/
sa
t
ol
i
af
ve
ve:
Mi
ora |
by Ba "7
A TEXT-BOOK
OF
HORSESHOEING
FOR
Horseshoers and Veterinarians
BY
A, LUNGWITZ
FORMER MEMBER OF THE ROYAL SAXON VETERINARY COMMISSION, LATE INSTRUCTOR IN THE
THEORY AND PRACTICE OF HORSESHOEING, AND DIRECTOR OF THE SHOEING
SCHOOL OF THE ROYAL VETERINARY COLLEGE IN DRESDEN, GERMANY
AND
JOHN W. ADAMS
PROFESSOR OF SURGERY AND OBSTETRICS, AND LECTURER ON SHOEING IN THE
VETERINARY SCHOOL, UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA
ELEVENTH EDITION
WITH TWO HUNDRED AND TWENTY-NINE ILLUSTRATIONS
PHILADELPHIA & LONDON
J. B. LIPPINCOTT COMPANY
Copyright, 1897, by J. B. Lirpprncorr Company.
Copyright, 1904, by J. B. Lirpprncorr Company.
Copyright, 1913, by J. B. Lippincorr Company.
pe we 0-0
OclLA3851539
Ad f
PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION.
Tne inauguration of the law requiring horseshoers to be ex-
amined emphasizes the need of a brief and easily understood
text-book on theoretical and practical horseshoeing. At the re-
quest of the Royal Veterinary Commission, in charge of the
Royal Veterinary Schoo] in Dresden, and many interested in-
dividuals, I have attempted to meet this need by condensing
within the narrowest possible limits all that is essential to the
horseshoer in the practice of his profession. The subject-matter
has been cast into a logically arranged course of instruction ; all
that is superfluous and is found only in exhaustive treatises on
shoeing has been omitted.
In order to make this elementary text-book more easy to
understand, numerous instructive illustrations have been incor-
porated, which were taken partly from “‘ Der Fuss des Pferdes,”
by Leisering & Hartmann, fifth edition, Dresden, 1882; partly
from the journal Der Hufschmied, and partly from drawings
made specially for this work.
With the desire that this little book may find many friends
and supply them with valuable information, it is herewith given
to the public.
A. LuNGWITz.
DRESDEN, September, 1884.
TRANSLATOR’S PREFACE.
During the past nine years in which it has been my
privilege to teach horseshoeing to students of veterinary medi-
cine in the University of Pennsylvania, and to classes of horse-
shoers under the auspices of the Master Horseshoers’ National
Protective Association of America, I have been forcibly im-
pressed with the urgent need of a text-book of horseshoeing
that is adapted to the needs of beginners. In my opinion, such
a work must present a detailed description of the anatomy and
physiology of the legs below the middle of the cannons, and
must emphasize in unmistakable terms the definite relations
which exist between certain well-defined forms of the hoof and
certain well-defined standing positions of the limb. Only on
this sure foundation can a thoroughly scientific system of shoe-
ing be based. Furthermore, the teachings must be eminently
practical, logically arranged, as brief as is consistent with clear-
ness, easy of comprehension by persons who are unfamiliar with
technical language, profusely illustrated, and moderate in price.
Through the kindness of my respected friend and former
teacher, Professor A. Lungwitz, one of the highest authorities
in all matters pertaining to shoeing, and for many years a
teacher in and the Director of what I believe to be the best
school of shoeing in the world, I am enabled to present to the
public this translation of his text-book for students of shoeing.
Written to meet requirements identical with those existing to-
day in the United States, and in scope and arrangement exactly
suited to both student and teacher, I am confident that it will
meet the favor that it merits.
Tue TRANSLATOR.
PHILADELPHIA, 1904. 5
PREFACE TO THE ELEVENTH
EDITION.
Srnce the publication in 1904 of a translation of the tenth
edition of Der Lehrmeister im Hufbeschlag, Prof. Anton Lung-
witz, the author, having reached the age of retirement has with-
drawn from the activities of the Royal Saxon Shoeing School,
and has expressed a desire that the translator assume entire
responsibility for future editions.
To note the progress of farriery during the past ten years
many chapters have been revised, necessitating resetting, and
sixty-nine new illustrations have been added and many re-
drawn. It has seemed desirable to discuss the effect of weight
in the shoe in altering the flight of the foot; to consider rubber
pads so widely used in the United States, and to direct atterition
to many innovations of more or less value, that have appeared
during recent years.
In preparing this edition I have had the cordial co-operation
of the publishers, to whom I hereby express deepest gratitude.
I wish also to record my appreciation for the many suggestions
and other aid given me by Mr. Franz Enge, Chief Farrier of
the shoeing shop of the Veterinary Hospital, University of
Pennsylvania. Joun W. Apams.
UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA, April, 1913.
CONTENTS.
PAGE
INTRODUCTION . . | ere PERE A Nec ee ies Millia aes Sib Le
The Object of Shocing oe ee ee Sia oe Pe Ree re ara ht eae BS
PARA 1.
CHAR WE Rat:
THE GROSS ANATOMY OF THE HORSE.
Bons OF THE HEAD—BONES OF THE TRUNK ...... . . 17
THE SPINAL COLUMN—BONES OF THE THORAX . . . .... ...—-...:-«C17-19
BONES OF THE PELVIS—BONES OF THE Limps .... . . . 1921
JOINTS—MUSCLES—TENDON SHEATHS ......... . 21-24
THE FOOT.
A. The Bones of the Foot . .. 24
The Cannon—The Long Basten The. Sexamoid Bones ihe
Short Pastern—The Pedal Bone—The Navicular Bone . . 24-28
Be wherArticulationsiofthe hoot. 94). eo 2) le ae) ee 4 es
[ee krm HEOMrOCKVOIND ater a.) ec i) ee ie Be 28
he Suspensory, Wagamentie “2.1 36 Ge Sess 2 UMS ie! 129
The Inferior Sesamoid Ligament Ag te . MAtrs- eRe Ueto
II. THe Coronary JOINT . . a Sa Pe el
IJ. Toe Pepat ARTICULATION (Conemt oma) i, tate 1) eS!
C. The Locomotory Organs of the Foot. _.._—i 32
The Anterior Extensor Tendon of the PHalanges= ihe: Pemerntus
Tendon—The Perforans Tendon. . ... .. .-. 32-35
Mucous Burse and Tendon Sheaths . ... Neer bs, 40
Altering the Relative Tension of the Flexor Tendons aril Suspen-
sory Ligament of the Fetlock-Joint . . . . . .. . . 386
D. The Elastic Parts of the Foot . . . OEE Pee aero
The Lateral Cartilages—The Plantar @ushion! Be Aa CoO 40
E. The Blood-Vessels and Nerves. .. ary Se
The Arteries of the Foot—The Veins of fhe Roct—The Nerves of
Gheyoote =] BF pba pate, pte Were PER Cac)
F. The Protective Organs of ihe Foot. At Pars cs om ae ew ot ores
(Q) EE BEMATR- SKINGE te 19. Oe Pt ef La ilk MM em, A
- Mebev Ein eimiisy Js eM oe Pe ee PPS Sos eye Ee a mek
. The Dermis . . sop tice ke ee Bo A) om oS gree Ae
3. The Subcutaneous Aiasiie ie eel 8 eee Lowe io ce Phe AG
10 CONTENTS.
(6) Tae Hoor-SKin, oR PopopERM .... . . . . 465,46
is Ming eta ie byanolo eh 6 6 "el ol m o & @ a a at
2\. he Coronanye band ie) aes P26) Oe, po) Se. a toe
3. The Fleshy Wall . . 1S So ee i en a
The Fleshy Leaves (eodepby lions rIngane) ss § 548549
45 ihe Velvety.Tissueof the’ Sole... . . © 2 9. 49
5. aithe Velvety. Lissucof the Prom. . .. = . . 3 «= = 4
(c) ‘Tort Horn CArPsuLm oR Hoor . 4 «. <« . + « | S0558
Pearle ae td ee PO See ee ee oo
the sBarsh: hey hare Sos 51, 52
The Layers of the Wall: 1. The Periople. ke Middle
or Protective Layer. 3. The Leafy Layer cee raphyllous
IER Oe Meow i ee Ror a Mel) hes fo 5
MRHe Soles hts) (hey Eo a eo oO
The Frog. ting Pick Tes 2h, ie ee OOS
The Minute Structure of ite Hora fe Se 8 at So OS
leleivol aravel Store sl@ean 5 5 Sa 6 6 6s ae 6 « « o OF
C HVACR LER: EI.
THE FOOT IN ITS RELATION TO THE ENTIRE LIMB.
A. Standing Positions of the Limbs. . . . . . . oe 862
(a) THE Positions oF A FoORE-LIMB VIEWED FROM IN BeOMe AND
IN PROBE.) Pe O2=0K
(6) THE POSITIONS OF A ean ee VIEWED FROM Been AND IN
JETOIUMD) 4 gg 67-69
B. Forms of Feet, viewed oma in Fone con Bend padi in Profile 69-72
C. Lines of Flight of Hoofs in Motion : 72-75
D. Influence of Weight upon Lines of Flight of Hoofs : Sy, 05)
E. Forms of Hoofs 77
The Hoof of the Reoular Position The Hoof a ine ‘BasecW. ide
Position—The Hoof of the Base-Narrow Position—Forms of
Hind Hoofs—The Wide and the Narrow Hoof—The Character-
istics of Healthy Hoofs . Hider BNie, YR MRT ioe
F. Growth of the Hoof and Wear of the Hoos al Shoe ee, Vi 82-80
G. Physiological Movements of the Hoof . .. .. . +. +. 86-89
PART i;
QOH APT ER Lit.
SHOEING HEALTHY HOOFS.
A. Examination of a Horse Preliminary to Shoeing. §© . . . . . 90
B. Raising and holding the Feet of the Horse tobe Shod. . . . . 92
om) Hiya
MH
oor wWN
A.
B.
CONTENTS.
. Removing the Old Shoes
. Preparing the Hoof for the Shoe
. Preparing the Hoof for going Barefoot
. Making Shoes
11
97
98
. 102
. 103
The padometer=Nalany: Brant Shoes Mialane find Shoes Cans
eral Characteristics of Shoes—A Shoe with Heel-Calks—A
with Toe- and Heel-Calks—Special Characteristics of Shoes
Choosing the Shoe
. Shaping and Fitting Shes General Gansidecsione
Shaping and Fitting Shoes—Special Considerations .
Fitting Shoes to Saddlers and Hunters.
Fitting Shoes to Runners.
Fitting Shoes to Trotters and Pacers
Fitting Shoes to Heavy Draft Horses
Nailing the Shoe—Horseshoe Nails
- Machine Shoes
. Rubber Pads .
Ci ACP Ee tN:
SHOEING HORSES THAT FORGE AND INTERFERE.
. Forging—Cross-firing
. Interfering
CHAP TERY.
WINTER SHOEING.
. Icr-Natus (FRost-N alts)
. SHARP ToE- AND HEEL-CALKs .
. SCREW-CALKS
. Peg HEEL-CALKsS.
. Pea Ton-CaLks
. REMOVABLE HEEL-CALKS, THAT DO NOT REQUIRE ‘Saupe.
CHAPTER V I.
HOOF NURTURE.
Care of Unshod Hoofs
Care of Shod Hoofs . :
Greasing and Soaking the Egon.
Shoe
103-116
S LLG
2 Ee
. 120
a2?
y 123
. 124
. 125
. 128
. 182
. 185
138, 140
.. 142
. 146
. 146
148, 155
. 150
. 152
. 154
> 157.
se lod
. 159
12
CONTENTS.
PART III.
CHA PER WV i:
GENERAL REMARKS CONCERNING THE SHOEING OF DEFECTIVE HOOFS AND LAME
HORSES.
GENERAL REMARKS . : ‘
CLASSIFICATION OF DISEASES OF THE Eon :
CHACE TERS V ist,
INFLAMMATIONS OF THE PODODERM (PODODERMATITIS).
1. NAILING
2. STREET-NAIL .
3. CALK-WOUNDS OF THE (Couennt
4. Corns .
5. INFLAMMATION OF THE Herne
6. Lamrnitis (FounDER) :
7. KERAPHYLLOCELE (HORN MOR).
CH ACP TE RX.
DEFECTS OF THE HOOF,
A. Changes of Form ;
1. THe FLAT AND THE Pore Hoos ;
2. THE UPRIGHT OR Stumpy Hoor .
3. THE ConTRACTED Hoor
(a) The Contraction of Wide loots :
(b) Contraction of the Sole
4. Tue Wry Hoor
5. THe Crookep Hoor .
6. OSSIFICATION OF THE LATERAL Cuan ce (epee Baan :
B. Disturbances of Continuity of Hoof
il
CRACKS .
ZCUERTS
3. LoosE WALL
4.
5. THRUSH OF THE FROG
HoLitow WALL
CEA P mR xX.
SHOEING MULES, ASSES, AND OXEN.
1. THE SHOEING OF MULES AND ASSES
2. THE SHOEING OF OXEN .
161-165
. 165
. 166
. £70
» its
« LTA
. £76
ap Lich
. 13h
. 182
. 182
. 184
. 185
. 189
. 189
. 190
. 192
. 194
. 195
. 195
. 203
. 204
. 205
. 206
. 207
ee ON
INTRODUCTION.
HorsEsHoEING is an industry which requires, in equal
degree, knowledge and skill.
The word “ horseshoeing ” embraces various acts, especially
preparing the iron sole, the horseshoe; forming it and fitting it
to the hoof, whose ground-surface has been previously dressed
in accordance with the direction of the limb, and fastening it to
the hoof by means of nails.
Owing to the complicated structure of the hoof, success in
the practice of horseshoeing requires a knowledge of the anatomy
and physiology of the horse’s body in general and of the foot in
particular.
The object of shoeing is,—
1. To protect the hoof from excessive wear, and thus render
the horse continuously serviceable upon our hard roads.
2. To prevent slipping and falling during the winter season.
3. Toso far remove the disadvantages of faulty positions of
the limbs that horses may render good service, and, in some
cases,
4. To cure or improve diseased or defective hoofs or feet.
Horseshoeing, though apparently simple, involves many
difficulties, owing to the fact that the hoof is not an unchanging
body, but varies much with respect to form, growth, quality,
and elasticity. Furthermore, there are such great differences
in the character of ground-surfaces and in the nature of horses’
work that shoeing which is not performed with great ability and
care induces disease and makes horses lame.
13
14 INTRODUCTION
In view of these facts, a thorough training of the young
horseshoer in the principles and practice of his trade is not only
greatly to be desired, but is really essential to success ; unreason-
ing work does as much harm in this as in any other vocation.
A good common-school education is necessary (more will do no
harm). Further requisites are a healthy body, not too tall,
liking for the work, aptness, an active, reasoning mind, fear-
lessness, dexterity, a good eye for proportion, and, finally, care-
ful selection of a master-instructor. Theoretically educated,
practically experienced and approved masters, in whose shops
all kinds of horses are shod, are to be preferred.
During his term of apprenticeship the young apprentice
should learn to make drawings of horse&hoes, of tools of the
trade, and of hoofs of various forms, and should also make one
or more model shoes as an indication of his ability. After com-
pleting his time he should seek a position in a first-class shop,
either at home or abroad. A visit to foreign lands will widen
one’s mental horizon and make him a broader, abler man in
every respect. Later, opportunity will be given to some (in
Germany) to join the cavalry, and thus acquire a good educa-
tion in shoeing under the patronage of the government. Finally,
a course of instruction in a school of horseshoeing will convert
an already practical and intelligent horseshoer into a thoughtful,
capable, expert workman.
The scope of horseshoeing is by no means so narrow and
insignificant as it may appear, and since a knowledge of the
anatomy and physiology of the horse’s body in general, and of
the foot in particular, is necessary, it is evident that the schools
of horseshoeing in which one can get the best instruction are
those in which there is not only a regularly graded course of
INTRODUCTION 15
instruction, with demonstrations upon dissected material and
upon living horses, but also an abundance of daily work at the
forge and on the floor in the shoeing of horses. A course of
four to six weeks is not sufficient.
Furthermore, it should be borne in mind that schools of
horseshoeing are not for the purpose of instructing young men
in all matters which pertain to the trade, but only in the making
of shoes, the critical examination and management of hoofs, and
the rational and skilful performance of shoeing. For this reason
it is not advisable for young men to attend a school of horse-
shoeing until they have at least completed their apprenticeship.
Ag
vy
}
} Fo
t
“" '
Av %
1
j
*
m4
;
‘
/ val ad
iva
, : . :
x ~
t
rl
. z »
Pa
T
!
* -
- LF ie
©
— Oy
>
. ' a it
4 = ed i" i" J “ a rn 7 n
i VP © Nore hie dt eae hs
+
HORSESHOEING.
PA rue a.
CHAPTER I.
THE GROSS ANATOMY OF THE HORSE.
THE supporting structure of the horse’s body is the bony
framework or skeleton (Fig. 1, page 18). We distinguish in
the skeleton the bones of the head, trunk, and limbs.
The bones of the head are numerous and, excepting the
lower jaw, are solidly united with one another. In general, we
distinguish in the head only the upper and lower jaws (1 and 1’).
Both form various cavities; for example, the cranial cavity,,in
which the brain lies, the orbital cavities (eye-sockets ), the nasal
passages, and the mouth. Besides, the teeth are set in the jaws.
The trunk comprises the bones of the spinal column, thorax,
and pelvis.
The spinal or vertebral column (2 to 6), which bears the
head at its anterior end, is the chief support of the entire
skeleton. It consists of from fifty-two to fifty-four single and
irregular bones called vertebrae, placed in the upper part of the
median vertical plane of the body. Each vertebra, with the ex-
ception of those of the tail (coccygeal or caudal vertebrie), is
traversed by a large opening called the vertebral foramen. The
vertebre are placed end to end in a row, and through them runs
a continuous large canal called the vertebral or spinal canal, in
which lies the spinal cord. The horse has seven cervical,
eighteen dorsal, six lumbar, five sacral, and sixteen to eighteen
2 Ligh
18 HORSESHOEING.
caudal vertebre. The sacral vertebrae are grown together to
form one piece called the sacrum.
1h, Ie
SKELETON OF THE HorsE.—1, bones of the head; 1’, lower jaw; 2, cervical vertebra; 3,
dorsal vertebre; 4, lumbar vertebre; 5, sacral vertebre (sacrum); 6, coccygeal vertebre; 7,
ribs; 8, sternum (breast-bone); 9, pelvis; 9’, ilium; 9”, ischium; 10, scapula (shoulder-blade) ;
11, humerus; 12, radius; 13, ulna; 14, carpus (knee); 15, large metacarpal bone (cannon); 16,
rudimentary metarcarpal bones (splint-bones); 17, os suffraginis (long pastern); 18, os coro-
nz (short pastern); 19, os pedis (hoof-bone); 20, sesamoid bones; 21, femur; 22, patella
(knee-pan, stifle); 23, tibia; 24, fibula; 25, tarsus, or hock; 26, large metatarsal bone (can-
non); 27, rudimentary metatarsals (splint bones); 28, os suffraginis (long pastern); 29, os
corone (short pastern) ; 30, os pedis (hoof-bone, ‘‘coffin bone’’); 31, sesamoid bones.
The thorax is formed by the ribs and the breast-bone or
sternum. The horse has eighteen ribs on each side (7), and all
articulate with the dorsal vertebre. The first eight pairs unite
by their lower ends directly to the sternum or breast-bone, and
HORSESHOEING. 19
are therefore called true ribs, while the last ten pairs are only
indirectly attached to the sternum, and are consequently called
false ribs. The sternum (8) lies between the forelegs, and helps
to form the floor of the chest cavity. The space enclosed by the
bones of the thorax is called the thoracic, pulmonary, or chest
cavity, and contains the heart and lungs. The bones of the pelvis
form a complete circle or girdle. The upper part, called the
ilium (9’), articulates on its inner side with the sacrum (5),
while its outer side is prolonged to form a prominent angle,
which is the support of the hip, and is called the “ point of the
hip.” The posterior part of the pelvis is called the ischium
(9), and that part lying between the ilium and the ischium and
forming part of the floor of the pelvis is called the pubis.
The space between the thorax and the pelvis, bounded above
by the lumbar vertebrae and shut in below and on the sides by
the skin and muscular walls of the belly (abdomen), is called
the abdominal cavity. This cavity opens directly into the pel-
vie cavity, and contains the stomach, intestines, liver, spleen,
pancreas, kidneys, and a part of the generative organs. The
thoracic and abdominal cavities are separated by a muscular
partition, the diaphragm.
The bones of the limbs may be likened to columns, upon
which the body rests; they articulate with one another at various
angles, are tubular in structure, and strong.
The bones of the fore-limbs do not articulate directly with
the bones of the trunk, but are attached to the body by means of
the skin and muscles. From above to below we distinguish the
following bones:
1. The scapula, or shoulder-blade (10), a flat, triangular
bone, prolonged at its upper border by a flat, very elastic car-
tilage, called the scapular cartilage. At its lower end the
scapula articulates with—
2. The upper end of the humerus (11), forming the
shoulder-joint (scapulo-humeral articulation). The humerus
articulates at its lower end with—
20 HORSESHOEING.
3. The radius (12) and the ulna (18), to form the elbow-
joint. ‘These two bones are the basis of the forearm. The
ulna, smaller and weaker than the radius, lies behind and
projects above it to form the point of the elbow. The lower
end of the radius articulates with—
4, The carpus, or knee (14), which comprises seven small,
cubical bones disposed in two horizontal rows, one above the
other. The upper row comprises four bones and the lower row
three. The lower row rests upon—
5. The large metacarpal or cannon bone, and the two rudi-
mentary metacarpal or splint-bones. The lower end of the
radius, the upper ends of the metacarpal bones, and the smail
carpal bones together form the carpal or knee-joint (wrist of
man). Of the metacarpals, the middle one is the largest,
longest, strongest, and most important, and is called the large
metacarpal, cannon, or shin-bone (15). It articulates at its
lower end with the os suffraginis, or long pastern (17), and with
the two small sesamoid bones (20). On each side of the upper
part of its posterior surface lie the two long, slender splint-
bones (16). The inner splint-bone is sometimes affected with
bony thickenings (exostoses) called “ splints.”
6. The bones of the phalanges (all bones below the cannon)
will be fully described in another place,
The bones of the hind limbs articulate directly with the
pelvis at the hip-joint. They are stronger than the bones of
the anterior limbs. We distinguish the following bones in the
hind legs:
1. The highest bone in the hind limb is the femur (21). It
is the strongest bone in the entire body. It lies in an oblique
direction downward and forward, and at its lower end articu-
lates with—
2. The patella (22), the tibia (23), and the fibula (24), to
form the stifle-joint (knee of man). The patella plays over the
anterior surface of the lower end of the femur. The fibula is
small, and lies against the upper and outer side of the tibia.
The latter at its lower end articulates with—
HORSESHOEING. 21
3. The bones of the tarsus, or hock (25), which are six
small, irregular bones disposed in three rows, one above another,
The os caleis, or heel-bone, and the astragalus are in the upper-
most row, and are the most important. The former projects
above the true hock-joint from behind, to form a long lever, the
upper end of which is called the ‘ point of the hock,” and the
latter articulates with the tibia. The tarsal (hock) bones
articulate below with—
4. The metatarsal bones (26 and 27), which are longer,
and the cannon narrower from side to side, than the correspond-
ing metacarpal bones, but are otherwise similar.
5. The phalanges of a hind limb (28 to 31) are also nar-
rower than those of a fore-limb, but are nearly alike in other
respects,
All the horse’s bones present small, but more or less distinet
openings (nutrient foramina) for the passage of blood-vessels
and nerves. Many bones possess roughened elevations and de-
pressions, to which ligaments, tendons, or muscles are attached.
