pages on these subjects, as well
as on injurious representatives of various other families,
as the Sheep Liver Fluke, Eelworms, Slugs, &c.

The reader is, however, begged to observe that this
little l)Ook is in no way offered as a " Manual," but.

PREFACE. IX

literally as a " Guide," — a means of leading the
student onwards to a knowledge of some of the fixed
laws of insect life, which we may always rest on as
the foundation of serviceahle preventive measures.
Descriptions of some of our infestations are given as
characteristic of methods of injury, which may be
caused in some instances b}^ one kind of insect in one
stage of its life, or by some in every stage, or again
in the larval or in the perfect state. These are
necessarily for the most part taken from our best
known attacks, but they are given simply as examples
of classes of methods of destruction falling (Itowever
caused) under special classes of remedies.

As before, I have where possible used English
rather than scientific terms, and for the explanation
of such scientific terms as are necessarily made use
of, the reader is referred to the Glossary. For
the same reason (that is, as far as possible to avoid
burdensome technical description of the appearance
of the insects noticed), figures have been given in all
cases where they were procurable, and the scientific
names of these are given, in case they may be
required, in the "List" at pp. xiii— xvi.

X PREFACE.

Of these figures (163 in all), upwards of 57, used by-
courteous permission of Messrs Blackie & Sou, Glas-
gow, N.B., are from the well-known figures by John
Curtis, given in his 'Farm Insects'; and 10 figures of
Moths from Newman's ' British Moths,' are inserted
by permission of Messrs. Allen & Co. The figures of
the Hop Aphis and American Blight Aphis are copied
from drawings by Mr. G. B. Buckton, F.R.S., in his
* British Aphides ' ; and the figure of the Bee Parasite
and Forest Fly, as well as two others of which the
source is acknowledged accompanying, are after
drawings by Prof. Westwood. The figure of Turnip
Sawfly caterpillars, and a few others, are inserted
by permission of Mr. T. P. Newman.

About 54 of the figures are mainly from life, in
some instances drawn by myself, but for the most part
by Mr. Horace Knight, artist to Messrs. West, New-
man & Co. Of the remainder I think the source will
be found, for the most part, to be acknowledged either
beneath the figure or in the context, as, for instance,
in the case of the Liver Fluke, duly acknowledged as
from the paper of Prof. A. P. Thonas, and the Stem
Eelworms, copied by kind permission of Dr. J.
Eitzema Bos.

PREFACE. XI

In the entomological arrangement I have mainly
followed that laid down by Prof. J. 0. Westwood in
his 'Introduction to the Modern Classification of
Insects,' and in mentioning this I cannot refrain from
also acknowledging the deep obligation I am under to
my much respected friend and honoured master in
the study of Entomology, not only for the information
derived from his published works, but for the scientific
aid which, in correspondence and in occasional
meetings, has extended over a large portion of a
life-time.

In the special sections, I have endeavoured to follow
the lines laid down by our leading specialists, as in
'British Beetles,' by the late E. C. Rye; 'British
Aphides,' by G. B. Buckton, F.R.S. ; and others of
similar known standing. In the practical part, I have
endeavoured to work out the teaching which appears
to me to be conveyed by the observations which now,
for many years, have been placed in my hands by
agriculturists throughout our country ; and should
this little book prove of agricultural service, I much
desire to point out that this will be not from specula-
tive or theoretical views, but in great part from the

XU PREFACE.

plain statement, given by observant farmers, of what
treatment answers.

For myself I only wish I could have done my part
better, but I have earnestly tried to make it correct
and clear, and it will be a great satisfaction to me if
it should prove of use.

ELEANOE A. OEMEEOD,

Late Consulting Entomologist of the IioyaJ
Agricultural Society of England.

TOKRINGTON HoUSE, St. AlBANS,

July 2(Jth, 1892.

LIST OF ENGKAVINGS ON WOOD.

The description being given ivith the English name to each figure, the
scientific name alone is given in the folloicing List.

CHAPTER I.

1. Mamestra persicarijB .

2. Vespa erabro ....

3. Agriotes lineatus (larva of)

4. Triphffina pronuba . .
•j. Hypoderma bovis (breath

ing-tubes of larva) .
G. Pieris brassic.u (larva and

chrysalis of) . . .
7. Melolontha vulgaris (larva

and pupa of) . . ,

PAGE

1
2
3
4

FIG. PAGE

8. Anthomyia betas (eggs of,

also Lepidopterous eggs) 9

9. Meligethes (eggs of) . . .11

10. Caloptenus spretus (larva) 11

11. Anthomyia larvae and pupas 12
Lygus solani and jjupie (1-

4) and L. umbellatarum

(5, (5) 13

Athalia spinarum. ... 14
Doryphora decemlineata . 16

12

CHAPTER II.

15. Zabrus gibbus . . .

16. Agrotis exclamationis

17. Apion (larva and pupa)

18. Cynips kollari (larva

pupa) ....

19. Hylemyia coarctata

20. Eupteryx solani .

21. Sesia bembeciformis

22. Psila rosaj . . .

23. Pulex irritans . .

24. Tenebrio molitor .

25. Pygffira bucephala.

26. Pieris brassicae. .

. 17
. 18
. 19

and
. 20
. 21
. 22
. 24
. 27
. 28
. 28
. 29

27. Bombus lucorum (1) and

B. terrestris (4). . . .30

28. Athalia spinarum. . . .30

29. Caloptenus spretus . . .31

30. Forficula sp 32

31. Aphis brassicffi 32

32. Miris dolabratus (1-4) and
M. tritici (5, 6). . . .33

Thrips cerealium (1-4) and

T. minutissima (5-8) . 33
Mormonia nigromaculata . 34
Stylops spencii 34

33

.34.

35.

29 36. Chrysopa perla 34

CHAPTER 111.— DIPTEBA.

37. Tipula oleracea .... 36

38. Trichocera hiemalis ... 38

39. Cecidomyia tritici ... 42

40. „ destructor . . 44

41. Barley-stem infested by C.

destructor 45

42. Puparia of C. destructor . 40

43. Anthomyia ceparum. . . 49

44. Drysophila flava . . . .50

45. Anthomyia betae .... 51

46. ,, brassicffi (1-3),
A. radicum (4, 5) and A.
tuberosa (6-9) .... 53

XIV

LIST OF ENGRAVINGS.

CHAPTER TV.—DIPTEBA.

FIG. PAGE

47. Hylemyia coarctata ... 57

48. Cliloropsta3niopus(l, G, 11)

and CcEliniusniger (7,8) 59

49. Tabanus bovinus .... 03

50. Gastrophilus equi. ... 65

51. „ „ (e^gs of) 66

52. ,, ,, (maggots
of) 67

53. Hypoderma bovi-;. ... 07

54. ,, ,, (mouth-
forks of maggot) ... 68

55. Hypoderma bovis (trachefe

of maggot) 68

FIG. PAGE

56. Hypoderma bovis (muscles

of maggot) 69

57. Hypoderma bovis (prickles

of maggot) 69

58. Hypoderma bovis (section

of warble of) .... 69

59. Hypoderma bovis (hide

'warbled by) 70

60. (Estrus (Cephalemyia) ovis 75

61. Hippobosca equina ... 77

62. Melophagus ovinus ... 78

63. Pulex irritans [Apliani-

2)tera) 79

CHAPTER Y.—COLEOPTEBA.

64. Melolontha vulgaris

65. Haltica (Chuetocnema) con

cinna

66. Carabus granulatus .
(i7. Steropus madidus anc

gnawed Mangold-roots
68. Dytiscus marginalis .
09. Oxytelus rugosus (1, 2) and

O. sculpturalis (3-ii)
70. Cucujus testaceus (2-4)

and Trogosita maurita

nica (5-8) ....

80

71

72

82

73

83

74

84

75.

85

7(i

,S()

77.

78.

79.

80

80.

Necrophorus ruspator .
Meligetlies reneus . .
Silpha opaca ....
Anisoplia agricola (1, 2

and A. horticola (3-5)
Cetonia aurata . . .
Melolontha vulgaris (an

tennaj of) . . . .

Elaters

Telephorus clypeatus .
Byturus tomentosus .
Xyleborus dispar . .

87
87
88

89

89

90
94
<)8
99
100

CHAPTER YI.—COLEOPTERA.

101
103
104

106

81. Apion apricans (2-5, 6, 7)

and A. assimile . . .

82. Balaninus nucum . . .

83. Anthonomus pomorum .

84. Sitones crinitus (1, 2) and

8. lineatus (3, 4). . .

8">. Bruchus rufimanus (1, 2,

4-7) and B. pisi (9,

10)

86. Ceutorhynchus sulcicoUis. 110

87. Scolytus destructor (work-

ings of) 112

88. Hylesinus fraxini (work-
ings of) 113

89. Aromia moshata. . . . 114

90. Crioccris melanopa . ; . 115

91. Chrysomela (Phiudon) be-
tulaj 116

j 92. Haltica (Phyllotreta) ne-

I morum 116

10>i 93. Coccinella (in various
stages), C. bipunctata
(7), C. dispar (8), and
C. septempunctata (9) . 120

LIST OF ENGEAVINGS.

XV

CHAPTER \11.—LEPID0PTERA.

FIG. PAGE

94. Pieris brassic:^ . . . . 1'22

95. Cossus ligniperda (larva) 123

96. Pieris napi 124

97. Siauropus fagi (male) . 124

98. Pygft-ra bucephala. . . 125

99. Pieris rapffi 120

100. Sphinx (Acherontia)atro-

pos 127

101. Smerinthus ocellatus. . 128

102. Sesia bembeciformis . . 129

103. „ tipuliformis . . . 130
li 4. Cossus ligniperda . . . 131
105. Zeuzera a^sculi .... 132
10(3. Hybernia defoliaria . . 134

FIG. PAGE

107. Cheimatobia brumata . 135

108. Anisopteryx aescularia

(eggs) 137

109. Orgyia antiqua .... 138

110. ,, ,, (cocoons

of) 138

111. Agrotis exclamationis . 141

112. ,, segetum . . . 141

113. Mamestra brassicse . . 142

114. Charseas graminis and

caterpillars . . . .144

115. Plusia gamma .... 145

116. Tortrix viridana . . . 148

CHAPTER NIU.—HYMENOPTEBA, dc.

117. Lophyrus rufus (and

larva) 149

118. Lophyrus pini (larva and

pupa) 152

119. Hoplocampa testudinea

and larva 154

121'. Athalia spinarum (larva

and pupa) 156

121. Ce23hus pygmspus (1-5)

and Pachymerus calci-
trator (8, 9) . . . . 157

122. Sirex juvencus .... 158

123. Cynips koUari (larva and

pupa) 159

124. Neuroterus lenticularis

(galls of) 160

125. Aphis (Siphonophora)
granaria (1-4), Aphi-
dius avenoe (5, 6), and
Ephedras plagiator (7,

126. Pieris napi (1-4) and He-

miteles melanarius (5,
6)

127. Pteromalus puparum(nat.

size about one line) .

128. Microglenes penetrans (1)

& Platygaster tipuloe

(2)

129. Vespa crabro ....

130. Stylops Spencii. . . .

131. Mormonia maculata . .

161

162

163

164
166
166
167

CHAPTER IX.—HOMOPTEBA, dc.

132. Aphis rumicis (faba;) . .

133. Euacanthus interruptus.

134. Eui^teryx solani . . .

135. Psylla mali and pupa of

P- pyii

136. Aphis brassica) ....

137. Fore Nving of Ajihis (div.

of Aphidinffi) ....

169
173
174

174

175

176

138. Aphis floris-rapse, Curtis

(1-4), and A. rapse, Cur-
tis (5-8) 178

139. Aphis (Phorodon) humuli 180

140. ,,

(base of antennae and
frontal tubercles of) . 182

141. Schizoneura lanigera. . 1B3

XVI

LIST OF ENGRAVINGS.

CHAPTER IX.— Continued.

TIG. PAGE

142. Chermes laricis. . . . Is6

143. ,, abietis . . .187

144. Aleyrodes proletella . . 188

145. Aspicliotus (Mytilaspis)

conchiformis . . . 190

146. Lygus solani (1-4) and

L. umbellatarum (5,

6) 191

FIG. PAGE

147. Miris dolabratus (1-4) and

M. tritici (5, G) . . .191

148. Gryllotalpa vulgaris . . 192

149. Forficula sp 193

150. Caloptenus spretus . . 194

151. Thrips cerealium (1-4),

T. minutissima (5-8) . 196

152. Knapsack pump . . . 197

CHAPTER X.—MOLLUSCA, ANGUILLULIDM, dtc.

153. Limaxagrestis(l),Limax

(Arion) ater (2, 3) . .

154. Limnffius truncatulus (1),

L. pereger (2), L. stag-
nalis (3) ....

155. Fasciola hepatica . . .
15(5. Tylenchus devastatrix .

157. ,, tiitici . . .

158. ,, obtusus (1),
Aphelenchus aveiiie
'2),Plectusobtusus(3) 215

198

20(J
208
213
214

159. Tulip-rooted oat plant . 216

160. Julus Londinensis (1), J.

guttatus =^ pulchellus
(2, 3), J. terrestns (4),
Polydesmus compla-
natus (6, 7) . . . . 222
1()1. Tyroglyphus longior . . 224
1112. Tetranycbus telarius . . 225
163. Phytoptus sp 22(i

GUIDE

TO

METHODS OF INSECT LIFE.

♦

CHAPTER I.
EGGS, CATEEPILLAES, &c.

Fig. 1. — Dot Moth (Mamestra persicarice), from life ; caterpillar
(after figure of Dr. Taschenberg's).

The first step in the study of insect life is to con-
sider what an insect is; that is, what the special
j)oints are by which we may know whether what we
are looking at is an insect or not.

We all know in a general way what an insect is :
we know that a Wasp or a Fly, a Beetle or a 13utterfly„

*A METHODS OF INSECT LIFE.

is in each case an insect, and that insects begin their
lives by being either- produced aHve or hatched from
an egg as maggots or caterpillars, or in some other
wingless shape ; and that gradually, through various
changes in the nature of the inside organs, and
changes of appearance caused by moults of the outer
skin, they alter to the state of the perfect insect. But
without going into very minute details, such as can
only be observed with the help of powerful magnifying

Fig. 2. — Hornet.

glasses, or described by words not generally under-
stood ; we know so much of the precise definition of
what an insect is as to enable us to distinguish it
certainly from spiders, mites, woodlice, julus worms,
or other creatures often found in company with insects,
and often known as " insect allies."

An insect (in its perfect stage), typically considered,
is in-sected or cut into three distinct parts, namely,
head, fore body or thorax, and hinder body or abdo-
men ; the head is furnished with two horns, or an-
tennae, besides eyes, and jaws, or suckers, for feeding
purposes ; the thorax is commonly supplied with
cither one or two pairs of wings, and also with three
pairs of legs ; the abdomen contains the digestive
organs, &c. Insects throughout their lives, that is,
throughout all their three successive stages, — whether
of grub and maggot ; or chrysalis ; or perfect winged
and six-legged creature, — are annidose, that is, are

BREATHING. 6

formed of a succession of rings or segments ; and they
do not breathe, as we do, by drawing air through their
mouths into their lungs, but by branched tracheae,
that is, b}^ branched air-tubes running through all
parts of the structure, and furnished with little
openings at the outer end, mostly along the side
of the insect, through which the air supplies are
obtained.

Let us go over this point by point. Insects not
having any bones, that is not having an inside
skeleton, need an outside skeleton or support to keep
them together. This is formed of a succession of

Fig. 3. — Wireworm, nat. size aud magnified.

rings or segments, often of a horny texture, as you
may see in a Wasp when it has been crushed on a
window-pane ; and the rings appear to be commonly
about thirteen in number. One of these rings* forms
the head, the three next support the legs and wings,
and the remaining rings or segments form the abdo-
men, and contain a portion of the organs of digestion
and those of reproduction. Thus an insect is formed
of rings : it is, scientifically speaking, annulose. In
the maggot or caterpillar stages, the rings or segments
are sometimes horny, as in the Wireworm (Fig. 3),
or soft, as with many kinds of caterpillars (Fig. 1) ;
and in the chr^^salis state they are often only slightly
observable.

* The absolute uumber of segments has been a subject of much
discussion ; at one time they were considered to be typically thirteen ;
following on this it was considered that the three segments of the
thorax were each typically composed of four lesser segments, aud now
it is given on good authority that the head segment is composed also
■of four smaller ones.

4 METHODS OF INSECT LIFE.

Next — Insects breathe by means of tvachece. Thesa
tracheai are air-tubes commiinicatiLig with the air by

Fig. 4. — Yellow Underwing Moth : 1, caterijillar ; 2, chrysalis ;
3, moth.

means of small ojDenings or months of various shapes^
called spiracles,^ because through them respiration, or
breathing, is carried on. They are generally placed
at regular distances along the side of the insect. Fig.
4 shows the spiracles on the sides of the caterpillar
and chrysalis of the Yellow Underwing Moth ; but
sometimes, especially in the case of Fly maggots,
which live in putrid mntter or wet places, the spiracles
are at the end of the tail.

Of this the accompanying figure of the breathing-
tubes of the Warble Fly maggot (Fig. 5) is a good
example. The tubes carry the air through the maggot,
and the spiracles, when a little pressed out at the tip
of the tail, are the little black spots so easily obser-
vable on maggots in warble-swellings on the backs of
cattle. • Thus the maggot can live in the moisture
that suits it, and yet draw in air by means of the
exposed tip of the tail. Spiracles (or stigmata as they
are sometimes called) are of very various shapes, from

* From Spiro, I breatlie.

BREATHING.

Fig. 5

Breathing-tubes of
maggot of Warble Fly,
maa,nitied.

■simiDle lips guarding the breathing opening, to the
more compound form in which they may be found
borne on short branched stalks
placed on each side near the
head of the larva, as is notably
the case with various kinds of
plant-stem-feeding fly maggots.
The various air-tubes {tra-
chece) start from each spiracle,
and then by means of branches,
which often join so as to form
a net-work, they carry the air
through every part of the insect,
— limbs, body, and intestines.
Insects do not draw in air
through one mouth, as we do ;
neither have they lungs, but
(commonly by means of the
spiracles) the air-tubes bring

the action of the air to bear on the fluid answering to
blood, which fills the hollow body of the insect. This
fluid is not conveyed in veins, in the same manner as
with us ; but circulation is carried on by means of a
long vessel, which may be compared to a long heart,
lying down the middle of the back of the abdomen.
This vessel is divided by constriction into successive
chambers, and is furnished with slits at the sides.
Through these slits the blood-fiuid, which lies freely
in the cavity around, enters the so-called heart, and
by contraction or a kind of pulsation pushing it from
the hinder part of the vessel, the blood is driven along
it to a kind of aorta near the head. From this aorta
it is stated to pour freely into the body cavity, and
return in streams to the heart. Thus the main part
of the circulation is carried on, whilst air is conveyed
to the fluid by the passage of the breathing-tubes or
tracheae through the fluid.*

* The above short and general description of the main principle
of the circulation is chiefly taken from Claus and Sedgwick's ' Text-

6 METHODS OF INSECT LIFE.

Some knowledge of the method of respiration as well
as of circulation in insects is very requisite to agricul-
turists for practical purposes, for if the breathing-pores
are choked the insect dies. The fact of the head of
the insect being free is of no service, for the chief use
of the head is for feeding or seeing with ; but if the
caterpillar or insect is so treated by being turned out.
from its natural home, or by being covered with any
sticky dressing that its breathing-pores are choked, it
dies ; and in this way we can act on some of our crop
pests.

Metamorphoses or transfoi'mations of insects. — In the
case of most animals, or at least of the higher orders
of the animal creation, we find that there is commonly
a marked difference in each instance, whether it be,
say, a horse, or whether it be a chicken, between its
shape and external appearance, as well as its internal
organs, in its early life, and in its mature state. But
there is this noteworthy difference between this method
of growth and that of insect life, that whereas with
many animals the alteration goes on so gradually,
from birth to mature life, that we do not see any
sudden change ; in the case of insects the change of
appearance is often very rapid. The alteration itself
goes on gradually, but from the moult of the skin (such
as that of the caterpillar showing the chrysalis within
it) frequently taking place in a very few minutes, the
difference in appearance of the insect is often, to those
not used to the matter, most astonishingly sudden,
and gives rise to all kinds of unfounded ideas. These
changes, which happen according to regular laws, are
what are known as the '' metamorphoses,'' or "trans-
formations " of insects, because the insect is then, as
it were, "metamorphosed" or "transformed" from
one condition to another.

book of Zoology,' Eng. trans., Ed. of 1880, p. 53;} ; there is also much
serviceable (Inscription of the vessels and mode of circulation in
Newman's ' History of Insects,' pp. 188 — 191.

TRANSFORMATIONS. 7

Insects pass their lives in three different conditions,
after they have been hatched from the egg or produced
alive by the parent. The first of these is that of the
caterpillar, maggot or grub (or, to speak scientifically,
the larva), in which the creature feeds voraciously,
often grows fast, and has no ivings. The second is
that of the chrysalis or pupa, in which the wings and
complete internal organisation are forming. The
third state is that of the perfect insect, or imago, with
all its limbs and powers complete. This is the
common course of insect-life through its transforma-
tions after being produced alive, or hatched from the
egg ; larva, pupa, perfect insect, or imago.

Fig. 6. — Caterpillar and chrysalis of Large Cabbage Butterfly.

It may be desirable here just to pause an instant to
suggest that for many points of insect description, or
of instruction in methods of insect life mainly needed
for field use, where an English word has a well-known
meaning, and may correctly and properly be used,
it should he used.

In class or technical instruction the pupil must be
made acquainted with the scientific terms customarily
used ; but he should at the same time (for the sake of
being able to pass his knowledge on serviceably in
farm life) be equally well informed as to the commonly
adopted English terms. In scientific communication
it is convenient, as well as correct, to describe the
first stage of any insect as a larva ; but there are
many circumstances in which it would be quite as
correct, and very much more intelligible, to describe
a butterfly larva as a caterpillar, and a beetle larva
or a fly larva as a grub or maggot.

8

METHODS OF INSECT LIFE.

Larrais a Latin word, meaning a ghost or phantom,
and was applied by Linnseus to the first stage of
insect-life, from an idea of this being a kind of
phantom-like shadowing-out of the real or complete
state. It is a very fanciful idea ; but the term larva
having been adopted for the first stage of all insects,
we cannot help ourselves about it.

Piq)a is a Latin word, describing young animals
not yet complete in their organisation ; therefore it is
very suitable to the state in which the complete insect
is forming. This stage is also often known, especially
in Butterflies and Moths, as the chrysalis state, from

Fig. 7. — Maggot and pujsa of Cockchafer.

a Greek word, signifying golden, some chrysalids being
of a bright gold-colour.

Imago is the Latin for an image, or representation,
and is used for any kind of insect in its complete state,
— a Fly, or a Beetle, or a Grasshopper, for instance,
is an imago.

Any insect in its first state is a Larva, anj'- insect
in its second state is a Pupa or Chri/saUs, and any
insect in its third state is an Imago. Thus the regular
order of the progress of insect-life is — 1st, larv(e
hatched from eggs, or produced alive ; 2ndly, papce,
in which state the larvfe change to their full powers ;
8rdly, imagos, that is, insects in their perfect state,
in which they usually have wings.

If we now trace these changes forward from the
beginning, we shall be able to prove them for our-
selves, as a matter of living serviceable fact, which
may be given as solid instruction where needed, and

EGGS.

also as practical information, fit for a reasonable man
to receive, to the many who depend on the food-crops
for their livelihood, and who will thankfully accept all
reliable aid that may tend to lessen their yearly losses
through insect attack.

In order to trace the progress of insect life onward
from its very commencement, with the certainty that
the eggs which we may wish to observe have been
deposited by any special insect, we may take the
females, when about to lay, and secure them under a
glass, and thus we can study the characteristics of the
■eggs laid by different kinds of insects.

Fig. 8,

€2

■ 1 , Eggs of Beet-fly ; 2 & 3, eggs of Butterflies, magnified.

Insect eggs are of various shapes : they may be
round, or oval ; conical, or pear-shaped ; or of other
forms ; sometimes, as seen under a magnifying-glass,
they are beautifully marked with stripes, net-work, or
other patterns ; and they also differ in the nature of
the outer coat, which sometimes is hard and crisp,
sometimes a mere flexible film. These eggs are, for
the most part, laid by the parent insect on, in, or near
the substance, be it j^Iant or animal, which is to be
the food of the " maggot " or other kind of larva
which will presently hatch from them. Sometimes
the eggs are laid in places from whence they will be
carried to a suitable feeding place for the grubs that
hatch from them. The Horse Bot-fly, for instance,
lays her eggs on the horse, and by means of that
animal (or another) licking them off they are carried
to the mouth and thence pass down to the stomach.
Some kinds of insects, by means of apparatus forming

10 METHODS OF INSECT LIFE.

a sharp point, insert their eggs in caterpillars, or other
living structures on which the grubs from the eggs
feed ; some lay them with a long gummy thread
attached on which the eggs stand up like pin-heads
on their stem. In fact, the forms of eggs and methods
of deposit are endless ; but such a large number are
noticeably laid on decaying animal and vegetable sub-
stances as to have given rise to the popular idea that
insects are " bred," as it is phrased, by rotten matter
and putrid water.

It should be clearly borne in mind, and instruction
carefully given, that this is never the case. Insects
are only produced from insects ; they are never en-
gendered spontaneously, nor by putrid matter of any
kind. They are often to be seen coming out of such
filth, or the grubs and maggots are to be found
swarming in it ; but if watch is kept it may be seen
how attack is started by noticing Gnats laying their
masses of eggs (" egg-boats," as they are termed) on
stagnant water ; Blowflies laying their eggs, or even
their hatching maggots, on meat, bones, or carcases ;
Beetles laying their eggs in dead animals or cattle-
droppings, or in decayed wood ; and with a little
watching the grubs will be found hatching according
to the nature of their parents.

This is an important matter to understand rightly,
for it sometimes happens that there is an uneasiness
as to whether various kinds of crop attack are set on
foot by insects brought with manure ; and although
we are very safe from bones or dung " breeding "
maggots, yet nothing is more likely than that various
kinds of insects (for instance, cabbage and turnip-root
flies) will be attracted by farm manure to lay their
eggs in it or near it, and that the maggots will thence
go on to the roots.

Sometimes instead of being deposited as an egg the
young insect is produced alive. This is often the case
with the young of Aphides or Plant-lice, and also with
some kinds of two-winged Flies.

LARV.E. 11

The growth of a grub before hatching may be
watched by takmg an egg, partly advanced to-
wards maturity, and laying it on the
stage of a microscope. If j^ou get
a transparent one, such as that of
the Turnip-blossom Beetle (JSIeli-
gethes ceneus), you will be able to
see the grub within growing, day
by day, until it gradually bursts the
thin skin of the egg, and walks out
of it as a complete grub, with claw-
feet, head, and jaws. Thus the history
may be shown so far : we may find ""^ *" „
eggs within the female, see them laid, i^g^^)' of Turnip-
see the larva grow within them, and blossom Beetle,
see it step out of them, often, if not
always, ready to attack its appointed food, whether
vegetable or animal, — in some cases a live specimen
of its own kind.

Larvce — that is to say, insects in their first stages —
may be divided into two
kinds. One kind, such as
Locusts, Crickets, Earwigs,
Aphides, and some others,
are very like the perfect in-
sect, to which they will pre-
sently change, in all respects, ^^ " ■-^<;^;*'^^i4:^

excepting being smaller, in ^ .^ ^ , t ,

,i „'= . ^ . . '. Fig. 10.— Larva of Locust.

gradually mcreasmg m size,
and in being wingless. The

other kind, which we know as maggots, grubs, or
caterpillars, are quite unlike the Beetles, or Wasps, or
Flies, or Moths, or other insects, to which they will
change in due time. The general appearance of these
dissimilay lnYYie is well-known, and many figures of
them will be found in the following pages.

They may be said to be usually long, narrow, soft,
and cylindrical ; the rings, or successive segments of
which they are formed, often show very plainly ; the

12 METHODS OF INSECT LIFE.

head, which is often horny (or, in some maggots, in a
soft retractile mass), is furnished with jaws or hooks,
or some means of gathering up food, and sometimes
with eyes and horns ; and according to their kind they
are either legless, or have a pair of short jointed legs
on each of the segments behind the head, or in addition
a pair of sucker-feet, suited for holding by, at the end
of the tail, and from one to seven pairs of sucker-
feet beneath the body. By some one or other of these

Fig. 11. — 1, 6 and 7, larvre ; 2 and 3, pupffi of Flies, nat. size
and magnified.

points they may be.easily known from earth-worms,
centipedes, millepedes, wood-lice, and the other small
creatures that infest the same kind of places.

Insect larvae feed on almost every kind of animal
and vegetable substance, fresh or putrid, and also in
stagnant water ; but wherever they live, or however
they may differ in appearance, they seem all to be
alike in being most voracious in their ajDpetites. They
eat and grow, until the skin not being able to stretch
further they pause in feeding for a while ; the outer
skin becomes loose, and is thrown off, or moulted, as
it is termed. In the case of Grasshoppers, or insects
nearly alike in the larval and in the perfect state, this
change is a wonderful process, for the .young insect
has to free itself of the outer coat of its long slender
limbs, and of all its outer surface, as completel}^ as the
thick fleshy grub or caterpillar, which sometimes,
by taking firm hold with the pair of sucker-feet at the
end of the tail, can drag itself much more easily out
of its cast clothing. When the moult is completed
the larva eats again. This progress goes on, according
to weather and other circumstances, until the larvae

MOULTS.

13

have reached their full growth ; this may he in a few
"weeks or months, or it may not be for three, four, or
even five years. Then an internal change takes
place, and the young insect leaves off feeding ; and
then in the case of the " similarly changing " insects,
such as Grasshoppers, Plant-bugs, and some others.

Fig. 12. — 1 and 2, Potato-bup; ; 3 and 4, pupas of ditto, nat. size and
magnified ; 5 and 6, Hop-bug, nat. size and magnified,

the larva, for the last time in its larval life, draws
itself, limb by limb, out of its dead skin, and stands
as a pupa. The skin having been shed, we see that
it has now made its advance to the second stage,
showing some advance towards wings and wing-
cases, in such kinds of insects as have them when
perfect.

In the case of the various larvae, such as maggots,
grubs, and caterpillars, which are " dissimilarly
changing " insects, that is, in which the first stage is
quite different from the two that follow, the larva,,
when it is going to turn to the pupa or chrysalis,
commonly seeks some place, or makes use of some
natural shelter, where it can lie securely during the
time which it must pass inactive and defenceless
whilst it is going through the pupal state, and there
it casts its larval coat for the last time, and appears
from within as a pupa or chrysalis.

The various changes or metamorplwses described

14

METHODS OF INSECT LIFE.

above are not mere matters of curious enquiry, but
can be used very serviceably.

Insects, if circumstances permit, lay their eggs
where the larvffi which come out from them will be
able to feed at once ; therefore we may prevent a
great deal of coming attack by clearing away the
large amount of weeds which many kinds of insect

^

'^^

/ J

Fig. 13. — Sawfly caterpillars destroying Turnip-leaf.

Iarva3 feed on as well as the cultivated crops ; and
thus we greatly lessen attraction for the insects to the
neighbourhood. On the same principle pasture land
is dressed, or sheep folded, to keep off egg-laying ; or
ground is drained where special pests prefer wet
land.

EFFECT OF WEATHER. 15

Again ; the caterpillar, or grub, feeds voraciously ;
and if there is nothing for it to feed on it soon dies.
This is another reason for thorough cleaning of arable
land. Many of the common weeds, such as Charlock,
Couch-grass, and also some of the marsh-weeds, keep
various of our pests alive and thriving, especially in
spring, till there is crop-food for them ; therefore, if
we bear in mind that if these voracious appetites are
not supplied the grubs die, we shall remember better
to have the jfields cleaned.

The point of the caterpillar changing its coat from
time to time is sometimes most serviceably worked
forward, as in the case of the Turnip Sawfly, which
cannot quit its skin unless it is firmly fixed by the tail
of the old one ; if it cannot drag itself out, it perishes
in the stifling wrapping of its late coat. This know-
ledge is utilised by brushing ; or driving sheep through
the attacked fields ; and thus by simply loosening the
hold of a destructive pest we save much of the crop.

Caterinllars can hear a great amount of cold without
any injury, so long as they remain where they have
placed themselves for the winter. Some will bear
being frozen hard without the least injury ; but if they
are disturbed from their cells under the surface of the
ground, and left exposed to freezing in wet loose soil,
they perish.

Probably in this many circumstances act together,
■ — the choking of the breathing-pores for one thing,
the drying up when exposed to wind for another, and
also the starvation of the creature if it wakes up from
its sleep in such circumstances. But however this
may be, if we know the habit of some caterpillars to
be helpless and torpid during winter, we can readily
act on it.

But though some kinds of larvae will bear great cold,
yet the size, the colour, and the date of the appear-
ance, and also the presence or total absence of some
kinds of insects, have been found to depend greatly on
-difference in weather influence, and amongst other

16

METHODS OF INSECT LIFE.

things, as in the case of the well-known Colorado
Beetle (Fig. 14), on amount of cold and on height
above sea-level. Also in the fact of the hordes of
insects, which fairly sweep all before them on the
great continents, being suited for the climates where
they are found, but not for the constant change of our
island weather, we have a good reason for not fearing
their attack.

Pig. U.-

-1 and 2, Colorado Beetle, magnified and natural size ;
3, caterpillar ; 4, eggs.

The shelters ivhich caterpillars and f/nibs of various-
kinds make for themselves to turn to the chrysalis in,
or to secure themselves in during Avinter, are of many
kinds. Some caterpillars, like those of the Silkworm,
have then the power of secreting a gummy fluid, and
by means of drawing this from their mouths they can
spin silken cocoons, within which they slip, or rather
shuffle, ofi' their old caterpillar-skin, and turn to chry-
salids ; others (as some of the common White Cabbage-
caterpillars) hang themselves up by a strong spun
thread passed round them, which acts as a band to
keep them from falling ; and many of tbe crop-feeding
kinds simjily hollow a cell in the ground, in which
they lie protected from moisture and sudden changes
of temperature ; many Fly maggots contract, and as.

CHEYSALIDS.

17

the outer skin gradually hardens it forms a safe case
for the fly forming, in its pupa state, within. But
whether as a Beetle grub, or a Fly maggot, or a Moth
caterpillar, they, as a rule, seek or make use of some
kind of shelter ; and if we know what and where this
is, we can do much to lessen the great numbers of
crop insects which otherwise are sure to collect where
their food is to be found.

CHAPTER 11.

CHRYSALIS— PERFECT INSECT— ORDEES.

Fig. 15. — 1, Corn Ground Beetle ; 2 and S, grub, nat. siy^e and mag-
nified ; 4, burrow of grub ; 5, chrysalis.

In the preceding Chapter some amount of general
description is given of the early conditions of insect
life up to the stage when the maggot, or grub, or
caterpillar (or larva, to use the term which includes the
first stage of life of all insects), having completed this
first feeding period of its life, throws off its skin once

18

METHODS OF INSECT LIFE.

more, and appears as a j^upa or chrysalis ; also how
in many instances, and especially those of insects
which lie inactive and defenceless whilst in the chry-
salis shape, the grub spins a web cocoon, or hollows
out a cell in timber or in the ground, or in some way
avails itself of some kind of shelter for the coming
need of it. Here the change, which was beginning
when the larva took shelter, is gradually completed.

The accompanying figures show the change that
takes place in the case of the Corn Ground Beetle, and
also in the Heart and Dart Cabbage and Turnip Moth.
The form of the creature, which was contained in the

Fig. 10. — 1, Heart and Dart Moth ; 2, caterpillar ; 3 and 4, chrysalis
in earth-cell.

caterpillar or grab or maggot-skin, alters ; the legs,
the wings, the mouth apparatus, and all the other
parts which the insect will possess in its perfect state,
develop, until within the old dead caterpillar-skin, or
with in the contracted skin of some kinds of Fly mag-
gots, there lies a distinctly differently shaped creature.
The change is gradual ; but the operation by which
the chrysalis casts off its useless coat, and appears in
its changed state, is often the work of a very few
minutes. This may easily be seen with some butterfly
caterpillars, and especially with the spiny black-and-
white-spotted caterpillars of the Peacock Butterfly,
which may often be found in large numbers on Nettles.

CHRYSALIDS. 19

"When these are ready to change they will fasten
themselves up, by the pair of sucker-feet at the tip of
the tail, to web spun on anything convenient. There
they hang head downwards ; and after much wriggling
and twisting the black skin splits, and is gradually
rolled, by the muscular struggles of the chrysalis
within it, up to the tail, the bright shiny green of the
chrysalis allowing the exact progress of operations to
be very clearly seen. In a short time the old skin is
completely rolled up to the end of the tail, and the
green moist chrysalis hangs as a defenceless body,
but yet showing the shape of the legs, and wings, and
mouth parts of the coming butterfly, where the black
skin of the caterpillar, with its six claw-feet, hung a
few minutes before. A kind of gummy secretion
which is given out hardens over the surface, and
preserves the insect forming within from injury.

To enable the student to see clearly, and ascertain,
for himself, how far development has advanced at this
stage, it is a good plan to take one of the chrysalids,
before the wet gum or cement on it has hardened,
and drop it into anything that will melt the forming
cement away (I have used a mixture of warm turpen-
tine and Canada balsam in a phial, as this keeps the
specimen expanded afterwards).
It will then be seen that the
partially-formed limbs of the
butterfly are all there : the three
pairs of legs, the still unexpanded
wings, and the trunk or jjro-
boscis, which would have sucked
honey from many a flower. It
is well worth while to watch the ^^^^.f' /rr^'^^'Iv """f

„ , , pupa 01 Clover Weevil,

process of change, and prepare a nat. size and magniiied.
few specimens as above, for thus
we can convince ourselves, and those we may have to
speak to on the subject, as to what is the exact course
and nature of one kind of transformation. The
gummy covering gradually hardens, and within this

20 METHODS OF INSECT LIFE.

the Butterfly or Moth forms and matures till its time
for active life is come. Then it cracks the thin coat
and steps out, the moist wings soon spread, and in a
short time the insect occupies five or six times the
space it did before, and is perfect.

The Beetle grub throws off its old skin, and lies as
a pupa (or chrysalis) in galleries in the timber where
the grub fed, or in the ground, or wherever its instinct
may have taken it, inactive, but in appearance much
like the Beetle, to which it will presently turn. Only
till complete in all powers, it lies with its limbs,
usually in separate sheaths, beneath it. (See Fig. 17,
preceding page.)

The maggot of the Wasp, the Sawfly, the Gallfly,
and others of the Wasp order, also change (as we may
see in a piece of Wasp-comb) by
turning to pupae, in shape like
the perfect insect ; often in the
comb-cell where the maggot fed ;
often in a cocoon in the ground.
Fig. ib.-Larva and ^^ with some Sawflies and Ants ;
pupa of Marble-gall Fly. or in the Gall, which served
the grub at once for food and
shelter, as with many of the Oak and other Gall
Flies.

The Dipterous maggot, that is the maggot of the
two-winged Fly, usually, or at least often, changes to
the pupa state within the oval case formed by its own
hardened and contracted skin. Sometimes the change
takes place in an outer film, showing the shape of the
liml)S within. See references, in list of Figures, to
Tipula and Triehoeera.

These different methods of change show the kind
of transformations which the dissimilarli/ changing
insects go through ; that is, the insects which we
know as grubs, maggots, or caterpillars, in their first
stages. They leave oft" eating ; many of the cater-
pillars leave the place where they were feeding, and
being no longer observable on the plants, and the

PERFECT INSECT. 21

plants themselves not showing further marks of
ravage, it is often thought that the mischief is over ;
■whereas the trouhle may very likely have only ceased
for a while, to arise again when a new brood of insects
•comes, forth from the chrysalis or pupal state.

Tig. 19. — Wheat-bulb I'ly, mag. ; larvffi and pupae, uat. size and mag.

It is also to be observed that many of the brightly
coloured caterpillars, such as those of the Death's-head
Moth, alter in colour to a livid dirty tint when they
are about to cease feeding ; and thus the protection,
which is often given by similarity in general tone of
colouring of the grub to the colouring of its food, may
be changed to the protection of the more earth-like
tints when they are about to bury themselves.

In the case of the Grasshoppers, Aphides, or other
insects, known as the " similarly changing," which
differ little in appearance and little in habits through-
■out the three stages of their lives, the change is not
so marked. When the insect moults its old skin it
has to draw itself carefully out of its neatly fitting
<3oat, and the operation may be observed in detail if a
fair sized insect, such as a Grasshopper, is caught
just when it is about to moult. When I have watched
it myself the operation took twenty minutes. The
1:)ack of the insect, or rather of its old skin, cracked,
and through the opening there came out, very slowly
and carefully, the insect from within. Each portion

22

METHODS OF INSECT LIFE.

was drawn out in orderly succession, until everything,,
horns included, was free, excepting the long leaping
legs, the hindermost of the three pairs. These were
left till the last, and seemed to need the utmost care
and management to get them safely out of their tightly
fitting covering ; but they came out all right, and the
real insect and its cast skin stood, as counterparts in.
almost all respects, side by side.

:s^

Fig. 20. — 1 and 2, eggs; :-? and 4, pupae; 5 and 6, Potato Frog Fly:
nat. size and magnified.

No general rule can, however, be laid down as to
distinguishing the stage of life of the " simihirly
changing " insects by absence of wings or wing-cases.
Aphides or Plant-lice have both winged and wingless
females ; in some of the Cockroaches the wings are
absent in the females ; so are they also in both males
and females of one genus of Earwigs.* Fig. 20 shows
a pujM, resembling the perfect insect, except in the
absence of developed wings and wing-cases.

