MAIN LIBRARY AGRIC. DEPT.

A TEXT-BOOK OF

GRASSES

WITH ESPECIAL REFERENCE TO

THE ECONOMIC SPECIES OF THE

UNITED STATES

BY

A. S. HITCHCOCK

8T8TEMATIC AGROSTOLOGIST, UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

WASHINGTON, D. C. ; FORMERLY PROFESSOR OF BOTANY IN THE

KANSAS STATE AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE

THE MACMILLAN COMPANY
1914

All rights reserved

COPYRIGHT, 1914
By THE MACMILLAN COMPANY

Set up and electrotyped. Published September, 1914.

J. Horace McFarland Company
Harrisburg, Pa.

TABLE OF CONTENTS IX

CHAPTER VII

PAGES

LAWNS ...... 61-67

Essentials for a lawn, 61 — Blue-grass, 61 — Rhode Island
bent, 62 — Bermuda-grass, 62 — Less important lawn-
grasses, 63 — Lawn mixtures, 64 — Preparation of the
soil, 65 — Seeding, 65 — Subsequent care, 66 — Watering,
66— Turfing, 67.

CHAPTER VIII

GRASSES USED FOR MISCELLANEOUS PURPOSES .... 68-74
Ornamental grasses, 68 — The bamboos, 69 — Soil-
binding, 69 — Sand-dunes, 69 — Reclaiming sand-dunes,
70 — Sand-binders, 71 — Fixing sand with beach-grass,
71 — Sugar-producing grasses, 72 — Sugar-cane, 72 —
Sorgho or sorghum, 73 — Textile grasses, 73 — Other uses,
74 — Green-manuring, 74.

CHAPTER IX

WEEDS 75-78

Classes of weeds, 75 — Perennial weeds, 76 — Weedy
grasses, 76 — Annual weeds, 76 — On the Pacific coast,
77 — Perennial weedy grasses, 77 — The seriously trouble-
some weeds, 78.

CHAPTER X

GRASS CROP AREAS 79-91

Moisture, 79 — Temperature, 79 — The timothy area, 80 —
The Bermuda-grass area, 81— The Great Plains, 81—
Forage crops for the Great Plains, 82 — The arid section,
83 — The Pacific slope, 84 — The relative importance of
the different kinds of forage in the different regions of
the United States, 84— Remarks on Table XVII, 85.

>>&&>&

TABLE OF CONTENTS

PART II

SYSTEMATIC AGROSTOLOGY

CHAPTER XI

PAGES

MORPHOLOGY OP THE VEGETATIVE ORGANS 95-111

Distinguishing characters of grasses, 95 — Gross anatomy,
96 — Perennial herbaceous species, 96 — Distribution, 97 —
The root, 98 — The stem, 98 — Duration, 99 — Stems modi-
fied for propagation, 100— Stolons, 101— Corms, 102—
Artificial propagation by means of stems, 102 — The leaf,
103 — Leaf-base and blades, 104 — The prophyllum, 104 —
The sheath, 104— Sheath-nodes, 105— The collar, 105—
The ligule, 105— The blade, 106— Nervation, 107—
Auricles, 108 — Roll leaves, 108 — Scales, 109 — Bracts,
110.

CHAPTER XII

MORPHOLOGY OF THE FLORAL ORGANS 112-132

The inflorescence, 112 — Kinds of inflorescence, 113 —
Unisexual inflorescence, 114 — Monoecious genera, 115 —
The axis of inflorescence, 115 — Branching of panicles,
116— Motor organs, 117— The spikelet, 117— Sterile
spikelets, 120 — The pedicel, 120 — The glumes, 121 —
Anomalous glumes, 123 — The lemma, 124 — Sterile flo-
rets and sterile lemmas, 125 — Awns, 126 — Twisted awns,
127 — The palea, 127 — The lodicules, 128 — The stamens,
128— The pistil, 129— The fruit, 129— The seed, 130—
The embryo, 131 — The endosperm, 131 — The rachilla,
131.

CHAPTER XIII

ECOLOGY 133-150

Seed dispersal, 133 — Dispersal by wind, 133 — Dispersal
by animals, 135 — Germination, 136 — Germination of

TABLE OF CONTENTS xi

PAGK

maize, 136 — Impervious seed-coverings, 137 — Self-burial,
137 — Water-grasses, 138 — Propagation by bulblets, 139
— Plant societies, 139 — Mesophytes, 140 — Xerophytes,
141 — Prairie, 142 — Sandy soil, 143 — Sand-dunes, 143 —
Pine-barrens, 144 — Rocks, 144 — Deserts, 144 — Halo-
phytes, 146 — Hydrophytes, 146 — Geographical dis-
tribution, 147 — Distribution of grasses, 148 — Distri-
bution of species, 148 — Circumpolar distribution, 149 —
Generic distribution, 149.

CHAPTER XIV

TAXONOMY OR CLASSIFICATION . . a" . . , . . 151-158
Species, 151 — Genera, 152 — The grass family and its
subdivisions, 154 — The two series of tribes, 154 — The
tribes of grasses, 155 — The more important genera of
grasses, 156 — Characters used in classification, 157—
Phylogeny, 157.

CHAPTER XV

TRIBE!. Maydex . ". "% ".." , . . . ... . 159-163

Tripsacum L., 159 — Euchlsena Schrad., 160— Zea L.,
161— Coix L., 162.

CHAPTER XVI

TRIBE II. Andropogonex 164-173

Miscanthus Anderss., 166 — Saccharwn L., 166 — Eri-
anthus Michx., 167 — Subtribe Euandropogoneae, 167 —
Andropogon L., 169 — Cymbopogon Spreng., 169 — Holcus
L., 170— Classification of the sorghums, 172— Tribe III.
Naziese (Zoysiese), 173— Tribe IV. Melinideae (Triste-
ginese), 175.

xii TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER XVII

PAGES

TRIBE V. Panicex 176-188

Paspalum L., 179 — Axonopus Beauv., 180 — Syntherisma
Walt., 180 — Panicum L., 181 — Echinochloa Beauv., 183 —
Tricholsena Schrad., 184 — Chsetochloa Scribn., 184 —
Pennisetum Pers., 186 — Cenchrus L., 187 — Stenotaphrum
Trin., 187.

CHAPTER XVIII

TRIBE VI. Oryzex 189-191

Oryza L., WO—Zizania L., 191.

CHAPTER XIX

TRIBE VII. Phalaridex 192-195

Savastana Schrank, 192 — Anthoxanthum L., 193 —
Phalaris L., 194.

CHAPTER XX

TRIBE VIII. Agrostidex 196-207

Aristida L., 199— Stipa L., 199—Muhlenbergia Schreb.,
200 — Phleum L., 202 — Alopecurus L., 202 — Agrostis L.,
203 — Calamagrostis Adans., 205 — Ammophila Host,
206 — Lagurm L., 207.

CHAPTER XXI

TRIBE IX. Avenex 208-212

Notholcus Nash, 209 — Avena L., 209 — Origin of the cul-
tivated oats, 211 — Arrhenatherum Beauv., 212.

TABLE OF CONTENTS xiii

CHAPTER XXII

PAOEB

TRIBE X. Chhridex 213-218

Capriola Adans., 214 — Chloris Swartz, 216 — Bouteloua
Lag., 216— Bulbilis Raf., 218.

CHAPTER XXIII

TRIBE XI. Festucex ...... 219-234

Cortaderia Stapf, 224— Arundo L., 224—Eragrostis
Host, 225—Distichlis Raf., 225—Dactylis L., 226— Poa
L., 227 — Kentucky blue-grass (P. pratensis L.), 228 —
Other economic species of Poa, 229— Festuca L., 230 —
Meadow fescue, 230 — Sheep's fescue (F. ovina L.), 231 —
Red fescue (F. rubra L.), 231 — Bromus L., 232 — Awnless
brome-grass, 232 — Rescue-grass (B. unioloides Kunth),
233.

CHAPTER XXIV

TRIBE XII. H&rdeae ._.."'. . . . . , . . . 235-246
Lolium L., 236 — Agropyron Gaertn., 237 — Triticum L.,
238 — Spelt and emmer, 239 — Origin of wheat, 240 —
Classification of the wheats, 242 — Secale L., 244 —
Hordeum L., 2^—Elymus L., 246— Tribe XIII. Bambur
sex, 247.

CHAPTER XXV

NOMENCLATURE 250-266

Generic names, 250 — Specific names, 251-»-Nouns in
the genitive, 252 — Nouns in apposition, 252 — Names
of a lower category, 253 — Transferring specific names,
253 — Authors of names, 254 — Use of parentheses, 254 —
Capitalization, 255 — Bibliography, 256 — Valid names
and synonyms, 257 — Codes of botanical nomenclature,
258 — Vienna code, 258 — American code, 259 — Compari-
son of the two recent codes, 260 — Common names, 260 —
List of books and articles relating to taxonomic agros-
tology, 262.

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

FIG. PAGE

1. Production of hay and forage in the United States. One large

dot represents 500,000 tons; one small dot represents 100,000
tons 14

2. Production of timothy in the United States. One dot represents

100,000 tons 15

3. Production of timothy and clover mixed in the United States.

One dot represents 100,000 tons 15

4. Production of clover alone in the United States. One dot rep-

resents 10,000 tons 16

5. Production of alfalfa in the United States. One dot represents

20,000 tons 16

6. Production of millet and Hungarian-grass in the United States.

One dot represents 5,000 tons 18

7. Production of other tame and cultivated grasses in the United

States. One dot represents 10,000 tons 18

8. Production of wild, salt and prairie grasses in the United

States. One dot represents 10,000 tons 19

9. Production of grains cut green in the United States. One dot

represents 10,000 tons 20

10. Production of coarse forage in the United States. One dot rep-

resents 20,000 tons 20

11. Euchlsena mexicana. Portion of plant reduced; a pistillate in-

florescence, and four fertile spikelets. (U. S. Dept. Agr. Div.
Agrost. Bull. No. 20) 160

12. Coix lacryma-Jobi. Inflorescence showing several pistillate

beads, the staminate spikes protruding: X% 162

13. Miscanthus sinensis. Plant much reduced; spikelet, X 3. (U. S.

Dept. Agr. Div. Agrost. Bull. No. 20) 166

14. Saccharum officinarum. Plant much reduced; three joints of

the rachis (a), a spikelet (6), and a flower (c), X3. (U. S.
Dept. Agr. Div. Agrost. Bull. No. 20) 167

15. Erianthus divaricatus. Plant reduced; spikelet, flower, the

two glumes, and the fertile lemma with lower portion of awn.
(U. S. Dept. Agr. Div. Agrost. Bull. No. 17) 168

16. Andropogon furcatus. Inflorescence, X%. A joint of the rachis

with a fertile spikelet below and a staminate spikelet above, X 5. 1 69

(xv)

xvi LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

FIG. PAGE

17. Holcus halepensis. Inflorescence and rhizomes, X /^; a terminal

fertile spikelet with two staminate spikelets, X3 171

18. Hilaria cenchroides. Plant reduced; group of spikelets, a

staminate spikelet, a pistillate spikelet, X 5. (U. S. Dept.
Agr. Div. Agrost. Bull. No. 20) 174

19. Paspalum dilatatum. Inflorescence, XK; spikelet X5 179

20. Syntherisma sanguinalis. Plant, X Vz', two views of spikelet, X5. 180

21. Panicum miliaceum. Inflorescence, X %; spikelet and fruit

(fertile lemma and palea), X 7 182

22. Echinochloa frumentacea. Inflorescence, X M ; spikelet, X 5 ... 183

23. Cha3tochloa lutescens. Inflorescence, X M ', spikelet with sub-

tending bristles, X 5 184

24. Chsetochloa italica, Hungarian-grass. Inflorescence, X % 185

25. Chsetochloa italica, common millet. Inflorescence, X K ; fruit X 5. 185

26. Pennisetum glaucum. Inflorescence, X M J spikelet with in-

volucre of bristles, X 5 186

27. Cenchrus carolinianus. Upper portion of plant with inflor-

escence, X 23; spikelet, X 7 187

28. Stenotaphrum secundatum. Upper portion of culms with

inflorescence, X % ', spikelet, X 5 188

29. Pharus glaber. Plant reduced; branchlet of inflorescence with

a sessile pistillate and pedicelled staminate spikelet, and a
fertile floret. (U. S. Dept. Agr. Div. Agrost.,Bull No. 20) ... 189

30. Oryza sativa. Inflorescence, X K; spikelet, X 3 191

31. Zizania palustris. Inflorescence, much reduced. (U. S. Dept.

Agr. Div. Agrost. Bull. No. 14) 191

32. Anthoxanthum odoratum. Inflorescence, X 1; spikelet, the two

sterile lemmas and the fertile floret, X 5 192

33. Phalaris arundinacea. Inflorescence, X %', spikelet and fertile

floret, X 5 193

34. Phalaris canariensis. Inflorescence, X}4', glumes and fertile

floret with the pair of sterile lemmas, X 5 194

35. Aristida longiseta. Spikelet, the fertile lemma raised from the

glumes, X 1 199

36. Stipa spartea. Mature fertile lemma (fruit) with twisted awn, xl. 200

37. Muhlenbergia gracilis. Plant, XK; spikelet, the floret raised

from the glumes; glumes and floret. (U. S. Dept. Agr. Div.
Bot. Bull. No. 26) 201

38. Phleum pratense. Inflorescence, X K; glumes and mature

floret, X 5 202

39. Alopecurus pratensis. Plant reduced; spikelet and floret.

(U. S. Dept. Agr. Div. Agrost. Bull. No. 20) 203

40. Agrostis alba. Inflorescence and rhizomes, X K ; spikelet, X 5. . 204

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS xvii

FIG. PAGE

41. Calamagrostis scabra. Plant reduced; spikelet, the floret

raised from the glumes. (U. S. Dept. Agr. Div. Agrost. Bull.
No. 20) 205

42. Ammophila arenaria. Inflorescence and lower portion of plant,

X M. (U. S. Dept. Agr. Div. Agrost. Bull No. 14) 206

43. Notholcus lanatus. Inflorescence, X%; spikelet, the two

florets raised from the glumes, X 7 210

44. Avena fatua. Spikelet and a lower floret, X 1 211

45. Arrhenatherum elatius. Inflorescence, XK; spikelet, X4 212

46. Capriola Dactylon. Plant showing stolons, X%; spikelet, X7. 215

47. Bouteloua gracilis. Inflorescence, X 1 ; spikelet, X 10 216

48. Bulbilis dactyloides. Staminate plant, X K; spikelet, X 4 217

49. Bulbilis dactyloides. Pistillate plant, X /4; cluster of spikelets

and floret, X 4 218

50. Cortaderia argentea. A group of inflorescences greatly reduced;

glumes of pistillate spikelet (a), florets of pistillate spikelet,
(6) glumes (c), and florets (d) of staminate spikelet. (U. S.
Dept. Agr. Div. Agrost. Bull. No. 20) 224

61. Eragrostis cilianensis. Plant, reduced; two spikelets, showing

variable number of florets; portion of rachilla from which
some of the florets have fallen. (U. S. Dept. Agr. Div.
Agrost. Bull. No. 17) 225

62. Distichlis spicata. Staminate plant (at left) and pistillate

plant (at right) reduced; pistillate and staminate spikelets. . . 226

53. Dactylis glomerata. Inflorescence, X%', spikelet, X 7 227

54. Poa pratensis. Plant, X Y^\ spikelet and floret, X 5 229

55. Festuca elatior. Inflorescence, X Yi; spikelet, X 4 231

56. Bromus inermis. Inflorescence, X K ; spikelet, X 3 233

57. Lolium multiflorum. Inflorescence, X M; spikelet, with portion

of rachis, X 3 237

58. Agropyron repens. Inflorescence and rhizomes, X M; spikelet,

X 3 238

59. Triticum dicoccum. Inflorescence (head), X H; .spikelet with

a disarticulated joint of the rachis, X 2 239

60. Triticum sestivum. Inflorescence (head), X K; spikelet with

portion of attached rachis, X 2 241

61. Secale cereale. Inflorescence (head), XH; spikelet, X 2 244

62. Hordeum vulgare. Inflorescence (head), XM; cluster of 3

spikelets, and a single floret from the back showing the
stipiform rachilla, X 2 245

63. Arundinaria macrosperma. Portion of culm with inflorescence

reduced; floret, palea showing lodicules, and a caryopsis,
reduced. (U. S. Dept. Agr. Div. Agrost. Bull. No. 20) 248

PART I
ECONOMIC AGROSTOLOGY

A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES

CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION

ECONOMIC botany is that branch of the science of
botany which treats of the uses of plants. All animals, man
included, are dependent directly or indirectly upon plants
for their existence. With the exception of water and a
small amount of mineral matter such as salt, the food-
supply of all animal life finally may be traced back to
the constructive metabolism of plants, a process depend-
ent upon photosynthesis. Many animals derive a whole
or a part of their food from other animals, but sooner or
later in the chain of relations between animals and their
food-supply a point is reached where the ultimate deriva-
tion is from plants. The vegetable kingdom provides
directly a large part of the food for man and for his
domestic animals. It provides the fibers from which much
of his clothing is made; much of the material for construct-
ing his home and the articles with which it is furnished;
many of the drugs, medicines, dyes, condiments, bever-
ages, and a great variety of other useful articles or
substances.

Of the natural families of plants that contribute their
quota to supply the wants of man, the grass family exceeds r
all others in the amount and value of its products. To
A (l)

2 A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES

this family belong the grains, such as wheat, corn, and
rice, that furnish the bulk of the vegetable food of the
world for man, and feed for stock; the greater part of the
pasture and meadow plants that furnish forage and hay;
and many large grasses such as the sugar-cane, the sor-
ghum, and the bamboos that are not usually classed with
this family by those who are not botanists.

1. Agrostology. — Agrostology is that branch of botany
which treats of grasses. The term is derived from two
Greek words, agrostis (ayposrts from dypos, a field) a
kind of grass, and logos (Aoyos) speech. The subject is
usually divided into two branches, economic agrostology
and systematic agrostology. Like any other branch of
botany, agrostology can be considered also from the
standpoint of anatomy, morphology, or physiology. Up
to the present time the study of grasses from these stand-
points has not received distinctive recognition but has
been merged with the anatomy, morphology, and physiol-
ogy of plants in general, or has been included in syste-
matic agrostology.

2. Economic agrostology. — This is that branch of
economic botany which treats of grasses, or it is that
branch of agrostology which treats of the uses of grasses.
The uses of the grasses and their products are so many and
various and touch so many industries that it is necessary
to define the limits of the subject as it will be considered
in this work. It is intended so far as practicable to
restrict the discussion of economic agrostology to its
botanical phases. The methods of growing grasses, that
is, cultural methods, belong more properly, in case of the
field crops,to agronomy; or, in case of the_ornamental.
species tcT horticulture. The methods of obtaining the
products of grasses and the course of the products after

INTRODUCTION 3

they leave the plant, such as the extraction of sugar from
sugar-cane, or the threshing of grain and its snhspqnppt.
conversion into flour and bread or into starch or alcohol.
may belong to chemical technology. In the present work
it is proposed to emphasize the botany ^connected with
the economic phases of agrostology, but information will
not be excluded from brief mention when necessary for a
proper understanding of the subject, even though this
information would fall naturally under some allied branch
such as agronomy.

3. Systematic agrostology. — Systematic agrostology
treats of grasses from the botanical as distinguished from
the practical or economic side. Strictly speaking system-
atic agrostology should be synonymous with taxonomic
agrostology; that is, it should concern itself with the
botanical classification or natural relationship of grasses.
In the present work it includes also such morphology as
is necessary for a proper understanding of classification
and also brief references to ecology and some general
information less easily classified.

4. The uses of grasses. — In a future chapter grasses
are technically defined and distinguished from other
plants. The term grass is generally understood to include
herbaceous plants with narrow leaves, such as timothy,
blue-grass, and redtop. The farmer often understands by
grass any small herbaceous plant, especially such as is
used for forage. In this sense he includes among the
grasses such leguminous plants as alfalfa and clover.
There are a number of plants with narrow, grass-like
leaves that also may be confused with the grasses. Among
such plants are the sedges, rushes, and certain lilies or
lily allies. On the other hand the layman may not recog-
nize as grasses the larger members of the family, such as

4 A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES

corn, sugar-cane, the giant reed, and the bamboos. In
the popular mind even the grains may be excluded from
the idea of grasses. Without introducing at this point
the exact botanical definition of a grass, it may be said
that grasses include such representative plants as timo-
thy, wheat, corn, sugar-cane and bamboos, but exclude
the clovers, the sedges, and the rushes.

5. The value of farm crops. — The total value of all
crops produced in the United States in 1909 was $5,487,-
161,000.* In this respect, Illinois leads among the states.
The following table gives the relative rank of the first
ten states:

TABLE I

TOTAL VALUE (DOLLABS) OP ALL FARM CROPS IN 1909 FOR THE TEN
LEADING STATES

1. Illinois $372,270,470 6. Missouri . . .$220,663,724

2. Iowa 314,666,298 7. Kansas .... 214,859,597

3. Texas 298,133,466 8. New York . . . 209,168,236

4. Ohio 230,337,981 9. Indiana .... 204,209,812

5. Georgia 226,595,436 10. Nebraska . . . 196,125,632

The total value of the leading crops indicates the
relative importance of those derived from the grass
family as compared with those from other families :

TABLE II .
TOTAL VALUE (DOLLARS) OF THE LEADING CROPS IN 1909

Cereals . $2,665,539,714

Hay and forage 824,004,877

Tobacco 104,302,856

Cotton and cotton-seed 824,696,287

Sugar crops 61,648,942

Vegetables 418,110,154

Fruits and nuts 222,024,216

Forest products of farms 195,306,283

The total valuation in Table I does not include forest
products except such as are produced on farms. The

*The statistics of this and other tables are taken from the Thirteenth Census
of the United States, Vol. V.

INTRODUCTION 5

value of cereals includes that of buckwheat ($9,330,592),
which is not a grass. To the value of hay and forage
might be added that of grass seed ($15,137,683) classed
under "other grains and seeds." Under "vegetables" is
included potatoes as the most important single crop.

It will be observed from Table II that the value of
cereals is about 48 per cent, of hay and forage 15 per cent,
and of cotton 15 per cent, of the total value of all farm
crops. By including grass seed, broom-corn, sorghum,
and sugar-cane, and excluding buckwheat, it is found that
about 64J^ per cent of the value of farm crops is derived
from members of the grass family. The value of hay and
forage does not include that of pasture and range, which
if taken into consideration would swell enormously the
total value of the products of the grass family.

CHAPTER II
ECONOMIC CLASSIFICATION OF GRASSES

ACCORDING to their uses, grasses may be classified into
three main divisions,— -grains, forage planja_^nd lawn
grasses; and four minor divisions, — grnamejota^ soil-
nBmders, sugar-producing grasses, and textile grasses,
leaving a few unclassified. Another category of grasses,
the weeds, being the antithesis of useful plants, might be
included under economic grasses. A special chapter is
devoted to them (Chapter IX).

GRAINS

6. The term grain is applied to those grasses whose
fruit is used for food or for stock-feed. The fruit or seed
is technically a caryopsis (Par. 162), or in popular lan-
guage, a grain. The common grains are corn, sorghum,
wheat, rye, barley, oats, rice, millet.

7. Uses of the grains for food. — The seeds are rich in
starch and usually contain also a considerable quantity
of protein. For this reason they are eminently fitted for
use as food. In the United States, the grain of sorghum
and millet is not used for human food, although both are
extensively used for this purpose in some parts of the Old
World, especially among primitive peoples. Oats, rye
and barley, though used to a limited extent, are of secon-
dary importance as food plants in America. The other
three grains, wheat, corn, and rice, are of fundamental

(6)

ECONOMIC CLASSIFICATION OF GRASSES 7

importance as food plants for the white race both in
America and the Old World. Wheat, oatsj_barle^, and
rye are usually designated by the American farmer as
small grains, to distinguish them from corn. Rice is
usually not included in this loose classification because
its culture is confined to the moist regions of the coastT
and it is not found in the grain-growing districts of the
country. Emmer, spelt, and other species of wheat
allied to our common bread wheat, are grown in the Old
World, and the first mentioned is grown to a limited
extent as a forage crop in America. (See Farmers' Bul-
letins Nos. 139, 466.) A classification of the grains with
their botanical names is given in a future chapter.

All the grains cultivated in the United States arek
annuals. Certain plants that belong to other families are
cultivated in various parts of the world for the seed which
is ground into flour and used for food, and hence might be
classed as grains. The only one of these used in this
country is the buckwheat (Fagopyrum esculentum L.).
Certain others are cultivated among primitive peoples in
other parts of the world, as for example, the quinoa
(Chenopodium Quinoa Willd.) in the Andes. The seeds of
certain wild grasses, especially the IndiajLJice (Zizania
palustris), have been used by the North American
Indians for food.

8. Relative importance of the different grains. — The|x
grains are used primarily for human food. Scarcely less
important is their use as feed for domestic animals.
Wheat and rice are used almost exclusively as human food,
but all the others are used in part or, in the United States,
almost wholly for stock feed. In Europe, to a much greater
extent than in America, barley and rye serve as bread-
stuffs, while millet (Chcetochloa italica) and proso millet

8 A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES

(Panicum miliaceum) are used for porridge or mush. In

America the latter grains are fed to stock only. Certain

varieties of sorghum furnish an important part of the

human food-supply in Africa and China, while in this

country other varieties, such as kafir, are used as stock

| feed. The most important grain is wheat, which is nearly

• all made into flour, forming the principal breadstuff.

[ Corn is next in importance, furnishing a large part of the

feed of domestic animals and serving also to a considerable

extent for human food. Oats are produced chiefly for

feeding horses, though some goes into oatmeal for human

food.

In this country barley is raised chiefly in the cooler
regions, and is of importance as a food for stock in those
regions where, because of the short growing season or
for other reasons, corn cannot be successfully grown, as in
much of the West and Northwest. Large quantities are
also used in the brewing industry. Rye as a grain is of
comparatively little importance in the United States.
Rice is of secondary importance in America because,
requiring for its cultivation a warm climate and land that
can be flooded, the area adapted to its growth is limited
in extent, being confined to the low coastal region from
North Carolina to eastern Texas. A variety known as
upland rice is being grown in Louisiana and eastern
Texas on drier land and is cultivated and harvested in
the same manner as wheat. In the warmer parts of the
Old World, especially in southeastern Asia, rice is the
most important food plant grown.

9. Value and production of the cereals. — The value
of the different cereals produced in the United States in
1909, excluding buckwheat, is shown in the following
table:

ECONOMIC CLASSIFICATION OF GRASSES 9

TABLE III
THE VALUE (DOLLARS) OF CEREALS IN 1909

Corn $1,438,553,919 Rye $20,421,812

Wheat 657,656,801 Rice 16,019,607

Oats 414,697,422 Kafir and Milo . . 10,816,940

Barley 92,458,571 Emmer and Spelt . . .5,584,050

The production of cereals in the United States as
compared with the total world production is shown in
Table IV (see Farmers' Bulletin No. 581):

TABLE IV
PRODUCTION (BUSHELS) OF THE CEREALS FOR THE UNITED STATES AND

FOR THE WORLD IN 1913
United States World

Corn 2,446,998,000 Corn 3,607,359,000

Wheat 763,380,000 Wheat 4,126,000,000

Oats 1,121,768,000 Oats 4,672,168,000

Barley 178,189,000 Barley 1,613,748,000

Rye 41,381,000 Rye 1,884,646,000

It is seen from this table that the United States pro-
duced about two-thirds of the corn, one-fifth of the wheat,
and one-fourth of the oats of the world, but only a small
part of the barley and rye.

Other countries leading in the production of corn are
Argentina, Hungary and Mexico; of wheat, Russia, Brit-
ish India, France and Canada; of oats, Russia, Germany,
Canada and France; of barley, Russia, Germany and
Japan; of rye, Russia, Germany and Austria.

The value of the cereals produced by the ten leading
states is shown in Table V:

TABLE V

THE VALUE (DOLLARS) OF THE CEREALS PRODUCED IN 1909 BY THE TEN
LEADING STATES

1. Illinois $297,523,098 6. North Dakota .$149,133,451

2. Iowa 230,205,315 7. Missouri .... 147,980,414

3. Kansas 169,109,449 8. Minnesota . . . 140,864,148

4. Nebraska .... 153,666,652 9. Ohio 137,907,934

5. Indiana 151,898,146 10. South Dakota . . 98,953,050

10 A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES

TABLE VI

PRODUCTION (BUSHELS) OF CORN FOR THE FIVE LEADING STATES

IN 1909

1. Illinois 390,218,676 4. Missouri .... 191,427,087

2. Iowa 341,750,460 5. Nebraska .... 180,132,807

3. Indiana 195,496,433

TABLE VII

PRODUCTION (BUSHELS) OF WHEAT FOR THE FIVE LEADING STATES

IN 1909

1. North Dakota . .116,781,886 4. Nebraska .... 47,685,745

2. Kansas 77,577,115 5. South Dakota . . 47,059,590

3. Minnesota .... 57,094,412

TABLE VIII

PRODUCTION (BUSHELS) OF OATS FOR THE FIVE LEADING STATES IN 1909

1. Illinois .... 150,386,074 4. Wisconsin .... 71,349,038

2. Iowa 128,198,055 5. North Dakota . . 65,886,702

3. Minnesota . . . 93,897,717

TABLE IX

PRODUCTION (BUSHELS) OF BARLEY FOR THE FIVE LEADING STATES

IN 1909

1. Minnesota .... 34,927,773 4. South Dakota . . 22,396,130

2. California .... 26,441,954 5. Wisconsin .... 22,156,041

3. North Dakota . . 26,365,758

TABLE X

PRODUCTION (BUSHELS) OF RYE FOR THE FIVE LEADING STATES IN 1909

1. Michigan 5,814,394 4. Pennsylvania . . . 3,496,603

2. Wisconsin 4,797,775 5. New York .... 2,010,601

3. Minnesota .... 4,426,028

TABLE XI

PRODUCTION (BUSHELS) OF EMMER AND SPELT FOR THE FIVE LEADING
STATES IN 1909

1. South Dakota . . . 6,098,982 4. Kansas 785,362

2. North Dakota . . . 2,564,732 5. Minnesota 757,339

3. Nebraska 1,221,975

The production of grain from kafir and milo is indicated
in Table XII. The statistics for these crops when grown
for forage are included under "coarse forage:"

ECONOMIC CLASSIFICATION OF GRASSES 11

TABLE XII

PRODUCTION (BUSHELS) OF GRAIN OF KAFIR AND MILO FOR THE FIVE
LEADING STATES IN 1909

1. Texas 5,860,444 4. California 938,049

2. Kansas 5,115,415 5. New Mexico .... 543,350

3. Oklahoma .... 4,658,752

The production of rice has shifted in recent years
from the South Atlantic coast to Louisiana and Texas,
where upland rice is now grown. Over nine-tenths of
the acreage of this crop is now in the two last-
mentioned states:

TABLE XIII

PRODUCTION (BUSHELS) OF ROUGH RICE FOR THE FIVE LEADING STATES

IN 1909

1. Louisiana 10,839,973 4. South Carolina . . . 541,570

2. Texas 8,991,745 5. Georgia 148,698

3. Arkansas 1,282,830

STARCH

10. All the grains mentioned may be used for the pro-
duction of starch and alcohol. — From the commercial
standpoint, the chief starch-producing plants of the I/
world are corn, wheat, rice, potatoes and arrow-root. I
Wheat is usually too valuable a human food to be used
for any other purpose. Corn is the chief source of starch \/
in the United States, although the other grains may be*
used when available. In the manufacture of starch from
corn, the grain is soaked but not allowed to ferment. The
softened kernels are then ground in water and the starch
purified. A bushel of corn will yield twenty-eight pounds
of starch and thirteen pounds of refuse available as
cattle food. In Europe the potato is the chief source of
starch.

12 A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES

ALCOHOL

11. Another important product of the grains is alco-
hol.— For this purpose the starch is first converted by
means of diastase into maltose, a kind of sugar, and the
sugar is fermented by means of a yeast plant. The fer-
mented liquor is distilled, the product being alcohol. The
diastase is an unorganized ferment present hi the germi-
nating grains. This converts the stored starch of the
seed into a soluble form, a sugar, which can be absorbed
by the young plant. The grain to be used as a source of
alcohol is allowed to germinate, is heated to kill the
embryos, and is then fermented with yeast. This con-
verts the sugar into alcohol and carbon dioxide. If beer is
the product desired, barley is the grain usually employed
and the process is stopped at this point. If a distilled
liquor is desired, the material is distilled. The details of
the manufacture of the various alcoholic products belong
to the study of industrial chemistry. Wine is produced by
fermentation from the juices of fruits containing sugar,
especially the juice of the grape. This liquid, when dis-
tilled, produces a brandy.

MISCELLANEOUS USES OF THE GRAINS

12. In the manufacture of starch or alcohol, the grains
furnish many other substances, often as by-products.
Among these may be mentioned gluten meal and corn
oil, the one from the protein and the other from the fat
of the seed. Corn oil is expressed from the grain before
the starch is extracted, or it is obtained from the residue
hi the fermentation vats in the manufacture of alcohol.
Much of the commercial vinegar is produced from malt

ECONOMIC CLASSIFICATION OF GRASSES 13

liquor, the alcohol being converted into acetic acid by
means of ferments. Besides being used for the production
of seed, the grasses mentioned above are extensively used
for forage, a use which will be discussed in a future chap-
ter. Corn in one of its varieties or species, sweet corn, is
commonly used as a vegetable, the kernels being cooked
when in the milk stage. Other varieties are cultivated for
ornament and for pop-corn. The pith of the stalks of
field corn has been used for many purposes, especially
those involving the production of pure cellulose.

CHAPTER III
FORAGE PLANTS

SCARCELY less important than the use of grasses for the
production of human food is their use for forage. The
domestic animals, upon which man depends in part for
his food, in their turn depend upon wild or cultivated
forage plants.

FIQ. 1. Production of hay and forage in the United States. One large dot repre-
sents 500,000 tons; one small dot represents 100,000 tons.

13. The importance of forage plants is shown in part
by the statistics given in the census report under the
heading "hay and forage," which includes plants cut and
used dry or green for forage, but does not include plants
used for pasturage. The figures also include an insig-

FORAGE PLANTS

15

FIG. 2. Production of timothy in the United States. One dot represents
100,000 tons.

FIG. 3. Production of timothy and clover mixed in the United States. One dot
represents 100,000 tons.

16

A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES

FIG. 4. Production of clover alone in the United States. One dot represents
10,000 tons.

FIG. 5. Production of alfalfa in the United States. One dot represents
20,000 tons.

FORAGE PLANTS

17

nificant amount of root forage. The total acreage in 1909
is given as 72,280,776, which produced 97,453,735 tons of
forage valued at $824,004,877. The value of hay and
forage as compared with other crops is shown in Table
II (Par. 5).

The statistics partially classify the hay and forage as
follows :

TABLE XIV

ACREAGE, PRODUCTION, AND VALUE OF HAY AND FORAGE FOR 1909
BY CLASSES

Acres

Production
(Tons)

Value
(Dollars)

Timothy alone . . .

14,686,393

17,985,420

$188,082,895

Timothy and Clover

mixed

19,542,382

24,748,555

257,280,330

Clover alone

2,443,263

3,158,324

29,334,356

Alfalfa

4,707,146

11,859,881

93,103,998

Millet or Hungarian

grass

1,117,769

1,546,533

11,145,226

Other tame or culti-

vated grasses . . .

4,218,957

4,166,772

44,408,775

Wild, salt or prairie

grasses

17,186,522

18,383,574

91,026,169

Grains cut green

4,324,878

5,367,292

61,686,131

Coarse forage ....

4,034,432

9,982,305

46,753,262

The production of hay and forage of the ten leading
states is shown in Table XV. The production of all the
states is graphically shown in Fig. 1.

TABLE XV

PRODUCTION (TONS) OF HAY AND FORAGE OP THE TEN LEADING
STATES IN 1909

1. Iowa 7,823,181

2. New York .... 7,055,429

3. Minnesota .... 6,036,747

4. Kansas 5,936,997

6. Wisconsin .... 5,002,644

7. Ohio 4,521,409

8. Illinois 4,354,466

9. California 4,327,130

5. Nebraska 5,776,475 10. Missouri 4,091,342

18

A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES

FIQ. 6. Production of millet or Hungarian grass in the United States. One
dot represents 5,000 tons.

Fio. 7. Production of other tame or cultivated grasses in the United States.
One dot represents 10,000 tons.

FORAGE PLANTS
NATUKAL CLASSIFICATION

19

14. In order to show the relative position of grasses
among forage plants, a classification is here given based
upon botanical relationships. Forage plants may be
divided into three groups. These are: grasses, legumes,
miscellaneous plants. The first group includes plants
belonging to the grass family (Par. 118).

FIG. 8. Production of wild, salt or prairie grasses in the United States. One
dot represents 10,000 tons.

15. Legumes. — The second group includes those
belonging to the natural family Leguminosse or FabaceaB.
The plants of this family are characterized by the fruit,
which is a legume or pod. To this family belong the-
clovers, alfalfa, vetches, beans, peas, and many similar
plants. The importance of legumes as forage plants \
depends upon their high protein content, and hence their I
greater nutritive value. Another important character
of leguminous plants is their ability to transfer nitrogen

20

A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES

Fio. 9. Production of grains out green in the United States. One dot represents

10,000 tons.

FIG. 10. Production of coarse forage in the United States. One dot represents
20,000 tons.

FORAGE PLANTS 21

from the air to the soil, thus increasing the soil fertility, j
This transfer is accomplished by means of organisms con-
tained in nodules upon the roots of legumes, these organ-
isms, which are allied to bacteria, being able to extract
free nitrogen from- the air. The accumulated nitrogen
is in part passed on to the host plant. After the removal
or death of the latter, the roots or such portions as remain
in the earth return to the soil in a form available for
absorption such nitrogen as was stored in them. For this
reason the fertility of soils is increased by the growing of
legumes, the following crops being correspondingly
improved. The various grasses cultivated for forage are
usually grown in combination with legumes either simulta-
neously or successively, in order to increase the nutritive
value of the product and at the same tune to retain the
fertility of the soil.

16. Miscellaneous. — The third group of forage plants
includes all plants that do not belong to the grasses or
the legumes. Certain plants of the mustard family,
especially rape (see Farmers' Bulletin No. 164), are cul-
tivated for forage. Most of the plants of this group, with
the exception of rape, are native range plants, deriving
their importance from their presence in arid or semi-
arid regions. The most important of those found in I/
America are the salt bushes (species of Atriplex) (see I
Farmers' Bulletin No. 108), winter fat (Eurotia lanata
(Pursh) Moq.) and the prickly pear cactuses (species of
Opuntia). The cultivation of the opuntias has recently
been undertaken in the southwestern states and gives
much promise (see Farmers' Bulletin No. 483). Species of
Plantago, known to ranchmen as Indian wheat, are \
important winter grazing plants for sheep in the desert f
regions of Arizona arid California.

22

A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES

CLASSIFICATION OF FORAGE PLANTS
ACCORDING TO USE

17. According to the way in which they are usea,
forage plants may be divided into three classes. These
are: pasture plants, meadow plants, soiling and silage
plants.

PASTURE PLANTS

18. Pasture plants in the widest sense are those which
furnish forage in situ, that is, those upon which stock
graze. A pasture is an area supporting or containing pas-
ture plants. In the restricted sense a pasture is a fenced
area. In some localities the term is further restricted" to
areas of cultivated plants. Small pastures or areas of
turf are sometimes known as paddocks. Pastures in the
general sense may be divided into two classes, native
pastures and cultivated pastures.

Native pastures

19. Native pastures include all areas of native vegeta-
ition upon which stock is grazed. Fenced pastures are

common throughout the United States in connection with
all farming operations that include the care of live-stock.
Such pastures may include native prairie grass land, as is
frequently the case in the region between the Mississippi
River and the Rocky Mountains, or they may include areas
that are wooded, that^are rockyjor^sterile, that are_jtoo
<wet1_or^that are otherwjsp Tint w^U «nit,ftH t^fwk^-p^ps-

20. Ranges. — Unfenced natiye_pastiirQ lanrl is usually
referred to, especially in the western half of the United
States, as range, and animals feeding or grazing upon such

FORAGE PLANTS 23

areas are said to be upon the range. During the last half
of the last century vast areas in the West were utilized
as range for stock, chiefly cattle and sheep. The usual
practice in raising stock under range conditions is the
ranch system. The ranch is the headquarters for the owner \/
or manager of the farm and the stock. Here are the
necessary buildings and other equipment. This central
area is located near a stream or other water-supply, and
more or less of the land in the vicinity is owned by the
ranchman. The land lying beyond the limits of the ranch !/
is open range, that is, unoccupied land, owned usually
by the federal government, by the state, or by the bond-
aided railroads. Such land at that time was of little
value unless there was access to water. The result of
these conditions was that the valley land along the
streams was purchased for the use of the ranches, this
ownership giving the use and virtual control of an indefi-
nite area on the upland beyond. The cattle or sheep were
herded on this range, the distance traveled being limited
by the necessity of returning from time to time for
water. Sheep are able to obtain water by eating snow,\
hence they can be herded during the winter upon desert
regions lacking the ordinary water-supply, provided there
is sufficient snowfall. It is therefore customary in the
mountainous regions of the West to herd sheep in the
mountains in the summer and take them out on the
desert in the winter.

Within recent years the demand for farm land has
increased and the amount of open range has correspond-
ingly decreased. Ranchmen in many cases have been
obliged to buy and fence pasture land for their stock.
Another modification of the original ranch system results
from the policy adopted by the federal government in

24 A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES

connection with the national forests. These reserves were
formerly available as open range, but now stock is excluded
except as permission is obtained for grazing by leasing.
The terms of the lease provide for a maximum number of
stock at a definite price a head to graze over a limited
area for a limited season. In the open range system it was
customary for the ranchmen to arrange among them-
selves the use of the range. As they did not own or lease
the open range they could not keep out rival ranchmen
except by force. This not infrequently gave rise to strife,
sometimes accompanied by bloodshed, between the
opposing ranchmen or their herders, especially between
the cattlemen and the sheepmen. The especial seriousness
of the contests between the cattlemen and the sheepmen
arose from the fact that cattle will not willingly graze after
sheep probably because of some odor, whereas sheep will
graze after cattle. Furthermore, sheep graze the forage
much more closely than do cattle, so that after a band of
sheep has passed over an area there is little or nothing
left for the cattle.

In former years ranchmen of the more southern
regions carried their stock through the winter upon the
range, depending upon the dry but nutritious grass
remaining from the preceding season. Not infrequently
there was loss of stock during stormy weather. In the
northerly regions, and now, in accordance with the best
practice also in the South, supplementary feed is supplied
to stock during the winter months.

21. Overgrazing. — Wild pasture land will permit of a

certain amount of grazing without deterioration. Beyond

I this amount the grazing capacity becomes progressively

: reduced. This condition is caused partly by actual injury

i to the vegetation, partly by the reduction of its recupera-

FORAGE PLANTS 25

tive power, and partly by the fact that grazing animals
select the best plants, thus exterminating the valuable
species, whose place is taken by the unpalatable or worth-
less weeds. Range that has been grazed beyond its ability
to recuperate is said to be overgrazed, and when the num-
ber of stock on a given area is too great, the range is said '
to be overstocked. The amount of stock which the range
will carry depends upon the kind and amount of vegeta-
tion, the fertility of the soil, the rainfall, and various
other conditions. The carrying capacity can be told
only by experience. A range must be exceptionally good
to average for a season one cow to every 5 acres, and such
ranges would be found only in the less arid portion of the
Great Plains where the grass is abundant.

Overgrazing may be the result of necessity. The
ranchman having in his possession a certain amount of
stock may be confronted with an unfavorable season or a
diminished range. As the free range decreases owing to
the use of the land for general farming, or is bought up
and fenced hi by the ranchmen for self-protection, the
tendency to overstock becomes greater. Too often under
these conditions, the stockman is confronted with the
necessity of providing feed for the stock he has, without
regard to the ultimate welfare of the range.

22. Rejuvenating worn-out ranges. — As vast regions
have been made temporarily unfit for grazing by the
attempt to carry on the range for successive seasons more
stock than it would bear, there has been an increasing
pressure for methods that would quickly rejuvenate these
areas. It has been thought that the seeds of grasses or
other plants that are as well or better adapted to the
conditions than was the preceding vegetation might be
sown on the range to advantage. Many experiments have

26 A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES

been tried along this line but with little success. The area
involved is too large and the expense is too great. There is
the further difficulty of finding plants better adapted to
the conditions than those that primarily occupied the soil.
The plants that tend to come in to replace those sub-

I dued by grazing are usually weedy annuals that have
little forage value. Such are the numerous species of Old
World brome-grasses that are now so common on the
Pacific slope and hi some portions of the region to the
east of this. There is one exception to this, the annual

\ herbaceous plant known as alfilaria or "filaree" (Er odium
riMdg.riu'm, (I,.) L' Herit.) a member of the geranium
family. This is an excellent forage plant and is gradually
spreading on the ranges of the Southwest.

The only practicable method to rejuvenate worn-out
ranges is to give them rest. If stock is kept from them they
will in time return to a condition of productiveness. The
length of time necessary for an overgrazed range to recu-
perate depends upon many conditions. If the overgrazing
has been for a short period a single season of rest may be
sufficient. If a considerable portion of the original vege-
tation has been destroyed two or three seasons may be
necessary. In the latter case the resulting vegetation will
probably be different from the original and may be less
valuable. Thoughtful ranchmen are learning to conserve

1 their ranges by regulation and rotation and by limiting
the stock to the carrying capacity of the range. (See
Bur. PL Ind. Bulletin No. 117 and Yearbook for 1906.)

Range grasses

23. The wild plants upon the range, unless they are
positively distasteful because of bitter or acrid substances

FORAGE PLANTS 27

or are protected by spines, are all more or less grazed by
stock, especially sheep. If there is an abundance of forage
the animals select the more palatable and nutritious spe-
cies. In overstocked areas the animals are forced more
and more to eat unpalatable or even poisonous species.

On the prairies and plains of the western states, the /
grasses form the chief element of the fojago^-The most
important single species probably is TOffaTo^grass (Par.
245). This is the dominant species on the Great Plains
from the Dakotas to Texas and from the Rocky Mountains
to the IfKJth meridian and beyond. This region is collo-
quially known as the "short-grass country," to distinguish
it from the prairie regions to the east, where tall grasses
prevail. On the plains_£f_Igxas and northern Mexico. * 'k
the buffalo-grass is graduallv^replaced by a species
similar habit, the curly mesquite (Par. 212). cr^/^^**

The'^an^grasses in numerous species_jn the West /
and Southwest and on the table-land of Mexico form an
important and nutritive constituent of the ranges. The
most important of these is the blue grama, called in the i
Southwest merely grama, and on the plains grama-grass,
extending from Manitoba to South America. Like buf-
falo-grass it is a "short grass" and is frequently confused
with that species. The three grasses, buffalo-grass, curly
mesquite and grama-grass, form a nutritious forage after
they have been cured in the autumn by the dry climate
of this region. Hence the range will support stock through-
out the winter if the conditions are favorable. Fall or
winter rains, or an early frost, decrease the value of the
forage. •

Other especially important western grasses are the
various species of Agropyron, Andropogon and Muhlen-
bergia. Pine-grass is important in Oregon and Washing-

28 A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES

ton. The term "bunch-grass" is applied to diverse spe-
\ cies in different regions. The name refers to any species
that forms conspicuous tufts. In western Kansas it refers
to Sporobolus airoides^; in Oregon to Agropyron spicatum;
in other localities to various other species. (See Yearbook
for 1900.)

CHAPTER IV
CULTIVATED PASTURES

EXPERIENCE has shown that, conditions being equal, a
greater amount of forage can be grown from a given area
if the plants used are cultivated. In the broad sense, the
term cultivation is here used to include the sowing of seed
or the setting out of plants. But cultivation in the usual
sense means also that the soil has been prepared for the
reception of the seeds or plants and may include still
further the subsequent use of tillage implements. Culti-
vated pastures, besides producing a greater amount of
forage, have the further advantage of the choice of plants
to be grown. Forage plants are cultivated for several
purposes, as previously indicated, but in the present
chapter only their cultivation for pasture is discussed. .
Cultivated pastures are usually known as tame pastures, '
to distinguish them from wild or native pastures. In
regions where native pastures are rare, the term pasture
may imply that the area has been seeded. Tame pastures
are conveniently divided into two kinds, permanent and
temporary.

PERMANENT PASTURES

24. As permanent pastures are here included all pas- .
tures that are seeded down with the intention of using /
them for grazing for more than one season. The plants
used for permanent pasture are primarily grasses.
Legumes and other plants may be mixed with the grasses •/

(29)

30 A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES

or may be used temporarily or incidentally for grazing
but (except sometimes alfalfa) are never used alone for
permanent pasture.

25. The two most important pasture-grasses arej^lue—
grass and jBermuda^grass. Other pasture-grasses of some
importance are redtop, brome-grass, orchard-grass, mea-
4ow fescue. Still others are occasionally sown in mixtures
but in the aggregate are almost negligible from the com-
mercial standpoint. Some of these are the various fescue
grasses, such as sheep's fescue and red fescue, rye-grass,
velvet-grass, and a few others. The most important
legume used in permanent pasture mixtures is white
clover.

Blue-grass

26. Blue-grass is the standard pasture-grass in the

region lying east of the Great Plains and north of Arkansas
and North Carolina and extending southward in the
mountains. It is used occasionally in other parts of the
country, but it does not succeed in the southern states.
It thrives best on limestone soils and is not adapted to
acid soils. The famous "blue-grass region" of Kentucky
lies in the limestone country in the central and northern
part of the stated The species is commonly called Ken-
tucky blue-grass and in some localities, especially north-
ward, it is called June-grass.

Blue-grass is an aggressive species and, in soil adapted
to its growth, tends to spread. It thrives in partial shade,
and, in regions where the summers are hot and dry, it
invades the open woods, where it furnishes valuable
pasture. An excellent way to utilize brush-land or open
timber-land is to clear out the underbrush and weeds and
sow the land to blue-grass. At first it is necessary to keep

CULTIVATED PASTURES 31

down the brush and weeds, but later the blue-grass
dominates the undergrowth. In the alfalfa regions of the
West, blue-grass is often looked upon as a weed, because
of its tendency to invade alfalfa fields.

The chief objections to blue-grass are the tendency!-
to lie dormant during the hot dry midsummer, the diffi-
culty in establishing a stand, and the low forage yield.
In spite of these objections, it leads all other pasture-
grasses in the region where it thrives.

27. Establishing a blue-grass pasture. — Blue-grass is
rather difficult to start, as the growth is slow the first
year. About sixty pounds of seed an acre are sown. It
is important to have good seed. Many of the failures to
establish a good stand are due to sowing seed of low vital-
ity. If the seed is good, thirty pounds to the acre should
be sufficient. The seed is sown on prepared land, or with
other crops such as clover, wheat or timothy, or with
meadow grasses or in early spring upon the snow or upon
frozen ground. The object of sowing with other crops is
to utilize the land while the blue-grass is becoming estab-
lished. In regions adapted to its growth, blue-grass will
form a permanent pasture, since few plants can drive it
out unless it is overgrazed.

