BLM LIBRARY

April 1974

TIMBER MANAGEMENT

A Programmatic Environmental Analysis Record
For Western Oregon

UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR
Burtou of Land Management
Oregon State Office
P O Box 29 69
Portlond , Oregon 97206

Bureau o* ' agement

Library

Denver Service Centefl

3%*

:5' ' £

,07

TIMBER MANAGEMENT

A Programmatic Environmental Analysis Record

for BLM-Administered Lands

in

Western Oregon

Department of the Interior

Bureau of Land Management

Oregon State Office

Portland, Oregon

April 1974
Second Printing - June 1974

Bureau of Land Management

Library

Denver Service Center

TABLE OF CONTENTS

PAGE

PREFACE - iii

I. DESCRIPTION OF PROPOSED ACTION AND ALTERNATIVES 1

A. Introduction 1

B. Alternatives 1

C. Stages of Implementation 3

D. Harvest S

Cutting Practices 6

Logging Systems

Transportation Systems 17

E. Development 21

F. Protection 25

Fire 25

Insects 26

Disease 28

II. DESCRIPTION OF EXISTING ENVIRONMENT 31

A. Non-living Components 31

Air 31

Land 34

Water -4<V/

B. Living Components 44

Aquatic Vegetation 44

Terrestrial Vegetation 46

Aquatic Animals 53

Terrestrial Animals 02

C. Ecological Interrelationships

D. Human Values 76

III. ANALYSIS OF PROPOSED ACTION 83

A. Anticipated Impacts 84

Air 84

Land 86

Water 91

Aquatic Vegetation

Terrestrial Vegetation 99

Aquatic Animals 103

Terrestrial Animals 106

Ecological Interrelationships 110

Human Values 112

B. Possible Mitigating Measures 119

Air 119

Land 120

Water 125

Aquatic Vegetation 130

Terrestrial Vegetation 131

Aquatic Animals 133

Terrestrial Animals 13b

Ecological Interrelationships 137-

Human Values 138

PAGE

C. Recommendations for Mitigation of Environmental Impacts . . 144

D. Residual Impacts 145

Air 145

Land 146

Water 146

Aquatic Vegetation 147

Terrestrial Vegetation 148

Aquatic Animals 148

Terrestrial Animals 148

Ecological Interrelationships 149

Human Values 149

E. Relationship Between Short Term Use and Long Term
Productivity 152

Air 152

Land 152

Water 152

Aquatic Vegetation 153

Terrestrial Vegetation 153

Aquatic Animals 153

Terrestrial Animals 153

Ecological Interrelationships 154

Human Values 154

F. Irreversible and Irretrievable Commitments of Resources . . 156

Air 15b

Land 156

Water 156

Aquatic Vegetation 157

Terrestrial Vegetation 157

Aquatic Animals 157

Terrestrial Animals 157

Ecological Interrelationships 157

Human Values 158

IV. PERSONS, GROUPS AND GOVERNMENT AGENCIES CONSULTED 161

V. INTENSITY OF PUBLIC INTEREST 163

VI. PARTICIPATING AGENCY STAFF 165

VII. RECOMMENDATION OF ENVIRONMENTAL STATEMENT 167

VIII. SIGNATURE 167

Addenda:

Environmental Analysis Worksheets
Timber Management Practices Index

li

PREFACE

The National Environmental Policy Act directs all agencies to prepare
a detailed environmental statement on all actions significantly affecting
the quality of the human environment. Because all BLM actions affect the
environment in some way, each action must be subjected to a systematic
method of environmental analysis to determine which actions will require
a formal environmental statement.

BLM's timber management program at the national level has been
analyzed and found to have significant environmental impacts. As a
result, a draft environmental impact statement was prepared for the
Bureau-wide program and is now involved in the formal review process.

Analysis of the Bureau's western Oregon timber management program
employs a dual approach. First, this programmatic environmental analysis
record (EAR) provides a general description of the program and associated
management practices, and broadly evaluates the expected environmental
effects. Second, this programmatic EAR serves as a basic document
supporting, by cross-reference, the supplemental analyses which are
prepared for the individual actions which implement the timber management
program. Thus the total environmental impact of a given action is
expressed in a general way by the programmatic analysis; the supplemental
analysis evaluates the anticipated impacts of specific on-site action.
In effect, the supplemental analysis complements the programmatic EAR.

Anticipated environmental impacts of unusual character, public
interest of high intensity, or other factors, may indicate that a formal
environmental impact statement should be prepared for a timber sale or
other individual action. However, it is believed that the dual analysis
described above will suffice in nearly all cases.

Background

The BLM lands in western Oregon are managed under the terms of the
0§C Act of August 28, 1937 which states in part: "The revested Oregon
and California railroad grant lands shall be managed for permanent forest
production, and the timber thereon shall be sold, cut, and removed in
conformity with the principle of sustained yield for the purpose of
providing a permanent source of timber supply, protecting watersheds,
regulating streamflow, and contributing to the economic stability of
local communities and industries, and providing recreational facilities

The mandates of this Act and such subsequent legislation as the
Classification and Multiple Use Act of 1964, the National Environmental
Policy Act of 1969, and the Water Quality Improvement Act of 1970, require

in

that these lands be managed for production of timber without detriment
to other resources and without degradation of environmental quality.

In order to determine the level of annual timber harvest which
meets these mandates, BLM periodically (usually at ten-year intervals)
inventories the western Oregon national resource lands and computes an
allowable cut. Some of the policies guiding this computation are as
follows :

1. Forest lands shall be excluded from the allowable cut
where aesthetic, recreational, watershed or other uses
have higher priority and are incompatible with timber
production.

2. Timber harvest timing and methods shall be modified
where aesthetic, recreational, watershed or other uses
of higher priority are compatible with limited timber
production.

3. A test of environmental feasibility shall be prerequisite
to the adoption of any intensive management practice, no
matter how economically attractive.

In implementing these policies, the current allowable cut computa-
tion includes allowances for the following:

1. The protection of 78 existing recreation sites, as well
as 172 areas which have been identified as having future
potential for development.

2. The protection of 47 miles of wild and scenic rivers.

3. The preservation of streamside protective corridors on
2,000 miles of streams.

4. The modification of timber harvesting to protect scenic
values along 380 miles of roadside corridors.

5. The protection of Research Natural Areas and designated
scenic areas totaling 3,000 acres.

6. The protection of 108,000 acres of critical watersheds
or fragile soil areas.

7. The special protection of livestock and wildlife forage
on 118,000 acres.

IV

The net impact is that the current annual allowable cut for BLM
lands in western Oregon is 48 million board feet less than it could be
on strictly a sustained timber yield basis. This reduction is the price
of the environmental adjustments that have been made.

It is important to understand that the timber management program
covered by this EAR is implemented on lands that have been designated
as available for timber production after the above mentioned adjustments
have been made in the forest land base. As an example, the impacts of
logging a potential recreation site are not discussed specifically because
such sites have been removed from the allowable cut base and are not
available for timber management purposes.

Notwithstanding the aforementioned policies, and despite careful
implementation and mitigation, the timber management program on national
resource lands still causes adverse residual environmental impacts. These
are discussed in section III. of this EAR. BLM considers these impacts
acceptable on balance; they are offset by some favorable environmental
impacts and by substantial benefits to human society. The BLM timber
management program in western Oregon helps to satisfy the growing national
need for forest products. It also benefits the region directly, as follows

1. Approximately 18 percent of the timber cut annually in
western Oregon comes from BLM lands. In 1965, this
volume translated into 13,500 jobs in logging and
processing; $89,500,000 in payrolls and $187,100,000
in value added, including the value of the timber cut.

2. Because of the revenue sharing provisions of the 0£TC Act,
BLM timber management operations in western Oregon result
in direct payments to the 18 counties in which Of,C lands
are located. The magnitude of these payments ranges from
6.1 million dollars in 1952; 21.0 million dollars in 1966
to 47.2 million dollars in 1973. The primary benefits of
these payments to the counties are lower property tax
levies and better county road systems.

Suggestions for Use

This environmental analysis is intended to give the reader a brief
description of the environment in which the BLM timber management opera-
tions take place in western Oregon; a discussion of the environmental
impacts of the most common practices as they are used; a discussion of
the mitigating measures that can be undertaken by the agency, and a
discussion of the residual impacts that may be expected. Each of the
major headings is further subdivided so that the reader can readily
identify impacts on specific components of the environment such as land,
air, water, soils, wildlife, etc.

In actual practice, it is envisioned that the scanning of this
environmental analysis would give the reader a general feeling for what
is involved in the BLM timber management program and a general feeling
as to how the environment may be impacted. The reader would then have
a background to allow him to look at a specific timber sale or a specific
in-place action. The supplemental environmental analysis record associated
with the particular action being analyzed would detail for the reader
impacts that were over and above those covered in this programmatic EAR
or impacts that were unique to the micro-site in which the individual
action was located.

VI

I. DESCRIPTION OF PROPOSED ACTION AND ALTERNATIVES

A. Introduction

The western Oregon public lands consist of nearly 2 million acres
or roughly 50 percent of the BLM's nationwide timber production base and
are some of the most highly productive forest lands in the nation. These
lands produced over 1.2 billion board feet of timber or almost 95 percent
of the BLM's total production in 1971 and nearly 20 percent of the total
wood harvested from all sources in western Oregon. The primary objective
of the timber management program in western Oregon is to produce a high
level of raw material from forest lands classified as available for
timber production, subject to the principles of multiple use, sustained
yield, and environmental quality. In addition to the 0 {'t C Act of 1937,
which sets forth these basic principles, the program is designed to
support the Housing and Urban Development Act of 1968. This law specifies
a substantial increase in the supply of raw materials from all Federal
forest lands to help meet housing goals. More recently, this same goal
was expressed in the President's June 19, 1970 statement which instructed
the Secretary of the Interior to "improve the level and quality of man-
agement of the forest lands ... to permit increased harvest of softwood
timber ... to meet our housing goals." The nationwide need for increasing
amounts of forest products has been identified and translated into BLM
policy and is contained in BLM Manuals 1602 and 1603.

B. Alternatives

The Bureau-wide programmatic environmental impact statement for
timber management discusses three main alternatives for maintaining a
timber management program at the Bureau level. These alternatives are:

1. No timber management program. This alternative would be
broken down into four sub-analyses: impacts associated with
not replacing the unavailable timberland, replacing the
unavailable volume from other domestic sources, replacing the
unavailable volume by substituting alternative materials in
the final utilization stages, and replacing the unavailable
volume through the use of imported forest products.

2. Maintaining a timber management program based entirely on
natural production levels. In this alternative, timber
growth, and consequently timber yield, is regulated by
the forest's natural ability to reproduce itself following
harvest without any cultural or artificial treatment by
man.

3. Timber management program witli intensive forest practices.
In this alternative, the level of yield is governed by the
ability of the forest to respond to various cultural and
management practices aimed at taking advantage of or
increasing natural forest productive capacity.

At the present time the State Director is not faced with choosing
one of the above mentioned alternatives. This decision has been made
at the policy making level and the guidelines contained in the forestry
program activity policy statement (BLM Manual 1603) and other directives
indicate that BLM lands in western Oregon are to be managed for maximum
yield, commensurate with multiple use and environmental considerations,
using intensive management practices. Thus, Alternative #3 is the pro-
posed action which will be analyzed in the remainder of this document.

Given the fact that the overall thrust of the timber management
program has been set by policy directives, the job at the district and
state levels is one of choosing between numerous operational practices
and management alternatives in implementing the timber management pro-
gram on the ground. The purpose of this analysis is to describe, in a
general way, the existing forest environment in western Oregon, the most
common management practices that are used, the general impacts of these
management practices, and ways in which these impacts can be mitigated.
This programmatic analysis must be complemented by a further analysis
of each proposed timber management action, and by a supplemental EAR
applicable to the particular proposal.

It is important to remember that the timber management program for a
given planning unit is not developed independently but is a product of
the Bureau Planning System. Under this system, land use plans are referred
to as Management Framework Plans (MFP) . The MFP for a specific forest
describes the various resource uses which are permissible in the area
after consideration of the applicable guidance, the technical data about
the resources and resource uses, the needs of the public, and other inputs
to the decision making process. In addition, it describes the constraints
on the planning for the utilization of those resources which are necessary
to insure compatibility of uses, protection and enhancement of the environ-
ment, stability of dependent communities, and other objectives of manage-
ment. The Management Framework Plan is prepared by an interdisciplinary
team at the field level, working in close coordination with a variety of
groups and interests in an organized public participation process.
Following the approval of the MFP, program activity plans are then pre-
pared for each resource.

The timber management program is thus an activity plan which lays
out how the timber resources will be managed to achieve the objectives
and to meet the constraints shown in the Management Framework Plan. It
is important to note that it is impossible to determine the full range of
coordination and mitigative effort relating to environmental matters that
have occurred in the planning process by referring to the timber manage-
ment plan alone. The timber management activity plan details the program
that will be carried out after adjustments and constraints have been
imposed as a result of blending the timber inputs with multiple use and
environmental considerations in the Bureau planning process. As an
example, the timber management activity plan details the efforts that
will be made for environmental protection of lands available for timber
production. However, the Management Framework Plan may have already

removed areas of timberland from consideration for timber production
because of environmental or multiple use considerations. Thus, in order
to get a complete picture of both environmental impacts and mitigative
efforts, it is essential to view the planning process as a whole and not
merely concentrate on the activity plan itself.

C . Stages of Implementation

The implementation of the timber management program in western Oregon
occurs in four generalized stages. These stages of implementation are
described as follows:

Inventories

The two types of forest inventories are (1) intensive, and (2) exten-
sive.

1. Intensive inventories appear in the timber subsection of the Unit
Resource Analysis (URA) . The LIRA is part of the information
gathering and analysis portion of the Bureau Planning System;

it provides a summary inventory and analysis of available data
on all resources within a planning unit. The inventory includes
a classification system that identifies the commercial forest
land base capable of producing timber on a sustained yield basis.
This system identifies and excludes from the timber production
base (a) lands which are so fragile that timber management
practices cannot be applied without causing serious degradation
of the timber production capabilities, and (b) lands having
reforestation problems so severe that they cannot be restocked
to BLM standards within acceptable time limits. The system also
identifies areas that may be managed for timber production but
must be restricted to specific silvicultural , engineering, or
other practices to protect fragile sites or insure acceptable
reforestation. Non-problem areas capable of receiving intensive
forest management are also identified. These, combined with
restricted areas described above, constitute the timber produc-
tion base" for the allowable cut computation.

Intensive inventories also include a classification system that
identifies, within the timber production base, units conducive
to specific types of intensive forest management practices such
as thinning, mortality salvage, and fertilization. These areas
are identified according to criteria such as in-place stand
condition, volumes, growth rates and site classes.

2. Extensive inventories sample commercial forest land for volume
and growth rates in order to calculate the allowable cut. Only
data taken from lands determined by the intensive inventories
process to be in the timber production base are used to calculate
the allowable cut.

Coordination with the MFP

As mentioned above, portions of the planning unit land base that are
suitable for commercial forest production are identified in the URA and in
Step 1 of the MFP process which lists the activity recommendations for full
timber production. In subsequent steps 2 and 3 of the MFP process, this
activity recommendation is tempered by policy, environmental considera-
tions, and multiple use trade offs. This results in a generalized zoning
of the planning unit which identifies portions of the commercial forest
land base which are available for intensive timber production, portions
of the commercial land base on which management practices must be tempered
because of environmental or multiple use considerations, and portions of
the commercial forest land base which are not available for timber pro-
duction because of the same considerations. It is at this step in the
process that some of the most important mitigative efforts in terms of
environmental protection are taken. It is important to understand this
process entirely before going on to look at the timber management activity
plan itself.

Allowable cut computations

At this stage, the technical input from the forest inventory is
blended with the managerial considerations developed in the MFP to deter-
mine what level of activity will provide the maximum yield of forest pro-
ducts consistent with sustained yield principles and with the multiple use
recommendations contained in the MFP. The allowable cut plan details not
only what levels of harvest are to be carried on, but also lists what
intensive management practices must be accomplished on a decade basis to
support this level of harvest. It is stated Bureau policy that intensive
practices, no matter how technically or economically feasible they may be,
are not to be included in the allowable cut plan unless they meet adequate
environmental standards. For a detailed summary of the allowable cut com-
putation process, refer to BLM report "An Allowable Cut Plan for Western
Oregon" dated March, 1970. For details on the level of activity in the
management practices being used, refer to the allowable cut plan printout
for the individual planning unit under consideration. +

Timber sale plan

This stage involves blending the technical mandates of the allowable
cut plan with the multiple use and environmental recommendations of the
Management Framework Plan to arrive at an operating plan for the timber
management activity. Stated simply, the thought process used involves
first identifying those tracts included in the timber production base
which, based on technical forestry considerations, have a priority for
immediate harvest. After the location of these tracts has been deter-
mined, the planner then checks with the MFP to determine what constraints
and considerations are indicated for timber management activities in the
particular area. These constraints and considerations form the basis on
which the planner will design the layout of the harvest area and will

determine what standards are to be used in harvesting and roading the area.
The implementation of the timber sale plan is described as follows:

1. Plan formulation on a fiscal year basis. The tracts identified
by the thought process described above for a particular planning
unit comprise the timber sale plan for that year. The plan as
prepared must meet the recommendations set out in the MFP. The
proposed timber plan is exposed for public comment both by dissem-
ination to interested parties and by exposure to the district
advisory boards representing various segments of the public.
Copies of the timber sale plans for all western Oregon planning
units are also sent to the State clearinghouse where they are
reviewed for any possible coordination needed with planned
activities of other agencies or governmental bodies.

2. Sale layout. After the timber sale plan has been reviewed and
approved, the individual tracts listed are designed and laid out
in the field. The design of these particular tracts, including
such things as size, road locations, logging methods, whether or
not buffer strips are left, etc., is guided by the recommendations
eminating from the URA and MFP. Sale layout is a crucial step in
seeing that the intent of the MFP is carried out in the individual
on-the-ground application of management decisions.

At this point in the process, the individual timber sale is advertised
and sold. This begins the cycle of harvest, regeneration of a new stand,
cultural measures applied to the new stand, and protection of the new stand
until such time as the stand again undergoes a final harvest cut. The
management practices used in this cycle and their respective environmental
impacts are described in the remainder of this document.

D. Harvest

Harvest is the final phase of the timber production cycle and the
first phase of the utilization cycle, which converts standing trees into
forms useful to the economy and arts. The steps associated with these
phases of the production or utilization cycles include the felling of
marketable timber according to selected cutting practices, the movement
of logs or trees from stump to loading points by use of logging systems,
and their subsequent movement over transportation systems to manufacturing
centers .

Cutting Practices

Selection of the appropriate cutting practice is basically a matter
of silvicultural desirability; i.e., a certain practice, or combination of
practices, is applied to a given timber stand in order to favor regenera-
tion and/or promote growth. Factors weighed in selecting the cutting
practice include species composition; stand age, stocking and condition
(as related to tree vigor and risk of mortality) ; site quality and regen-
erative capacity; fire and insect hazards which may be created by logging
slash; topography; and anticipated effects of weather conditions on the
residual stand. Consequently, because of the diverse nature of conditions
within a given forest, a variety of cutting practices is employed. Once
the cutting practice (s) is chosen, those trees designated for cutting
and/or trees reserved from cutting are identified on the timber harvest
area.

Cutting practices have been classified by different authorities in
various ways; e.g., as silvicultural systems for obtaining natural re-
production by several means and by nomenclature descriptive of the action
taken. A practical classification (for the purpose of this subsection)
lists cutting practices in two major categories, intermediate cuttings
and final harvest cuttings, as follows:

Intermediate Cuttings. These are practices applied prior to the

major or final harvest of a stand, with the qualification that trees
designated for cutting have commercial value.

Commercial Thinnings (P. 1A) . Various types and intensities of

cutting applied to immature stands for the purpose of redistributing
growth on the uncut trees, to recover and use material that otherwise
would be lost, and thus to obtain greater total yield of merchantable
material. Dependent upon the age of the stand and other factors, com-
mercial thinnings are conducted at prescribed intervals over the life
of the stand.

Sanitation-Salvage Cuttings (P. IB). These are made to remove

individual trees killed or injured by fire, insects, disease, etc., and
those trees likely to die prior to the final harvest in order to pre-
vent the spread of insects or disease, and to utilize merchantable
material before it becomes worthless. Trees cut may be immature or
mature, but tree condition, not age, is the criterion for removal.

Shelterwood Cuttings (P. 1C) . Removal of mature timber from a

stand in a series of cuttings which extend over a period of years. In
theory the series is divided into three stages. In actual practice, the
mature timber may be removed in a single cut or in a series of as many
as ten cuts, depending on stand conditions and management prescriptions.
The three stage cut is most common, however, and it is the practice
described and analyzed here. Two stages are herein classified as inter-
mediate cuttings and the third as shelterwood removal, which is
described under the final harvest cuttings:

Preparatory cutting prepares the stand for seed cutting by
removing dying and defective trees and trees of undesirable
species.

Seed cutting prepares the seed bed, opens the stand to provide
light and heat that the expected seedlings will require, and
encourages seed production.

Final Harvest Cuttings. In contrast to intermediate cuttings, which
include immature trees, final harvest cuttings usually remove only trees
which have reached maturity.

Clearcutting (P. 2A) . Removal of the entire stand in one cut. This

practice is commonly applied to even-aged stands, in which most of the
individual trees achieve maturity simultaneously. Species which con-
stitute such stands; e.g., Douglas-fir, are more or less intolerant (light
demanding), and are usually effectively regenerated by clearcutting.
Salvage of extensively damaged stands may also result in the clearcutting
of uneven-aged stands. Disease infection in timber stands often requires
clearcutting to remove sources that would infect young trees in the new
forest.

Seed Tree Cutting (P. 2B) . Removal of the mature timber in one cut,

except for seed trees (reserved for stand regeneration) left singly or in
small groups. These seed trees may be subsequently cut when the area is
reforested.

Selection Cutting (P. 2C) . Removal of mature timber, usually the

oldest or largest trees, cither as individual trees or in small groups
at relatively short intervals, commonly 5 to 20 years, repeated inde-
finitely while the continuous establishment of natural reproduction is
encouraged and an uneven-aged stand is maintained.

Shelterwood Removal Cuttings (P. 2D). These represent the third and

final phase in a series of shelterwood cuttings as previously described
under intermediate cuttings. They remove the remainder of the mature
stands which would, after establishment of reproduction, retard the
development of young trees. The final cutting is the last of the removal
cuttings .

Logging Systems

The movement of felled timber from the stump to the loading point
(landing) is accomplished through the use of a single system or combina-
tion of logging systems best suited for the area to be harvested. The
selection is based on criteria which include:

- The physical characteristics of the area and capabilities of the
applicable logging systems.

An economic evaluation of various combinations of logging and
transportation systems.

Silvicultural needs of the area and cutting practices to be
employed, and the priority sequence of harvesting.

Protection of the reserve timber stand and preservation of soil
and water resources.

The safety of the men engaged in all phases of the harvesting
operation.

The requirements and goals of multiple use management .

While outside the scope of logging systems, the cutting or falling
of trees and bucking them into tree or log lengths requires some mention
at this point. These operations are a prerequisite to their movement and
constitute a major part of the logging operation. Trees are normally
felled in a manner which minimizes loss due to breakage as well as damage
to the residual trees or adjacent stands. Beds are sometimes prepared to
reduce breakage when very large trees are cut. In addition to topo-
graphical criteria, the system of logging to be employed is a factor in the
manner and direction in which the trees are felled. In both the falling
and bucking operation the chain saw is the common tool.

The various logging systems presently employed can be broadly classi-
fied as ground systems or aerial systems.

Ground Systems. These systems can move logs only by dragging
(skidding) them along the ground. These are often called "conventional"
systems because they were the means originally employed and continue
to be more widely used than aerial systems. Following are brief
descriptions of some ground systems used in logging operations.

Horse Skidding (P. 3A) . Horses are still used advantageously in

some situations. On suitable terrain they are well adapted to skidding
small logs such as those produced in commercial thinnings. Horses can
be used on narrow skid trails with minimum damage to the residual stand.
They are best suited to skidding small logs down slope on gradients under
40 percent, for maximum distances not exceeding 600 feet.

Tractor Skidding (P. 3B) . Logging tractors are of two general types,

crawler and wheel. The former has a metal track while the latter are
invariahly mounted on rubber and are known as rubber-tired skidders.
Both types are sometimes used to draw track -mounted arches or rubber-
tired sulkies, or are equipped with integral arches. These accessories
suspend one end of the log or turn of logs, thus reducing drag.

Both types of tractor are used most effectively for downhill skidding
on slopes under 35 percent, and for maximum distances less than 1500 feet.
Uphill skidding for short distances is feasible on gentle slopes, par-
ticularly for the larger crawler tractors. Often tractors complement
other systems. A combination sometimes used on sidehill settings is
downhill tractor skidding of the upper part and uphill high-lead yarding
of the lower part to the same roadside landing.

High-lead Yarding (P. 3C) . (See Figure No. 1). Despite the

increasing application of newer, alternative equipment to logging situa-
tions once operable only by high-lead, it remains one of the most
important of the moving-cable systems. There are sound reasons for its
popularity since many forested areas are too steep, broken or rocky for
tractors. On clayey soils tractor operations are frequently impossible
or too damaging to the site during the rainy season.

Rigged for use, the power source (yarder) is anchored at the landing
near a vertical spar (usually 80 to 120 feet tall) which provides lift for
the turn of logs. As the mainline yards the logs toward the landing, they
are dragged full length along the ground. If a stump or other obstacle is
encountered, the vertical component of force on the mainline lifts the
front end of the log until it noses over or around the obstacle. Conse-
quently, the high-lead system operates most smoothly and efficiently when
yarding uphill. Downhill yarding is feasible, but logs tend to "hang-up"
on obstacles and dig into the ground. When all logs within reach of the
mainline are at the landing it is moved laterally. The process is repeated
in radial fashion, with the spar as a hub, until all desired logs in the
setting have been moved to the landing.

The high- lead system is best adapted to yarding clearcut settings
uphill, with maximum yarding distance of about 800 feet as optimum,
although longer "reaches" are possible. With careful operation by a
skilled crew, the system can also be used for logging such partial cuts
as sanitation-salvage, shelterwood and selection cuttings.

Mobile Yarder-Loader Operations (P. 3D). Various methods of yarding

are employed in situations where neither high-lead nor tractor logging is
practical. The mobile yarder-loader is particularly adapted to removing
small total volumes of timber, to operating in stands of low volume per
acre, or in small timber on steep terrain.

FIGURE

^S&lteX ^

While there are several variations of mobile yarder- loaders, they
have certain common characteristics:

- All are self-propelled, and can be driven from setting to setting
(as opposed to most high-lead yarders) .

- All are equipped with booms or spars which, when erected, provide
lift for yarding. When lowered, the boom can be rigged for loading
trucks, thus eliminating a separate loading machine.

- Most have drum facilities which permit being used as high-lead
systems.

Some of these machines can yard logs to a reach of 1000 feet.
However, under optimum conditions, usual maximum yarding distance is
about 500 feet. Since they operate on the high-lead principle, mobile
yarder-loaders are most efficient when yarding uphill.

These machines are well -suited to logging commercial thinnings, and
sanitation-salvage, shelterwood and selection cuttings. A rather unique
attribute is their capability of operating directly from an existing
road, thus eliminating the necessity of clearing and excavating landings.
As each small setting below the road is cleared of logs, which are merely
piled or "decked" along the road shoulder, the machine is quickly moved
a short distance along the road to its next setting.

Other Ground Systems (P. 3E) . Jammers and self-loading trucks are

sometimes used for yarding, principally in small logging operations.

- The jammer (usually a homemade machine) employs an erectile boom
and an engine-powered drum, on which is wound a wire-rope cable
used for both yarding and loading. While basically a machine
for loading trucks, the jammer may be used for yarding logs for
relatively short distances (usually not exceeding 300 feet) . On
slopes too steep for tractor operation, the jammer's limited
yarding capability can be useful with a system of roads on con-
tours spaced at slope distances of 600 feet or less.

- The self-loading truck is commonly equipped with a short
horizontal boom with fairlead, and cable wound on a drum
powered by take-off from the truck engine. Under favorable
conditions, such trucks can yard logs from locations within
100 feet of roadside.

Both jammers and self-loading trucks tend to perform poorly as
yarding machines because of low line speeds. Consequently, they are
rarely used as such in operations requiring high yarding production.

II

Aerial Systems. These are capable of moving logs suspended above
the ground from stump to landing. Suspension may be complete or partial;
i.e., logs can be suspended free of the ground (known as "flying" the
logs) or one end of the log may drag. The advantage of any of the aerial
systems over more conventional systems is their ability to move logs with
an absolute minimum of disturbance to soil and water resources. The three
major types of aerial systems currently operational are skylines, balloons
and helicopters; these are discussed separately.

Skyline Yarding (P. 4A) . Skylines are moving-cable systems which

yard or swing logs suspended between a tail-spar and a head spar. The
basic principle of movement is via suspension from wire-rope cables.
Modern skyline systems are mobile and have lateral yarding capability.
The newer systems can be used for both uphill and downhill yarding. Some
are readily convertible to conventional high-lead operation, a feature
which increases their utility. Modern skyline systems are of three general
types; standing or fixed skylines, slacklines, and running skylines:

Standing (fixed) Skylines. (See Figure No. 2). The operating
range of the larger fixed skyline equipment is very great;
maximum yarding distances of 5000 feet are possible. This
potential, properly utilized, can greatly reduce the road den-
sity which would be necessary for logging a given area by con-
ventional means. The larger standing skyline equipment is best
adapted to logging larger clearcut settings of heavy timber
volumes per acre, in rough topography or on fragile sites where
the expense or environmental risk of developing intensive road
networks would be prohibitive.

Smaller fixed skyline equipment with yarding capability of
1500 to 2000 feet is available. These machines and rigging
are less costly and more flexible than the large skyline-
cranes. Properly used, they are adapted to some partial
cuttings as well as clearcuttings . While they do not offer
the road construction cost-saving potential or site pro-
tection potential of the larger skylines, they do have an
advantage in these respects over the high-lead and tractor
systems.

Slacklines ("live" skylines) . Commonly operating on a reach of
1200 to 1600 feet or more, slacklines have capabilities and
applications comparable to those of the smaller fixed skyline
systems.

12

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>-

Q
X

Q

t—

J3

Running Skylines. (See Figure No. 3). These are the most
recently developed of the skyline systems. They are becoming
widely used in the northwestern United States, and are re-
placing standing skylines and high-lead systems in some
applications. A past disadvantage of these systems has been
a rather short span capability (reach) of about 1000 feet.
However, yarders with reaches exceeding 2000 feet are now
available. The running skyline is particularly well-suited
to yarding intermediate cuttings and harvest cuttings of a
partial nature, where damage to trees left standing must be
minimized. Properly equipped and utilized, running skylines
may yard clearcuttings as effectively as the high-lead.

Balloon Yarding (P. 4B) . (See Figure No. 4). Despite rather wide

publicity, balloon logging has had only limited use to date. The few
American balloon logging operations conducted to date have probably been
economically marginal. Applications in coastal British Columbia have
been more successful.

Balloon systems, which lift logs completely off the ground, have
yarded for distances exceeding 5000 feet, although 3000 feet might be
considered optimum. Balloon systems are more expensive to operate than
skylines because of additional costs of the balloon, its accessories, and
gas for inflation. Other disadvantages are instability of the balloon
in moderate to strong winds, adverse reactions of the balloon to tempera-
ture extremes, and gas leakage. The increased expense of balloon logging
may be justified where terrain and limited road access preclude logging
with other systems, or where ability to remove logs with a minimum of
surface disturbance is needed to protect a fragile site.

Presently, balloon yarding appears to be best adapted to clearcuttings
because of the difficulty of controlling the balloon in side winds and
resulting lateral movement of the butt rigging and its suspended turn of
logs, which can damage reserved trees in a partial cut. However,
experience indicates that the balloon can be used successfully to remove
the overstory of a two-storied stand.

Helicopter Yarding (P. 4C) . Helicopter logging applications are in

the formative stages. The very high unit costs of yarding with heli-
copters are the primary factor now limiting the use of these machines.
However, high performance helicopters capable of lifting maximum loads of
20,000 pounds are available for logging.

In a well-planned helicopter logging operation, one-way flight dis-
tances should range from 1300 to 5000 feet. The logs are hooked to a
tag line 100-200 feet in length which is suspended from the helicopter,
which then climbs vertically to clear obstructions before moving toward
the landing.

14

FIGURE NO. 3

FIGURE NO. 4

Areas to be partially or selectively logged can be yarded by heli-
copter in cases where the surrounding trees or residual stand are not
too tall. The removal of overstory timber to release young trees may
present good opportunities for helicopter logging.

Transportation Systems.

The primary purpose of transportation in the context of timber
management is to provide a medium for moving logs from the landing or
loading site located in the cutting area to a market destination which
may be a few miles to a 100 miles distant. The major mediums currently
in use are land transportation and water transportation. The former
consists of hauling the logs over a road and/or railroad system while the
latter involves the utilization of water to transport the logs. Since
rail transportation is not used in moving logs on Bureau timber sale areas,
and does not appear to hold promise in the future, it will not be dis-
cussed.

Water transportation includes the floating, rafting, or barging of
logs on such natural waterways as rivers and lakes. Currently this
method of transportation is not commonly used in moving logs from Bureau
administered lands in western Oregon; therefore water transportation will
not be discussed further in this statement. Related to this matter is
the use of water to store logs somewhere enroute to a manufacturing
facility. At the present time the Bureau is involved with one log storage
dump, located on the Smith River in the Coos Bay District. Since an
environmental impact analysis has been made of this operation entitled,
"Operations of the Smith River Log Dump as Related to Water Quality and
Aquatic Resources," October 1972, it will not be included in this
statement.

The dominant transportation medium currently in use is the hauling
of logs by trucks over roads. Because of intermingled land ownership
patterns, the development of road systems often requires cooperation
with adjacent landowners to insure access to the local, state and Federal
highways that lead to the manufacturing centers.

When substantial lengths of road are to be built under the terms of
a timber sale contract, or when planned road construction requires the
acquisition of an easement across private land, a separate environmental
analysis is commonly done on the alternative road locations.

While Bureau roads serve other forest values and uses, the cost of
construction and maintenance is usually carried by the timber resource
and is provided for under the terms of the timber sale contract. Con-
sequently, the time of construction is usually scheduled in conjunction
with the sale of a given tract of timber. Specific construction phases
are determined by environmental and multiple use management considera-
tions. Once constructed the roads can be used for forest protection
and other activities associated with the timber management program as
well as recreation.

L7

The width and upkeep of these roads varies with the type of use,
topography and other variables. However, they generally range from 14
to 20 feet in usable width and 40 to 100 feet across the cleared area.
Not all roads are part of the permanent road network. Some are used for
a given period of time and then abandoned.

The operational practices associated with the development of the
transportation system are included under the construction and maintenance
phases and will be discussed on that basis in the following sub-sections.

Construction. This phase includes all the practices followed from
the initial entry of equipment on the road location site to its avail-
ability for log hauling. The construction phase involves the movement
of a portion of the earth's surface from one location to another and in
its new position, creation of a desired shape and physical condition which
will serve the purpose for which the road is built. While roads are of
varying standards and specifications, the practices set forth are
characteristic of those constructed on Bureau administered lands.

Basic construction operations are clearing and grubbing, excavation,
formation of embankments, finishing and addition of bases and surfacing
courses, and structures. Any or all of these operations may be performed
on a given road project at the same time and may overlap to a certain
extent .

Clearing and Grubbing (P. 5A) . Clearing refers to the removal of

trees, brush, etc., from within the limits of the designated area along
the road's location. Grubbing refers to the removal of roots, stumps and
similar obstacles to a nominal depth below the existing ground area.
Frequently, they comprise a single operation and include the removal of
topsoil to a shallow depth. This practice is primarily performed by a
bulldozer to fell trees and uproot stumps, however it may also involve
the use of explosives and other equipment.

Excavation (P. 5B) . This practice refers to the removal of natural

material from its resting place and transporting it to a different place
through an earth moving operation. It normally constitutes the major
part of the construction operation and, in addition to the road itself,
is carried out in conjunction with the installation of such structures
as culverts, drainage pipes and bridges. Excavation may be classified
by the type of material excavated, as follows:

Topsoil excavation is removal and stripping of the exposed
layer of the earth's surface.

Earth (or common) excavation is removal of the layer of
soil under the topsoil and on top of rock. Earth can be
broken down for ease of handling by plowing and ripping
and is usually moved easily by scrapers or other types of
earth moving equipment.

18

Rock excavation is the breaking down of a formation by systematic
drilling and dynamite blasting, for ease of removal by rockhauling
equipment .

- Muck excavation is removal of soil that contains an excessive
amount of water. This material is unstable under loading, and
is undesirable as embankment or subgrade material.

Unclassified excavation is done without regard to materials
encountered and may be any combination of topsoil, earth, rock,
and muck.

The equipment most widely used in excavating work is a wheel or
track (crawler) type tractor with a steel blade that can be raised and
lowered. Equipped in this manner a tractor can push material from place
to place and shape the ground. Tractors can also be attached to scrapers
for excavation and short hauls, however trucks or self-propelled scrapers
are usually used when earth is to be moved any distance.

Embankment (P. 5C) . This practice represents the construction of

roadway embankments, including preparation of the areas upon which they
are to be placed; the construction of dikes within or adjacent to the
roadway; the placing and compacting of approved material within roadway
areas where unsuitable material has been removed; and the placing and
compacting of embankment material in holes, pits, and other depressions
within the roadway area. When available excavation material is not
sufficient for the embankments, borrow material from outside must be
brought in.

In some cases embankments may be required to be constructed in
layers, the thickness of which varies. Compaction of each layer is by
steel rollers, rubber-wheel rollers, sheepsfoot rollers, etc. which may
be self-propelled or towed by a tractor.

Finishing (P. 5D) . This practice is performed primarily by a motor

grader and includes such items as trimming and finishing of slopes and
the fine grading operations required to bring the subgrade to the final
desired elevation.

Bases and Surface Courses (P. 5E) . This treatment consists of all

or part of a flexible pavement which is usually made up of a wearing
surface, bases and subgrade. The wearing surface is usually made up of
a macadam, bituminous surface treatment or gravel surface and must with-
stand wear, abrasion and displacement from vehicles and prevent water
from entering the base of the roadway. The bases are usually constructed
of gravel or crushed rock and are layers of very high stain lity and
density. The subgrade is the natural earth surface. In the usual

19

instance it is the compacted soil in a cut section or the upper layer of
an embankment section. Stone for use in the bases and surface course is
obtained from nearby quarries or crushing plants.

Structures (P. 5F) . These consist primarily of bridges, culverts,

cattleguards, fences, retaining walls, guardrails and riprap. These

structures may require excavation, embankment, concrete work, backfilling,
or other construction operations.

Maintenance. This phase includes the necessary repairs to keep a
road in a safe, serviceable condition for use by logging trucks and
passenger cars.

Surface Maintenance (P. 6A) . Dirt road maintenance is primarily

blading and leveling and cleaning out of the side ditches and culverts.

Gravel roads which are untreated require a heavy blading of the
surface and side ditches in early spring and late fall. Heavy rains may
cause deep rutting and require additional gravel and blading.

Road mix and macadam surfaces require patching of holes, ruts, and
raveled areas, and renewal of the surface periodically by application of
a seal coat.

Shoulder, Sideslope and Roadside Maintenance (P. 6B) . This mainten-
ance consists of erosion control, visibility protection and brush control.
The erosion control is accomplished by seeding and mulching and other
soil stabilization practices and the brush control is accomplished by
cutting back (or chemically treating) weeds and brush which obscure
visibility and interfere with drainage.

Drainage Maintenance (P. 6C) . This is accomplished by removing

debris from culverts, correcting erosion by use of rock backfill,
repairing eroded ditches with rock material and riprapping areas eroded
by stream action. This also includes repairs to bridges and small
structures.

Safety Maintenance (P. 6D) . This includes sanding icy sections,

replacing signs and protective barriers in order to preserve safety
features of the original construction, dust prevention by spreading oil
or water, debris removal and some limited snow removal.

20

E. Development

Practices included in the development phase of the timber management
program are primarily aimed at (1) re-establishing trees on forest land
following harvest or natural catastrophies, and (2) insuring satisfactory
or optimum growth of these forests. Actions directly associated with
timber harvest, such as cutting practices designed to provide regeneration
through natural seeding, are discussed in Part A, Harvest, even though
they bear upon the questions of re-establishment and growth. The indi-
vidual practices listed below are in the general order in which they might
be carried out on the ground; although several may be accomplished simul-
taneously. Furthermore, not all of these practices are carried out on a
given area. Many of the practices represent alternative methods, the
choice of which is dependent upon the conditions on the area.

Tree Improvement (P. 7A) .

Tree improvement programs are developed to optimize specific genetic
characteristics such as growth rate, or resistance to disease. Major
efforts to date involve (1) development of fast growing Douglas-fir and
ponderosa pine, and (2) development of sugar pine trees resistant to
white pine blister rust. The program provides genetically improved tree
seed or seedlings for use in reforestation activities.