Without investigation as to internal condition or
development, the precise stage of advance of the insect
cannot be theoretically laid down, but without entering
here on points of internal organization (and excepting
Aphides, of which the development is a most intricate
study), the condition may be known, in a general way,.
as being that of larvfe whilst they are quite wingless,.

• Chclidoura of Latreille.

PERFECT INSECT. 23

that oi pupcE when the wing-cases and forming wings
show more or less, and that of perfect insects or
imagos when (with all kinds that have powers of flight)
they have their wings complete.*

When the insect has come out from the chrj^salis or
pupa, it is perfect ; it will grow no more, excepting
from its wings expanding in some kinds (as with Moths
and Butterflies) in which they were not fully spread,
or were folded tightly in the chrysalis case. The
internal organs are now also perfect, and its remaining
work is to propagate its species.

Many kinds, which have heen ruining our crops for
months as voracious grubs, are now harmless during
the short remainder of their lives ; but some, on the
contrary, of our worst crop-pests, such as the Turnip
and Mustard Beetle, live through the" winter, and
in their perfect state ravage as badly as or worse than
they did in their first stages. These points, or points
such as these, regarding the condition of insects_ at
different times in the year, and their general habits,
are what we need to know about much more than their
structure, and this knowledge is to be gained in part
by careful personal observation, in part by study of
sound recorded information. Therefore, before going
on to field observations, it will be serviceable, firstly, to
take notice of some points of structure which all per-
fect insects possess in common ; and afterwards to see
how, by some few and very clear difi"erences (when
noticed together with the different transformations of
which we have just been speaking), we may tell what
order an insect belongs to, and thus advance to a
general idea of its method of life. I trust to be able
to show that by mastering a few simple details we may
gain all the knowledge we want, as a foundation,
either for field use or to carry on further study of
insect life scientifically, if we wish.

* Some of the special exceptions are mentioned under the details of
the different orders.

24 METHODS OF INSECT LIFE.

A ijerfcct insect has a head and body ; the body is
divided into the fore and the hinder body. When the
insect has its full number of limbs the fore body (or
thorax) bears, or is borne, by three pairs of legs and
two pairs of wings ; the hinder body {abdomen) contains
a large part of the intestines and other organs of diges-
tion, and those of reproduction. The head is distinct
from the body, and has a pair of horns {antenna) ; and
(for the most part) eyes. These are compound and
simple eyes. The compound eyes are formed of a large
number of lenses or facets, forming together an immov-

FiG. 21. — Hornet Clear-wing.

able mass, sometimes occupying nearly the whole of
each side of the head. The simple eyes are each a single
lens. These are little specks placed on the crown of the
head, or thereabouts, and are very few in number ; I
am not aware that there are ever more than three,
and some insects are without them. The mouth and
feeding apparatus, though it looks so different in
different insects, is considered to be made up of the
same six parts in all. These are an upper and an
under lip, and two pairs of jaws, which in the biting
insects work from side to side (laterally, not vertically)
between the hps. The upper pair of jaws {mandibles)
is often strong and horny ; the lower pair, or " feeler "
jaws {maxlll(e), takes its name from having feelers
{palpi), as has also the lower lip. These parts of the
mouth vary very much in shape, as we may see in
the trunk of a Moth, or the proboscis of a Fly ; but

DISTINCTIONS. 25

still these differences are considered to be in every
case only varieties in the general form just noticed.
Every one of these parts has a scientific name ; and
throughout the insect there is probably not a point
which can be observed by powerful magnifying-glasses
which has not a special distinctive name ; but for the
purposes at present under consideration we do not
need to go into these minute points.

If we have to write or speak to naturalists of other
countries, or if we speak of minute divisions, only
seen by scientific means, then we need special scienti-
fic words. But for the matters of field work, which
we speak of daily, and see with our own unassisted
■eyes, it is much the best way to use words which will
be understood at once by all around us. This may
^•enerally be managed, with regard to the insect, by
taking the word which would be used for the same
part in other animals ; and this course has been in
part adopted by our best entomologists. If we speak
of the horns, or (with regard to the legs) of the thigh,
shank, and foot, ever^^one will know what we mean ;
and the only real difficulty in am- branch of the work
is to provide a counterpart in English, for the word
tliomx. This is the fore part of the body, and the
word trunk was formerly used for it ; now, however, this
word is used for a portion of the mouth : but we may
speak of parts of the thorax as shoulders and breast ;
and possibly, where thorax would not be understood, the
term " fore-body " might serve.

For practical use all that we need to have is just
such a kind of knowledge of the crop insects as we
have of the crops ; for this (that is for field purposes)
it is enough for each grower to know, by the kind of
injury to the crop, taken together with the appearance
of the insect injuring it, what it is that is at work, and
thus be able to tell, or ask for, the method of preven-
tion of its ravages ; or, if he prefers, by having a book
at hand, and simply looking out the crop in the index,
and then turning to Peas, or Beet, or whatever it may

26 METHODS OF INSECT LIFE.

be, he will most likely, if it is any kind of attack com-
monly injurious to a serious extent, see a figure,
history, and account of the best known means of
prevention or remedy.

But in our present study we are aiming at some-
thing more. We wish to gain enough information to
be able to tell which of the large divisions (orders,
that is) of insects whatever insect we may be observing
belongs to, because thus at once we shall know many
of the chief points of its history. We shall know what
changes it will pass through, which is a very useful
piece of information ; and if once we have the chief
points of distinction of the orders firmly fixed, we have
a true foundation, on which we may build up any
further knowledge. This is not by any means a
difiicult matter.

Insects are divided into Orders, which are named
according to the nature or yiimiber of their ivings. This
difference in the wings occurs so regularly, along with
difference in the nature of their changes before they
advanced to the perfect or imago state, that thus their
general life-history before they got their wings may
be fairly known. A common two-winged Fly had,
generally speaking, a legless grub, and so on.

These orders are usually so divided as to be
thirteen in number, and the scientific names of
these all end in the word pera, wings, from the Greek
word jj?c?-o», a wing. The previous part of the name
of each order describes the number or the form or the
nature of the wings. These orders are placed in two
divisions (as given below) according to whether the
insects of which they are composed feed for the most
part by means of jaws working horizontally or
laterally, that is, from side to side like pincers held
flat; or by means of a trunk or sucker, or piercing
apparatus.

ORDERS.

27

Orders of Insects.

WITH JAWS.

Coleoptera. Neuroptera.

Euplexoptera. Triclioptera.

Orthoptera, Hymenoptera.

Thysauoptera. Strepsiptera.

WITH SUCKERS.

Lepicloptera.

Homoptera.

Heteroptera.

Aplianiptera.

Diptera.

For working purposes, however, in connection with
crop insect pests, it will be much more convenient,
instead of studying the orders in the succession noted
above, to take, yirsf//y, those orders which are maggots,
or caterpillars, in their first state, and arrange them,
in succession, by the increase in the number of legs
or sucker-feet of the grubs, and wings, or apparent
wings, in each order ; secondly, the orders which are
nearly alike in all their states, as Grasshoppers and
others ; and, tJiirdly, just to give a few words respecting
the orders which, for agricultural purposes, require
some little further attention.

Fig. 22.— Carrot Fly : 1 and 2, maggot ; 5 and C, pupa. All nat.
size and magnified.

Firstly, then, we take the five following orders : —
1, Flies; 2, Fleas; 3, Beetles; 4, Moths and Butter-
flies ; and 5, the order which includes Wasps, Ants,
Sawflies, Ichneumon Flies, and many other Wasp-
like Flies.

28

METHODS OF INSECT LIFE.

Flies (Diptera) — two-winged — have only two wings,
and a pair of poisers instead of the hinder pair.
These appendages are often pin-hke in shape.

Maggots legless. (See Fig. 22.)

00&&

A.,

Fig. 23. — Flea, maggot, aud pupa ; magnilied. {Aplianiptera.)

Fleas {Aphaniptera) — imperceptible- winged — have
no real wings, but with a good magnifying-glass they
will be seen to have two pairs of scales, which have
been considered to represent two pairs of wings.
The grubs are legless.

Fk;. 21.— Mealworm Beetle, nat. size and magnified ; grub and pupa
\Colcoptera.)

Beetles (Culeoptera) — sheath -winged — have two
pairs of wings, the upper pair horny, and thus
forming a kind of " sheath " for the under wmgs.

ORDERS.

29"

Grubs sometimes legless,* sometimes with three pairs
of feet, and a sucker-foot at the tip of the tail.

Fig. 25. — Buff-tip Moth : caterpillar and chrysalis. (Lejndoptera .)

Moths and Butterflies {Lepidoptera) — scale-
winged — have customarily four wings, covered with
powdery dust, which is formed of differently shaped

Fig. 2G. — Large Cabbage Butterlly. {Lepicloptcru.)

scales. The caterpillars have commonly three pairs
of claw-feet, and a sucker-foot at the end of the tail,

• For figures of legless Beetle grubs, see references to Weevils ii>
Index.

30

METHODS OF INSECT LIFE.

and also from one to four pairs of sucker-feet under
the body.

Fig. 27. — Humble Bees. (Hyme7ioptera.)

Bees, Wasps, Sawflies, Gallflies, Ichneumon-
flies, and others (Hymenoptera) — membrane-winged
— have four transparent or thin wings, as if they were

Fig. 28.— Turnip Suwily, magmlied; cateipillars, pupa, and pujm-
easc. (IIijmeiW2)tera.)

formed of a piece of membrane. The grubs are some-
times legless ; but those of the Sawflies, which are the
grubs most injurious to plants in this order, have

ORDERS.

31

usually, besides the three pairs of claw-feet, five to
seven pairs of sucker -feet under the body, and a pair
at the end of the tail.

The above figures, and short notes, give just the
primary distinctions between five orders of insects, in
each of which the insect is completely different in its
two first stages, that is, in its larval and jmpal
condition, to what it is in the imago or perfectly deve-
loped state. Further characteristics, especially those
which are of use practically, are mentioned under the
heads of the different orders ; but even elementary
knowledge, such as the above, is of service as a guide
to the nature of crop attack which may be under
observation.

Of the eight remaining orders, there are five in
which the insects are nearly alike throughout their
lives, and also in many cases troublesome to us :
these are the orders containing, 1, the Grasshoppers,
Locusts and others ; 2, the Earwigs ; 3, the Aphides
and others ; 4, the Plant-bugs ; and 5, the Thrips.

3)

Fig. 20. — Locust. {Orthoptera.)

Locusts {Ovtltoptera) — straight-winged — have the
under wings folded lengthwise, or straight beneath
the upper pair.

32

METHODS OF INSECT LIFE.

Earwigs {Euplexoptcra) — tightly- folded winged —
have the under wings so very large, compared to the

Fig. 30. — Earwig, with wings spread, magnified. (Euplexoptera.)

small upper pair (or wing-case), that they need to be
very tightly folded to fit beneath them.

A ' j>

/

J fc.iXS.-^ -'■ •,i-i

Fig. 31. — Cabbage Aphis: male and wingless female, nat. size and
magnified. (Homoptera.)

*' CucKOO-SPiTS," Aphides, Scale, &c. {Homoptera)
— similar-winged — have the wings of the same nature
throughout each, or both, of the two pairs of wings, in
which they differ from the next order.

Plant-bugs {Iletcroptcra, see Fig. 32) — dissimilar-
winged— have a part of the upper wing that is nearest

ORDERS.

33

to the body dissimilar to the rest of the wing, which
is membranous, as is also the lower wing.

Fig. 32. — Wheat and Grass Bugs and i^upa, inaymtied and nat. size.
{Hetero^Jtera.)

Thrips {Thysanoptcra) — fringe-winged — are very
small insects, with four narrow wings with fringes
round the edges.

Fig. 33 — Thrips and wingless larva, nat. size and niagniliuJ.
(Tlryannoptera.)

The three remaining orders are those of Dragon
Flies {NeuropUra), Caddis Flies {Trichoptera), and

34

METHODS OF INSECT LIFE.

Bee Parasites (Strepsiptera), and need not be entered
on ; but I add a figure of Caddis Fly to show the

Fig. 34. — Caddis Fly, magnified. {Trichoptera.

general appearance, and also one of the Bee Parasites
to show the peculiarity of the fore pair of wings, being

Fig. 35. — Bee Parasite, magnified. (Strepsiptera.)

only represented by a twisted growth. The Dragon
Flies also do not need illustration ; but the figure

Fig. 36. — Golden Eye and stalked e'.,'gs, larva and cocoon, nat. size
and magnified. (Neiiroptera.)

ORDERS. 35

shows a small four-winged Fly of this order, which
lays each egg accompanied by a small quantity of
sticky matter. This, drawing out into a fine thread
with the egg at the extremity, gives it the appearance
of being stalked, as shown in the figure.

In the following pages the orders of insects which
most affect the welfare of the agriculturist are entered
on successively, with descriptions of the most impor-
tant characteristic distinctions of the divisions of
these orders both in appearance and habits ; also
life-histories of some of our worst insect attacks,
•with means of prevention and remedy ; and obser-
vations as to how knowledge of the history of the pest
gives us at the same time knowledge of how it lies
best under our power.

Information of this kind is useful to all who have
to do with growing farm crops, or fruit or forest trees ;
and year by year, as more and more land is taken into
cultivation (as we are especially seeing now in the
case of the fruit growing industries), we may expect
to find that the feeders will multiply where the food
is constantly grown on one spot, and that increased
knowledge of how to counteract the increasing evil
will be needed.

I would by no means advocate, excepting for those
who intend to make Entomology a special study, that
they should spend their time in tedious research into
matters of structure and classification and the like,
tending to no practical result, and requiring to be
conveyed in words almost useless for common field
service. But the knowledge of the life-history and
habits of the pests (always more or less reducing the
amount of crops throughout the country) is a plain
matter, which with a little help may be easily acquired
to a very serviceable extent. We may learn what
agricultural influences we can bring to bear on them ;
and how, by knowing in what form they pass the time
when not at work, we may, with least expense and
most surely, turn them out from their shelters. And

36

FLIES.

firstly, we will take the very injurions order of the-
two-winged Flies, scientifically the Diptera.

CHAPTEK III.

FLIES {DIPTERA).

Daddy Longlegs, Wheat Midge, Hessian Fly,
Onion and Mangold Flies, &c.

Tig. 37. —Daddy Longlegs: 1, larva ; 2, pupa-case standing up in the-
ground ; 3, fly; 4, eggs.

This order includes the Gnats and Corn Midges,
also the Daddy Longlegs, of which the grubs are sa

FLY GRUBS. 37

hurtful to many kinds of crops ; the Blowflies, which
cause great waste to meat in summer ; the Gadflies,
and a yevy large number of other kinds, which, by
means of their maggots, do boundless damage year by
year to the roots of Cabbage, Onions, and other
garden-crops, and likewise to the heart or stem of
the growing corn ; and many other kinds of various
habits.

All flies of this order have only one pair of
wings ; occasionally they are wingless. The hinder
pair of wings is represented by a pair of appen-
dages, often like a slender pin with a small head ;
these are known as " poisers " (scientifically, Jialteres),
because they helj), or ajjpear to help, to poise or
balance the insect. Some of these insects feed by
suction, as in the case of the Gnats, to our great
•annoyance.

The maggots, or larvae, are fleshy and (with few
exceptions) footless ; * sometimes, like the Daddy
Longlegs grub, they have a hard head, furnished with
nippers or jaws ; sometimes they have a soft mass
which answers for a head, commonly bearing a pair
of hooks instead of jaws, with which they clear out
the substance between the two sides of a Turnip-leaf,
or from the inside of an Onion-bulb, or other soft
material in which they may be feeding.

The })upa-case, or chnjsaUs,yAv\e^ in shape; in some
kinds, as of the Gnats and Daddy Longlegs, for
instance, it is in shape much like the creature within,
with its limbs folded ; in many other kinds, as of the
Onion Fly, Carrot Fly and others, the pupa-case con-
sists of the hardened maggot- skin, which shelters the
forming fly within.

* The maggots of two kinds of Flies (Kristalis and HclojiJiilus) are
peculiar for possessing seven pairs of what may be called a kind pf
claw-like feet. These maggots are known as " rat-tailed larvte,"
from the hinder part of the body being lenj.'thened into a long slender
tail-like tube, whereby they can draw in air from above the damj) or
muddy places in which the maggots lie.

38

FLIES.

The flies of the division of the Diptcra, inckiding^
Gnats (Culicidce) ; and Tijmlidcs, which includes Daddy
Longlegs, and also Wheat Midges {Ceddomyue), are
mostly of Gnat-like shape, with long legs, and long
horns, and their grubs are to be found in the most
various localities, some in water, some attacking
wheat-blossom, or leaves of plants, some feeding at
the roots.

Tlie Daddy Longlegs, or Crancfly, figured in all stages
at p. 36, likes damp surroundings, and thus we get

Fig. 38.

-Winter Turnip Gnat : 1 and 2, grub ;
natural size and ma'jrnified.

3 and 4, pupa,

an idea of how to keep its numbers in check. The-
flies frequent damp overshadowed herbage, or marsh-
land, or wet, neglected weed-growths, and in such
places they lay their eggs.

The grubs thrive in such places, or at the roots of
crops so long as the ground is not too dry for them,
and when they have fed for some months they turn to.
a pupa (see Fig. 87, p. 36), which, by means of the
spikes at its side, sets itself up in the ground conveni-
ently for the fly to come out from.

The best way to forestall attack is to make the land
unsuitable for egg-laying. Draining marsh-land, and
rough mowing long grass or neglected herbage in

* The maggot feeds in decaying Turnip-bulbs.

DADDY LONGLEGS. 39

shady parts of pasture-fields, hedge-sides, and other
hke places, drives off a great deal of attack ; but the
chief difficulty is on land broken up from pasture or
clover-ley.

The eggs are mostly laid, towards autumn, in such
localities (that is, pasture-fields or clover-ley) ; there-
fore, if these are merely broken uj), "without any
measures having been previously taken to prevent
egg-laying, or to kill the "Leather-jacket" grubs in
them, it is no wonder that the next crop should often
be totally devoured. Any measures that will serve
either of these purposes are highly desirable.

Where pastures are to be broken up, it is a good
plan to fold sheep on the ground and hand-feed them,
thus making the ground obnoxious to the Cranefly for
egg-laying, and also, by the trampling and soddening
the ground with the droppings of the animals, de-
stroying most of the eggs or young grubs that may
chance to be on the surface. Heavy dressings of hot
lime are useful, and dressings of fresh gas-lime, or
alkali waste, which kill everything they touch whilst
in their caustic state, are an excellent j^reservative
from attack. These two chemical dressings cost little
(where they are procurable at all), and gradually turn
to a manure of the same nature as gyi^sum.'''

Salt also has been found useful for dressing leys
with in autumn. Laid on at the rate of 10 cwt. the
acre, and ploughed in, it has been found to kill the
couch-grass (a very serviceable means of prevention of
insect-ravage), and there was no further trouble from
either grub or wire worm.

Bush-harrowing does good, and j^aring and burning
the surface is also an excellent remedy ; but this has
drawbacks, on account of the expense of labour, also
wasting so much of what, in rotting, would have been
fertilizing material.

Where eggs and maggots are in the ground, the most

* For amount of gas-lime that may be applied per acre, and pre-
cautions to be observed in its use, see references in Index.

40

FLIES.

hopeful method of meeting coming attack is to make
all possible arrangements to push on a good growth,
and, firstly, to secure a good start. This is one reason
why deep ploughing is advised in breaking up leys.
Some of the eggs and young grubs will thus be turned
down too deep to hatch, or to make their way up
again. Also, judging by what has been observed in
other instances, those eggs which are well turned
down, out of reach of the amount of air natural to
them, will either not hatch or be so much retarded in
date of hatching that the date of attack will also be
retarded, and the youiuj crop has a good chance to get
well estahUshcd before the grubs are ready. This first
start is a very important matter ; if the young plant
is stunted in its first growth, it most likely will never
do as well as if it had begun heartily ; and this point
should be borne in mind as one great method of
counteracting injury from insect attacks to roots or
leaves.

Get a good start, by using good, fresh seed, by
proper treatment of the land beforehand, and, if you
can, by burying the enemy so deep down that it will
neither make its own way up at the natural time, nor
be turned up again by after-ploughing or cultivating ;
and thus we get our plants so ahead in the race that
we may hope to win.

This is a general principle, suited to all crops. But
to return to special treatment of Daddy Longlegs
grubs. If attack is found to be bad in growing corn,
some fertilizer, such as guano and salt mixed, applied,
say, at the rate of 4 cwt. the acre, has been found to
do much good.

Nitrate of soda also acts well, both by benefiting
the plant and injuring the grub. In experiments tried
by placing Daddy Longlegs grubs at a depth of one
inch beneath the surface, it was found that where
nitrate of soda at the rate of 2 cwt. the acre was well
watered in, the grubs so treated were very relaxed,
soft, and helpless, and so continued whilst observed

DADDY LONGLEGS. 41

and reported. This helplessness is a very important
point, for thus the grub, instead of creeping away, is
kept under the action of the solution good for the
plant but bad for itself, and ultimately dies.

Special chemical applications, only intended to kill
the grub, have (in the instances noted) been found not
to do good, because they are so much weakened in
passing through the ground that they are quite harmless
by the time they reach the creature they were meant
to kill. This has been the case with chemical acids,
— carbolic acid, for instance ; but whether we might
not do good by vegetable applications, such as that
of mustard-cake, is a matter for future consideration.

The treatment may shortly be described thus : —
prevent egg-laying, if you can ; bury eggs and grubs
deej) down out of the way ; give your plant a good
start, and keep it well up under attack, if attack
<3omes.

But, further, we should in this, and in all cases,
look at the special habit of the pest. The Daddy
Longlegs grubs cannot bear heat, light, and drought ;
therefore two kinds of treatment, apparently quite
opposed to each other, have been found useful, for
they both bear on the above habits. Hoeing has been
found useful, because thus, in dry sunny weather, the
powdery, dry ground is just what the " Leather-
jacket " grub dislikes. Also rolUng at night, or at
early dawn, does good ; for then, during the cool dusk
hours, we may catch many of the grubs on the sur-
face, and they may be crushed by the Cambridge
roller or Crosskill's clod-crusher ; and rolling the
ground firmly in this way likewise prevents some of
the grubs " travelling."

There is one more point which has not been brought
forward, but which, by watching the habits of the
creature, I think might be very usefully worked in
garden-ground. I find the grubs like to lie under a
thin damp turf ; they will collect in large numbers in
such a spot. Probably it would answer well, in garden-

42

FLIES.

ground, to lay slates, turfs, or tiles, and send a boy
round every morning to clear what lay below. I have
only worked this plan out myself on a small scale, but
it is worth considering.

The above is one of our regular yearly attacks,
especially to be looked for after a damp autumn and
■winter, because, as we have seen, dampness and
moisture suit the Daddy Longlegs in all their stages.

Tlie next of tltis gnat-like division of flies that may
be considered is the Wheat Midge [Cecidomyia tritici)^

Fig. 39.-9 and 10, Wheat Midge ; 1-6, larvfp, nat. size and mag-
nified ; 7 and 8, part of horns, magnified ; infested floret.

the eggs of which produce the little orange or red foot-
less grub known as the " Eed Maggot," often found in
•wheat-ears.

These little gnats are hardly more than an eighth
of an inch long in the body, but have long legs and
horns, and the female has a long ovipositor, as thin
as a hair, with which she inserts her eggs in the
•wheat-florets, or those of such other kinds of corn or
grass as she may infest.

This operation is mostly performed in the evening,
and we are indebted to the observations of Mr. Swan-
•wick, of the Eoyal Agricultural College Farm, Ciren-
cester, for the information that, just at the time of

WHEAT MIDGE. 43-

development, the flies were not only to be found
attacking the wheat, but were to be found in great
numbers in clover-land which was in wheat in the
previous year, and also amongst rough grass at
hedge-sides.

The maggots soon hatch, and feed on the germ or
some part of the soft grain ; they are very little grubs,
hardly more than the twelfth of an inch long, yellow,
orange, or scarlet in colour, and slightly pointed at
the head. The loss they cause by feeding on the
corn-grains sometimes amounts to as much as from
one to about three sacks (that is, about half the crop)
per acre. After they have left off feeding, some
remain in the corn, and are carried with it ; some
remain in the stubble, or fall, or go down into the
earth, where in time they change to chrysalids, from
which the Midge-flies come out about corn-flowering
time in the next year.

In Canada, or ivhere the iveather can he reckoned on,
and the date of appearance of the Wheat Midge can
be reckoned on also, injury from attack is avoided by
sowing so that the wheat shall flower before or after
this special time. In one case the young grain is too
firm for the Eed Maggot to hurt it ; in the other, the
flower and germ are not far enough advanced for there
to be anything to attack until the Wheat Midge has
passed away ; consequently the corn is safe. We
sometimes benefit in this way here by accidental
circumstances, but we cannot depend on being able to
arrange it as in less changeable climates.

Our best method of prevention is to destroy the Red
Maggot (or the chrysalis, if it has turned to it) in its
winter shelter. Deep ploughing, such as will turn
infested stubble thoroughly down, will act well, for
once deeply buried the Gnat -fly either will not deve-
lop or cannot come up again. It is not enough
considered in these matters that we may by our own
common knowledge often guide ourselves. If a weak
small grub (so small that we can scarcely see it) has

44

FLIES.

a weight of earth put on it, somewhere about as much
as if at least thirty or forty yards deep of earth were
l^laced on one of ourselves, it is very unlikely that,
where it is not specially supplied with powers for
piercing the ground, it will come up again as a grub ;
and the Gnat-Midge, if it does develop, certainly can-
not make its way through.

This is one of the points that show us how to keep
insects in check ; we need often merely to consider

Fig. 40. — Hessian Fly, nat. size and magnified.

just what is before our eyes and act on it. Once
down, and left down (for, of course, if we bring the
grubs up again by a second equally deeji plougliing we
lose our labour), we have in all probability buried the
coming attack safely away.

All measures which will lessen the amount of couch-
grass, or other wild grass (in which it either is known
or believed, to lie in the heads, or shelter at the roots
during winter), would help to keep the amount of this
Midge in check. Clearing and burning rough grass
by hedge-sides is one method ; gathering up the corn-
stubble and burning it, directly the corn is harvested,
gets rid of whatever is at the roots ; and also (and this
is very important) all tJie dust from the threshing-ma-
chine shoidd he burnt wlierc reheat is knou'u to he at all
infested. The Bed Maggot may often be seen in
millions in this, and absence of attack has been found

HESSIAN FLY.

45

to follow the plan of carefully burning the infested
dust.

The Hessian Fly {Cccidomyia destructor) is another
of the Cecidomyice which is very hurtful to various

EO

Fig. 41.-

-1, Barley-stem elbowed down by Hessian Fly attack ;
2, showing position of "flax-seeds."

kinds of corn in America, and in various places on the
Continent of Europe, and which was first observed in
this country in the year 1886. With us the attack is
in some degree to wheat, but chiefly to barley; and it
does not appear likely to be a serious crop pest here.
The perfect fly (Fig. 40, p. 44) much resembles a
stout-made little brown gnat, about one-eighth of an
inch in length, with one pair of smoky-grey wings,
and with long horns.

46 FLIES.

The attack may be to the young plant, but with us
it mostly occurs only as a summer infestation to the
growing stalk, where the small white legless maggot
(which is much of the size and shape of the puparia
given below, nat. size and mag.) feeds outside the stalk,
but inside the leaf-sheath just a little above one of the
knots. Commonly it is just above the second knot,
but the attack may occur lower down at the first knot,
or close to the root, or higher up above the third or
fourth knot.

The mark of attack being present is the stem
elbowing sharply down just above where the maggot
lies. It does not commonly break, but, unless the
straw is very firm, it bends at the weakened spot, and
thus damage is caused to the fallen head, besides
difticulty in reaping from the confused state of the
straw. (See Fig. 41, p. 45.)

The maggot may live for about four weeks in this
position, and then it changes, at the spot at which it
fed, to a flat brown chrysalis, in
size and shape and colour minutely
resembling a rather small and
f\ ^ • 11 fj^ ^^ik^ I'^arrow flax-seed, whence the name
U M'l" I ^ Ml III ^^ "flax-seeds" is commonly given
to these chrysalis-cases or j?//jja7-/a.
Within this hard outer husk the
Eo ~ ' maggot changes to chrysalis, and

FiG.42.— "Elax-seeds" the chrysalis to the perfect fly, but
or puparia in differ- j^^^ ^ ^^^^g ^^^^ depends

ent stages of deve- '=', . -^ ^ ^ ^.

lopment, nat. size very much on cu'cumstances. It
and magnified. may occur, under natural and

favourable circumstances, so soon
that the whole time occupied in the life of the fly from
egg to development is only about forty-eight days ; or
under unfavourable circumstances it may be retarded.
Thus some of the Hessian Flies may come out in
autumn on the fields ; whilst some of the " flax-seeds "
threshed out, or stacked in the straw, or kept artifici-
ally for investigation, may very likely not hatch until
May, or much later in the following year.

HESSIAN FLY. 47

With this attack, more than perhaps almost any
other, we rest on the apphcation of common agricul-
tural measures, and dates of sowing, for the treatment
which, joined to effects of the climate, has hitherto
kept this infestation in check.

A great part of the damage caused by the maggot
presence, arises from the stem being so weakened that
it elbows down ; therefore all selection of kinds of seed,
and all treatment calculated to give a healthy strong
straw which will not give way under a moderate amount
of maggot infestation, are direct means of preventing
loss.

So far as wheat is concerned, our usual time of
autumn wheat-sowing places the springing of the
young plant w^ell after the time when the summer
Hessian Flies are about.

In the process of threshing, the so-called " flax-
seeds " are thrown down with the light screenings, and
can readily be gathered up with them and destroyed,
thus putting an end to all chance of recurrence of
attack from this cause ; and, as hitherto we have only
been troubled by the summer attack on the corn stems,
and had no difficulties from the additional multipli-
cation caused by a winter infestation on the young
plants, it may be well hoped that this corn attack will
not take the serious place in this country which it does
in many other parts of the world.

These are three examples of the class of Gnat-like
Flies {TipuUdce, scientitically), which do as much
harm. The Daddy Longlegs, of various species, are
of the genus Tipula ; the Wheat Midge and the Hes-
sian Fly are of the genus Cecidomyia, which includes
many other small Gnat Midges, some of which cause
^alls, and some of which feed, in the grub state, in
Willow; and there are also other injurious kinds we
cannot enter on now, but which, like the Willow Stem
Midge, might be much lessened by noticing where
they are in the chrysalis state. In this case, to burn
worthless, infested shoots does much good and costs

48 FLIES.

little ; but in all such cases more care than is always
thought of, should be taken to make out where the
creature is, before going to exj^ense in trying to destroy
it, otherwise much cost may be incurred without the
slightest use.

There is one other of this family (the Chironomu»
plvmosvs), of which the grub is known as the "Blood-
worm," which deserves a word, not because it does any
special harm, but because it gives a hint that where
it is, affairs are not as they ought to be. This
maggot is like a little bright red worm, and may be
seen jerking itself about, or collecting in patches like
a clot of blood, in water or on very wet mud, where
there is a great deal of putrid matter and decaying
leafage, on which the maggots feed ; and they show
the water is very foul. Therefore where the Blood-
worm is seen in the water, or the clouds of Gnat
Midges (to which they turn) above it, the water needs
looking to.

In these histories we may seem, perltajjs, to he merely
considering crop attacks, one after the other, together
with some of the various measures which have been found
serviceable for combating them ; but though these are use-
ful practically , I wisJt it to be particularly observed that
it is not so much the detail of treatment of each case
tvhich is tcished to be imparted, as the ptrincipdes on which
the treatment is based. There are certain habits ; cer-
tain times tvJien the creature is inactive ; certain treat-
ment which ivill get rid of it equally in the egg, or the
chrysalis state, and so on. Therefore, though I hope the
short histories may be serviceable for field use further on,
yet now these points are entered on chiefly as showing
general methods of treatment that we may apply to all
similar kinds of attack.

Another very large division of this order of Diptera
includes ivhat may be known, or at least are commonly
looked on, as true Flies, — such as are all more or less
like a common House Fly in shape. They may be
known from the Gnats and Gnat-Midges by having a

ONION FLY.

49

short thick proboscis ; short horns of only three joints,
having a bristle at the tip ; and legs and wings of
moderate length. The maggots often taper to the
head, and are larger, and as it were cut short off, at
the tail, which is often furnished with tubercles, and
also with a pair of large spiracles, by means of which
the maggot can draw in as much air as it needs by
letting the tail project from whatever moist matter it
is lying in. The head is a soft mass, furnished with

Fig. 43. — Onion Fly, maggot and pupa ; magnified.
Onion. Lines showing nat. size.

Pupa in stored

hooks instead of jaws, by means ofwhich the creature
can draw, or reap, into itself the soft substances
whereon it feeds. The head can be so completely
■withdrawn into the maggot as not to show externally.
(For details see Fig. 47, p. 57.)

The formation of the pupa-case, or puparium, is a
most important matter practically. We know it as
the small brown oval case, about an eighth, or a
quarter, of an inch long, which we find by maggot-
eaten Onions, or Cabbage-roots, or sometimes in dead
animals. It is formed of the hardened skin of the
maggot. This draws up, and within it the fly forms.

50

FLIES.

and from it, in due time, cracks its way out ; but
meanwhile the coming Fly is wonderfully safe in all
circumstances. It is in a little chamber, which pro-
tects it from drought and wet and evil influences ; and
consequently the common crop Flies are not as easily
to be got rid of in the pupa or chrysalis state as many
other attackers.

However much our crop Flies may differ in the part
of the plant the maggot feeds on, there are many
which are so much alike, in the maggot turning to
the above kind of pupa, in the ground,- that there are

]FiG. a. — Turnip leaf-miner, Fly maggot and pupa ; nat. size and
masnitieJ. Blistered leaf.

some means of prevention which apply equally well
to many kinds of attack.

The Onion maggots feed in the putrefying bulbs,
and then usually leave them, and turn to brown oval
pupa) in the ground near the destroyed bulb, though
sometimes they are stored in it during the winter.

The Cabbage-root maggots also turn to brown oval
pupse in the ground, and so does the maggot of the
Carrot Fly. This maggot, when feeding, may be seen
with its tail sticking out of the rusty-coloured injured
parts, which give this attack the name of rust ; and
in due time we find the brown pupa-cases close by.
(See Fig. 22, p. 27.)

BEET FLY. 61

The same happens with the maggots of the Celery
or Parsnip Fly, and of some of the Turnip leaf-miners,
which feed hetween the two sides of the leaf; and also
to a great extent with the Beet Fly (Fig. 45). The
pupte of these are, respectively, either entirely or to
some extent, to be found in the ground near the
attacked plant ; and this is one reason of the great
use of rotation of crops as a means of prevention.

Where there has been an infested crop in autumn,
there will be many of the pupa-cases in the earth ;
when spring comes the Flies crack their way out of

Fig. 4u.— Beet Fly and pupa, ma^'. and nat. size ; cluster of eggs,
magnified.

their husks, or puparia, and then are all ready to lay
their eggs on their own food crop, if it is on the same
place, or near. This is an important point in field
Cabbage growing, where Cabbage crops are often
repeated time after time, and also in Onion and Carrot
growing. We may bury many of the pupa-cases, just
as we can bury Daddy Longlegs or Wheat-midge grubs,
but we must be even more careful not to bring them
up again before the time for the Fly hatching out of
them has passed, for the cases are firm and strong,
and the Fly within them is so well protected that it will
bear a deal of burying, and moving about, without any
damage.

52 FLIES.

The Onion, Cabbage, Beet, and Celery Fly, and
some others, have several broods in the summer.
This is the reason why it is an object to check the
very first attack, even by destroying part of the crop.
Often by raising the attacked Onions with a spud or a
broad knife, or something that will quite certainly
bring up all the maggots, we can check the attack,
and destroy the parents of what would in a few weeks
have been a devastating horde. Or it is a better plan
still to pour a few drops of carbolic acid carefully on
the destroyed bulb. This kills every grub it touches,
and does not encourage further attack by loosening
the soil, or bruising good bulbs. We may sometimes
check Celery, or Beet and Mangold Fly attack, by
cutting off bits of leaf, or drawing plants which are
infested. But we should be sure to destroy the drawn
plants. If they are merely left on the field, or thrown
to the rubbish heap, the maggots which are full grown
will turn to pupse, and the Flies develop as well as if
nothing had been done.

In all cases of maggot attack to roots or hulhs, ii
should be borne in mind that if we can keep the Fliea
from laying their eggs on, or very near, what is their
maggot food, the plants will be to a great extent
safe. One at least of the Onion Flies lays her eggs on
the bulb, apparently on the lowest part she can reach.
If Onions are knocked about, and left bare in hoeing^
they are at the mercy of the Fly, which in this and
other cases appears attracted by the smell of the
injured crop.

With Onions, and also with Carrots, attack very
often follows on thinning; but the matter may be met..
I have found that in garden treatment, where Onions
were in rows, earthing them well up above the col-
lars answered well; and with Carrots it has been
found, by various good growers, that thinning so early
that the operation did not throw the ground open was
a successful treatment, i^articularly if followed by
copious waterings to " settle" the ground.

PREVENTION.

53

These are jjoints of general application^ — a sort of
physical-force treatment. Bury the enemy beforehand
if you can ; but if you have it in the ground where it
can do harm, then (as far as you can), keep your crop
grubs, and your coming crops, at a distance ; and in
cases where the Flies require to lay their eggs on a
bulb, or to go down cracks to get at the roots, then
■think over the matter well as to whether some such

Fig. 46. — Cabbage and Potato Flies : 1-3, maggot arnl pupa-case of
Cabbaue Fly ; -1 and 5, Root-eating Fly ; 6-9, Potato Fly and maggot :
all magnified, with nat. size.

way as I have suggested (or some much better way,
which you may think of for yourselves) cannot be
managed so as to defend the plant, — to lock the door,
as it were, in face of the thief. The Fly has got to
lay her eggs, and then she will die ; and if we can
protect our plants so that (as I have seen with Onion
Fly) the eggs have to be dropped at haphazard, where
they would come to nothing, it saves much future
trouble.

But besides methods of prevention based on pro-
tecting the plant from egg-laying, or on burying down
the infestation, or carrying it away and destroying it,
something may be done by noticing, with regard to
some of the common crop fly maggots, that they not

54 FLIES.

only live on various kinds of plant roots, but also in
dung ; and the question therefore comes whether the
use of animal manure in a state, and at the time,
when it may bring maggots with it to the coming crop,
is desirable. We need plenty of good strong manure
if the crops are to grow, but still there are different
ways of treating it before application, and different
times of applying it.

The great German authority on Flies, Dr. Rudolph
Schiner, says of the division of Antliomyia, to which
the Beet Flies, Onion Flies, and Cabbage Flies belong,
that in many cases the larvffi live in vegetable sub-
stances, and also that many seek out rotting and
putrefying matter.

It has been found that the "Root-eating" Flies,
the Antliomyia radicum (Fig. 46, 4), of which the
maggots feed on Cabbage and Turnip roots, inhabit
dung by thousands, and especially frequent night-
soil ; also that they attack crops manured with horse-
dung and bone-dust, whilst on ground close by
plants manured with superphosphate are not at all
attacked.

Another kind of Cabbage-root maggot, that of the
A.Jioralis, was found by myself in earth round partly
decayed Clover-roots.

The spiny maggots of the Antliomyia tuherosa, the
Potato Fl}^ as it was named by John Curtis (figured
with the perfect Fly, at p. 53), have been found
swarming in rotten Potatoes, and also, as well
as their chrj'salids, in ground often occupied by
Cabbage.

The maggots of the Shallot Fly {A. ^jJatnra) have
been found in great numbers in night-soil ; and I
have a note of attack of Onion maggot having showed
itself in the greatest numbers where cow manure had
laid for a considerable time before being dug in. All
the plants, where, or near to where, the heaps had
been, were destroyed by the 1st of July.

From these notes it would appear that, whether

PREVENTION. 55

■we start Fly attack or not, by much use of animal
manure, at least where infested Cabbage has grown
we are not likely to get rid of the grub from the
ground by simply digging in stable or cow-shed
manure ; on the other hand, we find chemical
dressings have cleared it. We have instances of
grub attack not having taken place in an infested
district, or having been cleared out where it existed,
by the use of gas-lime, or hot lime. The gas-lime
was carted on to the land during frost, and presently
spread ; and the land on which this was sprinkled
escaped attack, whilst on that which was not dressed
the crop was lost by maggot. "Where the crop has
been cleared by maggot, it has been found that a
handful of hot lime mixed with the soil, before dibbling
in the new plants, prevented any new attack. Super-
phosphate of lime is also recommended in continental
practice.

The Fly needs a suitable material to lay her eggs
in, with some instinctive prospect of food for the
maggots, and the lime does not present her with
either one or the other: the maggots have a poisonous
material instead of food added to the soil, and alto-
gether the position is made quite an unnatural one for
the attack.

Where a plentiful supply of farm manure is used,
we find (with various crops subject to Fly attack)
that it answers well to prepare the ground and put the
manure in during the previous winter. With Onions
it has been found the most successful plan of growing
is to work the soil deeply in the autumn or winter,
and put a good layer of manure at the bottom of the
trench, or work it well into the soil. The surface is
laid up rough or ridged for the winter, and when
sowing time draws near is levelled. Thus there is no
fresh farm manure on the surface, although some
fertiliser, such as soot or wood-ashes, lime, &c.,
is usually strewn on the surface, or otherwise applied,
at sowing time. With Carrots it has also been

56 FLIES.

found to answer best thus to prepare the ground
beforehand.