Bermuda-grass

28. Bermuda is the standard pasture-grass for they
South, occupying there the position of relative importance
among grasses that blue^jgrass does in the^ North. Its dis-
tribution is from the blue-grass area to the Gulf of Mexico
and west to east Texas. Bermuda-grass is common in

the warmer parts of both hemispheres and in the_JJnitgd
States extends into the arid regions of the West. In the

'

32 A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES

latter regions it is of little importance from a commercial
standpoint, since the climate is too dry for its develop-
, ment without irrigation. Under irrigation, other forage
! crops give better results. Although Bermuda-grass is
found under a variety of conditions, it is not a shade-
loving plant and thrives best in open ground. On the
uplands of the South it leads all other pasture grasses but
in the moist lowland along streams and along the coast
it has a few competitors, especially carpet-grass (Par.
215) and St. Augustine-grass (Par. 223). It withstands
heat and drought, is aggressive, forming a permanent
pasture, and is nutritious. Sometimes legumes (espe-
cially bur clover (Medicago arabica) and Japan clover
(Lespedeza striata) are combined with Bermuda.

29. Establishing a Bermuda pasture. — There are two
methods of starting Bermuda: by sowing the seed and by
planting cuttings. The seed is sown at the rate of six to
eight pounds to the acre and pressed in with a roller.
The more usual method is to plant cuttings of the stem or
pieces of the sod. These are dropped at intervals in shallow
furrows and covered with a plow or dropped upon a pre-
pared surface and pressed in with the foot.

Bermuda-grass is very aggressive, for which reason
it becomes a bad weed when it invades cultivated fields.
In cultivated soil it produces hard, vigorous rootstocks
that give it the name of wire-grass. It can be eradicated
by plowing in the hot weather of midsummer, or by
smothering out by means of rank-growing shade crops,
such as cowpeas. Bermuda-grass does not usually pro-
duce seed in the United States except in Florida^ Ariaoiia
and California; hence it invades fields slowly and with
care can be kept out without much difficulty. The com-
mercial seed is imported.

CULTIVATED PASTURES 33

Other pasture-grasses

30. Besides the two important and well-known pasture-
grasses mentioned for the North and the South, there are
several others that are used to a considerable extent.
Each has its special merits and its peculiar drawbacks.
The acreage of some of these grasses is large but in all
cases falls far below that of blue-grass and Bermuda-
grass.

31. Brome-grass. — This is variously known as awnless
brome, Hungarian -brome, and Bromus inermis, the last
being its botanical name. It is one of the few grasses that
has been successfully introduced into cultivation in
recent times. The United States Department of Agricul-
ture and the state experiment stations have demonstrated
its adaptability to the conditions prevailing in the north-
western states. It has been shown to be an excellent
pasture-grass for the region from Kansas to Manitoba
and west to Washington, which is too dry for the eastern
grasses. It gives good results east of this region, but must
there compete with timothy, clover and blue-grass.
Brome-grass is a native of Europe. (See Bur. PL Ind.
Bulletin No. 111.)

32. Redtop. — This is a well-known widely distributed
meadow-grass which will be further discussed under
meadow-grasses. (Par. 48.) Its chief importance as a!/
pasture-grass is due to the fact that it thrives on_JI£id-i.
soil where blue-grass fails. It is a good pasture-grass for
moist localities in the timothy region and especially in the !
coastal region from Virginia to New England. Redtop is
called "herd's-grass" in Pennsylvania and in some
other localities.

33. Orchard-grass. — This is an excellent species for
c

34 A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES

the blue-grass region, especially when combined with
other grasses. Its chief faults are that it grows in tus-
socks and that the seed is expensive. The former draw-
back militates chiefly against its use as a meadow-grass
I as the hummocks interfere with mowing. It withstands
drought somewhat better than does timothy or blue-grass,
hence is useful along the western edge of the timothy
region. In eastern Kansas, it is used as a pasture-grass in
combination with meadow fescues. (See Bur. PL Ind.
Bulletin No. 100.)

34. Meadow fescue. — This is a common European
f forage-grass which has many excellent qualities but has

not been extensively grown in the United States. It does
not compete with timothy and blue-grass chiefly because
the seed is more expensive and less reliable, faults it shares
with several other good grasses. It is adapted to the same
region as timothy and blue-grass. A taller form or
agricultural variety with more open panicle is grown
under the name of tall fescue. The seed of meadow fescue
produced in the United States is nearly all grown in east-
ern Kansas. Meadow fescue is sometimes incorrectly
called English blue-grass. (See Farmers' Bulletin No.
361.)

35. Rye-grasses. — Of these there are two kinds, the
English rye-grass and Italian rye-grass. These are both
standard forage-grasses of Europe but are infrequent in
cultivation in this country. They are excellent grasses

i and deserve a wider use. The poor quality and high cost
s \ of the seed, together with the traditional importance
attached to timothy and blue-grass, probably account
for their restricted use.

Canada blue-grass. — This grass will not compete with
Kentucky blue-grass on limestone soils, but in portions

CULTIVATED PASTURES 35

of the humid region where the latter does not thrive it
serves a useful purpose. Nearly all the American seed is
grown in the province of Ontario, Canada. (See Farmers'
Bulletin No. 402.)

Tall meadow oat-grass. — This is a good grass with poor
seed habits, the seed shattering out badly in harvesting
and handling. The species is adapted to the timothy
region but is only sparingly grown.

Velvet-grass. — This species is of little value except on
sterile soil where other grasses will not grow. It is well
established on the Pacific coast, especially from northern
California to British Columbia, where it is common in
swamps, grass-land, waste places and open ground gen-
erally. It is not much utilized for forage except on the
sandy land around the Columbia River. Animals do not
relish the hay unless they have acquired a taste for it.

36. Southern pasture-grasses. — In the moist regions
along the Gulf coast, carpet-grass is a valuable and
nutritious grass. This is a native of the tropics extending
into the southern United States. It thrives in open, moist y
land where it forms a green carpet. It is not cultivated,
but comes into natural pastures voluntarily and persists
because it withstands grazing and trampling. Another
species found especially in mucky soil along the Atlantic
coast from South Carolina to southern Florida is St.
Augustine-grass. This is similar in its habits to carpet-
grass. (See Farmers' Bulletin No. 509.)

37. Two common tropical grasses, Pard-grass and
Guinea-grass, should be mentioned although except in
the extreme southern portion they are not hardy in the
United States. Pard-grass, a native of Brazil and cul-
tivated in the lowlands throughout tropical America,
is occasionally used for pasture in southern Florida and

36 A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES

southern Texas. It is useful in wet or almost swampy
land, where it will furnish a large quantity of forage.
I Pard-grass does not well withstand grazing because its
extensive stolons, being above ground, are killed or
injured by trampling. Guinea-grass grows on drier land
than that best suited to Para-grass. It is extensively
used for pasture, hay and green fodder at low altitudes
in the tropics. It withstands grazing well and its numer-
ous basal shoots furnish a large amount of palatable
forage.

TEMPORARY PASTURE

38. Temporary pasture, as here understood, refers
to pasture obtained incidentally from plants grown for
other purposes, or to that obtained from annual plants.
The usual kind of temporary pasture is that from plants
grown primarily for hay. It is a common practice to
graze meadows after the hay has been cut. Care must
be taken that the meadow is not grazed too closely and
the plants are not injured by the trampling of animals in
wet weather. Alfalfa is commonly grazed in the West,
where this may be the chief forage crop grown. There is
objection to allowing cattle and sheep to graze on alfalfa
and clover since these legumes are likely to cause bloat-
ing. Fall-sown grain is often used for pasture, and stand-
ing corn-stalks furnish considerable fodder after the corn
has been removed by husking in the field.

Annual plants for pasture

39. Grains, especially rye, are sometimes grown
primarily for pasture, being sown usually in the summer or
fall. Sorghum in some of its varieties is grown for pasture

CULTIVATED PASTURES 37

in the South and Middle West. Rescue-grass is used in
some parts of the South for winter pasture. Rye-grass
can also be used to advantage for winter pasture in the
South as it grows rapidly and produces feed sooner than
perennial pasture-grasses. Rape and sometimes other
cruciferous plants such as turnips and kale are sown for
pastures. Various legumes may be used for this purpose,
often in connection with their use as green manure or as a
cover-crop.

CHAPTER V
MEADOW PLANTS

MEADOW PLANTS are those used for hay. A meadow is
an area upon which are growing plants that are to be cut
for hay. Meadows may be conveniently divided into two
classes, wild or native meadows, and tame or cultivated
meadows.

The hay product of the United States is one of the most
valuable of the agricultural crops, the total yield of hay
and forage according to the thirteenth census being
97,453,735 tons, valued at $824,004,877.

NATIVE MEADOWS

40. There are three kinds of native meadows, accord-
ing to the grass that grows upon them. These are prairie,
fresh marsh, and salt marsh. In all cases the chief portion
of the forage is made up of various species of grasses, the
other plants being incidental or even harmful. Prairie
hay is cut from native prairie that is sufficiently dry to
be used for field crops. Because available for cultiva-
tion, the area of prairie meadow is decreasing as the land
is gradually broken by the plow. Open grass-land, such
as swales, or the low areas along streams or ponds that are
intermediate between arable land and swamps, is often
reserved permanently for meadow.

In the prairie region and in the eastern portion of the
Great Plains, the chief constituents of prairie hay are

(38)

MEADOW PLANTS 39

bluestem (Andropogon furcatus), little bluestem (Andro-
pogon scoparius), switch -grass (Panicum virgatum),
Indian reed (Sorghastrum nutans), purple-top (Tridens
flavus), tall grama (Bouteloua curtipendula), and wild rye
(Elymus virginicus, and E. canadensis). In the swales
or "sloughs," as they are called in that region, the chief
grass is cord-grass or slough-grass (Spartina Michauxiana) .
An important hay-grass in depressions or valleys on
the plains is Colorado bluestem (Agropyron Smithii).
Throughout the mountain regions of the West the native
hay may consist of a great variety of indigenous grasses,
the species of Poa, Calamagrostis, Agropyron, and Ely-
mus glaucus usually predominating.

On the western ranches where irrigation water is
available, it is customary to flood the meadow land in the
valleys. If too much water is applied, or if it is allowed to
stand on the meadow for too long a time, the valuable
grasses are gradually replaced by less nutritious plants,
especially by wire-grass, which is a kind of rush (Juncus
balticus Willd.).

41. The commercial production of wild hay is chiefly I/
in the area from Oklahoma to Manitoba, including the
eastern portion of the Great Plains and extending east-
ward through Minnesota into Wisconsin. In the northern
portion of this area, a large proportion of the wild hay is
cut from marsh land, the most important constituents
being bluejoint (Calamagrostis canadensis) and reed canary-
grass (Phalaris arundinacea) . Much of this hay land is
too wet for cultivation. At the time of harvest the soil is
sufficiently dry to support the mower and horses. In the
marshes of Wisconsin and Minnesota the soil is so moist
that broad shoes are sometimes attached to the horses'
feet to prevent them from sinking into the soft ground.

40 A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES

42. Salt marsh-grass is utilized for hay in many locali-
ties along the seacoast. Large areas of marsh land sub-
ject to the diurnal tides or to occasional high tides are
useful for no other purpose than the grass crop that they
produce. When utilized for hay these marshes are drained
by open ditches. In some cases the sea is kept out by
dikes, in which case the land becomes productive and
valuable. The hay from salt marshes is of considerable
value for fodder, the value depending on the kind of grass
and the degree of salinity of the soil. Much of this hay
is used for litter for stock and for packing-material. The
chief constitutents of salt marsh-hay are switch-grass
(Panicum virgatum), little bluestem (Andropogon scopa-
rius), black-grass, a kind of rush ( Juncus Gerardii Loisel.),
all of value for forage, and several species of Spartina, or
cord-grass (Spartina glabra and S. juncea being the
most important), these latter being used chiefly for
packing.

TAME MEADOWS

43. Tame meadows may be divided into two classes,
permanent and temporary. It is only to the former class
that the term meadow is popularly applied.

Permanent meadows

44. Permanent meadows are those that have been
seeded down with forage plants with the intention of
maintaining them for a series of years to produce hay.
The chief meadow plants used in the United States are:
of the legumes, alfalfa, red clover and to a limited
extent alsike clover; among the grasses, timothy and
redtop.

MEADOW PLANTS 41

Alfalfa (Medicago saliva L.) is the most important)
crop in the United States. In the irrigated regions 'l

45.

forage crop in the United States. In the irrigated regions
of the West it is almost the only forage plant grown and
is there used for both hay and pasture. Alfalfa was intro-
duced from Europe by the Spaniards and attained
importance in our western states simultaneously with
irrigation. Its use spread eastward in the arid and semi-
arid regions until it reached the borders of the timothy
region. Within recent years this crop has been success-
fully introduced in many parts of the East and South. It (/
does not thrive on an acid soil, hence the necessity of using
lime in many parts of the East in preparing the land for
alfalfa. Where a good stand is obtained, a permanent
meadow is formed, yielding cuttings every four to six
weeks during the growing season, two or three cuttings
in the more northern regions, as many as ten in the hot
southern valleys of California. The meadow lasts indefi-
nitely, but sooner or later suffers from the incursions of
various weeds and must be broken up and reseeded. As
alfalfa is not a grass, it will not be further discussed here,
but the student is referred for detailed information to
Farmers' Bulletin No. 339 from the United States Depart-
ment of Agriculture.

46. The clovers are legumes belonging to the genus Y
Trifolium. Certain allied plants are also known as clover
but with a modifying term, such as bur clover (Medicago
arabica Huds.), sweet clover (Melilotus alba Desv.), Japan
clover (Lespedeza slriala (Thunb.) Hook. & Am.), all
belonging to the family Leguminosse. The true clovers /
include the common red clover (Trifolium pralense L.), I
which is usually referred to merely as clover, alsike (T.
hybridum L.), white clover (T. repens L.), and crimson
clover (T. incarnatum L.). The first two are used for

s

42 A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES

meadow, the third for pastures and lawns, the fourth as a
cover, soiling and green manure crop as well as for hay.

The most important of the clovers and one of our most
important forage plants is red clover. This thrives in the
humid region (Par. 110) and is often sown with timothy.
Its chief use is for hay but it is also used as a cover-crop
and for green manure. In common with alfalfa and other
legumes, or even with rape, there is danger of causing
bloating in cattle and sheep pastured upon clover.

Alsike is better adapted than is red clover to wet soil
and hence is utilized in meadows too wet for the latter
and is usually sown with redtop. Alsike is of some impor-
tance as a forage plant but the amount used in comparison
with red clover is insignificant. (See Farmers' Bulletins
No. 455 on red clover, No. 550 on crimson clover, No.
485 on sweet clover, No. 441 on Japan clover.)

47. Timothy is the great meadow-grass of the north-
eastern states which produces the standard hay of the
market. Timothy is not so nutritious as some other
grasses, yet it is the leading meadow-grass because it
combines as does no other grass the requisite qualities.
It is palatable, fairly nutritious, easily grown, and the
the seed is cheap and of good quality. The cheapness of
the seed is much influenced by the good seed habits of
the plant. It produces seed abundantly and the heads
grow to about the same height, ripen about the same time,
and do not wastefully shatter the seed.

Timothy is grown alone or with clover, and in either
case may be sown with the addition of a nurse-crop of
grain. It may be sown with wheat in the fall, the clover
being added in the spring, or with clover in the fall, no
nurse-crop being used. The addition of the nurse-crop
is an attempt to gain time while the timothy and clover

MEADOW PLANTS 43

are getting started. The term nurse-crop is applied to!/
any quick-growing crop that supposedly protects another*
crop while it is young. Wheat sown in the fall produces a
crop the following summer, and the timothy and clover
have a better start than if sown after the wheat is cut.
However, in most cases if the timothy and clover are sown
together in the fall on well-prepared land, no time is lost, Y
for a full hay crop will be produced the following year.

If well seeded down timothy will produce crops for
several years, but experience has shown that the best
results are obtained by making the meadow a part of a
rotation. On good, arable land, with suitable application
of fertilizer, a timothy and clover meadow will yield heavy
crops the first and second crop-year. After this the
amount of the crop decreases. Hence it is more profitable /
to plow up and plant to another crop such as corn, some-
times with an intervening year devoted to pasture.

48. Redtop. — On lands where timothy is at its best,
there is no competing meadow-grass; but, on soil too \/
moist for the best results with timothy, which is often |
also acid soil, redtop is the most satisfactory meadow-
grass. The region where redtop is most extensively grown

is the Atlantic slope from New England to Maryland,
although it is also grown to a limited extent throughout
the timothy region. It can also be grown to advantage
somewhat farther south than can timothy.

49. Johnson-grass is an excellent meadow-grass forr
the states from Georgia to Texas. It yields large crops off
nutritious and palatable hay and can be grown easily'
and cheaply. On the other hand it is a very aggressive
species, propagating readily by seed and by strong under-
ground creeping stems or rootstocks. When once in pos- V
session of a field it is difficult to eradicate. For this reason, '

44 A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES

in spite of its good qualities, it is looked upon as a per-
nicious weed. It is not wise to introduce this species on
land that is free from it. A meadow should be a part of a
rotation, and Johnson-grass does not readily give up its
place to the following crop. When a permanent meadow
is desired, this grass, if its weedy habit be not taken into
consideration, is probably the best for the purpose in
those parts of the South, such as the black soil of central
Texas, where it reaches its highest development. It is
less satisfactory as a pasture-grass since, not well with-
standing grazing, the yield decreases after two or three
years. If a farm is already infested with Johnson-grass
it is well to take advantage of its useful qualities as a
meadow-grass. As this species tends to become sod-bound
in a few years owing to the rapid multiplication of root-
stocks, the field should be plowed every two or three years.
50. Eradication of Johnson-grass. — Johnson-grass can
be eradicated, but the process requires more care than in
the case of most weeds. Plowing in the fall with a turn-
ing plow, harrowing out and removing the rootstocks,
sowing the field to early- maturing grain, oats or rye,
cut for hay in the spring, and following with a cultivated
crop, will keep the grass in subjection. In the region where
Johnson-grass reaches its greatest development, alfalfa
also thrives. Hence an excellent method to utilize an
infested field is to sow alfalfa. This is done in the fall
after the field has been plowed and harrowed to remove
the rootstocks. The alfalfa soon smothers out most of
the Johnson-grass, and the hay is not injured by the pres-
ence of such of the latter as may remain. Johnson-grass
xj shares with sorghum the tendency to poison stock through
the production, under certain conditions, of hydrocyanic
acid. (See Farmers' Bulletin No. 279.)

1

MEADOW PLANTS 45

51. Other meadow-grasses. — Various grasses other
than, the three mentioned are recommended for meadow
mixtures but none is used to any considerable extent.
Orchard-grass is a desirable grass, yielding a good crop of
nutritious hay. The chief objection to it is that it grows
in heavy tussocks that make an uneven bed for a mowing
machine. Furthermore the seed is rather expensive. The
cost of the seed also militates against meadow fescue,
another good meadow-grass. The prestige of timothy is
probably one of the reasons why some of the less known
grasses are not used to a greater extent. Tall meadow
oat-grass and the two rye-grasses, English and Italian,
are often recommended for mixtures. Velvet-grass is of
little value except on sandy land where better grasses
will not thrive. Other grasses mentioned in seed catalogues
and occasionally used in mixtures are rough-stalked
meadow-grass, fowl meadow-grass, crested dog's-tail,
sweet vernal-grass, and meadow foxtail.

It should be added that the two important pasture-
grasses, blue-grass and Bermuda, are sometimes used for
hay in the regions where they reach their maximum
development. Guinea-grass is occasionally used for hay
in the tropics, for which purpose, because of its numerous
leafy basal shoots, it is well adapted; but farm practice
in the warm regions usually calls for a soiling crop rather
than a hay crop.

52. Slender wheat-grass. — The only native meadow-
grass whose seed has become a commercial product is
slender wheat-grass (Agropyron tenerum). It is a native
bunch-grass of the western states and is adapted to the
semi-arid region of the Northwest, where it should form a
permanent meadow or pasture. It has not been sufficiently
tested as yet to determine its comparative value.

46 A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES

Temporary meadows

53. Under temporary meadows are included annual
crops sown or planted for hay, although fields of such
crops are not often popularly designated as meadows.
The plants most used for this purpose are: the grains,
foxtail millet, sorghum, corn and certain legumes, such as
cowpea and field pea. Several other plants are used
locally or sporadically.

54. Grain hay. — Probably the most important group
s of annual plants used for the production of annual

meadows is that of the grains. From the commercial
standpoint grain hay is of importance only in the western
states and particularly on the Pacific coast. In this por-
tion of the United States, except in the mountain meadows,
there is little native vegetation suitable for hay. Under
I irrigation, alfalfa is the standard forage crop; but, over a
1 large area where the rainfall, though small, comes chiefly
during the winter, it is possible to grow crops of grain
without irrigation. The grains used for hay in the Pacific
7 coast states are mostly wheat and oats. In some locali-
ties barley, especially beardless barley, is used. Another
important constituent of the grain hay is wild oats (A vena
fatua, A.fatua glabrata, and A. barbata). This is widely
distributed, and an abundant volunteer crop may appear
in a field after a grain crop is harvested. In Washington
and Oregon chess or cheat is sometimes cultivated
for hay.

55. The relative importance of grain hay may be
estimated from the data for California taken from the
report of the thirteenth census and given in the following
table. Important as is the alfalfa crop, its value is exceeded
by that of grain hay.

MEADOW PLANTS

47

TABLE XVI

ACREAGE, PRODUCTION AND VALUE OF GRAIN HAY IN CALIFORNIA
COMPARED WITH THE TOTAL HAY AND FORAGE AND WITH ALFALFA

Crop

Acres

Amount (tons)

Value

Hay and forage ....
Alfalfa*' . ....

2,533,347
484,134

4,327,130
1,639,707

$42,187,215
13,088,530

Grain hay

1,604,745

2,019,526

24 056 727

In the eastern states, grain hay, especially oats, is
used on the farm in the sheaf, but nowhere does it reach
any considerable commercial importance. Straw, as a
by-product of grain-growing, is of some importance. Its /
use as forage is of secondary rank and is mostly confined
to the farm, the mature straw having little nutritive value.
When it enters commercial channels it is mostly for
bedding and packing, though specially prepared straw
may have other uses such as the making of hats.

MILLETS

56. By millet is meant foxtail millet as distinguished
from several other grasses called millet, but with a modify-
ing term, such as proso millet (Par. 217), pearl millet (Par.
221), Japanese barnyard millet (Par. 218) and African
millet (Par. 210). Millet as grown in the United States is'/
found in two forms, common millet and Hungarian-grass
(Par. 220). A form of common millet was much adver-
tised a few years ago as Golden Wonder millet. The
variety known as German millet is also a form of the
common millet, differing chiefly in its longer season of
growth. Millet is grown in the eastern half of the United
States, especially in the region from Oklahoma to Iowa.
It produces an abundance of nutritive and palatable hay H

48 A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES

relished by all kinds of stock and in general is a valuable
forage plant. Horses sometimes appear to suffer injury
if fed millet exclusively but cattle and sheep are free from
this danger. If cut too late the bristles of the seed-heads
may become troublesome. It can be sown after a grain
crop or in place of other crops when there has been a failure
to secure a stand. The tenderness of the growing plants
render early sowing impracticable. (See Farmers' Bulletin
No. 101.)

57. Sorghum is grown in many parts of the world and,
according to the variety, for many different purposes.
The seed is used for food for man in parts of the Old
World, and in the United States that of certain forms, such
as kafir, is used for stock feed. One variety is called broom-
corn (Par. 211). The saccharine sorghums or sorgo con-

• tain much sugar in the sap and are used for the commer-
J cial production of sugar (Par. 97). The saccharine varie-
ties such as the Orange and Amber, and also some of the
non-saccharine such as kafir and milo, are grown for
forage. Those which are grown for the seed may furnish
forage also, the stalks being cut and shocked as in corn,
the grain being thrashed out or the heads cut off and the
remainder used as rough forage. In the semi-arid region

\\where drought-resistant hay crops are needed, sorghum
jis much used as a hay crop. For this purpose it is sown or
drilled thickly, so as to produce numerous slender stems,
and the crop mowed and cured as hay. In some parts of
the Middle West, sorghum is known as "cane." (See
Farmers' Bulletins Nos. 246, 288, 322, 448, 552.)

58. Corn or maize is sometimes sown thickly and used
for hay as is described above for sorghum. The most
common use of corn as forage is in connection with its
use as a grain crop. The corn may then be treated in

MEADOW PLANTS 49

two general ways. It may be allowed to mature in the
field, the grain being taken away, allowing the standing
stalks to remain. This is known as husking the corn from
the row or from the field. The stalks are then pastured
during the winter, the animals feeding upon the dead
leaves and upon any ears that may have been overlooked
by the husker. Mature cornstalks, however, have little Y
nutritive value. The other way is to cut the cornstalks '
and shock them in the field, before the ears are mature
and while the leaves are yet green. The shocks remain
until the forage is cured and the ears have matured. The
ears may be husked hi the field and the forage stored in
stacks or sheds or the shocks may be hauled to the barns
where the husking is done either by hand or by machinery.
The forage or corn-fodder produced in this way is muchf
more nutritious than that which is matured before husk-
ing, and the grain suffers little loss by the process. Corn
and kafir are sometimes cut and bound in bundles by
machinery, a process which lessens the labor of shocking.

59. Other grasses producing hay or coarse fodder. —
Several other grasses are used locally for the production
of coarse hay. Some of these have undoubted merit but
usually must compete with the more important species
mentioned previously. Others are native or weedy species
that are utilized locally. A more complete account of
some of these grasses is given in Part II.

60. Japanese barnyard millet. — Several varieties are
grown in Asia and have been tried in America, but with
little success. One variety has been advertised under the
name of billion-dollar grass. They require plenty of water
to produce crops, and in the humid regions will not com-
pete with other grasses. They have some value under
irrigation in the Southwest.

D

50 A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES

61. Proso millet. — This is the common millet of
Europe, where it is grown extensively for forage and for
the seed, the latter being used for food for animals and

I also among the poorer classes for man. In this country
x it has been tried repeatedly, but the results have not
been very satisfactory. It does not compete with other
plants for forage, but produces under favorable condi-
tions an abundance of seed. This may prove valuable for
poultry. The seed can be used also for stock, but shatters
rather readily. Proso millet is also called broom-corn
millet because of the resemblance of the inflorescence to
that of broom-corn. Another name is hog millet.

62. Pearl millet and teosinte are sometimes used for
hay, but usually for soiling (Par. 75).

Texas millet is a native weedy species found in the

valley of the Colorado River and neighboring valleys in

southeast Texas. The volunteer crop on rich land is cut

for hay, this being of good quality. Texas millet is also

" 1 known as Colorado-grass.

Crab-grass may be mentioned here, as it is frequently
cut for hay in the South, where it appears in fields as a
weed. The hay is of good quality, but is mostly used on
\ the farm and does not often appear on the market.

Chess or cheat (Bromus secalinus) is grown for hay
__ tlocally in Oregon, especially in the Willamette Valley.
This in other regions is a weed in grain fields but there
has been utilized successfully.

63. Several annual legumes are used for the produc-
tion of hay or coarse forage. They are usually used as a
cover-crop or as green manure in connection with other
farm processes. They are used extensively, especially in
the South, as a part of a rotation in order to maintain
the fertility of the soil. As stated previously (Par. 15),

MEADOW PLANTS 51

the legumes have the power to add nitrogen to the soil
by means of the root nodules and the nitrogen-fixing
organisms contained therein. The choice of the legume ^
for this purpose depends largely upon the secondary uses •
that can be made of the crop. It may be made into hay
or may be cut green and used for soiling or for silage
(Par. 76). In the timothy region, clover is a staple crop
(Par. 46). In the South, where no perennial legume is
adapted to the conditions prevailing over most of the
region, annual legumes are used. It is true that alfalfa
is grown with success in many parts of the South, such as
the alluvial valleys of the Mississippi and Red Rivers, and
the black soil of central Alabama, but even here an annual
crop may be desired for the other purposes mentioned
above. The commonest of the annual legumes in the
South are the cowpea and velvet bean. In the North,
the field pea is much used, and in middle regions vetch
and crimson clover.

64. The cowpea (Vigna sinensis (Torner) Savi.) is a
trailing vine with trifoliate leaves and slender, bean-like
pods. Some varieties are bushy and trail only slightly.'
The cowpea is the standard legume for the South. Its use r
has extended gradually northward until some varieties
are now grown as far as Michigan. It is a warm-weather
species and cannot be sown until the season is well
advanced. In the South this limitation presents little
difficulty, but in the North only quick-growing and more
hardy varieties can be used. The hay from cowpea is
excellent in quality, but, like all succulent forage, requires '
special care in harvesting and curing. It should be
remembered that the feeding value of a legume like the
cowpea is much greater than its fertilizing value. Hence
the dual use of the crop, the greater part of the vines

52 A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES

and leaves being used for hay or green feed, the remainder
being turned under for green manure. When grown on
sterile soil it may be necessary to turn under a larger
proportion in order to produce humus. (See Farmers'
Bulletin No. 318.)

65. Velvet bean (Stizolobium Deeringianum Bort). —
This coarse rank-growing vine is similar to the cowpea but

, gives a much greater growth. The velvet bean is not so
1 hardy as the cowpea and is used only in the South. It
has given excellent results in Florida. (See Farmers'
, Bulletin No. 509, and Bur. PL Ind. Bulletin No. 179).

66. The vetches are upright or reclining plants with
' tendrils at the ends of the compound leaves. In a general

way they resemble the garden pea, but the leaflets and
flowers are smaller. There are two common kinds of
vetch in use in the United States — spring vetch (Vicia
sativa L.) and hairy vetch (V. villosa Roth). The one
! most grown is the latter, since it better withstands
| drought. The vetches are usually sown with grain, the
latter supporting the vetch, thus producing a combina-
tion that can be harvested with greater ease than can the
vetch alone. Vetch may be used as a winter crop in the
South or as a summer crop in the North. (See Farmers'
Bulletins Nos. 515, 529.)

67. Crimson clover (Trifolium incarnatum L.). — This
is a tall clover with long heads of crimson flowers. It is

rather extensively used in the region from New Jersey to
North Carolina. It should be cut when in flower. If cut
later the fuzzy hairs around the head prove troublesome,
especially to horses. (See Farmers' Bulletin No. 579.)

Field pea (Pisum arvense L.). The field pea, resembling

I the garden pea in habit, is much used in Canada and our

more northern states. The field pea requires a cool,

MEADOW PLANTS 53

moist climate, hence is not adapted to the regions farther
south. It is usually sown with grain for the reasons men-
tioned under vetches. (See Farmers' Bulletin No. 224.)

The soybean (Soja Soja (L.) Karst., Glycine hispida
Maxim.) is an upright plant that tends to become bushy.
In southeastern Asia, where the species is native, it is
extensively cultivated, the seed being used for human
food. In the United States the soybean is grown for both
seed and forage. The seed, rich in protein, is used for i-
feeding stock, usually in the form of soybean meal. As a \
forage plant, it can be utilized for hay or for pasture.
The soybean is adapted to the cotton-belt and north-
ward into the southern part of the corn-belt. Being
much more drought-resistant than the cowpea it can be
grown in the southern part of the Great Plains. (See
Farmers' Bulletin No. 372.)

Sweet clover (Melilotus alba) is a vigorous grower and U-*
makes excellent hay, the chief objection being that stock \
do not readily eat it until they have acquired a taste for
it. The plant is a biennial, producing the flowers the
second season. The hay should be cut before seed is
formed. Sweet clover is also known as Bokhara clover.
(See Farmers' Bulletin No. 485.)

Florida beggar -weed (Meibomia tortuosa (Swartz)
Kuntze). This has been used with success ;n Florida and
the Gulf states. It is a tall plant with trifoliate leaves and
flat, constricted pods that break up into one-seeded joints
that adhere to wool or clothing by means of a covering of
hook-like hairs. (See Farmers' Bulletin No. 509.)

CHAPTER VI
HAY AND GREEN FEED

THE product of meadows may be fed immediately or
it may be preserved. If it is fed immediately, the process
is known as soiling, and crops grown for this purpose are
called soiling crops. To preserve forage it must be pro-
tected from decomposition or rotting. This may be
accomplished by removing a sufficient proportion of water
by drying, in which case the product is called hay. Or the
forage may be preserved green, the destructive decom-
\\ position being prevented by the exclusion of the air. The

preserved product is then called silage.

HAY

68. In the wide sense, hay is dried vegetation used as
food for animals. In this sense ripened buffalo-grass and
standing cornstalks, grazed during winter, are hay. In
the restricted sense, the word hay is applied to the cut
and dried or cured product of meadows, more particularly
the product of the smaller grasses and clovers. The coarse
hay of cornstalks and other large grasses is more often
called fodder. Ordinarily meadow hay is made by cutting
with a mower and allowing the cut material to lie in the
sun until partly dried, after which it is raked into wind-
rows, then placed in bunches or cocks and finally in
stacks or under a roof. The process is varied to suit con-
ditions. The object is to remove sufficient moisture to

(54)

HAY AND GREEN FEED 55

prevent molding when stored. In dry, sunny weather
little difficulty is experienced in producing good hay; but,
in humid climates, hay-making is a process requiring much
care. Rain and dew delay the drying and reduce the
quality of the hay, or they may render the product entirely
worthless. It is readily seen that weather conditions
become an important factor in hay-making. Putting hay
in cocks and covering with some kind of impervious shield
is an attempt to prevent the absorption of water.

69. In arid regions the hay may be cut and stacked
the same day, but in humid regions the curing may extend
over several days with the corresponding risk from rain.
Succulent plants, such as clover, alfalfa and cowpea,
demand especial care because the stems require a longer
time than the leaves for curing. The foliage drops off
readily and is lost when there is much delay in curing.
As the leaves are the most important part, this loss
becomes serious. The vines of cowpea and velvet bean
are so succulent that special methods of curing are fre-|
quently adopted. It is a common practice in the South
to cure the vines on upright racks or poles so as to
allow a circulation of air. A single pole with the vines
arranged around it, makes a tall, slender bunch or cock
that gives much lateral surface in proportion to the area
of the top.

70. Stacks. — Hay that is stacked in the open deterio-
rates on the exposed portion and there is a considerable
percentage of loss from the weathering of the outer por-
tion of the stack. Careful building of the stack and a
covering of reeds or canvas reduces the loss. Hay stored
in barns suffers practically no loss, and in sheds only in
proportion to the exposed surface. On the large ranches
of the West it is impracticable to store in barns the large

56 A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES

quantity of hay produced, and the climatic conditions
render this unnecessary.

71. Hay in the West. — When hay is made on a large
scale such as prevails on many western ranches, the pro-
cess involves the use of several appliances not often seen
on the smaller farms of the East. The mower and horse-
rake are common everywhere. To transport the bunches
of grass liay to the stack a sweep or bull rake is often
used. This is an implement with large teeth, that slides
along the ground and under the bunches. For alfalfa it is
better to load on wagons as the sweep tends to shatter
the foliage. The sweep can not be used for long distances.
At the stack the hay is transferred from the wagons or
from the sweeps by large forks worked by horse-power.
These forks are operated in connection with some form of
pole derrick, or less frequently with a cable derrick. Nets
or slings are often used to unload wagons. These are
placed at intervals in the load, which can then be hoisted
off in three or four parts with a derrick.

72. The standard hay on city markets in the East is
timothy and all other kinds are estimated in comparison
with timothy. The demand here is for hay suitable for
horses, and custom has come to consider timothy as best
satisfying this demand. Clover mixed with timothy may
increase the feeding value but may also reduce the mar-
ket value in these markets. The demand for timothy in
preference to other hay is largely due to the wishes of the
livery stables, timothy being considered by horsemen to
be the best hay for livery horses.

In localities in which prairie hay enters the market,
it is demanded in preference to alfalfa for livery horses.

73. Baled hay. — In recent years the baling of hay has
become an important industry and baled hay has almost

HAY AND GREEN FEED 57

replaced bulk hay upon the market. Of course all hay
that enters commercial channels is baled, bulk hay being
confined to the local market. Even for use upon the farm
or ranch the hay may be baled for convenience in hauling
and storing. As baled hay occupies only 140 to 160 cubic
feet to the ton there is a great saving of space over hay
sold in bulk. The standard bale weighs 70 to 250 pounds;
the small bale, much used in the South, 70 to 100 pounds;
the medium bale, 100 to 150 pounds, and the large bale,
requiring two men to handle, 150 to 250 pounds.

Any kind of hay, straw, or fodder may be baled, but
the baled hay in commerce in the United States consists
mostly of timothy, prairie hay, alfalfa, and grain hay, the j
latter largely confined to the Pacific coast. The classes of
hay recognized in the East by the National Hay Associa-
tion are timothy, clover-mixed (timothy and clover),
clover, and prairie, with two to five grades each. For
transportation to trans-oceanic points, especially Alaska
and the Philippines, the hay may be double compressed.
For this purpose hay obtained by loosening ordinary
bales is compressed by powerful hydraulic or electric
presses similar to those used for compressing the cylindri-
cal bales of cotton. The resulting bale is very compact,
the square form occupying 85 cubic feet to the ton, and
the cylindrical bales only 55 cubic feet. (See Farmers'
Bulletin No. 508.)

SOILING AND SILAGE CROPS

74. Soiling is the system of feeding to animals in in- ^
closures green forage recently cut from the growing plants.

Silage is the system of preserving fresh green forage in ,
suitable more or less air-tight receptacles.

58 A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES

Both these systems are attempts to furnish green feed
without turning the animals out to pasture. These systems
are most used and have reached their highest develop-
ment in connection with dairying. The advantages are that
the quantity and kind of material fed can be controlled,
that there is less waste than in pasturing, that crops can
be utilized which would be impracticable for pasture, and
that stock are saved the work of traveling about in search
of food. Silage still further has the advantage of continu-
ing the supply of green feed through the winter.

75. Soiling. — The practice of soiling is well adapted
to intensive farming. When the price of land is high it is
usually more economical to raise large crops of forage on
well-fertilized fields and feed green than to have pasture,
since the latter can not produce so great a quantity of
feed. On the other hand the labor required for soiling is
much greater. The cost of labor compared with the price
of the products as milk or beef, determines the system to
use. By proper care in selecting crops, a continuous yield
of green forage may be obtained through a large portion
of the growing season.

Many crops are used for soiling, but in the main they
are annuals and often succulent plants. They include the
grains, the succulent grasses, such as corn, or sorghum,
and the annual legumes mentioned before (Par. 63). Peren-
nial grasses and clovers may also be used, but the advan-
tage is less, as they do not give so large a yield as do
annuals. Teosinte and pearl millet are used locally with
success, the former giving, on the rich moist valley lands
of Louisiana, enormous yields of forage.

76. Silage. — In this process the green forage is placed
in an air-tight receptacle called a silo. This may consist
of a pit or room in a barn, or more commonly a separate,

HAY AND GREEN FEED 59

usually cylindrical structure or building. In this is placed
the forage usually as it comes from a cutting machine.
The material is packed tight by tramping in order to
exclude as much air as possible. If necessary, water is
added to facilitate the packing. If properly prepared the
silage or ensilage will keep for many months. The material
is canned on a gigantic scale though it has not been steril-
ized. More or less fermentation takes place but not of a
character to interfere with its feeding value, nor with its
palatability for stock that has become accustomed to the
the characteristic taste of silage. If the packing of the
silo has been done carelessly the material rots and is
worthless.

The silo is built tall and narrow in order to give greater
pressure, thus packing the silage more closely. Further-
more, the smaller surface exposed at the top gives less
opportunity for spoiling. The top layer exposed to the
air rots and must be discarded, unless the feeding is com-
menced as soon as the silo is filled. The top layer may be
of chaff or other material of little value. If there is a leak
in the silo the silage will spoil at this point. The silo may
be made of cement, brick or any other building material,
but because of the lower cost is usually made of wood. It
should be at least 24 feet high to give the necessary pres-
sure and bulk.

The silage should be fed rapidly enough to prevent the
exposed upper layer from having time to spoil. For this
reason it is not expedient to feed less than ten cows. It is
essential to pack the silage tightly as it is placed in the
silo. This forces out most of the air. The fermentation
uses up the small amount of air remaining and if there are
no leaks the fermentation ceases.

Any kind of forage may be preserved in a silo, but the

60 A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES

plant most used for the purpose is corn. For silage, the
corn shouldjDejD^^ for

gramir The cfopTshould be~made to yield the "maximum
amount of grain, rather than the largest ears. The corn
should be cut when the grain is glazed, as at this stage
there is the maximum amount of dry matter. In the
North, varieties should be chosen that will reach the
glazed stage before frost, (See Farmers' Bulletin No. 556.)

CHAPTER VII
LAWNS

A LAWN is an open area covered with grass and kept
closely mown. The term is applied especially to tracts
near dwellings, but may be applied to closely mown areas
near other buildings or in parks. Other plants than
grasses are occasionally used, wholly or in part, such as
white clover. The lawn is primarily for ornament, com-
plete in itself or part of a general place in landscape
gardening.

77. Essentials for a lawn. — An ideal lawn consists of
a firm even sod supporting a vigorous growth of vegetation
of uniform texture and pleasing color, the whole kept
closely mown. With rare exceptions the conditions can
be supplied only by grasses. A grass to be suitable for
lawns should propagate by rootstocks or stolons, should
be fine and soft in texture, and should be dark green in
color. The most popular lawn-grass is Kentucky blue-
grass. The only other grasses that fulfil the requirements
mentioned are Rhode Island bent and creeping bent, both
varieties of redtop. Another important lawn-grass is
Bermuda-grass. Several other grasses are used for special
conditions (Par. 81).

78. Blue-grass is an ideal lawn-grass throughout the
region to which it is adapted. It thrives best in a moist
moderately cool climate and on limestone soils. Blue-
grass forms a firm even sod which, under proper conditions
and treatment, is permanent. The texture is fine and

(61)

62 A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES

soft and the dark green color is agreeable to the eye. It
can be grown successfully without irrigation in the north-
eastern states as far south as Virginia and Tennessee, and
farther in the mountains, and west to Minnesota and
eastern Kansas, also in the humid region of Oregon and
Washington, and in the western mountains. Throughout
most of the northern half of the United States beyond the
limits mentioned it can be grown with the aid of irrigation.
Even in the humid region it may be necessary to supply
water during the dry periods in the summer.

In the southern half of the United States, except in
the mountains, blue-grass does not thrive even when
irrigated, although, except in the lower coastal plain, it
may with special care make a fair growth. In the humid
region it may fail because of the character of the soil.
Thriving best on limestone soils, it fails to give good
results on acid soils. Hence, blue-grass is not adapted to
much of the coastal region from New England to Virginia.
Often it is practicable to correct the soil acidity by the
addition of lime.

79. Rhode Island bent is especially adapted to that
portion of the humid region in which blue-grass fails
because of soil acidity, as it thrives under moist, moder-
ately acid conditions. Rhode Island bent does not pro-
duce vigorous creeping rootstocks as does blue-grass, but
nevertheless will form a fairly firm and uniform sod.
For a description of Rhode Island bent and its relation
to redtop, see Par. 234. Creeping bent is another form of
redtop, with creeping or stoloniferous stems, which pro-
duces a lawn of good color and texture.

80. Bermuda-grass answers all the requirements of
an ideal lawn grass except that of color. To many people
the light gray-green color is not so pleasing to the eye as

LAWNS 63

the dark green of the blue-grass. In the southern portion
of the United States where the climate is too hot in sum-
mer for blue-grass, Bermuda-grass is the common lawn-
grass, except in certain localities along the coast. It is the
only lawn-grass that will withstand the summer condi-
tions on the uplands of the South. The foliage is not
resistant to frost, hence lawns turn brown or yellow in
winter, but the plants are not killed except by greater
cold than usually prevails south of Virginia. St. Lucie-
grass is a variety of Bermuda especially adapted to lawns,
as it is fine in texture. This form is much used in Florida.

81. Less important lawn -grasses. — St. Augustine-
grass is a coarse-leaved species used on moist, mucky soil
of the lower coastal region. It is in use as far north as
Wilmington, North Carolina. As the seed is not on the
market it is propagated by cuttings.

Carpet-grass is another species, with comparatively
coarse foliage and creeping or stoloniferous stems, adapted
to the moist region of the Gulf coast. It occurs naturally
there and tends to invade the open moist grassland of
pastures and lawns. The seed is not on the market but
the plant may be propagated by cuttings. '

Canada blue-grass is sometimes used on sterile clay or
lime-poor soils of the humid regions, where blue-grass
does not thrive.

Fescue grasses are rarely used alone but are often
sown in mixtures. Various-leaved fescue is used under
trees on lawns as it thrives better than other grasses in
partial shade. All the fescues used for lawn mixtures, red
fescue, hard fescue, sheep's fescue, firm-leaved fescue and
various-leaved fescue have short, firm leaves that require
little cutting, but they are all bunch grasses and it is diffi-
cult to produce with them a uniform turf.

64 A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES

Buffalo-grass gives excellent results in the semi-arid
region of the Great Plains. The seed is not on the market
but the grass is easily grown from cuttings. It forms a
firm sod like Bermuda-grass and has the same objection
of being light green in color. Buffalo-grass requires no
mowing as the foliage remains short and curly.

Rye-grass is sometimes used for lawns though it pos-
sesses few of the necessary characteristics. It is used
chiefly in mixtures to produce quick results as it grows
vigorously the first season. It is coarse and bunchy and
not suited to a lawn when sown alone.

Korean lawn-grass is coming into use along the coast
from South Carolina to Florida.

82. Lawn mixtures. — One of the characteristics of an
ideal lawn is uniformity of texture. This can be obtained
only when a lawn is made up of a single species. To pro-
duce a lawn of uniform texture requires special care.
From the standpoint of practicability it may not
always be convenient or even possible to fulfil the con-
ditions necessary for an ideal lawn. Hence, the use of
mixtures by which better results in some ways may be
obtained than by using a single species. This applies
particularly to the humid regions. The character or con-
dition of the soil may be such as to prevent the produc-
tion of a uniform stand of a single species. It is well
known that a properly chosen mixture will in these cases
produce a thicker turf and will do so in a shorter time than
if a single species is grown.

The chief or even the only objection to a mixture is
the lack of uniformity. A closely mown lawn will show
variations in color corresponding to the different species
of which it is composed. Rye-grass is sometimes included
in a mixture to give quick returns, the other components

LAWNS 65

developing later. Grain, especially rye, may be used for
the same purpose. This practice is not to be recom-
mended if a first-class lawn is desired. It is to be looked
upon as a makeshift to take the place of careful prepara-
tion of the soil.

White clover is often used in mixtures, the only dis-
advantage being that it interferes with the uniformity
of appearance. On the other hand, it has a distinct
advantage in that it acts as a soil renovator and tends to
maintain its fertility, this being due to the presence of
nitrogen-fixing nodules on the roots (Par. 15).

83. Preparation of the soil. — It is necessary that the
soil intended for a lawn should be placed in the best pos-
sible condition for receiving the seed. It should be ren-
dered light and porous to the depth of 10 inches or more
by suitable tilth, should be well drained, and should be of
the best consistency, that is of the combination of sand,
clay and humus known as rich loam. It is usually neces-
sary in addition to thorough tillage to fertilize the soil.
Well-rotted barnyard manure, free from weed seed, is
the best fertilizer, but not always easy to obtain. Com-
mercial fertilizer may be used alone or with barnyard
manure, the amount depending on the nature of the soil.
Poor soil may take 400 pounds an acre of bone-meal.
Wood-ashes supply potash and render heavy soils lighter.
Lime should be added when necessary to counteract
acidity if blue-grass is to be used.

84. Seeding. — Only the highest grade seed should be
used. There is great variation in the weight of blue-grass
seed, depending on the proportion of chaff. Good seed
should weigh about 22 pounds to the bushel. Of such
seed three bushels should be sown to the acre. The seed
should be sown evenly and rolled or lightly raked in. The

E

66 A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES

seeds are small and should not be covered deeply. It is
important to keep the lawn as free as possible from weeds
while becoming established. After the grasses have formed
a firm sod or turf, weeds have little chance to intrude.
If the soil and the applied manure be free from weed seeds,
the task of weeding during the first season will be much
simplified.

85. Subsequent care. — The lawn should be frequently
mowed, watered, weeded, and rolled if it is to be brought
to its maximum effectiveness. If unfavorable circum-
stances have caused the death of the grass in spots or if
in small areas the grass failed to grow, here the weeds
appear later. Such spots should be reseeded. It is much
easier to obtain a uniform stand at the first sowing than
to patch up afterward an irregular stand. Some weedy
grasses make a good appearance early in the season but
later die out, leaving unsightly bare patches in the sum-
mer. This is true of crab-grass and annual blue-grass
(Poa annua).

86. Watering. — Blue-grass lawns usually require for
their best development more water than is supplied by the
natural rainfall. This is especially true during the dry
periods that usually occur during summer. Artificial
watering by garden hose is the usual method of meeting
the deficit. The water should be applied in the late after-
noon or evening as damage may result from watering dur-
ing the heat of the day. Water should not be applied in
full force direct from the nozzle, as the soil may be washed
away from the roots. A spray nozzle prevents this.
Thorough soaking from time to time is better than more
frequent light sprinkling. Light and frequent sprinkling
encourages a shallow root-system, readily injured by
drought.

LAWNS 67

87. Turfing. — On account of the care and trouble
necessary to seed a lawn it is a common practice in cities
to produce results quickly by laying on fresh turf cut from
an old grass plot. If properly done this will give good
results. The turf or sod should be pure grass free from
weeds and should be laid on well-prepared, rich, loamy
soil such as described under seeding. The custom of apply-
ing a layer of vegetation, part grass and part a miscellane-
ous collection of weeds, to a soil consisting of the refuse
from the building operations will never give satisfactory
results. Such a lawn is a permanent source of regret and
no amount of faithful watering can materially improve
it. It is better to dig it up and start again in the proper
manner. (See Farmers' Bulletin No. 494.)

CHAPTER VIII
GRASSES FOR MISCELLANEOUS PURPOSES

BESIDES the three chief uses of grasses, there are others
of considerable but comparatively minor importance.
These uses will be considered under the following heads:
Ornamental grasses, Soil-binders, Sugar-producing grasses,
Textile grasses, and other uses.

ORNAMENTAL GRASSES

88. Grasses may be grown for ornament because of
their handsome inflorescence, such as that of the plume-
grasses, or the alleged beauty of the foliage, such as that of
the ribbon-grass and other grasses with variegated leaves.
Some are used for making dry bouquets, the delicate
inflorescence holding its form after being detached.

There are three large species that are commonly used
for lawn decoration. They are plume-grass, giant reed,
and Eulalia. Plume-grass has long narrow leaves taper-
ing to a fine point and a large white or pink feathery
plume 1 to 2 feet long. The leaves are in a large cluster at
the base and the plume is raised on a tall slender stalk
several feet high (Par. 246). Another plume-grass less
frequently seen in America is the Ravenna-grass (Par.
206). Giant reed has broad leaves scattered along the
stem as in corn, and a large oblong plume (Par. 247).
Eulalia has clusters of long narrow leaves at the base and
a slender stalk rising a little above the leaves, bearing

(68)

GRASSES FOR MISCELLANEOUS PURPOSES 69

rather small (6 to 12 inches long) fan-shaped brownish
plumes (Par. 204). Another grass of this habit, Thysokena
agrostis, is often grown in the tropics. A common orna-
mental garden grass is ribbon-grass or gardener's garters.
Several small grasses are grown for bouquets, such as
trembling or quaking grass.

89. The bamboos are important ornamentals in the
tropical regions and are much cultivated in Florida and
California. A few species are hardy farther north. Among
these may be mentioned Arundinaria japonica, a shrubby
form growing 5 to 10 feet high, and certain species of
Phyllostachys. There are several species of Phyllostachys
introduced in cultivation but their specific identity is in
doubt as many have not been known to flower.

SOIL-BINDING GRASSES

90. In order to prevent banks and slopes from wash-~
ing or sand-dunes from blowing, they may be planted
with grass or other vegetation. Such plants are known
as soil-binders. More particularly, those that hold sand-
dunes in place are called sand-binders.. Any kind of
vegetation will hold soil or sand in place, but plants used
by man for this purpose are provided with strong creep-
ing rootstocks that quickly penetrate and bind the soil.
Grasses most frequently used for the holding of banks
and slopes are Bermuda-grass in the South and Kentucky
blue-grass in the humid region. The giant reed is used
along irrigation ditches in the Southwest. Japanese honey-
suckle (Lonicera japonica Thunb.) is proving excellent for
holding slopes in Maryland and Virginia.