Tree improvement programs require development of (1) centrally
located "seed orchards" where genetically improved seed can be produced,
and (2) "progeny test areas" where improved seedlings can be grown and
measured. Development of these areas often requires harvest of timber
on selected sites followed by cultivation to prepare the site for
planting. Cultivation methods used may include one or more of the
following described actions.

High values associated with seed orchards and progeny test areas
often require control of insects and disease with insecticides and
fungicides. Such pesticides may be applied using hand compression
sprayers, gas bombs, injection or tractor drawn ground sprayers.

Scarification (P. 7B) .

Heavy machinery such as crawler tractors, equipped with toothed
brush blades are used to uproot woody vegetation and to pile it for
burning, decomposition or disposal by burying. This measure is taken to
prepare the site for seeding or planting by exposing mineral soil, con-
serving soil moisture, providing sunlight, destroying habitat of seed
or seedling eating animals and/or guarding against fire.

21

Mechanical Brush Cutting [P. 7C) .

Heavy, tract or -drawn "brush-cutters" may occasionally be used on
site to chop and crush woody vegetation and debris in order to hasten
decomposition in preparation for seeding or planting. Hand lopping and
scattering is another method by which slash is put in direct contact
with the ground.

Mechanical Trenching - Furrowing (P. 7D) .

Tractor-drawn implements may occasionally be used to construct
furrows, trenches or cleared spots in herbaceous vegetation prior to
seeding or planting.

Area Burning (P. 7E) .

This commonly used treatment involves movement of one or more
relatively continuous lines of fire over several contiguous acres for
the purpose of destroying woody vegetation and debris, such as logging
slash. Burning may also require pre-treatment with a chemical such as
Picloran (Tordon 101) to dry woody vegetation prior to burning. Burning
is useful in preparing a site for reforestation, reducing potential fire
hazards, and/or protecting existing stands by destroying material infected
with insects or disease.

Spot Burning (P. 7F) .

Piles, or concentrations, of woody vegetation and debris (such as
logging slash or slashings from precommercial thinning or pruning) are
destroyed by burning for the same purposes listed above.

Burying (P. 7G) .

Logging slash or debris resulting from scarification treatments may
occasionally be buried in pits constructed by heavy equipment such as
crawler tractors for the same purposes as broadcast burning.

Chipping (P. 7H) .

Logging or thinning slash is sometimes handled by chipping it and
disposing of it on site or other suitable disposal areas. In some
instances the chips are transported to a utilization facility for
processing.

Hand Clearing and Cleaning (P. 71).

Hand tools (such as hoes, axes, and power saws) are often used to
clear individual planting or seeding spots of vegetation and debris, or
to remove competing vegetation from existing trees.

22

Seeding (P. 7J) .

In field seeding operations, as opposed to seeding in nurseries,
seed may be scattered by helicopter or by crews walking over the area
and depositing seed in selected spots. Seed used in seeding operations
is normally treated with chemicals to provide protection from seed eating
rodents and birds. Protection may be obtained when seed eating rodents
"learn" not to eat treated seed after having ingested sublethal amounts.
Protection from birds may be obtained by changing seed color.

Planting (P. 7K) .

Tree planting is done by hand, using tools such as hoes, mattocks,
dibbles, power augers, or tractor-drawn machines where terrain is
favorable. Trees used in planting are classified as "bare-root" or "con-
tainerized." Bare-root seedlings are removed from the ground in forest
nurseries, packaged and transported to the forest to be planted. Con-
tainerized seedlings, however, are grown in containers and are transported
to the forest in the containers. Depending upon the specific type of
container, the planter may either remove the seedling from the container
prior to planting it, or plant the container itself.

Tree seedlings are commonly treated in the nursery with a chemical
to repel animals that may otherwise feed upon them. Repellency may be
secured by rendering the treated tree unpalatable; growth that occurs
after planting is not protected. As with seeding, one or more of the
following described treatments may be used in an attempt to insure that
planted trees live and grow at satisfactory rates.

Chemical Weed Control (P. 7L) .

Chemicals are commonly used to control undesirable vegetation.
Atrazine, simazine, dicamba, or 2,4-D are applied to herbaceous vegeta-
tion. Silvex and 2,4-D are used for woody vegetation. Treatment may be
accomplished prior or subsequent to seeding or planting. Applications
are made by aerial or hand methods.

Baiting (P. 7M) .

Poisoned bait may be distributed, aerially or by hand, to kill seed
or seedling eating animals such as mice, woodrats, rabbits, snowshoe hare
or porcupines.

Fencing and Screening (P. 7N) .

Construction of fences or screens protect seed or seedlings from
animal damage. Fencing generally involves protection of entire areas
from domestic livestock or big game, while screens may be used to pro-
tect individual trees or seed spots from nearly all kinds of animals.

23

Mulching (P. 70) .

Usually involves placement of paper or plastic mulch around indi-
vidual trees to control competing herbaceous vegetation.

Snag Felling (P. 7P) .

Live or dead trees sometimes have to be felled if they are tall
enough to interfere with low flying aircraft conducting herbicide appli-
cations. Dead trees (snags) are often felled to prevent their throwing
sparks in the event of a fire.

Fertilization (P. 7Q) .

This practice involves aerial distribution, usually by helicopter,
of a fertilizer, primarily nitrogen in the form of urea prills. Applica-
tion rate is generally between 150 and 300 lbs. of nitrogen per acre.
Although effects of a single application of fertilizer on annual growth
can usually be recorded over a 10-year period, there may be a marked
reduction after approximately 5 years. Frequency of application thus
ranges between 5 and 10 years depending on local conditions.

Fertilization involves the movement of tons of fertilizer from
supplier's base (by rail boxcar or truck and trailer) to an intermediate
point, and from the intermediate point (usually by dump truck) to the base
of operation (airstrip or heliport) . The operation may thus require con-
struction or improvement of the forest road system to allow movement of
large vehicles to the fertilization site. Heliports or airstrips may
also have to be built.

Precommercial Thinning (P. 7R) .

Surplus trees in established stands of young, premerchantable timber
are cut or poisoned so as to release selected trees from competition for
light, moisture or nutrients, thereby concentrating growth potential of
the stand on fewer trees of better quality. The primary objectives of
this practice are to produce merchantable wood volume and financial
returns earlier than the unthinned forest, and to produce more total
wood for harvest. Thinning of merchantable size stands, where trees
removed are sold, is discussed in the section Intermediate Cuttings.

Precommercial thinning may involve the use of power saws, chemicals
(silvicides such as cacodylic acid or MSMA) , axes or other tools to cut
or poison individual surplus trees. Surplus trees are usually chosen
from those trees whose crowns make up the general level of the stand
canopy. Unwanted trees taller than the general level of the stand (such
as wolf trees, malformed dominants, etc.) may be cut or poisoned only if
soil moisture is a critical factor for increased growth of remaining
trees. Cut trees may be left standing or forced to the ground.

24

The above techniques may also be used to cut or poison rows, or
strips, of trees on the basis of predetermined spacing or pattern with
little or no regard for their position in the crown canopy. This
method, termed mechanical thinning, is usually limited to very youne,
uniform stands. Mechanical thinning may also involve use of heavy
machinery, such as crawler tractors and tractor-drawn brush cutters,
to crush strips of trees several feet wide leaving narrower strips of
standing trees in between.

Precommercial thinning may also be done for the primary purpose
of removing diseased trees in order to control an infection such as
dwarf mistletoe.

Pruning (P. 7S) .

Limbs are sometimes removed from selected immature trees which are
reserved for final harvest. This is done to improve timber quality by
increasing the volume of clear (knot free) wood produced, or to control
disease; e.g., dwarf mistletoe.

F. Protection

The primary objective of the forest protection activity is to
eliminate or minimize losses to the timber resource and other forest
resource values resulting from fire, insects and disease. Since the
nature of these destructive agents and the practices employed in
combating them vary, each will be discussed separately in the parts
that follow.

Fire

Two basic approaches taken on the ground to protect the forest from
fires or to control their spread involve hazard reduction and suppression.
Hazard reduction includes such preventive or presuppression practices as
slash (logging debris) disposal through chipping or burning, salvage of
dead material, fire line construction around cutting areas, road building,
firebreaks, and snag felling. Because most of these practices have
several objectives and are carried out in the course of the actions
identified in this statement as either Harvest or Development, they are
discussed under one of those actions and not under Protection. Conse-
quently, this section will be limited to practices employed in the
suppression or control of going fires.

The objective of fire suppression practices is to break the fire
triangle (fuel, oxygen and temperature) at the most vulnerable place by
the means available. The application of these practices, often in com-
bination with one another, can therefore be classified on the basis of
the three sides of the triangle, as follows:

25

- Fuel. Reduction of fuel available for combustion by making a
break in fuel continuity, accomplished by physical removal
(construction of a fire line), making fuels less available
(felling snags) or by making fuels fire-resistant through
application of dirt, water, or chemical retardants.

- Oxygen. Reduction of oxygen available for combustion by burial
of fuels in dirt, smothering with water, fog or chemical sub-
stances.

- Temperature. Reduction of temperature through application of
soil, water, or chemicals and partial removal or separation of
fuels.

The application of water and chemical retardants in combating forest
fires is usually accomplished by means of helicopters and fixed-wing air-
craft. Fire lines are constructed by hand tools and also by the use of
heavy equipment such as bulldozers.

Insects

The objectives of forest insect control practices include minimizing
forest injury by preventing or suppressing epidemic outbreaks of insect
populations with available man-devised methods while giving every
encouragement to natural control agencies toward regaining the natural
ecological balance.

Control practices can be classified as silvicultural, biological,
chemical and physical; the choice of which is primarily dependent upon
the species of insect to be controlled, the degree of infestation, and
the conditions that characterize the infested area.

Silvicultural Control (P. 8A) . This method employs the use of silvi-
cultural practices directed towards preventing the occurrence of insect
outbreaks as opposed to actions taken following insect infestations.
These practices maintain the forest in a healthy condition and regulate
its growth so that food conditions are unfavorable for injurious
insects. The quantity and quality of insect food are controlled by
regulating the composition, density, vigor and age of the stands.
Practices include the salvage or burning of windfalls, slash, and other
potential insect-breeding places, and harvesting of the trees or stands
most susceptible to insect attack. Under certain conditions cutting
and regeneration practices are employed in a manner which will favor the
creation of timber stands of mixed species, since they are sometimes less
susceptible to insect damage than pure stands. The objectives and
practices associated with silvicultural control are an integral part of
the timber management program.

26

Biological Control (P. 8B) . This method involves the use of living
organisms which are either collected in an area where they are abundant
or propagated under confinement and then released in the infested area.
These organisms can be classified as:

Parasites -- usually the young life forms of certain wasp and
fly families.

Predators -- such as lacewing flies, certain beetles, birds and
mammals.

Virus diseases -- produced by many different micro-organisms,
including bacteria and fungi.

While biological control methods have had some spectacular results
with agricultural crop pests, their application in combating forest pests
has not been highly successful.

Chemical Control (P. 8C) . This method involves the use of chemicals
which kill the insect by suffocation or through entry via the body wall,
digestive tract or respiratory system. Insecticides are classified as:

Inorganic -- Arsenic, fluorine, mercury, copper, or zinc.

Botanical -■* Rotenone, nicotine and pyrcthrum.

Synthetic Organic -- Chlorinated hydrocarbons such as methoxy-
chlor.

Mineral Organic -- Kerosene, fuel oil and lubricating oil which
along with water are often also used as carriers for the other
insecticides.

Insecticides are applied to trees in a number of ways, the choice
being dependent upon the insect involved, the insecticide used and its
formulation and the equipment available. The most common method, par-
ticularly in combating defoliating insects, is spraying or dusting from
an aircraft since it can be applied rapidly to large forested areas
inaccessible from the ground. Ground methods include hydraulic spraying
equipment mounted on vehicles and hand-operated units, used when total
coverage of the tree or log is necessary. Mist blowers, employing
engine-powered fans, can also be utilized as mobile ground units to
disseminate insecticides. Another method, used primarily for bark
beetles, involves the injection of chemicals into the sapstream of a
tree. These chemicals are then taken up through the trunk, killing the
beetles in the inner bark.

27

Direct Physical Control (P. 8D) . Mechanical and physical insect
control methods, usually aimed at beetle-type insects, include the use
of the following methods:

Burning -- involves the burning of infested unmarketable
material in tree, log, branch (following pruning) or bark
(following peeling) form after the material is piled or decked.
Standing trees may also be burned.

Solar Radiation -- involves turning thin-barked trees or logs
so as to fully expose each beetle infested side to full sunlight
for several days.

Logging -- involves the removal of marketable material to
utilization centers and burning of the residual infested material.
With the exception of widespread infestations, this method is
usually carried out in the course of the "normal" timber manage-
ment program.

Trapping -- involves the use of light, chemical attractants, and
girdled and/or felled trees to attract insects. In the latter
case the material is destroyed usually by burning.

Diseases

The objective of forest disease control practices is to eliminate or
minimize the occurrence or spread of heart rot, root rot, rusts, foliage
infections and other tree diseases. Diseases may be caused by the non-
living environment, such as unfavorable soil or atmospheric conditions,
or by viruses whose nature is not yet understood. The majority of diseases,
however, are caused by the activities of living organisms, i.e., slime,
molds, bacteria, fungi, algae, seed plants and animals, including insects.

Disease control measures currently carried out in the forest are
essentially limited to silvicultural or physical practices. While a
chemical has been developed for treating stumps to prevent the spread
of Fomes annosus (root and butt rot fungus), the small amount of damage
caused by this disease does not warrant its application. Chemicals are
used, however, in nurseries and seed orchards for disease control and
are discussed under the Forest Development phase of the timber management
program. Biological control, like chemical control, has strong appeal
to the imagination but current technology and/or experience offers little
hope for application in the forest in the foreseeable future. Con-
sequently, biological control measures are not described in this
statement.

28

Silvicultural Control (P. 9A) . This method employs the use of
silvicultural practices aimed at the prevention or minimization of
future disease outbreaks as opposed to actions taken following infesta-
tions. Silvicultural control measures include:

Development of disease-resistant trees such as rust resistant
white pine and sugar pine.

Development of mixed-species stands where feasible, particularly
when diseases are host specific.

Development of pure stands of naturally disease-resistant tree
species where feasible.

Avoiding damage to residual trees during logging operations.

Maintaining stands in healthy and vigorous condition by regulating
composition, density and age.

Direct Physical Control (P. 9B) . This method employs the use of
physical or mechanical means to control existing disease infestations
and to recover marketable material, when applicable. Direct control
practices currently being used are almost completely limited to dwarf
mistletoe control and are usually carried out by use of silvicultural
practices. Dependent upon the degree of infestation, stand composition,
tree size and other variables, either of the two following general
approaches may be taken:

Complete removal of all trees on and immediately adjacent to the
infested area by cutting, burning or poisoning. Marketable
material to be utilized.

Removal and/or pruning of infected trees through precommercial
thinning, commercial thinning or other partial cutting opera-
tions. Consists largely of discriminating against infected
trees or disease prone species in selecting trees to be cut in
the course of standard silvicultural practices.

29

II. DESCRIPTION OF EXISTING ENVIRONMENT

There are three major biomes found in western Oregon; namely the
Coniferous Forest, Grassland, and Woodland-Bushland. To delineate more
precisely the ecological variations within the three broad biomes, further
breakdown into sub-biomes is made. The Coniferous Forest Biome in western
Oregon includes the Northwest Coastal Coniferous Forest sub-biome and the
Montane Forest sub-biome. The Grassland Biome is represented in south-
western Oregon by the Palouse Prairie Grassland sub-biome. The Woodland-
Bushland Biome is represented by the Broad Sclerophyll sub-biome.

Although precise boundaries between biomes and sub-biomes are not
distinguishable in the field, they are employed in this statement in order
to utilize the basic advantages of the biome approach. Upon this basis,
then, data on the existing environment are collected.

Brief geographic descriptions of the sub-biomes are as follows (see
Figure 5) :

- Northwest Coastal Coniferous Forest (Sub-biome 1) . This forest
extends from the northern to the southern border of western Oregon.
The crest of the Cascade Mountains marks the eastern reach of the
Coastal Forest, and the Pacific Ocean bounds the western reach.

At approximately 43° N latitude, the Coastal Forest constricts to
a narrow band along the west slope of the southern Oregon Siskiyou
and Coast Range Mountains .

- Montane Coniferous Forest (Sub-biome 2) . That portion of the
Montane Forest considered herein is located in southwestern Oregon,
generally ranging south from 43° N latitude to the California
border, and extending west from the line between Ranges 8 and 9
East to the summit of the Coast Range.

- Palouse Prairie Grassland (Sub-biome 3) . The portion of the sub-
biome of concern here is an extension of the northern California
Palouse Prairie extending into the southwestern corner of Oregon.

- Broad Sclerophyll (Sub-biome 4) . The Broad Sclerophyll sub-biome
occurs as biological islands within the southwestern part of the
Montane Forest and that portion of the Palouse Prairie Grassland
which is located in southwestern Oregon.

A. Non-living Components

Air

The State of Oregon lies mostly between latitudes 42° and 46° North,
and extends inland from the Pacific Ocean for some 375 miles. Its area
of about 96,700 square miles includes more than 1000 square miles of water
surface. Bordering the Pacific, the Coast Range extends from north

31

FIGURE N0.5

32

to south. Its crest is generally at elevations between 1500 and 2000
feet. Further to the east, the Cascade Range also lies on a north-south
axis, with a summit ridge mostly between 5000 and 6000 feet above sea
level. Through these mountain ranges, the Columbia River gorge forms a
relatively narrow, nearly sea level passage between the Pacific and the
intermountain plateau.

This combination of oceanic and continental atmospheric influences
with varied topography and land forms gives western Oregon a wide range
of regional and local climates. Westerly winds from the Pacific pre-
dominate; they move large masses of marine air eastward, modifying the
climates of the western parts of the state. The coldest weather in
winter and the warmest days of summer occur when these ocean winds cease
and the state is blanketed by a mass of continental air.

High pressure systems in late summer and early fall commonly cause
extended periods when portions of western Oregon are covered by a stagnant
air mass. The worst manifestation of this condition occurs in the Eugene-
Springfield area of the Willamette Valley.

East winds occasionally cause very low humidity in western areas of
the state. This sometimes occurs even in the winter season. Generally,
humidity is high west of the Cascades in winter, and on the coast through-
out the year.

The general eastward movement of marine air masses keeps temperatures
moderate most of the time. Infrequently, continental high pressure areas
reverse the flow, sending westward dry air that is hot in summer and cold
in winter.

The very cold arctic air that forms over Canada in winter is usually
barred from the Columbia Basin by the Continental Divide. Occasionally,
however, arctic air masses cross the Divide and move southward between
the Rocky Mountains and the Cascades. This very cold, dry air then spreads
out over the Columbia Basin and the intermountain plateau, causing the
more extreme winter temperatures. The Columbia River gorge allows contin-
ental air to flow into western Oregon from east of the Cascades to a greater
extent than it otherwise would. This is particularly true of cold air in
winter.

During the winter months, coastal southerly and southwesterly winds
originating in Pacific low-pressure systems may become very strong,
occasionally developing hurricane force. These winds move inland a few
times each winter and are sometimes destructive.

Thunderstorms are rare in the western valleys but are common in the
Cascades where many forest fires are caused by lightning.

33

Land

Physiography and Geology. Western Oregon lies within two major
physiographic provinces, Pacific Border Province and the Cascade Sierra
Province. These major divisions are further classified into sections,
the sections being the smallest recognizable unit. A physiographic
classification is based on those geologic processes acting on different
rock types and rock structures which erode at different rates to form
regions separated by recognizable boundaries. The following table is a
classification of the physiographic units in western Oregon. These are
shown on the physiographic map on the next page, (Figure 6) .

Division Province Section

Pacific Mtn. System Pacific Border Oregon Coast Range

Province Klamath Mountains

Willamette Valley

Cascade Sierra Western § High
Mountains Cascade Mtns .

The Oregon Coast Range section, a dissected arch of marine sediments,
lies between the Klamath Mountains on the south and the Columbia River on
the north. It is distinguished from the Klamath Mountains by being made
up of younger and less resistant rocks. The foot of the range is generally
well marked as it descends on the east to the Willamette Valley. South of
latitude 44° it borders the Cascade Range. Between Eugene and Roseburg the
range is made up of a belt of rough hills, 10 to 20 miles long, rising 500
to 1000 feet above the valleys. To the west, Tyee Mountain rises to a
height of 2600 feet or about 1000 feet higher than the surrounding hills.

To the south the hills rise 3000 feet to 5000 feet in elevation. The
main streams flow toward the west. A coastal plain up to 3 miles wide
borders much of the range and varies in elevation from 50 feet to 250 feet.

The marine sedimentary rocks in this section are all tertiary in age
and generally weak in nature. Volcanics are contemporaneous with or
intruded into the sediments and are more resistant, forming nearly all
capes and promontories on the coast and most high peaks. Structurally
the range is a low anticlinorium.

The Klamath Mountains lie west of the Cascade Range between the Coast
Range of Oregon and California. The mountains in this section are older
and more complex than the adjacent ranges. The drainage system is trans-
verse and shows little order as the streams have adjusted to a complex
geologic structure.

34

FIGURE NO 6

The southern part of the range is higher in altitude than the adjacent
California Coast Range. Generally, the altitude near the coast is 2000
feet to 2500 feet, and rises inland to a maximum height of approximately
7000 feet. The Rogue River crosses the range at about latitude 42°30',
and the Klamath River flows west a little south of the 42nd parallel. The
streams have cut narrow canyons 1000 feet to 2000 feet deep where the rocks
are strong and form narrow bottomlands where the rocks are weak. Marine
terraces and eroded sea cliffs, some as high as 1500 feet are found along
the western margin of this section.

The Klamath Mountains section lies mostly within the Montane Coniferous
Forest with the western and northern portions extending into the Northwest
Coniferous Forest. These mountains also contain a portion of the Broad
Sclerophyll .

Most of the rocks in this section are Mesozoic in age and have been
metamorphosed, including many masses of ancient volcanics and sedimentaries .
Granitics are also present. Thus the rocks are fairly strong and resistant.
The rocks have been folded and faulted with the general trend toward the
northeast and southwest.

The Willamette Valley in Oregon is similar to the Puget Trough to the
north but is unglaciated. The altitude of the floor is about 500 feet.
The topography varies from a flat alluvial plain, which makes up about
two-thirds of the district, to low hills. The stream pattern is braided
and becomes quite sluggish in the Eugene area, and floods are common.

Rocks within the section are mostly glacial and alluvial sediments
overlying older sediments. The low hills are composed of basalts or less
resistant sedimentary rocks.

The Cascade Range is divisible into the Western Cascades and High
Cascades; it is best described as a great pile of volcanic rocks. The
older Western Cascades are maturely dissected. Rocks range in age from
Eocene to possibly early Pliocene. Eocene to lower Miocene rocks are
chiefly pyroclastics with interbedded lava flows and lenses of waterlaid
sediments. Middle Miocene Rocks are predominantly basaltic lavas which
cap higher ridges and may be remnants of shield-type volcanoes. Younger
rocks vary from pyroclastics to basalts.

The High Cascades are the majestic volcanic peaks, cinder cones, and
relatively undissected lavas on the east side of the Range. Original
constructional form of most central vent volcanoes has been severely modi-
fied by glaciation. Most peaks are Plio-Pleistocene in age; recent flows
and cinder cones are common. Lavas are dominantly basaltic andesites and
olivine basalts. Some rhyolite and obsidian flows are present. Pumice
blankets large areas. Intracanyon basalts of Pliocene age extend into
the Western Cascades from the High Cascades. The highest peak is Mount

36

Hood, 11,235 feet. The Cascade Range is covered by the Coniferous Forest
Sub-biomes, and in the southern portion, supports a segment of the Broad
Sclerophyll .

Soils . The system of soil classification in the U.S. is similar to
the systems used to classify plants and animals. Soil classification
utilizes the soils' physical, chemical and mineralogical properties as
well as factors which influence plant growth. Climate, soil depth, coarse
fragment content and soil drainage are a few of the items which influence
plant growth and are used to separate one kind of soil from another.

There is a tremendous variation in kinds of soils occurring in western
Oregon. This variation decreases as one ascends the categorical rungs of
the classification scheme. Each sub-biome contains a group of soils, at
some higher level of classification, which are similar in many character-
istics. This is because climate and vegetation are reflected in soil
development just as climate and soils are major items in the evolution of
a plant community.

On the above premise some of the major soil series will be discussed
for each sub-biome. It must also be remembered that the soils in each
sub-biome are quite variable when considered at the lower classification
categories (the more detailed separations). There are transitional types
of soils which occur in more than one sub-biome. The major soils discussed
for each biome occur extensively and are examples of numerous soil series
with similar characteristics.

Soils discussed will be identified in one of two ways. Soil series

officially established by the Soil Conservation Service will be identified

by name. Soil series not officially established will be identified by
numerals .

General definitions of terms used in the following sections are as
follows :

Soil Texture

Clayey - Soils containing over 35% clay in the fine earth fraction.

Clayey-skeletal - Soils containing over 35% coarse fragments by volume
and more than 35% clay in the fine earth fraction.

Loamy-skeletal - Soils containing greater than 35% coarse fragments by
volume and the fine earth fraction contains less than 35% clay.

Fine-loamy - A soil containing 15% or more particles which are greater
than 0.1 MM in size and contains 18 to 35% clay in the fine earth
fraction.

37

Coarse-loamy - A soil containing 15% or more particles which are
greater than 0.1 MM in size and contains less than 18% clay in the
fine earth fraction.

Climate.

Temperature - Mesic soils have mean annual temperatures of 47° F. or
more. Frigid soils have mean annual temperatures less than 47° F.

Moisture - Xeric soils are dry for 60 consecutive days, 7 out of 10
years. Udic soils are not dry for 90 cumulative days nor 60 consecu-
tive days.

Northwest Coastal Coniferous Forest (Sub-biome 1) . Thomas , Pomerening
and Simonsen listed the soils which occur in the uplands adjacent to the
Willamette Valley.

The Jory series is a red, clayey soil occurring in xeric-mesic zone
at lower elevations adjacent to the interior valleys. Honeygrove soils
are similar to the Jory soils except they occur at intermediate elevations
in the udic-mesic zone. Both soils are located in the Cascade and Coast
Range Mountains. The Kinney soils are brown, fine-loamy and Hembre soils
are red, fine-loamy. Kinney and Hembre soils also occur in the udic-mesic
zone. Kinney soils are located at intermediate elevations in the Cascade
Mountains. Hembre soils are located at intermediate elevations in the
Cascade and Coast Range Mountains. Astoria soils are brown, fine soils
occurring in the udic-mesic zone. These soils are dominantly located on
the west side of the Coast Range Mountains and areas in the north which
drain into the Columbia River.

Digger and 564 soils are brown, loamy-skeletal and are located on
sedimentary bedrock in the Coast Range Mountains. 564 soils are less than
20 inches to hard bedrock. Both of these soils occur in the udic-mesic
zone .

Bureau of Land Management has mapped extensive acreages of 381 and
371 soils in the xeric-mesic zone of the Klamath Mountains. The 381 soils
are red, clayey-skeletal while the 371 soils are brown and loamy-skeletal.
Orford soils are located on the southern Oregon coastal areas. These soils
are brown, clayey and occur in the udic-mesic zone. The brown, coarse-
loamy Siskiyou soils occur in the Siskiyou Mountains and are in the xeric-
mesic climatic zone.

Some soil properties and interpretations for these soils listed for
the above biome are listed in Table 1. Detailed soil reports must be
referred to for specific ratings under various conditions for these soils
and for other soil series not listed above.

38

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59

Broad Sclerophyll and portions of the Palouse Prairie (Sub-biome 4) .
Power and Simonsen describe the soils occurring in the Broad Sclerophyll
sub-biome. Carney soils are xeric, mesic, well drained, dark brown, clay
and occur on footslopes. Freezener soils are xeric, mesic, deep, well
drained, reddish brown, clays. They are formed over basalt and occur in
the steep uplands. Josephine soils are xeric, mesic, moderately deep,
well drained, reddish brown clay loams. They are formed over metamorphased
sandstone and shale and occur in the uplands. Pearsoll soils are shallow,
xeric, mesic, reddish brown clays. They are formed over serpentine bed-
rock and occur in the foothills and uplands. These soils are unique as
they contain sufficient magnesium to inhibit many plant species. Siskiyou
soils are xeric, mesic, moderately deep, excessively drained, yellowish
brown sandy loams. They are formed on granitoid rocks and occur in the
foothills and uplands. Med ford soils are xeric, mesic, deep well drained,
black silt loams. They are formed in alluvium and occur on terraces and
valley bottoms.

Table 2 lists some characteristics of the above soils.

Table 2 -

Engineering Classification, Hazard
Productivity for Selected Soils

Ratings

and

Relative

Soil Series

Unified
Classifi-
cation
(subsoil)

Hydrologic
Group

Compaction.
Hazard

1/

Erosion±/
Hazard

Productivity

Carney

CH

D

high

med-h

ligh

--

Freezener

MH

B

med

high

--

Josephine

MH

C

high

high

SI=140 (D. fir)

Medford

CL or ML

B

med

low

6-7 T of hay/A

Pearsall

CH

D

high

high

--

Siskiyou

SM

B

low

high

SI=110 (sugar pine)

1/ Based on reduction in pore space which impedes root development
and air and water movement

2/ Based on a bare soil surface

40

Water

The characteristics of the water resource vary markedly across Oregon,
and the boundaries for areas with similar characteristics will differ from
those of the biomes and sub-biomes and of the physiographic and geologic
areas described in the previous section. The subdivisions of Oregon used
in this section for describing the water resource were adapted from the
Columbia-North Pacific Region Comprehensive Framework Study, Appendix V,
and are shown in Figure 7. The description of the water resource within
each of these subdivisions will include the characteristics of the surface
water, the ground water, the chemical quality and the sediment load of
these waters .

Coastal Area. This subdivision includes all the small coastal rivers
west of the Coast Range in the northern part, and those large coastal
rivers which head in the Cascade Mountains in the southern portion of the
State. The northern portion is included in the Northwest Coastal Coniferous
Forest and the southeastern portion is included in the Broad Sclerophyll
and Palouse Prairie Grassland.

Surface Water. The coastal streams in the northern portion of this

subdivision yield the greatest amount of annual runoff--about 100 inches
for both the Wilson and the Siletz Rivers. The runoff decreases south-
ward to about 35 inches per year for the Umpqua and the Coquille River
basins and 30 inches for the Rogue Basin. Winter rainfall is the major
source of runoff, particularly in the northern portion, with a secondary
source from snowmelt in the Upper Umpqua and Rogue Basins. Those streams
with rainfall as the main source of runoff have a seasonal peak from
December to January and a seasonal low in August. Those streams whose
runoff is supplemented by snowmelt have a secondary peak in May and June.

The quality of the surface waters is generally very good; the streams
are very dilute and very soft. In the northern portion, the total
dissolved solids range from about 30 to 50 mg/1, with the range in hard-
ness from 8 to 30 mg/1 with calcium and bicarbonate as the major ions.
Some of the lower tributaries of the Rogue River contain water with a
higher portion of magnesium bicarbonate.

Suspended sediment yield from the coastal area is generally low.
About 89 percent of the area yields 0.1 to 0.2 acre feet per square mile
per year. Portions of the Upper Rogue yield 0.02 to 0.1 AF/SMY and areas
around the Upper South Fork of the Umpqua, the South Fork of the Coquille
River, and the Upper Wilson River yield 0.2 to 0.5 AF/SMY.

Ground Water. Most of the area is classified as yielding 1 to 20

gallons per minute of water to a well. An exception is the southwestern
portion of the west slope of the Cascade Mountains whose ground water
yield is unknown but which is underlain by volcanic material capable of
yielding moderate to large supplies in the higher elevations and small

41

FIGURE N0.7

42

to moderate supplies in the lower elevations. The best aquifers are the
alluvial deposits along the major streams and beach deposits. These sites
may yield from 20 to 500 gallons per minute.

Ground water recharge is almost entirely by direct rainfall on the
areas of outcrop of the aquifer. About 80 percent of the area is under-
lain by geologic material whose specific yields (the percent by volume
of the material which is capable of yielding water to a well) are estimated
to be 2 percent or less. This characteristic determines the relationship
between surface water and ground water as described below:

"With the combination of low specific yield and heavy rainfall,
the water table rises rapidly and comes quickly to a level
where ground water discharges into even the most minor of
drainage channels in the rugged terrain. Generally, the water
level reaches a peak in early winter or midwinter; thereafter,
continued heavy precipitation merely maintains the water level
at relatively high levels. During periods of a week or two
without rainfall, the water table declines sharply."

Ground water generally has a dissolved solids concentration of from
very low levels up to 500 mg/1. Commonly, more highly mineralized water
is encountered at depths of several hundred feet. A few wells have
encountered saline water at depths of less than 100 feet. Iron and
hydrogen sulfide are problems in some supplies. Boron concentrations
of 1 to 20 mg/1 are found in the Medford area along with excessive
fluoride.

Willamette Area. This area includes the Willamette River and its
tributaries and extends from the crest of the Coast Range east to the
crest of the Cascades and from the Columbia River south for 150 miles.
This area is included in the Northwest Coastal Coniferous Forest.

Surface Water. Streams which enter the Willamette River from the

Coast Range (west side of the valley) have a distinctly different hydro-
graph shape than the streams from the Cascade Mountains (east side of
the valley) . The west side streams have one main peak flow period per
year, from December through January, as a result of heavy winter rains
with relatively little snow. Rainfall on the crest of the Coast Range
averages from 100 to 200 inches per year in the northern part, and
decreases to 60 to 90 inches per year in the southern portion. On the
east side of the valley, winter snowpack may form a significant part of
the yearly runoff and this causes a second peak in the hydrograph from
these streams in April and May. Runoff from the entire basin averages
about 43 inches per year.

The quality of surface water in the Willamette area is generally good
with the dissolved solids content ranging from 38 mg/1 to about 95 mg/1.
The surface waters contain ions of the calcium magnesium bicarbonate type.

43

Of particular significance is the lack of an increase in the salt load
from irrigation return flows since the earliest chemical analyses in 1910.
This low salt load (about 0.02 ton/acre/year) is due in part to the humid
zone and the well leached soils that contain only small quantities of
soluble salts. The total dissolved solids load for the Willamette basin
is estimated to be about 0.28 ton/acre/year.

About 80 percent of the annual sediment discharge occurs during the
high rainfall and high runoff period from November to February. About 90
percent of the area yields from 0.1 to 0.2 acre-feet/square mile per year.
Suspended sediment concentrations for large streams range from less than
100 mg/1 to about 400 mg/1, but may exceed 2000 mg/1 during major floods.

Ground Water. Perhaps 65 percent of the Willamette area is underlain

by geologic material which yields 1 to 20 gallons per minute to wells.
Yield from the volcanic rocks of the Cascade Mountains is generally unknown,
however, the character of streamflow in this region indicates yield to wells
may be moderate to large. The best aquifers are found in the alluvial
deposits of the Willamette River and its major tributaries. This material
will yield 20 to 500 gallons per minute.

Ground water quality is generally good with low fluoride and boron
concentrations and low sodium absorption ratio. Iron concentrations may
be in excess of recommended limits in some wells. Most ground water has
dissolved solids concentrations of less than 500 mg/1. Water from marine
strats may be moderately to highly saline at depth of a few hundred feet.
In a few places, saline water may be encountered at less than 100 feet.

B. Living Components

Aquatic Vegetation

Vegetation is a vital component of aquatic ecosystems because plants
are the beginning of the food chain--only they can fix biochemical energy
and synthesize basic organic substances. Aquatic plants therefore provide
food and cover for insects, other invertebrates, fish, waterfowl, fur
bearers, big game, and non-game birds and animals. Growth of aquatic
vegetation along streambanks and lakeshores prevents soil erosion and
contributes to the natural beauty of the ecosystem.

Some aquatic plants grow in nearly all waters of the state depending
on suitable temperature, water depth and movement, available nutrients,
salinity, light for photosynthesis, and sufficient time for growth and
reproduction. The aquatic environment is often classified as either
running (lotic) or standing (lentic) water habitat.

The running water habitat includes the smallest mountain streams at
high altitudes to major rivers at low elevations. Water originating in
all watersheds in western Oregon eventually enters the Pacific Ocean.

44

Streams at higher elevations generally contain less vegetation than those
at lower elevations due to steeper gradients, cooler water, and a lower
concentration of nutrients.

Lakes, reservoirs, ponds, marshes and bogs make up the standing water
habitat of western Oregon. A greater variety and more abundant growths of

vegetation usually occur in standing rather than in running water environ-
ments. Natural lakes can be classified into three groups according to their
morphometry and productivity--young, maturing or old.

Most young lakes are found at higher elevations in the Coniferous
Forest Biome, whereas maturing lakes occur in all biomes at all elevations.
Mature lakes, ponds and marshes (both marine and freshwater, including
estuaries) are areas of enormous biological productivity because of the
rich waters and abundant communities of aquatic vegetation.

Aquatic plants are usually grouped into three general categories--
floating, submersed and emersed. Representative plant species widespread
in Oregon and probably common to all sub-biomes are listed by genera as
follows :

Floating. Green and blue-green algae; duckweed (Lemna and
Spirodela); water shield (Brasenia) ; pond lily (Nuphar) ; and
floating pondweed (Potamogeton) .

Submersed . Stonewort (Chara) ; bladderwort (Utricularia) ; some
pondweed (Potamogeton); Hornwort (Ceratophyllum) ; water milfoil
(Myriophyllum) ; water buttercup (Ranunculus); mare's trail
(Hippuris) ; and elodea (Elodea) .

- Emersed. Cat-tail (Typha) ; bulrush (Scirpus) ; yellow cress

(Rorippa); buttercup (Ranunculus); bur-reed (Sparganium) ; water
persicaria (Polygonum); water plantain (Alisma); arrowhead (Saggit-
taria); sedge (Carex) ; spikerush (Eleocharis) ; horsetail (Equisetum) ;
cyperus (Cyperus) ; rush (Juncus) ; mannagrass (Glyceria) ; common reed
(Phragmites) ; slough grass (Beckmannia) ; reed canarygrass (Phalaris) ;
willow (Salix) ; alder (Alnus) and cottonwood (Populus) .

Aquatic plants tend to grow in communities according to water depth,
which is probably the major habitat requirement for most species. In
aquatic ecosystems some plants occur in open water, others occupy the
littoral zone, and different species grow along the shores of lakes and
banks of rivers (riparian vegetation) .

Plant communities in standing water environments are constantly
changing due to natural processes. Shoal areas, for example, are developed
by sedimentation from shore erosion and tributary streams. Rooted vege-
tation grows on the shoals and contributes to filling of lakes by retaining
debris and sediment. Tributary streams continue to add more nutrients.
Dense growth of emergent plants extend outward from shore. Dead plant

45

material accumulates and further fills the lake. Succession of grasses
and sedges then converts the lake into marshes or bogs, and finally dry
land. Plant succession is therefore an important factor in the gradual
conversion of water bodies to land, which is a long term process
requiring hundreds of years to complete under natural conditions.

Terrestrial Vegetation

Generally speaking, western Oregon is dominated by coniferous forest
interrupted by the Willamette, Umpqua and Rogue River Valleys.

The following description deals only with major non-agricultural
vegetative conditions such as forest zones, wherein a single tree species
is the major climax dominant. Each forest zone or vegetative type
described has within its boundary other kinds of undescribed (in this
statement) vegetation limited to a very small proportion of the total land
area. Oak (Quercus) - grass types scattered throughout the coniferous
forest is one example. Another is riparian, or streamside, vegetation
which forms a network throughout all sub-biomes. Riparian vegetation
varies considerably and may include red alder (Alnus rubra) , black cotton-
wood (Populus trichocarpa) , and where annual flooding occurs, willow (Salix
spp.). Where streams are normally confined to their banks such vegetation
is more typical of the forest zone, or other vegetative type, within which
it lies.

Palouse Prairie Grassland. In western Oregon this sub-biome exists
in portions of Jackson, Josephine and Douglas counties. (Refer to Figure
5.)

Predominant vegetation consists of a large selection of grass species
occurring in both a natural state and in extensive areas under cultivation.
Sagebrush and other shrub species are interspersed with the grasslands
throughout much of the area.

Growth occurs mainly during the early spring months and the grasses
mature and dry by the first of July. A long frost period during the winter
and a dry summer period force vegetation to remain dormant the greater part
of the year. Fall growth occurs only in unusually favorable years.

Clearly the most important native grasses of the Palouse Prairie are
the bluebunch wheatgrass (Agrophyron spicatum) and its close relative
Agropyron inerme. Idaho fescue (Festuca idahoensis) , needlegrass (Stipa
comata) , Sandberg bluegrass (Poa secunda) , Junegrass (Koeleria cristata) ,
and big bluegrass (Poa ampla) are the associated grasses. Bottomlands and
clay soils are often dominated by giant ryegrass (Elymus cinereus) and
western wheatgrass (Agropyron smithii) . Sandy soils and rocky soils may
support Indian ricegrass (Oryzopsis hymenoides), needlegrass (Stipa comata),
and sand dropseed (Sporobolus cryptandrus) . In southwestern Oregon,
following fire or heavy grazing, medusahead wildrye (F.lymus caput -medusae)

46

is the principal invader and now occupies approximately 70-80 percent of
the area. As a result, bunch wheatgrass can be found only in isolated
undisturbed areas.