In this way we join many points that are wanted.
It is very difficult to say, in Insect prevention, use
this or that treatment ; but we should bear in mind
that there are certain points we want to bring about,
and the chief one of these is to keep the croj) safe.
For this many arrangements must go on together :
we need a fertile soil, but at the same time we need
that the fertility should be of a kind adapted, if pos-
sible, to feed the plant, rather than the insect ; and
therefore in many cases chemical dressings are the
most serviceable.

57

CHAPTER IV.

FLIES (CONTINUED) AND FLEAS.

{DIPTEBA AND APHANIPTEBA).

Gout Fly, Cattle Flies, Flea, &c.

Fig. 47. — Wheat-bulb Fly (Hijlemyia coarctata), magnified, and
lines showing nat. size ; mafrgots and chrysalids, nat. size and mag. ;
mouth apparatus, and extremity of tail, with tubercles, mag. ;
infested plant.

Looking at the many hundreds (or perhaps it might
rather be said thousands) of species which exist of
British FHes, and also considering the great resem-
blance which many of them, as well as of their
maggots respectively, bear to one another, it is plainly
impossible for anyone who does not give special
attention to the subject to know more than a limited
number with certainty. But still something may be
done towards gaining a useful knowledge of them, by

68 FLTES.

taking them in large divisions according to their
habits, as well as their aiopearance.

We have glanced at the habits of the Gnat-like
Flies in their attacks to Corn and pastures, &c., and
at what we may describe as food-crop and manure-
feeding Flies, and have seen that many of these Crop
Flies are alike in the habit of going through all their
changes or conditions — egg, maggot, pupa, and fly —
quickly in summer (so that there may be two or more
generations) ; and that the pupee of the last autumn
brood often lie (if we will allow them) safely, and un-
injured by cold or common ?i mount of moisture, during
winter, so long as they are in their own natural
shelters ; and in the case of these insects we know
where they are all the year ronnd.

But besides these, there are some kinds of Corn Fliea
of which (in regular course) there is a winter brood
and a summer brood; the summer brood feeding in
maggot state in the ear, or on the upper part of the stalk
of Barley, "Wheat, or Oats as the case maybe; and the
winter brood living in maggot condition in the heart
of the young plant. To keep these attacks in check
we need to know where both the winter and the sum-
mer attack is to be found, and this is just what is not
the case regarding our knowledge of the habits, in this
country, of the Gout Fly, which is often very injurious
to Barley, and the Frit Fly, which is sometimes very
injurious to the young Oat plants. In the first case
we need to know the common n-iuter locality; in the
second, that of the summer brood.

The small striped Yellow Kibbon-footed Corn Fly
(Chlorops tceniojms), sometimes known as the Gout
Fly, lays its eggs on the growing Barley stem, at or
near the base of the ear, and the maggot eats a furrow
down the stem to the first knot. Consequently the
growth becomes diseased or stunted, the ear often does
not develop, and remains in its swelled sheath, and
within the sheath tbe maggot turns to a reddish brown
pupa ; and when the Barley has been stacked the

GOUT FLY.

59^

little Flies sometimes are to be found by handfuls in
the stacks. Now comes the winter history, which is
very different. These autumn Flies have been found
and recorded, in continental observations, to lay their

<rrmTD> (ixuc^

Fig. 48. — Gout Fly, grub ami pupa; nat. size and magnified;
with infested stem, 7, 8, 9 and 10, Parasite Flies ; nat. size and
magnified.

eggs on autumn-sown corn, or on wild grass; the
maggot, when hatched, pierces into the heart of the
young plant, and there it passes the winter. It is
stated that when spring comes the unattacked parts
grow as usual, but the attacked portion only produces
a diseased growth of broad leaves and thickened shoot,
which commonly perishes. The maggot turns to the
pupa within, and from this there comes out the Gout
Fly, somewhere in March or April, in due season to
lay its eggs and begin the summer attack.

This fact has long been known, but as far as I am
aware has never as yet been recorded in England
save once, and only on the small scale of development

€0 FLIES.

from a plant or two of wheat. But it is important to
know that the same species of maggots can live as
maggots in the young corn plants during the winter,
and in the summer feed on a totally different part of
the plant. In this case spring-sown Barley* is mani-
festly safe from attack during its early growth ; and
clearing away the masses of wild grass, which often
are allowed to grow in strips several feet wide by
hedges, would get rid of winter-quarters of the Fly,
which frequently may be found especially infesting the
corn by these grass headlands. It is often also found
to infest patches, or an acre or more, of wet land in a
field, where the rest of the crop is free ; and here we
get to the point of effect of the state of the land, or of
special manure on amount of Fly attack.

The extent to which the condition, or special treat-
ment of land, may influence amount of presence of
some kinds of crop infestation, is markedly shown in
the case of the Wheat-bulb Fly (see Fig. 47, p. 57).

In this case the harm is done by the little white
legless maggot feeding within the young Wheat plants
early in the year, and thus destroying the infested
shoot. The presence of the attack is observable from
the withering of the attacked shoot, and is noticeable
by the beginning of April, or some weeks earlier.
About the middle of May the maggots may be found
changing to the chrysalis state in or by the destroyed
shoot, and some weeks later the hairy greyish Fly
appears from the chrysalids.

But the remarkable point of this attack is that it is
especially prevalent after fallow, or bare fallow, or
where land has been exposed to the sun, as where a
potato crop has been cleared early, or there have been

* Since writing the above in 1883, 1 was favoured by an observation
from Prof. W. McCracken (of the Royal Agricultural College, Ciren-
cester), that on the College grounds the portion of the Barley sown in
March, 1889, was practically free from injury , that sown on April
fith was injured to the extent of 2 per cent. ; and that sown on May
3rd to the extent of not less than 20 per cent. — E. A. O.

FRIT FLY. 61

bare patches where Turnips have failed, or, again,
where a preceding crop may have been mowed so close
to the ground as to expose the ground to light and
warmth. There does not appear to be any record of
a summer brood being found of this Fly, which would
give, as in the case of the Gout Fly or Hessian Fly,
perfect insects in autumn to infest the young plants ;
and after digest of careful observations of several
years, there appears every reason to suppose that tli&
eggs of the Wheat-bulb Fly are laid in exposed land,
and that it is the maggots from these which infest the
autumn-sown Wheat.

Here at once we have a clue to prevention. Do not
sow autumn wheat after bare fallow, or where ground
has been exposed during summer, in districts liable to-
this attack. Also it would be useful to plough with a
skim-coulter attached, so as to turn down the surface
of the land, and then bury it away so that the infes-
tation is not able to make its way up again. Deep
ploughing is a good preventive, but if the slices lie
hollow, then it does little or no good ; the eggs or
maggots are not much altered in situation, and when
they have gone through their changes, the perfect
insects may very likely be little lessened in number by
the treatment. The great point is to put the insect
vermin so deep down that it cannot come up of itself ;
nor yet be brought up again by succeeding measures
of cultivation.

The two preceding attacks respectively affect (or
chiefly affect with us) Wheat and Barley ; but there is
another, that of the ** Frit Fly" {Oscinisfrit), which,
by reason of its maggots feeding in young Oat as well
as Wheat plants sometimes, as in 1888, does a deal of
mischief in this country. The young maggot injures-
the plant much in the same manner as the Wheat-
bulb maggot, and is very like it in general appearance.
The little Fly is rather under the eighth of an inch
long, and of a bright shining black.

In this case we possibly have an example of what

62 FLIES.

certainli/ needs care in some others, namely, the dan-
ger of infestation being imported. At present we
have httle knowledge of summer attack taking place
in this country, but in both Sweden, and Bohemia,
summer attack has been found respectively in ears of
Barley, and amongst grains in Oat heads ; and where
there appears to be a chance of infestation being pre-
sent, in the form of little brown chrysalis cases, not
unlike those figured at 3, Fig. 57, it might be well to
try " pickling " the seed before sowing.

Just glancing over some of the main points of pre-
vention for some of the corn insect attacks noticed in
this, and the preceding Chapter, it will be seen that
there are various measures easily practicable, and
often lying quite within common farm treatment, at
little additional cost. For clearing or preventing
attack on ley or pasture before breaking up, hand-
feeding sheep on the ground is of use ; for prevention
of several different corn attacks, attention to date of
sowing has been found effective ; also regard to what
has been the previous state of the land, may make all
the difference between presence or non-presence of
subsequent attack ; infestation may be got rid of
simply by gathering it up from the threshing-machine
and burning it ; or, if presumably remaining on the
surface of the field, may be ploughed under, so as to
bury it safely down. These points may appear very
simple, but it is on attention to these, or similar prin-
ciples, that we depend for safety. Each special crop
insect, has its own special history, its own particular
way of getting its living out of the crop, which we also
want for our own benefit ; and the better we know what
its life habits are, the better we are likely to be able
to protect ourselves against its ravages. But whether
we know the details or not, such broad jirinviplcs as
those noted above are always useful to bear in mind.

We have now glanced at the method of life of some
of the order of Diptera, or two-winged Flies, which
are especially injurious to corn and pastures; and that

GAD FLY. 63

of what we may describe as food-crop, and manure-
feeding Flies ; but still (arranging them for convenience
of farm reference, according to the special objects
attacked) there is another most important kind to be
considered, including the Flies which are injurious to
Horses, Cattle, or other live stock.

Fig. 49.— Gad Fly {Tabanus bovinus).

Gad Flies, Warble, and Bot Flies, Forest Flies, d-c.
— The family of the Tabanida, or Gad Flies, which
are injurious as blood-suckers, include some of the
largest Flies which we have in this country, and cause
injury by piercing into the skin (it may be of cattle,
or it may be of ourselves) with the lancet-like apparatus
which they carry in their proboscis. In shape they
may be described as like common Flies; but the great
dark brown Fly striped across with yellow, figured
above, known as Ox Gad Fly, is sometimes as much
as an inch and three-quarters in the spread of the
wings.

From the circumstance of the larva or maggot of

64 FLIES.

the Tabamis bovinus having a distinct horny head,
and the pupa being naked and incomplete (that is to
say, in some degree resembling the perfect Fly), it will
be seen that technically this family is nearly allied to
those of which the Tijmla (Fig. 37, p. 36) may be
taken as a type. But (as above mentioned) the points
under consideration, being the animals or plants
attacked, I notice the Gad Flies here together with
the other Cattle Flies.

With regard to the habits of the genus Tahanus
whilst in maggot state, it is said by Dr. Kudolph
Schiner, one of the chief authorities on the Diptera: —
" The larvae live in moist earth, or in sand, or under
decaying leaves and stems in damp places. The Flies
are often found in cattle pastures, and by roads and
paths, where they rest on neighbouring trees, and lie
in wait for horses and cattle, to which the blood-suck-
ing females are very troublesome. The males also
frequent flowers, or hover, especially in the morning
and evening, by roads, in the sunshine." *

As in this case it seems impossible to lessen attack
by destroying the maggots, the next best way of
saving the cattle from annoyance would appear to be,
moving them from pastures by streams, or such
localities as the Flies frequent, to more open and
dryer land, where the state of the ground would not
suit the Gad Fly maggots, and the Flies would not
find the trees which they love to lurk amongst. In
case of dressings being desirable to ward off infestation,
the same that are known to answer in the preventing
attack of Warble Fly would be useful.

The large family of the (Estridce, popularly known
as Bot Flies, differ from the Gad Flies, mentioned
above, . entirely, in their method of doing harm,
inasmuch as, generally speaking, the mouth of the
Q^stridcB is uhsoletc, only represented by a few minute

• ' Fauna Austriaca, Diptera,' vol. i., p. 29. (The grubs or maggots
are to be found in grass-land, especially where it is wooded, from
September until May.)

HORSE BOT FLY.

65

fleshy tubercles; also the maggots of this family of
Flies live ■within some part of the animal that is
attaclved. Prof. Westwood notes three principal
diflerences in their habits : — Some live in tumours
beneath the skin; some attack the cavities of the

Fig. 50. — Horse Bot Fly, 1, male ; 2, female ; 3, maggot ; 4, chrysalis,
nat. size, after Bracy Clark.

head, which are reached through the nostrils ; and
some are gastric in their attack, by the maggots being
introduced into the stomach.

These Flies belong to the family of the Q^stridce ;
and the kind we are about to notice (the Gastropliilus
equi, or Horse Bot Fly, see figure above), are about
the size of a house Fly, or rather larger, and are
somewhat gaily coloured with yellowish and dark
markings, and very hairy.

In the case of this Horse Bot Fly, the female hardly
touches the animal, but, whilst lightly flying to and
fro, places the eggs on the hairs, until the very nu-
merous supply are laid. These are fixed by a kind of
sticky moisture on the shoulder, or on the mane,
inside the knee, or on any other part selected. The
maggot forms within the egg, and when it is ready to

F

66

FLIES.

batch (which may be in a period of from about five
days to three weeks), the warmth and moisture of the
horse's tongue in Hcking the infested hair,
causes the kind of lid or cap to open or
crack, and the maggot within sticks to the
tongue, and is thus gradually transferred
to the stomach. Here the maggots fix
themselves to the mucous membrane * by
means of two dark brown hooks, one of
which is placed on each side of the slit
which serves for a mouth, and there they
nourish themselves by suction, and are
considered to pass from eight to ten months
in maggot state, attached by their mouth
hooks to the lining membrane of a portion
of the stomach.

Sometimes there may be only a few of
these maggots present ; sometimes (as I
of Horse Bot bave secu them myself) they are present
Fly, nat. size in such numbers as to lie close up against
and magnitied q^q]^ other over a large patch of surface,
Clark). ^^°^ SO that it hardly seemed possible to find
room for another amongst them.
Here they live until, when full-fed, they loose their
hold ; and, after being thrown to the ground, turn to
a brown pupa, from which the Fly comes out in a few
weeks.

For prevention of this attack, such treatment as
combing, brushing, or clipping hair, so as to get rid
of the eggs, is sure to be of use. Also the application
of soaps, or washes, with scents deterrent to insect
attack ; and likewise freedom to the horses to shelter
in sheds from Fly attack in the heat of the day.
Eemedies fall within the province of the veterinary
adviser, as special advice is needed for their safe
application.

* In observation of this infestation it is very important for the
student to notice accurately to which portion of tlie stomach the
Jarva; are attached.

FiG.51.— Ekss

HOKSE BOT FLY.

67

The Ox Warble Fly, or Bot Fly, is a two-winged
Fly, upwards of half-an-iuch in length, so banded and
marked with differently-coloured hair as to be not

Fig. 52. — Maggots or Horse Bots attached to membrane of stomach,
after Bracy Clark.

unlike a Humble Bee. The face is yellowish ; the
body between the wings yellowish before and black
'behind ; and the abdomen whitish at the base, black

2 1 3

Fig. 53.— 1, Ox Warble Fly; 2, maggot; 3, chrysalis.

in the middle, and orange at the tip. The female is
furnished with a somewhat telescope-formed extension
of the end of the abdomen which acts as a long egg-
laying tube, and the egg is white and oval, with a
small brownish lump at one end.

On hatching from the egg, the maggot is not of the

68

FLIES.

thick oval shape to which it afterwards changes, but
is almost worm-like in shape, and is furnished with a
pair of cutting-forks at the mouth end. By careful
examinations of sections of hide in the very earliest
stage of attack, a fine channel or perforation will be
found leading from the outside of the hide, right

t\^^l 3
Fig. 54. — Mouth-forks of young mapgot, much magnified.

through it down to the under side. Here the young
maggot will be found, and by gentle pressure the
course of the maggot channel may be clearly traced
by the little drop of blood which
(in my own observation) I have
found can readily be forced
along it from the larval working
below, till it stands as a minute
drop on the outside of the
hide. This cliannel I have
found to be rough and jagged
at the side, thus showing it was
gnawed or torn (not cleanly
pierced as by an ovipositor),
and the direction was very
various, so as even to be much
curved.

The maggot gradually in-
creases in size, still lying
with the tail end uppermost, or nearest the opening
in the hide ; and as it grows it presses back, and
opens the surrounding tissue, till it lies with the tail

Fio. 55. — Breathing-tubes
of maggot, magnified.

ox WARBLE FLY.

69

extremity in the opening of the boil-like swelling,
commonly known as the " Warble."

Here it draws in air through what look like two
small black spots in the tail, but which are really the
spiracles, or masses of minute breathing openings, by
which air is admitted into the breathing-tubes or
trachece of the maggot. It feeds by sucking in the
putrid matter flowing into the cavity its presence has

Fig. 56. — Muscles of maggot,
much magnified.

J if ' SAli^*"^

Fig. 57. — Prickles of maggot,
much magnified.

caused, and there it remains until it is full grown,
that is, about an inch long. This may be at any
time from May to much later in the season, and then,
with the help of the rows of prickles with which it is
furnished outside, and the powerful net-work of

Fig. 58. — Section of Warble, after soaking in water.

muscles with which it is furnished within the skin, it
•drags itself through the opening of the Warble, tail

70

FLIES.

foremost, and falls to the ground, where it finds some
shelter, either in the ground or under a stone or clod,
where it changes to a chrysalis. The chrysalis is dark
brown or black, much like the maggot in shape, only
flatter on one side ; and from this brown husk the

Fig. 59. — Piece of untler side of Warbled hide ; warbles about half'
size. From a photo by Messrs. Byrne, Richmond, Surrey.

Warble Fly comes out in three or four weeks, but this
length of time is increased htj cold weather.

Fig. 58 shows a section of a Warble cell in a hide
that has been removed from the animal, so that the

ox WAEBLE FLY. 71

condition immediately below the hide is shown ; and
the kind of false skin which has formed over the upper
part of the perforation, and prevents proper healing
(and consequently damages the hide for trade pur-
poses), is also shown.

Fig. 59 shows the under surface of a piece of hide
in which the Warble maggots are as yet very far from
full grown, but still it gives some idea what the state
of things would be when each of the maggot-swellings
was twice, or more than twice, the size iigured ; but it
does not at all convey the diseased state of the under
side of the hide caused by the cells full of putrid
matter and the inflammation.

WJicre tltis is severe, the condition of the surface
of the carcase beneath known as " licked beef" or
" butchers' jelly," is to be found, which is a very
serious drain on the health, condition and quality of
the animal ; thus well described by Mr. C. E. Pearson,
wholesale butcher, Sheffield: — "I may say that the
effect of Warbles on the carcase is more serious than
can possibly be imagined by the outside appearance of

the beast The carcase of beef assumes a nasty

yellow colour, and also a soft flabby appearance on
the outside rind of the beast (where the Warble has
been in operation), so much so that the carcase has
in some cases to be pared down to the flesh to make
the appearance of the animal at all presentable for the
market, causing thereby a grievous amount of loss to
the butcher. I am speaking from practical experi-
ence, killing on an average twenty beasts or more a
week."

On applying to Mr. Hy. Thompson, M.E.C.Y.S., of
Aspatria, Cumberland, who has long devoted much
attention to warble attack, for an exact description of
the damage, he replied : — " What causes the damaged
meat or beef is the chronic inflammation set up by the
Warbles in the skin, which extends to the connective
tissues, thence to the flesh, producing the straw-
coloured jelly-like appearance of a newly slaughtered

7Z FLIES.

carcase of beef, which in twelve or twenty-four hours,
when exposed to the air, turns a dirty greenish yellow
colour, and thus spoils the beef, having a frothy
discharge oozing from the surface, with a soapy-like
look."

This state of things is only too commonly to be
found ; in the words of Mr. John Child, manager of
the Leeds and District Hide and Skin Co. : — " In the
worst part of the Warble season, I could get you
l)ucketsful of inflamed tissue (commonly called by the
butchers, 'jelly'), cut and scraped from the carcase
after the hide is taken off."

Its prejudicial nature in all points of view is thus
shortly given in the last words of some observations
with which I was favoured by Mr. John Penberthy,
Prof, of Pathology at the Koyal Veterinary College,
Camden Town, N.W., regarding some specimens on
which I had requested his opinion : — " The material
is not lit for human consumption. I think it very
deleterious to the health and comfort of the affected
animal."

TJie yearlii loss from this attack is enormous. Firstly,
there is the loss on milk, and on many other points of
damage consequent on the wild gallop of the cattle
when terrified by the Fly. Secondly, there is the loss
on condition of the infested animal. Every warbled
hide is a sign of so much out of the farmer's pocket,
for the food he spent in feeding grubs in his cattle's
backs, which should have gone to form meat and
milk, instead of being wasted in foul maggot-sores.*

* The followinp; is one note taken from many which I received
showint^ the loss to the cattle owner by waste of food not formed into
meat by tlie warbled beast, as well as deficiency of receipt per stone
on the CMrcase and per pound on the hide. Mr. J. Sparkes, Wearhead,
Darlington, wrote me, on the loth of April, that he had lately sold to
a butcher a heifer, which turned out a much lighter weight than was
expected from the extra good food. The animal turned out to be badly
warbled, and " down the spine frothy, loose, and mattery, or in a sort
of jelly," and some of the beef ha.) to be scraped before sending it out.
Tlie loss on hide at Id. per pound would be about 5.s. on the hide; the
loss on beef, the animal being soM by the stone, fell on the owner.

ox WARBLE FLY. 73

Thirdly, there is the loss falling mainly on the
butchers, consequent on damage to surface of carcase
known as ''licked beef" or "butchers' jelly." Fourthly,
there is a great loss on the injured hides. The two
following returns, from Newcastle-on-Tyne and Aber-
deen respectively, taken from a number of returns
from hide or cattle companies, &c., with which I was
favoured in 1888, give some slight idea of the loss
going on simply on this one item of perfectly needless
waste. The following is from Newcastle-on-Tyne : —

"In a period of twelve months, 102,877 hides
passed through the market ; of these, 60,000 were
warbled. Loss estimated at £15,000." — J. McGr.

" In five months, from February 3rd to June 24th,
61,103 hides passed, of which 14,830 were warbled.
Loss, £2873."— W. M. & Son, Aberdeen.

The above loss, in all its details, is wholly unnecessary.
By the use of the simple measures mentioned below,
we have now found, from the experience of our leading
farmers, cattle owners and veterinary surgeons, during
about nine years (that is, since attention was first
directed to the subject), that the attack may to all
practical purposes be stamped out.

Squeezing out the maggots is a sure method of
getting rid of them; but they may be destroyed easily
and without risk by dressing the Warble with a little
of McDougall's smear or dip, or by a little cart-grease
and sulphur, applied well on the opening of the Warble.
]\[ercurial ointment answers, if carefully used — that
is, in very small quantity, and only applied once as a
small touch on the Warble ; l)ut where there is any
risk of careless application it should not be used. Any
thick greasy matter that will cJioke the breathing -])ores
of the maggot, or poison it by running down into the
cell in which it lies and feeds, will answer well ; and

This was estimated as at least six stones less than it should have been,
and deficiency in receipt on hide and beef was put at 50.s-. to 00s., to
■which has to be added cost of food spent to no purpose.

74 FLIES.

laid or rancid butter, mixed with a little sulphur, has
also been found to answer. Tar answers if carefully
placed, so as to be absolutely on the hole into the
Warble. Bought cattle are often badly infested, and
need attention.

To prevent Fly attack in summer, train-oil rubbed
along the spine, and a little on the loins and ribs, has
been found useful ; so has the following mixture : —
4 oz. flowers of sulphur, 1 gill spirits of tar, 1 quart
train-oil ; to be mixed well together, and apx)lied once
a-week along each side of the spine of the animal.
With both the above applications it has been observed
that the cattle so dressed were allowed to graze in
peace, without being started off at the tearing gallop
£0 ruinous to flesh, milk, and, in the case of cows in
calf, to produce.

A mixture of spirit of tar, linseed oil, sulphur, and
caibolic acid, has also been found useful ; and any-
thing of a tarry nature is useful, as sheep-salve (or
bad butter and tar mixed with sulphur), or Stockholm
or green tar, rubbed on the top of the cows' backs
between the top of the shoulder-blade and loins.
Washes of a strong pickling brine, applied two or
three times during the season, are very useful. Parafdn
and kerosine are useful for a time, but the smell goes
off before very long.

Where cattle are suffering badly from Warbles, so
that the health is clearly affected, and the animal
wasting, the use of the old well-known " black oils "
has been found to do much good.

Mr. Hy. Thompson, M.E.C.V.S., of Aspatria, Cum-
berland, gives the following recipe used for a bad case :
— " Turpentine, 1^ oz. ; suli)huric acid, 1 drachm
(here a chemical action sets in and must be done with
caution). To this I added 10 oz. raw linseed oil, and
rubbed the cow's back once a-da}^ with the mixture.
... In a fortnight the back was cleaned, and all the
maggots destroyed."

There are many other points that bear on preven-

SHEEP S NOSTRIL FLY.

75

tion, of which one is — noting that Warble Flies are
wost active in heat and sunsliine, and appear not to
inirsue cattle over ivatcr ; consequently, allowing the
cattle the power of sheltering themselves, and access
to shallow pools, is desirable. Likewise with regard
to pastures, or standing-ground of infested cattle, it is
matter of course that where the maggots have fallen
from their hacks the Flies will shortly appear to start
neiv attacks.

\ <*?. if^/S-'.-^-js.

Fig. 60. — Sheep's Nostril Fly: Fly, magnified (with line showing
ratural length), and maggots. Also mouth-hooks of maggot, and tail
segment showing spiracles, magnified (after Brauer).

The attack of the Sheep Bot Fly (the Q^strns [Cepha-
lemyia] Oris) is a very serious matter, w4iich causes
much suffering to the animals, and loss to their
owners. This Fly is rather larger than the common
house Fly, and of an ashy colour, spotted with black
between the wings, the abdomen spotted with black
and silvery or yellowish white. The female either
lays her eggs, or deposits living maggots on the mar-
gins of the nostrils of the sheep, from whence the
maggots crawl up the nostrils by means of the mouth-
hooks with which they are furnished, and attach
themselves to the membranes of the cavities. Here
they feed on the mucus ; and it is stated that they at
times feed on the membrane itself. Their presence
causes great irritation ; and where the attack is severe
leads to gradual loss of strength, and convulsions (and
other symptoms by which the cause of the illness is
distinguishable, which we need not enter on now), and

76 FLIES.

the death of the animal. When full grown the mag-
gots are about an inch in length, and in the common
course of things they remain in the head of the sheep
for ten months to a year before they are mature.
They then leave the animal, by going down the
nostrils, and fall to the ground, where they turn —
either amongst roots of grass, or in any convenient
place above or below the surface— to a black or brown
pupa, from which the Fly comes out in about six or
eight weeks, or after a variable number of days,
according to the climate.

The preventive in this case is to keep the Fly from
getting access to the nose of the sheep. The sheep
protect themselves to the best of their power by hold-
ing their nostrils down to the ground, or in any other
position which will keep off the Fly, when they are
aware of attack ; and this principle is worked on, in
the application of tar or other remedies to keep the
Fly from settling.

In American practice it is said " a practical means
of prevention consists in smearing the noses with a
mixture of equal parts of tar and grease, or of tar and
fish oil, or of tar and whale-oil." . . . . " Fish or
whale-oil alone is also recommended." The following
ointment is also mentioned : — " Bees- wax, one pound;
linseed oil, one pint ; carbolic acid, four ounces. Melt
the wax and oil together, adding two ounces of common
rosin to give body, then as it is cooling stir in the
carbolic acid. This should be rubbed over the face
and nose once in two or three days during July and
August."*

The attack of Sheep Nostril Maggot is of quite a
different nature from that of the Cosnurus cerebi-alis,
or H3'datid, which in its young state causes the dis-
ease known as staggers or " gid " in sheep; but the

* Tlie above practical recipes are taken from ' Animal Parasites of
Sheep ' (by Dr. Coo))cr Curtice), U. S. Dept. of Asriculture, Bureau of
Animal Industry. For description of metlioii of attack, partly from my
own observations, see my 'Eleventh lieport on Injurious Insects.'

FOREST FLY.

77

two attacks are popularly confused. The difference is
easily shown hy an anatomical demonstration of the
maggots in the nostrils in one case, and the hydatid-
infested brain in the other.

There is another small division of Flies which infest
horses, sheep and other animals, also birds, which are
remarkable for their peculiar method of increase.
They do not lay eggs, but feed in maggot state on
secretions within the abdomen of the female Fly until
they are full grown. Then they change to the pupal
state, and are produced either in this condition, or
quite immediately on the point of changing to it,
whence this division of Flies takes the name of
pupipcnri.

Fig. 61. — Forest Fly, nat. size and magnified. Egg-like pupa and
toothed claw, also magnified.

The Forest Fly {Hipijohosca equina), which infests
horses and cattle, and is especially common in the
New Forest in Hampshire, may be taken as a type of
the division. The figure above shows the egg-like
pupa, and also the peculiar toothed claw. The main
colours of the little Fly are brown or black, varied
with some shade of yellow. It causes irritation both
by blood-sucking, and by creeping, which it can do
backwards, forwards, or sideways with great nimble-
ness, on the parts of the animal especially preferred
for infestation.

78

FLEAS.

The remedies used are local applications obnoxious
to the Fly, and careful attention to cleanliness.

In some cases the head of
these Flies {pupipara) is so with-
drawn into the body, and the
horns into the head, that, in
addition to their sometimes being
without wings or poisers, they
have a spider-like appearance,
and are known as Spider Flies.
The MelojjJiagus ovi)ius, known,
though incorrectly, as the
"Sheep-tick," which lives in
the wool and sucks the blood of the sheep, is one of
this division.

Those who wish to study its life-history and means
of prevention will find the information excellently
given in Dr. Cooper Curtice's ' Animal Parasites of
Sheep ' before referred to.

Fig,

62. — Sheep-tick,
magnified.

FLEAS.

The Aphamptera, or Fleas, have been scientifically
described as " Diptera " (that is, two- winged Flies),
" with laterally compressed body, and distinctly se-
parated thoracic rings." Whether this is precisely so
or not is perhaps not very important in the present
considerations.

The general appearance of our common Flea is well
known ; but if examined under a magnifying-glass it
will be seen that there are some peculiar points in its
structure. The insect is not noticeably divided like
most others, but formed of a series of rings from the
head to the tip of the tail. It is to all practical pur-
poses wingless, but at the base of the 2nd and 3rd
segments from the head there is on each side a small
scale. These two pairs of scales are considered to
represent the two pairs of wings that most insects

COMMON FLEA.

79

possess, but as they are hardly perceptible the order
has from them been named Aphaniptera (" impercep-
tible-wmged "). The legs look as if they had two
extra joints above the thigh. The one that joins to
the thigh is a much enlarged form of the hip-joint, or
<:oxa, which hardly shows in the legs of many insects,
and therefore is a good anatomical example ; and

Fig. G3. — Fiea : u.a^s^oi, and pupa, magnified.

above it, joining the coxa, or hip, to the body, is a
prolonged growth from the lower part of it, giving the
appearance of the leg being formed of five joints.

Fleas lay about ten or twenty eggs in hair of ani-
mals, or dusty nooks or crannies, &c., especially where
infested animals lie. From these eggs, white, worm-
like, footless grubs hatch, which feed on animal
matter, and notably on blood. In summer they change
their condition in about a fortnight, and, after casting
their skin, appear as chrysalids, resembling the per-
fect Flea, but inactive, and with the legs folded
beneath it. From these the Fleas are said to appear
in rather more or less than fourteen days.

As a farm pest, I can say from personal observation
that these most unpleasant creatures sometimes
swarm in legions in neglected yards, where they may
be seen by scores skipping in all directions about the
haunts where nothing but dirt and neglect have allowed
them to be reared, although their presence will very

80

BEETLES.

likely be stated to be " quite unaccountable." Order
and cleanliness, proper clearing out of old skins and
rubbish, scalding out dog-kennels and slaughter-houses,
and all other head-quarters of filth, and letting brooms,
scrapers, and whitewash do their work in poultry-sheds,
and all other places, will promptly reduce the armies.

CHAPTER V.

BEETLES (COLEOPTERA).

Cockchafers, Click Beetles, &c.

"^-^ ^^k.

•-^-■-.,vi.»,J^J»AV/.^:

Fig. 04. — Common Cockchafer, maggot, and pupa.

We now pass on to the order of Beetles (Colcoptera) .
From the fact of there being a very large number of

COMMON COCKCHAFER. 81

different kinds, and also from a great number of these
injuring the crop, both in the grub, and in the Beetle
state, this order is, perhaps, the most important of all
to the farmer.

It will be noticed that, so far as we have advanced,
there is just, so to say, a step onwards in the number
of legs and wings in each order. Flies have usually
one pair of wings, and their maggots are usually leg-
less. Fleas have also legless maggots, but in the
perfect insect the position of two pairs of wings is
marked by scales. In the Beetles we find that the
maggots or grubs are sometimes legless, but also
sometimes have three pairs of jointed legs, — one pair
on each of the three segments nearest the head, and
also a sucker-foot beneath the tail, which serves to
help in moving, or to hold fast with when pulled at.

Beetles, as a rule, have two pairs of wings (see Fig.
74, p. 89). The upper pair, or wing-cases, which are
known as the elytra, are hard and horny, and form a
cover or " sheath " for the lower pair ; and from this
the order of Beetles takes its name of Coleoptera, or
sheath-winged. The under wings are membranous
and large when spread out in flight ; when at rest
they are folded both lengihicise and across, so as to fit
under the wing-cases. Sometimes the under wings
are absent, which is a very important consideration
in preventive measures. The jaws are horizontal,
somewhat like toothed pincers laid flat, so as to work
against each other from side to side.

The Beetle chrysalis is much like the perfect Beetle
in shape, but without power of moving about. It lies
with the forming limbs, and mouth parts, beneath it,
usually all cased in separate sheaths, like a thin outer
skin, until it is matured, when it gradually frees its
limbs, and gains its full colour and powers.*

Though there are such great numbers of different
kinds of Beetles, the distinctions between the chief

* For figures of Beetles in their larval, pupal and complete coiuli-
lions, see the illustrations in this and the following Chapter.

G

82 BEETLES.

divisions are fairly easy to observe ; and I will just
point out a very few of these that may be of service
before going on to the practical observations.

Beetles are, or may be, firstly, divided into four
sets, according to the number of joints in their feet: —
One division has all the feet usually Jive-jointed.
This includes six sections, of which those of the carni-
vorous Beetles, the Cockchafers and their allies, and
the Click Beetles (or Wireworm Beetles) and their
allies, concern us the most. This division is named
Fentamera.

The second division has, for the most part, the feet
of the two front pairs of legs five-jointed, and the feet of
the hind pair four-jointed. This division has only one
section, in which various grain and meal Beetles con-
cern us most. This division is named Heteroniera.

The third division has all the feet apparently four-
jointed, because the fourth of the five joints is so small
it can hardly be seen without a
magnifier. This division, Tetra-
inera, or Pseudo-tctraniera, in-
cludes three sections, all very
important to us. They are the
Weevils ; the Long-horned Bee-
tles, which are often destructive
to timber ; and the Turnip Flea
-^ X Beetles and their allies. The
'^^ « s-.;:;;^:^^-^ ~~~\J illustration shows the leg of one
"*""" of the Flea Beetles with its four-

J'lea
Beetle, and f mv-jc

feet apparently three-jointed, be-
cause the third of the four joints is so small it is
scarcely visible. This division, Trimera, or Pseudo-
trimcra, includes one section, and in it the family of
Ladybirds and their allies is most important to us.

These divisions by number of joints may seem
tedious, or trivial points to observe ; nevertheless it
is very convenient, when one wishes to know some-

Fio. 65.— Ho]) J 'lea jointed foot.

j.^^^ )ia-jom ei T^he fourtJi division has all the

GROUND BEETLE.

83

thing of the nature of a Beetle, to be able, merely by
a glance at its feet through a hand-magnifier, to know
generally to which division it belongs. Amongst the
thousands of British Beetles, there are many so very
like in appearance, yet different in habits, that some-
times it saves much trouble, thus by a little examina-
tion to know whether what we have caught is a de-
stroyer of croj) pests or crops in the field, or of stored
crops in our granaries.

llic Gcodephaga, or Ground Beetles, which belong to
the first section of the Beetles, are, in great part, carni-
vorous. These Beetles may be
known, in a general way, by their
long slender legs and horns, their
strong jaws, and their great activity
in running.

The grubs of these " Ground Bee-
tles " are usually flat, long, and
straight-sided; the head, and next
segment to it, hard (see figure, p. 17).
They have, for the most jjart, strong
Jaws, three pairs of horny legs; and
at the tip of the tail there is usually
a sucker-foot below, and two horny
or fleshy appendages above.

For a long time these " Ground
Beetles " were supposed to live almost entirely on
animal food, and therefore to help very much in keep-
ing other insects in check ; but now it is found that
various kinds injure growing grain, seeds of grass, and
other vegetables.

In the United States it has been found, by watching
the habits and examining the contents of different kinds
of Harpalus, that these feed on rootlets, seeds, and
other parts of grass or corn, besides other matters
animal and vegetable. In Prof. Forbes' experiments
it was found that of twenty-eight specimens of Cara-
bidce examined, twenty specimens, and these belonging
to eleven species, had eaten vegetable food.

Fig. 66. — A Ground
Beetle (Carabus (jra-
nulatus).

84

BEETLES.

This has not been worked out fully in England, but
Curtis drew attention to the subject many years ago,
and pointed out that the Zahrus gibhiis (figured, p. 17)
was very injurious as a kind of Ground Beetle which
injured the Wheat ; also he expressed doubts whether
Harpahis grubs did not injure Wheat also in the same
way as Wireworm.

So far as I am aware, no further observations were
recorded on the subject until about the end of the.

Fig. 67.— Mangold-feeding Ground Beetle {S. iiiadidiis), and gnawed
Mangold roots.

winter and early spring in the year 1888, when speci-
mens of a grub, minutely resembling that of this species
of Corn Ground Beetle, were forwarded to me as doing
much mischief to young Wheat plants in various
parts of the south and east of England. (For figure
of X. pihhus, see p. 17).

In the summer of 1885 the night-feeding Ground

ROVE BEETLE.

85

Beetle, Steropns madidus, was sent me from near
Bishop's Stortford, Herts, where specimens were cap-
tured in the act of feeding on Mangold roots. Fig. 67,
p. 84, shows the Beetle magnified, and also the
method in which the Mangold root was torn away by
its powerful jaws. These Beetles are partially car-
nivorous, as one of those forwarded to me killed one
of its companions, and consumed its contents ; but
their field work, being about three [in the morning,
is seldom noticed.

These observations make it very desirable to keep
an eye to the habits of the many
kinds of these pitchy or brownish
" Ground " Beetles that we see so
active in summer in corn-fields,
and which have generally been
supposed to be employed in clear-
ing off insect vermin.

Tlie ivater kinds {Hydradepliaga)
can swim as well as fly. Their
somewhat flattened oval shape,
and their hinder legs, being for the
most part broad, with a long
fringe of hairs on the inside, give
them the power of rowing quickly
through the water ; and the large
wings, folded under the cases,
give them the power of going to and from it as they
wish.

The second section, the Brachelytra, commonly called
Hove Beetles, may be generally known by the short
wing-cases, and, in the case of the very common Bee-
tles, sometimes known as Devil's Coach Horses, of which
Fig. 69 represents one species, by their habit of arching
up their tails when annoyed. Some feed on animal
matter, including other living insects, and they much
frequent rotten animal and vegetable matter. The
grubs are very like those above described, but may be
known by the fork above the tail being double-jointed.

Fig

Water Beetle.

86

BEETLES.

and furnished ■with stiff hairs. Both grubs and^
insects help us in clearing off other insect presence.

Fig. 69.— Sculptured Eove Beetle and grub ; nat. size and mag.

The third section is that of the Necrophaf/a, or Clavi-
cornes, which includes Beetles of very various habits,.

Fig. 70. — Corn Ciicnjita and Cadelle : 2-4, Ciicitjiis testaceus; 5-8,
Trogosita mauritanica ; magnified, -with nat. size.

but for the most part feeding on decayed matter (es-
pecially the division often known as Sexton Beetles,.
which live for the most part in dead animals, carrion,
and what we may shortly describe as " filth " gene-
rally). Their horns are usually enlarged or club-
shaped towards the tip, or bent as if they had an

TURNIP SLOWER BEETLE.

87

elbow ; and the wing-cases usually bend down at the
sides, so as to cover the sides of the abdomen.

Some, like the Cadelle, and Corn
Cucujus (Fig. 70), are Corn feeders,
and various kinds frequent flowers.
Of these some species of Meligcthes,
or Turnip Flower Beetles, are very
injurious, and furnish one of the few
examples of infestations which may
be satisfactorily lessened when esta-
blished on the plant by remedial
measures. The little green Meligc-
thes Beetles may sometimes be found
on the flowering shoots of Eape,
Cabbage, and Turnip, and cause great loss where the
crops are being grown for seed.

The Beetles feed on the pollen in the flowers, and
lay their eggs in the unopened blossoms; the maggots

Fig. 71. — Sexton
Beetle, magnified.

Fig. 72. — Meligethes ceneiis : Beetle and maggot, magnified, and in-
fested flower, aftei" Dr. Taschenberg.

from these feed in the bud and base of the flower, the
stalks of the flowers, and the seed pods. As a remedy
it is found to answer well to have the infested tops
and early blooms of the Turnips picked, and put, with
the Beetles and maggots, into bags which are tied up
as soon as full, and the contents destroyed. Under
ihis treatment the growth of flowering shoots is
much thickened, a great deal of the infestation is got
rid of, and the crop is thrown back about a fortnight.