91. Sand-dunes. — The fixing of shifting sand-dunes is
an important industry in Europe where much waste land

70 A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES

has been reclaimed. In the United States there are several
areas of sand-dunes, the most important being on Cape
Cod near Provincetown, Cape Henry, Virginia, along the
south end and east side of Lake Michigan, and along the
Columbia River, Oregon, hi the semi-arid region. Sand-
dunes are formed by the wind blowing the dry sand.
Dunes that are bare of vegetation shift gradually as the
prevailing wind blows the sand over the crest. When
vegetation becomes established the wind is unable to
move the sand and the dunes become fixed.

Moving dunes may do much damage when formed in
the vicinity of the works of man by covering up buildings
or railroad tracks, or, when formed near streams or
harbors, by diverting the course of the one or filling the
other, or when formed near a forest which they may over-
whelm. Sand-dunes are formed along the sandy shores
of the ocean or of large lakes when the prevailing winds
are from the water. The waves are constantly throwing
up sand which, when dry, is blown upon the beach, form-
ing hills. The same often occurs along rivers in dry regions,
as along the Columbia above the Dallas, and along the
Arkansas in western Kansas.

92. Reclaiming sand-dunes. — Moving dunes are
worthless for agricultural purposes and may be a menace
to property. The first step in reclaiming such dunes is
to fix the sand by applying a covering to prevent its being
shifted by the wind. Interior dunes have been success-
fully fixed in Europe by covering with cut heather, a
common plant in sandy wastes. In other places brush or
rows of sticks thrust into the sand have served the pur-
pose. One of the most successful methods has been the
planting of beach-grass. After the shifting of the sand
has been prevented by any of these methods, trees are

GRASSES FOR MISCELLANEOUS PURPOSES 71

planted which in time produce a forest, the dunes being
thus permanently fixed. The waste land has now become
productive, as the forest under proper care yields an
income. The trees cannot be started on the shifting sand.

93. Sand-binders. — Except near the seashore the
function of grass or of an inert covering is temporary, as
the land is ultimately converted into forest. Along the
seashore where a barrier dune is formed the action of the
spray from the ocean prevents the growth of trees. On
this barrier dune which protects the forest in the rear from
the aggressive action of the sand, the grass covering must
remain indefinitely and must be kept in condition by con-
stant attention after it is planted.

A sand-binder must be a plant that will thrive in the
sand, and that possesses an abundance of vigorous
creeping rootstocks that will bind the sand and prevent
its being blown by the wind. The best sand-binder is
beach-grass, or marram -grass (Ammophila arenaria), a
native of the sea beaches of Europe and of Atlantic North
America as far south as North Carolina. It is also found
along the shores of the Great Lakes. An important char-
acter of beach-grass is that it thrives best where the sand
is drifting. Here it continually rejuvenates and grows up
through the sand as it is covered. A few other grasses have
been tried but none give as good results.

94. Fixing sand with beach-grass. — Beach-grass is
propagated by transplanting and not from seed. The
planting is best done in the fall between maturity, which is
about September, and the time when the ground freezes.
It can also be done in spring before growth starts. Plants
for the purpose are chosen from a nearby plot where the
grass is growing vigorously. Those chosen should be two
years old and should have one or two nodes on the root-

72 A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES

stock at the base. It is from these nodes that the roots
spring. The planting is best done on a cloudy day. A
hole is made by thrusting a spade or other sharp imple-
ment into the sand, the plant is placed in the opening
and the sand pressed around it with the foot. If beach-
grass does not grow in the vicinity, it may be necessary
to establish a preliminary plantation. It is useless to
attempt to grow beach-grass in interior arid regions.

In America, notable fixation work has been done near
Provincetown, Massachusetts, at Manatee and other
points along the east shore of Lake Michigan, and at
Golden Gate Park, San Francisco. The latter place was
once a sandy waste but is now a beautiful park. The pre-
liminary steps here were the planting of beach-grass.
(See Bur. PL Ind. Bulletins Nos. 57, 65.)

SUGAR-PRODUCING GRASSES

95. The sugar of commerce is obtained from four
sources, sugar-cane, sugar beet, sorghum, and sugar maple.
The amount from the last two is comparatively insignificant.
Chemically, commercial sugar is cane-sugar or sucrose.

96. The sugar-cane is a large perennial grass grown
in all tropical countries. In the United States its growth
is chiefly confined to the lowlands of Louisiana. This
state in 1900 produced 132,000 tons of sugar. The same
year the two largest sugar-producing countries yielded,
Java 650,000 tons, and Cuba 440,000 tons. These figures
refer to sugar from sugar-cane.* It is interesting to note
that Europe produced the same year over 4,000,000 tons
of beet-sugar, or a third more than the total world produc-
tion of sugar from the cane. The thirteenth census report

*Sadtler, Industrial Organic Chemistry, ed. 3, pp. 166, 167.

GRASSES FOR MISCELLANEOUS PURPOSES 73

states that in 1909 Louisiana produced 4,941,996 tons of
sugar-cane, which was an increase of 57 per cent over
that produced in 1899.

Sugar is contained in the juice of the cane, this being
extracted from the stalks by crushing between rollers.
The juice is neutralized with lime, boiled and clarified,
and concentrated in vacuum pans. The sugar separates
in crystals. The remaining liquid is called molasses. Rum
is made by distilling fermented molasses. The sugar-cane
often flowers abundantly in the tropics, but rarely produces
seed. It is propagated by cuttings of the stem.

97. Sorgho, or sorghum. — As indicated in Par. 57
there are several varieties of sorghum, some of which, the
saccharine sorghums, have a sweet juice containing enough
cane-sugar to make the extraction a commercial possibility.
In the region from Kansas to North Carolina a small
amount of sorghum is grown for the production of sugar,
most of which appears on the market in the form of syrup.
The total amount of sorghum syrup produced in the United
States in 1909 was 16,532,282 gallons.* The five leading
states were Kentucky, 2,733,683; Tennessee, 2,076,339;
Missouri, 1,788,391; Arkansas, 1,1 40, 532;. North Carolina,
1,099,346.

TEXTILE GRASSES

98. The most important textile grass is esparto, the

fiber of which is used for paper and cordage. It is grown
chiefly in Spain and North Africa. In Algiers the grass is
called alfa. Annually there are imported into England
over 200,000 tons of esparto t<? be used for the manufacture
of paper. Two species of grasses furnish the esparto of
commerce — Stipa tenacissima and Lygeum sparteum.

*13th Census,

74 A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES

OTHER USES

99. The bamboos are of vast importance to the native
people of the regions where these gigantic grasses grow.
The culms or stems are used for building purposes, the
split bamboo is woven into mats, screens and a variety of
other articles, the sections of the stems with the solid
partitions are used as utensils, and the fiber is used for
paper. The wood is extremely hard, durable and flexible.
The bamboo is probably put to a greater variety of uses
than is any other plant. The straw hats known on the
market as Bangkok hats are made from bamboo.
Ischcemum angustifolium is used in India as a substi-
tute or adulterant of jute for cotton baling for the Ameri-
can trade. Rice straw is extensively used in Japan and
other eastern countries for matting, a large proportion
of the wrapping of heavy freight being of this material.
Rice is also used for paper, although the so-called rice-
paper is made from the bark of the paper mulberry. The
straw of grains is used for making straw hats, an especially
fine quality being used in Italy.

100. Green-manuring. — Grasses, especially the grains,
are used, as are legumes and some other plants, for green-
manuring. For this purpose, the plants are turned under
by plowing about the time they reach maturity. Heavy
soils are made lighter, since the green vegetation tends to
produce humus. It is usually more profitable to combine
green-manuring with pasturing as one can scarcely afford
to give up an entire season to a crop for turning under.
Furthermore, land that most needs the manure will give
the smallest crop to turn under. Stable manure accom-
plishes results much sooner, but, of course, is not always
available. (See Farmers' Bulletin No. 278.)

CHAPTER IX
WEEDS

A WEED is a plant troublesome to man. In the more
restricted sense it is an herbaceous plant that becomes
aggressively troublesome in cultivated fields. Plants
may become weeds because of their intrusiveness, as
bindweed (Convolvulus arvensis L.) and Canada thistle
(Cirsium arvense (L.) Scop.) or they may be able quickly
to occupy waste land, dooryards, or roadsides, as knot-
weed (Polygonum aviculare L.), horseweed (Erigeron
canadensis L.) and ragweed (Ambrosia trifida L.). Others
may become weeds in pastures because, not being eaten
by stock, they thrive at the expense of the palatable
species.

101. Classes of weeds. — Weeds may be divided into
three classes according to method of growth. These are
annuals and biennials, perennials with crowns, and peren-
nials with rhizomes or creeping roots. Methods of eradi-
cating depend upon the group to which the weed belongs.
Annual weeds may become abundant, but are not difficult
to eradicate as they may be pulled up or removed by
cultivation. Perennial weeds with crowns are usually not
aggressive but may become conspicuous in pastures,
especially those that are over-grazed. Certain kinds of
plants usually classed with this group differ in having an
upright fleshy caudex capable of producing adventitious
buds and shoots. These may become troublesome weeds
in pastures or lawns. The dandelion (Taraxacum Taraxa-

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76 A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES

cum (L.) Karst., T. offidnale Weber.) is a familiar exam-
ple of this group. Cutting off the plant below the crown
does not destroy the dandelion, as adventitious buds may be
produced on the cut root from which new shoots develop.

102. Perennial weeds with creeping rhizomes or creep-
ing propagating roots include the most troublesome
species, as the widely spreading rhizomes or roots are
difficult to remove completely from the soil. Portions of
the rhizomes remaining in the soil may give rise to new
shoots. Creeping propagating roots are to be distinguished
from creeping rhizomes or rootstocks, which are modified
stems. Creeping roots possess no scales or modified
leaves, but have the structure of roots. They will, how-
ever, if they are propagating roots, have the power to
produce adventitious buds. Some weeds with creeping
roots are bindweed (Convolvulus arvensis L.) and sheep
sorrel (Rumex Acetosella L.). None of the weedy grasses
possesses creeping roots. Creeping rhizomes indicate
their character as modified stems by the presence of scales
that mark the nodes at regular intervals. To this group
belong the white morning-glory (Convolvulus Sepium L.),
the nut-grass (Cyperus rotundus L.) and Johnson-grass.

103. Weedy grasses. — Grasses may be of all degrees
of weediness. Many species that are classed as weeds are
harmless since they are found only in waste places or
along roadsides. Among these are goose-grass, crowfoot-
grass and old-witch grass. Only a few of the more impor-
tant weedy grasses will be mentioned here.

104. Annual weeds. — In the eastern states the com-
mon species are green foxtail, yellow foxtail, and upon
sandy land, the sandbur. Here, and more especially in
the South, crab-grass is a common weed. All these yield
readily to cultivation. Crab-grass is particularly trouble-

WEEDS 77

some because it thrives late in the season after the usual
cultivation of the crops has ceased. Two important
weeds in blue-grass lawns are crab-grass and annual blue-
grass. The latter thrives in the spring, making an appear-
ance pleasing to the eye, but later dies, leaving unsightly
bare spots. In the same way crab-grass, later in the
season, leaves brown patches as the plants die.

105. On the Pacific coast other species of grasses
become weeds. A very noticeable group are the annual
species of Bromus. They are of some value as forage
when young but soon become too dry and prickly from the
awns of the inflorescence to be palatable. The principal
species are Bromus commutatus, B. hordeaceus, B. rubens,
B. tectorum and B. villosus (Par. 260). Another species,
B. secalinus, the common cheat or chess, is found in grain
fields throughout the northern United States. The wild
oat is abundant on the Pacific coast in grain fields and on
fallow lands, but possesses a mitigating character in that
it can be used for hay (Par. 239). Several weedy species
belong to the genus Hordeum, the inflorescence of which
possesses numerous rough awns that .are troublesome
when mixed with hay. There are three annual species,
H. pusillum, H. Gussoneanum and H. murinum. The last
is a common weed in alfalfa fields where it is called fox-
tail and barley-grass.

106. Perennial weedy grasses. — Of the group that
lack creeping rhizomes there are few that are troublesome.
One of the worst of them is Hordeum jubatum, which in
the West often infests alfalfa fields. It is called squirrel-
tail-grass, but locally is known as foxtail in Wyoming,
barley-grass in Utah, and tickle-grass in Nevada.

Many species become conspicuous in overgrazed pas-
tures or ranges because not eaten readily by stock. To

78 A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES

this group belong the spear grasses, species of Aristida,
whose sharp fruits with the triple awns become a nuisance
or even a serious pest. These fruits and others such as
those of Hordeum and Sitanion work their way into the
nostrils and eyes of animals and into the wool of sheep,
or form hair-balls in the stomach.

107. The seriously troublesome weeds in cultivated
soil are those possessing creeping rhizomes. There are
three species of grasses that belong in this category. They
are Bermuda-grass, Johnson-grass and quack-grass.
Bermuda-grass has already been mentioned (Par. 28).
In cultivated soil the rhizomes become large and vigorous
and the plant is usually known then as wire-grass. Ber-
muda is a common weed in corn and cotton fields through-
out the southern states. Johnson-grass is exceedingly
troublesome in the black soils of the southern states (Par.
49). Quack-grass is a bad weed in the humid region of
the northeastern states. It is also called quick-grass,
quitch-grass and couch-grass.

These three species, like all weeds with rhizomes,
cannot be eradicated by pulling them up or by cultivation
unless all of the rhizomes are removed, since a single
piece of rhizome may give rise to a shoot. They may be
greatly reduced in this way, however. On a large scale
they may be kept in subjection by plowing and harrow-
ing out the rhizomes, after which they are burned or
removed or spread so as to be dried out by the sun.
Another general method for eradicating such weeds is to
smother them with a vigorous crop, such as grain or
alfalfa. Small patches may be attacked to advantage with
the hoe, cutting off all the green shoots. If this is done
frequently the rhizomes are exhausted of their vitality
and are unable to produce more shoots.

CHAPTER X
GRASS-CROP AREAS

IN previous chapters, reference has been made under
each grass crop to the area in the United States in which
it thrives. In this chapter a resume will be given of the
conditions and limitations of these areas. The crop areas
depend entirely upon climatic conditions. Soil conditions
modify or limit the distribution of crops within each area.
So far as crops are concerned, the climatic conditions are
moisture and temperature.

108. Moisture. — The moisture, so far as it concerns
crop areas, depends on the annual rainfall and its seasonal
distribution. Locally crops may receive water by seepage
from rivers and springs but such sources have no effect
on the general distribution of crops. The seasonal dis-
tribution of the rainfall is of as much importance as the
annual rainfall, for the crops require water during the
growing season. The amount of water required by a crop
varies with the evaporation, which depends in part
upon the humidity. Without going into the physical and
meteorological details, it will readily be understood that
latitude and altitude modify greatly the relation between
a crop and its water-requirement. There is also an inti-
mate connection between temperature and rainfall. Soil
conditions modify the water requirement in various ways,
but not sufficiently to have any material effect on the
large crop areas.

109. The temperature affects evaporation and hence

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80 A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES

the water-requirement. It also affects directly the growth
of crops. There is an optimum temperature for each
crop at which it thrives best. The temperature through
the growing season is of the most importance, though for
perennials the minimum winter temperature may be a
limiting factor.

110. The timothy area. — This area extends from New
England to the southern boundary of Virginia and farther
south in the mountains and west to Minnesota and east-
ern Kansas, approximately to the 96th meridian. In
general this is the humid area. The rainfall is sufficient
on the average for the growing, without irrigation, of
the common meadow- and pasture-grasses, timothy
and blue -grass, and the legume, red clover. The
rainfall is distributed through the summer or growing
season.

There are other humid regions in the United States
in the mountains of the western portion, isolated areas
where the rainfall is sufficient and the altitude not too
great. Timothy can be raised in Colorado up to about
9,000 or even 10,000 feet altitude. At higher latitudes
the altitudinal limit is lower. The most important humid
region of the West is the upper Pacific coast region lying
west of the Cascades and extending from Puget Sound
south into northern California. This differs from the
eastern humid region in having cooler summers and milder
winters with considerable rainfall. This region is emi-
nently adapted to pasture crops because of the mild, moist
winters. It is not so well adapted to hay crops because
of the difficulty of curing hay in the moist climate. (See
Farmers' Bulletin No. 271.)

In the northern part of the timothy area, the Canada
field pea is much used (Par. 67). In the eastern part along

GRASS-CROP AREAS 81

the coast where the soil is often acid, redtop becomes the
dominant forage grass (Par. 32) .

111. The Bermuda-grass area. — This area occupies
the region south of the timothy area and wesi ^o include
eastern Texas. Approximately this is also the cotton
region. The annual rainfall is sufficient for such forage
plants as timothy and clover but the summers are too
long and hot for the development of these crops. Some of
the annual plants of the timothy region such as the grains,
vetches, and crimson clover, can be grown in the south as
winter forage crops. The rye-grasses, though short-lived
perennials, can be treated as annuals and will give good
results when sown in the fall for winter forage. (See Far-
mers' Bulletin No. 509.)

112. The Great Plains. — This is the area lying between
the Rocky Mountains and the two areas mentioned above
and extending from north to south across the United
States, and beyond its boundaries in each direction. Th^
annual rainfall along the eastern border is about 30 inches! /
This decreases westward until it is about 15 inches at the •••''
base of the mountains. This amount is too small for the /
production of crops adapted to the humid region but many
specially adapted crops can be raised without irrigation

in the eastern half of the belt. The region is devoid of
forest except along the streams of the eastern part.
Before the land was occupied by man these plains were
covered with grass, the dominant species being buffalo-
grass, grama-grass and curly mesquite, all low grasses
that form a close sod. The early settlers used the sod to
make sod houses.

The Great Plains are eminently adapted to stock-
grazing and there are throughout, but more particularly
in the western part, numerous large stock ranches-. The
F

82 A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES

water of the comparatively few streams is supplemented
by wells, many of which are over 100 feet deep, and by
dams in the ravines or "draws" that catch and hold the
run-off from the storm water. The rainfall may come in
torrential storms and much of the water, instead of being
absorbed by the soil, runs off in the watercourses and is
lost to the area. The native vegetation has already been
described (Par. 23).

113. Forage crops for the Great Plains. — Within
recent years a large part of the eastern half of this belt
has been converted into farms, and much of the native
sod has been placed under cultivation. As modern methods
for dry-farming come into more general use, and crops
especially adapted to dry regions are more widely grown,
more and more of the Great Plains will be utilized for the
growing of crops. In the western part of the belt irriga-
tion is practised in many places either by ditches from the
larger rivers, as the Platte and Arkansas, or from deep
wells by means of windmills or gasoline engines, or from
ponds that catch the storm water. The forage crops
adapted to this region are millet ( Par. 56 ) for the eastern
half of the belt; brome-grass (Par 31) for the region from
Nebraska to Montana and Minnesota; and the sorghums
for the region from Kansas to Texas. Kafir is grown for
grain and forage. It is usually planted in rows and culti-
vated. Saccharine sorghums, such as the Amber and
Orange varieties, are much grown for hay. For this purpose
they are sown thickly and mowed with a machine.

The grains grown for the seed over the eastern and
central portion of the belt furnish also no inconsiderable
amount of forage. It is a common practice in the winter
wheat region to pasture the wheat fields in the fall and
early winter. The most important forage crop is alfalfa.

GRASS-CROP AREAS 83

With proper care in preparation of the soil and in seeding,
this leguminous crop can be grown without irrigation over
a very considerable portion of the area.

114. The arid region. — This includes all the region
west of the Great Plains where the rainfall is insufficient
for the growth of crops without the aid of irrigation.
Besides the two main mountain systems, the Rocky
Mountains and the Sierra Nevada, there are numerous
smaller ranges throughout the region between. The term
Great Basin strictly applies to that portion such as most
of Utah and Nevada which has no drainage to the sea,
This name is often applied in a loose way to the whole
region between the two mountain systems mentioned.
The general level of this interior region is at 4,000 to 5,000
feet altitude. Usually at higher altitudes in the mountains
the climate is increasingly moist. Above about 8,000
feet the climate is usually humid and the slopes are in
general more or less forested.

The climate of the plains and valleys is arid. Crops
are raised only as water for irrigation can be obtained from
the streams. Much of the area is sufficiently arid to be
called a desert. This is especially so in the southern part
where the summers are longer. Under favorable conditions
crops can be raised by applying the methods of dry-land
farming. Such may be the case at the base of a mountain
slope where there is sub-irrigation through seepage from
the mountain. The great proportion of this arid region
is used for stock-grazing in so far as it can be used at all
for agricultural purposes. Most of the grazing is in the
mountains but there is some forage on the desert which is
utilized if water for stock is available (Par. 20). Where
there is snow in winter, sheep can be pastured, the animals
depending on the snow for their water-supply.

84 A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES

115. The Pacific slope. — In the great interior valley
of California and northward through eastern Oregon,
eastern Washington and northern Idaho, the rainfall comes
mostly in the winter, this season being comparatively
mild. Under these conditions the winter season is adapted
to the growth without irrigation of annual crops such as
grain. The summers are hot and dry, and irrigation is
necessary for summer crops such as alfalfa. The region
to the northwest of this is humid (Par. 110).

116. The relative importance of the different kinds
of forage in the different regions of the United States.—
The production (tons) of the kinds of forage mentioned by
the thirteenth census report is given in the following
table, each being arranged by states. The production of
each kind of forage in the United States is shown in Figs.
2 to 10.

TABLE XVII

THE PRODUCTION (TONS) OF HAY AND FORAGE FOR 1909, BY THE TEN
LEADING STATES, OF EACH KIND OF FORAGE

Timothy
1. Ohio 2,348,660 6. Pennsylvania . . 1,200,073

2. Iowa 1,952,956 7. New York

3. Illinois 1,947,572 8. Wisconsin

4. Indiana 1,442,218 9. Minnesota

5. Missouri 1,334,556 10. Michigan

. . 1,159,083

. . 1,110,446

. . 1,101,510

. . 929,165

Timothy and clover mixed

1. Iowa 3,732,186 6. Missouri .... 1,630,211

2. New York .... 3,215,021 7. Minnesota .... 1,433,075

3. Wisconsin 2,477,311 8. Ohio 1,346,347

4. Michigan 1,991,618 9. Illinois 1,123,254

5. Pennsylvania . . . 1,830,852 10. Vermont .... 628,098

Clover alone

1. Illinois 539,790 6. Tennessee 201,926

2. Indiana 314,818 7. Iowa 195,579

3. Missouri 309,209 8. Wisconsin 193,786

4. Ohio 239,492 9. New York 114,864

5. Michigan . . . . . . 216,862 10. Minnesota 106,334

GRASS-CROP AREAS 85

TABLE XVII, continued
Alfalfa

1. Kansas 1,998,689 6. Utah 791,355

2. California 1,639,707 7. Montana 599,747

3. Nebraska 1,522,136 8. Wyoming 397,669

4. Colorado 1,265,915 9. Oregon 375,445

5. Idaho 964,529 10. Washington .... 357,595

Millet or Hungarian grass

1. Kansas 290,661 6. Tennessee 76,311

2. Nebraska 160,684 7. Oklahoma 75,591

3. North Dakota . . . 149,429 8. South Dakota . . . 65,844

4. Missouri 141,626 9. Iowa 54,346

5. Texas 95,352 10. Minnesota .... 50,383

Other tame or cultivated grasses

1. New York 412,479 6. Connecticut .... 159,365

2. Maine 258,789 7. Massachusetts . . . 150,723

3. Tennessee 218,482 8. Kentucky 139,382

4. Minnesota 188,371 9. Texas 138,758

5. Vermont 160,014 10. New Hampshire . . 131,621

Wild, salt, or prairie grasses

1. Nebraska 3,097,822 6. Iowa 1,178,000

2. South Dakota . . . 2,798,263 7. Oklahoma .... 607,120

3. Minnesota .... 2,714,121 8. Montana .... 589,860

4. North Dakota . . . 2,372,618 9. Wisconsin .... 497,622

5. Kansas 1,737,632 10. Colorado .... 368,408

Grains cut green

1. California 2,019,526 6. South Carolina . . 133,996

2. Oregon 509,030 7. Georgia 128,929

3. Washington .... 499,955 8. Louisiana 127,126

4. Idaho 140,098 9. North Carolina . . . 118,687

6. Tennessee 136,674 10. Illinois 99,828

Coarse forage

1. New York .... 1,876,795 6. Vermont 452,461

2. Kansas 1,263,231 7. Ohio 443,512

3. Texas 688,274 8. Pennsylvania . . . 422,925

4. Wisconsin ..... 571,441 9. Minnesota 401,614

5. Iowa 510,184 10. Michigan 379,279

117. Remarks on Table XVII. — In order to under-
stand the classification of the forage plants in the census
report, the following extract is quoted from "Instruc-

86 A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES

tions for Clerks in Tabulation Subdivision II, Agricul-
ture," being a part of Inquiry 43, concerning hay and
forage crops.

(a) Tabulate as "clover alone" all crops reported after that
designation, as well as all reported as "alsike," "red clover," "crimson
clover;" also other clovers unmixed with other grasses. The same
crops reported as mixed with timothy or herd's grass should be
tabulated as "timothy and clover mixed." When reported as mixed
with grasses other than timothy or herd's-grass, they should be
tabulated as "other tame or cultivated grasses."

(6) Tabulate as "other tame or cultivated grasses" all crops
reported after that designation, as well as all reported as "red-
top," "June-grass," "orchard-grass," "blue-grass," and "Johnson-
grass;" also all combinations of these grasses with any of the clover
crops mentioned in paragraph a, preceding, or with timothy.

(c) Tabulate as "wild, salt, or prairie grasses" all crops reported
after that designation, as well as all reported as "marsh-grass,"
"swamp-grass," "slough-grass," "bluestem," "daisies," and "butter-
cups."

(d) Tabulate as "grains cut green" all crops reported after that
designation without specific names, or with the name "oats,"
"wheat," "barley," "rye," "peas," "cowpeas," "soybeans," "velvet-
beans," or "vetches." Keep a memorandum of the names of all
crops reported with specific names and tabulated as "grains cut
green."

(e) Tabulate as "coarse forage" all crops reported after that
designation without specific names, or with the name "corn" (see
paragraph i below), "sweet corn," "cane," "sorghum," "Kafir corn,"
"Jerusalem corn," "milo maize," or kindred crops.

Timothy and clover, alone and mixed, constitute the
first three items of the classification under hay and forage.
These plants are grown in the humid region (Par. 110),
though the New England states, with the exception of
Vermont, are not represented. Ohio, Iowa, Illinois, New
York, Wisconsin and Minnesota are represented in each
of the lists of ten leading states for these forage plants.

GRASS-CROP AREAS 87

The leading alfalfa states are all west of the Missouri
River, although it is note-worthy that the state of first
rank, Kansas, lies on the eastern border of the region.
With the exception of Tennessee, the leading millet
states lie between the Mississippi River and the Rocky
Mountains.

The states leading in the production of forage classi-
fied as "other tame or cultivated grasses" are those of
the New England division, together with the adjacent
state of New York, and the more remote states of Minne-
sota, Kentucky, Tennessee and Texas. In the north-
eastern states the most important element is redtop. In
Texas, as in other southern states, Johnson-grass is an
important factor. In Tennessee and Kentucky orchard-
grass is an important forage plant. The states leading in
the production of wild hay, with the exception of Wis-
consin, lie in the Great Plains region where the bulk of
the product is made up of mixed prairie grasses. In Wis-
consin an important factor is blue-joint (Calamagrostis
canadensis).

Most of the elements in the classification of hay and
forage represent summer-grown crops.. The category
referred to as "grains cut green" assumes importance in
two regions, the Pacific coast and the southern states. In
the first region the best conditions for grain-growing
obtain in the winter season, during which the greatest
rainfall of the year occurs. Because of these conditions
hay made from grain is the most available forage. In the
second region cowpea hay is an important crop. Canada
field pea, an important crop along our northern border,
is included in the figures for "grains cut green." Under
the last heading, "coarse forage," are included corn and
sorghum cut for forage.

88 A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES

LIST OF GOVERNMENT PUBLICATIONS REFERRING TO FORAGE
CROPS AND SPECIAL USES OF GRASSES

The list is not complete but indicates the more impor-
tant recent publications. The bulletins of the state
experiment stations should also be consulted by the
student. Another important series is that of the circulars
and bulletins of the Division of Agrostology, United
States Department of Agriculture. These bulletins are
now out of print but the series can be consulted in the
libraries of educational institutions.

United States Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Plant Industry,

Bulletins
Nos.
4. Range Improvement in Arizona.

11. Johnson-Grass.

12. Stock Ranges of Northwestern California.

13. Experiments in Range Improvement in Central Texas.

15. Forage Conditions on the Northern Border of the Great Basin.

19. Kentucky Blue-Grass Seed.

31. Cultivated Forage Crops of the Northwestern States.

38. Forage Conditions and Problems in Eastern Oregon.

57. Methods Used for Controlling and Reclaiming Sand-Dunes.

59. Pasture, Meadow, and Forage Crops in Nebraska.

65. Reclamation of Cape Cod Sand-Dunes.

67. Range Investigations in Arizona.

72. III. Extermination of Johnson-Grass.

74. Prickly Pear and Other Cacti as Food for Stock.

75. Range Management in the State of Washington.
82. Grass Lands of the South Alaska Coast.

84. The Seeds of the Blue-Grasses.

94. Farm Practice with Forage Crops in Western Oregon.

100. VI. Orchard-Grass.

111. IV. Forage Crops for Hogs in Kansas and Oklahoma.

111. V. The Culture and Uses of Brome-Grass.

117. Reseeding of Depleted Range and Native Pastures.

118. Peruvian Alfalfa.

GRASS-CROP AREAS 89

124. The Prickly Pear as a Farm Crop.

127. The Improvement of Mountain Meadows.

140. The Spineless Prickly Pears.

169. Variegated Alfalfa.

175. History and Distribution of Sorghum.

177. A Protected Stock Range in Arizona.

179. The Florida Velvet Bean.

197. The Soybean.

203. Importance and Improvement of the Grain Sorghums.

209. Grimm Alfalfa.

229. Agricultural Varieties of the Cowpea.

237. Grain Sorghum Production in the San Antonio Region of

Texas.

253. The Kaoliangs: A New Group of Grain Sorghums.
258. Some New Alfalfa Varieties for Pastures.

/

Farmers' Bulletins
Nos.

72. Cattle Ranges of the Southwest.
101. Millets.
108. Saltbushes.
139. Emmer.

164. Rape as a Forage Crop.
174. Broom-Corn.
194. Alfalfa Seed.

246. Saccharine Sorghums for Forage.
248. The Lawn.

260. Seed of Red Clover and Its Impurities.
271. Forage Crop Practices in Western Oregon and Western

Washington.

279. Method of Eradicating Johnson-Grass.
288. Nonsaccharine Sorghums.
292. Cost of Filling Silos.
300. Some Important Grasses and Forage Plants of the Gulf Coast

Region.

312. A Successful Southern Hay Farm.
318. Cowpeas.

322. Milo as a Dry-Land Grain Crop.

323. Clover Farming on Sandy Jack-Pine Lands of the North.
331. Forage Crops for Hogs in Kansas and Oklahoma.

90 A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES

339. Alfalfa.

361. Meadow Fescue.

362. Conditions Affecting Value of Market Hay.

372. Soybeans.

373. Irrigation of Alfalfa.

382. The Adulteration of Forage-Plant Seeds.

402. Canada Blue-Grass.

441. Lespedeza or Japan Clover.

448. Better Grain-Sorghum Crops.

458. Best Two Sweet Sorghums for Forage.

464. Eradication of Quack-Grass.

466. Winter Emmer.

485. Sweet Clover.

494. Lawn Soils and Lawns.

495. Alfalfa Seed Production.

502. Timothy Production on Irrigated Land in Northwestern
States.

508. Market Hay

509. Forage Crops for Cotton Region.
515. Vetches.

529. Vetch-Growing in the Southern States
550. Crimson Clover: Growing the Crop.
552. Kafir as a Grain Crop.
556. The Making and Feeding of Silage.

578. The Making and Feeding of Silage.

579. Crimson Clover: Utilization.

Articles in the Yearbooks of the Department of Agriculture

1894. Grasses as Sand- and Soil-Binders.
1895 Canadian Field Peas.

Forage Conditions of the Prairie Region.

Grasses of Salt Marshes.

1896. Timothy in the Prairie Region.
Cowpeas.

1897. Lawns and Lawn-Making.
Leguminous Forage Crops.

1898. Millets.
Sand-Binding Grasses.

Grass Seed and Its Impurities.

GRASS-CROP AREAS 91

1898. Forage Plants for Cultivation on Alkali Soils.

1899. Succulent Forage for Farm and Dairy.

1900. Our Native Pasture Plants.

1901. Grazing in Forest Reserves.
1906. Range Management.

1908. Search for New Leguminous Farm Crops.
1912. Some New Grasses for the South.

PART II
SYSTEMATIC AGROSTOLOGY

CHAPTER XI
MORPHOLOGY OF THE VEGETATIVE ORGANS

MORPHOLOGY treats of the form and structure of organs,
especially as to their developmental relations. For exam-
ple, morphological study indicates that a fundamental
organ may develop into a foliage leaf, into a scale or bract,
or into the parts of the flower. In order to understand the
natural classification of plants, it is first necessary to be
familiar with their morphology. To interpret and use
descriptions, it is necessary to understand the terminology
used in morphology. The subject will be considered
under two heads, morphology of the vegetative organs
and morphology of the floral organs.

GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF GRASSES

118. Grasses are included in the natural botanical
family Poaceae or Gramineae. — They are usually distin-
guished by having long narrow 2-ranked blades, clasping
sheaths, small greenish flowers collected in a compact
or open inflorescence. The flowers have no proper peri-
anth nor floral envelopes, but consist of a pistil and
usually 3 stamens inclosed between 2 small bracts.
Further details will be given under the appropriate
headings.

There are a few other groups of plants that resemble
grasses in general appearance. The natural order Poales,
Graminales or Glumiflorse, includes the grasses and sedges

(95)

96 A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES

(Cyperacese). Many sedges have grass-like blades, but
differ in having 3-ranked leaves and in having flowers
supported by a single bract. In rushes (Juncacese) the
essential organs of the flowers are surrounded by a small
greenish 6-parted perianth, and the fruit consists of a
capsule with several or many seeds. A few plants belong-
ing to the lily family and other allied groups have grass-
like blades, but the flowers possess a proper perianth that
is sometimes greenish but often conspicuously colored.
Familiar examples of plants belonging to the grass
family are, blue-grass, timothy, redtop, wheat, rice and
other grains, corn, sorghum, sugar-cane and bamboos.

119. Gross anatomy. — It is assumed that the student
is familiar with the fundamental distinction between the
primary organs of the phanerogams. He may be reminded,
only, that the plant consists of shoot and root, that the
shoot consists of the stem and leaves borne upon it, and
that the inflorescence consists of modified shoots.

Grasses may be annual or perennial. In cooler regions
certain annual species may germinate in the fall, live over
winter as a small tuft and send up flower stalks the follow-
ing spring. These are known as winter annuals.

120. Perennial herbaceous species are mostly of two
kinds. In the first kind a crown is formed by the per-
sistent bases of the culms, the upper portions of which die
back each year. The young shoots of the ensuing season
are produced from buds arising within the sheaths They
grow up alongside the old stems and together form a
compact mass. Such grasses form tufts or tussocks and
are commonly called bunch-grasses. The orchard-grass
is a familiar example. Some authors refer to the shoots
of bunch-grasses as being intra vaginal.

In the second kind of perennial, the new shoots arise

MORPHOLOGY OF THE VEGETATIVE ORGANS 97

from rhizomes or rootstocks. These are modified shoots
that burst through the sheaths and creep horizontally
below the surface of the soil. Grasses such as the blue-
grass, with well-developed rhizomes, tend to form a com-
pact sod. The young shoots or innovations of such grasses
are sometimes referred to as extravaginal. The various
forms assumed by rhizomes will be discussed under the
subject of the stem.

Besides these two chief kinds of perennial grasses,
there are those (such as the buffalo -grass) that produce
stolons by which a sod is formed. Still another method of
persisting through unfavorable seasons is found in many
grasses growing in the water or mud. The lower prostrate
or decumbent portion branches freely and persists while
the upper portion dies back. The older portion dies sooner
or later so that the original base of the plant disappears
and one finds only a tangled mass of creeping and root-
ing stems.

The stems of grasses vary in height from an inch or
less to several feet in herbaceous species. Some of the
larger bamboos arise to the height of over 100 feet and
may be a foot in diameter. Certain climbing species
clamber up through the branches of trees to the height
of 30 feet or more.

121. Distribution. — Grasses are found in all parts of
the world where there is sufficient soil to permit growth.
They are found from the tropics to the arctic regions,
from sea-level up to the limits of perpetual snow. They
are found in woods, plain, swamp and desert, on the floor
of the deepest forest, on the sandy seashore, in moist
gorges and on rocky cliffs. In the main, however, grasses
love sunlight, and are found in greatest abundance in
open land such as prairies and pine barrens. In mangrove

G

98 A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES

swamps grasses are rare and in thick forest only a few
broad-bladed shade-loving species are found.

The species of grasses are frequently gregarious, form-
ing large masses more or less to the exclusion of other
plants. Familiar examples are the large areas of Indian
rice and of Phragmites in swamps, and the zones of
Homalocenchrus oryzoides around ponds. On prairies and
plains, grasses are usually the dominant vegetation, though
the species may mingle more than in the swamp plants
mentioned above. During the flowering period, a particu-
lar species may appear to the casual observer to be the
only species present, but close examination usually proves
the presence of various other species, some of which may in
-their turn appear dominant at another period.

THE ROOT AND STEM

122. The roots of grasses are fibrous. They are usually
found at the base of the plant, but in decumbent or pros-
trate stems they may be produced at the nodes. Support-
ing or prop roots are sometimes produced in erect stems
at nodes above the surface of the soil as in Indian corn.
Underground stems which may have the appearance of
roots will be discussed in another paragraph.

123. The stem of grasses, known as the culm, is made
up of a series of nodes and internodes. The nodes are the
more or less swollen joints at which the leaves originate.
The internodes when young are solid, that is, filled with
pith, but at maturity the pith usually disappears leaving
the culm in the form of a tube with solid partitions at the
nodes. The wheat straw is a familiar example of this
structure. In some grasses, such as the corn and sorghum,
the internodes retain the pithy interior, „

MORPHOLOGY OF THE VEGETATIVE ORGANS 99

The nodes are capable of growth after the maturity
of the internodes. By virtue of this character the culm is
able to change its direction by bending at the nodes, the
latter increasing in length on the outer side. This tendency
may be observed in decumbent culms, the terminal por-
tion remaining erect while the basal portion may become
prostrate. In such cases the nodes first elongate on the
under side and later on the upper side as the successive
internodes become horizontal. The node is usually indi-
cated externally by a more or less well-marked zone
showing a difference in color, texture or pubescence. The
swelling often present near the node is a part of the
sheath and will be described in connection with that
organ.

In young shoots, the leaves grow at first much faster
than the internodes, so that the terminal portion or bud
consists of several sheaths fairly well developed, one within
the other, while the corresponding internodes are very
short. Later these internodes elongate rapidly, separating
the leaves. By this means the youngest portion of the
shoot is always well protected by the surrounding
sheaths.

The culms are usually cylindrical or nearly so, but may
be distinctly flattened. They are never 3-angled as in
sedges. The mature culm in proportion to its weight has
great strength, especially to resist bending. This condi-
tion is aided by the tubular shape and by the hard tissue
of the walls. In addition to the sclerenchyma fibers, so
abundantly produced as to form a solid ring of tissue with
the vascular bundles, there is usually deposited a con-
siderable quantity of silica.

124. Duration. — The culms of most grasses are herba-
ceous and die down at least to the surface of the soil. In

100 A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES

bamboos and a few other groups (such as Lasiacis and
Arundo) the culms are woody and persist many years.
Transitional forms are not uncommon, especially in desert
regions where the base of the culms becomes perennial,
the new shoots arising from this more or less elongated
and woody portion.

125. Stems modified for propagation. — The usual
form of propagating stem is the rhizome or rootstock
(Fig. 58). Rhizomes are creeping underground stems
that may be distinguished from roots by the presence
of reduced leaves in the form of scales. The terminal bud
is hard and sharp so that the rhizome is able to force its
way through the soil. Rhizomes vary greatly in size and
consistency, being slender or almost thread-like in some
species and thick and firm in others, but are rarely suc-
culent enough to be called fleshy. From the rhizomes are
sent up the vertical shoots, sometimes a single shoot the
following season, sometimes several during the same
season.

In sandy soil, especially on sand-dunes, the system of
rhizomes reaches its greatest development. Beach-grass
(Ammophila) and species of Spartina (such as S. juncea)
produce a branching network, a single element of which
may be many feet in length. Under favorable circum-
stances of isolation, a vigorous rhizome may be traced a
long distance by the line of vertical shoots produced.
Swamp-grasses are usually provided with a well-developed
rhizome system, by which they may form a layer over
soft mud or even upon the surface of water.

Grasses that grow in ordinary alluvial soil and that
produce copious slender rhizomes form a firm sod and are
useful for lawns.

Examples: Blue-grass and Bermuda-grass.

MORPHOLOGY OF THE VEGETATIVE ORGANS 101

Between species with well-marked rhizomes such as
described above and species in which the rhizomes are
absent there are many transitions. The rhizomes may be
short and thick with the scales close together, the plants
forming loose tufts. Or the rhizomes may be slender but
short and ascending, the plants also forming loose tufts.
In certain species, usually classed as bunch-grasses, in
which the tuft grows by accretions at the outer edge, the
new shoots must bend outward and upward to reach the
light. In large tufts the outer shoots have decumbent
bases which may simulate short rhizomes. In some
cases, especially in desert regions, such tufts may assume
the form of fairy rings, dying out at the center and expand-
ing at the circumference, until finally the living zone
breaks up into isolated tufts, each to become a new center
of growth.

126. Stolons. — When the modified propagating stems
are produced above the surface of the soil they are called
stolons or runners. They differ also from rhizomes in that
they bear foliage-leaves instead of scales, although these
leaves are usually different in size or shape from those
produced upon the foliage-shoots. Stolons are to be dis-
tinguished from shoots of creeping prostrate or decumbent
plants in that they are modified creeping stems, that
is, they differ from the ordinary erect or ascending shoots
of the same plant and have the distinct function of
propagation. The buffalo-grass produces stolons so abun-
dantly that the plant forms a firm sod upon large areas of
the Great Plains (Fig. 48). It was from such sod that
pioneers in this region made their sod houses. In the
tropics stolon-producing species are more numerous than
in the cooler regions. Para-grass, when growing in new
soil, produces vigorous stolons as much as 20 feet long.

102 A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES

The common carpet-grass of our southern states produces
strong stolons which, on overhanging banks or in other
favorable situations, may reach a length of several feet.
Some species produce rhizomes or stolons according to
the conditions under which they are growing. Bermuda-
grass forms strong rhizomes several inches below the sur-
face in cultivated soil but in hard uncultivated soil pro-
duces stolons, and not infrequently both may be found
in the same mass of sod.

127. Conns. — Another and rarer form of modified
underground stem is the corm. This is a hard globular
thickening at the base of the plant. In Panicum bulbosum,
a grass found in the mountain valleys of New Mexico
and Arizona, these corms are well marked, sometimes as
much as an inch in diameter, and may occur in groups of
several attached in one mass. Rudimentary corms are
found at the base of the stems of timothy, China and
many species of Melica. A variety of the tall oat-grass
produces corms in moniliform strings. The corms are
produced by the thickening of a single internode. If
there is more than one corm on the same shoot the con-
striction between is the node. In Melica the thickening
is greatest at the base of the internode resulting in a flask-
shaped corm. Buds arise not on the corms but at the con-
strictions, as these are the nodes. The masses of corms
mentioned as being found in Panicum bulbosum include
together with the living corms persistent old corms at
the base of the stems of previous years' growth, these
being connected by short rhizomes.

128. Artificial propagation by means of stems. — Sugar-
cane is propagated by planting pieces of the stems or canes,
the buds at the nodes developing into shoots. Para-grass
and Bermuda-grass are propagated by planting pieces of

MORPHOLOGY OF THE VEGETATIVE ORGANS 103

the stolons or rhizomes. A common method in case of the
latter grass is to cut sod into small pieces by means of an
ax or a feed-cutter and to drop these upon prepared ground,
forcing them in by pressure of the foot. Or, so readily do
these pieces of stems grow, they may be sown broadcast
and harrowed in or pressed in with a roller.

THE LEA.F

129. The leaf is a lateral organ of the stem borne
singly at the nodes. A normally developed foliage-leaf
consists of two parts, the sheath and the blade. The
sheath envelopes the culm above the node; the blade is
the long narrow flat portion to which the name leaf is
often applied. At the junction of the sheath and blade
is found an appendage called the ligule.

Leaves are arranged on the culm alternately, in two
ranks or rows. That is, the blade of a leaf at one node is
on the side opposite the one below, while the third blade
is above the first and on the same side of the culm. This
universal arrangement, easy to observe in corn, is often
obscured by the twisting of the culm or sheaths, by which
the leaves may appear to be more or less in one rank or
to be spirally arranged.

When the internodes of a shoot have failed to elongate
so that the leaves remain in a tuft or fascicle, the actual
distichous arrangement of the leaves is distorted by the
mutual pressure of these organs, by which they may
appear to radiate in all directions.

Leaves may be reduced to scales or bracts. Reduced
leaves that appear on a shoot below the foliage-leaves are
called scales. Those that appear above the foliage-leaves
are called bracts.

104 A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES

130. Leaf-base and blade. — As regards development,
the leaves of flowering plants consist of two portions —
the leaf-base and the blade. The leaf -base is prominent
in the early development of the organ, but generally
includes only a small portion of the mature leaf. In the
leaves of common deciduous forest trees, the swollen
portion at the base of the petiole represents the leaf-base.
In reduced leaves, the leaf-base often includes a relatively
greater portion or may even be the only portion developed.
In grasses, the sheath represents the leaf-base. In scales
and bracts, the blades have failed to develop or consist
of a mere tip or point.

131. The prophyllum. — At the point where a branch
shoot originates from a main shoot, there is produced on
the side next to the parent shoot a 2-keeled organ called
the prophyllum. Through pressure the back of the
prophyllum between the keels is concave against the
parent shoot, while the two lateral portions, outside the
keels, bend forward clasping the new shoot. At first the
prophyllum completely covers the young shoot or bud,
but later is spread or opened as the shoot develops.

The various subdivisions of the leaf will now be dis-
cussed more in detail.

132. The sheath is the lower portion of the leaf that
encircles the culm above the node from which it arises.
From the developmental standpoint it represents the
leaf-base. The sheath ilTusually open from the base on the
side opposite the blade, the right and left margins of suc-
cessive sheaths overlapping alternately.

The sheath usually fits close to the stem but may be
loose or inflated, especially the uppermost. The old sheaths
at the base of the shoots may persist in perennial grasses
and assume a characteristic appearance.

MORPHOLOGY OF THE VEGETATIVE ORGANS 105

The uppermost sheath of Sporobolus cryptandrus (Torr.) Gray
and allied species becomes inflated and spathe-like, more or less
inclosing the inflorescence. The spathe-like sheaths are conspicuous
in Andropogon Elliottii Chapm. Certain water-grasses, notably Pas-
palum repens Berg., have inflated sheaths that act as floats to sus-
tain the stems on the surface of the water. In some grasses, especi-
ally those of dry regions, the dead sheaths persist as separated fibers
or as a network of fibers. In other species such as Muhlenbergia
gracilis (H. B. K.) Kunth and more conspicuously in M. straminea
Hitchc., the sheaths become flat and ribbon-like and persist as a
curly mass resembling shavings, simulating old blades.

In some species the sheaths are united by the margins
to form a tube nearly or quite to the top.

Examples: Bromus, Danthonia, Festuca, Melica, Panicularia.

Though the sheaths normally encircle the culm, a
spreading branch may pull the subtending sheath away
from the culm, in which case the sheath usually encircles
the branch.

133. Sheath nodes. — Many grasses present at the
base of the sheath a distinct swelling which at first sight
appears to be the node of the culm. If this portion of the
stem is split open longitudinally it is readily seen that
the prominent swelling is on the sheath and that the stem
node is just below as will be indicated by the cross parti-
tion. The sheath-node is often differentiated also by its
color or pubescence.

134. The collar. — At the junction of the sheath and
blade there is in nearly all grasses a distinct line of demar-
kation. On the inside is the ligule (Par. 135). On the out-
side or back is a line, zone or ridge which is differentiated
in color, texture, markings or pubescence. This zone is
called the collar.

135. The ligule is an appendage on the inside of a

106 A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES

grass leaf at the junction of the sheath and blade. The
usual form of the ligule is a membrane extending across
the top of the sheath at first tightly clasping the culm, the
membrane being longest in the middle portion. The shape
and appearance of the ligule are characteristic of each
species and are often used for taxonomic purposes.

The ligule may be truncate or even somewhat concave on the
upper margin. It is nerveless but may be 1-keeled (Dactylis glom-
erata) or apparently 2-keeled by the extension upward of the base
of the blade on each side. Not infrequently the ligular tissue extends
down the margins of the sheath. Sometimes the ligule is lacerate or
ciliate, or may appear as a row of hairs (Panicum Lindheimeri Nash
and its allies). The ligule is obsolete in some species (Panicum sphsero-
carpon Ell.) and entirely absent in others (Echinochloa crus-
galli (L.) Beauv.) In Anthochloa colusana (Davy) Scribn. there is
no differentiation into sheath and blade, hence no collar or ligule.
The exact morphology of these leaves has not been investigated. It
may be the sheath that is obsolete.

136. The blade is the usually flat part of the leaf
beyond the sheath and is the chief foliage organ of the
plant. In most grasses the blade is many times longer
than wide but in many tropical species and in a few of the
temperate regions it is short and broad, from oval to
lanceolate in outline (see Fig. 29). Grasses with this kind
of blade are mostly confined to the damp forest regions
of the tropics.

In such grasses the shoots are often strongly dorsiventral, the
blades being turned into the plane of the culm, and the shoots
usually prostrate, procumbent or ascending. The genera Oplismenus,
Ichnanthus, Senites, Pharus and many species of Panicum (as P.
trichoides) furnish familiar examples of species with broad short
blades that are found on the floor of tropical forests. These blades
often resemble those of other families of plants, especially Commely-
naceae. The bamboos and the bamboo-panicums (Lasiacis) usually

MORPHOLOGY OF THE VEGETATIVE ORGANS 107

have broad, comparatively short blades. In some cases the broad
blades are unsymmetrical, one side being much wider than the
other. These oblique blades are common in Olyrea?.

In contrast to the broad surface mentioned above, the
blades may be very narrow, when they are said to be
filiform or capillary. Often the blades are rolled, thus
appearing much narrower than they are when unrolled.

Convolute blades are those in which one margin is rolled over
the other. Involute blades are those in which both margins are
rolled inward toward the center, the upper surface being inside.
Revolute blades are those in which the margins are rolled outward,
the lower surface being inside. Conduplicate blades are folded so
that the upper surface of the two halves come in contact as in Poa
Fendleriana and its allies. In common blue-grass one may observe
all gradations between flat and completely conduplicate blades.
Certain blades that appear to be rolled may be thickened into a
slender terete or cylindrical form, the upper surface being repre-
sented by a mere groove (forms of Festuca ovina, Andropogon
Urbanianus) .