Interspersed with the grasses are various tree and shrub species,
including Oregon ash (Fraxinus latifolia), various oaks (Quercus spp.),
sweetbriar rose (Rosa eglanteria) and poison oak (Rhus diversiloba) .
Transitional sites support larger numbers of the trees and shrubs
typical of the Broad Sclerophyll sub-biome described below.

Only in the more moist borderlands are broad leaved herbs important.
Balsamroot (Balsamorhiza spp.), lupine (Lupinus spp.), yarrow (Achillea
spp.), mule-ear dock (Wyethia spp.), and little sunflower (Helianthella
spp.) are locally abundant.

Successional changes are most often associated with grazing, fire,
cultivation and other disturbances. Grazing most seriously affects the
larger perennial grasses since they are preferred by cattle and sheep.
Heavy grazing therefore tends to eliminate Agropyron spicatum, Festucca
idahoensis, etc., and to increase sagebrush and annual grasses, parti-
cularly medusahead-rye.

Broad Sc 1 erophy 1 1 . This sub-biome exists as scattered or interrupted
areas in southwestern Oregon (see Figure 5) where sclerophyl lus species
(species with broad, evergreen leaves) predominate in a climax association;
i.e., the final stage of plant succession. Such climax communities
normally occur on the dryer (xeric) sites typical of the Ilmpqua or Rogue
River Valley and shallow soils on southerly exposures at higher elevations
or areas of high rainfall.

Vegetation common to the sub-biome may include the following broad-
leaf evergreen trees and shrubs (typical sclerophyl lus) and deciduous
species to a lesser degree:

Evergreen (Sclerophyl lus)

Tanoak (Lithocarpus densiflorus)
Chinkapin (Castanopsis chrysophylla)
Canyon Live Oak (Quercus chrysolepis)
Pacific Madrone (Arbutus menziesii)
Narrow-leaf Buckthorn (Ceanothus cuneatus)
Snowbrush or Varnishleaf (C . veluntinus)
Pine Mat Manzanita (Arctostophylos nevadensis)
Hoary Manzanita (A. canescens)
White Leaved Manzanita (A. viscida)
California Coffee Berry (Rhamnus californica)
Birchlcad Mountain Mahogany (Cereocarpus betuloides)

4~

Deciduous

Oregon White Oak (Quercus garryana)

California Black Oak (Q. Kelloggii)

Redstem Ceanothus (Ceanothus sanguineus)

Deerbrush Ceanothus (C. integerrimus)

Pale Serviceberry (Amelanchier pallida)

Skunkbrush Sumac (Rhus trilobata)

Poison Oak (Rhus diversiloba)

Vegetation typical of the Broad Sclerophyll frequently occurs out-
side the sub-biome as an intermediate stage of plant succession where
a later stage will be coniferous forest: such an area is however considered
as the Montane Coniferous Forest rather than Broad Sclerophyll. It is
often very difficult to determine whether a community on a given site is
climax or intermediate (serai).

Northwest Coastal Coniferous Forest. This is the most densely
forested of the two coniferous forest sub-biomes. The forests generally
regenerate easily, grow rapidly and reach impressive sizes. The lower
vegetative layers are usually poorly developed except at dry sites where
open canopies encourage growth of lush understory of shrub and herbaceous
layers .

Plant succession following removal of forest vegetation, usually
proceeds through three stages; (1) rapid growth of residual and invading
herbaceous plants (such as grasses and ferns) , (2) gradual development
into a shrub dominated condition, and (3) development of the young growth
forest. Stages one or two, or both, may not occur depending upon environ-
mental factors. Either of the first two stages may also dominate for
exceedingly long periods of time, also due to environmental factors.

Franklin and Dyrness have identified five major vegetative (climax)
zones within the sub-biome that are dominated by coniferous vegetation;
they include (1) the coastal "Sitka Spruce Zone", (2) the widespread
inland low to mid-elevational "Western Hemlock Zone", (3) the higher
elevational "Pacific Silver Fir Zone", (4) the sub-alpine "Mountain
Hemlock Zone" and (5) "Timberline" (Figure 8) . These vegetation zones
reflect climatic conditions inherent with elevational differences that
occur throughout the Northwest Coastal area. The "Sitka Spruce Zone"
where snow seldom occurs, for example, is the mildest in Oregon, while
the "Mountain Hemlock Zone" is one of the coldest.

Major tree species and their occurrence within the major zones are
estimated in Table 3.

■ 18

FIGURE N0.8

Crt

Q.

LU

<

-z.

2

o

N

2

O

00

h-

LU

<

QC

o

O

o

U_

_l

CO

_l

3

<

O

(Z

or

LU

LU

2

u_

LU

■z.

C5>

o

o

Table 3

Northwest Coastal Sub-Biome

1/

Major Species Occurrence By Zones —

1/

2/

ZONES

Sitka

Western

Pacific

Mountain

Timber-

Species

Spruce

Hemlock

Silver Fir

Hemlock

line

Western White Pine

4

3

2

3

4

(Pinus monticola)

Sugar Pine

4

3

3

3

4

(Pinus lambertiana)

Whitebark Pine

4

4

4

2

1

(Pinus albicaulis)

Lodgepole Pine

1

4

2

3

3

(Pinus contorta)

Ponderosa Pine

4

4

4

4

4

(Pinus ponderosa)

Western Larch

4

4

3

3

4

(Larix occidentalis)

Engelmann Spruce

4

4

2

2

2

(Picea engelmannii)

Sitka Spruce

2

3

4

4

4

(Picea sitchensis)

Western Hemlock

1

1

2

3

4

(Tsuga heterophylla)

Mountain Hemlock

4

4

2

2

2

(Tsuga mertensiana)

Douglas-fir

1

1

2

3

4

(Pseudotsuga menziesii)

Grand Fir

2

2

3

4

4

(Abies grandis)

Pacific Silver Fir

4

3

1

2

3

(Abies amabilis)

White Fir

4

4

4

4

4

(Abies concolor)

Noble Fir

4

3

2

3

4

(Abies procera)

Shasta Red Fir

4

4

3

3

3

(Abies magnifica)

Subalpine Fir

4

4

2

2

2

(Abies lasiocarpa)

Redwood

2

4

4

4

4

(Sequoia sempervirens)

Incense Cedar

3

2

3

4

4

(Libocedrus decurrens)

Western Redcedar

2

2

3

4

4

(Thuja plicata)

1_/ 1 = abundant, 2 = common, 3 = uncommon, 4 = rare or absent
2/ Zones containing significant amounts of BLM acreage

50

The "cool -moist", "warm-dry" dichotomy relates to plant succession
following removal of the coniferous forest. There is, for example, an
especially strong tendency towards development of dense, semi -permanent
shrub and hardwood communities, that exclude or limit conifers, on
relatively "cool-moist" sites within the Sitka Spruce Zone. On relatively
"warm-dry" sites in the Western Hemlock Zone however, the tendency is
towards exclusion of conifers during a period of dominance by herbaceous
plants, especially following clearcutting and burning.

Port-Orford-cedar (Chamaecyparis lawsoniana) is a natural component
of timber stands on sites of almost any moisture regime in extreme south-
western Oregon. It is currently endangered by a killing root disease,
however, to the extent that is has nearly been eliminated from moist
sites and could possibly be eliminated from most of its natural range.

Montane Coniferous Forest. Forests of this sub-biome generally
reproduce with difficulty or'grow slowly, have relatively open canopies,
and tend to have sparse understory, shrub and herbaceous layers (excep-
tions are commonplace) . Plant succession following removal of the forest
in this sub-biome usually follows the three stages outlined for the
Northwest Coastal Coniferous Forest; i.e., herbs, to shrubs, to conifers.
Also as in the Northwest Coastal Coniferous Forest, one or both of the
first two stages may not occur on any given area, or may persist for an
exceedingly long period of time.

This region may be viewed as having five major zones of tree species
which reflect climatic conditions inherent with elevational differences.
From low to high elevation these zones are: (1) "Mixed Conifer and Mixed
Evergreen", (2) "White Fir", (3) "Red Fir", (4) "Mountain Hemlock", and
(5) "Timberline" . The lowest zone, the "Mixed Conifer and Mixed Ever-
green" is warm and dry while higher zones, such as the "Red Fir" and
"Mountain Hemlock" zones are cool and moist. Major tree species found
within the major zones are estimated on Table 4.

Plant succession is normally slow following removal of forest on
relatively "warm-dry" sites in "Mixed Conifer and Mixed Evergreen" and
"White Fir" zones; establishment of coniferous seedlings may require
as much as 25 years or more. Plant succession on relatively "cool-
moist" sites, however, is normally more rapid provided other inter-
fering conditions, sue*1 as animal damage, are not limiting.

51

Table 4 - Montane Sub-Biome

Major Species Occurrence By Zone ±J
S.W. Oregon Region

2/

2/

IONHS

Mixed

White

Red

Mountain

Timber-

C. or E .

Fir

Fir

Hemlock

line

3

3

3

3

4

2

3

3

3

4

4

4

3

2

1

3

3

3

3

2

2

3

4

4

4

3

3

4

4

4

4

4

3

3

3

3

4

4

4

4

4

4

3

1

2

2

2

4

4

4

3

4

4

4

4

4

3

2

4

4

2

1

3

4

4

4

4

3

4

4

4

3

1

2

3

4

4

3

2

2

2

2

3

4

4

3

3

4

4

4

Species

Western White Pine

(Pinus monticola)
Sugar Pine

(Pinus lambertiana)
Whitebark Pine

(Pinus albicaulis)
Lodgepole Pine

(Pinus contorta)
Ponderosa Pine

(Pinus ponderosa)
Jeffrey Pine

(Pinus jeffreyi)
Engelmann Spruce

(Picea engelmannii)
Western Hemlock
(Tsuga heterophylla)
Mountain Hemlock

(Tsuga mertensiana)
Douglas-fir

(Pseudotsuga menziesii)
Grand fir

(Abies grandis)
Pacific Silver Fir

(Abies amabilis)
White Fir

(Abies concolor)
Noble Fir

(Abies procera)
Shasta Red Fir

(Abies magnifica

var. shastensis)
Subalpine Fir

(Abies lasiocarpa)
Incense Cedar

(Libocedrus decurrens)
Western Redcedar

(Thuja plicata)

1/ 1 = abundant, 2 = common, 3 = uncommon, 4 = rare or absent
2/ Zones containing significant amounts of BLM acreage

52

A notable successional characteristic within these zones is a strong
tendency towards development of extensive, dense brushfields of dry-site
species and subsequent delay in establishment of coniferous seedlings,
especially where fire has occurred. Species common to this successional
stage are often those typical of the Broad Sclerophyll.

Aquatic Animals

Large indigenous populations of salmon and trout have always been the
principal species of aquatic wildlife utilized by man in western Oregon.
Native production of salmon and trout has decreased drastically in the
last century because of adverse habitat changes caused by irrigation,
agriculture, logging, and pollution. Entire races of anadromous fish have
been eliminated by water projects that blocked fish runs to hundreds of
miles of productive habitat. To compensate for decreasing natural produc-
tion, intensive artificial propagation programs by State and Federal
fishery agencies have been implemented in recent years. This increased
hatchery production of salmon and trout is making substantial contributions
to the fisheries.

Distribution of fishes in western Oregon, as described in this state-
ment, is based on information from Oregon State University, reports of the
Pacific Northwest River Basins Commission, and both Basin Investigation
reports and Annual Reports of the Fishery Division of the Oregon State
Wildlife Commission. Common and scientific names listed are those recom-
mended by the American Fisheries Society.

A checklist of freshwater fishes is shown by sub-biome in Table 5.
These species occur in waters west of the crest of the Cascade Mountains
and part of the Klamath Basin. The greatest number of species inhabit
the Northwest Coastal Coniferous Forest sub-biome because it comprises
most of western Oregon and has greater diversity of habitat than the other
sub-biomes .

Fish in Oregon are generally grouped into the following five cate-
gories: anadromous fish*, cold-water game fish, warm-water game fish, non-
game fish, and surf and bay fish. Marine species are not discussed in
detail in this report.

* Anadromous fish are hatched in freshwater, migrate as juveniles to
the ocean to grow and mature, and return as adults to freshwater to spawn.

53

Table 5 - A Checklist of Freshwater Fishes
in Western Oregon by Sub-biome

NW Coastal

Montane

Broad

Palouse

Species

Forest

Forest

Sclerophyll

Prairie

ANADROMOUS SPECIES

Pacific lamprey

(Lampetra tridentata)

X

X

X

X

White sturgeon

(Acipenser transmontanus)

X

X

X

American shad

(Alosa sapidissima)

X

X

X

Cutthroat trout

(Salmo clarki clarki)

X

X

X

X

Steelhead

-

(Salmo g. gairdneri)

X

X

X

X

Sockeye salmon

(Oncorhynchus nerka)

X

Chum salmon

(Oncorhynchus keta)

X

Coho salmon

(Oncorhynchus kisutch)

X

X

X

X

Chinook salmon

(Oncorhynchus tshawytscha)

X

X

X

X

Pink salmon

(Oncorhynchus gorbuscha)

X

Eulachon

(Thaleichthys pacificus)

X

Longfin smelt

(Spirinchus thaleichthys)

X

Striped bass

(Morone saxatilis)

X

COLD-WATER GAME SPECIES

Mountain whitefish

(Prosopium williamsoni)

X

Brook trout

(Salvelinus fontinalis)

X

X

X

Dolly Varden

(Salvelinus malma)

X

Cutthroat trout

(Salmo clarki)

X

X

X

X

Brown trout

(Salmo trutta)

X

X

X

Golden trout

(Salmo aguabonita)

X

Rainbow trout

(Salmo gairdneri)

X

X

X

X

54

Species

NW Coastal
Forest

COLD-WATER GAME SPECIES (Cont . )

Kokanee

(Oncorhynchus n. kennerlyi) X
Lost River sucker

(Catostomus luxatus)
Burbot

(Lota lota) X

WARM- WATER GAME SPECIES

White catfish

(Ictalurus catus) X

Channel catfish

(Ictalurus punctatus) X
Yellow bullhead

(Ictalurus natalis) X

Brown bullhead

(Ictalurus nebulosus) X
White crappie

(Pomoxis annularis) X

Black crappie

(Pomoxis nigromaculatus) X
Pumpkinseed

(Lepomis gibbosus) X

Bluegill

(Lepomis macrochirus) X
Warmouth

(Lepomis gulosus) X

Green sunfish

(Lepomis cyanellus) X

Largemouth bass

(Micropterus salmoides) X
Smallmouth bass

(Micropterus dolomieui) X
Walleye

(Stizostedion vitreum vitreum) X
Yellow perch

(Perca flavescens) X

NON-GAME SPECIES

Pit-klamath brook lamprey

(Lampetra lethophaga)
River lamprey

(Lampetra ayresi) X

Western brook lamprey

(Lampetra richardsoni) X

Montane Broad Palouse
Forest Sclerophyll Prairie

55

Species
NON-GAME SPECIES (Cont . )

Mountain sucker

(Catostomus platyrhynchus)
Bridgelip sucker

(Catostomus columbianus)
Klamath smallscale sucker

(Catostomus rimiculus)
Largescale sucker

(Catostomus macrocheilus)
Klamath largescale sucker

(Catostomus synderi)
Shortnose sucker

(Chasmistes brevirostris)
Carp

(Cyprinus carpio)
Tench

(Tinea tinea)
Chiselmouth

(Acrocheilus alutaceus)
Oregon chub

(Hybopsis crameri)
Northern squawfish

(Ptychocheilus oregonensis)
Umpqua squawfish

(Ptychocheilus umpquae)
Redside shiner

(Richardsonius balteatus
balteatus)
Blue chub

(Gila coerulea)
Tui chub

(Gila bicolor)
Umpqua dace

(Rhinichthys evermanni)
Longnose dace

(Rhinichthys cataractae
dulcis)
Speckled dace

(Rhinichthys osculus)
Blackside dace

(Rhinichthys o. nubilus)
Leopard dace

(Rhinichthys falcatus)
Millicoma dace

(Rhinichthys sp.)

NW Coastal Montane Broad Palouse
Forest Forest Sclerophyll Prairie

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X
X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

1

X

56

Species

Peamouth

(Mylocheilus caurinus)
Rainwater killifish

(Lucania parva)
Mosquitofish

(Gambusia affinis)
Sand roller

(Percopsis transmontana)
Slender sculpin

(Cottus tenuis)
Coastrange sculpin

(Cottus aleuticus)
Klamath Lake sculpin

(Cottus princeps)
Prickly sculpin

(Cottus asper)
Riffle sculpin

(Cottus gulosus)
Shorthead sculpin

(Cottus confusus)
Torrent sculpin

(Cottus rhotheus)
Mottled sculpin

(Cottus bairdi semiscaber)
Piute sculpin

(Cottus beldingi)
Marbled sculpin

(Cottus klamathensis)
Reticulate sculpin

(Cottus perplexus)
Three-spined stickleback

(Gasterosteus aculeatus)

NW Coastal
Forest

Montane Broad Palouse
Forest Sclerophyll Prairie

57

Various subspecies of both rainbow and cutthroat trout have been
reared in hatcheries and at one time or another planted in most easily-
accessible waters of western Oregon to improve angling.

Cold-water game fish require colder water temperatures (below 70°F)
and the best water quality to maintain healthy populations. They are most
numerous in streams and lakes of the Coniferous Forest, but occur in all
sub-biomes where habitat is suitable. Young salmon and steelhead require
the same water quality conditions that cold-water game fish prefer.

Some resident trout, kokanee, whitefish, mullet and lampreys exhibit
seasonal intra-stream migrations for spawning in many stream and lake
systems.

Young trout and salmon are primarily insect feeders. As they grow
and become larger, a greater variety of organisms are eaten, including
crustaceans and terrestrial insects that fall into streams. Mature
individuals become quite predaceous on small fish, especially Dolly Varden
and brown trout. An abundant population of salmonid species is therefore
dependent upon a healthy food chain consisting of many small animals that
feed on aquatic plants. Good water quality and habitat conditions are
essential to maintain the food chain.

Warm-water game fish have been widely introduced throughout western
Oregon in all types of aquatic habitat. They may be caught unexpectedly
in some waters, the result of illegal introduction. These species require
warmer water temperatures (75°-85°F) than trout for reproduction. They
are also more tolerant of adverse habitat conditions than are salmon and
trout, e.g., lower dissolved oxygen concentrations or increased turbidity.
They are more prolific then cold-water species and usually cause fishery
management problems when introduced into waters managed for trout or
salmon production. Because they will thrive in a wide range of habitat
conditions and degraded waters, these species provide recreation in some
waters unsuited for cold-water fishes.

Native non-game species like shiners, dace, suckers, chubs and squaw-
fish, and the introduced carp can cause serious management problems to
fishery managers. Populations of non-game fish tend to "explode" and over-
populate waters being managed for game fish. In many waters, non-game fish
are too competitive (especially for cold-water species), particularly if
habitat and water quality conditions are being degraded. Endemic non-game
fish are of scientific interest.

Surf and bay fish include seaperch, rockfish, greenling, flounder,
sturgeon, sculpin, herring and smelt. These fish are usually found in a
marine habitat.

Rare and endangered fish are cataloged by both the State of Oregon
and by the Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife. The Lost River and

58

shortnose suckers are the only species found in western Oregon classified
nationally as possibly threatened with extinction (referred to as "status-
undetermined") because not enough information is available to determine
their status. Rare and endangered species listed by the State of Oregon
indigenous to western Oregon are:

Millicoma dace (Rhinichthys sp.) - Coos River; endangered.
Shortnose sucker - Upper Klamath Lake and tributaries; endangered.
Pit-Klamath brook lamprey (Lampetra lethophaga) - Klamath drainage;
rare.

Fish are usually considered the most important group of aquatic life
because of their direct use to man. However, there are many other aquatic
animals that are important because they either provide minor direct
benefits to man or contribute to the aquatic food chain and other complex
ecological relationships in aquatic ecosystems. Some of the more impor-
tant groups include:

Crustacea - shrimp, crayfish and crabs.
Pelecypoda - clams, oysters and mussels.
Insecta - mayflies, stoneflies and caddisflies.

Northwest Coastal Coniferous and Montane Coniferous Forests. The
two coniferous forest sub-biomes cover most of western Oregon. They
produce most of western Oregon's water supply, which is generally of
high quality in mountainous areas. Most streams and rivers produce near
neutral water of low temperatures and a fair number of aquatic animals.
However, significant changes in water quality may occur at lower eleva-
tions. Water temperatures often increase substantially during the summer
low flow period and water quality is further degraded by pollutants.
Extreme water withdrawals for irrigation contribute to higher temperatures
and some dry streambeds throughout the biome. These habitat changes are
deleterious to trout and salmon but beneficial to populations of warm-
water and non-game species.

Historically, some of the best anadromous fish habitat on the west
coast of North America was located in these sub-biomes. The Rogue,
Umpqua and Willamette Rivers and Tenmile Lakes are notable examples.
Other coastal rivers like the Nehalem, Nestucca, Alsea, Coos and Tillamook
Bay streams also produce large numbers of fish. Deleterious habitat
changes, introductions of warm-water and non-game fish, and blocked
access (primarily by dams) to many miles of streams have each caused
reductions in the natural runs of anadromous fish.

Salmon and anadromous trout are still widespread throughout the
Coniferous Forest Biome, occurring wherever their access is not blocked
by impassable obstructions — either natural (water falls) or man-made (dams
or log jams). Because of the life requirements of anadromous fish, special
efforts are needed to keep migration routes open and to maintain good
quality water in spawning and rearing areas for remaining fish populations.

59

Other aquatic organisms, as well as fish, have adapted to good quality
water, food and cover. Most organisms of this biome require stream habitat
that is relatively free of fine silt, sand or clays. Benthic organisms,
Crustacea and aquatic insects require larger substrate like rubble and
gravel .

Clean, silt-free gravel is important to many organisms and especially
for salmon and trout spawning. Gravel between 1/2 to 5 inches in diameter
is required, depending on the species of fish. Hatching success is drasti-
cally reduced by heavy sedimentation of spawning areas.

The following water requirements are considered optimum for aquatic
life in these sub-biomes:

Water temperature - 50° to 60° F. (summer)

Dissolved oxygen - 7 to 9 ppm

Hydrogen Ion (pH) - 6.8 to 7.8 ppm

Total dissolved solids - 150 ppm

Jackson turbidity units - 5 or less (summer)

Smaller organisms such as aquatic insects are less tolerant to water
quality changes than many fish.

Adequate streamside vegetation is very important to the aquatic eco-
system. The vegetation stabilizes streambanks preventing erosion and
sedimentation. Vegetation also provides protective cover for fish and
other life. Shade from higher vegetation is a key factor in maintaining
the low water temperature characteristic of most streams in the biome.

Northwest Coastal Coniferous Forest and Montane Coniferous Forest
sub-biomes contain many important fish-producing lakes and reservoirs.
These waters are generally more fertile than rivers and streams unless
the basins lose nutrients by periodic flushing. With intensive manage-
ment, some lakes, like Diamond Lake, consistantly produce hundreds of
thousands of trout annually to angler creels.

Although native runs of anadromous fish have been greatly reduced
from historic levels, natural production is still vital to various
fisheries in Oregon. Fish produced in freshwater are caught as adults in
the Pacific Ocean, estuaries and main river systems. Coastal lakes provide
habitat for salmon, trout and warm-water game fish. There are numerous
reservoirs in the Willamette system now creating habitat for various
species, depending on the characteristics of each reservoir.

The most important anadromous species are Chinook and Coho Salmon,
and steelhead and coastal cutthroat trout. Chum salmon spawn in tribu-
taries to the lower Columbia River and in many coastal rivers in decreasing
numbers in central and southern Oregon. Pink salmon enter the lower
Columbia River and occasionally stray into coastal streams. An annual run

60

of sockeye salmon migrates through the lower Columbia River in June and
July, and experimental plants of sockeye have been made in recent years
in some reservoirs in Willamette drainage.

Both white and green sturgeon inhabit the lower Columbia River and
other estuaries. White sturgeon also frequent lower reaches of coastal
rivers and some lakes. Creen sturgeon seldom migrate above tidewater.
American shad and striped bass also occur in some larger coastal rivers
and the Columbia River.

Large runs of Columbia River smelt or L:ulachon enter the Columbia
River annually and occasionally the Sandy River and some coastal streams.
This species does not migrate over Bonneville Dam. Longfin smelt occa-
sionally enter freshwater from estuaries during fall months. The Pacific
lamprey enters most coastal rivers as well as the Columbia River.

Resident rainbow and cutthroat trout are common to the sub-biomes.
Kokanee have been stocked in many reservoirs. Whitefish are found in
colder streams and some reservoirs at higher elevations in the Cascade
Mountains. Brown, brook and Dolly Varden trout are limited to a few
specific areas. Golden trout (Salmo aquabonita) are stocked in some high
Cascade lakes.

The Oregon chub is the only Hybopsis native to the Pacific Coast.
Other non-game fish with a restricted distribution are the Umpqua dace
(Umpqua River and tributaries) and the Umpqua squawfish (Umpqua and
Siuslaw Rivers and intervening waters) . The rare Millicoma dace is found
only in the Coos River. The river lamprey (Lampetra ayresi) occurs only
in the Northwest Coastal Coniferous Forest and is uncommon.

A commercial fishery for crayfish is conducted primarily in these sub-
biomes with the catch composed of two subspecies--Pacifastacus leniusculus
leniusculus and P.I. trowbridgii. About 39,000 pounds of crayfish were
processed through commercial channels in Oregon during 1970. In many
waters people catch crayfish to eat. Sport fishermen use crayfish for
fish bait.

Estuaries are the lower portions of rivers that are directly influenced
by ocean tides. Coos Bay and Tillamook Bay are examples of large well-
developed estuaries. These tidal areas where salt and freshwater mix are
very productive habitats for many aquatic species. Estuaries are breeding
and nursery grounds for many species of fish and other aquatic life.

Oregon's major bays have been heavily industrialized and serve as

harbors for shipping and commercial and sport fishing fleets. Sandy

beaches and rocky shorelines provide exceptional recreational opportuni-
ties, including fishing and clam digging.

6]

Dungeness crabs (Cancer magister) are numerous in most bays and they
are eagerly sought as a sport catch. This species also supports an impor-
tant commercial fishery.

The native oyster (Ostrea lurida) and Japanese oyster (Crassostrea
gigas) are cultured by private oyster growers in some estuaries.

Razor clams (Siliqua patula) are abundant on the Clatsop County
beaches. Only a few isolated populations of razor clams occur on other
beaches. Bay clams are abundant in certain areas of some coastal bays.
Important species are the gaper clam (Schizothaerus nuttalli), cockle
(Clinocardium nuttalli), softshell clam (Mya arenaria) , butter clam
(Saxidomus giganteus) , and Littleneck clam (Protothaca staminea) .

Bay and razor clams, ghost shrimp (Callianassa) , and mud shrimp
(Upogebia) are sold commercially. Populations of bay and razor clams
support very intensive sport digging. Sport fishermen commonly dig
shrimp for fish bait.

Broad Sclerophyll. The Broad Sclerophyll sub-biome encompasses
scattered areas within the Montane Forest of southwestern Oregon. Because
of this geographical situation, most species reported for the Montane
Forest are probably found in waters that are part of the Broad Sclerophyll.

Palouse Prairie Grassland. The Palouse Prairie sub-biome in western
Oregon is limited to a small isolated area of the Bear Creek and Rogue
River valleys. Most of the original grassland has been drastically altered
by agriculture and other activities of man. Warm water temperatures,
pollution, and irrigation withdrawals cause serious water quality problems
for cold-water species during summer months in Bear Creek, parts of the
Rogue River, and other streams in the sub-biome. Water quality and flow
are normally adequate in these streams for attraction of anadromous species
during the migration period.

This sub-biome intermingles with the Broad Sclerophyll, and the
majority of species listed for the Broad Sclerophyll also occur in the
Palouse Prairie.

Terrestrial Animals

A wide variety of terrestrial animals is found in western Oregon
since under pristine conditions, the basic requirements of food, water,
cover and space are usually well met for most species. Some animal
species are represented in all sub-biomes. Others, more specific in
their requirements, are found in only one or two. The following repre-
sentative terrestrial wildlife families are generally found in western
Oregon.

62

Mammals

Deer - (Cervidae)
Bears - (Ursidae)
Coyotes i Foxes - (Canidae)
Squirrels - (Sciuridae)
Mice § Rats - (Cricetidae)
Beavers - (Castoridae)
Wildcats £, Cougar - (Felidae)
Rabbits § Hares - (Leporidae)
Weasels - (Mustilidae)
Bats - (Vespertilionidae)
Shrews - (Soricidae)

Birds

Hawks $ Eagles - (Accipitridae and Falconidae)

Vulture - (Cathartidae)

Owls - (Tytonidae and Strigidae)

Jays, Magpies £ Crows - (Corvidae)

Grouse - (Tetraonidae)

Ducks, Geese - (Anatidae)

Woodpeckers - (Picidae)

Wrens - (Troglodytidae)

Finches £j Sparrows - (Fringillidae)

Reptiles $ Amphibians

True toads - (Bufonidae)

True frogs - (Ranidae)

Garter § Gopher snakes - (Colubridae)

Lizards - (Anguidae)

Insects

Grasshoppers - (Acrididae)
Wasps £ Hornets - (Vespidae)
Ants - (Formicidae)

Rare and Endangered Wildlife. The following species found in western

Oregon are listed as rare or endangered, nationally, by the Bureau of

Sport Fisheries and Wildlife. In some cases, the habitat is quite restricted

Columbian white-tailed deer - (Odocoileus virginianus leucurus)
American peregrine falcon - (Falco peregrinus anatum)
Arctic peregrine falcon - (Falco peregrinus tundrius)

In addition to the species listed as rare or endangered nationally,
the State of Oregon lists the following wildlife as rare or endangered in
Oregon. In some cases, the habitat is confined to a small area.

63

Mammals

Wolverine - (Gulo luscus)

Sea otter - (Enhydra lutris)

Northern elephant seal - (Mii'ounga angustirostris)

Ashland shrew - (Sorex trigonirostris)

Brazilian free-tailed bat - (Tadarida brasiliensis)

White-footed vole - (Aborimus albipes)

Ringtailed cat - (Bassariscus astutus)

Fisher - (Martes pennanti)

Birds

Ferruginous hawk - (Buteo regalis)

Northern bald eagle - (Haliaeetus leucocephalus)

Flammulated owl - (Otus flammeolus)

Northern spotted owl - (Strix occidental is caurina)

Western snowy plover - (Charadrius alexandrimus nivosus)

Great gray owl - (Strix nebulosa)

Alaska northern three-toed woodpecker - (Picoides tridacylus)

Amphibians and Reptiles

Cope's giant salamander - (Dicamptodon copei)
Larch mountain salamander - (Plethodon larselli)
Siskiyou mountain salamander - (Plethodon stormi)
Oregon slender salamander - (Batrachoseps wrighti)
Black salamander - (Aneides flavipunctatus)
Tailed frog - (Ascaphus truei)
Western spotted frog - (Rana pretiosa pretiosa)
Sharp-tailed snake - (Contia tenuis)

Beside consumptive use, thousands of outdoor recreationists enjoy
wildlife photography, viewing, and other forms of non-consumptive recrea-
tion. Thousands of migrating waterfowl and shore birds utilize Oregon
waters from the coast to the Willamette Valley for feeding and resting
on their flights to and from northern breeding areas. These bird concen-
trations provide an excellent opportunity for bird-watching and photo-
graphy .

While consumptive and non-consumptive wildlife use increases, popula-
tions appear to be decreasing in many parts of the State. Loss of some
northern breeding habitat for waterfowl, a loss of nesting and wintering
cover for some species of upland game birds, and the impact of severe
winters and marginal winter range conditions on big game species have
reduced population of both game birds and animals. Clean farming practices,
instances of overgrazing and overcutting of timber, changing land use
patterns, and increased recreational use of former "wild" lands have also
reduced non-game bird and animal numbers through loss of habitat.

64

Forest Sub-biomes - General Habitat Requirements. Wildlife typical
of the forests are generally adapted to a closed canopy of coniferous
timber interspersed with small openings. Some species, including the
herbivores, such as deer and elk, respond to an edge effect created by
forest meadows, logging, or fires that allow development of a nutritious
understory of vegetation. Other species, including the raptors and larger
predators, may respond adversely to loss of the timber overstory, especially
if it is accompanied by human activity. Accipter hawks and the horned and
northern spotted owls depend on tree-dwelling mammals for their prey, the
redbacked mouse, red and flying squirrels, and the small birds that are
found in forested areas. Bald eagles and ospreys need dead and dying trees
adjacent to lakes, streams, and the ocean for nest sites since their prey
is principally fish.

Many fur-bearers and birds are adapted to a semi-aquatic habitat, and
the presence of streams, lakes and ponds adds greatly to the variety of
wildlife. Permanent supplies of clean water should be available to wild-
life at all times. In a so-called "virgin forest" this is usually not a
limiting factor. Most forest wildlife can adapt to certain habitat changes,
but these changes can be detrimental to many species when accompanied by
human activity.

Northwest Coastal Coniferous Forest. The Northwest Coastal Forest
grows in an area where water is usually not a severe limiting factor.
Humidity is high and the temperature range is narrow. There is usually
a deep layer of duff and organic soil rich in micro-organisms. The huge
trees produce dense shade resulting in a poorly developed understory of
nutritious browse species. Common animals include:

Mammals

Roosevelt elk - (Cervus canadensis roosevelti)

Blacktailed deer - (Odocoileus hemionus columbianus)

Black bear - (Euarctos americanus)

Bobcat - (Lynx rufus)

Cougar - (Felis concolor)

Mtn. Beaver (Sewellel) - (Aplodontia rufa)

Pocket gopher - (Thomomys hesperus)

Brush rabbit - (Sylvilagus bachmani ubericolor)

Douglas chickaree - (Sciurus douglasii)

Red tree mouse - (Phenacomys longicaudus)

Northwest coast bat - (Myotis californicus caurinus)

Birds

Pacific horned owl - (Bubo virginianus pacificus)
Northern spotted owl - (Strix occidentalis caurina)
Cooper's hawk - (Accipter cooperi)
Bald eagle - (Haliaeetus leucocephalus)

65

Blue grouse - (Dendragapus obscurus)
Winter wren - (Nannus hiemalis pacificus)
Band-tailed pigeon - (Columbia fasciata fasciata)
Pileated woodpecker - (Ceolophloeus pileatus)
Towns end's Warbler - (Dendroica towns end i)

Amphibians and Reptiles

Pacific giant salamander - (Dicamptodon ensatus)
Puget Sound garter snake - (Thamnophis sirtalis)
Pacific rubber boa - (Charina bottae)

Other wildlife are found in more specific zonal types: the hemlock
looper (Ellopia fascellaria lugubrosa) and the Sitka spruce beetle
(Dendroctonus obesus) are serious defoliators.

In the Coastal Douglas-fir zone, the Trowbridge's shrew (Sorex
trowbridgii t.), and insectivore, feeds on Douglas-fir seed.

The Larch Mountain salamander, considered endangered by the State of
Oregon, is found in the north Cascades.

The fisher (Martes pennanti) and the rare flammulated owl, (Otus
flammeolus) are found in the forested areas below timberline.

The wolverine, also considered endangered by the State, is found in
alpine habitat.

The endangered Oregon white-tailed deer is found in the Roseburg
area and along the bottomlands of the lower Columbia River.

Habitat Requirements. This sub-biome has the ability to produce

desirable habitat following fires, logging, and other disturbances to the
overstory more rapidly than Montane forests due to better soils, moisture
conditions and lower elevations. Water is not usually a limiting factor.

Deer and elk generally follow any natural or man-made opening in the
dense overstory, such as caused by fires or logging, to take advantage of
resulting nutritious ground vegetation. Closed canopy forests that provide
winter cover and escape shelter are a crucial part of game animal habitat.

The cougar and black bear inhabiting this sub-biome are wilderness
species that need the seclusion and escape cover afforded by dense forests.

Many of the small mammals, birds, and amphibians found in coastal
forests depend on the variety of insect life that abounds in the damp
mild environment, as well as the great mass of seeds produced by evergreen
trees.

66

Mink, marten, otter, beaver, and muskrat favor this habitat due to
the proximity of lakes and streams that afford food, bank dens, and
travel routes. While waterfowl are not normally considered as representa-
tive birds of timbered habitat, many ducks use the lakes, rivers, and
estuaries adjacent to the moisture-holding forest lands. Some ducks,
including the golden-eye, buffi ehead, and wood duck, nest in tree cavities
adjacent to water.

In addition to the terrestrial wildlife listed for the Northwest
Coastal Coniferous Forest many forms of aquatic and semi -aquatic wildlife
(birds and mammals) inhabit the estuaries and immediate coastal zone.
These include the following:

Mammals

Sea otter - (Enhydra lutris)

Pacific harbor seal - (Phoca vitulina)

Stellar sea lion - (Eumetopias jubata)
California sea lion - (Zalophus californianus)

Birds

Common loon - (Gavia immer)

Brown pelican - (Pelicanus occidental is)

Brandt's cormorant - (Phalacrocorax penicillatus)

Western grebe - (Aechmophorus occidentalis)

Red-breasted merganser - (Mergus serrator)

Least sandpiper - (Pisobia minutilla)

Sanderling - (Crocethia alba)

Northwest coast heron - (Ardea herodias)

Western gull - (Larus occidentalis)

Common murre - (Uria aalge)

Black brant - (Branta nigricans)

Surf scoter - (Melanitta perspicillata)

Many other species of shorebirds and waterfowl use this important
coastal habitat as residents or migrants. The northern bald eagle and
osprey are also often found along rivers, bays and estuaries. These
species are dependent on fresh, brackish, or salt water and the adjacent
beaches or mudflats for their immediate habitat or for the plants or
animals that constitute their food supplies.

Montane Coniferous Forest. A greater variety of habitat exists in
this sub-biome than in the coastal forest, due to the variety of vegeta-
tive types. This allows a high degree of use by adaptable wildlife.
Representative species include:

67

Mammals

Blacktailed deer - (Odocoileus hemionus columbianus)

Golden-mantled ground squirrel - (Citellus lateralis)

Pika - (Ochotona princeps)

Snowshoe hare - (Lepus americanus)

Big free tailed bat - (Tadarida molossa)

Birds

Barrow's golden eye - (Glancionetta islandica)

Great gray owl - (Strix nebulosa)

Oregon jay - (Perisoreus obscurus)

Three-toed woodpecker - (Picoides tridactylus)

Red-tailed hawk - (Buteo borealis)

Clark's nutcracker - (Nucifraga columbiana)

Mountain quail - (Oreortyx pictus)

Amphibians and Reptiles

Pacific tree frog - (Hyla regilla)

California mountain kingsnake - (Lampropelis zonata)

Insects

Oregon rain beetle - (Plecoma oregonensis)

As with the coastal forest sub-biome, many other wildlife species are
found by regions of the Montane Forest such as the rare black salamander.

In the Cascades, the Roosevelt elk and Rocky Mountain elk have
intermingled until it is difficult to differentiate between the two sub-
species. Parts of this zone may have mule deer concentrations as well as
blacktailed deer populations. The Beechey ground squirrel (Spermophilis
beecheyi) is common in the mixed forests of this area as is the Northern
Pacific rattlesnake ( Crotalis virdis) . Destructive beetles, such as the
bark beetle (Ips emarginatus) infest Ponderosa pine.

Habitat Requirements. Water can be a limiting factor in portions of

this sub-biome. The diversity of habitat and climatic conditions produces
a diversity of wildlife. Woodpeckers make extensive use of the oaks and
other hardwoods found in parts of this sub-biome for food, food storage
and nesting. Many other birds and small animals also use cavities in dead
and dying trees as nest and den sites. The many herbivores inhabiting this
sub-biome utilize most of the upper areas as summer range. Deep snows and
cold preclude year-round residency for some species such as deer and elk.
These ruminants must have suitable winter range within reasonable migration
distance for survival.

68

As noted for other timbered areas, the larger predators—wolverine,
bear, and cougar--must have the privacy of wilderness to survive.

Broad Sclerophyll. A portion of the Montane Coniferous Forest
merges with hardwood trees and brush in southwestern Oregon. The Broad
Sclerophyll sub-biome adjacent to the Siskiyou, Klamath, and Cascade
Mountains contains many important wildlife species more closely related
to California forms than to the Rocky Mountain species. Wildlife species
include:

Mammals

Dusky footed woodrat - (Neotoma cinerea)
Oregon gray fox - (Urocyon cinereoargenteus)
Ringtailed cat - (Bassariscus astutus)
Pacific pale bat - (Antrozous pallidus)

Birds

Valley quail - (Lophortyx californica)
California jay - (Aphelocoma californica)
Sacramento towhee - (Pipilo maculatus)
Red-shafted flicker - (Colaptes cafer)
Acorn woodpecker - (Melanerpes formic ivorus)

Amphibians and Reptiles

Sharp-tailed snake - (Contia tenuis)

Siskiyou Mountain salamander - (Plethodon stormi)

The Broad Sclerophyll is an extension of the transition zone of
central Oregon, and some of the wildlife found along the fringes of the
Rogue River valley are similar to central Oregon brushland species. For
example, the magpie, sparrow hawk, Douglas ground squirrel, and black
tailed jack rabbit are present. The Siskiyou Mountain salamander and
sharp-tailed snake are classified as endangered by the State.