88

BEETLES.

which gives the rootlets increased time for action, and
the plan is considered certainly beneficial in increase
of crop, independently of clearing the insects.

Fig. 73. — Beet-Carrion Eeetle : 5 and 6, Beetles ; 1-4, larva, nat. size
and magnified.

In the Beet-Carrion Beetle, which takes its double
name from its double habit of feeding, we have again
an example of the mischief which is, or may be, often
caused to a crop by bringing out manure in which
there is a two-fold kind of feeder.

The egg of this Beetle is commonly laid in putrid
matter, such as dead birds, hedgehogs, or the like ; but
sometimes the grubs attack Beet or Mangold Wurzel
leaves in such great numbers as to clear off all but the
fibres, and thus ruin the crop. In some cases noted
it appears likely that offal, or carrion, may have been
mixed with the manure, and thus attracted the Beetle,
and the eggs, or grubs, were carried out in the rotting
substances. Though the attack is not common, when
it occurs it is bad, and, unless care is taken, is apt
to recur for some years, though possibly proper treat-
ment of the manure would prevent recurrence. As this
attack only lasts for a few weeks (the grubs are full-fed
about the end of June), the crop may often be saved
by timely dressings of superphosphate, or some good
fertilizer. The figure shows the Beetle and two
slightly different shapes of grub.

CHAFERS.

89

The fourth section is the very important one of the
Lamellicorncs, or Chafers. Some of these do us little
harm, Hke the Stag Beetles, of which the grubs, so far
<is I am aware, live in rotten wood ; or, again, the

Fig. 74. — Field or Garden Chafers : 1 and 2, Anisoplia agricola ;
3, A. horticola, nat. size ; 4 and 5, the same, and grub, mag.

Click or Dor Beetles (Geotrujndcs), which bore down
into the ground, especially where droppings are lying

Fig. 75. — Golden Chafer : Beetle, grub, back of pupa, and earth
cocoon.

in cattle pastures, and carry the dung into the soil as
food for their grubs. But there are many kinds, such
as the Small May-bug or Garden Chafer {Anisoplia

90 BEETLES.

horticola), 3, 4, 5, Fig. 74 (of which the grub does
much harm in pasture land), together with another
much rarer kind, the A. agricola ; also the Common
Cockchafer, the Great Golden Chafer, and others which,
in this country, feed, in the beetle state, on leaves of
trees, or within flowers, and as grubs on the roots of
grass, corn, or other ground crops, as well as trees ;
and, in the colonies, on the roots of Coffee and Sugar-
cane, and altogether cause most serious loss.

The Beetles are generally to be known by having a
club of several leaves on their horns, such as the fan-
like end that we see to the horn of the Cockchafer ; and

Fig. 76. — Club of male, with seven leaves ; club of female, with six
leaves, magnified.

the grubs are large (sometimes as thick as the finger)
and fleshy, with the end of the tail curved downwards
and enlarged, as if it was swollen, so that the grub
usually lies on its side. By this swollen tail and
arched shape, and also by having three pairs of longish
legs and strong jaws, you may commonly know the
Chafer grubs. (See Fig. 6, p. 7.)

The habits of different kinds of Chafers vary in such
matters, as the depth to which the grubs bury them-
selves, or at which they turn to chrysalids, the length
of time they pass in these two states, and also the time
of day, or evening, when the Beetles are at rest, which
is a very important point in regard to getting rid of
them ; but the life-history of the Common Cockchafer
gives a good general idea of that of the kinds that we
are most troubled by. (For figure in three stages, see
p. 80.)

These Beetles appear in early summer, and feed on
leafage of many kinds of trees. The females lay their

CHAFERS. 91

eggs in ground which is either cracked, or will allow
of the female burrowing down into it to lay (the state
and kind of ground is an important matter) ; she lays
from twelve to as many as thirty eggs, from about four
to eight inches deep. The grubs from these hatch in
a few weeks, and feed on roots ; may be devastating
young Fir plantations, or attacking Flax, or Carrots,
or many other crops, or ruining grass fields ; there is
a surprising variety in the kind of crop infested. After
feeding for three or four years, they go as much as two
feet or more down into the ground to turn to chrysa-
lids, from which the Beetles come up in the following
summer, that is, the fourth (or, according to other
opinions, the fifth) summer after they were hatched.

Many of the Chafers only fly at some special time
in the day, and rest during the other hours in the
leafage of trees. The only way that appears known
to get rid of the Beetles is to profit by this habit. Find
what trees they frequent, and at what time they are
resting, and then beat them down. They may be
beaten down on cloths, and gathered up in any conve-
nient way and destroyed ; but it is a simpler plan to
have a drove of pigs in waiting, which will destroy the
Chafers before they can be ready to fly away. This
plan of beating is found to answer both in European
and colonial practice, as it stops present damage to
the leafage, and coming increase from eggs that would
be laid.

One great point is to keep the female from going
doivn into the ground to lay her eggs. Sometimes,
where the soil is of soft vegetable remains (as amongst
the Cofl'ee plantations in Ceylon), it is found that
laying a coat of the clay subsoil on the top answers ;
and, for field treatment, it has been advised to lay a
good covering of some harder material, as marl, or
road-scrapings, on the surface, or to give a top-dressing
of salt or gas-lime, or some application which might
make the surface unsuitable for laying. Probably
gas-lime would be very serviceable, and the washings

92

BEETLES.

down from this would be likely to drive any grubs
near the surface away, for a time at least, and thus
give the crop a respite. Gas-water applied at a
strength which would not hurt the grass has been
found to act w^ell ; the strength, of course, must be
found by trial, as this varies much.

The attack of the grubs to roots of gronnng crops,
whether in the field or of plantation trees, is very
difficult to meet. In plantations the only sure way
appears to be the plan practised in Ceylon, of setting
peoi^le to dig up the grubs with stout wooden pegs, or
any other convenient implement. In this case the
ground should not he disturbed before the worker, but
just sprinkled with lime. The operator then goes
regularly forward, clearing to the depth at which the
grubs lie, and stirring the lime into the soil ; and the
plan is found to answer both in benefit to the trees and
in getting rid of the grub.

With such kinds as the Sugar-cane Chafer {Pentodon
fossator) of Trinidad, which turn to chrysalids just
below the surface of the ground, the plan of turning
them out of their earth-cells by any common agricul-
tural measure answers perfectly, at small cost ; and
where grubs are in unoccupied ground, that is, after
the grass or crop has been killed or gathered, a great
many may be got rid of by ploughing or digging deep
enough to turn them up, and calling in the help of
children to collect and destroy them, or that of the
pigs, which will do much work without pay. The
•wild birds also, such as sea-gulls and rooks, should on
no account be driven away.

There is, however, another treatment, not nearly
enough thought of, which is applicable to all cases of
infested land free of crop, and that is putting on a
heavy killing dressing. Caustic gas -lime may thus be
used, and alkali waste is excellent for the purpose.
These are very much alike in their nature and efi'ects;
at first they destroy everything they touch, whether
plant or insect, and the alkali waste is also used to

CHAFERS. 93^

clean the ground of deep-rooted weeds, such as Couch-
grass, Coltsfoot, and Thistles, and is -washed down by-
rain into the soil so as to make the drains run milky
at a depth of three feet. This is procurable for little
if any outlay beyond cost of carriage from chemical
works, where it is thrown out as waste. Now attention
has been drawn to its value, and it is likely to be made
available. When it (or the gas-lime) has done its
first work in the caustic state, the action of the air
gradually turns the poisonous properties to sulphate
of lime, and they become a good manure of the nature
of gypsum.

If a heavy dressing of this kind was spread on land
infested by any grub at the time when it is near the
surface, and without disturbing the land, we should
thus take it, as it were, unawares, and it would be
destroyed by the poison before it had time to get out
of the way, instead of, as is often the case, being
merely made to go down to a safe depth, from which
it presently comes up again to attack the new crop.

To return to the Chafers. This is one of the classes
of attacks which we can at present only hope to meet by
speciah observations, in cases where as yet the histories
have not been recorded. Where do the Beetles feed ;
what kind of soil do they frequent; are they attracted
hy farm manure '} This is a very important point, for
the grubs of one or more kinds will leave preying on
roots to feed in manure, and it is possible this may
attract the Chafers for egg-laying. All these points
and many more are what we need to know ; and in the
next division of injurious Crop Beetles it will be shown
that equally hurtful attacks are put quite in our power
by a good practical knowledge of these points.

The fifth section of Beetles belonging to the great divi-
sion of the Pentamera, or those having customarily five
joints to their feet (tarsi), is that of Skip- jacks and their
allies, scientifically the Stcrnoxi. These do little if any
harm in the beetle state, but in the grub-state — that
is, as what we know as Wireworms — the mischief

94

BEETLES.

and loss they cause to the country are beyond calcu-
lation.

The Wh-eworms will feed on the roots of almost all
farm crops excepting Mustard, which they frequently
have been found to avoid, and live lor five years before

Fig. 77. — Click Beetles and Wireworms : 1 and 2, Elater Uneatus ;
H and 4, E. obscuriis ; 5 and C, E. Kpiitator, nat. size and magnified;
7, Wireworm of E. ><putator ? 8 and 9, Wireworm of E. Uneatus, nat.
size and magnified ; 10, back of pupa of Wireworm. Lines show nat.
length.

they cease eating to turn to chrysalids, and thence to
Click Beetles. They are of the shape figured, and
commonly of a j^ellowish colour, and take their name
from their great likeness to a short thick piece of
flattened wire. The Click Beetles are of many kinds
(see above figure), commonly about a quarter to half
an inch long, and about a third of that in breadth (of
the shape figured), and of a brownish colour, though
sometimes of a beautiful red, and take their name
from their power of regaining their position when laid
on their backs by a sudden jerk or skip up in the air,
accompanied by a click.

The female Beetle lays her eggs on, or a little below
the surface of the ground, amongst leafage or roots,

WIKEWORM. 95

and especically in such places as grass meadows, or
clover leys, where the surface is undisturbed for a
time, possibly for years, and consequently the ground
below swarms with Wireworms of all ages. When the
pastures are broken up, these tough-skinned grubs are
in no way hurt, but remain in the ground, ready to
feed on each succeeding crop that is put in, until the
time for their change comes.

Clover leys and pastures are the main starting-point
of Wireworm-attack to our field crops, and the method
of treatment may be considered under the two heads :
firstly, how to prevent egg-laying, and clear infested
laud, before re-cropping or sowing ; secondly, how to
lessen ravage, or support the plant under it, if Wire-
worm is found present in the growing crop.

To 2)revent egg-laying the ground should be made as
unsuitable as it can be for the purpose. It is advised
to feed down the grass as bare as possible before
ploughing, or to go further, and pen sheep on it,
gradually moving the hurdles forward, so that every
part of the field may be thoroughly trodden. The
sheep in this case are fed with Turnips and other
regular feeding stuffs, and the amount of liquid and
other manure thus worked into the land, thoroughly
prevents the field being inviting for eggs to be laid on
it, and destroys any eggs that might be on the surface.
Dressing pasture-land with lime brought fresh from the
kiln, and spread hot so as to burn the grass, answers
well. Sowing salt, at the rate of 5 to 8 cwt. per acre,
on grass or ley before breaking up has also been found
to answer, and good dressings of caustic gas-lime, or
of alkali waste strong enough to destroy all live
matter on the surface, are very serviceable. Paring
the surface, and collecting and burning the parings,
gets rid of a deal of Wireworm, if the burning is done
whilst the Wireworm is in it ; and in any case
gathering up the surface rubbish, and burning it, is
useful as a preventive, for, even if the Wireworm his
left the locks of roots for a time, we thus get rid of the

96 BEETLES.

knotted lumps to which it would have presently re-
turned, and which w'ould have kept the land open for
its passage.

The habit of the Wireworm in feeding is to keep
near the surface, gliding about, as its smooth glassy-
surface enables it to do, from one plant to another,
eating out a piece here and a piece there, and thus
injuring the whole crop ; and, if this happens whilst
the crop is in its first growth, the value even of those
plants that struggle through is much lessened. For
this reason the main points, in preparation of ground
to carry the plant over attack, consist in treatment
that will give a good seed-bed, and mixing the soil
with such chemical manures as will be good for the
plant and unsatisfactory at least to the Wireworm ;
also so to clear the ground of rubbish and work it that
it may be sufficiently firm (or admit of being suffici-
ently "firmed" by treatment afterwards) to prevent
the travelling of the Wireworm. For this purpose it
is advised to plough in good time in autumn, and work
the land well so as to get it in good order and conso-
lidated, and either by burning, rotting, or whatever
means may be preferred, 2)i'cv('nt it being kej^t oi)enan(l
full of harbours for Wimvorms ; stubble and roots,
cabbage stalks or bean haulm, and all such matters,
are Wireworm-helpers. If we look down the notes of
special applications found serviceable to plough in, we
see constantly repeated :— salt ; salt ; salt ; gas-lime;
gas-lime ; hot lime ; lime and salt ; and in a less
degree (probably because it is not so well known)
alkali waste is also highly recommended. Kainite
also is useful, and regular fertilisers, as superphos-
phate and also nitrate of soda.* But it is worth

* The reader is requested to observe that I am in no sort of way
advising growing crops, especially Turnips, without a liberal supply
of farm manure, but merely, as my business in the matter is to pomt
out where special pests harbour, I just notice that several of them —
Wireworm amongst others — arc sometimes found in stable, cow-shed,
and other animal manure, and that consequently examination of its
condition, and, if found to be infested, due means of remedy, are
desirable.

WIRE WORM, 97

notice, especially in preparation of ground for Tur-
nips, that there is a great doubt whether Wireworm
is not often encouraged by the use of farm manure.
The Wireworms of two of the commonest kinds of
Click Beetle have been found respectively in dung, and
in well-rotted horse-dung. It is considered by some
farmers that crops so manured are the most infested,
and if we consider that in this manure a large portion
of the material is still unchanged vegetable matter, of
much the same kind as the "Wireworms would natur-
ally feed on, it gives a reason for attention to this
point. Thorough salting of farm manure has been
advised to get over this difficulty. It should also be
remembered, that heaps of decayed turf are head-
quarters of Wireworm, unless treated with caustic
lime, salt, or the like dressings ; also that (take what
pains we will) if grass headlands or grass strips are left
across or by our fields, there we make homes for the
"Wireworms, and they will add all requisite comfortable
provision from oar crops.

The only crop which "Wireworm appears to have
customarily a great objection to is Mustard. This,
therefore, is sometimes useful as a cleaning crop.

When W^ireworm is present, strong fertilisers — such
as nitrate of soda, guano, superphosphate, or others —
are serviceable ; and mechanical means, such as heavy
rolling, are of use, for thus the creature is prevented
travelling, and some of the pests are probably set fast
and killed. Treading by sheep, or cattle, or by the
heavy iron-shod feet of the horses, similarly firms the
soil serviceably.

The Wireworm can be drawn away from the attacked
plants by dressings of rape-cake or Indian rape, that
is, mustard-cake, and in the latter case has been found
by experiment to perish in about a fortnight where it
had no other food, and, connecting this with the power
of Mustard as a cleaning crop, it suggests further ex-
periment would be useful.

These are some of the main points of Wireworm

H

98 BEETLES.

prevention: — Prevent egg-laying ; clear the ground of
Wire worm, and get a good start for the plant ; keep
up the strength of the plant under attack, and keep the
power of the Wireworm in check; and also do not
dress your land with Wireworm, either in
decayed turf or by letting grass homes
for it be amongst your crops. The
subject is one of great importance.*

TJte sixth section, having for the most
part five -jointed feet, includes the Soft-
winged Beetles [Malacodernii) , such as
Glow-worms, and those commonly
known as "Soldiers" and "Sailors";
also the Death-watch Beetles, and
many other kinds of wood-boring
■^'VeeS.^"" Beetles. But, excepting a kind in-
jurious to Easpberry plants {By turns
tomentosus) , I am not aware of their attacks being
serious to fruit or crops.

In some years, as in 1891, these " Easpberry Bee-
tles " do great harm in Easpberry plantations. They
come out in the spring and attack the buds and
blossoms, but this is not all. The maggots which
hatch from the eggs laid by the female Beetle beside
the young forming fruit, feed within it till it and they
reach maturity, and thus cause a second series of
losses. When mature they leave the fruit, and turn to
pupal state in cocoons under Easpberry bark, or some
shelter about the bushes, from which the yellowish
downy Beetles come out in spring. The most satis-
factory remedy appears to be shaking the infested
shoots over bags soaked in paraffin oil.

Some of the Beetles of this section of Malacoderms
feed, in beetle or larval state, on living insects ; some
on bones, dry skins or carcases ; some in standing or

* Full notes by good agriculturists are to be found in the ' Journal
of the Koyal Agricultural Society,' part I., for 1883, and iilso in my
' Keport on Wireworm in Observations of Injurious Inseci lor 1882/
iiublished in 1883.

KASPBERRY BEETLE.

99

•manufactured timber, as furniture, or rafters, where
they do boundless mischief.

Amongst these the presence of the so-called Death-
watch, the Anohium tessellatum, maybe easily detected

Fig. l^.—Byturus tomentosus, " Easpberry Beetles," much magni-
fied, with line showing nat. length ; maggot, magnified, with line
showing nat. length, after sketch by Prof. Westwood. Easpberry
fruit.

by the dust thrown out from their little round shot-
hole-like burrows in chairs or tables, and may be as
easily cured or prevented by plentiful use of oil and
turpentine.

The Xijlehorus (or Bostrichus) dispar, more conveni-
ently known as the " Shot-borer" Beetle, is noticeable
for its rapid power of destruction of living trees. The
very small dark brown Beetles drive their tunnels so as,
in the case of quite young trees, partially to ring them,
and to clear out an inch or so of the central pith, besides
running other galleries, so that the tree perishes with
a rapidity quite unaccountable until the presence of
the infestation is found out. The Beetles are remark-
able for their "disparity" of size and shape, whence
the specific name. The female is about the eighth of
an inch long, with the thorax (or fore body) large in

100

BEETLES.

proportion, and raised in the middle so as to form a
kind of hump ; the male is only about two-thirds the
length of the female, and wider in proportion, and

E.O

Fig. 80. — Xylehonis dispar : Male and female Beetle, magnified ;
lines showing nat. length. Plum stems, showing horizontal and per-
pendicular galleries.

flatter. Multiplication takes place in the tunnels bored
by the parent Beetles, and in September the boringa
may be found so crowded with Beetles that there is
not room for another specimen.

This is an example of the class of attacks in which
the wisest course is to cut down the attacked tree and
burn it as soon as the presence of the infestation is
observed. It is no waste, for where the tree is to a
great extent ringed and the pith cleared, its death

PEAE- SHAPED "WEEVIL.

101

rapidly follows. The attack has hitherto been exceed-
ingly rare in this country, but in 1889 did a consider-
able amount of damage to young Plum trees in two or
three localities in the West of England; but by
prompt measures the further spread of the pest was
prevented.

CHAPTEK VI.

BEETLES [COLEOPTERA).

(continued).

Weevils, Turnip Flea Beetles, &c.

Fig. 81. — Pear-shaped Weevils : 6, 7 , Apion apricans ; 2 — 5, maggot
and pupa; 8, 9, A. asauiUle; — all nat. size and magnified; 1, maggot
feeding, magnified.

102 BEETLES.

The Weevils and their allies, and the Turnip Flea
Beetles and their allies, are what next require especial
attention ; but a few observations on the other main
divisions are necessary so as to give a connected idea
of the arrangement of this great order of Beetles to
those who may wish to carry the study further.

We have in the preceding Chapter noticed the kinds
that most concern us in the first of the four large
divisions, namely, those known by having five joints
to each foot (Pentamera) .

The next division is knoivn by having Jive joints to the
feet of the tivo front pairs of legs, and four only to the
feet of the hinder pair {Heteromera) . This includes
Beetles of very various shapes and colours. Amongst
these are the Tenehrio molitor, the parent of the Meal-
worm (for reference to figure see list of illustrations) ;.
the slow-moving black "Cellar" or Churchyard Beetle
(B^a^js), with their wing-cases soldered together ; the
beautiful and active red Cardinal Beetles {Pyrochroa),
and the bright green Blister Beetle, formerly Cantharis,
now Lytta versicatoria.

TJie third division of the order of Beetles, that of the
Tetramera or Pseudo-tetramera, ichich have apparently
four joints to their feet (see 8, Fig. 86), is very impor-
tant agriculturally. It includes the Weevils ; the
Long-horned Beetles, which mainly frequent timber ;
and the Turnip Flea Beetles.

Of this division the Fihynehnphora, or Weevils, is the
first in order. Weevils may generally be known by
the head having a proboscis, or snout. This is some-
times short and broad ; sometimes curved and narrow,
and nearly as long as the whole body; and on the side
of this snout the horns are placed. These are com-
monly what is called " elbowed"; that is, the lowest
joint is long, and the others are joined to it at an
angle. Many of our crop Weevils are small, some
only about the twelfth of an inch long, few as long as
a common Wasp. They are usually very hard, and
much rounded at the sides ; and though some are

NUT WEEVIL. 103

specially named pear-shaped Weevils, this idea of the
shape of a pear would fairly describe the general shape
of many of this section. (See Fig. 81.)

The grubs, as far as they are known, are much like
the well-known grub of the Nut Weevil. They are
white and fleshy, often much wrinkled across, and
legless. They are usually a little bent together (like

Fig. 82. — Nut Weevil, masr. ; maggot, nat. size and mag. ; pupa, nat.
size. Filbert pierced by Weevil.

Cockchafer grubs), and have a horny head furnished
with jaws. The pupaB are like the Weevils they will
turn to, but with the limbs beneath them, and
inactive.

The habits of the Weevils differ very much : some
of the timber Weevils attack the trees in a completely
different way, according to whether they are feeding,
or boring for egg-laying ; others, such as the Turnip
and Cabbage-gall Weevils, cause root-galls by the
irritation set on foot by the egg, which they place in
the root ; but whether the Weevil does much harm or
not, the grub is always hurtful, and there are many
attacks which have so much in common that they
may be classed together to be got under by one kind
of remedy.

We may first notice some of the attacks that can be
lessened by shaking down the Weevils.

104

BEETLES.

The Apple-blossom Weevil (Anthoiiomus pomorum)
does much harm by laying its eggs in unopened Apple-
buds, where the maggot feeds, and thus destroys the
young forming fruit. This Weevil shelters itself
during winter under clods of earth and rubbish, and
also beneath rough bark on the tree (so that keeping
rough ground and bark in order serves much to

Fig. 83. — Apple-blossom Weevil, maggot and pupa, nat. size and
magnified; infested Apple -bud.

diminish their numbers) ; but further, it comes out in
the spring, and the females, it is stated, rarely fly, but
crawl on the branches, and drop down on being
alarmed.* By working on this habit of the Apple -

* In the life-history of this insect by John Curtis, he says : — " In
March, when the flower buds are swelling, the Beetles emerge from
their retreats, when the males are seen in sunny mornings flying
amongst the trees in search of the females, who generally are crawling
over the branches, although they are also furnished with wings."
Also, in the same paper (in the ' Gardener's Chron.' for 18 li, p. 556),
John Curtis says, " From various statements it seems that the females
will not readily lly, and as they crawl up the trees their incursions
may be stopped and the crops saved by winding tarred bandages round
the upper portion of the trunks." This point of the female Beetle
rarely flying is mentioned also by Schmidberger ; but in a series of
observations made at one locality in Kent in 18'.)0, it appeared that
females might then be found on the wing. \s, however, the obser-
vations from which I gave the note of habits in my first edition, and
also the beneficial effects of jarring to throw down the Weevils, stand
on such good authority, I think it best to leave the above passage
almost unaltered.

PITCHY-LEGGED WEEVILS. 105

lilossom Weevil (and of some other kinds), we may
clear many sorts of fruit trees and bush fruit simply
by jarring the boughs. Thus the Weevil falls, and
we only need to use such plans as common sense will
teach us, to keep it from getting back again. With
the Apple Weevil, or those that are shaken down from
the trees, such methods as putting a rough rope, or a
ring of anything they will not cross on the ground,
round the trunk, answer well. This may be made of
twisted hay (or anything preferred), which has been
dipped in spirits of tar, or in tar and coarse oil, so
that it may keep wet and sticky ; or caustic gas-lime
may be shovelled round, of course taking care not to
hurt the bark.

In Cornwall, where the Pitchy-legged Weevils, or
other kinds of Otiorhynclms, injure the fruit to an
extent causing serious loss in the great Easpberry
gardens, it is found to answer well for men to go round
with freshly tarred boards, place the boards below a
bush and shake ; the Weevils fall on the tar and stick
to it. Thus, clearing the Weevils and retarring the
boards frequently, the Weevils are got rid of at a
paying rate.

The principle of alarming the Weevils, so as to
make them fall, may be applied to many kinds of
Weevil attack, bearing in mind that the Weevils com-
monly fall oil the first alarm ; and we must give a
little attention to their habits, or they may all have
dropped down and secured themselves before we have
set about frightening them in full form.

The Otiorhynchi (the Vine and Pitchy-legged Wee-
vils) feed by night, and on the gleam of a light they
will drop ; therefore if a lantern is taken to begin
operations with we are apt to find nothing to catch.

Several kinds of Weevils feed on Peas, Beans, and
Clover leaves, doing thereby most serious harm.

The terribly destructive Pea Weevils (see Fig. 84,
p. 106) were formerly supposed to feed only by day ;
then they fall at the vibration of a foot, and bury

106

BEETLES.

themselves. There may have been hundreds a minute
before, but you will very likely not see one ; but beat
the ground with a spade and you will most likely see
them all struggling up out of the earth again. More
recently, however, observations have shown that they
may be found at night working at the edges of the
leaves, and then it is stated they are not nearly so.
susceptible of alarm.

Up to the year 1882 nothing was known as to the

Fig. 84. — Pea and Bean Weevils, nat. size and magnified; 1,2,
Sitones crinitiis ; 3, 4, S. lineatits, nat. size and magnified.

early history of these Sitones, but in that year (from
different field observations) it was found that they
lived in maggot state on the roots of the plants of'
which the Beetles devour the leafage, and that they
went into pupa at the roots. These observations,
made by Mr. Christy in Essex, and Mr. Thos. Hart
in Kent, may be well pointed to as examples of the
great benefit accruing from field observations of agri-
culturists, instead of simply trusting to instruction
to be gained from lectures or so-called " scientific "
instruction ! All true teaching is good, but it should
never be forgotten that what is called scientific
teaching, in agricultural matters, is the recorded result
of observation, or of deductions from observations.
The practical observation of to-day, when it has beeri'

PEA AND BEAN WEEVILS. 107"

verified and put in form, becomes the " scientific "
instruction of a later date.

Returning now to the ravages of the Sitones, com-
monly known as " Pea and Bean Weevils," these may
be told by the semicircular scoops eaten out of the
leaves. We find these attacks the worst to the leaf-
age of young plants, especially when, from weather or
other circumstances, the plant is kept back, so that it
cannot grow away from them ; but the Weevils are to
be found in legions later in the year, and sweeping
these up, as they are to be found in the waggons when
Clover or Peas are being carried, would get rid of some
amount of coming attack. The main point we seem
to need here is to prevent the settlement of the
autumn brood of Beetles. These fly well, and have
been found to shelter themselves in the top joint of
Corn stubble, and from this they come out to set on
foot attack in Trifolium, or Clover, drilled after. Also
it has been noticed that where W^heat-sheaves stood
long in harvest-time, the Clover on these spots was
free from attack in the following spring, although
that on the rest of the field was attacked. Acting on
these observations, skimming the surface stubble, so as
to get rid of the shelter, has been considered useful ;
and a good liming, or other chemical dressing, much
of which would go into the stubble and make it a very
undesirable home for the Weevil, would help us. All
measures which will push on good growth are valuable
preventives in this case ; and in gardens it would pro-
bably do a deal of good to lay the drawn and useless
haulm along the rows, with any dry rubbish, and burn
it. It appears to be the nature of this Weevil to come
up, not to go down, on alarm ; and we might thus
clear out the parents of the next spring's attack.

The small long-snouted *' Pear-shaped " Clover
Weevil, Apion apricans (see Fig. 81, p. 101), also does
much harm to Clover leafage; but in this case the grub
lives in the seed-head, and feeds on the young forming
seed; and the best known method of prevention is

108

BEETLES.

cutting the Clover before the flower is fully out.
These Pear-shaped Weevils (Apioiis) are so very small
that they are hardly observable, but the damage to
the leafage, or patches of brownish heads in a field in
flower, shows where they are at work.

There is yet one more of the common Weevil attack
of the Bean crops to notice ; it is that of a small
short- snouted Weevil (black with brown hairs and

Fig. 85. — 1-8, Bean Beetles, grub and pupa, nat. size and mag. ;
injured Beans ; 9 and 10, Pea Beetle, nat. size and magnified ; 11,
injured Pea.

white markings), which is often found inside Broad
Beans, with no signs outside of how it got there. The
attack happens thus : — When the Bean-pod is still in
its very youngest state, even still in the blossom, the
Ijcetle lays its egg there; the maggot, which hatches
from it, lies in one of the young Beans in the pod, but
the hole by which the egg was put in, or the maggot
crept in, is so small that it grows up completely with
the growth of the Bean. When the Beans are ripe

BEAN BEETLE. 109'

and garnered, the maggot is there too. It feeds
"within ; and though it does not prevent the Bean
sprouting, yet it lessens the size of the seed-leaves,
and consequently weakens the first growth, and thus
damages the strength of the future plant. Here one
good method of prevention is to examine a sample
seed, to find whether it is infested. The maggot turns
to a Beetle within the seed ; but before it does this it
eats a tunnel to the outside, only just leaving the outer
skin at the end. This, having nothing behind it, sinks
in, as if a knitting-needle had been slightly pressed on
it. By this little round dented-in mark you may know
infested seed ; if, instead of the mark, there is a small
round hole, the Beetle has completed its work within,
and has gone. By these two marks you may judge as
to the state of the seed ; and further, if there should
be the mark showing the Beetle is still within, it is
unsafe to sow, as attack will follow. The Beetles will
presently come out, and as soon as the Beans in which
they were sown have grown, and are in flower, their
sometime tenants will mount to the blossoms, and lay
eggs to start a new attack. The Bean Beetles begin
to appear in February, and for this reason autumn-
sown Beans are the most likely to be infested, as the
Beetles are still within.

During the last few years it has been found that
dressing infested Beans, before sowing, with a mixture
of 1 lb. blue vitriol, and 1 pint of McDougall's sewage
carbolic to 6 quarts of water, answered well. The
above mixture is enough for six bushels of Beans.

The Cabbage and Turnip Gall Weevils do harm
under ground. The female lays her egg on the root
or the under-ground part of the stem, or in a hole in
it which she forms with her snout ; and in consequence
of the irritation thus set up the small lumps form,
which we know as Galls. In each of these the mag-
got hatched from the egg feeds, until it is full fed.
Then it gnaws its way out and forms an earthen case,
in which it turns to a pupa, and thence to a Weevil.

110

BEETLES.

The maggot does not care for cold. It will mend
its earthen case if it is broken ; and even if it is buried
by the galls on the Cabbage stalks being dug in, it
appears to thrive as well as if they were still growing.
Therefore, it is a great object to get rid of all nurseries

Fig. 86. — Turnip Gall Weevil and maggot, nat. size and magnified.

Leg of Weevil, magnified. Turnip Galls.

of future attack by burning or otherwise destroying
old stems with galls, instead of throwing them to a
rubbish-heap or digging them in ; and a change of
crop is useful, by presenting food that they cannot
eat, or find useful to lay eggs in, to the Gall Weevils
that may be waiting in the ground.

These Gall attacks are not very injurious in them-
selves, but in the case of Cabbage they are often found
in connection with Club. They do not directly cause
it. The two attacks are quite different, one l3eing a
diseased growth set up from insect attack, the other
a diseased growth from presence of a fungus, scientifi-
cally the Plasmodiophora hrassicce, popularly a slime-
fungus. This fungus exists in the soil, and when
established is very difticult to be got rid of, and re-
mains of infested roots, that is. Cabbage roots with
"club," or Turnip roots with "anbury," propagate
it largely.* One great preventive of recurrence of

* When the series of Lectures, of which this little volume is a
republication, were given by myself, in 1883, the fact of "club" and
" anbury" being originated by fungoid presence was not, so far as I
am aware, generally known in this country. A very good chapter on

TURNIP GALL WEEVIL. Ill

attack is gas-lime, which is also good as a preventive
of the Gall Weevil attack.

Dressings of lime are very serviceable to prevent
these kinds of attack, both in Cabbage and Turnip.
Gas-lime and wood-ashes are also good preventives,
and probably kainite, which contains much potash,
■and which is not nearly as much used as it ought to
be, would be very useful. Marl or fresh soil is useful
in old garden ground, and deep trenching, which
throws fresh soil to the top, and buries the Weevil
maggots so deeply that the Weevils from them have
not strength to come up through the soil above them,
is also a good treatment.

Before going on, it may be well to notice that these
notes of method of attack are not offered as complete
accounts of the history and method of prevention of
any of the attacks, but as instances of special points
to be looked to — of habits, that is — that many crop
pests have in common, and of means of treatment, of
which some one or other may be serviceable for the
■attacks of many insects.

In many of the Weevil attacks which we have been
studying, treatment of the surface of the ground is a
great point ; as, for instance, where they shelter
under rubbish, or down stubble, to clear away these
shelters, and put on dressings which will be thoroughly
obnoxious to the Weevils, is good treatment. Where
the Weevils, or their grubs, are in the ground, it
obviously is well to turn them out on the surface, or
bury them by trenching so deeply that they cannot
come up ; and also, so to dig in, or otherwise apply,
€hemical manures, as to make the soil unpleasant at
least to the pest, and so good for the plant that it
may grow away from attack.

the subject will be found in 'Diseases of Field and Garden Crops,' by
Worthington G. Smith, pp. 94 — 104, published in 1884. Various
conditions of land or chemical manures were known to affect amount
of " club," but, as far as I am aware, it was not known that these
acted not so much by immediate effect on the plant as by destruction
■of the slime-fungus. — Ed.

112

BEETLES.

It is in working such points as these that true service-
able plans of insect prevention co7isist. We need to
know the habits of the crop "pests." If we can get
them told to us on application, or can study them
in published accounts, of course it saves time and
trouble ; but still these accounts, if they are worth
our study, are drawn up from observations of habits,
just such as we are able to make for ourselves ; and
if those who depend for their livelihood on the growth

Fig. 87. — Elm-bark Beetle, magnified ; and maggot workings in
Elm bark.

of their crops could bo induced to believe in their
own powers of gaining the needed information, and to
use this, as their knowledge of farm operations would

ELM-BARK BEETLE.

113

point out could be done, it would be an enormous
saving to them and to the nation.

But to return to Weevil attacks. There is a class
of Weevils which do much barm to some of our forest
trees, which may be just alluded to, as the carrying
out of farm service much depends on sufficient timber
supply.

Fig. 87 shows workings of the Elm-bark Beetle
(much like those of the Pine-bark Beetle) ; and
Fig. 88, of the Ash-bark Beetle, which has the
entrance-tulmel in the centre, and is then forked.

These various Beetles burrow under the bark, or
rather between the wood and the bark, and form
tunnels an inch to two or more in length, and along
each side of these the female lays her eggs. Each
grub hatched from these eats for itself a tunnel, run-
ning more or less at right angles with the mother's
gallery, and at the end of these tunnels the grubs
turn to chrysalids, from which, when the Beetles
develop, they gnaw their way through the bark.

— Maggot workings in Ash bark

These Beetles mainly attack, for egg-laying, either
newly-felled trees, or unhealthy timber, or broken
timber or stumps left lying about; but though in

114

BEETLES.

this respect they do little harm, yet in other parts of
their life they do great damage.

One kind of Pine Beetle bores up the shoots, and
another devours the leafage ; the Elm-bark Beetle
hastens the death of many a tree, which would have
stood long without the attack ; and the Ash-bark
Beetle pierces into good wood for its winter shelter.
It is highly desirable, therefore, not to allow useless
wood to be about, or infested logs, or trees to remain
to attract or spread attack; but the details of this
forest management we have not space for now.

The next section of beetles of the division of the
Tetramera, or Pseudo-tetramera, is that of the Long-
horned Beetles (Longicornes), of which the grubs

Fig. 89.— Musk Beetle.

chiefly frequent timber. The Musk Beetle (Aromia
moschata), the narrow dark green Beetle, about an
inch, or rather more, in length, with two long thread-
like horns, gives a general idea of the appearance of
the Beetles of this section ; but we will pass on to
the more important one, to us, of the Turnip Flea
Beetles and their allies {Eupoda or Phytophaga).

OAT BEETLE. 115

This tenth section, the third section of the division of
the Tetramera, includes — besides the Turnip Flea
Beetles, and some other kinds very like them, which

Fig. 90.— Oat Beetle, nat. size and mag. ; 2, grub ; 3, cocoon.

feed on Hop— the Mustard Beetles (Fig. 91, p. 116),
and others which feed (as the Oat Beetle) on the leaf-
age of various field or garden crops, or on trees.*

We may know them, firstly, by their (apparently)
four-jointed feet ; and from the other two sets of
Beetles of this four-jointed division we may know
them by never having snouts like the Weevils, and by
(generally) not having long horns. They are com-
monly of small size, oval shape, and bright colour,

* The attack of this Beetle may be known by the brownish slug-like
grub eating the skin of the leaf in lines, as shown in the figure. The
Beetle is not uncommon from spring to autumn on corn or rushes.
It is of a deep greenish blue, with reddish orange fore body, and some-
what less than a quarter of an inch long. See Curtis's ' Farm Insects,'
p. 307.

116

BEETLES.

with the head sunk into the fore part of the body up
to the eyes.

The figures will give a better idea of the appearance
of these Beetles than any description.

Fig. 91. — Mustard Beetle, nat. size and magnified ; grub, magnified.

The Turnip Flea Beetles are well known for their
leaping powers. They live during winter under clods^
or in dry stone walls, or any convenient shelter, and

Fio. 92. — Turnip Flea Beetle, eggs, maggot, and pupa; nat. size
and magnified.

come out with sunshine in spring. Then they feed
on any plant of the Cabbage kind ; Charlock is an

TURNIP FLEA BEETLE. 117

•especial favourite, until the young Turnip plants are
come up. Presently they lay their eggs (if on Turnips)
on the under side of the rough leaf, and from these
the grub eats its way into the leaf, within which it
feeds for about six days. It then comes out, buries
itself in the ground, and turns to the chrysalis, from
which the Beetle appears in about a fortnight, ready
to begin a new attack.

The first point in prevention is to take care there is
as little winter shelter as possible. Lumps of manure
and clods of earth on the field ; heaps of stones and
rubbish, such as are often allowed to lie in corners of
fields ; large amount of dead leaves on the borders of
woods ; and dry dykes, or open stone walls — are all
winter shelters.

Another point is to let there be as few weeds as
possible to keep the " Fly " alive. If it does not find
suitable food it will die, or remove itself. It has a
power of perceiving where its food is; and such plants
as Charlock, or the white-flowering Jack-by-the-Hedge,
or Shepherd's Purse, will all help to keep it alive till
our Turnips are ready. Thus we may lessen the
amount of coming attack ; but the great point to de-
pend on for carrying the Turnip crop through " Fly "
attack is judicious preparation of the ground, — plen-
tiful supply of enrichment, including a good amount
of artificial manure, and liberal supply of seed.

The " Fly " does most harm to the Turnips whilst
they are still in the seed-leaves ; therefore all means
should be used to give a good start, and run the plant
on in a hearty growth. For this purpose the land
should be well prepared beforehand. Where climate
allows, autumn cultivation is best. Thus the surface
soil is broken down by the winter frosts, and there is
a good tilth on the surface, with absence of the clods
which shelter Fly and cause a dry top, instead of
the evenly evaporating surface which suits the young
Turnips. When thus cultivated beforehand, the
land does not require ploughing again in spring ;

118 BEETLES.

scarifying is enough ; and thus the supplies of
moisture which have gathered below the surface-
during the winter remain undisturbed ; whereas if the
ploughs are put in, the soil is turned up to a much
greater depth, and instead of a mellowed surface with
good moisture below, we part with the stores which,,
in a dry season, would have made all the difference of
life or death to the crop. The Turnip plant is of such
a succulent nature, that the point of supplying it with
enough moisture is one of the main things in all
methods of starting it.

It is advised to let the land remain untouched for a
few days before drilling, with a view to the surface-
not being dried by exposure just before sowing ; and
the effect of what seems just the opposite treatment, —
namely, to sow at once, when partly rotted manure i&
l^loughed in, in spring, — is, for the same reason, to se-
cure the moisture. But whenever it may be necessary
to work the land, one great point is to secure such a
state of under soil and upper tilth as will push the
plant on; and by no means trust to a mere good tilth,
if it is gained, as is sometimes done, by turning the
land over in the sunshine and heat until we fairly see
the dust rising, and, as it has been well remarked, it
is as dry as if we were making hay. Turnip Fly
delights in heat and drought, and the Turnips in just
the opposite.

Liberal seeding — 3 lbs. or more per acre — answers
well ; for if Fly comes there is a good chance of some
of the plants escaping, and if it does not the surplus
quantity may easily be removed. In either case, the
large number of plants helps towards a hearty start,
as the many small leaves prevent the moisture beneath
evaporating, as it \vould from bare earth, and thus
keep a damp air beneath the leaves. Good seed is
also very important, so that it may sprout at once,
and with vigour.