Petiole. — In some leaves especially those of shade
grasses mentioned above, there is a more or less well-
marked petiole at the base of the blade. •

Examples: Orthoclada, Senites, Ichnanthus, many bamboos.

137. Nervation. — The vascular system of the grass
blade consists of a strong main central axis, the midrib,
and few to several smaller bundles called nerves, on each
side parallel to the midrib. These nerves are continua-
tions of corresponding nerves in the sheaths and they can
usually be traced with the naked eye through the region
of the collar. The anastomosing bundles, or cross-veins,
are usually indistinguishable to the unaided eye. The
broad blades of shade grasses (except Pharus and Lep-

108 A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES

taspis) present arcuate nerves diverging at the base and
converging at the apex, with numerous often conspicuous
cross-veins, thus simulating the so-called netted-veined
blades of dicotyledons.

Besides the various genera already mentioned as having broad
blades are the following which also present well-marked cross-veins:
Olyreae, Centhotheca, Senites, Orthoclada, Pariana, many bamboos,
and a few other genera. Pharus differs in having straight parallel
lateral nerves that diverge from the midrib nearly throughout its
length and join with a strong marginal nerve, instead of converging
at the apex (Fig. 29). Leptaspis resembles Pharus, but Strepto-
chaeta is intermediate.

138. Auricles. — Some grasses bear, one on either side at
the base of the blade, appendages known as auricles.
These auricles are characteristic of the tribe Hordese and
are found in certain species of other tribes.

Wheat, rye and barley show prominent auricles. Rice and
Festuca elatior and its allies are examples outside the Hordeae. A
very unusual development of the blade is shown in Phyllorachis
sagittata Trim, and Spodiopogon sagittifolius Rendle. The base of
the blade is extended into a long lobe on either side of the short
petiole.

139. Roll-leaves. — In a preceding paragraph (Par.
136), casual mention was made of blades in which, by
rolling in various ways, the exposed surface is reduced.
This rolling of the blade is a xerophytic character and
tends, by reduction of the evaporating surface, to lessen
the loss of moisture. Such reduction of surface is charac-
teristic of grasses of plains and desert regions, of sandy soil,
especially along the seacoast, and of saline marshes. In
some cases the blades are permanently rolled, in other
cases they are flat under favorable conditions of atmos-
pheric moisture but readily roll when the moisture

MORPHOLOGY OF THE VEGETATIVE ORGANS 109

decreases. This rolling is a normal protective process and
should not be confused with wilting. The blades of roll-
leaves are marked on one or both surfaces with parallel
channels and ridges, the latter being the nerves. The
tissues of the ridges are firm and resistant while the cells
of the channels are larger and thin-walled. These large
cells, called bulliform cells, readily give off moisture.
When the air is moist they remain turgescent, thus push-
ing the ridges apart and holding the surface flat or at
least partly open. As the air grows drier the bulliform
cells become flaccid and the blade closes or rolls. To
further aid the blades of xerophytic grasses to resist too
great a loss of water, the stomata are usually arranged
along the sides of the channels and are not exposed when
the blade rolls.

Examples of roll-leaves are forms of Festuca ovina and species of
Stipa and Spartina.

SCALES AND BRACTS

140. Scales are the reduced leaves found upon shoots
below the foliage-leaves. They may be observed near
the base of shoots of all perennial grasses, occupying gen-
erally the portion below the surface of the soil and often
a portion for a short distance above the soil. These scales,
by overlapping above the growing point as a bud, protect
the shoot as it pushes through the ground. Usually there
is a gradual transition from scales to foliage-leaves, but
sometimes the change is abrupt. In large grasses such as
Gynerium sagittatum, the portion of the culm occupied by
scales is much greater and may extend several feet above
the surface of the soil. Bamboos, especially the vigorous
shoots of the large species, furnish excellent examples of

110 A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES

scales. These throw up a culm several inches in thickness,
covered with large scales, and grow many feet in height
before they develop foliage-branches. In perennial
stemmed bamboos may be observed scales also upon the
lower portion of branches. These scales often show transi-
tions to foliage-leaves, the upper bearing rudimentary
blades.

Scales are always produced upon rhizomes. Their
chief function appears to be that of protection to the
growing point as the rhizome is forced through the soil.
The scales develop rapidly in the form of a bud at the end,
overlapping and sharp-pointed. The terminal portion
of some vigorous rhizomes is as hard as wood and as sharp
as an awl. By the elongation of the internodes, the scales
behind the growing point are separated and may become
lacerated or otherwise lose their original shape.

141. Bracts are reduced leaves that are borne on shoots
above the foliage-leaves. They may be discussed under
two heads, those that are in or near the inflorescence,
and those that are specially modified in the spikelet. The
latter will be considered in a future paragraph dealing
with the spikelet.

Among flowering plants in general, bracts are usually
found subtending each branch of the inflorescence down
to the individual flower. In grasses these bracts are rarely
present. In large panicles, as in some species of Bromus,
the lower branches may be subtended by small bracts or
there is at least a ridge representing a bract. Sheathing
bracts are found in various genera, especially among
AndropogoneaB, at the base of the entire inflorescence or
of certain portions of it. In some grasses, the uppermost
leaf below the inflorescence may have a much-reduced
blade, for example many species of Poa, but such leaves

MORPHOLOGY OF THE VEGETATIVE ORGANS 111

are usually classed with the foliage-leaves rather than with
bracts. A peculiarly specialized bract is found at the base
of the individual inflorescence of Job's tears (Par. 203).
It is urn-shaped, bony, and incloses the pistillate inflores-
cence. At maturity it breaks away as a bead-like
1-seeded fruit.

CHAPTER XII
MORPHOLOGY OF THE FLORAL ORGANS

THE floral organs of phanerogams are known to be
highly differentiated or specialized shoots, the receptacle
representing a stem, and the stamens and pistils repre-
senting greatly modified leaves. In the grasses the
flowers are nearly always devoid of floral envelopes, the
calyx and corolla being absent or represented only by the
lodicules. The flower then is reduced to the essential
organs, the stamens and pistil, the protection usually
afforded by the floral envelopes being here afforded
by bracts.

THE INFLORESCENCE OR FLOWER-CLUSTER

142. The flowers of grasses are usually segregated
upon distinct shoots that are easily distinguished from the
foliage-shoots or the foliage portion of a shoot. These
aggregations of flowers constitute the inflorescence.

An inflorescence is always terminal upon the shoot, and
commonly these shoots are the main foliage-shoots of the
plant, as in wheat, blue-grass, timothy and sorghum. In
addition to the inflorescence terminating the main culm
and leafy branches, others may arise from the axils of the
leaves. Such lateral inflorescences are, of course, terminal
upon lateral branches, but since such branches bear no
foliage-leaves the inflorescences are said to be lateral or
axillary. In some grasses such as bamboos, bamboo-
panicums, and less commonly in herbaceous genera, the

(112)

MORPHOLOGY OF THE FLORAL ORGANS 113

culms produce foliage-branches some or all of which may
end in an inflorescence.

The unit of the inflorescence is the spikelet, which
consists of one or more flowers with the subtending floral
bracts. The common forms of inflorescence are the spike,
the raceme and the panicle.

143. Kinds of inflorescence. — The spike. — The spike-
lets are sessile along an elongated axis. Familiar examples
of this form are the members of the tribe Hordese, as
wheat and rye (Figs. 57-62).

The raceme. — The spikelets are pediceled and borne
along an elongated axis. Simple forms of meadow fescue
and sheep's fescue show racemes. The individual inflo-
rescence of Paspalum is apparently a spike, but really a
spike-like raceme.

The panicle. — The spikelets are pediceled and the
inflorescence is repeatedly branched. The oat- and blue-
grass are familiar examples (Fig. 54).

Mixed inflorescences. — True spikes, except in the Hor-
dese, are rare, as is also the simple raceme. An inflores-
cence that is apparently a spike often shows that the
spikelets are not sessile but more or less pediceled. Such
an inflorescence is properly a spike-like raceme. Similarly
a panicle may be so contracted that the pedicels and short
branches are hidden and the inflorescence appears to be
a spike, but in precise language should be called a spike-
like panicle (Fig. 38).

The component parts of the inflorescences of the genera Pas-
palum and Syntherisma (e.g., crab-grass) are spike-like racemes.
The so-called spikes or heads of timothy and canary-grass are spike-
like panicles.

In the genus Andropogon what appears to be a spike consists
of a jointed axis, each joint bearing a pair of spikelets, one sessile
H

114 A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES

the other pediceled. The inflorescence is therefore generally re-
ferred to as a raceme or as composed of racemes (Fig. 16).

Simple racemes with elongated pedicels are not common.
Simple panicles in which the spikelets are racemosely arranged
above and more or less paniculate below are frequent. The meadow
fescue and other fescue grasses usually bear this kind of an inflor-
escence.

Compound inflorescence. — This term has received no
very precise application. It is usually applied to a large
inflorescence made up of numerous smaller inflorescences,
especially if the latter have their distinctness emphasized
by sheathing bracts as in Cymbopogon Nardus and many
other AndropogoneaB.

144. Unisexual inflorescences. — The spikelets that
make up an inflorescence are usually alike, and consist
of perfect flowers. But sometimes the spikelets are uni-
sexual, the male and female spikelets being in distinct
and usually dissimilar inflorescences. There are a few
dioecious genera such as Spinifex, Bulbilis, Scleropogon,
Gynerium and Jouvea. In these tneinnoJSiSBlC^Df the
staminate plants is very different in appearance from that
of the pistillate plants. Sometimes the difference is so
great that the different forms might easily be considered
by the casual observer to belong to distinct species or
even to distinct genera. There are cases where the two
forms have been described by botanists as belonging to
distinct genera. In the common buffalo-grass of the
plains the staminate inflorescence consists" jofJLJtoJL one-
sided spikes raised on a peduncle a few inches long (Fig.
48), while the pistillate inflorescence is hidden among the
foliage close to the surface of the ground (Fig. 49). Some-
times (e.g. Distichlis) the staminate and pistillate inflores-
cences are similar though not alike (Fig. 52).

MORPHOLOGY OF THE FLORAL ORGANS 115

Fournier described the genus Jouvea from pistillate specimens.
Staminate plants of the same species (J '. straminea Fourn.) he re-
ferred to Brizopyrum. The staminate specimens of Jouvea pilosa
(Presl) Scribn. were first described under Brizopyrum. The stam-
inate plants of Bulbilis dactyloides were first described under Sesleria.

145. Monoecious genera, in which the staminate and
pistillate flowers are borne in distinct and dissimilar por-
tions of the inflorescence, are not common. These include
Tripsacum, Olyra, Zizania, and a few related genera. In
Tnpsacum the staminate flowers occupy the terminal
portion of the spikes. In Olyra and Zizania (Fig. 31) the
staminate flowers are in the lower part of a panicle. In a
very few genera, the staminate and pistillate inflores-
cences occupy different parts of the same plant. Zea and
Euchlsena belong to this group. The tassel of the corn is
the staminate inflorescence; the ear is the pistillate
inflorescence. Not a few grasses, as many Andropogonese,
produce unisexual spikelets that are interspersed with
perfect spikelets, usually in some definite relation, but all
in the same inflorescence (Fig. 16).

146. The axis of inflorescence. — The usual form is
slender and cylindrical, but it may take on a variety of
other shapes. In the spike of Hordese, the axis is somewhat
zig-zag by the alternate insertion of the large spikelets at
the nodes. The internodes or joints are flattened or con-
cave toward the spikelet and convex on the opposite side.
In many Hordese the axis disarticulates at the nodes at
maturity. Such disarticulation often occurs also in other
groups, especially among the Andropogonese. The axis is
sometimes greatly thickened and the surface hollowed
out, the spikelets fitting into the cavities. Such is the
case in Tripsacum, Manisuris and several other genera of
these trit5es,~'antTalso in Stenotaphrum (Fig. 28). In the

116 A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES

latter, however, the inflorescence is really branched,
shortened branchlets with 2 spikelets being borne in each
of the cavities of the axis. Sometimes, as in Tripsacum
and Euchlsena (Fig. 11), the axis disarticulates and the
1-seeded joints become hard bead-like fruits. The cob of
an ear of corn is a greatly thickened axis of inflorescence,
the structure of which is discussed in Par. 202.

The spikes and spike-like racemes of Chloridese and of
many Panicese are 1-sided. Here the axis has developed
so unsymmetrically that the 2 rows of spikelets have been
forced to one side. The axis may appear thin and much
flattened as in many species of Paspalum (e. g., P. repens
and P. stellatum) or somewhat triangular with a row of
spikelets on each of 2 sides, as in crab-grass.

The name rachis is usually applied to the axis of spikes,
and spike-like racemes or panicles, or to the axis of any
contracted inflorescence or portion of an inflorescence.

147. Branching of panicles. — The main branches of a
panicle are known as the primary branches. Those which
arise from these are secondary branches and this name
may be applied to branches of the third or higher order.
The ultimate branches or branchlets which are the stalks
of the individual spikelets are the pedicels and will be
considered when the structure of the spikelet is discussed.
The primary branches of a panicle often appear to be
verticillate or at least more than one from a node. It
will be observed however that in many cases there is 1
primary branch and that the others are secondary branches
developed at the base of a primary branch. If the verticils
are composed of primary branches the aggregation is
due to the failure of the internodes to elongate.

If the several branches originating at one node all stand at
one side of the main axis and those at the next node stand on the

MORPHOLOGY OF THE FLORAL ORGANS 117

opposite side, it indicates that there is 1 primary branch and the
others are basal secondary or even tertiary branches. Blue-grass
and cultivated oat illustrate this. The former normally has 5
branches at the lower node of the inflorescence, one of which, the
longer central one, is a primary branch, the others being branches
of higher order.

148. Motor organs. — In the axils of the primary
branches of open or spreading panicles, and often in the
axils of some of the secondary branches, are to be found
swellings or cushions of tissue. These are motor organs
whose function is to spread the branches of the panicle at
the proper time. This opening takes place when the
spikelets on the branch have reached the stage of anthesis,
and progresses from above downward, the branches at
the base being the last to develop and open. The move-
ment is brought about by an increase in size due to tur-
gidity thereby spreading the branch. Usually these motor
organs act only during anthesis and then harden, but some-
times by losing their turgidity they later bring about a
contraction of the panicle, as in Dactylis glomerata (Fig.
53) and Agrostis alba.

Occasionally the ultimate branches of the inflorescence
do not end in a spikelet. Such branches are known as
sterile branches. The bristles conspicuous in the spike-
like panicles of Chaetochloa are sterile branchlets.

THE SPIKELET

149. The spikelets are the units of the inflorescence
and are borne upon its ultimate branches, the stalks being
called the pedicels. The spikelet consists of a short axis
bearing 1 or more flowers in the axils of 2-ranked imbri-
cated bracts. As an example of a typical spikelet, that

118 A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES

of Eragrostis cilianensis (E. megastachya) may be consid-
ered (Fig. 51). The lower pair of bracts are empty and
are called glumes. The lower is the first glume; the upper
the second glume. The midnerve is the keel. The bracts
above the glumes are regularly arranged on a slender
axis or rachilla, alternately in 2 ranks. These are called
lemmas. In the axil of each lemma, except 1 or more of
the reduced uppermost, there is a flower, and between the
flower and the axis a second smaller bract called the palea.
The lemmas are also keeled and have a pair of lateral
nerves. The palea is 2-keeled, and is inclosed within the
margins of the lemma. The lemma and palea together
with the inclosed sexual organs are called the floret.

The spikelet may be interpreted as a specialized
branch, bearing a series of bracts, or modified leaves, the
lower pair (glumes) being empty, the others (lemmas)
bearing a much specialized branchlet (the flower) in the
axil, the palea being the prophyllum.

The terminology here adopted differs somewhat from that in
common use in early works on agrostology. The terms with which
the student is more likely to come in contact are: For glume, the
terms empty glume and empty scale; for lemma, the terms flowering
glume, flowering scale and lower palea or palet; for palea the altered
spelling palet. The objection to the term scale is that this name is
applied only to modified leaves on a shoot below the foliage-leaves.
The modified leaves of the spikelet are, then, to be included under
the general designation, bracts. It seems desirable, however, that
special terms be adopted for these parts as they are so often used.
In this the writer is following the leading contemporary works on
plant morphology. Again, for the sake of brevity and precision,
there is a distinct advantage in using separate terms for the bracts
containing flowers, and for the empty pair at the base of the spikelet.
Morphologically the glumes and lemmas are equivalent, and hence
the terms empty glume and flowering glume are entirely, proper.
But the constant difference in relation and function justifies the

MORPHOLOGY OF THE FLORAL ORGANS 119

greater distinction of the terms employed for them and the re-
duction of these terms to a single word. The term lemma was first
used by C. V. Piper.*

Linnaeus called the glumes the calyx, and the lemma and palea
the corolla, to coordinate the terms with those used in other groups
of plants. The individual glumes, lemmas and paleas he called
valves. He speaks of the calyx of Panicum as being 1-flowered and
3-valved; of the corolla as being 2-valved; the calyx of Phleum is
1-flowered and 2-valved; the calyx of Poa is 2-valved but contains
many flowers; the calyx of Uniola is 6-valved (referring to the
several empty bracts at the base of the spikelet) and contains many
flowers.

According to Kunth, the spikelet of Sporobolus consists of 2
glumes and 2 paleas; Panicum of 2 glumes, a lower masculine or
neutral flower with 1 or 2 paleas and an upper perfect flower with
2 paleas.

Gray (Man., ed. 5) uses the same terminology as Kunth.
Watson (Gray, Man., ed. 6) uses the terms empty glumes and
flowering glumes.

Bentham (Benth. & Hook. Gen. PI.) calls all the bracts of the
spikelet glumes and applies the term palea properly. If the glume
incloses a flower it is a flowering glume, otherwise an empty glume.
Hence the spikelet of Sporobolus is said to have 3 glumes, 2 empty
and 1 flowering; of Panicum to have 4 glumes, the fourth and some-
times the third a flowering glume.

Stapf. (Fl. Cap.) uses the terms glumes; valves for lemmas, and
pales for paleas.

The spikelet described above may be considered
typical and represents the usual structure in the tribe
Festucese. There are many departures from this type
form, however. The glumes may be 1 or none ; the flowers
in the spikelet may be reduced to 1 or to 1 perfect flower
with additional staminate or sterile flowers above or
below; the glumes or lemmas may be modified in various
ways; or the whole spikelet may be sterile. These modi-

*Contr. U. S. Nat. Herb. 10: 8. March 30, 1906.
Science, N. S. 23: 790. May 18, 1906.

120 A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES

fications will be discussed in detail later. Unisexual
spikelets have been mentioned under Par. 144.

150. Sterile spikelets. — Sterile spikelets are those
which differ from the spikelets with which they are
associated, in lacking sexual organs. For convenience
the term is sometimes made to include spikelets that con-
tain stamens, when such spikelets are the equivalents of the
sterile ones. In Andropogon the spikelets are in pairs, a
sessile fertile one and a second pediceled one, which
in different species may be staminate, empty or reduced
to the pedicel (Fig. 16). This second or pediceled spike-
let is generally referred to as the sterile spikelet. In some
genera in other tribes sterile spikelets occur, usually in a
definite relation to the fertile ones. These sterile spike-
lets are prominent in Achyrodes and Cynosurus. In
Hordeum the spikelets are in clusters of 3, but usually
the 2 lateral are sterile. In Phalaris paradoxa the spike-
lets are in groups of 7 of which 6 are sterile. Sterile spike-
lets (when lacking stamens) are sometimes called neuter
or neutral spikelets. Staminate spikelets, except those
referred to above which have a definite position and are
the equivalents of neuter spikelets, should not be called
sterile spikelets.

151. The pedicel is the stalk of the individual spikelet
and represents the ultimate branching of the inflorescence.
If the pedicel is so short that it is not evident the spike-
let is said to be sessile. On the other hand the pedicels
may be elongated and extremely slender as in Orthoclada.
Sometimes they are slender and nodding, so that the
spikelets vibrate or tremble in the breeze, as in Briza
media, the quaking-grass. The pedicel may be jointed
below the spikelet, in which case the spikelet disarticu-
lates from the pedicel at maturity. This is true of most of

MORPHOLOGY OF THE FLORAL ORGANS 121

tribe Panicese. In the series Poseoideae the pedicel is
usually not jointed below the spikelet but the rachilla
may be articulated below the first lemma, so that at
maturity the upper part of the spikelet falls away leaving
the glumes. There are exceptions in both groups. In
many species of Eragrostis the rachilla remains attached
to the pedicel and the lemmas fall away.

The pedicel is sometimes differently developed in
the same inflorescence, as in many Andropogoneae, where
the spikelets are in pairs, one being sessile and fertile,
the other pediceled and bearing a staminate spikelet or
only a bract which may represent a glume, or the spikelet
may be aborted, the pedicel persisting as a naked stalk.

The pedicel may be grown fast to the axis as in Rytilix
and Manisuris.

152. The glumes are the 2 empty bracts at the base of
the spikelet and are called respectively the first and
second glume. They usually differ in shape, nervation or
texture or in other particulars from the lemmas above
them. Frequently the first glume is smaller than the
second and often has fewer nerves. Sometimes this
reduction goes so far that the first glume is only a vestige
or it may be altogether wanting. Syntherisma shows
various stages in the elimination of the first glume, and
in Paspalum the first glume is generally absent or repre-
sented by a slight ridge. However there are species of
Paspalum in which the first glume may be present or
absent in the same raceme (P. distichum, Paspalum §
Dimorphostachys). The first glume in Eriochloa is usually
represented by a cup-shaped ridge below the normally
shaped second glume, but is present in certain species.
Both glumes are absent in a few genera, such as Reimaro-
chloa and Homalocenchrus.

122 A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES

The student should take careful note of the theoretical relations
of the parts of the spikelet, since it is a knowledge of these relations
that enables one to assign a morphological status to an absent organ.
The glumes and lemmas are morphologically equivalent, namely
bracts. But in the great majority of species of grasses the lower 2
bracts of the spikelet are empty and the others above contain flowers.
By definition the lower pair are called glumes and those above are
called lemmas. The glumes are nearly always differentiated structu-
rally from the lemmas.

The theory of the evolution of organisms teaches us to trace
the development, progressively or retrogressively, of organs through
groups of allied species. Such an examination will usually enable us
to interpret correctly the morphology of the organs. For example, we
wish to know the morphology of the spikelet of Reimarochloa and
Homalocenchrus. In the former we have a spikelet consisting of 1
empty bract and 1 flowering bract. How is this to be interpreted?
In the first place we are confident that the genus belongs to the large
tribe Panicese and that it is closely allied to Paspalum and Panicum.
The typical spikelet of the Paniceae consists of 4 bracts, the upper-
most of which contains a perfect flower. This bract, by definition
a fertile lemma, is distinctly different from those below. The first
and second bracts are empty and by definition are glumes. The third
is by definition also a lemma even though it contains no flower. An
examination of the spikelets of various genera shows that there are
all gradations between species in which the lower lemma, usually
called the sterile lemma, contains a perfect flower (Isachne) to those
which contain stamens, or only a pale a, and finally to those which
are empty. This, of course, confirms the statement that the third
bract is a lemma. No transitions are found between the glumes and
the lemma. But we do find a tendency on the part of the glumes to
retrogress in size. The first glume is usually smaller than the second,
and the retrogression can easily be traced through its slight develop-
ment in Syntherisma and Panicum to its disappearance in Paspalum.
Similarly the second glume shows a tendency to disappear, cul-
minating in its absence in Reimarochloa. Furthermore, there is
no tendency for the second glume to disappear before the first. From
the above we conclude that the single empty bract below the fertile
lemma in Reimarochloa is the sterile lemma, that is, it is homologous
with the third bract or sterile lemma of the typical spikelet of the
tribe.

MORPHOLOGY OF THE FLORAL ORGANS 123

We may also conclude that the 2 organs inclosing the flower of
Homalocenchrus are lemma and palea and that the 2 glumes are
absent, since in Oryza, a closely allied genus, the glumes are present,
though small.

The glumes are sometimes awned, but less frequently
so than are the lemmas. They are variously modified and
distorted in a few genera, the first glumes of a group of
spikelets together forming a sort of involucre around the
group (Anthephora), thickened like a bird's head (Lopho-
lepis), globose and pitted (Rytilix). The large second
glume is covered with hooks in Nazia so that the group of
spikelets becomes a bur. In Alopecurus the glumes are
connate, that is, grown together along the edges to form
a cup (Fig. 39).

153. Anomalous glumes. — The glumes of some genera
of Hordeae show certain anomalies. In Lolium and in a
few allied genera the spikelets are sessile on a flattened
rachis but stand edgewise to this instead of crosswise as
is usual in other genera (Fig. 57). But one glume (the
second) is present and this on the outer side of the spike-
let. It is longer and larger than the lemmas, sometimes
longer than the spikelet, and looks like a subtending bract.
In the terminal spikelet of the spike, however, both
glumes are developed. In Sitanion and some species of
allied genera the glumes are reduced to subulate awns,
these forming a sort of involucre to the groups of spike-
lets. In certain species of Elymus (e.g., E. virginicus L.)
the glumes of the lateral spikelets stand in pairs in front
of the spikelets.

Hochstetter states that the glumes of Hordeum and many
species of Elymus are single but cleft into 2 parts. Schenck thinks
that they are sterile spikelets. (For full discussion, see Bot. Jahrb.
Engler40:97. 1907.)

124 A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES

154. The lemmas are the bracts of the spikelet above
the glumes. They ordinarily subtend flowers but some-
times are empty. The lemmas vary from 1 to many (as
many as 50 in Eragrostis) and except in Streptochseta are
in 2 ranks upon the rachilla. As is usually the case with
bracts, the lemma represents the leaf-base, the blade
not being developed.

Streptochaeta is an anomalous Brazilian genus in which the
lemmas are spirally arranged.

In the more primitive forms of grasses, the lemmas
are usually bract-like in appearance and in a general way
resemble the glumes, being greenish, keeled and nerved.
In more modified forms such as Andropogonese, the lemmas
are often thin and delicate, being entirely inclosed by the
enlarged and indurated glumes. On the other hand, the
lemma may be hardened, as in most Panicese, where the
lemma of the fertile floret is hard, usually smooth and
nerveless. Modification is carried to a greater extent in
the lemma than in any other organ of the grass plant.
For this reason the form of the lemma is of great impor-
tance in classification, its shape, texture and nerving being
uniform within definite limits in any given genus. In
those genera, such as Andropogon and its relatives,
Hilaria, Anthephora and the like, in which the glumes are
enlarged, indurated or otherwise specialized, the lemmas
are found to be thin or small or otherwise to show but
little modification.

In grasses having unspecialized or but slightly modi-
fied glumes, as in most of the genera, the lemmas are
usually strongly characteristic. The lemma, whether
bearing a fertile flower or empty, as in the lower lemma in
most species of Paniceae, or modified into a cluster of

MORPHOLOGY OF THE FLORAL ORGANS 125

awns, as in some species of Chloridese, is to be recognized
by its position on the rachilla. In canary-grass (Phalaris
canariensis L.) there are 2 minute bracts at the base of the
fertile lemma. These are greatly reduced lemmas. The
indurated lemma of J^ipa and Aristida is peculiar in that
it assumes a cylindrical form and extends downward into
a hard, sharp-pointed callus (Figs. 35, 36). At maturity
the fruits, by means of this sharp point and by the
hygroscopic awns at the apex, are able to bury themselves
in the soil. Certain genera of Andropogonese (Hetero-
pogon, Chrysopogon) produce fruits similar in general
appearance to those of Stipa, but in the former the fruit
is developed from a spikelet instead of from a floret.

In Heteropogon and other genera of Andropogoneae with stout
awns, the first glume is indurated, cylindrical and sharp-pointed at
base as in the lemma in Stipa. Within this are the second glume, the
sterile lemma and the fertile lemma, all thin and hyaline, the latter
bearing the long stout awn.

155. Sterile florets and sterile lemmas. — Sterile florets
are those which differ from the perfect florets of the spike-
let in which they are found in lacking pistils. They may
also lack stamens, and consist of a lemma and palea, or
the palea also may be lacking. The lemma of such a
floret is called a sterile lemma. If a lower floret lacks
stamens, then the lemma is the same as the third empty
glume of some authors, when they refer to bracts above
the first pair. In many genera of the series Poaoidese the
upper florets are reduced to sterile florets. In Melica
there may be 2 or 3 sterile lemmas successively convolute
one within another. In most of the genera of Panicoidese
there is a sterile floret below a terminal perfect one. The
sterile floret of Panicum and its allies has been mentioned

126 A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES

before (Par. 152). The sterile lemma of Andropogoneae,
also below the perfect floret as in Panicese, is membrana-
ceous, thinner than the glumes, often very delicate. In
the tribe Phalarideae, there are usually 2 sterile florets at
the base of the terminal fertile floret (Fig. 34). These
lateral florets may be empty (Phalaris, Anthoxanthum)
or staminate (Savastana).

156. The awns are bristle-like continuations of the
nerves of the glumes or lemmas. Awns involve vascular
tissue while hairs of various kinds (trichomes) involve
only epidermal tissue. The commonest position for the
awn is terminal as in Festuca, where the midnerve is
extended as a bristle. Often the apex of the lemma is
cleft and the awn arises from between the lobes or teeth.
Occasionally the 2 teeth thus formed are also awned.
Sometimes the lateral nerves of the lemma extend into
teeth or awns (Tridens).

In the cases mentioned, the central awn is terminal.
Sometimes the awn arises below the apex of the lemma
even nearly at the base, in which case it is said to be dorsal.
When the awn is dorsal, the lemma shows no midnerve
above the point of attachment of the awn or rather above
the point where the midnerve separates from the tissue
of the lemmas, thus forming an awn (Fig. 45). The awns
of Aristida (Fig. 35) are usually trifid, with divergent
often much-elongated branches (as much as 4 inches long
in a South American species). In Pappophorum the
lemma is divided at the summit into many awns. In
other genera the awns are hooked, or bent, or variously
divided, sometimes smooth, but usually scabrous, some-
times plumose. In several genera the awn is jointed at
the base and deciduous, as in Oryzopsis, Nassella, Pipto-
chsetium.

MORPHOLOGY OF THE FLORAL ORGANS 127

Morphologically the awn is thought to represent the
blade, and the lemma the sheath of a primary leaf. If the
awn is dorsal the free portion of the lemma above the
insertion of the awn probably represents the ligule. (See
Domin, Ann. Jard. Bot. Buitenzorg 24:200. 1910.)

157. Twisted awns. — Not infrequently the awns are
spirally twisted. This torsion is well shown in the large
awns of certain species of Stipa, such as the porcupine-
grass of the prairies (S. spartea Trin.). The awns are
several inches long, stout at base but tapering to a fine
point (Fig. 36). The awn at first is straight and untwisted,
but at maturity it bends at 2 points and becomes closely
spirally twisted up to the second bend. The torsion is
very sensitive to atmospheric moisture so that the awn
becomes less twisted or almost straight in moist air and
twists tightly again in dry air. Twisted awns are found
especially in Andropogoneae (Fig. 16), Avenese (Fig. 44),
and Stipa.

158. The palea is the bract standing between the
flower and the rachilla. It is usually 2-nerved or 2-
keeled with the space between the nerves concave and
with the margins bent forward about the flower. It is
homologous with the prophyllum which it resembles in
structure. The palea is usually embraced by the lemma at
the margins, or sometimes entirely inclosed as in Stipa
and Aristida, although it may project more or less at the
apex. Though the palea is usually 2-nerved, it is appar-
ently 1-nerved in a few genera because the 2 nerves are
so close together (e.g., Cinna). So-called 1-nerved paleas
occur only in 1-flowered spikelets. The apex of the palea
is usually rounded or notched but may be toothed, the
teeth being rarely awned. The keels are usually smooth
or scabrous but may be ciliate (Eragrostis), winged (Pleu-

128 A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES

ropogon), or the margins may be greatly enlarged (Ixo-
phorus). The palea is reduced to a nerveless scale or may
be obsolete in Agrostis and in species of Andropogon.
The palea usually falls from the rachilla together with
the lemma but may be persistent upon the axis (e. g.,
Eragrostis, Fig. 51).

159. The lodicules are small organs found at the base
of the floret, outside the stamens. They are usually 2
in number, standing in front of the lemma, close together.
A third lodicule is present in a few genera and is placed
in front of the palea. In the anomalous bamboo genus
Ochlandra there are several lodicules. The function of the
loHIcules is to open the floret at anthesis. They become
turgid and thus spread the lemma and palea apart, later
collapsing and allowing the floret to close by its own
elasticity. The lodicules are interpreted by some to be
homologous with the divisions of a perianth of which only
2 divisions have usually persisted.

160. The stamen consists of a delicate filiform fila-
ment and a 2-celled anther, opening by longitudinal slits.
The anthers are basifixed but so deeply sagittate, as to
appear versatile. There are usually 3 stamens, 1 standing
in front of the lemma and 1 opposite each edge of the palea.
Sometimes there is a second whorl inside of the first and
alternating with it, making 6 stamens (most bamboos,
many Oryzeae). There are various departures from these
numbers. There may be only 2 (Diarrhena), or only 1
(Cinna), rarely 4 in 2 whorls, and in certain anomalous
genera more than 6 (Pariana, Luziola, Ochlandra). The
filaments are more or less connate in a few bamboos and
in Streptochaeta.

From the standpoint of evolution, the species with 6 stamens
in 2 whorls probably represent a more primitive form as this structure

MORPHOLOGY OF THE FLORAL ORGANS 129

would tend to show relationship with the lilies. The species with 1
and 2 stamens evidently show a reduction from the usual 3-stamened
type by the abortion of 1 or more of its members.

161. The pistil is single, with a 1-celled ovary, 2 styles
and 2 stigmas. Occasionally there are 3 styles (Strepto-
chseta, some bamboos), or only 1 (Nardus). There is
apparently only 1 also in corn (the "silk") but this arises
from the union of 2. When there are 2 styles or 2 sessile
stigmas they arise not from the apex of the ovary but
from the sides near th§ apex. Sometimes there is a single
style that divides into 2 branches. The styles of corn are
unusually long and slender thus raising the stigmas out
of the large bracts or husks surrounding the ear. The
stigmas usually consist of papillate or plumose continua-
tions of the styles. The ovary contains a single ovule
grown to the side of the ovary without a funiculus, the
micropyle turned downward. In Streptochseta and Strep-
togyne the long spirally twisted styles and stigmas of
adjacent spikelets become interlaced at maturity.

According to Hackel and others, the pistil is 1-carpeled;
according to Walker, it is made up of 3 carpels (Walker,
"On the Structure of the Pistils of Some Grasses." Univ.
Nebr. Studies 6: No. 3. 1906.)

162. The fruit is usually a caryopsis, the seed being
adherent to the pericarp. The seed-coat is poorly devel-
oped and the pericarp acts as a seed-coat. The caryopsis
is sometimes more or less united with the palea, rarely
also with the lemma. The caryopsis is, however, often
inclosed within the lemma and palea without being adher-
ent to them.

As in flowering plants in general the fruit in the restricted sense
is the ripened ovary and its contents. In a wider sense the fruit is
the ripened ovary together with the adjacent parts which may aid in

130 A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES

protection, germination or dispersal. In the present discussion the
term fruit is used in both senses.

The fruit of Panicum and allied genera consists of
the hard, tightly closed fertile lemma and palea within
which is the caryopsis (Fig. 21). Not infrequently the awn
of the lemma is involved in the fruit and performs an
important function in dispersal or in connection with
germination. This is the case with Stipa (Fig. 36),
Aristida (Fig. 35), Heteropogen and many Avenese.
The fruit may include the surrounding sterile branchlets
forming a bur, as in Cenchrus (Fig. 27); a greatly har-
dened inclosing bract, as in Coix (Fig. 12); the joints of
the rachis in which the spikelet is partially inclosed, as in
Tripsacum; or a combination of rachis joint and long-
awned sterile spikelets, as in Sitanion and Hordeum.

Rarely the ovary ripens into some form other than a
caryopsis. In a few genera such as Sporobolus and Eleu-
sine, it becomes an utricle, the pericarp being thin and not
grown to the seed. In many species of Sporobolus, for
example S. airoides Torr. and S. indicus (L.) R. Br., the
pericarp tends to split vertically into 2 valves, thus being
dehiscent. The pericarp of Eleusine breaks away irregu-
larly. The fruit becomes a nut or a berry in certain
bamboos.

163. The seed consists of an embryo at the base on
one side and of endosperm occupying the remaining por-
tion. If the surface of a caryopsis is examined, the posi-
tion of the embryo is outlined as a depressed usually oval
area at the base on the front side, that is, on the side
facing the lemma. On the opposite side, next the palea,
is the mark called the hilum, which indicates the place
where the seed was attached to the wall of the ovary
(pericarp). The hilum may be elongated if the seed is

MORPHOLOGY OF THE FLORAL ORGANS 131

attached for a considerable distance, or may be puncti-
form, and is characteristic in shape for some genera. There
is often a furrow on this posterior side of the caryopsis in
which will be found the hilum. Since the palea is often
grown to the caryopsis this must be removed when search-
ing for the hilum.

164. The embryo is straight or nearly so, the plumule
directed upward and the young root downward. The
corn grain illustrates the general features of all grass
embryos. An important organ is the scutellum which is
attached to the embryo at the middle and enfolds it,
lying against the endosperm on its outer surface. This
organ is thought to represent the first leaf or cotyledon.
Its function is to absorb the nourishment from the stored
food during germination. In large embryos like the corn
there may be observed on the sides of the epicotyl, or first
joint above the attachment of the scutellum, the begin-
nings of lateral or secondary roots. In other genera the
rudimentary secondary roots usually appear on the
hypocotyl.

165. The endosperm consists mainly of starch,
although there is a considerable amount of oil, which,
however, is mainly in the embryo. On the outside within
the epidermis is a layer of cells containing aleurone, rich
in protein. The stored food is also called albumen by
some authors. The endosperm is hard and corneous or
mealy according to the density of the starch-contain-
ing cells.

166. The rachilla is the axis of the spikelet. It may be
jointed to the pedicel below the glumes (usual in Pani-
coidese), or jointed above the glumes (usual in Poa-
oidese). It may be continuous (Eragrostis, Fig. 51) or
articulated between the florets at maturity (Festuca).

132 A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES

In genera with many-flowered spikelets the rachilla is of
course elongated, while in 1-flowered spikelets it is reduced
so that the floret seems to be terminal. It often extends
beyond the insertion of the upper floret in many-flowered
spikelets but is usually hidden by the upper lemmas. In
1-flowered spikelets the rachilla may extend beyond the
base of the floret. It then appears as a slender sometimes
plumose bristle or stalk pressed against the palea. This
extension of the rachilla sometimes bears a rudimentary
second floret. The first internode of the rachilla above
the glumes is sometimes elongated, forming a stipe to the
floret. This stipe may be developed into a sharp-pointe4
callus, which at maturity aids in seed-dispersal (Stipa,
Aristida). Usually the internodes of the rachilla between
the florets are short, the flor^Jj^ing closely imbricated;
but, occasionally, they are erc^|M, the florets being
rather distant, as in Senites.

A peculiar jointing of the rachilla is to be observed in Festuca
subuliflora Scribn. in which there is an articulation midway between
the distant florets. This is probably due to "a downward elongation
of the callus, surrounding and becoming grown to the rachilla,
which has likewise become elongated so that the joint is still at the
base of the callus." *

* Piper, Contr. U.S. Nat. Herb. 10:36. 1906.

CHAPTER XIII
ECOLOGY

ECOLOGY is that branch of botany which treats of the
relation of plants to their environment. It is often con-
sidered to be a branch of physiology since it is a study of
the response to stimuli. Plants are acted upon by exter-
nal factors, either physical or biological. The response
to these forces determines the plant's adaptation to its
environment. The more ^important ways in which grasses
are influenced by envj^feient will be briefly discussed.

167. The seeds of grasses are for the most part
adapted to dispersal by means of the wind. Some kinds
are so small that they are readily transported in this
manner without any special adaptation. The fruit by
itself (Eragrostis) or inclosed in the lemma and palea
(Poa) is easily blown about by air currents. In Panicum
and its allies the whole spikelet falls away bY_diaartkiila-
ting below the glumes. Among the Andropogonese the
alas of the spike usually disarticulates between the pairs
of spikelets and the resulting joints are sufficiently small
to allow of their being easily transported by the wind.

168. Dispersal by wind. — But the fruit is not infre-
quently modified in such manner as to make wind dis-
persal more effective. A common adaptation is the devel-
opment of silky hairs on some part of the fruit. Such

(133)

134 A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES

hairs are found on the lemmas in Arundo, on the rachilla
joints in Phragmites, on~TKe^whoie spikelet in_Sacciianun
(Fig. 14), on the awns in Stipa pennata L. of Europe and
S. spedosa Trin. & Rupr. of California, on the long pedi-
cels of S. elegantissima Labill. of Australia. Awns and
bristles often aid dispersal by increasing the surface. Clus-
ters ojLspikelets, with their surrounding involucre of_bris-
tles, ^ll_away_froin_the rachis, the bristles catching air
currents. Long-awned species of Hordese^ with disarticu-
lating rachis, are adapted to wind dispersal. Sitanion and
Hordeum are good examples of this. The joints of Sitan-
ion, with their numerous long awns spreading in all direc-
tions, are sent whirling across the open grassland in the
western states. In many species of Aristida (Fig. 35) the
3 awns spread horizontally or are somewhat reflexed. On
the Great Plains it is common to see, at the proper season,
the fruits of these grasses being hurled along by the high
winds, the sharp-pointed callus to the front ready to catch
in the wool or hair of animals. From such fruits it is an
easy transition to wing-fruits, in which the increased sur-
face is furnished by wings, appendages or sterile parts.
The inflated lemma of Briza, the winged crests on the
lemmas of Phalaris, the group of sterile spikelets of
Phalaris paradoxa, all aid in dispersal. In some grasses
the whole inflorescence breaks away and becomes a
"tumble-weed." The panicles of Panicum capillare L.,
Agrostis hiemalis (Walt.) B. S. P., CMoris vertidllata Nutt.
and Eragrostis pectinacea (Michx.) Nees, are familiar exam-
ples. At maturity the panicles separate from the plant
and roll over the surface of the ground before the wind,
the widely spreading branches making the whole very
light. The small fruits are dropped here and there as the
panicle travels. The inflorescence of Schedonnardus panic-

ECOLOGY 135

ulatus (Nutt.) TreL, a common grass in Texas, consists
of several slender distant spikes arranged along a slender
axis. After flowering, the central axis greatly elongates
becoming at the same time somewhat spirally coiled. The
lateral spikes also elongate. There results a loose cylin-
drical skeleton that can be easily rolled along by the wind
after it disarticulates from the parent plant.

An indirect method of adaptation for wind dispersal
is illustrated by the fruits of Eleusine indica^L.) Gaertn.
and Sporobd^i/Maus^L.} R. Br. The pericarp of these,
when" wet7 develops a mucilage by which the seeds_are
enabled to stick to leaves or other objects that may be
blown about T>y the wind. In so far as they are able to
stick to birds or other animals they are adapted also to
this method of dispersal.

169. Dispersal by animals. — Some grasses are adapted
to dispersal by the aid of animals. The species of Cen-
chrus (Fig. 27) produce burs made up of a group of con-
nate branchlets armed with retrorsely barbed spines.
The bur-like spikelet of Nazia produces hooks on the
second glume. The callus of the fruits of Aristida (Fig.
35), Stipa (Fig. 36), Heteropogon, Chrysopogon and
other needle-fruits of this kind, is sharp-pointed and armed
with retrorse hairs. Such fruits readily bore into the
coats of animals. The fruits of certain Hordeae, with
disarticulating rachises, have been mentioned above
under adaptations for wind dispersal Usually in these
fruits, the point of the rachis-joint is sharp and the awns
are antrorsely scabrous (the teeth pointing forward).
They thus are adapted to working their way into the coats
of animals. In Panicum glutinosum of the American
tropics the spikelets are viscid and readily attach them-
selves to a passing body.

136 A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES

GERMINATION

170. The situation of the embryo in the grass seed is
such that by the enlargement and growth of the organs
the plumule and root at once emerge in opposite direc-
tions. The seed remains in position, which is usually
upon the surface of the ground. The primary root at
first elongates but soon secondary roots appear which in
a short time exceed the primary. The plumule pushes up
somewhat later. The first leaf of the plumule acts as a
protecting sheath and never develops into a foliage leaf.
If the seed is below the surface of the soil this sheath,
closed at the apex, elongates until the surface is reached,
when the tip breaks and the bud pushes through. In
many embryos there is a small scale-like organ (epiblast)
at the base of the plumule opposite the scutellum. This
is thought by some to represent a leaf, in which case the
scutellum is the first leaf or cotyledon, and the pro-
tecting sheath of the plumule is the third leaf.

171. The germination of the maize is described at
length by Collins. The protecting sheath he calls the
coleoptyle. Between the coleoptyle and the seed is a more
or less elongated axis to which the name mesocotyl is
given. This portion is called by Hackel and others the
epicotyl on the supposition that it is an internode above
the cotyledon or scutellum. Collins and others consider
the scutellum, epiblast and coleoptyle to be all parts of a
highly specialized cotyledon. Collins also describes the
germination of Hopi and Navajo varieties of maize in
which the mesocotyl elongates greatly, reaching the
enormous length of 25 or even 30 cm. The plumule is
thus able to reach the surface from a corresponding depth.
Such varieties are adapted to dry regions. The usual

ECOLOGY 137

varieties of maize are unable to force the mesocotyl to a
length greater than 10 cm. (Collins, Journ. Agr. Res.
1:293. 1914).

172. Impervious seed-conveyers. — At maturity all
seeds are moderately dry within, that is, for the preserva-
tion of the endosperm during the dormant stage the moist-
ure has been reduced to a minimum. To protect the
contents against further loss of moisture which would
injure or kill the embryo, the seed is enveloped by an
impervious coating, which serves the double purpose of
preventing the loss of moisture from within and the
absorption of moisture from without. The protecting
coating may be in immediate contact with the seed or it
may be developed from some outer coating or organ. If
an outer coating such as the glumes become hardened for
this purpose, then the inner organs, lemma and pericarp
are comparatively thin.

The protective coating is developed from the seed-coat (Sporo-
bolus), pericarp (wheat), lemma and palea (Panicum), glumes
(Andropogon), rachis and glume (Tripsacum), sheathing bract
(Coix), involucre (Cenchrus), or various combinations of these.
In some cases, as in Cenchrus, several seeds are protected by the
same outer coating.

173. Self -burial. — The dormant stage continues
through the season unfavorable for germination, that is,
winter or a dry season. When the season for germination
arrives, the s»eed, under the influence of moisture and
higher temperature, gradually absorbs water, growth is
started, the embryo swells and bursts through its sur-
roundings, and germination has begun. Ordinarily the
seeds are more or less covered with earth or debris by the
action of the wind. But some seeds are aided in self-
burial by the torsion of the awns they possess. The awns

138 A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES

of Stipa (Fig. 36) have already been described (Par. 156).
By the alternate drying and wetting they twist and un-
twist, bend and straighten. The fruits, being provided
with a sharp callus, covered with retrorse hairs, gradually
insinuate themselves into the porous covering of the soil
and finally into the soil itself. As the fruit is heavier at
the base, it tends to fall point down. Awns of this kind
are found upon the fruits of a number of genera, the burial
being brought about by the rotation of the twisted portion
or by the bending and straightening of a geniculate portion
or by a combination of these. Straight awns or bristles
that are antrorsely scabrous undoubtedly act in the
same manner.

Examples of tortion: Stipa, Aristida, Heretopogon, Chryso-
pogon, Sorghastrum, Arundinella, Avena, Danthonia. Examples
of antrorsely scabrous awns: Hordeum, Sitanion.

174. Water grasses. — The seeds of water grasses fall
into the water and remain moist until germination. It
has been shown that the seeds of Zizania ywr/?/.<?/ri.<? are
injured by exposure for any considerable length of time*
to the drying influence of the air.

If the caryopsis at the time of germination is normally inclosed
within outer envelopes, as lemmas or glumes, the embryo must be
able to push its root and plumule through or around these parts.
The usual method is for the root to break through the obstruction
and for the plumule to push up between the parts.

Some of the grains (wheat, rye, corn and kafir) are naked
caryopsides and the growth of the embryo is unhampered. The grain
or caryopsis of the oat is permanently invested by the lemma and
palea. The root breaks through the back of the lemma near the
base and the shoot pushes up between the grain and the lemma,
emerging at the apex. The fruit of barley also consists of the grain
inclosed in the lemma and palea and more or less adherent to the

*For a full discussion of this subject, see Brown & Scofield, "Wild Rice: Its
Uses and Propagation." U. S. Dept. Agric. Bur. PI. Ind, Bulletin No. 50. 1903

ECOLOGY 139

former. Emmer differs from wheat in that the whole spikelet con-
taining several seeds becomes a fruit and breaks away from the
rachis entire. The seed-likeJTiiit of foxtail millet (Chsetochloa italica)
and proso millet (Panicum miliaceum) consists of a coriaceous lemma
and palea tightly inclosing the thin-walled caryopsis. In all these
cases' the root breaks through the back of the lemma near the base
by splitting the tissue and the shoot pushes up through the space
between the caryopsis and the lemma, emerging near the tip. In
Johnson-grass (Holcus halepensis) the grain is enveloped by the
hard glumes and delicate lemma, sterile lemma and palea. The
tissue of the glume appears to be too firm to permit the root to
penetrate, for it passes through between the glumes. The fruit of
tall oat-grass (Arrhenatherum elatius) ™Mi8istg_Af_? fl^rpti^ *m]y th°
second of whichjs fertile. The root passes through the back of the
lemma of this floret. Rice germinates in a manner different from
that of the other fruits described. The ca^yopsis_is_inclosed in the
much-flattened and keeled lemma—and^palea. The shoot breaks
through the back of the lemma at the base and appears first as a
pointed organ at the base of which later emerge the roots.

175. Propagation by bulblets. — Some grasses of high
latitudes and altitudes produce, in the inflorescence,
bulblets in place of ordinary spikelets. Bulblets are
spikelets or portions of spikelets, in which the floral
bractsjiave beentrarisfprmed into small leaves., the whole
becoming a vegetative shoot. These bulblets, which may
be provided with young roots, fall off and produce new
plants. A number of species may, under certain con-
ditions, produce bulblets, while a few do this uniformly in
certain regions (Poa bulbosa L.). Certain species (as Poa
alpina L.) are ordinarily sexual but in extremes of alti-
liuctes and latitudes are asexual. ,

PLANT SOCIETIES

176. So far as concerns their adaptation to environ-
ment based upon condition of moisture, grasses may be

140 A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES

divided into four groups — mesophytes, xerophytes, halo-
phytes and hydrophytes. It should be understood that
there is no sharp line between these groups. There are
transitions in all directions. It is impossible to define
in exact terms the limits that circumscribe these groups.
One cannot, except approximately, say that plants
growing upon soil containing certain definite limits of
moisture shall be classed as mesophytes and that between
other limits the plants shall be called xerophytes. Many
other conditions modify the effect. One must judge
rather by the sum total of the effect upon the plant, that is,
the reaction to environment. If the plant shows general
adaptations that aid it in resisting loss of moisture, the
plant is a xerophyte. However, it often happens that the
soil may contain sufficient moisture a part of the time and
a deficiency at other times. So far as the plant is con-
cerned the critical period is the growing season. A beech
tree is a mesophyte in summer and a xerophyte in winter.
In the summer there is sufficient moisture for its broad
thin leaf -blades. In winter the ground freezes, the
branches and twigs may freeze, moisture can not be sup-
plied to so great a surface, and the surface is reduced by
casting off the leaves. Nevertheless the beech is classed
as a mesophyte. On the other hand, desert regions are
visited occasionally by heavy rains and for a short time
the soil may be saturated. But the plants of these regions
are called xerophytes, because these periods of abundance
are not of sufficient length to effect the general adaptations
of the plants.