Habitat Requirements. Wildlife are dependent on the great variety

of transition zone hardwood trees and shrubs. Acorns provide food for
tree and ground squirrels, certain woodpeckers, and wood ducks and are
readily used by blacktailed deer in the fall and winter. Ceanothus,
manzanita, scrub oak, and mountain mahogany are preferred browse species
for wintering deer. The Pokegama - Jenny Creek area on the California
border provides winter range for the largest migrating blacktailed deer
herd in Oregon. Some mule deer are also found on the winter range.

This sub-biome can become very hot and a shortage of water can be
a major limiting factor. Many small streams and ponds go dry during the
summer. Some brushfields, especially those following wildfires, become
too dense and stagnant to provide good wildlife habitat. Controlled

69

burning or cutting to provide basal regeneration, and escapement of under-
story grasses and forbs would be beneficial practices.

Continuing road development, power line rights-of-way, brush cutting
for pasture development and sub-urbanization of southwestern Oregon is
rapidly eliminating much of the former brushlands around the Rogue, Illinois,
and Umpqua Valleys. With the loss of the hrushland, many of the indigenous
wildlife species lose their necessary habitat.

Palouse Prairie Grassland. This portion of the Palouse Prairie
extends into the Rogue and Umpqua River valleys and is surrounded by the
Broad Sclerophyll sub-biome. Most of the wildlife species in this portion
of the grasslands range into the adjacent brushlands and are mainly identi-
fied with those species. In addition, the burrowing owl, marsh hawk, and
California harvest mouse inhabit this area.

Some species found only in this sub-biome include the California
meadow mouse, (Microtus californicus californicus) the northwest jumping
mouse (Zapus trinotatus) , Gabrielson's kangaroo rat (Dipodomys heermani
gabrielsoni) , and the Oregon brindled weasel (Mustela xanthogenys oregon-
ensis) .

Several species of waterfowl breed in and near this sub-biome. These
include many common species such as the mallard and wood duck (Aix sponsa) .

As with the northeastern Oregon Palouse Prairie Grassland, the grass-
lands of Rogue and Umpqua valley areas have been even more drastically
reduced by intensive agricultural practices and housing developments.
Human harassment is a major limiting factor to resident wildlife species.
The California valley quail and the ringnecked pheasant were two species
that had formerly adapted to the heavy human use of this sub-biome. At
present, removal of winter and escape cover has substantially reduced their
populations .

C. Ecological Interrelationships

All organisms share a common need to satisfy the requisites (food,
shelter, moisture, respiratory gasses, etc.) for continuing life and
reproducing kind. A vast array of interactions serves to meet these
environmental dependencies. These interactions include relationships
between the individual organism and organisms of the same and of different
kinds, and between the organism and its non-living environment.

The General Abiotic Environment (non-living). Ecological interrelation-
ships occur not in a vacuum but in physical -chemical settings of non-
living or abiotic environmental components. These include basic chemical
elements and compounds such as water and carbon dioxide, calcium and
oxygen, carbonates and phosphates, and organic compounds which are the
by-products of organism activity or death. There are also such physical

70

factors and gradients as moisture, winds, air currents, and solar radi-
ation with its concomitants or light and heat. Within this abiotic
environment, living organisms interact in a fundamentally energy-dependent
fashion.

The General Biotic Community. Living organisms--plants , animals and
microbes--form biotic communities which occupy a complex of environments.
These organisms compete for the life-sustaining light, warmth, atmospheric
gasses, water and nutrients provided by the abiotic environment. Each in
its turn creates part of the environment affecting the others. These
organisms are of two major kinds, autotrophic and heterotrophic . Auto-
trophic organisms are self-nourishing; heterotrophic organisms meet
nutritional needs by feeding on other organisms. More specific classifi-
cation is according to function, as follows.

Producers are autotrophic organisms which are able to manufacture
food from simple inorganic substances. In this process, radiant energy
(sunlight) is used to convert carbon dioxide, water, and nutrient minerals
into carbohydrates that serve as food for the producer's own growth and
metabolism. Producers are largely the green, chlorophyll-bearing plants;
e.g., the trees of a forest, the grass of a field, the algae of a pond.
Of less significance as producers are phyotosynthetic and chemosynthetic
bacteria.

Consumers are heterotrophic organisms, chiefly animals, which ingest
organic matter. A primary consumer (commonly an herbivore) derives its
nutrition directly from plants; a secondary consumer, or carnivore, obtains
its nutrition indirectly from the producer by feeding on the primary consumer
Included in the consumer class are mammals, birds, reptiles, fish, worms,
parasitic fungi and certain bacteria.

Decomposers are heterotrophic organisms which reduce, or break down,
complex organic compounds, absorb some of the products of decomposition,
and release the remainder in simple forms usable by the producers.
Bacteria and fungi are the chief decomposers, but such macro-organisms
as millipedes, earthworms and mites also reduce complex organic compounds.

Ecosystems

A general abiotic environment and associated biota (a general biotic
community) together comprise an ecological system, or ecosystem, in which
living organisms and non-living matter interact to produce an exchange of
materials between the living and non-living parts. An ecosystem, then,
is a complex of vegetation, bacteria, fungi, protozoa, arthropods, various
other invertebrates, vertebrates, oxygen, carbon dioxide, water, minerals,
and dead organic matter. Such a complex is never completely in balance;
an ecosystem is constantly changing diurnally, seasonally and with long
term climatic cycles.

71

Resisting sudden, radical changes are checks and balances, forces
and counterforces, which maintain a semblance of equilibrium between
organisms and environment, thus tending to stabilize the ecosystem as
a whole. These factors are known as homeostatic mechanisms. These
include processes which regulate the storage and release of nutrients,
the growth of organisms, and the production and decomposition of organic
substances. As an example of the function of these mechanisms, consider
the rate of photosynthesis of a whole biotic community. This may be much
less variable than that of individual organisms or species within the
community because, when one individual or species slows down its rate,
another may accelerate in a compensatory manner. As another example, when
treated sewage is discharged into a stream at a moderate rate, the aquatic
ecosystem is able to purify itself by homeostatic processes and to restore
its previous quality within a few miles downstream. These mechanisms are
not yet fully understood, but their important role in maintaining a natural
ecological balance is known and recognized.

While the abiotic environment controls the activities of organisms,
the latter influence and control the abiotic environment in many ways.
Changes in the physical and chemical nature of inert materials are
constantly being effected by organisms which return new compounds and
isotopes to the non-living environment. Such organic influence can be
very strong and its products significant; e.g., plants build soils which
are radically different from the original substrates.

When the environment changes as a result of actions of organisms
that increase soil fertility, or because of decreased light intensity,
climatic variation or any other modification, conditions may become more
favorable for some organisms other than those already present. There may
then be replacement of one species by another or of one biotic community
by another, with more replacements following in later successon.

Radiant energy, in the form of sunlight, is the ultimate source of
energy for any ecosystem. The flow of solar energy, and two vital cycles,
are the fundamental processes which give life to an ecosystem. The
dynamics of these processes are described in the following paragraphs.

Energy Flow. Chlorophyll, the green coloring matter of plants, con-
verts carbon dioxide and water, in the presence of sunlight, into carbo-
hydrates, with oxygen as a by-product, by a process known as photosynthesis
In effect, photosynthesis transforms radiant energy into chemical energy
which nourishes the producer plant. During the process, the green plant
also incorporates into its protoplasm a variety of inorganic elements and
compounds. As the plant is utilized by herbivores, its stored chemical
energy (and nutrients) are transferred to the consumers. Likewise, there
follows a transfer of energy (and nutrients) from herbivores to carnivores
and eventually to the decomposers.

This energy flow is one-way and noncyclic because, at each transfer
along the food chain, energy losses occur. Within each link of the chain,

72

beginning with the producer plant itself, some of the nutrient matter is
used to build protoplasm while the stored energy in the remaining food
serves as fuel for metabolism and movement. These activities convert the
stored energy to heat, which is dissipated into the atmosphere and thus
lost from the ecosystem. Life is sustained by continuing solar radiation
with its influx of new energy.

The Nutrient Cycle. The nutrients produced by the green plants via

photosynthesis are primarily simple carbohydrates (glucose) . Two minor
groups of producers, the photosynthetic bacteria and the chemosynthetic
bacteria, use methods other than the process used by green plants to
create carbon compounds of nutrient value. Further chemical changes,
which occur with successive utilization along the food chain, convert
the simple products of synthesis into more complex carbohydrates, proteins,
fats and other nutrients.

These foods continuously circulate throughout the ecosystem from
environment to producer, from producer to consumer, from consumer to
decomposer, and from decomposer back to the environment, where they are
potentially available for recycling. Thus, nutrients remain in the eco-
system; they are not lost in the manner of energy.

As the decomposers satisfy their own needs for growth and metabolism,
they concurrently perform an invaluable service to the ecosystem; this is
the mineralization of organic matter. By their digestive activity, the
decomposers release basic elements (nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium,
calcium, etc.) to the environment for reuse by producers. These elements
are stored in the soil until extracted by the roots of vegetation, some-
times with the aid of mycorrhizal fungi (consumers) associated with the
roots thus completing the cycle. Elemental nitrogen released from organic
compounds by decomposers may be transformed into nitrate (the nitrogen
derivative most readily used by green plants) in the soil, and stored
there, or it may be released into the air. Atmospheric nitrogen is con-
tinually returning to the nutrient cycle through the action of nitrogen-
fixing bacteria, algae or natural electrification by lightning.

The Hydrologic Cycle. The nutrient cycle is made possible only by the

circulation of water from soil to roots of vegetation, to the atmosphere,
and from the atmosphere back to the soil. Soil nutrients must be in an
ionic state, in solution, to be absorbed by root systems; this requires
the presence of soil moisture. Water also controls the rate of nutrient
movement through the conductive tissue of plants, the decomposition of
plant litter, and the development of the soil profile which, in turn,
affects the availability of nutrients to plant roots as recycling begins.

A major feature of the hydrologic cycle is the interchange of moisture
between the earth's surface and the atmosphere via precipitation and evap-
oration. Significant amounts of water are used by the biota of ecosystems,
and there is a substantial return of moisture to the atmosphere by trans-
piration from living plants, as well as by evaporation. The relative and

7 5

absolute amounts of precipitation and evaporation significantly influence
the structure and function of ecosystems.

In its broadest sense, the hydrologic cycle involves the oceans,
continents, the fresh waters and the earth's atmosphere. At the level of
the ecosystem, the cycling of water includes precipitation from the
atmosphere, runoff in the form of streamflow, and a series of intermediate
processes influencing the precipitation-runoff relationship. Among these
are interception of precipitation by vegetative cover, infiltration and
percolation of water through the soil, evapotranspiration from soil and
vegetation, surface runoff and water storage at various levels of the
system. While the nature of the biotic community is determined to a large
extent by the hydrologic cycle, the biotic components are, in turn, a
major influence on the cycle.

Ecological Variations

Different ecosystems may vary widely in productivity, one index of
which is the amount of vegetation produced over a given period of time.
The apparent mass of vegetation (the standing crop) may provide a good
estimate of net productivity. Although biomass (the total weight of the
biota, including stored food) is not a consistent measure of productivity,
high rates of primary production are often associated with large biomass.

Variations in productivity from ecosystem to ecosystem are due
primarily to differences in climate and soil. These factors control
energy flow, nutrient cycling and water cycling, the vital processes by
which the ecosystem lives. Generally, productivity is highest in eco-
systems where abundant solar energy, ample precipitation and soils rich
in nutrients promote rapid nutrient cycling and growth. The stability
of the plant community is related to its productivity. Communities with
low productivity are generally fragile, while highly productive communi-
ties generally recover rapidly from the impacts of heavy use or other
disturbance.

Ecosystems may be conceived and studied as areas of various size.
As long as a given area's major abiotic and biotic components exist and
operate together with some sort of functional stability, even if only
temporarily, the entity may be considered an ecosystem. On this basis,
it is reasonable as well as convenient to consider the Oregon sub-biomes
as individual ecosystems, with ecological variations from sub-biome to
sub-biome, as follows:

Northwest Coastal Coniferous Forest (Sub-biome 1) . This is, as a
whole, the most productive of Oregon sub-biomes. The "standing crop" of
producers at the lower elevation forest zones is impressive and future
production potentially great, if harvest-regeneration and nutrient cycles
can be maintained. Unlike the drier sub-biomes, understory vegetation in
the lower elevational zones is well developed wherever light filters through

74

the forest canopy, while mosses and other moisture-loving plants are
abundant .

Trees and lower levels of vegetation form a thick organic layer on
the forest floor, to be broken down by bacteria and other decomposers.
The ecosystem is complex; populations of producers, consumers and decom-
posers are relatively high. Removal of vegetation and other surface
disturbance are generally followed by rapid replacement of biota through
natural succession.

In general, influences of elevational differences within this sub-
biome are less pronounced than in other sub-biomes due to the moderating
effect of the Pacific Ocean.

Montane Coniferous Forest (Sub-biome 2) . The distribution of biotic
communities within this sub-biome is governed primarily by diverse physical
conditions related to gradients in elevation and lesser oceanic influence.
Mountainous areas are characterized by differential zonation of vegetation
in irregular bands within various altitudinal limits, often with sudden
transition from zone to zone.

As in the Northwest Coastal Coniferous Forest, the higher elevational
zones are the least productive portions of the sub-biome because of short
growing seasons. As a whole, the sub-biome is fairly productive despite
its rather severe climate. The soil contains a moderate population of
small organisms but comparatively few large ones. Consequently, the break-
down of organic material proceeds more slowly than decomposition in the
Northwest Coastal Coniferous Forest. Generally, low precipitation during
the growing season limits the energy-nutrient-water relationships of this
ecosystem.

Broad Sclerophyll (Sub-biome 4). Despite the xeric conditions which
prevail during the summer season, this ecosystem is capable of producing
a considerable mass of vegetation annually. Its existence as an inter-
mediate community between grassland and forest is favored by the occurrence
of fire. Many of the species found in this plant community sprout readily
from the roots after the tops are burned or cut, and regrowth is rapid.
As with chaparral communities generally, most nutrient cycling and resulting
vegetative growth take place in the spring season, when precipitation and
soil moisture are high. Its productive capacity makes this sub-biome an
important source of range forage for seasonal use.

Palouse Prairie Grassland (Sub-biome 3) . This sub-biome occurs where
growing season precipitation is too low to support forest or sclerophyll
ecosystems but is higher than that which results in desert life forms.
The inherent productivity of this ecosystem is quite high; in its original
form, it must have been one of the most productive range forage regions
west of the Rocky Mountains.

7S

The factor limiting productivity is growing season moisture rather
than nutrients. Growth occurs mainly during the early spring months,
when frost-free temperatures coincide with ample soil moisture. Nutrient
cycling and resultant production of vegetation are rapid during the spring
growing season. Grasses are mature and dry by July 1, and remain dormant
during the dry summer. Fall growth occurs only in unusually favorable
years .

Over much of its original area, the natural vegetation of the prairie
grassland has been replaced by brush and annuals which have invaded as a
result of overgrazing. A large portion of the ecosystem has also been
converted by cultivation to the production of agricultural crops.

D. Human Values

The Federal Government has been instructed to preserve the historical
and cultural environment. Factors that shape or characterize the landscape
can be altered by BLM practices. The objective here is to identify existing
landscape types and the human values set therein so that BLM actions can
consciously support a harmonious and qualitative environment.

Settlement

Although some early settlement had taken place in the southwest on
Spanish land grants, it was only after the West became United States
Territory, in 1846 and 1848, that the cross-country movement of pioneers
gained momentum and the development of the West began.

Landform was the primary determinant of early settlement patterns.
After crossing mountain saddles, the pioneers usually followed the rivers
and valleys and spread out in the basins and plains. They preferred
river banks and adjacent uplands for settlement. The rivers provided
transportation and the trees growing nearby provided wood for home con-
struction and fuel .

Settlement gained momentum when the vanguard of settlers reached the
plains. Settlement and development of the public domain was further
facilitated through passage of various public land laws. These laws were
designed to provide title to tracts of land, varying in size from 160 to
640 acres, upon compliance with occupancy and use conditions.

Settlement, however, was only the initial step m development.
Settlers who had located on the land could not remain isolated members
of society. They were followed closely by churches and schools. Frontier
towns and trading centers sprang up over the country. Travel to the West
was greatly facilitated when, in 1869, the central transcontinental rail-
road was opened.

Montane Coniferous Forest. Although settlement and development took
place readily in the more fertile valleys and plains, the establishment

76

of permanent settlements in the mountainous terrain that comprises the
Montane sub-biome took place in a much different fashion. Characterized
by steep, rugged topography with shallow, poorly developed soils, the
mountains afforded little opportunity for homesteading . Exceptions
occurred in sheltered fertile valleys between the ranges. Mining of gold
and silver, and later timber harvesting, were the principal attractions of
the western mountains.

The rugged western portion of the Cascade Range in the sub-biome is
sparsely populated. The area is important as a supplier of water, timber,
and other materials to the adjacent lowlands.

Communities tend to be small, and are economically oriented to logging,
agriculture or ranching, mining, and more recently, tourism. A phenomenon
that began after World War II and has increased alarmingly in some parts
of the region having non-existent or weak local land use controls lias been
the development of "speculative" homesites. Frequently located in remote
rural areas, these recreation sub-divisions more often than not have failed
to develop as portrayed in the sales brochures. Large National Forests
and parks in the area have virtually no permanent inhabitants.

Palouse Prairie Grassland. The area known as the Palouse Prairie
Grassland sub-biome has a rugged surface which makes most of the land
unfit for agriculture, but favorable for forest growth and excellent
for recreation. Initially, mining for gold and silver was impetus for
settlement. Although many of the early mining settlements have either
disappeared or are ghost towns today, some more favorably situated have
survived along with place names like "Gold Hill" to remind us of the gold
rush years. In this area, mining still provides income and employment.

The Rogue River provides a scenic retreat for many visitors, and its
valley is a fertile garden spot with irrigation encouraging the orchards
of apples, pears, and nuts, and fields of grain, hay, and pasture.

Northwest Coastal Coniferous Forest. The history of early settlement
of the coastal forest region followed essentially the same pattern as the
Montane region to the east. Although rough and mountainous for the most
part, the region contains some of the most productive softwood forests in
the United States. Often referred to as the Douglas-fir Region for the
principal tree species found there. Other valued softwoods are cedar,
hemlock, spruce, and true firs.

The gold rush and subsequent population growth in California afforded
the first export market for the region's vast supply of mature timber.
This market expanded into the developing Midwest with the extension of
intercontinental railroads into the Pacific Northwest in the 1880's and
1890's. Production of wood products for a national market was the single
most significant economic factor contributing to the rapid population
growth of the region into the 1920' s.

77

The older alluvial fill of the Willamette and Tualatin Valleys
provided rich soil for eager pioneer farmers. Soon agricultural products
were finding their way downstream and overland to the City of Portland.
Sited at the confluence of the Willamette and Columbia Rivers, the city
became an important center of trade and transportation at an early date.

Farmers cleared valley land leaving extensive woodland only along
stream courses; a frame of green for the many grain farms, dairy farms
and orchards. The excellent farming country supported new population
centers at Cottage Grove, Eugene, Corvallis, and Salem.

The forested Coast Range landscape consists of various forest types
intermingled with cut-overs, burns, and cleared land. The area is lightly
settled with individual farms of hay, fruit crops, or dairy pasture.

Population is concentrated along the level land of coastal terraces,
and beside stream and river estuaries. Coastal lakes are an important
source of water for coastal towns.

Oregon beaches provide miles of playground and scenic beauty for
tourists and residents alike. The capes and headlands of the coast con-
tribute to the character and grandeur to be appreciated.

The recreation-residential development industry has opened coastal
territory to relatively concentrated occupation in the summer months.
Older settlements occur at ports and estuaries where logging and fishing
activities are the economic mainstay.

"In this region, then, one may say.... that the inhabitants cut
spruce and douglas fir for pulp and lumber, raise Jersey and Guernsey
cows to make cheese, catch salmon and halibut for market and sport, and
entertain tourists and themselves for profit and recreation. Any part
of the physical region will probably include at least one of these
activities, and thus be part of the cultural region." - John W. Gierhart

Economics

Although most of the forest lands within the Montane Coniferous
Forest are inside National Forests, and are administered by the Forest
Service, the BLM administers 1,631,000 acres of commercial forest on the
public land within the region, from which $1,808,000 was received from
sale of timber in 1971. *

* Excluded from these figures are the 0£C lands administered by the BLM in
Jackson and Josephine Counties in Oregon. Although they are within the
Montane sub-biome, 0§C land data pertaining to them are included with
the other 0§C Counties under the Coastal sub-biome section.

78

Lumbering and livestock grazing occur generally throughout the
Montane sub-biome. Livestock grazing of the alpine meadows is normally
limited to the summer months, with the animals being moved to lower ranges,
outside the sub-biome, during the fall and winter.

Recreation-tourism is growing rapidly in importance throughout the
sub-biome. The Pacific Crest Trail, routed along the crest of the Cascade
Mountains, stretching from Canada to Mexico, leads to points of scenic
beauty accessible only by pack horse or foot and annually receives increased
use. Throughout the Montane region Federal, state, county, and municipal
organizations as well as private enterprises have been active in the devel-
opment of scenic and recreation resources. Hunting, fishing, sightseeing,
picnicing and camping, and winter sports are the predominant types of
recreation activities.

Lumbering and wood products industries continue to play an important
role in the economy. In 1968 the Pacific Northwest Forest and Range
Lxperiment Station estimated the degree of economic dependency upon timber
industries of selected areas within the Douglas-fir Region of Washington,
Oregon and California. Dependency was measured as a percent of total
economic (or export) base employment attributable to timber dependent
industries. The researchers found that timber dependent industries accounted
for approximately 45 percent of the region's economic base employment.
Table 6 shows timber-dependency ratings for 15 economic areas within the
region.

Table 6 - Classification of Economic Areas by Degree of
Dependency Upon Timber-Based Employment

Percentage of 1960 excess
employment dependent on
Dependency Economic Area* timber-based employment

Slight Portland 23.8

Salem 29.3

Moderate Astoria 63.1

High Medford 70.0

Corvallis 74.3

Eugene 76.6

Coos Bay 91 .6

Roseburg 99.4

* Economic areas are identified by the names of their respective growth
centers.

79

Note: The authors used the excess -employment technique to determine the
portion of employment in an area which was engaged in economic
base activities. This approach considers any industry in an area
with employment in excess of the national norm for distribution
of employment among industries to be producing for export. The
percentage of total excess (export) employment (the total may
include several industries, basic as well as service, for an area)
attributable to timber related industries is computed and defined
as the timber-dependency indicator (figures in the right-hand column
of Table 6).

The Northwest Coastal Coniferous sub-biome of western Oregon, Wash-
ington and northwestern California contains over 2.5 million acres of
commercial forest administered by the Bureau of Land Management. Comprised
of both the 0§C and public domain, these lands are generally recognized
as one of the nation's most productive and valuable commercial forest
properties. During 1971 approximately 1.23 billion board feet of timber
worth $52 million were sold from 1.9 million acres of 0£C land in Oregon.
From this $31.8 million were distributed to the 18 0§C counties under
terms of the 0£C Act of 1937 and subsequent agreements.* Receipts for
Fiscal Year 1972 on a volume of 1.19 billion board feet were $65.5 million
of which $37.7 million were distributed to the counties (receipts to the
counties include revenues from sale of timber from 0$C lands (the largest
source), grazing fees, mineral fees, rental and sales of land, and from
other sources) .

The 0§C lands contribute 17.5 percent of the timber harvest in western
Oregon. In this same area timber-dependent industries account for 45 per-
cent of the total economic base employment. This dependency ranges from
a low of 24 percent in the Portland area to 99 percent in the Roseburg area
(Table 6) . Thus the 0§C lands contribute approximately 8 percent of the
total western Oregon economic base employment. The significance of these
lands to local and regional economies is further exemplified by the fact
that 17 percent (13,500) of the 78,000 persons employed in the lumber and
wood products industry in western Oregon in 1965 could attribute their
jobs to the 0§C timber cut. Payrolls were $89.5 million and the value
added to the economy, including the value of the timber cut, was $187.1
million. This compares with the value of total products sold on farms of
the 18 counties of $245 million. It is greater than the value added by
any other Oregon industry, with the exception of the total lumber and wood
products industry.

Although Jackson and Josephine Counties are within the Montane Forest
sub-biome, for purposes of clarity 0$C data from them are lumped with
the 0£C counties in the Coastal sub-biome.

80

These jobs in the basic industry in turn generated more than 20,000
other secondary employment jobs (retail, service, and other employees
serving the basic employees), and supported a total population of about
80,000 (including the employees and their families).

The Pacific Coast forms the western boundary of the Coastal sub-
biome. The proximity to the ocean adds to the recreational diversity of
the area. Outdoor activities such as swimming, fishing and camping are
some of the more common forms of recreation activity. Digging of clams,
both commercially and as a form of recreation, takes place on the beaches
and inlets all along the coast. Fishing the numerous streams that
traverse the coastal strip, many on BLM administered lands including
such nationally known ones as the Rogue and Umpqua, yield exciting fresh-
water catches. Saltwater sportfishing has created and supports a growing
charter boat industry.

Most of BLM administered land in the Coastal sub-biome is available
to the public for hunting. Since much of the area is covered by a dense
forest, most of the hunting is concentrated in natural or man-made openings
such as roads, timber harvest sites or cleared utility rights-of-way.
Livestock grazing also occurs in localized areas on the lower, more open
sites administered by the Bureau.

Aesthetics

The Montane Coniferous Forest and the Northwest Coastal Coniferous
Forest, provide some of the most spectacular scenery in the western United
States. Natural attractions located throughout the Montane region annually
draw hundred of thousands of sightseers. The rainforests of the Douglas -
fir region of western Oregon offer a more or less continuous panorama of
towering forest broken by occasional streams tumbling from the Coast Range
Mountains to the Pacific Ocean. Less apparent from the ground except in
localized areas, man's intrusion into the coastal forest with roads, power
transmission corridors and timber harvest activities create harsh contrasts
when viewed from the air.

Land forms vary from the rounded foothills of the Cascades and Coastal
Range to angular peaks, from relatively flat valleys to nearly vertical
canyons. Natural lines occur more often in the environment of the Montane
than in the Coastal sub-biome. These may occur as abrupt changes in
vegetation types caused by soil changes or rock intrusions. They may
occur as horizontal deposition lines on the face of an exposed cliff or
cut bank.

Scale is frequently so vast as to be overpowering to those more
accustomed to urban surroundings. The extreme vertical relief common to
the mountains is frightening to some. To others the solitude of the
mountains and the remoteness offer a welcome contrast. The wide variety
of forms, textures, colors and natural lines are what make the scenic
values interesting, while vastness of scale and distance bring feelings of
isolation and solitude to those who live within or visit this region.

81

Geology

The Montane contains geologically interesting features left by
glaciation. Included are morains, lakes, U-shaped valleys; erosion
features like canyons, pinnacle peaks and mudlows; volcanic features
such as lava flows, eroded ash beds, calderas, hot springs and geysers.

The Northwest Coastal is edged with an interesting eroded coastline
of natural arches, isolated rock islands, sand dunes and steep cliffs.
The higher elevations contain canyons, volcanic features, caves and
faulting evidence.

Archeology

Early man's entry into the New World from Asia via a Bering Strait
land bridge, estimated to be 1000 miles wide when the seas were at their
lowest, is believed to have occurred between 20 and 40 thousand years ago.
Radio-carbon dated remains going back to about 10,000 B.C. show well-
developed stone-chipping techniques and hunting skills adapted to the
taking of large animals. Most evidence comes from game kill sites and
stratified cave deposits.

The Northwest Coastal Coniferous Forest was the home of the Northwest
Coast culture. Essentially a river or river-mouth culture, oriented around
salmon fishing, the Northwest Coast culture is noteworthy for its vigorous
and distinctive art and great use of wood. Village sites were located
along streams and near sheltered inlets along the coast that may attract
a suspected site.

Any specific BLM project should be preceded by a preliminary archeo-
logical survey. An evaluation of the findings would determine whether
the site was of value and whether it should be salvaged by removal, or
left and circumvented by the project. For specific information, contact:
The Museum of Natural History, University of Oregon, Eugene, Oregon.

History

Scattered throughout the Coastal Forest are remainders of the region's
early history. Old mining and logging camps, remnants of military posts,
and preserved homes of early pioneers are some examples. For instance,
Champoeg, near Newberg, was the site of the vote establishing a provisional
government in Oregon until Congress would extend its jurisdiction. This
was the first American government to be established west of Iowa. Today
Champoeg is a State park.

BLM projects possibly affecting areas of historical value should he
preceded by a search through the cultural and historical site listings
currently on file with and soon to be published by the State Parks Depart-
ment. For specific information, contact: Mr. Paul Hartwig, State Parks
Department, State Highway Building, Salem, Oregon 97310.

82

III. ANALYSIS OF PROPOSED ACTION

Usually, an environmental analysis record must analyze both the
proposed action and its alternatives. However, as previously explained
in Section I. A., in this instance the State Director has no major alterna-
tives to consider since, at the policy making level, it has been decided
to proceed with the proposed action as described. Major alternatives to
the proposed action are analyzed in the Bureau-wide programmatic environ-
mental impact statement for timber management.

Thus, the following section analyzes only the effects of the various
means which may be employed to execute the proposed action. This range
of methodology represents the real "alternatives" which must be consid-
ered at the operations level. Documentation of the rationale for selec-
tion of certain measures and practices for a specific proposed action
will be found in the EAR for that particular action.

At this point in the analysis, BLM directives call for a description
of the "normal procedure" for accomplishing the action so that the subse-
quent discussion of impacts could concentrate only on those that would
occur under the "normal" practice.

Because of the infinite variability of the micro-sites to which
timber management practices are applied, it is impossible to describe a
meaningful "normal procedure". Thus, the following section entitled
Anticipated Impacts will attempt to list all impacts reasonably expected
as a result of each management practice.

In using this document to analyze the impacts of a specific action
occurring in a specific location, the reader will have to refer to the
case file (e.g., timber sale contract, reforestation specifications, road
construction stipulations, etc.) to ascertain which of the potential
impacts associated with a management practice are not likely to occur
because of managerially imposed constraints. The reader can then concen-
trate on following through on the remaining possible impacts.

To illustrate, a potential impact of tractor logging is the fact that
soils are compacted if tractors are used when soils are wet. An indivi-
dual timber sale may call for tractor logging, but it may contain stipu-
lations that, because of the particular soil type involved, tractor
logging can be carried on without the compaction hazard if conducted when
the soil moisture content is below 30 percent. When the soil moisture is
above 30 percent, tractor logging will not be allowed.

Thus, it is important that the reader first determine which of the
possible impacts has been eliminated by management constraint, and then
use the list of possible impacts in this section as a catalog to sec which
impacts still remain as possibilities.

8 3

An aspect not covered by this document is the cumulative magnitude
of the many, relatively small actions that in total comprise the timber
management program. Such items of information such as the total number
of acres clearcut per year, total areas reforested or thinned, roads
built per year are not included here. For this information the reader
is referred to two publications; namely, "Public Land Statistics",
published annually by the U. S. Government Printing Office, and "BLM Facts"
published annually by the Oregon State Office of the BLM.

An environmental analysis worksheet based on BLM Manual 1791 is
included. This worksheet was used as a guide to analyze the impact of
individual practices for each sub-biome, i.e., Northwest Coastal, and
Montane Coniferous Forests. However, with some exceptions, the impacts
and their magnitude were relatively the same for the two sub-biomes.
Thus, to avoid a great deal of redundancy, the impacts (for each component
of the environment) common to the total Coniferous Forest Biome are
presented and, when applicable, augmented by the impacts that are unique
to a sub-biome.

A. Anticipated Impacts

Air

Forest regions are products of the general climate of the earth, over
which man has no real control. However, to the extent that man can destroy
or conserve forests, he does control some local climatic factors. Viewed
in this light, the forests of the Coniferous Forest Biome assume much
greater social significance than they would have if thought of solely as
an economic resource.

The climate in which a given tree or stand lives may be entirely
different from the regional macro-climate. In recent years, much has been
learned about the micro-climate--the climate near the ground, surrounding
the tree. Man's activities can alter the micro-climate.

Some of the proposed actions will have significant but relatively
local effects on climate and on air quality and movement. These local
effects may cause climatic reactions upon the forest ecosystem.

Development . Area burning and spot burning, like wildfire, create
smoke, which is regarded in varying degrees as an air pollutant. Much of
the organic matter in smoke from forest fuels is similar to material
naturally entering the atmosphere from living vegetation or from the
decomposition of vegetative material. Research indicates that toxic
compounds released into the air by burning forest fuels are negligible.
There is no evidence that the combustion products of slash burning cause
permanent injury to human health. The corollary conclusion is that area
burning and spot burning have no significant adverse impact upon air
quality. Area burning can modify or change the micro-climate. Its impacts
can be adverse or beneficial.

84

An area burn after clearcutting can consume both the organic duff
and the slash and brush which still provide some shade for the forest
floor, thus exposing the mineral soil to direct solar radiation. In some
ecosystems, the resulting climatic reaction may produce a well-stocked
stand of Douglas-fir seedlings. In others, lethal soil surface tempera-
tures or deficient moisture may inhibit the establishment of tree seed-
lings and favor invasion by brush. At the lower edge of the Coniferous
Forest Zone, fire may so modify the local climate through destruction of
cover and exposure of surface soil that plant succession may end with
colonization by grasses or shrubs characteristic of the next lower vegeta-
tional zone. At the higher elevations well within the coniferous forest,
succession after fire will normally lead to eventual replacement of the
coniferous forest itself.

Chemical and mechanical removal of brush can modify the micro-climate
by increasing the amount of solar radiation reaching the forest floor and
by reducing soil moisture losses from vegetative transpiration. The re-
sulting increases in soil temperature and available moisture may favor
natural or artificial reforestation, or improve the growth rate of estab-
lished crop trees by releasing them from competition with brush for light,
moisture and soil nutrients.

However, brush removal can have adverse effects on the micro-climate
in terms of tree growth. Research has shown that brush can have a benefi-
cial role. Brush cover may increase seedling survival and provide more
favorable soil moisture and temperature relations than open areas.

Reforestation and afforestation by seeding and planting alter the
micro-climate gradually, until crown closure is achieved and the forest
canopy is continuous. Significant changes will occur:

The mean maximum monthly air temperature in the forest will be
several degrees lower than it was in the open.

Forest soil temperatures will be slightly warmer in winter and
5° F. to 9° cooler in summer than in the open and freezing of
forest soil, if any, will be less deep than in the open.

Solar intensity will be greatly reduced.

Relative humidity of the air within the forest will be 3 to 12
percent greater than in the open, and evaporation of moisture
from the forest floor will be much less than from soil surfaces
in the open.

Wind velocities within the forest will be much lower than those in
the open.

85

Precommercial thinning increases the intensity of sunlight within
the young stand, increases air and soil temperatures and makes more soil
moisture available for use by the residual trees.

Protection. Backfiring can affect the local forest climate. The
effect of a light burn, confined to the forest floor, might be insignifi-
cant. A hot backfire, particularly a crown fire, can kill all vegetation,
consume the organic material on the forest floor, and have the impacts on
micro-climate described under area burning in the preceding subsections.

Cutting Practices. Depending upon the extent to which they open the
forest canopy, all cutting practices affect the micro -climate. The impact
may be insignificant (light selection cutting) , moderate (intermediate
shelterwood cutting or commercial thinning) or great (extensive clear-
cutting) . To varying degrees, each type of cutting increases solar inten-
sity, air and soil temperatures, surface evaporation, and air movement and
wind velocity; and decreases vegetative transpiration and relative humidity

Climatic reactions upon the forest ecosystem are variable. Increased
sunlight stimulates the sprouting and growth of branches on stems of trees;
higher soil temperatures and more available soil moisture may accelerate
tree growth; increased wind velocities may cause windthrow of reserved
trees in a partially cut area or along the edge of a clearcutting. The
altered micro-climate may favor or inhibit forest regeneration.

Logging Methods. There may be short term emissions of pollutants
from the engines of machines, and dust from yarding operations, which
affect air quality slightly.

Transportation . Right-of-way clearing for forest roads has impacts
upon the local climate which are similar to those of clearcutting. Several
of the road construction activities can cause temporary degradation of air
quality by emission of engine exhaust fumes and particulate matter. Dust
from construction operations may be locally heavy; its effect may be
accentuated by increased movement of air and higher wind velocities in
the corridors created by right-of-way clearing. Transportation of logs
by truck can degrade air quality along a forest road. During dry weather,
trucks operating on unsurfaced roads or on gravel surfaces may raise heavy
clouds of dust. On heavily used mainline roads, dust may be noticeable
for long periods each day.

Land

Development. Scarification disturbs the protective litter layer and
churns up the topsoil. These actions expose the topsoil to raindrop
splash erosion and subsequent soil creep. Compaction of the soil, which
reduces productivity, will result if scarification is done during periods
of soil wetness .

86

Mechanical brush cutting will result in soil compaction from the
equipment when the soils are wet, however, the cut brush will add to the
soil cover and hasten the natural nutrient cycling in the soil.

Mechanical trenching-furrowing will expose the soil to erosive elements
in the trench. It will slow down erosion from overland flow if the trench
or furrow is contoured and wide enough to effectively divide the slope into
shorter segments. However a wide sloping trench or furrow will also act
like a road for erosion, mass wasting, and loss of productivity.

Area burning causes a loss in plant nutrients from the soil nutrient
cycle. Organic matter, nitrogen, sulfur, and about 30 percent of the
phosphorous are lost during burning. There is a short term accelerated
growth burst but it is accompanied by a long term loss of productivity.
Burning the organic matter also creates a hydrophobic soil surface condi-
tion, especially under dry conditions on coarse textured soils. This
hydrophobic condition causes surface water runoff, hence erosion.

Spot burning intensifies the conditions outlined under area burning,
sometimes to the point of soil sterility which lasts for a number of years.

Burying slash causes soils to be exposed to erosive agents when the
litter is removed. The wasted soil will also ravel or creep downhill if
a steep slope gradient is involved. Chipping slash and spreading it back
over the land will give additional litter cover, causing a temporary reduc-
tion in available soil nitrogen, and hasten the natural nutrient cycle.
Chipper equipment will cause soil compaction. Seeding and planting will
protect the soils from erosion. Mechanical planting will cause some com-
paction and expose soil for erosion for a short time. Mulching the soil
surface protects it from erosion. It will cause a suppression of natural
growth which provides a natural watershed cover. Fertilization with the
proper amounts of nutrients will not harm the soil. It will promote
additional vegetative growth which in turn provides better cover against
soil erosion. Precommercial thinning and pruning results in organic
materials which fall on the forest floor causing a temporary suppression
of available soil nitrogen as they decompose. Gas or chemical spills
could cause temporary soil sterility.

Protection. The use of insecticides and fungicides can cause an
imbalance of soil macro-fauna and fungi for an unknown period of time.
The full impact of this shift in population balance is not known. The
degree of the shift would depend upon the quantity applied, depth of
penetration and length of time before decomposition. These factors arc
quite variable depending upon rate of application, types of chemicals
used, and climate. The use of retardants to suppress fires is not detri-
mental unless there is a high proportion of a micro element such as boron.
Tractor constructed fire lines expose the soil to erosion forces. Lines
running up and down the slope expose the soil to conditions which cause
serious erosion. Materials cast aside into draws can increase the poten-
tial for mass wasting. The impact of backfiring is similar to area burning
described under Forest Development.

87

Cutting Practices. As a result of any cutting practice organic
material will be added to the forest floor more quickly than it would
be naturally, barring catastrophic windstorms, etc. There will be a
temporary reduction of soil nitrogen for plant growth because of this
addition. The added material will also build up the forest floor, hence
more protection from raindrop erosion. Clearcutting and seed tree
cuttings expose more of the soil to erosion forces than the other cutting
practices. Usually the heaviest cuts give the most soil disturbance.
Landslide potential on non-cohesive soils increases with time on clear-
cut and seed tree areas which occur on 80%+ slopes.

Logging Methods . The unmitigated effects of logging methods upon
the soil are interrelated functions of types of soils, equipment, weather,
and topography. For example, a soil may be severely damaged by crawler
tractor logging during times of soil wetness. But the same soils may not
be harmed if the same operation is conducted when the soil is frozen and
protected by snow cover. The hazard of soil sterilization in small areas
from fuel or oil dumping and spills is always present when motorized
equipment is employed.

Those logging systems which generally have only a slight impact upon
the soil are skylines, balloons, and helicopters. These systems require
the least amount of roads and trails and cause the least amount of litter
and surface soil disturbance. Impacts include road and landing construc-
tion, which initiates soil erosion and sometimes landslides. Small areas
around landings and ridge tops, etc., will have the protective litter
layer scraped aside exposing the soil to erosive forces.