With the exception of the os pedis, all bones are enveloped in a
sort of “ bone-skin ” called periosteum. The bones unite arhong
themselves to form either movable or immovable unions. A
movable union between two or more bones is termed a “ joint,”
or articulation. The articulating ends of the bones, presenting
on one side a convex surface (head or condyle) and on the other
a corresponding concave surface (glenoid or cotyloid cavity),
are covered with elastic articular cartilage. The bones are bound
together by means of ligaments, which are tough, fibrous, cord-
like, or sheet-like structures. Ligaments are either (1) capsular
or (2) funicular (cord-like). Every articulation in the limbs
possesses a capsular ligament, and all, except the shoulder-joint,
have several funicular (cord-like) ligaments. The capsular liga-
ments are lined upon their inner face with a delicate membrane
synovial membrane) which secretes the synovia, or “ joint
water,’ whose function is to lubricate the joint and prevent fric-
tion; they enclose the joint in a sort of air-tight euff or sack.
The funicular ligaments are very strong and often large, and
x
22 HORSESHOEING.
are the chief means of union of the bones. The immovable
articulations are termed sutures; they are found principally in
the head. The mixed joints are found between the bodies of the
vertebra, each two of which are united by an elastic fibro-carti-
lage which, in the form of a pad, lies between them, and by its
elasticity allows of very slight movement, though the spinal
column as a whole can execute manifold and wide movements,
as shown by the neck and tail.
Joints which permit motion in all directions are known as
free joints; such are the shoulder- and hip-joints (ball-and-
socket joints). Those which admit of motion in but two
directions (flexion and extension), and often to a very limited
extent, are called hinge-joints,—c.g., the elbow, hock, and fet-
lock. The joints between the long and short pasterns and be-
tween the latter and the pedal bone are imperfect hinge-joints,
because they allow of some other movements besides flexion and
extension. The articulation between the first and second cervical
vertebra (atlas and axis) is called a pivot-joint.
The skeleton represents a framework which closely ap-
proaches the external form of the body, and by reason of its
hardness and stiffness furnishes a firm foundation for all other
parts of the body. By reason of the great variety of position
and direction of the bones, and of the fact that changes of posi-
tion of each single part of this complicated system of levers
may result in the greatest variety of bodily movements, we can
readily understand how the horse is enabled to move from place
to place. Of course, the bones have no power of themselves to
move, but this power is possessed by other organs that are
attached to the bones. These organs are the muscles, and,
owing to their ability to contract and shorten themselves, and
afterwards to relax and allow themselves to be stretched out,
they furnish the motive power that is communicated to and
moves the bones.
The muscles of the body massed together are the red flesh
which we observe in every slaughtered animal. They are not,
a ee er en
HORSESHOEING. 23
however, so shapeless as they appear while in this condition ;
on the contrary, they present well-arranged muscular layers
1a, Fe
OvutTEeR MUSCLEs OF THE HorsE.—1, cervical trapezius; 2, dorsal trapezius; 3, mastoido-
humeralis; 4, great dorsal muscle; 5, long abductor of the arm; 6, long extensor of the fore-
arm; 7, large extensor of the forearm; 8, short extensor of the forearm; 9, sterno-trochinus
(deep pectoral); 10, sterno-aponeuroticus; 11, great serratus; 12, common extensor of the
metacarpus; 13, common extensor of the toe (anterior extensor); 14, common extensor of
the long pastern (lateral extensor) ; 15, oblique extensor of the metacarpus; 16, external flexor
of the metacarpus; 17, internal flexor of the metacarpus; 18, oblique flexor of the metacarpus;
19, fascia lata; 20, superficial gluteus (anterior portion); 21, middle gluteus; 22, superficial
gluteus (posterior portion) ; 23 and 24, femoral biceps; 25, semitendinosus; 26, semimembra-
nosus; 27, anterior extensor of the toe; 28, lateral extensor of the toe; 29, perforans muscle
(deep flexor of toe); 30, oblique flexor of the phalanges; 31, perforatus tendon (superficial
flexor of phalanges); 32, Achilles tendon (ham-string).
of variable size, thickness, length, and position. (See Fig. 2.)
The muscles clothe the skeleton externally, give the body its
24 HORSESHOEING.
peculiar form, and, by their special power of contraction,
change the relative positions of the bones and thus make it pos-
sible for the animal to move. For this reason, the muscles are
called the active, and the bones the passive, organs of motion.
By carefully examining a muscle it will be found to consist of
actual, minute, reddish, muscular fibres. As a rule, muscles
terminate in more or less strong, glistening, fibrous cords called
tendons, or fibrous sheets termed aponeuroses, by which they
are attached to the bones. In the limbs are muscles terminating
in very long tendons, which act as draw-lines upon the distant
bones of the foot (long and short pasterns and pedal bone) and
set them in motion. Such long tendons are enclosed in sheaths
of thin, membranous tissue, known as tendon sheaths. The
inner surface of such a sheath is in direct contact with the
surface of the tendon, and secretes a thin slippery fluid
(synovia) which lubricates the tendon and facilitates its gliding
within the sheath.
As long as the bones, articulations, muscles, and tendons of
the limbs remain healthy, just so long will the legs maintain
their natural direction and position. Frequently, however,
this normal condition of the limbs is gradually altered by dis-
ease of the bones, joints, and tendons, and defects in the form
and action of the lower parts of the limbs arise that often
require attention in shoeing.
LEE FOO:
A. The Bones of the Foot.
Since the horse is useful to man only by reason of his move-
ments, his foot deserves the most careful attention. The horse-
shoer should be familar with all its parts. Fig. 3 shows the
osseous framework of the foot, consisting of the lower end of the
cannon bone (A), the long pastern (B), the two sesamoid bones
(C), the short pastern (D’), and the pedal bone (#). The lower
end of the cannon, or large metacarpal bone (A) exhibits two
convex articular surfaces (condyles) separated by a median
ridge running from before to behind, and all covered by articu-
HORSESHOEING. 25
lar cartilage. On both the external and the internal aspects of
the lower end of the cannon are small uneven depressions in
which hgaments take
their attachment.
The condyles of
the cannon articulate
with the os suftra-
ginis (long pastern)
and the two sesa-
moids (Figs. 3, C,
and 4, 6B) in such a
manner that in the
forefeet the cannon
makes an angle with 0/
the long pastern of
from one hundred
and thirty-five to one
hundred and _ forty
degrees, and in the
hind feet of from one
hundred and forty to
one hundred and
forty-five degrees.
The long pastern
(first phalanx) (Fig.
4, A) is about one-third the length of the cannon; its upper and
thicker end presents two condyloid cavities (a) (glenoid cavities),
separated by a median groove, which exactly fit the condyles
and ridge at the lower end of the cannon. The lower end of
the long pastern is smaller than the upper, and is provided with
two condyles, between which is a shallow groove (e). The an-
terior face of the bone is smooth, rounded from side to side,
and blends into the lateral borders. The posterior face is flatter,
and shows a clearly marked triangle to which ligaments attach.
The two sesamoid bones (Fig. 4, B) are small, and some-
26
what pyramidal in shape, and,
Fie. 4.
Os suffraginis with both sesamoid bones
in position, asin Fig. 3. A, os suffraginis; B,
sesamoid bones; a, upper joint-surface of
long pastern; 6, joint-surface of sesamoid
bones; c, roughened surface at upper end;
d, roughened surface at lower end, both for
attachment of ligaments; e, lower joint sur-
face.
HORSESHOEING.
lying against the posterior part
of the condyles of the cannon
bone, increase the articular sur-
faces at the upper end of the
long pastern.
The short pastern (second
phalanx) (Figs. 5 and 6) lies
under the first phalanx and
above the os pedis; it is some-
what cubical in shape. Its
upper articular surface (Fig. 5,
a) presents two glenoid cavities
to correspond with the condyles
of the first phalanx. The lower
articular surface (Fig. 5, d) re-
sembles the lower end of the
first phalanx. The upper poste-
rior border of this bone is promi-
nent and prolonged transversely
(Fig. 6, a), to serve as a supporting ledge for the first phalanx,
IMG),
Short pastern (os coronez)
viewed in front and in pro-
file: a, upper joint-surface;
b, anterior surface; c, lat-
eral surface; d, lower joint-
surface.
surface
surface.
heer, (Gh
Short pastern seen
from behind: a, smooth
over
the perforans tendon
glides; b, lower joint-
as a point of attachment
for the perforatus tendon,
and as a gliding surface
for the perforans tendon.
The lowest bone of
the lmb the third
phalanx or os pedis (Fig.
7). In form it is similar
to the hoof. The anterior
or wall-surface (a) is
rough, like pumice stone.
Above and in front is the
pyramidal eminence to
1S
which
which the tendon of the anterior extensor of the phalanges
attaches.
Behind, the bone extends backward to form the
HORSESHOEING. 27
inner and outer branches (c, c) or wings of the os pedis. The
upper, articular surface (b) slopes backward and downward.
The lower, solar or plantar surface (Fig. 8, a) is shghtly con-
cave, and presents posteriorly a half-moon-shaped excavation,
with a roughened border ealled the semilunar crest (¢), to which
the perforans tendon attaches; just above this crest are two
small holes (e) known as the plantar foramina, through which
the plantar arteries pass into the bone. The surfaces of wall
and sole come together in a sharp edge, which is circular in its
IME 7
TAA NK
RAN
(QW AN
Os pedis seen in profile and in front; a,
anterior face with pyramidal eminence
above; b, joint-surface; c, wings or branches
of hoof-bone; d, notch which, by the attach-
ment of the lateral cartilage, is converted
Lower surface of hoof-bone; a, anterior
portion covered by the velvety tissue of the
sole; b, wing of the os pedis; c, semilunar
crest, to which the perforans tendon at-
taches; d, plantar fissure leading to e, plan-
into a foramen and leads to e, the preplan- tar foramen.
tar fissure.
course. It is easy to tell whether a pedal bone is from a fore
or a hind limb; the os pedis of a hind leg has a steeper and
more pointed toe, and a more strongly concaved solar surface
than the same bone of a foreleg. Not only is the outline of the
sharp inferior border of the os pedis of a front foot more rounded
at the toe, but when placed on a flat surface the toe does not
touch by reason of being turned slightly upward, much as a
shoe designed to give a “rolling motion.” The os pedis of a
hind foot is narrower from side to side (pointed), and does not
turn up at the toe.
The right and left hoof-bones are also, as a rule, easily dis-
28 HORSESHOEING.
tinguished by variations in the surfaces of wall and sole. The
shape of the os pedis corresponds to the form of the horny box
or hoof, and therefore a knowledge of this bone is absolutely
necessary,
The navicular bone (os naviculare, nut-bone, Figs. 9 and 10)
is an accessory or sesamoid bone to the os pedis. It is a small
bone, transversely elongated
and situated behind and below
the og pedis and between the
wings of the latter. It adds to
the articular surface of the
pedal joint. Its under surface
lmicey Eig. 10.
Fig. 9 represents the upper surface of the - | _ ] ] EASourey- i Fi
navicular bone; Fig. 10 the lower surface of 1s smoot 1, anc acts as é g 1¢ Ing
ane One eee ee subtace forthe pertorans tema em:
which is quite wide at this point.
The long axes of the three phalanges (os suffraginis, os co-
rone, and os pedis) should unite to form a straight line, when
viewed either from in front or from one side; that is, the direc-
tion of each of these three bones should be the same as the com-
mon direction of the three considered as a whole.
In young colts both the long and short pasterns are in three parts
and the pedal bone in two parts, all of which unite later in life to form
their respective single bones.
In mules and asses the os pedis is comparatively small and narrow.
In cattle all three phalanges are double, and split hoofs cover the divided
os pedis.
B. The Articulations of the Foot.
There are three articulations in the foot—namely, the fet-
lock, coronary, and pedal joints. All are hinge-joints, the fet-
lock being a perfect hinge-joint, and the other two imperfect
hinge-joints. Each has a capsular ligament, and also several
funicular or cord-like ligaments which are placed at the sides of
(lateral ligaments), or behind (on the side of flexion) the joints.
I. The fetlock or metacarpo-phalangeal articulation is
formed by the condyles at the lower end of the cannon bone and
the glenoid cavities formed by the union of the articular sur-
HORSESHOEING. 29
faces of the sesamoids and the upper end of the first phalanx.
The following hgaments are about this joint:
1. Two lateral liga-
ments, an external and Bie: 1:
an internal( Fig. 11, a).
2. Two lateral sesa-
moid ligaments (f).
3. An iatersesamoid
ligament (Fig. 12,b), a
thick, fibrous mass,
binding the sesamoid
bones almost immovably
together,extending
above them and present-
ing on its posterior face
a ‘smooth groove, in
which ghde the flexor
tendons of the phal-
anges (perforans and
perforatus).
4, The suspensory
ligament of the fetlock
(Cities alc) 12 cand
13, c, pages 29 and 30).
This may also be called
the superior sesamoid
ligament. It is a long
and very powerful brace, originating on the lower row of carpal
bones (bones of the hock in the hind leg’) and on the upper end
of the cannon between the heads of the two splint-bones, and
dividing at the lower third of the cannon into two branches (c),
which are attached one to each sesamoid bone. Below these
bones these two branches are prolonged obliquely downward and
forward on opposite sides of the long pastern to pass into the
borders of the anterior extensor tendon of the toe at about the
middle of the long pastern (Fig. 14, b’, page 32).
30 HORSESHOEING.
Iie, ey
Fig. 11 shows a side view, and Figs. 12 and 13 a posterior view of the phalangeal bones,
with their articular ligaments. The lettering is the same in all three figures: a, lateral liga-
ment of fetlock-joint; b, intersesamoid ligament; c, suspensory ligament of the fetlock; d,
median branch of inferior sesamoid ligament; d’, lateral branches of inferior sesamoid liga-
ment; e, deep inferior sesamoid ligament; f, lateral sesamoid ligaments; g, inferior coronary
ligaments; h, superior coronary ligaments; h’, median coronary ligaments; 7, lateral pedal
ligament; k, lateral coronary ligament and suspensory ligament of the navicular bone; J,
interosseous ligament.
5. The inferior sesamoid ligament (Figs. 11, d’, 12, d, d’,
and 13, d', £). This originates at the lowest part of the sesamoid
bones and intersesamoid ligament, and consists of three parts or
HORSESHOEING. 31
branches. The median branch (d) is the longest and strongest,
and takes its lower attachment in the middle of the fibro-carti-
laginous lip found on the upper border of the posterior face of
the second phalanx. The two lateral branches (d') approach
each other as they descend, and terminate on the sides of the
roughened triangle on the posterior face of the first phalanx.
6. The deep inferior sesamoid ligament (Fig. 18, e) is quite
short, and consists of a number of distinct, thin fibrous bands
lying directly against the bone and entirely covered by the
median and lateral inferior sesamoid ligaments. These fibrous
bands cross one another in passing from the sesamoids to the
first phalanx.
II. The coronary joint is the simplest of the three articula-
tions of the foot. The long pastern furnishes two condyles and
the short pastern two glenoid cavities. Besides a capsular liga-
ment there are—
= Two lateral coronary ligaments (k) and,
. Six posterior coronary ligaments,——namely, two superior
coronary ligaments (h), two median coronary ligaments (hi »;
and two inferior coronary ligaments (q).
IIT. The pedal articulation (“ coffin” joint) is an imper-
fect hinge-joint, and is formed by the condyles at the lower end
of the short pastern and the two glenoid cavities in the united
upper surfaces of the pedal and navicular bones. Besides the
capsular ligament (Figs. 12 and 13, /), which binds all three
bones together, there are the following accessory ligaments:
1. Two strong lateral ligaments, an external and an internal
(Fig. 11, 7), whose posterior borders are lost in the lateral
cartilages which cover them,
2. Two lateral suspensory ligaments of the navicular bone
(k). They begin on the posterior border and ends of the
navicular bone, and terminate on the lower part of the anterior
surface of the os suffraginis, where they are lost in the lateral
ligaments of the coronary articulation.
3. The lateral ligaments of the lateral cartilages, navicular
bone, and os pedis. They are short, and unite the navicular
bone with the os pedis and lateral cartilages.
32 HORSESHOEING.
Of the three phalangeal articulations, the pedal is the only
one that permits of any lateral movement; hence it is an im-
perfect. hinge-joint.
C. The Locomotory Organs of the Foot.
Though the muscles are the organs which produce motion,
lie, ee
ya
| ) |
A
see oe
ly im he \ \\
\\ \ \
Eee AIS \ s -
Right forefoot viewed from in front and from the ex-
ternal side: a, anterior extensor tendon of the toe; b,
suspensory ligament of the fetlock; 6’, branch of the
same passing forward and uniting with the extensor
tendon of the toe; c, extensor tendon of the os suffraginis
(absent in the hind leg), called the lateral extensor.
i
the horseshoer need con-
cern himself only with
the tendons of those
muscles which extend
and flex the phalanges.
These tendons are
either extensors or flex-
ors. The extensors lie on
the anterior face and the
flexors on the posterior
' face of the phalanges.
The anterior exten-
sor of —the—phalanges
(Fig. 14, a) extends
the long and short pas-
terns and the hoof-bone ;
it is broad, and made
somewhat broader by re-
ceiving the branches of
the suspensory ligament
(b’) that come from the
sesamoid bones. It takes
a firm attachment on
the pyramidal eminence
of the os pedis. In the
forefeet the long pas-
tern has a special exten-
sor tendon (¢), which is known as the Jateral-eatensor. When the
muscles to which these tendons are attached act,—that is, when
HORSESHOEING. 30
they draw themselves together, or contract, as we term this
action,—the foot is carried forward (extended),
There are two flexor tendons of the
phalanges,—namely, the superficval
(perforatus tendon) and the deep
(perforans tendon).
1. The superficial flexor or per-
foratus tendon (Figs. 15, b, and 16,
a, b) lies behind, immediately under
the skin, and covers the deep flexor or
perforans tendon. At the gliding sur-
face between the sesamoid bones (Fig.
15, f) it broadens, and forms a ring
or tube (Fig. 15, 6’) through which
the perforans tendon (a’”’) passes,
while a ‘short distance farther down it
bifureates, or divides into two
branches (Figs. 15, 6”, and 16, b),
which terminate, one on either side,
partly on the inferior lateral borders
of the first phalanx and partly on the
fibro-cartilage of the second phalanx.
Tt acts simultaneously on the long and
short pasterns.
2. The deep flexor or perforans
Right forefoot seen from behind: a, lower end of the
perforans tendon, cut through and hanging down, so
that its anterior surface is visible; a’, lower expanded
end (plantar aponeurosis) of this tendon, which attaches
itself to the semilunar crest of the os pedis; a”, shallow
groove which receives the slight elevation on the under
surface of the navicular bone; a’”’, piece of the perforans
tendon enclosed by the ring formed by the perforatus
tendon; b, perforatus tendon bent over backward so that
its anterior surface is visible; b’, ring of the perforatus tendon; b”, terminal branches of
the same; the perforans tendon passes through the space between these two branches; c,
navicular bone; d, suspensory ligament of the same; e, smooth surface on the os corone over
which the perforans tendon glides; f, the smooth groove (sesamoid groove) on the posterior
surface of the intersesamoid ligament for the gliding of the perforans tendon; g, body of the
suspensory ligament of the fetlock; g’, terminal branches of the same, attaching to the sesa-
moid bones.
3
34 HORSESHOEING.
tendon (Figs. 15, a, and 16, c) is cylindrical and stronger than
the perforatus tendon; above the fetlock-joint it lies between
the perforatus and the suspensory liga-
ment of the fetlock. At the sesamoid
bones it passes through the ring formed
by the perforatus tendon (Fig. 15, b’),
then becomes broad and double-edged,
passes between the two terminal
Fig. 16.
STM
\
\\iih
! Hy
branches of the perforatus, glides over
the fibro-eartilage of the second phalanx
and over the inferior surface of the
navicular bone, and finally ends on the
semilunar crest of the third phalanx.
In common with the perforatus tendon
it flexes the foot.
If at a point a few inches above the
fetlock a limb be cut through from be-
hind, the knife will pass successively
through the following structures: skin,
perforatus tendon, perforans tendon,
suspensory ligament, cannon bone,
lateral extensor tendon, anterior exten-
sor tendon, and, lastly, the skin on the
anterior surface of the limb. The flexor
tendons are frequently thickened and
shortened by inflammation due to in-
jury, and as a result the foot is pulled
backward and the hoof gradually be-
comes more nearly upright,—.e., stub-
by, steep-toed. A knowledge of the
Right forefoot seen from behind and a little from the external side: a, perforatus tendon;
b, terminal branches of the same; c, perforans tendon; d, annular ligament which attaches
to the sesamoid bones: d’, the ‘‘x’’ ligament, which attaches by four branches to the os suf-
fraginis;.d’, an upper branch of the same (the lower branches are not shown in the figure) ;
e, reinforcing sheath of the perforans tendon, covering the under surface of the latter and
attached by its branches at e’ to the lower end of the os suffraginis; f, suspensory ligament
of the fetlock.
HORSESHOEING. 35
normal condition of the tendons is, therefore, absolutely
necessary to the horseshoer. Both flexor tendons are em-
braced and held in place by ligaments and fascia passing out
from the phalanges (Figs. 16, d’, and 24, e, f). The extensor
and flexor tendons essentially contribute to the strong union of
the phalangeal bones, and especially to the support and stability
of the fetlock-joint. The gliding of the tendons is made easy
by the seeretion of a lubricating fluid, called synovia, from the
inner surface of the sheaths which surround them. In thin-
skinned well-bred horses with sound limbs one ean not only dis-
tinctly feel the tendons through the skin, but can see their out-
line. When the tendons and bones are free from all inflammatory
thickenings, and the tendon sheaths are not visibly distended, we
say that the leg is “ clean.”
Mucous Bursze and Tendon Sheaths.
Accessory to the tendons, there are in the foot roundish,
membranous sacs (mucous burse) and membranous tubes (ten-
don sheaths). Both contain a liquid resembling synovia (‘“‘ joint-
water’), which facilitates the gliding of the tendons. These
bursee and sheaths are often distended to form soft tumors,
known as hygromata (“ wind-puffs,” ‘“ wind-galls ”’).
(a) Mucous Burse.—They lie beneath tendons at those
places where the tendons pass over bony prominences,
1. The mucous bursa of the anterior extensor tendon of the
toe is about the size of a walnut, and lies between the tendon
and the capsular ligament of the fetlock-joint (Figs. 17, g, and
18, e).
2. The mucous bursa of the extensor tendon of the long pas-
tern (lateral extensor) is somewhat smaller, and lies, likewise,
beneath the tendon, between it and the capsular ligament of the
fetlock-joint (Fig. 17, h).
3. The mucous bursa of the navicular region lies between
the under surface (gliding surface) of the navicular bone and
the flexor pedis perforans tendon (deep flexor). Its width
36 HORSESHOEING.
equals the length of the navicular bone, and it extends upward
and downward beyond the bone. Above, it is separated from
the sheath of the perforans tendon (‘ great sesamoid sheath ”’ )
by a membranous partition; below, it passes to the attachment
of the perforans tendon to the semilunar crest of the os pedis.
(b) There is but one tendon sheath in the foot,—the sheath
common to the two flexor tendons (great sesamoid sheath), It
1G, 1%.
Right forefoot seen from the external side;
t, ff", f'", great sesamoid sheath (tendon-
sheath); g, mucous bursa beneath anterior
extensor tendon of the toe; h, mucous bursa
beneath extensor tendon of long pastern; 7,
synovial distension of the fetlock-joint; 7,
suspensory ligament; 9, cannon bone; 10,
outer sesamoid bone; 12, fetlock-joint; 13,
lateral cartilage; 14, suspensory ligament of
the lateral cartilage. (Ellenberger in Lei-
sering’s Atlas and Veterinary Anatomy,
Sisson, Saunders.)
Fie. 18.