177. Mesophytes. — As the name indicates, this group
includes those grasses that thrive under medium condi-
tions of moisture. They are not water plants on the one
hand, and on the other hand are not especially adapted to

ECOLOGY 141

resist evaporation. They include most grasses of swamps,
bogs, moist land along water-courses, and the inhabitants
of forest and woodland. Grasses that become weeds in

cultivated and waste soiljusually belong to th
phytes. In general they have flat blades jmd will endure.
considerable alternation of conditions between__a^ large _

amount of Soil Tnnipf.nre _.8-Tld fl. rnpHpratp amount of

drought.

Familiar examples of mesophytes are the common cultivated
grasses, such as corn, the small grains, sorghum,, ^sugar-cane,. Jlie__
meadow jjasses^ common annual weeds, such as crab-grass and fox-^
tail, and the_shade_grasses of the tropical forests.

Certain areas of open grass land include a mesophytic
flora. Natural meadow land contains too much moisture
to be classed as prairie. Grass land which contains an
excess of water, but not enough to support strictly water
plants, may be classed as bog, swamp, marsh or slough.
The tundra of northern regions includes a large grass
element. It is open wet land — wet because the subsoil is
frozen and there is poor drainage. At high altitudes are
found mountain meadows that support a mesophytic
flora, even though the soil be dry, the low temperature
being the determining factor.

178. Xerophytes. — These are grasses that are fitted
to endure soil conditions in which the moisture content
is deficient. They are, in consequence of this deficiency
provided with especial adaptations to resist evaporation.
In xerophytes belonging to other families of plants, water-
storing organs are common, but among grasses this
adaptation is rare.

Panicum bulbosum H. B. K., of New Mexico, is provided with
a corm which probably acts as a storehouse of moisture. The conns
at the base of some species of Melica, and the chain of corms in

142 A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES

Arrhenatherum elatius bulbosum_(Pa,T. 241) may serve for storage,
although the plant last mentioned is not a xerophyte.

In general, xerophytic grasses have become adapted
to their surroundings by the production of impervious
epidermis or of mechanical tissue in leaves and stems and
by fine foliage. Roll-leaves, described in a preceding
paragraph (Par. 139), are common. The foliage of xero-

and hard from the

excessive development of sclerenchyma fibers _and other
mechajMcaljtissue and the relative lack of soft parenchy-
matous tissue. The stomata are in protected places, in
the longitudinal furrows of the blades or on the insjde_ of
rolled blades. All these structures tend to retard evapo-
ration and prevent the loss of water which cannot readily
be obtained from the dry soil.

There are four chief habitats where xerophytic grasses
may be found, — prairie, sandy soil, rocks and desert.

179. Prairie is open grass land where the soil is deficient
in moisture. If open grass land occurs upon soil in which
there is no deficiency of moisture it may be swamp, tundra
or mountain meadow as indicated under a preceding
paragraph (Par. 177). Prairies are found as isolated
areas interspersed through regions that are chiefly occupied
by a mesophytic flora, as the eastern united States. In
Iowa and Missouri, they occupy large areas, with wood-
land interspersed. A vast prairie extending from Texas
northward far into Canada is called the Great Plains.
Similar regions in western Asia are called steppes and in
South America are called pampas and llanos. In Central
America and in some other countries, they are known as
savannahs (or savannas). The dominant plants of these
prairies and plains are grasses. In general, there are
many species producing rhizomes or stolons so that much

ECOLOGY 143

of the surface is covered by a sod. Stipas and various
Andropogonese, especially Andropogoli, are often dominant
species. Over much of the Great Plains, a single species,
BuWilis dactyloides (buffalo-grass) or this combined with
Bouteloua gracilis (grama -grass) gives a characteristic
aspect^tb~ the vegetation. Those grasses often called
"short grasses" may occupy vast areas almost to the
exclusion of other species of plants. Farther south, the
Bulbilis is replaced by Hitoria cenchroides (curly mes-
quite). This portion of the Great Plains is known locally
as the "short-grass country" because the uniform com-
pact curly growth is only a few inches high. The regions
described above are known as semi-arid regions.

180. Sandy soil. — Plants characteristic of sandy soil
are sometimes called psammophytes. The best illustration
of this kind of xerophytes may be observed upon sand-
dunes. These are found along sandy seacoasts of temper-
ate regions, the sandy shores of lakes, along the banks of
rivers, especially in arid regions, and in dry interior regions
far removed from bodies of water. Such areas are found
in the United States along the Atlantic seaboard, especi-
ally on Cape Cod, along the Great Lakes., especially the
eastern and southern shore of Lake Michigan, and along
certain large rivers, such as the Columbia east of the
Cascades, and the Arkansas in western Kansas. Large
areas of sand hills are found in interior regions such as
central Nebraska.

181. Sand-dunes may be so far removed from water
or in such rapid motion that no vegetation can be sup-
ported. Dunes near the sea, though completely dried
out at the surface may be moist beneath on account of
the drawing of water from below by capillary attraction.
Many grasses of sand-dunes produce a well-developed

144 A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES

system of rhizomes. These do not form a sod as the soil
is too poor in plant-food to support plants sufficiently
near together. Representative species are Ammophila
arenaria and Spg^mo-jpatens (Ait.) Muhl. along the sea-
coast, Calamovilfa longifolia (Hook.) Hack, in the Great
Plains, Elymus^flavescens Scribn. & Smith in the Colum-
bia River basin and Elymus arenarius^ L. of the Alaskan
seacoast. The first mentioned, Ammophila arenaria,
called beach- or mar ram-grass , is a typical sand-binder.
It not only produces widely extending rhizomes which
may reach great depth, but the culms push upward as the
sand drifts around them. (Par. 93).

182. Pine-barrens. — Sandy regions in which there is
a sparse forest-cover represent xerophytic conditions,
though less marked than those of dune areas. The pine-
barrens of the Atlantic coastal plain are typical of these
regions. They are mostly level areas covered with open
pine woods. Southward they include the turpentine
country, and in Florida they become the "high pine land"
and the still more xerophytic "scrub." These regions are
the home of the smaller species ^i_Bajii£um and many
other peculiar grasses.

183. Rocks. — On account of the impervious sub-
stratum, plants growing upon rocks are insufficiently
provided with water unless near some source of supply,
such as spray from a waterfall, springs, melting snow and
the like. Hence xerophytic grasses may occur in a meso-
phytic region. Such grasses a.rgj}i i n rl>gmssesas_rhizornes
do not develop under these conditions.

184. Deserts. — Regions in which the deficiency in the
water-content of the soil is greater than in prairie and in
which the humidity of the atmosphere is very low, are
called deserts, or arid regions. Deserts owe their aridity

ECOLOGY 145

primarily to scanty rainfall rather than to soil conditions,
as in the case of rocks and sand-dunes. They are so
situated that the prevailing winds have been previously
deprived of their moisture by passing over mountains.
The chief desert region of the United States is found in
the Great Basin from the plains of the Columbia in eastern
Washington southward through Arizona to the Mexican
plateau. The aridity increases southward and reaches
its maximum in the Colorado Desert of southeastern
California. The annual rainfall is less than 20 inches,
often less than 10 inches. On account of the higher tem-
perature and longer summers the aridity increases
southward even though the rainfall may remain the
same. Other desert regions are found along the
Pacific slope in Peru and northern Chili, in the interior
of Australia and Asia, and the Sahara Desert of north
Africa.

The perennial grasses of deserts are for the most part
bunch-grasses and on account of the scarcity of moisture
the bunches are widely scattered. In contradistinction
to the other xerophytic regions, deserts are inhabited by
several species of annual grasses. Such grasses are adapted
to the distributiolTbl the rainfall. This usually comes in
occasional heavy showers. Immediately after such a
shower the seeds of annuals germinate, deyelop rapidly
and mature seed before the effects of the shower have'
passed away. This adaptation to seasonal moisture is
especially marked if the showers are concentrated within
a certain period of the year forming a rainy season. In
southern Arizona there are usually two such rainy sea-
sons, one in winter and one in summer, with a correspond-
ing growth of annuals, many of them grasses, after each
period of rainfall. In all desert regions the grasses tend
j

146 A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES

to collect in depressions or drainage basins where the
water from showers remains longest.

185. Halophytic grasses are those that grow in soil
containing an excess of mineral salts. In general they are
known as salt-marsh plants. They are found in the salt-
marshes of the seacoast and of interior alkali regions.
The soil that supports halophytes may not be lacking in
water, but the presence of soluble salts increases the
density of the soil-water and hence renders it less easily
absorbed by the root-system of the plant. Although
growing in water or wet soil, the plants have difficulty in
obtaining the necessary water-supply and consequently,
to avoid injury from loss of water through evaporation,
xerophytic characters have been developed. Among these
characters may be mentioned harshness due to the pres-
ence of mechanical tissue, roll-leaves, and succulence.
Familiar examples of halophytic grasses are Smarting
glabra^ Muhl. of the Atlantic coast salt-marshes and
Distichlis spicata (L.) Greene of the interior alkali plains.

186. Hydrophytes are water plants. They grow in
the water, either submerged or from soil that is perma-
nently saturated. Only a few grasses, such as thjdrochloa

are nearly or quite submerged. But

there are many that inhabit permanent fresh-water or
brackish marshes. To this group belong

L. (Indian rice), Zizaniopsis miliacga (Michx.) Doll &
Asch., PagpaZumjjiggectoz^L. and P. repens Berg. Pjm-
curn^ elephantipes Nees and Echinochloa sabulicola Nees
of the American tropics are succulent hydrophytes, grow-
ing in several feet of water. Paspalum repens, of Pan-
ama, forms long runners that floatTupon the surface of
the water, buoyed up by their inflated sheaths.

Swamp-grasses as distinguished from marsh-grasses

ECOLOGY 147

are usually to be classed with mesophytes, because they
are subject to much fluctuation in the water-supply. The
soil may be saturated at one time and moderately dry
at another time. Swamp-grasses often show xerophytic
characters, especially roll-leaves. During the early part
of the growing season, particularly in the North, the air
at least during the day is warm while the roots are im-
mersed in the cold substratum. There is thus danger of
the loss of water by evaporation from the leaves faster
than the cold sluggish root-system can supply it; hence
the presence of roll-leaves.

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION

187. Geographical distribution of plants is their
range or dissemination over the surface of the earth.
The present distribution is the result of causes which
have acted through an indefinitely long period of time and
often over areas of continental extent. Every species of
plant occupies its present area by virtue of its ability to
adapt itself to its environment. If the environmental
conditions change, the plants concerned must become
adapted to the new conditions, or they are forced to mi-
grate, or, failing in this, they become extinct. It is not
the purpose here to discuss the causes that have brought
about these changes, but merely to outline the present
distribution of the grass family. For a further discussion
the student is referred to the works dealing with the
evolution of plants, especially those of Darwin, Wallace,
Hooker and, Gray.

Darwin: "Origin of Species." Wallace: "Darwinism," "Island
Life," "The World of Life," and other works. Hooker: "Distri-
bution of Arctic Plants." Gray: "Collected Essays."

148 A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES

188. Distribution of grasses. — As stated in a preceding
paragraph (Par. 121), the grasses are represented in all
parts of the earth's land-surface where the conditions are
suitable for the growth of flowering plants, from sea-level
to the snow-line on the high mountains, from Greenland
to the antarctic continent, from swamp to desert, and
from the deep forest to the clefts of the boldest cliff. The
great tribes Andropo^oneae and Panicese predominate in
the warmer regions, while the Agrostidese and Festiicese
predominate in the qooler^jegions. Space will not permit
of detailed references to the distribution of genera and
species. Small genera are often much restricted in their
area while large genera are usually distributed over a
wide area. The great genera Andropogon, Panicum,
Paspalum and Eragrostis are found throughout the tropics
of BoEE^Efimi^Her6S7 Muhlenbergia and Bouteloua, also
large genera, are confinedUcTthe American continent and
are especially well represented onjthe Mexican plateau.
Poa and Festuca are found In all continentspbuT mostly
in the "c^oTerregions, extending to the northern and
southern limit of vegetation, and well represented in
alpine regions, even of the high mountains of the tropics.

189. Distribution of species. — Species also vary greatly
as to the extent of the area in which they are found.
Certain agressive species known as weeds are now wide-
spread over extensive areas of both hemispheres. Crab;
grass (Syntherisma sanguinalis) and goose^grflfia (Eleusine
indica (L.) Gaertn.) are familiar examples. Heteropogon
contortus (L.) Beauv. is an example of a similarly wide-
spread species which is native throughout its area. Many
species of the seashore and of marshes are likewise exten-
sively distributed. Spa/t^^ and Ammo^Mla
arenaria are found on the seacoast of Europe and America,

ECOLOGY 149

the one in salt-marshes the other upon sand-dunes.
Many species have a circumpolar distribution* and often
extend southward along the mountain ranges. Poa
alpina, found at sea-level within the arctic circle, extends
southward in the Rocky Mountains to Colorado where it
is found on alpine summits.

190. Circumpolar distribution. — Those species that
are indigenous to North America and Eurasia usually
show evidence, by a present circumpolar distribution,
such as that of Poa alpina and many others, of a common
origin in polar regions; or they suggest the probability
of such distribution in the past. During a preceding
warm epoch, when vegetation zones lay farther north
than now, many species were circumpolar that afterward
were driven south by the succeeding ice period. These
species survived only where they found conditions suited
to their requirements. Some were driven along the moun-
tain ranges; others were driven along the coastal regions.
As the climates of the northeastern coasts of North
America and Asia are similar, there are many cases where
the same or similar species of plants inhabit both
regions, f Among grasses one notes the genera Diarrhena
and Zizania, each represented by similar species in the
two regions and not found elsewhere.

191. Generic distribution. — Sometimes large genera
show a special development in certain areas although
there may be scattering species in regions remote from
the areas of greatest development. The genera Bouteloua
and Muhlenbergia, mentioned above, are represented by
numerous species on the tableland of Mexico, although
certain species of the former are found as far south as

*Hooker, "Distribution of Arctic Plants."

tGray, "Analogy between the Flora of Japan and that of the United States."

150 A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES

Argentina, and of the latter as far north as New England,
and west even to eastern Asia. The subgenus Dichan-
thelium of the immense genus Panicum is represented
by nearly 100 species in southeastern United States, but
there are a few species extending to the state of Washing-
ton, and others through the West Indies and Mexico to
northern South America. Danthonia, with over 100
species, centers in South Africa, but several species are
found in America and other countries.

CHAPTER XIV
TAXONOMY OR CLASSIFICATION

UNDERLYING all present systems of classification of
living organisms is the doctrine of evolution, that all
organisms are descended from other more or less dis-
similar organisms and that in the course of such descent
there is an inherent tendency to vary. Classification is
an attempt to group organisms in a manner that shall
represent, as nearly as our knowledge permits, actual
genetic relationships.

192. Species. — The size and limits of the proposed
groups are influenced by convenience. The unit of bio-
logical classification is the species, a term however which is
difficult to define. A species includes all those individuals
that show as much resemblance to each other as they
might be expected to show if they were all known to be
descended from a common and comparatively recent
ancestor. As the genetic history of the individuals is not
known, the grouping into species is an expression of the
opinion of the biologist, and his opinion is based upon
judgment and experience. It should be kept in mind that
a species is a taxonomic idea* and is not an entity the
existence of which can be proved. For this reason,
taxonomists often disagree as to the limits of species.
The more experience a botanist has had with plants,
especially with living plants in their native habitat, the

*"The name itself is but the expression of a taxonomic idea." Greene,
"Landmarks of Botanical History," p. 122.

(151)

152 A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES

more may his judgment be trusted when defining the
limits of species with which he is familiar, and the more
nearly should his taxonomic ideas approach the truth.
The truth for which the taxonomist seeks is a knowledge
of genetic relationships; the grouping of organisms into
species, genera and other divisions is a convenience which
is intended as nearly as may be to express this truth.
In the ever-diverging lines of descent, certain groups of
individuals have been cut off, as it were, from their allies,
so that in these cases the species of the taxonomist prob-
ably does express the truth. In other cases the groups
are in process of formation and separation, and are not
actually distinct. It is here that the taxonomist meets his
greatest difficulties. Even with complete knowledge, his
taxonomic ideas can be no more distinct than are the
groups as they exist in nature. In proportion to his lack
of knowledge is the probability that his taxonomic ideas
fail to represent the truth. It follows, then, that a
classification submitted by a botanist is accepted by his
co-workers in proportion to their faith in his judgment and
their knowledge of his experience. The members of a
complex group of allied species may have been defined
and their limits placed with approximate accuracy and
yet it may be impossible definitely to refer every individual
to its proper species. According to the degree of divergence
of allied species in their descent from a common origin,
there are a greater or less number of intermediate indi-
viduals. The existence of individuals intermediate between
two species should not invalidate those species; rather
they emphasize the fact that species do not exist in nature,
that they are ideas according to which most of the indi-
viduals may be classified.

193. Genera. — A genus is a group of species that are

TAXONOMY OR CLASSIFICATION 153

thought to be closely related genetically. The species of
a genus will show similarity in fundamental characters,
such as the structure of the flowers and fruit, and usually
also a similarity in habit, or general aspect.

Familiar genera are the oaks, the pines, the asters, the golden-
rods; or, among grasses, the blue-grasses and the wheat-grasses, the
millets and the bromes.

As genera do not exist in nature, but represent the
taxonomist's ideas as to groups of related species, botanists
may not agree as to the limits of genera. The size of
genera, that is, the number of species included, is some-
times a matter of convenience. Conservative botanists
would probably not recognize Panicum and Paspalum as
separate genera, when considering the generic characters
only, but each group contains such a large number of
species that the two have been kept distinct for conve-
nience. Some species are so different from their nearest
allies that they cannot be consistently grouped with
other species. Such a species stands as the sole rep-
resentative of its genus, and the genus to which it belongs
is called a monotypic genus. It not infrequently happens
that after a monotypic genus is established other species
are discovered, which are assigned to it, and it ceases to
be monotypic. In contrast with monotypic genera are
others, such as Panicum, Andropogon and Poa, with hun-
dreds of species. Large genera may sometimes be con-
veniently divided into smaller groups, such as subgenera
and sections.

From a nomenclatorial standpoint the term monotypic is used
to indicate genera with only one species at the original place of
publication. Cook suggests the word haplotypic for such genera.
(Amer. Nat. 48:311. 1914.)

154 .A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES

194. The grass family and its subdivisions. — The

genera of plants are grouped into families, and these into
orders and higher divisions of the vegetable kingdom.
The grass family is called Poacese or Gramineae, and this
with the Cyperaceae (sedges) constitute the order Poales
or Glumifloras.

The term Poales is used for the order in the "North American
Flora," the termination -ales being uniformly added to a generic
stem to form the names of orders. Glumiflorse is used by Engler
and Prantl in their "Pflanzenfamilien." Glumaceae is used by Ben-
tham and Hooker ("Genera Plantarum") as the name of the series
that includes Eriocaulese, Centrolepidese, Restiaceae, Cyperacese and
Gramineae. The classification here adopted is in the main that of
Bentham and Hooker ("General Plantarum") and of Hackel
("Pflanzenfamilien"). The latter author will be followed in the
enumeration of the tribes. Although Hackel's classification is in
some respects artificial, it is on the whole the most natural arrange-
ment yet proposed.

The family Poaceae has been divided for convenience
into 2 series and 13 tribes.

195. The 2 series of tribes. — Modern agrostologists
usually divide the genera of grasses into 2 series. The
first series Panicoidese (or Panicaceae), the more highly
developed or modified, is characterized as follows: Spike-
lets with j^ terminal perfect floret and often a staminate
or neutral floret below; an articulation below the spikelet,
sometimes in the pedicel, sometimes in the rachis, some-
times at the base of a cluster of spikelets, the spikelets
falling away at maturity singly or in groups, or with
portions of the rachis; spikelets usually more or less
dorsally compressed, rarely laterally compressed. The
second series, Poaeoidege, is characterized as follows:
Spikelets with 1 to many florets, the imperfect ones
when present lisualij^Beiiig above; rachilla often artic-

TAXONOMY OR CLASSIFICATION 155

ulated above the glumes; spikelets usually laterally
compressed.

There are exceptions to all these characters. In some
cases the exceptional genera are clearly related to others
that conform to the above definitions. Other genera are
more or less anomalous and are tentatively placed in the
category to which they seem most nearly related. In
Isachne the lower floret is perfect and similar to the
upper, but it is evidently allied to Panicum and hence is
placed near that genus in the first series. Several genera,
such as Sphenopholis, Spartina and Alopecurus, have an
articulation below the spikelet so that the latter falls
from the pedicel, in which respect they agree with the
first series, but in most characters they agree with the
second series, in which they are placed. In Phalaridese
of Series II the imperfect florets are below the terminal
perfect one.

196. The tribes of grasses. — There are 6 tribes hi the
first series and 7 in the second. The following key to
these tribes is not made to cover exceptional genera, since
to do this for the sake of a comparatively few genera
would make the keys unnecessarily complex/.

SERIES I

A. Spikelets round or dorsally compressed; hilum

short.
B. Lemmas and palea very thin and hyaline,

the glumes much thicker,
c. Inflorescences monoecious, the staminate
and pistillate flowers in different parts

of the same plant Tribe 1. MAYDE.E

cc. Inflorescences not monoecious, usually a (Chap. 15).

mixture of perfect and staminate or

neutral spikelets Tribe 2. ANDROPOGONE.E

BB. Lemmas and( paleas membranaceous or (Chap. 16).

thicker, not thin and hyaline,
c. Lemmas thinner than the glumes.

156 A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES

D. Spikelets falling off singly or in groups

from a continuous rachis; the first

glume usually larger than the second.

Tribe 3.

DD. Spikelets falling off singly from the (Par. 212).

ultimate branches of a panicle; first
. glume smaller than the second.

Tribe 4. MELINIDE^E
cc. Lemmas thicker than the glumes, hard- (Par. 213).

ened Tribe 5. PANICE.E

AA. Spikelets laterally compressed; hilum linear* (Chap. 17).

Tribe 6. ORYZEJE

(Chap. 18).

SERIES II

A. Culms woody. Tribe 13. BAMBTJSE^E

AA. Culms herbaceous. (Par. 270).

B. Spikelets in spikes or spike-like racemes,
c. Spikelets crowded on one side of the

rachis Tribe 10. CHLORIDES

cc. Spikelets on opposite sides of the rachis. (Chap. 22).

Tribe 12. HORDED

BB. Spikelets in contracted or open panicles. (Chap. 24).

c. Spikelets with 1 perfect floret.

D. Perfect floret with 2 sterile lemmas

below Tribe 7. PHALARIDE^

DD. Perfect floret solitary, no sterile lemmas (Chap. 19).

below Tribe 8. AGROSTIDE^E

cc. Spikelets with 2 or more florets. (Chap. 20) .

. D. Lemmas awned from the back; glumes
usually longer than the first lemma.

Tribe 9. AVENE^
DD. Lemmas awned from the tip or awn- (Chap. 21).

less Tribe 11. FESTUCE.E

(Chap. 23).

THE MOKE IMPORTANT GENERA OF GRASSES

197. Hackel recognizes over 300 genera of grasses,
and some writers, including the author, recognize many
more, probably 400 in all. Only a few of the more im-
portant genera are described in the present work, the
selection being based upon the size of the genus, or the

* In Gray's "Manual" this tribe is placed in Series II (Gray, Man. ed. 7, p. 88.

TAXONOMY OR CLASSIFICATION 157

economic value of included species. Keys are given to all
genera native or commonly cultivated in the United
States.

198. Characters used in classification. — The con-
sensus of botanical opinion is that genetic relationships
among phanerogams are best shown by the structure of
the flowers. Grasses are no exception to this rule, and
hence the classification is based upon the structure of the
spikelets. The preceding key indicates the characters
used in classifying the tribes. The classification appears
to be somewhat artificial, but nevertheless it brings to-
gether in the same tribe genera that are evidently related.
But it also in some cases, separates into different tribes
genera that are closely related. Reference will be made
to some of these cases again in the appropriate place.

199. Phylogeny. — As to the phylogeny of the grasses,
it is probable that the most primitive existing forms are
those in which the spikelet consists of a series of flowers
in the axils of herbaceous bracts. The simpler genera of
Bambusese, such as Arundinaria, probably represent the
lower or more primitive forms. It must not be understood
that this tribe is, as a whole, less developed than the other
tribes. Some genera are highly developed. There is good
ground for believing, however, that the Bambusese arose
from forms more primitive than those that gave rise to
the other tribes. The Festuceae and Hordese probably come
next in phylogenetic development, while the Andro-
pogonea3 and Paniceae are highly developed. The exact
relationship of the various tribes and the smaller groups
is, of course, for the present largely a matter of conjecture
and individual opinion. Phylogenetic ideas are expressed
by the grouping of forms rather than by attempting to
trace lines of descent. We may group allied species into

158 A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES

genera and allied genera into higher groups without com-
mitting ourselves as to how the various groups came to
.be what they are. The modern tendency is toward a
grouping of species in all large genera. Some of these
groups are recognized under the formal titles of sub-
genera, sections and subsections. But it is often con-
venient to form smaller groups centering around well-
known or widespread species.

Ascherson and Grabner bring together closely allied species
under the heading Gesammtart (Syn. Mit.-Eur. FL). In our recent
revision of the North American Species of Panicum (Contr. U. S.
Nat. Herb. 15) these minor groups or species were indicated by the
plural of the leading species, e.g., the allies of Panicum dichotomum
were grouped under Dichotoma.

CHAPTER XV
TRIBE I. MAYDE^E

This tribe is scarcely more than a division of the next
tribe, Andropogonese, from which it differs in the sepa-
ration of the staminate and pistillate inflorescences. The
structure of the spikelets in the 2 tribes is similar.

KEY TO THE GENERA OP MAYDE^J

A. Staminate and pistillate spikelets in separate
inflorescences, the former in a terminal
tassel, the latter in the axils of the leaves.

B. Pistillate spikes distinct, articulated EUCHI^ENA

BB. Pistillate spikes grown together forming (Par. 201).

an "ear" ZEA (Par. 202).

AA. Staminate and pistillate spikelets in separate
portions of the same spike, the pistillate
below.

B. Spikes short, the 1- to 2-flowered pistillate
portion inclosed in a bead-like sheathing

bract Coix (Par. 203).

BB. Spikes many-flowered, the pistillate portion
breaking up into several 1-seeded joints;

no bead-like sheathing bract TRIPSACTTM

(Par. 200).

200. Tripsacum L. — The terminal inflorescence con-
sists usually of a cluster of spikes the lower portions of
which are pistillate and the upper portions staminate.
The pistillate portion consists of a series of joints which
disarticulate at maturity forming bony cylindrical or
angled seed-like parts made up of the thick axis and an
imbedded spikelet. The spikelet consists of a hard first
glume which closes the spikelet within the joint of the
rachis, a thinner second glume, a sterile lemma with a

(159)

160

A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES

palea, and a fertile floret, the latter all hyaline. The
staminate spikelets are in pairs on a slender rachis. The
spikelet consists of 2 coriaceous glumes and 2 florets with
stamens, the lemmas and paleas being hyaline. Besides
the terminal inflorescence there are usually in the axils
of the leaves others that may be reduced to a single spike.
One species, T. dactyloides L., a coarse perennial found
through eastern and southern United States, is an excel-
lent forage grass, sometimes called gama-grass. A few
other species are found in Mexico.
201. Euchlaena Schrad.— Teo-
sinte. The staminate flowers are
in a terminal panicle while the
pistillate are in spikes in the axils
of the leaves. The staminate
spikelets are similar to those of
Tripsacum. The spike of pistillate
spikelets breaks up at maturity
into rhomboidal seed-like joints.
The styles are very long and
protrude from the top of the
inclosing leaf -sheath. The best
known species is E. mexicana
Schrad. (Fig. 11), a native of
FIG. 11. Euchlaena mexi- Mexico. This is a coarse annual

cana. Portion of plant reduced ; , , . . .

a pistillate inflorescence, XIA, resembling corn, cultivated in the

and 4 fertile spikelets XI (U.S. * '

Dept. Agr. Div. Agrost. Bull, southern United States as a for-
age plant, chiefly for green fodder.

There are 1 or 2 other species in Mexico and Central
America. A hybrid between Euchlsena and Tripsacum is
described by Collins and Kempton. The pollen was fur-
nished by a variety of Euchlsena from Durango, Mexico
(Journ. Wash. Acad. Sci. 4: 114. 1914).

MAYDEJE 161

202. Zea L. — Indian corn, maize. This genus is
represented only by the cultivated maize (Z. mays L.),
and is not known in the wild state. There are several
well-marked varieties, such as dent, pop and sweet, which
are thought by some to be distinct species. Like the pre-
ceding genus, the staminate inflorescence is separate from
the pistillate. The former is a terminal panicle called the
tassel and the latter, a thick spike surrounded by leafy
bracts or husks, is called the ear. The staminate spikelets
are in pairs on the rachis, 1 sessile and the other pediceled,
each 2-flowered, the thin lemmas and paleas being shorter
than the firm glumes. The ear consists of several close
rows of pistillate spikelets upon a greatly thickened axis,
the cob. The spikelet consists of 2 glumes, a sterile lemma
with a small palea, and a fertile lemma and palea. All
these bracts remain at the base of the mature grain as
coriaceous chaff on the cob. The numerous single styles
protrude from the ear and form the "silk." There is a
potential ear in every leaf-axil but usually only one de-
velops into a perfect ear. In one variety, called pod-corn,
each kernel is enveloped in the elongated floral bracts.

There has been much speculation as to the origin of corn. Some
have thought that it has been developed from Teosinte, others that
the original wild form has become extinct. It is more likely that it is
a hybrid between Teosinte and an unknown or extinct species re-
sembling pod-corn. (Collins "The Origin of Maize," Journ. Wash.
Acad. Sci. 2:520. 1912.)

Corn has been cultivated from prehistoric times by
the early races of American aborigines, from Peru to
middle North America, and is now cultivated throughout
the world in warmer regions for food for man and do-
mestic animals. The chief varieties are dent, the common
commercial field variety, flint, formerly common in the
K

162

A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES

northern states, sweet and pop. A starchy variety called
flour corn is grown in South America and pod-corn is

occasionally cultivated as
a curiosity. A form with
variegated leaves is culti-
vated in gardens for orna-
ment. (For further notes
on classification see Mont-
gomery, "The Corn Crops"
15. 1913.)

203. Coix L. — Only 1 species
is common, the Job's-tears (C.
lacryma-Jobi L.) (Fig. 12),
which is cultivated for orna-
ment and escaped as a weed in
the tropics. It is a handsome
broad-leaved species, reaching a
height of 4 to 6 feet. The
inflorescences are several on
each plant, each being at the
end of a long peduncle on the end
of which is an urn-shaped indurated
bead-like bract, supporting the base
of the simple spike, pistillate at base
and staminate above. The pistillate
portion consists of 1 fertile spikelet
with 1 or 2 sterile ones, inclosed in
the urn-shaped bract, the 2-cleft
style and the tips of the sterile spike-
lets protruding through the open-
ing at the top. The glumes of the
fertile spikelet are broad, hyaline
with membranaceous tips, the lemmas

FIG. 12. Coix lacryma-
Jobi. Inflorescence show-
ing several pistillate beads,
the staminate spikes pro-
truding, X%.

MAYDE& 163

and palea delicately hyaline. The staminate upper por-
tion of the inflorescence also protrudes from the opening
for an inch or two. This consists of a. few spikelets in
pairs, the structure being similar to that described above
for the other genera. At maturity the staminate portion
of the inflorescence disarticulates, the sheathing bract
containing the seed forms an ivory- like ovoid fruit, from
white to bluish gray in color, that separates by a joint
from the peduncle. These fruits are used as beads for
ornament.

CHAPTER XVI
TBIBE II. ANDROPOGONE^J

THIS great tribe is represented in the warmer regions
of both hemispheres but is absent from the arctic and
alpine regions and is poorly represented in the cooler
temperate regions. The spikelets are usually arranged in
pairs at each joint of a spike-like raceme, 1 sessile, the
other pedicelled. The rachis of the raceme is usually
articulated and breaks up at maturity into joints. The
racemes are often woolly with long hairs and may be
arranged in a compound inflorescence. Sometimes the
racemes are reduced to the terminal joint of 3 spikelets,
in which case the compound inflorescence is a panicle,
as in Johnson-grass. The spikelets nearly always consist
of 2 glumes, at least 1 of which is firm or indurated, a
sterile lemma, and a terminal fertile floret. The bracts
above the glumes are usually thin and hyaline. The fertile
lemma often bears a bent or twisted awn. Grasses of this
kind are commonly abundant on savannas and plains in
the tropics and in prairie regions of the United States, and
many species are useful forage grasses. There are about
50 genera in the tribe but only a few contain species of
interest to Americans. Of the 5 sub-tribes, only 2 will be
mentioned here.

KEY TO THE GENERA OF ANDROPOGONE^E

A. Axis of the spike glabrous, much thickened,
with excavations holding the spikelets; fertile
lemma awnless.

(164)

ANDROPOGONEJS 165

B. First glume flattened or somewhat convex.

Florida MANISURIS.

BB. First glume hard and globular, pitted.

Florida to Arizona RYTILIX.

AA. Axis of the spike or raceme hairy, not exca-
vated nor greatly thickened; fertile lemma
usually awned.
B. Spikelets all alike.

c. Axis of racemes continuous.

D. Racemes in a narrow spike-like panicle;

spikelets awnless. Florida IMPERATA.

DD. Racemes in a broad fan-shaped panicle;

spikelets awned MISCANTHUS

cc. Axis of racemes breaking up into joints; (Par. 204).
racemes in a much-branched panicle on
a main axis.

D. Spikelets awned ERIANTHUS

(Par. 206).

DD. Spikelets awnless SACCHARUM

BB. Spikelets not all alike, one of the pair perfect, (Par. 205).
the other staminate, neutral or reduced to
a pedicel.

c. Fertile spikelet pedicelled, with a long
plumose awn; sterile spikelet nearly

sessile, awnless TRACHYPOGON.

cc. Fertile spikelet sessile; sterile spikelet

pedicelled; axis articulate.
D. Spikelets awnless; raceme, solitary, ter-
minating the culm ELIONURUS.

DD. Spikelets awned; racemes 1 or more
from each sheathing bract but not
solitary on the culms; sometimes re-
duced to the terminal joint of 3 spike-
lets and borne in panicles.
E. Sessile spikelets all alike in the same
raceme.

F. Racemes several-flowered ANDROPOGON

FF. Racemes reduced to 1 or 2 joints, (Par. 208).
these in panicles.

G Awn several inches long CHRYSOPOGON.

GG. Awn short.

H. Plants perennial, without rhi-
zomes; sterile spikelet re-
duced to a pedicel SORGHASTRUM.

HH. Plants perennial, with rhi-
zomes, or annual; sterile

spikelets staminate HOLCUS

BE. Sessile spikelets at the base of the (Par. 210).

spike different from the others.

166

A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES

F. Racemes solitary at the ends of the

branches. . . HETEROPOGON.

FF. Racemes in pairs from a sheathing

bract, these in panicles CYMBOPOGON

(Par. 209).

SUBTRIBE SACCHARE^E

Spikelets perfect, all alike. The genera here mentioned have
large compound inflorescences of woolly racemes.

204. Miscanthus Anderss. — Tall coarse perennials
with large panicles, axis of the racemes not articulated.
One species/ M. sinensis Anderss. (Eulalia japonica Trin.)
(Fig. 13), a native of eastern Asia, is cultivated for orna-
ment. This grass grows in large bunches, with numerous
narrow leaves, 2 to 4 feet long, tapering to a slender point,
slender upright flower-stalks 4 to 6 feet high bearing a
fan -shaped cluster of woolly
spikes 6 to 12 inches long. There
are 3 varieties in cultivation : var.
variegatus, with striped leaves;
var. zebrinus, with banded leaves;
and var. gradllimus with leaves
much narrower than in the other
forms. Two other species are
occasionally cultivated, — M. sac-
charifer Benth., with nearly or
quite awnless spikelets, and M.
nepalensis Hack. (Himalaya fairy-
grass), with spikelets one-fourth
as long as the brown involucral
hairs.

205. SaccharumL. — The best-

FIG. 13. Miscanthus sinensis. . . ,

Plant much reduced, spikelet, known SpCClCS IS the SUgar-Cane
X3. (U. S. Dept. Agr.. Div. , ~ „ . _ x /T,. . .\ , „

Agrost., Buii, 20.) (,S. officinarum L.) (Fig. 14), a tall

ANDROPOGONE&

167

coarse grass with broad blades and a large woolly plume-
like panicle as much as 2 feet long. The unawned spike-
lets are similar to those of the preceding genus, but the
axis of the racemes is articu-
lated. The native country of
sugar-cane is not known, but it
is now cultivated in all tropical
countries. Although it produces
seed occasionally it is propa-
gated by cuttings of the stem.

206. Erianthus Michx. — The
inflorescence resembles that of
the preceding genus, but the
spikelets are awned. One species
(E. Ravennce Beauv.), a native
of the Mediterranean region, is
cultivated for ornament under
the name of plume-grass, wool-
grass, Ravenna-grass, or hardy
pampas-grass. It is a tall peren-
nial with narrow blades and a

Fia. 14. Saccharum ofncinarum.
Plant much reduced; three joints
of the rachis (a), a spikelet (6), and
,., . , , _ a flower (c), X3. (U.S. Dept.Agr.,

plume-like panicle, as much as 2 Div. Agrost., Bull. 20.)

feet long.

SUBTRIBE EUANDROPOGONE^E

207. Spikelets not all alike, the sessile one of each pair
fertile, the pedicelled sterile, sometimes reduced to the
pedicel. The genera described below are included by
?ome authors as sub-genera of the large genus Andro-
pogon. The axis of the raceme is articulated. The
awn is very large and strong in some genera (Hetero-
pogon, Chrysopogon), is geniculate and twisted, and
bears at the base of the spikelet a strong sharp hairy

168

A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES

FIG. 15. Erianthus divaricatus. Plant reduced; spikelet, the two glumes, and
the fertile lemma with lower portion of awn, X3; flower, X5.

ANDROPOGONEJE

169

callus, the whole much resembling the awned fruit of
Stipa spartea.

208. Andropogon L. — Sessile spike-
lets all alike in more or less elongated
racemes. The racemes may be single or
in pairs, or rarely 3 or 4 from a sheath-
ing bract, or they may be in naked
panicles. The species are usually coarse
perennials that inhabit prairies, hills,
pine-barrens and other dry places. Some
species are important native forage
grasses. Two of these are common on
the prairies of the Mississippi Valley,
the little bluestem (A. scoparius Michx.)
and the big bluestem (A.furcatus Muhl.)
(Fig. 16). The first species has solitary
racemes from each bract or spathe, and
is a representative of the subgenus
Schizachyrium. The other has 3 or 4
racemes in a naked digitate cluster. A
common but less valuable species, the
broom-sedge (A. virginicus L.), is found
in the Atlantic states on sterile soil.
This large genus of hundreds of species
is spread over the warmer regions of
both hemispheres.

209. Cymbopogon Spreng. — This
genus resembles Andropogon in having
racemes in pairs from sheathing bracts,

but differs in that 1 or 2 of the lower- FIG. 16. Andropo-

» ., , , ,. , , -,f gon furcatus. Inflores-

most pairs of spikelets of at least 1 of cence, xy2. A joint

. , . J . . _ . , of the rachis with a

the racemes, are both stammate. In the fertile spikeiet below

., and a staminate

economic species the pairs ot racemes spikeiet above, x5.

170 A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES

are arranged in a large compound panicle. Several species
of this genus* furnish volatile essential oils and some are
cultivated for this purpose. The most common cultivated
species, both from India, are citronella-grass, C. Nardus
(L.) Rendle, and lemon-grass, C. citratus (DC.) Stapf.

210. Holcus L. — Racemes reduced to the terminal
joint which consists of a fertile spikelet and a pair of
staminate spikelets, these racemes or groups arranged in
panicles. One species, H. halepensis L. (Fig. 17), the well-
known Johnson-grass, a native of the Old World, is now
naturalized in America. This is a valuable forage-grass
but on account of its tendency to spread in cultivated
fields and the difficulty with which it is eradicated it can-
not be recommended. It is a coarse perennial with creep-
ing rhizomes. The other important species of this genus is
sorghum (H. Sorghum L.), a tall coarse annual, not found
in the wild state but thought to be derived from the pre-
ceding species. There are many varieties cultivated for
various purposes,f the sugar sorghum, or saccharine sor-
ghum, for its juice, from which sugar and syrup are ob-
tained, the forage sorghum, often called "cane" on the
Great Plains, grown for forage, kafir, grown for forage
and the seed, broom-corn for the stiff branches of the
inflorescence, and durra, milo, Egyptian corn, etc., for
forage and seed. Many other varieties are cultivated in
Africa and Asia. In some countries it is called millet.

The genus Holcus has been known as Sorghum and
has been included by many under Andropogon. The
names of the 2 species mentioned appear in books as
Sorghum halepense (L.) Pers. or Andropogon halepensis (L.)

*For a discussion of this subject, see O. Stapf, "Oil Grasses of India and
Ceylon" (Kew Bull. Misc. Inf. 8: 297. 1906).

tSee Ball, "History and Distribution of Sorghum" (U. S. Dept. Agric. Bur.
PI. Ind. Bulletin No. 175. 1910).

ANDROPOGONE&

171

Brot. for the first and Sorghum
vulgare Pers. or Andropogon
Sorghum (L.) Brot. for the
second.

H.halepensislj. Johnson-grass.
Culms usually 3 to 5 feet tall,
erect, smooth, often glaucous, pro-
ducing strong creeping rhizomes;
sheaths smooth; ligule membra-
naceous, about 2 mm. long, the
upper half a ciliate fringe; blades
smooth or nearly so, somewhat
scabrous on the margins, 1 to 3 feet
long, mostly ^ to ^ inch wide,
tapering to a fine point, the white
midrib conspicuous; panicle open
and spreading, 6 inches to 2 feet
long, usually more or less reddish
or purple, the branches 2 to 4
together, naked below, pubescent
at the base; spikelets somewhat
crowded along the upper part of
the branches, in pairs or the termi-
nal in 3's, 1 sessile and fertile and
1 or 2 pediceled and staminate;
fertile spikelet about 5 mm. long,
flattened dorsally, elliptical or ovate-
lanceolate, indistinctly nerved, firm
and coriaceous, at first pubes-
cent but later becoming smooth

FIG. 17. Holcus halepensis. Inflorescence
and rhizomes, X M. a terminal fertile spike-
let with two staminate spikelets, X3.

172 A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES

and shining on the exposed parts; staminate spikelets more slender,
and slightly longer than the sessile, distinctly nerved, membra-
naceous, the pedicel about half as long as the sessile spikelet, ciliate.
The staminate spikelets disarticulate early so that the mature fertile
spikelets show only the 1 or 2 ciliate pedicels at the back. The whole
plant is frequently subject to a disease which produces purple spots
on the stem and leaves. This is also observed in Holcus Sorghum.

211. Classification of the sorghums. — Ball (loc. cit.)
classifies the sorghums as follows:

A. Pith juicy.

B. Juice abundant and very sweet SORGO.

BB. Juice scanty, slightly sweet to subacid.

c. Panicles cylindrical; peduncles erect; spike-
lets 3 to 4 mm. wide; lemmas awnless. .KAFIR.
cc. Panicles ovate; peduncle mostly inclined,
often recurved; spikelets 4.5 to 6 mm.

wide; lemmas awned MILO.

AA. Pith dry.

B. Panicle lax, 25 to 70 cm. long. . .

c. Rachis less than one-fifth as long as
the panicle; panicle umbelliform, the

branches greatly elongated BROOM-CORN.

cc. Rachis more than two-thirds as long as

the panicle.
D. Panicle conical, the branches strongly

drooping SHALLU.

DD. Panicle oval or obovate, the branches

spreading KOWLIANG.

BB. Panicle compact, 10 to 25 cm. long.

c. Spikelets elliptic-oval or obovate, 2.5 to

3.5 mm. wide KOWLIANG.

cc. Spikelets broadly obovate, 4.5 to 6 mm.

wide.

D. Glumes gray or greenish, not wrinkled,
densely pubescent; seeds strongly

flattened DURRA.

DD. Glumes deep brown or black, trans-
versely wrinkled, thinly pubescent;
seeds slightly flattened MILO.

Sudan-grass resembles Johnson-grass in habit but is
an annual, entirely devoid of rootstocks. By Piper it is
referred to Sorghum as a variety. Sudan-grass promises

ANDROPOGONEJE 173

to be of value as a forage crop in the southern states.
Tunis-grass, resembling Sudan-grass, is another variety
of the sorghum. (See, "Some New Grasses for the South,"
Yearbook U. S. Dept. Agr. 1912.)

Sorghastrum nutans (L.) Nash, a species of a related
genus, is a common constituent of native meadows over
the same region that Andropogon furcatus is found. It is
a tall slender perennial with bronze-colored panicles with
brilliant yellow anthers.

TRIBE III. NAZIE^ (ZOYSIELE)

212. This is an unimportant tribe of about a dozen
small genera. The spikelets are similar to those of Andro-
pogonese but having membranaceous awnless instead of
hyaline usually awned lemmas, are single or in groups and
fall entire from the continuous rachis. In the genera found
in the United States the spikelets are in groups.

KEY TO GENERA OF NAZIE^J

A. Second glume beset with hooked spines NAZIA.

AA. Second glume without hooked spines.

B. Groups of spikelets spreading or drooping

along one side of the main axis .* . .^EGOPOGON.

BB. Groups of spikelets erect, not secund.

c. Plants stoloniferous HILARIA.

cc. Plants not stoloniferous PLEUR APHIS.

The most important genus is Hilaria, with the species
H. cenchroides H.B.K. (Fig. 18), curly mesquite. This
grass is common on the uplands of Texas and Mexico
where it is an important range-grass. It resembles buf-
falo-grass in being short, in producing stolons and in
forming a sod, and by stockmen is often confused with
that grass. In curly mesquite, the spikelets are in clus-
ters of 3, the groups borne on the upright axis forming

174

A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES

FIQ. 18. Hilaria cenchroides. Plant reduced; group of spikelets,
a staminate spikelet, a pistillate spikelet, X5. (U. S. Dept. Agr.,
Div. Agrost., Bull. 20.)

NAZIEM—MELINIDEM 1 75

a short spike. The allied genus Pleuraphis furnishes a
few important forage grasses in the Southwest. Pleura-
phis Jamesi Torr., is called galleta in New Mexico, a
name which is applied in California to P. rigida Thurb.

Other grasses of interest belonging to this tribe are
Nazia, one species of which, N. aliena (Spreng.) Scribn.
extends from the tropics into Arizona, and Osterdamia
(Zoysia), one species of which 0. matrella (L.) Kuntze
(Zoysia pungens Willd.), the Japanese or Korean lawn-
grass is occasionally cultivated in California, and along
the seacoast of the south Atlantic states. The first
mentioned genus is peculiar in that the fascicles of 3 to 5
spikelets form a bur, the second glume of each spikelet
being provided with hooked spines. In Osterdamia the
spikelets are single instead of in groups.

TRIBE IV. MELINIDE^ (TRISTEGINE^)

213. This is a small tribe of about 8 genera, none of
which is represented in the United States. The spikelets
are borne singly in panicled racemes with a continuous
axis. The most important genus is Arundinella, reed-like
grasses, several species of which are found in tropical
America.

CHAPTER XVII
TBIBE V. PANICEJE

SPIKELETS with 1 terminal perfect floret and astaminate
or neutral floret below; fertile lemma firmer than the
glumes, often chartaceous; spikelets jointed on the pedicel
below the glumes. This large and important tribe is, like
Andropogoneae, found mostly in the tropics and warm
regions, but is well represented throughout the United
States, especially in the southern portion. The first glume
is usually absent in the large genus Paspalum and in a
few other genera, and in Reimarochloa and in certain spe-
cies of Paspalum the second glume also is absent. In
Eriochloa the first glume is reduced to a minute ridge
about the swollen ring-like lower joint of the rachilla. In
Isachne the lower flower is perfect like the upper. In this
tribe the spikelets are usually unawned but the glumes
are awned in Echinochloa, Oplismenus and Chsetium, and
the lemma in Trichola3na. What appear in some genera to
be awns are bristle-like branchlets. In Chaetochloa there
are 1 or more of these below all or some of the spikelets, the
bristles remaining after the fall of the spikelets. In Penni-
setum there is an involucre of bristles (branchlets) sur-
rounding the base of a cluster of spikelets, the bristles
being deciduous with the cluster. In Cenchrus the bris-
tles are retrorsely barbed and fused into a mass, forming
a bur around the spikelets. An Australian genus, Spinifex,
is dioecious and Olyra is monoecious. The fruit of Pani-
cum and of several other genera is a seed-like body con-

(176)

PANICE& 177

sisting of the chart aceous fertile lemma and palea inclos-
ing a caryopsis the covering of which is thin. The genus
Amphicarpon is peculiar in having 2 kinds of spikelets,
ordinary spikelets in a terminal panicle, and underground
cleistogamous spikelets borne on short subterranean
branches that appear like rhizomes. Only the latter bear

seed.

KEY TO THE GENERA OF PANICE^EJ

A. Spikelets not all alike.

B. Spikelets all perfect, but those of the aerial
panicle not perfecting grains; the fruitful
spikelets cleistogamous, borne on sub-
terranean branches. Florida to New Jersey.AMPHiCARpoN.
BB. Spikelets not all perfect, the inflorescence
bearing pistillate spikelets above and
staminate spikelets below; panicles ter-
minating the branches; blades broad,

elliptical. Florida OLYRA.

AA. Spikelets all alike.

B. Spikelets sunken in the cavities of the

flattened corky axis STENOTAPHRUM

BB. Spikelets not sunken in the rachis. (Par. 223).

c. Spikelets subtended or surrounded by 1 to
many bristles (sterile branchlets), these
distinct or more or less connate, forming
an involucre.

D. Bristles persistent, spikelets deciduous.. CH^TOCHLOA
DD. Bristles falling with the spikelets at (Par. 220).

maturity.
E. Bristles not united at base, usually

slender, often plumose PENNISETUM

EE. Bristles more or less united into a bur- (Par. 221).

like involucre CENCHRUS

cc. Spikelets not subtended by bristles. (Par. 222).

D. Fruit cartilaginous-indurated, not rigid,
papillose, usually dark-colored, the
lemma with more or less prominent
white hyaline margins not inrolled.
E. Fruiting lemma boat-shaped, the
hyaline margins narrow. Florida

to Louisiana ANTH^NANTIA

EE. Fruiting lemma convex, the hyaline

margins broad.

F. Fruit lanceolate-acuminate; second
glume and sterile lemma long-
silky. Florida to Arizona VALOTA.

L

178 A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES

FF. Fruit elliptic; pubescence short or

none.

G. Inflorescence of slender racemes,
more or less digitately ar-
ranged SYNTHERISMA

(Par. 216).

GG. Inflorescence a capillary panicle.. LEPTOLOM A.
DD. Fruit indurated, rigid (or if thin, not

hyaline-margined) .

E. Spikelets (or the primary one of a

pair) placed with the back of the

fruit turned away from the rachis,

usually solitary (not in pairs).

F. First glume and the rachilla joint

forming a swollen ring-like callus

below the spikelet ERIOCHLOA.