Logging methods which generally have moderate impact upon the soil
are horse skidding, high-lead yarding, and mobile yarder-loader operations.
These methods require more roads and landings than methods listed in the
above paragraph. They also disturb a larger percentage of the litter layer
and topsoil. Trails where the logs are skidded become scraped and compacted,
These two conditions concentrate water and provide areas for overland flow
of water which can lead to rill and gully erosion.

Logging methods which generally have a severe impact upon the soil
are the crawler tractor or rubber tired skidder and jammer yarding.
Tractor logging disturbs and compacts as much as 40 percent of the area.
The main skid roads receive the severest damage and occupy about 20 per-
cent of the area. Soil structure is usually destroyed on frequently
traversed areas and is more easily destroyed if the soils are wet. Sur-
face runoff is the rule under these conditions. Tractor logging causes
deep soil disturbance over 15 percent of the area while moving cable
logging causes 1.9 percent. Tractor logging causes 5.9 percent shallow
soil disturbance over the area while cable logging causes 13.3 percent.
Jammer yarding requires a dense road network. Many more areas are removed
from the timber production base as well as exposed to erosive forces by
utilizing jammer yarding rather than logging methods listed as having slight
and moderate impacts.

88

Transportat ion . Construction site operations create erosion and
sedimentation problems mainly during the relatively brief period between
land clearing, shaping, and stabilization of the new soil surface. The
released sediment may have a lasting effect on the channel shape of a
stream as well as affecting the construction project and water environ-
ment downstream. The impact of construction operations upon the soil are
interrelated functions of types of soils, equipment, weather, and topo-
graphy.

Clearing and grubbing opens up an area and removes the vegetation
and disturbs and exposes the soil to erosive elements. It can cause soil
compaction, particularly on wet soils, accelerated erosion and disrupts
the nutrient cycle.

The excavation of earth or rock from its natural resting place has
several impacts on the soil resource. It alters the natural drainage
from hillsides and exposes underlying soils to weathering action. It
removes lateral support to adjacent material. On hillside cuts it may
unload a slope at a critical point and trigger landslides. Roadside cut
slopes are bare, erodible watersheds which can increase sediment and
drainage problems. Blasting in rock excavation compacts, shakes and
fractures the soil resource. Topsoil may be poorly disposed of or
wasted.

Embankments consisting of man-made deposits of soil, constructed of
filled-in materials, may affect the soil resource by a combination of
equipment and soil placement operations, particularly during wet weather.
Fills add weight to the underlying soil mass, which on steep hillsides
can trigger landslides or slip failures. Added weight of fills on faulty
foundations can result in slumps and settlements. Newly constructed
fills have bare slopes which contribute to erosion and sediment until
stabilized. Fills placed at a greater angle than the normal angle of
repose are prone to failures.

Grading operations impact soils by cutting, smoothing and disturbing
surface materials on the road surface, fill slopes, cut slopes, ditches
and other areas requiring shaping. Wet weather during these operations
can cause erosion and sedimentation.

Seeding and mulching equipment used in stabilization efforts during
wet soil conditions may rut and disturb the areas they are traveling over
causing erosion and sedimentation problems. Time of seeding operations
may result in lack of seed germination; thereby leaving bare slopes
exposed to soil erosion. Topsoiling and seed bed preparation by tillage
and discing loosens and disturbs the soil so that it may be easily eroded
prior to turf establishment. Shoulders, fill slopes, slopes of ditches,
drainageways , areas around drainage structures, cut slopes, other areas
outside the rounded tops of cuts and toes of fills are possible erosion
generators .

89

Quarrying operations require the opening of a rock source, removal
of overburden, and excavation or mining of the rock materials needed for
construction purposes. Quarrying impacts the soil resource by changing
the land use, by removal of material and by exposing underlying materials
to weathering. Explosives used in this material removal operation frac-
ture, shake and disturb the soil resource. The loosened soil and over-
burden material are ready sources of soil erosion.

Bases distribute the load to the underlying soils and surfaces provide
a wearing surface and prevent infiltration of water into the base. The
impervious surface material creates a watershed which impacts the exposed
shoulders and fill slopes and causes soil erosion and sedimentation of
streams. The transmitting of load to the foundation by the base may result
in deformation or settlement. Use of excessive oil application on an area
and oil spillage during filling operations may contaminate soil and water.

Carrying large amounts of water for long distances in roadside ditches
particularly on steep gradient may cause ditch and fill slope erosion.
This detrimental erosion may result in the destruction of productive soils,
the clogging of ditches and drainage structures endanger the stability of
side slopes in embankments and cut sections. Accelerated erosion of
ditches may be caused by excessive water velocities and easily eroded soils.

Construction of bridge structures and across road drainage structures
can affect stream sedimentation through equipment disturbing the streambed
and streambanks and by pushing loose material (logs, branches, and soil)
into the stream during site preparation and construction. Approach fills,
banks, bedding and backfill material can be ready sources of soil erosion
material. Bridges and culverts may constrict natural waterways, thereby
increasing the velocity of water which may cause scour and soil erosion.
Culverts not properly oriented with natural stream channels and without
proper inlet protection, gradient, outlet control or proper outlet discharge
may cause bank erosion and scour holes at culvert outlets, resulting in
soil erosion and stream sedimentation.

Under maintenance surface repairs of dirt, gravel and bituminous
surfaces contribute to sedimentation and soil erosion by material loss,
improper drainage, pot holing, stripping, rutting surface irregularities,
and by dust loss. Spillage of petroleum products or excess application
may result in soil contamination. Materials removed from plugged cul-
verts and ditches may contribute to soil erosion and sediment problems.
These waste materials may erode or creep if placed in unstable locations.

Equipment working in the stream to repair structures causes distur-
bance of the streambed and banks. Moving materials in flowing water to
repair banks, piers, abutements and approach fills causes soil erosion
and stream sedimentation.

Debris and slide removal practices impact the soil resource by the
method of removal (sidecast or removal to designated waste areas) and

90

the location (stable or unstable) in which these materials are placed.
Improper actions in removal and in relocating these materials makes them
prime sources of material for soil erosion and stream sedimentation.
Waste soil may ravel or creep downhill if steep slope gradients are
involved.

Chemical brush control is not usually detrimental to the soil.
Mechanical brush cutting adds to the soil cover and speeds up the natural
nutrient cycling in the soil. The equipment used can cause some soil com-
paction and disturbance action.

Water

Development . Area burning can affect the quality of surface water.
Hot slash fires that expose mineral soil to precipitation can result in
surface erosion or mass wasting which, in turn, may cause sedimentation
of forest streams. Severe burning can significantly increase sediment
yields. The effect is emphasized on steep slopes in areas of heavy pre-
cipitation.

Sediment concentrations after hard burning may be many times greater
than those observed on an undisturbed watershed. These abnormal sediment
yields may persist for several years after burning, steadily declining as
the exposed mineral soil becomes revegetated. Nitrate concentrations in
stream water may increase following burning. Observations made so far
would indicate that these concentrations will be far less than the limit
of 10 parts per million recommended for domestic use, and well below any
level deemed harmful to aquatic life. However, on one study area, a surge
of nutrients in streams, following area burning, contained concentrations
of ammonia and manganese that exceeded Federal water quality standards for
a period of 12 days.

Area burning can also cause significant increases in stream tempera-
tures. Even if all merchantable timber is removed by clearcutting, the
resulting slash and uncut cull trees and brush may provide enough shade
to maintain maximum water temperatures at levels only slightly above those
which prevailed before logging. The amount of temperature increase is
highly dependent upon groundwater inflow, topographic shading, stream
width, depth and velocity of flow, in addition to streamside shading.
Hot slash fires reduce or eliminate this streamside shade, with resulting
exposure to direct solar radiation which can cause increases of at least
14° F. in mean-monthly maximum stream temperatures. These temperature
increases may be critical to the aquatic ecosystem and survival of the
life it supports.

The effects of area burning on ground water are less well documented.
However, it is known that high fire temperatures at the soil surface
reduce water infiltration rates by producing a non-wettable (water-resistant)
layer of soil beneath the ash-dust surface and the mineral soil immediately

9]

under the surface. The water-repellent layer lies parallel to the soil
surface, and may vary in thickness from 2 to 4 inches. The presence of
this barrier means that only a thin surface soil layer is available to
store and transmit water during a rainstorm. Consequently, even in
relatively light showers, the surface layer quickly becomes saturated,
producing excessive surface runoff and erosion and, of course, stream
sedimentation. Although no known research has been conducted on the
effects of such reduced infiltration, it seems logical that, if the
impermeable layer is extensive in area, the groundwater table could be
significantly affected.

The indiscriminate use of heavy equipment in scarification can cause
sedimentation and turbidity of lakes and streams. The magnitude of this
water quality degradation will vary directly with slope, amount of pre-
cipitation, instability of the soil mantle, and area and depth of soil
disturbance.

The use of chemicals in baiting, treated seed, animal repellents^,
and weed control also has potential for significant degradation of water
quality. Knowledge is lacking regarding the long-range effects of these
substances on our water resources. The biological significance of trace
amounts of many of the complex carbon compounds is only partially under-
stood, their persistance in natural waters largely unknown.

The use of toxicant and repellent chemicals to protect seedlings
from rodents and browsing mammals is limited to ground applications in
forest nurseries and seed orchards. Under these controlled conditions,
these chemicals pose no threat to water quality. However, aerial appli-
cation of the chemical sprays is used in weed and brush control.

In these operations, the possible entry routes of chemicals into
surface waters may not be recognized. Large amounts of herbicides may
enter water in a short time when streams and lakes are included in
treatment areas. Significant amounts of aerially-applied herbicides may
not reach the target area intended for treatment because of lateral drift
due to air movement or interception by the forest canopy. Studies have
shown that only small amounts of intercepted herbicide will enter the
aquatic environment due to the washing action on the forest canopy. Like-
wise, subsurface flow or leaching of herbicides through the soil profile
to groundwater and finally to surface waters is a slow process capable of
moving only small amounts of chemical relatively short distances. This
finding indicates that the impact of herbicides on the quality of ground-
water is slight.

However, surface flow or runoff can move large amounts of chemical a
long distance in a short time. Chemicals moving in surface flow need not
be in solution but may be adsorbed on soil particles. Sheet erosion of
soil from areas treated with herbicides is a serious threat to the quality
of the aquatic environment. Steep slopes, reduced ground cover, and

92

compacted soils encourage surface flow of water and movement of herbicide
residues .

Research experience indicates that concentrations of herbicides
exceeding 0.1 ppm will seldom be encountered in waters adjacent to care-
fully controlled forest spray operations. These concentrations are well
within limits considered acceptable. Concentrations exceeding 1 ppm have
never been observed and are not expected to occur, although there remains
the possibility of accidental spills. The chronic entry of the usual
herbicides into streams for long periods after application does not occur.

There remains for consideration the possibility of contamination of
water by diesel oil, one of the principal carrying agents used with forest
herbicides. A comprehensive review of pertinent research literature has
indicated that petroleum carriers, carefully applied, present no signifi-
cant threat to the quality of surface water or groundwater. One researcher
found that most danger lies in careless handling of oil containers and
unused oil, and in field cleaning of spray equipment.

Forest fertilization involves the aerial distribution of chemicals
to promote tree growth. The nitrogen is usually applied as large, specially

coated urea granules (forest prills) . These granules are relatively heavy
and have eliminated the problems of lateral drift and foliar interception
experienced in the aerial application of herbicides. Thus, control of
nitrogen application is relatively good; nearly all of the fertilizer
reaches the target area.

The greatest potential route of fertilizer nitrogen entry into the
aquatic ecosystem is by direct application to exposed surface water in
the area treated. Overland flow is also a major factor in areas where
surface runoff commonly occurs. Subsurface drainage of dissolved nitrogen
also moves the fertilizer into streams.

Despite the filtering effects of forest soils, measurable levels of
nitrogen compounds have been found in streams monitored for water quality.
In several studies of the effects of forest fertilization on water quality,
maximum standards set by the U. S. Public Health Service were not closely
approached, even during the short-lived peak concentrations. While testing
of the effects of fertilization on forest waters has revealed no serious
adverse impacts to date, knowledge in this area of research is incomplete.

Protection. The use of chemicals in forest protection involves appli-
cations of insecticides, fungicides and fire retardants. Fungicides are
applied in seed orchards by readily controlled ground methods, without
hazard of damage to water resources. Insecticides applied by aerial
methods can enter forest waters by the same routes followed by the herbi-
cides used in development treatments. The principal routes of entry are
direct application or drift of spray materials to the water surface, and
overland flow of insecticides in surface runoff.

93

Conditions favoring the contamination of the aquatic ecosystem by
insecticides are the same as those which favor the entry of herbicides.
However, insecticides in general are less mobile in soil than herbicides.

The toxicity and persistence of chemicals used as forest insecticides
is variable. The chlorinated hydrocarbons (DDT, dieldrin, chlordane, etc.)
are not usually toxic to mammals in the concentrations normally encountered,
but fish and aquatic organisms may be highly susceptible. These compounds
are especially resistant to degradation to non-toxic end products, and may
persist in soil for months or years following application. Most of them
are only slightly soluble in water. Daily ingestion of sub-lethal doses
of DDT may be accumulative and fatal to mammals. Its extremely adverse
effect upon the reproduction of birds is well known. The organophosphorus
insecticides (parathion, malathion, etc.) are highly variable to toxicity
to different species of similar organisms. Parathion can be highly toxic
to mammals, with noticeable effects on humans possible from a water supply
contaminated by spray treatment. The toxicity of malathion to warm-
blooded animals is estimated to be only about 1 percent that of parathion.
The residues of some of these compounds disappear quickly, but the persis-
tence of dangerous amounts of parathion in soil has been documented.
Pyrethrum does not appear to be significantly toxic to most life forms.
It does not persist in the environment and the possibility of its move-
ment from soil to streams is slight.

Several chemical fire retardants containing ammonium or phosphate
compounds are widely used to suppress and control forest fires. Some
retardants are applied by ground units or helicopters, by which maximum
control and utilization on the target area can be achieved. Aerially
applied retardants may enter waterways or lakes directly or by movement
in surface runoff.

The major known effect of these chemicals on the environment appears
to be their impact on water quality and on fish and other aquatic life.
There have been some documented kills of fish caused by field applications
of retardants. Laboratory tests have established that four commonly-used
retardants are toxic to juvenile salmonids, spiny ray fish and common
aquatic organisms at concentrations which could occur in natural waters
as a result of field applications. Those retardants with higher percen-
tages of potential ammonia appear to have the more lethal effects on fish;
the phosphate-based retardants seem to be less lethal.

Although research so far completed has focused on the effects of
retardant chemicals on fish, it is probable that they also have signifi-
cant impacts on the quality of water for domestic use and watering of
livestock and terrestrial wildlife. The colloidal material (clays, etc.)
used as carriers with these compounds are chemically harmless but could
cause turbidity in surface waters.

Fire line construction can cause sedimentation and turbidity of sur-
face water by the exposure of the mineral soil to the impact of rainfall

94

and surface runoff resulting in erosion and soil movement into streams
and lakes. The effect increases with slope, amount of precipitation,
instability of the soil mantle, and area of surface disturbance. Building
fire line by tractor disturbs much more surface area than does line building
by hand-trailing, and is thus more destructive under comparable conditions.

Cutting Practices. Only unmodified clearcuttings, and to a lesser
extent some seed-tree cuttings, cause removal of forest cover which exposes
natural water surfaces to continuous, direct solar radiation. Under a
continuous forest canopy, sunlight reaching stream channels is largely
diffuse and intermittent, and changes in water temperature vary primarily
with air temperature. When the forest cover is removed, direct solar
radiation provides much of the energy required to raise water temperature.

The effect on water temperature is most pronounced when clearcutting
is followed by area burning of slash, which is common practice. The slash
and brush remaining after removal of timber may provide shade which may
maintain water temperatures at relatively low levels. Elimination of this
shade by burning exposes the water surface to direct solar radiation. An
increase in maximum stream temperatures from about 57° F. before clear-
cutting and burning to about 85° afterward has been observed. Increases
in water temperature favor the growth of pathogens and reduce the supply
of dissolved oxygen, with adverse effects on aquatic life. Water tempera-
ture increases can also cause fish mortality.

Clearcutting by itself may not cause sedimentation of natural waters.
Clearcutting alone, using moving-cable systems, seldom produces signifi-
cant surface erosion. In many situations, erosion and sedimentation occur
only when clearcutting is followed by a hot slash burn. These effects are
discussed under area burning.

However, there are other problems associated with clearcutting on
steep slopes in areas of heavy precipitation. Under these conditions,
clearcutting may be followed, after several years, by mass soil movement
downslope, resulting in sedimentation and degradation of water quality.
This delayed impact is caused by deterioration of the root systems of the
trees removed.

Considerable logging debris may be deposited in natural waters as a
result of clearcutting. This organic material contains simple sugars
which are released by leaching and used as food by aquatic micro-organisms.
In the process, these organisms extract much oxygen, thus reducing the
dissolved oxygen content of the water to levels which may be lethal to
aquatic life. Slash and other logging debris may dam streams, slowing
velocity and reducing turbulence. As a result, the inadequate supply of
dissolved oxygen may not be replenished. The direct evidence of such
water quality degradation is the growth of bacterial slimes and algae which
thrive on the nutrients released by organic decomposition.

95

Clearcutting and other timber harvesting methods can be beneficial
in increasing the supply of water available for human use. Much research
documents the potential of various cutting practices, properly applied,
to increase water yields from forested watersheds significantly. Man-made
openings in the forest canopy can cause the following effects:

increased accumulation of snow in openings;

reduction of precipitation losses due to interception by the
forest canopy and evaporation therefrom;

reduction of soil moisture losses caused by transpiration of
vegetative cover;

all of which result in increased runoff and more available water.

Logging Methods. Falling and bucking of timber causes no degradation
of water quality unless trees are felled into or across surface waters.
Then, the lopping of limbs and sawing incidental to log making may deposit
slash and organic debris in the water. This can cause the reduction of
dissolved oxygen and impact on aquatic life described in the preceding sub-
section.

All of the ground skidding and yarding methods have some potential for
significant adverse impacts on water quality, since all cause some degree
of soil disturbance. The effect is most pronounced when clearcuttings are
logged by tractor, particularly on slopes of 15 percent or more and on
saturated soils. The resulting disturbance exposes mineral soil to surface
erosion, with consequent sedimentation and turbidity of surface waters
caused by materials carried downslope in runoff.

Jammer yarding itself is no more destructive than high-lead or mobile
yarder-loader operations. However, the relatively short reach of the
jammer makes a dense network of parallel roads necessary for effective
jammer operation. If the road system already exists, the jammer can be
used without much soil disturbance. If new roads must be constructed to
support the jammer operation much soil will be disturbed, probably with
severe impact on surface water quality.

Sometimes logs are yarded across streams, or skidded down stream
channels by tractors. Both of these practices increase stream sedimenta-
tion and turbidity.

Stream clearance by removal of log jam and debris is sometimes required
under the terms of a timber sale contract. If heavy equipment enters the
stream during the clearing operation, stream sedimentation and turbidity
are increased and there is the added risk of water contamination by grease,
oil and diesel fuel. Servicing and fueling of logging equipment and log
trucks on forest lands adjacent to streams or lakes also can pollute water
with petroleum products.

96

In areas of steep terrain, landings for logs are sometimes constructed
by excavating level places where none exist naturally. The excavation may
expose large quantities of mineral soil to the impact of rainfall, with
resulting ravelling of embankments and downslope movement of sediments with
surface runoff into natural waters.

Transportation. Studies have shown that road construction associated
with logging, rather than logging itself, is the factor which causes
greatest surface erosion and mass soil movement, with resulting degradation
of water quality. All of the road construction activities which involve
surface disturbance or movement of earth and rock can cause degradation of
water quality. These activities include clearing and grubbing, excavation
and embankment, installation of culverts, quarrying and grading.

The adverse effects are greatest when midslope roads are constructed
by excavation of a "bench" and excavated material is wasted by sidecasting.
The excavated materials may be carried downslope into watercourses immedi-
ately by gravity or later by surface erosion or sliding and sloughing.
Excavation for midslope roads sometimes removes material which supports
unstable soils further upslope, with the result that the unstable soil
mantle may later move downslope as a mass, sometimes damming a stream.

Construction of drainage ditches and bridges and installation of
gabions, etc., in stream channels can cause short term turbidity of streams
while the work is being done. Contamination of water by grease, oil and
diesel fuel may also occur, if machinery used in these operations enters
the water. Improperly installed culverts may discharge surface runoff
onto fill slopes, eroding these slopes and carrying sediment into streams
or lakes.

The use of petroleum products (oils and asphalt) in road surfacing
and surface maintenance can contaminate surface waters. So can the appli-
cation of herbicides for roadside brush control. These materials may
enter water as a result of careless handling or application, or use of
excessive amounts, either directly or by movement in surface runoff. Oils
and diesel fuels spilled when road construction equipment is fueled or
serviced may also enter streams or lakes.

Aquatic Vegetation

Development. Practices such as seeding, planting, mulching, pruning,
burying, precommercial thinnings, and hand clearing and cleaning do not
usually have an impact on aquatic vegetation. Mechanical brush cutting
along streams could temporarily damage aquatic plants while chemicals used
to control brush, grass or weeds could kill desirable aquatic vegetation.
Area and spot burning could cause short term adverse effects on aquatic
plants by killing them if done along streams or beside lakes and marshes.
Extensive snag felling in streams or lakes could result in the immediate
death of some aquatic plants and long-term environmental changes detri-
mental to other plants due to deposition of organic material.

97

The addition of nutrients through fertilization to neutral waters
may benefit aquatic plants by increasing their growth. Nutrients carried
into lakes, reservoirs and ponds, however, could intensify problems caused
by aquatic plants if the receiving water was already rich in nutrients.
In such instances indirect impacts could include extreme algae blooms
detrimental to uses for drinking, recreation and fish kills due to oxygen
depletion during winter or summer months.

Protection. Use of insecticides or fungicides to protect forests
would have a direct impact if the chemicals used are lethal to aquatic
plants. Fire line construction and backfiring can destroy aquatic vege-
tation, either directly by killing plants or indirectly by siltation and
sedimentation resulting from erosion.

Cutting Practices. Cutting practices which remove most of the timber
adjacent to aquatic ecosystems can have a direct impact on aquatic plants.
Clearcutting along streams or around lakes, ponds and marshes causes more
immediate loss of aquatic plants than other cutting practices. Extensive
clearcutting in a watershed may result in undesirable algae blooms, parti-
cularly if large increases in water temperatures result from the cutting
practice. Under some situations cuttings that result in slight increases
in water temperature and more light penetration may benefit aquatic plants
by creating better growing conditions. Relatively light cuttings like
commercial thinning, selection cutting or sanitation-salvage cutting have
minor impacts on aquatic plants.

Logging Methods. Timber falling and bucking, by itself, has no
immediate impact on aquatic vegetation unless trees are felled into aquatic
habitats thereby destroying plants. Long term adverse effects would occur
if debris, slash and tree tops are not removed during logging.

Both short and long term adverse effects on aquatic plants occur when
logs are skidded across streams or wetlands, resulting in sedimentation
of both running and standing waters. Excessive sedimentation accelerates
the natural process of plant succession. This may be beneficial in some
developing ecosystems, but sedimentation in most cases is considered detri-
mental because it reduces the quality and amount of aquatic habitat in the
total environment. Crawler tractors and downhill high-lead logging systems
generally cause more sedimentation than other ground systems of logging,
and would therefore have the most adverse effects on aquatic plants.
Aerial systems would cause less sedimentation and loss of aquatic plants
than ground systems of logging because logs are partially or totally sus-
pended above the ground during yarding.

Transportation. Studies have shown that more sedimentation of aquatic
habitat results from road construction and maintenance than from yarding
operations. (See long term impact of sedimentation on aquatic plants as
discussed above.) Aquatic vegetation can suffer both short and long term
negative impacts whenever construction occurs adjacent to or in waterways.

98

Aquatic plants may be damaged or removed by clearing and grubbing, excava-
tion of all types of material, and embankment and channelization of streams.
Stabilization techniques that use fertilizer could enhance the growth of
aquatic plants. Installation of structures in streams may have a slight
negative impact on aquatic plants at the construction site.

Maintenance of roads and structures can cause additional sedimentation
in water courses which shortens the gradual succession of plant communities.
Clearance of landslides from roads can be detrimental to plants if soil and
debris are sidecast into streams. Aquatic plants could be damaged by chemi-
cal applications to control brush along waterways.

Terrestrial Vegetation

Certain timber management practices may be employed which result in
partial to complete, or nearly complete, removal of one or all layers of
forest vegetation including the overstory, understory, shrub layer,
herbaceous layer and forest floor. Such an impact (removal) may be con-
sidered short term since revegetation usually begins soon afterwards with
regrowth of residual plant species and invasion by species adapted to open
conditions (pioneer species) . These pioneer species may be herbaceous or
woody vegetation, including tree species, depending upon the local situa-
tion. Timber management practices also have long term impacts in the form
of time necessary to complete development of a new forest that resembles
the one (completely or partially) removed, even when done under ideal
circumstances that minimize this time requirement. When conditions are
adverse there is little likelihood that the process will be anything other
than long term.

Development . The short term impact of scarification, mechanical
brush cutting, area burning and chemical weed control is the partial or
completed destruction of vegetation. Actions applied to a lesser inten-
sity, may have short term impacts when the removal of vegetation is
limited to one vegetative layer or only a small proportion (one-half or
less) of the total area. These actions may include scarification in strips
or patches, spot burning, burying of slash, chemical weed control of limited
number of species, and precommercial thinning. Mechanical trenching and
furrowing, spot burning of hand piled areas, chipping of slash, hand
clearing and cleaning of competing vegetation, chemical weed control by
hand application, mulching, snag felling and pruning have negligible
impacts on vegetation. None of the remaining forest development practices
damage vegetation. Their short term impacts are related solely to reestab-
lishment, growth and protection of vegetation. These practices include
tree improvement, tree seeding, tree planting, baiting, fencing and
screening, and fertilization.

All development practices have beneficial long term impacts if they
work as intended; trees will be regenerated early and grow at a fast rate
thereby developing a new forest without extensive delays. Some practices,

99

however, may impact vegetation in the reverse of what is intended if mis-
applied. Examples include (1) scarification that compacts soil, or
removes soil or shrub layers that were providing conditions suitable for
tree regeneration, (2) area burning that removes desirable (for tree
regeneration) shrub cover, causes soil erosion or rapid invasion of other
unwanted vegetation, and (3) chemical weed control that removes one type
of undesirable vegetation only to have its place unexpectedly taken by
another undesirable type.

In general, adverse long term impacts from scarification and area
burning are most likely to occur on relatively "warm-dry" sites in all
vegetative zones of the Coniferous Forest Biome, especially where soils
are shallow and coarse, and humus layer is thin or absent. Long term
adverse impacts may also result from use of heavy equipment on wet soils,
resulting in compaction. The possibility exists that tree improvement
will produce trees that are overspecialized for rapid growth in a commer-
cially desirable form and underspecialized with regard to resistance to
disease, drought or other destructive agencies. Finally, tree planting
or seeding can represent a tendency toward monoculture where such efforts
involve a limited number of species.

Protection. Protection measures benefit vegetation in the long term
by insuring continuance of existing forest conditions. The short term
adverse impacts of backfiring may include complete, or nearly complete,
destruction of vegetation on the burned area. Fire line construction will
destroy vegetation directly and, also indirectly when excess erosion occurs
Retardants have no known adverse impact.

Cutting Practices. The short term impact of clearcutting is the
complete destruction, through tree harvesting, of the upper vegetal layer
and the partial damage to the lower vegetal layers in the course of
falling operations. Clearcutting produces miles of cutting edge where
standing trees are exposed to wind. Subsequently, windthrown trees may
endanger adjacent vegetation by providing a breeding ground for insects
or fuel for wildfire. Clearcutting may also increase fire danger on cut-
over area by exposing it to the drying effects of sun and wind until the
new forest develops a closed canopy.

From the long term point of view, clearcutting tends to develop a
forest that contains trees of approximately the same age and of species
that grow well in full sunlight. Assuming no artificial reforestation
efforts are taken, the natural rate and degree of recovery will vary by
the conditions that characterize the impacted area. Clearcutting on
relatively cool-moist sites in certain vegetative zones normally results
in the natural regeneration of trees and other vegetation in less than
20 years. These zones include:

100

Northwest Coastal Coniferous Forest Sub-biome
Western Hemlock Zone
Sitka Spruce Zone

Montane Coniferous Forest Sub-biome
Douglas-fir Zone
Western Hemlock Zone
Mixed Conifer-Mixed Evergreen Zone

Clearcutting on cool-moist sites does not, however, normally produce
tree regeneration so fast that herbaceous and other woody vegetation are
excluded. There is usually a period during which this vegetation is domi-
nant or thrives in association with tree regeneration. Clearcutting on
relatively warm-dry sites in all zones of the Northwest Coastal and Montane
sub-biomes, and in high elevation zones where true firs are present
normally results in the regeneration of herbaceous and non -coniferous
woody vegetation to the virtual exclusion of many coniferous species over
extended periods of time, sometimes as long as 25 years or more.

The short term impacts of shelterwood cutting are much less than those
of clearcutting, since only a proportion of the total vegetation, usually
50 percent or less, is destroyed or removed. Shelterwood cutting may es-
pose large areas to wind and any resulting windthrown trees may endanger
vegetation by providing a breeding ground for insects and fuel for wild-
fire. Shelterwood cutting also opens the forest to drying effects of
wind and sun thereby increasing fire danger, although to a lesser extent
than clearcutting. Shelterwood cutting can also perpetuate and spread
dwarf mistletoe thereby damaging or possibly killing susceptible tree
species .

With regard to long term impacts, shelterwood cutting normally results
in the natural establishment of tree regeneration thereby avoiding a long
period of exclusive dominance by herbaceous and non-coniferous woody vege-
tation. Like clearcutting, it usually results in an even-aged forest but
favors species better adapted to shade. Shelterwood cutting is often the
only feasible way of obtaining early tree regeneration in many zones,
especially on warm-dry sites, within the Montane (including the Ponderosa
Pine Zone, White Fir Zone and Douglas-fir Zone) but is uncertain in others
(Mixed Conifer-Mixed Evergreen in southwestern Oregon); it has also pro-
vided early tree regeneration in the Northwest Coastal sub-biome on both
"cool-moist" and "warm-dry" sites. This practice opens the forest canopy
and allows increased growth of herbaceous and shrub layers although not
to the extent of clearcutting.

Seed tree cutting usually impacts vegetation much the same as clear-
cutting. The number of trees left standing after logging are generally
few in number but provide a better chance for natural regeneration and
recovery than clearcutting.

101

Short term impacts of selection cutting are the least of any of the
final harvest cutting practices since only a small amount of vegetation
is destroyed or removed. Selection cutting does not normally increase
danger to forest vegetation from wind, fire or insects due to the absence
of large openings or heavy concentration of slash over large areas.
Selection cutting can perpetuate and spread dwarf mistletoe thereby
damaging or killing susceptible species.

Long term impacts of selection cutting are uneven-aged forests com-
posed of species adapted to shade, including trees of all ages, from
seedlings to mature trees. Tree regeneration almost always occurs in
small openings soon after mature trees are removed; herb or shrub dominated
areas of any significant size rarely occur. The selection method may re-
sult in the regeneration of forest trees, on relatively warm-dry sites in
the Mixed Conifer and White Fir Zones of the Montane sub-biome. Selective
cutting in old growth Douglas-fir forests in the Western Hemlock and Sitka
Spruce Zones of the Northwest Coastal sub-biome usually results in the
regeneration of only shade loving western hemlock and assorted species of
non-coniferous woody vegetation, primarily shrubs.

The short and long term impacts of commercial thinning and mortality
salvage are relatively insignificant due to the minimal amounts of vege-
tation removed.

Logging Methods . The short term impact of ground systems such as
tractor skidding and high-lead yarding is to destroy or damage the lower
vegetal layers. Logging can cause damage to residual trees resulting in
disease, particularly in such species as western hemlock and white fir.
Unless extensive soil compaction or loss of soil by erosion occurs the
long term impact is to contribute to a relatively early natural regenera-
tion of tree species. Logging methods such as horse skidding and aerial
systems do not greatly impact the herbaceous and shrub layers. Conse-
quently, the early development of a new forest is only enhanced where tree
species capable of continued growth are present in the understory following
falling operations.

Transportation . Road construction practices have a severe short and
long term impact on vegetation. In addition to the actual removal of
vegetation from the area to be surfaced, road construction frequently
destroys vegetation over extensive areas below the road cut or fill where
sidecast material (soil, rocks, brush, logs) is pushed by tractors, dumped
by trucks or blasted by explosives. Land covered by sidecast is often
much slower to revegetate than adjacent land due to sterility of the
material and depth to which it covers residual vegetation. Sterile material
impedes revegetation by invading plant species and deep covering of residual
plants impairs their ability to resprout. Land covered by the road surface
is permanently a non-producer of vegetation except for small isolated spur
roads that are sometimes abandoned. Even the latter, however, will normally
be incapable of producing vegetation similar to adjacent land due to their
compacted condition.

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In addition to their primary function of log transportation, roads
provide positive long term benefits by serving as the means by which men
and equipment may be moved into the forest to protect vegetation from
fire and insects, and to conduct reforestation efforts. They may also
provide recreational opportunities by providing public access to portions
of the forest.

Aquatic Animals

Development. The impact of some development practices normally has
a stabilizing effect on the watershed, riparian vegetation and the stream
channel. Specific actions such as seeding and planting tend to improve
the watershed and consequently basic water quality over time and thus
benefit aquatic animals. However, actions such as mechanical brush cutting,
trenching and furrowing, scarification, burying slash and precommercial
thinning may cause short term water quality problems associated with silta-
tion and streambank degradation. Debris could also be deposited in the
streams from such operations resulting in a reduction of the oxygen content
of the water and blocking fish passage. Area burning and spot burning of
piles and concentrations of slash could cause water quality changes if the
work is on or immediately adjacent to streams. Impacts would be temporary
lethal increases in water temperature and additions of chemicals or ash
directly into the water. Chipping, hand clearing, hand cleaning and pruning
could add to the organic load of the streams thereby reducing oxygen content,
Weed control, precommercial thinning and baiting when conducted with chemi-
cals could cause direct kills to fish, clams, mussels, crustaceans and
aquatic insects and drastically harm aquatic communities. Fencing and
screening could have a positive impact through protection of overhanging
streamside vegetation that provides, (1) a habitat for terrestrial insects
that fall into the water and become food for fish, (2) stream shading,
and (3) cover for aquatic animals. Snag felling directly into streams may
cause blockages to fish migration and add to organic load in the water.
Controlled snag felling operations could have a positive effect by providing
larger aquatic animals such as fish additional cover in open streams.

Fertilization of watersheds could result in a build-up of nutrients
in lakes or reservoirs in the watershed. The small addition of nutrients
to some lakes already undergoing eutrophication might amplify water
quality problems and cause negative results on aquatic environment. The
aquatic biota in neutral waters in high elevation areas of the Montane
Forest may actually benefit from increasing nutrients by providing more
rapid growth of aquatic plants and animals. The physical operations of
moving fertilizer and chance of accident near streams could result in a
detrimental impact on aquatic resources.

Protection. Forest protection actions concerned with control of
insects and disease through predators and viruses would have little direct
effect on larger aquatic organisms such as fish. A drastic reduction in
the amount of terrestrial and aquatic insects could, however, have an

103

adverse impact on fish and crustaceans through the reduction of the insect
population used as a food supply by fish. Reduction of insects through
insecticides may have two-fold impacts on aquatic organisms. The insecti-
cides themselves may be directly toxic to forms of aquatic life. Those
forms dependent on terrestrial and aquatic insects for food may die from
lack of nourishment. Fungicides would normally have only a direct impact
if the chemicals were toxic to aquatic organisms. Use of insecticides to
maintain the general health of the forest and subsequent stabilizing
influence on watersheds and water quality is a beneficial long range impact
on aquatic wildlife.

Activities during fire suppression work may have detrimental impacts
on aquatic animals and organisms. Recent studies show that the most
commonly used retardants, both powder and liquid, are toxic to fish and
aquatic organisms. Concentrations of around 150 to 200 parts per million
in water may be fatal to fish. Direct drops of retardant on small ponds,
streams and slow moving rivers may cause concentrations that will produce
fish kills. Spills of retardants near assembly areas and airfields with
subsequent drainage into stream systems may be lethal to aquatic animals.
Fire line construction, especially with track vehicles, can cause subse-
quent erosion problems especially on steep grades. Backfiring, as a
method of fire control, may cause destruction of additional stream riparian
vegetation and result in loss of cover and degradation of water quality
for fish and other aquatic animals.

Cutting Practices. The primary impacts on aquatic animals from
various forest cutting practices occur as a result of the removal of
protective vegetation along streams and the deposit of debris and sedi-
ment in streams. Commercial thinnings, intermediate shelterwood cutting,
selection cuttings and other partial removal cuttings probably have the
least negative impact on water quality and streamside environment. In
fact, water quality could be improved as a result of these practices by
subsequent increases of vegetation on the forest floor and protection of
the watershed. Clearcuttings will have an immediate detrimental impact
on water quality in areas where trees adjacent to the stream or river
systems are removed. Elimination of the forest canopy and riparian vege-
tation can increase water temperatures over optimum limits. Any erosion
originating on the clearcut area can result in the degradation of water
quality in adjacent water bodies through sedimentation and siltation.
Changes in annual water flow caused by this cutting practice could produce
either positive or negative impacts depending on the biotic requirements
of the animal .

Logging Methods. The impact of falling and bucking on water quality
and the aquatic environment is immediate and may cause short term problems.
Falling methods that permit a large concentration of trees and debris in

streams cause adverse impacts by the addition of organic matter which
reduces oxygen in the water and stream blockage. Accidental spills of oil,
gasoline, and other materials used with falling equipment may add undesirable
ingredients to small tributary streams and be toxic to aquatic organisms.

104

The movement of logs by ground skidding or yarding operations can
have a significant impact on the water quality of streams and lakes by
the addition of sediment, causing siltation and excess turbidity during
periods of heavy runoff. Streambanks and bottoms could also be damaged
and scoured. The heaviest impact may be from crawler tractor skidding
due to erosion and severe disturbance of the soil mantle. Horse and
rubber tired skidding normally cause less soil disturbance and less sub-
sequent deposits in the stream environment. Various types of aerial
yarding systems have less direct impact on aquatic habitats.

Large amounts of debris left on stream bottoms following the logging
operation can be destructive to aquatic animals, especially fish, clams
and mussels, and aquatic insects and crustaceans. Degradation of habitat
comes from lower dissolved oxygen through addition of organic material,
increased water temperatures and physical damage to the stream bottom and
banks. Large logs and heavy debris left in steep draws and along stream-
banks may cause long term drainage problems which result in destruction
of fish populations and stream habitat. Sluice-outs, during periods of
heavy precipitation, cause complete destruction of the aquatic habitat
from physical changes of the environment. Offsite degradation of aquatic
environment is common from sediment and debris in lower river systems and
estuaries .

Transportation. Studies in most western states show that road con-
struction has one of the most serious impacts on water quality and aquatic
life in general. The impacts are associated with soil disturbance during
the construction phase. The action may result in stream channel changes,
blockages to fish and addition of sediment load to streams so as to reduce
aquatic organisms. There are also drastic changes in the aquatic habitat
with subsequent reductions in spawning success and condition of higher
animals such as fish. The proximity of the road to the stream is a factor
in the magnitude of the impact.

Clearing and grubbing pose immediate problems of debris blocks in
streams and temporary turbidity from siltation. Excavation of earth and
rock, if located near streams, will add silt load and increase turbidi-
ties which are destructive of aquatic organisms. Excavation and removal
of spawning gravels in streams may destroy historic spawning grounds for
both anadromous and resident fish. Rock and gravel in streams are usually
food producing areas. The immediate effect is destruction of aquatic
insect habitat. The long range effect is the reduction of food for the
larger organisms such as fish and crayfish.

Improper embankment and compacting and grading may cause subsequent
erosion that adds sediment to streams and impairs some of the habitat
requirements. Stabilization techniques usually have a positive influence
on aquatic animals by improving water quality.

Rock crushing may require washing operations. Resulting sediment
load from these operations may reach streams and smother habitat of

105

aquatic insects, mollusks ana crustaceans. Spawning gravels are generally
impacted with fine material and water quality degradation below standards
may result. Bases and surfaces of roads may contain materials detrimental
to aquatic organisms when washed into streams. Examples are clay and dirt
surfaces that deteriorate during periods of heavy rainfall or freezing
and thawing.

Drainage ditches and culverts may concentrate waters to flow on
erodible fill areas causing sediment deposits in streams. Structures in
streams such as culverts, bridges, fords, and other crossings may become
impassable barriers to migrating fish. Construction in streams at improper
times and exposing materials such as portland cement and asphalt to streams
may cause fish kills.