To gain this hearty and rapid growth through the
time of the seed-leaves is one of the reasons of apply-

TURNIP FLEA BEETLE. 119

ing artificial manure before sowing, or drilling it
together with the seed. A few hundredweights of
superphosphate, or other manure suitable to the land,
even if there is a good supply of farm manure also,
will run the plant on rapidly through the growth of
the seed-leaves ; and when the rough leaves are come
the greatest danger is past.

"Where a crop hangs back, the use of the water-cart
has been found useful, and also putting in the seed
with the water-drill ; but if weather should be dry at
the time of sowing, there is fear of the small supply of
moisture put in by the water-drill causing harm (by
the mere temporary effect) rather than permanent
growth.

When attack is present, various fertilisers have been
found to do good by pushing the plant on ; but all
applications intended to serve by removing " Fl}^," or
killing it, should be used either when the deiv is on at
night or early morning, or during damp by day.

The Turnip Fly leaps away when it finds attack
coming ; but if the dew or slight rain is on it, it can-
not leap, because the moisture clogs the hind legs, by
means of which it takes its great springs. Therefore,
such measures as driving sheep through infested fields,
or laying on special dressings, often fail, because they
may have been done at the time when the Fly is well
able to avoid receiving harm. Turnip Fly attack is
one of those that it would be well to enter on, if possible,
in full detail, as an instance of those which only last
for a short time, and which we conquer by methods
having for the most part very little to do with the in-
sect itself. We know that the Turnip is chiefly in
danger whilst in the seed-leaves ; we know exactly
what will suit its growth in this state, and we make
ready the ground accordingly ; also we clear away
weeds which would support the "Fly" when the crops
are not present for it to feed on.

These principles may serve also in treatment of the
Mustard-seed Beetle (Fig. 91, p. 116). This shelters

120

BEETLES.

much in old Mustard straw ; this straw, therefore,
should be destroyed ; also the old reeds by ditches,
where it harbours, and the ditch-growing plants, such
as Brooklime and others, on which it feeds in spring,
should not be allowed to get numerous. Sowing as
early as possible, and sowing Brown instead of White
Mustard, because it comes earliest of the two, and
thus avoiding the special season of attack, are found to
answer ; and also a vigorous growth, such as will not
go down at once before attack, is of great use. But,
in the case of this plant, which is grown to a great
extent in special districts, one great means of preven-
tion is more frequent change of crop.

FiQ. 'J3.— Ladybirds : chrysalis, egg, and grub, nat. size and mag.

This point of rotation of crop as a means of insect
prevention will be alluded to presently.

The remaining division of Beetles is the section of
the Trimcra (or Pscudo-trimera) , which includes those
which have apparently only three joints to their tarsi.
" They are, however, really composed of four joints,
the second, which is bilobed, receiving the very minute
third, and the base of the apical joint."— E. C. Rye.

The most important family in this section is that of
the Coccinelluhe, which includes the well-known Lady-
bird Beetles, ligured above. The common red and
black-spotted kinds of these Beetles are very familiar.

LADYBIRDS. 121

and the figure shows the appearance of their six-
footed slaty and orange-spotted grubs. Both as
Beetles and grubs they feed on Aphides of various
kinds, and are of such great service in keeping
down the Hop Aphis that they should never, on any
account, be destroyed. They are best known with us
for their serviceableness in keeping down Aphides or
Plant Lice ; but it is not only limited to this, and in
other countries two distinct species are of great
service in lessening amount of presence of the so-
called "Australian IBug," the fluted or Woolly Scale-
insect.

122

CHAPTER VII.
BUTTERFLIES and MOTHS (LEPIDOPTERA).

Cabbage Butterflies, Surface Caterpillars,
Weather Effects, &c.

Fig. 94. — 1-4, Large "White Cabbage Butterfly : eggs, caterpillar, and
chrysalis.

Before continuing this course of observations I wish
once again to draw attention to their object being not
so much to give an account of the different kinds of
insects which attack our crops, as of the chief different
methods of attack. Thus, by studying the points of
some one kind of attack, we see for ourselves that all
other attacks which have the same chief points may
be lessened by the same kind of treatment. For
instance, whether it is grub or caterpillar, or beetle^

CATERPILLAES. 123

that is feeding on leafage of trees, if we can make
them fall, and prevent them going back again, one
principle of treatment will answer for them all ; and
thus it is in many other cases.

Therefore, in the little space which can be given
here to a very large subject, I am, as far as is possible,
describing the chief different kinds or classes of attack,
and taking some of the worst as ])atterns or examples
of how treatment has been found to answer in these
cases, but by no means alluding to each separate kind
of insect.

We will now go on to some of the main points in the
habits of the order of Butterflies and Moths {Lepi-
doptera), and observe how far treatment can be brought
to bear on the ravages of their caterpillars or grubs.

Fig. 95. — Caterpillar of Goat Moth.

We know them by sight too well to need to spend time
in description, and we may in many cases know their
caterpillars from those of the beetles we have just been
studying by their larger number of sucker feet. Be-
sides three pairs of claw feet, and usually a pair of
sucker feet at the end of the tail, Moth and Butterfly
caterpillars have for the most part from one to four
pairs of sucker feet beneath the body; most commonly
they have four pairs of these prolegs or sucker feet.
They have heads furnished with jaws, and are often
very prettily coloured, and sometimes beset with spines,
sometimes thickly coated with hairs, sometimes with
tubercles. When full-fed they moult off their cater-
pillar-skin and appear as chrysalids, with the forming
limbs beneath them, but all still soft and incomplete.
A kind of gum exudes from the surface, which, by

124

BUTTEKFLIES AND MOTHS.

gradually hardening, protects the insect within, and
from this case of thin cement the Butterfly or Moth
makes its way out when fully formed in all but the
•expansion of the wings. These, however, very soon
spread to their full extent, and the insect is then
•complete.

Fig. 90.— Green-veined WTiite Butterfly : 1, female; 2, egg; 3, cater-
pillar ; 4, chrysalis.

In a general way Butterflies may be known from
Moths by having thin long horns ending in a kind of
club-like swelling ; also by being day-flyers, and by
the habit, when at rest, of setting their wings upright.

N-N.

Fig. 07.— Lobster Moth.

Moths usually rest with their wings spread flatly; they
have horns of many different forms, some long and
thin, some comb-like, others like feathers, and also they

CHRYSALIDS.

125"

often fly at dusk rather than by day, and many are of
a much heavier and thicker make than the Hght
graceful Butterflies.

The Butterfly chrysalids (see Fig. 94) may be known
from those of Moths by being much more angular,
the rows of ridges scooped out or interrupted at dis-
tances, sometimes giving almost the appearance of
prickles; -whilst the Moth chrysalids are oval and
smoother.

Fig. 98. — Buft-tip Moth : calerpillar and chrysalis.

Chrysalids vary very much in their method of rest
during this stage. Some, like the Cabbage chrysalis,
are slung up by a silken girdle passed round what we
may call the waist, which was spun by the creature
when about to cast off its caterpillar-skin, as a support
during the coming helpless stage ; some hang by the
end of the tail from webs ; and many go through their
change in a silken cocoon (spun like that of the Silk-
worm by a thread from the mouth), or in earth-cells
below the surface of the ground.

In this order a very large part of what we can do to
prevent coming attack depends on our knowledge of
where the caterpillar turns to the chrysalis state ;
that is, whether it buries itself, or forms a cocoon, or
hangs itself up in sheltered nooks.

126 BUTTERFLIES AND MOTHS.

In the case of the White Cabbage Butterflies, of
•which the caterpillars often do serious mischief in
gardens, they have been found not to do so much harm,
in proportion to field Cabbage, because the caterpillars
choose a dry, well- sheltered place to change in. For
this they crawl away from their food-plants, and hang
themselves by a silken band under eaves, palings, or
the like shelter, out of doors, or in any neglected cor-
ners in garden-sheds, where they are allowed accom-

FiG. 99. — Small White Cabbage Butterfly : catei'iDillar, and chrysalis.

modation, and much may be done to lessen amount of
attack simply by tidiness. The collections of old
brooms, bits of wood, and dry rubbish of every kind in
which they shelter are much better away, whether in-
doors or out ; and a brush, taken along angles and in
corners, and under stairs, ladders, beams, &c., in
garden-sheds, will sometimes clear the chrysalids out
by the handful. A search of this kind between the
time of the first and second brood in summer, and
some time between November and March, would do
much good.

It is an excellent principle to keep down the effect
of insect-attack by broad measures of agricultural
treatment which will carry the plant well on away
from the power of the insect ; but at the same time it
should not be forgotten that when there are a great

DEATH S HEAD MOTH.

127

number of large caterpillars or chrysalids plainly
to be Been, and easily to be laid hold of — whether
with fingers or by other means — the best thing to
do is, forthwith, to lay hold of them. In some cases
band-picking is perfectly ridiculous, but in some it is

Fig, 100. — Death's Head Moth and caterpillar.

not only a sure cure, but a very cheap one. It does
not follow because it is hand-picking that the cater-
pillars, or what not, are to be taken off one by one, or
that men, at a man's proper wage, are to be employed ;
but if children are shown precisely what they are to
do, and paid so much per hundred or per pint, they
will soon prove of great service. In Germany hand-
picking is much used. It is noticed at what time of
day the moth or beetle, or whatever it may be, is most
sluggish ; commonly this is on damp, sunless days, or
early in the morning. When it is known what the
best time is, the women or children shake the attacked

128

BUTTEKFLIES AND MOTHS.

plants above baskets, or above anything that will
catch the falling creatures, be they caterpillars or
anything else, and thus at a small sum they are
collected and destroyed.

There are not many kinds of hutterflij caterpillars
which are hurtful to crops in England ; but amongst
the hosts of different kinds of moth caterpillars that
cause great loss, about the very largest of all, which
is that of the Death's Head Moth, is best got rid of by
hand-picking. This sometimes does much harm to

Fig. 101.— Eyed Hawk Moth.

Potatoes by feeding on the leafage. The caterpillar is
as much as four or five inches long, and as thick as
a finger. It is yellowish, with slanting blue or
blackish and white stripes on the side, and, like most
of the caterpillars of this family of Hawk or Sphinx
Moths, has a kind of horn-like growth, like a short
curved and pointed tail. The richly-coloured brownish
Moth is the largest of the British kinds ; it is known
by its back being marked with a figure like a skull,
whence its common name of Death's Head Moth.

The caterpillar usually hides by day, and feeds in
the evening or at night ; therefore, when great harm
is found to be going on (either in this case or others
like it) from an unseeen enemy, it is well for some
trustworthy person to watch at dusk or dawn for what

HORNET CLEARWING. 129

is going forward, and with large creatures like these
caterpillars a very small quantity of light will be
enough to see them by, as they gently move the leafage
in feeding. When full-fed the caterpillar goes down
into the ground to change ; therefore turning up the
chrysalids is an easy measure of prevention with this
Potato-feeder.

This family of Sphinx, or Hawk Moth, are chiefly of
large size, and of the shape of the Eyed Hawk Moth

Fig. 102. — Hornet Clearwing.

(Fig. 101). The caterpillar of this feeds on Apple and
"Willow, and is rough, of a pale green with white
stripes on the side, and has a blue tail. The cater-
pillars of the Sphinxes are mostly much like this, and
the caterpillar of the Death's Head, in shape ; and this
family deserves a word on account of its great
beauty.

The habits of the various kinds of Moth caterpillars
do not differ so much among themselves as those of
Beetle grubs. Some caterpillars of several families
of Cloths bore up stems or timber ; some of several,
or at least of two, families work together in great
parties, which form webs for their head-quarters ; some
of many of the families bury themselves to turn to
chrysalids. We will therefore look at the class of habits
together, and first take the boilers.

There is one family amongst these, known as the
Clearwings, which differ from other Moths in the body
being usually straight and narrow, and the wings so

130 BUTTERFLIES AND MOTHS.

transparent that they much resemble Flies, Wasps, or
other transparent-winged insects, from which they are
consequently scientifically named. One of the largest
is the Hornet Clearwing, the caterpillars of which
infest the Osier.

The caterpillars of the Clearwings are white fleshy
grubs, with altogether sixteen feet ; and they feed in
roots, wood, branches or shoots of
trees, and turn to chrysalids in
the gallery which they have eaten.
The Currant Clearwing sometimes
does much mischief. The egg is
laid early in the summer, in some
crevice such as is often to be found

^'"''ciSrwin"""''"* °^ ^^^ °^ badly trimmed trees;
from this the caterpillar, as soon
as it hatches, eats its way into the branch, and, for
several inches downward, feeding on the pith as it goes,
and feeds or lives, in the caterpillar state, within the
bough till the following March.

The chrysalis is to be found about the beginning of
May. Where large branches of Currant bushes wither
iiway, or young shoots fade without known cause, it
may be suspected that this caterpillar is within, and
splitting the shoot open will soon show whether it is
there. If so, all shoots that are, or are suspected of
being, attacked should be cut off and destroyed; but
the best preventive is trimming that will not leave
numbers of old neglected boughs in the bushes.

Where caterpillars bore into solid f/rowing wood,
something in the way of prevention may be done (to
begin with) by noticing what part of the tree is com-
monly chosen by the Moth for egg-laying, and using
means to protect this. The habit of the Goat Moth
is to lay her eggs in crevices in the rough bark near
the lower part of the tree, which may be Oak, or
Elm, or Willow, Apple or Pear, or various other
kinds of our deciduous forest or fruit trees. The

GOAT MOTH.

131

caterpillar may be known by its great size* (for it is
three inches or more in length), joined to its yellowish
colour, with reddish patches or stripes down the back
and black head, and the strong and peculiar smell
from which it takes its name. It bores into the live
wood, and lives there for three or more years before
turning (in a cocoon roughly spun up of small bits of

Fig. 104. — Goat Moth and chrysalis.

wood just inside the entrance of the burrow) to the
chrysalis stage.

The means by which the grub can be attacked in
its burrow are applicable to many timber-burrowers.
Something may be done by thrusting a stout wire up
the boring ; if the end comes back moist with white
matter on it, the caterpillar has been reached ; or, by
means of a hooked wire, the caterpillar, when feeding
near the outside of the tree, may be drawn out.
Another very good plan, when the caterpillar is

* See figure of caterpillar, about half-grown, p. 123.

132

BUTTERFLIES AND MOTHS.

further in, is to inject paraffin, by means of a sharp-
nozzled syringe, into the tunnel ; any other fluid
poisonous to the caterpillar would do just as well ;
soft-soap or tobacco-water, for instance, or fumes of
anything poisonous, such as sulphur or tobacco,
might be applied in the same way ; and a bit of soft
clay kept well pressed up to the mouth of the hole,
so that it might be forced in like a plug as the syringe
or tube was withdrawn, would keep the application
from escaping. This seems a very simple thing to
name, but for want of it an endless amount of damage
goes on to the fruit and forest trees, both at home
and in the colonies. Sometimes there are as many
as sixty of the Goat Moth caterpillars in one tree. I
have myself seen up to that number taken from an
Elm, and in such cases felling the tree, and destroying
the caterpillars, is the best prevention for the spread
of mischief.

Fig. 105.— Wood Leopard Moth : female, head of male, and
cateqjillar.

The black and white Wood Leopard Moth is another
kind, of which the caterpillars do mischief by boring
passages in the living wood ; but in this case the
branches appear to be more especially attacked, and
in my own observations I have found fruit trees more

WOOD LEOPARD MOTH. 133

affected than timber. The caterpillar is white or
yellow, spotted with black (figured, p. 132), and pre-
cisely the same remedial measures are applicable
as for the destruction of the caterpillar of the Goat
Moth.

The various kinds of attacks of Moth caterpillars
are so many, and the injuries they cause so great, that
in whatever point we may select now for study it
seems at the cost of leaving out something else of
importance ; but in these short dry details I have
tried to draw attention to some four or five principles
of preventing or remedying attack : —

One is taking away shelter (as in the case of Cabbage
caterpillars) . Another, the possibility of hand-picking,
shaking down, gathering, or whatever term we use
for it, being so managed as to be a practicable and
paying operation, instead of a ridiculous loss of time.
Another is prevention of egg-laying on fruit bushes,
by keeping them so properly pruned that there is no
attraction of cracks and crevices. We have also
noticed that the caterpillars may be smoked or
poisoned in their burrows, — a simple piece of know-
ledge, but yet one which some few years ago would
have been of great service in saving Coffee shrubs in
one of our colonies. Further, we have noticed that
with webbing caterpillars it is decidedly well, before
we pay our visit, to see if the family are at home.

Orchard MotJi-caterpillars, that is, the caterpillars
of moths of various kinds, and various also in some
points of their structure, and in many points of
their habits (excepting that of damaging or totally
devouring the leafage of our common orchard fruit
trees), are a class of injurers to which for some years
back attention has been absolutely necessitated.

With the great increase of the fruit industry, we
have now areas of thousands of trees where formerly
these were counted by hundreds, and we have a con-
sequent increase in amount of the attendant fruit-tree
insect vermin. Where there is a large extent of

134 BUTTERFLIES AND MOTHS.

plant growth of any kind, orchard trees or otherwise,
affording food in their feeding condition, and shelter
in their other stages to special kinds of insects all the
year round, and for successive years, tliere these
insects are sure to be present. This has been the
case in such a marked and increased degree during
the past few years, in some of our fruit-growing locali-
ties, as to necessitate adoption of some special measures
of jyrerention suitable to the special habits of some of
the kinds of caterpillars, and also of remedial appli-
cations suitable for sweeping them all off and de-
stroying them together (whatever their other habits
may be), when broadscale ravage on the leafage calls,
for broadscale clearance.

One very important division of caterpillars to which
measures of prevention can be applied, is that of the
"looper" caterpillars of various kinds of moths, of
which the females are either totalli/ wingless, or the
wings are abortive to such a degree as to prevent them
being of service in flying. Of these, two of the most

Fig. lOG.^Mottled Umber Moth : male and wingless female.
Caterpillar, after Taschenberg.

hurtful kinds are the Mottled Umber {Ilghernia de-
foliaria (Fig. 106) and the too well-known " Winter
Moth," sometimes also known as the " Evesham
Moth."

The male Mottled Umber is about twice the size of
the Winter Moth, with the fore wings usually of a

WINTER MOTH. 135

pale brown or reddish yellow ; the hinder wings paler.
The wingless females are brown, with two spots on
the back of each segment ; the caterpillars may be
generally described as brown above, yellow at the
side, and greenish yellow beneath.

Pig. 107. — Winter Moth (Chelmatobia bruviata) : male and wingless
females.

The male "Winter Moths have the fore wings marked
with various shades of grey, with paler hinder wings.
The females, though not absolutely wingless, are' only
furnished with such short wings that they are useless
for flying purposes. Their colour is grey, with darker
bands, as figured. The caterpillars are so variable in
colour, and differ so much after successive moults,
that it is hardly possible to give a clear description ;
but they may be generally described as at first greyish
or greyish green, with dark heads and faint white
stripe along the back, and afterwards of a clearer
green, this, in the last moult, being of a yellower
tint ; there is also a dark line more or less visible
down the middle of the back.

Both of the above-named kinds of caterpillars are
"loopers," that is, form an upright loop in walking
(see Fig. 106). This is consequent on having, instead
of four pairs of sucker-feet below the body, only one
pair besides the pair at the end of the tail, so that the
caterpillar cannot move continuously forward, but has
to bring the sucker-feet on to where the claw-feet are
holding firm, and thus progress in a series of upright
loops. From this somewhat geometrical figure, like
an arch or a pair of compasses, the caterpillars are

IBG BUTTERFLIES AND MOTHS.

sometimes known as " Geometricians," and the family
of moths to which they belong as the Geometridce.

The method of life of both the above kinds is for
the caterpillars to hatch in the spring, on the orchard
trees on which the eggs have been laid, and feed on,
or possibly fairly ravage, the leafage and all the soft
growths, during a period which may be from about the
end of March until the end of June. Then the cater-
pillars leave the trees, and go through the change to
chrysalis state beneath them. This may be just
about the surface of the ground or a little below.
From these the moths begin to come out in October
or November, and the wingless female moths creep up
the trees and deposit their eggs. This habit, if the
moths only went up the trees during a special period,
would put means of prevention at once in our hands.
But even as it is, the infestation may be greatly
reduced by putting bands of sticky material round
the trunks, such as will either deter the moths from
trying to go up, or hold them firm if they try to cross.
This plan catches the moths by hundreds on each
tree, but care must be taken lest the mixture applied
should injure the bark. On the rugged thick bark of
old trees, where the outside is a mere dry dead coating,
it is possible that even tar may be applied without
doing harm, though not without risk. But with
young trees there is very great danger of serious
injury, and sometimes great losses have taken place
consequently on tar or grease being applied direct to
the bark. The application soaks into the tissues,
and the tree in such case perishes.

The safest way is to begin by passing a band of
tough grease-proof paper, such as may be procured
at very small cost from grocers, round the tree. This
may be about seven inches wide, but the wider the
better ; the ends should overlap, and the paper be
secured in its place by a piece of string being tied
round near the upper and lower edges. On this the
grease may be smeared. A flat bit of wood, like a

WINTER MOTH. 137

paper-kuife, is a convenient implement for spreading
it with, and common cart-grease answers well as a
cheap and effective application. Even, however,
where the tree is protected, some care must be exer-
cised in the choice of "sticky" mixture selected, as
some of the materials sold under the name of " axle-
grease" contain petroleum residue, animal grease, or
other components, which, like tar, would have very
undesirable effects, if (as I have myself seen to hap-
pen) they should soak through the supposed grease-
proof paper to the bark.

The above treatment does much good, but does not
answer perfectly, for the following reason. Though
the great body of these moths come out from the
middle of October to December, this period by no
means includes the whole appearance. We find them
still at the end of January, and the later
brood may be found coming up towards
the end of winter; and at the end of
March another kind of Moth, with wing-
less females, namely, the Anisopteryx
(escularia, or "March Moth," wliich lays
its eggs in bands embedded in down on
the twigs, is (or very likely is) also pre- Tt^^i' \^e'

sent. . ^ . . of March Moth.

All this sufficiently accounts for sticky
banding not being wholly reliable as a preventive of
infestation of the wingless moths. To be reliably
effective the application must be repeated and repeated
again, till the aggregate cost is no trifle ; and there is
the further point to be considered that, bad as the
attacks of the looper caterpillars of these wingless
moths are, there are other kinds of orchard moths of
which the attacks come on the wing, or in some
manner which cannot be in any way prevented by
applications solely calculated to stop attacks coming,
on foot, up the trunks of the trees.

There are many kinds of these moths. The female
of the Orgyia antiqua, or Common Vapourer Moth, is

138

BUTTERFLIES AND MOTHS.

wingless ; but as she does not leave the outside (or the
very near neighbourhood) of the cocoon spun on the

Fig. 109. — Orgyia antiqua : caterpillar (after Tascheuberg) ; male
moth ; female moth, with abortive wings.

tree by the caterpillar before its change to chrysalis, .

and on or near which she lays her eggs (see Fig. 110), .

this attack cannot be stopped by banding. The cater-
pillars are very destructive, and
may easily be distinguished by
3^9 the tufts of yellowish or brownish
hair on the back, and the long
bunches of dark pin-headed hairs
at the head, sides, and near the
tip of the tail. The general colour
is dark grey, spotted with small
red tubercles.

The nest-making caterpillars
show another form of attack. Of
these, two kinds are especially
troublesome in orchards. One
is the Small White Ermine, of
which the moths are only about
three-quarters of an inch in ex-
panse of the fore wings, and are
usually livid or whitish, dotted
with black, and the hind wings
livid or lead-colour.

Fig. 110.— Cocoon of 0.
antiqua, covered with eggs

COMMON VAPOUREK MOTH. 139

The little ashy, dirty yellowish, or lead-coloured
caterpillars, spotted with black, spin web-nests, in
which they live in great companies, until the leafage
all around may be destroyed and hung with the
tattered remains of their successively spun webs.

The yellowish or brownish Lackey Moths, with
their handsome hairy caterpillars, as much as an
inch and a half in length, striped on a grey ground
with scarlet or orange, blue, and black, give another
example of a common web-nest-forming caterpillar.

These various kinds, including besides what may be
called those of common habits, such, that is, as moths
which come on the wing to the tree, and of which the
caterpillars, after feeding, spin up on the bark, or in
any convenient shelter, may be counteracted in some
degree by measures based on knowledge of their
habits. The webs of those that make nests may be
cut off and destroyed with the caterpillars, or (in the
case of the Small Ermine Moth) the chrysalids, within
them. Cocoons covered with eggs, as in the case of
the Common Vapourer Moth, may be searched for
and destroyed ; and, similarly, the rings of eggs of the
March Moth (Fig. 108), and of the Lackey Moth,
which resemble them in being laid in a band on
twigs, may be got rid of in some degree by careful
search, and pruning off the infested twigs where they
can be reached. But for the most part these and
various other means of prevention or remedy have
to be applied, not as broad measures of treatment,
but as special measures for each special attack, in-
volving necessarily special outlay. For these reasons,
that is, the pressing need which has long been felt of
having some kind of application at hand which is
cheap and sure in its action, and which can be bruuglU
to bear at once, ivhen required, on any or all sorts of
Moth-caterpillars together (whatever their various
natures or previous histories may have been), and
will kill the whole collection of ravaging hordes at
once, without damaging the leafage, the experiments

140 BUTTERFLIES AND MOTHS.

have been made, which have resulted, in some of our
fruit-growing districts, in the successful introduction
of the method of spraying caterpillar-infested leafage
with Paris-green, which has long been found service-
able in the United States and Canada.

Paris-green, being an aceto-arsenite of copper, and of
a poisonous nature, should be used with great care in
mixing, and should never be applied to fruit or to
vegetables that are used for food. But the quantity to
which, in order to be beneficial, it is requisite to limit
application in spraying is excessively small, and our
English experiences, as well as those on the Continent
of America, where Paris-green has been used regularly
in farm and orchard prevention for many years, show
that with proper care it may be used with perfect
safety.*

Other mixtures, such as kerosine or paraffin mixed
with soft-soap, may be found useful for the same pur-
pose, though they have not yet been taken up here,
and the American plan of "jarring" the branches
smartly, so as to cause the caterpillars to fall on
straw scattered below, which can afterwards be set
on fire and the caterpillars thus destroyed, is an
American remedy of old standing. But, with us,
with regard to means of sweeping off the hordes of
difierent kinds of caterpillars altogether, when they
are ravaging in the spring or early summer for some
years back, trials have been made, in many isolated

* I have not Riven the ijroportions and method of application in
the letterpress, because, for safe and effective use, these points, in-
cluding method of mixing and of delivering the spray, cautions to be
observed in use, and many other very practical considerations, must
be studied in detail, for which there is not space in this little book.
Those who wish to study them from the beginning will find them in
the Government Reports of the U. S. A. Board of Agriculture, also in
the Canadian ofhcial returns. The details of the rise and progress of
this treatment in this country will be found detailed in my Isth, 14th,
and 15th Koports on Injurious Insects, Is. (id. each, Simpkin & Co.,
Stationers' Hall Court, London, E.C. A short account of all necessary
detail, with necessary addresses for supply of material or supply
of sprayers, will be found in ' Paris-green, its uses,' etc., a short
pamphlet (same publishers), price '2d., but which I am always happy
to forward to all applicants gratuitously.

SURFACE CATERPILLARS.

141

cases, of various kinds of treatment, which it was
hoped might be of use in lessening this yearly amount
of loss ; but, so far as the results of experiments were
recorded, they have been of little public benefit.

Fig. 111.-

-Heart and Dart Moth : caterpillar, and chrysalis in
earth-cell.

Another very important division (taken agriculturally)
is that of the surface caterpillars, so-called from their
injurious operations being for the most part carried
on near the surface of the ground.

Fig. 112. — Turnip Moth or Common Dart Moth : 1, moth ;
2, caterpillar.

The family of Moths to which these belong is termed
Noctuidce, from the circumstance of many of them
flying chiefly at night or in the dusk. The Heart and

142 BUTTERFLIES AND MOTHS.

Dart Moth (Fig. Ill, p. 141), the caterpillar of which
is almost as often found at Turnip bulbs as that of
the Turnip Moth or Dart Moth (Fig. 112) ; Cabbage
Moth (Fig. 113) ; the great Yellow Underwing (Fig. 4) ;
and some other kinds, the caterpillars of which more
or less frequent the surface of the ground, do infinite
harm, both in field and garden. In some cases, like
the.Turnip Moth caterpillars, they feed at, or below, the
ground-level on almost every common root crop, or
corn crop, they can reach ; and "svhen the weather is

Fig. 113. — Cabbage Moth : caterpillar, and chrysalis.

too severe in winter for them to continue feeding in
the Turnip bulbs, they simply go down deeper for a
time, and, after coming up again to feed, turn to chry-
salids in the ground in the following spring or early
summer. Others, like the caterpillars of the Cabbage
Moth, feed in the hearted Cabbage, and turn to chry-
salids in, or on, the surface of the ground before winter.
But whatever slight difference there may be in the
habits of these various kinds of thick fleshy cater-
pillars, about an inch and a half long, which we only
too often find either at the roots or on the leaves of
the Cabbage and Turnip, this special point of their
usually passing the winter under ground puts them
very much in our power.

Before the caterpillar turns to the chrysalis, it makes

PREVENTION. 143

a cell in the earth, in •which it is protected from wet
and sudden changes of temperature, or it seeks or pre-
pares a safe resting-place for its change, or for a time;
and so long as the caterpillars are thus protected no
amount of cold to which they are here exposed will,
as far as we know, do them the least harm. But if
they are thrown out of these shelters to the influence
of drying winds or hot sunshine, or to lie soddening
helplessly on the surface in moist or muddy ground,
or to being frozen in these states, then their constitu-
tion will not bear it. To quote one of our chief
American authorities, " It is evident that freezing
does not injure the cut-worms " (as these surface
caterpillars are called in the States), for nature has
prepared them for it ; but freezing in connection with
loose ivet soil will kill the chrysalids as quickly as
it will the worm or caterpillar. This is one of the
great principles of prevention : — Turn out the insect
pest from its natural shelter, ivhen it is in such a condi-
tion that it cannot regain it or make a new one. It
takes a little observation of the habits of the creature
to manage this properly.

If the caterpillars are turned up too soon, that is,
either before they are torpid, or before they have
changed to the chrysalis, they will simply go down
again. If the soil is turned up when they are gone
down very deep, they will not be the worse for what
has been done above them. Each worker must look
a little for himself, for dates and habits differ with
climate and other things ; but a little careful observa-
tion made by turning over the earth, so as to see where
the creatures are, will be well repaid. They are quite
large enough to be easily seen, if they are in numbers
to need attention. This principle may be worked both
in winter and summer, — with caterpillars that turn to
chrysalids under ground or in cocoons above ground,
and with those that frequent leafage of trees or roots
of grass, as well as those we have spoken of.

It should always be remembered that when a con-

144

BUTTEEFLIES AND MOTHS.

course of caterpillars suddenly vanishes (without being
cleared off), the creatures are not gone; they have
only gone away to change to chrysalids in a safe place,
and will reappear presently in a new shape, ready to
start a new attack. They will usually be very near
their food-plant : grass-feeders will most likely be in
the earth beneath the grass ; at least they certainly
are in the case of the Antler Moth {Cliarceas graminis),
the dark brown and pale striped caterpillars of which
feed at the root of pasture grass, and the attacks of

if.: ' '^^- -^-

• Fig. 114. — Antler Moth or Grass Moth, and caterpillars.

which are remarkable for only occurring occasionally,
especially in mountainous districts, and for these
appearances being in such vast numbers, and over
such a large extent of country, as to be an amazement,
and sometimes even the cause of local panic, to those
not acquainted with their habits.

The common Cabbage and Turnip surface cater-
pillars will be found thus (or when time has elapsed
for their change to take place), in chrysalis state, on
or in the ground near where they fed.

The Beet and Mangold Moth (Silver Y Moth) cater-
pillar spins a cocoon on, or not very far from, the
plants it infested ; and in all these cases, and scores
of others, much good may be done by turning up the
chrysalids, destroying the weeds they harbour in, and
using all other methods of treatment, which a moment's
thought will suggest, to destroy the pests.

Clearing all weeds that attract the Moths is one
method of preventing increase. The constantly in-

BEET MOTH.

145

creasing amount of insect attack is in part because of
the constantly wider spread of cultivated land. There
is much greater amount of special crops, such as
special insects feed on ; and instead of there being, as
in wild districts, perhaps, one plant in a hundred that
may suit the caterpillar, there are districts all through
the country where nine-tenths of the growth are its
chosen food. If, therefore, in addition to the crop

Fig. 115. — Beet Moth, caterpillar, and chrysalis in cocoon."

food, we let weed food collect in our borders, we add
most needlessly to our troubles ; and by clearing and
burning these patches round garden and fields we may
do a deal of good.

The enormous appetite — or necessity for eating — of
some of these great caterpillars may be used as a
means of getting rid of them. Where land has been
infested with Turnip caterpillar, it has been found
that by ploughing and cultivating it so that there is
no food, and letting it thus remain for a fortnight,
the caterpillars may be starved out, or will go else-
where.

• It will be observed that this caterpillar is what is sometimes called
a " half-lo(iper." Most of the larvfe of the Noctuidse have 1(3 feet in
all, but in some cases the first, and in some the first and second, pair
of sucker-feet are absent, and the caterpillar therefore "loops" in
walking, though not as much as in the case of the true loopers.

146 BUTTERFLIES AND MOTHS.

When attack is bad, the chief thing to trust to is
fertihsing dressings ; but sometimes dressings of gas-
lime on the land, and on the plants, will check attack
to a serviceable extent. This has been found useful
in the attack of caterpillar to hearted Cabbage in the
autumn. The gas-lime falls down among the leaves,
and thus fills the parts where the caterpillars shelter
by day, with what, to a certain extent, keeps them out,
and is not pleasing to them.

With regard to hand-picking caterpillars from the
roots, it is often said this cannot pay ; but it is a
regular process in some places where field Cabbage is
grown ; and on once asking a grower as to it answer-
ing, he simply remarked, " If we do not do it we lose
our Cabbage." The grubs may be quickly cleared by
women turning the soil back at the root of each plant,
putting the grub or grubs in a flower-pot, and turning
the soil on again. In these kinds of attacks it is quite
worth while to reckon on paper the comparative cost
of the total or partial loss of crop to be expected, and
that of the remedy, and proceed accordingly. Grubs,
of the kind we are speaking of now, commonly go on
from one plant to another, and cause severe loss, —
each morning shows the new fallen plants ; and the
grub will so continue eating till it turns to the chry-
salis. But it is easily seen ; and once caught we have
made a sure cure. This sureness of the cure is the
thing to be thought of before trying it. It is often
advised to sprinkle lime ; but lime slakes very quickly,
and, excepting as a manure, does not do nearly the good
that is supposed. Dry dressings often entirely fail in
effect, because they often do not adhere to the cater-
pillar ; and if they do, very likely they do not hurt it.
It has, however, been observed that sudden moisture,
especially after hot weather, will destroy Moth or
Butterfly caterpillars. They have been recorded by
our great authority, John Curtis, as being found, in
such circumstances, emptied of their contents, and like
mere skins; and in the great attack of Beet Moth

BEET MOTH. 147

caterpillars, in 1879, many were thus killed in
Essex.

It was formerly difficult to apply this knowledge
practically ; but now, looking at the variety of imple-
ments which have been recently introduced into this
country, suitable for spraying or washing either
orchard tree leafage or that of field crops, there would
be no difficulty in experimenting, at least on orchard
foliage, as to the effects of cold water in clearing off
caterpillar presence.

The treatment for prevention of surface caterpillars
may be shortly described thus : — Turn them up by
cultivation where land is known to have been infested ;
and where catch-cropping is practised let the field be
cleared of all food at least a fortnight before a new
crop is put in ; keep up the strength of the crop, but
use remedies if you can, — if they will be sure to de-
stroy the grubs.

In a very large number of attacks, it is the worst
possible practice to tr}^ to work directly on the grubs ;
you must counteract their mischief, rather than try to
get (literally) hold of them; but with the large Moth
grubs, which are often one, instead of a score or
hundreds, to a plant, the case is different.

For the same reason, birds lid}) us much with some
kinds of Moth caterpillars. They can bore down, and
•draw out these large grubs, without the broadcast
destruction which often follows on their services in
searching for Wireworm.

The crow, raven, jackdaw, rook, and partridge, are
all said to be of use in clearing away the caterpillars
of tlie Turnip Moth ; and in the case of some of the
swarms of small caterpillars which attack forest trees,
especially the Small Green Oak-leaf Roller {Tortrix
viridana), the flocks of birds which collect when great
attack is going forward are our only helpers.

In the preceding pages I have endeavoured to give
some idea of the characteristics of the methods of life
of some of the chief divisions, agriculturally considered,

148

BUTTERFLIES AND MOTHS.

of the order of Lepicloptera (i.e., Moths and Butterflies),
aEd to point out how we may, by acting on these, be
sure of not wasting our work in applying methods of
prevention and remedy. There are numbers of other

Fig. 116. — Oak-leaf Eoller Moth and caterpillars.

classes of attacks, almost countless numbers of indi-
vidual kinds of attack, which cannot be entered on
here, but the principle holds good with all, — find out
the chief points of the life-history ; reflect how these
can best be met by available (and, if possible, commoji)
agricultural treatment ; and having made this out, let
the plan be soundly and thoroughly carried out. Half
doing is the cause of much failure.

149

CHAPTER VIII.

SAWFLIES, ICHNEUMON-FLIES, WASPS, &c.

(HYMENOPTEBA).

Turnip Sawfly, Parasite Maggots ; Destruction
OF Birds ; &c.

.# i

Fig. 117. — Fox-coloured Pine Sawflies (Lophijrus rufus) : 1, male ;
2, female, after Prof. Westwood ; caterpillar, after Dr. Hartig ; all much
magnified. Nat. size given in descriptions.

In the order which we have just been studying, there
is a great likeness throughout, both in the manner of
life and in the manner of transformation of all the
kinds; but in the order which we are now going to
study the habits of life of the different families vary
very much.

150 SAWFLIES, ICHNEUMON-FLIES, WASPS, ETC.

The first division, that of the Sawflies [Tenthrcdi-
nidcB), is exceedingly hurtful to various crops and trees,
by the ravage of its caterpillars to the leaves, or in
some cases to the fruit; also, in some cases, by causing
Galls. The second division, the Sirexes {Uroceridie) y
feeds for the most part, if not entirely, in the cater-
pillar state, in timber. A third, that of the Gallflies
(Cynijndce) , inserts its eggs in various parts of plants,
thereby giving rise to variously formed gall growths.
on leaf or inflorescence, shoot, or stem, or root, of
which the bunch of moss-like growth on the wild rose
shoots, commonly known as the "Eobin's pincushion,"
and the Marble-gall of the oak, may be taken as ex-
amples of most different forms.

A vast number of difterent kinds of insects of this
order, commonly known as " Parasite Flies," and be-
longing to thefamilies of the Ichneumonidce, Chalcididie,.
and Proctotrupid^e, help us by inserting their eggs into
other insects, in which the parasite grubs feed quietly
on the living material, until their hosts sink beneath
the task of supporting their unwelcome guests.

Besides these families, which concern us much
agriculturally, there is a large division, including
difterent kinds of Ants, Bees, and Wasps, known by
reason of most of them possessing a sting, as the
division of Acnlcata*

We need just to observe what the general appear-
ance of the insects of this order is in each of the three
stages ; but the families which I wish chiefly to be
noticed are those of the Sawflies, which are very in-
jurious, and the Parasite-flies, which are very helpful
to us.

We may know the insects of this order, in a general
way, by their likeness to common Wasps or Bees.
They have two pairs of membranous wings ; a mouth,
sometimes furnished with short and thick, or with long
and narrow, pincer-like jaws {mandibles), as in Wasp&

* From Acii!^, a needle.

SAWFLIES. 151

and Sawflies; and sometimes also with a kind of
tongue, suited for collecting moist food, as in the case
of the Bee. This trunk (as it is often called) is formed
of the feeler-jaws and lower parts of the mouth tJi a
much lengthened condition.

The females have the abdomen supplied with an
apparatus which acts in some cases as a sting ; in
some as a piercer, by which they can insert their eggs
into other insects, or wherever they may select ; and
in some this ovipositor (or egg-placing aj^paratus) is
formed of several pieces, acting together like a saw,
whence one division takes the name of Sawflies. The
grubs are for the most part legless (much like the
well-known Wasp grubs) ; but it is important, for
practical purposes, to notice that the Sawfly division
may, with very few exceptions, be known in the cater-
pillar state from others of this order, and from all the
other kinds of caterpillars which we have noticed, by
having a larger number of sucker-feet. (See Fig. 117.)

The Sawfly larvae, or caterpillars, have three pairs
of claw-feet, — like the caterpillars of Butterflies, and
of some Beetles ; but, with few exceptions, they have
six to eight pairs of sucker-feet. They are often called
caterpillars, and much resemble Butterfly caterpillars,
both in shape and in being often prettily coloured; but
they may (with the exception of the Corn Sawfly, and
a few others) be readily known from Butterfly or Moth
caterpillars by the larger number of sucker-feet.
"When there are twenty-two feet in all, that is, count-
ing true claw-feet, sucker-feet under the body, and
pair of sucker-feet at the end of the tail, it will be seen
there is only one segment of the body that is legless.

When full-fed the Sawfly caterpillars often go down
into the ground, and many of them spin cocoons ; and
the change to the chrysalis takes place in a few days
in summer: later in the year the caterpillars lie many
months unchanged ; they may pass through the
chrysalis state in a fortnight, or less time. The
chrysalis (like most others of this order) is inactive,

152 SAWFLIES, ICHNEUMON-FLIES, WASPS, ETC.

but has the limbs folded beneath it, much in the
same way as the Beetle chrysalis.