FF. First glume present or wanting but
no ring-like callus below the
spikelet.
G. First glume present; racemes

racemose along the main axis . . BRACHIARIA.
GG. First glume wanting; racemes

digitate or subdigitate AXONOPUS

BE. Spikelets placed with the back of the (Par. 215).
fruit turned toward the rachis of
of the spike-like racemes, or pedicel-
late in panicles.

p. Fruit long-acuminate, scarcely in-
durated; both glumes wanting;
spikelets sessile, solitary in spike-
like racemes, these reflexed or
verticillate at maturity. Florida,

rare REIMAROCHLOA.

FF. Fruit not long-acuminate, indurated.

G. First glume typically wanting;

spikelets plano-convex, subses-

sile in spike-like racemes PASPALUM

GG. First glume present; spikelets (Par. 214).

usually in panicles.
H. Glumes and lemmas unawned.
I. Second glume inflated-sac-
cate, this and the sterile
lemma much exceeding the

stipitate fruit SACCIOLEPIS.

n. Second glume ' not inflated-
saccate.

j. Culms (in pur species)
woody; fruit with a tuft
of down at apex. Florida.LASiACis.

PANICEM

179

jj. Culms herbaceous.PANicuM
HH. Glumes or lemmas (Par. 217).
awned (or awn-
tipped in Echino-
chloa colonum).
i. Inflorescence panicu-
late; spikelets
silky. Introduced

in Florida TRICHOL^NA

ii. Inflorescence of uni- (Par. 219).
lateral racemes
along a common
axis.

j. Glumes 2-lobed,
awned from be-
tween the lobes;
blades broad and
thin, lanceolate.

Florida OPLISMENUS.

jj. Glumes awned

from the tip ... ECHINOCHLOA
(Par. 218).

214. Paspalum L. — A large genus of
probably 200 species, well represented in
the Gulf and south Atlantic states. It can
be easily distinguished by the plano-convex
spikelets in spike-like racemes. -There are
comparatively few species of economic
importance. They are almost entirely
absent from the grazing regions of the
central and western United States, and in
the southeastern states do not form an
important constituent of grazing areas,
being mostly inhabitants of wet or sandy
soil and not often gregarious. An attempt

FIG. 19. Paspa-
lum diiatatum. was made, but with little success, to intro-

Inflorescence, , . •»»•». -r» •

xy2, spike let, duce into -cultivation P. diiatatum Poir.

Vy-C

(Fig. 19) , under the name of water-grass. In
the savannas of Central America certain species, such as
P. notatum Fliigge and P. minus Vasey, are important.

180

A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES

215. Axonopus Beauv. — By many authorities this
group has been included in the genus Paspalum, but it
forms a distinct natural group. Several species are
found in tropical America but only
2 extend as far north as the United
States. One of these, A . compressus
(Swartz) Beauv., is the carpet-grass
of the Gulf States, where it is an
important grazing-grass and also a
lawn-grass. It is a stolonifer-
ous perennial with flattened
stems, comparatively short,
broadly linear, abruptly
pointed blades, and slender
spikes more or less digitate or
clustered at the summit of the
stem. (Anastrophus Schrad.)

216. Syntherisma Walt. —
This distinct group is con-
sidered by some to be a sec-
tion of Panicum. Perennial or
annual grasses with slender
mostly digitate spike -like
racemes. The perennial species
are natives of the southern
United States and southward
and are of little importance.
Most of the an-
nuals are intro-
duced from
Europe and are
troublesome

FIG. 20. Syntherisma sanguinalis. Plant, X/^J two , ^

views of spikelet, X5. W 6 6 d S . UliG

PANICEJE 181

species in particular, S. sanguinalis, is a well-known weed
under the name of crab-grass. This and S. ischcemum
are troublesome weeds in lawns. Being annuals, they die
out and leave unsightly brown patches. Crab-grass is
often utilized for hay in the southern states. (Digi-
taria Hall.)

Syntherisma sanguinalis (L.) Dulac. (Fig. 20). Crab-grass.
Crop-grass. Annual; culms becoming much branched at base,
decumbent or prostrate and rooting at the nodes, the flowering
branches ascending, sometimes as much as 3 or 4 feet long; sheaths
hirsute, with hairs arising from papillae, sometimes nearly glabrous
except near the nodes; ligule about 1 mm. long, thin and membra-
naceous, blades flat and thin, more or less hirsute like the sheaths, 2
to 6 inches long and as much as }/% inch wide; panicle consisting of
few to several slender spikes, 3 to 6 inches long, a few digitate at
the summit of the culm, with usually several others below in a more
or less distinct whorl; rachis flat, winged on the margins, about 1
mm. wide, bearing on one side the appressed crowded spikelets,
these in pairs, one nearly sessile, the other with a sharply triangular
pedicel about half as long as the spikelet; spikelets flattened dor-
sally, elliptical-lanceolate, about 3 mm. long, the first glume small,
nerveless, about % mm. long, the second glume lying next to the
axis, narrow, about half as long as the spikelet, appressed-villous,
the sterile lemma distinctly 3-nerved, as long as the spikelet, the
lateral nerves more or less ciliate-f ringed. The plant is often pur-
plish tinged, and the species is variable in size and habit accord-
ingly as it grows in rich or poor soil, in the open or among other
plants.

A related species, S. isch&mum (Schreb.) Nash (Digitaria
humifusa Pers.; Syntherisma linearis Nash; S. glabrum Schrad.),
is common in the eastern United States. This species can be dis-
tinguished from the preceding by its being glabrous or nearly so,
by the smaller spikelets, and by the absence of the first glume.

217. Panicum L. — This large genus of probably 400
species is distributed throughout all warm regions. The
spikelets are usually arranged in panicles. They consist of

182

A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES

2 glumes and a sterile lemma, all herbaceous, and 1
indurated fertile lemma and palea. The sterile lemma may
contain a staminate flower. The subgenus Dichanthelium,

confined to America,
with its center of dis-
tribution in the south-
eastern states, includes
over 100 species. This
group is peculiar in
having simple vernal
culms with terminal
spreading panicles,
the vernal phase usu-
ally very distinct from
the later branched or
autumnal phase in which the
panicles are much reduced
and often included in the
sheaths. The autumnal spike-
lets are cleistogamous and
fertile while the vernal spike-
lets appear to be usually
unfruitful. Despite the great
number of species in the
genus Panicum, few are of
ecomonic importance. One
species, P. miliaceum L.
(Fig. 21), proso millet or
broom-corn millet, is culti-
vated in Europe for the grain
which is used for food, and
is sparingly cultivated in this
country for fodder. It is an

FIG. 21. Panicum
miliaceum. Inflores-
cence, XM; spikeletand
fruit (fertile lemma and
palea), X7.

PANICEM 183

annual with a drooping panicle. Pard-grass (P. barbinode
Trin.), a Brazilian grass much cultivated for forage in the
American tropics, is sparingly grown in the southern
parts of Florida and Texas. It is a coarse grass, with
stolons several feet in length, strongly
bearded nodes, and an inflorescence of
several spike-like racemes racemosely
arranged. Guinea -grass (P. maximum
Jacq.) is an African grass, also much
grown in the tropics for forage. It is an
erect bunch-grass, as much as 8 feet high,
with a large spreading panicle. Guinea-
grass is too susceptible to frost for culti-
vation in the United States except in
southern Florida. Texas millet, or Colo-
rado-grass, is P. texanum Buckl., a native
of the Colorado River valley in Texas
(Par. 62). Panicum bulbosum H. B. K.,
of the Southwest, produces well-marked
corms.

218. Echinochloa Beauv. — A small
genus that is included by some as a
section of Panicum. The spikelets are
as in Panicum, but the sterile lemma
and usually the second glume are
awned, often conspicuously so. The
fruit is pointed and the palea is free at
the summit. The spikelets are in short
racemes, these racemosely arranged.
All the species are annuals. One
species, barnyard-grass, E. Crus-galli
(L.) Beauv., is a common weed in FIG. 22. Echinochloa fru-

mentacea. Inflorescence,

waste places and cultivated soil. A x^spikeiet, xs.

184 A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES

closely allied species, E. frumentacea (Roxb.) Link (Fig.
22), is cultivated for forage under the name billion-dollar-
grass. This and E. colonum (L.) Link are cultivated hi
India for the seed, which is used for food.

219. Tricholaena Schrad. — A small genus
of African grasses, one of which has been
introduced into the American tropics.
Spikelets in panicles, very hairy. Tricho-
Icena rosea Nees has given promise of value
as a meadow-grass on the dry pine lands
of Florida. It is there called Natal-grass
and, incorrectly, redtop. Natal-grass is an
erect perennial, 2 to 3 feet high, with a
loose panicle of pink or rosy silky spike-
lets. It is said to furnish 4 or 5 cuttings
of hay in a season. This grass may be
grown from seed or by setting out divisions
of the root or crown.

220. Chaetochloa Scribn. — A small
genus of annuals or perennials, the spike-
lets in narrow often spike-like panicles,
interspersed with bristles. Two annual
European species with cylindrical spike-
like panicles are common weeds in the
eastern half of the United States. One of
them, yellow foxtail, C. lutescens (Weigel)
Stuntz (Fig. 23) , has yellow spikes and 5 or
more bristles below each spikelet; the
other> green foxtail, C. viridis (L.) Scribn.,
has green spikes and only 1 to 3 bristles

below each spikelet. Another species, C. italica, closely
allied to the latter, is commonly cultivated as millet or
Hungarian grass. This has large heads, or spikes, which

PANICS^

185

in some varieties are compound and more or
less lobed. In this country millet is grown
for forage but in some
parts of the Old World
the seed is used for
human food. (Setaria
Beauv.)

Chaetochloa italica (L.)
Scribn. (Setaria italica Beauv. ;
Panicum italicum L.) (Figs.
24 and 25). Millet. Foxtail
millet. Hungarian grass.
Annual; culms erect, simple
or nearly so, 2 to 4 feet high,
or sometimes larger, glabrous
or scabrous below the pani-
cle; sheaths glabrous, ciliate
on the margins and pubes-
cent at the collar; ligule a
densely ciliate ring 1 to 2
mm. long; blades flat, sca-
brous, narrowed below and toward
the apex, 6 to 18 inches long, as
much as an inch wide; panicle
dense, cylindrical, erect or in the*
larger forms drooping at the apex,
from an inch or two to as much as a foot in
length and from ^ inch to 2 inches in diameter,
continuous or lobed and interrupted, yellow or
purple, bearing bristles as long as the spikelets or
much exceeding them; rachis and branches villous;
spikelets about 3 mm. long, the bristles from 1
to several times the length of the spikelet, the first
glume ovate, 3-nerved, about 1 mm. long, the
second glume a little shorter than the spikelet,
7-nerved, the sterile lemma similar to the second
mon millet, inflor- glume, as long as the spikelet; fruit easily dis-

escence, X Vi, fruit, ,. , ,. , ,, ., ,

X5 articulating above the sterile lemma, round on one

FIG. 24. Chse-
tochloa italica,
Hungarian grass.
Inflorescence,

186

A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES

FIG. 26. Pen-
nisetum glaucum.
Inflorescence, XX;
spikelet with invo-
lucre of bristles, X5.

side, flattened on the other, straw-colored, red or brown,
smooth, very minutely and rather faintly cross- wrinkled.
There are many varieties differing in the length and
color of the bristles, in the color of the seed or fruit and
in the size and lobing of the panicle or head. The name
Hungarian grass is given to the form with small purple
heads.

221. Pennisetum Pers.^— In this genus the
spikelets, single or in groups, are surrounded by
bristles as in Cenchrus but the bristles are
distinct, and are often unequal in length or
plumose. The inflorescence is a spike or raceme.
The most important species of the genus is the
pearl millet, P. glaucum (L.) R.
Br. (Fig. 26); P. americanum (L.)
Schum. ; Penidllaria spicata Willd. ;
P. typhoideum Rich.). This is a tall
coarse annual with
broad blades like sor-
ghum and a close cylin-
drical spike about a
foot long and an inch
or less in thickness. At
maturity the smooth and shining ripened
caryopsis bursts through the lemma and
palea. Pearl millet is grown in Africa for
food and to a limited extent in our southern
states for forage. Two species of Pennise-
tum are commonly cultivated for orna-
ment, P. villosum R. Br., with short broad
heads and long plumose bristles, and P.
Ruppellii Steud., with more slender rose-
colored spikes tapering at the apex.
(Penidllaria Willd.; Gymnothrix Beauv.)

PANICE&

187

222. Cenchrus L. — Sand-bur. Bur-grass. Low often
weedy grasses, usually annuals, the spikelets, singly
or 2 or 3 together, inclosed by a bur formed of
coalesced bristles or

branchlets, these
usually retrorsely
barbed. The burs are
borne in a spike or
raceme, and, detach-
ing easily at maturity,
are transported by
animals. The spikelets
remain permanently
inclosed in the bur,
germination of the
seed taking place
within it. The first
glume is much re-
duced, sometimes
wanting. The com-
mon sand-bur of the
United States is Cen-
chrus carolinianus
Walt. (Fig. 27). The
one with larger burs
found among the sand-
dunes of the Atlantic
seacoast is C.
tribuloides L.

223. Stenotaphrum
Trin.— The best-
known Species Of this FIQ. 27. Cenchrus carolinianus. Upper

., .-. portion of plant with inflorescence,

genUS IS the St. spikelet, X7.

188

A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES

Augustine grass, S. secundatum (Walt.) Kuntze (Fig. 28) ,
a stoloniferous perennial with flat stems and spikes, the
spikelets partly immersed in the thickened rachis. This
species is grown as a lawn-grass near the seacoast from
North Carolina to Florida and Louisiana.

FIG. 28. Stenotaphrum secundatum.
Upper portion of culms with inflores-
cence, X H, spikelet, X5.

CHAPTER XVIII

TRIBE VI. ORYZE^E

THIS is one of the smaller tribes, the
place of which among
the other tribes is
not evident. Neither
is it in itself a natural
group, but is made
up of genera of diverse
affinities. Certain
anomalous genera,
such as Pharus (Fig.
29) Streptocha3ta and
Reynaudia, included
by Hackel and by
Baillon in Oryzese are
referred by Bentham
and Hooker, the first
two to Panicese and
the third to Triste-
ginese. The articula-
tion of the spikelets
below the glumes in-
dicates an alliance
with the first series
of tribes, PanicoideaB;
the laterally com-

r\r foT-o-*-^
Or terete

ir»r}inafo on celled staminate spikelet, and a fertile floret, X3.

indicate an (U. s. Dept> Agr., Div. Agrost., Bull. 20).
(189)

FIG. 29. Phanis glaber. Plant reduced; branch-
iet Of inflorescence with a sessile pistillate and pedi-

190 A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES

alliance with the second series, Poseoidese. The spikelets
are 1-flowered, perfect or unisexual, and usually disposed
in panicles. There are usually 6 stamens and the hilum
is linear instead of punctiform, in which two respects
the structure is somewhat anomalous. The palea is
usually described as 1 -nerved, but an examination of
Oryza saliva shows a palea with the 2 nerves close to
the margin, the region between convex instead of concave
as is usual in the palea of other grasses. In several genera,
glumes are rudimentary or wanting. The tribe includes
about 16 genera, mostly inhabitants of tropical America,
6 extending into the United States.

KEY TO THE GENERA OF ORYZE.E

A. Spikelets perfect, strongly compressed laterally.

B. Glumes 2; lemma often awned ORYZA(Par.224)

BB. Glumes wanting; lemma awnless HOMALOCEN-

AA. Spikelets unisexual, terete; plants monoecious. CHRUS.

B. Plants slender, creeping in the mud or

floating in the water.

c. Inflorescence a few-flowered spike; plants
not stoloniferous. Southeastern United

States HYDROCHLOA.

cc. Inflorescence a panicle; plants stolonifer-
ous. Alabama LUZIOLA.

BB. Plants erect, stout; marsh plants or ter-
restrial.

c. Blades elliptical or oblanceolate, petiolate;
fruit cylindrical, beset with hooked

hairs; plants terrestrial. Florida PHARUS.

cc. Blades elongated, linear,, not petiolate;

marsh plants.

D. Pistillate spikelets in the usually narrow
upper part of the panicle; staminate
spikelets in the spreading lower part . . Ziz ANIA
DD. Pistillate and staminate spikelets mixed (Par. 225).
in the panicle, the former below and
the latter above on each branch.
Gulf States ZIZANIOPSIS.

224. Oryza L. — Rice. Characterized by the perfect
flowers, strongly compressed spikelets and the presence

OKYZEM

191

of 2 small glumes. Of the half-dozen species
only one is of importance. This is 0. saliva L.
(Fig. 30), the cultivated rice, an annual now
grown in numerous varieties throughout the
warmer regions of the world.
Rice is the most important of
the cereals in the sense that it
furnishes food to more people
than any other one grain.
The allied genus Homalocenchrus
is represented by several perennial
species in the eastern United States.
The spikelets resem-
ble those of Oryza but are
smaller and lack the
glumes.

225. Zizania L. — Indian
rice. Water -rice. Tall
marsh-grasses, with large
panicles, usually growing
in shallow water in large
areas. The pistillate spike-
lets are long-awned and
erect, the staminate are
awnless and drooping.
The seeds were formerly
gathered by the American
Indians and used for food.
There are 3 species, Zizania paluslris L.
(Fig. 31), the common Indian rice of the
United States, Z. aqualica L., a less com- paiustris. '

/• /-< -i i rr i , •<• T cence, much re-

mon species of Canada, and Z. lalifoha duced. cu. s. Dept.

/m \ m f f A • Agr., Div. Agrost.,

(Turcz.) Stapf, of eastern Asia. BUII. 14.)

FIG. 30. Oryza sa-
t i v a. Inflorescence,
X1A, spikelet, X3.

CHAPTER XIX

FIG. 32. Anthoxanthum odora-
tum. Inflorescence, 1; spikelet,
the two sterile lemmas and the
fertile floret, X5.

TRIBE VII. PHALARIDE^

> A SMALL tribe of about 6 genera in the
cooler parts of the northern hemisphere and
of Australasia. Spikelets with 1 fertile
floret and a pair of staminate or neutral
florets below. In Phalaris, the pair of sterile
florets appear as small scales within the
glumes. In Savastana the lateral florets (1
or 2) are staminate and as large as the
fertile floret. Only 3 genera are found in
the United States.

KEY TO THE GENERA OF PHALARIDEJE

A. Lateral florets stami-
nate SAVASTANA

AA. Lateral florets neutral. (Par. 226) .
B. Lateral florets re-
duced to small awn-
less scales ; spikelets
much compressed

laterally PHALARIS

BB. Lateral florets con- (Par. 228).
sisting of awned
hairy sterile lemmas
about as long as the
fertile floret; spike-
lets terete ANTHOXAN-

[THUM
(Par. 227).

226. Savastana Schrank. —
Inflorescence an open or con-
tracted but not spike-like
(192)

PHALARIDEM

panicle; spikelets brown and shining; lateral
florets (often awned) with 3 stamens, the
central perfect floret with 2 stamens. The
best known species is S. odorata (L.) Scribn.,
or vanilla-grass, a native of northern Europe
and America. The name vanilla-grass refers
to the fragrant odor of the foliage. Fragrant
baskets, boxes and mats are woven of the
long leaves of the sterile shoots, by the
American Indians. Commonly called
holy -grass in Europe. (Hierochloe
R. Br.)

227. Anthoxanthum L. — Inflores-
cence a bronze-green spike-like panicle.
One species, A. odoratum (Fig. 32),
sweet vernal grass, a native of Europe,
introduced in the cooler parts of the
United States. Like vanilla-grass, it
is fragrant, for which reason it is
sometimes cultivated as a constitu-
ent of meadow-grasses to impart a
pleasant odor to the hay. Sweet ver-
nal grass is useless as a forage-grass.

A. aristatum Boiss. (A. Puelii
Lecoq & Lamotte), an annual species
is sometimes cultivated in the west
and southwest.

Anthoxanthum odoratum L. Sweet vernal
grass. Perennial; culms in tufts, without
rhizomes, erect, slender, smooth, 1 to 2 feet
high; sheaths smooth or somewhat pubescent;
ligule membranaceous, 2 to 5 mm. long;
blades flat, thin, scabrous, 1 to 3 inches long,

193

FIG. 33. Phalaris arun-
dinacea. Inflorescence,
XH; spikelet and fertile
floret, X5.

194

A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES

mostly basal, one about the middle of the culm, the upper portion
of the culm naked; panicle dense, spike-like, bronze-green, 1 to 3
inches long, narrowed above and below, the short branches spread-
ing in" flower; spikelets 8 to 10 mm. long, lanceolate, acuminate, .
the glumes 'sparsely pilose, acuminate, the first membranaceous,
about half as long as the somewhat indurated second glume, the
first sterile lemma short-awned below the apex, the second bearing
a strong bent scarcely exserted awn near
its base, both exceeding the chestnut-
brown, smooth and shining fertile lemma
and palea. Common in grassland in the
northeastern states.

228. Phalaris L. — Inflorescence a
short or long usually dense spike-
like panicle. The spike is often
white or variegated with green from
the green nerves of the spikelets, and
is usually papery at maturity. One
of our native species, P. arundinacea
L. (Fig. 33), reed canary-grass, is a
perennial found in the northern
portion of the United States, where
it furnishes an excellent quality of
wild hay. In this species the sterile
lemmas are much reduced and are
closely appressed to the fertile
lemma and palea. A variety of this
(var. picta L.) with leaves striped
with white is cultivated for ornament
under the name of ribbon-grass or
gardener's garters. P. carolinianus
Walt., a perennial of the southern
FIG. 34. Phaiaris canari- United States, is cultivated to a

ensis. Inflorescence, X J-6; ,...-, ,. • , /•

giumea and fertile floret limited extent tor winter lorage.

with the pair of sterile • -r, T

lemmas, x5. Another species, r. cananensis L.,

PHALARIDEM 195

canary-grass, an annual with ovate heads, is an occasional
weed introduced from Europe. This is grown in Europe
for the seed which furnishes the canary seed of commerce.
Canary seed usually contains also the seed of Panicum
miliaceum. The seed of Phalaris canariensis (Fig. 34) is pale yel-
low, 5 mm. long, elliptical-lanceolate, laterally somewhat flattened
but equally convex on both sides, hard and shining and more or less
pubescent. The fruit of Panicum miliaceum is pale, brownish or
reddish, about as long as canary-grass seed but much more plump,
dorsally flattened on one side, the palea being inclosed or overlapped
by the lemma, the whole smooth, hard, shining, and faintly nerved.
The seed, when removed from the inclosing lemma and palea is
nearly white, somewhat globular with a notch in one side, pearly
in appearance. The fruit of common or foxtail millet (Chaetochloa
italica] differs from that of Panicum miliaceum in being some-
what smaller and faintly cross-wrinkled, and in the appearance of
the palea, which presents 2 ridges near the margin representing
the 2 keels. (See Figs. 21 and 25.)

CHAPTER XX
TRIBE VIII. AGROSTIDE^

A LARGE tribe of about 50 genera inhabiting more
especially the temperate and cooler regions of the world.
Spikelets 1 -flowered (the rachilla prolonged as a stipe
behind the palea in a few genera) usually perfect, arranged
in open, contracted or spike-like panicles, but not in 1 -sided
spikes or racemes. The spikelets are jointed with the
pedicel in a few genera, and fall off entire (Alopecurus,
Cinna, Polypogon, Lycurus, Limnodea). The palea is
usually 2-nerved but in Cinna it appears to be 1-nerved,
the 2 nerves lying close together. In some species of
Agrostis the palea is a small nerveless scale or is wanting.
In some genera the floret is raised slightly from the glumes
on a hard stipe, the short internode of the rachilla. This
remains attached to the floret at maturity as a hard point
and is called the callus. This callus is pronounced in
Stipa and Aristida and less so in Oryzopsis, Muhlen-
bergia and a few other genera. In some species of Calama-
grostis the short callus bears numerous silky hairs as long
as the floret.

KEY TO THE GENERA OF AGROSTIDE.E

A. Lemma indurated at maturity, firmer than
the glumes, closely enveloping the caryopsis
and usually the palea, awned (except in
Milium) from the tip, or mucronate (some
species of Muhlenbergia) .
B. Awn trifid (the lateral awns sometimes

short, rarely wanting) ARISTIDA

BB. Awn simple. (Par. 229).

(196)

AGROSTIDE& 197

c. Spikelets in pairs in a spike-like panicle;
one perfect, the other staminate or neu-
tral, the pair deciduous together LYCURUS.

cc. Spikelets all alike.

D. Rachilla prolonged behind the palea as
a pedicel; glumes very short; inflo-
rescence a narrow few-flowered panicle.BRACHYELY-
DD. Rachilla not prolonged. [TRUM.

E. Lemma awnless; fruit short, ovoid;

inflorescence an open panicle MILIUM.

EE. Lemma awned or mucronate.

F. Awn slender, straight or flexuous,
not twisted nor bent; spikelets
small; glumes shorter than the

lemma MUHLEN-

FF. Awn usually stout, bent or twisted. [BERGIA.
G. Awn stout, twisted and bent, (Par. 231).
persistent; callus pointed, long;

lemma narrow STIPA

OG. Awn bent but not twisted, de- (Par. 230).
ciduous; callus short; obtuse;
lemma broad, elliptical or

ovate ORYZOPSIS.

AA. Lemma not indurated at maturity, mem-
branaceous or hyaline, like the glumes or
more delicate.
B. Glumes none; low annual. Oregon and

Washington SCHMIDTIA.

BB. Glumes present.

c. Glumes falling with the spikelet, some-
times with a portion of the pedicel or
branchlet, the articulation being below
the glumes (compare Cinna).

D. Glumes long-awned POLYPOGON.

DD. Glumes awnless.

E. Inflorescence a dense spike-like pan-
icle; lemma awned from the lower

part of the back ALOPECURUS

EE. Inflorescence a narrow loose panicle; (Par. 233).

lemma awned from the bifid apex. . LIMNODEA.
cc. Glumes persistent, not articulated on the

pedicel.
D. Glumes longer than the lemma.

E. Glumes plumose; an annual with

woolly ovoid heads LAGURUS

EE. Glumes not plumose. (Par. 237).

F. Inflorescence a dense cylindrical
spike-like panicle; glumes com-
pressed-carinate, ciliate on the (Par. 232).
keels; lemma awnless PHLEUM

198 A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES

FF. Inflorescence an open or contracted
but not densely cylindrical pan-
icle; glumes not compressed-
carinate and ciliate.
G. Glumes saccate at base; lemma
long-awned; inflorescence con-
tracted, shining; annuals GASTRIDIUM.

GO. Glumes not saccate at base.

H. Lemma bearing an awn several
times its length; annuals

with open panicles APERA.

HH. Lemma short-awned, or awn-
less, the palea often reduced

or wanting AGROSTIS

DD. Glumes as long as, or shorter than the (Par. 234).

lemma.

E. Lemma bearing a tuft of hairs at
base from the short callus.

F. Lemma and palea thin CALAMAGROSTIS

FF. Lemma and palea chartaceous. (Par. 235).
G. Panicles spike-like; rachilla pro-
longed AMMOPHILA

GG. Panicles open; rachilla not pro- (Par. 236).

longed CALAMOVILFA.

BE. Lemma without hairs at base.

F. Palea apparently 1-nerved, the 2
nerves close together; rachilla

prolonged ; panicle open CINNA.

FF. Palea distinctly 2-nerved; rachilla

not prolonged.

G. Nerves of lemma densely silky. . BLEPHARO
GG. Nerves of lemma not silky. [NEURON.

H Fruit not inclosed in the
lemma and palea, seed usually
also loose in the pericarp,
this opening at maturity. . . .SPOROBOLUS.
HH. Fruit inclosed in the lemma
and palea; the seed also
inclosed in the pericarp at
maturity and grown to it;
panicles spike-like in our
species.

I. Panicles short, partly in-
closed in the upper sheath;
sparingly introduced from

the Old World HELEOCHLOA,

n. Panicles elongated; tall per-
ennials of Arizona and
southward EPICAMPES.

\

199

229. Aristida L. — Needle-grass. A large genus, mostly
tufted perennials of the warmer parts of the world,
especially abundant in America. They are easily dis-
tinguished by the narrow terete lemma bearing a pointed
hairy callus below and a trifid awn above. The 2 lateral
awns are sometimes shorter than the others or may be
absent altogether (A .

scabra (H. B. K.)
Kunth and its allies).
The species not only
have little forage
value but on the
contrary are often
troublesome to
ranchmen because of
the sharp fruits which
penetrate the skin of
grazing animals. Sev-
eral low perennial
species' are found in
the new soil around
the burrows of prairie
dogs, hence the name
dog-town grass.

230. Stipa L. —
Spear-grass. A large
genus of tufted per-
ennials found on the
plains and steppes
of both hemispheres.
The fruit resembles
that of Aristida but
terminates in a single

FIG. 35. Aristida longiseta.
Spikelet, the floret raised from
the glumes, XI.

200

A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES

awn. This awn is usually tightly twisted below, the
upper part being once or twice bent. In some species
(S. spartea Trin.) (Fig. 36) the awn is stout and several
inches long; in others it is beautifully plumose with silky

hairs (S. pennata L. of
the Russian steppes and
S. spetiosa Trin. & Rupr.
of California). The vari-
ous species form an
important part of the
forage on the plains and
foothills of the south-
western states and
Mexico. The esparto- or
alfa-grass of Spain and
Algeria (S. tenacissima
L.) furnishes a fiber that
is used for paper and for
cordage. The sleepy-
grass (S. Vaseyi Scribn.) of Colorado and New
Mexico because of narcotic qualities is injurious to
horses. Two species of the Old World are said to
be poisonous (S. inebrians Hance and S. sibirica
Lam.).

231. Muhlenbergia Schreb. — A large genus of
mostly American grasses, especially abundant on the
dry uplands of the southwestern states and Mexico.
It grades on the one hand into Sporobolus, from
which it differs in having an awned or mucronate lemma,
and on the other into Epicampes, from which it differs
in having a relatively firmer lemma. Many species are
important constituents of the forage upon grazing areas
in the Southwest. One species of the allied genus

AGROSTWEJ2

201

FIG. 37. Muhlenbergia gracilis. Plant, X H: spikelet, the floret raised
from the glumes, glumes and floret, X5. (U. S. Dept. Agr., Div. Bot.,
Bull. 26.)

202

A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES

Epicampes (E. rigens Benth.) is of some economic im-
portance in Mexico, whence it is exported, the strong
fibrous roots being used to make coarse brushes.

232. Phleum L.— Timothy. A small
genus of cold regions, recognized by the
densely cylindrical spike-like panicles, and
1-flowered much-compressed spikelets. Only

1 species is native in America, the moun-
tain timothy (P. alpinum L.) of the higher
mountains and arctic regions. Common
timothy (P. pratense L.) (Fig. 38), a native
of Europe, is our most important cultivated
meadow-grass. In some localities this grass
is known as herd's-grass.

Phleum pratense L. Timothy. Perennial; culms
in tufts, somewhat bulbous at base, erect, smooth,

2 to 3 feet high; sheaths smooth; ligule membranace-
ous, 2 to 3 mm. long or the uppermost longer;
blades flat, a few inches to a foot long; panicle
densely cylindrical and spike-like, 2 to 5 inches
long, obtuse; glumes about 3 mm. long, excluding
the 1 to 2 mm. long awn, compressed, abruptly
rounded to the awn, long-ciliate on the keel, the
lemma and palea about equal, thin, half as long as

the glumes.

J 233. Alopecurus L. — A small
genus of wide distribution, in cold tem-
perate regions and in high altitudes,
one species of which, meadow foxtail
(A. pratensis), a native of Europe, is
occasionally cultivated as a meadow-
grass. This species may be recognized by its resemblance
to timothy in having densely cylindrical spike-like
panicles, but differing in having awns on the back of

FIG. as. Phieum pra-

tense. Inflorescence, X Yi\

&nd mature

AGROSTIDE&

203

the lemmas that protrude from the spikelets giving the
spike a soft furry appearance.

Alopecurus pratensis L. (Fig. 39). Meadow foxtail. Perennial;
culms erect from a short creeping base, smooth, 1 to 3 feet high;
sheaths smooth, the uppermost
somewhat inflated; ligule membra-
naceous, truncate, 2 to 4 mm.
long; blades flat, smooth beneath,
rough above, 2 to 6 inches long;
panicle dense, cylindrical, 1^ to
3 inches long, % inch thick;
glumes 5 mm. long, equal, awn-
less, 3-nerved, ciliate on the keel,
connate at base, the broad, obtuse
5-nerved lemma nearly as long,
bearing from near the base a
slender dorsal slightly bent awn,
exserted about 5 mm.

234. Agrostis L. — Bent-
grass. A large genus found
all over the world but
sparsely represented in tropi-
cal America. The North
American species are nearly
all perennials and are especi-
ally abundant in the western
mountains. Spikelets 1 -flow-
ered; lemma delicate, shorter
than the nearly equal glumes,
often awned from the back;
palea small or wanting; in-
florescence an open or contracted panicle. The wild species
are mostly important constituents of grazing areas in the
mountains. Redtop (A. alba), cultivated as a meadow-
grass, is a perennial 1 to 4 feet tall, with rootstocks, flat

FIG. 39. Alopecurus pratensis. Plant
reduced; spikelet and floret, X3. (U. S.
Dept. Agr., Div. Agrost., Bull. 20.)

204

A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES

blades and an erect open often reddish panicle usually 4
to 8 inches long, with verticillate lower branches. A
smaller form, Rhode Island bent (A. alba vulgaris), with
finer foliage and a smaller more open panicle, is often
used for lawns. Another form of Agrostis alba with
creeping stems and narrow panicle is used for lawns
under the name of creeping bent.

Agrostis alba L. (Fig. 40) Redtop. Peren-
nial; culms erect from a more or less decum-
bent base bearing rhizomes, smooth, 1 to 4 feet
high; sheaths smooth; ligule membranaceous,
pointed, more or less lacerate, as much as 6
mm. long; blades flat, 2 inches to as much as
a foot long, scabrous on both surfaces, strongly
nerved, acuminate, usually rather stiffly up-
right; panicle 2 to 12 inches long, open at
anthesis but usually more or less contracted
in fruit, the branches in whorls, some naked
below, others short and spikelet-bearing at
base; glumes 2 to 3 mm. long, lanceolate,
pointed, scabrous on the keel, the lemma thin,
a little shorter than the glumes, the palea half
to two-thirds as long as the lemma. The color
of the panicle varies from greenish to purple or
brown. This grass has escaped from cultiva-
tion or has been introduced over a large part of
the United States. In the western mountains
the species is doubtfully native. This grass is
known by the name of herd's-grass in some
localities, especially in Pennsylvania. In Eng-
land it is called florin.

Agrostis alba vulgaris (With.) Thurb. Rhode
Island bent. Differs from the preceding in the
smaller size, more delicate
culms and foliage, smaller
and especially more open
and fewer-flowered panicle,

* IG. 40. Agrostis alba. Inflorescence and , , . , j

rhizomes, x*A; spikelet, X5. *nis n°t' contracted m

AGROSTIDEJE

205

fruit. The ligule is often shorter and usually truncate. This form
is common in grass land in the northeastern states, where it is
introduced or escaped from cul-
tivation.

Agrostis alba maritima
(Lam.) G. F. W. Mey. Creep-
ing bent. Differs from redtop
in its creeping or stoloniferous
stems and narrow panicles, the
blades mostly short and ap-
pressed. Native along the North
Atlantic coast of America and
Europe, and the Pacific coast
from central California to British
Columbia. The form cultivated
for lawns appears to have been
derived from this.

Rhode Island bent. In
botanical literature this name
has been applied to Agrostis
canina L., a grass similar in
appearance to A. alba vulgaris,
but usually more delicate, the
glumes about 2 mm. long, the
lemma about three-fourths as
long as the glumes, bearing a
little below the middle a bent
exserted awn, the palea wanting.
This is a native of Europe and
is rare in America. There is no
evidence that this species has
been cultivated in Europe or
America. The seed sold under
the name Rhode Island bent is
imported from Europe, and consists for the most part of some form
of Agrostis alba, usually of creeping bent, or the form described
above under A. alba vulgaris.

235. Calamagrostis A dans. — A large genus of peren-
nials growing in the cooler regions of all continents.

FIG. 41. Calamagrostis scabra. Plant
reduced; spikelet, the floret raised from
the glumes, X3. (U. S. Dept. Agr., Div.
Agrost., Bull. 20.)

206

A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES

Spikelets 1-flowered, the rachilla prolonged; lemma awned
from the back, surrounded by a tuft of callus hairs; inflo-
rescence an open or contracted panicle. A common con-
stituent of native meadows in the northern temperate and
arctic regions of America. Blue joint,
C. canadensis (Michx.) Beauv., is com-
monly cut for hay from Montana to
Minnesota. This is a perennial with
creeping rhizomes, erect culms 3 to 5
feet high and a rather open panicle
resembling that of redtop. Another
species, pine-grass C. rubescens Buckl.
(C. Suksdorfii Scribn.), is an excellent
range-grass in the mountains of eastern
Oregon and Washington. Calamagrostis
scabra Presl (erroneously referred to C.
Langsdorfii) (Fig. 41) is a common
grass along the coast of Alaska and in
open grass lands of British Columbia.
236. Ammophila Host. — Beach-
grass. Marram-grass. A genus of 1 or
2 species, allied to Calamagrostis from
which it differs in its strongly com-
pressed spikelets and chartaceous
lemma and palea, the lemma awnless.
The common species is A. arenaria (L.)
Link (Fig. 42), which grows in sand-
dunes of the north Atlantic coast of
Europe and America. It is found also
on the sand-dunes along the east and
south shores of Lake Michigan. It
produces extensively creeping root-
stocks because of which, and because

FIG. 42. Ammophila
arenaria. Inflorescence
and lower portion of
jjlant,JX)^. (U. S.Dept.
Agrost., Bull.

Agr., Div.
No. 14.)

AGROSTIDEM 207

the culms are able to push upward when buried, it can
grow in drifting sand. It has been utilized as a sand-
binder in Europe and more recently in America, especially
on Cape Cod and in Golden Gate Park, San Francisco.
In Europe marram-grass is used also for paper-making.

237. Lagurus L. — The one species, L. ovatus L., a
native of Europe, is cultivated as an ornamental grass for
dry bouquets. It is an annual with ovoid woolly heads,
and narrow pointed plumose glumes.

CHAPTER XXI
TRIBE IX.

A MODERATELY large tribe of about 30 genera, found in
the cooler parts of the world. Spikelets 2- to several-
flowered, in open or contracted panicles or sometimes in
racemes; lemmas usually shorter than the glumes, usually
awned on the back or from between the teeth of a bifid
apex, the awn bent and often twisted, the callus and
usually the rachilla-joints hairy. Only a few of the genera
are found in America. In all these except Aira, an intro-
duced genus, there is a prolongation of the rachilla behind
the uppermost floret; and except in some species of Spheno-
pholis and in the American species of Kceleria the lemma is
awned. These genera are usually placed in Festucese, but
in all characters except the absence of the awn they show
affinity with the genera of Avenese.

KEY TO GENERA OF AVENE^EJ

A. Articulation below the glumes, these deciduous

with the whole or a part of the spikelet.
B. Glumes longer than the 2 florets, pubescent.. NOTHOLCUS
BB. Glumes shorter than the 2 or 3 florets, (Par. 238).
glabrous or scabrous, the second widened
above ................................. SPHENOPHOLIS.

AA. Articulation above the glumes and between

the florets.
B. Lemma awnless or mucronate; inflorescence

a spike-like panicle; an erect perennial. . . .KCELERIA.

BB. Lemma awned.

c. Rachilla not prolonged; spikelets 2-flow-

ered; delicate introduced annuals ....... AIRA.

cc. Rachilla prolonged behind the uppermost
floret.

(208)

AVENEM 209

D. Awn arising from between the teeth of
the bifid apex, flattened, twisted; in-
florescence a simple panicle or reduced
to a raceme or even to a single spikelet.DANTHONiA.
DD. Awn dorsal.

E. Lower floret of the 2-flowered spike-
let staminate ARRHENATH-

EE. Lower floret perfect. [ERUM (Par. 241).

F. Spikelets large, the glumes over

1 cm. long AVENA

FF. Spikelets less than 1 cm. long. (Par. 239).

G. Lemma keeled, bidentate; awn

arising from above the middle.. TRISETUM.
GG. Lemma convex; awn from below

the middle DESCHAMPSIA.

238. Notholcus Nash. — A genus of several species of
Europe and Africa, one of which, velvet-grass ( N. lanatus),
is introduced in America. This is sometimes cultivated as
a meadow-grass but has little forage value. As it thrives
better than other meadow-grasses upon poor soil it is
utilized for sterile ground. It has escaped in many parts
of the United States especially on the Pacific coast. Velvet-
grass is an erect perennial with velvety foliage and a
narrow panicle, expanded in flower. (Holcus L. in part.)

Notholcus lanatus (L.) Nash. (Fig. 43). Velvet-grass. Perennial;
culms erect, 1 to 3 feet high, pubescent; sheaths velvety especially
near the node; ligule pubescent, membranaceous, about 2 mm. long,
more or less toothed and ciliate; blades flat, velvety, mostly 2 to 4
inches long; panicle oblong, 2 to 4 inches long, pale or purplish, in
flower spreading and rather open, in fruit contracted; spikelets 4 to
5 mm. long, the glumes pubescent, longer than the florets, ciliate
on the nerves, the upper broader, 3-nerved, the awn of the second
floret hooked. A common weed from Puget Sound to San Francisco,
in moist and dry soil.

239. Avena L. — Oats. Mostly annuals with large
spikelets, of which the common cultivated oat (A. saliva) is
the most familiar example. The drooping spikelets are in
open panicles. The large and papery glumes are longer than

N

210

A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES

the lemmas, the latter being awnless or bearing a straight
awn. A wild species (A.fatua) differs in having the lemma
covered with brown hairs and in having a stout geniculate
twisted dorsal awn attached near the base. This species
is a native of Europe but is introduced on the Pacific
coast where it is a common weed known as wild oats and
where it is often used for hay.

Avena saliva L. Cultivated oat. An-
nual; culms erect, tufted, smooth, 2 to 4
feet high; sheaths smooth, striate, the
lower rather papery; ligule membranaee-
ous, truncate, 1 to 3 mm. long, toothed or
serrate, decurrent along the margin of the
sheath; blades flat, as much as 1 foot
long and }/% inch wide, scabrous especially
on the margins; panicle open or more or
less contracted, erect or nodding, some-
times 1-sided, the pedicels thickened at
the apex; spikelets large, drooping, vari-
able in size but usually about % to 1 inch long,
the glumes strongly several - nerved, membra-
naceous, acuminate, scabrous, containing usually
2 florets, the lemmas smooth or slightly hairy at
the base, the teeth acute but not awned, the
dorsal awn absent or, if present, usually straight
and not much exceeding the glumes, often pre-
sent only on the lower floret, the palea inclosed
by the inrolled margin of the lemma, densely
short-ciliate on the 2 keels. The florets
do not easily disarticulate, a condition
probably due to cultivation. Commonly
cultivated and often escaped from fields
and in the vicinity of elevators, mills,
railroads and in waste places, but rarely
established permanently. There are sev-
eral races or possibly species in cultiva-
tion. The naked oat (A. nuda L.) differs
in having more than 2 florets and in

FIG. 43. Notholcuslanatus.
Inflorescence, X%; spikelet,
the two florets raised from
the glumes, X7.

AVENE&

211

having the caryopsis loosely and not permanently inclosed in the
nerved lemma.

Avena fatua L. (Fig. 44). Wild oats. Differs from A. saliva
chiefly in the spikelet characters. Florets easily disarticulating, the
lemma beset with stiff usually brown hairs,
these more abundant at base, the teeth acute
as in A. saliva, the dorsal awn well developed,
over an inch long, geniculate, twisted at base,
usually brown. A common weed on the
Pacific coast and occasional elsewhere.

Avena fatua glabrata
Peterm. Differs from A. fatua
in having nearly or quite gla-
brous lemmas. This form can
be distinguished from the usual
forms of A. saliva by the
strong awn and by the easily disarticulating
spikelets.

Avena barbata Brot. Differs from A . fatua in
having more slender panicle branches and in the
awned teeth of the lemma. A common weed on
the Pacific coast, and a constituent of the wild
oats of that region.

Avena sterilis L. Animated oats. Differs from
A. fatua in having larger spikelets, the glumes nearly 2 inches long,
and awns about 2 inches long. An occasional . weed and some-
times cultivated as a curiosity, the "seeds" moving about as the
awns twist and untwist. This motion is due to the absorption or
loss of moisture.

240. Origin of the cultivated oats. — Trabut has shown
that our cultivated oats are derived from at least three
wild species. Avena fatua is the parent of most of the
varieties cultivated in America, and in general the va-
rieties of temperate and mountain regions. The Algerian
oat grown in North Africa and Italy is derived from
Avena sterilis. A few varieties such as Avena strigosa,
adapted to dry countries, are descended from Avena

FIG. 44. Avena
fatua. Spikelet and
a lower floret, XL

212

A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES

barbata. (See Translation of Trabut's article in Journal

of Heredity 5: 56. 1914.)

241. Arrhenatherum Beauv. — To this
small genus belongs the tall oat-grass (A.
elatius), a tall perennial with narrow pani-
cles of spikelets similar to those of the oat
but smaller, about 8 mm. long, 2-flowered,
the first floret staminate and awned, the
second perfect and nearly awnless. This is
a native of Europe and now cultivated
occasionally in this country as a meadow-
grass, especially in mixtures. It is also called
Randall-grass.

Arrhenatherum elatius (L.) Beauv. (Fig. 45.)
Tall oat-grass. Perennial; culms erect, smooth, 3 to
4 feet high, sheaths smooth; ligule membranaceous,
truncate, about 1 mm. long; blades narrow, usually
not over y± inch wide, scabrous on both surfaces;
panicle long and narrow, rather loose, 6 to 10 inches
long, pale or purplish, shining, the short branches
verticillate, usually spikelet-bearing from the base;
spikelets 7 to 8 mm. long, the glumes minutely sca-
brous, unequal, the second nearly as
long as the florets; lemmas scabrous, the
awn of the staminate floret about twice
the length of its lemma, geniculate, sca-
brous. Often escaped from cultivation
and a weed in waste places in the humid
region.

Arrhenatherum elatius bulbosum (Presl)
Koch. Differs from the preceding in pro-
ducing corms at the base of the stems.
These corms are 5 to 10 mm. in diameter
in clusters of usually 2 to 5 in monilif orm
FIG. 45. Arrhenatherum strings. An occasional introduction, from

elatius. Inflorescence, XH; TT.. . . ., ,

spikelet, x4. Virginia southward.

CHAPTER XXII
TRIBE X. CHLORIDES

A MODERATELY large tribe of about 30 genera, mostly
of warm regions. It can be recognized by its 1-sided spikes
or spike-like racemes, the spikelets borne in 2 rows on
one side of a continuous rachis. Spikelets 1- to many-
flowered, usually articulated above the glumes. The
spike is reduced to 2 or 3 spikelets or even to 1 spikelet
in some species of Bouteloua and allied genera. In the
dioecious genus Bulbilis the pistillate spikelets are in a
small cluster among the leaves, but the staminate inflo-
rescence is characteristic of the tribe. Some species of
Leptochloa approach the tribe Festucea3, the spikes not
being strictly 1-sided. In some species of Bouteloua the
small spikes are deciduous from the main axis, thus resem-
bling Naziese.

KEY TO THE GENERA OF CHLORIDES

A. Plants dioecious or monoecious; low stolo-

niferous perennials BULBILIS

AA. Plants with perfect flowers. (Par. 245).
B. Spikelets with more than 1 perfect floret,
c. Spikes solitary, the spikelets distant, ap-
pressed, several-flowered; a low per-
ennial TRIPOGON.

cc. Spikes more than 1 (exceptionally 1 in

Eleusine) .
D. Spikes numerous, slender, along an

elongated axis LEPTOCHLOA.

DD. Spikes few, digitate or nearly so; annual

weeds.

E. Rachis of spike extending beyond the [TENIUM.

spikelets DACTYLOO

(213)

214 A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES

EE. Rachis not prolonged ELEUSINE.

BB. Spikelets with only 1 perfect floret, often
with additional imperfect or modified
florets above, sometimes also below.
c. Spikelets without additional modified
florets, the rachilla sometimes prolonged.
D. Rachilla articulated below the glumes.

E. Glumes narrow, unequal SPARTINA.

EE. Glumes equal, broad and boat-
shaped BECKMANNIA.

DD. Rachilla articulated above the glumes.
E. Spikes digitate; plants extensively

creeping CAPRIOLA

(Par. 242).

EE. Spikes racemose; plants cespitose. . . . SCHEDONNARDUS
cc. Spikelets with 1 or more modified florets

above the perfect one.
D. Spikelets with 2 sterile florets below the

perfect one CAMPULOSUS.

DD. Spikelets with no sterile florets below

the perfect one.
E. Spikes digitate.

F. Fertile lemma 1-awned or awnless..CHLORis

(Par. 243).

pp. Fertile lemma 3-awned TRICHLORIS.

EE. Spikes racemose.

F. Spikelets distant; spikes slender — GYMNOPOGON.
FF. Spikelets approximate, often im-
bricated.

G. Spikes usually short and rather
stout, sometimes with only 1

to few spikelets BOUTELOUA

(Par. 244).

242. Capriola Adans. — A small genus of Old World
grasses, one of which, Bermuda-grass (C. Dactylori), has
been introduced in America and is now common in the
tropics and warmer regions as far north as Maryland and
southern Kansas. This is a low perennial, producing
extensively creeping stolons and rhizomes and erect flower-
culms, a few inches to a foot or more in height, ending in
3 to 6 slender digitate spikes. It is an excellent grass for
lawns and pastures in the southern states but in cultivated
fields often becomes a troublesome weed. In soft soil it

CHLORIDES

215

forms large rhizomes and coarse foliage but in lawns the
foliage is fine and the plants are stoloniferous. Although
called Bermuda-grass it is not a native of Bermuda.
(Cynodon Rich.)

Capriola Dactylon (L.) Kuntze (Cynodon Daclylon (L.) Pers.).
(Fig. 46.) Bermuda-grass. A gray-green perennial; culms exten-
sively creeping, either below the surface of the soil forming rhi-
zomes, or above ground forming stolons, the fertile shoots ascend-
ing, smooth, a few inches to as much as 2 feet in height; sheaths

smooth, flattened and keeled, vil-
lous on each side at the throat;
ligule a very short ciliate-fringed
membrane; blades flat, 2 to 4 mm.
wide, ]/2 to 2 inches long or on
sterile shoots sometimes much
longer, more or less scabrous, at
least on the margin, sharp-pointed;
inflorescence consisting of 3 to 6
slender ascending spikes 1 to 2
inches long, digitate at the summit
of the culms, pubescent at the base,
the rachis ^ to ^ mm. wide; spike-
lets much compressed, often pur-
plish, ovate, about 2*/£ mm. long;
glumes narrow, pointed, scabrous
on the keel, shorter than the spike-
let, the lemma pubescent on the
margin and often also on the keel.

FIG. 46. Capriola Dactylon. Plant show-
ing stolons, X%; spikelet, X7.

216

A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES

The spikelets face alternately to the right and left, often apparently
in a single row. In Europe this grass is called dog's-tooth, refer-
ring to the tooth-shaped old sheaths on the runners, and cock's-foot,

referring to the digitate inflores-
cence. In the British West Indies
it is called Bahama-grass.

243. Chloris Swartz.— A
moderate-sized genus, many
annual species of which are
weeds in the tropics. On ac-
count of the silky spikes they
are usually handsome grasses.
One species, C. Gayana Kunth,
has been introduced in the
southern states as a meadow-
grass under the name of
Rhodes - grass. (See "Some
New Grasses for the South,"
Yearbook, U. S. Dept. Agr.
1912.)

244. Bouteloua Lag. —
Grama-grasses. A genus of
about 30 species, all Ameri-
can, especially abundant in
southwestern United States
and on the Mexican plateau.
They are important grazing-

Fio. 47. Bouteloua gracilis. Inflores-
cence, X 1; spikelet, X10. graSSCS.