Right forefoot seen from the inner side; d,
d’, d"”, d’"’, great sesamoid sheath; e, mucous
bursa beneath anterior extensor tendon of
the toe; f, synovial distension of fetlock-
joint; 10, inner sesamoid bone; 11, ‘*x”’ liga-
ment; 14, fetlock-joint; 15, lateral cartilage;
16, suspensory ligament of lateral cartilage
(Ellenberger in Leisering’s Atlas and Veteri-
nary Anatomy, Sisson, Saunders.)
encloses the flexor tendons from the middle third of the cannon
down to the middle of the short pastern, and is intimately united
with the flexor pedis perforans tendon (Fig. 17, f, f’, f’, f’””.
Kiel i8,d,d, a7 ad).
Altering the Relative Tension of the Flexor Tendons and
Suspensory Ligament of the Fetlock-Joint.
The body-weight imposed at the fetlock-joint is supported,
in large part, by the suspensory ligament; somewhat less weight
HORSESHOEING. Oo”
is borne by the perforans tendon, and a still smaller amount by
the perforatus. The coronary joint is supported chiefly by the
perforatus, assisted by the perforans. The pedal joint is pressed
forward and upward by the perforans tendon passing in a curve
beneath the navicular bone. Each of these three structures bears
its normal proportion of the body-weight when the three pha-
langes, as viewed from the side, form a continuous straight line
from the fetlock-joint to the ground. In such a ease the obliquity
of the long pastern will be the same as that of the toe (see
Foot-Axis, p. 70). :;
Raising the toe by means of a tip, a full shoe with thinned
branches or a toe-calk, or paring away the quarters will tilt the
os pedis backward, break
the foot-axis backward in
the pedal joint and to a
less extent in the coron-
ary joint, and increase
the tension of the per-
forans tendon consider-
ably and of the perfo-
ratus slightly. These
tendons tightening — be-
hind the fetlock - joint
force it forward, causing Right forefoot viewed from the external side: A, os
the long pastern to stand feioral pedal ligament; b, ligament uniting the letoral
steeper, and taking some cartilage with the os corone; c, aponeurosis joining
3 lateral cartilage and os pedis.
strain from the suspen-
sory ligament. Hence, the perforans tendon is under greatest
tension, and the suspensory ligament under least tension, when
the foot-axis 1s broken strongly backward.
Shortening the toe, or raising the quarters by heel-calks or
thickened branches, will tilt the os pedis forward, break the
foot-axis forward in the pedal joint, and will greatly lessen the
tension of the perforans tendon. The aggregate tension of
perforans and perforatus tendons being diminished, the fetlock
38 HORSESHOEING.
sinks downward and backward, the long pastern assumes a more
nearly horizontal direction, and the tension of the suspensory
ligament is increased. Thus, the perforans tendon is under
least tension, and the suspensory ligament under greatest strain,
when the foot-axis is broken strongly forward.
D. The Elastic Parts of the Foot.
All bodies which under pressure or traction change their
form, but return again to their original shape as soon as the
pressure or traction ceases, are called elastic or springy. Nearly
Pies 20:
i iN
LN
‘ WSs
\\
Os pedis and inner face of one lateral cartilage; a, toe of os pedis; a’, pyramidal eminence
to which the extensor tendon attaches; a”, wing of pedal bone; b, lateral cartilage; C, points
of attachment of suspensory ligament of lateral cartilage; d, point of insertion of ligament
to the short pastern; e, point of insertion of ligaments from navicular bone.
all parts of the horse’s foot, except the bones, possess more or
less elasticity. The lateral cartilages and the plantar cushion
are elastic to a high degree, but the coronary band, the lamine,
the articular cartilage, and the horny box or hoof are less elastic.
This property or characteristic 1s possessed by the respective
HORSESHOEING. 39
parts of the foot in accordance with their function, location,
and structure.
The two lateral cartilages (Figs. 19, C and 20, b) are
Ieuiel, PAL
Plantar cushion seen from be-
low: a, base or bulb of the plantar
cushion; 6, summit; c, median
lacuna or cleft in which lies the
“frog-stay’’ of the horny frog.
\ H i
6
Plantar cushion seen from above: a, base
(bulbs) of same; b, summit; c, supensory liga-
ment of plantar cushion; d, place at which the
elastic ligament connecting the os suffraginis
and the lateral cartilage unites with the plan-
tar cushion.
irregular, quadrangular plates, attached to the wings of the os
pedis, and extending so far upward and backward that one ean
feel them yield to pressure on
the skin above the coronet, and
can thus test their elasticity.
The perforans tendon and the
plantar cushion lie between
the lateral cartilages, and on
the sides and behind are par-
tially enclosed by them. The
internal concave surface of the
lateral cartilage (Fig. 20) is
attached to the plantar
Nie, PR.
Section lengthwise through middle of the
plantar cushion: a, glome (bulb) of heels; 5,
apex or point of fleshy frog; c, fibro fatty
tissue of plantar cushion; d, median cleft
which receives the frog-stay of the horny
frog.
cushion, the os pedis, and the navicular bone, and, like the
external, slightly convex surface, is covered with many blood-
vessels (veins) Fig. 25, B).
40 HORSESHOEING.
The plantar cushion (Figs. 21, 22, 23) is composed almost
entirely of yellow elastic and white fibrous tissues, with adipose
(fat) cells distributed throughout their substance. It is similar
in form to the horny frog, and
lies between it and the perforans
tendon (Fig. 24, a). The bulbs
are formed by the posterior
thicker portion which hes be-
tween the lateral cartilages and
is divided into two parts by the
cleft or median lacuna (Figs.
21, a, and 23, d). The summit
is attached to the plantar face
of the os pedis in front of the
semilunar crest, and the bulbs
are attached to the lateral car-
tilages. It is covered inferiorly
by the velvety tissue of the frog
(pododerm).
Right forefoot viewed from below, behind,
and the external side. This figure shows
clearly the position of the plantar cushion.
The external lateral cartilage and the tissues
covering the plantar cushion and under sur-
face of the os pedis (velvety tissue of the sole
and fleshy frog) have been removed: a, fleshy
frog or plantar cushion; a’, bulbs of plantar
cushion; the remaining visible parts belong to
the so-called ‘‘ fleshy frog;’’ a”, groove (median
lacuna) in the lower surface of the fleshy frog,
in which lies the frog-stay of the horny frog;
b, suspensory ligament of the plantar cushion
passing out of the bulbs; b’, small elastic cords
passing to the lateral cartilage; c, elastic liga-
NY ment coming from the lateral cartilage and
\ iN uniting with the suspensory ligament of the
a plantar cushion; d, small tendinous cord be-
Ni ‘ , ginning in the skin behind the fetlock-joint
AAS LXE and ending on the os suffraginis in common
ae with b and c; e, tendinous reinforcing sheath of
the perforans tendon; f, reinforcing stay of the
perforatus tendon; g, perforatus tendon; h,
perforans tendon; 7, suspensory ligament of the fetlock; k, plantar surface of the os pedis, to
which the plantar cushion is joined by fibrous bands.
\
HORSESHOEING. 41
E. The Blood-Vessels and Nerves.
Vessels which carry blood from the heart to the tissues are
called arteries, while those which return the blood to the heart
from the tissues are called veins. Arteries and veins are con-
nected by very small, thread-like vessels called capillaries, which
originate in the smallest arteries and are so minute that they
ean not be seen without the aid of a microscope. The capillaries
penetrate the soft tissues in every direction, and finally unite to
form small veins. For our purpose we need consider only the
arteries and veins.
The arteries carrying blood from the heart ramify and sub-
divide in all parts of the body, and thus reach the foot. They
are thick-walled, very elastic tubes, without valves, and carry
bright-red blood, which flows in spurts, as can be seen when an
artery is cut. Ifa finger be pressed hghtly over an artery lying
near the surface, the blood-wave can be felt as a light stroke
(pulse). The character of the pulse is important, because in
inflammations of the pododerm or horn-producing membrane
of the foot we can ascertain by feeling that the pulse is stronger
than usual in the large arteries carrying blood to the inflamed
foot.
On either side of the phalanges below the fetlock-joint there
hes an artery called the digital artery (Fig. 25, a). The pulse
ean be felt in it as it passes over the fetlock at A, Fig. 25. It
gives off the following collateral (side) branches: 1. The artery
of the first phalanx (perpendicular artery), with anterior and
posterior branches. 2. The artery of the plantar cushion, which
supplies with blood the plantar cushion, the velvety tissue of
the sole and frog, the bar portion of the coronary band, and the
sensitive lamine of the bars. 38. The coronary artery, which
earries blood to the coronary band, os corone, ligaments of the
coronary and pedal joints, flexor tendons, and skin.
The terminal branches of the digital arteries are the preplan-
tar and plantar ungual arteries. The preplantar artery passes
42 HORSESHOEING.
through the notch in the wing of the os pedis, then along the
preplantar fissure, splitting up into many branches, which spread
over and penetrate the porous surface of the os pedis. The
Frc 25:
Side view of forefoot, showing blood-vessels and nerves: a, digital artery; b, anterior artery
of the os suffraginis; d, anterior coronary artery, or circumflex artery of the coronet; e,’ pre-
plantar ungual artery; /’, inferior communicating arteries passing out from the semilunar
artery of the os pedis, through minute holes just above the lower border of the bone; they
unite to form (f”) the circumflex artery of the toe; A, digital vein; B, superficial venous
plexus of coronary band and lateral cartilage; C, podophyllous venous plexus; G, circumflex
vein of the toe; 1, plantar nerve; 2, anterior digital branch of same; 3, posterior digital branch
of same; 4, small cutaneous branches of same.
plantar artery courses along the plantar fissure, enters the
plantar foramen, and passes into the semilunar sinus of the os
pedis, where it unites with the terminal branch of the opposite
digital artery, forming the sem-lunar arch.
HORSESHOEING. 43
After the arterial or pure blood passes through the capil-
laries it is collected by the veins, to be returned to the heart;
then it is driven to the lungs for purification, and is again re-
turned to the heart, from
whence it is pumped through
the arteries to all parts of
the body.
The veins are more
numerous than the arteries ;
they have thinner walls,
and the larger ones are pro-
vided with valves that pre-
vent the impure blood from
flowing backward. The
veins carry impure or dark-
red blood towards the heart,
and if one is opened the
dark blood flows in a steady
stream; it does not spurt.
The great number of vein-
lets in the lower parts of
the foot form a complex
net-work (plexus) of ves-
sels which are in such mani-
fold and close union with
one another that checking
the flow of blood in one part
does not seriously interfere
with the flowing of the
blood towards the larger
veins. The following are
the most important of these
Fic. 26.
a |i
\
Foot viewed from below and behind: a, digital
arteries; c, arteries of the plantar cushion; /’”,
small branches of the semilunar artery of the os
pedis, which ramify in the velvety tissue of the
sole; A, digital vein; B, venous plexus of the heels
or bulbs; D, solar venous plexus; G, circumflex
vein of the toe; 3, posterior digital branch of the
plantar nerve; 4, cutaneous branches of the same.
net-works of veins or venous plexuses: (1) the solar venous
plexus (Fig. 26, D); (2) the podophyllous venous plexus (Fig.
25, C); (3) superficial coronary venous plexus (Fig. 25, B);
44 HORSESHOEING.
(4) bulbar venous plexus (Fig. 26, B). All these plexuses of
small veins contribute to form the OP veins (Figs. 25 and
26, A).
Nerves are roundish white cords which come from the brain
and spinal cord; they generally accompany arteries. They
divide and subdivide into smaller and smaller branches till they
become invisible to the naked eye and are lost in the tissues.
The nerves that are found in the foot come from the spinal
cord, and because the largest nerves of the foot accompany the
digital arteries they are called digital nerves (Fig. 25,1). The
branches ramify throughout all parts of the foot except the
horny box and the hair. Nerves, according to their use or
function, are classed as motor and sensory. ‘The motor nerves
end in muscles which they stimulate to action and control. The
sensory nerves terminate in the skin and in the soft tissues just
under the horny box or hoof (pododerm), and render these
parts sensitive; that is, they convey certain feelings, as, for
example, the pain caused by bruising, pricking, or close-nailing,
to the brain and consciousness.
F. The Protective Organs of the Foot.
The protective organs are the skin and the horny box or hoof.
The external skin, or hide, covers the entire body ; in the feet
it covers the bones, tendons, and ligaments, even passing in
under the hoof and directly covering the os pedis. This portion
of the skin, enclosed by the hoof and therefore invisible, is called
the pododerm or foot-skin. In Germany it is called the hoof-
skin (huflederhaut), because it is a continuation of the outer
visible skin, and because it secretes the hoof,—that is, the hoof
is produced by it. That part of the skin which is covered with
hair is known as the external or hair-skin.
(a) The hair-skin (Fig. 27, a) consists of three superposed
layers,—(1) the external superficial layer, or epidermis; (2)
the middle layer, derm or leather-skin (so-called because leather
is made from it); (3) the internal layer, or subcutaneous con-
nective tissue.
HORSESHOEING. 45
1. The external layer, or epidermis, is composed merely of
single flattened, horn-like cells (scales) lying side by side and
over one another, and uniting to form one entire structure,—a
thin, horn-like layer, without blood-vessels or nerves. It extends
over the entire surface of the body, and protects the underlying,
very sensitive middle layer from external influences. The
oldest cell-layers le on the outer surface, and are being con-
tinuously brushed off in patches or scales, while new ones are
constantly being formed on
the outer surface of the Fic. 27.
middle layer.
2. The middle layer,
leather-skin or dermis, is
composed of solid, fibrous,
and elastic tissues, and con-
tains many blood-vessels,
small nerves, sweat- and oil- ,
glands, and hair follicles
from which the hair grows.
The hair upon the posterior
surface of the fetlock-joint
is usually long and coarse, Foot from which the horny capsule or hoof, has
: been removed by prolonged soaking: a, skin; on
forming a tuft known as the the left the hair has been rubbed away; b, perio-
(43 L. 3) [ts plic band; c, coronary cushion; d, podophyllous
footlock, W hich encloses tissue (fleshy leaves); at the lower border of the
a horny spur, ealled the figure can be seen the minute thread-like pro-
cesses or villi which grow down from the lower
ergot. Common bred horses end of each fleshy leaf.
have, as a rule, larger and
coarser footlocks than thoroughbreds. The derm or leather-
skin, which produces the hair and epiderm, is the thickest and
most important layer of the skin.
3. The inner layer, or subcutaneous tissue, unites the middle
layer with the muscles, tendons, ligaments, bones, or other
structures. It is that loose fibrous mesh or net-work through
which the butcher cuts in removing the hide from the carcass.
(b) The hoof-skin (Figs. 27 and 28, b, c, d), or pododerm,
46 HORSESHOEING.
is completely enclosed by the hoof. Although it is only an ex-
tension of the derm or middle layer of the hair-skin, it differs
from the latter in structure and relations.
In order to study the pododerm we should not wrench the
hoof off with violence, but should allow the foot to partially de-
compose by leaving it for six to eight days at ordinary room tem-
Fin Oe perature; it can then be
oe removed without injuring
\
the pododerm. After the
hoof has been removed the
gS i.
\\\ e 3 entire pododerm presents a
Cg a more or less dark-red color
(flesh-color), which is due
z to the great number of
blood-vessels that it con-
tains. For this reason dif-
ferent parts of the podo-
derm have received the
prefix “ fleshy,” as for ex-
K"( wt
y ym
q
B= N
N =< \
aN \\ .
wt Mos a
ANTONE SS
Z qa s
Foot from which the near half of the horny wall d
and a greater part of the so-called fleshy wall have ample, fleshy wall, fleshy
been removed, in order to show the relation of the |
lateral cartilage to adjacent structures: a, vertical sole, fleshy frog, ete. ihe
section of the skin prolonged downward through the ~ 7 y =
pododerm (foot-skin) to show clearly that the latter pododer GTS DSi hat the ae
is but a continuation of the former; a’, hairless place jnformed horseshoer ealls
on the skin; b, perioplic band; b’, line indicating the fe 2 3 :
upper border of the same; 6b”, surface of section of the quick. iE will here
the periople, or perioplic horn-band; c, coronary _, is
cushion; c’, (left) line which marks the upper border Y emark that the three
of te coronary SEES cl section of wall at BE layers of the external or
toe; d, podophyllous tissue (sensitive lamine); e, «
horny sole; f, white line; g, horny frog; h, fleshy frog; hairskin are represented
7, lateral cartilage. a
in the foot; however, the
epidermis is in an entirely different form,—namely, the horny
box or hoof. The internal layer or subeutaneous tissue of the
hair-skin is absent in those parts of the foot where the pododerm
covers the os pedis. There remains, therefore, only the middle
layer, derm, or pododerm, which secretes the hoof, and which is
the prolongation and representative of the middle layer of the
hair-skin. The pododerm is distinguished from the derm of
HORSESHOEING. AT
the hair-skin chiefly by the absence of hairs, oil- and sweat-
glands, and the presence on its outer surface of fleshy, sensitive
Jaminze and small thread-like projections ealied vill.
The pododerm consists of five different parts: the perioplic
band, the coronary band, the sensitive lamine (podophyllous
tissue), the velvety tissue of the sole, and the velvety tissue of
the fleshy frog.
1. The pertoplic band (Fig. 28, b) is a narrow ridge, about
one-fifth to one-fourth of an inch wide, lying between the hair-
skin and the coronary band. Somewhat broader at the toe than
on the sides, 1t broadens out near the bulbs of the heels, over
which it passes to end in the velvety tissue of the fleshy frog.
It is separated from the coronary band by a narrow depression
ealled the coronary furrow (Moeller). The surface of the
periophe band glistens faintly, and is thickly studded with num-
erous thread-like projections called villi, which are from one-
twenty-fourth to one-twelfth of an inch in length. The perioplic
band secretes the soft horn of the perioplic ring and the
perioplic or varnish-like outer layer of the wall.
2. The coronary band (Fig. 27, c) lies between the perioplie
band and the sensitive lamine or fleshy leaves. It presents a
prominent convex band or cushion about three-fourths of an
inch wide, which extends entirely around the foot from one
bulb of the heel to the other. In front it directly covers the
anterior extensor tendon of the toe, and at the sides the lateral
surfaces of the os corone and the upper part of the lateral
cartilages, while farther back towards the heels the lateral car-
tilages project considerably above both coronary and _ perioplic
bands. The coronary band is more convex (rounded) in front
than on the sides of the foot, and is flattened in the region of
the bulbs of the heels. Its surface is thickly covered with villi,
which are longer and stronger than those of the perioplic band.
At the bulbs of the heels the coronary band turns forward and
inward along the fleshy frog’ nearly to its summit. This portion
of the coronary band is from one-third to one-half an inch wide,
48 HORSESHOEING.
and is called the bar portion of the coronary band. It is also
covered with villi, which are directly continuous with those of
the fleshy frog. The coronary band secretes the principal part
(middle layer) of the horny wall of the hoof, including the
bar portion (bars) of the wall.
3. The fleshy wall, or podophyllous tissue (Figs. 27, 28, d,
and 29, a), is all that portion of the pododerm on which there
are fleshy lcaves. This leafy tissue covers the anterior surface
of the os pedis and the lower por-
Fig. 29.
tion of the external surface of the
lateral cartilages. At the bulbs of
the heels it turns inward at a sharp
angle and extends forward and in-
ward, between the bar portion of
the coronary band and the poste-
rior part of the velvety tissue of
the sole, nearly to the middle of
the solar surface of the foot, to
form the lamine of the bars (Fig.
29, a). The fleshy wall and fleshy
bars are not covered with villi, but
_ Plantar surface of a foot deprived of with numerous prominent, paral-
its horny capsule by prolonged macera-
tion: a, lamine of the bars; 6, velvety lel, fleshy leaves placed close to-
tissue of the sole; c, velvety tissue of the : 5
frog: d, median cleft of the fleshy frog, gether, each of which runs in a
mnie which the, Nelyeuwy, Hesue bse otraien, shine doywayarder ang akon
bulbar portion of the perioplic band,
which passes insensibly into the velvety ward from the eoronarv band to
tissue of the fleshy frog. eg
the lower border of the os pedis.
Between the fleshy leaves are deep furrows in which, in a
foot which has not been deprived of its horny capsule, lie the
horny or insensitive leaves of the wall. The fleshy leaves (podo-
phyllous laminz) are related to one another somewhat as the
leaves of a book; their posterior borders are attached to the body
or basement membrane of the fleshy wall, while their anterior
borders and sides are free. At their upper ends immediately
below the coronary band the leaves are quite narrow, but they
HORSESHOEING. 49
gradually increase in width down to the middle, and thereafter
maintain that breadth to the lower border of the os pedis, where
they terminate in free, fleshy villi, which differ in no respect
from those of the fleshy sole. The number and length of the
fleshy leaves vary; in a medium-sized foot there are about five
hundred, while in a large foot there may be as many as six
hundred. On the anterior surface of the os pedis the leaves are
thickest and longest; on the sides and quarters they gradually
decrease in length, while in the bar region they are the shortest
and gradually disappear near the anterior ends of the bars.
The width of the leaves decreases as they become shorter. Viewed
with the naked eye the leaves appear flat and smooth, but under
the microscope one can see on both sides of a fleshy leaf numer-
ous small, fleshy leaflets parallel to one another and extending
lengthwise with the larger leaf. The large ones are called prin-
cipal leaves, and the small ones are known as collateral leaves,
or simply as leaflets.
The fleshy leaves (podophyllous tissue) secrete the horny
leaves (keraphyllous tissue) and serve to bind the horny wall
to the pododerm. ‘The strength of this union is due largely
to the dovetailing of the horny leaves and their leaflets with
the fleshy leaves and their leaflets.
4, The fleshy sole or velvety tissue of the sole (Fig. 29, b)
is that part of the pododerm which covers all the under sur-
face of the foot except the plantar cushion, the bar lamin, and
the bar portion of the coronary band. It is sometimes slate-
colored or studded with black spots, but is usually dark red.
It is thickly set with villi, which are especially long and
strong * near its periphery. The fleshy sole covers the solar
plexus, or net-work of veins, and secretes the horny sole.
5. The velvety tissue of the frog (Fig. 29, c) covers the
*In order to see the length, thickness, and abundance of the villi
of the pododerm, place the foot deprived of its hoof in a clear glass
jar and cover it with water, renewing the latter until it is no longer
tinged with blood.
4
50 HORSESHOEING.
lower surface of the plantar cushion, and in the region of the
bulbs (e) passes insensibly into the perioplic band. In com-
parison with the fleshy sole, it has much finer and shorter villi
and contains fewer blood-vessels. It secretes the soft, horny
frog.
(c) The horn capsule or hoof (Fig. 30) is the entire mass
made up of the horn-cells secreted from the whole surface of
the pododerm, and next
to the shoe is the organ
with which the horse-
shoer has most to do.
The horn capsule or hoof
is nothing more than a
Imaes 10),
very thick epidermis that
protects the horse’s foot,
just as a well-fitting shoe
protects the human foot.
The hoof of a sound foot
is so firmly united with
Side view of hoof recently removed: a, the perioplic ‘ :
horn-band; it is swollen from prolonged maceration in the underlying pododerm
water; the upper border shows adhering hairs; the F Als
inner surface (perioplic groove) presents many minute that only an extraor din-
openings; a’, the perioplic horn-band broadens in reyes ar
passing over the bulb or glome of the heel, and is ay fou ey cat separate
finally lost in the horny frog; a”, section of wall ree them. In its normal econ-
moved. That part of hoof on the right of 6 is called 7
the toe; between 6 and cis the side wall or ‘‘mamma,’’ dition the hoof exactly
and between c and d the ‘‘quarter;’’ e, projecting fi ] eS f :
horny frog; f, coronary groove with numerous minute ts the ‘soit structures
ate g, keraphyllous layer of the wall (horny within Nee hence it is
evident that local or
general contraction of the hoof must produce pressure on the
blood-vessels and nerve-endings of the pododerm, disturb the
circulation of the blood and the nutrition of the foot, and
cause pain.