A variety of impacts to fish and other aquatic organisms may be caused
during maintenance of roads, trails and other access routes. Drainage
structures may be altered on roads, causing undue addition of silt and
debris in streams. Repair of structures on stream crossings or of riprap
may cause destruction of spawning beds or delay in migration of adult
anadromous fish. The sidecast of debris and slides during removal opera-
tion into streams may cause degradation of water quality for many miles
below the problem area. Brush control along stream side roads may not be
compatible with existing aquatic habitat and water quality. Excess
destruction of vegetation may increase water temperature and destroy cover.
Herbicides entering streams through various routes can directly kill aquatic
animals .

Terrestrial Animals

Development. Tree improvement practices may increase the growth rate
of coniferous forests, thereby adversely affecting browsing animals such
as deer by reducing the time that they can use the reforested area. Forest
dwelling species including some birds, small mammals, and mammalian preda-
tors may benefit through the cover afforded by rapid forest regeneration.

Scarification, mechanical brush cutting, burning, and chemical weed
control, etc., will have a temporary adverse impact on small ground
dwelling mammals such as brush rabbits, mice, moles, shrews, and a few
ground nesting birds (e.g., mountain quail, grouse), and on deer and elk
by eliminating brush cover.

The burning and burying of brush and logging slash would be detri-
mental to small ground-dwelling or nesting mammals, birds, reptiles and
amphibians, but benefit larger animals since it permits ease of movement,
and allows the growth of valuable browse species.

Chemicals such as 2,4-D and Atrazine may destroy the cover used by small
mammals, amphibians, and reptiles. Extensive use of chemicals deny wild-
life use of extensive areas during crucial periods such as winter and
spring. Use of defoliants such as 2,4-D in large stands of alder and

106

.' J

•.■~**Hf!iW«r?r - '**

other hardwoods remove necessary escape cover used by deer, elk, and
other animals and birds. Use of Atrazine may at times be beneficial
to browsing animals by removing grass competition with browse species.

Seeding and planting promotes or augments natural reforestation and
may hasten the time interval of natural regeneration (see tree improve-
ment above). If the seed or planting stock is treated with non-toxic
repellents, such as thiram, there would be little effect on wildlife.
However, rodenticides such an endrin and strychnine can cause losses to
predators that have eaten the poisoned animals.

Baiting would be most detrimental to many small mammals including
mice, some shrews, ground squirrels, woodrats, porcupines, hares and
rabbits, mountain beaver, moles, and gophers. If strychnine is used,
predators, either avian or mammalian, could be killed by the secondary
effects of the baits after eating dead or dying rodents that had ingested
the poisoned baits. Herbivores may at times benefit through the baiting
and subsequent control of overpopulations of mice, rabbits, and gophers
that may be destroying browse species by girdling, etc.

Fencing and screening can be detrimental to animal movements if
conducted on an intensive basis. Little impact would occur by screening
individual trees, but extensive fencing can interfere with normal animal
movement, and can entrap the young of deer and elk. Adult animals can
become entangled in nylon-mesh fencing used in some planting sites.

Snag felling can have an adverse impact on many birds and small animals
that use snags for denning, nesting, and food storage. In addition, spike
tops, and large dead snags are needed near eagle and osprey nest trees for
perching, and for the young to use when learning to fly. Larger dead snags
or hollow trees are often used by furbearers including some of the larger
predators. (See remarks under cutting practices.) Snags and dead trees
also harbor insects that furnish an extensive food supply for many insect-
eaters including woodpeckers and creepers.

Fertilization. Applications of superphosphates and other high
nitrogen content fertilizers greatly increase the palatability and general
use of almost any treated plant species by herbivores and rodents.

Precommercial thinning and pruning may benefit wildlife dependent on
a brush understory by opening up the canopy and allowing sunlight to reach
the forest floor. Since sunlight influences both the quantity and quality
of forage, browsing animals would generally benefit from thinning practices.

Protection. The control of a pest species by another insect species
is generally of no consequence, from a wildlife standpoint, beyond the
immediate effect of the predator on the prey. Habitat used by wildlife
can be destroyed by infestation of borers, leafeaters, sap feeders, and
other insect pests. Webworms can destroy forage needed by wintering deer,

107

but the caterpillars may, in turn, provide a valuable food source for many
insect-eating birds.

The use of chemical insecticides is of more immediate consequence to
wildlife. The use of DDT, for example, has had catastrophic effects on
many forms of bird life, both by killing them outright, eliminating food
supplies, or disrupting their reproduction. Other insecticides used to
control damaging species may also kill non-target insects including preda-
tory species.

Cutting Practices. Nearly all wildlife are initially affected
adversely by the sudden impact of timber harvesting. The immediate removal
or destruction of habitat including food supply, nesting, fawning, calving,
wintering, and escape cover can result in the drastic displacement or actual
loss of small birds and mammals. Since most wildlife are highly territorial,
displacement can be as fatal as the actual harvesting effects, as most
suitable habitat is already fully occupied.

Differences between cutting practices is a matter of degree of damage
to wildlife with clearcutting and seed tree cutting generally the most
damaging, and selective cutting the least damaging. Shelterwood cutting
probably occupies a model position in this regard.

Some species of wildlife, however, are quite tolerant of, or respond
favorably to, the actual removal of the forest overstory and subsequent
human activity. Deer, especially blacktailed deer, respond favorably to
the removal of closed canopies and subsequent availability of nutritious
browses, grasses, and forbs . Rodents, including ground dwelling squirrels,
mice, and rabbits usually increase with brush conditions following logging.
Small predators that would prey on these rodents would also benefit.
Roosevelt elk are also usually benefitted by timber harvesting activities,
if it consists of scattered small clearcuts.

Most large mammalian and avian predators are adversely affected by
extensive loss of cover and accompanying human activity. In general, both
clearcutting and partial cutting practices affect wildlife species (to
varying degrees) prior to return to a closed canopy condition as follows:

Beneficial Impacts Adverse Impacts

Mammals
Deer (blacktailed) Bear

Roosevelt Elk Cougar

Snowshoe hares Mink

Ground squirrels Fisher

Mice Marten

Moles Tree mice

Bobcat Flying squirrel

Mountain beaver

Shrew

108

Beneficial Impacts

Birds

Adverse Impacts

Blue grouse

Ruffed grouse

Mountain quail

Bandtailed pigeon

Sparrows

Thrush

Wrens

Junco

Warblers (some species)

Eagles

Ospreys

Northern spotted owl

Chickadees

Nuthatches

Winter wren

Accipiter hawks

Franklin's grouse

Dippers (water ouzel)

Woodpeckers

Warblers (some species)

Amphibians and Reptiles

Toads
Lizards
Garter snakes

Salamanders
Tree frogs

Many small mammals, small owls, and woodpeckers are indirectly
affected by logging where the cutting of merchantable trees also means
the loss of snags and dead trees. Other birds dependent on cavity nests
include tree swallows, titmouse, creepers, and near waterways, wood duck,
bufflehead, golden eye, and the hooded merganser. Animals can include
squirrels, mice, fisher, marten, bats, raccoons, ringtailed cat, and bear.

Logging Methods. Ground systems that disturb the soil stimulate
browse production favorable to herbivores. In general, crawler tractor
skidding, high-lead yarding, mobile yarders, and jammers, create soil
disturbances beneficial to animals dependent on grass and browse produc-
tion. Small mammals and ground dwelling birds, amphibians and reptiles
will obviously be destroyed or temporarily displaced by this type of
operation.

Most wildlife benefits, however, would accrue from horse skidding and
skyline, balloon and helicopter yarding which causes a minimum of distur-
bance. Again, slash distribution and disposal is of importance; much
standing slash impedes movement of larger animals such as elk and deer,
but encourages mice, ground squirrels, rabbits, hares, and other small
mammals and birds that are normally found at or near ground levels.

The aerial types of yarding would be less prone to destroy snags and
dead trees through normal logging attrition than would high-lead and ground
skidding systems. As mentioned previously, snags and dead trees are of
great importance to many birds and mammals. Another advantage of aerial
yarding is that it reduces much of the road construction necessitated by

109

more conventional methods. Roads greatly reduce the available wildlife
habitat, and cause many species to abandon former habitat because of
greatly increased human disturbance.

Transportation . Probably the greatest adverse impact on wildlife
stems from road construction. As with timber harvesting, there is an
initial sudden and disruptive effect on nesting and sometimes wintering
wildlife. Also, road rights-of-way permanently remove thousands of acres
of wildlife habitat, encourage harassment of wildlife through ease of
vehicular access, and preclude use of vast areas to wilderness-inhabiting
species. While the larger predators, both avian and mammalian, are the
most adversely affected, there are probably few wildlife species that are
directly benefitted by road construction and use. Obviously, some "edge"
effect along roads is created in closed canopy environments that will be
used by some species of birds and animals, but effects are still basically
negative. The deer or grouse using roadside grass-legume bank stabiliza-
tion seedings may be killed by the speeding vehicle or road hunter.

Road construction and use can adversely affect wildlife if routed
through fawning, calving, or bedding areas, or through crucial winter
ranges. Many species require a wilderness aspect and will be driven out
of specific areas by the human activity associated with roads.

Ecological Interrelationships

The unmitigated impact of each timber management practice on each of
the physical and biotic components making up the environment or ecosystem
are discussed individually in the subsequent parts of this section. This
part will attempt to deal with the overall impact of the program on eco-
systems in a collective sense, thereby avoiding unnecessary repetition.

Unfortunately, the nature of many chain-like relationships in the
cycles and flows that link the components of the ecosystem are not known
or understood. It can be assumed that impacts on one part of the ecosystem
will affect the whole. However, the manner and magnitude in which the
total ecosystem is affected is often unknown or vague at best. Some in-
formation does exist for impacts of specific practices in particular loca-
tions on parts of the ecosystem which may be indicative of the impact of
the same or similar practices conducted in other locations.

As an example, an experiment in New Hampshire in 1965 concluded that
clearcutting tends to reduce the nutrient capital of a forest ecosystem
by: (1) increasing the amount of water passing through the system, (2)
by reducing root surfaces able to remove nutrients from the leaching
waters, (3) by the removal of nutrients in wood products, (4) by adding
to the organic matter available for immediate mineralization, and (5) in
some instances by producing a microclimate more favorable to rapid minerali-
zation.

110

Another example was a study made in western Oregon in the 1960 's,
which examined the impact of scattered clearcuts (with streamside buffer
strips) in one drainage and a large clearcut extending across a stream
in another drainage. No changes were observed in the nitrate nitrogen,
potassium, and phosphorous content in stream water in the scattered
clearcut drainage. There was a four-fold increase in nitrate nitrogen
loss in the large clearcut following logging and burning. The study
concluded this amount of loss posed no threat to forest soil productivity
in the study area since the soil contained high nitrogen capital due to
its capacity for holding and storing nutrients, and that rapid revegeta-
tion limits future nutrient loss by quickly reestablishing the cycling
process. However, the study also concluded that the micro-organism and
cutthroat trout populations of the stream in the clearcut drainage were
adversely affected, thereby disrupting the ecological interrelationships
of the aquatic ecosystem.

The application of the results from these and other studies must be
interpreted with respect to the specific conditions that characterize the
impacted area. These include soil, topography, climate, vegetation, the
design of the clearcut area(s) and the method of logging. It may be
safely assumed, however, that the application of any chemical, burning or
mechanical timber management practice that completely destroys terrestrial
and aquatic vegetation will have a severe short term impact on the ecologi-
cal interrelationships of the impacted area. These actions remove the sole
producing component of the ecosystem upon which all other members of the
biotic community depend, either directly or indirectly.

Any resulting reductions in population densities of the living
components of the community due to mortality or relocation may only be
temporary. Nonetheless, the ecological interrelationships of the impacted
area and possibly of offsite areas are disrupted. If the ecological
interrelationships in adjacent undisturbed areas are in delicate balance,
the relocation of such animals as deer, elk, etc., may further extend the
impact of the action. Therefore, the severity of the short term impact
is not always localized to the directly affected area but is dependent
on the ability of adjacent areas to absorb increased animal populations,
which in turn is partly a function of the nature and magnitude of the
action itself.

While the physical impact of timber management practices on vegetation
are readily visible, impacts on the micro-organisms in the soil that act
as decomposers are indiscernible and perhaps more subtle. Nonetheless,
they constitute a vital link in the trophic hierarchy and their elimina-
tion or reduction due to chemicals or severe soil disturbance practices
can also result in significant adverse short term impacts on the ecosystem.

The long term impact of most practices on the ecosystem is primarily
dependent upon the rate of recovery of the area affected, either directly
or indirectly, which varies with its physical and biotic characteristics.

Ill

Generally, communities with high productivity in terms of the vegetal bio-
mass can recover relatively rapidly. Communities with low productivity,
i.e., plants with low growth rates and animals with low reproduction rates,
are generally fragile and slow to recover. Consequently, the long term
impacts of any of the development, protection, harvest and transportation
practices that destroy vegetation and/or cause extensive surface distur-
bance can be particularly severe in the sub-alpine and alpine zones of the
Montane Forest. Other localized areas within the Montane and also in the
Northwest Coastal are fragile and highly susceptible to severe impacts on
the ecosystem if disturbed.

Relative to the potential impact on the biotic components of the eco-
system, the impact of timber management practices on the atmospheric com-
ponents of the physical environment are considerably less. Although burning
practices do release some particulates into the air, their impact is mini-
mal in terms of human health. These particulates appear to have no impact
on the ecological relationships within the forest environment.

Even though the impact of any one practice on any one locale may be
severe, its significance will probably be greatly diluted when viewed in
the context of the size of the impacted locale in relationship to the
size of the surrounding geographic area. Nonetheless, many practices are
conducted in different parts of the forest at the same time, and in total
can cause a severe cumulative impact to the ecosystem of the general area.
Individual practices, including those having little adverse impact, contin-
uously carried out over time can have a significant cumulative adverse
impact on the ecosytem at some point in the future.

Human Values

The former parts of this section dealt primarily with the direct
unmitigated impacts of timber management practices on the biological and
physical components of the forest community. This part and the next will
expand the community dimension so as to include man. The basic under-
lying assumption used in describing these impacts is that timber manage-
ment will be given precedence, partially or wholly, over all other poten-
tial uses .

Settlement. Scattered throughout the Coniferous Forest Biome are
many small communities and isolated farms, ranches, vacation retreats and
mining camps. Where timber management activities are taking place near
such human habitation there are risks of adverse impacts occurring.

Health and Safety. Human health and safety can be affected by some
forest development practices. Aerial spray of chemicals for brush and
weed control, if allowed to drift and settle on inhabited areas, or enter
food supplies, streams or open water, can be injurious to human health and
welfare.

112

Smoke from slash burning may have temporary adverse effects on people
with respiratory problems. Visibility may at times be restricted where
slash burning occurs near roads and highways, creating hazardous driving
conditions. These conditions may also occur in conjunction with quarrying
and rock crushing activities associated with road construction.

Where logs are being hauled out of the forest there is always the
danger of collisions with motorists and others using the logging roads.

Hazards to the health and safety of workers, both government and
industry, can occur in practically all phases of the timber management
program. Accidents leading to death and injury most commonly occur during
harvesting and removal operations.

Employment . No significant adverse effects on employment are felt to
be associated with timber management. The frequent, sometimes sharp price
changes in the timber industry do effect rates of employment, particularly
in wood processing and manufacturing, however, this is not an explicit
program impact. On the other hand there are obvious beneficial effects on
employment. Many jobs are created as a direct result of the timber manage-
ment program. Other jobs, performing services for the timber related
employees, are also created.

Local and Regional Economies. There are no known adverse impacts on
local and regional economies. In fact, timber production is the basis for
many local economies, particularly in the Northwest Coastal Forest. Other
regional economies are benefitted to a lesser degree.

Mineral Development. The BLM lands in western Oregon are subject to
the general mining laws. In essence this means that the lands are open
for prospecting and for the filing of mining claims, and for the eventual
patenting of the mining claim if a valid discovery is made. Prospectors
must comply with a State of Oregon statute which calls for obtaining a
permit and meeting certain environmental restraints and filing a reclama-
tion plan.

Any hindrance of mineral prospecting activity by the timber management
program would be psychological rather than statutory or administrative. A
prospector may think twice before prospecting in an area on which obvious
investments have been made in tree planting, thinnings, etc., but there is
no legal restraint to prevent him from doing so.

The timber management program will have little effect on mineral-
related activities in western Oregon.

Wilderness . Few, if any, BLM commercial forest lands in western
Oregon meet the basic criteria (established by Federal legislation)
necessary for classification and formal withdrawal as wilderness; i.e.,
vast areas untrammeled by man, with no evidence of his presence.

113

Nevertheless, some public values might be jeopardized by conducting
a timber management program in areas where the aesthetic values of scenery
and open space might be viewed as semi -wilderness in character. An example
would be the opening up of an extensive area of old-growth timber to har-
vesting, thereby destroying its intrinsic virgin values.

Recreation. The variety of recreational values and the broad array
of timber management practices make many land use conflicts inevitable.
Although some recreational activities may be benefitted by the timber
management program, others will not. Quite often a practice may be both
beneficial and detrimental at the same time, the choice being dependent
upon the user's point of view. As an example, for many years following
logging, a clearcut area may have lost all apparent value to a camper or
hiker. However, its invasion by vegetation may produce forage for wild-
life, making the clearcut attractive to hunters and berry pickers. As
another example, surface runoff from a newly constructed, unstabilized
forest road will cause some turbidity and sedimentation of streams, with
a short term adverse effect on fishing success and water sports. The same
road may provide access for hunters, berry pickers, rockhounds, bird
watchers, and campers.

Setting aside these often subtle distinctions, timber management
practices usually result in adverse public reaction, particularly in areas
of heavy recreational pressure (usually near population centers); in situ-
ations involving unique or rare ecosystems or scenery; and where natural
attributes create a high recreation potential. The reaction may be justi-
fied in that timber management, particularly harvesting practices, will
most often destroy the values or uses which the public is seeking. The
apparent destruction of the forest and the accompanying activities in the
form of logging truck traffic, chain saws, road building, etc., represent
both realistic and psychological adverse impacts on recreational values.
If timber management practices were uncontrolled throughout the forest
many of its recreational values would be significantly impaired or destroyed,

Grazing. Implementation of some of the proposed practices can deny
the use of Federal range to some grazing permittees and lessees, temporarily
or permanently; e.g.:

Area burning of a forest range after clearcutting will consume
grasses and annuals, and often browse, thus temporarily elimi-
nating or reducing available livestock forage. If seeding or
planting will be used to regenerate the forest after burning (as
is customary), it may be necessary to exclude livestock from the
treated area for several years, to permit the new stand of trees
to develop without exposure to animal damage. A more far-reaching
administrative decision may exclude livestock from the treated area
permanently, on the ground that forest values are too great to risk
the effects of browsing and soil compaction that livestock can
cause.

114

Chemical weed and brush control might require that livestock be
removed from the area to be treated prior to herbicide applica-
tion. Their return might have to be temporarily deferred until
chemicals have degraded to safe toxicity levels or, if the area
treated is to be reforested, exclusion of livestock may be long
term or permanent.

Various cutting practices (particularly clearcutting) can create
more livestock forage. However, grazing may conflict with the
silvicultural objectives chosen for treated areas, so that live-
stock must be excluded.

Roads built for log transportation may impair a livestock producer's
full utilization of allotted Federal range or of his own private
lands. Log truck traffic can injure or kill domestic livestock.

Conflicts between the timber management program and livestock grazing
will be most significant in the Montane sub-biome. Short term or permanent
losses of forage and other impairment of range livestock operations attri-
butable to the timber management program are insignificant in the overall
production of meat to satisfy national needs. However, these adverse
impacts may be highly significant to the individual livestock producer.

Agriculture. Where agricultural land uses involving row crops or
orchards are located near timber management activities, some adverse effects
could happen. Aerially applied herbicide use in forest development activi-
ties could drift and settle on adjacent agricultural lands or on waters
used for irrigation.

Practices that disturb the soil, causing erosion and stream sedimen-
tation, such as scarification, land clearing and cleaning, area burning,
log skidding, and road construction, can have adverse impacts on down-
stream agriculture dependent upon the forest watershed for irrigation
water. Silt can fill downstream reservoirs, shortening their life, enter
and clog irrigation systems, and harm crops when deposited on the fields.

Clearcutting and other harvesting practices, on the other hand, can
also increase available downstream water by opening the forest canopy.
This can allow increased accumulation of snow, reduce precipitation losses
due to interception by the forest canopy and evaporation therefrom, and
reduce soil moisture losses caused by transpiration of vegetative cover.

Commercial, Residential and Industrial. Adverse impacts that may
affect human settlement in general were discussed above under Settlement .
There are few other instances where the timber management program would
adversely affect commercial, industrial or residential land uses.

Intensive timber management operations carried on adjacent to resi-
dential or commercial development could, however, lead to severe conflicts.

115

Where blocks of privately owned lands intermingle with BLM forest lands,
the development of recreation subdivisions or ski resorts can precipi-
tate conflicts. Timber management practices that disrupt the adjacent
forest aspect can adversely affect such developments. In addition to
potential impacts on health and safety discussed previously under Settle-
ment, senses of sight, sound, and smell can be offended.

Local Government and Public Services. Timber management practices
can have direct and indirect adverse impacts on state and local government
operations and planning. Physical disruption of public services such as
gas, electric and water facilities can happen where utility rights-of-
way cross timber management areas.

State and county roads and bridges can be affected by increased log
truck traffic, leading to increased maintenance costs to local governments.

Development of BLM transportation systems related to timber management
operations could conflict with local government plans and objectives..
Where roads cross or pass close by state and local government lands, these
lands may suffer from increased public use.

Aesthetics . With few exceptions, the impacts o.c timber management
practices on aesthetic values are adverse. Impacts of greatest magnitude
are visual, but sound, odor and mood are also involved.

Any action that produces a visible change in the natural forest envir-
onment can cause an adverse human reaction. Among development actions
with highly visible effects are prescribed burning of slash (atmospheric
smoke, charred forest floor); scarification (dust during the operation,
disturbance of surface vegetation and soil); chemical weed and brush control
(dead vegetation); and precommercial thinning (slash). Noticeable evidence
of protection actions includes fire lines and, if identified as such, the
burned areas resulting from backfiring.

Cutting practices and logging operations are attracting increasingly
critical public notice. Clearcutting in particular has been condemned by
some groups, largely because of the visual impact of extensive poorly-
designed clearcut areas. Some logging operations, and particularly sub-
sidiary road construction, create visible soil disturbance and atmospheric
dust. The soil disturbance alone may be visually objectionable; it can
also be the source of sediment which, carried in surface runoff, spoils
the clarity and color of natural waters. Heavy log truck traffic over
dirt or gravel roads may create clouds of dust which seriously impair
visibility.

Any of the timber management activities may leave such residual litter
as discarded tools or equipment accessories (e.g., broken shovels, axes,
wire-rope chokers and worn-out truck tires) , empty fuel or herbicide con-
tainers, lunch wrappers, etc. as evidence of human presence on the land.

116

Reaction to the unsightly effects of timber management actions will
vary in intensity with the individual viewer. The range of human attitudes
does not lend itself to a discrete classification on a graduated scale.
However, some interest group reactions can be considered generally typical:

Members of a community dependent on a forest-based industry are more
inclined to accept the adverse visual impacts of timber management
actions .

Hunters, fishermen, rockhounds, berry pickers, family- type campers,
and off-road vehicle enthusiasts tend to appreciate the easy access
to the back country provided by logging road networks. This appre-
ciation may or may not outweigh the individual's objections to
unsightly conditions created by forest development and timber har-
vesting activities. Emotions may be mixed.

Backpackers and wilderness advocates usually prefer the forest
environment in its original condition, without man-made modifi-
cations. These people may react most strongly to any unnatural
change in the landscape. They often oppose proposed roads which
would open back country areas to vehicular travel.

The adverse visual impacts of timber production are partially offset
by some incidental visual benefits. Sometimes logging road construction
opens up an impressive scenic vista which otherwise would be unappreciated.
Clearcuttings and vegetative erosion control measures produce forage which
attracts wildlife for easy viewing by amateur naturalists.

Sound, Odor and Mood. Even gregarious campers would tend to avoid
proximity to a noisy logging operation or mechanized forest development
project. Certainly a hunter would avoid such a locale; a fisherman seeking
mental relaxation would, too. The diesel fumes and dust from such opera-
tions would be unpleasant to most recreationists . The combination of sound
and odor could shatter the mood of the soil-seeking wilderness advocate.

Geology. Areas containing unique geologic structure occur in both the
Montane and Northwest Coastal Coniferous Forests. While most actions
related to timber management would have little if any adverse effect, road
construction could have a severe impact on these natural features. Exca-
vation of earth and rock during construction could irreparably alter natural
arches and caves, ruining their visual quality.

Severe alteration of the vegetative cover, such as by clearcutting
and brush removal, can also create ill effects on visually important
geologic features.

Archeology . Archeological sites are most valuable to both the scien-
tist and the sightseer when they are undisturbed. Actions such as road

117

excavation, quarrying, and site preparation activities that disturb the
soil on or around archeological sites will reduce or destroy their values.

Roads into areas of archeological significance could create major
impacts by providing easy public access to vandals and looters.

History. Many old cabins, stagecoach rest stops and abandoned mining
camps lie scattered throughout the Montane Coniferous Forest. Remnants
of old wagon trails occur in most of the coniferous forests.

Severe disturbance or alteration of the vegetation near historic sites
will disturb the visual setting and weaken their human interest values.

Soil disturbance or alteration of the landscape by road construction,
and site preparation for revegetation of cut-over areas can obliterate old
trail remnants. Road access into historic sites can subject them to van-
dalism.

118

B. Possible Mitigating Measures

Many mitigative measures set forth in this section are initially
brought to bear during the land use and MFP planning phases, as described
previously.

Later, these and other measures are carried out in the course of
planning a practice and in executing it through contract stipulations and
contract administration. These actions represent the administrative frame-
work within which mitigative measures are identified and implemented.
Consequently, the effectiveness of all of the measures described in this
section is dependent upon sound planning, coordination with other resource
activities, professional expertise, careful on-the-ground administration
and cooperation from the contractor or user. Since these requirements
are common to all mitigative measures they will not be repeated in the
parts that follow.

Air

Development . Troublesome smoke from burning practices can be miti-
gated by integrating burning schedules with weather reports to produce
as fast and hot combustion as practicable and facilitate movement of
smoke away from populated areas. Burying slash and chipping reduces the
volume of fuel to be disposed of and thus reduces the need for burning
and the resulting smoke emissions. However, both burying and chipping
are rather costly measures and are not commonly employed, except for the
burying of right-of-way slash which is becoming a more common practice.
More intensive utilization of felled timber holds promise for future
abatement of the smoke problem.

The adverse impacts of prescribed burning and brush removal upon
local climatic factors are decreasing in magnitude as more knowledge
is made available by research and is applied to field operations.

In situations where prescribed burning or brush removal are essential,
their adverse impacts on micro-climates may be non-existent or insignifi-
cant. If considerable impacts are anticipated, the following mitigating
measures may be used:

Adverse impacts may be reduced by keeping the areas to be treated
small. The growing trend toward smaller-size clearcuttings favors
this means of mitigation, particularly in the case of area burning.
The beneficial effects of partial brush cover, where desired, may
be retained by spot removal rather than broad area treatment of
brush.

If a light burn will achieve silvicultural objectives, its appli-
cation can be timed for a period when burning conditions will
favor an easily-controlled fire of low intensity. Fire equipment

119

and manpower can be put on standby status for emergency use if
burning conditions should change or if the fire escapes. It will
often be necessary to build a fire trail around the project area
before treatment begins.

Protection. The adverse impacts of backfiring on micro-climates can
be mitigated by the same measures as those used for area burning by:

Keeping the backfired area as small as feasible, consistent with
the objective of controlling the wildfire.

Backfiring, if possible, when burning conditions will favor easy
control .

Safeguarding the backfire by burning from a road, fire trail or
natural barrier.

Maintaining adequate manpower and equipment on standby.

Revegetating the burned area with suitable species as soon as
possible.

Cutting Practices - Logging Methods. If the site is dry and exposed
to solar radiation and drying winds, the cutting practices employed should
provide shade which will reduce surface soil temperatures and evaporation.
In forests susceptible to windthrow, any clearcutting should be designed
to fit topography, so that strong winds will have minimum effect on the
edges of the reserve stand exposed by harvesting. If this is not feasible,
shelterwood cutting should be employed. No mitigation is necessary for
the slight adverse effects of logging methods on micro-climate.

Transportation. The effect of right-of-way clearing upon the local
climate can be reduced by keeping the width of clearing as narrow as
possible, consistent with safety and adequate visibility. No effective
measures are presently available to reduce the short term degradation of
air quality by the emission of internal combustion engines used on road
construction machinery. Dust arising from construction may be reduced to
some extent by watering of subgrades during blading and surfacing opera-
tions. Aerial dust from log hauling by truck can be abated by oiling
roads or surfacing them with bituminous material or macadam. On dirt or
gravel surfaced roads, periodic application of water or waste sulfite
liquor effectively reduces the dust problem.

Land

Development. Scarification should be conducted when the soil is dry
and limited to the area necessary to accomplish the task. Contoured strips
or patches should be used when feasible and all scarified areas revegetated
as quickly as possible with the desired species. Mechanical brush cutting
should not be conducted when soils are wet. Mechanical trenching-furrowing

120

should be conducted on the contour and the exposed soil immediately reveg-
etated. Width should be kept to an absolute minimum and unstable areas
avoided. Burning should not take place on shallow or erosive soils when
conditions are such that a "hot" burn will consume all the litter layer.
On critical sites, a mulch should be applied to protect the surface from
erosion until vegetation is reestablished. Shallow (<: 20" .deep) soils
occurring on southerly exposures should not be subjected to burning.
Trenches for burying slash should be constructed and the topsoil stock-
piled and respread on the surface, after the trench is filled.

Hand clearing and cleaning should be limited to as small an area as
possible to accomplish the task. A mulch could be placed on the site in
addition to an appropriate amount and type of fertilizer if critical soil
conditions exist. Improper application and spills should be avoided during
chemical weed control and a cover of desired vegetation established as soon
as possible. Precommercial thinning has a minimal impact on the suppression
of available soil nitrogen; however, its impact may be eliminated by con-
ducting the operation in conjunction with fertilization operations. Care
should be exercised when fueling equipment or filling chemical injectors.

Protection. Fire lines should be constructed on the contour when
feasible and subsequently water-barred and revegetated. Hydromulch can
be applied to provide immediate protection. The fire line can be scari-
fied to loosen compacted soil if the line also served as a trail for
vehicles. Areas burned as a result of backfiring should be revegetated
the same year as the fire.

Cutting Practices. Clearcutting, and to a lesser degree, seed tree
cutting practices should not be carried out on slopes where the potential
for excessive erosion or mass wasting exists. Factors affecting slope
stability which should be considered include slope gradient, thickness of
the soil mantle, character of the underlying bed rock, precipitation
patterns, and the inherent strength of the soil. When these factors appear
critical, other cutting practices should be considered. When these other
practices, such as selection, shelterwood, etc., are not feasible due to
silvicultural , economic, or technical constraints or the potential hazard
remains despite the system of cutting employed, the area should be exempted
from commercial timber production. See Oregon State Office Manual Supple-
ment 5250.1 for guidance.

Logging Methods. Tractor logging should be limited to slopes with
gradients of less than 35 percent regardless of the potential of the soil
for compaction. Tractor skidding should not be permitted down or across
any stream channel. Tractor skidding should be limited to those seasons
and sites where soil moisture is low enough to avoid compaction, rutting,
or gouging of the soil. Operators should not be permitted to clear a
skid road for one or two trees. Since jammer yarding requires a closely
spaced network of roads, adverse impacts can be reduced by confining these
operations to existing road systems; i.e., if new roads must be constructed

121

alternative logging methods should be used. In steep topography, aerial
systems should be used wherever feasible, particularly on areas of unstable
fragile soils. Landings should be located so as not to create excessive
sidecast or slope stability problems. Landings on highly productive sites
should have the topsoil stripped and stockpiled. After use, ripping may be
necessary to mitigate soil compaction, and the stockpiled material should be
redistributed over the landing. To reduce the potential for slope failure in
steep terrain, decking of cull logs at the edges of landings should be avoided

Transportation . Road alignment and design have important effects on
roadside erosion and effective control must begin in the design phase,
since the location of a road determines to a large degree the amount of •
erosion which may occur. The selection of the road corridor provides the
opportunity to place a road in favorable relationship to topography,
drainage ways, soils, other natural features and present or anticipated
man-made features in order to minimize the base erosion potential.

Clearing and grubbing should be conducted so as to minimize the area
of soil disturbance. They should be coordinated with grading so that ground
disturbance due to grubbing will not be exposed longer than necessary. As
is the case of most construction activities, clearing and grubbing should
not be carried out during periods of wet weather and poor soil conditions.

To minimize erosion due to excavation, the total length of road cut
should be minimized, but the vertical depth of each cut should be maxi-
mized. Thus, large quantities of material will be obtained at a single
location. Cut slopes and ditch gradients should be flattened in order
to reduce the number of cuts, thereby reducing erosion hazard.

Borrow areas should have the top soil stockpiled, be shaped to natural
contours, have the topsoil redistributed, fertilized and revegetated. Re-
moval of the contour hump in a hill cut will decrease the erosion poten-
tial and makes maintenance easier. Borrow pits should be well drained un-
less suitable for pond development. If not, they should be shaped, sloped,
seeded, fertilized, and mulched.

Factors involved in the design of fills in embankment work are height,
stability of slopes, stability of foundations, and the selection of embank-
ment materials. All major fills (heights greater than 30-40 feet) should
be subject to stability analyses and designed in accordance with established
principles of soil mechanics. Construction of embankments should be done
by placing the earth in layers and rolling to a specified density usually
in the range of from 90 to 100 percent of standard AASHO maximum density
before applying the next layer. As a result, the stability or shear resis-
tance of the soil will be increased, premeability or water entry is
decreased, and settlement of the embankment is minimized.

During earthwork operations, areas of bare soil exposed to erosion
should be shaped to minimize storm runoff. Methods of control could
include such devices as silt basins, sedimentation ponds, berms, and

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temporary down drains, swales, ditch pits, brush barriers, and other
erosion control techniques. Drainage channels should be constructed
early in the grading operation. Ditches should be kept cleared, culverts
unplugged and drainageways open. Drainage should never be allowed to dig
its own channel. In preparing the surface for surfacing, the material
should be redistributed evenly, not scraped over the edge where it may
erode into the established ditch. The road grade should be established
at least 5 feet above the water overflow level in wet areas and areas
subject to overflow.

The procedures for erosion prevention in stabilization efforts should
include soil sampling for fertility, erodibility, and texture; correlation
of results with the general soils inventory; formulating mixes for ferti-
lizing, liming, seeding, mulching, and slope dressing (generally topsoil)
and provisions in design for any special problems. The desirability of
topsoiling depends upon the quality of the subsoil involved and on the
quantity and quality of topsoils available. Placement of topsoil over
sterile subsoils will help establish vegetation and innoculate the sub-
soils with micro-organisms at a faster rate than under normal conditions
(by dust, debris, and flowing water). Topsoil used as slope dressing over
coarse or granular subsoils will help increase the moisture and nutrient
relationships of the soil, reduce soil-moisture loss, and hasten vegeta-
tion establishment. Equipment to be used for seeding should be either a
hydroseeder or seed drill. The use of tractor-mounted cyclone seeders is
not recommended. Hand operated broadcast equipment can be used in small
inaccessible areas. The best time for seeding warm-season grasses is late
spring and early summer, and cool season grass should be seeded in late
summer or early spring. Legumes should be seeded from mid-spring to mid-
summer. Seeding in the semi -arid and arid regions should be timed to
precede the period of maximum probable rainfall. Other important prac-
tices available for turf establishment are tillage and seedbed prepara-
tion and mulching.

Ditch and flume liners are also effective erosion stabilization prac-
tices. Many materials, such as sod, rock, rubble, portland concrete,
asphalt concrete, plastic and others, serve as liners and should be used.
Any of these liners should be used for immediate erosion control on ditch
bottoms, on shoulder slopes, on low side of curves, in backslope flumes,
on fill slopes at culvert ends, on bridge abutment slopes, and on other
areas subject to erosion by concentrated water flows.

In rock quarry development consideration should be given to the use
of the better larger pits and longer hauls, instead of several small pits,
thereby minimizing the erosion problems.

Bases and surfaces should be constructed so as to prevent the entrance
of excessive quantities of surface water into the base and subgrade from
directly above. The base layer should be free draining to prevent capillary
action and frost heave. During surfacing operations excess oil application

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should be controlled to avoid stream pollution at bridge crossings, etc.

Care should be exercised in picking a site for unloading the supply

tankers into the distributor truck so that oil spills will not contaminate
streams.

Soil around drainage structures must be protected from erosion to
ensure the stability of the road structure and to prevent sediment from
blocking the drainageway. Erosion in ditches can be controlled by pro-
viding a series of dams or weirs across the ditch to reduce flow velocity,
so suspended matter will be deposited behind the checks. Various types
of ditch checks can be made of concrete, stone, riprap, timber, steel and
earth. Temporary check of straw or hay bales are also used. Points where
side ditches outlet into natural drainage should be protected from erosion.
Some protective measures which can be used are a vegetated sluice or chute,
paving, or an outlet structure. Where the roadway is in cut interceptor
ditches may be needed above the slope limits with flumes installed into
the cut-slope face, or a combination of both, to prevent concentration of
overland drainage from eroding the slope.

Across road structures should be placed as nearly as possible in line
with the flow direction to enable a direct entrance and exit for the inter-
cepted water. Use of short, right-angle culverts should be avoided. Use
of longer and skewed culverts to follow the natural drainage pattern will
result in less maintenance cost even though initial installation costs will
be higher. Energy dissipators or stilling basins should be used at cul-
vert outlets which pose an erosion problem. Bridges should have adequate
subsurface investigation to provide for stable abutments and sound footing
locations. Activity in the streambed should be kept to a minimum and per-
formed during low water periods. Streambanks and protective vegetation
should be conserved.

In the maintenance of roads, surface drainage can be retained by per-
forming proper maintenance grading and shaping and by patching and filling
holes and irregularities. The surface should be kept smooth, firm and
free from excess loose material. Stabilization methods and dust palliatives
and bituminous surface treatments should be used to minimize loss of mater-
ial and to eliminate as much as possible the hazards due to dust. Surfaces
can be reconditioned by scarifying and resurfacing when areas to be patched
are numerous or extend over a considerable area. Bituminous surface treat-
ments can be repaired by patching, scarifying, resealing and application of
a non-skid surface treatment. Care must be exercised to avoid spillage of
petroleum products during refill operations and application areas controlled
to prevent soil and water contamination.

Culvert inlets should be cleared before and kept clean during the
rainy season to diminish the danger of clogging and the possibility of
washouts. Spur roads that outslope should be cross drained and have berms
removed on the outside edge except those intentionally constructed for the
protection of road grade fills. Before spring runoff begins, all ice and
snow berms created on winter haul roads should be removed. Gully erosion

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in waterways and ditch bottoms may be repaired by filling, shaping and
lining with riprap, juted or sodded materials. Culvert ends and bridge
abutment slopes which have received concentrated water flows should be
stabilized and repaired. All waste materials should be deposited in stable
bench or cover locations well above high water levels. In general,
bridge repairs include deck, railings, expansion elements and footings,
bulkheads, etc., the latter of which may require some work in the bed of
a stream. As in the construction of these facilities, activities in the
streams should be planned to coincide with low water. Tractors and other
equipment operation in the streambed should be minimized to cause the least
aggravation to the streambed and streambanks. Materials such as concrete,
excess grout, form oil, etc., should not be wasted in the stream. Approach
fills and banks should be stabilized to prevent erosion and trash and
debris should be removed at completion of bridge site repairs.

Debris and slide material should be end-hauled and deposited on a
safe bench or cover location well above the high water level. Disturbed
areas should be shaped, tilled and seeded with deep-rooted legumes and
grasses to hold the soil in place and fertilized and mulched or some other
stabilization practice used. Gravel drains may be installed between top-
soil and subsoil layers if needed to relieve water pressure and seepage.

The use of herbicides for controlling brush encroachment along road
edges must be handled with care to avoid chemical drift and spillage
problems which could contaminate streams. Mechanical brush cutters can
be used in combination with chemical applications.

Erosion repair methods are comparable to measures taken in preventing
erosion in the construction phase, however a few variations do exist.
Straw or hay may be disc anchored or tacked with asphalt. Hydromulch
(wood cellulose fiber pulp) should be used on high steep slopes, rock
overburden areas, or areas where the wood pulp is needed to "plaster" the
seed and fertilizer in place. It can be applied with a hydroseeder along
with seed and fertilizer. Wood excelsior blanket is recommended on slopes
steeper than 2^:1 and longer than 25 feet. It should be used for establishing
alfalfa and crown-vetch on difficult slopes and some repairing of gullies.
Riprap (usually field stone) is effective for erosion control in culvert
scour holes, on shoreline slopes for protection from wave action, and in
lining of waterways and channels. Soil compaction and surface disturbance
may be minimized by operating stabilization equipment during favorable
weather and soil conditions.