The shape of the Sawflies is sh own by the figures
(especially those at p. 149). They may be said to be
very like small square-made Wasps, but with the
abdomen closely applied to the body, instead of being
stalked.

Sawfly caterpillars are most voracious, and they

Fig. 118. — Pine Sawfly, caterpillar, ami pupa ; magnified,
leaves injured bycaterj^illars.

Pine

are often found together in such vast numbers, on the
trees or crops they attack, as to cause serious loss.
The Pine Sawfly caterpillar does great damage to Pine
plantations or forests in Scotland ; the Gooseberry
Sawfly is a constantly recurring cause of loss to bush
fruit growers, and in these and other cases of Sawfly
presence, where the cocoons can be got at beneath the
surface, and the infested area is not too large for
application of this remedial measure, attacks might
be perfectly easily kept in check by utilising the habit
of the caterpillars of going down for the winter, and
l_ying in cocoons beneath the branches they have been
stripping of their leaves.

GOOSEBERRY SAWFLY. 153

Where Pines have been infested, some of these small
oval cocoons may be on the boughs, but most of them
will be found beneath the tree, and most likely near
the trunk, lying a little below the surface, or amongst
the dry leaves or moss, or forest rubbish, sometimes
in masses as large as a man's fist. By collecting these,
or by collecting the surface soil, or by skimming the
rough herbage and heather, and charring it in heaps
(taking care of course to go down to the depth at
which the cocoons may be found), the amount of the
following year's attack may be much lessened.

Exactly the same kind of treatment is the best way
■of keeping Gooseberry Sawfly caterpillars in check.
They winter in cocoons under the bushes ; therefore
if any trustworthy person will turn over the soil to see
the depth at which the little brown cocoons lie, the
earth may be scraped away to three or five inches
depth, or whatever depth the caterpillar may have
gone down to, according to the nature of the soil, and
carried away and disposed of, so that when the cater-
pillar has turned to the chrysalir, and the chrysalis
has turned to the Sawfly, the Sawfly may not be just
where it has only to walk or fly (as it may prefer) to
the boughs close by to find itself at home in the
Gooseberry leaves, and waste all our trouble. This is
a point requiring attention. In one of the great fruit-
growing districts, where Gooseberries were grown in
acres, I have seen the clearing of the soil from beneath
the bushes well attended to, but when scraped out it
was left between the rows ; and the result was a
hearty attack.

These caterpillars sometimes migrate in bodies, and
then are completely in our power. If seen crossing a
road, or from one field to another, there should not be
an instant's delay in destroying them by the readiest
means at hand. Trampling on them would be a com-
plete cure when they are on the open ground of a
road ; and (when moving from one field to another)
if a couple of men were set to cut a long strip of turf

154 SAWFLIES, ICHNEUMON-FLIES, WASPS, ETC.

off across the line of the advancing army, or beat a
line of earth flat with spades, there would be a clear
space on which the caterpillars might be seen and
crushed (or destroyed in any convenient way) with
certainty.

Attack of Apple Sawfly (figured with its caterpillar,
life size and magnified) may be taken as an example

Fig. 119. — Female Sawfly and caterpillar, magnified, with lines
showing nat. size, after Prof. J. 0. Westwood ; caterpillars, nat. size ;
and infested Apple.

of how easy it is, without careful observation, for an
infestation, which bears much resemblance to some
other kind, to escape requisite notice, /. e., such notice
as causes proper measures to be taken, instead of
trouble and money being spent to no purpose on
applications suited to another attack of which the
chrysalis stage is passed in a different locality.

Apple Sawfly presence has long been known of in
this country, but so far as I am aware has been little
observed, and it was not until last summer (1891)
that I had an opportunity of studying the character-
istics. In many respects the attack of these cater-
pillars to the Apple fruit much resembles that of the
too well-known Codlin Moth caterpillars. It may,
however, be certainly distinguished by the Sawlly

APPLE SAWFLY. 155

caterpillar having a greater number of sucker-feet be-
neath the body, that is, six pairs (see Fig. 119), which,
with the pair at the end of the tail, and the three
pairs of claw-feet, make in all twenty. There is the
further characteristic of the caterpillars possessing
a most unpleasant bug-like smell. Thus they may be
distinguished from the Codlin Moth caterpillar, the
larva of the Cai-pocapsa jyomonella.

With regard to methods of prevention ; in the case
of either of the attacks it is desirable to gather up and
destroy prematurely fallen Apples, which from their
bored and injured state show that they have fallen
from caterpillar presence within, and may therefore
very likely be then infested. But beyond this, the
chief means of j)revention are on quite different prin-
ciples. The Codlin Moth caterpillar (to a great extent),
after leaving the little Apples, creeps up tbe trees, and
changes to the chrysalis state in crevices of the bark.
The Sawfly caterpillar, on the contrary, goes down into
the ground to form its cocoons. It is therefore need-
less to point out that any amount of scraping, washing,
and cleaning the bark is merely money thrown away,
if all the wbile the enemies against whom these opera-
tions are directed are lying from two to six inches
under the surface of the neighbouring ground.

The Turnip Sawfly {Athalia spinarum) sometimes
causes overwhelming mischief ; but this is not a regular
yearly attack, by reason of rotation of crops ; and also
because in regular course of autumn cultivation the
cocoons are thrown up, or buried beneath their natural
resting-places.

The progress of the injury is very rapid. The
bright orange Sawflies lay their eggs in slits sawn in
the leaves. One female will lay over two hundred
eggs. The eggs hatch in about five days ; the time
varies with the state of the weather ; if warm and
favourable, they will hatch sooner. The twenty-two-
footed grubs are greenish at first, then black, then
slaty, and are full-grown in about three weeks, during

156 SAWFLIES, ICHNEUMON-FLIES, WASPS, ETC.

which time they eat voraciously. They go down into
the ground to change, and tlie new brood of Sawflies
in summer comes up, ready to lay eggs and start a
new attack in about three weeks. With this attack
we can, as with most others, do something by ensur-
ing vigorous plant growth ; but all methods that have
been found useful to check attack will be found to be
based on the special habits of the caterpillar.

During its three weeks' life it changes its skin about

Fig. 120.— Turnip Sawfly, magnified ; caterpillar, pupa, and
puj^a-case.

'once a week, and to manage this it must hold fast, by
means of the pair of sucker-feet at the end of its tail,
to a leaf or stem, so as to have something to drag
against in the struggle to get free of its cast coat. If
it cannot do this it dies. Also it has only the power
of spinning a thread to let itself down, or come home
again by in passing alarms, during the first few days
of its life. After that, if it falls to the ground, it can
only return by crawling.

The remedies which are chiefly used all turn directly
on these habits. The plan of driving sheep tln-ough
an infested field, or of brushing the plants with boughs,
either carried by hand or fixed on a scufticr ; or,
again, dragging a cart-rope over the plants ; — all turn

CORN SAWFLY.

157

on endeavouring to make the caterpillars loose their
hold, which we see amounts, with a large proportion,
to the same thing as killing them outright.

As in the case of Turnip Flea Beetle, various kinds
of dressings may he of use, such as lime, &c., if
applied so that they stick to the insect and leafage ;
and also all measures to keep the earth moist enough
to run on a good crop, and keep the Sawfly from en-

FiG. 121. — 1-5, Corn Sawfly and grub, natural size and magnified
6 and 7, Parasite Ichneumon Fly, magnified and nat. size.

joyment of the full light, heat, and drought, in which
it delights, will be of service.

There is one other kind to be noticed, because it
differs greatly from those just named in its habits. It
is the Corn Sawfly {Cephus pyginceus) y which feeds more
especially within the "Wheat stalks ; and its presence
may be partially known by the blasted ear.

This whitish maggot has only the rudiments of the
three pairs of claw-feet; and when its work of mischief

158 SAWFLIES, ICHNEUMON-FLIES, WASPS, ETC.

to US is done, it rests for the winter in a silken case,
very near ground-level, in the sawn-through stalk.
To prevent attack recurring, it is a perfect treatment
to gather together the infested stubble and burn it.

This is an exception to the usual form of life and
place of change of Sawfly larvae, therefore must be
treated differently ; but there is the same principle to
be followed as with caterpillars and chrysalids of other
kinds of Sawfiies, and also of Butterflies and Moths, — •
that is, firstly, to find out where they pass the
winter, and then to turn them out from their shelters.

Fig. 12'2. — The " Common " iSirex and grub.

The amount of injury caused by Sawfly caterpillars,
■and especially from time to time by those of the Tur-
nip Sawfly, is so serious that a great deal (of more or
less use) has been written on the subject; but in the
short notes of the five kinds of attack mentioned above,
it will be seen that whether as infesters of the forest
tree or the garden fruit bush ; as feeders within the
firm fruit of the Apple, or on the succulent leaves of
the Turnip, or carrying on their injurious works
hidden within the growing Wheat-straw; or, again.

GALL FLY.

159

whether the larva or caterpillars are possessed of
22 feet or 20 feet, or (for practical purposes) of no feet
at all, there is one method of prevention applicable to
them all, — to turn out the cocoons and destroy them.

The " Giant," and the " Steel-blue " or " Common"
Sirex, may be taken as examples of the family of the
Uroceridce, which sometimes do great harm by means
of the galleries gnawed by their large grubs in solid
timber.

The Sirex gigas (or ''Giant Sirex") is a splendid
insect, as large as, or larger than, the Sirex juvencns
(Fig. 122), and of a rich yellow colour banded with
black.

Fig. 123. — Marble Galls. Gall Fly, grub, and pupa; magnified.

The family of the Gall Flies (Cynipidce) is also one
which is not of much importance agriculturally, but
it may perhaps be convenient just to mention.

The female Gall-fly has a kind of pointed tube,
or arrangement of bristles, by means of which she is
able to insert her egg or eggs into whatever part of
the plant she chooses for the purpose. In consequence
of this, various growths form, such as the Oak Marble
Gall ; the Oak-apple ; or the Spangles of the Oak-leaf ;
or the bright green and red moss-like bunch, which we
know as the Kobin's Pincushion of the Eose ; — and
within these the legless maggots hatch, feed, change
io chrysalids, and in due time from them they emerge

160 SAWFLIES, ICHNEUMON-FLIES, WASPS, ETC.

as Gall-flies, more or less resembling the one figured;:
but they are not mentioned for special attention now,
but merely to notice their existence.

Fig. 124. — Spangle-galls on Oak-leaf ; ditto, magnified.

The families of the Parasite Wasp-flies are im-
portant to us, as a means of keeping the increase of
other insects in check.

One division of these is that of the Ichneumon
Flies {IchneumonidcE) . These are much like the
Ichneumon parasite of the Corn Sawfly. They are
lightly-made insects, with a longish body and abdo-
men ; long legs ; a small head with long horns, often
having a ring of white on them ; and an ovipositor,
sometimes short, sometimes long, and often perma-
nently extended like a large and long sting. With
this they insert their eggs, for the most part into the
grubs of other insects, but sometimes into their eggs,
and occasionally into the chrysalids ; and those kinds
furnished with long ovipositors pierce with them
through bark or solid wood, and thus insert their
eggs into Beetle grubs, or whatever their selected
victim may be, which, although out of sight, their
instinct tells them is within, ready to act as food to
their maggots ; and thus they give us help which
nothing else affords.

In the case of Corn-ears which are infested by
Aphides, many of the Aphides, instead of being of the

PARASITES OF CORN APHIS.

161

ratural colour, green or yellow, or brown or other
tints, will be seen to be of a rich bro^Yn, or almost
black. These have been killed by the Ichneumon.
The female of the Aphidiiis (see Fig. 125: 5, 6) inserts
a single egg into the abdomen of many Aphides, one

FiQ. 125. — 1 and 2, Corn Aphis ; 3 and 4, wingless infested specimen :
5 — 8, Parasite Ichneumon Flies ; all magnified, with nat. size.

after the other, and the maggot, which hatches from
the egg, consumes all that is eatable, until its live
host is reduced to a state which will not carry on life
any longer. Its uninvited guest goes through its
changes within to an Ichneumon Fly, and presently
quits the hardened skin, which is distinguished, as
we just observed, by its colour. Sometimes every
Aphis on a Corn-ear is thus destroyed, and there are
other kinds of allied Parasite Flies which help us
similarly.

One of the forms of attack which is the plainest to
be seen is that of the Cabbage Ichneumon Fly
{Microgaster glomeratus). This little Fly lays a vast

M

162 SAWFLIES, ICHNEUMON-FLIES, WASPS, ETC.

number of eggs, sometimes more than sixty, in one
caterpillar of the large Cabbage Butterfly. Here the
maggots hatch and feed, avoiding by instinct such
parts as the consumption of would be a fatal loss,
firstly, to the host, consequently to the guest. The
containing caterpillar — the live food, that is — mean-
while feeds and grows, not only until it attains its
full size, but it may often be known from uninfested
ones by its swollen appearance. It has not, however,
power to turn to the chrysalis state : when the time
for this comes, the maggots within pierce its skin, and
each one spins for itself a small cocoon of yellow silk,
in which it goes through its changes to the complete
insect by the side of the dead body of the exhausted
caterpillar. These little Ichneumon Flies are one of
our protections against great increase of the cater-
pillars, and the small silken cocoons, which are easily
seen when they lie together in masses on Cabbage
leaves, should never be destroyed.

Pig. 126. — 1 — 4, Gieen-vcined White Butterfly ; 5 and 6, Ichneumon
Fly {Hemiteles melanarim), magnified, with nat. size.

Another kind of small Ichneumon Fly (Hemiteles
melanarius) preys in the same way, by means of its
maggots, inside the chr3^salids of the Green-veined
Cabl)age Butterfly. These infested chrysalids may be
known by their dark brown colour, and should never
be destroyed, as each one is a case — a package, so to
say — full of checks to a troublesome crop -prey er.

PAEASITE OF CABBAGE BUTTERFLIES. 163

It will be noticed that these Ichneumon Flies are
all very much alike in shape, and that their wings are
much veined.

The Parasite Wasp-flies of the two other families,
Avhich are most important to us {CJialcidiike and
Proctotrupidce) , are for the most part very small,
with almost, or quite, veinless wings.

The Pteromalus imparum (Fig. 127, magnified, one
of the Chalcididce) is one of the kinds which destroy
chrysalids of the Large and Small Cabbage Butterflies.
This very small Fly is stated to lay its eggs on the
outside of the chrysalis, as soon as it has cast off its
caterpillar skin, and is still soft and tender. The
maggots from these eggs soon hatch and eat into the
■chrysalis, and sometimes as many as from two
hundred to three hundred live thus in one chrysalis,
where they change to the perfect Parasite Fly, and
come out soon in summer to
continue the useful work. In
winter some remain in the
chrysalis.

The use of these Pteromali
is well shown by their work
in North America, in checking
increase of Cabbage Butterfly.
/"^% 127- -Parasite of Tj^^ g^^^jj -^yj^-^^ Cabbage

■chrysalis of Cabbage i3ut- t> n n i -j.

teriiics, magnified. Butterfly made its appearance

(or at least was first observed
there) at Quebec about 1859, and gradually spread and
caused much damage, but for several years no Para-
site appeared to check it. In 1871 — that is, about
twelve years after the appearance of the Butterfly
— it was announced that the Parasite we are now
speaking of had appeared : the British Parasite had
followed the British Butterfly, and was doing its
appointed work. In 1875 it (the Parasite) had be-
come quite common in the State of New York ; and
later on it was observed to be still on the increase.
The great benefit gained by natural helpers of this

164 SAWFLIES, ICHNEUMON FLIES, WASPS, ETC.

kind has caused it to be suggested that we should
rear them. This matter seems rather hard to manage ;
also we do not often benefit much by upsetting the
regular balance appointed ; but it is often in our
power to follow up a hint of this kind, by remembering.

Fig. 128.— Parasite Flies of Wheat Midge maggot, nat. size and
magnitied.

that when an out-of-the-way insect enemy has ap-
peared, we may very likely be able also to introduce
its regular check, and leave the results to follow in
due course.

Sometimes also a new infestation may be traced
home to the country from which it came by means of
its accompanying Parasites. In the memorable ap-
pearance of the Hessian Fly in this country, we had
no clue to lead us to the knowledge of whether it had
come from America or from the Continent of Europe,
until examination of its parasites showed that, with
the exception of one kind common to both Continents,
the others were not American, but Piussian.

The Parasite FHes of Wheat Midge (figured) show
the shape of two other kinds of these minute Flies.
The Macroqlcucs, of the family of the Chalcididce
(Fig. 128: i), is supposed, from its habits, to destroy
the Midge-grubs ; and the Phtij(iastcr, of the family
of the Proctotrvpidce (Fig. 128: 2), has been watched
in its operations of laying one egg in each Midge-
grub it attacks.

PAKASITE FLIES OF WHEAT MIDGE. 165

There are other kinds of Parasites of nearly-allied
kinds, which we have not space to enter on here ; but
the general principle of preserving a useful amount of
them is so important that, though it is a very difficult
matter to protect them, it is as ivell to he careful about
setting on foot regular measures calculated to lessen
their numbers.

It may be doubted whether, in regard to help from
parasitic insects, we do not suffer, rather than benefit
■as much as is supposed, by great encouragement of
birds. We cannot tell accurately what amount of
the small Parasite Flies are taken as bird food, for
their small bodies are probably soon digested ; but it
appears reasonable to suppose that as we know some
birds take them, others also do so, and in this
way do the reverse of helping. I would not for an
instant suggest clearing away birds ; but it would be
well to bear in mind that the works of creation are
founded on a principle of order, and of relationship
of one part on another ; and if we use such power as
we may have to alter any detail, we are likely to
suffer. We have altered the amount of food for
insects by the enormous necessary increase in food
crops ; but it appears to me that to try to keep these
insects in check by calling in bird-help in legions, —
which grub up the plants to be protected, and eat up
the eaters of the insect foes, and likewise (when
insect food fails the many mouths) betake them to the
Wheat-ears, — is very much like bringing in the rats
to drive out the mice.

The families of Wasps, Bees, and Ants are included
in another great section of this order, called the
Aculeata, because they, or most of them, are furnished
with a sting, much resembling in appearance, and
pain of application, a needle ; known in Latin as
Acus.

These have been written on for so many years that
we need not enter on them at length ; but it is well
•to observe that the Hive Bees, the social Wasps, and

166 SAWFLIES, ICHNEUMON FLIES, WASPS, ETC.

social Ants, are remarkable for much of the Avork of
the community being carried on neither by the males,
nor as a regular thing by the large females, whicli

Fig. i'jy.— Hornet.

are commonly known as queens, but by a large
body of abortive females, or neuters, commonly known
as "workers."

In the case of the Queen Bee, we have a clear in-
stance of the way in which different food and accom-
modation acts in altering, or rather in fully developing,
the powers ; and gain matter for thought, at least,
that a precisely contrary treatment, such as com-
pressing, starving, chilling, &c., brought about by
common farming measures, will not (or probably may
not) be without effect in stunting the growth, and
otherwise lessening attack.

""^

Fig. 130. — Bee Parasite.

These aculeate Hymenoptera, however, are little
included in the special points of farm-insect study
under consideration, and for the same reason the

CADDIS FLY. 167

three following orders need little more than just men-
tion of their names.

These are the order Neuroptera, in which are in-
cluded the Dragon-flies, May-flies, and others, amongst
which are several kinds of great service in destroying
Aphides. For figure of one species, see that of
Chrysopa j)erla, or Golden-eye, p. 34.

The order of Strepsiptera, or '' Bee Parasites," is
almost microscopic, and is distinguished by the fore
pair of wings being merely represented by twisted
appendages.

The order of Trichoptera, or Caddis-flies, spend
their maggot-life commonly in cases formed of shells,

Fig. 131.— Caddis Fly.

or bits of stick, or little stones, or, in fact, of any-
thing available, which they can spin together, in our
ponds or streams.

The student will observe that the five orders, which
we have considered at some length, have one great
point in common : they are all quite different in the
first state (as grubs) to what they are in the second
(as chrysalids), and to what they are as perfect
insects ; also that in the chrysalis state, even if the
limbs are visible, still they are not able to use them ;
and thus we have one clear season for measures of
prevention, which it is well to make the most of.

Further, that each one of these orders — the Flies,

168 SAWFLIES, ICHNKUMON-FLIES, WASPS, ETC.

the Fleas, the Beetles, the Moths, and the Sawflies
and Parasite Flies — have for the most part a regular
shape for the grub, chrysalis, and perfect insect, by
which you may know them from those of other orders.
You may know a Fly-grub, chrysalis, and perfect Fly,
with certainty, from a Beetle-grub, chrysalis, and
perfect Beetle. We have seen that the grubs may be
known for the most part by the absence, or by the
number, of feet or sucker-feet ; the chrysalids by
being in cases, or in a skin of thin cement, or by the
limbs being visible ; and the perfect insects are easily
known. There is a difficulty about some of the
chrysalids of the Wasp tribe resembling the Beetles,
but this is rather a scientific than a practical matter,
for the place you find them in often shows what they
are.

The remainder of the orders of insects which we
have to consider are much more easily known, because
from the time they begin their life they are so like
the parent insect in everything, excepting the absence
of wings, that they commonly go by the same name.

169

CHAPTEK IX.

APHIDES, SCALE INSECTS, PLANT-
BUGS,* &c.

(HOMOPTERA.)

Proghoppers ; Hop & Turnip Aphis, &c. ; Apple
Scale.

(HETEBOPTEBA.)
Plant-Bugs.

Fig. 132. — Bean Aphis: 1, infested Bean shoot; 2 and 3, male, nat.
size and magnified ; 4, female.

Of the five orders which remain, and which have
not as yet been noticed in detail, it will, perhaps,
be best only to enter at any length on the one which

* Short notices also of Orthoptera (Locusts) ; Euplexoptera, Ear-
wigs; Thtjsanoptcra, Thrips.

170 APHIDES, SCALE INSECTS, PLANT-BUGS, ETC.

includes the Aphides and Scale Insects, with merely
a slight mention of the four other orders, which are
much less important to us in this country. If we try
to give more than just a mention of these, it will in
this short space be more confusing than useful.

These four less important orders consist of the
Heteroptera, or Plant-bugs ; the Ortlioptera, which
includes the Cockroaches, Mole Crickets, House and
Field Crickets, Locusts, and Grasshoppers ; the Eu-
jpUxojjtera, consisting of the Earwigs; and the 77??/-
saiwptera, commonly known as Thrips.

The insects of these orders, as well as most of
those of the order of Homoptcra, which includes the
Aphides, commonly * change so little in appearance
during their lives, that from the beginning of it they
may be known by their likeness to the parent insect,
and usually are called by the same name. The
chief difference is that at first they have no wings : if
you will take a dead Grasshopper and pull off its two
pairs of wings, you will see that,! excepting in size,
it is very like the newly-hatched wingless ones, which
we should call lame, if we want to describe them
scientifically. This first stage, without any wings,
answers to that of the grub, or caterpillar, or maggot,
in the orders we have noticed. During this stage the
insects eat and grow, and moult their skins, just as
caterpillars do. As time goes on the wings begin to
grow ; and when the moult of the skin shows this is
taking place, then they are in the second stage, which
answers to that of the chrysalis. Like the chrysalis
of the Beetle or the Moth, thew'ingsare forming; but,
unlike it, the legs are in a state to use, and commonly
are used actively ; the mouth also, be it of jaws or a
sucker, is in working order, and very fully employed.

* There are some exceptions, as with the Goccidce, or Scale Insects,,
and the AlcyrotUdcr, or Snowy Flies.

t See Figs, of Locust, p. .'U ; Locust larva, p. 11 ; and Mole Cricket
and larva, ii. ld'2 ; all oi which belong to the same order as Grass-
hoppers, namely, Orthoptera.

APHIDES. 171

"When the insect is perfect within, it moults again, and
appears with the full amount of limbs, and all the
powers to which it ever attains.

A description of the method of change — that is, of
the whole operation of moulting from the commence-
ment up to the insect stepping out of its cast clothing
and standing perfect, besides its almost precise
counterpart — will be found at pp. 21, 22.

It is useful to know exactly how this change occurs,
— to see it for ourselves, and to be able to show it to
others, — because, though the little wingless insect
vermin may be doing no great harm, as a few here
and a few there, yet they will grow bigger presently ;
they will by no means give us a season of peace in the
middle of their lives, and afterwards they will be able
to lay eggs, and will multiply. It is, therefore, well
to know and to be able to show that the little creature
we hardly see is the same that will by-and-bye (if it
is, say, an Aphis here, or a Locust in warmer countries)
cause broadcast loss and trouble.

The order of the Homoptcra, or " similar-winged,"
which includes, amongst the especially injurious kinds,
the great family of the Aphides or Plant-lice, takes
its name from the four wings being similar, that is,
membranous ; whereas in the very nearly allied order
of Heteroptcra, or dissimilar- winged, there is a thick
coriaceous or leather-like patch at the base of the fore
wings. They do not feed by biting, but by suction.
The upper and under pairs of jaws are lengthened into
long bristle-like growths, and enclosed in the length-
ened lower lip. The whole apparatus forms a kind of
beak, by means of which the insect pierces the soft
parts of the plants on which it feeds, and draws out
the juices. Thus it not only hurts the plant by suck-
ing away the sap, but also does great harm by the
number of little holes which it pierces in whatever
part it attacks.

The insects of this order differ widely in form ; from
that of the Scale Insect, fixed like an oyster- or mus-

172 APHIDES, SCALE INSECTS, PLANT-BUGS, ETC.

sel-shell on the bark, to the Cuckoo Froghopper,
springing in its headlong leaps, with its long legs
trailing far behind it; and an idea of their appearance
will be given much more clearly by figures than de-
scriptions. Some, also, are so much alike in their first
stages, that it is of use to observe that, as in the order
•■of Beetles, the chief sections are classed by the number
of joints of the feet.

The Froghoppers or Cuckoo Flies, some of which
■are very hurtful to Hops, are amongst the first section,
with three-jointed feet. Trimera.

The Aphides or Plant-lice; the Psijllidce, sometimes
known as Jumping Plant-lice ; and the small Snowy
Flies (Aleyrodes), which do a good deal of harm to
Cabbage ; — belong to the second section, with two-
jointed feet. Dimera.

The Scale Insects {Coccidce) are the third section ;
these have feet with only one joint. Monomera.

In the first section (the Trimera) the insects which
concern us the most are the Froghoppers. These live
in all their stages, as far as their history is known, by
driving their beak into the attacked plant, and sucking
-out the juices. One well-known kind is the Cuckoo-
spit, as it is called, which is to be found, in its two
first stages, on many plants, in a mass of froth which
it has caused. It is said sometimes to do a great deal
of harm ; but I have found that merely giving the
attacked plant a hard watering, from overhead, easily
cleared off both the froth and insect ; and if this attack
should occur, the mere application of a good quantity
of water by means of large garden-engines, such as are
used in Hop grounds, would probably get rid of it at
once.

Another kind of Froghopper, known as Jumper or
Cuckoo Fly, does a great deal of harm in some years
to Hops. This is of a yellow colour, beautifully
marked with brown ; but to get a hold on it we need
to know where the eggs are laid from which it hatches.
A nearly-allied kind is stated to lay its eggs in autumn,

FROGHOPPER. US

either on the surface of the ground amongst Grass, or
amongst roots just below the surface. Another kind
is stated to lay its eggs, by means of its ovipositor, in
soft shoots.

This is an example of how thoroughly we need to
know the whole history of an insect to be able to keep
it in check by reliable measures at a paying rate.

Meanwhile, in this case much is done, when it
appears, by taking advantage of such of its habits as

Fig. 133. — Hop Frog Fly and laiva ; magnified, with nat. size.

are plainly to be seen. Trays about six feet long^
made of iron, are provided, well smeared with tar, and
one placed on each side of the Hop hill. The bines
are shaken, and the Cuckoo Flies either fall or take
their leaps for safety, and light on the tar, which
promptly kills them.

The green Frog Fly of the Potato is another ex-
ample of the same kind of insects, and I repeat the
figure to show the partly developed wings in the state
that answers to the pupa in this section of the 'Tri-
mera (see Fig. 134, on next page).

The section of the Dimcra (those which have two-
jointed tarsi) comprises the PsyUiche, ApJtidce, and,
Aleyrodidce.

174 APHIDES, SCALE INSECTS, PLANT-BUGS, ETC.

The kind figured (Fig. 135) are sometimes mischie-
vous in this country, but they scarcely require mention.
They are very minute insects ; their general colour
during most of their lives is Apple-green, varied in the

"'^

:s^

Fig. 134. — Potato Frog Flies : 1, 2, eggs ; 3, 4, pupae ; 5, 6, Frog
Flies : nat. size and magnified.

mature insect, in autumn, with different tints, espe-
cially of red. They are chiefly injurious by sucking

Fi«. 135. — Psijlla mali ; pupa nf P. pyri ; Apple-suckers, from life,
■with wings expanded, and also raised as in the act of taking flight ;
nat. length one-twelfth of an inch. Pupa of Pear-sucker, mag., after
Prof. W. Saunders.

away the juices of the young Apple-buds, or stalks of
the blossoms, or blossom buds.

The most important family in this order, however,

CABBAGE APHIS.

175

is that of the Aphides, or Plant-lice. We know their
general appearance well on Roses and Hops, Beans or
Cabbage ; and there seems to be hardly a forest, or
fruit tree, or crop plant in this country, of which we
can say that it is not infested by one or more kinds of
Ai^hides, either above or under ground.

We know Aphides, in a general way, as small soft
insects, having a head furnished with a beak, which

^
^

lA^^'J

Fig. 136. — Cabbage Aphis : 1 and 2, male ; 3 and 4, wingless female ;
nat. size and magnified.

is often half as long as the body, sometimes quite as
long, or longer ; the horns are commonly long and
thread-like. The abdomen ends in a sharp, or curved,
or variously formed tip, and often, but not always,
bears on its upper part, near the end, a pair of horn-
like tubercles, long or short, as the case may be.
These tubercles are really hollow tubes, known as
cornicles ; what their use may be is not clearly known.
Some have considered them part of the breathing
apparatus ; but, from the most recent and careful
observations published, they appear to be additional
means of excreting fluid.

The Aphis larvae, sometimes known as lice, are
much like their parent, only wingless; the pupas have
the beginnings of wings. In the perfect state — that is,
where there is the fullest amount of development —
there are males, and winged and also wingless females;

176 APHIDES, SCALE INSECTS, ETC.

but in some cases the male has not yet been observed,,
and sometimes there are only wmgless females ; like-
wise in some cases, as with the Phylloxera vastatrix
of the Vine, there is a variety of form between the
kind that lives under ground on the roots, and above
on the shoots or leafage.

There is so much difficulty in the study of Aphides,
and often such unnecessary trouble and confusion of
mind as to what we need to know for practical use,
that before going on I wish to direct attention to a
few points which may be of practical assistance.

There is one large tribe of Aphides (such as we
know, on the Hop, Turnip, Plum, &c.) containing
upwards of 150 British species. There are also four
very much smaller tribes, which live in various ways.
Three of these may often be known by the kind of
diseased growths they cause, such as the American
Blight of the Apple, the swollen bag-like leaves of the
Elm, or the Pine Apple-like Galls of the Spruce Fir ;
and one of the tribes feeds on roots under ground.

The first four of these five families may be known

by a difference in the veining of the wings ; and the

fifth, which is a root-feeder, by never having (so far

as I am aware is known at present) any wings at all.

If we look at the foremost wings of an Aphis, we

shall see that there is one

strong nerve or vein runs

down it, near the front edge.

If we now begin at the body,

and count the side nerves

^ ,„„ ^ . . that start from this front

Fig. 137.— Fore wing ot ,,

Aphis, of division of AjpMcUme. ncrvc, — ouc, two, thi ee, —

we shall find at the thnxl
nerve that, in the Turnip, Hop, Bean, or many others
of our crop Aphides, this third nerve branches again
into two forks.

All Aphides with these two forks to the third nerve
belong to one great tribe, known as Apliidiiue, and
have (as far as we can tell from those that have been
studied) the same kind of life-history.

APHIDES. 177

The second tribe has this nerve once forked. This
includes only seven species, and the American Blight
Aphis, Schizoneura lanigera, is an example of it.
This is known as the Schizoneurince.

The third tribe has the nerve not forked at all.
There are ten species of this: the Lettuce-root Aphis
{Pemj)higus lactucarius) is one ; but it is not very im-
portant agriculturally. This division is known as the
Pemi^higitKB.

The fourth tribe (the Chermesince) has not got this
nerve. There are only eight species : the Pine Apple
Gall Aphis of the Spruce Fir {Chermes ahietis), and
perhaps the Phylloxera of the Vine, belong to this
division.

The fifth tribe (the Bhyzobiince) is wingless, and
found chiefly at the roots of Grass or Corn.

Thus it will be seen that with some few exceptions,
which we need not enter into here, there are clear
guiding marks through the perplexities of Aphis
arrangement.*

It has been well said, " Differences in structure
show differences in habits ; " and where we can lay
our hands on some simple points like this, by whicli
we can sort a mass of confusion into five well-marked
divisions, it is well worth while to master the detail.

The life-history of the chief division — the A})hidin(e,
with the tivo-forked nerve, those which chiefly frequent
our crops — may be given generally thus : — The wing-
less females, which are produced very soon after the
males in autumn, lay eggs ; sometimes singly, some-
times in clusters. From these eggs, in the following
spring (or possibly before), J'oung Aphides hatch,
which are all females : they go quickly through their
changes up to the perfect state, and then they pro-
duce living young, which also are all females. These

* Such as are interested in making a thorough study of Aphis Hfe
are referred to 'British Aphides,' by G. B. Buckton, F.K.S., 1 vols.,
published by the Ray Society ; a long and valuable work, which
places the subject in a form which can be understood.

178

APHIDES, SCALE INSECTS, ETC.

successive generations of living young, still allfemales^
some of which are winged, some wingless, go on, until,
in autumn, the last generation occurs, which is of
males as well as females ; and the females of this, as
we said before, instead of producing living young,
produce eggs, which start the next year's attack.

This is a general sketch of the history of the great
tribe of Aplddina. This tribe includes the Corn
Aphis {A. granaria), which infests the young stems
of Corn and the growing Wheat-ears (see Fig. 125) ;
the Green Dolphin, as it is called, of the Peas ; the
Collier of the Beans (see Fig. 132) ; the Hop Aphis
(Fig. 139), which in 1882 caused a loss of more than
a, million and a half pounds sterling to this country ;

Fig. 138.— Turnip Aphides : 1, 2, 5, 6, males ; 3, 4, 7, 8, females ;
magnified, and nat. size.

the Turnip and Cabbage Aphides ; the Black Cherry-
tree Aphis ; and many other kinds too numerous to
name at present ; besides the white cottony Aphis of
the Beech, and the genus known as Pine Aphides,

APHIDES. 179

some of which are cottony, and some have a hairy
covering.

With regard to what we know at present of means
of prevention, our best course is, if we can, to nip the
evil in the bud by destroying the very first Aphides
that appear. This plan is constantly carried out in
field management with regard to the Bean Aphis.
When the Colliers, as they are called from their black
colour, appear on the tops of the Bean shoots (see
Fig. 132), these infested shoots are cut off. If the
shoots and Colliers on them are destroyed, the attack,
or at least a great deal of it, will be stopped ; but if,
instead of carrying off the fragments and destroying
them, they are only thrown on the ground, the Black
Aphides will just walk, or fly, back again to the
growing Beans, and the labour will have been in
great part lost.

This same plan is useful throughout the summer
for all plants or trees, such as Apple, Plum, Cherry,
or others, in which Aphides, or Green Fly, as they
are often called, collect in great numbers on shoots,
which may be cut off without hurting the plant.
Thus, if the shoots and Aphides on them are properly
destroyed at once, we get rid of centres from which
attack is constantly spreading to do present harm.
Also we may thus lessen the amount of next year's
attack. It is the autumn brood of males and females
which provide the eggs to start the attack of the
following year ; and therefore anything which lessens
the production of broods is useful. The shoots, how-
ever, should always be destroyed at once ; not merely
thrown aside to wither gradually, whilst their in-
festing hordes gain wings to go home again.

A healthy, yet not rank, growth is one great means
of lessening the bad effects of Aphis attack ; as in the
case of other insect attacks, the plant is thus sup-
ported through its troubles. But there is a further
reason. It has been found that Aphides come to
maturity more rapidly where the plant growth is so

180 APHIDES, SCALE INSECTS, ETC.

stunted, or the Aphides themselves are so numerous,,
that it may be presumed the nature of the sap is
different to that in the full flow of the healthy shoot,
or the Aphis is rather shortened of its food. Neces-
sarily, maturity coming sooner, the successive broods
are more rapidly produced, and the numbers greater.

Fig. 139. — ApJiis liumuli : winged and wingless viviparous females,
magnified.

Where we can tell with certainty that some species
of Aphis migrates at a special season, from one kind
of plant or tree to another, we have a most serviceable
method of prevention in our hands.

It does not seem now to be open to doubt that a
great part of the yearly attack of Hop Aphis, or "Fly,"
comes on the wing from Sloe, Damson, or plants of
the Plum tribe. Tbis was long ago stated by German
entomologists, also laid down by at least some of our
Hop-growers ; and in 1884, after careful examination
of specimens of Aphides both from Hop and Plum,
and reports from Hop-growers (noted at length with
figures in my Pieport for that year), I mentioned that
there appeared to me to be reason to believe that the
great attack, which usually occurs in the form of
"Fly" about the end of May, comes on the wing from
Davison and Sloe, as well as (which at this present
date of writing I still think is to some extent the case)
from Hop.

APHIDES. 181

In 1887, Prof. Riley (Entomologist of the Depart-
ment of Agriculture of the United States) set the
matter of migration from Plum, to Hop, beyond doubt
by his observations, of which a part was read before
our own British Association ; he mentioned : —
*' Phorodon humuli hybernates in the winter egg state,
this egg being fastened to the twigs (generally the
previous year's growth) of different varieties and
species of Pninus, both wild and cultivated." From
the winter egg Prof. Piiley found the female, the
mother of the coming tribe to be hatched, the winged
descendants of which female take flight to the Plum.

The existence of many generations on the Hop,
during summer, we are all well acquainted with ; but
during Prof. Piiley's stay in Europe, and more especi-
ally in England, he personally observed the point not
previously worked out, of the autumn migration of
the Hop Aphis, back from Hop to Plum, in the close of
uutumn.

These observations, coming from such a high
authority as Prof. Riley, give thorough confirmation
to the belief previously held as to migration ; but still
I do not think that in this country the whole of the
attack comes on the wing from Plum, Damson, or
Sloe, because (amongst other reasons) we have found
Aphides— that is, wingless females and lice — on Hop
as early as the end of March and the beginning of
April, long before the attack coming on the wing
made its appearance.

The Hop Aphides (the Phorodon or Aphis humuli)
may be distinguished from the Plum Aphis, and from
others of the Aphidince, by the horns being hardly
longer than the body, together with the lowest joint
being toothed or gibbous, and the tubercles on the
forehead each having a strong tooth. The legs are
short, and the honey-tubes long.

Where there chance to be large quantities of Sloes,
as, for instance, Sloe hedges, in the neighbourhood of
Hop-gardens, these at least might be got rid of with-
out loss.

182

APHIDES, SCALE INSECTS, ETC.

The number of remedies — such as solutions or
mixtures of tobacco, paraffin, quassia, or other appli-
cations in the form of washings or syringings — are
endless, and recipes are not given here, as these

Fig. 140. — Hop Aphis : base of antennae and frontal tubercle of —
1, young form; 2, wingless female, magnified.

applications lie in the special province of the Hop-
grower. It may, however, be noted that sometimes,
washes fail in efiect from the operator not being
aware that in the case of many Aphides the skin is
covered with a kind of mealy coating, which throws
off watery application. Consequently it often hap-
pens that unless the washing lodges amongst the
Aphides so as to kill them, or, again, the syringing
is given with such force as to knock them from the
plants, the insects are but little hurt. It is for this
reason that soft-soap is so largely used, especially by
Hop-growers, for the washes : it is sticky, and thus
adheres in some degree to the Aphides ; also it may
be made the vehicle of any other application, with
which it may be desired to poison the Aphides ; and,
thirdly, it is a good fertiliser, which, as we have
observed, is important in Aphis attack.

The great thing, however, that we need to know, in
order to check Aphis attack, is where and how each
kind spends the winter. Meanwhile our best hope as
to prevention lies in allowing as few shelters as
possible on trees, or in neglected bark (in fruit or tree
attack), or at the roots of wild grasses round fields, for
possible shelter of grain Aphis, and (generally) being
alive to the necessity of not letting everything drift
without thought of the reasons how, or why, things

WOOLLY APHIS.

183

happen ; and, for remedy, in use of washes which ai'e
known to be suitable for the purpose in hand.

The Aphides of the remaining four tribes are much
fewer in number ; and of these the most important to
us, in a farming point of view, is the American Bhght
Aphis, Schizoneura lanigera.

S^O^,; „ ^a:-

V

Fig. 141. — "Woolly Aphis: infested Apple-spray, nat. size; wingless
viviparous female and young clothed with woolly fibres ; small
egg-bearing female beneath the spray ; pupa ; — all magnified.

The few kinds of Schizoneura that we have may be
known by the singly-forked third wing-nerve, and also
by the cornicles (or honey-tubes, as they are some-
times called) being wholly, or almost entirely, absent.
They live in very different places : one, for instance,
is found on Black Currant roots in flocky matter,
like that of the most destructive kind, which is the
American Blight.

This Woolly Aphis, or American Blight, is chiefly
to be found in neglected orchards. The Aphides,
shelter themselves for the most part in crevices of the
bark, or where a bough has been injured, or under
young bark healing over wounds; but they may be

184 APHIDES, SCALE INSECTS, ETC.

found on the young shoots, and the leaves, and are
distinguishable by the white cottony material which
surrounds them. I have also found this kind of
attack on the rootlets. The piercing of the Aphis-
sucker causes the growth just below the bark to be-
come swollen and pulpy ; then the cells divide, and
the bark above splits, and thus openings are formed,
which give the Aphides new hiding holes ; and the
diseased growth from their punctures is continued,
until large tumour-like masses are formed, and the
trees are very seriously injured.

The best method of checking attack is to keep the
bark of the Apple trees in such a healthy state, — by
means of proper pruning, and clearing away injured
branches, and useless and cracked bark (and other
measures), — that there may be as few cracks, and cran-
nies, and half-healed spots, as possible ; consequently
as little as possible of the shelter in which this Aphis
delights. Also, when the white wool in any nook, or
on any soft shoot in summer time, shows the presence
of the pest, the shoots should be at once cut off, and
some remedy should be well brushed or rubbed into
infested nooks.

The number of different kinds of applications ad-
vised are almost beyond counting, though the principle
throughout is one. But anything will be of use which
will stifle or poison the Aphides, without hurting the
bark of the tree ; and probably common soft-soap,
■or soft-soap with a little sulphur (lissoh'ed in it, or
paraffin or tobacco-juice added to it, and well rubbed
or washed in, so that it may be sure to reach the
pests in their sheltering nooks, will answer as well,
or better, than most of the many suggested appli-
cations.

Some of the applications said to succeed should be
applied (if at all) with great caution, or they may do
more harm than good by soaking into the bark. Tar
is especially to be suspected, for it is apt to melt in
the heat of the sun ; and turpentine, resin, and fish-

WOOLLY APHIS. 185

oil, mixed and put on ^Yarm, and, in fact, anything
that will thus choke the bark, is an unsafe appli-
cation.

For attack below ground, the best treatment seems
to be, clearing away infested roots and soil round
them, and drenching the spot well with soft-soap
washings or drainings from stables.

We have only six kinds of Schizoneura, and these
may be known by the one-forked wing-nerve, and by
having either no honey-tubes (cornicles), or exceed-
ingly small ones. (See Fig. 141, p. 183).

The trihe of Pcmphigince is generally known from
the others by having no forks to the third wing-nerve ;
also by having the cornicles absent, or rudimentary.*

This division hardly concerns us agriculturally.
There are only about seven British kinds, and, like
the above, they live in very various places ; some are
Gall-makers, and one does a great deal of harm at
Lettuce roots. When this is at work, it is desirable
to water well with anything that will keep the soil
thoroughly moist, and be favourable at the same time
to growth ; bearing in mind that below ground, as
well as above, the great point in killing Aphides is to
apply something that will choke up their breathing-
pores, as mere water, or merely fluid applications,
flow off them, unless special measures for flooding
are adopted. t Also, when ground is known to be
infested, it is very desirable to put on a killing
dressing : a handful of fresh gas-lime, put into each

* The Pemphigina have usually no fork to the titird wing-nerve ;
but in the ease of the veiy small TJiclaxes dnjophila, sometimes found
on Oak, this third oblique wing-nerve haa one fork. The history of
Aphis life is so involved that it is very dillicult to convey any plain
and clear general view ; but in the above short sketch I have
endeavoured to give a correct abstract of tlie present state of in-
formation on the subject, following the classification given in Mr.
G. B. Buckton's admirable work, ' Monograph of British Aphides.'

t It has been noticed by Mr. Buckton (' British Aphides,' vol. i.,
p. 35) that "complete submergence in water speedily kills most
Aphides," — an important observation, well worth consideration in
the case of root-feeding Aphides.

186

APHIDES, SCALE INSECTS, ETC.

hole from which a plant has been drawn, will do a
deal of good ; and any of the dressings we have
noticed to clear out insect-life, applied from time to
time, would be of service.

The simple point is not enough considered with
regard to Aphis attack in the ground, — that unless by
any chance infection was carried on plant, or in earth,
the insect must have gone down at some previous
time to start the attack ; and if we kept the earth in
such a state that it could not go doivn, we should not

Fig. 142. — Larch Cherme : female, with eggs; winged specimen,
and larva ; all much magnified. Infested Larch twig.

have so much trouble. I would, therefore, strongly
advise such application to the surface, and such care,
that there should be no cracks, or the earth dried
away from the plant, or other means allowed for
ingress of the Aphis, as might reasonably be expected
to keep it out.

The remaining tribe that is winged, includes the
Chervies, and (possibly) the Phylloxera. It is known
as the Chermcsince, and has no third wing-nerve (has
three, not four, oblique wing-nerves), and no cornicles.

The Chermes abietis is one of the best known of this

CHEEMES.

187

family, from the singular Galls, like small Pine
Apples, which it causes on Spruce Fir shoots.

The Larch Chermcs, or "bug" (see Fig. 142), is
sometimes very common and very injurious on Larch
shoots. This is an example of a kind in which the
female lives through the winter, and also never gives
birth to living young ; she is exclusively an egg-layer.

The Phylloxera is a world-wide trouble, but does not
affect lis agriculturally ; therefore I am thankful not

Fig. 143. — Spruce Chermes : female, pupa, e,ufgs, and horn ; all
much magnified. Section of Gall.

to be obliged to enter on what at present seems an
unconquered difficulty.

The fifth tribe of Aphides (the Rhyzohiince) feed
mostly on grass-roots, and are wingless ; and should
they be found troublesome, the use of the cultivator,
plenty of gaslime, and similar measures, would pro-
bably clear them out.

It is exceedingly difficult to give any clear view of
Aphis life, or means of prevention, for few are known,
excepting in cases where the plants are under cover,

188

APHIDES, SCALE INSECTS, ETC.

iind therefore famigation can be brought to bear.
But the prmciple throughout appears to be this: —
Check attack by diminishing lurking-places, and also
by pruning off and destroying infested shoots and
parts of plants, or infested leaves (as with Cabbage),
as much as you can ; and where you can bring washes
to bear, use soft-soap as a foundation ; but where the
application may be run into the ground, and thus
remain round the insects, ammoniacal water, or
drainings from stables, lime-water, or other drenchings
poisonous to insect-life, and that will not hurt the
2)lant, have proved useful.

Fig. 144. — Ahywdea proJctella : Fly and pupa, much magnified ;
Flies on leaf, twice nat. size.

Tlie third familji of the section Dimera of the Homop-
tera contains the Aleijrodidce. These are not the cause
of any very great amount of mischief, but they require
mention on account of their peculiar difference, in
larval and pupal condition, from that of the imago.
Thus in the characteristics which are most observable,
without minute inspection, they differ from most of
the other divisions of this order, excepting the Scale
insects, qv Coccidce, to which they bear many re-
semblances.

This A.proletella is a small four- winged Fly, very

APPLE MUSSEL SCALE. 189

like a small powdery White Moth in its appearance.
It may be found on different kinds of Cabbage, more
or less, all the year round, and towards autumn in
such enormous quantities that, if the plants are stirred,
the soft white flies will rise and float in the air, and
settle down like miniature snow-flakes, whence its
name of the Snowy Fly. They rest for the most
part beneath the leaves, and draw away the sap
with their suckers ; and at times do a good deal of
harm.

As far as is known, these Snowy Flies breed in
winter as well as in summer.

The female lays her eggs in a patch on a leaf; these
hatch in about twelve days, and the young spread
themselves on the leaf, and shortly become covered
with a scale, white, with two yellow spots. In this
state they much resemble the common Scale insect,
and they stick fast to the leaf, which they pierce with
their sucker. In about ten days they turn (beneath
this scale) to a pale chrysalis, with red eyes, and in
about four days more the perfect insect comes out
through the scale.

The " Scale Insects," or Coccidce, are the third
section (distinguished as Monomera, from their feet
having only one joint) of the Homoptera. These
insects do great harm by drawing away the sap by
means of their suckers.

There are many kinds, differing in various points
of structure, as well as form ; but in the case of the
Apple Mussel Scale {Aspidlotus concldformis, Curtis),
which is sometimes very hurtful in orchards, this
shell-like husk, which is in shape like a minute mus-
sel-shell, adheres firmly to the bark during winter ;
and under it, but not attached to it, there lies the dead
body of the female Scale, and fifty or more eggs. In
spring these hatch, and from them come small white
flat insects, furnished with eyes, horns, six legs, and
a sucker. These are very active at first ; but presently
each Scale larva runs its sucker into some spot it can

190

APHIDES, SCALE INSECTS, ETC.

pierce, begins to feed, and ceases to move. A secretion
of "waxy material takes place on its back, beneath
which the scale forms ; and after various moults, and
additions by secretion to the size of the Scale, the
-change of the insect under it takes place to the
perfect state.

This, in the female, is to a shape like that of a
globular flattened maggot, greenish in colour, without
jointed limbs, which lays eggs, and dies.

The males (I believe, in the present case, first

Fig. 145. — Apple Mussel Scale — female and eggs ; magnified. Twig,
with Scale; nat. size.

observed not long ago by Prof. Riley) have one pair
of whitish wings, and no proboscis.

The best methods of getting rid of these Scales are
to prune off infested boughs, where this can be done.
"Where it cannot, rubbing off the Scales by means of
•cloths or brushes, after moistening the bark with
water, or scraping them away with a knife, gets rid of
many ; and, generally, the same kind of remedies are
useful as are applied for American Blight, such as
soft-soap, with some mixture of paraffin, kerosine, or
other addition, which may stifle the Scale insects
which have been disturbed, and make the bark un-
suitable for attack.

PLANT BUGS.

191

Fig. 146. — 1 to 4, Potato Bug ; 5 and 6, Hop Bug, nat. size
and magnified.

The order of Plant Bugs * includes both plant and
water insects, which may be known by a kind of
leathery patch at the base of the front wings, " dis-
similar " from the rest of the substance, whence the
order takes its name of Heteroptera, or " dissimilar-

FiG. 147.— 1 to 4, Grass Bug; 5 and 6, Wheat Bug, nat. size
and magnified.

* The insects included in this and in the preceding order by Prof.
Westwood, are included, at the present day, in the order Hendptera (or
Bhi/nchota, of Burmeister), and classed respectively under the sub-
orders of Hemiptera-Heleroptera, and Hemiptera-IIomoptera. I have
retained the distinction as given.

192

APHIDES, SCALE INSECTS, ETC.

wirged." The long-legged insects known as water-
measurers, which we see skimming about on the
surface of ponds, and the Water Boatmen, which by
the help of their long oar-like front legs sweep through
the water like insect skiffs, are common examples ot
the water frequenters of this division.

The Plant Bugs sometimes do harm by sucking the

Fig. 148. — Mole Cricket.* Eggs, larva of two ages.

juices of plants, especially the Lypvs {PJii/tocoris}
solani, which attacks Potatoes; but they are, so far as
I am aware, rarely injurious in this country to any
serious extent.

Some kinds, of a longer narrower shape, are to be
found on Wheat and Barley. The Wheat Bug (Miris
iritici) has also often been found on Grass in marshes;
the Barley Bug (31. flolahirtivs) is exceedingly common
in Barley, and on flowers of Grass near (see Fig. 147).

* The Mole Cricket is one of the Orthoptcra, and sometimes does
much haim by feeding on roots both of Grass and other plants.

LOCUST. 193

Some of these various out-of-door Bugs probably do
good, by means of their carnivorous habits ; and with
regard to the wingless kind, which, to our misfortune,
occasionally teaches us that feeding on animal juices,
by means of a sucker, is a characteristic of this order,
I think we need not enter on its prevention here.

Three orders still remain of those of which the
insects vary little in appearance throughout their
lives. Of these three we do not need to enter on that
of the Earwigs, Eujylexoptera (Fig. 149), for though

Fig. li'J. — Earwig.

injurious in gardens, it does not often occur as a really
widespread and serious infestation in fields. Nor do
we need to enter on the Orthoptera, the order that
includes Grasshoppers and Crickets, so far as injury
to our Islands is concerned ; but it is worth notice that
we are now and then visited by the true Locust. The
unsuitableness of climate makes it very unlikely we
should ever be seriously troubled by this terrible
scourge, but nevertheless some of the observations
taken by the Entomological Commission of the United
States of America, as to the effect of cold, and deep
burying of the eggs, in retarding date of hatching,
are of much practical interest to us, for the size of the
eggs allows the specimens to be observed with
certainty, and from what happens to them we may
at least get hints as to what very likely hnpnens

o

194

APHIDES, SCALE INSECTS, ETC,

with the eggs of other insects. It is found essential to
great amount of Locust presence that the eggs should
be healthy, and properly deposited ; that is, at the
proper depth below the surface, and otherwise in
favourable circumstances. The natural depth is an
inch or thereabouts below the surface ; it was found
that from eggs placed two inches deep, about a third
of the young Locusts managed to make their way to
the surface, but none came up from eggs buried m'>re
than two inches deep. Eggs hatched that were buried

Fig. 15U. — Locust.

as much as twelve inches deep, and the young Locusts
worked their way for an inch or two through the
earth, but (as we just observed) did not come up to
the surface; and at the time when these were hatched,
eggs buried deeper than twelve inches were still
unhatched.

It is further noticed that eggs placed deeper, though
they remained unhatched whilst buried, were not
harmed by lying underground, for on being brought
to the surface they hatched at once. Further, it was
found, with regard to the effect of warmth or of cold
in hastening or retarding hatching, that the Locust

THRIPS. 195

•egg will bear freezing, but that at a uniform tempera-
ture of 85°, the time required for hatching was 31
days ; at a temperature of 50°, the time needed was
11(5 days. Other dates are given, showing that so long
as the warmth was considerable, — that is, not lower
than 60°, — though the time of hatching was lengthened
increasingly with the drop in temperature, yet it was
not very greatly altered ; but below 60" the time was
much lengthened. .

How far these experiments may apply to eggs of
our farm-pests we cannot be quite sure till we have
proved it, in each case ; but if, as is likely, the eggs
will hatch at a moderate depth below the surface, and
the grubs perish because they cannot come up, we
-have a useful piece of information ; and further, in
■the fact of eggs lying unhatched and also uninjured
■when buried deeply, we may have a reason for the
•occasional entirely unexpected appearance of some
crop-pest in a single field, but nowhere else in the
neighbourhood.

But however this may be, we have instances here
of the use of putting eggs in unnatural places and
circumstances, and for this purpose no means are
(better than thorough cultivation of the land. Thus
"whilst — just as with weeds— a number of the eggs are
turned safely down to a depth from which we may
hope they will not come up again, others will escape,
but there will be a certain quantit}^ destroyed by wiiat
is termed desiccation, or drying. If an egg which is
naturally placed below the surface of the earth, is
thrown out on the surface, to the effects of air and
sunshine, the fluid within will dry up, and the embryo
wdtliin will consequently be destroyed.

The remaining order is that of the Tlirips, Tliy-
sanoptcra. These are very small insects, which some-
times do much harm to corn. They are nearly alike
in shape in all their stages, but as they are scarcely
large enough to be seen by tbe naked eye, the figure
gives a better idea than description (see Fig. 151).

196

APHIDES, SCALE INSECTS, ETC.

The perfect insect of the Corn Thrips (Fig. 151, 1
to 4) is blackish, but in the first state of larva or grub
it is of a deep yellow ; in the second it is of a paler
yellow, with whitish wing-cases.

These Thrips are to be found from June onwards
in the growing "Wheat ears, and sometimes in the
sheathing leaves of the stem. They feed on the corn
grain, by piercing into it with their sucker-like jaw

Pig. 151. — 1 to 4, Corn Thrips ; 5 to 8, Potato Thrips and larva :
nat. size and magnified.

apparatus,* and thus draw away the juices and cause
the grain to shrivel.

Another kind, also figured above, infests the Potato,
drawing away the juices in the same way as the Corn
Thrips ; as do also the Aphides, Scale insects. Plant
Bugs, and some others, which we have just noticed,
with their variously formed sucking apparatus. In the
ease of the Potato Thrips, dusting with dressings of
lime and soot, or other mixtures, might do good ; but
for the Corn Thrips it seems impossible to find any

* The precise character of the mouth of this insect has been much
discussed. The result appears to be, that though it is shown to feed
by suction, yet that it has a pair of long bristle-like mandibles (see
Introd. to ' Classification of Insects,' by J. O. Westwood, vol. ii., p.
2). I have therefore in the list of orders, page 23, placed " Thrips,"
Tliysanoptcra, amongst the Insects with jaws.

THRIPS.

197

application, as any of those used to destroy the Thrips
Mould hurt the corn. The chief means of prevention
seems to lie in clearing stubble, or in deep ploughing
to get rid of Thrips which may be wintering at the
roots of the removed crop, or in destroying wild
grasses on which the eggs may be laid round the
fields.

Fig. 152. — No. 1 Eclair, or Knapsack Pu:iip.

The Knapsack Sprayer, figured above, is a very
convenient form, and is noted here as being service-
able for distribution of washes and sprays for de-
struction of Aphides, Scale insects, &c. ; as well as
for the distribution of Paris-green, mentioned at
p. 140. The Sprayer is procurable from Messrs.
€. Clark & Co., Windsor Chambers, Great Saint
Helens, London, E.G.

198

CHAPTER X.

Notes on Slugs, Flukes, Eelworms, Millepedes,.
AND Eed Spider.

With Observations on Methods of Studrjing Habits of
Farm Insects and other Crop Pests.

Fig. 153.— 1, L. agrestic, Field or Milky Slug ; 2, L. ater, Black
Slug (less than life size) ; 3, L. ater (var. empiricorum) in repose ;
4, eggs.

In the preceding pages I have endeavoured to place
before the reader some of the most important points
in classification and methods of hfe of insects, and
also of the principles on which these methods of life
should be followed up in order to check their ravages.
To follow this up in the detail which this subject (so
important in its bearing on the food supplies of the
nation) deserves, would require more space, and also
much more time and devotion to the subject, than can

INSECT CLASSIFICATION. 199

be given by any save special students of farm crop
pests.

One thread of serviceable knowledge will, however,
be seen to run through the whole of the subject under
consideration, namely, — that by observing the habits
of the crop insects, and using remedies which lie in
the common course of agricultural operations, under
the guidance of a few connnon-sensc liiindplcs, we may
in very many cases save our crops.

"With regard to the direct study of Insect life, by
observing the history of many insects in their different
stages, the student will understand clearly u-hat an
insect is ; also that it goes through three eJianges of
condition ; and also that insects are classed in large
divisions called Orders, according to the nature of these
changes which they pass through up to the perfect
state ; and according to the nature of their wings
when perfect ; also that the Orders are named from the
nature of the wings.

It is very important to know, and to be able to
show, that the manner of insect life is fixed according
to regular laws, because there is still a kind of floating
idea in many people's minds that insects come in
some vague way ; that they are formed from fog or
mist, or water, or decay ; and that, like the ghosts and
hobgoblins of childhood, they are mysterious enemies
which no one quite knows how to deal with. But
once get the real history fixed as a fact, and then we
know how to act.

It often matters very little whether we know the
scientific name of an insect ; but it matters a great
deal, when attack is going on, that we should know the
nature of the insects that cause it, and also their
habits in connection with the injured crop. There are
several kinds of "VVireworms ; several kinds of Daddy
Longlegs ; several kinds of Turnip-Flea Beetle. Each
of these sets (so to call it) lives much in the same way
as its brethren, and it is needless (for all farming
purposes) to be perfectly informed about the seientilic

200 METHODS OF STUDY.

differences between one or other of each set; but it is
of great importance to be able to tell whether it is a
Wireworm, or Daddy Longlegs grub (or so on), of
some sort or other, that is injuring a crop, in order
that the right means ma}^ be used to save it from the
insect ; and I trust that in the preceding Chapters
sufficient information will be found to enable the
observer to tell what orders such crop insects as are
commonly met with belong to, — that is, whether they
are Flies, Beetles or so on ; but either for teacher or
student it is serviceable occasionally just to take each
Chapter separately, and look at the figures. Thus the
student will see, and be able to fix firmly in the minds
of those who apply for information, what are the
main points of an insect in each stage.

Say it is the order of Butterflies and Moths that
may be under examination ; the student cannot fail to
notice that the caterpillars have commonly three pairs
of claw-feet, and one to four pairs of sucker-feet, under
the body, besides the caudal pair ; also that there are
two slightly different forms of chrysalis, belonging
respectively to Butterflies and Moths ; and also that
the shape of the horns of the Butterfly differs from
the many shapes of those of the Moths. If the
teacher had tried to explain this without a picture,
the pupil would probably have been without an idea
of what was described; but one glance at the succes-
sive pictures will have told him at once what are the
main points of a Butterfly or Moth, and its caterpillar
£iud chrysalis.

The object of minute scientific descriptions is, that
we may have a correct knowledge of the appearance of
Avhat is described ; but there are few who can tell
nearly as well from a description as from a figure
what the described thing is like, and often a wrong
idea is thus established. I would, therefore, suggest
that in first instructions to pupils, teaching should be
given as much as possible by the real specimens, if
these are available; otherwise by means of good

PLAIN WORDING DESIRABLE. 201

figures. Also, when it is needed in field work to make
out what insect it is which is injuring a crop, I woald
strongly advise the enquirer not to harass himself by
doing what is called *' looking out the insect,'' but
take the state of the crop as the starting-point. Have
a book with descriptions of the common crop attacks,
and a good number of figures, both of the injury, and
of the insect that causes it. Then look out the crop
in the index, turn to it in the book, and turn over the
IDages relating to attacks to that croj) until you come
to a picture or description that suits the attack ; and
so you will soon know clearly (if it is one of the com-
monly injurious kinds) all that is needed to be known
■or is known about it, instead of, after long delay and
trouble, still being quite uncertain whether yoii are
right or wrong. There are not very many attacks
that are commonly injurious to a serious extent to
food crops, fruit, and timber, in this country ; probably
if we say two hundred tliat would be quite an outside
reckoning ; and many of these may be known just as
well, or better, by the state of the attacked vegetable
as by the appearance of the insect.

There is one more point of farm insect study which it
is also desirable to draw attention to. Our object here
is to save the crops, and to learn and teach whatever
we can on this subject in the very plainest way.
Plants, insects, manures, farm implements, — all have
to be thought of and spoken of; and in every case it
is hiiiJdij desirable to use the words that will be most
•certain to he understood by those we are speaking to. In
regard to the insects I would strongly advise speaking
of them by their commonly used English names ; but
still, with regard to the scientific names, it is very
desirable to observe, and show our pupils, that these
have a very precise meaning. Just as, in the case of
the orders, there is a distinct serviceable meaning for
each name ; so is there in many cases for the names
of the lesser divisions; and it is desirable for tliose
who teach to make themselves acquainted with the

202 METHODS OF STUDY.

meaning of these words, as thus, more Hkely thar^
not, they will be put in possession of some special
point, some leading peculiarity of the insect or of the
division, be it genus, or family, or order, to which it
belongs.

These names may or may not help us practically ;
but it often happens that the second name — the
specific name, as it is called, because it is used only
to one species — describes some point of marking or
colour, or of the kind of plant which the insect mainly
frequents, which is very convenient to know. In the
case of Aphides, for instance, they are often named
after the plant which they infest ; and with this tribe,
especially, running down the columns of an index for
the plant name often saves much time and trouble,
"where we are at a loss amongst the scientific insect
names.

With regard to gaining information of serviceable
methods of remedy of attack when it is present, it is
of great use to benefit by the collected opinions of
many farmers (of practical and scientific men), and
their experience as to different methods of treatment
that answer on different soils, cannot fail to be of most
excellent service ; but still it should be borne in mind
that each man, by a little observation of the method of
attack, which is often only too plain, and a little quiet
thought as to what measures can be brought to bear,
might often help himself very eftectually.

With a slight knowledge of the habits of insect life,
added to his own of the agricultural measures that
could be used to destroy the pest, or at least lessen
the effect of its ravages, each grower would be fairly
able to cope with attacks as they occurred ; whereas
if he depends only on advice, besides the damage from
delay, he is very likely to get suggestions not suited to
the particular circumstances. The farmer may not
know the history of the insect ; but, on the other
hand, the entomologist very seldom knows all the
practical workings of growing a crop, which it is

LOSSES. 203

necessary to know before advising measures which
can be depended on to answer at a paying rate.

In many cases the different items of treatment
which go to make up good farming will of themselves
keep down a great deal of insect attack. By good
cultivation of the surface, and proper as well as liberal
manuring, by rotation of crops, and clearing fields and
borders of useless trash and weeds, we turn out a great
quantity of the pests which are harbouring in tlie
ground, and also ensure a good healthy growth, such
as will support the crop under moderate attack ; and
by the rotation of crop and absence of weeds we are
often able to present starvation to our grubs, as many
of them will only (or perhaps we should say, can only)
live on special food.

These are the broad principles which will be sure to
be of use. We shall not be free from insects any more
than we shall be free from weeds ; and we need a
great deal more solid field information about the
habits of crop insects (and experiences of paying
means of prevention) before we can think we have
them thoroughly in hand. Nevertheless the last few
years have added enormously to our information, and
have shown us how at least we may greatly diminish
the amount of injury our crops suffer.

Details of recorded amount of this loss per acre to
special crops would take too much space to insert
here ; but the fact of the Hop failure, through Aphis
blight in 1882, causing a loss of over a million and a
half pounds sterling, and the loss on the Turnip crop,
by Turnip-Flea Beetle in 1881, amounting to fully, or
to more than, half a million, may be taken as some
slight guide to what is going on.

From insect injury, and from injury by what are
described as " insect allies," the losses we suffer
yearly are a most severe drag on the resources of the
growers, as well as a national loss ; and on these
latter infestations, which are often as severe in their
effects as those of insects on the attacked crops, and

"204 SLUGS, FLUKES, EELWORMS, ETC.

also are sometimes confused with them, some obser-
vations may be desirable.

In the following pages some notes are given on
Slugs ; and also on Water Snails, as a means of
dessemination of Liver Fluke in sheep ; also on
Eelworm attack to various crops ; also on Red Spider
and Hay Mites ; and on Millepedes, often known as
Julus-worms, or False Wireworms.

Slugs are injurious to almost every kind of crop.
They belong to the Division Mollusca, thus described,
"Animal in pairs, the body and its appendages soft,
inarticulate (not jointed), enveloped in a muscular
skin, commonly called the mantle, which is extremely
variable in form, and has developed either within or
upon it a calcareous portion, consisting of one or
several pieces commonly called a shell."— Trans, from
De Blainville's ' Manuel de Malacologie et de Con-
chjdiologie,' given in Sowerby's ' Conchological
Manual,' p. 3. The Shell Snail, "Pond Snails" or
Limnaa, and Pond Mussels, are familiar examples of
Molluscs with shells ; the true Slugs or Lhnacidce have
a small morsel of a kind of shell-like formation some-
times shield-shaped, placed on the fore part of the back
under the skin called the mantle.

The true Slugs may be generally described (when
extended or in movement) as being long, more or less
spindle-shaped, cylindrical or tumid, head prominent,
" tentacles " (commonly known as horns) four in
number, and two eyes placed on the tips of the
uppermost pair of horns (see 1 and 2, Fig. 153).

When at rest or alarmed they draw themselves
together into a lump, as shown at 3, also Fig. 153.

The Field or Milky Slug, Tj. cuircstis, figured at 1,
p. 198, is a somewhat spindle-shaped kind, about an
inch and a third long, greyish in colour, and with
milky slime, and is very common.

The Arions, or Black Slugs, of which one is figured
in repose at 3, and less than nat. size at 2, p. 198, are
p>artly distinguishable by the skin being wrinkled, and

SLUGS. 205

the shield on the back shagreened. Avion ater is as
much as four inches long. The colour of these two
kinds of Arions is very variable, and they are stated
to lay their eggs separately under ground.

One very important point to be considered, in
methods of prevention, is the circumstance that the
Slug can exude slime, so that it can " moult-off," as
it were, a coating of lime or other obnoxious dressing
thrown on it, and thus (quite getting rid of it together
with the slime) be no worse for one application of any
ordinary dressing. This moulting the Slug can do a
feic times successively, but after the operation has been
repeated two or three (or at least a very few times) the
creature requires an interval to regain the power ; the
slime reservoirs, or power of exuding slime, are
exhausted for the time being, and the obnoxious
dressing consequently takes effect on the skin of the
Slug and kills it.

Where there is bad Slug-attack in fields, attention
is particularly needed to these points. On ?(u-occupied
land, such a heavy dressing of gas-lime, or quick-lime,
or salt, may be put on, that wherever the Slug crawls
there is the obnoxious stuff, and it soon loses its
slime-producing power and perishes. But very often,
where crops are infested, lime is only thrown in the
middle of the day or at any convenient time, just
when the Slugs are sheltered from the dressings
falling on them, and as it soon slacks it does very
little towards getting rid of the infestation. I have
seen the Slug resting as comfortably in the slacked
lime as it would under a stone.

Or again, if one dressing is given in the morning, or
when the Slugs are out at feed, it often happens that
it is not followed up by another before the Slugs can
protect themselves.

To do good the dressing should be thrown in the
evening, when the Slugs are at feed, and again the
following morning. If the Slugs should again re-
appear next evening, the dressing should be given

206

SLUGS, FLUKES, EELWORMS, ETC.

again ; but if it has been properly applied, probably
there will be no need.

One or more kinds of the Marsh or Water Snails
{Limncem, scientifically) play a most seriously in-
jurious part as " hosts " of the Liver Fluke of sheep,
the Fasciola hepatica (sometimes known as Distomi
hepatica), during the early stages of its life. The
Limnceas tnuicatidas, of which the shell is figured
below somewhat larger than natural size, is the kind

Fig. 154. — Shells of Water Snails: 1, Limnceus truncatu'iia ; 2, L.
peref/er ; 3, L. stagnalis.* Not quite twice nat. size when full-
grown.

which is especially recorded as infested by the Fluke
in its early stages.

Kegarding presence of infestation in the L. percger,
there has been difference of opinion. These " Marsh
Snails" wander about, and both kinds are nearly
amphibious ; they may be found in damp grass as
well as in pools. Of the L. tniiiratnlus it is said that
it is to be found on " Banks of slow and muddy rivers,
and streams, marshes, ditches, grassy pools, water-
falls, and moist places everywhere from the northern-
most point of Zetland to Jersey."! And of the L.

* The L. Rtagnalis is merely added, as, though I am not aware it
is a "host" for Fluke, its comparatively large size conveys the
appearance of this genus of shells more plainly.

t ' Brit. Concliology,' by J. Gwyu Jeffreys, vol. i., p. IIG.

WATER SNAILS. 207

pereger " that it is fond of wandering, and may be
met with at some distance from its native element, or
climbing up the trunk of a Willow tree." — J. G. J.

During the years in which I had personal knowledge
of habits of Limnceiis at Sedbury Park, in West
Gloucestershire, the L.perec/er was excessively preva-
lent in small field ponds or drinking places, where
floating water plants, weeds round the bank, and
more or less mud, according to weather or season,
gave every encouragement to their increase ; but we
only met with the truncatulus in one of these small
pools.

It would have been of considerable scientific interest
(if we could have had technical examination by an
expert) to find whether, in circumstances so congenial
to pcrcgcr, the Fluke infestation was jDerfected in it up
to maturity, which it does not appear to reach in this
species of Snail as observed in captivity. But, as a
coincidence at least (whether of this, or of great amount
of rabbit presence), our sheep were constantly affected
by rot to so serious an extent that it was stated by
the bailiff he "never killed one with a sound liver."

Neither Snails nor Flukes are connected with insect
life, but this one jDarasitic attack is given in some
■degree of detail as an example of the very different
successive forms which some of our farm infestations
go through, and also of the very different localities in
which they are to l)e found during their j^rogress to
maturity.

The following information is abridged from the
history of the Liver Fluke, recorded from his own
observations by Prof. A. P. Thomas, published, vol.
xix. S. S. of the Journal of the Ptoj^al Agricultural
Society of England ; the figures are taken from the
same paper.

The Liver Fluke, Fasciola Jiepatica, lives in livers
of various vertebrate animals, and, in this country,
especially of sheep, as well as of rabbits and hares ;
it averages from about an inch to an inch and a

208

SLUGS, FLUKES, EELWORMS, ETC.

quarter in length, and in shape may be described as.
not unlike a little sole, in width about half its length,
flat, and largest towards the head end. At the tip of
its head part is placed the mouth, in the middle of a
small sucker, and at the point where the head joins
the flat body, on the lower surface, is another sucker.
The colour is pale brown.

Fig. 155.— Liver Fluke in various stages: 1, Fluke, magnified, nat.
length somewhat more than one inch; 2, free embryo; 3, " sporo-
cyst " ; 4, tailed larva, or " cercaria " : all magnified.

The eggs, which are brownish and excessively
minute, are passed down from the liver to the intes-
tines, and thus distributed with the droppings of the
infested animals. If the eggs fall in favourable cir-
cumstances for hatching (that is, warm weather on
wet or marshy ground, or are washed into ditches or
ponds), the embryo within develops in a period which
may be of from two or three weeks to two or three
months, according to temperature; then the contained
embryo pushes off one end of the egg-shell, and swims
away with great rapidity and activity.

This embryo is described by Prof. A. P. Thomas, in
his minutely recorded observations from life of this
infestation, as being only about l-200th of an inch in

LIVER FLUKE. 209

length, that is, almost too minute to be visible to the
naked eye, and in shape not unlike a sugar loaf. In
the centre of the largest end is a peg-like projection
which is used as a boring tool, and can be withdrawn,
or greatly thrust out, at pleasure.

The embryo darts and circles about in the water,
large end foremost ; and if in the course of its move-
ments it meets with the Water Snail {Limnceus tniii-
catidus), it at once commences operations. It inserts
its borer, and, spinning round and round on itself in
the water so as to work the point in like a centre-bit,
squeezes its way into the substance of the snail.
Here the embryo settles into almost still life, and
changes into an oval form, which, when complete, is
known as a sporo-cyst, that is, a " cyst," or a bag, or
bladder, of germs. Within this bag, so to call it,
about ten germs develop, known as " redife."* Each
redia as it is developed makes its way out of the sporo-
cyst, and being furnished with a mouth and intestine,
and two projections that answer the purpose of legs,.
it feeds on, and makes its way about within, the body
of the snail.

Up to this point it will be seen there are four dis-
tinct stages of Fluke life, — the egg; the free swimming
embryo ; the quiet form of the sporo-cyst, altering to a
mere bag of developing germs ; and the germs called
redise, free from the bag, and feeding on the Snail,
which ultimately (for the most part) sinks under the
parasitic attack.

Continuing the history from the same observations,
it is shown that in each of these redire there form (as
in the sporo-cyst before mentioned) a number of
germs, but different to these in shape. The germs
(the redise) that formed in the sporo-cyst are long and
narrow, about the sixteenth of an inch in length, and
about one-fifth of their length in width ; but the

* This name is given after the Italian anatomist, Eedi, see Prof.
Thomas's paper previously referred to.

210 SLUGS, FLUKES, EELWORMS, ETC.

germs which form within the rediss are exceedingly
like Tadpoles (see Fig. 155, p. 208) ; they are oval and
flat, and furnished with long slender tails more than
twice the length of the hody.

These " Fluke Tadpoles," so to call them, are
technically called cercariae, meaning animals with
tails. On the escape of each cercaria from the redise
in which it was formed, it makes its way from the
body of the Snail into the water (if in a pond or ditch),
but shortly attaches itself to water plants or whatever
may be accessible. There it draws itself up into a
round ball, exudes a gummy secretion, wags its tail
violently, till at last the appendage, which has now
ceased to be useful, is thrown off, and the gummy sub-
stance hardening, the cercaria remains within the
covering as a little white spot on the plants, or on the
locality to which it has attached itself.

It is mentioned, however, by Prof. Thomas that
** if the infested Snails are crawling on the margin of
a ditch or over a damp field, the cercariae, on leaving
the Snail, at once proceed to form their envelopes or
cysts at the bottom of the grass, and so attach them-
selves to the stalks or leaves near the roots."

The next step completes the circle of infestation.
When the grass, to which the white speck-like cysts
containing the young Liver Flukes adhere, is eaten by
the sheep, or other suitable hosts (as rabbits or hares,
&c.), the young Fluke comes out of the covering, and
passes to the liver of its host, increasing in bulk,
after being swallowed, from about the eightieth of an
inch, to the adult length of an inch or an inch and
a third.

In the above note I have conveyed to the best of
my power a sufiicient abstract of the most important
points in Prof. Thomas's paper to give the ordinar}'
life-history of the Fluke, and in so doing I trust I
shall not be considered as appropriating unjustifiably,
the subject being one which can only be dealt with
by a specialist, Professor Thomas's paper being well

LIVER FLUKE. 211

known as the record of exhaustive as well as recent
observations, and also observations taken in this
country. Those who wish to study the subject in
detail are referred to works quoted at foot.*

Amongst methods of prevention and remedy men-
tioned b}^ Prof. Thomas are the following : —

" Care must be taken to avoid introducing eggs of
the Fluke, either with manure, or with fluked sheep,
or in any other way. Eabbits and hares must not be
allowed to introduce the eggs."

" Dressings of lime, or salt, should be spread over
the ground at the proper seasons, to destroy the em-
bryos ; the cysts of the Fluke ; and also the Snail,
■which acts as ' host.' "

" Sheep must not be allowed to graze closely, for
the more closely they graze, the more Fluke germs
will they pick up."

" When sheep are allowed to graze on dangerous
ground, they should have a daily allowance of salt,
and a little dry food." — (Page 304 of Keport previously
quoted in vol. xix. of Journal of Eoyal Ag. Society.)

Amongst the details of treatment, of which the
above is an abstract, is the observation (j). 300) : —
" The freedom from rot of sheep feeding on salt

* ' Eeports on Experiments on the development of the Liver Fluke,
Fasciola hcpatica,' by A. P. Thomas, F.L.S., &c., in vols. xvii. xviii.
and xix. of the ' Journal of the Koyal Agricultural Society of England,'
2nd series.

The Life-history of the Liver Fluke is also given by the same ob-
server in the ' Quarterly Journal of Microscopical Science,' 1883, pp
99—133.

The life-history, from personal observations by K. Leuckart, will be
found in ' Zooloj;ischer Auzieger,' Dec. 12th, 1881, and Oct. i)th, 1882 ;
and technical information regarding the development of the Trematoda
to which order of Vermes the Fluke belongs, will be found, with some
special observations on D. hepatiomi, in the ' Text-book of Zoology,'
by Glaus and Sedgwick, vol. i. pp. 311) — 322.

A very serviceable account, for practical purjDoses, compiled from
various sources, will be found at pp.127 — 13-4 of 'Animal Parasites
of the Sheep,' by Cooper Curtice, D.V.S., M.D., publishel by the
U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. This account is mainly compiled from
various European authorities (duly acknowledged), the infestatiou
being comparatively unknown in the United States.

212 SLUGS, FLUKES, EELWOEMS, ETC.

marshes is well known, and is now shown to he due
to the poisonous action of the salt on the embryos,
sporo-cyst, redia, cercaria, and cyst, and to its similar
action on Limmeus truncatulus itself. Even a weak
solution of salt in water (containing only f per cent.,
of salt) proves fatal to this Snail."

This principle of prevention would be especially
applicable where (as in the instance, before mentioned,
in West Gloucestershire) it was the custom to have
exceedingly small ponds or cisterns of mason work
open to the field on one side, and very shallow, and
only a few yards square. From the immense quantity
of weed or grass growth in or at the edges of these so-
called "cattle drinks," and sometimes the quantity of
mud (which is stated to be the especial place of deposit
of spawn of the Limiucus tnincattilus), there was every
circumstance that was good for shelter, or propagation,
of either t)-inicatidus or jiereger ; and in circumstances,
like these a very small outlay on salt would carry de-
struction with it to the Snails and the Fluke embryos
in the water.

Clearing the various vegetable trash, and sprinkling
some salt on the mud and into the water, would cost
little, and from the details given would, in many cases,
strike in embryo at infestation which presently, when
dispersed over the field, would be far more difficult to
deal with.

Stem Eelworms {Tylcnchus devastatrix). — It has
only been in the course of the last few years that the
damage caused by the Tiilcnchus devastatrix, a minute
nematoid or thread-worm, which infests the tissues of
some crop plants, and of many common field weeds,
has been thoroughly brought under observation in this
country. Amongst the crops most observably infested
here are Oats and Clover; Wheat is sometimes
infested, and so are Beans ; Turnips are liable to
receive infestation when subjected to it experimentally,,
but not (so far as has been reported) as an evil practi-
cally. On the Continent, Eye is especially subject to

STKM EELWORM.

213

attack; Buck-wheat also suffers ; and in Holland both
Onions and Hyacinths suffer much from the infes-
tation ; Potatoes also are liable to the attack. Amongst
common meadow or field weeds, also liable to infestation
of this Stem Eelworm, are the Daisy, the common
Buttercup, the Pvibwort-Plantain, Sowthistle, Shep-
herd's Cress, &c. ; and amongst grasses, the Annual

Fig. 156. — Stem Eelworm (Ti/lencliusdevastatrix) ; anterior portion
of female showing mouth-spear ; and embryo in ej^'^' ; all greatly
magnified (anterior portion mag. 440 tunes). From figures by Dr. J.
Ritzema Bos.

Poa, the Meadow Soft-grass, and the Sweet Vernal-
grass.

In various kinds of Eelworm attack, and especially
in some kinds of infestation by Stem Eelworms, the
presence of the pest may be known by the ordinary
growth of the stem, or shoot, or buds, being altered
into a form so definitely characterised that this
peculiar growth ma}^ be taken as a j^roo/" of the Eel-
worm being within, and the attack is often named from
the appearance of the diseased growth. Thus Oat
attack is known as "Tulip-root" (see Fig. 159, p. 216),

214

SLUGS, FLUKES, EELWORMS, ETC.

or sometimes as " Sagging," because the lower part of
the infested stem of the Oat plant is often swelled like
a Tulip- bulb, and also the leaves of the plant are often
waved at the edges, and thickened like those of the
Sedge, hence the term of segging or sedging. In Car-
nations the term "Pine-apple disease " has been given
to the effects of this infestation, consequent on it so
altering the method of growth as to cause the infested
shoots to resemble the top of a Pine Apple. In the
case of the alteration of the shape and colour of Wheat

Fig. 157. — Wormlets escaping from eggs ; section of Purples, False-
Ergot, or Cockle-gall, with wormlets within ; after Brauer's figs,
(much magnified). Spikelet of Wheat, with galls (magnified). T.
tritici wormlet (greatly magnified). Nat. length of largest one-seventh
to one-fourth inch.

grains from presence of another kind oiTijlencJnis (the
T. tritici, see Fig. 157), the names of False Ergot and
Purples are amongst those given to the attack ; and
in the case of a very peculiar growth, resembling
nothing so much as a little Cauliflower, which is formed
on Strawberry plants, consequent on the presence of
two newly observed species of Eelworms of the genus
ApheUnclms, the name of Cauliflower disease has been
chosen to distinguish the attack.

This principle of naming is of considerable practical
importance. Where an English name is, or can be,.

EELWORMS.

215

so appropriately applied to the effects of an infestation
on any crop that it thoroughly describes its appear-
ance, and at the same time is not applicable to any
other kind, it is very desirable that this name should
be used. And in the case of Eelworm presence, where
the •wormlets are so small that it requires powerful

G. 158. — 1, J'l/lenchvs ohtusn.'i ; 2, Aphelenchux avencc ; 3, Plectus
obtus2i!i, of Bastian (all enormously magnified).*

magnifiers to see them at all, it is very important to
be able to tell by some well-defined external sign what
kind of internal infestation is causing the mischief.

The Tylcnclws derastatrix is chiefly hurtful, in this
country, to Oat and Clover jDlants. The wormlets (see
Fig. 15G, p. 213) are excessively minute white worms ;
at their full growth they are not more than a])out
one twenty-fifth part of an inch in length, and of an

* The three species oi Eehvorms represented above are copied from
the figures by Dr. H. Charlton Bastian, F.E.S., *c., given in Plate X.
of his " Monograph on the Av(juiUulidic,'' published in vol. xxv. of
the ' Transactions ' of the Linnean Society.

216

SLUGS, FLUKES, EELWORMS, ETC.

excessive slenderness that cannot be conveyed by com-
monly intelligible terms of measurement. Males,
females, young wormlets, and eggs, may be found
together in the infested shoots.

These Eelworms belong to the family of the
Anguillulidce, of the order Nematoda, or " Thread-
worms"; and of these Anguillididce, there are many
genera or divisions, as they may be called. These are
•distinguishable from each other in part by the form

Fig. L59.—" Tulip-rooted " Oat-plant.

of the (esophagus or gullet, and also by the presence,
or absence, of a point, known as a "spear," in the
opening of the mouth cavity. The figure (preceding
page) shows some of these distinctions ; it will be ob-
served that at 1 there is a spear with a large base ; at
2, a spear without a large base ; and at 3, there is no
obvious spear. These distinctions, however, and the
others which are figured, are totally invisible without
a powerful magnifier. It will be noticed that the
figure only gives a portion of the head and tail ends ;
if the whole was represented, the wormlet would have
to be shown (at its present magnified width) as from
at least eight or nine inches to a foot long.

Keturning now to the infestation of Stem Eelworm.
In the case of Tulip-rooted Oats, there arc usually, as

EELWORMS. 217

«hown in the accompanying figure (Fig. 159), a num-
ber of short, stunted, pale-coloured shoots, each shoot
being crumpled and folded on itself at the base of the
stem. This peculiar growth, especially when joined
to that of the Sedge-like form of leaves previously
described, may be taken as a sign of the presence
of the T. devastatrix in Oat plants.

In the form of Clover-sickness caused by this same
Eelworm, the stalks and branches were shorter and
thicker, and the buds especially much thicker,
than in the healthy condition of Clover growth.
This I have found to be the case in April. In speci-
mens examined during July, I have found the peculiar
form of diseased growth more marked. There were a
large number of short barren shoots about an inch
long, oval in shape, with the distorted growth of
leaves, forming an imbricated or tile-like exterior.
These shoots were placed closely together ; sometimes
as many as five grew on an inch length of stem, one
at the end, and two at each side below, so as to form
together a fiat fan-like mass.

They were commonly irregularly and somewhat
oval or bulb-shaped ; sometimes much lengthened, so
as to resemble what is known as a "duck-necked"
Onion ; and sometimes the lower part of the flowering-
stem was enlarged for an inch or two at the base.
Here, as well as with " Tulip-rooted" Oat plants, the
inside of the infested stem might be found hollow near
the base, and with decayed matter, or palish brown
powdery or granular matter, within.

It is to be remembered that in this brown granular
matter, and also in withering and dying parts of i)lants
suft'ering from Tylenchns attack, it is not at all un-
usual to find other kinds of Eelvvorms present, which
have nothing at all to do with causing diseased growth.
One of the special distinctions of the Tijlendd is the
presence of a spear on a trilobed base, which is placed
in the mouth cavity.

In the case of attack of this same kind of Eelworm

218 SLUGS, FLUKES, EELWORMS, ETC.

{Tylenchus devastatrix) to field Bean plants, the general
effect of the attack, so far as I have observed it, is to
cause a more or less stunted and deformed growth
in both the plants and the seed-pods.

In a parcel of specimens sent, amongst which one:
healthy plant, over three and a half feet high, gave a.
kind of scale of what the growth should have been,
one diseased plant was hardly four inches in height,
with the stem flattened and widened and swelled at
the base, and two others were only about ten inches
high. In one instance there were about eight side-
shoots from six inches length of main stem, these so
placed that the whole plant with its shoots and pods
had a kind of oval fan shape. Some of the pods were
straight and rightly shaped, but a large proportion of
them were stunted and distorted, and some of them
were scarcely as much as three-quarters of an inch in
length. The lower part of the thickened stem was
much curved ; and in the case of another of the plants,
the stem was so much curved just at the ground level
that (although it was altogether scarcely more than
twelve inches high) about three inches of the length
was nearly horizontal.

From the above descriptions of the alterations of
forms of growth which are to be found accompanying
Stem Eelworm presence, in three very distinctly
different kinds of crops, it will be seen that these are
quite sufidciently characteristic to enable any ordinary
observer to judge, from external appearance alone,
whether this kind of, Eelworm infestation is present.
It will be noticed that there is frequently a stioitcd, but
at the same time a swelled, growth of the stem, and
that this often bears on its abnormally short length
as many, or nearly as many, buds or shoots (probably
distorted) as would have been developed in healthy
growth on the normal length of stem ; also that there
is a tendency to a swelling, or bulb-like formation, at
the base of the stem, which is especially observable in
the case of attack to Oat plants, and this bulb-like

EELWOKMS.

219

or oval form of distortion is often taken by the en-
larged buds, or shortened shoots of Clover, suffering
under " stem-sickness." Other symptoms will be
found present, but the above are some of the most ob-
servable in cereals, or the common crop plants named.
As "we do not appear to suffer seriously from this
attack to other kinds of crops in this country, it is not
necessary to enter on these.

The principles of prevention are very simple, and lie
mainly : Istly, in the knowledge of the enormous vital
powers of these wormlets ; 2ndly, that they are to be
found both in the harvested crop, and also in great
numbers in the surface soil of the infested field ; and
3rdly, that one kind of crop liable to attack will (or
can) take the infestation, if sowed in succession to
infested plants.

With regard to the first and second points, these
Tylencln may be carried from the field in Oat straw,
or Bean haulm, and may be quite uninjured in this
whilst it is being used for litter. Thus in due season,
in the form of farm manure, the Eelworms may be
carted back again to the land. Infestation may
similarly be spread by infested Clover hay thrown for
fodder, but not to the same extent, for only a portion
of "stem-sick" Clover firows long citoiigli to cut.
Also, if kept in a dry state, Tijlenchi will regain their
vital powers on being moistened.

Consequently, manure made from infested fodder,
whether straw, Clover, or other plants, ought not to
be carried to fields where crops are to be grown which
are liable to attack. Likewise it is desirable to col-
lect and burn the stubble remaining on the ground,
in order to destroy in it all the wormlets which may
have remained, and also all the Tylenchus eggs.

With regard to presence of the Eelworms in the
land, one of the best remedies consists in very deep
ploughing, so that the upper layer of earth, with the
contained Angniiliiliche, may lie well buried down. Or
a plough with skim-coulter attached may do the work

220 SLUGS, FLUKES, EELWORMS, ETC.

very serviceably, as it is mainly in the surface of the
land that the wormlets, which have left the plants as
they matured, lie. This treatment should be carried
out in autumn, and (if the next crop is of a kind liable
to infestation), in the next spring cultivation, rich
manure given to the crop. It is most desirable that
this should 7iot be of stable manure, which, it is very
possible, may contain Eel worms, but rather of guano
and superphosphate.

The point that one kind of crop (liable to infesta-
tion) may take it from preceding Stem Eel worm
presence is very important.

Clover after Tulip-root, or Oats after stem-sick Clover,
should he most carefully avoided. Barley appears to be
perfectly free from infestation, therefore is useful in
rotation.

Special applications which have been found most
serviceable as manure in the preparation of the land,
or as dressings to bring an infested crop over attack,
are sulphate of potash alone, or, as a mixture, with
■sulphate of ammonia and phosphates.

In one special case reported of Tulip-rooted Oats in
Midlothian, in 1888, a top-dressing of about 1 cwt.
per acre of sulphate of potash was given, with the
result that tbe disease disappeared, and an excellent
crop was cut.

In another instance regarding Tulip-rooted Oats (in
fields from which specimens of stem-sick Clover had
been sent me in the previous year) the manure applied
■consisted of phosphates, ammonia, and potash, when
sown, at the rate of 3 cwt. per acre. This produced a
very luxuriant growth, with the exception of a sandy
knoll. These knolls are noted as being especially
subject to Tulip-root.

As a remedy for " Clover sickness," produced by
Eelworms, the experiments of Mr. J. J. Willis, at
liothamsted, Herts, have shown the application of
a mixture of sulphate of potash, 3 cwt., and sulphate
•^of ammonia, 1 cwt., per acre, to have an excellent

EELWOKMS. 221

effect both in checldug the disease, and throwing the
crop into lasting good growth. This was apphed early
in April, Sulphate of iron, at the rate of 2 cwt. the
acre, also answered well, though not so markedly in
pushing on good growth of the second crop.

The above notes give some of the main points
regarding Stem Eelworm attack in Britain, taken
mainly from observations placed in my hands by my
contributors ; and besides our own observations, I
have to mention, with most hearty thanks, the con-
stant and invaluable assistance I have received in my
researches, from their commencement in 1886, from
Dr. J, Eitzema Bos, Prof, at the State Agricultural
College, Wageningen, Netherlands. To his identifi-
cation of specimens I have repeatedly owed the cer-
tainty as to the nature of the Tylenchus, or other
Eelworm infestations of less hurtful nature present,
which could only be trustworthily given b}^ a specialist.
"Without this assistance it would have been impos-
sible for me to work the subject forward, and I beg to
offer my sincere thanks and full acknowledgment of
his valuable and never-failing aid.*

Fig. 160 (p. 222) gives a few examples of an order
not of insects, but of creatures so much resembling:
insects in their larval stage, both in appearance and
habits, that they are often taken for insect infestations,
and one name by which they are known is that of
" False Wireworms." These Julus worms, or Snake
Millepedes, belong, like the well-known Centipedes, to
the order Myriapoda (or " many-footed "), very nearly

* For details of the liiBtory of the Tijlcnchua deva>itatrix, together
■with excellent plates, see ' L'An^'uillule de la Tige (Tijlcnchu!^ devas-
tutrix),' par Dr. J. Eitzema Bos, Prof. al'Institut Agricolc de I'Etat i
Wageningen, Haarlem, pt. I. 1B88, pt. II. I88y. Also, by the same
writer, 'Annotations, deuxienie series,' Haarlem, 1801, this being a
most useful addition, jiractically as well as scientitically, embodying
much information on our British as well as Continental attacks.

My own records of observation arc contained in my Annual
Ileports on Injurious Insects from 1886 to 1890, being the 10th to-
14th Reports, inclusive.

222

SLUGS, FLUKES, EELWORMS, ETC.

allied to insects, as tliey are formed of a succession of
rings, and breathe by means of tracheae, but differ
from them in having much the same appearance
throughout their lives, and {markedlij) in never having
zviiigs.

They are stated to feed on decaying as well as
living animal substances, such as small worms, slugs,
and grubs ; as well as on decaying and living vege-
tables ; and one or other of the various kinds attack

Fig. IGO. — Millepedes: 1, Julns londinensis ; 3, J. (juttatus (pul-
c/ieW((s), Leach; 4i, J.terrestrh ; 5, horn ; l.Fohjdesmus complanatus ;
all magnified ; (2 and 6, nat. size of 3 and 7).

Carrots and Potatoes, Cabbage roots, and roots of
Kidney Beans, as well as roots of other crops grown
in gardens ; and also are sometimes found in great
numbers at the roots of Wheat.

The females lay their eggs in the ground from
Christmas until May, and the young Jnlidce live two
years before they are perfect, during which time they
grow and change their skins five times, but remain (as
observed above) the same in appearance, excepting in
increase of the number of the legs.

The kind known as the London Snake-millepede (1,
rig. 100), from having been specially observed near
London, has, when perfect, about 160 legs, placed in
two pairs on each segment.

Snake-millepedes are to be found under clods of

MILLEPEDES. 223

earth and stones, and under rubbish, such as bricks
and pieces of wood, as well as in moss, or under bark ;
and I have found the flattened Snake-millepedes in
heaps of leaves blown together by the wind; also they
are said to propagate most freely in undisturbed
ground. Therefore it would appear that thorough
cultivation of the land, removing rotten roots from
infested ground, and also removing all the rubbish
under which they shelter, would be good treatment ;
likewise good dressings of fresh gas-lime on infested
ground could not fail to be of service.

Jiilus terrestris and J. londinensis, figured p. 222,
are of a dark lead or pitchy colour ; the J. imlchellm
is also cylindrical, but is much smaller, and of a white
or ochreous colour, and when magnified will be seen
to have a double row of crimson spots along each side,
excepting on the four first and five last segments.
From these it takes its n^i-meoifjattatas, or "spotted "
Millepede. After death the colour changes to a
general tint of red purple. This Millepede is exces-
sively fond of Mangolds, and the taste may be
serviceably turned to account by using slices of Man-
golds as traps. Cotton cake will also attract them
from attacked crops. Salt or nitrate of soda in
solution will kill this kind of Millepede rapidly, but
when applied so as only to dissolve gradually into the
soil does not appear to do them harm.

The Polijdesmus cojnplanatus, or "flattened Mille-
pede," is distinguishable by being flattened on the
back, and by being a little dilated at the sides. It is
of a lilac or greyish colour above, whitish below, and
has the back granulated. It is stated to be similar
in its habits to the Snake Millepedes.

Acarina, or "Mites," — of which the "Spinning
Mite," commonly known as the Red Spider of Hops ;
the Harvest Mites; and Tyrogyplius loiuiior, figured
p. 224, a Mite found in hay, are familiar examples, —
form one of the orders of the class Arachn'ula, which
includes the true Spiders, Mites, Scorpions, &c.

224

SLUGS, FLUKES, EELWORMS, ETC.

One of the chief characteristics of this class is that
the head and fore body (thorax) are ahiiost always-
joined or " fused" into one piece, known as the cephalo-
ihorax. In the Spiders the abdomen is joined to this
cephalo-tliorax by a short stalk, something in the same
manner as the abdomen of a Wasp is joined to the
fore body ; but in the Acarina, or Mites (with which
we have much more to do agriculturally), this is not
so; the head, thorax, and abdomen are fused, or joined

Fig. 161. — Tyroc^lyplms longior (from fig. by Fumoze and Robin) :
claw and sucker, right-hand side (from ^Murray's ' Aptera') ; claw and
sucker on left-hand side, figured by Ed. from life : all magnified.
Nat. length rather more than half the 25th of an inch.

into one continuous mass (see Fig. 161). As a rule, all
Mites when mature have four pairs of legs, excepting
the " Gall Mites," or Pliytopti, which have only two
pairs. These Pln/topti hatch out of the egg (as they
continue) with two pairs, but usually the young of the
Acarina are stated to hatch with only three pairs of
legs.

The Mites are much too various in their habits and
structural details to allow of entering on these points
here.

The "Red Spider" {Tetntinjclitis /(.7rt?-/»s), though
hardly large enough to be seen with the naked eye, is

RED SPIDER.

225

a constant trouble, both in gardens and Hop grounds.
It spins a fine web over the leaves or other parts of
the plant it attacks, and amongst these threads it
fastens its eggs, and under their shelter the young
Eed Spiders are protected.

The worst attacks of these Mites take place in dry
seasons ; and one desirable remedy is considered to be
washing the infested plants with soft-soap, applied by

Fig. I(i2. — Red Spicier, eggs and web (moist and dry) ; all greatly
magnified.

means of field washing engines, or lesser power, as
may be requisite.

During winter the Eed Spider shelters in crannies,
under stones or clods, in cracks in Hop-poles, or, in
fact, in any convenient nook ; and where it is present
to a very injurious extent on wall trees, I have found
that rubbing the bark thoroughly with soft-soap, or
applying a mixture of gas-lime and soft-soap
thoroughly, but not roughly, rubbed on by hand,
did great good. A good dressing of gas-lime was also
laid in a line at the bottom of the wall to keep the
Mite from crawling up, and thus the trees were
cured. Sufficient moisture to ensure a vigorous
growth appears an important means of prevention of
attack.

Q

226 SLUGS, FLUKES, EELWOKMS, ETC.

The little dark red Acari, like small crimson Spiders
in shape, and large enough to be clearly distinguished
without the help of magnifiers, are often to be found
in vast quantities on bark of various kinds of orchard
trees in spring. For attacks of this sort scraping the
bark so that there may be as little shelter as possible
for small vermin of any kind in its crannies, is one
very good measure of prevention. As a remedy
washing or syringing with a mixture of soft-soap and
sulphur is very useful, and probably the mixture sold
under the name of the " Chiswick Compound," by the
Chiswick Soap Co., Chiswick, Middlesex, would answer
well, as a very similar one has long been known to do
in South Australian practice. There is difficulty
without special care and mixture of ingredients in
dissolving sulphur in soft-soap wash, but in the above
mixture I find it becomes thoroughly dissolved in about
sixteen hours after being diluted to the desired point
for safe application with water.

The Gall Mites, or Phytopti, give us an example of
yet another form. These (see Fig. 163),

fit will be seen, are of a cylindrical shape,
and also have only two pairs of legs. They
• give rise to various kinds of malformations
of growth, as the bunches of deformed
twigs on Birch trees, sometimes two or
three feet in diameter, popularly known as
^_^ Witches' Brooms ; also the crimson spike-
^^p^ like growth often seen on the surface of
C^v^-^' Sycamore leaves, and various other forms
' of which one of the most injurious to fruit-

FiG. i()3. growers is knob-like diseased growth of
Black Currant buds, caused by the Black Currant
Gall Mite, the Plujtoptus ribis.

The foregoing short notes of some very specially
injurious kinds of farm or orchard pests are not placed
in technical scientific sequence, but are simply given
in order to lay before the reader some of the chief
points in which these Slugs, or Mites, or Millepedes,

CONCLUDING REMARKS. 227

•or Eelworms diflfer from true insects, and how
(similarly to insects) by a knowledge of their habits
und life-history, we may apply serviceable remedial
measures.

In each case, however, I have given the scientific
name of the order or division to which these iioii-
insect pests belong, and their sequence in classifica-
tion of the animal kingdom may be fairly given as
follows. I say fairly, for schemes of classification
differ, and also only a few orders are here eafcered on,
so that while some of those mentioned follow each
•other in sequence, there are in other cases many
intervening between.

At the head of the animal kingdom stand the verte-
brata, the back-boned animals with which here we
have nothing to do. Lower in the scale, and highest
of those in the preceding short notices, are : —

1. Molluscs, represented here by Snails and Slugs,
pp. 198, 204—207.

2. Insecta. — Insects, the various orders of which
class as Flies, Beetles, &c., are the main subject of
this little book, pp. 1 — 197.

3. Myriapoda, including " Julus-worms," or Mille-
pedes, pp. 221—223.

4. Arachnida, the class which includes Spiders,
Mites, Scorpions, &c. ; represented here by some of
the Acarina, or " Mites," pp. 223—226.

Then, missing all mention of various important
divisions, notably that of the Crustacea which are
little represented in agricultural attack, we come to
the lower order of : —

5. Nematodes, or Thread-worm, including various
kinds oi Angidllididce, or Eelworms, pp. 212 — 221.

6. Trematodes, parasitic pests, amongst which is
included the Fasciola Jiepatica^ Distoiniiin hepaticani,
the Liver Fluke of the sheep, pp. 207 — 212.

And now, once again, with regard to the subject of
this little book, I wish to point out that power of pre-
vention of insect attack does not lie in the mere

228 CONCLUDING EEMARKS.

knowledge which may enable us to tell the name of an
insect, but in the knowledge of its habits, .which will
suggest to the practical agriculturist, in many cases,
how to counteract these directly by measures of hus-
bandry ; or indirectly, how, if we cannot get rid of the
attackers, we may at least carry the crop through
attack.

I trust that, though the foregoing observations are
but a slight fragment compared to the mass of infor-
mation that is needed, they may be, at least to some
extent, useful ; and it would be the greatest gratifica-
tion to me if they should in any degree induce others.
to take up the work more competently than myself.
And in this view I will venture to give my own ideas
in the words of one of our greatest thinkers : — He who
would thrive in serviceable study " must, as with one
eye, survey the natures of things, and have the other
turned towards human uses."

229

GLOSSAEY.

AlcB. — Wings.

Alate. — Winged,

Alula.— ^m&\\ membranous appendage to the base of the hinder edge

of the wings of Dlptera (two-winged flies).
AntcnncB. — "Horns" or "cranial feelers" placed in front of the

head ; various in form, sometimes thread-like, and longer than

the insect ; sometimes elbowed ; with a club of leaves ; or saw-
like, feathery, or of many other forms ; in butterflies somewhat

like pins.
Apterous. — Without wings.
Cauda. — Tail.
Caudal proleps.—Sncker-ieet attached to the tail-segment of many

kinds of larva:.
■Chrysalis. — A term applied to the pujjal or inactive stage of life of

various insects, chiefly butterflies and moths.
Chjpeus.—Ponion of the front of the face above the upper lip.
€ocoon. — A case, formed of silk or other materials by various kinds

of larva;, commonly for protection whilst they change to pupcc.
<7o.ra.— The hip ; the first chief division of the legs of perfect insects,

between the thorax and the thigh or femur.
Elytra.— Kornj wing-cases— term commonly applied to the upper

wings of beetles.
Eyes, compound. — The common form placed on each side of the head,

and composed of a large number of separate eyes or lenses placed

side by side.
Eyes, simple. — Ocelli ; minute single eyes placed on the crown of the

head.
Feelers. — Palpi; small appendages on the lower jaws and lower lip.
Femur, plural Femora. — Thigh ; second chief division of the leg.
Halteres.—Voisers ; short appendages, often like slender pins, to be

found in two-winged flies, taking place of the absent hind wings.
Haustellum. — Term applied to different kinds of insect-mouths formed

for suction.
Jlorns. — Antenna: ; organs of various shape placed on front of head.

230 GLOSSARY.

Imago. — Insect in perfectly-developed stage, as butterfly, fly, beetle,
&c.

Labium. — Lower lip.

Labnnn. — Upper lip ; this is placed vertically over the lower lip, with
the two pairs of jaws placed horizontally between the two lips.

Larva. — First active stage of insect life, as caterpillar, maggot, &c.

Legs. — In the perfect insect, formed of four chief pieces, — hip (coxa)y
thigh (Jhiivr), ?hank (tibia), and foot (Uirstt^) ; with a small piece,,
called the trochanter, between the hip and thigh. In larva?,
short legs of various forms, and sucker feet, or prolegs.

Mandibles. — Upper jaws, placed horizontally opposite each other
beneath the upper lip.

Maxilla. — Lower jaws, placed similarly to the above, just below the.
" mandibles," and furnished with feelers; thence called feeler-
jaws.

Maxillary iialpi. — Feelers on the lower jaws.

Mouth. — Formed of six pieces, an upi^er lip [labruin), lower lip.
{labium), with two pairs of jaws ojoposed horizontally between
them, of which the upper pair (mandibles) are often strong, and
serve for biting with ; the lower pair [maxilUc, or feeler-jaws) are-
usually smaller and weaker, and are furnished with feelers or
jHiljn, as is also the labium. In butterflies, Aphides, A^c, that
have sucker-mouths, some of the above-mentioned portions are
variously altered in shai^e.^See Proboscis.

Ocelli. — Minute single eyes, usually three in number, fixed on the
crown of the head, commonly known as simple eyes.

Oviparous. — Producing eggs.

Ovipositor. — Instrument whereby the female insect lays her eggs.

Ovuvi.—Bgg.

Palpi. — Feelers, placed on the lower jaws and lower lip.

Poisers (see Halteres). — Appendages in the place of the hinder wings.
of the Diptera.

Proboscis. — In butterflies, altered lower jaws forming the spiral
trunk ; in two-winged flies, the altered lower liji enclosing the
piercers.

Prolegs. — Sucker-feet, whereby caterpillars and other larva? hold
firmly to the substance they are placed on.

Pulvilli. — Cushions beneath the feet of flies, and some other insects.

Pupa. — Second stage of insect life, in which it is often inactive, as
with the chrysalis of butterflies.

Rostrum. — Sometimes called snout, when applied to the prolonged
front of the head of some kinds of beetles; also used as well as
proboscis for the altered labium of Ajjhides.

Scutellum. — A name sometimes ai>plied to a portion of each segment
of the thorax, but especially to the triangular shield-shaped plate
between the base of the wing-cases in beetles and bugs.

GLOSSARY. 231

Segments. — Eings of which an insect is composed — considered to be
thirteen, including the head.

Spiracles. — Breathing-pores for the most part placed along the sides
of insects, or at the end of the tail, by means of which the air is
drawn into or expelled from the trachece, or breathing-tubes.
Stigma. — A small thickened spot on the front edge of the fore wing of

various kinds of insects.
Sucker-feet. — Prolegs ; fleshy appendages, whereby hirvce hold firmly

to the twigs, &c., whereon they are placed.
Tarsi. — Feet, the fourth chief division of the leg ; being that on which

the insect rests.
Telum. — Last segment of the abdomen.
Thorax. — The three segments next to the head, known respectively

as the p?'o-, meso-, and meta-thorax, of which in i^erfect insects

the first bears a pair of legs, the other two each a pair of legs and

wings.
Tibia. — Shank ; third chief piece of the leg; between the thigh (femur)

and foot (tarsus).
'Trachea;. — Organs of respiration communicating with the air by

breathing-pores (spiracles), and conveying it by means of smaller

tubes throughout the body.
Troclmnter. — A very small portion of the leg placed between the hip

and the thigh.
Ungues. — Claws, or curved hooks, at the extremity of the foot.
Viviparous. — Producing living young.

233

INDEX.

A.

Acarina, 223 — 226 ; character-
istics of the class, 224

Aceto-arsenite of copper, 140

Acherontia atropos, 127

Aculeata, 165

Agrotis exclamationis, 141
,, segetum, 141

Aleyrodes proletella, 189

Alkali waste, 92, 93

American blight Aphis, 183 — 185;
action of, on bark, 184

" Anbury," 110

Anguillulidffi (Figs.), 215, 216

Anisopteryx tescularia, 137

Anthomyia ceparum, 49
,, radicum, 58, 54

Anthonomus pomorum, 104

Aphaniptera, 28, 78, 80

Aphides, 172—175, 188 ; to dis-
tinguish tribes of, by nervures
of wings, 176, 177

Aphidinse, life-history of, 177

Apion apricans, 107

Apple-blossom Weevil, 104

Apple Mussel Scale, 189, 190

Apple Sawfiy, 154 ; difference
between caterpillar of, and
that of Codlin Moth, 155 ;
remedies for, 155

Apple-suckers, 174

Arachnida, 227

Aromia moschata, 114

Ash-bark Beetle, 113

Aspidiotus conchiformis (^ My-
tilaspis pomorum), 180, 190

Athalia spinarum, 154

B.

Balaninus nucum, 103

Barley Bug, 190, 191

Bean Aphis, to destroy, 179

Bean-seed Beetles, 108 ; dressing
to destroy in seed, 109

Bee Parasites, 34, 166, 167

Beet Carrion Beetle, 88

Beetles, description of, in differ-
ent stages, 81 ; main divi-
sions classed by number of
joints of the feet, 82

Birds, uses of, in clearing cater-
pillars, 147

" Blood-worm," 48

Bombyx (Gasteropacha) neustria,
(Lackey Moth), 139

Bos, Dr. J. Ritzema, reference to
his works on Tylenchus de-
vastatrix, 221

Bostrichus dispar, 99

Brachelytra, 85

Bruchi, 108

Bush-harrowing, 39

Butterflies and Moths, 122—148 ;
larv.e and metamorphosis
of, 123, 125

Byturus tomentosus, 98, 99

Cabbage Butterfly, 1(;2
Moth, 142
,, -root Flies, 53, 54
Caterpillars, effect of weather on,
15 ; to destroy, in wood, 192

234

INDEX.

various methods of destroy-
ing, 133
Cattle and Stock Flies, 68—78

Cecidomyia destructor, 44 — 47
,, tritici, 42

Cephalemyia ovis, 75

Cephus pygmseus, 157

Ceutorhynchus sulcicollis, 109

Chafers, 89—93
„ Garden, 89
Golden, 89

Chalcididse, 163

Cheimatobia brumata, 135

Chermes abietis, 187
,, laricis, 186

Chironomus plumosus, 48

Chlorops taeniopus, 59

Chrysahs, 17—20

Clavicornes, 86 — 88

Clearwing Moths, 129 ; metamor-
phosis of, 130

Clover-sickness, 219, 220. (See
also references to Stem Eel-
worms)

Club in Cabbage, 110

Coccidffi, 189

Coccinellidfe, 120

Cockchafer, Common, 90 ; life-
history of, 91

Cockle-gall, 214

Cocoons of Sawfly, to destroy,
153, 155

Cold does not necessarily injure
caterpillars, 143

Coleoptera, 28, 80—121

Common Vapourer Moth, 137 ;
history of, 138

Corn Sawfly, 157 ; caterpillar has
only rudimental claw-feet,
157

Cossus ligniperda, 131

Crioceris melanopa, 115

Cuckoo Fly (of Hop), 172, 173

Cucujus testaceus, 86

Cynipida% 159

Cynips Kollari, 159

Daddy Longlegs, .38—42
Death's-head Moth, 127, 128

Deep ploughing as a remedy for

infestation, 43
Dimera, 172
Diptera, 27, 28, 30-78
Distomum hepaticum, see Fasci-

ola hepatica, 207

E.

Egg-laying, to prevent, 39 ;
earthing up to defend from,
52

Elater lineatus and other species,
94

Elm-bark Beetle, 112

Euacanthus interruptus, 172

Euplexoptera, 32, 193

Eupoda, 115 — 120; how distin-
guishable, 115

Eyed Hawk Moth, 128

F.

False Wireworms, 221
Fasciola hepatica, 207
Fleas, 28, 78 ; life-history and

prevention of, 79, SO
Flies (Diptera), 27, 28, 36, 37;

description of, in different

stages, 37, 49, 77
Forest Fly, 77
Frit Fly, 01
Frog Fly (Hop), 172, 173

„ „ (Potato), 173
Froghoppers, 172, 173

G.

Gall Mites, 226

Galls, Marble, 159 ; Spangle,
KiO

Gas-lime as a preventive of Cab-
bage-root Fly attack, 55 ;.
uses of, 91, 92, 93, 111, 146

Gastrophilus equi, 65, 66

Geodephaga, 83 — 85

Goat Moth, to destroy caterpillar
of, 131

" Golden Eye," 34, 1(17

INDEX.

235

Gooseberry (and Currant) Saw-
fly, 153 ; prevention of, by
destroying cocoons, &c., 153,
154

Gout Fly, 59 ; early spring sow-
ing a preventive of attack,
60

Ground Beetles, 83—85

Gryllotalpa vulgaris, 192

H.

Haltiea (Phyllotreta) nemorum,
116

Hand-picking, methods of, and
best time for, 127, 146

Hay Mite, 224

Heart and Dart Moth, 141

Hessian Fly, 44 — 47 ; flax-seeds
of, 46 ; to destroy, in screen-
ings, 47

Heteromera, 102

Heteroptera, 32, 191 — 193; dis-
tinction of, 191

Hippobosca equina, 77

Homoptera, 169 — 190 ; descrip-
tion of, 171 ; sections classed
by number of joints of the
feet, 172

Hop Aphis, 180—182; infests
also Damson and Sloe, 180 ;
migration of, 181 ; remedial
measures, 182

Hop Bug (tig.), 190

Hornet, 166

Horse Bot Fly, 65 ; life-history
of, 66

Hybernia defoliaria, 134 ; Mot-
tled Umber Moth, l:i4 (see
also means of prevention of
Winter Moth, 136, 137)

Hydradephaga, 85

Hylemyia coarctata, 57, 60

Hylesinus Fraxini, 113

Hymenoptera, 30, 149—168 ; de-
scription and metamorphosis
of, 150—152

Hypoderma bo vis, 67 — 75

Hyponomeuta padella (Small
Ermine Moth), 138

I.

Ichneumon Fly (of Large Cab-
bage Butterfly), 161

Ichneumonidw, 160 — 163

Insects, description of, 1 — :! ;
respiration and circulation
of, 4 — 6 ; metamorphoses,
6—15

Insects, iDcrfect, description of,
24

Jarring (or beating down) as
a remedy for insect attack,
91 ; for weevils, 103 ; for
orchard moth caterpillars^
140

Julus Worms, 222, 223

K.

Knapsack Sprayer, 197

Lackey Moth, 139

Ladybird Beetles, 120

Lamellicornes, 89 — 93

Larch Chermes, 186, 187

Larva, 11 — 15

Lepidoptera, 122 — 148

Licked Beef, 71

Limax agrestis, 204

LimUcBus pereger, and L. trun-
catulus, 2U6, 207

Liver Fluke, 207, 212; life-his-
tory of, 208—210 ; methods
of prevention of, 211, 212 ;
reports on (note), 211

Locusts, effects of burying of
eggs of, 194

Longicornes, 114

"Looper " caterpillars described,
135

Lophyrus pini, 152

Losses, special, on Hop and Tur-
nip crops, 203

236

INDEX.

M.

]Mamestra brassiciv, 142
Mangold and Beet Fly, 51
Man-old-feeding Beetle, 84
March Moth, 137
Meligethes ffineus, 87
Melophagus ovinus, 78
Millepedes : flattened, 223 ; snake,

222, 233 ; history of, 222
Mirus dolabratus, 190, 191

„ tritici, 190, 191
Mites, 223—226
Mollusca, 204—207; definition

of, 204
Monomera, 172
Musk Beetle, 114
Mustard Beetle, 116, 119 ; means

of prevention for, 120

N.

Necrophaga, 86 — 88
Nematoda, 216
Nematus ribesii, 153
Nest-making caterpillars, 138 ;

to destroy, 139
Neuroptera, 34, 167
Nitrate of soda, 40, 97
Nut Weevil, 103

0.

Oak Leaf-roller Moth, 148

(EstridiB, 64—76

<Estrus bovis (see Hypoderma
bovis)

CEstrus ovis, 75

Onion Fly, 40, 50

Orchard moth caterpillars, 133—
141 ; to destroy by Paris-
green, 140

Orders of insects, 27—34 ; named
from number or nature of
wings, 26 ; enumerated, 27

Orgyia antiqua, 137

Orlhoptera, 34, 193

Oscinis frit, 61

Ox Gad Fly, a blood-sucker, 63 ;
the larva a ground feeder, 64

Ox Warble Fly, 67—75; life-
history of, 67—70 ; effect of
warble on surface of carcase,
71, 72 ; loss from attack, on
milk, &c., 72 ; on hides, 73 ;
preventive measures and
remedies for, 73 — 75

Paris-green spraying, 140

Pea and Bean Seed Weevils, 108,
109

Pea and Bean Weevils, 105 — 107

Pear-shaped Wee\als, 107

PhiBdon betuliB, 116, 119

Phorodon humuli, 180

Phytophaga, 115—120

Phytopti, 226

Pine Sawfly, 152

Plasmodiophora brassicffi, 110

Platygaster tipulae, 164

Polydesmus complanatus, 223

Potato Bug (fig.), 190

Principles of study of prevention
of insect ravage, 199 — 203

Proctotrupidft?, 163, 164

Psylla mali, 174

Psyllidiv, 172, 173

Pteromalus puparum, and obser-
vations on, 163

Pupa, 17 — 23 ; transformation of
from butterfly caterpillar, 19,
to perfect Grasshopper, 21

Pupipara, 77, 78 ; peculiarity of
development of, 77

R.

Kape-cake, as a remedy for Wire-
worm attack, 97
Raspberry Beetle, 98, 99
Red Spider, and remedies for, 225
Ribbon-footed Corn Fly, 59
Rove Beetles, 85
Rhyncoi^hora, 102 — 114

S.
Salt, 39
Scale-insects, 189

INDEX.

237

Scolytus destructor, 112

Screenings, destruction of, as a
preventive measure, 44, 46

Sesia bembecit'ormis, 129
,, tipuliformis, 130

Sheep-driving, to shake off cater-
pillars, 156

Sheep's Nostril Fly, history of,
75, 76 ; prevention for at-
tack of, 76

*' Sheep Tick," incorrectly so
called, 78

Shot-borer Beetle, 99—101

Silpha opaca, 88

Sirex, Common or Steel-blue,
and Giant, 158, 159

Sitones, 105—107

Skimming the surface stubble,
remedy for Pea "Weevils, 107

Slime-fungus, cause of Anbury
and Club, 110

Slugs, Black and Milky, 204;
Arion ater, 205 ; principle
of destruction of, 205

Small White Ermine, 138

Smerinthus ocellatus, 128

Snails, Marsh or Water, 206, 207

Snowy Fly, 189

Soft-soap mixtures, 140

Soft-soap and sulj^hur compound
useful against Bed Spider,
225

Spinning Mites, 225

Sprayer, Knapsack (Eclair, No.
1), 197

Spruce Chermes, 187

Stem Eelworms, 212—221 ; plants
infested by, 213 ; effects on
plant growth, 217 ; remedies
for, 219, 220

Sternoxi, 93—98

Steropus madidus, 84

Strepsiptera, 34, 166, 167

Surface caterpillars, 141 ; effect
of weather on, 143 ; buryin;.'
of, 143 ; remedial treatnuiii
for attack of, 143—147

T.

Tabanus bovinus, 63, 64

Tar, mjurious to bark, 137, 184

Tarred boards to shake weevils
down on, 105 ; to catch Hop
Froghoppers, 173

Tetramera (Pseudo-tetramera),
102—120

Tetranychus telarius, 225

Threadworms, 216

Thrips, 33, 195, 196; nature of
feeding apparatus of, 196 ;
means of prevention of, 197

Thysanoptera, 133, 195, 196

Tipula oleracea, 38 — 42

Tortrix viridana, 148

Trematodes, 227

Trenching, use of, 111

Trichoptera, 34, 167

Trimera (Pseudo-trimera), 120

Trimera (section of Homoptera)»
172

Trogosita mauritanica, 86

" Tulip-root," 216 (see also refe-
rences to Stem Eelworms)

Turnip Aphides, 178

,, Blossom Beetles, 87

Turnip (or Dart) Moth, 141

Turnip Flea Beetles, 110—119;
winter shelter and food-
plants, 117; cultivation to
prevent, 118 ; stimulants to
support crop under attack,
119

Turnip-gall Weevil, 109, 110

Turnip Leaf-miner, 50

Turnip Sawtiy, 154 — 157 ; reme-
dies for, 155, 157

Tylenchus devastatrix, 212, 215
„ tritici, 214

Tyroglyphus longior, 224

W.

Weevils, 102—114
Wheat Bug, 190, 191
Wheat-bulb Fly, 57 ; after fallow,

61
Wheat Midge, 42
White Cabbage Butterflies, 122,

124 ; methods of prevention

for, 126
Wingless female moths, 135 ; to

prevent ascending trees, 136

238

INDEX.

Winter Moth, 135 ; life-history
of, 136 ; to check attack of,
by sticky banding, 136, 137

Wireworms, 93 — 98 ; life-history
of, 94 ; to prevent egg-lay-
ing of, 95 ; preparation of
ground to prevent, 96 ; found
in turf and sometimes in
dung, 97 ; fertilisers useful
as preventives, 97

Wood Leopard Moth, 132

X.

Xyleborus dispar, 99 — 101

Z.

Zeuzera sesculi, 132

Hop-cones injured by infestation of the larva of a Cecidomyia,
]jopularIy known as the Strig Maggot.

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