The hoof is divided into three principal parts, which are
solidly united in the healthy foot,—namely, the wall, the sole,
and the frog. That part of the hoof which is almost wholly
visible when the foot is on the ground (Fig. 30, b, ¢), and which
HORSESHOEING. 51
protects the foot in front and upon the sides, is known as the
wall. In position, course, direction, and arrangement of its
parts it simulates the different parts of the pododerm from
which it is developed. It extends from the edge of the hair
just above the coronary band to the ground; backward it gradu-
ally decreases in height
(length), passes around the
bulbs of the heels, and
turns forward and inward
(Fig. 32, d, e, and 34, a, b)
to form the bars, which are
finally lost in the edge of
the sole near the summit of
the frog. It thus forms at
each heel an angle (Fig.
31, d, and 32, d) known as
a buttress, which encloses a
branch of the horny sole.
Externally the wall is
smooth, covered with the
varnish-like periople, and
presents indistinct ring-like
markings (Fig. 30). Its
Eig. 31.
A Plantar surface of right fore-hoof: a, a, bearing-
inner surface, on the CON- surface of the toe; a, b, bearing-surface of the side
walls or mamme; b c, bearing-surface of the
trary, presents a great quarters; d, buttress, or angle formed by wall and
= bar; e, bar; f, sole; f’, branches of the sole; g,
num b er of horn-leav es white line; it passes between the sole and bars and
which } J- ends at g’; h, horny frog; 7, branches of the frog;
G BUN spoken of col k, heels, bulbs, or glomes of the hoof; 7, median
lectively as the keraphyl- lacuna of horny frog. Between the bars and the
ave Hineiic (Figs, 32, g. horny frog lie the SEL lacune of the frog.
and 35, f). The upper or coronary border of the wall is thin
and flexible, and on its inner aspect is the coronary groove, into
which fits the coronary band (Fig. 30, f). The lower border
of the wall, called the “ bearing-edge ” or plantar border (Fig.
31, a), is the one to which the horseshoe is fastened. By divid-
ing a hoof from before to behind along its median line, outer
x
52 HORSESHOEING.
and inner halves or walls are produced, and by dividing the
entire lower circumference of the wall into five equal parts or
sections, a toe, two side walls or mamme, and two quarters
will be exhibited (Figs. 32 and 33). In order to designate these
regions of the hoof still more accurately, they are spoken of as
outer and inner toes, quarters, and heels.
The direction (slant) and length of the wall vary in one
and the same hoof, as well as
between fore and hind hoofs.
th The portion of the wall of
ale fore hoofs is the most slant-
ing,—that is, forms the most
acute angle with the surface
of the ground,—and is also
the longest. Towards the
quarters the wall gradually
‘becomes very nearly vertical ;
in almost all hoofs the pos-
terior part of the quarters
slants downward and inward
towards the median vertical
Se antero-posterior plane of the
2 foot. At the same time the
Well nape fee ay eae wall, in passing back from the
e, bar; g, horn leaves; h, space occupied by toe to the heel, becomes
the frog.
mu!
Wis aN
gradually shorter in such a
manner that the heights of the toe, side walls, and quarters
are related to one another about as 3:2:1 in front hoofs
and as 4:3:2 in hind hoofs. The outer wall is, as a rule,
somewhat more slanting than the inner. Viewing a foot
in profile, the toe and heel should be parallel; that is, the
line from the hair to the ground at the toe should be parallel
to the line from the hair to the ground at the buttress.
All deviations of the wall from a straight line (out-
HORSESHOEING. 53
ward or inward bendings) are to be regarded as faults or
defects.
The thickness of the wall is also variable. In front hoofs
the wall is thickest at the toe,
and becomes gradually thinner
towards the quarters, while in
hind hoofs, there is very little
difference in the thickness of
the wall of the toe, sides, and
quarters. The more slanting
half of the hoof 1s always the
thicker ; thus, for example, the
outer wall of a base-wide foot
is always longer and more A hoof in profile; a, toe (one half); b, side
oblique than the inner wall, pe aN
and is also thicker. According to Mayer, the thickness of the
wal] at the toe varies from three- to five-eighths of an inch, and
at the quarters from
two to three eighths
of an inch. These
measurements are de-
pendent upon the
size and breeding of
the horse,
The horn wall is
composed of three
superposed layers.
These from without Vertical section through the middle of a hoof, with horny
18 ns frog removed, to show the position of the bar: a, b, marks
to within are: (1) the line at which the wall bends forward and inward to-
" wards the median line of the foot to become the bar. Bar
the periople, secreted runs forward and passes imperceptibly into the sole c; a, a’,
by the perioplic band. the light shading shows the part of the bar that was in con-
tact with the horny frog.
Fie. 34.
It is very thin,
glistening, and varnish-like in appearance, and covers the
entire outer surface of the wall, except where it has been
removed by the rasp, and prevents rapid evaporation of
54 HORSESHOEING.
moisture from the horn. (2) The middle or protective
layer (Fig. 35, d) is the thickest, strongest, and most im-
portant of the three layers; it forms the principal mass of
the wall, and is developed or secreted by the coronary band,
which fits into the coronary groove. There are in the coronary
groove a great number of small, funnel-shaped openings into
which project the horn-producing villi or papillz of the coro-
Dine, Ba,
Pitan
The outer wall of the hoof has been removed by cutting vertically through the middle of
the toe, down to the upper surface of the sole, then horizontally backward into the quarter,
and, finally, upward through the quarter: a, perioplic horn-band; 6, coronary groove; it
turns inward and forward at c to form the upper border of the bar; d, surface of section of
the wall at the toe; d’, at the quarter; e, surface of horizontal section of the wall near its
lower border; f, keraphyllous layer of the wall; at f’ it turns forward and inward to cover
the bar; f’’, horny leaves standing free and passing insensibly into the white horn of the
middle layer or true wall; g, horny sole; h, white line; 7, small horn-spur in middle of toe;
k, part of horny frog which is in intimate union with the upper edge of the bar; J, frog-stay
of horny frog; it divides the trough-like depression of the upper surface of the frog into m,
the two upper channels of the frog.
nary band. (3) The inner layer or keraphyllous layer (Tig.
35, f) consists of prominent, parallel horn-leaves lying side by
side over the entire inner surface of the middle layer of the
wall, and continuing beyond the buttresses to the ends of the
bars (Fig. 35, f’). This layer of horn-leaves (keraphyllous
layer) has in a general way about the same shape and arrange-
ment as the layer of fleshy leaves (podophyllous layer) which
secretes it; for the horn-leaves fit in with the fleshy leaves in
such a way that every fleshy leaf is embraced by two horn-
HORSESHOEING. 55
leaves, and every horn-leaf by two fleshy leaves (Fig. 36). The
keraphyllous layer and the horn of the inmost part of the
middle or protective layer are always white, even in pigmented
(colored) hoofs.
The horn sole (Fig. 31, /, and Fig. 35, g) is secreted by
the velvety tissue of the sole. A sole from which the loose
SI
, Ze) ‘4
y)
Si)
Wy YA
“Wy, fi Uff Ny
y YY Zs Ni)
oh
Cross-section of keraphyllous and podophyllous laming (horny and fleshy leaves): a, inmost
part of the solid wall; the horn-tubes approach very close to the horny leaves; b, body of the
podophyllous membrane; c, horny portion of a horn-leaf directly continuous with the middle
or principal layer of the wall; c’, a rudimentary horn-leaf that does not reach the body of the
podophyllous membrane; c’’, cross-section of horny leaves from the sides of which branch
many secondary leaves (leaflets) composed of soft (young) horn-cells. These soft cellular
horn-leaflets dovetail with the podophyllous or fleshy leaflets; d, podophyllous laminz ex-
tending from the body of the podophyllous membrane; d’, podophyllous laminzw which have
branched in their course to the wall, and thus given rise to c’, rudimentary horn-leaves; d’’,
cross-section of podophyllous leaflets extending from the sides of the podophyllous leaves;
each two such leaflets secrete a keraphyllous leaflet between them; e, injected arterial vessels.
flakes of old horn have been removed is about as thick as the
wall. It covers the under surface of the foot, and presents
upon its upper surface a convexity which exactly fits into the
concavity on the under surface of the os pedis. This upper
surface is thickly covered by a multitude of minute funnel-
shaped openings for the reception of the villi of the velvety
tissue of the sole (Fig. 37). The lower surface of the sole is
more or less concave, rough, uneven, and often covered by loose
56 HORSESHOEING.
scales of dead horn. Behind, the sole presents a triangular
opening whose borders lie partly in contact with the horny frog
and partly with the bars. This opening or re-entering angle
divides the sole into a body (Fig. 31, f) and two wings or
branches (Fig. 51, f’). The outer border of the sole unites
through the medium of the white line with the lower part of
the inner surface of the wall,—that is, with the keraphyllous
Vertical section of the horny sole magnified: a,
funnel-shaped openings which contain the horn-
producing villi of the fleshy sole; they are of
various sizes; b, horn-tubes; c, intertubular
horn.
layer of the wall. This white
line «(igs 731, g, cand. 35...) 01
so much importance to the horse-
shoer, is formed by the horn-
leaves, and by those short plugs
of tubular horn which are se-
Horny frog, with the posterior portion of
the perioplic horn-band and the periople
which covers the quarters removed from
the hoof as one piece by maceration: a,
trough-shaped depression of upper surface,
which is divided posteriorly into the two
upper channels of the frog by b, the frog-
stay; c, part of the frog that is joined to
the bar and forms the lateral wall of the
depression (channels) on upper surface of
frog; d, lateral surface of horny frog which,
in its upper part, adheres to the bar, but
below, at a’, lies free; e, point or summit of
the frog; f, perioplic horn-band: /’, peri-
ople of the quarters.
ereted by.the villi that are always found at the lower ends of
the fleshy leaves. The white line may be said to exist wherever
the horn-leaves can be discerned upon the plantar surface of
the hoof. It not only passes around the circumference of the
sole from heel to heel, but may be followed forward from the
buttresses along the bars almost to the summit of the frog.
The horn of the white line is soft, unpigmented (white), and
HORSESHOEING. 57
possesses so very little resistance (strength) that it is often
found crumbling or even absent in places. The visible part
of the white line is usually of a grayish-black color, owing to
the working in from below
of dirt and hquid manure,
and to staining by rust from
the nails. The white line is
very important, since it
serves as the point from
which we judge of the
thickness of the wall, and
because the horseshoe nail A borny frog cut vertically and lengthwise
g through its middle: a, upper surface; 6, frog-
should penetrate it. stay; c, median lacuna of frog, which at c’, is
The Frog (Figs. Bae h, overlaid with superposed layers of horn.
35, k, l, 38 and 39), secreted by the velvety tissue covering
the plantar cushion and presenting almost the same form
as the latter, lies as a wedge between the bars and between
Fia. 39.
Longitudinal section of the wall magnified. The dark stripes parallel and close together
are horn-tubes; the lighter surface between the tubes represents the intertubular horn.
Notice that the horn-tubes are of various diameters. The space between a and 6b represents
the small tubes of the outer, darker horn of the principal (middle) layer of the wall; the space
between b and c the lighter, inner horn of the wall; c, d, the horn separating the wall proper
from the horny leaves; d, e, the horny leaves (keraphyllous tissue), on which can be seen fine,
parallel, vertical stripes; in the horn-leaf at f, f’, are seen fissures passing obliquely upward
and outward towards the wall.
the edges of the sole just in front of the bars, with both of
which structures it is intimately united. Its horn is quite
soft and very elastic. The median lacuna or cleft of the
58 HORSESHOEING.
frog (Fig. 31, 1) divides it into two branches (Fig. 31, 7),
which pass backward and outward into the horny bulbs (Fig.
31, k). In front of the median lacuna the two branches
unite to form the body of the frog
(Fig. 31, h), which ends in a point,
designated the point, apex, or summit
of the frog. On the upper surface of
the frog, directly over the median cleft
of the lower surface, there is a small
projection called the frog-stay (Figs. 35,
1, 38 and 39, b), which fits into the
median cleft of the plantar cushion.
Besides, the upper surface of the frog
Cross-section of the wall, mag- SHOWS Many minute openings, similar
nified 3/4) nornstubes; Uy inter ton but) smaller than those of thersele
tubular horn. :
and coronary groove, for the reception
of villi. In unshod hoofs the frog, sole, bars, and bearing-edge
of the wall are on a level; that is, the plantar surface of such
hoofs is perfectly flat.
The minute structure of the horn ean searcely be considered in de-
tail in an elementary treatise such as this is. However, a few of tie
most important facts are as follows:
If we carefully examine a transverse section of the horn of the
wall (Fig. 41), sole, or frog, we will see with the naked eye, though
much better with a magnifying glass, many minute points quite close
to one another, and greatly resembling the small openings which we
have seen in the coronary groove of the wall and on the upper surface
of the horny sole and frog. If, now, we examine a longitudinal see-
tion of the wall (Fig. 40) or sole, we will see a number of fine, dark
stripes which are straight, parallel, quite close to one another, of dif-
ferent widths, and which are separated by bands of lighter horn also
of different widths. A thin section or slice of the wall taken at right
angles to the direction of these dark lines (Fig. 41) shows us that the
minute points that are visible to the naked eye, when held up to the
light or moderately magnified, prove to be small openings (Fig. 41, a).
Since these openings, shown in Fig. 41, represent the dark lines shown
in Fig. 40, because an opening is found wherever there is a dark line,
we must regard all dark lines seen in longitudinal sections of wall,
HORSESHOEING. 59
sole, and frog as hollow cylinders or tubes, though they are not always
hollow, but are often filled with loosely adjusted, crumbling, broken-
down horn-cells. The dark edges of the openings (a) consist of thick
layers of horn-cells (tube-walls). The entire structure is called a
horn-tube, and the lighter-colored masses of horn (Fig. 41, b) between
the tubes are known as intertubular horn.
With the exception of the horny leaves of the wall and
bars, all the horn of the hoof is composed of horn-tubes and
intertubular horn.
The horn-tubes of the wall, sole, and frog always run down-
ward and forward parallel to the direction of the wall at the
toe,—that is, in a direction parallel with the inclination of the
hoof as a whole. Although the wall, sole, and frog differ from
one another considerably with respect to the size and number
of the horn-tubes, the quality of the intertubular horn, and the
thickness and strength of the horn-cells, these differences are
only of subordinate interest or importance to the horseshoer;
but he who desires to learn more of this matter is referred to
the work of Leisering & Hartmann, “ Der Fuss des Pferdes in
Riicksicht auf Bau, Verrichtungen und Hufbeschlag,” eighth
edition, Dresden, 1893. This book also treats of the variations
in the quality of hoofs, which is very important for the prac-
tical horseshoer to know. It, furthermore, considers the solidity
and strength of the horn of the different parts of the hoof.
With respect to solidity, two kinds of horn are distinguished,
—namely, hard and soft horn. The periople, the white line,
and the frog are soft horn structures; the middle layer of the
wall and the sole are hard or solid horn. The wall, however,
is somewhat harder and more tenacious than the sole, for the
latter passes off in more or less large flakes (exfoliates) or
erumbles away on its lower surface, at least in shod feet, while
no such spontaneous shortening occurs in the wall.
Soft horn differs from hard horn in that its horn-cells never
become hard and horn-like. It is very elastic, absorbs water
quickly, and as readily dries out and becomes very hard and
60 HORSESHOEING.
Iii, 4,
Q
©
YY ee
5 “tia
r
Vertical section through middle of a forefoot, the skin and pododerm being in red. (In
the figure the direction of both long and short pasterns, B and D, is too nearly vertical—too
steep). A, metacarpal bone (cannon); B, os suffraginis (long pastern); C, inner sesamoid
bone (to render it visible a portion of the intersesamoid ligament was removed) ; D, os coro-
nz (short pastern) ; EZ, os pedis (foot-bone) ; F, navicular bone; a, extensor tendon; b, suspen-
sory ligament of the fetlock; b’, superficial inferior sesamoid ligament; c, perforatus tendon
or flexor of the os corone; c’, ring passing forward from this tendon and encircling the per-
forans tendon; d, perforans tendon; e, capsular ligament of fetlock-joint; f, capsular ligament
of coronary joint; g, g’, capsular ligament of pedal joint; hk, synovial sheath of the perfo-
rans tendon; 7, plantar cushion and fleshy frog; 7’, bulbs or glomes of plantar cushion; 7” in-
dicates the lowest point reached by the plantar cushion, which in the figure is hidden below
by the frog-stay of the horny frog; k, coronary band (red); /, podophyllous tissue (red) ; m,
velvety tissue of the sole (red); n, velvety tissue of fleshy frog (red); 0, wall; p, sole; q, frog;
q’’, the inner half of the frog-stay which reposes in the median lacuna of the fleshy frog; s,
hair-skin (red).
HORSESHOEING. 61
brittle and easily fissured and chapped, With respect to quality,
we distinguish good and bad horn; the former is fine and
tenacious (tough), the latter coarse and either soft and crumb-
ling or hard and brittle. If not dried out, all horn is elastic,
Fie. 43.
Right forefoot viewed from the side: A, lower end of the cannon; B, fetlock-joint; C,
long pastern; D, coronet; EZ, hoof; F, heel; F’, inner heel; G, foot-lock covering the ergot.
though soft horn is more elastic than hard. All horn is a poor
conductor of heat.
The relative positions of the various parts of the foot are
shown in Fig. 42.
Fig. 43 represents the exterior of a well-formed foot.
CEVA Pa ERO,
THE FOOT IN ITS RELATION TO THE ENTIRE LIMB.
As there are well-formed and badly formed bodies, so there
are well-formed and badly formed limbs and hoofs. The form
ot the hoof depends upon the position of the limb. A straight
Fic. 44.
Normal (regular) position of
fore-limbs.
different. Therefore,
limb of normal direction possesses, as a
rule, a regular hoof, while an oblique
or crooked limb is accompanied by an
irregular or oblique hoof. Hence, it is
necessary, before discussing the vari-
ous forms of the hoof, to consider briefly
the various positions that may be
assumed by the limbs. In this diseus-
sion we shall deal with the living horse.
A. Standing Positions of the Limbs.
The position of a limb depends
upon the varying lengths of its com-
ponent bones and the angles at which
they meet one another. To judge the
standing position of a fore-limb one
must stand in front of the horse; to
judge a hind limb, stand behind the
horse; the backward or forward devia-
tions of both front and hind limbs
are judged by standing at the side. But
a horse does not always move as his
standing position would lead one to
suspect; standing and moving are
in order to arrive at a proper judgment,
one must observe the limbs both at rest and in motion.
(a) The position of a limb viewed from in front is normal
62
HORSESHOEING. 63
or straight (Fig. 44) when it stands vertical or perpendicular.
A plumb-line dropped from the point of the shoulder (middle of
the scapulo-humeral articulation) should pass down the middle
line of the limb, dividing it into inner and outer halves of
equal width, and meeting the ground at the middle of the toe.
In the base-wide standing position (Fig. 45) the plumb-line
falls to the inner side of the limb; the limb extends obliquely
downward and outward. To this class belong also the knee-
iG 45:
My, 1, ("
ime, 47/,
|,
Base-wide Toe-wide Toe-narrow (‘‘pigeon
toed")
narrow (knock-kneed) position, in which the knees are too close
together, while the feet stand wide apart, and the toe-wide
position (splay-footed, Fig. 46) in which the toes point ob-
liquely forward and outward. In base-wide positions either
the entire limb extends downward and outward or the foot alone
is turned outward.
The base narrow position is frequently observed in horses
with very wide breasts. The limbs run downward and inward,
a plumb-line dropped from the point of the shoulder falling to
the outer side of the leg and foot. A special form of the base-
64 HORSESHOEING.
narrow position is the toe-narrow or pigeon-toed position (Fig.
47). In some instances the legs are straight and perpendicular
down to the fetlock, while from there to the ground the phal-
anges incline obliquely inward. Another form is the knee-wide
or bandy-legged position, in which the knees are placed too far
Fie. 48. Fic. 49.
Normal (regular) fore-limb in profile. Normal (regular hind limb in profile.
apart, while the cannons and phalanges incline downward and
inward.
The position of a fore-limb viewed in profile is regular
or normal (Fig. 48) when a perpendicular line dropped from
the tuberosity of the acromian spine (point of union of the
upper and middle thirds of the scapula or shoulder blade)
HORSESHOEING. 65
divides the leg from the elbow to the fetlock into anterior and
posterior halves of equal width, and touches the ground imme-
diately back of the bulbs of the heel. A perpendicular hne
Ime 0) ine, Ail, lanl, GP
Camped in front. Calf-kneed. Acute-angled foot (low-jointed).
dropped from the point of union of the middle and lower thirds
of the scapula (shoulder blade) will cut the humerus into
halves, and meet the ground between the toe and the heel.*
* In station of rest, the normal position of a fore-leg, as seen from
the side, is somewhat different. The station of rest is the position that
is maintained with the least possible muscular effort. With gradual
muscular relaxation the head and neck sink to a point somewhat below
the line of the back, the top of the shoulder blade sinks a little, and
the shoulder and elbow joints move forward till the centre of the
elbow joint is direetly above the ground-surface of the hoof. There-
fore, when a horse at rest stands firmly on all four feet, the fore-leg
viewed from the side, has a normal (regular) direction, when a per-
pendicular line dropped from the tuberosity of the acromian spine
passes through the middle of the elbow joint and meets the ground
near the middle of the hoof, .
5
66 HORSESHOEING.
The foot-avis (line of direction of the three phalanges) and
the wall at the toe form an angle of from forty-five to fifty
degrees with the horizontal ground-surface.
From this normal or regular standing position, there are
deviations forward as well as backward.
Forward Deviations.—* Standing in front” or “ camped
in front” (Fig. 50) is that position in which the entire leg
from the body to the ground is placed too far forward. Sheep-
lane, G3 i Hie. 54;
Standing under. Knee-spring.
kneed (Fig. 51) is that position in which the forward deviation
is from the knee downward, the knee being placed too far under
the body. “ Weak-jointed,” “ low-jointed,” or “ acute-angled ”
(Fig. 52) is that position in which the limbs are perpendicular
and straight down as far as the fetlock-joint, but the feet are
placed too far in front.
Backward Deviations.—Standing under in front (Fig. 53)
is that deviation in which the entire leg from the elbow down
is placed back of the perpendicular line and, therefore, too far
HORSESHOEING. 67
under the body. When this deviation affects only the cannon
bone, the horse stands bent forward at the knees,—a’ condition
known as “ goat-kneed,”’ “ buck-kneed,” “ over in the knees,’
or, more commonly, “ knee-sprung” (Fig. 54). When the
backward deviation is only from the fet-
Fic. 55. lock down, the animal is said to stand up-
=) right or “straight in the fetlock” (Fig. 53).
(b) A hind leg viewed from behind
is said to be regular or straight (Fig. 55)
(| when a perpendicular line dropped from
MIN Fic. 56. Fic. 57.
Normal (regular) position Base-wide (cow hocked). Base-narrow.
viewed from behind.
the tuberosity of the ischium (see Fig. 1, 9”) divides the entire
limb into inner and outer halves of equal width and touches
the ground opposite the median lacuna of the frog. Seen from
the side, this line just touches the point of the hock and, passing
down at some distance from the flexor tendons, meets the ground
68 HORSESHOEING.
considerably back of the heels. A perpendicular line dropped
from the hip-joint should pass through the foot, meeting the
ground half-way between the point of the toe and the heel
(Fig. 49). There are base-wide, base-narrow, toe-wide, and
toe-narrow deviations in the hind limbs as in the fore-limbs.
The hind limbs are base-wide when they, either as a whole
or in part, deviate outward from the normal. The “ cow-
hocked”’ position (Fig. 56) is an example of the base-wide; in
this case the points of the hocks are too
close and turn towards each other, while
the feet are widely separated and the
toes turned outward. Base-narrow 1s
that position of the hind legs in which
either the entire leg deviates to the inner
side of the perpendicular (Fig. 57), or
the leg is about perpendicular down as
far as the hock, but below this joint runs
downward and inward (Fig. 58). In this
latter case the hocks may be too far apart,
the leg is bent outward at the hock and
the animal is termed “ bandy-leqged,”
“ bow-legged.”
Viewing a hind limb from the side,
it may be observed to deviate either
cS x“
SO
)
/
4
\ Y 1
Piali/
2 Ni
|
forward or backward from the normal.
Beever und Among forward deviations is the so-
: ealled “ sabre-leg ” or “ sickle-hock” (Fig.
59), in which the hock-joint is too much flexed, the foot placed
too far forward under the body, and the fetlock too slanting.
In the position known as “camped behind” (Fig. 60) the
leg is behind the body and the pastern is too upright, too nearly
vertical.
It is possible for each limb of the same horse to assume a
different direction. It more often happens that if the fore-
limbs are base-wide the hind limbs are base-narrow, or vice
HORSESHOEING. 69
versa. While there are some other deviations that differ
somewhat from those already described, they are of less im-
portance to the horseshoer.
B. Forms of Feet, Viewed from in Front, from Behind, and in
Profile.
In all the various positions of the limbs we find the feet in
one of the following three forms, or very closely approaching one
of them. By means of a proper knowledge of these three forms,
Fic. 60.
Sabre-legged or sickle-hocked. Camped behind.
the judging of the form, flight of the foot in travelling, and
preparation of the hoof for the shoe, as well as the choice of
the length of the shoe, are regulated, facilitated, and simplified,
Whether a horse’s feet be observed from in front or from
behind, their form corresponds to, or at least resembles, either
that of the regular position (Figs. 61 and 62), the base-wide
or toe-wide position (Figs. 63 and 64), or the base-narrow or
toe-narrow position (Figs. 65 and 66).
70 HORSESHOEING.
By the direction of the foot-axis—that is, an imaginary
line passing through the long axis of the three phalangeal bones
(Figs. 61, 65, 67, 68 and 69)—we determine whether or not
the hoof and pastern stand in proper mutual relation.
Fia. 61. Fic. 62.
A pair of front feet of regular position viewed from in front and from behind.
In the regular standing position (Figs. 61 and 62) the
foot-axis runs straight downward and forward, in the base-
Hie. 63: Fic. 64.
A pair of feet of the base-wide (toe-wide) position seen from in front and from behind.
wide position (Figs. 63 and 64) it runs obliquely downward
and outward, and in the base-narrow position (Figs. 65 and
66) it runs obliquely downward and inward.
Viewing the foot from the side, we distinguish the regular
HORSESHOEING. 71
(normal) position (Fig. 68), and designate all forward
deviations as acute-angled (long toe and low heel, Fig. 67), and
Fia. 65. Fic. 66.
A pair of feet of the base-narrow (toe-narrow) position seen from in front and from behind.
all deviations backward from the regular position as upright
(short toe and high heel, Fig. 69), steep-toed, or stumpy.
When the body-weight is uniformly distributed over all four
Fic. 67. Fig. 68. Fic. 69.
/
An acute-angled hoof. A normal-angled hoof. An upHehe erepy)
: oof.
limbs, the foot-axis should be straight (Figs. 67 and 69), not
“broken” (bent); the long pastern, wall at the toe, and foot-
axis should have the same slant.
72 HORSESHOEING.
A peculiar form of foot is the so-called bear-foot (Fig. 70),
in which the foot-axis, viewed from the side, is broken strongly
forward at the coronet. The wall at the toe stands much
steeper than the long pastern and is more or less convex; in
other words, a low-jointed, sloping pastern is attached to an
upright hoof. Such a foot is sometimes improperly called a
“ club-foot.”
C. Lines of Flight of Hoofs in Motion.
If we observe horses moving unrestrained over level ground,
we will notice differences in the carriage of the feet. Viewed
from in front, or from behind, in the regular standing posi-
tion of the limbs the hoofs are carried forward in a straight
direction,—that is, in a line parallel with the median line of
the body (Fig. 71). The toes likewise point straight forward ;
the hoofs alight properly (flat) on the ground. If the horse
stands base-wide, the hoof is carried in a
Fia. 70. d : ree : : :
circle; from its position, which is behind
and well out from the median line, the
hoof passes first forward and inward until
it is close to the supporting leg, and then
outward to the ground (Fig. 72), where
the shock is received principally upon the
outer toe. The toes point either directly
forward, as in the regular standing posi-
tion (Fig. 72), or forward and outward as
in the toe-wide position (Fig. 73). In the
toe-wide position the hoof in its flight may cross the median line.
Exactly the reverse is true of the horse that stands base-
narrow; in this ease the hoof is moved in a circle whose con-
vexity 1s outward,—that is, the hoof from its position behind,
and close to the median line, is carried forward and outward
and then inward to the ground (Figs. 74 and 75).
Viewed from the side, the line of flight of a hoof is deter-
mined largely by the obliquity (slant) of the foot-axis.
The ‘‘bear-foot.”’
HORSESHOEING. 73
1. With a straight foot axis of normal slant (45°-50°,
Fig. 76, A), the hoof follows the are of a circle and reaches its
highest point when directly above the supporting hoof, 7.e., when
half-way in the stride.
2. With a straight, but acute-angled foot-axis (less than
45°, Fig. 76, B), the hoof rises rapidly, reaches its highest
iG Wi. WG, 74 J2Gs Wek Mie, (AL EGios
'
1 ’
@ | @ '@ | @
1 {
I / / : | \
| DN \ , \
1 / ! \ \ \
| / HY ‘ ; \
| ' \
: ! @} i @
| \ ' }
| \ ‘ Hf ] /
| \ \\ ! / 1
; STEN f / !
\ !
| 1 | / i
@ (a) | G) { J
! 1 IQ
; | éf | x | \
] / \ \
! / / \ \
| / ! \ 1 \
/ ! \ \
u I \ \
| @ fl }
| \ ]
| \ \ | /
| Seas / ! ]
1 A / / ! J
x / /
! 4 \ \ \
: 1 / p \ \
| eo Wah \ Vite: \
| / 1 \ ) \
! p ! ) |
I 1
|
J
y }
point before it has completed the first half of the stride, i.e., be-
fore it has passed the supporting hoof, and descending gradually
in a long curve alights easily on the ground.
3. With a straight, but upright foot-axis (55° or more,
Fig. 76, C), the hoof rises slowly, reaches its highest point in
front of the supporting hoof, from which point it descends
rapidly. The gait is “ choppy,” and in the saddle horse un-
7 See ew
rere =
74 HORSESHOEING.
pleasant for the rider. The length and the height of the stride
are greatest in acute-angled feet ; least in upright feet. Further-
more, length and height of stride are in a measure dependent
on breeding, training, condition of the legs (whether stiffened
by use or disease), length of the hoof and the weight of the shoe.
-_-7T-r- =
\
\
SS =
‘
‘
\
\
mi
Flight of the hoof as seen from the side: A, flight of a regular hoof; B, flight of an acute-
angled hoof; C, flight of an upright hoof.
Many deviations in the line of flight of hoofs and in the
manner in which they are set to the ground occur; for example,
horses heavily burdened or pulling heavy loads, and, therefore,
not having free use of their limbs, project their limbs irregu-
HORSESHOEING. . 75
larly and meet the ground first with the toe; however, careful
observation will detect the presence of one or the other of these
lines of flight of the foot. Irregular carriage of the feet renders
a horse unsuitable for general purposes only when it is very
pronounced, in which ease certain troublesome conditions, such
as interfering and disease of joints, are of frequent occurrence.
D. The Influence of Weight in the Shoe or Otherwise Attached
to the Hoof, in Altering the Flight of the Hoof.
There is nothing mysterious in the effect of weight upon
the flight of the feet. On the contrary, the lines of flight are
determined (as shown in pages 72-74, Figs. 71-76), first, by
the relation of the transverse axes of the hinge-joints of the
leg and foot to the line of progression (median line); second,
by the length and obliquity of the hoof and pastern; third, by
the height and length of stride which is natural to each in-
dividual.
Weight induces higher action and a longer stride. Inertia
increases with the weight. A heavy shoe cannot be snatched
from the ground as quickly as a light one, but when moving
forward at a given velocity its greater momentum (momentum—=
mass (wt) X velocity : m= wt X v) carries the foot farther
forward than does the lighter shoe. Thus, the heavier shoe,
or weight attached to the hoof, lengthens the stride at both ends.
The farther from the centre of rotation of the scapula the
weight is placed, 7.e., the nearer to the toe it is placed, the
greater the muscular effort required to start it and to stop it.
Height of action, though largely the result of breeding,
temperament, and the exhilaration that accompanies perfect
health and entire absence of muscular fatigue, is to a certain
extent influenced by the inclination of the pastern and toe to
the cannon. The acute-angled foot, in the folding of the leg
during the first half of the stride, moves through a longer are
of a circle whose centre is the fetlock joint than does the normal
or the upright foot; rises more rapidly and to a higher point.
76 HORSESHOEING.
(See Fig. 76, B.) When the momentum of a foot moving
rapidly and abruptly upward is increased by weight the result
is extreme and even exaggerated flexion of all joints of the leg,
and by allowing the hoof to grow long the flexion is still further
increased. In the show ring, harness horses with fair natural
action may be made to “‘ climb” by shoes weighing from thirty
to sixty ounces upon hoofs an inch or more longer than normal.
The leverage of a heavy shoe on a Jong hoof is excessive, fatigu-
ing and most injurious to ligament, tendon and muscle. The
action, while high, is /abored, pounding and altogether inelegant.
lan, tie
A 40 oz. right front shoe (hoof-sur- The same seen from the ground surface in pro-
face) to increase knee-action in a high file: a, bevel from inner border of the web to
acting harness horse. For show-pur- outer border: 6, ends of the branches of full
poses only. thickness from outer to inner border.
In the training of trotters weight is often used to increase
the length of the stride, or to cause a higher folding of a front
foot, in order to prevent “scalping” or “ speedy-cut.” As
soon as the new gait becomes a fixed habit the weight should be
gradually lessened. Weight is carried with less fatigue at a
trot than at a pace, or at a gallop. It therefore steadies a
trotter that is inclined to pace, or ‘‘ break” into a run. The in-
creased momentum of the weighted hoof makes for rhythm of
movement, and increases the difficulty of skipping, dwelling, or
mixing gaits.
HORSESHOEING. 77
In the base-wide (toe-wide) and base-narrow (toe-narrow )
standing positions, the flight of the hoofs, as seen from in front
or behind, is not straight forward, 7.e., parallel to the line of
progression of the body, but in ares of circles. (See Figs. 72-75,
p- 78.) In these cases, increasing the weight of the hoofs, by
increasing the momentum, must of necessity increase the
tendency of the hoofs to move off at-a tangent to the curves
which they deseribe. In other words, weight increases the
centrifugal force of a body moving in a curve. The outward
swing of the hoofs of a base-wide horse (paddling), and the
inward swing of a base-narrow horse (interfering), are made
more pronounced by adding weight to any part of the hoof.
The centrifugal force is greatest in base-wide feet when the
weight is on the lateral, or outer side of the hoof; in base-
narrow feet when it is on the median or inner side.
A side weight, or side weight shoe is often of service in a
crossfiring pacer. This animal usually stands base-narrow (toe-
narrow) behind, and in motion his hind hoofs describe a curve
at first forward and outward and then inward till contact is
made with the diagonal hoof or leg. The added weight (placed
on the outer side) by increasing the centrifugal force carries the
hoof just enough farther from the centre around which the hoof
swings to prevent contact. (See cross-firing, p. 138.)
Finally, it must not be forgotten that weight is always
weight; that it cuts speed and devours endurance.
E. Forms of Hoofs.
A front hoof of the regular standing position (Fig. 79).
The inner and outer walls differ but little in direction and
thickness. The outer wall is a little thicker and somewhat
more slanting than the inner (see Figs. 61 and 62), and its
outer circumference describes a larger are of a cirele,—that
is, is more curved, as can be seen both at its plantar border and
at the coronet. The length of the quarter in relation to the
length or height of the side wall and toe is about as 1: 2:3.
78 HORSESHOEING.
The toe forms an angle with the ground of forty-five to fifty
degrees (see Fig. 68). The direction of the wall at the toe,
viewed from the side, should be parallel with the direction of
the long pastern.
A hoof of the base-wide position (Fig. 80) is always awry,
because the outer wall is
naturally somewhat longer
and decidedly more slant-
ing than the inner(see Figs.
63 and 64). The plantar
border of the outer wall
describes a large are, whose
sharpest curvature is where
the side wall passes into
the quarter. The plantar
border of the inner wall is
straighter (less curved) ;
the outer half of the ground
surface (sole) of the hoof
is, therefore, wider than the
inner. So long as the hoof
NWA 5
is healthy, both branches of
Right fore-hoof of the regular position: a, the from are equally devel-
side-wall; b, quarter; c, beginning of the bar; d, ‘S t
buttress; e, middle of the bar; f, body of the sole; oped. The wryness of the
J’, branches of sole; g, white line; g’, apparent .
end of the bar; h, body of the frog; i, branch of hoof depends upon the di-
the frog; k, bulbs (glomes) of the heel; 7, middle rection of the limb; there-
cleft of frog; m, lateral cleft of frog.
fore, a base-wide hoof
should be regarded as a normally wry hoof, to distinguish it
from hoofs which are wry from disease.
A hoof of the toe-wide position (Fig. 81) is distinguished
from the preceding by the bending or curvature of the plantar
border of the outer toe and inner quarter being often decidedly
less pronounced than on the inner toe and outer quarter; there-
fore, two short curves and two long curves lie opposite each
other; in other words, the inner toe and outer quarter, lying
HORSESHOEING. 79
opposite each other, are sharply curved, while the outer toe
and inner quarter, lying opposite each other, are much less
sharply bent or curved. The toes are turned out. The feet are
not set down flat upon the ground, but meet it with the outer toe.
A hoof of the base-narrow position is normally wry, but
never so pronounced as a hoof of the base-wide position. The
inner wall is but little more oblique than the outer, the differ-
ence being most noticeable at the quarters (Figs. 65 and 66).
The curve of the plantar border of the wall is similar to that
of a regular hoof, except that the inner side wall and quarter
Fie. 81.
Right fore-hoof of the base-wide position. Right fore-hoof of the toe-wide position.
are a little more sharply curved in a base-narrow hoof. Occa-
sionally the outer quarter is somewhat drawn in under the foot.
This form of hoof is most distinctly marked in animals
that stand toe-narrow or are bandy-legged.
As to the forms of the hind hoofs, what has been said cou-
cerning the influence of position of the limbs upon the shape
of the front feet will apply equally well to them. The hind
hoof (Fig. 82) is not round at the toe, but somewhat pointed
or oval. It greatest width is between the middle and posterior
thirds of the sole. It usually has a strongly concaved sole and
80 HORSESHOEING.
a somewhat steeper toe than the fore-hoof; viewed from the
side, the angle of the toe with the ground in the regular stand-
ing position is from fifty to fifty-five degrees.
Finally, we also distinguish wide and narrow hoofs; they
are not dependent upon the position of the limbs, but upon the
race and breeding of the animal.
The wide hoof (Fig. 83) is almost round upon its plantar
surface. lis wall runs
Fig. 82.
quite oblique to the ground.
The sole is but moderately
econeave, and the frog is
strong and well developed.
The narrow hoof (Fig. 84)
is rather elliptical, with
steep side walls, strongly
eoneaved sole, and small,
undeveloped frog. The horn
of the narrow hoof is fine
and tough; of the wide hoof,
usually coarse. The wide
hoof may readily become
flat. Narrow hoofs are either
; the result of breeding or
Right hind hoof of the regular position: a, premature shoeing.
side-wall; 6, beginning of the quarter; c, begin- : d
ning of the bar; d, buttress; e, middle of bar; f, In enumerating the pre-
body of the sole; f’, branch of sole; g, white line J+, 7, - :
of the toe; g’, white line of the bar; h, body of ce ding for ms of the hoof we
te FE dat atie oes ate cies have by mo means referred
to all the forms in which
the hoof may be found; on the contrary, hoofs vary in shape and
quality to such an extent that among a hundred horses no two
hoofs can be found which are exactly alike. In fact, the same
variety exists as in the faces of people, and we know that we can
recall in succession even many more faces without finding two
that are exactly alike. This explains the manifold differences
in horseshoes with respect to size, form and other qualities.
HORSESHOEING. 81
Suppose now a hoof is before us; it is first necessary to know
whether or not it is healthy. Unfortunately, a perfectly healthy
hoof is not so easy to find as one may think. We recognize a
sound hoof by the following marks: Seen from in front or
from the side, the course of the wall from the coronet to the
ground, in the direction of the horn-tubes, is straight,—that is,
bent neither in nor out. A straight edge, placed upon the wall
in the direction of the horn-tubes, touches at every point. The
wall must show neither longitudinal nor transverse cracks or
Pie. 83) Fic. 84.
Wide fore-hoof. Narrow fore-hoof,
fissures. If there be rings, their position and course are im-
portant. Rings which pass around the entire circumference
of the wall parallel to the coronet indicate nothing more than
disturbances of nutrition of the hoof; but the hoof cannot pass
for sound when the rings have any other position and direction
than the one mentioned, or if the rings upon any part of the
wall are more marked than elsewhere, even though they may
be parallel to the coronary band. Marked ring-building upon
the hoofs of horses which have regular feeding, grooming, and
work indicates a weak hoof. Viewed from the ground-surface
6
82 HORSESHOEING.
and from behind, the bulbs of the heels should be well rounded,
strongly developed, and not displaced. The concave sole should
show no separation along the white line. The frog should be
strong, well developed, and have symmetrical branches and a
broad, shallow, dry median lacuna. The lateral lacune of the
frog should be clean and not too narrow. The bars should pass
in a straight direction forward and inward towards the point
of the frog. Any bending outward of the bars towards the
branches of the sole indicates the beginning of a narrowing
of the space occupied by the frog,—that is, contraction of the
heels. The horn of the branches of the sole in the buttresses
and in their proximity should show no red staining. The
lateral cartilages should be elastic. No part of the foot should
be weakened at the cost of other parts. By firm union of all
strong parts the strength and vigor of the hoof is in no sense
disturbed. If one desires to ascertain the exact form and state
of health of the hoof, tt must never be inspected and judged
alone, but in connection with the entire limb.
F. Growth of the Hoof and Wear of the Hoof and Shoe.
All parts of the horn of the hoof grow downward and for-
ward, the material for this growth being furnished by the re-
markably large quantity of blood which flows to the pododerm.
The growth of the hoof is regulated by the nerves.
As a rule, the hoof grows uniformly,—that is, one section
of the wall grows just as rapidly as another. A visible indication
of growth is the increase in height and width of the hoof from
eolthood to maturity.
The rapidity of growth of the wall varies, amounting in a
month to from one-sixth to one-half of an inch. The average
monthly growth in both shod and unshod horses of both sexes
is, according to my own experiments, one-third of an inch.
Hind hoofs grow faster than front hoofs, and unshod faster
than shod. The hoofs of stallions grow more slowly than
those of mares and geldings.
HORSESHOEING. 83
Abundant exercise, proper grooming (flexibility and moist-
ness of the horn), regular dressing of the wall, and running
barefoot from time to time favor growth; while little or no
~ exercise, dryness, and excessive length of the hoof hinder
growth.
The time required for the horn to grow from the coronet to
the ground is, therefore, equally variable, and is, moreover,
dependent upon the height (length of toe) of the hoof. At the
toe the horn grows down in from eleven to thirteen months,
at the mamme or sides in from six to eight months, and at the
quarters in from three to five months. The time required for
the renewal of the entire hoof we term the period of hoof
renewal. If, for example, we know exactly the rapidity of
horn growth in a given case, we can estimate without difficulty
the length of the “ period of hoof renewal,’ as well for the
entire hoof as for each individual section of the wall. The
duration of many diseases of the hoof (cracks, clefts, partial
bendings of the wall, contractions, etc.) can be foretold with
relative certainty only by knowing the period of hoof renewal.
Irregular growth sometimes takes place. The chief cause
of this is usually an improper distribution of the body-weight
over the hoof,—that is, an unbalanced foot. Wry hoofs of
faulty positions of the limbs are often exposed to this evil; a
faulty preparation of the hoof (dressing) for the shoe, as well
as neglect of the colt’s hoofs, is in the majority of cases directly
responsible for this condition.
If in the shortening of the wall a part is from ignorance
left too long, or one-half of the -hoof shortened too much in
relation to the other half, the foot will be unbalanced. The
horse will then touch the ground first with the section of wall
which has been left too high, and will continue to do so until
this long section has been reduced to its proper level (length)
by the increased wear which will take place at this point. In
unshod hoofs this levelling process takes place rapidly; such,
however, is not the case in shod hoofs, for here the shoe prevents
84 HORSESHOEING.
rapid wear, and, indeed this levelling process is often rendered
impossible through the welding of high steel calks to the shoe.
If this fault in trimming be repeated at the next and subse-
quent shoeings, and if the faulty relation of the ground surface
of the hoof to the direction of the foot-axis remain during
several months, the portion of wall
left too high will grow more rapidly,
the walls will lose their natural
straight direction and become bent.
If, for example, the outer wall has
Fig. 85.
been left too long during a consider-
able period of time, a crooked hoof
results (Fig. 85) in which the rings
are placed closer together upon the
low (coneave) side than upon the
high (convex) side. If for a long
time the toe is excessively long, it
will become bent; or if this fault
affects excessively high quarters they
will contract either just under the coronary band or will curl
forward and inward at their lower borders. These examples are
sufficient to show both the importance of the manner in which a
horse places his foot to the ground and its influence upon the
loading, growth, and form of the hoof.
Crooked (right) fore-hoof.
Wear of the Shoe and of the Hoof upon the Shoe.
The wear of the shoe is caused much less by the weight of
the animal’s body than by the rubbing which takes place be-
tween the shoe and the earth whenever the foot is placed to the
ground and lifted.
The wear of the shoe which oceurs when the foot is placed
on the ground is termed “ grounding wear,” and that which
occurs while the foot is being lifted from the ground is termed
“ swinging-off wear.” When a horse travels normally, both
kinds of wear are nearly alike, but are very distinct when the
HORSESHOEING. 85
paces are abnormal, especially when there is faulty direction of
the limbs. While in the majority of horses whose limbs have
been stiffened by age and overwork both kinds of wear are most
marked at the toe of the shoe, we see relatively fewer cases of
“ orounding wear”’ at the ends of the branches (as in lamini-
tis) ; on the contrary, we always notice “swinging-off wear” at
the toe of the shoe. It is worthy of notice that length of stride
has much to do with the wear. We observe that with shorten-
ing of the stride both kinds of wear occur at the toe of the
shoe, and this is rapidly worn away, as is the case with horses
Fig. 86.
Jes, (y/-
Fic. 88.
A normal-angled foot
with straight foot axis.
The shoe shows uniform
wear.
An upright foot with
foct axis broken forward
by reason of too high quar-
ters. The shoe shows
‘“‘crounding’’ wear at ends
of branches, and ‘‘swing-
ing off’’ wear at toe.
A hoof with foot axis
broken backward by rea-
son of surplus horn at the
toe. The shoe shows ex-
cessive ‘‘grounding’’ and
“swinging off’? wear at
the toe.
which are fretful and prance under the rider, draw heavy loads,
or from any other cause, as disease or infirmity, are obliged to
shorten their steps. With increase of length of stride the wear
of the shoe becomes more uniform. :
The position and form of the shoe have a marked influence
upon its wear;at the place where the shoe is too far under
the hoof either as a result of shifting or of having been nailed
on crooked, or where the outer branch has not the necessary
width, or does not form a sufficiently large curve, the wear will
be increased.
86 HORSESHOEING.
Also the relative length of side-walls, or of toe and heels,
influences rapidity of wear of the shoe. If through ignorance
or carelessness one side-wall be left too long, the branch beneath
will meet the ground before other parts of the shoe and will
wear faster (see Figs. 87, 88 and 89).
The wear of the hoof upon the shoe occurs as a result of the
movements of the quarters. Visible indications of this are the
brightly polished, often sunken places upon the bearing-surface
of the ends of the branches, showing that scouring occurs be-
tween the horn and the iron. Shoes which show brightly pol-
ished places in their anterior halves have been loose. The wear
of the quarters upon the shoe is not always uniform, but is
usually greater on the inner than on the outer quarter, especially
in base-wide feet. The degree of this wear of the hoof may be
from nothing to one-fourth of an inch or more from one shoeing
to the next. Finally, we should remember that this usually
invisible scouring away of the hoof gradually causes the nails
at the quarters to become loose. and that this is more clearly
marked in the front than in the hind hoofs.
G. Physiological Movements of the Hoof. (Mechanism of the
Hoof.)
These movements comprise all those changes of position
within and of the hoof which are brought about by alternately
weighting and relieving the foot, and which are manifest as
changes of form of the hoof. The following changes in form of
the hoof are most marked at the time that the hoof bears great-
est weight,—that is, semultaneous with the greatest descent of
the fetlock-joint.
1. A lateral expansion over the entire region of the quarters,
occurring simultaneously at the coronary and plantar borders.
This expansion is small, and in general varies between one-
fiftieth and one-twelfth of an inch.
2, A narrowing of the anterior half of the hoof measured
at the coronary border.
HORSESHOEING. 87
3. A decrease in height of the hoof, with a slight sinking
of the heels.
4, A flattening (sinking) of the sole, especially in its
branches.
These changes of form are much more pronounced in the
half of the hoof that bears the greater weight.
A hoof while supporting the body-weight has a different form,
and the tissues enclosed
within it a different posi-
tion, than when not bear-
ing weight. Since load-
ing and unloading of the
foot are continually al-
ternating, the relations
of internal pressure even
in the standing animal
are continuously chang-
ing, so that, strictly
speaking, the hoof is
never at rest.
The changes in form
. s oe Transverse vertical section through the middle of a
take place ve the follow right fore shod hoof of base-wide form, viewed from
ing order: the body-_ behind. The outer wall having been insufficiently low-
= c ered has caused increased wear of the underlying
weight falls from above branch of the shoe: a, wear of inner branch (beneath
the relatively short wall); 6, greater wear of outer
upon the OS corone, OS phranch beneath the relatively long wall; c, the horn
pe dis : and navieular between the dotted line and the shoe represents the
surplus length of this outer wall.
bone, and at the moment
that the foot is placed upon the ground is transmitted through
the sensitive laminz and horny lamine to the wall. At the in-
stant that the fetlock reaches its lowest point the os pedis bears
the greatest weight. Under the body-weight the latter yields,
and with the navicular bone sinks downward and backward. At
the same time the upper posterior portion of the os corone (Fig.
90, A) passes backward and downward between the lateral car-
tilages (a), which project above the upper border of the wall,
88 HORSESHOEING.
and presses the perforans tendon down upon the plantar cushion,
The plantar cushion being compressed from above, and being un-
able to expand downward, is correspondingly squeezed out
towards the sides and crowded against the lateral cartilages, and
they, yielding, press against and push before them the wall at
the quarters. The resistance of the earth acts upon the plantar
surface of the hoof, and especially upon the frog, and it, widen-
ing, crowds the bars apart, and in this manner contributes to
the expansion of the quarters, especially at their plantar border
(see Fig, 90), The horny sole under the descent and pressure
of the os pedis sinks a
little—that is, the arch
of the sole becomes
somewhat flattened. All
these changes are much
more marked upon
sound unshod hoofs, be-
cause in them the re-
sistance of the earth
upon the sole and frog
is pronounced and com-
Vertical, transverse section of a foot seen from behind: plete. These changes in
A, os corone; B, os navicularis; C, os pedis; a, lateral f A ’ 7 ae
cartilage; b, anterior portion of fleshy frog; c, section of orm are more marked
- d, sus -iF f Se °
perforans tendon; d, suspensory ligament of the navicu in front feet than in
lar bone; 1, wall; m, sole; n, white line; o, frog.
hind. In defective and
diseased hoofs it may happen that at the moment of greatest
weight-bearing, instead of an expansion a contraction may
occur at the plantar border of the quarters.
Three highly elastic organs there are which play the chief
part in these movements,—namely, the lateral cartilages, the
plantar cushion, and the horny frog. Besides these structures,
indeed, all the remaining parts of the horn capsule, especially
its coronary border, possess more or less elasticity, and con-
tribute to the above-mentioned changes of form.
In order to maintain the elastic tissues of the foot in their
proper activity, regular and abundant exercise, with protection
HORSESHOEING. 89
against drying out of the hoof, are absolutely necessary, because
the movements of the different structures within the foot and
the changes of form that occur at each step are indispensable in
preserving the health of the hoof. Long-continued rest in the
stable, drying out of the hoof, and shoeing decrease or alter the
physiological movements of the foot, and these lead under cer-
tain conditions to foot diseases, with which the majority of
horse owners are entirely unacquainted.
As an outward, visible indication of the mobility of the
quarters upon the shoe we may point to the conspicuous, brightly
polished, and often sunken spots, or grooves, upon the ends of
the branches. They are produced partly by an in-and-out
motion of the walls at the quarters, and partly by a forward
and backward gliding of the quarters upon the shoe.
The benefits of these physiological movements within the
hoof are manifold:
1. Through them shock is dispersed and the body protected
from the evil consequences of concussion or shock,
2. These movements increase the elasticity of the entire
limb, and in this way contribute much to a light and elegant gait.
3. They maintain a lively circulation of blood in the vessels
of the pododerm, and this insures a rapid growth of horn.
Since it is a generally accepted fact that shoeing interferes
with the physiological movements of the hoof, alters them, in-
deed, almost suppresses them, and that all these movements are
spontaneous and natural only in sound unshod hoofs, we are
justified in regarding shoeing as a necessary evil. However, it
is indispensable if we wish to render horses serviceable upon
hard artificial roads. If, in shoeing, consideration be given to
the structure and functions of the hoof, and particularly to
the hoof-surface of the shoe, the ends of the branches being
provided with a smooth, level bearing-surface, which allows
free play to the elastic horn capsule, in so far as this is not
hindered by the nails we need have no fear of subsequent dis-
ease of the hoofs, provided the horse is used with reason and
receives proper care.
PART II.
CHAP T ERs:
SHOEING HEALTHY HOOFS.
A. Examination of a Horse Preliminary to Shoeing.
Aw examination should be made while the animal isat rest,
and afterwards while in motion. The object of the examination
is to gain accurate knowledge of the direction and movements
of the limbs, of the form and character of.the feet and hoofs, of
the manner in which the foot reaches and leaves the ground,
of the form, length, position, and wear of the shoe, and dis-
tribution of the nail-holes, in order that at the next and sub-
sequent shoeings all ascertained peculiarities of hoof-form may
be kept in mind and all discovered faults of shoeing corrected.
The examination is best conducted in the following order:
The horse should first be led at a walk in a straight line from
the observer over as level a surface as possible, then turned
about and brought back, that the examiner may notice the
direction of the limbs and the manner in which the hoofs are
moved and set to the ground. While the animal is moving
away the observer notices particularly the hind limbs, and as
it comes towards him he examines the fore-limbs. Then a few
steps at a trot will not only show whether or not the animal
is lame, but will often remove all doubt in those cases in which,
while the animal was walking, the examiner was unable to
make up his mind as to which was the predominating position
of the limb. The problem presented is, therefore, to determine
whether or not the direction of the limbs, the lines of flight
of the hoofs, and the manner in which they are set down and
picked up are regular. If there are deviations from the normal
90
HORSESHOEING. 91
they will fall either into the base-wide and toe-wide group or
into the base-narrow and toe-narrow group. When clear upon
these points the horse is allowed to stand quietly, and the ob-
server, placing himself in front, examines the foot more closely,
fixes the direction of the foot axis clearly in his mind, marks
also the form and character of the hoofs and the position of
the coronets, as far as these parts can be inspected from in
front. At the same time each hoof should be closely inspected
to determine whether the slant of both quarters corresponds
to the direction of the long pastern, and whether the course of
the wall from the coronet to the plantar border is straight or
bent in or out (contraction, fulness). Walls curved from above
to below always indicate an unnatural height of some section
of the wall and a displacement of the base of support of the
foot. In order to gain accurate and complete knowledge of the
position of the limbs, the flight of the hoofs, and the manner
of setting the foot to the ground, the horse must frequently be
moved back and forth many times, especially when the stand-
ing position is somewhat irregular and the hoofs are of different
shapes.
At this point begins the examination of the position of the
limbs, and the form of the feet and hoofs, in profile. After
casting a glance over the entire body, so as to gain an idea of
the animal’s weight, height, and length, the attention is turned
to the position and direction of the limbs and hoofs. The eye
should particularly note whether the form of the hoof cor-
responds to the position of the limb, and, furthermore, whether
the slant of the pastern is the same as that of the wall at the
toe,—that is, whether the foot axis is straight or broken; also
whether the toes and quarters are parallel, for the toe is some-
times bulging (convex) or hollowed out (concave) between the
coronet and plantar border, and the quarters are frequently con-
tracted and drawn or shoved under the foot (weak quarters).
If the wall present rings the observer should note their position
with reference to one another and to the coronet, and also their
92 HORSESHOEING.
extent, and, furthermore, should determine whether or not they
cross one another (thrush of the frog). At the same time he
should notice the length of the shoes.
Next, the feet should be raised and the examiner should
notice the width of the hoof, the arching of the sole, the char-
acter of the frog, the position of the bulbs of the heel, as well
as the presence of any cracks or clefts in the wall. Then the
old shoes should be examined as to their age, form, the distribu-
tion and direction of their nail-holes (‘* punching”), position,
and wear. With respect to the form of the old shoe, one
should observe whether or not it corresponds to the form of
the hoof. The same careful examination should be made of
the number and distribution of the nail-holes. As regards the
position of the shoe, one must first ascertain whether it com-
pletely covers the bearing-surface of the wall, and whether the
shoe extends beyond the wall at any point and has caused in-
terfering or given rise to irregular wear. Finally, the wear of
the shoe should be observed, and the following points borne in
mind: One-sided wear, uneven setting down of the feet, and an
unnatural course of the wall are often found together, especially
when uneven wearing of the shoe has existed for a long time,
—that is, during several shoeings. Ass a rule, in such a ease
the more worn branch of the shoe is too near the centre of the
foot, and the opposite branch too far from the centre (too
“ full”’); in other words, the base of support (shoe) has been
shifted too far in the direction of the less worn branch. More-
over, increased wear of a part of a shoe is an indication that the
section of the wall above it is too high (too long) (Fig. 89),
or that the wall upon the opposite side of the foot is too low
(short). The twisting movement of many hind feet should,
from physiological reasons, not be hindered by shoeing.
B. Raising and Holding the Feet of the Horse to be Shod.
This ean always be done without much trouble if the horse
has been accustomed to it from early colthood. Certain rules
HORSESHOEING. 93
governing the manner of taking hold of the feet, and of after-
wards manipulating them, are of value.
A shoer should never grasp a foot suddenly, or with both
hands. The horse should first be prepared for this act. First
see that the horse stands in such a position that he can bear his
weight comfortably upon three legs. This is well worth notic-
ing, and if the horse does not voluntarily assume such an easy
position, move him gently until his feet are well under his body.
If the shoer, for example, wishes to raise the left fore foot
for inspection, he stands on the left side facing the animal,
speaks quietly to him, places the palm of the right hand flat
upon the animal’s shoulder, and, at the same time, with the left
hand strokes the limb downward to the cannon and seizes the
cannon from in front. With the right hand he now gently
presses the horse towards the opposite side, and the foot be-
coming loose as the weight is shifted upon the other leg, he lifts
it from the ground. The right hand now grasps the pastern
from the inside followed by the left hand upon the inside and
the right hand on the outside; then, turning partly to the
right, the holder supports the horse’s leg upon his left leg, in
which position he should always stand as quietly and firmly as
possible. If, now, the shoer desires to have both hands free
to work upon the hoof, he grasps the toe with the left hand in
such a manner that the toe rests firmly in the palm while the
four fingers are closely applied to the wall of the toe, takes a
half step toward the rear, passes the hoof behind his left knee
into his right hand which has been passed backward between
his knees to receive it, and drawing the hoof forward outward
and upward supports it firmly on his two knees,—the legs just
above the knees being applied tightly against the pastern. The
forefoot should not be raised higher than the knee (carpus),
nor the hind foot higher than the hock, nor either foot be drawn
too far backward. The correct standing position of the shoer
or floorman while holding a front foot is shown in Fig. 91.
Shortness of stature (5’-5’.6’) is desirable in a floorman.
94 HORSESHOEING.
In lifting the left hind foot the animal should be gently
stroked back as far as the angle of the hip, against which the
left hand is placed for support, while the right hand strokes the
limb down to the middle of the cannon, which it grasps from
behind. While the left hand presses the animal’s weight over
towards the right side,
the right hand loosens
the foot and carries it
forward and outward
from the body so that
the limb is bent at the
hock. The holder then
turns his body towards
the right, brings his
left leg against the an-
terior surface of the
fetlock-joint, and car-
ries the foot backward,
at which time his left
arm passes over the
Fie. 91.
horse’s eroup and
above and to the inner
side of the hock.
Finally, both hands
encompass the long
pastern.
If the right feet
are to be raised, the
process is simply
Proper position for holding a front foot.
reversed.
In raising the feet no unnecessary pain should be inflicted
by pinching, squeezing, or lifting a limb too high. The wise
shoer avoids all unnecessary clamor and disturbance; quiet,
rapid, painless methods avail much more. In dealing with
young horses the feet should not be kept lifted too long; let
HORSESHOEING.
re =:
Nizz===
mn SI
a
Ss)
SSS]
Se
LF LED LEI LEP LD LY LEE
Sy
iii
The Martin horse rack (modified).
96 HORSESHOEING.
them down from time to time. In old and stiff horses the
feet should not be lifted too high, especially in the beginning
of the shoeing.
Vicious horses must often be severely handled. Watch
the play of the ears and eyes continually, and immediately
punish every exhibition of temper either by jerking the halter
or bridle vigorously, or by loud commands. If this does not
avail, then if soft ground is at hand make the horse back as
rapidly as possible for some time over this soft surface; it is
very disagreeable and tiresome to him. To raise a hind foot
we may knot a strong, broad, soft, plaited band (side line)
into the tail, loop it about the fetlock of the hind foot, and
hold the end. This often renders valuable service. The
holder seizes the band close to the fetlock, draws the foot
forward under the body, and then holds it as above de-
scribed. The use of such a band compels the horse to carry
a part of his own weight, and at the same time hinders him
from kicking. Before attempting to place this rope or band
about the fetlock, the front foot on the same side should be
raised.
The various sorts of twitches are objectionable, and their
use should not be allowed unless some painful hoof operation
is to be done. The application of the tourniquet, or “ Spanish
windlass,” to the hind leg is equally objectionable.
Those horses which resist our attempts to shoe them we
do not immediately cast or place in the stocks, but first have a
quiet, trustworthy man hold them by the bridle-reims and
attempt by gentle words and soft caresses to win their attention
and confidence.
Ticklish horses must be taken hold of boldly, for light
touches of the hand are to such animals much more unpleasant
than energetic, rough handling. Many ticklish horses allow
their feet to be raised when they are grasped suddenly without
any preparatory movements.
HORSESHOEING. i
C. Removing the Old Shoes.
If a horse’s hoofs are healthy, all the shoes may be taken
off at the same time, but there are certain diseases of the
hoof in which this should not be done.
The rule to follow in removing every
shoe is to draw it cautiously, not wrench
it away with violence. Hoofs which are
dirty should first be cleansed, preferably
with a stiff brush. Next, the clinches
should be carefully lifted by means of a
rather dull clinch cutter (Fig. 93), with-
out injuring the horn of the wall. In order,
now, that the nails may be removed singly,
the shoe must be slightly hfted. This
may be done in one of two ways.
The shoer may use a pair of pin- Fic. 93.
eers (Fig. 94), with broad bills
which will encompass the branch
of the shoe and come well together
underneath it. The handles of the
pincers are then moved in the di-
rection of the branches of the shoe.
The second method consists in rais-
ing the branches of the shoe by driv-
ing the nail-cutter from behind be- TTT
tween the shoe and hoof and using i:
it as a lever or pry to loosen the
shoe. Sauipe Boma No
Violent and excessive twisting
of the hoof and straining of ligaments may easily occur, but
the smith should guard against them by supporting the hoof
with the left hand or with the leg just above the knee, while
loosening the shoe.
re
98 HORSESHOEING.
D. Preparing the Hoof for the Shoe.
This preparation is usually termed paring, trimming, or
dressing. It is a most important step in the process of shoeing,
and its object is to shorten the hoof, which has grown too long
under the projection of the shoe, and prepare it to receive the
new shoe. The instruments needed for this work are the rasp
and the hoof-knife (Fig. 95); upon large and hard hoofs a
reed:
German hoof set with detachable hook blades. (W. M. Kunde, Dresden): a,a, hoof
blades; 6, pus searcher; c, scalpel.
pair of sharp nippers (Fig. 96), or a sharp hewing knife, with
broad handle and perfectly flat, smooth sides, may be used,
since these instruments will considerably facilitate and hasten
the work.
After the shoer has carefully examined the hoofs in the man-
ner described upon pages 90, 91, and 92, and has fixed in mind
the relation of the height of the hoofs to the size and weight
of the body, he cleanses the hoof and removes all stubs of old
HORSESHOEING. 99
nails. At the same time he should be asking himself 7f,
where, and how much horn is to be removed. In all eases all
loosely attached fragments of horn are to be removed, for ex-
ample, chips of horn produced by repeated bending and stretch-
ing of the lower border of the wall. The sole is then freed
from all flakes of dead horn. The shoer then
runs the rasp around the outer border of the
wall and breaks it off to the depth to which
he thinks it should be shortened, and then
cuts the wall down to its union with the sole,
so that at least one-eighth of an inch of the
edge of the sole lies in the same level as the
bearing-surface of the wall. Finally, the wall,
white line, and outer margin of the sole, form-
ing the ‘‘ bearing-surface,”’” must be rasped until
they are perfectly horizontal, except that at the
toe of forehoofs this bearing-surface may be
rasped slightly upward (rolled toe).
In dressing the hoof the branches of the frog
should always be left prominent enough to pro-
ject. beyond the bearing-surface of the quarters
about the thickness of an ordinary flat shoe.
If it be weakened by paring, it is deprived of
its activity, shrinks, and the hoof becomes nar-
row to a corresponding degree. The frog should,
therefore, be trimmed only when it is really too
prominent. However, loose and diseased par-
i]
ticles of horn may be trimmed away when it is
affected with thrush, Nippers.
The bars should be spared and _ never
shortened except when too long. Their union with the wall at
the quarters must in no case be weakened, and never eut through
(opening up the heels). They should be left as high as the
wall at the quarters, or only a little less, while the branches of
the sole should lie about one-eighth of an inch lower.
100 HORSESHOEING.
The buttress (angle formed by the union of wall and bar)
requires special attention. In healthy unshod hoofs the bars
run backward and outward in a straight line from the anterior
third of the frog. In shod hoofs, however, it happens that the
buttresses gradually lengthen, curl inward, and press upon
the branches of the frog, causing the latter to shrink. In such
cases the indication is to remove these prolongations of horn
from the buttresses so as to restore to the bars their normal
direction.
The sharp edge of the plantar border of the wall should be
broken away with a rasp until the relative thickness of the
wall equals its absolute thickness. (Fig. 97). However, in
healthy hoofs, that is, in those whose
Fic. 97.
walls are straight from the coronet to
the ground, the outer surface of the
wall should never be rasped. The
only exceptions to this rule are those
eases in which there is an outward
bending of the lower edge of the wall,
most frequent on the inner side wall
and quarter.
With respect to the inclination
Longitudinal (vertical) sectionof of the ground-surface of the hoof to
the wall at the toe: acis the abso- ; 4 .
lite andap the selativetiiciness the direction Of the foot axis; sas
of the yall, Sy ihe os vw cae viewed from-in front; the follewane
and the line ac as a radius, a circle
is drawn; the corner of horn in ie ne a
front of this circle and indicated facts are established : ‘ a:
by dotted lines is to be removed In the regular standing position of
with the rasp. ; : =
the limbs (seen from in front) the
plantar surface of a hoof is at right angles to the foot axis, and
the outer and inner walls are of equal heights.
In the base-wide position of the limbs the plantar hoof-
surface is more or less inclined to the foot axis, usually to a
very small degree, and the outer wall is somewhat higher
(longer) and more slanting than the inner.
In the base-narrow position of the limbs the plantar hoof-
HORSESHOEING. 101
surface is more or less inclined to the direction of the foot axis,
usually quite considerably, and the inner wall is somewhat
higher than the outer.
The foot is observed from the side in order to determine
the proper relation of the length of the toe to the height of
the quarters.
In this also the foot axis is our guide. If this axis is as it
should be, the wall at the toe and the long pastern will have the
same slant (Figs. 67, 68 and 69). If the hoof has become too
long under the protection of the shoe, this will be shown by
the foot axis being no longer a straight line, but broken back-
Fia. 98. Fic. 99. Fia. 100.
my | fll
f | H |
i iM il i
ae Bg
f | y Al hi y\
Ai i! My
Waitt bY Pin
Via @ ue fy} /
BETA MN f fin i i ‘ Cf g Cl G ¥
Yi “a Ly by (i
a ie Le If ah
ae i
An untrimmed hoof with An untrimmed hoof with Hoof dressed and foot
an excess of horn (a) at the an excess of horn (6) at the axis straightened by re-
toe which breaks the foot heels, which breaks the foot moving excess of horn be-
axis backward. axis forward. low dotted lines in the two
preceding illustrations.
ward at the coronet (Fig. 98); that is, the hoof in comparison
with the fetlock will be too slanting. By shortening the toe
more than the quarters this faulty relation will be corrected
(Fig. 100) and the foot restored to its proper slant. If the
quarters are too long (too high) in comparison with the length
of the toe, the foot axis will be broken forward at the coronet
(Fig. 99), and the hoof will be too upright. By shortening
the quarters more than the toe the foot axis may be made
straight. The plantar surface of the hoof is therefore correct
(balanced) when the horse places the foot flat upon the
ground in travelling, and when the lines bounding the hoof,
102 HORSESHOEING.
viewed from in front, from behind, and in profile, correspond to
the direction of the three phalanges (foot axis).
Finally, this fact should be emphasized, that in changing
from flat shoes to those with calks, or the reverse, the hoofs
must first be dressed in accordance, so that the foot axes will
remain straight, and the feet be set always flat to the ground
when the new shoes are on. Each hoof, when ready for the
new shoe, should be let down and the horse allowed to stand
upon it while it is again carefully examined and. closely
compared with the opposite hoof. Only after such close
inspection has proved the dressing to be faultless can the
hoof be considered as properly prepared and ready for the
shoe. The two front hoofs and the two hind hoofs, when the
legs are in the same position, should not only be of equal
size, but also in proper relation to the size and weight of the
body.
E. Preparing the Hoof for going Barefoot.
This becomes necessary when the nature of the ground and
the kind of service required of the horse render shoeing un-
necessary. However, to go barefoot the hoof must have plenty
of horn. After removing the shoes the frog should be pared
down nearly to the level of the wall, and the sharp outer
edge of the wall well rounded off with the rasp, in some cases
as far as the white line, otherwise large pieces of the wall will
readily break away. Hoots with very slanting walls must be
more strongly rounded off than upright hoofs. Going bare-
foot strengthens the hoofs. From time to time the condition
of these shoeless hoofs should be ascertained by inspection, and
any growing fault in shape or direction of the horn immediately
corrected. It quite frequently happens that the sharp edge of
the wall must be repeatedly rounded, especially on very oblique
walls (outer half of base-wide hoofs), and the quarters may
require frequent shortening, because they are not always worn
away as fast as the horn at the toe.
HORSESHOEING. 103
F. Making Shoes.*
Besides good, tough iron for the shoe, we need an anvil with
a round horn and a small hole at one end, a round-headed
turning-hammer, a round sledge, a stamping hammer, a pritchel
of good steel, and, if a fullered shoe is to be made, a round
fuller. Bodily activity and, above all else, a good eye for
measurement are not only desirable, but necessary. A shoe
should be made thoughtfully, but yet quickly enough to make
the most. of the heat.
The iron of which horseshoes are made is derived from the
natural iron ore. Iron used for technical purposes is not
chemically pure. Pure iron is rather too soft, and is there-
fore mixed with different substances, mostly with ‘“ carbon,”
the most important ingredient of our fuel. Of course, the iron
contains a, very small quantity of carbon (0.5 to 5 per cent.).
When iron contains more than 2.3 per cent. of carbon it is
hard, brittle, and more easily melted, and is known as crude
iron, or raw iron, because it is derived from the raw product,
—hlack ore. The melted crude iron is ealled cast iron. ‘Tron
is ductile when it contains less than 2.3 per cent. of carbon,
and is then called forge iron, or wrought iron. Wrought iron
is fusible only at a high temperature. Only weldable iron
containing less than 1.6 per cent. of carbon is suitable for gen-
eral use. Of this iron we distinguish two sorts,—steel and
wrought iron.
“tip.” the so-called bear-foot (Fig. 70,
page 72).
9. It arises also as a result of all those alterations in the
direction of the limbs which tend to remove the quarters from
contact with the ground (con-
traction of the flexor tendons,
spavin,— Fig. 202).
3. It may arise gradually
from neglect of the hoofs of
horses running barefoot.
4. It may arise from ex-
cessive shortening of the toe
in relation to the quarters.
Shoeing.—The forms of AY
hoofs mentioned in class 1 |||
should be left as they are. b> Hl. mi
The hoofs that fall under i
SSS SaaS SS
y
9 nada
class 2 should be dressed and tM ey chal ne ee
shod until a more natural
setting down of the foot is secured. This is brought about by
sparing the quarters, and applying a shoe with thickened
branches or with heel-calks. Where the service of the animal is
HORSESHOEING. 185
exacting and upon hard streets, the toes, especially of the hind
shoes, may be made more durable by welding in steel plates.
Besides, the shoe should be moderately base-wide around the
toe,—that is, should be bevelled downward and outward, should
have a strong toe-clip, and should be quite concave at the toe and
rolled. (Figs. 203 and 204). Should the hoof tip forward
whenever the weight is thrown upon the limb, a shoe with a
ies, A058},
Shoe for stumpy hoofs, viewed from ground-surface, hoof-surface, and in profile.
spur projecting from the centre of the toe, and turning back and
pressing upon the wall just underneath the coronary band, will
be of service (Fig. 202).
Only those upright hoofs which are the result of the causes
mentioned in 3 and 4 are to be dressed as ordinary hoofs, and
if the service required is not too exacting they should be shod
with tips (Fig. 201), or with shoes with thinned branches.
3. Tur Contractep Hoor,
A hoof which has deviated from its normal form in such a
manner that its posterior half, either in part or as a whole, is
too narrow, is a contracted hoof. The walls of the quarters
assume an abnormally oblique direction downward and inward
towards the median line of the hoof.
186 HORSESHOEING.
When contraction affects only one quarter, it is called wni-
lateral contraction, or abnormal wryness (Fig. 211).
The buttresses are usually very much prolonged and press
upon the frog and cause it to shrink. The bars no longer run in
the natural straight direction from the point of the frog back-
ward and outward, but describe a circle passing outward, back-
ward, and inward.
Contraction affects front feet, especially those of the acute-
angled form, more often than hind
Ge Us: feet. In order to determine whether
; or not a hoof is too narrow, we
should always examine the frog
and its lateral lacune. If the frog
is small and narrow, and the lateral
lacunze very narrow and deep, there
ean be no doubt but that the hoof is
too narrow (contracted).
The causes, aside from too little
exercise, are chiefly errors in shoe-
ing, such as weakening the posterior
half of the hoof, leaving too long a
toe, either neglecting to remove the
_A fore-hoof with bilateral contrac- spurs of horn which grow from the
tion of the quarters: a, spur of horn
prolonged from the buttress, which buttresses and press upon the frog,
Sea a ed > narrow median + removing them incompletely, and
using shoes whose branches are
either too wide apart or are inclined downward and inward,
so that under the weight of the body the heels are squeezed
together and contraction is favored.
Prevention and Treatment.—First, it should be borne in
mind that whatever exercises moderate pressure upon the sole,
frog, and bars tends to expand the hoof. The action and value
of the various shoes, frog-, and sole-pads, are measured by this
rule. For this reason a shoe with heel-calks is never advisable
if an open flat shoe without other means of relief can be used.
HORSESHOEING. 187
Furthermore, since contraction is the parent of nearly all dis-
eases of the hoof (corns, quarter-cracks, bar-cracks, thrush of
the frog), we should use the greatest care toprevent it by dress-
ing the hoof as described on pages 98 to 103, using flat shoes
with a horizontal bearing-surface for the quarters, giving
abundant exercise, preventing drying out of the horn, and
allowing the animal to go barefoot when-
ever possible. Where the contraction ts
but slight the foregoing rules will be
found sufficient.
In very pronounced contraction,
where the hoof is not acute-angled, an
expansive shoe with clips raised at the
ends of the branches to press against the
buttresses may prove very advantageous ;
but under no conditions should violence
be used in expanding the heels with the
expanding-screw. This is an act of ex-
treme delicacy, and should be performed
only by experienced veterinarians.
In very pronounced contraction of
one or both quarters of hoofs of every
degree of obliquity we may obtain a con-
tinuous expansive action by the use of
one of the numerous V-shaped springs,
of which the Chadwick spring is the best
(Hie 207 ands 208) ettiter devellinegctaata chao a ais
the wall and thinning the branches of the *PPosed to the buttress; 6, slot
sole, the points of the spring are set shoe: B, screw for expanding
the Defay’s shoe.
against the buttresses, the apex of the
spring moved to and fro till the points have bored well into
the horn, when the apex is laid against the sole at the toe, the
sole filled with tar and oakum and covered by a leather sole,
and a bar-shoe applied. If the contraction be less pronounced,
or if the frog be much shrunken we may place a Chadwick
Fic. 206.
188 HORSESHOEING.
spring beneath a rubber bar-pad with a short shoe. The spring
may be stiffened from shoeing to shoeing, first by introducing
the ferrule at the apex of the spring and later by shifting the
ferrule toward the shoulder (Figs. 207, b, and 208, b).
For contracted hoofs of the acute-angled form we use the
bar-shoe, and if there are other diseases of the hoof present, or
if we wish a more rapid and continuous expansive action, we
use also a leather sole with foot-packing with or without a
Fic. 208.
The Chadwick spring for expanding A fore-hoof showing a Chadwick spring in
contracted quarters: a, apex of spring; proper position: a, Chadwick spring; b, ferrule
b, ferrule to stiffen the spring; c, point to stiffen spring as desired; c, uncompressed
which is buried in a buttress of the hoof. spring before it has been engaged against the
buttresses; d, buttresses in which points of
spring are buried.
buttress spring. A foul frog should be properly cleansed, and
then disinfected with pine-tar thinned with aleohol or erude
wood-vinegar (pyroligneous acid).
Further curative measures are: turning the horse out with-
out shoes (expensive and seldom practicable); applying tips;
using shoes the bearing-surface of whose branches inclines
downward and outward (unilateral contraction requires but one
branch to be so constructed) ; hoof-pads of rubber (Figs. 145,
HORSESHOEING. 189
146, and 147), straw, rope, cork, hoof-cement, ete. Special
forms of contraction are distinguished, and are as follows:
(a) The Contraction of Wide Hoofs.—This contraction is
manifest as a coneavity or groove in the wall just below the
coronet, usually at the quarters, though sometimes extending
entirely around the foot parallel to the coronary band (Fig.
209). Pain is produced in the contracted area by lightly
tapping the horn, but not by moderate pressure with the hoof-
testers.
Green horses with wide hoofs, just from the pasture, are
particularly lable to this form of
contraction. As a rule, the lameness
does not disappear completely until
the wall has assumed its natural,
straight direction by growing down
properly from the coronary band.
Fic. 209.
In dressing the hoof and apply-
ing the bar-shoe, care must be taken
that the lower border of the wall
underneath the painful area is
lowered so much that it will not
receive direct pressure from the shoe.
(b) Contraction of the Sole.—
This is accompanied by an unnatural eer ee ee
direction of the wall. Instead of the groove in each quarter, and dis-
0 3 appearing toward the toe.
wall being straight from the coronet
to the shoe, it describes a curve whose convexity is outward
(keg-shaped, claw-shaped when seen from the side) (Fig. 210).
The hoof seems constricted (tied in) at the coronet and at its
plantar border, the sole is abnormally concave (arched), and
the plantar surface of the hoof is considerably shortened
from toe to heel. It happens in both shod and unshod
horses, with otherwise strong hoofs, but is quite rare. It is
occasionally associated with navicular bursitis (‘‘ navicular
disease ”’).
190 HORSESHOEING.
Causes.—Principally dryness, too little exercise, and shoes
without horizontal bearing-surface.
The treatment is correspondingly simple: The shoes should
be flat, fitted full all around to coax the wall out at every point,
and the outer border bevelled base-wide, so as to furnish a base
of support that is wider and
longer than the hoof. In
moderate contraction of the
sole, the bearing-surface of
the shoe should be perfectly
horizontal, but if the con-
traction be very pronounced,
the entire bearing-surface
should incline downward
and outward (even at the
toe). No toe- or side-clip
A fore-hoof with a contracted sole, properly _] |
shod: a, toe convex in profile; 6, shoe fitted full all should be used, Jung: shoe
around, and “‘bearing-surface”’ inclining outward; should be reset everv two
c, outer border bevelled base-wide. Pee EN ; jee
weeks; the sole kept so thin
by paring that it will spring under thumb pressure, and kept
moist by washing, tubbing or “ stopping,”
moderate exercise daily.
In all forms of contraction of the hoof abundant exercise and
the maintenance of the natural pliancy of the horn by daily
moistening (washing) with water are absolutely necessary for
successful treatment.
and the animal given
4, Tur Wry Hoor.
If one side wall and quarter is steep, and the other very
slanting or oblique, we term such a hoof a “ wry hoof.” Such
a hoof divided in the middle line presents two very dissimilar
halves. There are three classes of wry hoofs: 1, normal wry
hoofs (see Figs. 63-66) ; 2, pathological wry hoofs, or hoofs con-
tracted in one quarter (see contracted hoofs); 3, wry hoofs
which are the result of improper shortening of the wall and
of neglect in horses running barefoot.
HORSESHOEING. HT
Only the second and third classes of wry hoofs require
especial attention. First, the more oblique wall must be cut
down, and the steep wall spared,—a procedure which differs
essentially from that employed in treating the first class, but
is, nevertheless, entirely warranted, because these second and
third kinds of wry hoofs do not correspond to the direction
of the limb.
In order to take weight from the steep wall, we use with
advantage a bar-shoe, which should be longer and wider than
the hoof on its contracted
; Fie. 211.
side. In other words, enlarge
the base of support by mak-
ing the branch of the shoe
broader. If an entire side
wall and quarter is con-
tracted the branch of the shoe
beneath must be broad, the Lt
border bevelled base-wide, oh \) qf ny wey)
, ‘I \
and the branch punched so on is H ty i
ae
deeply that the nail-holes XM \) Wy ‘\
will fall upon the white line. (MIDI fittamaa’ cp
In old work-horses any A wry right front foot of the base-wide class,
wf viewed from behind. The bar shoe is fitted
sort of shoe may be used, full along the contracted inner quarter, and
a ; 7 , snug on the outside. The inner branch of the
though a flat shoe SETVES the frog rests upon the bar of the shoe; the outer
purpose best. Tf a hoof jis branch is free. The inner quarter from the last
nail back to the frog is free of the shoe.
nN |
Hin
:
Wha
EE Z
ZF “iw
Ss :
—S
Me
oe ie ma
AN) 7 \\q hy it
WY i Mia a
‘i HY Wy) Yh NR
—
Ss —
ZZ
——
——
wry from faulty paring, and
we cannot at once completely restore the proper relative slant
of the two walls by paring alone, we may use a shoe with
a thicker branch for the half of the hoof which is too low
(too steep).
In colts such wry hoofs can often be cured only by shoeing.
The shoe employed for this purpose is so made that the branch
underneath the steep(contracted)wall is quite thick, but gradu-
ally thins away around the toe to the aa of the other branch.
In strongly marked cases the thin branch may end at the middle
192 HORSESHOEING.
of the side wall (a three-quarter shoe), This method of shoe-
ing shifts the body-weight upon the slanting wall and restores
the foot to its proper shape in from two to four shoeings.
Causes.—Unequal distribution of the weight in the inner
and outer halves of the foot, in conjunction with excessive
cutting down or wear of the steeper wall. All faults in shoeing
which tend to produce contraction of the heels aid in the forma-
tion of a wry foot, especially when these faults directly affect
the steep wall. Neglect of the colt’s hoofs during the first
years of life frequently lays the basis for wry foot in later
years. All wry feet are more susceptible to disease than others.
The amount or degree of wryness varies considerably. In a
moderately developed case the steep wall (usually the inner)
will be drawn in at the plantar border of the quarter, presenting
a convex surface between this border and the coronet, and the
adjacent branch of the frog will be more or less shrunken. In
extreme eases the slanting wall (usually the outer) will also be
involved and bent in the opposite direction,—i.e., will be con-
eave (dished) between coronet and lower border (crooked hoof).
Prognosis.—When the degree of wryness corresponds to the
slant of the foot-axis and the old shoe shows nearly uniform
wear, the defect is not directly injurious. In very pronounced
“ wryness,”” however, with thin, bent walls, a number of asso-
ciated lesions, such as corns and cracks, may be present and
render the animal unfit for service upon paved or macadam
roads.
5. Tur Crooxep Hoor.
A crooked hoof (Fig, 212) is one whose walls (viewed from
in front or behind) do not pass in a straight, natural direction
from the coronet to the ground, but are bent in such a manner
that the bearing-surface of the wall in relation to the foot axis
lies either too far out or in.
It may occur on any foot, but is seldom strongly marked.
HORSESHOEING. 193
Causes.—The causes are either long-continued leaving of
one-half of the wall too high, or the use of shoes shaped for
normal feet upon hoofs of the base-wide position.
The principal part of the treatment is the proper dressing
of the hoof. The wall which is bent out at the middle and
drawn in at the plantar border is, as a rule, too high and too
near the centre of the foot (too narrow); the opposite wall,
on the contrary, is too low
and too far from the centre
of the foot (too wide). This
explains the manner in which
the hoof should be cut down
and rasped. The shoe must
be laid out as far as possible
towards the side which is
too high and narrow. A
straight edge placed against
the high wall touches it only
at its middle. The distance
of this line from the lower
edge of the wall shows us how
far the surface of support—
namely, the shoe—should be Yj
set out beyond the horn. If A crooked right fore-hoof of the base-wide
5 position: a, convex wall, too high; 5, concave
thee sirarehie (edee. be placed sqrt tco\lows ed shows how much of (enter
against the opposite wall, it wall must be removed with the hoof-knife;
f, superfluous horn to be removed gradually
will touch only at the eoronet with the rasp; c e and g h indicate the position
of the shoe with relation to the hoof.
and at the plantar border,
showing that the wall is concave. The distance of the mid-
dle of this wall from the straight edge shows us how
much too wide this half of the wall is at its plantar
border, and how much of the outer surface of the wall at its
plantar border should be removed with the rasp. The restora-
tion of a crooked hoof to its normal form requires several
shoeings.
13
res 2122
194 HORSESHOEING.
6. OssIFICATION OF THE LaTrerRAL CartiLace (Sipe-Bone).
The ossification of a lateral cartilage (Fig. 213) consists in
a change of the cartilage into bone. Heavy horses are more
frequently affected than lghter ones. It most often involves
the outer cartilages of the forefeet, seldom both cartilages.
Side-bones always interfere with the physiological movements
of the foot, and may, indeed, entirely suppress them.
The disease can only be diagnosed with certainty after the
upper part of the cartilage has ossified. The coronet is then
rather prominent (bulging),
and feels hard. The gait is
short and cautious, and well-
marked lameness often follows
severe work. As causes, may
be mentioned predisposition in
heavy lymphatic horses, and
violent concussion or shock due
to fast work upon hard roads.
The disease is incurable.
A special method of shoe-
A left fore os pedis viewed in profile, show-
ing ossification of the external lateral carti- INQ 1S only necessary when the
lage: a, dotted line shows normal line of union mo ° * D
of cartilage with wing of os pedis; b, ossified outer cartilage 18 ossified and
portion (‘‘side bone’’). The unossified car- the quarter upon that side is
tilage has been removed by maceration.
lintel, Ble}
contracted. After removing
the old shoe, whose outer branch is, as a rule, more worn away
than the inner, the outer wall will always be found too high,
due to the fact that there has been little or no expansion
and contraction in this quarter and, therefore, little or no wear
of the horn against the shoe. The hoof is therefore wry,—on
the outside too high, and on the inside too low. This shows
us how the foot should be dressed so as to obtain a proper
base of support and a uniform wear of the shoe. The most
suitable shoe is a flat shoe, whose outer branch must be wider
than the inner. It is so apphed that the inner branch fol-
HORSESHOEING. 195
lows the edge of the wall closely, while the outer branch must
be full and at the quarter must extend beyond the wall far
enough to touch a perpendicular line dropped from the coronet
(Fig. 215). The shoe must, therefore, be punched deep (coarse )
on the outer branch and fine on the inner, A side-clip must be
Fig. 215.
SS
Right fore-hoof whose form has changed Shoe with broad outer branch, for the
as a result of ossification of the external lat- hoof shown in the preceding cut.
eral cartilage.
placed on the outer branch, because in time the outer half of the
the hoof will again be too high. Bar-shoes and rubber-pads are
injurious when both cartilages are ossified, but may be used
when there is partial ossification of but one cartilage, especially
if corns are present.
B. Disturbances of Continuity of the Hoof.
1. Cracks.
Interruptions of continuity of the wall extending in the
direction of the horn-tubes are known as cracks or seams. They
have, according to their location, degree, and extent, not only
various names, but also a varying significance.
196 HORSESHOEING.
Occurrence.—On the inner side of front hoofs, especially of
horses that stand base-wide; on hind hoofs, usually at the toe.
Classification.—According to location we distinguish toe-
eracks, side-cracks, quarter-cracks, and bar-cracks. Those
eracks which affect only the upper border of the hoof are called
coronary cracks ; those which are limited to the lower border of
the hoof are sometimes designated low cracks (plantar cracks) ;
while those which are continuous from one border to the other
are called complete cracks. If the crack passes through the
entire thickness of the wall to the sensitive tissues underneath,
it is called a deep or penetrating
Fic. 216. crack, in econtradistinction to the
superficial crack (Fig. 216).
Causes.—There are many. Be-
sides wounds of the coronet, every-
thing that impairs the elasticity of
the horn, weakens the hoof, and
causes an overloading of one-half of
Hoof exhibiting a coronary crack, a
plantar or low crack, and a complete the hoof. Furthermore, great dry-
deep crack, the latter with a nail ready ‘ LS ¢
to be clinched. ness and excessive work on hard
streets.
Prognosis.—This will depend upon the age, kind, and loca-
tion of the crack. A low crack is without significance unless
it is the remnant of an old coronary crack which has grown
down. Coronary cracks, on the contrary, are more serious be-
cause of the lameness which often accompanies them, and
especially on account of the long duration of the healing process.
The borders of the crack never grow together, and healing
ean only take place through healthy, unbroken horn growing
down from the coronary band.
(a) Treatment of Coronary and Bar-Cracks.—If practic-
able, allow the affected horse to go barefoot; otherwise, the
use of the bar-shoe for all cracks is advised, because it will
continuously protect the diseased section of wall from pressure
by the shoe. If there are present still other diseases of the
————— Oe C—OOO—
HORSESHOEING. 197
hoof (corns, contraction, flat or full hoof), the addition of a
leather sole with packing will be most beneficial, not only in
favoring the healing of the crack, but also in improving the
form of the hoof and in favoring the cure of the other lesions.
In all coronary cracks it is of advantage to assist healing by
fastening or immobilizing the borders of the crack by one of the
following methods:
1. By rivets (nails), which pass across the crack through
holes previously drilled in the horn (Fig. 217).
2, By clamps or hooks, which by means of special pincers
are forced into pockets previously burnt into the horn on
opposite sides of the crack (Fig. 219, B).
3. By a thin iron plate placed across the crack and secured
by small screws, such as are used in wood (Figs. 220, 221).
4, By means of a bandage to last one shoeing.
Toe-crack occurs most often in draught-horses and most fre-
quently in the hind feet. In shod hoofs it starts at the coronary
border, and unless proper treatment is instituted soon reaches
the plantar border. Long toes and low quarters and excessive
dryness of the horn are predisposing causes. The exciting
cause is usually forward pressure of the upper end of the
short pastern against the thin upper edge of the wall of the
toe. In the last part of the phase of contact of hoof with
ground the pasterns are upright, or may even incline downward
and backward (foot axis broken strongly backward), the short
pastern presses the coronary band firmly against the upper thin
edge of the toe, when if brittle through dryness it is unable to
stretch and tears asunder. Thus, under the effort of starting
a heavy load, when a horse with all four legs flexed has risen
upon the points of his toes, a short quick slip followed by a
eatch, will frequently start a crack at the coronet.
The hoof should be so dressed and shod that the foot-axis
shall be straight when seen from the side. In hind feet it is
admissible to break the foot axis slightly forward. Therefore,
shorten the toe and spare the quarters. If the latter are
198 HORSESHOEING.
deficient in length, raise them by swelling the branches or by
low heel-ealks.
The shoe may be open, or a bar-shoe, or a short shoe with
a rubber frog- and buttress-pad. Whatever expands the quarters
closes a toe-crack. The Defay’s
Fig. 217. shoe (Fig. 206), or the Chad-
IN Le \\ wick spring beneath a rubber-
NUM i) pad, or beneath a bar-shoe with
\\\ ‘\\\) WF |
\\\\\\
1.
\
!
Wp
leather sole, if the frog be much
shrunken, will be of service. The
shoe should fit air-tight, except
for an inch or so on both sides
of the crack. Two lateral toe
clips (Fig. 217) are drawn up,
and the wall between these clips
is cut down from a twelfth to an
”f eighth of an inch.
Hee eae lot "Ges ton After the shoe has been nailed
De Gh heen ly dalled (OU Hight, the tee-crackeaneulld ape
immobilized. The best method
is by buried nails. Slots are burned or cut on opposite sides
at a distance of an inch from the crack. With a spiral drill
(see Fig. 218) bore a hole from a slot at right angles to the
Fig. 218.
Spiral drill for boring the hole into which a round wire nail is driven to fasten a toe-crack.
(a) three sided point of drill (similar to the point of a stilet of a cxcal trocar).
crack. Make a similar hole on the opposite side. Make the
holes continuous by introducing a straight hot wire. The rivet
may be an ordinary round wire nail which has been softened
by bringing it to a yellow heat and allowing it to cool slowly.
HORSESHOEING. 199
It is driven through and the ends firmly clinched. Such a nail
is easily placed, need not press upon fleshy leaves, can not be
stripped off or lost, and holds fast. The horse should stand
on the foot while the rivet is being clinched. Two are sufficient
for a complete crack (Fig. 217).
A more rapid, though less
efficient method of immobilizing
a toe- or a quarter-erack is by Ride
the use of the Vachette hook. A ==
special apparatus is required
(see Fig. 219). The burning
iron (Fig. 219, A) is brought
to a yellow heat, its end applied
to the wall so that the two ears
are on opposite sides and equi-
distant from the crack, when it
is pressed firmly till the shoulder
(Fig. 219, 6) touches the sur-
face of the wall. A Vachette
hook, the distance between the
points of which equals the dis-
tance between the ears of the
firmg iron, is seized by the
special pincers ((C’), pressed
into the slots burned to receive ha
it, and is then driven into the ,yo'sut to receive the ends of the hook:
hora by; compressing the pincers, 2 sto ee kewl
At the toe these hooks are fre-
quently stripped off by the heels of the opposite shoe (in hind
feet). Free application of hoof ointment, and maceration of
the horn by melting snow or mud tends to loosen them so that
they often drop out.
ine, FAG).
An efficient method of fastening either a toe- or a quarter-
erack is by using a metal plate one-sixteenth (1/,,”) of an
inch thick, provided with four to eight holes for the reception
200 HORSESHOEING.
of screws four- to five-sixteenths of an inch long. The plate is
heated, bent to conform to the curvature of the wall and pressed
against the horn till it burns a bed for itself, when it is screwed
fast. It will not loosen (see Fig. 220, 6). In every complete
crack of the wall the growing down of coherent horn is favored
by thinning the horn for an inch on both sides of the crack
directly over the coronary band (see Fig. 221, a), so that any
eliding movement between the sides of the crack below can
Fig. 221.
Hires 2205
Hoof with coronary quarter-crack, shod with Hoof withcomplete quarter crack, shod with
abar-shoe. The part of the quarterrelieved of a bar-shoe: a, area thinned almost to the podoe
pressure a, is indicated by the dotted lines; b, derm; b, ?; inch metal plate secured by screw
iron plate secured by small wood screws 7-;5 5 of an inchlong; c, quarter relieved of pres-
of an inch in length. _ sure from bottom of crack to a perpendicular
dropped from top of crack.
not be transmitted through the thinned area to the crack in the
velvety tissue of the coronary band. Cutting a “V” at the
coronet acts similarly, but is less efficient.
Quarter-crack is usually associated with contraction of the
heels. It occurs on the inner quarter of base-wide (toe-wide)
hoofs, and rarely in the outer quarter of base-narrow hoofs.
For quarter-cracks we use a bar-shoe and determine the extent
of the wall to be laid free in the following manner: We
imagine the crack to be prolonged in the direction of the horn
tubes to the plantar border, and drop a perpendicular line from”
the upper end of the crack to the plantar border. That part
of the plantar border lying between these two points is then to
HORSESHOEING. 201
be lowered sufficiently to prevent pressure from the shoe until
the next shoeing (Figs. 220, a, and 221, ¢).
This method should be followed even when the perpendicular
line falls behind the buttress.
The crack may be immobilized by the metal plate, or by
narrow ticking bandage or adhesive tape wound a half dozen
times around the hoof, in conjunction with a bar-shoe, Chadwick
spring, leather sole and tar and oakum sole-packing.
In dressing the hoof, the side containing the crack should
be spared, the opposite side lowered, the object being to shift
the weight and consequent expansion into the sound quarter.
When the affected quarter is deficient in length the branch of
the shoe beneath should be made thicker, even to the extent of
causing it to ground in advance of the opposite branch.
Next to shoeing, rubber hoof-pads render good service, be-
cause through them a part of the body-weight is distributed over
the sole and frog. They assist in widening the hoof, and lessen
shock when the foot is set to the ground. These are all matters
which favor the growing down of unbroken horn.
When the crack gaps widely, and the frog is small and deep
in the foot a shoe with bar -clips (Defay’s shoe), or a Chadwick
spring, with bar-shoe and leather sole may be used. It is not
impossible, indeed, to obtain a eure by using an ordinary open
flat shoe, though much will depend upon the other lesions that
may be present, the nature of the hoof, and the service required
of the animal.
If the edges of the crack are irregular and overlapping,
they should be carefully thinned away. Thinning the horn on
both sides of the crack over the coronary band, preventing dry-
ing out of the horn, and frequent applications of carbolized oil
to the coronet favor growth of undivided horn and guard against
a renewal of the crack.
If in the beginning of the disease there is inflammation and
lameness, cooling poultices should be used for several days.
When there is no lameness, the horse may be used for slow
draft purposes. Coach- and saddle-horses should be kept.
202 HORSESHOEING.
from fast work until sound horn has grown down at least one-
half of an inch from the coronet.
Bar-cracks are usually the result of changes of position of
the quarters, and are just as frequently brought about by con-
traction as by leaving the quarters too high. We see them
almost entirely upon the fore-hoofs. They seldom occur alone,
but are usually accompanied by corns. When the crack ex-
tends to the pododerm there is a superficial inflammation of
the pododerm and lameness. When treatment is not promptly
begun the inflammation extends to the deeper layers of the
pododerm, or, indeed, even to the plantar cushion, and gives
rise to swelling of the bulb of the heel upon that side and to a
well-marked lameness, which requires treatment by a com-
petent veterinarian.
Ordinarily a bar-erack is only found by a close examination
of the hoof after the shoe has been removed. In paring the
hoof the crack usually appears as a dark streak, sometimes as a
bloody fissure; not infrequently grayish hoof-pus is discovered
in the depths of the crack.
The treatment must be directed towards favoring the growth
of a continuous (unbroken) bar. This is accomplished by com-
pletely removing the edges of the crack, paring the horn of the
vicinity very thin, and preventing the least pressure upon the
wall of this quarter by the shoe, by lowering this quarter with
the rasp and applying a bar-shoe with leather sole.
Following the removal of the edges of the crack there often
appears, especially in stumpy hoofs, a deep groove; if the bot-
tom of this groove is moist, we should pack it with oakum wet
with a five per cent. solution of creolin or carbolic acid, and
cover the oakum with wax (grafting wax). The cracks will
return if the exciting causes cannot be completely removed.
(b) Treatment of Low Cracks (Plantar Cracks ).—These
eracks, occurring principally upon the hoofs of unshod horses,
are the result of excessive stretching and bending of the lower
border of the wall. Insufficient rounding of the wall with the
rasp is largely responsible for them. An exciting cause in
HORSESHOEING. 203
shod horses is the use of too large nails in shoes that are punched
too fine.
Every coronary crack becomes in time a low or plantar crack,
and this has an important bearing upon the prognosis, because a
renewal of the coronary crack will be followed by a low crack.
In order to remove these cracks it is sufficient merely to
shoe the horse. Upon shod horses they may be prevented by
using properly punched shoes and thin nails. The lower border
of the wall near the crack should be relieved of pressure by
cutting out a half-moon-shaped piece of horn. To prevent the
crack from extending farther upward we may burn a trans-
verse slot at the upper end of the crack, in as far as the leafy
layer of the wall, or cut such a slot with a small hoof-knife.
2. CLEFTS.
An interruption of continuity of the wall, at right angles to
the direction of the horn-tubes, is called a cleft.
Clefts may occur at any part of the wall; yet they occur
most often upon the inner toe and me eooe
inner side, as a result of injury
from sharp, improperly placed
heel-calks (see page 173). How-
ever, suppurating corns, or other
suppurative processes situated at
the coronet or which find their
point of escape at the coronet, may
from time to time lead to separa-
tions of continuity and the forma-
tion of horn-clefts.
Horn-clefts, though the result
of lesions which are often very
injurious and interefere with the
use of the horse, are of themselves
not an evil which can be abolished
or healed by shoeing, although, in many eases, proper shoeing
would have prevented them. A horn-cleft is not a matter for
INA.
Hoof with clefts of the toe and side wall.
204 HORSESHOEING.
consideration by the shoer until it has grown down so far that
it comes within the region of the nails.
In order not to disfigure the hoof unnecessarily, the horn
below the cleft should be kept in place as long as possible by
shortening the wall at that point, to remove shoe-pressure, and
by driving no nails into it. If, however, the horn is loose and
about to come away, it should be removed and the defect filled
with Defay’s patent horn-cement.
3. LoosE WALL.
Separation of the wall from the sole in the white line is
called loose wall (Fig. 225, a).
Occurrence.—Frequent on the fore-hoofs of shod and un-
shod horses, and oftener upon the inner than upon the outer
side. More rare on hind hoofs. Common-bred horses with wide
and flat feet are predisposed to this trouble.
We distinguish superficial and deep loose wall; only the
latter requires the shoer’s attention, because it leads to lameness.
OCauses.—Walls which are very oblique (slanting) ; outward
bendings of the plantar border of the wall; burning the horn
with hot shoes; dryness; neglected shoeing; excessive softening
of the horn with poultices, particularly of cow-dung; careless-
ness in preparing the bearing-surfaces of hoof and shoe in shoe-
ing; uneven fitting of the shoe.
Treatment.—It aims to remove the lameness and to favor
growth of coherent horn. In the first place the removal of the
exciting causes, followed by proper shortening of the wall. We
should apply a shoe whose bearing-surface inclines slightly down-
ward and inward, is perfectly smooth, and wide enough to cover
the wall, white line, and outer border of the sole; the iron should
be only moderately warm. Where there is lameness we use a
leather sole with packing, or a bar-shoe. The loose wall should
be freed from shoe-pressure only when it does not extend far
along the white line. When the separation is extensive the loose
wall should not be lowered. The crack should be filled with
wood-tar, crude turpentine, or soft grafting-wax.
HORSESHOEING. 205
Tf a loose wall oceur upon the foot of a horse while running
barefoot, all separated horn should be removed; if, on account
of the nature of the ground, this seems to be impracticable, the
hoof must be shod.
Care of the Hoof.—Shoe at least every four to five weeks.
Preserve the pliancy and toughness of the horn by judicious
moistening.
A Honmuow) WAGE,
A hollow wall is one in which a separation has occurred be-
tween the middle layer of the wall and the keraphyllous layer.
This crack or separation
always extends in the di-
rection of the layers of
the wall (Fig. 223, b).
Occurrence.— Quite
rare.
We should suspect a i
hollow wall when a part 4° Solos pores wy ialoe wa
of the wall rounds out
prominently beyond the rest, and gives forth a hollow (reson-
ant) sound when struck. The white line presents a crack, yet
we should hesitate to form a conclusion as to the extent of
the separation from the extent of the crack along the white
line, since the latter may be considerably smaller. The separa-
tion extends higher up the wall than in the ease of loose wall,
frequently to the coronet. The cavity is usually filled with
crumbling, disintegrated horn.
Hollow wall is not often accompanied by pain. Lameness
may arise, however, if the hollow section of wall assists in
bearing the body-weight, and if the animal does fast work
upon paved streets.
Causes.—Mechanieal influences resulting in chronic inflam-
mation of fleshy leaves.
Treatment.—A cure is possible, but requires considerable
time. In shoeing, which should always aim to relieve pressure
1aie, PE}
206 HORSESHOEING.
from the hollow section of wall, we cleanse the cavity and
fill it with oakum and tar, crude turpentine, or wax. Where
the separation is very extensive we use a bar-shoe.
The time required for complete cure of hollow and loose
walls will depend upon the height of the separation (see growth
of the hoof, page 82).
5. Turusyu or THE Frog.
When the horny frog is ragged and fissured, and an ill-
smelling, dark-colored liquid collects in the lacune of the frog,
it is affected with thrush. When thrush exists uninterruptedly
for several months the perioplic band is irritated and forms
rings of periople which
assume an irregular
course and cross the
rings of the middle
layer of the wall (Fig.
294),
The causes: wn-
cleanliness, too little
exercise in fresh air,
excessive paring of the
frog, and the use of
shoes with calks by
: : which the frog is
Hoof with irregular superficial rings resulting from thrush permanently removed
of the frog.
from the ground.
The consequences are, besides contraction of the hoof, sore-
ness in travelling, a shortening of the step, and, occasionally,
well-marked lameness.
Treatment.—Removal of all greasy horn from the frog, and
of the prominent overgrown angles of the buttresses (see page
100), thorough washing of the frog once or twice daily with a
5 per cent. creolin or carbolic solution, abundant exercise, and
shoes without calks.
ee
CHAPTER X.
SHOEING MULES, ASSES, AND OXEN.
1. The shoeing of mules and asses is, as in the case of
horses, a necessity if these animals are to be used for draft
or saddle purposes on hard streets. The structure and char-
acteristics of the hoofs of these animals are quite similar to
those of the horse, differing chiefly in the form and thickness
of the wall. The mule hoof is long and narrow and round at
the toe, the sole is well arched, and the
side walls are rather steep (Fig. 225).
In the ass the narrowness of hoof is still
more pronounced, the wall is relatively
thick, the frog is particularly well devel-
oped in its branches, and therefore the
hoof is relatively wide in the region of
the quarters. The horn of both mule and
ass 1s tough.
The shoes differ from those of the
horse in no other respect than that they
should be lighter and narrower. Four
Oe, PPAR.
nail-holes are sufficient for an ass’ shoe,
and five to six for a mule’s.
On account of the hardness and tough- 4 ™ule’s oe ene
.: ce).
ness of the walls, we use nails that are
short but strong in the shank; nails with weak shanks are apt
to bend in driving.
2. The shoeing of oxen is essentially different from that
of horses, because the foot of the ox is cloven (split), the long
pastern, short pastern, and hoof-bone are double, so that, in-
stead of one hoof or claw, there are two upon each foot, dis-
tinguished as outer and inner. Each claw consists of wall,
207
208 HORSESHOEING.
sole, and bulbs; the frog is absent. The wall is considerably
thinner than that of the horse’s hoof, the sole is thin, and the
bulbs are low. or these reasons the shoe designed for a
claw must be thin, but wide.
The holes must be punched fine and the nails be quite
short and strong. On each shoe a long tongue should be made
on the inner edge near the toe, and so directed that it can be
turned upward and outward to embrace the toe of the claw.
A shod ox-claw.
A small clip raised on the outer toe of each shoe will increase
its stability. In some parts of Saxony the shoes are so made
that the tongue of each shoe begins in the rear third of its
inner edge and runs forward, upward, and outward, closely
embracing the wall of the toe. The smaller clip is drawn up
on the outer edge of the shoe close to the toe. These shoes
are more difficult to make, but when applied sit more firmly
and remain fast longer than all others. Machine-made ox
shoes (Fig. 227) have no clip at the inner toe, and are fre
HORSESHOEING. 209
quently pulled and lost. For this reason they are inferior to
hand-made shoes. An undivided shoe (the so-called ‘* closed
claw-shoe”’) is unsuitable for oxen, because it deprives both
claws of their natural, free movements. However, such a shoe
is of advantage for heavy draft over hard and very rough
roads, because it lessens the liability of the fetlock and coronary
joints and the cleft of the claws to strains.
Great difficulty is often encountered in holding the feet
during the operation of shoeing. It is necessary to fasten the
head securely against a tree,
post, or wall.
:ysod-pvay ‘a !sueq
Y}IM SSBTpPUIM ‘y fjaoqyM
J ‘D :WexO IO} SYOO}s 8,1oyoRUyNy
sulploy 10; req ‘f
[ ‘4 :Saeq-apis ‘d ‘o !saeq-apis 98, qBAouL
s
“SUIYIIeIg IO} syooy ‘n fajod ssoao awar
Jovi wort ‘s !dvsys yoojjoy 10F yoou
1Oj Sut uot ‘7:
1OF YOIS ‘wu St req-
uw SYoo puw yoyoqvs
“666 “OI
J Syooy ‘4 :yqa1s Ayjeq
~19U109 IBat “gq :sysod-19u100 yuo
qsvorq pus oyoA-yoou 10; Yojs ¢
-yoou ‘y !y4113 10
‘p ‘9 tsqsod.
-Aay[nd ‘2 ayo
suio0uu00
slide in the slots (m) and may be fixed at desired heights by
iron pins. On the rear face of each rear corner-post is an iron
212 HORSESHOEING.
bracket (s) one foot and a half long, with a ring (¢) six inches
in diameter, through which passes a round pole padded in the
middle and kept in place by two iron pins. Above each bracket
is a hook (w) to which the end of the breeching attaches.
Before an animal is brought into the stocks the neck-yoke
is raised, the breast-bar lowered, and the girth left hanging
from the hooks on the stationary bar. The ox is then led into
the stocks and the rope which is tied around the base of the
horns is carried over the pulley (7), fastened to the hook on the
roller (i), and wound up till the head is tight against the head-
post. The yoke and breast-bar are then placed in position and
fastened, the breeching hung on the hooks (wz), and the belly
girth attached to the hooks on the roller, so that, if need be, it
can be shortened till it bears the animal’s entire weight.
To control a front foot a slip noose is placed about the fet-
lock and the limb is raised and lashed to the side-bar, the rope
passing finally to the hook (7). To control a hind foot a slip
noose is placed about the fetlock, the foot carried upward
and backward over the rear cross-bar, and, with the front sur-
face of the fetlock-joint resting against the padding of the
bar, the limb is firmly secured by wrapping the line several
times about the limb and bar.
When no stocks are at hand, we may use an ordinary farm
wagon or a truck wagon. Tie the ox with his head forward
between the front and hind wheels. Fasten the large end of a
binding pole to the spokes of the front. wheel and let it rest on
the hub. Swing the pole close to the ox and induce him to
step over it with one hind leg, then raise the rear end of the
pole, and with it the leg and so much of the animal’s hind
quarters that the inner hind leg standing close to the wagon
rests but lightly upon the ground. The binding pole may then
be slung with a rope from the rack of the wagon or other
stationary object and the outer limb held in the usual manner.
By following this method a shoer with one assistant can easily
and safely control the most refractory oxen.
INDEX
Apprentice, 14 Corns, 174
Arteries, 41 treatment, 176
Articulations, 21 Coronary band, 47
joint, 31
Balanced hoof, 101 ligaments, 31
Balling with snow, 149 Cover-plate shoe, 173
Bar-shoe, uses of, 164 Cow-hocked, 68
Bare foot, preparing the hoof, 102 Cracks, 195
Bars, 51 coronary and bar, 196, 202
dressing, 99 plantar, 202
Base-narrow position, 63, 68 Crest, semilunar, 27
Base-wide position, 63, 68 Crooked hoof, 192
Beaked shoe, 184 Cross-firing, 140
Bear-foot, 72
Bearing surface of shoes, 117, 127 Defay ’s shoe, 187
Blood-vessels, 41 Diseases of hoof, 165
Bow-legged position, 64 Dressing the hoof, 98
Buttress, 100 Driving the shoe, 130
Drop-forged shoes, 132
Calf-kneed, 66 Dropped sole, 178, 182, 183
Calk wound, 173 Elastic parts of foot, 38
Camped behind, 68 Examination before shoeing, 90
in front, 66
Cannon bone, 20, 21 Feet, forms of, 69
Carpus, 20 Femur, 20
Cartilages, lateral, 39 Fetlock, ligaments of, 29
Cast iron, 103 joint, 28
shoes, 132 Fiber shoes, 134
Chadwick spring, 187 Fibula, 20
Clefts, 203 Flat hoof, 182
Clinch cutter, 97 Fleshy frog, 49
Clinching, 131 sole, 49
Clips, 111 wall, 48
Close nailing, burning, 166 Flight of hoofs, 72, 75
Contracted hoof, 185 Foot, articulations of, 28
sole, 190 bones of, 24
Corn, chronic, 175 Foot-axis, 70
dry, 174 relation to sole, 100
suppurating, 174 straight and broken, 101
213
214
Forging, 138
Founder, 177
dressing hoof, 179
shoeing, 180
Frog, 57
dressing, 99
Front shoe, making, 105
Frost-nails, 146
Full hoof, 183
Fullering, 109
hammer, 104
Gathered nail, 170
Hair-skin, 44
Head, bones of, 17
Heavy draught horses, shoeing, 125
Heel-calks, 112
always sharp, 154
Heels, inflammation of, 176
Hind shoe, making, 107
Hock, 21
Hollow wall, 205
Hoof, 50
benefits of movements within, 89
crooked, 84
growth of, 82
healthy, 81
irregular growth, 83
knife, 98
ointments, 159, 160
physiological movements of, 86
wear against shoe, 86
wear of, 82
Hoof-skin, 45
Hoofs, care of unshod, 157
Hoofs, forms of, 77, 80
of colts, care of, 157
Horn, minute structure of, 58
qualities of, 59
tumor, 181
Horseshoeing, object of, 13
schools, 15
INDEX
Horseshoer, requisites of, 14
Humerus, 19
Hunters, shoeing, 123
Interfering, 142
Tron for horseshoes, 103
Joints, free, hinge, and pivot, 22
Keraphyllocele, 181
Knee-sprung, 67
Laminitis, 177
Leather sole, 164
Ligaments, 21
Limbs, standing positions, 62
Loose wall, 204
Low-jointed, 66
Mucous burse, 35
Mule shoes, 207
Muscles, 22
Nail holes, 110
Nailing, 166
causes of, 167
examination and treatment, 167,
168
Nails, 128
Navicular bone, 28
Nerves, 44
Nippers, 99
Normal position, 62, 64, 67, 69
Os pedis, 26
Ox shoes, 208
Oxen, securing feet, 209
Pacers, shoeing, 124
Pads, rubber, 135
Pastern, long, 25
short, 26
Patella, 20
Pedal joint, 31
ligaments, 31
INDEX
Peg-calks, 150
Peg toe-calks, 152
Pelvis, 19
Periople, 53
Perioplic band, 47
Periosteum, 21
Pigeon-toed position, 64
Pincers, 97
Plantar cushion, 40
Pododerm, 45
Pododermatitis, symptoms of, 161
treatment of, 163
Podophyllous tissue, 48
Podometer, 105
Pricking, direct nailing, 166
Pritchel, 105
Protective organs of foot, 44
Punch, 105
Quarter crack, 200
Quarters, contraction of, 186
Radius, 20
Raising feet in shoeing, 92
Removing shoes, 97
Rolled toe, 118
Rope shoes, 133
Rubber shoes, 134
Runners, 123
Saddle horses, shoeing, 122
Scapula, 19
Screw heel-calks, 148
Seedy toe, 178
Sesamoid bones, 25
ligaments, 29-31
Sharp toe- and heel-calks, 146
Shod hoofs, care of, 159
Shoe, choosing the, 116
for acute-angled hoof, 114, 120
for base-narrow hoof, 114, 121
for base-wide hoof, 114, 121
for narrow hoof, 115, 121
for regular hoof, 114, 120
Shoe, for stumpy hoof, 114, 120
for wide hoof, 115, 121
parts of, 103
wear of, 84
weight of, 116
Shoeing defective hoofs, 161
Shoes, fitting, 118
general properties, 107
machine, 132
making, 103, 105
nailing, 128
removing old, 97
shaping and fitting, 117, 120
special properties, 114
Sickle-hock, 68
Side-bone, 194
Sole, 55
contraction of, 189
Spinal column, 17
Splint-bones, 20
shoe, 172
Standing under, 66
Station of rest, 65
Steel, 103
Stocks, for horses, 95
for oxen, 209
Stifle joint, 20
Stilt-foot, 184
Street-nail, 170
Stride, height of, 75
length of, 75
Stumpy hoof, 184
Suspensory ligament, 29
altering tension of, 36-38
Synovia, 21
Tendon, anterior extensor, 32
deep flexor, 33
lateral extensor, 32
sheaths, 35
superficial flexor, 33
Tendons, 24
Tension of tendon, altering, 36
215
216
Thorax, 18
Thrush, 206
Tibia, 20
Toe- and heel-calks, 112
Toe-calk, blunt, 113
half-sharp, 113
sharp, 112
Toe-crack, 197
Tools for making shoes, 104
Tread, 173
Trotters, shoeing, 124
Trunk, 17
Tubbing and stopping, 159
Ulna, 20
Vachette hook, 199
INDEX
Veins, 43
Velvety frog, 49
sole, 49
Wall, 51
dressing, 99 —
height of, 52
leafy layer, 53
protective layer, 53
slant of, 52
thickness of, 53
Weight, influence of, 75
Weights, side and toe, 77
White line, 56
Wide hoofs, contraction of, 189
Wry hoof, 193
|
=
ee
il
ui =