Water

Development . The impact of area burning on water quality can be
minimized by reducing the temperature of the burn, and by reducing over-
land flow from the burned area to the stream channel . The temperature of
the burn may be reduced by scattering the fuel and/or by burning under
conditions which preclude high ground temperatures, such as burning

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immediately after a short rain shower. Overland flow from the burned area
may be reduced by completely covering the fire line, following burning,
with the vegetative material that was removed during construction of the
line, and by waterbars or check dams along the fire line. Filter strips
of undisturbed vegetation left along the bottom of the area burn will
filter some of the suspended solids from overland flow. These filter
strips also reduce the velocity of flow and cause deposition of sediment
before it reaches the stream.

The adverse effects of scarification on water quality may be reduced
by (1) keeping machinery out of stream channels, both perennial and those
that carry water during seasons of high runoff; (2) avoiding areas where
slope instability will be increased by the removal of shrubs, tree stumps
and roots; (3) avoiding the disruption of the normal distribution of water
downslope; and (4) by scarifying along contours. Care should be taken to
leave enough small plants and plant debris to protect the soil from rain-
drop impact. Areas of thin soils which can be easily stripped from under-
lying bedrock should be avoided. Soils which have a high potential for
compaction by heavy equipment even during the dry season should be exclu-
ded from scarification activities. Coarser textured soils should have
scarification planned for seasons when the soil moisture is low enough
to reduce soil compaction. Heavy equipment should be kept out of areas
with high soil moisture to avoid creation of gouges and ruts.

In baiting and chemical weed and brush control practices, the proper
combination of chemicals, carrier, method of application (ground or
aerial), droplet size for spray applications, and width of streamside
buffer strips should be carefully evaluated to minimize the probability
of accidental drift onto streams, lakes, marshes, and estuaries. Air
stability is essential for aerial applications and these practices should
be discontinued immediately when it appears that significant lateral drift
may occur.

Methods and areas for chemical mixing, storage, loading and cleaning
of equipment should be carefully selected to minimize the chance of leak-
age of chemicals into streams, lakes, reservoirs, marshes and estuaries.
Empty chemical and carrier containers should be disposed of carefully.
Monitoring of streams and bodies of water should be done prior to, during,
and after chemical application to assure safe application. There are
circumstances which mitigate the water quality degrading potential of the
chemicals used in aerial baiting of rodents and in the treatment of
aerially-disseminated seed. Poisoned wheat or oats are commonly used in
baiting rodents. These baits, and tree seed, are more dense than the
minute droplets which constitute the chemical sprays used in weed and
brush control. Consequently, the baits and seeds are much less subject
to lateral drift with moving air than are the chemical sprays, and hence
less likely to miss the target area. The absence of petroleum-based
carriers (commonly used with herbicides) is another circumstance mitigating
the adverse impacts of baiting and seeding. Finally, aerially disseminated

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baits and seeds are thinly scattered and do not cover the target ar
completely and uniformly, as do sprays. It follows that the volumes of
chemicals used in baiting and seeding operations are comparatively small.
Thus, the possibility of significantly toxic chemical concentrations
reaching natural waters by direct entry or in surface runoff is slight.

The potential adverse impact of forest fertilization on the water
resource may be reduced by the same precautions as with pesticides; that
is, strict attention should be given to streamside buffer strips and
caution in storing, loading and applying the fertilizer.

Protection. The mitigative measures that apply to chemical weed and
brush control also apply to the use of insecticides, fungicides and fire
retardants. The mitigative measures employed in area burning, as described
earlier, also apply to backfiring. In addition, the edge of a stream or
lake should be used to backstop a backfire only as a last resort. If time
does not permit building a fire trail for the backfire, a road or natural
break in topography may serve. Either is a preferable alternative to
backfiring to the edge of natural water.

The impact of fire line construction on water quality can be reduced
by creating as little surface disturbance as possible during construction,
and by erosion control measures applied after the fire is controlled.
Some guidelines are:

- Avoid building fire trail if control can be achieved by direct
attack. A slow-moving ground fire can often be suppressed by
swatting or by direct application of water.

Lines should be built to a width no more than adequate to contain
the fire, plus a realistic safety margin. Excessive construction
should be avoided. If manpower is adequate and hand tools will
do the job, lines should be built by hand rather than by machines.

Lines should be located parallel to contours, if possible. Try
to avoid steep gradients.

Erosion control measures should be applied where necessary to
prevent surface runoff from carrying sediment and debris into
natural waters. Waterbars and check dams should be installed in
fire trails to divert surface runoff and to reduce its velocity.

The burned area should be revegetated with suitable plant species
as soon as possible after the fire is out.

These considerations are particularly critical in the fragile areas
found in the subalpine zones of the Montane Forest.

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Cutting Practices. The adverse effects of clearcutting and seed tree
cutting may be mitigated by:

Providing streamside buffer strips of adequate width and density
to reduce or eliminate sediment laden overland flow from reaching
stream channels. All perennial streams and those streams which
carry water during peak runoff seasons should have buffer strips.
Buffer strips should contain enough trees and shrubs to provide
shade for the stream and protection from the streambank. The
width of the buffer strip necessary to meet these objectives should
consider the slope of the ground into the stream channel; topo-
graphic shading; tree height, density, and species; stream char-
acteristics (width, depth, and flow velocity) ; and the erodibility
of the soil.

Consideration of the potential for slope stability and the effect
that loss of root strength will have on slope stability. Other
factors that affect slope stability and which should be consid-
ered are slope gradient; thickness of the soil mantle; character
of the underlying bedrock (smooth, fractured, etc.); precipitation
patterns including the frequency of intense rainstorms; seasonally
high ground water levels; and the inherent strength of the soil.

If these factors are critical and the success of the buffer strip
appears questionable in mitigating the impact of clearcutting, other cutting
practices should be considered.

Logging slash, cull trees, stumps, and other logging debris should be
properly disposed of. Observations in western Oregon and Alaska have shown
that logging slash left in steep ephemeral stream channels contributes to
the potential for destructive debris avalanches down these channels when
soils become saturated during the winter season. It is extremely important
that debris be removed from these channels concurrent with logging on the
clearcut area. Channel clearance should not be deferred until just before
the timber sale contract is terminated.

Logging Methods. Falling timber upslope or along the contour of steep
slopes will prevent felled trees from shooting downhill and into, or
through, streamside buffer strips. Trees cut selectively adjacent to
natural waters should be felled directionally away from the water. Logging
slash and debris which enters stream channels or lakes unavoidably during
falling operations should be promptly removed.

A good logging plan is an effective means of mitigating damage to

natural waters. Written into the timber sale contract, the logging plan

should stipulate how falling and bucking shall be done and also the logging
method to be followed.

Tractor skidding should be limited to slopes with gradients of less
than 35 percent regardless of the potential of the soil for compaction.

128

Tractor skidding should never be permitted down or across any stream
channel, perennial or ephemeral. Tractor skidding should be limited to
those seasons and sites where soil moisture is low enough to avoid rutting
or gouging of the soil. Operators should not be permitted to clear a skid
road for one or two trees; this practice results in areas crisscrossed
with excessive skid roads. Since jammer yarding requires a closely spaced
network of parallel roads to harvest timber from an area, adverse impacts
may be reduced by confining jammer operations to existing road systems;
i.e., if new roads must be constructed solely for jammer operation, an
alternative logging method should be used.

In steep topography, aerial yarding systems should be used wherever
feasible, particularly on areas of unstable soils. Since aerial systems
often operate more efficiently with road networks differing from those
which serve conventional logging systems best, road location must be
coordinated with the aerial logging plan.

On productive sites and on sites with slope stability problems,
landings should be located and their design specified to assure that the
landing will not be overconstructed, that site productivity will not be
lost by excessive sidecast, and that slope stability problems will not be
created.

by:

Transportation . Adverse impacts of road construction may be mitigated

Designing the roads to minimum dimensions for the proposed use,
consistent with traffic safety. If it is necessary to traverse
short sections of unstable terrain, remedial measures (riprap,
extra drainage, etc.) should be included in the road design.

Care should be exercised to protect stream channels and banks
by streamside buffer strips wherever possible. In the case of
roads which approach stream crossings in narrow V-shaped canyons,
the right-of-way clearing width may need reduction below the road
to provide a vegetative strip for stream protection. The stream
crossing itself should be as narrow as possible, consistent with
traffic safety. The stream channel should never be used as a
disposal site for excavated material from other portions of the
road; often stream crossings become unacceptably wide because of
this practice.

Endhauling the excavated material if this will avoid long side-
cast fills in steep terrain. Disposal sites for endhauled
material should be selected with care to avoid overloading slopes
and causing mass failures. Fills should be compacted if this
practice will contribute to slope stability and prevent road
failures .

129

Installing culverts at frequent intervals to assure that the road
subgrade will remain dry and stable. Drainage from culverts should
never be allowed to fall on unprotected fills. Aprons should be
installed on fills under culvert outfalls. Downspouts, or other
suitable conductors should be used to carry culvert drainage and
to dissipate the kinetic energy of this water before this is
allowed to run onto natural slopes.

Constructing and installing bridges and culverts so that the
streamflow is optimum for completing the required work with
minimum degradation of water quality. Activities should be
planned so that heavy equipment spends the minimum amount of
time in the stream channel. All activities necessary for con-
struction and installation should be planned and executed so as
to result in the minimum amount of water quality degradation.

Stabilization practices are of two general types: correction of an
incipient failure of a road or slope and reduction of erodibility of a
road fill, road cut, or slope. These practices generally have beneficial
impacts since a successful stabilization activity maintains or improves
water quality.

Aquatic Vegetation

Development . Adverse impacts of forest development actions such as
mechanical brush cutting, area burning, snag felling, and chemical appli-
cation of pesticides can be mitigated by leaving untreated buffer strips
between treated areas and streams. Algae blooms, or growth of undesirable
aquatic plants in lakes or ponds, as a result of fertilization, can be
controlled by certain herbicides.

Protection. Adverse impacts of protection practices can be minimized
by insuring that insecticides and other chemicals are confined to the tar-
get area; i.e., all possible techniques for minimizing drift and guarding
against accidental spills should be employed. When possible, bodies of
water should not be used as natural fire lines. The impacts of fire lines
can be reduced by constructing them along the contour away from streams
or lakes.

Cutting Practices - Logging Methods. Adverse impacts of cutting
practices and logging methods on aquatic plants can also be mitigated by
use of a buffer strip between the cutting area and stream. Removal of
trees, slash or large debris that reach the stream, or its vicinity,
during the logging operation is also an effective mitigating measure. If
logs must be yarded across important perennial and intermittent streams,
use of logging systems capable of suspending logs above the buffer strips;
e.g., skyline, balloon, or helicopter yarding, will mitigate impacts on
aquatic vegetation. Use of these yarding systems on steep slopes and
erodible soils also mitigates the impact of siltation on aquatic vegetation.

130

Transportation. Adverse impacts of road construction on aquatic
plants can also be mitigated by leaving a buffer strip of heavy or dense
vegetation between roads and streams. Other effective measures include
(1) location of road away from the aquatic habitat or areas of unstable
soils, (2) engineering roads to prevent sidecasting, (3) water barring
unsurfaced (dirt) roads, and (4) stabilizing roadside cuts and fills and
culvert installation points by seeding herbaceous vegetation.

Adverse impacts from road maintenance actions can be mitigated by
(1) hauling soil and debris from landslides to suitable disposal sites
and (2) leaving an effective buffer strip between roadside spraying areas
and the aquatic environment.

Terrestrial Vegetation

Development . Mitigation of adverse short term impacts as a result
of forest development treatments that destroy existing vegetation may
be achieved by confining practices to small areas of land; e.g., scarifi-
cation in strips or patches, mechanical furrowing or trenching, spot
burning, hand application of herbicides around individual trees, mulching,
and hand clearing and cleaning. Long term impacts associated with forest
development actions such as scarification, area burning, and aerial
spraying of herbicides are mitigable by insuring that such actions result
in environmental conditions favorable to tree regeneration on the specific
site in question. This requires (1) an accurate appraisal of environmental
conditions on the site prior to the action, and (2) a basis for predicting
environmental consequences of the action if applied to the site. These
requirements may be met by (1) classifying forest land according to plant
associations, or habitat types, and forest soils, and (2) applying forest
development actions to selected classes and monitoring results. In the
absence of such land classification and predictive systems, mitigation is
possible by limiting scarification and area burning to cool -moist sites,
especially those on gentle slopes with deep, loamy soils. Adverse long
term impacts from tree improvement can be avoided by adhering to statis-
tical and genetic guidelines relative to number of trees selected per
breeding unit for breeding purposes. Monoculture can be mitigated by
planting several species. Long term adverse impacts from backfiring may
be mitigated by planting or seeding tree species soon after the fire.
Short term adverse impacts can be mitigated by seeding a variety of
herbaceous plant species soon after the fire or construction of fire line.

Protection. In order to minimize the short term impact of fire lines
and backfiring, as little vegetation as possible should be destroyed, with-
out jeopardizing the objectives of the actions. When feasible, fire lines
should be constructed along contour lines to minimize the indirect impact
of erosion on vegetal life and growth. Disturbed areas should be artifi-
cially revegetated when natural regeneration cannot be reasonably expected
in a short period of time. Most of the practices associated with protec-
tion, i.e., insect, disease and fire control, are in themselves mitigative

131

since they are primarily aimed at maintaining the health and vigor of the
vegetal component of the forest.

Cutting Practices. Mitigation of long term adverse impacts resulting
from timber harvest practices is primarily a matter of insuring that the
cutting practice used is one that will result in environmental conditions
favorable to tree regeneration on the specific site in question. As with
forest development, land classification and a predictive system are needed
to insure these results. In the absence of such information, however, long
term adverse impacts may be mitigated by (1) confining clearcutting and
seed tree cutting to sites where experience has shown that the practice
can be expected to result in successful natural or artificial tree regen-
eration within two years; e.g., cool -moist sites in the Northwest Coastal
sub-biome and Douglas-fir and Western Hemlock Zones of the Montane sub-
biome, (2) restricting size of clearcut and seed tree cuts to approximately
40 acres or less, and (3) using selection or shelterwood cutting elsewhere;
e.g., warm-dry sites in all vegetative zones, and on high elevation sites
where intense light is detrimental to true firs.

Adverse impacts of windthrown trees along edges of clearcuts and
throughout seed tree and shelterwood areas can be mitigated by early
removal of hazardous concentrations. Windthrow in shelterwood cutting
areas can be controlled by cutting small amounts of standing timber at
frequent intervals rather than doing the opposite.

Logging Methods. Adverse short term impacts resulting from destruc-
tion of vegetation by logging methods can be mitigated by using only those
methods that result in minimum disturbance to understory, shrub and her-
baceous layers, e.g., skyline, balloon and helicopter yarding. However,
mitigation of long term adverse impacts resulting from the use of various
logging methods, is, like development and cutting practices, a matter of
insuring that resulting environmental conditions are favorable to tree
regeneration on the specific site in question. Requirements are likewise
the same; i.e., land classification and a predictive system. In the
absence of such information, however, adverse long term impacts may be
mitigated by using logging methods that disturb herbaceous and shrub
layers (tractor or high-lead yarding) whenever (1) such layers are well
developed beneath the overstory and do not contain adequate tree regen-
eration, (2) use of forest development actions to destroy vegetation is
impractical; e.g., steep topography that precludes scarification, or fire
hazard precludes area burning, and when soil compaction or erosion will
not occur.

Mitigation of adverse long term impacts resulting from use of minimum
disturbance logging methods, i.e., skyline, balloon, and helicopter yarding,
is effectively accomplished by forest development actions that destroy
vegetation, i.e., scarification, area burning, mechanical brush cutting,
and aerial application of herbicides. Where these measures are not feasible
due to adverse impacts on other elements of the environment, forest

132

development actions such as hand clearing and cleaning, hand application
of herbicides, and use of shade tolerant species of trees in tree planting
may also mitigate long term impacts.

Transportation. In general, some short and long term adverse impacts
caused by road construction can be mitigated by locating and engineering
roads so as to avoid sidecasting where possible. Specific recommendations
for mitigating adverse impacts on soil are also applicable to mitigation
of adverse impacts on vegetation.

Aquatic Animals

Development. Throughout the Coniferous Forest Biome mitigation of
adverse impacts caused by heavy equipment in scarification, and mechani-
cal brush cutting can be accomplished by (1) confining these practices to
conditions that preclude soil compaction and erosion, e.g., gentle slopes
with deep non-erodible, dry soils, (2) using an effective vegetative
buffer between treated areas and streams, (3) water-barring and revegeta-
ting spur roads constructed during the operation, and (4) preventing
machinery from crossing streams except over bridges or culverts.

Adverse impacts of chemical weed control can be mitigated by avoiding
direct application to standing or running water by establishing vegeta-
tive buffers between streams and treated area, especially where non-hand
application methods are used. The risk of accidental spillage of pesti-
cides and petroleum products into streams can be minimized by selecting
safe routes for transport vehicles to travel and safe places to load and
fuel aircraft.

Impacts can also be reduced by confining application to the target
area and preventing drift of spray into adjacent areas. Drift can be
minimized by spraying only when air is calm and using (1) helicopters
instead of fixed-wing aircraft, (2) invert emulsions where technically
feasible instead of "conventional" methods, and (3) spray orifices that
produce droplets least prone to drift by wind. Pilots thoroughly familiar
with the area are least likely to make mistakes and spray off-target areas,

Adverse impacts of fertilization can be mitigated by confining appli-
cation to watersheds that do not drain into lakes or reservoirs and by
avoiding application to standing or running water. Use of buffer strips
is an effective mitigating measure; like chemical weed control, mitiga-
tion requires insurance against accidental spillage into streams.

The use of an effective buffer strip between streams and the burned
areas is also an important mitigative measure for area burning. Another
means by which to avoid adverse impacts to aquatic wildlife is to con-
fine area burning to gentle slopes and soils that are not erodible. Sub-
stitution of spot burning or chipping of slash is also effective mitiga-
tion if done away from streams and behind effective buffer strips.

133

- ■

Adverse impacts of baiting and seeding (where seeds are treated with
toxic chemical repellents) can be mitigated by: (1) selecting chemicals
least toxic to aquatic wildlife, including insects, (2) avoiding appli-
cation over water, (3) using hand application methods where possible, (4)
using helicopters instead of fixed-wing aircraft if aerial application is
essential, and (5) using a buffer zone between the aquatic habitat and
treatment area.

Other possible mitigative measures include: (1) avoiding fencing
across streams that support fish so as to preclude blockage by drifting
debris, (2) avoiding snag felling in buffer areas, or if it is necessary,
fall them away from streams, and (3) avoiding thinning or pruning immedi-
ately adjacent to streams.

Protection. The most effective mitigative measure for adverse impacts
associated with use of pesticides is to restrict control activities to use
of biological methods; i.e., predators and viruses. Where insecticides
are used some effective mitigative measures include: (1) selection of
insecticide and rate of application least toxic to aquatic wildlife, in-
cluding insects, (2) use of buffer zones between aquatic habitats and
treatment area, (3) confinement of treatment to treatment area by using
helicopters instead of fixed-wing aircraft, spraying only when air is
calm and using only pilots familiar with the treatment area, (4) using
latest technology for producing a spray that tends to fall rather than
drift in air currents, and (5) as with chemical weed control, select
transportation routes and loading sites to preclude spillage of insecti-
cide into aquatic habitat. Precautionary measures similar to use of
insecticides and chemical weed control may be used to mitigate impacts
from use of fire retardants.

Cutting Practices. To minimize impacts on aquatic wildlife the
cutting practice that is least destructive to terrestrial vegetation and
soil should be used; i.e., selection cutting should be considered first
followed by shelterwood, seed tree and clearcutting. Regardless of the
cutting practice used, however, adverse impacts can be effectively miti-
gated by leaving buffer zones of effective vegetation between the aquatic
habitat and cutting area so as to prevent increases in stream temperature,
reduce sediment intake of streams, protect existing stabilized stream-
banks and retain character of the bottom. Impacts can be further miti-
gated by not falling trees into streams.

Logging Methods . To mitigate adverse impacts, the logging method
least destructive to soil and terrestrial vegetation (i.e., aerial methods
such as skyline, balloon or helicopter yarding) should be used, especially
on steep slopes and shallow, or erodible soils. A wide buffer zone of
standing trees left along the aquatic habitat, may prevent up-slope trees
from crashing into the stream during the falling operation. Trees nearer
the stream can be felled last, possibly away from the buffer zone and
stream. Streams can be protected from mud and siltation to some degree

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by prohibiting yarding during periods of heavy rainfall. Logging debris
that finds its way into streams or the immediate vicinity of streams
should be considered for removal as a mitigating measure against stream
blockage during periods of high water.

Other potential measures to mitigate adverse impacts on aquatic wild-
life include: (1) stabilization after logging, of all disturbed areas,
especially skid trails and spur roads, with fast growing herbaceous plant
species of good soil holding characteristics, (2) removal of all temporary
structures from streams, (3) careful removal of fills at stream crossing
rather than allow high water to carry soil away, and (4) use of sediment
and debris traps.

Transportation. Adverse impacts associated with road construction
and maintenance can be mitigated by the following measures:

Locate roads away from the aquatic habitat; use suitable vegeta-
tive buffer for roads that have to be near streams.

Locate and design roads so as to prevent sidecasting of soil,
rocks and debris.

Do not obtain road gravel from streams.

Do not make stream channel changes .

Riprap unstable banks along streams.

Stabilize cuts and fills with drainage structures and fast growing
herbaceous vegetation with good soil holding characteristics.

Locate rock crushing and washing sites away from streams.

Use road surfacing materials that will not erode during wet
weather.

Spill water from drainage culverts on stabilized areas only.

Use adequate sized culverts and bridges (consider possibility of
future timber removal above culvert or bridge site and impact on
anticipated flows). Design stream crossings to provide upstream
fish passage for migratory species.

Do no construction work during periods of heavy rainfall.

Deposit soil and debris from landslides and endhaul in locations
where erosion into streams will not occur.

Leave a buffer of vegetation between roadside spray areas and the
aquatic habitat.

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Terrestrial Animals

Development . Loss of habitat due to tree improvement, and other
practices that materially shorten the growth cycle of conifers, can be
compensated for by the proper spacing of cuttings, size of cuttings, and
timing of cuts to assure a diversity of regenerative age classes.

To mitigate adverse impacts of scarification, mechanical brush
cutting, burning and chemical weed control, surface cover destruction
should be restricted to small areas. Brush removal should be avoided on
big game winter ranges, calving and fawning sites.

While regulations prohibit the general use of poisons such as endrin,
strychnine, and "1080" for rodent baiting and tree seed treatment, clea-
rance has been received for the use of strychnined-salt blocks for porcu-
pine control. These blocks should be placed in specially designed metal
bait stations. Any other approved baits should be placed underground, in
runways, or in other protected sites where a degree of protection can be
provided non-target species. Carcasses of poisoned animals may be burned
to protect carrion-feeding predators from effects of secondary poisoning.

Adverse impacts of baiting can be totally avoided by using the alter-
native of fencing and screening to protect conifers from seed and seedling
destroying animals. Current research projects are designed to (1) find a
chemical seed protectant as an alternative to endrin, and (2) protect tree
seed by masking its odor.

Adverse impacts of fencing can be mitigated by making exclosures
completely deer and elk-tight to preclude their entry and entrapment;
the smaller the exclosure, the less chance of larger animals gaining
entry. Another mitigative measure is to avoid use of fences on big game
migration routes, calving or fawning areas, or in sites of intensive
hunting. Since antlered animals are easily entangled and killed in nylon
mesh, mitigation can be achieved through use of conventional wire fences.

Mitigation of adverse impacts from snag felling can be achieved by
reserving high quality snags (with regard to wildlife use) in selected
locations. Eagle and osprey nest tree preservation sites should also
include adjacent dead trees and snags used for perching on by both young
and adults. Preservation of snags, flat tops, spike tops and other dead
and dying trees used by wildlife considered endangered should receive
highest consideration. If important snags or dead trees cannot be saved,
the girdling of some live trees on the site for future wildlife use can
be used as a mitigating measure.

Adverse impacts of precommercial thinning and pruning may be mitigated
by confining the actions to the time of year when human activity on the
site will not preclude reproduction or wintering activities.

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Protection. Adverse impacts of protection practices can be minimized
by insuring that insecticides and other chemicals are confined to the
target area; i.e., all possible techniques for minimizing drift and guarding
against accidental spills should be employed. Before any control of insects
and disease is initiated, a survey of the area should be conducted to
determine what non-target wildlife species are present, and how they would
be affected by proposed control methods.

Cutting Practices. To avoid adverse impacts to the greatest number
of wildlife species, cutting, particularly clearcutting, should be con-
fined to small, scattered tracts ranging from 15 to 30 acres in size so
as to produce the greatest "edge" effect in any general area. To avoid
the short term impact of harvesting on nesting and wintering wildlife,
falling and bucking, and yarding operations should be done at times other
than the nesting season or months of severe winter weather.

Logging Methods. Areas denuded of vegetation as a result of tractor,
high-lead or other ground systems can be seeded to grass-legume-browse
species best suited to a variety of wildlife in critical food shortage
areas .

Transportation . Adverse impacts of transportation on terrestrial
wildlife may be mitigated by:

Avoiding road construction during the nesting season.

Avoiding big game winter range or closing roads to travel during
winter.

Closing spur roads when not necessary for timber management.

Leaving vegetal screening cover along main roads through cutting
areas .

Keeping rights-of-way clear of vegetation along paved roads to
minimize opportunity for wildlife destruction by fast moving
vehicles; use unpalatable species of vegetation for roadside
stabilization and post signs warning of presence of wildlife.

Locating and engineering roads to avoid sidecasting soil, rocks
and debris, etc., down steep sideslopes.

Designing cut banks along steep sideslopes to allow unrestricted
wildlife travel .

Ecological Interrelationships

The mitigative measures individually described for each component of
the environment in this section represent, collectively, the actions which

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might be taken to maintain stable ecological interrelationships. Conse-
quently, they are not restated in this part.

Many practices identified as part of the program are in themselves
mitigative in preventing or restoring any ecological imbalances or damage
incurred in the course of carrying out disruptive practices. Mitigative
measures include such practices as seeding, planting, chipping, fencing,
mulching, protection, etc. Usually, the disruptive practices are those
associated with the cutting, logging and transportation phases of the
program. Mitigation is largely a matter of where, when and how these
practices are carried out.

The effectiveness of mitigative measures generally would be most
critical in preserving the natural balance in fragile areas of low produc-
tivity, and in valuable aquatic ecosystems.

Human Values

At the beginning of this statement, planning was emphasized as one
of the best tools for mitigating conflicts between timber management
activities and other land uses. Most of the unmitigated impacts discussed
in the preceding part can be prevented or minimized with proper land use
planning.

For instance, land use plans prepared by BLM personnel identify
resource values and resolve conflicts on the public lands. Where conflicts
exist between two or more competing uses, they are resolved through (1)
adjustments in the timing or season of occurrence between conflicting uses,
(2) adjustments in the relative intensity or level of use between uses,
and (3) initiation of practices on the ground designed to minimize or avoid
conflicts. If none of these is successful, then one or more conflicting
uses must be eliminated for that planning area.

The resolution of conflicts between land uses on the public lands and
on adjacent non-Federal land can be accomplished through coordination of
planning between BLM and local government agencies. Where local govern-
ment planning is absent or inadequately enforced, these conflicts are not
easily resolved. Land uses incompatible with timber management such as
recreation subdivisions or ski lodges, developed on adjacent private lands,
may force curtailment of some timber management activities.

In addition to conflicts of land use, conflicts between land uses and
resources must also be identified and resolved in land use plans. Timber
management activities damaging to one or more resource values should be
modified to reduce or eliminate adverse impacts.

In the following discussion on mitigation of impacts associated with
timber management, reference will be made to land use planning as a miti-
gative measure where appropriate.

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Health and Safety. Where human inhabitants are living on or near BLM
lands where chemicals are to be used to control or remove brush and weeds,
adverse effect on the health of these individuals can be avoided by:

Using only approved chemicals, applied at the minimum rate necessary
to do the job.

In the case of occupants on or in the immediate vicinity of the
lands to be treated, timely notification of the intent to conduct
aerial spraying and the date and time that it will be done.

Using helicopter instead of fixed-wing aircraft to minimize the
risk of off-target application.

- Applying chemicals only when the wind is calm.

Chemicals should not be allowed to enter streams and open bodies of
water.

Ill effects on inhabitants caused by smoke from slash burning can be
mitigated by burning on days when atmospheric conditions favor rapid rise
and dispersal of smoke. All such burning should be done in accordance
with a smoke management plan. Quarrying and rock crushing activities
should not take place where inhabitants will be subjected to clouds of
dust. Alternate sources of quarry material and crushing sites away from
inhabitants should be utilized.

Safety hazards associated with log trucks and the motoring public
can be mitigated by proper road design, avoidance of blind curves, provi-
ding adequate turnouts for passing, and use of warning signs.

Accidents and injuries involving timber harvesting and management
activities can be reduced by ensuring that employees receive adequate
safety training, that they are thoroughly trained in their jobs, that
they wear required safety equipment, and that they use the proper equip-
ment, maintained in a good state of repair.

Mineral Development. The objections of prospectors and mining
claimants to timber management practices can sometimes be overcome by
personal contact. Assurance can be given that the proposed action involves
only the timber resource, with no real infringement of mineral exploration
or development rights.

Wilderness . Although BLM is presently unrestricted by any mandate
for preserving roadless areas in western Oregon, commercial forest lands
unique in character should be identified and considered for withdrawal
as natural areas.

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Recreation. Developed and potential recreation sites should be
excluded from commercial timber production and screened by permanent
vegetative buffer strips, with trees reserved from cutting. Sometimes
removal of danger trees may be necessary for user safety; however, log-
ging on recreation sites and adjacent areas should be conducted during
the period of least use, to the extent feasible. Sources of potable water
supplying recreation sites should be permanently protected from possible
contamination by any timber management practices. Roads providing access
to recreation sites should be dust-proofed and built to standards that
permit both car and truck traffic to move safely.

Natural waters providing recreation to fishermen, boaters and swimmers
should be safeguarded from sedimentation, scouring and mass soil movement
by adequate vegetative buffer strips and proper road location and stabili-
zation. Clearcutting on unstable soils and steep ground upslope from such
waters should be avoided.

Since wildlife makes a major contribution to the quality of forest
recreation, wildlife habitat must be considered in planning for timber
harvest. Adequate escape cover, bedgrounds, elk calving grounds, etc.,
should be reserved from cutting or subjected to special cutting practices
in order to perpetuate resident species. Den trees or nesting trees may
be reserved and seasonal restrictions set on logging operations to avoid
harassment of wildlife during critical periods when the young are born
and reared.

Areas subject to heavy recreational use may require the application
of special cutting practices if recreational values are to be preserved.
Cutting methods that detract least from a natural appearance should be
used wherever possible. Continuous canopy management may perpetuate quality
recreation in such areas. This is a system of modified shelterwood cutting
wherein final removal of the overstory is deferred until regeneration in
the understory is large enough to present a forest-like appearance.

Mitigation of adverse effects on recreation should also include repairs
or reconstruction of any recreational facilities or improvements damaged
during timber management operations. It is also essential that all logging
litter and junk on operating areas be removed and disposed of properly.

Grazing. As in the case of mineral development, good communication
with livestock producers can do much to alleviate the ill effects of con-
flicts between timber production and grazing.

Agriculture. Adverse impacts caused by chemical weed and brush control
drifting from forest land onto nearby crop land can be mitigated by using
helicopter aerial application instead of fixed-wing aircraft and spraying
only on calm days.

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Impacts on downstream irrigation reservoirs and facilities caused by
siltation from soil erosion can be mitigated by avoiding development and
harvesting practices that disturb fragile soils. As an additional pre-
caution buffer strips of vegetation should be left along streambanks to
help hold and prevent soil from washing into streams.

Transportation systems should be planned to cause the least distur-
bance to soils; the road construction should be avoided on steep, fragile
soils .

Commercial, Residential and Industrial. Conflicts between timber
management practices and adjacent residential and commercial land uses
can best be mitigated by preventing them from occurring. Coordination
of land use plans with the planning and zoning of local governments can
(1) advise BLM managers of the likelihood of land uses being introduced
on adjacent private lands that would conflict with timber management
objectives, and (2) advise local governments of the timber management
objectives thus allowing them opportunity to plan and zone intermingled
private lands.

Local Government and Public Services. Accidental disruption of utility
services caused by timber management practices can largely be precluded
through proper planning. Land use plans can (1) inform public service
companies of resource areas, including timber, that should be avoided in
planning utility route locations, and (2) identify and designate corridors
on the public lands where utilities can be placed with minimal land use
conflicts .

Adverse impacts on local and state highways and bridges can be miti-
gated to some extent through good coordination with county and state high-
way departments.

Aesthetics . Most people appreciate natural beauty. Many individuals
pursue geology, archeology, history, etc., as hobbies or avocations. The
adverse impacts of timber management actions on these areas of interest
may be alleviated by various means.

A primary mitigating influence is the Bureau Planning System (described
in Section I of the Statement), whereby areas of outstanding scenic quality
or human interest value may be excluded from the timber management program.

Visual impacts may be reduced by several measures. The appearance of
smoke in the atmosphere from area and spot burning of slash may be mini-
mized by smoke management technology. This involves the coordinated effort
of meteorologists and public and private forestry agencies to integrate
burning schedules with weather reports so as to produce rapid fuel combus-
tion and quick dispersal of smoke into the upper atmosphere. Alternative
slash disposal measures which create no smoke may be feasible; e.g.,
chipping or burying of slash.

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Atmospheric dust arising from road construction operations may be
somewhat reduced by watering of subgrades during blading and surfacing
operations. Dust from log hauling by truck can be abated by oiling roads
or surfacing them with bituminous material or macadam. Hard surfacing of
forest mainline roads is an increasing practice. Periodic application of
water or waste sulfite liquor to dirt or gravel -surfaced roads reduces the
dust problem.

The visual impact of cutting practices and logging operations can be
mitigated by various means. Special cutting practices which retain some
of the forest overstory are much less obvious than clearcutting. These
practices are feasible in many situations, but not in all. One concept
employs a system of modified shelterwood cutting which defers final removal
of the forest overstory (dominant trees) until understory regeneration is
large enough to present a forest-like appearance.

Clear, cool streams of high water quality are a characteristic of the
biome. The visual impact of turbid, muddy or debris -filled streams creates
a feeling of disgust to the viewer. Design all operations to protect the
water quality and stay within State standards of turbidity.

The adverse psychological effects created by highly visible timber
management activities can be greatly reduced by skillful, perceptive use
of landscape management techniques. Landscape management is the art and
science of planning and administering the utilization of natural resources
in such ways that the resulting effects on the visual resource maintain or
enhance man's psychological welfare.

Landscape management techniques have various applications. On gentle
terrain, a roadside buffer strip of uncut trees and undisturbed ground
cover may be reserved to screen aesthetically unpleasant activity in fore-
ground distance and middle ground distance zones from the view of sight-
seers. Where clearcut areas will be visible in middle ground distance
and background distance zones, negative psychological effects can be miti-
gated by avoiding straight cutting edges and square rectangular shapes, by
locating cutting lines along contours so as to conform with topography,
by blending cutting lines into natural vegetative features, by keeping
middle ground clearcuts small, etc. Landscape management can also do much
to reduce the unsightliness of scars on the landscape and unnatural openings
created by road construction.

Cleanup of unsightly litter resulting from timber management operations
can be required by the provisions of contracts for development projects and
for timber sales.

Probably a good deal of unfavorable public reaction to the aesthetic
impacts of timber management exists because some people do not understand
natural processes. If they can learn, for example, that the visual impact

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of a recent clearcutting is relatively temporary because the managed forest
is self-renewing, much ill feeling might be dispelled. The various news
media offer some opportunities in this regard. So do outdoor classrooms
for children of school age.

Sound, Odor, and Mood. Little can be done about odors emanating from
internal combustion engines. The smells of smoke from burning slash and
of dust from various operations can be mitigated to some extent by measures
described under Aesthetics.

The high noise levels produced by the engines of logging and construc-
tion equipment could probably be reduced by improved muffler systems, but
so far as is known, there has been no effort in this direction.

Geology. Identification and designation of unique geologic forma-
tions in land use plans is the foremost mitigative measure available to
preserve their human interest values. Timber management activities should
be planned and executed to prevent damage to such formations. Roads should
be kept away from them and clearcutting should not be allowed nearby.

Archeology. No timber management activities that would disturb or
otherwise affect archeological sites should be allowed in their vicinity.
Roads should be kept away from undisturbed sites. New finds should be
reported to the appropriate Federal and State agency having responsibility
for investigating and evaluating archeological sites. Contractors and
their employees should be made aware of known sites in their area of oper-
ation.

History. Timber management activities in the vicinity of historical
sites should be planned and conducted to avoid both physical and visual
damage. Roads should detour around or away from them. Contractors and
their employees should be instructed to avoid damaging historic sites.

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C. Recommendations for Mitigation of Environmental Impacts

It is impractical to attempt to compile a list of recommended mitiga-
tive measures, given the variability of the micro-sites to which the manage-
ment measures are applied. For any specific action, the case file reflects
the mitigation efforts deemed appropriate for that specific case. By under-
standing this relationship, the reader can then consider the appropriate
residual impacts.

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D. Residual Impacts

This section discusses the adverse impacts which can be expected to
remain after a reasonable effort has been exerted to apply all applicable,
feasible mitigative measures described in the previous section. It com-
prises a compilation of unavoidable impacts not subject to mitigation and
the residual adverse effects likely to remain despite mitigative efforts.
This discussion does not take into consideration those instances where
potential land use or resource programs conflict and are irreconcilable,
resulting in a management decision to classify a particular area for a
single use or selected uses.

Depending upon the nature of the classification, the unavoidable
impacts of timber management practices set forth in this section may be
either diminished or increased. This section, as do the following sections,
addresses itself to the identification of the impacts of the general timber
management program throughout the entire forest. In this sense, the un-
mitigated impacts described in a previous section can be of assistance to
management in evaluating alternatives prior to rendering a land use or
resource decision where irreconcilable differences do exist.

This analysis is necessarily subjective to a degree. In the same
way it was decided to use a relatively low level of performance in dealing
with unmitigated impacts, a judgment factor must be imposed here also to
estimate the effectiveness of mitigation measures based on assumed
thoroughness in execution and probability of favorable technical results.
It has been assumed that prescribed mitigative procedures will be used and
enforced, and furthermore, that the contractor or private operator will be
cooperative.

In some of the parts that follow, the development, protection, cutting
practices, logging methods and transportation phases have been combined
since their continued separation in this section, and subsequent sections,
is not as meaningful or as helpful to the reader as in previous sections.

Air

Development. Despite improved smoke management technology, there
will continue to be occasions when smoke from burning forest fuels will
find its way into the lower atmosphere over population centers. These
occurrences will be significant only as a temporary nuisance. Inevitably,
as long as prescribed fire is used, there will be misapplications due to
human error and accidents of nature. Some brush fields will be created
and some forest sites made temporarily unproductive by micro-climatic
changes.

Protection. The discussion of prescribed burning (in preceding sub-
section) applies to the unavoidable impacts of backfiring on local climates

145

Cutting Practices and Logging Operations. Cutting practices can have
some unavoidable adverse impacts on local climates. It may be necessary
to clearcut insect-infested timber on a severe site, and to burn the slash
to forestall an epidemic. The resulting exposure may create micro-climatic
conditions which make regeneration of the site very difficult. As another
example, a cutting practice used successfully in the past may be applied
to obtain natural regeneration. Deviation of the general climate from its
normal pattern for a year or two after cutting may cause micro-climatic
changes which inhibit regeneration and favor the invasion of the site by
brush.

Short term air pollution by engine emissions and dust during logging
operations is unavoidable but relatively insignificant.

Transportation. The unavoidable adverse impacts of road construction
and log hauling on local climate are relatively minor. Air quality will
be temporarily degraded by engine emissions and dust will sometimes be a
nuisance in the vicinity of road construction operations and along logging
roads. Micro-climates will be permanently modified in limited areas on
road rights-of-way.

Land

Development. Development practices, such as scarification, mechanical-
trenching and furrowing, area burning, spot burning and hand clearing and
cleaning will result in some localized erosion due to vegetal destruction.

Protection. Fire line construction and backfiring can be expected to
result in an indeterminable amount of erosion. In most of the fragile
areas this amount will reach significant proportions.

Cutting Practices and Logging Methods. Some erosion and/or soil com-
paction will occur regardless of the cutting practice or logging method
used, particularly on steep terrain.

Transportation . Landslides and gravitational erosion cannot be
completely eliminated and will periodically occur along roads as a result
of freeze-thaw actions and from the water saturation of slopes during the
rainy and winter seasons. Severe rainstorms will cause blockages of
drainage facilities resulting in soil movement and loss. Some streambed
disturbance cannot be avoided during bridge construction and culvert
installation. Accidental spills of chemicals, oil, etc., will occur but
their impact can be expected to be minimal .

Water

Development. Heavy rains immediately after a prescribed burn, before
any or all rehabilitation measures can be accomplished or can take effect,
may cause suspended sediment to be carried into streams even through a wide

146

vegetative filter strip. Heavy rains may also cause an increase in slope
instability with a large debris avalanche or soil slump resulting. In
such events, vegetative filter strips and buffer strips of timber and
shrubs may be completely ineffective in preventing masses of debris and
soil from reaching and damaging a stream. Unforeseen shifts in wind
during chemical weed and brush control can cause drift of chemical pesti-
cides onto streams and bodies of water.

Protection. The unavoidable impacts of applying insecticides, retar-
dants, etc., and backfiring are the same as chemical weed and brush control
and burning, respectively, as described under Development. The construction
of a fire line on a going fire, requiring quick control may not allow time
for thorough planning and best location of fire lines. The same urgency
may dictate that fire trails be built by heavy equipment, with resulting
degradation of water quality. During severe fire weather, several fires
burning concurrently or at short time intervals may preclude the use of
limited manpower in applying erosion control measures promptly to fire
lines.

Cutting Practices. Research has found that the removal of vegetation
from clearcuts in western Oregon can cause changes in the seasonal distri-
bution of runoff and in the magnitude of some late fall peak flows. The
result of clearcutting in this area has been to increase streamflow during
the heavy rainfall period, November through April. This research has also
shown that if heavy fall rains follow a dry fall period, the peak stream-
flow may be significantly higher from clearcut areas. On sites with un-
stable soils, this increased streamflow or occasional higher peakflow
could conceivably initiate a cycle of stream erosion and slope failures
with a significant decrease in water quality.

Logging Methods. Felled trees may unavoidably slide down steep slopes
and into or through streamside buffer strips, causing localized soil ero-
sion or disturbance of the vegetation along the streambank. Some soil
compaction is inevitable on any area that is tractor logged. Temporary,
localized soil disturbance and erosion can be expected in most logged
areas regardless of the method employed.

Transportation . Streams near or adjacent to road construction projects
can be expected to carry additional suspended sediment during the life of
the project. This sediment may be derived from excavation, embankment and
bridge construction, culvert installation, and surface runoff from culverts
and road and fill surfaces. Subsequently, culverts, slopes and surfaces
may fail from water saturation, heavy loading or from blockage by debris,
following heavy rains or melt off, causing erosion or drainage to bypass
regular channels and carry sediment in surface runoff.

Aquatic Vegetation

Although many recommended mitigative measures reduce soil erosion,
the natural rate of sedimentation of aquatic ecosystems is normally

147

accelerated by many timber management actions. Increased sedimentation
shortens the natural life of lakes, ponds, marshes and estuaries by filling
their basins, thereby speeding up plant succession and eventual conversion
to land masses. Aquatic plants are ultimately replaced by terrestrial
vegetation in this process which usually requires centuries under normal
conditions but can occur in relatively few years if substantial increases
in sedimentation occur.

Terrestrial Vegetation

Significant short term adverse impacts (i.e., immediate and extensive
destruction of existing vegetation) will frequently be accepted as a cost
of avoiding adverse long term impacts (i.e., excessive delay in regenerating
and developing a new forest similar to the one removed) . The classic example
will occur most frequently in the Northwest Coastal sub-biome where clear-
cutting, scarification, aerial spraying of herbicides and area burning may
be used to insure timely replacement of a well stocked Douglas -fir forest
as opposed to vegetative cover of shrubs, hardwood trees and scattered hem-
lock or Sitka spruce. Thus there is often a conflict between the mitigation
of long term and short term impacts; when this occurs attention is usually
given to long term impacts.

Adverse long term impacts may also occur anywhere within the two sub-
biomes due to accidental misapplication of certain actions in the face of
unseen environmental conditions. An example is likely to be failure of
tree regeneration amid flourishing herbaceous or non-coniferous woody
vegetation following application of normally "safe" actions such as (1)
shelterwood cutting in the Montane sub-biome, and (2) clearcutting on
relatively cool-moist sites in the Northwest Coastal sub-biome and certain
vegetative zones of the Montane sub-biome.

Aquatic Animals

Despite implementation of recommended mitigative measures, some short
term disruptions of the aquatic habitats and subsequent damage to aquatic
wildlife will occur as a result of accidental stream blockages, soil
erosion, etc. Mainline roads will cause a long term unavoidable impact
due to the presence of people and the associated disruption and destruc-
tion of wildlife.

Terrestrial Animals

The implementation of many mitigative measures will serve only to
reduce, and cannot entirely avoid, short term adverse impacts on
terrestrial wildlife. Individual animals, for example, will be killed
or displaced by timber management activities such as scarification,
mechanical brush cutting, area burning, falling and bucking, yarding and
road construction. Mainline roads will cause a long term unavoidable
impact due to the presence of people and the associated disruption and
destruction of wildlife.

148

Ecological Interrelationships

Most practices will alter the appearance of the ecosystem and
temporarily disrupt the balanced relationships between its components,
particularly those practices that involve vegetal destruction or removal,
and soil movement. In these instances the nutrient cycle, hydrologic
cycle, and energy flow will be interrupted until the impacted area is
revegetated and the ground stabilized. Fragile ecosystems, where produc-
tivity is low and the natural balance delicate, will be most severely
impacted and slowest to recover, particularly where the ecological equili-
brium has already been impaired by prior human activity. In the case of
the areas occupied by roads, ecological relationships will never be restored
during the life of the facility.

It can be safely assumed that almost any action of man that affects
the biotic community and/or the physical environment will impact the eco-
system to some degree regardless of the mitigative measures that are
brought to bear. However, with the proper application of timber management
practices, the impact should be minimal in terms of the basic processes of
the ecosystem and of relatively short duration.

Human Values

Most of the adverse human and land use impacts caused by timber manage-
ment activities can be mitigated, or avoided, through planning and the
employment of mitigative measures. Some, however, cannot be mitigated
entirely, and these become residual impacts.

Health and Safety. The primary unavoidable impact involves workers
in timber related jobs. Despite safety programs and safety conscienceness
of employees, accidents that cause injury and occasionally deaths are
going to happen. Accidents involving the motoring public and log trucks
and other logging equipment will occur as long as simultaneous use is made
of the road .

There will also be occasions when smoke from slash fires drifts over
inhabitants despite mitigative measures and precautions; however, no sig-
nificant impacts are expected.

Mineral Development. There are no unavoidable adverse impacts of
significance.

Wilderness . The timber management program poses no threat of real
damage to the wilderness values of the Northwest Coastal and Montane sub-
biomes; providing unique aesthetic and natural attributes are recognized
where they exist.

Recreation. The timber management program will have some unavoidable
adverse impacts on various facets of recreation. Natural waters which
provide fishing, boating and swimming opportunities may be muddied or

149

invaded by debris carried downslope from logged areas in surface water
runoff. Some cutting practices, and prescribed burning, may eliminate
recreation from an area for a time. There will be occasional damage to
some recreational facilities and improvements. Smoke, noise, and dust
will cause local discomfort to outdoorsmen.

Grazing. The nation's growing consumption of forest products may
require eventual reductions in the use of some forest lands for grazing
of domestic livestock. On commercial forest land of high site quality,
grazing often causes unacceptable damage to timber values. This means
that grazing may eventually be excluded from some portions of the Coni-
ferous Forest Biome. The adverse economic effect of the anticipated
grazing reduction will be insignificant nationally. However, individual
livestock producers may be significantly affected.

Agriculture. Barring accidents and "acts of God," there should be
no unavoidable impacts to agriculture, either by herbicide spray drift
onto agricultural crops or by siltation of reservoirs and irrigation
works .

Commercial, Residential and Industrial. There should be no unavoid-
able impacts on nearby residential or commercial enterprises. An excep-
tion may occur in cases where unsuitable and incompatible land uses, such
as an unplanned subdivision, encroach on a management area and, upon con-
sidered evaluation, it is determined that restriction of timber management
activities in deference to the encroachment would not be in the best
interests of the public.

Local Government and Public Services. There should be no unavoid-
able impacts on public services, with the exception of an occasional
accidental interruption of a utility located in a timber management area.

There may be unavoidable impacts on some local and state departments
such as highway maintenance, patrol, etc., causing an increase in their
workload.

Aesthetics . The timber management program will continue to cause
some impairment of aesthetic values, even when all feasible mitigating
measures are carefully applied. Atmospheric smoke from prescribed
burning will be visible at times, as will dust from logging and road
construction operations, and from truck hauling of logs. Clearcuttings
and heavy partial cuttings will detract from the natural appearance of the
forest. So will unsightly road cuts and fills, and the occasional massive
soil movements which will occur as results of some accidental or ill-advised
construction and logging operations. The smells and sounds of timber
management operations will also continue to affect the moods of forest
visitors in various ways. A road constructed adjacent to a stream may
forever be an impact on the beauty of the stream.

150

Geology. There should be no unavoidable adverse impacts on geologic
features of human interest. These can be readily recognized if identified
during development of land use plans.

Archeology. Because it is often difficult to locate archeological
sites or for the untrained eye to recognize some sites, there may be an
occasional site destroyed, even though professional assistance is utilized

History. There should be no unavoidable impact on historical values
since those of interest can be identified and the necessary precautions
taken.

151

E . Relationship Between Short Term Use and Long Term Productivity

The timber management program is, of course, not a short term use but
a continuous use which involves different actions being applied to diff-
erent parts of the forest over time. Most of the individual practices
carried out on a particular area do imply a short term use. However, this
section is not concerned with how short term use is defined but rather
with long term productivity. Since forest productivity extends beyond
commercial timber to include wildlife, water, recreation, etc., it must
be reviewed in a manner that includes all resources and uses.

The time frame to be used in this statement in identifying the impact
on these values is relatively long (100 years), in order to equate the
program with the approximate rotational period of tree harvest. This long
range view is necessary because trees represent the predominant life form
of the forest and the primary productivity of the biotic community.

Air

In general, the practices associated with the timber management
program do not affect the climate or air as they relate to the long term
productivity of the forest.

Land

The construction of an extensive network of roads, or other manage-
ment practices that expose large surface areas to erosion or mass soil
movement, decrease future productivity on the affected areas by removing

or destroying the soil layer upon which new growth is dependent.

While some development practices may have a short term detrimental
impact on localized areas, most practices will either increase or not
affect long term productivity. The removal of timber by periodic
harvesting may eventually lead to depletion of soil nutrients. The
area occupied by permanent roads will not be productive during the life
of the facility. Even where reclamation of surplus roads is undertaken,
productivity will be permanently reduced where extensive cuts and fills
were made. In all probability, the full productivity of quarry sites
will not be restored despite the mitigative measures taken. Decreased
long term productivity as result of any management practice that signifi-
cantly effects vegetal and ground cover, such as fire lines, may be ex-
pected.

Water

In those areas where snowmelt forms a significant portion of the
seasonal runoff, the increased snowpack which occurs after cutting, parti-
cularly clearcutting, is a definite benefit by increasing water produc-
tivity. Where slopes and stream channels are stable, this increased

152

runoff has no adverse effects and suspended sediment concentrations will
remain relatively stable. Periodic erosion along roadways resulting
from seasonal rains and storms will have a minimal impact on the produc-
tivity of the aquatic ecosystem.

Aquatic Vegetation

Timber management practices generally have a minor detrimental effect
on the long term productivity of aquatic plants. The productivity of
plants in standing water habitat may be initially increased for a relatively
short period of years because of favorable habitat changes caused by
accelerated sedimentation. However, long term productivity can be dimin-
ished because the natural life of the habitat is reduced by continual, long
term sedimentation.

Terrestrial Vegetation

The short term use of land for timber harvest will generally have
little, if any, adverse impact on long term vegetative productivity pro-
vided the necessary mitigative measures are carried out. Vegetation is
a renewable resource, capable of reestablishment on most areas that are
denuded during timber harvest and forest development actions. Through
natural revegetation and man-controlled forest development actions, the
productivity of the site can be maintained. Timber yield especially,
can be increased through timber management practices, i.e., development,
protection, commercial thinnings, mortality salvage and the timely harvest
of the crop prior to the period of natural declining growth and general
stand deterioration.

Aquatic Animals

Short term use of land for timber production will not endanger long
term productivity of aquatic wildlife if recommended mitigative measures
are implemented. Although serious accidents can damage portions of the
aquatic habitat, extensive or widespread damage of entire river systems
as a direct or indirect result of timber management is extremely unlikely.

Terrestrial Animals

Short term use of the land for timber production will not, as a rule,
impair long term productivity for terrestrial wildlife. Removal of dense
old-growth forests and restoration of new forests with more open condi-
tions will even enhance yields of wildlife forage in many cases. An ex-
ception to the rule involves endangered species, where normally short term
impacts such as the accidental disturbance or destruction of habitat could
exterminate the only remaining population.

153

Ecological Interrelationships

The productivity of an impacted area will be significantly reduced
in those instances where permanent structures, primarily roads, are
constructed, bare rock is exposed or unstable soil conditions exist.
The practices associated with the growing and harvesting of a timber crop
increase the yield of vegetal material and some other environmental com-
ponents beyond what nature alone can produce. The continual removal of
this nutrient-containing resource over successive rotations and the
practices to which the land is subjected may have a dampening effect on
soil productivity over time. Such reduction of productivity can be off-
set by artificially introduced nutrients through fertilization.

Human Values

Health and Safety. With the exception of timber related employee
accidents and accidents between the public and logging vehicles, there
should be no long term effects associated with the timber management
program.

Mineral Development. Timber management actions will have no signi-
ficant long term effect on mineral development.

Wilderness . Assuming that natural or wilderness areas are recognized
and classified accordingly, there will be no long term impact of the timber
management program.

Recreation. The effects of the timber management program will not
seriously impair future recreational values.

Grazing . The timber management program may eventually cause a reduc-
tion in numbers of livestock using forest ranges. However, the impact on
the national forage requirement will be insignificant.

Agriculture. There should be no long term effects on agricultural
crops or irrigation systems as a result of practices associated with
timber management .

Commercial, Residential and Industrial. No impacts on long term
productivity or potential for the development of these types of facilities
are envisioned.

Local Government and Public Services. As long as timber management
activities continue, some long term effects will be felt by state and
local highway departments in the way of increased road maintenance and
related costs.

Aesthetics . The program should have no long term effects on aesthe-
tics .

154

Geology. Any impact that obliterates or substantially alters unique
geologic features would decrease their human interest values.

Archeology. Accidental destruction or damage to archeological sites
caused by the timber management program would have severe impacts on their
values.

History. Inadvertent destruction or damage to historic sites would
have long term impacts if the sites were not restored. Even with restora-
tion, there would be some diminution in historic value.

155

F. Irreversible and Irretrievable Commitments of Resources

This section is focused on identifying the long term impacts of the
timber management program from the perspective of irrevocable depletion of
resources due to such causes as resource extraction, massive erosion,
destruction of human interest values, elimination of endangered species
and their habitat, and irreversible changes in land use. The consider-
ation of any of these consequences is based only upon the existence of
risks residual after mitigating measures have been employed.

Air

Under extreme conditions, natural restoration of the original micro-
climate may take a long time, but there is no irretrievable commitment
to any fixed micro-climate.

Land

Erosive processes induced by removal of the vegetative cover and the
construction of roads produce an indeterminable amount of localized mass
wasting which cannot be reversed or retrieved, no matter what mitigating
measures are taken. When the vegetal cover is removed from an area where
steep slopes occur and there is an abundant supply of moisture, the
erosional process will sustain itself and in those situations where rock
types and structure are conducive to weathering the erosional rates will
increase. Natural erosion tends toward an equilibrium over geologic

time. However, in terms of the human life span, erosion caused by man's
activities results in an imbalance.

The irreversible impact and commitment of the soil resource is closely
correlated to the physiographic and geologic factors described in the
previous part. There are additional impacts, however, if the assumption
is made that permanent reads will remain in perpetuity. In this case,
approximately five percent of the land area will be committed to a rela-
tively irreversible use, although the trend towards logging systems which
require less roads would reduce these percentages in the future. This
percentage does not include those areas in landslides. Furthermore, the
soil, rock, gravel and other materials used to construct the roads and
structures could also be viewed as representing a form of depletion and
a permanent commitment of resources. In a theoretical sense, however,
roads could be abandoned, and the areas returned to a lesser productive
state if society should deem it necessary.

Water

Watershed values of a drainage are irretrievably committed, to a
degree, in those instances where bare rock has been exposed or areas of
bare rock enlarged as a result of massive soil movements. Landslides can
also cause the destruction of a natural stream channel, resulting in its
rechannelization and the accompanying permanent loss of soil and other
materials .

156

Aquatic Vegetation

The natural process of the conversion of standing water habitats to
land masses is accelerated by those timber management practices that con-
tribute to sedimentation.

Terrestrial Vegetation

There are no known irreversible or irretrievable impacts of timber
management on vegetation. Even where drastic misapplications may occur
and result in extensive delays in tree regeneration, natural plan succes-
sion and technical progress can be expected to restore the site to a forest
condition. Only where landslides expose rock surfaces can the forest condi-
tion be considered irretrievable.

Aquatic Animals

The most vulnerable aquatic animals are the rare fishes and aquatic
animals, the populations of which could be severely damaged and possibly
exterminated for an entire river system as a result of a timber management
related accident.

Terrestrial Animals

Any loss of an endangered species constitutes a potential irreversible
and irretrievable commitment. Small, non-mobile species with limited habi-
tats and only local distributions, e.g., the Larch Mountain salamander,
are especially vulnerable. Other more mobile species with widespread dis-
tribution, e.g., the spotted owl, could possible be eliminated from a
specific area for a long period of time.

Ecological Interrelationships

Certain components of the biotic community and physical environment,
such as endangered species, would represent irretrievable losses, if
annihilated as a result of some catastrophic event. However, the basic
ecological processes would probably recover and continue. Occasional
situations occur in which the natural balance has obviously been damaged
beyond repair. One example is the exposure of bedrock by mass soil move-
ment, where restoration of a life-sustaining abiotic environment can be
accomplished only by natural processes operating over a period of geologic
time. However, the incidence of such occurrences and amount of land so
affected would be minimal. The greatest risk of irretrievable impacts on
the ecosystem resulting from soil erosion following the loss of vegetal
cover exists in the fragile areas of the upper and lower limits of the
Montane Forest. It should be pointed out that much remains unknown re-
garding the ecological interrelationships that exist throughout the Coni-
ferous Forest Biome. Therefore, there may be irreversible impacts that
are not presently recognized.

157

Human Values

Health and Safety. Timber related employee accidents that cause
permanent injury or death are, of course, irreversible and irretrievable.
This also applies to members of the public injured or killed in accidents
involving log trucks or other equipment.

Mineral Development. Common varieties of minerals may be excluded
from development to protect valuable forest sites.

Wilderness . Existing de facto wilderness areas should not be committed
to the timber management program without careful consideration of the
balance of values. Otherwise, important wilderness resources may be irre-
vocably lost.

Recreation. The timber management program commits no recreational
values to irrevocable loss or degradation.

Grazing. Some extensive areas of forest range may be committed to
timber production.

Agriculture. Accidental loss of soil caused by timber management
activities can be considered irretrievable.

Commercial, Residential and Industrial. There should be no irreversible
and irretrievable loss of lands for these uses, either on BLM lands or adja-
cent non-Federal lands.

Local Government and Public Services. There are no known irreversible
and irretrievable commitments of resources.

Aesthetics . The long term impact of the timber management program on
aesthetics cannot be described without specifying the parameters involved.
Inasmuch as outstanding or unique areas have been removed from the timber
management program, and other areas of special scenic interest may be
protected by restrictions on what timber management practices may occur,
then it may be stated that timber management activities will have no impact
on the remaining lands. On the other hand, if the sight of a recent clear-
cut anywhere in a large stand of virgin old-growth offends the viewer,
then from his standpoint an irretrievable commitment of resources has been
made to the detriment of aesthetics.

Geology . Accidental damage or destruction of geologic sites would,
within the time frame of man's interest, be irreversible and irretrievable.

Archeology. Inadvertent damage or destruction of archeological sites
would probably be irreversible and irretrievable. Provided sites were not
completely destroyed, enough salvage might be possible to retain their
human interest value.

158

History. Conceivably all historic sites that are the works of man
could be restored should they be destroyed. However, their values would
be diminished and, in effect, the values lost irretrievably.

159

IV. PERSONS, GROUPS, AND GOVERNMENT AGENCIES CONSULTED

The Bureau's western Oregon timber management program is the product
of a broad array of expertise. At the outset, the program must be compatible
with the Bureau Planning System. Under this system the Management Frame-
work Plan, which sets constraints for the program, is routinely exposed
to public input during its development.

As the program is implemented, it is subjected to a continuous
process of monitoring, and improvement by input from both Bureau and
external sources. BLM's Western Oregon Research Committee meets quarterly
to assess proposals for timber management research. Selected research
projects are assigned to the Pacific Northwest Forest and Range Experiment
Station and to Oregon State University. The findings of such research are
applied to the practical solution of specific problems or to the improve-
ment of timber management practices.

The current Allowable Cut Plan, which sets the level of harvest and
specifies the cultural practices to be used, underwent thorough public
review prior to its implementation in 1970.

The Annual Timber Sale Plan is an essential part of the Bureau's
blueprint for timber harvesting. When a tentative sale plan has been
developed at the district level, its first exposure to an outside group
usually occurs with its presentation to the district advisory board.
Since this board represents all known interests in the locality, its
reaction is valuable in identifying areas of unusual public interest in
the plan.

After review by the district advisory board and approval by the State
Director, the Annual Timber Sale Plan is normally sent to all parties on
the district mailing list. The mailing list is open to anyone interested
in the program. It usually includes individuals, public interest groups,
conservation-oriented organizations and units of local government, as well
as timber industry representation. Detailed information on any of the
sale plan tracts is available to the public on request at the district
office.

The BLM State Office distributes copies of all district sale plans
to the State of Oregon's clearinghouse, where the plans are reviewed to
determine how they will mesh with the programs of other governmental
agencies and planning entities.

The Bureau's western Oregon timber management program has been exposed
to public scrutiny since its inception. Broad aspects of the program, such
as timber sale plans and distribution of receipts to counties, are given
general coverage by the various news media. Individual actions associated
with the program (e.g., reforestation activities, road construction projects
and unusual logging operations) may be publicized locally.

161

V. INTENSITY OF PUBLIC INTEREST

Because of the revenue sharing provisions of the 0$C Act, there is
a continuing interest in BLM's timber management program on the part of
the western Oregon counties. Other segments of the public have been
interested more sporadically, usually in reaction to particular situations
that have been publicized by the news media.

As one example of this there was, a few years ago, a well -publicized
controversy regarding the proposed exchange of some BLM-administered lands
in southwestern Oregon for private lands in the vicinity of Point Reyes,
California. At that time, the Oregon forest industries adamantly opposed
the exchange on the grounds that it would disrupt the BLM timber manage-
ment program and reduce the volume of federal timber offered for sale.
There is no reason to believe that this attitude has changed.

Another example of reaction to a particular situation occurred after
the Secretary's announcement, on May 6, 1970, of the Bureau's present
Allowable Cut Plan for western Oregon. Governor McCall's concern for the
uncertain impacts of the new plan prompted him to create an ad hoc body,
the Oregon Forest Resources Commission, to study, evaluate and report on
the plan.

Environmental groups have not strongly opposed the Bureau's timber
management program so far, although there is some evidence that this kind
of opposition may be increasing.

On balance, the western Oregon timber management program seems to be
generally well accepted and relatively non-controversial.

163

VI. PARTICIPATING AGENCY STAFF

This EAR incorporates abstracts and excerpts from two BLM preliminary
draft programmatic environmental impact statements -- Timber Management,
and Onshore Oil and Gas Leasing in Oregon. The following individuals
authored material borrowed from these parent documents.

Karl Bergsvik, Forester, WO

Robert L. Borovicka, Fishery Biologist, 0S0

Edward R. Burroughs, Hydrologist , 0S0

Ronald J. Cole, Civil Engineer, 0S0

Dean Delavan, Geologist, 0S0

Ira D. Luman, Wildlife Management Specialist, 0S0

Arthur L. Oakley, Fishery Biologist, 0S0

Bruce A. Powers, Planner, WO

Reginald A. Ross, Range Conservationist, 0S0

Richard E. Schroeder, Forester, 0S0

Byron R. Thomas, Soil Scientist, 0S0

Charles L. Thomas, Forester, 0S0

Editing and conjunctive writing were done by Ronald R. Salder,
Program Analyst, and Marietta Vergeer, Geographer, both 0S0.

165

VII. RECOMMENDATION ON ENVIRONMENTAL STATEMENT

A Bureau-wide programmatic environmental impact statement, Timber
Management, has been prepared and is presently involved in the formal
review process. The programmatic EIS describes and evaluates timber
management practices and associated environmental impacts. While these
impacts are found to be significant, the EIS concludes that, properly
mitigated, they are acceptable. The findings of this EAR for western
Oregon support the conclusions of the Bureau-wide EIS.

Considering these facts, and the relatively low level of controversy
presently involved, it is recommended that no environmental impact state-
ment be prepared for the western Oregon timber management program at this
time. This EAR could serve as the basis for an .EAR-, should one be deemed
necessary at some future time. Jz£S}

As stated in the Preface, supplemental analyses are prepared for the
individual actions which implement the timber management program. It is
conceivable that the EAR for an individual proposal (e.g., timber sale,
development action) may project residual environmental impacts which differ
substantially from those anticipated in this programmatic analysis. Like-
wise, an individual action may generate an unusual degree of public contro-
versy. Such abnormal circumstances may indicate that a formal environ-
mental impact statement is essential for an individual proposal.

VIII. SIGNATURE DATE

CUUoc JQ-Qa**/- May S£>J?7?

State Director / (f

ADDENDA :

Environmental Analysis Worksheets
Timber Management Practices Index

167

KEY TO SYMBOLS USED ON ENVIRONMENTAL
ANALYSIS WORKSHEETS

Symbol Meaning

L low impact

M medium impact

H high impact

+ beneficial impact

adverse impact

0 no impact

X type and degree of impact unknown

169

ENVIRONMENTAL ANALYSIS WORKSHEET

Remarks:

Worksheet #1

HARVEST

STAGES OF IMPLEMENTATION 1

Intermed. Final
Skidding Harvest

Ground
Skidd_in£_.

Ae-
5ki<

rial

DISCRETE OPERATIONS

V

1B/1C/2a/2b/

iuiwisJi

b/3cAd/3e/|

A/4B/4C/

I. N
A.

B.
C.

II. I

A.

B.

C.

D.

III. E
A.

IV. b
A.

B.

ON-LI

VING COMPONENTS
1

AIR

Air Movement Patterns

0

0

L

M

M

L

L

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

Temperature

L

0

L

M

M

L

L

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

Particulate Matter

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

-L

-L

-L

-L

-L

-L

-1

LAND |

Soil Depth

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

X

L

L

L

0

0

0

Soil Structure

0

0

0

0

0

0

X

-M

-H

-M

-M

X

-L

-L

X

Soil Nutrients

0

0

X

L

L

X

L

+ L

0

0

0

0

0

0

c

Soil Erosion

0

0

0

-M

-M

-L

L

-M

-H

-M

-M

X

-L

-L

X

WATER |

Sediment Load

0

0

0

-M

-L

0

X

0

M

L

L

L

X

X

X

Dissolved Solids

0

0

0

X

X

0

X

0

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

Nutrients

X

0

X

X

X

X

X

L

0

0

0

0

0

0

X

Solid Debris

X

0

X

-L

-L

0

X

0

0

L

L

X

0

0

X

Dissolved Oxygen

0

0

0

X

X

0

0

0

0

L

L

X

0

0

X

Temperature

0

0

0

X

X

0

X

0

0

X

X

X

X

X

X

IVING COMPONENTS

0

0

0

-L

-L

X

X

0

M

X

X

X

X

X

V

PLANTS (AQUATIC) |

PLANTS (TERRESTRIAL) |

Grasses

+ L

X

+ L

+M

+M

L

X

0

L

L

L

L

L

L

X

Shrubs

+ L

X

+ L

+M

+M

X

X

0

L

M

M

X

M

M

L

Conifers

+ L

X

-L

+M

+M

L

M

0

L

H

H

X

X

X

X

Broadleaf Trees

-M

0

-M

+M

+M

L

X

0

L

H

H

X

X

X

X

ANIMALS (AQUATIC) |

Fish

0

0

0

-M

-M

L

L

0

X

L

L

L

X

X

0

Invertebrates

0

0

0

X

X

X

X

0

X

X

X

X

X

X

0

Zoo Plankton

0

0

0

X

X

X

X

0

X

X

X

X

X

X

0

ANIMALS (TERRESTRIAL) |

Mammals

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

0

M

M

M

M

M

M

X

Birds

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

+ L

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

Reptiles

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

0

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

COLOGICAL INTERRELATIONSH

IP

ECOLOGICAL PROCESSES |

Succession

X

0

M

H

H

L

L

0

M

M

M

M

L

L

I,

Food Relationships

X

0

X

X

X

X

X

0

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

Community Relationship

X

0

X

X

X

X

X

0

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

UMAN VALUES

L

0

L

H

H

L

L

0

H

H

H

H

L

L

L

LANDSCAPE SH/-.RACTER |

L

0

0

0

X

X

X

L

M

1
L L

L

X

r

X

X

S0C10CULTURAL INTERESTS

i

i

.

i

L. 1 ■

ENVIRONMENTAL ANALYSIS WORK .

Remarks:

HARVEST

(Page 2)

STAGES OF IMPLEMENTATION

*

Road
Construction Ma

Road
intenance

DISCRETE OPERATIONS / / /

B/5C/5D/S

E/5F/ / /6A/6B/6C/6[/

I. N
A.

B.
C.

II. L

A.

B.

C.

D.

III. E
A.

IV. h
A.

B.

ON-LI

VING COMPONENTS
1

AIR

Air Movement Patterns

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

Temperature

-M

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

Particulate Matter

-L

-L

-L

-L

-L

0

-L

-L

0

0

LAND |

Soil Depth

L

H

H

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

Soil Structure

L

H

H

0

0

0

0

0

i)

0

Soil Nutrients

X

X

X

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

Snil Erosion

L

H

H

0

0

0

0

X

0

0

WATER |

Sediment Load

L

H

H

L

+ L

+ L

X

X

X

0

Dissolved Solids

L

X

X

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

Nutrients

X

X

X

0

0

0

0

X

0

0

Solid Debris

L

H

H

0

0

0

X

0

X

0

Dissolved Oxygen

X

X

X

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

Temperature

X

X

X

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

IVING COMPONENTS

X

X

X

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

PLANTS (AQUATIC) |

PLANTS (TERRESTRIAL) |

Grasses

M

H

H

0

0

_0_

0

M

0

0

Shrubs

H

H

H

0

0

0

0

M

0

0

Conifers

H

H

H

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

Broadleaf Trees

H

H

H

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

ANIMALS (AQUATIC) |

Fish

X

X

X

0

0

+M

0

0

+ L

0

Invertebrates

X

X

X

0

0

_x_

0

0

0

0

Zoo Plankton

X

X

X

0

0

X

0

0

0

0

ANIMALS (TERRESTRIAL) |

Mammals

L

L

L

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

Birds

L

X

X

0

0

0

3

0

0

0

Reptiles

X

X

X

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

COLOGICAL INTERRELATIONSHIP

ECOLOGICAL PROCESSES |

Succession

H

H

H

0

0

0

0

L

0

0

Food Relationships

H

H

H

0

0

0

0

X

0

0

Community Relationships

H

H

H

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

[UMAN VALUES

H

H

H

L

L

0

0

X

0

0

LANDSCAPE CHARACTER |

X

H

H

X

X

0

0

0

X

H

SOCIOCULTURAL INTERESTS

i

i

'

1 .

1 .

I

'

Worksheet #2

ENVIRONMENTAL ANALYSIS WORKSHEET

Remarks:

DEVELOPMENT

STAGES OF IMPLEMENTATION

DISCRETE OPERATIONS

////

7D/

y

rt.

fr/\

YJiym/iH/

I. NON-LI

VING COMPONENTS

A.

AIR

Air Movement Patterns

0

9

Q

0

0

Q

JL

0

JL

0

0

JL

0

0

Temperature

0

0

X

0

X

0

JL

0

0

X

X

X

0

0

Particulate Matter

0

L

X

L

-L

-L

-L

-I

0

0

0

_x_

0

0

B.

LAND |

Soil Depth

0

L

0

X

X

0

L

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

Soil Structure

0

L

X

X

X

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

Soil Nutrient

0

L

+ L

X

-M

-L

0

X

X

0

0

X

X

0

Soil Erosion

0

-M

X

X

-L

-L

X

+ L

0

+ L

+ L

X

0

0

C.

WATER |

Sediment Load

0

M

0

X

X

0

0

0

0

0

X

X

0

0

Dissolved Solids

0

X

0

0

X

0

0

X

0

0

0

0

X

0

Nutrients

0

X

0

0

X

X

0

X

0

0

0

X

0

0

Solid Debris

0

L

L

X

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

Dissolved Oxygen

0

X

X

0

X

0

0

0

JL

0

0

JL

0

0

Temperature

0

0

X

0

X

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

II. L

IVING COMPONENTS

0

0

0

0

X

0

0

0

0

0

0

X

X

0

A.

PLANTS (AQUATIC) |

B.

PLANTS (TERRESTRIAL) |

Grasses

0

H

0

0

,x

X

X

X

X

0

X

H

0

Q

Shrubs

0

H

H

M

X

X

X

X

X

0

X

X

Q

0

Conifers

JL

X

0

X

X

X

JL.

X

JL

+H

X

JL

0

0

Broadleaf Trees

0

H

X

X

X

X

X

X

0

Q

X

X

0

0

C.

ANIMALS (AQUATIC) |

Fish

0

X

0

0

X

0

0

0

0

0

0

X

0

0

Invertebrates

0

X

0

0

X

0

0

0

0

0

0

X

0

0

Zoo Plankton

0

X

0

0

X

0

0

0

0

0

0

X

0

0

D.

ANIMALS (TERRESTRIAL) |

Mammals

0

X

M

L

X

p

0

X

0

X

X

X

X

H

Birds

0

X

X

X

X

0

0

X

0

X

0

X

X

0

Reptiles

0

X

X

X

X

0

0

X

0

0

0

X

X

0

III. E

COLOGICAL INTERRELATIONSH

IP

A.

ECOLOGICAL PROCESSES |

Succession

L

M

L

L

X

0

0

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

Food Relationships

0

M

X

I,

X

0

0

X

0

0

X

X

X

X

Community Relationships

0

M

X

L

X

0

0

X

0

0

X

X

X

x

IV. E

[UMAN VALUES

0

H

L

L

H

L

L

0

X

X

X

M

0

X

A.

LANDSCAPE CHARACTER |

L

X

0

0

X

0

0

0

0

X

X

X

H

X

B.

SOCIOCULTURAL INTERESTS

i.. .

...

ENVIRONMENTAL ANALYSIS WORKSHEET

Remarks :

[) 1- V E 1. 0 P M E N T

(Page 2)

STAGES OF IMPLEMENTATION

DISCRETE OPERATIONS /

t

7

¥//////////

I. NON-LI

VING COMPONENTS
1

A.

AIR

Air Movement Patterns

0

0

0

X

0

Temperature

0

0

0

+ L

0

Particulate Matter

0

0

0

0

0

B.

LAND |

Soil Depth

0

0

0

0

0

Soil Structure

0

0

0

0

0

Soil Nutrient

X

0

+M

X

X

Soil Erosion

+ L

0

+ L

0

0

C.

WATER |

Sediment Load

0

0

0

0

0

Dissolved Solids

0

0

X

0

0

Nutrients

0

0

X

0

0

Solid Debris

0

0

0

0

0

Dissolved Oxygen

0

0

0

0

0

Temperature

0

0

0

0

0

II. L

IVING COMPONENTS

0

0

X

0

0

A.

PLANTS (AQUATIC) |

B.

PLANTS (TERRESTRIAL) |

Grasses

X

0

X

X

0

Shrubs

X

0

X

X

0

Conifers

X

0

X

X

X

Broadleaf Trees

X

0

X

X

0

C.

ANIMALS (AQUATIC) ]

Fish

0

0

X

0

0

Invertebrates

0

0

0

0

0

Zoo Plankton

0

0

0

0

0

D.

ANIMALS (TERRESTRIAL) |

Mammals

X

X

X

X

0

Birds

0

X

X

X

0

Reptiles

0

X

X

0

0

III. E

COLOGICAL INTERRELATIONSHIP

A.

ECOLOGICAL PROCESSES |

Succession

X

0

0

0

0

Food Relationships

0

0

X

X

0

Community Relationships

0

X

X

X

0

IV. i

1UMAN VALUES

X

0

0

0

0

A.

LANDSCAPE CHARACTER |

X

0

X

0

0

B.

SOCIOCULTURAL INTERESTS

>

1

Worksheet #3

ENVIRONMENTAL ANALYSIS WORkSIIIE'l

Remarks :

PROTECTION

STAGES OF IMPLEMENTATION

Insects Disease

S ' — /V ~N « — /^- s.

DISCRETE OPERATIONS / / /

7

8 B/BC/8d/ / /9A/9B/ / / /

I. NON-LI

VING COMPONENTS

1

A.

AIR

Air Movement Patterns

0

0

0

0

0

0

Temperature

X

X

0

0

X

X

Particulate Matter

0

0

X

0

0

0

B.

LAND |

Soil Depth

0

Q

_Q_

0

0

0

Soil Structure

0

0

X

0

0

0

Soil Nutrients

0

0

X

0

Q

X

Soil Erosion '

0

0

JL

0

0

0

C.

WATER |

Sediment Load

0

0

X

0

0

0

Dissolved Solids

0

0

X

0

0

0

Nutrients

0

0

X

0

0

0

Solid Debris

0

0

0

0

0

0

Dissolved Oxygen

0

0

0

0

0

0

Temperature

0

0

0

0

0

0

II. L

IVING COMPONENTS

0

0

X

0

0

0

A.

PUNTS (AQUATIC) |

B.

PLANTS (TERRESTRIAL) |

Grasses

0

0

X

0

0

0

Shrubs

0

0

X

0

0

0

Conifers

X

X

X

X

X

X

Broadleaf Trees

X

X

X

0

0

0

C.

ANIMALS (AQUATIC) |

Fish

0

0

X

X

0

0

Invertebrates

0

0

X

X

0

0

Zoo Plankton

0

0

X

X

0

0

D.

ANIMALS (TERRESTRIAL) |

Mammals

X

X

X

0

X

X

Birds

X

X

X

0

X

X

Reptiles

X

X

X

0

X

X

III. E

COLOGICAL INTERRELATIONSH

IP

A.

ECOLOGICAL PROCESSES |

Succession

JL

X.

JL

0

X

X

Food Relationships

X

X

X

0

X

X

Community Relationships

X

X

X

0

X

X

IV. E

UMAN VALUES

X

X

X

0

0

0

A.

LANDSCAPE CHARACTER |

X

X

X

0

X

X

B.

SOCIOCULTURAL INTERESTS

L

1

L

1

L ...

1

1, .

1

INDEX TO TIMBER MANAGEMENT PRACTICES

PRACTICE

PAGE

1A Intermediate Cuttings •

IB

1C

2A Final Harvest Cuttings

2B

2C

2D

3A Ground Logging Systems

3B

3C

3D

3E

4A Aerial Systems -

4B

4C

5A Construction -

5B

5C

5D

5E

5F

6A Maintenance -

6B

6C

6D

7A Development -

7B

7C

7D

7E

7F

7G

7H

71

7J

7K

7L

7M

7N

70

7P

7Q

7R

7S

Commercial Thinnings 6

Sanitation-Salvage Cuttings 6

Shelterwood Cuttings 6

Clearcutting 7

Seed-tree Cutting 7

Selection Cutting 7

Shelterwood Removal Cuttings 7

Horse Skidding 8

Tractor Skidding 9

High-Lead Yarding 9

Mobile Yarder-Loader Operations &

Other Ground Systems n

Skyline Yarding 12

Balloon Yarding 14

Helicopter Yarding 14

Clearing and Grubbing 18

Excavation 18

Embankment 19

Finishing 19

Bases and Surface Courses 19

Structures 20

Surface Maintenance 20
Shoulder, Sideslope § Roadside Mtnce 20

Drainage Maintenance 20

Safety Maintenance 20

Tree Improvement 21

Scarification 21

Mechanical Brush Cutting 22

Mechanical Trenching-Furrowing 22

Area Burning 22

Spot Burning 22

Burying 22

Chipping 22

Hand Clearing and Cleaning 22

Seeding 23

Planting 23

Chemical Weed Control 23

Baiting 23

Fencing and Screening 23

Mulching 24

Snag Felling 24

Fertilization 24

Precommercial Thinning 24

Pruning 25

PRACTICE

PAGE

8A Insects -

Silvicultural Control

26

8B

Biological Control

27

8C

Chemical Control

27

8D

Direct Physical Control

28

9A Diseases -

Silvicultural Control

29

9B

Direct Physical Control

29

Bureau of Land Management

Library

Denver Service Center

Q

w

Id 85

Q H
W

K

CTi

H

CO

SD 538.2

07 T58 1974

Timber management

t*LI\/{ LIBRARY

ncMWRS 150A BLDG. 50

DENVER FEDERAL CENTER

P-O.BOX 25047

DENVER, CO 80225