Bouteloua gracilis (H.B.K.) Lag. (B. oligostachyaToTT. ). (Fig.
47.) Perennial; culms smooth, tufted, erect, 6 to 18 inches high;
sheaths smooth, or the lower somewhat villous, bearing at the
throat a tuft of long hairs on each side; ligule very short; blades
mostly basal, flat or usually involute, flexuous or curly, 1 to 2 mm.
wide, 2 to 4 inches long, scabrous on the margin; spikes usually 2,

CHLORIDES

217

1 terminal, the other a short distance below, both nearly sessile
and more or less ascending, about an inch long, somewhat curved;
spikelets sessile, about 5 mm. long, densely crowded on one side of
the pubescent rachis; glumes narrow, the upper villous and more or
less beset with dark papillae, the lemma pubescent; rudiment
rounded, 3-awned. The end of the rachis does not project beyond
the spikelets. The spikes turn with the wind like vanes. In the
less arid portions of the Great Plains this species forms a rather
compact sod; in drier regions the tufts are isolated. This is some-
times called blue grama but to stockmen it is usually known merely
as grama. It is the most important economic species of the genus,
ranging on the Great Plains from Manitoba to South America and
westward into New Mexico, Arizona and southern California.

Bouteloua hirsutu Lag. Black grama. Resembles the preceding
but differs in the prolongation of the rachis
as a naked point 5 to 8 mm. beyond the
spikelets, and in the more hairy second
glumes with prominent black papillae. The
range is about the same as that of the pre-
ceding but does not extend so far north.

Bouteloua curtipendula (Michx.) Torr.
Tall or Side-oat grama. Culms 2 to 3 feet
high, the spikes numerous, 30 to 50,
arranged, by twisting of the peduncles,
along one side of the upper part of the
culm for 6 to 10 inches, about % inch
long, the spikelets appressed, 5 to 8 in
each spike. Prairies and plains, from
Ontario to Montana and south through
Mexico to South America.

FIG. 48. Bulbilis dactyloides. Staminate plant,
; spikelet, X4.

218

A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES

There are many other species in the southwestern states and
in Mexico, but the 3 described above are the best-known economic
species.

245. Bulbilis Raf. — Buffalo-grass. The single species,
B. dactyloides (Nutt.) Raf. (Buchloe dactyloides (Nutt.)
Engelm.) (Figs. 48 and 49), a common and often the
dominant grass on the Great Plains, is a low stoloniferous
perennial that forms a firm sod. The staminate inflores-
cence consists of 2 or 3 short 1-sided spikes on a culm a
few inches high; the pistillate spikes are hidden among
the leaves near the ground.

FIG. 49. Bulbilis dactyloides. Pistillate plant,
Xli; cluster of spikelets and floret, X4.

CHAPTER XXIII
TRIBE XI. FESTUCE.E

A LARGE tribe of about 80 genera, mainly inhabitants
of the cooler regions. Spikelets more than 1 -flowered,
usually several-flowered; inflorescence an open, narrow
or sometimes spike-like panicle. If the lemmas are awned,
the awn is straight and terminal or rarely from between
the teeth of a bifid apex (some species of Bromus and a few
species of Festuca). The lemma is divided into several
awns at the summit in Pappophorum and Cottea and a
few other genera. In some species of Eragrostis the palea
is persistent on the inarticulate rachilla. In most of the
genera the spikelet breaks up at maturity, each floret
falling with a joint of the rachilla, the glumes being
persistent on the pedicel. Scleropogon, Monanthochloe,
Distichlis and a few species of Poa are dioecious. The
blades are broad and petioled in a few tropical genera.
Gynerium, Cortaderia, Arundo and Phragmites are
tall reeds.

KEY TO THE GENERA OF FESTUCE.E

A. Lemmas divided at summit into 3 to several
awns or awn-like lobes (only the pistillate in
Scleropogon; lemmas more or less 3-toothed
in Tridens of the next division).
B. Awns 9 or more.

c. Divisions of lemma awn-like, plumose;

panicle spike-like. Arizona PAPPOPHORUM.

cc. Divisions membranaceous, awn-pointed;

panicle open. Texas to Arizona COTTEA.

BB. Awns less than 9.

(219)

220 A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES

c. Plants dioecious; sexes unlike, the pistillate
lemmas long-awned, the staminate awn-
less or nearly so; southwestern states

(burro-grass) SCLEROPOGON.

cc. Plants perfect; lemmas broad, 5-lobed;
spikelets in racemes; annuals. Cali-
fornia ORCUTTIA.

A A. Lemmas awnless or with 1 terminal awn, this
sometimes from between 2 teeth (more or
less 3-toothed in Tridens).
B. Rachilla or lemma with hairs as long as the
lemma (only the pistillate in Cortaderia);
tall reeds with large terminal plume-like
panicles,
c. Plants dioecious, the staminate spikelets

naked ; blades narrow CORTADERIA

cc. Plants perfect; blades broad. (Par. 246).

D. Lemmas hairy; rachilla naked ARUNDO

(Par. 247).

DD. Lemmas naked; rachilla hairy PHRAGMITES.

BB. Rachilla and lemmas naked or pubescent, not

with long hairs,
c. Plants dioecious.

D. Plants low and creeping; spikelets
obscure, scarcely differentiated from
the short crowded rigid leaves; mud
flats along coast. Florida and Cali-
fornia MONANTHO-

DD. Plants erect from creeping rhizomes; [CHLOE.

inflorescence a narrow simple exserted

panicle DISTICHLIS

cc. Plants not dioecious (except a few species (Par. 249).

of Poa).
D. Spikelets of 2 forms, sterile and fertile

intermixed.

E. Fertile spikelets 2- to 3-flowered; ster-
ile spikelets with numerous awned
glumes; our species perennial (C.
cristatus L., crested dog's-tail, occa-
sionally sown in mixtures for

meadows) CYNOSURUS.

EE Fertile spikelets 1-flowered, long-
awned; sterile spikelets with many
obtuse glumes; annual (A. aureum
(L.) Kuntze, Lamarckia aurea
Moench, golden top, occasionally
cultivated for ornament, commonly
introduced on the Pacific coast).. . .ACHYRODES.
DD. Spikelets all alike.

FESTUCE& 221

E. Callus and nerves of lemma densely
bearded ; lemma 3-nerved, the nerves
ending in teeth or lobes.
F. Empty lemmas 2 below the fertile
floret; spikelets with 1 fertile
floret and a 3-awned rudiment
above; low desert perennials BLEPH A RI-
FF. Empty lemmas none at base of [DACHNE.

spikelets.

G. Hairs not extending along the 3

conspicuous nerves of the

lemma; panicle large and open.REDFiELDiA.

GG. Hairs extending from the callus

along the nerves of the lemma.

H. Palea ciliate-fringed ; midnerve

excurrent between the lobes

of the lemma TRIPLASIS.

HH. Palea not ciliate-fringed; the
3 nerves of the lemma often
extending into teeth, the

apex sometimes 2-lobed TRIDENS.

EE. Callus and nerves of lemma glabrous
or pubescent, sometimes cobwebby
but not bearded.

F. Plants tufted and creeping, annual;
spikelets hidden among the short
sharp-pointed leaves. Western. . . MUNROA.
FF. Plants with distinct inflorescence.
G. Lemmas coriaceous, rounded on
the back, smooth and shining,
the margin not scarious.
H. Empty lemmas 1 to 4 at base of
spikelets; spikelets strongly

compressed UNIOLA.

HH. Empty lemmas 2 to 4 at
summit of spikelet; spikelets

not compressed DIARRHENA.

GG. Lemmas membranaceous, or if
somewhat coriaceous, the mar-
gins scarious.
H. Lemmas 3-nerved (Sphenoph-

olis might be sought here).
i. Glumes longer than the

lemmas. California DISSANTHE-

n. Glumes shorter than the [LIUM.

lemmas.

j. Spikelets subterete. Spar-
ingly introduced from
Europe MOLINJA,

222 A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES

jj. Spikelets compressed.

K. Spikelets 2-flowered; ra-
chilla articulate CATABROSA.

KK. Spikelets 3- to many-
flowered; rachilla usually
continuous, the palea
persistent after the fall

of the lemma ERAGROSTIS

H. Lemmas 5- to several-nerved. (Par. 248).

i. Lemmas flabellate, many-
nerved; spikelets in close
spike-like panicles; annual.

California ANTHOCHLOA.

ii. Lemmas not flabellate.

j. Spikelets in 1-sided fascicles,
these in a panicle, the
branches spreading in
anthesis, appressed at

maturity DACTYLIS

jj. Spikelets not in 1-sided (Par. 250).

fascicles.

K. Palea wing-margined or

append aged on the keels;

spikelets long and slender,

in racemes. California. . . PLEUROPOGON.

KK. Palea not wing-margined

nor appendaged.
L. Callus bearded (base of
lemma cobwebby in
species of Poa) spikelets
2- to 4-flowered.
M. Rachilla pilose, pro-
longed above the upper
floret; lemma with a
short awn just below

the tip GRAPHE-

MM. Rachilla naked, not [PHORUM.

prolonged ; lemma awn-
less but 1 or more of
the nerves projecting

beyond the apex SCOLOCHLOA.

LL. Callus not bearded.
M. Spikelets as broad as
long, somewhat heart-
shaped; lemmas broad,
closely imbricated,
horizontally spreading.BRiZA.
MM. Spikelets longer than
broad.

FESTUCEM 223

N. Lemmas papery, sca-
rious-margined, nar-
row and awned or
acuminate, or broad
and obtuse (the up-
per lemmas then re-
duced to a club-
shaped rudiment
enfolded by the up-
per broad lemmas);
spikelets tawny or
purplish, not green . . MELICA.
NN. Lemmas not scarious-
margined, or if
slightly so, only at
the tip, the lemma
green (Poa).
o. Lemma obscurely
nerved, rounded on
back, obtuse, awn-
less; glumes small,
much shorter than
lemmas. Low plants
of the seashore and

of alkaline soil PUCCINELLIA.

oo. Lemma distinctly
nerved; glumes
nearly as long as
the first lemma.
p. Nerves of lemma
prominent, paral-
lel; lemma broad,
obtuse, awnless, 8-

to 9-nerved PANICULARIA.

pp. Nerves of lemma
evident but not
prominent.
Q. Lemmas obtuse
or acutish, awn-
less, somewhat
scarious at tip,
5-nerved, some-
times cobwebby

at base POA (Par. 251).

QQ. Lemmas acute or

awned.
R. Lemmas entire,

often awned, (Par. 254).
rounded below.FESTUCA

224

A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES

RR. Lemmas bifid
at apex, often
awned from
between the
teeth ;spikelets
large, some-
times com-
pressed and

keeled.

. BROMUS

(Par. 258).

246. Cortaderia Stapf. — Pampas-grass. The orna-
mental species, C. argentea (Nees) Stapf (Fig. 50), is a
large reed growing in clumps, the blades numerous, long
and narrow, drooping, the flower-stalk tall and slender,
bearing a large silvery white or rosy plume 1 to 2 feet
long. A native of Argentina, cultivated for ornament
and, in California, on a commercial scale for the plumes.

Another species, C. jubata (Lem.) Stapf, with smaller and more
lax lavender-colored plume, is occasionally cultivated. A related
plant, the uva-grass Gynerium sagittatum (Aubl.) Beauv. (G. sac-

charoides Humb. & Bonpl.), sometimes
cultivated, is a tall coarse leafy reed,
12 to 30 feet high, with creeping root-
stocks, the lower leaves soon dropping,
leaving the stem naked below. Tropi-
cal America; not hardy.

247. Arundo L. — Giant-reed.
The species found in the United
States, A. Donax L., is a tall
stout reed, 5 to 10 feet high, with
somewhat woody finally much-
branched stem, broad clasping
blades and large plumes or pani-
cles. A native of the Mediter-
ranean region, cultivated in the
southern states for ornament. It
has escaped along irrigation

FIG. 50. Cortaderia argen-
tea. A group of inflorescences
greatly reduced; glumes of
pistillate spikelet (a), florets
of pistillate spikelet (b), glumes
(c), and florets (d) of staminate
spikelet, XL (U. 8. Dept. Agr.,
Div. Agrost., Bull. 20.)

FESTUCE&

225

ditches from Texas to Cali-
fornia.

248. Eragrostis Host —
A large genus of over 100
species, found throughout
the warmer regions of the
world. Annuals or peren-
nials with open, narrow or
spike-like panicles ; spike-
lets many -flowered, awn-
less; rachilla usually con-
tinuous, the paleas often
persistent after the fall of
the lemmas and fruits. Sev-
eral species are weeds intro-
duced from the Old World.
One of these, E. cilianensis
(All.) Link (E. megastachya
(Koel.) Link) (Fig. 51),
called snake-grass or stink-
grass, emits a disagreeable

odor from glands along the J£^fi3F*i

keels of the lemmas. Teff,

E. abyssinica (Jacq.) Link, (U.s.Dept. Agr.,Div. Agrost.,Buii: 17.)

is an important food-plant in Abyssinia and has been
tried in other countries as a forage plant. Several
species are occasionally cultivated for ornament, the
panicles being used for dry bouquets.

249. Distichlis Raf. — Salt-grass. Low dioecious per-
ennials of seacoasts and alkaline flats. Only 1 species, D.
spicata (L.) Greene (Fig. 52), is found in the United
States. This is common in salt-marshes throughout the
country. The culms are erect fom extensively creeping

o

226

A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES

rhizomes, with short distichous blades and narrow few-
flowered panicles of many-flowered spikelets. In regions
where it is abundant, salt-grass is utilized for forage, but

on account of the excess
of mineral constituents it
is of inferior quality.

250. Dactylis L.— The
single species, D. glome-
rata, a native of Europe,
is commonly cultivated
as a forage grass under
the name of orchard-
grass. It is a tussock-
forming perennial, 2 to 4
feet high, with flat blades
and narrow panicles. The
spikelets are in 1-sided
fascicles or small heads
at the ends of the few
principal branches of the
panicle. These branches
spread at the time of
flowering but close at
maturity. The lemmas
are fringed or ciliate on
the sharp keel.

FIG. 52. Diatichlis spicata. Staminate
plant (at left) and pistillate plant (at
right) reduced; pistillate and staminate
spikelets.

Dactylis glomerata L. (Fig.
53.) Orchard-grass. Perennial,
in large tufts without creeping rootstocks; culms erect, smooth, 2 to
4 feet high; sheaths compressed and keeled, more or less retrorsely
scabrous, closed for a portion of their length, sometimes nearly to
the throat; ligule prominent, thin and papery, pointed, usually lace-
rate, the uppermost as much as Y$ inch long; blades flat, usually
scabrous on both surfaces, elongated, as much as % inch wide,

FESTUCEM

227

tapering into a slender point;
panicle 3 to 6 inches long, the
branches few and stiff, singly dis-
posed, naked below, bearing a few
1-sided clusters of spikelets, the
clusters being about % inch wide,
green or purplish; spikelets com-
pressed, about % inch long usu-
ally 3- or 4-flowered; first glume
1 -nerved, acute; second glume
longer than the first, 3-nerved,
acuminate, ciliate on the keel; lem-
mas rather indistinctly 5-nerved,
ciliate on the keel, short-awned.
During the flowering period the
branches are spread open by the
turgidity of prominent cushions of
tissue in the basal angle. Later
these cushions shrink and the
branches become appressed so that
in fruit the panicle is narrow and
almost spike-like. The tufts of
orchard-grass soon develop at the
base into large tussocks. In Eng-
land this grass is known as cock's-
foot.

251. Poa L. — Blue-grass.
A large genus of over 100
species, found throughout the
world in the cooler parts and
in the high mountains of the
tropics. Annuals or mostly
perennials often with creeping
rhizomes. Spikelets in narrow
or open panicles, 2- to 6-flowered; lemmas 5-nerved, awn-
less, somewhat scarious at tip, smooth or hairy on the
nerves, sometimes cobwebby at base. This is one of the

FIG. 53. Dactylis glomerata. In-
florescence, X%, spikelet, X7.

228 A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES

most important genera of forage grasses. The species are
abundant in the grazing areas of our western mountains
and several species are cultivated.

252. Kentucky blue-grass. — Culms from a few inches
to 2 feet or more in height from slender creeping rhizomes;
sheaths smooth; ligule short; blades flat or somewhat
folded, ending like most species of the genus, in a boat-
shaped blunt point, panicle 2 to 4 inches long or sometimes
larger, pyramidal, open, the lower branches in groups of
about 5; spikelets 3- to 5-flowered, 4 to 5 mm. long; lemmas
pubescent on the keel and marginal nerves, bearing a
tuft of cobwebby hairs at base. Commonly cultivated as
a lawn- and pasture-grass.

Poa pratensis L. (Fig. 54.) Kentucky blue-grass. Perennial, in
tufts but producing slender creeping rootstocks; culms slender,
erect, smooth, terete or slightly flattened, 1 to 3 feet high; sheaths
smooth, sometimes slightly keeled; ligule membranaceous, short,
truncate, about 1 mm. long; blades, especially the basal, long and
narrow, flat or usually partly folded or conduplicate, usually not
over 4 mm. wide, the uppermost 1 to 3 inches long, appressed,
slightly roughened on the margins and keel, especially toward the
boat-shaped tip; panicle open, pyramidal or oblong, 3 to 6 inches
long, the scabrous branches naked below, the lower in whorls of
usually 5, one being stronger; spikelets ovate or lanceolate, flat-
tened, 4 to 6 mm. long, usually 3- to 5-flowered, the ultimate pedi-
cels about 1 mm. long; glumes narrow, acute, the first 1-nerved,
the second 3-nerved; lemma 5-nerved, acute, hyaline or papery and
often purple-tinged at apex, about 4 mm. long, the keel and margi-
nal nerves pubescent, the base bearing a tuft of cobwebby hairs.
The boat-shaped apex of the blades is characteristic of the genus.
Blue-grass is a native of Europe and may also be native in the
northern parts of North America. In open dry or sterile soil the
flowering culm may be only a few inches in height. In color the
foliage is a dark green and does not have a blue color as the name
would indicate. As it flowers in June, the name June-grass is
applied to this species in parts of the northern United States.

FESTUCE&

229

253. Other economic species of Poa. — Compared
with Kentucky blue-grass, the other species of Poa are of
slight importance, although Can-
ada blue-grass attains some im-
portance locally (Par. 35). Of the
other species 2 are advertised by
seedsmen and are occasionally used
in mixtures.

Canada blue-grass (Poa com-
pressa L.). — Culms wiry, flattened,
with numerous creeping rhizomes,
not tufted; panicles narrow, the
branches in pairs. This resembles
P. pratensis but is bluish green
rather than dark green. Cultivated
as a pasture-grass. Called also
wire-grass and flat-stem.

Rough - stalked meadow - grass
(Poa trivialis L.). — This resembles
P. pratensis but differs in the
absence of rhizomes and in having
scabrous sheaths and a long ligule.
Sometimes cultivated as a meadow-
grass.

Fowl meadow-grass (Poa triflora
Gilib.; P. serotina Ehrh.). — Culms
1 to 4 feet high, tufted but with-
out rhizomes; sheaths smooth;

FIG. 54. Poa pratensis. Plant, X H; spikelet
and floret, X5.

230 A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES

panicles large and open, 4 to 12 inches long. Sometimes
cultivated as a meadow-grass.

Annual blue-grass (Poa annua L.). — A low-spreading
tufted annual with soft light green foliage and small
panicles resembling those of P. pralensis. A native of
Europe, now a common weed throughout the warmer por-
tions of the United States. In the eastern states, it is a
troublesome weed in lawns, because, though it makes a
good showing in the spring, it dies out later, leaving bare
spots.

Poa arachnifera Torr. Texas blue-grass. A smooth rhizome-
bearing, dioecious perennial 1 to 2 feet high, with contracted pani-
cles 2 to 4 inches long; the staminate spikelets glabrous, the lemmas
of the pistillate spikelets villous on the keel and marginal nerves,
provided at base with a copious tuft of woolly hairs. A native of
Texas, where it is a good but rather local range-grass. This species
has been recommended as a winter pasture-grass for the South.

Many native species of Poa are important constituents of moun-
tain ranges.

254. Festuca L. — Fescue-grass. A large genus found
in all the cooler and arctic regions of the world. Annuals
or perennials with narrow or open panicles of several-
flowered spikelets; lemmas rounded on back, rather firm
in texture, 5-nerved, acute or tapering into an awn. The
annual species are weedy but the perennial species are
excellent forage grasses, several species being cultivated
as pasture-grasses.

255. Meadow fescue. — A tufted smooth perennial
1 to 4 feet high, with narrow panicle, 4 to 8 inches long,
the branches spreading while in flower but contracting
later. Commonly cultivated as a meadow- and pasture-
grass. A form with lower culms and more simple panicle
has been called F. pratensis Huds. In some localities
meadow fescue is called English blue-grass.

FESTUCE&

231

Festuca elatior L. (Fig. 55). Meadow fescue.
Perennial, sometimes with short rootstocks;
culms erect, smooth, 1 to 4 feet high; sheaths
smooth, or slightly scabrous toward the apex;
ligule a membrane % mm. or less long; blades
elongated, 2 to 5 mm. wide, scabrous on the
upper surface, the base bearing on each side a
more or less well-developed auricle; panicle erect
or nodding at the apex, 4 to 8 inches long, rather
loose, contracted, but spreading in flower, the
branches mostly singly disposed, bearing few
spikelets; spikelets oblong or lanceolate, about
Y% inch long, smooth, green, usually 7- or 8-flow-
ered; glumes lanceolate, about half as long as
the first floret; lemma rounded on the back,
faintly nerved, the scarious apex acute.

256. Sheep's fescue (F. ovina L.). —
A densely tufted erect perennial 6 inches
to 2 feet high with numerous slender
firm involute basal leaves and narrow
panicles 2 to 4 inches long, spreading in
flower; spikelets short-awned. Common
in Europe in many forms or closely allied
species. Used in this country hi pasture
mixtures for sterile soil. Var. capillata
(Lam.) Hack, has long slender rather
soft blades. Var. duriuscula (L.) Koch,
hard fescue, has harsh blades about 1
mm. thick.

257. Red fescue (F. rubra L.).— This
differs from F. ovina in having less closely
tufted culms, the bases somewhat de-
cumbent or creeping. This species is also

cultivated in meadows. Var. heterophylla FIG. 55. Festuca

,, \ TT i « i i f elatior. Inflorescence,

(Lam.) Hack., various-leaved fescue, has x^jspikeiet, x4.

232 A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES

slender soft leaves and is more densely tufted than red
fescue. It is used for shaded places in lawns where other
grasses will not thrive.

Several native species of Festuca are important range grasses.
Festuca idahoensis Elmer (F. ingrata (Hack.) Rydb.) is common in
Oregon, Washington and Idaho. It is related to F. ovina and has
numerous involute, stiff, scabrous blades and a rather large, spreading
panicle, the lemmas awned. F. viridula Vasey is a ^green erect
species with creeping rootstocks and avvnless lemmas. It is a
valuable range grass of the mountain meadows.

One section of the genus includes several species of small
annuals. One species, F. octo flora Walt., is common in dry open
ground throughout the United States. In the western states there
are several other species, some of which are sufficiently abundant
in the desert regions to produce forage after the rainy season.

258. Bromus L. — Brome-grass. A large genus, found
mostly in the north temperate zone. Annuals or per-
ennials with closed sheaths, and open or contracted
panicles of comparatively large spikelets; lemmas keeled
or rounded on the back, bifid at apex, usually awned
from between the teeth. Several annual species have been
introduced from Europe and have become troublesome
weeds, especially on the Pacific coast. One species is
called cheat or chess (B. secalinus) and is a weed in grain-
fields in the eastern states. This species is cultivated for
hay in Oregon and Washington. This has an open panicle
of plump short-awned spikelets. The species of Bromus,
even the annuals, are good forage grasses, at least when
young.

259. Awnless brome-grass. — An erect perennial with
creeping rhizomes, flat blades and open panicles of slightly
flattened spikelets, the lemmas awnless or nearly so. A
native of Europe and cultivated in the northwestern
states as a forage grass.

FESTUCE&

233

Bromus inermis Leyss. (Fig. 56).
Awnless brome-grass. Perennial with
numerous creeping rootstocks; culms

1 to 3 feet high, smooth, leafy; sheaths
smooth, closed nearly to the summit,
bearing on each side at apex a point
or auricle; ligule membranaceous, 1 to

2 mm. long, ciliate and more or less
toothed; blades flat, 5 to 8 mm. wide,
somewhat scabrous; panicle 4 to 6
inches long, somewhat open and spread-
ing, the branches naked below, the
lower in fascicles; spikelets about an
inch long, brown or purplish, 8- to 10-
flowered, slightly flattened; first glume
narrow, acute, 1-nerved, 5 mm. long,
the second broader and longer, obtuse,
3-nerved; lemma 5- to 7-nerved, the
nerves scabrous, the apex awnless or
short-awned.

260. Rescue -grass (B. uni-
oloides Kunth). — Schrader's
brome-grass. An erect annual or
biennial, with pubescent sheaths
and a narrow panicle of com-
pressed spikelets, the lemmas
keeled, acuminate, awnless. A
native of South America, culti-
vated in our southern states for
winter forage.

The annual weedy species of
Bromus are numerous and conspicuous
on the Pacific slope. The seeds germi-
nate in the spring and the young plants
cover the plains and foothills with
green. By midsummer the plants have matured and the green
mantle has turned to brown. The fruiting florets of some species

FIG. 56. Bromus inermis. In-
florescence, XH; spikelet, X3.

234 A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES

with their antrorsely scabrous awns are sharp-pointed so they
readily penetrate clothing and the wool of sheep, because of which
these species are considered a great pest. The following key will
distinguish the common species:

A. Panicle contracted, dense.
B. Awn % inch long.

c. Culm pubescent below panicle B. rubens L.

cc. Culm glabrous below panicle B .madritensis'L.

BB. Awn about % m°h long B. hordeaceus L.

AA. Panicle open, the branches spreading.

B. Awn twisted and bent B. trinii Desv.

BB. Awn not twisted and bent.

c. Sheaths smooth B. secalinus L.

cc. Sheaths pubescent.

D. Awn 13^ to 2 inches long B. villosus

DD. Awn not over % inch long. [Forsk.

E. First glume 1-nerved B. tectorum L.

BE. First glume 3-nerved.

F. Lemmas pubescent B. arenarius

[Labffl.

FF. Lemmas glabrous B. pratensis

[Ehrh.

CHAPTER XXIV
TRIBE XII. HORDED

A SMALL tribe of about 25 genera in the temperate
regions of both hemispheres. Spikelets 1- to several-
flowered, sessile hi spikes. The rachis is flattened or
concave next to the spikelets, or in some genera it is
hollowed out so that the spikelets are embedded or in-
closed. The spike is 1-sided in Nardus (of Eurasia), but
symmetrical in all other genera. In Triticum and its
allies there is 1 spikelet at each node of the rachis, and in
Hordeum and its allies there are 2 or more. The spikelets
are usually placed sidewise to the rachis but in Lolium
and its allies they are placed edgewise. In these genera the
outer glume is fully developed, but the inner (second)
glume is reduced or wanting except in the terminal spikelet,
where the glumes are equal. The rachis of the spike dis-
articulates in Sitanion, Scribneria, Lepturus and a few
species of Elymus and Agropyron. In some species of
Elymus the glumes, except in the terminal spikelet, stand
in front of the spikelet instead of at the 2 sides. According
to some these 2 organs are the 2 portions of a single deeply
cleft glume (Par. 153) or represent branchlets. In some
species of Elymus and especially in Sitanion the glumes
are very slender, extending into long awns. In Sitanion
the glumes are commonly split into 2-several slender awns.
The blades of this tribe usually bear on each side at the
base an appendage or auricle. To this tribe belong our
most important cereals.

(235)

236 A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES

KEY TO THE GENERA OF HORDED

A. Spikelets more than 1 at each node of the rachis.

B. Spikelets 3 at each node of the rachis, 1-

flowered, the lateral pair pedicelled, usually

reduced HORDEUM

BB. Spikelets 2 at each node of the rachis, 2- to 6- (Par. 268) .

flowered, all alike,
c. Glumes none or reduced to short bristles;

spikes very loose HYSTRIX.

cc. Glumes usually equaling the florets; spikes

dense.
D. Rachis continuous; glumes broad or

narrow, entire ELYMUS

DD. Rachis disarticulating at maturity, (Par. 269).
glumes slender, extended into long
awns, these and the awns of the
lemmas making the spike very bristly .SITANION.
AA. Spikelets solitary at each node of the rachis.
B. Spikelets placed edgewise to the rachis;
glume 1 except in the terminal spikelet.

c. Spikelets several-flowere« LOLIUM

cc. Spikelets 1-flowered. Introduced on the (Par. 261).

Pacific coast MONERMA.

BB. Spikelets placed flatwise to the rachis;

glumes in pairs,
c. Spikelets 1-flowered; spikes slender, terete.

D. Lemmas awnless LEPTURUS.

DD. Lemmas awned. Pacific coast SCRIBNERIA.

cc. Spikelets 2- to several-flowered.

D. Plants perennial (as to species of the -

United States) AGROPYRON

DD. Plants annual. (Par. 262).

E. Glumes ovate, 3-nerved TRITICUM

(Par. 263).

EE. Glumes subulate, 1-nerved SEC ALE

(Par. 267).

261. Lolium L. — Rye-grass. A small genus of temper-
ate Eurasia. Spikelets several-flowered, somewhat resem-
bling those of Festuca, the lemma often awned. The
genus can be easily distinguished by the position of the
spikelets, edgewise to the rachis. The second glume being
next the rachis is usually suppressed but is present and
equal to the first in the terminal spikelet. Two closely
related species are used for lawns, meadows and pastures.

HORDED

237
and

These are perennial rye-grass, L. perenne,
Italian rye-grass, L. multiflorum (L. italicum).

Lolium perenne L. Perennial rye-grass. Perennial;
culms tufted, erect, smooth, 1 to 2 feet high; sheaths
smooth; ligule a short membrane, less than 1 mm. long;
blades flat, narrow, mostly less than 4 mm. wide, smooth,
or scabrous above, the base extended on each side into an
auricle; spike slender, as much as a foot long; spikelets
usually 8- to 10-flowered somewhat longer than the 5 to
8 mm. long glume, the lemmas awnless.

Lolium multiflorum Lam. (L. italicum A. Br.). (Fig.
57.) Differs from the preceding in having awned lemmas
and usually a greater number of florets to the spikelet.
This species is now common in grass land and waste
places on the Pacific coast, where it is sometimes called
Australian rye-grass. These species
are both used in lawn mixtures in the
East. The young plants resemble
blue-grass but may be distinguished
by the darker green color, the usually
larger size and especially by the glossy
surface of the blades, and by the
absence of the boat-shaped tip. The
auricles are characteristic when the
shoots are sufficiently developed.

Lolium temulentum L. Darnel.
An annual with glumes as much as
an inch long, longer than the 5- to
7-flowered spikelets: Introduced from
Europe. Not common, but of interest
because of the presence in the fruit of
a narcotic poison said to be due to a
fungus. This plant is said to be the
one referred to in scripture in the
parable of the tares (Henslow, "Plants of the Bible," p. 119).

262. Agropyron Gcertn. — Wheat-grass. A genus of
about 50 species of the temperate regions. Spikelets
several-flowered, 1 at each node of the rachis. Distin-

FIG. 57. Lolium multiflorum.
Inflorescence, X M; spikelet with
portion of rachis, X3.

238

A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES

guished from Triticum by the narrow pointed or awned
glumes. The American species are perennials. Couch-
grass, A. repens (L.) Beauv. (Fig. 58), is a troublesome
weed introduced from Europe. It prop-
agates by creeping rhizomes. A similar
native species, A. Smithii Rydb., is found
in alkali soil in the western states and
furnishes a fair quality of hay. Another
species, A. tenereum Vasey, is a bunch-grass
of the same region. This species has been
introduced into cultivation and is sold by
seedsmen under the name of slender wheat-
grass. This has erect stems 2 to 4 feet
high, with slender spikes 2 to 6 inches
long, or even longer, broad-nerved awn-
pointed glumes nearly as long as the spike-
let, and short-awned or awnless lemmas.

263. Triticum L.— Wheat. A small
genus of annuals distinguished from Agro-
pyron by the broad several-toothed or
awned glumes. The best known species is
the common wheat ( T. vulgaris; T. satwum)
of which there are numerous varieties.
'Those varieties bearing long awns are
called bearded wheats; those in which the
awn is short or none are called beardless

FIG. 58. Agropyron repens. Inflorescence and
rhizomes, X}^; spikelet, X3.

HORDED

239

or smooth wheats. In all the
true wheats, the grain is free
from the lemma and palea
(the chaff).

264. Spelt and emmer are
considered by some as varie-
ties of wheat, by others as
distinct species, the first being
T. spelta, the second T. dicoc-
cum (Fig. 59). They differ
from wheat in having an artic-
ulated rachis, and grains per-
manently inclosed in the
glumes and lemmas. When
threshed, the spike breaks up
into the internodes of the
rachis, each with a spikelet
attached. In wheat, the
threshing process removes the
grains from the spikelets and
leaves the rachis entire. The
head or spike of emmer is
compact, resembling that of
bearded wheat. The spike of
spelt is more slender and loose.

Emmer has been intro-
duced into cultivation in recent years as a dry-land pro-
duct in the Great Plains region, the grain being used in
the same manner as barley for feeding stock. The statistics
for this crop are given in the census report under ' 'emmer
and spelt." Since the amount of spelt cultivated is
insignificant, the figures apply mostly to emmer. The
production of this crop is given in Table XI (Par. 9).

FIG. 59. Triticum dicoccum. In-
florescence (head), Xj^, spikelet
with a disarticulated joint of the
rachis, X2.

240 A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES

265. Origin of wheat. — None of the cultivated wheats
is now found growing spontaneously, that is, as a native
plant. Various theories have been advanced as to their
origin. Some botanists have supposed them to be derived
from wild species now extinct or possibly existing in unex-
plored regions. Others have thought them to be the
greatly changed descendants from common wild species
such as Triticum ovatum Rasp. (dZgilops ovata L.). (See
Fabre, Journ. Roy. Agr. Soc. 15: 167. 1854.) Schulz has
recently suggested the probable origin of the cultivated
forms. He considers the cultivated wheats to be culture-
form groups rather than species, subspecies or races.
Nomenclatorially he recognizes the following: T. mono-
coccum, T. spelta, T. dicoccum, T. vulgare, T. compactwn,
T. turgidum, T. durum, T. polonicum. The first-mentioned,
T. monococcum, he believes is derived from the wild T.
cegilopoides Bal., and the third, T. dicoccum, from the wild
T. dicoccoides Korn., recently discovered by Aaronsohn
in the region of Mount Hermon, Palestine. (See Cook,
U. S. Dept. Agr. Bur. PI. Ind. Bull. 274. 1913. Aaronsohn,
Op. cit. 180: 38. 1910. Verh. Zool.-bot. Ges. Wien. 59: 485.
1909. Altneuland Monatschr. Wirtsch. Erschl. Palas-
tinas 213. 1906. Bull. Soc. Bot. France 56: 237. 1909.
Schweinfurth, Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Ges. 26a: 309. 1908.)
The second, T. spelta, he considers to have been derived
from an as yet undiscovered wild species. Furthermore he
thinks that T. vulgare and T. compactum were derived from
T. spelta, and that T. turgidum, T. durum and T. poloni-
cum were derived from T. dicoccum. (Schulz, Mitt. Natf.
Ges. Halle 1: 14. 1911.) Aaronsohn considers T. dicoccum
to be the prototype of true wheat and the former to be
derived from T. dicoccoides (U. S, Dept. Agr. Bur. PI,
Ind, Bull 180 ; 41. 1910).

HORDED

241

Triticum sestivum'L. (T. vulgare Vill.; T. sativum Lam.). (Fig.
60). Wheat. Annual; culms tufted, erect, smooth or pubescent at
the nodes, 2 to 3 feet high; sheaths smooth or slightly scabrous, or
the lowermost pubescent; ligule membranaceous, about 1 mm.
long; blades flat, about ]/% inch wide, more or less scabrous on the
upper surface, the base extended on either side into points or auri-
cles, these, at least in the young leaves,
ciliate; spike dense, more or less 4-sided,
1 to 4 inches long; spikelets overlap-
ping, single at the nodes, in 2 rows
alternating on the zigzag continuous
rachis, usually 3- to 5-flowered, ovate,
somewhat compressed; glumes coria-
ceous, shorter than the spikelets, un-
symmetrical or 1-sided, the outer side
being broader, arid bearing an obtuse
or rounded shoulder or tooth, the sharp
keel ending in a point or awn; lemmas
similar to the glumes but nearly sym-
metrical, more or less 3-toothed, the
central tooth sometimes extending into
a long awn or beard. This includes all
the forms that are grown in America
under the name of wheat. There are
numerous varieties differing in length
of awn, color of the head and of the
grain, in pubescence of the spikelets,
in the shape of the head, and many
other characters. The only other species
of the genus grown commercially in
America is emmer (T . dicoccum
Schrank). Durum wheat is considered
to be a variety of T. sestivum.

Two other species are grown to a
limited extent in southeastern Europe.
These are Polish wheat (T. polonicum L.) in which the glumes are
papery in texture and longer than the spikelet; and einkorn (T.
monococcum L.) with disarticulating rachis and slender long-awned
heads, the lateral tooth of the glumes pointed, the palea split-

FIG. 60. Triticum sestivum. In-
florescence (head), X Yi', spikelet
with portion of attached rachis,
X2.

242 A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES

ting into 2 parts, the spikelets much compressed, 2-flowered but
usually 1-seeded.

266. Classification of the wheats. — The cultivated
forms of the genus Triticum may be divided into 2 series:
(1) The spelt wheats, in which the axis disarticulates and
the grains are permanently inclosed in the spikelets. This
group includes spelt (T. spelta L.), emmer (T. dicoccum
Schrank) and einkorn (T. monococcum L.), the latter,
grown to a limited extent in certain parts of Europe, being
distinguished by the 1-awned spikelets with usually only
1 grain. (2) The naked wheats, in which the axis is
entire and the grains not permanently inclosed by the
spikelets. In these the grain can be separated from the
chaff by threshing. The group includes Polish wheat
(T. polonicum L. ), durum wheat ( T. durum Desf.), Eng-
lish wheat (T. turgidum L.) and the numerous varieties of
wheat grown in America, T. cestivum L., T. vulgare Vill.,
and T. sativum Lam. (See Jessen, Deutschlands Graser
191. 1863.)

Hackel's classification. — Hackel divides the cultivated
wheats into 3 species on more technical botanical char-
acters:

A. Terminal spikelet aborted, often scarcely
visible. Palea falling into 2 parts at maturity.

Lateral teeth of glumes acute 1. T. monococ-

AA. Terminal spikelets developed; palea remaining [cum.

entire; lateral teeth of the glumes obtuse.
B. Glumes shorter than any of the lemmas,

chartaceous; palea as long as lemmas 2. T. sativum.

BB. Glumes as long as or longer than any of the
lemmas, papery, lanceolate; palea of the
lowest flower half as long as its lemma. . v 3. T. polonicum.

Triticum sativum (the equivalent of T. cestivum) he
divides as follows into 3 groups which he calls races :

HORDED 243

A. Rachis articulate at maturity; grain entirely
inclosed by the glumes, not falling out when
threshed (however it is not grown to the
glumes).

B. Spikes loose, almost 4-sided when seen from
above;, glumes broadly truncate in front,
with a very short, obtuse middle tooth,

obtusely keeled 1. T. sativum

BB. Spikes very dense, laterally compressed; [spelta Hack,
glumes tapering, with an acute middle

tooth ; sharply keeled 2. T. sativum di-

AA. Rachis not articulated at maturity; grain [coccum Hack,
visible between the somewhat open fruiting

lemma and palea, easily falling out 3. T. sativum

[tenax Hack.

The third race, which includes the common wheats, he
divides in four subraces :

A. Glumes distinctly keeled only in the upper
half, rounded or only slightly keeled in the
lower half.
B. Spikes long, more or less loose, somewhat

dorsally compressed 1. T. sativum

[vulgare Hack.

BB. Spikes short, dense, distinctly 4-sided 2. T. sativum

AA. Glumes sharply keeled at the base. [compactum Hack.

B. Grain short, thick, not compressed, broadly

truncate above 3. T. sativum tur-

BB. Grain oblong, narrower, somewhat laterally [gidum Hack.

compressed, and somewhat acuminate 4. T. sativum

[durum Hack.

The first includes most of the common wheats, of
which there are numerous varieties. The second includes
the club wheats grown in the Palouse country of Wash-
ington and the adjacent regions. The third includes
English wheat, especially grown in Mediterranean coun-
tries. The fourth includes the durum wheat, recently
introduced and now successfully grown in the Great
Plains region. (See Hackel in Engl. & Prantl, Pflanzen-
fam. II. 2:80. 1887. True Grasses, 180. 1890.)

Kornicke's classification is similar to that of Hackel,
but he recognizes the races and subraces as species.
(Kornicke, Handb. Getreidebaues, 1:40. 1885 )

244

A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES

267. Secale L. — Rye. A small genus of southern
Europe and southwestern Asia including 2 wild species
and the cultivated rye. Rachis continuous in the cul-
tivated species, disarticulating in the wild species ; spikelets
mostly 2-flowered, single at the nodes, awned, the glumes
narrow. One wild species is an
annual, the other, S. montanum Guss.,
is a perennial. From the latter has
been developed, according to some
botanists, the cultivated rye.

Secale cereale L. Rye. (Fig. 61). Annual;
culms usually pubescent below the spike,
otherwise smooth, usually glaucous, erect,
tufted, 3 to 5 feet high; sheaths smooth;
ligule membranaceous, short, about 1 mm.
long, toothed, often lacerate; blades flat,
K to H inch wide, scabrous, bearing on
each side at base a small point or auricle;
spike 3 to 5 inches long, somewhat nodding;
the rachis- joints pubescent on the edges;
spikelets 2-flowered, or with a third rudi-
mentary floret; glumes narrow, 1-nerved,
almost subulate, scabrous on the keel;
lemma lanceolate, much-compressed, 5-
nerved, ciliate with stiff hairs on the keel
and exposed margin, unsymmetrical, the
outer half broader and more distinctly
nerved, the apex tapering into a straight

i • i_ i

awn about an inch long.

FIG. 61. Secale cereale.

Inflorescence (head),X/^J

spikelet, X2.

268. Hordeum L. — Barley. A small genus of temper-
ate regions. Glumes narrow or subulate, standing in front
of the spikelet, the 3 pairs forming a sort of involucre at
each node of the rachis; lemmas awned. The most impor-
tant species is the cultivated barley (H. vulgare), an
annual with close spikes like those of wheat, the spikelets

HORDED

245

long-awned. When all 3 spikelets of each group are fertile
the barley is 6-rowed; when
only the central spikelet is
fertile the barley is 2-rowed.
In 4-rowed, or common
barley, all the spikelets are
fertile but the lateral rows
of the opposite sides of the
head overlap or intermingle
to form a single row. Sev-
eral species of Hordeum
are troublesome weeds. Of
these may be mentioned H.
pusillum Nutt., an annual,
and H. nodosum L., a per-
ennial, low short -awned
species found widely distrib-
uted in the United States,
and H. jubatum L. (squirrel-
tail grass) with long-awned
soft spikes, a perennial
found especially westward,
all 3 native species. Two
species introduced from
Europe, H. murinum L. and'
H . Gussoneanum Parl., vari-
ously known as fox-tail and
wild barley, are common
and troublesome on the
Pacific coast. These are low
spreading annuals, the first

. , , a , , ., FIG. 62. Hordeum vulgare. Inflores-

Wltll flattened Spikes and cence (head), Xl/2; cluster of 3 spike-

,. , , lets, and a single floret from the back

Clliate glumes, the Second showing the stipiform rachilla, X2.

246 A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES

with cylindrical spikes and several setaceous glumes. All
the species mentioned except cultivated barley have an
articulated rachis that breaks up at maturity.

Hordeum wlgare L. (H. sativum lessen). (Fig. 62.) Cultivated
barley. Annual; culms and leaves similar to those of wheat; auri-
cles prominent, as much as 5 mm. long, glabrous; spike densely
flowered, usually 3 to 4 inches long, excluding the long awns or
beards, the rachis not disarticulating at maturity; spikelets in 3's
at each joint of the rachis; glumes about ^ inch long, narrow, the
upper half narrowed into an awn; lemma fusiform, about % inch
long, the upper portion narrowed into a very scabrous flat awn as
much as 6 inches long, the rachilla of the spikelet extended behind
the floret as a short hairy or scabrous pedicel lying in the furrow of
the palea. In most of the forms of barley the grain is tightly
inclosed in the lemma and palea.

Beardless barley is a variety in which the awns are suppressed
and converted into irregular short lobes or teeth (H. wlgare tri-
furcatum Wenderoth).

Schulz divides the cultivated barleys into 2 groups: (1)
Hordeum distichum, the 2-rowed barleys, which he refers
to H. spontaneum Koch as the wild prototype. (2) H.
polystichwn, the many-rowed barleys, which he refers to
H. ischnatherum (Coss.) Schulz, as the wild prototype.
(Mitt. Natf.-Ges. Halle 1: 18. 1911.)

269. Elymus L. — Wild rye. A moderate-sized genus
of temperate regions. Rachis continuous; spikelets usually
2 at each node; glumes in pairs in front of the spikelets
(the terminal spikelet having 2 opposite glumes) usually
subulate or awned.

The related genus Sitanion differs in having an articu-
lated rachis. The glumes are usually subulate and
extended into long awns. Several species are found in the
western states. The mature joints of the disarticulated
rachis with the attached spikelets are injurious to grazing
animals, penetrating the ears, eyes and nostrils.

BAMBUSE& 247

TRIBE XIII. BAMBUSE^E

270. This tribe includes the bamboos. These are
nearly all perennial, woody, often tree-like grasses, mostly
of wet tropical regions. The culms in the larger species
are as much as a foot in diameter and over 100 feet in
height. The common economic species of the tropics,
such as Bambos Bambos (L.) Wight (Bambusa vulgaris
Wendl.), have large hollow culms, with hard partitions
at each node. The wood is exceedingly hard and dense.
The hollow joints are used as utensils and the culms for a
great variety of purposes. There are, especially in the
American tropics, several climbing species. The young
shoots of the large erect species of bamboos are covered
with large deciduous scales. The shoots grow to a con-
siderable height before branching and producing the
ordinary foliage. Several species of bamboos are cultiva-
ted in the United States (Par. 89). The commonest are
Arundinaria japonica Sieb. & Zucc., and several species of
Phyllostachys. The latter genus may be distinguished by
the internodes, flattened on one side. The species of
Phyllostachys seldom flower in cultivation. The spikelets
of Arundinaria japonica are large and several-flowered.
The only bamboo native in the United States is the wild
cane (Arundinaria macrosperma Michx.) (Fig. 63), found
in our southern states where it often forms large masses
called cane-brakes. A small form of this or possibly a
distinct species, A. tecta Muhl., is called small cane or
scutch cane.

The floral characters of the bamboos are of little importance
to students, as the cultivated forms do not often flower. The critical
study of the group is too technical for any but the expert. The
structure of the spikelets is, however, comparatively simple. They

248

A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES

FIG. 63. Arundinaria macrosperma. Portion of culm with inflorescence,
reduced; floret, palea showing lodicules, and a caryopsis, reduced. (U. S. Dept.
Agr., Div. Agrost., Bull. No. 20.)

BAMBUSEM 249

are usually 2- to 8-flowered, rarely 1-flowered, often in tufts at the
nodes of the flowering branchlets. Glumes 2, the lower lemmas often
sterile and gradually passing into the glumes. Blades usually short
and rather broad and usually articulated with the sheath, and often
with a short petiole. The stamens are 3 to 6, and the styles 2 or 3.
The fruit is sometimes a nut or even a berry.

CHAPTER XXV
NOMENCLATURE

ATTENTION has already been called to the classification
of plants into genera and species and the grouping of the
genera into larger divisions, the tribes and families. The
method of applying names to these divisions will now be
reviewed. The language of botanical nomenclature is
Latin. If names or words are taken from other languages
they are latinized.

GENERIC NAMES

271. A generic name is a noun (or rarely an adjective
used as a noun) and is always written with an initial
capital. The names may be original Latin names such as
Festuca and Hordeum, or Greek, such as Briza and
Bromus. Or they may be derived from Latin names, as
Digitaria (from digitus, a finger), or compounds of Latin
words as Trisetum (tri, three, seta, a bristle). More often
the name is compounded from two Greek words, as
Leptochloa (leptos, slender, chloa, grass) and Agropyron
(agros, a field, puros, wheat). The generic name may be
a latinized personal name, as Muhlenbergia (for Dr.
Henry Muhlenberg, an American botanist, 1753-1815),
and Deschampsia (for Loiseleur-Deslongchamps, a French
botanist, 1774-1849). A few names have been taken from
other languages than Latin or Greek without being latin-
ized, as Sabal (a kind of palm). Such aboriginal names are
known as barbarous names. Some of these have been

(250)

NOMENCLATURE 251

latinized, as Ananas, Ananassa (the pineapple). Several
generic names of grasses with their derivations are given
below:

Erianthus (Greek, erion, wool, anthos, flower).

Manisuris (Greek, manos, slender, oura, tail).

Andropogon (Greek, aner, man, pogon, beard).

Paspalum (Greek name for millet).

Panicum (an ancient Latin name for foxtail millet).

Echinochloa (Greek, echinos, hedgehog, chloa, grass).

Anthoxanthum (Greek, anthos, flower, xanihos, yellow).

Stipa (Greek, stupe, tow.)

Aristida (Latin, arista, an awn).

Sporobolus (Greek, spora, seed, bollein, to cast forth).

Agrostis (Greek, agros, a field, also a kind of grass).

Calamagrostis (Greek, kalamos, a reed, agrostis, a grass).

Ammophila (Greek, ammos, sand, philein, to love).

Avena (classical Latin name).

Danthonia (for Danthoine, a French botanist).

Spartina (Greek, a cord).

Chloris (the goddess of flowers).

Bouteloua (for Boutelou, a Spanish horticulturist).

Bromus (Greek, bromat food).

SPECIFIC NAMES

272. The specific name may be (1) an adjective, (2)
a noun in the genitive case, (3) a noun in apposition. An
adjective name being a modifier of the generic name, must
agree with that in gender, and the ending changes accord-
ing to the rules of the Latin grammar governing inflection.
The specific adjective may be a Latin adjective or a
latinized Greek adjective or it may be derived from a per-
son or a place.

A few examples are appended to illustrate the adjective
specific name :

252 A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES

Bromus erectus Panicum virgatum.

Bromus arvensis. Panicum capillare.

Bromus purgans. Panicum anceps.

Festuca rubra. Panicum agrostoides.

Festuca occidentalism Panicum prsecocius.

Festuca nutans. Panicum Wilcoxianum.

Festuca elatior. Panicum tennesseense.

273. Nouns in the genitive. — Specific names in the
genitive are usually in the singular and are usually proper
names. It is common for botanists to name a plant for
the collector, as Panicum Werneri. Whether or not the
specific name takes one or two i's in the genitive is a matter
of taste or euphony. If the name Smith is latinized to
Smithus in the nominative it becomes Smithi in the
genitive; if it is latinized to Smithius, it becomes Smithii.
In rare cases the genitive plural is used for personal
names, as Lindsaya Sarasinorum, for the brothers Sarasin.
Occasionally a common noun is genitive plural, as Bromus
tectorum. Further examples are given below:

Panicum Huachucx. Eriogonum Thompsonse.

Panicum tsugetorum. Panicum virgultorwn.

Panicum Leibergii. Viola viarum.

Muhlenbergia Schreberi. Uromyces Trifolii.
Agropyron Richardsonis.

274. Nouns in apposition are not inflected when used
as specific names since they are always in the nominative
case. Such specific names are usually old generic or other
proper names, as Arundo Donax, Capriola Dactylon, Hys-
trix Hystrix and Achillea Millefolium. There are a few
specific names that consist of two words, the first in the
nominative and the second in the genitive, as Echinochloa
Crus-galli. Apera spica-venti, Elymus caput-medusoe. The
two portions of the specific name are usually joined by a

NOMENCLATURE 253

hyphen. Similarly, the specific name may be composed
of two parts having other relations, as Opuntia Ficus-
indica, Puccinia Marice-Wilsoni, Polypodium Donnell-
Smithii. An extreme case is Prosaptia Frederick et Pauli.
Native names of plants have been used as specific names
without being latinized, giving rise to such names as
Vigna Catjang and Dolichos Lablab. Another category of
nominatives as specific names is illustrated by words end-
ing in cola (an inhabitant of) such as Poa saxicola,
Astragalus monticola, Panicum oricola, P. sphagnicola.

275. Names of a lower category. — Subdivisions of the
species are sometimes recognized, these being, subspecies,
variety, subvariety and form. The names used to indicate
these subdivisions are formed in the same manner as
specific names. If the name is an adjective it should agree
with the genus in gender. The usual subdivision of the
species is the variety. There are two general methods of
writing the names of the subdivisions of the species. Most
European and many American botanists write the name,
for example, thus: Festuca rubra var. multiflora. The
other method, used by many American botanists, is to
recognize but one named category below the species, to
call this the subspecies, and to write the name as a trino-
mial, thus : Festuca rubra multiflora.

276. Transferring specific names. — As indicated under
Classification, the botanist's conception of a species or of
its relation to other species may change as his knowledge
concerning these species increases, and the opinions of
different botanists are not infrequently in disagreement
concerning the same species. Consequently it may
become necessary to transfer a species from one genus to
another, thus causing a corresponding change in the name.
The specific name is retained under the new genus pro-

254 A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES

vided there is not already in that genus a species with the
same name. If the specific name is an adjective its end-
ing must be changed when necessary to agree in gender
with the new genus. Thus Panicumfrumentaceum becomes
Echinochloa frumentacea.

AUTHORS OF NAMES

277. The student will observe after the name of a
genus or species, where these are written formally, the
name of a person either in full or abbreviated. This is
the name of the author of the genus or species, that is,
the name of the person first describing the genus or spe-
cies, or who first applied to these groups the name as it
stands. For convenience the name of the author is usually
abbreviated unless it consists of one syllable, or is not
often used, or unless its abbreviation would be ambiguous.

A few common abbreviations are given below. The
name is usually abbreviated to the vowel of the second
syllable. A few well-known names are further abbreviated.

Beauv. — Beauvois.

R. Br. — Robert Brown.

DC.— De Candolle.

Ell.— Elliott.

H.B.K. or HBK.— Humboldt, Bonpland and Kunth.

L. or Linn. — Linnaeus or Linne.

Michx. — Michaux.

Muhl. — Muhlenberg.

Nutt.— NuttaU.

Torr. — Torrey.

Walt.— Walter.

278. Use of parentheses. — Recent custom sanctions
the use of the parentheses to indicate the original author
of a specific or varietal name. A name written thus,

NOMENCLATURE 255

Koeleria cristata (L.) Pers., indicates that Persoon was
the author of the accepted combination and that Linnaeus
was the author of the name cristata under some other
genus, in this case under Aira. Persoon transferred the
species to Koeleria. If a variety has been raised to a
species, or the reverse, the parentheses are used to indi-
cate the original author. If the parentheses are not used,
as is the case in most of the older works, the name retained
is the author of the combination. Among zoologists the
custom often prevails of retaining only the original author
in parantheses, omitting the author of the combination.
The use of the parentheses is often referred to as double
citation.

CAPITALIZATION

279. As previously stated, the generic name always
begins with a capital letter. The specific or varietal name
begins with a small letter unless the word is a proper
name. Many botanists decapitalize all specific names
regardless of derivation. The latter system conduces to
uniformity but violates the rules of the Latin language,
which is the language of botanical nomenclature. Con-
forming to the first system, specific names are capitalized
if they are proper nouns. Such nouns may be derived
from a personal name, or they may be proper names such
as are mentioned under nouns in apposition. Some authors
capitalize geographic adjectives, as Virginiensis and Caro-
linianus, but this is not required by Latin usage.

Decapitalization of proper names may lead to ambiguity. The
specific name Leonis would indicate that the species was named for
a man by the name of Leon, but if the name is decapitalized, leonis,
it may mean merely, of the lion. More serious is the decapitalization
of a name like Millefolium (Achillea Millefoliwri). This is an old

256 A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES

proper name and when used as a specific name is indeclinable. If
it is decapitalized it is at once confused with the adjective mille-
folium, which is declinable.

BIBLIOGBAPHY

280. It is frequently necessary, or at least desirable,
to refer to works, serials and periodicals. For convenience,
the titles are usually abbreviated, and the citation of
volume and page follows a definite form. If titles are
abbreviated it is the aim to make abbreviations under-
standable, concise and consistent. The important words
of the title are selected and are abbreviated as are the
names of authors, that is, to the vowel of the second syl-
lable. In referring to an article in a periodical, the volume
and page of the original are given rather than a reference
to a separate of the article. Many botanists have adopted
the convenient system of citing the volume of a periodical
or work in arabic in bold-faced type. Following the vol-
ume number is a colon and the page and finally the year.

The examples given below will illustrate the system :

Vasey, Bot. Gaz. 9: 97. 1884.

H. B. K., Nov. Gen. & Sp. 1 : 99. 1816.

Swartz, Prod. Veg. Ind. Occ. 23. 1788.

Scribn. & Merr. U. S. Dept. Agr. Div. Agrost. Circ. 35: 3. 1901.

Beyr. in Trin. Mem. Acad. St. P4tersb. VI. Sci. Nat. 1 : 341. 1834.

Nees; Doell in Mart. Fl. Bras. 22: 213. 1877.

If a botanist describes a species in the work of another,
the name of the former is followed by "in," as in the last
two examples. A semicolon following an author's name
indicates that the author proposed the name but the
description was written by the botanist whose name fol-
lows the semicolon.

NOMENCLATURE 257

VALID NAMES AND SYNONYMS

281. The student is often disconcerted when he finds
that a species has more than one name. It should be under-
stood that a given species, as viewed by a given botanist,
has but one valid name, all other names being synonyms.
A genus bears the name assigned to it by the botanist who
first indicated or described it. (By common consent names
dating publication prior to 1753 are excluded.) A later
botanist may describe the same genus as new, not being
acquainted with the earlier description. The second name
then becomes a synonym. Sometimes an author describes a
new genus and assigns to it a name which has already been
used for an earlier genus. Such a name is a homonym,
and can not be accepted as valid, hence the genus must
receive a new name. A botanist may divide a genus of an
earlier author into two or more distinct genera (generic
concepts being opinions), in which case he retains the
original generic name for one of the parts and assigns new
names to the other parts. It is clear, then, that the same
species might have two valid names according to the vary-
ing concepts of two botanists. Barnyard-grass would be
called Panicum Crus-galli by one botanist who considered
Echinochloa to be a section of Panicum, and Echinochloa
Crus-galli by another who considered the group Echino-
chloa to constitute a distinct genus.

Specific names are governed by the same rule, that is
priority. The earliest name is used if there is no reason
for rejecting it. In transferring a species from one genus
to another the original specific name is retained unless
there is already in the second genus a species by that
name, in which case the transferred species receives a
new name.
Q

258 A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES

CODES OF BOTANICAL NOMENCLATURE

282. Botanists have recognized the necessity of being
governed by a definite system in nomenclatorial matters,
and many have adopted sets of rules or codes. The best
known of the earlier codes is that adopted at the Inter-
national Botanical Congress held in Paris in 1867. The
report was edited by Alphonse de Candolle and the Eng-
lish translation is entitled "Laws of Botanical Nomencla-
ture." The report should be read by all interested in
nomenclature.

283. Vienna code. — The most important recent code
is that adopted by the International Botanical Congress
held at Vienna in 1905, and entitled, "International
Rules of Botanical Nomenclature." A few of the princi-
ples are here excerpted in order to indicate the general
trend of the rules.

Botanical nomenclature begins with the "Species Plantarum"
of Linnaeus (1753) for all vascular plants. (Art. 19.)

However, to avoid disadvantageous changes in the nomen-
clature of genera by the strict application of the rules of nomen-
clature, and especially of the principle of priority in starting from
1753, the rules provide a list of names which must be retained in
all cases. The list forms an appendix to the rules [usually referred
to as "list of nomina conservanda"]. (Art. 20.)

No one is authorized to reject, change or modify a name (or
combination of names) because it is badly chosen, or disagreeable,
or another is preferable or better known, or because of the existence
of an earlier homonym which is universally regarded as non-valid,
or for any other motive either contestible or of little import.
(Art. 50.)

When a species is moved from one genus into another, its specific
epithet must be changed if it is already borne by a valid species of
that genus. (Art. 53.)

The list of nomina conservanda referred to under article 20
includes the following American grass genera:

NOMENCLATURE 259

Tragus (1768) to be used instead of Nazia (1763).

Leersia (1788) to be used instead of Homalocenchrus (1760).

Hierochloe (1810) to be used instead of Savastana (1799).

Cynodon (1805) to be used instead of Capriola (1763).

Ctenium (1814) to be used instead of Campulosus (1810).

Buchloe (1859) to be used instead of Bulbilis (1819).

Lamarckia (1794) to be used instead of Achyrodes (1760).

Glyceria (1810) to be used instead of Panicularia (1763).

Article 50, requires the use of

Setaria Beauv. 1807, not Ach. 1798, nor Michx. 1803, instead
of Chsetochloa Scribn. 1897.

Digitaria Hall. 1768, not Heist. 1763, instead of Syntherisma
Walt. 1788.

284. American code. — "The American Code of Botani-
cal Nomenclature" was prepared by a Nomenclature
Commission of the Botanical Club of the American Asso-
ciation for the Advancement of Science. The latest revis-
ion of this code was made in 1907. (See Bull. Torrey Club
34: 167-178. 1907.) Although this code has been adopted
by neither the Botanical Club nor the American Associa-
tion, and has no official standing, it is followed more or
less closely by many American botanists. Some of its
important provisions are given for comparison.

Botanical nomenclature is treated as beginning with the general
application of binomial names of plants (Linnaeus' "Species Plan-
tarum," 1753). (Principle 2.)

The application of a name is determined by its reference to a
nomenclatorial type. (Principle 4.)

In the transfer of a species from one genus to another, the orig-
inal specific name is retained, unless the resulting binomial has been
previously published. (Canon 9.)

The nomenclatorial type of a species or subspecies is the speci-
men to which the describer originally applied the name in publica-
tion. (Canon 14.)

The nomenclatorial type of a genus or subgenus is the species
originally named or designated by the author of the name. If no

260 A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES

species was designated, the type is the first binomial species in
order eligible under the following provisions: [then follow the pro-
visions]. (Canon 15.)

A name is rejected when preoccupied (homonym). (Canon 16.)
A name is rejected when there is an older valid name based on
another member of the same group (metonym). (Canon 17.)

285. Comparison of the two recent codes. — The two

codes agree in taking 1753 as the starting point for priority
and in using the earliest specific name. They disagree
chiefly in the following:

The Vienna Code provides a list of nomina conservanda to
which the law of priority shall not apply. The American Code
does not restrict the law of priority, except as indicated in
principle 2.

The Vienna Code allows the use of generic and specific names
although there may be earlier but non-valid homonyms. The Amer-
ican Code rejects homonyms. (Digitaria and Setaria are accepted
under the Vienna Code and rejected under the American Code;
Bromus altissimus Pursh, 1814, not Bromus altissimus Gilib.,
1792, is accepted, under the Vienna Code, because the homonym is
itself a synonym of another species and is not valid. Pursh's name
is rejected under the American Code.)

The American Code fixes the application of names by reference
to nomenclatorial types. The Vienna Code does not mention types.
This, in practice, is a very important difference. Under the Amer-
ican Code a specific name stands or falls according to the disposition
of the type specimen, and a genus must always include the type
species.

In the present work the nomenclature, with a few
minor exceptions, follows the American Code.

COMMON NAMES

286. The common name is the name by which a plant
is commonly known in the language of the country. Few
plants, and these widely and commonly cultivated spe-

NOMENCLATURE 261

cies, have definite and universally recognized common
names in a country. The common names, wheat, oats,
rye and barley are definite in their application. Millet
is not a definite name as it may mean foxtail millet, proso
millet, sorghum, or even pearl millet. Timothy is in some
localities called herd's-grass, a name which is often applied
to redtop. Kentucky blue-grass is also called June-grass,
and Bermuda-grass is called wire-grass. Such terms as
bunch-grass, wild oats, barley-grass and many others, are
so indefinite in their application that they are of little
value as names.

Because of this lack of precision in applying common
names it has been found necessary to introduce the use of
the botanical or Latin names of the species. Furthermore
the Latin name is applicable in all countries regardless of
the native language. Well-known common names such as
timothy and Johnson-grass may be sufficiently definite.
Where common names are applied to different species in
different parts of a country it is necessary to supplement
the common name with the Latin name, for example,
blue joint (Andropogon furcatus, Calamagrostis canadensis,
or Agropyron Smithii), foxtail (Chcetochloa viridis, C.
lutescens, Hordeum jubatum, H. murinum, and other
species), wire-grass (Capriola Dactylon, Poa compressa,
Juncus balticus) and many others. Furthermore, a large
number of grasses have never received common names
or only such indefinite local names as bunch-grass and
wild oats. For such grasses it is necessary to use the Latin
names. That the technical Latin name of a grass is readily
accepted by the public is shown by the wide use of Bromus
inermis. Some botanical works have attempted, with
doubtful success, to introduce as common names the
translations of the Latin names. Such names may be

262 A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES

occasionally used by amateur botanists, but scarcely by
the general public.

LIST OF BOOKS AND ARTICLES RELATING TO
TAXONOMIC AGROSTOLOGY

From the large number of works on this subject a few
of the recent more important and accessible are here
indicated. Appended to the main list which deals with
North American agrostology is a brief list of representative
reference works upon the grasses of foreign countries.

Works relating to genera

Bentham & Hooker, Genera Plantarum, 3, part 2, 1883.

Durand, Index Generum Phanerogamorum, 1888. A systematic

index to Bentham & Hooker's Genera Plantarum.
Engler & Prantl, Pflanzenfamilien. Gramineae by Hackel, II, 2.

1887. There are additions by Hackel and by Pilger.
Dalla Torre & Harms, Genera Siphonogamarum, 1900-1907. A

systematic index to Engler & Prantl's Pflanzenfamilien.
Hackel, True Grasses, 1890. Translated from the preceding, by

Scribner & Southworth.
Scribner, American Grasses, III, Descriptions of the tribes and

genera. (U. S. Dept. Agr. Div. Agrost. Bull. 20. 1900.)
Chase, Notes on Genera of Panicese. (In four parts, Proc. Biol. Soc.

Washington. 1.19:183-192. 1906. 11.21:1-10. 1908. III.

21:175-188. 1908. IV. 24 : 103-160. 1911).

Manuals and floras

North American Flora. Poacese by Nash (17: 77-98. 1909; 99-196.
1912). Descriptions.

Beal, Grasses of North America. I. 1887. II. 1896 (systematic por-
tion) . Descriptions.

Bailey, Cyclopedia of American Agriculture, 2 : 365-376. 1907.
Grasses by Hitchcock.

NOMENCLATURE 263

Bailey, Cyclopedia of American Horticulture. Grasses by Hitchcock,

the genera alphabetically arranged.
Francis, Book of Grasses, an illustrated guide to the common

grasses and the most common of the rushes and sedges.
Britton & Brown, Illustrated Flora of the Northern United States,

Canada and the British Possessions, 2d edition. Vol. I. 1913.

Descriptions.
Britton, Manual of the Flora of the Northern States and Canada.

3d edition. 1907. Descriptions.
Gray's New Manual of Botany, 7th edition. A handbook of the

flowering plants and ferns of the central and northeastern

United States and adjacent Canada, by Robinson & Fernald.

1908. Descriptions.
Pammel, Ball & Scribner, The Grasses of Iowa. II. (Iowa Geol.

Surv. Suppl. Rep. 1903. Issued in 1905). Descriptions.
Small, Flora of the Southeastern United States. 1903. Descrip-
tions.
Scribner, Grasses of Tennessee: II. (Tenn. Agr. Exp. Sta., Bull. 7,

1894). Descriptions.
Coulter & Nelson, New Manual of Botany of the Central Rocky

Mountains. 1909. Descriptions.
Rydberg, Flora of Colorado (Colo. Agr. Exp. Sta., BuU. 100. 1905).

List with keys.
Coulter, Botany of Western Texas (Contr. U. S. Nat. Herb. 2: 347-

568; grasses in part 3. 1894). Descriptions.
Wooton & Standley, The Grasses and Grass-like Plants of New

Mexico (N. Mex. Agr. Exp. Sta. BuU. 81. 1911). Annotated

list.
Rydberg, Catalogue of the Flora of Montana (Mem. N. Y. Bot.

Gard. 1. 1900). Annotated list.

Howell, Flora of Northwest America. 1903. Descriptions.
Piper, Flora of the State of Washington (Contr. U. S. Nat. Herb.

11. 1906). List with keys.
Piper & Beattie, Flora of Southeastern Washington and Adjacent

Idaho. 1914. Descriptions.
Jepson, Flora of California. Gramineae by Hitchcock (1 : 82-189, in

part 3. 1912). Descriptions.
Scribner & Merrill, Grasses of Alaska (Contr. U. S. Nat. Herb. 13:

47-92. 1910).

264 A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES

Foreign floras
Europe.

Richter, Plantae Europse (1, 1890, includes the grasses). A

list with synonymy.
Ascherson & Graebner, Synopsis der Mitteleuropaischen Flora

(2, part 1, 1898-1902, includes the grasses).
Briquet, Prodrome de la Flore Corse (1, 1910, includes the

grasses). This flora of Corsica is the most recent exposition

of European agrostology.
Halacsy, Conspectus Florae Graecae (3, part 2, 1904, includes

the grasses).
Asia.

Hooker, Flora of British India (7, 1896, includes the grasses).
Trimen, Handbook to the Flora of Ceylon. (5, 1900, includes

the grasses).
Cooke, Flora of the Presidency of Bombay (2, 1908, includes

the grasses).
Ridley, Materials for a Flora of the Malayan Peninsula (3,

1907, includes the grasses).
Franchet & Savatier, Enumeratio Plantarum in Japonia Sponte

Crescentium. (2, 1879, includes the grasses). Annotated list.
Forbes & Hemsley, Enumeration of All the Plants Known from

China Proper, Formosa, Hainan, Corea, the Luchu Archi-
pelago, and the Island of Hong-Kong (Journ. Linn. Soc.

Bot. 26, Gramineae by Rendle). Annotated list.
Merrill, Enumeration of Philippine Gramineae (Phil. Journ.

Sci. 1, Suppl. 5, 1906). Annotated list with keys.
Post, Flora of Syria, Palestine and Sinai.

Africa.

Durand & Schinz, Conspectus Florae Africae (5, 1895, includes

the grasses). Annotated list.

Muschler, Manual Flora of Egypt (1, 1912, includes the grasses).
Dyer, Flora Capensis (7, part 2, 1898, includes the grasses by

Stapf).

Australasia and Hawaii.

Bentham, Flora Australiensis (7, 1878, includes the grasses).
Maiden, Manual of the Grasses of New South Wales. 1898.

NOMENCLATURE 265

Cheeseman, Manual of the New Zealand Flora. 1906.
Hillebrand, Flora of the Hawaiian Islands. 1888.

Tropical North America.

Hitchcock, Mexican Grasses in the United States National

Herbarium (Contr. U. S. Nat. Herb. 17:181-389. 1913).

An annotated list with keys.
Grisebach, Flora of the British West Indian Islands. 1864.

Descriptions.
Hitchcock, Catalogue of the Grasses of Cuba. (Contr. U. S.

Nat. Herb. 12:183-258. 1909). Annotated list with keys.
Urban, Flora Portoricensis (Symb. Ant. 4: 76-109. 1903.

Graminese by Hackel and Pilger). An annotated list.

South America.

Martius, Flora Brasiliensis (2, part 2, 1871-1877, Graminese

by Doell; part 3, 1878-1883, Gramineae by Hackel, and

by DoeU).
Arechavaleta, Las Gramineas Uruguayas (Ann. Mus. Nac.

Montevideo 1894-1897; reprint pp. 1-552).

Monographs and Revisions

Griffiths, The Grama Grasses: Bouteloua and Related Genera

(Contr. U. S. Nat. Herb. 14: 343-428. 1912).
Hitchcock, North American Species of Agrostis (U. S. Dept. Agr.

Bur. PI. Ind. Bull. 68. 1905).
Hitchcock, North American Species of Leptochloa (Op. cit. 33.

1903).
Hitchcock & Chase, North American Species of Panicum (Contr.

U. S. Nat. Herb. 15. 1910).
Kearney, Revision of the North American Species of Calamagrostis

(U. S. Dept. Agr. Div. Agrost. Bull. 11. 1898).
Merrill, North American Species of Spartina (U. S. Dept. Agr. Bur.

PI. Ind. Bull. 9. 1902).
Nash, Genus Cenchrus in North America. (Bull. Torrey Club

22: 298-301. 1895).
Nash, Genus Syntherisma in North America (Op. cit. 25: 289-303.

1898).

266 A TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES

Nash, Revision of the Genera Chloris and Eustachys in North

America (Op. cit. 25: 432-450. 1898).

Nash, Revision of the Genus Triplasis (Op. cit. 25: 561-565. 1898).
Piper, North American Species of Festuca (Contr. U. S. Nat. Herb.

10: 1-48. 1906).

Scribner, The Genus Sphenopholis (Rhodora, 8: 137-146. 1906).
Scribner & Merrill, North American Species of Chsetochloa (U. S.

Dept. Agr. Div. Agrost. Bull. 21. 1900).
Scribner & Smith, Native and Introduced Species of the Genera

Hordeum and Agropyron (U. S. Dept. Agr. Div. Agrost. Bull.

4: 23-36. 1897).
Shear, Revision of the North American Species of Bromus Occurring

North of Mexico. (U. S. Dept. Agr. Div. Agrost. Bull. 23.

1900).
Smith, Synopsis of the Genus Sitanion (U. S. Dept. Agr. Div.

Agrost. Bull. 18. 1899).

INDEX

Achyrodes aureum, 220.
^Egilops ovata, 240.
^Egopogon, 173.
Agropyron, 27, 235, 236, 237.

repens, 238.

Smithii 39, 238.

spicatu n, 28.

tenerum, 45, 238.
Agrostidese, 156, 196.
Agrostis, 198, 203.

alba, 203.

maritima, 205.
vulgaris, 204, 205.

canina, 205.
Agrostology, economic, 2.

list of works on, 262.

systematic, 3, 94.
Aira, 208.
Alcohol, 11, 12.
Alfalfa, 41.

production of, 16.

by states, 85.
Alfilaria, 26.
Alopecurus, 196, 197, 202.

pratensis, 202, 203.
Ammophila, 198, 206.

areraria, 144, 148, 206.

as sand-binder, 71.
Amphicarpon, 177.
Anastrophus, 180.
Anatomy, gross, 96.
Andropogon, 27, 165, 169, 170.

Ellijttii, 105.

furcatus, 39, 169.

halepensis, 170.

scoparius, 39, 40, 169.

Sorghum, 171.

virginicus, 169.
And.opogonese, 155, 164.
Anthaenantia, 177.
Anthochloa, 222.

colusana, 106.
Anthoxanthum, 192, 193.

aristatum, 192.

odoratum, 192.

I'uelii, 192.
Apera, 198.

Arid region, 83.
Aristida, 135, 196, 199.

longiseta, 199.

scabra, 199.

weedy species of, 78.
Arrhenatherum, 209, 212.

elatius, 212.

bulbosum, 142, 212.
Arundinaria japonica, 69, 247.

macrosperma, 247-248,

tecta, 247.
Arundinella, 175.
Arundo, 219, 220, 224.

Donax, 224.
Atriplex, 21.
Auricles, 108.

Authors of botanical names, 254.
Avena, 209.

barbata, 46, 211.

fatua, 46, 211.
glabrata, 46, 211.

nuda, 210.

sativa, 210.

sterilis, 211.

strigosa, 211.
Aveneae, 156, 208.
Awns, 126-127, 134.
Axonopus, 178, 180.

compressus, 180.

Bamboos, 69, 74, 247.

scales of, 109-110.
Bambos Bambos, 247.
Bambusa vulgaris, 247.
Bambusese, 156, 247.
Barley, 244-245.

fruit of, 139.

grass, 77.

wild, 245.
Beach grass, 144, 206.

as sand-binder, 71.
Beckmannia, 214.
Beggar-weed, Florida, 53.
Bent, creeping, 205.

Rhode Island, 204, 205.
Bermuda-grass, 30-32, 45, 214-215.

crop area, 81.

(267)

268

INDEX

Bermuda lawns, 61-63.

soil-binder, 69.

weed, 78.
Bibliography, 256.
Billion-dollar grass, 49, 184.
Bindweed, 75.
Blade, 104, 106.

auricles, 108.

nervation of, 107.
Blepharidachne, 221.
Blepharoneuron, 198.
Blue-grass, 30-31, 45, 227.

annual, 66, 230.

Canada, 34-35, 229.

English, 34, 230.

for lawns, 61-62.

Kentucky, 228.

Texas, 230.
Blue joint, 39, 206.

stem, 39.
big, 169.
Colorado, 39.
little, 39, 40, 169.
Bouteloua, 213, 214, 216.

curtipendula, 39, 217.

gracilis, 142, 216.

hirsuta, 217.

oligostachya, 216.
Brachiaria, 178.
Brachyelytrum, 197.
Bracts, 109, 110.
Briza, 222.
Brome, awnless, 33, 232-233.

grass, 33, 232.
annuals, 26.
weeds, 77.
Schrader's, 233.

Hungarian, 33.
Bromus, 219, 224, 232.

arenarius, 234.

commutatus, 77.

hordeaceus, 77, 234.

inermis, 33, 233.

madritensis, 234.

pratensis, 234.

rubens, 77, 234.

secalinus, 50, 77, 232, 234.

tectorum, 77, 234.

Trinii, 234.

unioloides, 233.

villosus, 77, 234.

corn, 170, 172.

millet, 50, 182.

sedge, 169.

Buchloe dactyloides, 218.
Buckwheat, 7.
Buffalo-grass, 27, 143, 218.

Buffalo-grass for lawns, 64.
Bulbilis, 213, 218.

dactyloides, 143, 217-218.
Bulblets, propagation by, 139.
Bunch-grasses, 28, 45, 145.
Burro-grass, 220.
Burs, 135.

sand, 187.

Cactus, prickly pear, cultivation of, 21.
Calamagrostis, 196, 198, 205-206.

canadensis, 39, 206.

rubescens, 206.

Suksdorfii, 206.

scabra, 205, 206.

Langsdorfii, 206.
Calamovilfa, 198.

longifolia, 144.
Callus, 125, 134, 135.
Campulosus, 214.
Canada thistle, 75.
Canary-grass, 194.
reed, 39, 194.

seed, 195.
Cane, wild, 247.

scutch, 247.

Capitalization of botanical names, 255.
Capriola, 214.

Dactylon, 214-215.
Carpet-grass, 32, 35, 180.
for lawns, 63.
stolons of, 102.
Caryopsis, 6, 129, 138.
Catabrosa, 222.
Cenchrus, 135, 176, 177, 187.

carolinianum, 187.

tribuloides, 187.

Cereals, value and production of, 8-11.
Chsetium, 176.
Chsetochloa, 176, 177, 184.

italica, 7, 184, 185, 195.

lutescens, 184.

viridis, 184.
Cheat, 50, 77.
Chenopodium Quinoa, 7.
Chess, 50, 77.
Chloridese, 156, 213.
Chloris, 214, 216.

Gayana, 216.
Chrysopogon, 165.
Cinna, 196, 198.
Circium arvense, 75.
Circumpolar distribution, 149.
Classification, 151-158.

characters used in, 157.

natural, 19.

of forage plants, 22.

INDEX

269

Clover, 41.

alsike, 41-42.

Bokhara, 53.

bur. 32, 41.

crimson, 41, 52.

Japan, 32, 41-42.

production of, 16.
by states, 84.

red, 41^2.

sweet, 41-42, 53.

true, 41.

white, 41-42.

Cob, corn, morphology of, 116.
Cock's-foot grass, 216, 227.
Code, American, 259.

Vienna, 258.
Codes of botanical nomenclature, 258.

comparison of American and Inter-
national, 260.
Coix, 159, 162.

lacryma-Jobi, 162.
Collar of leaf, 105.
Colorado-grass, 50, 183.
Cord-grass, 39, 40.
Corms, 102, 141.
Corn-cob, morphology of, 116.

history of, 161-162.

origin of, 161.

used for hay and forage, 48-49.

varieties of, 161.
Cortaderia, 219, 220, 224.

argentea, 224.

jubata, 224.
Cottea, 219.
Couch-grass, 78, 238.
Cowpea, 51.
Crab-grass, 50, 148, 181.

weed, 66, 76-77.
Creeping bent for lawns, 61-62.
Crested dog's-tail, 220.
Crop-grass, 181.
Crowfoot-grass, 76.
Culm, 99.

Curly mesquite, 27, 173.
Cymbopogon, 166, 169.

citratus, 170.

Nardus, 114, 170.
Cynodon dactylon, 215.
Cynosurus cristatus, 220.

Dactylis, 222, 226.

glomerata, 226.
Dactyloctenium, 213.
Danthonia, 209.
Darnel, 237.
Deschampsia, 209.
Deserts, 144-145.

Diarrhena, 221.
Dichanthelium, 182.
Digitaria humifusa, 181.
Dissanthelium, 221.
Distichlis, 219, 220, 225.

spicata, 225.
Distribution, circumpolar, 149.

generic, 149-150.

geographical, 147-150.

of grasses, 148.

of species, 148-149.
Dunes, sand, 143-144.
Duration, 99.
Durra, 170, 172.

Echinochloa, 176, 179, 183.

colonum, 184.

Crus-galli, 106, 183.

frumentacea, 183-184.

sabulicola, 146.
Ecology, 133-150.
Egyptian corn, 170.
Einkorn, 241, 242.
Eleusine, 214.

indica, 148.
Elionurus, 165.
Elymus, 235, 236, 246.

arenarius, 144.

canadensis, 39.

flavescens, 144.

glaucus, 39.

virginicus, 39.
Embryo, 131, 136.
Emmer, 239, 242.

fruit of, 139.
Endosperm, 131.

Environment, adaptation to, 139.
Epiblast, 136.
Epicampes, 198.

rigens, 202.
Eragrostis, 219, 222, 225.

abyssinica, 225.

cilianensis, 225.

megastachya, 225.
Erianthus, 165, 167.

divaricatus, 168.

Ravennse, 167.
Eriochloa, 176, 178.
Erodium cicutarium, 26.
Esparto, 73-74, 200.
Euchlsena, 159, 160.

mexicana, 160.
Eulalia, 68.

japonica, 166.
Eurotia lanata, 21.

Evolution, doctrine of, applied to
classification, 151.

270

INDEX

Fagopyrum esculentum, 7.
Farm crops, value of, 4.
Fescue-grass, 230.

for lawns, 63.

meadow, 34, 230, 231.

red, 231.

sheep's, 231.

various-leaved, 231.
Festuca, 219, 223, 230.

elatior, 231.

idahoensis, 232.

ingrata, 232.

octoflora, 232.

ovina, 231.
capillata, 231.
duriuscula, 231.

pratensis, 230.

rubra, 231.

heterophylla, 231.

subuliflora, 132.

viridula, 232.
Festuceae, 156, 157, 219.
Field pea, 52.
Filaree, 26.
Fiorin, 204.

Floral organs, morphology of, 112-132.
Florets, 118.

sterile, 125.

Flowers of grasses, 112.
Fodder, coarse, 49.
Forage, classification of, 22.

coarse, production of, 20.
by states, 85.

plants, 14.

relative importance of different kinds

of, 84.

Fowl meadow-grass, 229.
Foxtail, 245.

green, 76, 184.

grass, 77.

meadow, 202, 203.

millet, 185.

yellow, 76, 184.
Fruit, 129-130.

Gama-grass, 160.
Gardener's garters, 69, 194.
Gastridium, 198.
Genera, 152-153, 156.

monotypic, 153.
Generic distribution, 149.
Geographical distribution, 147-150.

of grasses, 148.
Germination, 136, 138.
Giant reed, 68, 224.

as soil-binder, 69.
Glumes, 118, 121, 123.

Glycine hispida, 53.
Golden top, 220.
Goose-grass, 76, 148.
Grain, 6.

cut green, production of, 20.
hay, 46-47.

miscellaneous uses of, 12.
Grains, germination of, 138.
relative importance of, 7.
Grama, black, 217.
blue, 217.

grass, 27, 143, 216-217.
side oat, 217.
tall, 39, 217.
Graphephorum, 222.
Grass, alfa, 200.
Bahama, 216.
barnyard, 183.
beach, 144, 206.
bent, 203.

Bermuda, 30-32, 45, 214-215.
billion-dollar, 184.
black, 40.
blue, 227.

annual, 230.

Canada, 229.

English, 230.

Kentucky, 228.

Texas, 230.
brome, 232.

awnless, 232, 233.

Schrader's, 233
buffalo, 218.
bur, 187.
burro, 220.
canary, 194.

reed, 194.
carpet, 180.
citronella, 170.
cocksfoot, 216, 227.
Colorado, 183.
couch, 78, 238.
crab, 50, 66, 76-77, 148, 181.
crested dog's-tail, 220.
crop areas, 79, 87.
crop, 181.
dog's-tooth, 216.
dog-town, 199. '
esparto, 200.
family, 154.

usefulness to man, 1-2.
fescue, 230.

meadow, 230.
foxtail, 245.
golden top, 220.
grama, 216-217.
Guinea, 183.

INDEX

271

Grass, herd's, 204.

Himalaya fairy, 166.

holy, 193.

Hungarian, 184, 185.

Johnson, 43-44, 78, 170, 171.

June, 228.

lemon, 170.

marram, 144, 206.

needle, 199.

oil, 170.

old witch, 76.

orchard, 33-34, 45, 226.

pampas, 167, 224.

Para, 35, 183.

plume, 68, 167.

quack, 78.

quick, 78.

quitch, 78.

Randall, 212.

Ravenna, 68, 167.

rescue, 233.

Rhodes, 216.

ribbon, 68, 69, 194.

rye, 236-237.

St. Augustine, 187. . -

St. Lucie, 63.

salt, 225.

sleepy, 200.

snake, 225.

spear, 199.

squirrel-tail, 245.

stink, 225.

Sudan, 172.

sweet vernal, 45, 193.

switch, 39,40.

tall oat, 212.

tickle, 77.

Uva, 224.

vanilla, 193.

velvet, 209.

vernal, sweet, 45, 193.

water, 179.

wheat, 45, 238.

wire, 32, 39.

witch, old, 76.
Grasses, anatomy of, 96.

distinguishing characters of, 95.

distribution of, 97.

economic classification of, 6.

ornamental, 68, 69.

pasture, 30.

range, 26.

soil-binding, 69-72.

sugar-producing, 72-73.

textile, 73-74.

uses of, 3, 74.

water, 138.

Grasses, weedy, 76.
Grazing in arid region, 83.
Great Plains, 143.

crop area, 81.

forage crops for, 82.

species composing prairie hay in,

38-39.

Green-manuring, 74.
Guinea-grass, 35, 45, 183.
Gymnopogon, 214.
Gymnothrix, 186.
Gynerium saccharoides, 224.
sagittatum, 109, 224.

Halophytes, 140, 146.
Hay, 54-57.

acreage of, 17.

baled, 5.

double-compressed, 57.

grain, 46^47.

in the West, 56.

making, 54-55.

prairie, 38.

product of United States, 38.

production of, 14, 17.
by states, 84-85.

salt marsh, 40.

stacks, 55.

standard, 56.

value of, 17.

wild, 39.
Heleochloa, 198.
Herd's-grass, 33, 202, 204.
Heteropogon, 166.

contortus, 148.
Hierochloa, 193.
High pine land, 144.
Hilaria, 173.

cenchroides, 143, 173-174.
Hilum, 130.

Himalaya fairy-grass, 166.
Holcus, 165, 170, 209.

halepensis, 170-171.

Sorghum, 170, 172.
Homalocenchrus, 190.
Hordeae, 156, 157, 235.
Hordeum, 78, 235, 236, 244.

distichum, 246.

Gussoneanum, 77, 245.

ischnatherum, 246.

jubatum, 77, 245.

murinum, 77, 245.

nodosum, 245.

polystichum, 246.

pusillum, 77, 245.

sativum, 246.

spontaueum, 246.

272

INDEX

Hordeum, vulgare, 244, 245, 246.

trifurcatum, 246.
Hungarian brome, 33.
grass, 47, 184, 185.
production of, 18.

by states, 85.
Hydrochloa, 190.

caroliniensis, 146.
Hydrophytes, 140, 146-147.
Hystrix, 236.

Imperata, 165.

Impervious seed-conveyers, 137.

Indian reed, 39.

rice, 7.
Inflorescence, 112-117.

axis of, 115, 121.

motor organs of, 117.

unisexual, 114.
Involucre, 123.
Isachne, 176.
Ischsemum angustifolium, 74.

Japanese lawn-grass, 175. *
Job's tears, 111, 162.
Johnson-grass, 43-44, 170, 171.

eradication of, 44.

germination of, 139.

weed, 78.
Jouvea pilosa, 115.

straminea, 115.
Juncus balticus, 39.

Gerardii, 40.
June-grass, 30, 228.

Kafir, 170, 172.
Kceleria, 208.

Korean lawn-grass, 64, 175.
Kowliang, 172.

Lagurus, 197, 207.

ovatus, 207.
Lamarckia aurea, 220.
Lasiacis, 178.
Lawn, 61-67.

care of, 66.

grass, Japanese, 175.
Korean, 175.

mixtures, 64-65.

preparation of soil, 65.

seeding, 65.

turfing, 87.

watering, 66.

weeds in, 66, 77,
Leaf, 103-105, 108.
Leaves, nervation of, 107,

roll, 106, 108.

Legumes, 19, 32.

annual, for hay or forage, 50.

for soiling, 58.
Lemmas, 118, 124-125.

sterile, 125.
Leptochloa, 213.
Lepturus, 235, 236.
Lespedeza striata, 32, 41.
Ligule, 105-106.
Lodiculea, 128.
Lolium, 235, 236.

italicum, 237.

multiflorum, 237.

perenne, 237.

temulentum, 237.
Limnodea, 196, 197.
Luziola, 190.
Lycurus, 196, 197.
Lygeum sparteum, 74.

Maize, 48, 161.

germination of, 136.
Manisuris, 165.
Marram-grass, 144.

as sand-binder, 71.
Marshes, grasses of, 146-147.
Maydese, 155, 159.
Meadow fescue, 34, 45, 230, 231.

foxtail, 45.

grass, fowl, 45, 229.
rough-stalked, 45, 229.

grasses, 45.

oat-grass, tall, 45, 212.
Meadows, tame or cultivated, 40.

permanent, 40-45.

temporary, 46-53.

wild or native, 38.
Medicago sativa, 41.

arabica, 32, 41.
Meibomia tortuosa, 53
Melica, 141, 223.
Melilotus alba, 41.
Melinideffi, 156, 175.
Mesophytes, 140-141.
Mesquite, curly, 27, 143, 173.
Milium, 197.
Millet, 47, 170, 184, 185.

barnyard, 47, 49, 183.

broom-corn, 182.

foxtail, 47, 185, 195.
production of, 18.

German, 47.

germination of, 139.

Golden Wonder, 47.

Hungarian, 47.

Japanese barnyard, 47, 49.

pearl, 47, 50, 186.

INDEX

273

Millet, pearl, for soiling, 58.

production of, by states, 85.

proso, 47, 50, 182.

Texas, 183.
Milo, 170, 172.
Miscanthus, 165, 166.

nepalensis, 166.

saccharifer, 166.

sinensis, 166.
gracillimus, 166.
variegatus, 166.
zebrinus, 166.

Moisture as related to crop areas, 79.
Molinia, 221.
Monanthochloe, 219, 220.
Monerma, 236.
Monoecious grasses, 115.
Morphology of floral organs, 112-132.

of vegetative organs, 95-111.
Motor organs, 117.
Muhlenbergia, 27, 196, 197, 200.

gracilis, 105, 201.

straminea, 105.
Munroa, 221.

Names, common, 260-261.

generic, 250.

derivation of, 251.
formation of, 250.

priority of, 257.

specific, 251.

formation of, 251, 252.

subspecific, 253.

transferring, 253-254.

valid, 257.

varietal, 253.
Nardus, 235.

National forests, grazing in, 24.
Nazia, 173.

aliena, 175.
Nazieae, 156, 173.
Needle-grass, 199.
Nitrogen-fixing organisms, 21, 51.
Node, 98, 105.
Nomenclature, 250.

codes of botanical, 258.
Nomina conservanda, 258.
Notholcus, 208, 209.

lanatus, 209.

Oat, 209.

animated, 211.
cultivated, 209.
origin of, 211.
germination of, 138.
grass, tall, 45, 212.
naked, 210.

Oat, wild, 46, 211.
Old witch-grass, 76.
Olyra, 176, 177.
Oplismenus, 176, 179.
Opuntia, cultivation of, 21.
Orchard-grass, 33-34, 45, 226.
Orcuttia, 220.
Oryza, 190.

sativa, 190, 191.
Oryzese, 156, 189.
Oryzopsis, 196, 197.
Osterdamia matrella, 175.
Overgrazed pastures, weeds of, 77.
Overgrazing, 24-26.

Pacific slope crop area, 84.
Palea, 118, 127.
Pampas-grass, 224.

hardy, 167.
Panicacese, 154-155.
Panicese, 156, 176.
Panicle, 113.

branching of, 147.
Panicoideae, 154-155.
Panicularia, 223.
Panicum, 176, 179, 181.

barbinode, 183.

bulbosum, 102, 141, 183.

elephantipes, 146.

Lindheimeri, 106.

maximum, 183.

miliaceum, 8, 182, 194-195.

sphserocarpon, 106.

texanum, 183.

virgatum, 39, 40.

Pappophorum, 219.

Para-grass, 35, 183.

stolons of, 101.

Parentheses, significance of, in citing

authors, 254.
Paspalum,176, 178, 179.

dilatatum, 179.

dissectum, 146.

minus, 179.

notatum, 179.

repens, 105, 146.
Pasture-grasses, 33, 45.
southern, 35.

plants, 22.

annual, 36.
Pastures, cultivated, 29.

permanent, 29.

temporary, 36.

native, 19.

woodland, 30.
Pedicel, 120-121.
Penicillaria spicata, 186.

274

INDEX

Penicillaria typhoideum, 186.
Pennisetum, 176, 177, 186.

americanum, 186.

glaucum, 186.

villosum, 186.

Ruppellii, 186.
Petiole, 107. •
Phalaridese, 156, 192.
Phalaris, 192, 194.

arundinacea, 39, 194.
picta, 194.

canariensis, 194.

caroliniana, 194.

paradoxa, 120.
Pharus, 189, 190.
Phleum, 197, 202.

alpinum, 202.

pratense, 202.
Phragmites, 219, 220.
Phyllorachis sagittata, 108.
Phyllostachys, 69.
Phylogeny of grasses, 157.
Pine-barrens, 144.
Pine-grass, 27.
Pistil, 129.
Pisum arvense, 52.
Pleuraphis, 173, 175.

Jamesii, 175.

rigida, 175.
Pleuropogon, 222.
Plume-grass, 68, 167.
Plumule, 136.
Poa, 219, 223, 227-228.

alpina, 139, 149.

annua, 230.

weed in lawn, 66.

arachnifera, 230.

bulbosa, 139.

compressa, 229.

pratensis, 228, 229.

serotina, 229.

triflora, 229.

trivialis. 229.
Poacese, 154.
Pojeoidese, 154-155.
Polygonum aviculare, 75.
Polypogon, 196, 197.
Prairie, 142-143.
Priority of names, 257.
Production of barley, by states, 10.

cereals, 9.

corn, by states, 10.

emmer and spelt, by states, 10.

hay and forage in United States, 14.
by states, 84.

kafir, by states, 11.

milo, by states, 11.

Production of oats, by states, 10.

rice, by states, 11.

rye, by states, 10.

spelt and emmer, by states, 10.

wheat, by states, 10.
Propagation, by bulblets, 139.

by stems, 102.
Prophyllum, 104.
Proso millet, 7, 182.
Protective seed-coats, 137.
Psammophytes, 143.
Publications on forage crops and

grasses, list of, 88-91.
Puccinellia, 220.
Purple-top, 39.

Quack-grass, 78.
Quick-grass, 78.
Quinoa, 7.
Quitch-grass, 78.

Raceme, 113, 114.
Rachilla, 121, 131.
Rachis, 116, 130, 135.
Ranch system, 23.
Randall-grass, 212.
Range-grasses, 26.
Ranges, 22-24.

worn out, rejuvenating of, 25-26.
Rape, 21, 37.
Ravenna-grass, 68, 167.
Redfieldia, 221.
Red-top, 33, 43, 203, 204.

for lawns, 61.
Reed, giant, 68, 224.

as soil-binder, 69.
Reimarochloa, 176, 178.
Rescue-grass, 37, 233.
Reynaudia, 189.
Rhizomes, 100, 110.
Rhode Island bent, 204, 205.

for lawns, 61-62.
Rhodes-grass, 216.
Ribbon-grass, 68, 69, 194.
Rice, 190-191.

germination of, 139.
Roll leaves, 142, 147.
Root, 98-100.
Rumex acetosella, 76.
Rye, 244.

grass, 34, 37, 236, 237.
Australian, 237.
English, 45.
for lawns, 64.
Italian, 45.

wild, 246.
Rytilix, 165.

INDEX

275

Saccharese, 166.
Saccharum, 165, 166.

officinarum, 166-167.
Sacciolepis, 178.
St. Augustine grass, 32, 35, 187-188.

for lawns, 63.

St. Lucie grass for lawns, 63.
Salt bush, 21.

grass, 225.

marshes, grasses of, 146.
Sand-binders, 71, 144.

bur, 76, 187.

dunes, 69-72, 143-144.

fixing, 69-71.
Savastana, 192.

odorata, 193.
Scales, 109.
Schedonnardus, 214.
Schizachyrium, 169.
Schmidtia, 197.
Scleropogon, 219, 220.
Scolochloa, 222.
Scribneria, 235, 236.
Scrub, 144.
Secale, 236, 244.

cereale, 244.

montanum, 244.
Seed, 130-131.

dispersal of, 133-135.

self-burial of, 137.
Series, the 2, of grasses, characterized,

154-155.
Setaria, 185.

italica, 185.
Shallu, 172.
Sheath, 104-105.

node, 105.

Sheaths as floats, 146.
"Short grass," 27.
country, 143.
Silage, 57-59.
Silos, 58-60.
Sitanion, 235, 236, 246.

species, weeds, 78.
Sleepy-grass, 200.
Slough-grass, 39.
Snake-grass, 225.
Soiling, 57-58.
Sorghastrum, 165, 173.

nutans, 39.
Sorgho, 73, 172.
Sorghum, 36, 48, 73, 170.

halepense, 170.

vulgare, 171.

Sorghums, classification of, 172.
Soya soya, 53.
Soybean, 53.

Spartina, 214.

glabra, 40, 148.

juncea, 40.

Michauxiana, 39.

patens, 144.
Spear-grass, 199.
Species, the unit of classification, 151-

152.

Spelt, 239, 242.
Sphenopholis, 208.
Spike, 113.
Spikelet, 117-119.

relation of parts of, 122.

sterile, 120.

terminology of parts of, 118-119.

unisexual, 114, 120.
Spinifex, 176.

Spodiopogon sagittifolius, 108.
Sporobolus, 198.

airoides, 28.

cryptandrus, 105.
Squirrel-tail-grass, 77, 245.
Stamens, 128.
Starch, 11-12.
Stem, 98-100.

modified, 100.

propagation by, 102.
Stenotaphrum, 177, 187.

secundatum, 188.
Stink-grass, 225.
Stipa, 135, 196, 197, 199.

elegantissima, 134.

inebrians, 200.

pennata, 134, 200.

sibirica, 200.

spartea, 200.

speciosa, 200.

tenacissima, 74.

vaseyi, 200.

Stizolobium Deeringianum, 52.
Stolons, 101.
Streptochseta, 124, 189.
Sudan-grass, 172.
Sugar-cane, 72-73, 166.
Swamp, grasses of, 147.
Sweet vernal-grass, 45, 193.
Switch-grass, 39, 40.
Synonyms, 257.
Syntherisma, 178, 180.

glabrum, 181.

ischsemum, 181.

linearis, 181.

sanguinalis, 148, 181.

Tares, 237.
Taxonomy, 151-158.
Teff , 225.

276

INDEX

Temperature as related to crop areas,

79.

Teosinte, 58, 160.
Texas millet, 50, 183.
Thysolaena agrostis, 69.
Tickle-grass, 77.
Timothy, 42, 202.

and clover mixed, production of, 15.
by states, 84.

crop area, 80.

production of, 15.
by states, 84.

standard hay of the East, 56.
Trachypogon, 165.
Tribes of grasses, 154-156.
Trichloris, 214.
Tricholama, 76, 179, 184.

rosea, 184.
Tridens, 221.

flavus, 39.
Trifolium, 41.

incarnatum, 41-42, 52.

hybridum, 41.

pratense, 41.

repens, 41-42.
Triplasis, 221.
Tripogon, 213.
Tripsacum, 159.

dactyloides, 160.
Trisetum, 209.
Tristeginese, 175.
Triticum, 235, 236, 238.

segilopoides, 240.

sestivum, 241, 242.

compactum, 240.

dicoccoides, 240.

dicoccum, 239, 240, 241, 242.

durum, 240, 242.

monococcum, 240, 241, 242.

ovatum, 240.

polonicum, 240, 241, 242.

sativum, 238, 241, 242, 243.
compactum, 243.
dicoccum, 243.
durum, 243.
spelta, 243.
tenax, 243.
turgidum, 243.
vulgare, 243.

spelta, 239, 240, 242.

Triticum, turgidum, 240, 242.
vulgare, 238, 240, 241, 242.

Uniola, 221.
Uva-grass, 224.

Valota, 177.

Vegetative organs, morphology of, 95-

111.
Velvet bean, 52.

grass, 35, 45, 209.
Vetch, 52.
Vicia sativa, 52.

villosa, 52.
Vigna sinensis, 51.

Water-grass, 179.

grasses, 138.
Weeds, 75-78.

annual, 76.

brome-grasses, 77.

biennial, 76.

grasses as, 76.

perennial, 76.

eradication of, 78.
Wheat, 238.

classification of, 242.

durum, 242.

grass, 238.
slender, 45.

origin of, 240.

Polish, 241, 242.
Wild grasses, production of, 19.
Winter fat, 21.
Wire-grass, 32, 39.

Xerophytes, 140-145.

Zea, 159.

mays, 161.
Zizania, 190, 191.

aquatica, 191.

latifolia, 191.

palustris, 7, 146, 191.

injury to seeds of, by drying,
138.
Zizahiopsis, 190.

miliacea, 146.
Zoysia pungens, 175.
Zoysiese, 173.

IB 46466

THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY