:CD MERGE IDENTIFICATION HERBERT STONE 1 E NORMOUS Rapidity of Conversion and Saving of Timber. RANSOME'S PATENT HORIZONTAL LOG BAND SAW Made in 4 Sizes for Logs from 36 to 72 Diameter. EXTRACT from Timber Traa'et Journal of March sth, 1904, describing one of these machines : " Although the Directors had the natural tendency, which every Briton should po-- prefer English-made gootis, they were, nevertheless, when reconstructing their mill, determined 10 go in for only ihe quickest, most economical and up-to-date methods of timber conversion, and it was not without a mo^t careful and exhaustive inspection into all .the point- very best log sawing machinery which America and Germany had to show, that they decided upon one -MK & CO.'S HORIZONTAL LOG BAND S.V Descriptive Pamphlet. Testimonials, and List of Users in Great Britain and Colonies, etc., etc., sent Post Free on application to the MaKers, A. R AXSOME & CO., LTD., STANLEY WORKS, N K \V A RK-ON-T R K XT. London Office: 304. King's Road. Chealsea. S.W. afihic Address: " VKNEKR, LONDON." Tele/>h»nt : N 773, King's Cross. D. WITT 6 Co. ARK THE LARGEST HOLDERS OF Satin and Rosewood AND ALL Fancy Woods, BOTH SOLID AND VENEER. Sole Agents for Great Britain for :— From the Austro-Hungarian and Slavonian Forests of the Societe d'Importation de Chene. Capital • 7,000,000 Frs. IMPORTERS OF BOMBAY ROSEWOOD. D. WITT 6 Co., VENEER AND TIMBER MERCHANTS, Importers of American Maple Flooring, and Blocks, PlanKs, and Boards. Thoroughly Dried, Tongued, Grooved, Butted, and Polished, and Bored for secret n SELECTED STOCK OF PRIME ITALIAN AND FRENCH WALNUT LOGS, PLANKS. AND BOARDS ALWAYS ON HAND. Address: 168 to 176 DRUMMOND STREET, EUSTON SQUARE, LONDON, N.W. 1 BUSHED 1851. Telephones: Central 5776, London Wall, 355. William Marshall Son, Timber and Veneer Merchants, 256, 258, & 260 OLD STREET, LONDON, E.G. List of Hard Woods Kept in StocK. ' Cypress Mohoganv (twelve Rima African Black wood Damarliant species) Ro.-ewood (fire AiUnthus Deodar Maple (Jour species) species) Alder Dogwood Marble Wood Sabicu Almond Amaranth i Ebony (nine species) Musk Wood Elm (three species) Myall Wood Salmon Wood (Jaral) Sassafras Amboyna Fox wood .ret Sapan Wood Angica Fustic Oak (seven species) Sandal Wood Apple Granariella Odor Wood Satin Walnut Ash (t/nee species) Bar-wood Green Ebony Olive Greenheart Orhain Wood Satin wood (t-wo species, Sequoia >od Gum (four species) Palo Santo Snake Wood Beefwood or Bullet Tree Hairwood Partridge Wood Sneezewood B»ech Hazel Pear Stone Wood Birch Blackwood, Ebonizeu Bluemahoe H iokory Holly (tu'fl spfcics) Honeysuckle (New- Persimmon Pheasant Wood Pimento Stringy Bark Sycamore Tallow Wood Boxwood (six .-- Brazil Wcod Buckeye Zealand) Hombeam Huon Pine Pine (right species) Pitch Pine Plane Tampinis Tasmanian Myrtle Tasso Butternut Cam Wood Camphor Wood ironbark Jarrah Karri Plum Poplar (three species) Popple Teak (four species Thuya Tulip Canary Wood Cedar (eight species) Cherry (three species) Chestnut (t-MO species) Kauri Kingwood Laburnum La nee wood Purpleheart Pyimma 8uassia uebracho (two Violet Wood Walnut (Jive species) Whitewood. American Willow i Cocus Larch Lignum Vita (three species) Rata Yellow Sanders Yew Coromandel species) Red Sanders Zebra Wood Cotton Wood Lime Rewarewa Zericote Cudgery Logwood All the useful English Wood* are kept. Veneers (Knife or Saw Cut). na erican . . Burr .. Hungarian Blackwood Ebonized Boxwood Coromandel Ebony Kingwood l.ancewood Mahogany Curls ,, Honduras Spanish Maple Maple, Birdseve Mottled Oak, Brown or White . . Wainscot Olive Rosewood Satin Walnut Satin Wood Snakewood Sycamore Thuya Tulip Walnut, American ,, Italian Burr Whitewood, Figured Three and Five Ply Woods, Fret Woods, Marqueterie, Stringing, Inlays. K^"|«. Vellow, White and Spruce Deals. Matchings, Floorings, Moulding.- n, 1 rcll.s B lin* Laths, Oak Staves, Lime Wood Cutting Boards, «c. Maple Flooring in Stock or Manufactured to Order Lignum Vit« Beam Boards, Skittle Balls, Mangle Rollers' Pine THE TIMBERS OF COMMERCE FRONTISPIECE. '••> , I • I!' :!| I S I ijMHPVmi HTC- • Ifflflro''' A. Transverse Section (across-grain, or horizontally as the tree stands). |i ••••^••^I^HHPC B. Vertical Radial Section (quartered showing Silver-grain). C. Vertical Tangential Sectior (plan k vi U'). G. Vertical Section in a direction between B and C. Showing ;*ie difference In app 'ne various Sections (Natural size). FIMBER pCOMMERCE Hf [ANCHESTE: LIVER! : — no FRONTISPIECE. THE TIMBERS OF COMMERCE AND THEIR IDENTIFICATION BY HERBERT STONE, F.L.S., F.R.C.I. ILLUSTRATED WITH l86 PHOTO-MICROGRAPHS PREPARED BY ARTHUR DEANE LIBRARY FACULTY OF FORESTRY UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO LONDON WILLIAM RIDER & SON, LIMITED MANCHESTER HOUSE, 164 ALDERSGATE STREET, E.C. LIVERPOOL : — LIVERPOOL AND LONDON CHAMBERS NEW YORK : — no READE STREET 1905 Contents PAGE PREFACE ......... vii INTRODUCTION ........ xi PRACTICAL HINTS ....... xxvii DESCRIPTION OF SPECIES MAGNOLIACES ........ i ANONACEJE ........ 2 BlXINEA^E ........ 3 DlPTEROCARPES ....... 6 MALVACE.K ........ 7 TILIACE.E . . . . . . . . .11 ZYGOPHYLLACE.S: . . . . . . .18 RUTACE^; . . . . . . . .21 SlMARUBEjE ........ 27 MELIACE^E ........ 29 OLACINE.K ........ 43 ILICINE^E ......... 44 HUMIRIACE^E ........ 46 CELASTRINE^E . . . . . . . -47 RHAMNACE^ ........ 49 SAPINDACE;E . . . . . . . 51 ANACARDIACE^; ....... 58 LEGUMINOS.® . . . • . . . -59 ROSACES . . . . . . . . 101 SAXIFRAGES ........ 109 CONTENTS PAGE HAMAMELIDEJE . . . . . • • .112 MYRTACE.S: . . . . • • • .114 LYTHRARIEJE .... 137 CORNACEJE ...... .138 CAPRIFOLIACEJE .... • I41 RUBIACEJE ..... • J42 ERICACEAE ...••• • J45 MYRSIXE.SS ...••••• X47 SAPOTACE^ ..... .148 EBENACE.S ......•• 149 OLEACE^E ...... . . 156 APOCYNACE.E ..... .164 LOGANIACE.S: ..... . 165 BORAGINEJE . . . . • • 167 BlGXONIACEjE . . . . . • • .169 VERBENACE^ . . . . . . . .170 SCROPHULARINEJE . ... . . . 172 LAURINE^ ........ 173 PROTEACE^E 183 SANTALACEJE . . . . ... . 190 EUPHORBIACEJE . . . . . . .192 URTICACE^E ........ 196 PLATAXACE^E ........ 207 JUGLANDACE/E ........ 209 CASUARINEJE ........ 212 CUPULIFER^; . . . . . . . .215 SALICINE^ ........ 235 UNKNOWN SPECIES OF DICOTYLEDONS . . . 239 CoNiFERfE . . . . . . . . . 244 SCALES OF MEASUREMENT . . . ., ' . . 280 APPENDIX A . . . . . . . . 283 B . 284 BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . . . . . .285 INDEX 293 vi Preface THE material for this work was collected without any idea of publication, and was intended only for my own use. Coming into possession of a business in which very many different kinds of wood were used, and finding great difficulty in distinguishing one from another, I fell back, for lack of any practical experience upon my knowledge of Botany, and collected a mass of informa- tion, not only concerning the woods used in my workshops but also concerning a constantly increasing range of species. [ have received much valuable help from the late Secretary of the Colonies, The Rt. Hon. Joseph Chamberlain, to whose good I am indebted for a great number of specimens sent me at his request. Thanks are also due to the Agents-General of South Australia, Western Australia, Queensland, Victoria, New South Wales, Tasmania, New Zealand and Natal ; to the Governor of Lagos, and to the Forest Officers of those Colonies, for the liberal way in which they have responded to the request from the Colonial Office. Further I acknowledge most gratefully the assistance I have received from Sir William Thistleton Dyer Sir Dietrich Brandis, and the late Sir Frederick Abel. Thanks are also due to the works of Noerdlinger and J. S. Gamble, without which little progress in this study can be made and in a less degree to those of Wiesner, of Mathieu and Th. Hartig. For information upon the Timbers of Queensland I am specially indebted to Mr. F. Manson Bailey, who accompanied his magnificent collection of specimens with details of the most extensive and interesting character. For that upon timbers from South Australia I thank Mr. Walter Gill, whose notes form a small treatise in themselves. It should be stated that some of the Colonial specimens did not arrive in time to be incorporated in the list of species described, but they will be dealt with subsequently, and will form portions of a series of which the present book is the first instalment. I also desire to thank many personal friends and correspond- ents, who have assisted me with information and specimens. In the matter of the Synonymy of the various species, I have been guided by the Index Kewensis, and only those synonyms vii PREFACE have been quoted which have been found to be pitfalls in con- nexion with the subject ; hence the list does not pretend to be complete. The alternative popular and vernacular names in foreign languages have not been quoted, when they are merely such as can be found in a dictionary; but when they have a local value only, and may therefore lead the student astray, I have quoted them as far as possible. Exception has been made in the case of the names in the Indian dialects, inasmuch as they are very numerous and are readily accessible in the works of Gamble, Brandis and Watts. All quotations from writers upon Forestry, etc., are followed by a number corresponding to a list given at the end of the volume. With the exception of those from Noerdlinger, Gamble, Wiesner and Mathieu they are confined to details of the uses, physical qualities, origin of woods, and general information about them. I have described all woods which I have met with upon the British Market, and those which have been sent me from the Colonies as being useful and abundant, and also a few which, though unknown on this market, commend themselves to me as timbers of good quality which are likely to be heard of in the future. I have not attempted a Key to the species, as I consider that the knowledge of the structure of wood is not sufficiently advanced to permit of the construction of one which shall be in harmony with the Natural- system of classification. I have a Key which often enables me to refer an unknown wood to its Genus, but the Keys that have been published so far are so unsatisfactory, that I have hesitated to add another empirical guide to those already existing. I believe that when it has been decided to what extent two kinds of Medullary rays are present in woods of the Dicotyle- donous Trees, a truly scientific Key can be constructed ; but this entails a prolonged investigation for which I have not, so far, had leisure. All the genera mentioned in the descriptive part of the book are represented by photo-micrographs, except where a single illus- tration serves for more than one genus. The illustrations are types, and are reliable, if allowance be made for variation in size and number of the pores and rays. The scale of magnification is three times the actual size, and is designed to show the appearance of the transverse section as seen by means of an ordinary hand lens. Wherever there are two or more distinct types of the same genus described, separate illustrations have been provided, and the specific name is then quoted. In every case where possible, the photographs have been arranged with the Medullary rays running in the same direction, the pith side downward. As the illustrations are not vin PREFACE mere process blocks, they will show more detail when examined with a lens. While sparing no pains to ensure the authenticity of the speci- mens sent me, and carefully checking them with others from other sources, there still remains a margin for error, therefore the authority for the name has always been quoted. I shall be under a personal obligation to any of my readers who will point out any mistakes. Wherever I have felt any doubt, the name is followed by a note of interrogation, and in such cases I have refrained from quoting the alternative names, except such as have been supplied to me with the specimens. Finally, I wish to acknowledge the hearty support of my col- league Mr. Arthur Deane, to whose skill in preparing the photo- micrographs so much of the value of this book is due, and to my friend Mr. Philip E. Martineau for his kindness in looking over the proofs. HERBERT STONE. BRACEBRIDGE STREET, BIRMINGHAM. IX Introduction IT would be a difficult task to answer the question, why some plants possess the property of forming wood, while others, nearly related, do not. Why some plants run their course in the brief period of a year, and perish as soon as they have given birth to another generation, while others persist and augment their bulk year by year for centuries. There is much food for reflection here. Such plants as are endowed with the faculty of secreting a substance which resists decomposition for a long time, and of fortifying their tissues with it, play a very different part in the world's economy to that of their herbaceous relatives, which to-day are, and to-morrow are cast into the oven. They exist long enough to acquire an individual history. This history may not be written in human records, but it has a record of another kind, which may be read in the structure of the tree itself, which, like the Nautilus, adds a chamber to its habitation every year by surrounding itself with a fresh layer of wood. These layers are perhaps the most familiar feature with which all those who have used timber, or have noted the cut ends of fallen trees, are acquainted, but it occurs to few that the inner- most tiny ring enclosing the pith is the section of a stick that was once the seedling tree. The Seedling is a small object, a few inches high at most, and the layers which have been added year by year, were it possible to separate them, would appear as long taper tubes of wood. In felling Beech, it is not an uncommon occurrence for the young sapling to be drawn out of the tree as it falls, if the centre layers of the butt have not been severed. It will remain standing upon the stump like a peeled wand, and upon it the original knots can be seen. The annual addition to a tree's growth is, in fact, a conical sheath tapering to a point, and capable of accommodating the plant within to its topmost bud. A seedling is two years old, but not as a child, who is two years old to his innermost parts, for the tree is only one year old as regards its outer portion. The two layers are not merged in one another ; the second is merely added. In the case of a full-grown Oak, a century old, only xi INTRODUCTION the pith and first coat of wood bear that age ; the next coat is only ninety-nine years old, and the outermost but one. More- over the topmost branches are quite young, and their innermost parts, scores of feet above the tip of the little seedling from which they have grown, are scores of years younger, even to their pith. Of an ancient hollow tree it may be said that perhaps Robin Hood dined beneath its branches. The general impression is correct, but the fact is not precise ; for the tree is no older than its component parts, which, being entirely outer parts, are merely the growth of the last fifty years or so, as a section of the wood will prove. A tree, then, is a living organism whose component parts are of various ages; and upon it arise successive generations of leaves, much as a city rears its people or a coral reef its polyps. The living portion is renewed from time to time, adds something to the tree, and passes away. Time too brings other changes due to other causes than the nourishment afforded by the yearly labour of the leaves, and as year by year a new coat of wood is added, so does an inner layer lose its vitality and become inert, and so does a still deeper layer undergo still further changes which produce the heart-wood. This heart-wood will not be found in all trees, for some exhibit no distinction in this respect and are the so-called Sap-wood trees, though even here changes take place which bring the timber to maturity. In a living ' Heart-wood tree,' there can be distinguished the pith, heart-wood, sap-wood, the active living layer, or Cambium, the bast and the bark. The Cambium layer is a very delicate sheath of thin tissue which is the source of the new wood, and which, by the multiplication of its elements (cells), adds layer upon layer to the wood already formed. On its outer side it adds to the bast but in a much smaller degree. The bark, enclosing all in an impervious clothing, serves the purpose of checking the evaporation which would endanger the existence of the delicate Cambium layer within. The young wood lying nearest the outside partakes of the nature of the Cambium at first but rapidly becomes altered. The walls of its cells, originally thin, become. thickened and woody, but for some time they retain their capacity for absorbing water, and form the channel by which the water from the roots ascends to the leaves. The further from the bark, the less is this capacity possessed by the wood, and though it is rarely if ever quite lost, yet the difference in the rate of absorption of water by the sap- wood and heart-wood is considerable, as can be seen by moisten- ing the cut surface of a piece of wood where both are present. While the water sinks rapidly into the sap-wood it sensibly lingers on the surface of the riper part. xii INTRODUCTION The vital processes which constitute the physiology of plant life are beyond the scope of this work : it deals solely with their product — the wood, which while living is a tree, but being dead is timber. The structure which has been described is evident in whatever form the timber may be found, but, as the conversion of the log into useful pieces entails the division of the tree in many different ways, it requires a little more atten- tion to follow it through its changes of appearance. As, then, a tree consists of concentric CONES of wood, if it is sawn into planks the outermost plank will be a curved flitch of bark, with some sap-wood on its inner side. The next plank will have sap-wood on each edge, and a strip of heart-wood down the middle, which strip will increase in width, plank by plank, until the centre of the tree is reached. Lines which mark off cone from cone (that is, annual ring from annual ring), may seem parallel at the lower end, but will join as loops at the upper. It is only when the section approaches the horizontal that the annual rings approach the circular, so that oblique cuts show an almost infinite variety of form. In fact, two planks are never alike in every detail of figure except by accident. An in- teresting experiment is to slice a hyacinth or other "tunicated" bulb in various directions to see how great a variety of forms is produced by the section of its many coats, and there is nothing which can afford a better interpretation of the structure of the annual rings of a tree. I have referred to the Autumn and Spring zones as though all woods possessed them, and it will be found that the same expressions are generally employed in the literature of Forestry. They are, of course, only appropriate in connexion with those species which grow in temperate climates, as the period of greatest vigour in tropical trees is not necessarily that of Spring, while it is possible that there is no resting period like our Winter. Judging from the structure this state of things is by no means unusual, and from British Guiana come a number of species, conspicuous amongst which is the Greenheart (Fig. 99), now so largely used for piles and wharf-timbers, which display no indi- cation whatever of a regular alternation of seasons. In most works on Forestry much stress is laid upon the width of the annual rings, and careful measurements have been made to ascertain the average width, in order to supply data for estimating the probable annual production of wood. As this is the measure of profit the importance of these figures cannot be overrated, but inasmuch as they have little, if any, value for the purpose of identification, I have only mentioned them by the way. The annual increase of the Rock Elm, which, as its name implies, grows amidst barren rocks, is naturally xiii INTRODUCTION slow, perhaps as little as rV of an inch per annum, whilst its near relative the White Elm is enabled to put on as much as half an inch in the same time, and seldom less than £ inch. If the White Elm were planted upon rocky ground it would probably produce timber almost identical with that of the Rock Elm. One or two details concerning the ring are useful, viz., the con- tour, whether regular, waved (Fig. 122), toothed (Fig. 57), etc., and the boundary, which may be formed by a fine line of dense Autumn wood (Fig. 34), a line of contrast between the lax wood of Spring following upon the dense wood of Autumn (most Conifers, Deal, etc.) (Fig. 212), or a similar contrast formed by a pore-ring in the Spring wood (Elm, Ash, Oak), or the boundary may fail as already shown in the case of the Green- heart. It is vague in the Oriental Plane-tree (Fig. 115), and provides a ready means of distinguishing- that wood from the wood of the Western Plane-tree (Fig. 114). This latter wood has particularly clearly defined, dense, narrow boundaries to the rings. It must be carefully borne in mind, however, that the boundaries of the rings of woods like the Oriental Plane-tree may be very clear at times, and can vary much in the same piece of wood. Nordlinger uses this feature, the definiteness or indefinite- ness of the ring boundary, as one of the chief divisions in his key to the species in his wonderful book of sections. This is a fatal blemish to that otherwise monumental work, and makes his key almost impossible to use. Care must always be taken to avoid confusing bands of pigment with the annual rings. In the Rosewoods the black zones are usually concentric, and only on close examination are they found to be out of har- mony with the structure. A good illustration can be seen in Olive wood (Fig. 86), so commonly made up in Birmingham into mementoes of the Holy Land, in which wood the black zones are always eccentric to a great degree. A curious and beautiful wood from British Guiana, called Hoobooballi (Fig. 55), exhibits these dark zones in a very unusual wavy form, the crest of the waves of one circle meeting the hollows of the waves of the next, so that the lines approach and recede from each other. The Gimlet wood, from Western Australia (Eucalyptus salubris). shows a somewhat similar arrangement, but here the true annual rings behave in the s!*.me manner. The whole stem of this tree is on the twist, and being three-lobed, or buttressed as it were, gives rise to its appropriate popular name. The cut which passes through the centre of the tree in the line of the pith presents a complete change of appearance, for a feature which is not so conspicuous in the other sections is xiv INTRODUCTION brought into prominence. This is the Silver-grain or " felt," which forms the beautiful flakes so much esteemed in Oak timber, and which is composed of fragments of tissue called " medul- lary rays." These, when seen on the end of a plank or on the stump of a tree, resemble the radial strands of a spider's web (See Frontispiece), a resemblance which is heightened when the annual rings are prominent enough to simulate the cross- bars of the we\|. As the rays proceed from the centre out- wards it is only in those cuts which follow a radial direction — that is, in " quartered" timber — that they appear at their best, but they may be seen on the sides of boards, becoming bolder and bolder the nearer the plank is to the heart, until upon the centre plank they occupy so large a proportion of the surface as to make it seem a different kind of wood to the neighbour- ing planks. It must not be supposed that all woods share this feature in so great a degree as the Oak ; on the contrary this valuable figure is obscure in most species and frequently needs careful search to find it. There is, however, no wood in which it may not be found. There are some kinds which do not show the annual rings, others which lack other features present in the Oak, such as the pores or the soft tissue ; but none of the Conifers, or of the Broad-leaved trees, can be found without these rays or silver-grain (see Plate xxiii.). The pores just mentioned are the little grooves seen upon the surface of cut planks which give to them the appearance known as " coarseness of grain." They are little tubes technically called " vessels " whose openings can be seen at the end of a plank (transverse or horizontal section) closely arranged in the annual ring in various ways. The pores become smaller and smaller as they approach the Autumn or outer boundary, until they seem to disappear from very tenuity and, both " plankwise " and " across-grain," require a lens to follow them. In the Oak (see Frontispiece), which is the easiest and best example, these smaller pores are arranged in little tree-like patches, im- bedded in a mass of light-coloured soft-tissue. This is composed of short, thin-walled cells unlike the mass or ground tissue of the wood, which is chiefly built up of long spindle-shaped fibres with thick, woody walls, imparting the qualities of hardness and tenacity to the timber. The soft- tissue, on the other hand, lacks these properties, but has a peculiar significance, inasmuch as it is frequently the character which declares to which division or group the wood belongs. The conspicuous " pore-ring," the character which most strikes the eye in many woods, has but a trifling value in this respect, for there are xv INTRODUCTION many species of Oak in which the pore-ring fails altogether, and even the annual ring is difficult to make out, while the little strings of branching pores, along with their attendant soft-tissue, are always present. It is a singular fact that as the tree ages the size of its cells and pores increases ring by ring and year by year, so that upon the surface of a plank " cut on the quarter," i.e. in the plane of the radius, very narrow pores lie near the pith and large ones near the bark, with all intermediate sizes between. Thus a plank may be " fine grained " in one part and " coarse grained " in another, whereas if the plank is cut from the outside of the tree (tangentially), the grain or size of the pores and cells may be nearly uniform throughout. This increase in the size of the pores and cells ceases at a certain age in each species (40). The Oak and the Hickory exhibit this phenomenon in a striking degree. (Compare Figs. 117, 125, 151 and 152.) The tree at the period at which this increase stops may be said to be in its prime, for the wood then produced possesses greater strength, weight, tenacity, etc., than that produced either before or after (40). From a timber merchant's point of view this question of growth is an important one, and it must be borne in mind that it is wood and not cavities that the user of timber wants ; the greater the proportion of pores, the less wood and the less weight and strength the timber will possess. A slow grown piece of Oak is a mere succession of pore -rings, i.e. of little tubes, whereas well and fast grown Oak has a large proportion of hard woody ground-tissue outside the pore-ring, in which the rapidly diminishing pores form a comparatively restricted area. There is no strength in holes, and the fewer there are the better. In Coniferous wood such as Deal, which is free from true pores, the slowly-grown wood, unlike the faster-grown, is small celled and dense. It is merely a question of solid matter of which the weight supplies a good indication. The counting of the rings is not an infallible indication of age even when they are counted at the butt of the tree. There are causes which disturb the even succession, such as the destruction of the leaves by insects during the growing period, in which case the ring is prematurely closed ; much after the manner of the usual Autumn cessation of growth. If, as is sometimes the case (the Oak again is an excellent example), the tree has power to put forth fresh leaves, the growth recommences with a pore-ring, or other lax tissue, as in the normal spring zone. Thus two rings arise instead of one for the same year. It has been suggested that in tropical climates two independent seasons of growth may cause two fresh rings every year, but the idea needs experimental verification, though not of itself improbable. For the most part xvi INTRODUCTION the annual rings of tropical trees are difficult to deal with ; they are often entirely absent and no rhythm of structure indicates the periods of growth, and in several instances, to be mentioned later, the pores and other elements steadily increase in size, indefinitely, from the pith outwards to the bark. The Heart -wood and Sap-wood so familiar in the Oak, are by no means universal. Familiar examples of trees without heart-wood are the Beech, Sycamore and Birch. American birch, by the way, has both sap-wood and heart-wood. Some- times the two kinds of wood are distinct from each other, as in the Ebony, where the sap is white and the heart black, while in others the former seems to acquire the characteristic colour gradually, and melts insensibly into the darker heart-wood. The pith frequently exercises some influence upon the contour of the rings. The common Oaks (Fig. 51) have a five-lobed pith, and the young layers of wood follow it closely, and it is not till the tree has arrived at a considerable age that the influence of the pith is lost. The Hornbeam (Fig. 122) retains it for an even longer period, and instead of the rings becoming gradually more regular the lobed form seems to become more pronounced so that the bark, though externally smooth and cylindrical, is inter- nally thickened where the hollows of the waves occur, and is very thin above their crests. The pith of all true Boxwoods is lozenge-shaped in section, or like a narrow bar with a circular swelling in the middle. (Fig. 178.) The West Indian Boxwood, on the contrary, has a round pith that is nearly always cracked, so that this feature is often sufficient to distinguish the true from the false Boxwood. All species of Walnut have a most remarkable pith consisting of a series of diaphragms dividing the tubular cavity into a number of small chambers, as may easily be seen by cutting a twig from a Walnut tree. Workmen are familiar with this rather unwelcome peculiarity, as it forms a serious defect in the centre plank of every log. Although the original pith of the tree-trunk may not often be accessible, yet small knots here and there exhibit this feature. The bark has always been considered a most useful aid in identifying woods, and in some cases is the only decisive detail, as in the two species of Eucalyptus, the Morrell and the Salmon Gums of Western Australia. The former has a roughish fissured bark, while the latter has a bark without a fissure or wrinkle, and a cuticle or outside skin with a peculiar greasy lustre, that suggests " at long range " a salmon's scaly skin. Apart from this feature a microscope fails to find a single essential point of difference. The terms used to describe the bark, such as corky, wrinkled, xvii b INTRODUCTION leathery, fibrous, etc., explain themselves; but as the small breathing holes which perforate it are not familiar objects, the botanical term " Lenticels " must be employed. These lenticels are perhaps most conspicuous upon the bark of the Silver Birch, where they form the centres of long horizontal stripes, that become longer as the tree increases in girth. Each species of tree has its peculiar kind of lenticel, but as a rule they cannot be readily found upon old trees where the bark is much fissured and rugged : they must be sought for at the bottoms of the fissures and upon the fragments of the original cuticle that often persists upon the tops of the corky ridges. The bark at the base or butt of the tree frequently differs from that which clothes the upper portion. In the Birch again we have an example, for its bark, though smooth and laminated like paper above, is usually rough, fissured, and corky at the foot. If a section of the lower part be taken, a mass of hard, rod-like, light- coloured bodies will be seen imbedded. This may serve as a type of that which is to be observed in other species, but in addition it must be noted whether the bark is in two distinct layers (Raspberry- jam Tree) (Acacia acuminata), and also whether the ends of the rays leave their impression upon the inside of the bark (Beech, Oak) or, again, if they are apparently continued some distance into the bark with the woody part of the ray connected to the distal portion by a " tongue-and-groove " (Oaks, Casuarinas). (Fig. 171.) If the bark be deciduous, as in the familiar Plane or Button-ball tree of the London squares, it will naturally be but seldom found upon a log that has travelled, nor will it be otherwise if it be not firmly adherent. Some barks shrink more rapidly in a vertical direction than the cylinder of wood within, and thus detach themselves (Purpleheart, Copaifera), while others are firmly at- tached to the wood and separated with difficulty (Boxwood). The outer surface of the naked log corresponds with the inner surface of the bark, unless there is a considerable thickness of bast between them. In any case the markings on this outer surface may not only serve as a means of identification, but also to show in what manner the grain or fibre of the tree runs, whether spirally, as in the Lignum vitae, or sinuously, as in the Australian Gum trees — both also important items from a technical point of view. (See Figs. 163-167.) Beneath the bark of trees many insects find food and shelter, chiefly the larvae of beetles and moths. Some eat their way into the solid wood to form cylindrical holes or galleries such as may occasionally be seen even in Ebony and the Australian Ironbark. Others confine themselves to galleries made in the newly-formed wood immediately beneath the bark, and travel in a peripheral direction only. As the wood removed by these parasites is still in xvin INTRODUCTION the living condition, the gaps made in the tissue are promptly filled up with a brownish mass of cells almost as soon as they are made. (Figs. I24andi86.) Whetherthese cells be Thyloses(see p. xx), or Callus, I am not in a position to decide. Nordlinger holds them to be the former, but it seems difficult to believe that the large spaces sometimes found can be filled up in this way. Why, too, is the colour always changed to brown ? This needs further investigation. The resulting brown flecks are as characteristic of the species as any other feature, because the grub is faithful to its special tree and prefers it to all others, therefore as a series of years can scarce!}7 pass without the presence of the grub, no log of wood of a susceptible species of tree will be found without these traces. A section of English Birch will often display these 4 flecks ' in hundreds. A peculiarity of the flecks is their property of giving rise to new rays in abundance, sometimes amounting to a dense brush-like tail (Mountain Ash, Maple). Similarly the il Bird's-eye figure " of Maple arises from the attacks of an insect. In this case the repair of the injury causes a little dimple-like depression in the outside of the wood, which is faithfully overlaid by every subsequent annual ring. The dimple is therefore a min- iature hollow, containing a number of strata, and if the wood be sawn tangentially, the top of the hollow is removed and the edges of the successive strata exposed in concentric circles, resembling the contours on a geological map where a bend in the strata has been denuded. (Fig. 170.) The tails or brushes of rays may be seen in either radial or transverse sections, thus indicating their origin, even if the seat of injury be not evident in the specimen examined. Having dealt with the general structure of wood as it may be seen with the naked eye, it is necessary to consider the form in which the elements are arranged. It is not the intention here to go into microscopical details concerning the cells themselves. That portion of the subject has already been dealt with in many excellent text-books, and as the grouping or arrangement of the elements of the wood, rather than the cells, pores, etc., themselves is the material upon which this work is based, it is unnecessary to enter upon details which are so readily accessible elsewhere. Moreover, to study the histology of wood, it is necessary to adopt laborious methods, while here it is desirable to employ simple means, and to do as much work as possible with the naked eye or the pocket lens. The microscope is a valuable and even indispensable accessory, but even here low powers of magnification meet all needs, and more is lost than gained by restricting the field of vision : no lens should be used which will not bring the whole breadth of an annual ring into view at the same time. xix INTRODUCTION It is enough to say that every part of a piece of wood consists originally of cells, or closed cavities, which in the case of the pores or vessels become modified into tubes : even in these the remains of the original partitions are to be seen. These cells are of various forms : round, polygonal, spindle-shaped, rect- angular, etc., etc., and are usually characteristic of the tissue they assist in forming, as will be seen when referring to each special class. The chief feature of the wood of all Coniferous and Broad-leaved trees is the system of rays, not only because rays are never absent, but because they are a most important factor in the classification of wood. In a piece of Beech (Fig. 128), on a transverse section, these rays arise in a fine point, increase in width and again decrease until they taper away again to vanishing point. By observing the Tangential section, as is easily done by removing the bark, it is seen that, though much shorter, they preserve the same form, i.e. that of a spindle or tip-cat, tapering at both ends. Laterally, in a radial section, it is almost impossible to make out their shape, for they never remain uninjured; still, from their form on the two sections already described, their shape may be deduced. This I believe to be a double-edged, double-ended blade ; something resembling the outline of a fish, such as the dace or minnow, but of course very much longer in proportion to its depth. It has been stated by A. Mathieu (37) that the rays do not taper to a point in a transverse section, but that they curve downwards, hence the cut traversing the narrow upper edge of the ray causes the appearance of tapering to a point. Out of many thousands of radial sections of some 1,300 different species I have never seen any indication of this bending of the rays ; on the contrary they are always remarkably straight, as are their component cells also. It must on the other hand be confessed that neither has any indication of the tapering to a point in a radial section been observed; the difficulty of isolating a ray has so far stood in the way of a practical proof. (See Figs. 168, 169.) This discussion may seem discursive, but there is this to be said, that the form of the rays is an exceedingly important factor in the composition of the "figure" of timber, and a clear idea upon this point will often enable one to deduce the " figure " from a small fragment of wood taken in any section, such as a chip from the corner of a log. The greater number of species of trees have merely one kind of ray, but in the Oaks (Figs. 121 to 129) there are two kinds, large and small. The large rays are usually very broad and deep in a tangential section, and are seen to be composed INTRODUCTION of an irregular mass of small cells, while the smaller rays, on the contrary, possess much larger cells, usually in a single row one above another, and are difficult to see in any section. Furthermore, the large rays are frequently compound, or composed of many rows of cells, and run direct from point to point, whereas the small rays appear to avoid all the large pores which lie in their course, or to be pushed aside by them. This latter character is found with great frequency in woods having rays of uniform size, whether they are broad and firm, or merely like fine threads meandering amongst the pores (Fig. 143). In point of size the rays may vary con- siderably from the broad ones in the classes mentioned, through all possible grades to the excessively fine ones of the Horse- chestnut (Fig. 32). They vary greatly in the same piece of wood, or in different individuals of the same species, or in the wood of allied species : but like all the other characteristics, there is a limit, a maximum and a minimum, fixed for each kind. It often happens that the limit of length is difficult to fix unless a very large piece of wood is available, as it is not unusual for a ray to extend from ring to ring through thirty years' growth or more before commencing to taper. The very large rays often seem to dilate outwards indefinitely (Fig. 17), and in some cases may do so, while others run their course in the space of two of three annual rings only (Fig. 73). The Beech is a good example to study, and the mere examination of the wood of a plane or other carpenter's tool will generally suffice to demonstrate this point. Whenever a piece of well-smoothed wood is met with, it is good practice to examine it in whatever form it may be made up. Something is sure to be learnt from it, providing care be taken to find the transverse section where the annual rings " crop out " and supply the key to the other sections. As the circumference of the annual rings enlarges, the original rays become wider and wider apart, and new rays arise from time to time in sufficient numbers to keep the proportion of the rays to the mass of the wood fairly uniform. These new rays obvi- ously have nothing to do with the pith, and being indistinguish- able from the older ones cannot be called in any sense " Medul- lary," and even those of the first year's wood have no intimate connection with the pith, which may perish entirely without any apparent disturbance of the function of the rays. I therefore use the word " rays " without the usual qualifying adjective. The term " pore " is another which needs justification as the word " vessel " is considered more correct. It may be conceded that it is so, yet it is less convenient and, to those who approach this study without preliminary training in Botany, it is less familiar and appropriate. The simple term " pore " requires INTRODUCTION no explanation ; it is currently employed by those who handle woods, who naturally speak of a " porous " and not of a " vas- cular " wood. The "analogy on the one hand is to the blood- vessels of the body, on the other to the " pores " of the skin, between which there is little to choose, while to the lay mind the word " vessel " calls up images of many familiar objects which present no analogy whatever to the pores of the wood. May the critics pardon an excusable bias in favour of simple language. The Pores are narrow tubes running vertically up the stem, and having the function of conveying air and fluids for the service of the plant. It is not known how long these minute tubes may be. I have blown bubbles through an apparently solid stick of Norwegian Birch four feet long, and I have pumped air through the whole length of a pole nf feet long, and further I have pumped water in a continuous stream through a piece of Ameri- can Birch ten inches long by one inch diameter, from which it ran as fast as it would have done from an open tube of £ inch bore. I see no reason why these limits should not be exceeded with proper apparatus, especially if straight, well grown, un- injured poles of Oak are used. In all but the very young wood the pores contain either air or the accumulations of by-products of the vital activity of the leaves, chiefly gums and resins, and sometimes a curious tissue like a mass of bubbles, which arises as follows. The walls of the cells and pores, when examined under a high power of magnifica- tion, are seen to be " pitted " all over with spots where the tissue is extremely thin. In fact these " pits " are holes closed by an excessively thin membrane, and are usually opposite to similar perforations in the next adjoining cells or pores. If one of the latter becomes empty, this membrane is forced out into the cavity accompanied by some of the living contents, which subsequently divide and multiply after the manner of the Cambium (already spoken of as lying under the bark). There is, however, this difference, that instead of wood-cells, they give rise to this bubble-like transparent mass of tissue called " Thyloses." This will frequently be met with in pores of large diameter where the wood has not- the property of filling its pores with gum or resin. Another kind of filling occurs in certain tropical woods, especially Teak, and appears to be of a mineral nature. According to Sir F. Abel it is " Apatite " and may be seen as white lines on the surface of Teak planks. It is very hard and rapidly dulls the edge of cutting tools. In a certain species of wood from British Guiana (Suradanni) I have seen accumulations of this substance accompanying decomposition, practically replacing the inner rings of " the xxii INTRODUCTION centre of the tree and forming masses of stone weighing many ounces. In the course of the building up of the wood by the Cambium, the pores are produced at intervals amongst the wood-cells and arise not in a haphazard fashion but in rhythmic succession. At times they are produced in such abundance and so closely crowded that this rhythm cannot be traced, but in all cases where the pores are separated by spaces occupied by wood-cells a definite arrangement of the pores exists. It may seem to be labouring the point to speak of " rhythm " where the pores on a transverse section seem " peppered " all over the annual ring, yet the more specimens one examines the more one feels con- vinced that order reigns even in apparent chaos. In a great number of cases a definite order can be seen. The pores may be arranged in undulating festoons, as in the Common Elm (Fig. 107), or in radial, tree-like groups, as in most of the Oak tribe (Fig. 152), the Bullet-woods from South America and their allies (Sapotaceae) (Fig. 83), or in radial rows of single pores (Holly) (Fig. 27), or in flame-shaped groups (Buckthorn), or, as most frequently in our European woods, in a ring of pores in the early spring zone of the annual ring. For the most part, as already stated, the pores are smaller if not less numerous in the Summer and Autumn zones, the latter being frequently very poorly provided with them. If it should happen that a wood has more pores in the Autumn than in the Spring zone, that wood is surely Coniferous (Figs. 137, 138), but these pores will be found to be of quite different nature to those just described, in fact they are glands containing resin and are more properly called " Resin-canals or ducts." Their presence is an indication that the species belongs to one of a limited number of genera allied to the Pine-trees. Many kinds of wood have pores in small closed groups which convey the impression that a " mother-pore " has become subdivided into a number of " daughter-pores," not merely pressed or crowded together but clearly indicating a common origin. Usually they are in short radial rows, and sometimes there are as many as ten gradu- ally tapering off from the innermost and largest to the very much smaller, outer pores ; or the largest may be in the middle of the group, or the group may be a cluster or nest of pores. If the wood be cut in a radial direction, a row of closely arranged pores may be exposed at the same moment, so that the wood will appear very " coarse-grained." On the other hand, if the cut be tangential, the radial row of pores will be cut at right angles, and only one of the series will appear on the surface. Similar difference of appearance is caused by oval pores xxiii INTRODUCTION which are always radially elongated, so that a radial section makes them appear as broad grooves, whereas a tangential cut will show but half their width. Confusion can easily arise in practice from this cause, and no small demand is made upon the imagination to reconcile the differences shown by an oval-pored wood cut on the quarter (radial section), with its abundant coarse grooves and showy " silver-grain," and another piece of the same wood cut " plank-wise " (tangential section) on which but few narrow pores and no " silver- grain " are to be seen. The Horse-Chestnut (Fig. 32), the Box-tree (Fig. 105) and a great number of others do not display any pores which are visible to the naked eye, but it must not be concluded that the woods are Coniferous because the pores are not thus visible. The lens or even the microscope must be called in, when they will appear as minute apertures or grooves as the case may be. No Broad- leaved tree entirely lacks pores except a -very curious tree called " Drimys chilensis " (Fig. 150), a relative of the Magnolias. Its fellow species (Drimys winteri), the " Winter's bark," some- times exhibits a few, not always (112). These are extraordinary cases which are anomalous and require further study. Another such is Acacia juniperina (Fig. 153), which closely resembles the Coniferous type of wood inasmuch as it has a few isolated pores in a loose ring here and there, quite unlike any other species of Acacia (compare Fig. 43). It is interesting to note that a great many climbers superficially resemble each other in their wood, notwithstanding the fact that they may have no relation to each other. All their pores are of great size and extremely closely packed, and form" a tissue which looks like lace in a thin section, but it is probable that if the pores were less over- grown and numerous, the arrangement appropriate to the genus would become apparent, because masses of crowded pores, which leave little room for any woody tissue, must bear a com- mon aspect in whatever order the pores arise. In all cases where the arrangement of the pores takes definite form, such as festoons, tree-like or flame-shaped groups, they strike the eye as an independent portion of the wood, especially when they are compacted together into masses by the " Soft-tissue " or short, thin-walled wood-cells (Woody parenchyma). The commonest form of " soft-tissue " is a coat of delicate cells which clothes the pores and appears as circles round their orifices, or as borders by their sides in a vertical section (plank-wise or quartered). If the latter sections be in the least oblique, as is usually the case, the soft-tissue looks like a tail or fringed continuation of the pore. Often the coat of soft-tissue is so narrow that it is only by careful search for these " continuations " that it can be detected. Inasmuch xxiv INTRODUCTION as the oblique section of any figure exhibits greater breadth than a transverse section, it is a wise plan to use the knife freely in all directions to show up obscure details. This coat of soft-tissue may be traced in transverse section (across-grain) in all grades of complexity. The simple uniform sheath is some- times laterally extended into wings or diamond-shaped patches having a large pore or pore-group as centre (Fig. 47), or into concentric rings, or oblique, cross-shaped or undulating lines or bands (Fig. 53), which look like designs in lace when viewed as transparent objects. Some are of great beauty and many are so characteristic that they at once declare that such a timber belongs to such and such a genus. For the most part the pores and soft-tissue together produce this tracery, but occasionally the soft-tissue is quite independent of the pores (Fig. 55), and nearly always is of a lighter colour than the ground tissue. The term " soft-tissue," adopted from Gamble, is rather a de- fective expression, and I should not use it did I think that the word " parenchyma " served the purpose better. Nord- linger uses the word " weitlumige," which is difficult to express in English in a single word. Soft-tissue may be very hard tissue at times, but it is always softer than the wood fibres of the same timber, and to the lay mind the term has the advantage of con- veying the meaning intended, for in looking at a section of wood no one would misapply it. In its simplest form the soft-tissue occurs as odd cells scattered here and there, or as strings of single cells. If these strings be sufficiently numerous and confined to certain spots, they may form patches or bands. It is only when they constitute defined areas that they can be described by definite names, so mere sporadic cells, strings or shapeless indefinite patches will be referred to as such. Gamble makes a provisional classification of the Leguminoseae (Bean and Mimosa family), by means of their soft-tissue, and relies to some extent upon the breadth of the bands. This may suffice within the limits of the species found in India, but as soon as a larger field is entered upon it becomes inadequate. In many other species the breadth of the zone is extremely variable, and again some soft-tissue may be present in well developed rings, and yet be quite absent from the slowly grown wood (Fig. 145). Soft-tissue is usually present among the dense mass of pores in the pore-rings of woods that possess them, but it should not be considered in the same light as a zone enclosing the pores, but as the result of crowding, and may be ignored as of little significance. As the pores diminish towards the Autumn zone, and the intervals increase, the soft-tisMir XXV INTRODUCTION will be seen to increase and develop its characteristic arrange- ment (Fig. 88). Although many woods display great individuality in their characters, it must not be supposed that every wood can be clearly described so that it may be recognized on sight. Amongst a limited number of woods a description may suffice, but the larger the variety, and the more numerous the species of closely related woods, the more difficult their discrimination becomes, and it is as well to define the limits which are set by Nature in this respect. Just as the flowers of all species of Ash-tree are modelled upon the same plan, so is their wood. A few species of Ash may present some peculiarity, but most are practically indistinguishable from other members of the genus by the structure alone. The Common Elm cannot be mistaken for the American or White Elm (Figs. 107-109), though their structure proclaims their mutual relationship, but sufficiently precise language cannot be found to describe the difference between the wood of the latter and of the American Rock Elm. Again, all the members of the Silky-Oak family (Fig. 102) are sufficiently alike to be recognizable at a glance, but in many orders it is difficult to discover two genera bearing any resemblance to each other in their wood. Besides all this, it must be clearly stated that no varieties such as are due to different conditions of growth, climate, locality or other external conditions, can be distinguished by their struc- ture. It is hardly possible to find language which will enable a reader to tell Honduras from Tobasco Mahogany, or even American from African Mahogany. There are characters which strike the eye in the St. Domingo variety and distinguish it from the others, but let any one attempt to put upon paper a description which will enable a second person to tell for certain which is which, and he will admit that the time is not yet come to essay it. Nothing beyond the char- acter of the species is attempted here, notwithstanding the fact that upon the log as it comes to market there are often indications of its origin. As these are for the most part the outcome of the dressing by human hands, and so are subject to alteration, they will be but lightly touched upon in the descriptive portion of this book. XXVI Practical Hints THE more familiar aspect of wood is of no less importance than the structure. The user of wood has from time immemorial relied upon the evidence of his unaided senses to tell one kind from another and, just as in other Arts, this rule-of-thumb method will always remain the chief factor in the discrimination of timbers. Science with its precise definitions and accurate instruments steps in only where common-sense stops short. A carpenter has no need for text-books to tell him the difference between Oak and Walnut, any more than a child has need for a work on Botany to tell a Daisy when he sees it, nor does the expert timber-merchant need anything beyond his impressions coupled with his experience, until he meets with a wood that he has never seen before. Here something more is needed. By noting minute details usually overlooked, so many more characters are added to the obvious features that a timber may be recognizably described. Certain misleading resemblances can thus be detected. For instance, the familiar American or Canary Whitewood (Fig. I) may be met with quite black, as witness a specimen in the Museum at Kew. Ebony, which should be black, is oftener brown with black stripes, and generally requires the assistance of black polish to assume its " ebon hue." Colour, though of prime importance, is so variable as to be unreliable at tunes. The coarseness of grain has already been dealt with, and can only furnish assistance when the known range of size of the pores, their shape, and relation to the section observed, are all carefully harmonized. The weight is a useful criterion if it be carefully ascertained when the wood is dry. Judging from various tables of the weights of timbers, it appears to be assumed in many quarters that each kind of wood has its own special weight per cubic foot, whereas it is difficult to find two pieces of wood of the same specific gravity, and the maximum and minimum for a species seems to get further apart as more specimens are examined. In the descriptive portion of this work the figures given are those which happen to be on record, but these limits are certain to be modified by more extended trials. The different physical qualities of wood are more or less bound up together. The weight, the hardness and the density generally xxvii PRACTICAL HINTS vary much in the same proportion, as all depend upon the last. Exceptions there are in abundance, but they can generally be explained by variations in the structure or in the secretions. The hardness therefore is just as variable as the weight, and the senses are almost the only guide. The estimation of this quality is complicated by the fact that several properties or combinations of them are classed under one general term. The resistance of a wood to the saw is not of the same nature as that to the plane or knife, or to a pointed instrument like a nail, or a blunt one such as a hammer, or again as the resis- tance to wear by friction. There is the flinty hardness of Lignum-vitae (Guaiacum), the brittle hardness of Ebony, the tough hardness of Boxwood, due to the impressions made upon the senses by other qualities such as elasticity, fissibility, tenacity or toughness, in addition to hardness per se. Amongst other features we must not overlook the compactness of grain, i.e. the density of the woody ground-tissue (wood- fibres), which contributes to our sense of the smoothness of the wood and to its coldness or warmth to the touch. Some woods feel like marble, others like wool. Further, we have often strong evidence from the smell or taste, so much so that we can tell Teak or Pencil Cedar with the eyes shut. The smell of the former is truly abominable while that of the other is delightfully sweet. It is said that fresh Teak is " fragrant " ; would it were so in the seasoned timber. The Pencil Cedar combines its sweetness of smell with sweetness of taste, as all who chew their pencils know. At the other extreme is Quassia wood, of which cups used to- be turned, which imparted the bitter- ness of the wood to any liquid allowed to remain in them. Smell is the most fugitive of these characters and may sometimes have passed away in old dry wood, but for the most part it can be revived by making a fresh cut. Frequently the smell is only apparent during working or becomes much more powerful then. It may be accompanied by an irritating dust causing violent sneezing and running of the eyes, as in the Sneezewood of the Cape of Good Hope, or in a less degree in Blue Mahoe. Again, some woods are aromatic when burning, quite apart from the smell of the pyroligneous acid in the smoke, as witness the Sandalwood of which Chinese Joss-sticks are made. Inflam- mability ranges from the easily-lighted deal and Lignum- vitae, which will burn like a candle, to certain species of Eucalyptus, Jarrah, Blackbutt and Tallow-wo6d of N.S. Wales. These may certainly be made to burn, but as soon as the flame has gone off the carbonized remainder ceases to glow and expires as soon as it is left to itself. Australians say truly that it takes three sticks of Oak to burn one of Gum (17). xxviii PRACTICAL HINTS Durability and other serviceable qualities, which make wood commercially valuable, are not altogether germane to our subject, as they cannot be employed to identify timber ; hence the reader is advised to consult other works if information be desired upon these points. Inasmuch, however, as they are useful facts and take up little space, a few lines have been devoted to them in the descriptive part of this book, especially in the case of the Colonial woods. Much time has been devoted to the compilation of the opinions of various observers in the hope that little known Colonial timbers may be tried, and that such trials may not be attempted blindfold. Details of elasticity, breaking-strain, fuel-value, resistance to impact, etc., must also be sought elsewhere. The list of works consulted, given at the end of the book, may be of service in guiding the reader to this class of information. For the purpose of discrimination the solid wood should be taken and all the information which it will afford considered first. There is nothing like the examination of the solid wood, for in it can be seen the structure undisturbed and the mutual relation of its parts. Thin sections are of great value, but when all is said the information they yield, over and above that which can be seen in the solid, is limited to one or two details. A thin section shows the relation of the elements in merely one plane, and to build up an image of a cube of wood from thin sec- tions from three sides requires a considerable effort of mind, and the conclusion is generally false. This is the case when the cross section is cut accurately with its surface precisely at right angles to the vertical axis of the tree, but if it be in the least out of truth it can be absolutely misleading, for all the round orifices of the pores become oval and the rays become shortened and broad- ened. With the solid wood, on the other hand, an examination of all sides readily disposes of all ambiguity, as any inaccuracy of the cutting declares itself. Furthermore the thin section shows but one or two layers of cells separated from the sub- jacent layers which have a definite and important relation to them. This can, in most instances, be seen in the solid wood, as it is to a certain extent transparent. The first precaution is to obtain a perfectly smooth surface upon the wood by means of a plane or knife. The blade must be very sharp, for the surface obtained by a dull blade has a quite different appearance. A polished surface is frequently sufficient to show all detail, and every piece of furniture should be overhauled in search of information, but it must never be forgotten that a part of the polishing process consists in filling up the pores with powdered pumice-stone, so that they appear to contain a light-coloured secretion. A turned xxix PRACTICAL HINTS article, well finished, either polished or not, is nearly always a useful object to examine, but it is the most difficult to understand. To plane a shaving from the transverse section (across grain) of a block of wood, an iron plane, having a screw adjustment to regulate the thickness of the cut, is a most useful tool. It is not necessary to make beautiful sections like those of Hough and Nordlinger. For everyday work sections half an inch wide are amply large enough, and if a number be made at a time a few pieces will be found to exhibit all that is needful. Wood cuts much more sweetly when green than when dry, and moistening will facilitate the work. With woods containing much tannin, ink is produced by the contact of the plane iron, thus spoiling the appearance of the section, so that glycerine should be used with these instead of water. Difficulty will be met with chiefly in three classes of woods, viz., those that are extremely soft and crumble; those that are extremely hard and defy the edge of the plane and the strength of the operator ; and those which, possess rays of a much more delicate texture than the rest of the wood. Sections from the last separate into as many fibres as there aje rays, and need more skill than I have been able to bring to bear upon them. Presumably this accounts for the omission of most of these woods from Nordlinger' s series, for he must have been in possession of some, as they were com- monly employed in Germany during his lifetime. Sapwood is always easier to cut cleanly than heartwood, and wherever pos- sible a portion of it should be included in the section. In one of the Ebonies (Diospyros melanoxylon) the heartwood is almost impossible to deal with, but the sapwood cuts very sweetly indeed. Nordlinger's section is from the sapwood. and is a little misleading unless the reason be well understood. In a collection of solid specimens, many will be found full of fine cracks at each end ; and to obtain large sections it will be necessary to cut away the wood until a compact surface is reached, a proceeding which entails a greater sacrifice than a large section is worth, as the small pieces between the cracks may be sufficient for all purposes. After cutting the section, which will leave the plane as a curly shaving, it should be placed upon a piece of glass and the free end moistened, water being gradually added as the section uncurls, as it will usually do unless it be wetted too suddenly. It may require assistance, but these matters suggest their own remedy. After moistening, it should be pressed in blotting- paper for a moment, the paper changed and put away for a while under slight pressure. The subsequent treatment may consist merely of laying between glass slips, or simply between papers, as Nordlinger does. For exhibition pur- poses or for photographing the section may be mounted in XXX PRACTICAL HINTS balsam or glycerine jelly. Sections when used in the lantern, either mounted or unmounted, should always be protected by an alum bath. I have had many ruined by inexperienced operators. Sections of Hornbeam, Maple, and some other woods have a curious way of stretching prodigiously, owing to the lateral dilation of the cells of the rays. In contracting to their former size during drying they pull themselves to pieces, hence it is necessary to detach them from the glass on which they have been wetted while they are still moist, and to dry them without pressure. I much prefer to examine the sections unmounted, i.e. dry, as the colours are changed by balsam and the detail is more difficult to see, moreover the gums and resins contained in the pores become dissolved in the process of preparation and the specimen loses much of its character. For the same reason 1 never stain a section except as an additional expedient. The purposes for which the thin sections are specially useful are to measure and count the rays and pores, to detect soft-tissue otherwise invisible, to decide whether the rays are of one of more rows of cells, and if they are denser or laxer than the surrounding tissue : all most valuable items of information from a scientific and descriptive point of view, and sometimes decisive in the matter of settling a doubtful point in identification, yet in practice rarely absolutely essential. Measurement is the chief among these points, as in a by no means small number of orders the breadth of the rays ranges within certain definite limits. The conspicuous breadth of those of the Oaks, which can be measured with a rule, is markedly characteristic of the genus Quercus, and the same may be said of the whole of the order Proteaceae or Silky Oak family. The other extreme is represented by the Australian Gum trees (Eucalypti), whose rays are so narrow and so numerous that the}' may occur to the number of twenty- two in the space of i mm. The pores in their turn range from less than i to 400 per sq. mm., and in the matter of size their variation is only less great than that of the rays, as, in the wood of the Silk-cotton tree (Bombax malabaricum), they are as large as pin-holes, while in the Common Boxwood, they can scarcely be counted under a two-inch lens. The measurement may be carried out with a micrometer, such as is used for microscopical purposes. This may be essential to the investigator, but I limit myself here to the tabulation of the various sizes by groups, after the manner of Nordlinger and Gamble. I have been urged to drop these empirical groups and to give the exact measurement in mm., but my aim and ambition is to interest many who are not pro- fessed botanists, and to bring to the work some who have had xxxi PRACTICAL HINTS no training in botany and who, I am certain, will part company with me if I expect them to expend valuable time in the laborious process of micrometric measurement. Moreover, to see the fine lines of the micrometer upon the image of wood sections mounted dry is a task in which I have not yet succeeded, and therefore the mounting in some medium becomes necessary. Even then the strain of seeing the micrometer lines upon the image of dark coloured woods is more than the eyesight can bear for any length of time. Measurement by groups, on the other hand, is a ready and simple method, but presupposes the possession of a series of similar sections of woods corresponding to the type of the group. For instance, I employ the Common Oak for ' Size or Group II.', and lay a thin section of that wood side by side with the specimen to be tested. If the largest pores of each are somewhat of the same size the latter is saidtq fall under Size II. If not, the other type sections representing other grades must be tried in succession until the correct one be found. This seems a rough method, but that it is the only practical one (and a very useful one) will soon be seen when the great variation of the elements in the annual rings of various ages, already discussed, is taken into account. The type species which I have adopted are taken from Nordlinger's list, and are, as far as possible, common or readily obtainable woods, a principle I have adhered to in the preparation of the scales of measurement of the rays and also of the grade of hardness of woods. Gamble employs scales of the same nature. I have been prompted to use Nordlinger's scales by the desire for uniformity, so that any student may use my figures in conjunction with the greater wrork without the labour of translating every measurement. The counting of the rays and pores is most conveniently done by means of a perforated piece of tin-foil having a hole exactly i sq. mm. in area. When this is superimposed upon the section to be tested, and one side of the square brought parallel to the rays, the latter may be readily counted, and further, as the pores are usually separated into narrow areas by the rays, the latter assist in guiding the eye, thus saying the annoyance of losing count. My practice, upon which the figures given in the de- scriptive portion of the book are based, is to search for the part where fewest rays or pores occur, and afterwards for that part where they are most numerous. These give the minimum and maximum figures for the specimen, which may be modified by subsequent observation upon other specimens when they are available. Another figure necessary for our purpose is the number of pores in the individual groups, i.e. in actual contact with each other. These groups are of the two kinds already mentioned, the subdivided or mother-and-daughter groups, and xxxii PRACTICAL HINTS the simple type, which seem to have arisen independently yet closely pressed against each other. If the pores are large and the rays seem to avoid them, the latter may be said to be less than a pore's width apart, and vice versa. These terms stand for definite divisions between the species of woods, as will be seen later, and in addition form convenient points d'appui when accurate measurement is not immediately possible. Whenever the soft-tissue is arranged in bands or lines suscep- tible of measurement, the same scale can be used as that arranged for the rays. All the preceding matter has been written exclusively in con- nexion with the transverse section. The two other sections may be treated in precisely the same way, but of course the details differ. The height of the rays in tangential section requires measuring, and is here expressed in fractions of a mm. The soft-tissue and the contents of the pores also require special attention. In the case of some Conifers the horizontal resin- canals are more easily located in the tangential section. Thin sections in a vertical direction are only possible with woods with extremely fine pores, otherwise they fall into narrow strips divided by all pores whose depth is greater than the thickness of the section. For exhibition purposes the wood may be cut in a slightly oblique direction, so that the open pore does not run the whole length of the thin film, which will then hold together. Coniferous woods seldom fall to pieces from this cause, and many excellent sections may be picked up from the floor of a joiner's shop. Similarly I have often caught a handful of beautiful transverse and other sections as they streamed in ribbons from the turner's chisels. A fascinating method of study is to be found in the use of the lantern, and I am almost persuaded to say that it is preferable to the microscope, as the broad grasp of the structure of the wood which the lantern affords makes a great impression upon the mind. Instead of the limited field of view of the microscope, which necessitates the removal of one portion of the section in order that another may come into view, the whole sec- tion is displayed at one time, and the broad rings compared with the narrow; misleading impressions being thereby dissipated. After seeing a section of Oak thrown upon the screen the observer feels that he will recognize the wood again even if he does not possess sufficient knowledge of the structure to analyze its parts. In addition, the absence of the strain upon the eyes entailed by prolonged work at the microscope is avoided, and the facility for pointing out and discussing details with a second person makes this method of inestimable value. Again, it is scarcely xxxiii c PRACTICAL HINTS possible to compare more than a limited portion of one specimen with another under the miscroscope, whereas they can both be thrown upon the screen side by side in their entirety. I have done much work with a small lantern illuminated by the ordinary Welsbach incandescent light and a screen about four feet square. I have in this manner studied the whole of Nordlinger's 1,100 sections without injury to them by placing each section between two pieces of glass, which were slid into the lantern in the place of the slide-carrier. One detail, which will be found in each description of the separate species, is the colour of the solution produced by boiling the wood in water or alcohol. As is well known, water dissolves gums but not resins, whereas alcohol dissolves resins but not gums. By first boiling a few shavings in water and afterwards boiling them in alcohol, both resins- and gums are extracted. Pigments of various kinds are sometimes more soluble in the one fluid than in the other, and frequently yield useful informa- tion. I make no attempt to enter into the chemical questions that arise from these experiments, but if it be necessary to decide whether a gum be present it can be readily done by noting the white precipitate formed in a solution in water upon the addition of alcohol, and vice versa. Tannin may be detected by the application of any iron salt in solution, a test which may prove useful when it is desired to find a wood which will not corrode iron. A solution of caustic potash is a handy reagent, and is indispensable for the testing of the coloured solutions obtained from the wood by extracting with water or alcohol. To those who desire to go more deeply into this fascinating and little-worked branch of the subject, I recommend a little work of great merit by Dr. J. Lauterer (62) as a model of what can and should be done in this way. Items of interest can also frequently be picked up in books upon dyeing, in which the treatment of the various dye-woods, Fustic, Logwood, etc., afford many useful hints. As there are a number of medicinal woods, such as Guaiacum and Quassia, included in the British Pharmacopoeia, that work may be searched with profit. Compared with other branches, this has been well worked, parallel methods to those described in this book being employed in identifying many of our useful drugs and detecting adulterations. Wiesner's fine work (131) should be consulted on these points. After noting as much as can be seen with the naked eye a j>ocket lens should be used and will reveal a marvellous amount of detail. In nine cases out of ten it will show all that is needed for the purpose of identifying a wood, for which there is much to be thankful, as a small pocket lens can be a constant xxxiv PRACTICAL HINTS companion. When available a condensing lens is useful to throw a brilliant spot of light upon the wood, and in all cases the surface should be moistened, as the wetting emphasizes certain parts by deepening their colour and throwing them into relief. With the solid wood such stains as are commonly employed by microscopists seldom yield good results, as even when they single out certain kinds of tissue and avoid others there is sure to be some different kind in the next layer beneath which brings the whole back to a uniform colour. Nevertheless Perchloride of Iron may be employed to advantage, as it some- times shows up the rays of certain species. When a good idea of the general structure has been obtained by means of the lens, the microscope may be used. A low power is sufficient, as, for instance, a two-inch Swift, which will show the shape of the pores and rays, and will serve to measure them and to count their number. Seen under the microscope by reflected light, a piece of wood is a beautiful object, and some of the coloured woods, such as Mahogany, are most brilliant and even gorgeous, for the play of colour from the resin or gum, and the different hues of the various kinds of tissue are most agreeable to dwell upon. For low powers I use a simple contrivance consisting of a tube some ten inches long, fitted to receive an ordinary microscope eye-piece at one end, and reduced to take the objective at the other. Upon the lens or lower end is lightly telescoped a piece of tube, some five inches long, of which one side, to the length of two inches, is removed to allow the light to fall upon the wood. This outer tube is to regulate the distance be- tween the lens and the wood, so that by resting it upon the surface the latter is immediately brought into focus. The advantage of this simple apparatus is that any block of wood can be examined without the trouble of reducing it to a size small enough to go on to the stage of a microscope. Besides it is not always convenient to cut a specimen, so that this is a practically indispensable form of instrument, if the specimens in a museum are to be examined microscopically. A minor recommendation is that it can be slipped into the pocket. I need not touch upon the use of the higher powers of magnification, for although they are no doubt essential in describ- ing the structure, they are by no means so in recognizing it, and I wish to impress upon my readers most strongly that they need not be deterred from this study by the feeling that the work needs special training, for the pocket lens will carry them along for nine-tenths of the road, and for the most part they need not use the microscope at all, though I promise them that the fascination of the work will soon lead them to employ it. If so small a XXXV matter needs mentioning, it should be remarked that a hand-lens should be used quite close to the eye, and the wood brought up to it until it comes into focus. The weight per cubic foot is a detail which can nearly always be ascertained by trimming and measuring the block, but if the wood be not dry it should be put aside and weighed from time to time until it ceases to diminish in weight. A rough method of estimation is to plane or turn a stick truly parallel from end to end, and to lower it gently by means of a thread into water until the thread slackens (87). The point to which it sinks is then marked and measured, and as the whole length of the stick is to 62 J (the weight of a cubic foot of water in Ibs.) so is the length of the wetted portion to the number of pounds per cubic foot. If the figure 1000 be used instead of 62^, then the apparent specific gravity will be arrived at (1000 ounces = 62^ Ibs.). If an irregular block be thrown into the water, a trained observer can get very near to the weight per cubic foot by noting the bulk submerged. These are not scientific methods, but they are often useful when apparatus is not to hand. A better ex- pedient is to employ a graduated glass filled to a certain height with water, in which the wood can be immersed. The bulk of water so displaced is a basis for working out the specific gravity, except when the wood sinks entirely. It is not possible to get rid of bubbles which buoy the wood up, or to allow for the water the wood will absorb. The use of Mercury gets rid of two of the objections, but not of that due to the bubbles, besides which the wood has to be forcibly held beneath the surface while the scale is read off. Hartig, I under- stand, used a strong solution of Chloride of Lime and water, of a given density, and so avoided all three difficulties, but a new one was created by the salt which crystallised out on the fine fibres of the wood and increased its apparent bulk. All my own weights have been obtained by planing up the block quite truly, and carefully measuring, but in no case do I give a less fraction than J Ib. per cubic foot, as this much variation can be observed in specimens taken from different parts of the same tree. I have added figures compiled from all possible sources, but quote only those which stand for the maximum and minimum recorded for the species. Smell and taste are not susceptible of measurement, and can only be vaguely expressed by comparison with familiar impressions. I have been accustomed to classify tastes as Sweet (Pencil Cedar), insipid (Spruce), resinous (Pitch Pine), astringent (Ode), bitter (Quassia), and nauseous (Sneeze wood). Scents I have dealt with roughly in the same way, but each observer will be forced to make a scale to suit himself. xxxvi The burning of wood may be conveniently tested by taking a splinter cleft from a block, and lighting it like a match. If it burns while held upright, it burns well : if it goes out, and requires repeatedly relighting, it burns badly. The residue may be, as is usual, a glowing cinder which consumes away to the ash, or may remain, as in the case of the Sweet Chestnut and the Jarrah, a black carbonized stick. Crackling, spitting, or even slight explosions (Spruce) may occur, caused by the heated secretions in the wood forcing the fibres apart. The aroma while burning, as already mentioned, should be noticed, because in cases like the Dalbergias (True Rosewoods) the tarry smell is practically a generic character. Certain juices, melted gums or resins, come bubbling and spitting out of the pores, and their colour furnishes evidence of some value. The hardness of timber is unfortunately just as much dependent upon our impressions as are taste and smell, but its commercial importance is much greater, hence many attempts have 'been made to express a scale of hardness in words. Nordlinger expressed it in figures corresponding with the weight of sawdust removed by a given number of strokes of a saw ; another observer employed a rasp ; a third turned balls of the wood to be tested, and measured the distance they re- bounded when dropped from a given height ; another (Hough, I believe) dropped a pointed weight upon the wood and measured the depth of indentation. The methods are all useless because Nordlinger's saw (to say nothing of his biceps) is needed to produce the same result, and the saw must always be equally keen ; and the like with the rasp. Again, the turned ball could never be reproduced exactly, even in the same wood, and in most woods a ball would soon become distorted by warping. By Hough's method the bottom of the depression made by the impact of the point would rise up in some woods from their elasticity, while in others it would remain deeply im- pressed. My own method, though more complicated, pre- supposes nothing that cannot be reproduced by others, but un- fortunately it requires a machine of considerable complexity, which, as I have had no leisure so far to make exhaustive re- searches in this direction, is merely described in the Appendix. After all, it is not hardness alone that is measured, but more accurately the resistance to impact, spoken of by Hough, or, in other words, the amount of force which wood will absorb when struck. We are, therefore, thrown back upon vague terms, such as " hard," " very hard," " moderately hard," etc., etc., coupled with the names of a few well-known woods for comparison, so that they are not quite empty words. Gam- ble's scale of hardness, expressed in this fashion, is good, but xxxvii PRACTICAL HINTS cannot be used by English readers, as his standard woods are all Indian. I have, therefore, used Nordlinger's scale, in which the type species are chiefly familiar European woods, and as it embraces a longer and rather more con- venient series. I cannot say that it is at all uniform when tested by accurate means, but I am loath to pile another em- pirical scheme upon those already in existence, without more substantial gain than appears in sight at present. A rough method, not to be despised, as a test for hardness (?), is to try the wood upon the transverse section (across-grain) with the finger nail. The amount of resistance felt, and the depth of the mark made, give a ready and not at all inaccurate means of comparison. The surface of a wood depends much upon the density and compactness of the wood fibres, and -the size of the pores. The " feel " of a wood is always present amongst our impressions but cannot be gauged. Ebony and Boxwood feel smooth and cold, Spruce feels warm, and one wood called " Kretti," from British Guiana, feels velvety. Of lustre there are many degrees and also several kinds. The pearly lustre of the Spruce, the frosted lustre of the Autumn wood of the Pencil Cedar, when cleft tangentially, the glassy lustre of the Acacia (Robinia), the greasy lustre of the Lignum vitae are familiar instances. It is sometimes difficult, as in the case of the Oak, to determine whether the flakes of the Silver-grain are either dull or lustrous, though the ground-tissue clearly reflects the light. In most species the ground-tissue reflects the most light, and the Silver-grain appears dull by contrast. In Ebony, on the con- trary, this order is reversed, as the Rays or Silver-grain appear bright against the otherwise very dull wood. It is rather a difficult matter to define the term " Grain." Strictly it signifies the fibre of wood, but in this book it is rather a measure of the size of the pores between the fibres than a description of the relative position of the fibres themselves. Open grain (Oak) shows empty pores, while in even grain (Rose- wood) they are filled with a secretion. The Oak is coarse grained and the Beech is fine. For the identification of one out of a large number of species a Key, or some other means of classification, is a necessity. In many works of systematic botany a Key is provided in addition to a well-developed scheme based upon the natural relationship of plants. Unfortunately, such Keys as exist at present are of a very limited extent, being confined to special groups or arbitrary lists of woods. The most serious attempt is that of Nordlinger, already referred to. but the difficulties of using it are very great ; and it is altogether unconvincing. Such a Key can as yet be but xxxviii PRACTICAL HINTS artificial, as the material is largely unworked ; but I trust and believe that the future will provide material for an advance in the right direction. Little attempt has been made to classify woods according to their structure; yet there are characters which seem to have a distinct systematic value. The primary distinction between the wood of the Monocotyledonous trees (Endogens) and that of the Broad-leaved Trees and the Conifers is very definite and well known. The next, between the wood of the two latter groups, is equally emphatic and in accordance with the natural system. Up to this point the structure of the wood has long been accepted as being of equal systematic value to that of any other part of the plant. Taking the Conifers in their turn, there are reliable differences between the woods of the Pines and their allies and those of the Cedars, Cypresses, etc., and there is a further sharp distinction between those Coniferous woods with vertical resin canals and those in which they fail. But when dealing with the wood of the Broad-leaved trees the systematic botanists cannot be followed ; and though characters run through long series of species, genera, and even orders, there are so many exceptions that the task of reducing them to an orderly arrangement seems almost impossible. It is not unnatural to assume that woods possessing two kinds of rays should be grouped apart from those having but one kind ; but by separating them we cut off the Cupulifene, the Casuarineae and the Proteaceae, and perhaps many other orders yet unworked, from the remainder of the Broad-leaved trees, making an artificial group of unrelated plants. Therefore our classification cannot be based upon this feature. The arrangement of the pores is very characteristic of many orders, and is very constant through- out long series of species, as the Cupuliferae, the Myrtaceae, the Proteaceae and the Urticaceae, but similar arrangements of the pores can be found in quite unrelated orders. Again, the soft-tissue or wood parenchyma is equally casual in its appearance, and, from the study of Solereder's work I conclude that the minute structure of the wood, the pitting of the cells, etc., is also unsuitable as a basis. Any one of the various kinds of tissue may be absent except the wood fibres and the rays, and the following alternatives may be found — 1. Wood fibres and rays. 2. Wood fibres, rays, and pores (vessels). 3. Wood fibres, rays, pores, and soft-tissue (wood paren- chyma). 4. Wood fibres, rays of two kinds, and soft-tissue. 5. Wood fibres, rays of two kinds and soft tissue of two systems. xxxix PRACTICAL HINTS 6. Wood fibres, rays of two kinds; no pores, but vertical resin- canals. 7. Wood fibres, rays of two kinds, but no pores (vessels) or resin-canals. The first class may be neglected as being rare, but the others are very constant, and the presence or absence of one or more of these tissue-systems may serve as a foundation upon which to build a Key. xl PLATE I. Fig. 1. Liriodendron < Canary White-wood). Fig. 2. Duguetia (Lancewood). Fig. 3. Kiggelaria. Fig. 6. Lophira (African Oak). Fig. 7. Hil.iv.il>. (Mahoe). Fig. 8. Plagiamlms. Fig. 9. Thespesia. No. i. CANARY WHITEWOOD. Liriodendron tulipifera. Linn. PLATE I. FIG. i. Natural Order. Magnoliaceae. Synonyms. L. procera. Salisb. : L. tulipiflor.* Liriodendron. Mill. Sources of Supply. The United States of Ai, Alternative Nantes. Whitewood, Canadian Tree, Canary wood, Poplar, Yellow Poplar, Canoe-wood, Yellow-wood, Saddle T Physical Characters. Weight 26 i . per cu. ft. Grade 7, soft, compare En.- . Burns well and quietly, r> still air. Solution water or alcohol colourless. .•>?. Very fine but spon lustre being due to the shinii. Bark. Very thick, as much as 2 layers. The inner layer of tht that it may be overlooked, • and nearly white in colour ly marked in transverse ? ., etc. " In works of const: i, ~. Building, wooden pumps .£,• brittle, easily worked 'irink, durable" (95). illy, in England. Mc- ind sawn planks of fine dim- by 2-4 diam." (TOO). 'lorities. Nordlinger 4. Boulger (12-15). - No. 8. Robb (95). is frequently coi^ ;n re (English) and othe; win' itr. Wliite, • . brownisl i Cynical €'• Trans\ • :ie, size 4 : ig : somev. I PLATE Fig. 1. Lirirxiemiron I Canary .voodl. '.f No. i. CANARY WHITEWOOD. Liriodendron tulipifera. Linn. PLATE I. FIG. i. Natural Order. Magnoliaceae. Synonyms. L. procera. Salisb. : L. tulipiflora. St. L. : Tulipifera Liriodendron. Mill. Sources of Supply. The United States of America and Canada. Alternative Names. Whitevvood, Canadian Whitewood, Tulip Tree, Canary wood, Poplar, Yellow Poplar, Virginian Poplar, Canoe-wood, Yellow-wood, Saddle Tree (12). Physical Characters. Weight 26^ to 384 Ib. per cu. ft. Hard- ness, Grade 7, soft, compare English Alder. No smell or taste. Burns well and quietly, embers glow in still air. Solution with water or alcohol colourless. Grain. Very fine but spongy : splits cleanly. Surface dull, the little lustre being due to the shining pores, soils readily. Bark. Very thick, as much as i inch, corky, deeply fissured, 2 layers. The inner layer of the bark is so much like the wood itself that it may be overlooked, it is about £ inch thick in old trees, and nearly white in colour. The scales which fall off are clearly marked in transverse section. Uses, etc. " In works of construction, interior finish, shingles, boat-building, wooden pumps (in the United States). Not strong, brittle, easily worked " (100). " Not liable to warp and shrink, durable" (95). Panels, sideboards and in joinery generally, in England. Met with in the form of waney logs and sawn planks of fine dimensions. "A tree of 30 to 60 metres high by 2-4 diam." (TOO). Authorities. Nordlinger (86), vol. 3, p. 55. Laslett (60), p. 184. Boulger (12-15). Hough (49), part I. p. 40. Sargent (100), No. 8. Robb (95). Wiesner (131). L. 12, p. 914. The wood is frequently confused with the American White Poplar, Sycamore (English) and other whitish woods. Colour. White, canary-colour, greenish, or grey : " Sap-wood whitish or brownish" (131). Anatomical Characters. Transverse section; — Pores. Just visible, fine, size 4 : uniformly distributed, occupy- ing almost the whole ring : somewhat variable in size : numerous, I B THE TIMBERS OF COMMERCE 100-150 per sq. mm. : the large ones predominating : arranged in loose, radial lines, often nested in groups of as many as 14. Rays. Just visible ? fine : uniform in size : tapering extremely gradually : many, 7-12 per mm. : colourless : slightly denser than the ground tissue : direct in their course : more than a pore- width apart yet avoiding the pores. Rings. Clear on account of a very fine boundary line of Autumn wood only. Contour round or gently undulating : a slight difference in shade between the Spring and Autumn wood. The Ground-tissue is all more or less wide meshed. Pith, 2 to 4 mm. thick, rounded, white. Radial Section. The pores need the lens and are fine, shining, colourless lines. The rays are just visible in a certain light as extremely narrow lines or flakes. The rings are visible as fine colourless lines. Tangential Section. The rays are extremely fine, colourless lines about 5 mm. high, otherwise as the Radial section. No. 2. LANCEWOOD. Duguetia quitarensis. Benth. PLATE I. FIG. 2. Natural Order. Anonaceae. Synonyms. Guatteria quitarensis. G. virgata. Dunal. Ox- andra virgata. Rich. Uvaria lanceolata ? (see Royle in 48). Alternative Names. Jamaica and Cuba Lancewood. Beriba in Guiana (76). Yaya in Honduras (12). Yariyari (131). Source of Supply. The West Indies. Physical Characters, etc. Weight 52-63 Ib. per cu. ft. Hard- ness Grade 2, compare Boxwood. Smell none, taste faintly astringent. Burns well with a lively spluttering flame, embers glow in still air, the heat expels a red gum or resin. Solution with water, alcohol, or potash, colourless. Grain. Very fine and dense. Surface lustrous, the rays and pores dull, but not sufficiently prominent to affect the lustre of the ground tissue. Cold to the touch. Bar k. (Jamaica variety.) — \ inch, thick, smooth with coarse wrinkles, scarious : rays continued into the bark in the form of a blunt, converging pencil of about 100 rays each. (Cuba variety.) — \ inch thick, smooth with narrow shallow wrinkles, rays as above in pencils of about 12 rays each. Uses, etc. Lances, shafts, spars, fishing-rods, ramrods, general turnery, etc., etc. Tough, strong, and elastic. Seldom of any considerable size. Imported into England in the form of small logs or spars. Often confused with Degame wood. No. 125. Authorities. Holtzapfel (48), p. 89. Boulger (12), p. 437. Wiesner (131), L. 6, p. 72. J. Leman (64). NATAL MAHOGAN Colour. White, greyish to yellowish, uniform : no difference between sap- and heart-wood. Anatomical Characters. Transverse section : — Pores. Need lens, uniform and evenly distributed : here and there a zone poorer in pores : single or in compact radial groups of as many as 8 : numerous, 80-140 per sq. mm. : round : a tendency to a linear arrangement between the rays. Rays. Just visible, size 5-6, uniform and equidistant : straight or curved but not avoiding the pores : numerous, 6-10 per sq. mm. : long, rarely tapering : less dense than the ground-tissue : white : a pore- width or more apart. (The Jamaica variety has rays with two rows of rectangular cells.) Rings. Very doubtful : at most a line of contrast between zones richer or poorer in pores. Soft-tissue. Abundant and characteristic : fine white lines linking the rays like the rungs of a ladder : need lens : width finer than size 6 : also many isolated wide-meshed cells (or patches in the Cuban variety) or cells arranged in radial lines : also neatly and very narrowly encircling the pores. There are of ten jet-black patches like ebony resembling flakes ; (see Fig. 179, Plate XXII), but which do not distort the structure in any way. Radial Section. Pores inconspicuous giooves, often shining ; rays ; fine whitish flakes verv inconspicuous, dull ; rings ; mostly indistinct but occasionally traceable : the black areas appear as very sharply defined black lines when present. Tangential Section. Rays invisible without micro., fine line about 0*5 mm. high. No. 3. NATAL MAHOGANY. Kiggelaria Dregeana. Turcz, PLATE I. FIG. 3. Natural Order. Bixineae. Synonyms. K. glandulosa, Salisb. K. integrifolia, Jacq. Source of Supply. South Africa, Natal. Physical Characters, etc. Recorded dry- weight, 48 Ibs. per cu. ft. Hardness Grade 7, compare English Birch. Taste none. Smell none when diy. Burns moderately well with a peculiar and somewhat unpleasant aroma, embers glow in still air, heat expels a brown gum. Solution rich, the colour of the wood, deepening upon the addition of potash. Bark. Greyish-brown, about \ inch thick with fine, shallow fissures : closely adherent : has a smooth appearance at a distance : whitish internally and full of whitish-brown rods arranged in radial rows between the rays which are continued into the bark. 3 THE TIMBERS OF COMMERCE Grain. Fine, compact and even. Surface slightly lustrous. Uses, etc. Unrecorded. Saws very hard and planes badly. My specimen was shattered by cracks when received. As other species prepared and kept under identical conditions were sound, it may be presumed that this wood is difficult to season. Authorities. Nordlinger (86), vol. 7, p. 79. Colour. Uniform, light mahogany- coloured heart-wood fairly denned from the brownish -white sap-wood which is about |-f\ inch wide. " Yellowish-red " (86). Anatomical characters. As Xylosma monospora but widely different in appearance, and with the following variations : — Pores. Visible, size 3-4 : 30-50 per sq. mm. : no two-rowed groups. Rays. Just visible, size 5 : the difference in size between the " middles " and " ends " not so considerable as in Xylosma. The former 2-5 per mm., or both together 8-12 per mm. Ground-tissue. Very coarse. Soft-tissue. Narrowly encircling the pores. Radial Section. Pores, fine scratches, scarcely visible. Rays, inconspicuous but pretty brown flakes. Rings, scarcely dis- cernible. Tangential Section. As the Radial, but the rays need lens and are fine, brown, spindle-shaped bodies of coarse texture, and about i mm. high. Rings scarcely perceptible, but there may occasionally be seen a zone of slightly denser wood. Type specimen authenticated by the Forest Officer to the Government of Natal. No. 4. BOGABOG-U-VETO. Xylosma monospora. Harv. PLATE I. FIG. 4. Natural Order. Bixinaee. Source of Supply. South Africa, Natal. Physical Characters, etc. Recorded dry- weight, 35 Jibs, per cu. ft. Hardness Grade 8, compare White Pine. Smell, none when dry. Taste astringent. Burns well with a peculiar aroma, embers glow brightly in still air. Solution brownish, deepening upon the addition of potash. Grain. Fine but open. Surface, scarcely bright and of a coarse texture. Bark. Greenish-brown, about | inch thick, wrinkled, con- sisting of a soft, spongy layer, covered by a thin, shiny skin. Uses, etc. Unrecorded. Saws very easily but with a woolly surface. Retains its moisture for a long time, judging by the 4 RED PEAR condition of my specimen, which was cut at the same time as other woods perfectly dry at the time of writing. Colour. Heart-wood greenish or greenish-brown gradually passing into the lighter sap-wood. Anatomical Characters. Transverse section : — Pores. Need lens, size 4, some variation : irregularly and thinly scattered singly or in radial groups of 2-15 pores between the rays: few, 20-40 mm. The. larger groups are sometimes two-rowed. Rays. Readily visible, size 2-3, apparently of two sizes, but the smaller, I believe, are the attenuated ends of the larger : sometimes of different colour in the same ray. " Middles," size 2-3 and 1-3 per mm. or with " ends " together, 7-8 per mm. : very lax and lighter in colour than the ground- tissue. Rings. Vague. Soft-tissue. In scattered cells only. Pith. ? Radial Section. Pores, fine open scratches. Rays, readily visible or even prominent brown flakes. Tangential Section. As the Radial, but the rays are broadly spindle-shaped bodies about | inch high of coarse, brown cells large enough to be seen with the lens. Type specimen authenticated by the Forest Officer to the Government of Natal. No. 5. RED PEAR. Scolopia Mundtii. Arn. (Warb). (Not mentioned in the Index Kewensis.) PLATE I. FIG. 5. Natural Order. Bixineae. Synonyms. S. Zeyheri. Arn. (Warb.). S. Ecklonii. Arn. (Warb.) (131). Neither of these are mentioned in the I.K. Phoberos Mundtii. Harv. et Presl. P. Ecklonii. Presl. Alternative Names. Klipdoorn (21). Thorn (12). Source of Supply. South Africa, Natal. Physical Characters, etc. Recorded dry-weight, 50 Ibs. per cu. ft. Hardness Grade 7, compare English Beech. Smell or taste none. Burns well with a faint aroma, an unusually copious yellow juice expelled by heat, embers glow in still air. Solution pinkish, the' colour of the transverse section of the wood, dark- ening to port-wine colour upon the addition of potash : no ppt. Grain. Fine though open. Surface not bright. Bark. Light-brown, about \ inch thick, of one layer, wrinkled, hard, compact, woody : filled with white rod-like bodies. Uses, etc. " Hard and durable " (131). " Building timber " (21). " Wagons, timber to 3 ft. in diameter " (19). Saws THE TIMBERS OF COMMERCE easily : planes extremely readily and well though the wood is tough and firm. Authorities. Wiesner (131). L. p. 119. Kew Guide (57), p. 56. Charpentier (21), p. 137. Laslett (61), p. 441. Nordlinger (86), vol. 7. p. 19. Cape Land Almanack (19). Colour. Quite uniform, delicate reddish-brown : heart-wood not very well denned from the lighter sap-wood, which is about J inch wide. Anatomical Characters. Transverse section : — Pores. Just visible with lens, size 4, uniform : scattered, mostly single, a few subdivided pairs and threes between the rays, but sometimes loose rows of as many as 9 : few 30-60 per sq. mm. Rays. Need lens, size 4-5 ; uniform though apparently of two sizes : stout in the middle, but tapering to fine points both ends: "middles" 3-5 per mm., or "middles and ends" to- gether 10-15 mm- Rings. Vague : boundaries not visible in the solid but in- dicated by a difference in the density of one zone and the next as they resist the knife unequally. Soft-tissue. Needs the microscope. Pith.? Radial Section. Pores, extremely fine, lustrous scratches: need lens but to good sight they appear as fine frost-like points. Rays just visible in certain lights. Tangential Section as the Radial, but the rays appear as minute red lines about o-2 mm. high : just visible with the lens. Type specimen authenticated by the Forest Officer to the Government of Natal. No. 6. AFRICAN OAK. Lophira alata. Banks. PLATE I. FIG. 6. Natural Order. Dipterocarpeae. Synonyms. L. simplex. G. Don. L. africana. Loudon. Alternative Names. Scrubby Oak (Henfrey) : Laintlaintain : Meui : Millai in Sierra Leona (107). Sources of Supply. Gold Coast : Lagos. Physical Characters, etc. Recorded dry-weight 67-72 Ibs. per cu. ft. Hardness Grade i, compare Ebony. Burns very well with a noisy, explosive flame, embers glow in still air and consume very slowly to the ash, no particular aroma. Solution colourless : the watery solution becomes deep red with potash : the alcoholic brown, with a ppt. Grain. Coarse and open. Surface lustrous. Bark. Bright brown, about J inch thick : of one layer : filled 6 LACE-BARK with coarse, hard bodies and exhibiting the continuations of the rays in transverse section. Uses, etc. A very showy furniture and turner's wood. Authorities. Scott-Elliott & Raisin (107). Henfrey's Botany, 3rd ed., p. 225. Kew (56). Colour. Deep red like dried blood, with chalky lines. No distinction between sap- and heart-wood. Anatomical Characters. Transverse section : — Pores. Conspicuous on account of their size and whitish con- tents, size 1-2, uniform except within the groups but increasing in average size as the tree ages : in subdivided groups of 2-5 whitish pores mostly in threes : few, 1-6 per sq. mm. : many filled with a whitish substance and a few with red gum, but for the most part empty. Rays. Need lens, fine, size 6, finer than in any other species observed : very many, 5-8 per mm. : sinuous often 3 to the pore-width : not avoiding the pores. Rings. Doubtful. Soft-tissue. Very clear in innumerable, fine, close, concentric, undulating, continuous lines rather lighter in colour than the ground- tissue and 1-2 per mm. Pith. Large, about £ inch diameter, hard, rather lighter in colour than the wood. Radial Section. Pores ; coarse grooves, very conspicuous when filled with the whitish deposit which gives the wood its remark- able character. Rays; vague, shadowy, minute flakes. Soft- tissue in close, fine, regular, vertical lines. Tangential Sections. The soft- tissue appears in the form of beautiful waved or zigzag lines : pale and inconspicuous though readily visible. Plate XXI, Fig. 174. Type specimens from commercial sources, except one from the Governor of Lagos, which is authenticated only as regards its local name. This species is usually confused by name with No. 170. No. 7. LACE-BARK. Plagianthus betulinus. A. Cunn. PLATE I. FIG. 8. Natural Order. Malvaceae. Source of Supply. New Zealand only. Alternative Names. Houi (A.G.). Powhiwhi (12). Physical Characters, etc. Recorded dry-weight, 36! Ibs. per cu. ft. Hardness Grade 7, compare Spruce. Smell ? My specimens smell musty, but I suspect that this arises from the presence of decay in the sap-wood. Taste little if any. Burns 7 THE TIMBERS OF COMMERCE very well, no aroma, embers glow in still air and the sound wood smoulders away like touchwood. Solution colourless : not coloured by potash. Grain. Very fine and even : surface very dull except that of the rays, which is lustrous. Bark. Brown, £-| inch thick, of two layers : the outer con- sisting of small irregular, crumbling, corky scales : the inner of many layers of lace-like bast readily separating and riddled with spindle-shaped perforations caused by the continuations of the rays into the bark. Uses, etc. Doubtful : not recorded. Works very easily and smoothly and has a pretty figure when quartered. Authority. Boulger (12), p. 480. Colour. Heart-wood whitish-brown, not very sharply defined from the i£-2 inches of apparently perishable sap-wood. Anatomical Characters. Transverse section: — Pores. Need lens, size 4, little variation : in concave (dentate) festoons like the rungs of a ladder between the rays and confined to a narrow zone of soft- tissue : 70-120 per mm. : isolated : round. Rays. Prominent, size 2-3, uniform : few, 1-7 per mm. : tapering both ends to fine points : curved but not avoiding the pores : white. Rings. Clear if indicated by the loops of soft- tissue. Soft-tissue. In festoons between the rays in numerous continuous, concentric zones of contour forming a beautiful tracery with the rays. " Radial Section. Pores ; need lens, very fine scratches only. Rays; readily- visible, white flakes. Soft- tissue visible in a close, regular series of fine white, parallel lines. Tangential Section as the Radial. The rays are not easily seen except under the bark where they penetrate the layers of bast : about i£ mm. high. The soft-tissue is much less prominent. Type specimen authenticated by the Forest Officer to the Government of New Zealand (A.G.). No. 8. LACE-BARK. Hoheria populnea. A. Cunn. PLATE XVIII. FIG. 157. Natural Order. Malvaceae. Source of Supply. New Zealand only. Alternative Names. Whau Whi (A.G.). Powhiwhi : Ribbon- wood (12). Physical Characters, etc. Recorded dry-weight, 42 Ibs. 8 BLUE MAHOE per cu. ft. Hardnes Grade 8, compare White Pine but of a brittle nature. Taste or smell none. Burns well with little aroma : embers glow in still air. Solution colourless, not changed by potash. Grain. Rather coarse and open. Surface coarse and dull excepting that of the silver-grain. Bark. Light coloured, smooth, about 3V~i inch thick, whitish or yellowish-brown with many exquisite thin layers of lace-like bast riddled with spindle-shaped perforations caused by the continuation of the rays through to the bark. Authorities. The Agent-General for New Zealand (A.G.), Boulger (12). Colour. Brown as to the ground-tissue, white as to the silver-grain. Anatomical characters as those of Plagianthus betulinus except the size of the elements, the rays in particular being much bolder. Pores, size 3-4 and 35-60 per sq. mm. : Rays, size 2, and i or at most two per mm. Type specimen authenticated by the Forest Officer to the Government of New Zealand. No. 9. BLUE MAHOE. Hibiscus elatus. Sw. PLATE I. FIG. 9. Natural Order. Malvaceae. Synonyms. Paritium elatum. Dow. (The Hibiscus elatus of De Candolle is H. tiliaceus, Linn, and not this species.) Alternative Names. Majagna in Cuba. Maubo do Mato in N. Prov. Brazil (76). Mountain Mahoe : Tulip Tree in West Indies (64) : Tall Hibiscus : Grand Mahot : Bois de Liege in Barbadoes (105) ? Mahoe do mer in Brazil (76). The Mahoe of Trinidad is Sterculia caribaea. R. Br. Sources of Supply. The West Indies, Jamaica, and tropical America generally. This wood is easily mistaken for that of H. tiliaceus, which is however lighter and less compact. The confusion is increased by the similarity of names and synonyms. The word " Mahoe " meaning mallow (compare French " mauve") is very wide-spread and is applied to many Malvaceous plants both herbaceous and woody. Physical Characters. Weight, 44^-49^ Ib. per cu. ft. Hard- ness Grade 3, compare Blackthorn. Smell faintly aromatic, peppery when worked, giving rise to sneezing. Taste faint, if any. Burns well, highly inflammable : no smell : embers glow in still air. Solution with water olive-green. Grain. Moderately coarse and open. Surface lustrous : the rays and pores shining, the ground bright. THE TIMBERS OF COMMERCE Bark. Has the appearance of cracked glue or shellac : " pretty smooth " (64). Uses, etc. Gunstocks, carriage-poles, ships' -knees, fishing- rods.' Very flexible. " Does not corrode nails " (64), but apparently from a remark of J. Leman's becomes " purplish when cut with iron." %< Has all the characters of the best Euro- pean Ash, but is more durable and longer in the fibre" (131). Authorities. Boulger (12), p. 436. Miers (76). J. Leman (64). Schomburgk (105). Wiesner (131), Lief. 6, p. no. Colour. Brown brownish-grey with an occasional cast or shade of dark blue. " Dark olive" (64). Sap-wood about f inch wide, whitish, 6cru. Anatomical Characters. Transverse section: — Pores. Visible : size 2, coarsish : little variation : uniformly scattered : few, 10-20 per sq. mm. : single or in compact, sub- divided groups of as many as 10 : no resin : round or oval. Rays. On the limit of vision : size, 5 fine : uniform in size and equidistant : few, about 47 per mm. : weak, running round the pores : slightly denser than the ground- tissue. Rings. Not traceable. Soft-tissue. Abundant in thick patches consisting of radial rows of wide-meshed cells near the pores. Pith. ? Radial Section. The blue stain when present is more promi- nent in this section. The pores are readily visible, empty, shining lines of medium coarseness. The rays are readily visible but not conspicuous, bright, bluish-brown flakes (upon a cleft surface). Tangential Section. The rays appear as fine lines (upon the imit of vision about 5 mm. high, otherwise as the Radial section. No. 10. THE PORTIA TREE. Thespesia populnea. Coir. PLATE I. FIG. 7. Natural Order. Malvaceae. Synonym. Hibiscus populneus. Willd. Sources of Supply. India, Burmah and the Andamans (37). Ceylon. Trop. Africa. ^ Alternative Names. Native rosewood in the Carolines (22). Tulip Tree in India and many others in the various dialects, see Gamble and Watt. Umbrella tree : Faux Bois 'de Rose : Bois de Rose de 1'Oceanie (131). Rosewood of the Seychelles (12). Poplar : Poppy Tree in Barbadoes (8). Physical Characters, etc. Recorded dry- weight, 48-53 Ibs. per cu. ft. Hardness Grade 4, compare Maple. Smell none. 10 PLATE II. Fig. 11. Elaeocarpus Kirtoni. Fig. 12. Elaeocarpus dentatus. Fig. 14. Guaiacum (Lignum Vitae). Fig. 15. Citrus (Orange). Fig. 16. /.uithoxylum (Satin-wood). Fig. 17. Chloroxylon (Satin-wood). Fig. 18. Picrana (Quassia). Tastt vhen ru; Burn heat • mo; Fine bu -right. >rk. ? " Bowls, clu'n-. pad I'' ik in the Carolines" (22). " Gur. . furniture in India : a modt thorities. Watt (127). -ner (I3XV L. 6, p. n->. Ba Colour. Heart-wood denned from the whitish Wiesner H. is dark red Anatomical Characters. '! Pores. Readily lighter colour: not promi: duction in size in the latt Few, 3-24 per sq. mm. : .sional radial or nested often filled. Rays. Just visible, sizt u; spaced a pore- width or mor« per ijim. Rings. Clear with the c probably indicated Soft-tissue neatly enc. 'hen crowded '.it angles to the t h. ? Hal Section. Pon •ut often fille ' .- difficult to see, i Ground-tissue with mu Tangential Section a. in a transparent sf< tion. r>ecimen authenti -nrri'ent of Ceylon. If \\ Exhibition. No. ii. BASSWO cana. Linn. or Ln BASS WOOD Taste astringent. " Smells of roses when rubbed " (131). Burns badly with a spurting flame : some juice expelled by the heat : embers glow in still air : much ash. Solution with cold water the colour of the wood : with hot, a dark vinous red : more afterwards extracted by alcohol. Grain. Fine but open for the most part. Surface bright. Bark. ? Uses, etc. " Bowls, clubs, paddles, and carved work in the Carolines" (22). " Gunstocks, boats, cart and carriage making, furniture in India : a moderate-sized tree" (37). Authorities. Watt (127). Christian (22). Gamble (37), p. 43. Wiesner (131). L. 6, p. no. Barham (8). Colour. Heart-wood deep chocolate-brown, uniform, sharply denned from the whitish or ecru sap-wood. (According to Wiesner H. is dark red and S. light red (131.) Anatomical Characters. Transverse section: — Pores. Readily visible on account of their numbers and lighter colour : not prominent, size 4, a slight regular re- duction in size in the later wood of the ring : evenly scattered. Few, 3-24 per sq. mm. : mostly single but many pairs and an occasional radial or nested group of 3 or 4 : round when single : often filled. Rays. Just visible, size 5, uniform: rather irregularly spaced a pore-width or more apart, weak, straggling : many, 8-12 per mm. Rings. Clear with the unaided eye but no actual boundary line ; probably indicated by the porous and laxer zones. Soft-tissue neatly encircling the Pores when isolated becoming patchy when crowded : possibly also extremely fine cross-bars at right angles to the rays. Pith. ? Radial Section. Pores fine but readily visible, shining when empty, but often filled with amber, ruby and black contents. Rays difficult to see, just perceptible in certain lights. Ground-tissue with many single cells with dark contents. Tangential Section as the Radial, but the rays can only be seen in a transparent section. Type specimen authenticated by the Forest Officer to the Government of Ceylon, from a log sent to the Indian and Colonial Exhibition. No. ii. BASSWOOD. Tilia americana. Linn. PLATE II. FIG. 10. Natural, Order. Tiliaceae. Alternative Names. Willow in the U.S.A. (109). Lime Tree : Linden or Lin : Bee Tree in U.S.A. (49). II THE TIMBERS OF COMMERCE Sources of Supply. North America. United States, Canada, New Brunswick. Physical Characters, etc. Recorded dry-weight 26-45^ Ibs. per cu. ft. Hardness Grade 7, compare English Birch. Smell or taste none. Burns well with a quiet, steady flame : embers glow brightly in still air : ash white. Solution colourless. Grain, Very fine and even though open. Surface brilliantly lustrous in radial section. Bark.? Uses, etc. " Not strong, easily worked, woodware, cheap furniture, panels and bodies for carriages, inner soles of shoes, turnery, paper-pulp" (53). "Cutting-boards — does not bias the knife in any direction " (100). " It is imported in logs from 10-20 feet" long by 20-40 in diameter in the round or in boards, f-2 inches thick " (109). "Attains a height of 80 ft. by 4 ft. diameter " (49). Authorities. Hough (49), pt. I. p. 42. Sinclair (109). Sargent (100), No. 17. Robb (95). Stevenson (113). Colour. White, ecru ; uniform. " Sometimes tinged with red " (49)- Anatomical Characters. Transverse section : — Pores. Need lens, size 4, uniform except within the groups : evenly distributed, rather smaller and less noticeable in the outer edge of the ring : numerous, 150-200 per mm. : often subdivided or nested not always with tangential septa : usually pairs but often 3-6 in a group : round when single : empty. Rays. Just visible, size 3-4, uniform : irregularly spaced : much more than a pore-width apart except between the atten- uated ends of the rays: numerous, "middles" 4-5 per mm: " ends " about 20 : white. Rings. Very inconspicuous, clear with lens : the boundary appears whiter. Contour undulating. Soft-tissue. Narrowly encircling the pores. Pith. ? Radial Section. Pores very inconspicuous, dull, fine lines. Rays visible only by contrast of lustre : broadish flakes. Rings, inconspicuous but clear : the boundary is narrow but distinctly brighter. Tangential Section as the Radial, but the rays appear as fine linear (not spindle-shaped), brown lines about" 2-2| mm. high. T\pe specimens from commercial sources ; also authenticated by Hough. T2 AUSTRALIAN WHITE BEECH No. na. LIME TREE (Small-leaved). Tilia cordata. Mill. PLATE II. FIG. 10. Synonyms. T. parvifolia, Ehrh. T. europea van C. Linn. T. ulmifolia, Scop. Alternative Name. Winterlinde (129). Source of Supply. Europe generally. Physical Characters, etc. Recorded dry-weight 29^-32^ Ibs. per cu. ft. Smell " peculiar and rather unpleasant " (113). Other characters as Tilia americana. Bark. " Grey : remains supple for 20 or 30 years, and at that age becomes marked with long, fine fissures separated by wide intervals. When very old it resembles that of old Oaks " (169). " Reddish-brown, later black " (106). Uses, etc. " Not very durable but works well and warps little — cuts in all directions without splitting and is little subject to the attacks of worms. Not suitable for works of construction ; turnery, sabots " (69). " Better than the wood of the large- leaved Lime " (129). " Subject to the attacks of worms " (113) ! It makes good pianoforte sounding-boards. Authorities. Mathieu (69), p. 31. Nordlinger (86), vol. i., p. 63. Westermeier (129), p. 16. Weisner (131), L. 12, p. 972. Schwartz (106), p. 482. Stevenson (113), p. 104. Colour. Whitish, reddish or pale-yellow. A sap-wood tree, no heart-wood. It resembles the wood of T. americana (which should be compared), but the rays are clearer and brighter. The shade or colour of the transverse section in this species is much darker than that of the Radial and Tangential sections. Type specimens from commercial sources and also from trees known before felling. No. 12. AUSTRALIAN WHITE BEECH. Elaeocarpus Kirtoni. F.v.M. PLATE II. FIG. n. Natural Order. Tiliaceae. Alternative Name. Kir ton -wood (5). Sources of Supply. Queensland, New South Wales. Physical Characters, etc. Weight 32^-46 Ib. per cu. ft. Hard- ness Grade 7, compare Birch or Deal. Smell none, taste slightly astringent. Burns well with a rather agreeable aroma, embers glow in still air. Solution with water extremely faint, with alcohol famt brown. Grain. Moderately fine and open. Surface lustrous, the pores usually dull, but sometimes shining : readily soils. 13 THE TIMBERS OF COMMERCE Bark. ? Uses, etc. " Suitable for furniture, very easy to work " (5). This wood may possibly be confused with Birch or Sycamore but not easily with Beech. Authorities. F. M. Bailey (5), p. 22. F. v. Mueller (80). Nilsson (85). Laslett (60), p. 254. Colour. Brownish-white, whitish. Sap-wood. ? Anatomical Characters. Transverse section : — Pores. Clearly visible, yet scarcely conspicuous on account of the lack of colour : very coarse, size 1-2 : little variation : evenly distributed but occasionally gathering into pore-rings : mostly single where scattered, united into compact groups or strings of as many as 13 where crowded : few 9-13 per sq. mm : round : appear whitish in the solid. Rays. Just visible, size 3-4 : uniform but rather irregularly spaced : never less than the width of a pore apart and not avoid- ing them : straight : tapering : much denser than the ground- tissue : many 2-4 per mm. : light-brown. Rings. Apparently well denned : bands ol denser and more porous ground-tissue much resembling annual-rings, also some variation in the number of pores : contour regular. Soft-tissue. The whole wood is denser and laxer by turns (in zones) : the whitish lines look like soft-tissue in the solid : also narrow borders of soft-tissue encircling the pores (need micro.). Pith. ? Radial Section. The pores appear as coarse, open, greyish, usually dull grooves, sometimes shining when empty : the rays as very inconspicuous, faint, almost colourless flakes : the rings are not traceable, but there are bands with varying numbers of pores here and there. Tangential Section. As the Radial, but the rays appear as minute, inconspicuous, almost colourless lines about i mm. high or less. Type Specimens. No. 0577 bears the label of the Sydney Technological Museum, and No. 1381 is authenticated by Mr. F. M. Bailey. No. 13. AUSTRALIAN MOUNTAIN ASH. Elaeocarpus grandis. F. v. M. Natural Order. Tiliaceae. Alternative Names. Brisbane Quandong. Blue Fig in New South Wales. Moorgum in North Queensland (5) : also Calshum (12). The popular name of " Mountain Ash " is applied also to . E. longifolia in New South Wales. Physical Characters, etc. Weight about 45^ Ib. per cu. ft. HINAU Hardness Grade 6, compare Beech. Smell and taste none. Burns well with a quiet flame : heat expels a brown gum, embers glow in still air. Solution with alcohol none, with water very faint yellow. Grain. Moderately fine and open. Surface lustrous, the lustre being due to the ground- tissue, the rays dull, the pores some- times shining. Bark. ? Uses, etc. " Building purposes, weather-boards. Reputed to have the property of resisting white ants" (5). Very fissile. Authorities. F. M. Bailey (5), p. 23. J. F. Bailey (6), p. 393. Nilsson (85), p. 55. Timber Trades' Journal (120), April 20, 1901. Colour. Grey : greyish-brown. Anatomical Characters. Transverse section : — Pores. Clearly visible yet scarcely conspicuous on account of the lack of colour : size 2, rather coarse : little variation : evenly distributed : pore-rings rare if ever present : rarely single pores, mostly subdivided, in compact, radial groups of from 3-8 : few, 3-20 per sq. mm. : slightly oval : some appear whitish in the solid. Rays. Just visible, size 4 or 4-5 : uniform : irregularly spaced, never less than the width of a pore apart and not avoiding them : straight : much denser than the ground : many, 5-8 per mm. Rings. Doubtful (see below). Soft-tissue. White lines resembling ring-boundaries : contour well rounded : continuous : size 4 : also narrowly encircling the pores (needs micro.). Pith. ? Radial Section. The pores appear as dull grooves of medium coarseness. Rays, small, inconspicuous yet readily visible flakes : cells very coarse and visible with the lens : dull. The rings are not traceable. Tangential Section. The rays appear as minute, incon- spicuous, almost colourless lines about i mm. high (need moistening to be seen). Type specimen bears the label of the Sydney Technological Museum. No. 14. HINAU. Elaeocarpus dentatus. Vahl. PLATE II. FIG. 12. Natural Order. Tiliaceae. Synonym. E. Hinau. A. Cunn. Source of Supply. New Zealand only. Physical Characters, etc. Recorded dry-weight 35-39$ U">- ror cu. ft. Hardness Grade 7, compare Beech. Taste or smell, none . Burns well with a long lively flame : no aroma : embers die out 15 THE TIMBERS OF COMMERCE and leave the carbonized wood. Solution olive-brown deepening to olive upon the addition of potash : extremely little ppt. Grain. Very fine, dense and close. Surface dull. Bark. Reddish-brown, f to £ inch thick, rough but not fis- sured or scaly : of two layers, the inner about f ths of the total thickness, compact and woody : the outer brittle. " Very rough " (24). Uses, etc. " Supple, tough, — cart-wheels, shafts, ships' timbers, — not plentiful and generally small " (24). "Almost incombustible, very tough and durable, — a small, strong timber, used for sleepers, railings, etc., in exposed places" (60). " Apt to split " (3). Works almost as easily as English Beech : when planed the grain " picks up " badly in one direction. Authorities. Laslett (60), p. 311. Smith (3), p. 212. Kew Guide (57), p. 76. Collinson (24). Colour. Heart-wood, brown, sharply defined from the sap- wood. " White " (in). " Light, dull brown " (57). Anatomical Characters. Quite different to those of E. Kirtoni and E. grandis. Transverse section : — Pores. Need lens, size 3-4, considerable variation : in short, radial, subdivided groups of 2 to 8 between the rays : widely scattered : few, 3 to 20 per sq. mm. Rays. Just visible : broad in the middle and tapering to fine ends: "middles" size 4-5 and 2-3 per mm., together with "ends" about 10 per mm. The rays occupy more than half -of the transverse surface. Slightly lighter in shade and denser than the ground-tissue. Rings. Doubtful ; there is an occasional zone rather poorer in pores but no definite boundary. Soft-tissue. None. Pith. ? Radial Section. Pores, fine scratches. Rays, fine lines, just visible more by contrast of lustre than of colour. Rings, scarcely indicated if at all. Tangential Section. As the Radial, but the rays are minute, colourless, spindle-shaped lines rather broad for their length and about 1-2 mm. high. Type specimen authenticated by the Forest Officer to the Government of New Zealand. No. 15. TRINCOMALI WOOD. Berria Ammo- nilla. Roxb. (not Klein). PLATE II. FIG. 13. Natural Order. Tiliaceae. Synonyms. B. mollis. Wall. Berrya. Gamble. 16 TRINCOMALI WOOD Alternative Names. Halmillilla in Ceylon : Petwoon in Bur- mah (37). Katamanakku in Ceylon (12). Sources of Supply. South India, Ceylon and Burmah (37). East Indies (131). Physical Characters, etc. Weight 48-65 Ib. per cu. ft. Hard- ness Grade 3, very hard, compare Blackthorn. Smell and taste none. Burns with a lively, crackling flame : embers glow in still air : ash pure white. Solution with water or alcohol colourless. Grain. Very fine, dense and even. Surface lustrous, the brightness being due to the ground tissue and the shining drops : feels slightly damp even when really dry : does not soil easily. Bark. "Thin" (37). Uses, etc. " Masula-boats, spear-handles : is considered a valuable building timber in Ceylon. A large tree " (37). Fissile, works very sweetly, finishes well, is of good appearance, splits easily, straight and cleanly. I have not heard of this wood being sold in England, but it is one that deserves attention from its many excellent qualities. " Tough, elastic " (131). Authorities. Gamble (37), p. 52. Watt (127), vol. i. p. 448. Balfour (7). Wiesner (131), i. 6. p. 108. Colour. Light to dark red, quite uniform : the heart-wood well defined from the light yellow or brown sap-wood which is about i inch wide. Anatomical Characters. Transverse section : — Pores. Visible clearly without lens : Medium, size 3 : variable : evenly distributed, often in short, subdivided, radial lines con- sisting of a large pore followed by others gradually decreasing in size : 5-8 groups or 60-80 pores per sq. mm. : often containing resin or gum. Rays. Scarcely visible : fine, size 5 : nearly straight : long and not often tapering : uniform in breadth : very slightly denser than the ground-tissue : very numerous, 7-12 per mm. Rings. Apparently distinct, but cannot be located with the lens (see below) : lightly undulating in contour : some variation in shade from zone to zone. Soft-tissue. Abundant in concentric, interrupted lines almost as fine as the rays : linking the pores which are also encircled by soft-tissue of the same nature. Radial Section. The pores appear as fine scratches filled with brown " Thyloses " (see p. xvii.) : the rays as minute, incon- spicuous, brown flakes : the rings are indistinguishable : the soft-tissue requires the lens and forms a net-work over the whole surface in close parallel lines at right angles to the direction of the pores. Tangential Section. As the Radial, but the rays appear as minute, very obscure, brown lines about 0*5 mm. high. 17 c Type specimen. Authenticated by the Forest Officer to the Government of Ceylon. This description differs from that of Gamble in respect to the rays, which are stated by him to be prominent. No. 1 6. LIGNUM-VIT M. dubia " (M. australasica. Juss), but he must i. mean that the wood resembles that species. MAHOGANY. The various species o -re so confusing that I confe statements either of no convince on th - ' iew that n are Cedr seen but two series of specir those at Kew and states in the Introduce he has inclu PLATE III. Fig 19. Khaya (African Mahogany). Fig. 22. Cedrela ( Panama Mahogany). ».'*«:' « .'•vi Fig. 25. Dysoxylum ( Australian Mahogany). Fig. 20. Swietenia (True Mahogany). '* •. .* »-. . Fig. 23. Cedrela Toona (Toon). Fig. 26. Apodytes. Fig. 24. Carapa (Crab-wood). Fig. 27. Ilex (Holly). MAHOGANY Annual ring). This latter character is even more constant than the presence or absence of a Pore-ring which may be partially dependent upon climatic conditions. I regard Gamble as the most reliable authority upon all woods embraced within his compendious work, as few authors have had the opportunity such as he for the proper authentication of his species coupled with the necessary skill and discrimination to describe them. The only conclusion I can draw therefore is that our commercial Mahoganies are not the wood of Swietenia, and in this I am supported by the want of resemblance in the structure of the specimens at Kew to our common Mahoganies. The chief difficulty is the doubtful authenticity of specimens derived from commercial sources. Amongst those which I have been able to examine I distinguish the following types, based chiefly upon the appearance of the rays when viewed in the solid wood under the microscope as opaque objects. (a) Rays spindle-shaped in Tangential section with a few of their cells having black contents, e.g. African : Axim, Assinee, Lagos, Laguna, Oganwo and an unknown species from Lagos. (6) Rays with a few of the cells having black contents but linear in shape on a Tangential section, e.g. African, Panama, Tabasco and Mexican Cedars. (c) Rays medium sized, coarse-celled, no black contents, wood dense and cold to the touch, e.g. Panama, St. Domingo, City St. Domingo and Cuba Mahoganies. (d) Rays of irregular height in Tangential section, no black contents, Bermuda, Honduras, and Tabasco Mahoganies. (e) Rays short in proportion to their width in Tangential section, no black contents, Pores scanty in the outer part of the ring and marked by the frequency of pairs (in Transverse section) divided by the rays (i.e. not by ordinary septa), e.g. Caoba. My specimen of the last type was one of those sent to the Paris Exhibition by the Mexican Government and passed on to- me by the kindness of Sir Wm. Th. Dyer. It was marked, " Caoba : Nombre scientifico, Swietenia Mahagoni." It is interesting inasmuch as it has a character absent in the common Mahoganies which agrees partially with Gamble's description, viz. in the scantiness of the Pores in the outer part of the ring. A precise description of the characters of the various varieties of Mahogany is at present impossible. Plate III. figs. 19, 20- and 22. The two first are taken from sections by Nordlinger. 33 THE TIMBERS OF COMMERCE No. 28. CAOBA. (Possibly Swietenia Mahagoni. Jacq.) PLATE III. FIG. 21. Natural Order. Meliacese. Source of Supply. Mexico. Alternative Name. Bois d' Acajou a Meubles. Physical Characters, etc. Dry-weight 67 Ibs. per cu. ft. Hardness Grade 3, compare Blackthorn. Smell and taste none. Burns indifferently : embers glow in still air : some juice expelled by heat. Solution the colour of the wood. Splits easily but irregularly. Grain. Moderately fine and even. Surface smooth and some- what lustrous. Bark. ? Authority. Kew (55). Colour. Red with dark bands and fine black lines (the pores) : darkens on exposure. Sap-wood brown. Anatomical characters. Transverse section: — Pores. Readily visible on account of their black and white contents, size 2-3, moderate sized, uniform : thinly and irregu- larly scattered: many radially sub-divided, usually single but many pairs and threes, rarely many in a group : also often pairs divided by a ray : 1-16 per mm. : sometimes green contents as well as white and black. Rays. Scarcely visible, size 5, uniform : equidistant : long, narrow, tapering at length : 5-7 per mm. : deep crimson : very sinuous in longish waves but scarcely avoiding the pores. Rings. Fairly clear if indicated by the light-coloured lines. Soft-tissue. In often-readily-visible continuous, numerouss concentric lines of regular contour, rather broader than the rays. They occur at irregular intervals sometimes hardly the diameter of a pore apart. Also narrowly encircling the pores (micro.). Pith. Round, very coarse-celled, about ii mm. wide. Radial Section. Pores very prominent, dark red or black line, the chief features of the wood : also an occasional white one. Rays. Just visible, fine, red flakes. Rings. Vague. Soft-tissue. Just traceable as extremely fine lines. Type specimen received from the Royal" Gardens, Kew, being one of the series of Mexican Woods exhibited at the Paris Exhibition of 1900 by the Mexican Government The specimen was marked : " Caoba : Nombre scientific©, Swietenia Maha- goni." 34 PANAMA MAHOGANY No. 29. PANAMA MAHOGANY. (Probably Cedrela sp.). PLATE III. FIG. 22. Natural Order. Meliaceas. To this type belong St. Domingo, City St. Domingo and Cuba Mahoganies. Physical Characters, etc. Recorded dry- weight, 29^ lbs.~35£ : Splits unusually easily and cleanly. Hardness Grade 6, firm, com- pare Oak. Smell or taste none. Burns well : embers glow in still air. Solution the colour of the wood. Grain. Smooth, very fine, and even. Surface lustrous, often " watered " or satiny. Bark. ? Colour. Red, brick-red, golden-red : not banded, nearly uniform. Sap-wood ? Anatomical Characters. Transverse section : — Pores. Conspicuous on account of their white borders. Size I, few, 1-8 per sq. mm. : appear light in the solid wood against the dark ground. Rays. Minute, need lens, size 5, fine, uniform : long, almost too thin to taper : bright red : less dense than the ground- tissue : weak but rarely avoiding the pores : not sinuous in long waves. 4-7 per mm. Rings. Clear here and there, a zone free from pores : well rounded : see Soft-tissue. Soft-tissue. Conspicuous, fine, light-coloured lines, size 3, concentric : also encircling the pores. Pith.? . Radial Section. Somewhat darker than the Tangential section and considerably darker than the Transverse section. Pores, fine, glistening, cellular lines often filled with red or black resin : frequently in pairs or threes. Rays, small but a pretty silver-grain : dull : lighter than the ground. Soft-tissue, in long, fine whitish lines and prominent, hoary borders to the pores. Tangential Section as the Radial, but the pores appear finer and the rays as minute lines upon the limit of vision. The soft-tissue, broadens out at the edges of the loops and thus gives some bands a hoary cast which is the chief feature of this wood. In the St. Domingo variety there are signs of a loose Pore- ring indicated by the coarser fringes in Tangential section, bordering the loops. Type specimens from commercial sources : not authenticated. 35 THE TIMBERS OF COMMERCE No. 30. CEDAR. Cedrela odorata. Linn. (?) Natural Order. Meliaceae. Not the Cedrela odorata of Blanco, Cham, Schlecht, Griseb. Ruiz, Pav, or Veil. Alternative Names. Havannah Cedar (48). Barbadoes Bastard Cedar : Bois d' Acajou a planches, Cedre Acajou (Barba- does) : Cedro in Spanish South America (115). Cuba, Honduras or Mexican Cedar (460). Zuckerkistenholz (131). Jamaica or West Indian Cedar (in). Pfefferholz (81). Cedro aromatico : Acajou amer : Acajou femelle^: Cedre in Brazil (99). Sources of Supply. Trop. America : West Indies. Physical Characters, etc. Recorded dry-weight 27^-39^ Ibs. per cu. ft. Boulger (15) gives the specific gravity as 272-664 and the weight per cu. ft. as 31-47 Ibs., which are mutually contradictory. Hardness Grade 7, compare English Birch. Smell very faint. Taste astringent rather than bitter, develops slowly upon the tongue. Burns moderately well with much crackling : embers glow in still air and consume rapidly to the white ash : no aroma. Solution pinkish, deeping upon addition of potash : copious red ppt. Grain. Rather coarse and open. Surface slightly lustrous in radial section, but rather dull in others. Bark. ? Uses, etc. " Cigar boxes and similar articles, timber 12-24 inches on the side by 18-40 feet in length " (60). Laslett also gives useful mechanical tests. " Recommended for wainscoting rooms and for chests, -the inside work of clothes-presses and drawers from the circumstance that vermin are not known to breed in it, shingles will last 15 years " (57). A brittle wood. Authorities. Holzapffel (48), p. 79. Saldanha da Gama(99). Martin (68), p. 230. Smith (in), "p. 101. Kew Guide (57), p. 62. Laslett (60), p. 269. Wiesner (131), L. 6, p. 94. Schom- burgk (105). Boulger (15), 186. Colour. Brownish-red : light brick-red. " Sap-wood narrow reddish-white " (15). Anatomical Characters. Transverse section : — Pores. Clear on account of their size, Grade 2-3 : appear scarcely lighter in clean-out section : a pore-ring of a scanty row of large pores, smaller pores widely scattered with an approach to a concentric arrangement amongst them : 1-6 per mm. : contents seldom visible in this section in the solid. Rays. Size 5-6 : 4-7 per mm. : brick-red in colour. Ring-boundaries very prominent. Soft-tissue. In prominent, widely-separated, continuous, con- centric lines very much broader than the Rays, often | inch apart : also vague arcs or wings to the outer pores of the ring 36 TOON which with that encircling the pores is visible to good sight with the unaided eye. Pith. Round, 1-2 mm. wide, red : many of the cells have black contents. Vertical Sections. Pores, not much darker than the ground, rarely filled : divided into chambers which are shorter than the width of the pores. Rays, just traceable with lens when moistened. Type specimen authenticated by Sir Thos. Hughes. The structure of this wood differs slightly from that of such cigar- boxes as I have examined and does not tally with Boulger's description (15). There is much confusion in the literature of this wood. No. 31. TOON. Cedrela Toona. Roxb. PLATE III. FIG. 23. Natural Order. Meliaceae. Synonyms. C. australis, Roxb. C. febrifuga, Forst. C. odorata. Blanco. C. hexandra, Wall. C. serrata, Royle (Gamble separates this from C. toona). Alternative Names. Indian Mahogany. Cedre de Singapore (131). Moulmein Cedar in England. Red Cedar in Queens- land and New South Wales ; Mugurpul. Mamin at Brisbane. Woota at Wide Bay (5). Wauja in North Queensland. Woolia and Cedar in New South Wales (12). Polai. Soeren poetic in N. Java. Soerhen meira in Java and Malacca (123). Cedro vermelho in San Paulo and Rio Grande do Sul Brazil (78). For names in the Indian vernacular, consult Gamble and Watts. Sources of Supply. India and Burmah, Queensland and New South Wales, Java, Malacca and Brazil. Physical Characters, etc. Weight 26^-38 Ibs. per cu. ft. Hardness Grade 7, soft ; compare Alder or Birch. Smell and taste none. Burns well, ignites readily, little smell, embers glow in still air. Solution with cold water light brick-red, richer in colour with hot water or alcohol. Grain. Coarse and open. Surface very lustrous, the ground tissue shining, and a great contrast to the dull rays and pores. Uses, etc. "Cabinet-making, durable, easy to work" (5). "Furniture, door panels, carving, tea boxes, shingles, rice- pounders, dug-out canoes " (37). Very fissile; may be met with in logs of large size. " Equal to the best Mahogany " (C. Morris). Authorities. F. M. Bailey (5), p. 32. J. F. Bailey (6), p. 394, No. 25. Laslett (60), No. 253. Nordlinger (86), vol. iv. j>. 29. Miers (76). Gamble (37), p. 77. Van Eeden (123). Wirsner (131), L. vi. p. 94. Maiden (67). 37 THE TIMBERS OF COMMERCE Colour. Very deep red, quite uniform in all sections. Anatomical Characters. Transverse section : — Pores. Readily visible, size o-i ; no great variation except within the groups : rather unevenly distributed : a loose pore- ring of large pores : many subdivided, mostly single, but occa- sionally in compact, radial or nested groups of 3-7 pores : few, about 4-16 per sq. mm. : often containing red resin or gum. Rays. Just visible, size 4-5 : uniform and equidistant : rather less than the largest pore-width apart, avoiding the larger pores : much denser than the ground : 4-7 per mm. : red. Rings doubtful, but the ring of large pores is fairly definite here and there, but no contrast in the density of the tissue. Soft-tissue. Abundant in fine red lines, about as wide as the rays : concentric, continuous, wavy : perhaps forming the boundary of the annual ring : also neatly and narrowly en- circling the pores. Pith. ? Radial Section. The pores are prominent, coarse, open, chambered grooves, mostly empty, but many containing drops of dark resin or gum. The rays are readily visible, dull, darker- coloured flakes. The soft-tissue is doubtfully visible. Tangential Section, As the Radial, but the pores are not so coarse : the pore-rings show very prominently as loops, and the soft-tissue appears as a cloudy zone upon the edge of the fringes to the loops. Type specimens authenticated by F. M. Bailey, Forest Officer to the Government of Queensland ; also by the Forest Depart- ment at Sydney (as C. australis, Roxb.). They neither agree with Gamble's description nor with that of Nordlinger, but do so with the latter' s section of C. serrata, Royle, but not with Gamble's description of that species. No. 32. CRABWOOD. Carapa guianensis. Aubl. PLATE III. FIG. 24. Natural Order. Mel.'aceae. Synonyms. C. latifolia, Willd. Xylocarpus carapa. Carapa guineensis, Sweet., and C. guyanensis, Oliv., are the C. procera of De Candolle, a different species from Tropical Africa. Alternative Names. Crababalli : Caribaballi : Caraba : Carapa, etc., variously spelled. Andiroba branca in Brazil. Andiroba carapa in French Guiana. The Carib-wood of Trinidad is Campomanesia aromatica, and not the present species. [Kundi : Tallicoma in Sierra Leone (107) ? is this C. procera.]. Sources of Supply. Tropical America, chiefly British Guiana. Physical Characters, etc. Recorded dry-weight 39^ Ib. per cm 38 CRABWOOD ft. Hardness Grade 6, compare Beech or Chestnut. Smell or taste faint or none. Burns well with a lively crackling flame : embers glow in still air : much ash. Solution yellowish or brownish. Grain. Moderately coarse and open, but even in some sections. Surface bright in radial section, but dull in tangential section. Bark. ? Uses, etc. " In British Guiana for mill, and mortar-beds, ordnance, house-framing : resists shock " (60). Laslett con- demns it on account of splitting during seasoning, but I had a log about 18 in. in diameter, which worked up very well. " Cabinet- making, masts and spars, bitter-cups " (78). I suspect an error here, as the wood is practically tasteless. Logs can be obtained " up to 40 to 60 ft. long, or occasionally 170 ft. by 14 to 16 in. sq.r or even at times 30 to 42 in." (68 and 78). Autlwrities. Nordlinger (86), vol. x. p. 46. Laslett (60), p. 278. McTurk (68), No. 34. Morris (78). Scott-Elliott and Raisin (107). Colour. Heart-wood deep reddish brown, well denned from the yellowish or whitish sap-wood. Anatomical Characters. Transverse section : — Pores. Coarse, readily visible, size 2-3, little variation : in- creasing as the tree ages : evenly distributed, mostly subdivided into nest-like or radial groups of from 2 to 10 pores, rarely the latter : about 8 pores or groups per sq. mm., often with red or yellow contents. Rays. Need lens, narrow, size 5, uniform : equidistant : long, but tapering rather abruptly : undulating in short waves : as dense as the ground- tissue : 3 to 5 per mm. : nearly the same colour as the rest of the wood. Rings. Clear here and there on account of a narrow line of dense wood adjoining a broader band of spongy tissue. Soft-tissue encircling the pores with some slight lateral exten- sions : plainer in the solid section when moistened. Pith. ? Radial Section. Considerably lighter in shade than the trans- verse section : pores prominent, coarse, open grooves : shining and often containing red or black drops : rays, prominent, dull flakes of much darker red : rings not traceable. Tangential Section. About the same shade as the transverse section : pores less prominent than in the radial section, but more numerous : rays just perceptible, short, narrow brown lines about 1*0 mm. high. Tyfre specimens authenticated by the Forest Officer to the Government of British Guiana. 39 THE TIMBERS OF COMMERCE No. 33. AUSTRALIAN MAHOGANY. Dysoxylum Fraseranum. Benth. PLATE III. FIG. 25. Natural Order. Meliaceae. Synonym. Dysoxylon, Blume. Alternative Names. Pencil Cedar in Queensland and New South Wales. Also Rosewood in the latter locality (60). Sources of supply. Australia, Southern Queensland (86), and Northern New South Wales (12). Physical Characters, etc. Weight about 56^ Ib. per cu. ft. Hardness Grade 7, compare English Birch. Smell something like cigar-box Cedar. Taste none. Burns well with a noisy, splut- tering flame, slight tarry smell; embers glow in still air. Solu- tion with water strong, reddish-orange ; after with alcohol, the same, but thin and weak. Grain. Medium, open. Surface bright (but dull compared with the glossy D. muelleri), the rays and soft tissue dull and inconspicuous. Uses, etc. " Cabinet-making, shipbuilding, turnery, carving, engraving " (5). Possibly Bailey refers to the backing of electros by the last mentioned use, for which it would serve, but it would be most unsuitable for engraving upon. This tree grows to large size. Authorities. F. M. Bailey (5), p. 30. Kew Guide (57), p. 56. Laslett (60), p. 253. Colour. Uniform light-red. Anatomical Characters. Transverse section : — Pores. Just visible from their size, grade 2 : little variation except within each group : apparently increasing in size year by year : evenly distributed, mostly subdivided into radial groups of from 2 to 6 pores : few, 8-25 pores per sq. mm. : about half containing ruby or amber resin or gum : oval. Rays. Need lens : no contrast of colour : size 5, fine : long and tapering to great tenuity : weak and avoiding the largest pore-groups : uniform and equidistant : rather less than a pore- width apart : same colour as, and denser than the ground, but a little lighter in shade : many 6-9 per mm. Rings. Doubtful, but they may be indicated by the concen- tric lines of soft-tissue (see below). Soft-tissue. Abundant in continuous concentric lines, regu- larly recurring, equidistant : 4-5 per mm. : size 2-3 : cells con- necting the pores very coarse, size about 7 (pore-scale) : pig- mented. Also some patches of radial lines without order near the pore-groups. The concentric lines sometimes touch each 40 RED BEAN « other or cease abruptly, and hence are probably no indication of the ring boundaries : colour the same as the rays. Radial Section. The pores are coarse, prominent shining grooves, often in closely adjoining parallel lines, containing drops of brilliant ruby resin or gum : the rays are inconspicuous and difficult to see : no trace of the rings : the soft- tissue is visible to good sight as faint, hoary, zigzag lines. Tangential Section. Resembles, the Radial, except that the pores are exposed singly, not in numbers side by side : the rays are minute lines readily visible with lens : about 0*75 mm. high : coarsely cellular, of one row of cells readily visible with micro. (2 inch objective) : bright red. Type specimen authenticated by F. M. Bailey. No. 34. RED BEAN. Dysoxylum Muelleri. Benth. Natural Order. Meliaceae. Synonym. Dysoxylon, Blume. Alternative Names. Turnip wood in New South Wales and Queensland. Kedgy-kedgy and Pencil-cedar. The latter name is also applied to D. Fraseranum, Benth. Physical Characters, etc. Recorded dry-weight 46 Ib. per cu. ft. Hardness Grade 7, compare Hazel or Alder. Smell none when dry, but " like that of a Swedish turnip when fresh" (85). Taste none. Burns well with a lively flame, no smell, embers glow in still air. Solution with water faint, scarcely any ; ditto with alcohol. Grain. Moderately coarse and open with considerable varia- tion according to the cut. Surface very lustrous, the ground and pores shining, the rays and soft-tissue dull but incon- spicuous. Uses, etc. "Joinery, cabinet-making, cigar-boxes" (5). "Easily wrought, interior fittings in general" (85). Works well and would fill the place of any of the softer and medium quality Mahoganies. A tree " attaining a height of 100 ft. and a diameter of 4 ft." (85). Usually confused with its near rela- tive D. Fraseranum and with Mahoganies in general. Authorities. F. Manson Bailey (5), No. 6ia, p. 30. Nilson (85), P- 53- Colour. Deep red, quite uniform. Sap-wood ? Anatomical Characters. As D. Fraseranum, with the follow- ing variations : — Pores. Increasing rapidly in size as the tree ages : in groups of 2-9 pores : few from 1-15 per mm. ; often with ruby con- tents : shortly oval. 41 THE TIMBERS OF COMMERCE Rays. Size 5-6 : many. Radial Section. Pores frequently with black drops. Rays small, inconspicuous, dull-red flakes : soft-tissue like a fine regular " machine-ruling or hatching." Tangential Section. As the radial : the soft-tissue makes readily- visible and beautiful though inconspicuous zigzag tracery : hoary in certain lights. Type specimens authenticated by R. F. Baker of the Sydney Technological Museum and by F. M. Bailey, Government Botanist of Queensland. No. 35. KOHE-KOHE. Dysoxylum spectabile. Hook. Natural Order. Meliaceae. Alternative Name. Redheart (A.G.). Physical Characters, etc. Recorded dry-weight 36-39^. per cu. ft. Hardness Grade 8, compare American White Pine. Taste or smell none. Burns well without aroma, embers glow dully in still air, ash light, white and filmy. Solution with water pink- ish, deepens slightly upon the addition of potash, no ppt. ; ex- tracted afterwards with alcohol the wood gives a brownish solution which is intensified by potash and a dark red ppt. is thrown down. Grain. Very fine. Surface lustrous especially in radial section. Bark. Bright brown with a whitish or greyish, papery, friable outer skin and many curious crater-like marks and longitudinal wrinkles : not fissured : i to ^ inch thick : i layer only : fibrous and laminated within. Uses, etc. Works like deal. Splits straight. "A substitute for cedar. Cabinet-work, the domestic arts" (60). Authorities. Laslett (61), p. 412. The Agnet-General for New Zealand (A.G.). Colour. Heart-wood of an uniform, rosy red, gradually passing over into the brown sap-wood which is from 3 to 5 inches wide. Anatomical Characters. As those of D. Fraseranum, with the following variations : — Pores. Less numerous, 4 to 10 per sq. mm., size 3 : usually single. Rays. Closer and more numerous, 10-12 per mm., size 5-6 : and rather prominent in tangential section. Little if any resin : in vertical section the pores are visible but not prominent. Type specimen authenticated by the Forest Officer to the Government oi New Zealand. 42 WHITE PEAR No. 36. WHITE PEAR. Apodytes dimidiata. E. Mey. PLATE III. FIG. 26. Natural Order. Olacinese. Synonym. A. acutifolia, Hochst. Alternative Name. Wit Peer. Sources of Supply. South Africa, chiefly Natal. Physical Characters, etc. Recorded dry weight 49-61^ Ibs. per cu. ft. Hardness Grade 2-3 or rather harder than Blackthorn. Smell and taste none. Burns well, no smell, heat expels gum or resin. Solution with water clear, light brown. Grain. Very fine and close. Surface dull. Bark. Smooth, not fissured, about | inch thick, hard : lenti- cels extended laterally something like those of English birch. Uses, etc. A good turner's hard-wood. Takes a moderate finish ; not ornamental. Works well in all directions. Does not readily twist or warp, and planes especially well across grain (trans, sec.). Very tough. Authorities. Unwin. I.I. Journ. No. 62, p. 40. Colour. Greyish-brown : a sap-wood tree, no heart-wood. Anatomical Characters. Transverse section : — Pores. Need lens, size 5, little variation : rather uneven!}' scattered : fairly numerous, 45-60 per mm. : mostly single but in groups of 2-4, radially disposed : rarely a loose pore-ring. Rays. Need lens, size 5 : apparently two sizes of rays or else the larger taper to great tenuity : lax, coarse-celled, the cells under the micro, appear in strings and equal size 7 (pore- scale), elongated radially and rectangular: the small rays or "ends," size 5-6, a pore-width apart : the larger or "middles," short, weak, but not avoiding the pores : together very numer- ous, from 17-19 per mm. Rings. Clear though not prominent : boundary a line of contrast between the dense spring zone, containing many wide- meshed cells against the dense Autumn zone : occasionally a loose pore-ring. Soft-tissue. Doubtful whether the many wide-meshed cells are the cells of the small rays or whether they are small pores or soft-tissue. Many single cells at the boundary of the spring zone. Pith. Round, coarse celled, \-\ mm. diameter. Radial Section. Pores need lens, extremely fine striations : rays small, inconspicuous flakes visible by means of their slight lustre : rings clearly marked dark and light bands, but not much contrast. 43 Tangential Section. As the Radial, but the rays are minute, brown spindle-shaped lines, apparently about i'O mm. high. Type specimens authenticated by the Forest Officer to the Government of Natal, and also from a log sent me by the Imperial Institute. No. 37. HOLLY. Ilex aquifolium. Linn. PLATE III. FIG. 27. Natural Order. Ilicineae. Distribution. Europe from South Norway to Turkey and the Caucasus ; Western Asia. Alternative Names. Gemeine Huelsen : Huelsdorn : Christus- dorn : Stechpalme (131). Physical Characters, etc. Recorded dry-weight 48-60 Ib. per cu. ft. Hardness Grade 5, rather hard, compare Ash or Com- mon Elm. Smell and taste none. Burns well and quietly, ignites readily, embers glow in still air. Solution with water and alcohol colourless. Grain. Extremely fine, close and dense. Surface bright, the little lustre being due to the minute shining pores. Bark. Thin, about ^ inch, greenish-brown, wrinkled, smooth, not fissured : dull, but with the remains of the closely- adherent, shining epidermis. Uses, etc. Turnery, cogs, marquetry. Takes a black stain well and then appears like ebony (69). A good turner's wood. Authorities. Nordlinger (87), p. 522. Ditto (86), vol. iii. p. 69. Mathieu (69), p. 58. Wiesner (131), L. xii. p. 966. Colour. White or greenish-white. A sap-wood tree, no heart. Anatomical Characters. Transverse section : — Pores. Need lens, extremely fine, size 7, much variation : united in nests or lines, usually 5-12, arranged radially and branched : numerous, 40-150 per sq. mm., locally abundant : a pore-ring of a few rows of not coarser pores. Rays. Just visible, rather broad, size 3 : straight, not avoiding the pores : long, tapering gently at both ends : denser than the ground-tissue ; numerous, 3-5 per mm. : irregularly spaced, a pore-width or more apart : white. According to Mathieu there are two kinds of rays, but I believe that those which he took to be the smaller are merely the attenuated ends of the larger (see also Wiesner). Rings. Clear, though not prominent : boundary a very fine • line of dense Autumn wood, followed by a few-rowed pore-ring : contour well rounded. 44 WIT-HOUT Soft-tissue. Occasional cells in the neighbourhood of the pore-groups. Pith. Round or lobed : o'5-2'o mm. diameter : greenish or brownish, and as hard as the wood. Radial Section. The pores are extremely fine, colourless lines running in numbers side by side : the rays are colourless, incon- spicuous flakes : there is no trace of the rings : the pith shows as a broad brownish strip. Tangential Section. As the Radial, but there are rarely more than two pores exposed side by side : the rays are minute, spindle-shaped, rather darker lines readily visible with lens or even to good eyesight, in certain lights. Type specimens from commercial sources and from trees known before felling. No. 38. WIT-HOUT. Ilex capensis. Harv. Natural Order. Ilicineae. Source of Supply. South Africa, Natal. Alternative Names. Whitewood. The Dutch name is also applied to a species of Niehbuhria. Physical Characters. Recorded dry-weight 38 ib. per cu. ft. Hardness Grade 7, compare English Beech. Smell or taste none. Burns well with a faint and pleasant aroma, embers glow dully in still air. Solution faint brown, no ppt. with potash. Grain. Fine. Surface dull and smooth. Bark. ? Uses, etc. Of doubtful value except for firewood, although it works very easily. It warps excessively and splits badly during seasoning. Colour. Milk-white : a sap-wood tree. Anatomical Characters. As those of Ilex aquifolium, with the following differences : — Pores. Size 3-4 : the radial rows usually short and not exceeding 6 pores in close contact : thinly scattered, 35-50 per sq. mm. Rays. Size 2-3: "middles" 1-3, or "middles and ends" together 7-9 per mm. : brownish. In radial section, distinct or even prominent : rather darker than the ground- tissue : in tangential section rather broad : readily visible spindle-shaped lines. Rings. Vague : boundary an extremely indistinct line of contrast in the density of the spring and autumn zones. Type specimen authenticated by the Forest Officer to the Government of Natal. 45 THE TIMBERS OF COMMERCE No. 39. BASTARD BULLET-WOOD. Humiria floribunda. Mart. PART IV. FIG. 28. Natural Order. Humiriaceae. Synonyms. H. arenaria, Guill. H. elliptica, Klotsch. H. laurina, Klotsch. H. mutiflora, Pritz. H. parviflora, A. Juss. H. surinamensis, Miq. (Humiria = Humirium). Alternative Names. Couramira : Nieri : Turanira in Brazil (99). Redwood. Towaronero (78) Bastard bully : Umiri (76), in the Amazonas region and the North Provinces of Brazil. Sources of Supply. Tropical America, Brazil, British Guiana. Physical Characters, etc. Recorded dry- weight 74^ Ib. per •cu. ft. Hardness Grade 2, compare Boxwood. Smell or taste none. Solution colourless. Burns- with a lively spluttering flame, embers glow in still air. Grain. Moderately coarse on a radial section, but fine on a tangential section. Surface lustrous, smooth and cold to the touch like Boxwood. Uses, etc. " House-frames, wheel-spokes, considered superior to Greenheart. Plentiful in British Guiana, and may be met with in logs 90 ft. long by 20 in. square free of sap-wood" (78). Authorities. McTurk (78), No. 14. Miers (76). Boulger(i2). Saldanha da Gama (99). Colour. Heart -wood, light red with an orange tinge, or red- dish-orange : well denned from the brownish-white sap-wood, which is about i inch wide. Anatomical Characters. Transverse section : — Pores. Pores in the solid wood, conspicuous from the white colour, size 3-2 : medium, not much variation except within the groups : uniformly scattered : few, 0-6 per mm. : mostly single, but some pairs or threes or even fives radially disposed. The thyloses which fill the pores look like subdivisions of the pores : the latter increase in size as the tree ages, i.e. from the pith out- wards. Rays. Need lens, size 5-6, of one size only, uniform : equi- distant : rather less than a large pore-width apart, running round them : denser and lighter in colour than the ground- tissue : numerous, 8-13 per mm. : undulating. Rings. Clear if indicated by the regularly occurring con- centric lines of denser wood, but these sometimes run into one another or fade away. Soft-tissue. Abundant in fine concentric lines equalling the rays in breadth, spacing and colour : size 5 (ray scale) : numerous 9-1 1 per mm., regular in contour, but dentate between the rays with which they form a regular and beautiful net- work. 46 PLATE IV. Fig. 28. Hmqlria -wood). Fig. 29. Fig. 31. Rhamnus (Buckthorn). Fig. 34. RCE No. 39. BASTARD BULLET-WOOD. Humiria fioribunda. Mart. II. at< (QO). Redwood. T or threes or the hi rds. i mm. : ilially c : V t A'hite nthe ;nplp - ; then md- • 5 dent Ul ii< PLATE IV. Fig. 28. Humiria (Bastard Bullet- wood). Fig. 31. Rhamnus (Buckthorn). Elaeodendron (Saffraan). Fig. 32. ^Esculus ( Horse-chestnut). Fig. 34. Acer (Sycamore). Fig. 30. Celastrus (Silk-bark). Fig. 33. Pteroxylon (Sneeze-wood). Fig. 36. Robima (Aracia\ SAFFRAN-HOUT Pith. ? Radial Section. Rather lighter in colour and quite uniform : pores rather coarse, but few and dull, being filled with thyloses : rays just visible as minute hoary flakes : rings not clearly traceable : soft-tissue needs lens and then appears like fine "machine-ruling or hatching." Tangential Section. As the Radial, but the pores are still less numerous and much finer than in the radial section : rays ap- pear as exceptionally fine white lines, one cell wide, and about i '5 mm. high : the rings appear as inconspicuous loops with ragged, hoary fringes. Type specimens authenticated by the Forest Officer to the Government of British Guiana. No. 40. SAFFRAN-HOUT. Elaeodendron croceum. D.C. PLATE IV. FIG. 29. Natural Order. Celastrineae. Synonym. Cassine crocea O.K. (Boulger [15] in error). Alternative Names. Crocus-tree : Saffron : Safforan, in South Africa. Umbomoana (20), in Zululand. Umbomvana (61). Sources of Supply. Natal and other parts of South Africa. Physical Characters, etc. Weight about 54 Ib. per cu. ft. Hardness Grade 3, compare Blackthorn. Smell and taste none (perhaps faintly fragrant). Solution with water a beautiful deep crimson, from good dark-coloured wood. Burns well, embers glow in still air. Grain. Exceptionally fine and close. Surface bright. Bark. Leathery, smooth, not fissured, hard, about £ inch thick, purple within, covered by an orange-coloured skin having minute lenticels. Uses, etc. " Furniture, boat -building, waggons, wood-engrav- ing (the coarser kinds), excellent for turnery. Tough, solid, and durable. Works well in every way " (60). " Beams, planks, furniture" (19). Easily confused with Assagai-wood ('Curtisea faginea'). No. 120. Authorities. Nordlinger (86), vol. vii. p. 27. Laslett (60), 304. Ditto (61), 438. Cardrew (20). Cape Land Almanack (19). Colour. Rosy red : reddish -yellow, well defined from the paler and yellower sap-wood : quite uniform. Anatomical Characters. Transverse section : — Pores. Need lens, size 6, fine, little variation : evenly tributed, but collected into loose zones here and there : few, about 45 per sq. mm. : easily confused in this section with the 47 THE TIMBERS OF COMMERCE soft-tissue, the cells of which are nearly half the pore-diameter : mostly single, but also in groups of 2-3 pores. Rays. Visible in certain lights : size 4, medium : nearly uniform : equidistant, a pore-width or less apart : few, about 2 per mm. : less dense than the ground-tissue : undulating, but not avoiding the pores : tapering both ends : the attenuated ends convey the impression that there are two kinds of rays, a circumstance of frequent occurrence hi this order (Celastrineae). Rings. Not very clear : boundary, a narrow ring of pore-less Autumn wood adjoining a more porous band of Spring wood : contour rounded or undulating (80 per inch in my specimen). Soft-tissue. Abundant in many long, radial lines of cells and also in ill-defined, gently undulating, concentric bands. Pith. ? Radial Section. Rather lighter in shade than the transverse. The pores need the lens and are minute shining lines : the rays are inconspicuous flakes of almost the same colour as the ground-tissue and visible hi certain lights only : the rings and the soft-tissue can neither be traced with the lens. Tangential Section. As the Radial, but unusually uniform in colour : the rays need the lens, being minute, dark-red lines about o'5 mm. high. Type specimens authenticated by the Forest Officer to the Government of Natal. They do not agree with Laslett's de- scription " something like walnut," but I have checked them with specimens at Kew, the Imperial Institute and elsewhere, and with Nordlinger's section. No. 41. SILKBARK. Celastrus acuminatus. Linn. (Not of Rafin., or Wall.) PLATE IV. FIG. 30. Natural Order. Celastrineae. Alternative Name. Zybast'(57). Source of Supply. South Africa. . Physical Characters, etc. Recorded dry-weight 63 Ib. per cu. ft. Hardness Grade 3, compare Blackthorn. Taste or smell none. Burns well and quietly without aroma, heat expels a yellow juice, embers glow in still air and consume very slowly to the abundant white ash. Solution faint pinkish- brown, deepening to port wine colour upon the addition of potash ; no ppt. Grain* Unusually fine, compact and dense. Surface rather dull, but silky and smooth to the touch. Bark. ? 48 CANADIAN BUCKTHORN Uses, etc. "A small tree rarely exceeding i ft. in diameter by 2 ft. bole. . . Furniture and fancy-work. Said to be suitable for umbrella handles" (57). A wood of firm texture; works hard ; difficult to split. Authorities. Kew Guide (57), p. 33. Nordlinger (86), vol. vii. p. 13. Colour. A delicate brown marked with fine, close, darker lines, giving the wood the appearance of watered silk. Anatomical Characters. As those of Elaeodendron croceum, with the following differences : — Pores. On the limit of vision with lens, size 5-6 : few 10-25 per sq. mm. : easily distinguishable from the cells of the soft- tissue by their lack of colour : scattered thinly and irregularly. Rays. Need lens, size 5 : 8-10 per mm. Rings. Very clear, though not prominent : boundary, a sharply defined band of brownish, coarse-celled soft-tissue in concen- tric lines of undulating (crenate) contour. Pith. ? Radial Section. Rays faint pink or purplish flakes on a cleft surface otherwise obscure : rings prominent, the boundaries being close, fine, brown lines. Tangential Section. As the Radial, but the ring-boundaries are very prominent, though not broad, dark, granular bands or loops of jagged contour, making a very pretty figure. Type specimen authenticated by the Forest Officer to the Government of Natal. This wood should be examined with a microscope. No. 42. CANADIAN BUCKTHORN. Rhamnus Purshiana. D.C. PLATE IV. FIG. 31. Natural Order. Rhamnaceae. Alternative Names. Bearberry or wrongly Barberry (2). Sacred-bark Buckthorn : Wild Cherry : Shittim-wood : Cascara sagrada (49). Bearwood (100). Sources of Supply. Canada and the United States. Physical Characters, etc. Recorded dry- weight 31^-35 J lb. per cu. ft. Hardness Grade 7, compare English Birch. Smell none. Taste not strong but rather nauseous. Burns well with puffs of vapour, heat expels a yellow juice, no particular aroma, embers glow in still air. Solution with water brownish, with alcohol ditto, giving a slight pink ppt. on the addition of potash. Grain. Fine, dense and compact. Surface lustrous in all sections. Bark. Of a " bluish-grey colour mottled with whitish, quite 49 E THE TIMBERS OF COMMERCE smooth and checked longitudinally, similar to that of the Beech in the east of U.S.A." (49). Uses, etc. " Ornamental purposes, ... a foot in diameter, or usually smaller" (2). "Not strong" (100). Authorities. Anderson (2), p. 14. Hough (49), pt. vii. p. 23. Sargent (100), p. 41. Colour. ' ' Light yellowish-brown streaked with purplish-brown and with light yellow sap-wood" (49). Heart-wood irregular in width and contour, defined but not sharply, from the sap- wood, which is from J to £ inch wide. Anatomical Characters. Transverse section : — Pores. Need lens, size 4, a slight diminution in the outer side of the ring : thinly scattered, 10-25 per sq. mm. : scarce in the Autumn wood : a single-rowed pore-ring : a tendency to an oblique arrangement : in subdivided and often nested groups of 2 to 8 pores. Rays. Fine but readily visible, size 5, uniform : long, scarcely tapering, straight but slightly bent at the ring-boundaries : a large pore-width or more apart : denser than the ground-tissue : 3-7 per mm. Rings. Very clear on account of the clearly-cut pore-ring : contour undulating or irregularly lobed. Soft-tissue. Narrowly and neatly encircling the pores with- out extensions. Pith. ? Radial Section. The pores appear as very fine, lustrous grooves : the rays are just visible as small, pale flakes : the ring-boundaries are inconspicuous, but well-defined by a fine clearly-cut line, and the soft-tissue is practically invisible. Type specimens authenticated by Hough. No. 43. JAMAICA COGWOOD. Ceanothus Chloroxylon. Nees. (?) Natural Order. Rhamneae. Synonym. Zizyphus chloroxylon, W. Alternative Name. Cerillo. Source of Supply. West Indies. Physical Characters, etc. Weight about 67 Ib. per cu. ft. Hardness Grade i, compare Ebony. SmeD none. Taste in- sipid. Burns badly with much crackling, difficult to ignite, embers glow in still air. Solution with water bright brown. Grain. Very fine, close, even. Surface lustrous : the rays, pores and ground-tissue all bright : the pores often glistening. Bark. ? Uses, etc. Turnery, mill-work, cogs of gear-wheels. " Very elastic" (131). 50 HORSE CHESTNUT Authorities. Wiesner (131), Lief. 6, p. 106. Easily confused with Quebracho, No. 212. Colour. Very deep, uniform nut-brown. Sap-wood ? Anatomical Characters. Transverse section : — Pores. Need lens, size 3-4, medium, little variation : evenly scattered : mostly single, a few compact groups of 3-4, rarely 6-8 : from 5-50 per sq. mm. : nearly all with red or yellow con- tents : round : sparkling. Rays. Need lens, size 5, fine : uniform : equidistant, the width of a pore or less apart : weak, almost straight, not avoid- ing the pores : tapering both ends : lax and cellular, less dense than the ground-tissue : brown or reddish : 6-8 per mm. Rings. Doubtful (see Soft-tissue below). Occasional zones of wood poor in pores : contour regular. Soft-tissue. Numerous fine, continuous, concentric lines resembling the ring-boundaries : with rather less space than between the rays : sometimes 3-5 per mm., but often zones where they are lacking : colour same as the rays. Pith. ? Radial Section. The pores are fine, dull, hoary lines with occasional drops of resin. The rays are narrow, hoary, incon- spicuous yet readily visible flakes. The rings are only faintly indicated. Tangential Section. As the Radial, but the rays are fine lines not traceable with the lens, and the loops are slightly indicated by some difference in the depth of colour of adjoining zones. Type specimen from commercial sources, not authenticated but reputed to be C. chloroxylon. The structure resembles that of some Rhamnaceous woods. No. 44. HORSE CHESTNUT. ^Esculus hippo- castanum. Linn. PLATE IV. FIG. 32. Natural Order. Sapindaceae. Synonyms. ^Esculus castanea, Gilib. M. memmingeri. Hort. JE. procera, Salisb. Alternative Name. Marronier d'Inde in France (69). Sources of Supply. Europe, British Isles, North America. Usually confused with many other soft whitish woods. Physical Characters, etc. Weight 29^-39 Ib. per cu. ft. Hard- ness Grade 7, soft : compare Deal or English Birch. Smell (when fresh only) like rubbed potatoes (86). Taste none <>r slightly insipid. Burns badly, maintains a flame with diffi- culty, but the embers glow in still air. Solution with water or alcohol colourless. 51 THE TIMBERS OF COMMERCE Grain. Fine, close and even. Surface somewhat shining, the lustre being chiefly due to the ground tissue. Bark. Light grey with brown lenticels : thin : smooth when young, cracking later with lattice-like fissures upon the ridges of which a black skin persists. Uses, etc. Mathieu's opinion is that it " is one of the worst woods that one can produce either for work or for fuel : does not cut cleanly, decays rapidly, is scarcely good enough for packing-cases. Twists and warps but little" (69). "Carving and packing-cases " (131). Authorities. Hartig (42), pp. 33~44- Schwartz (106), p. 85. Nordlinger (87), p. 510. Ditto (86), vol. iii. p. 45. Hough 49), part i. p. 47. Mathieu (69), p. 44. Wiesner (131), L. 12, p. 970. Colour. Pure white : yellowish-white : reddish. A sap-wood tree. Anatomical Characters. Transverse section : — Pores. Require lens : extremely small, size 6 : uniform and evenly distributed or rather fewer in the outer Autumn zone : occasionally grouped in radial (not subdivided) lines of 2-7 pores : a tendency to branch : numerous, 100-125 Per scl- min. Rays. Require lens : extremely fine, size 6 : lightly undu- lating : often tapering : not very long : very slightly denser than the ground-tissue : very numerous, about 17 per mm. : a pore-width or less apart, only the fine ends avoiding the pores. Rings. Difficult to see in the solid wood, but very clear in a thin section : boundary, a few rows of closely-packed pores here and there adjoining a zone of Autumn wood poor in pores. Soft-tissue in the form of scattered cells only. Pith. 2-5 mm. thick : round edor 4-lobed : white : very soft. Radial Section. The pores require the lens and are then only visible by means of their lustre : the rays are extremely fine colourless lines about their own height apart and visible by re- flection only in a certain light : the rings are just visible as vague lines and the pith is greyish-brown and very prominent. Tangential Section. As transverse section, but the rays appear as fine lines, about 25 mm. high, just perceptible with lens? Type specimens taken from a tree which was known when in leaf. No. 45. SNEEZEWOOD. Pteroxylon utile. Eck. and Zey. PLATE IV. FIG. 33. Natural Order. Sapindaceae. Alternative Names. Nieshout : Umtati (12). 52 SNEEZEWOOD Sources of Supply. South Africa : Natal, Cape Colony, Zulu- land. Physical Characters, etc. Weight 65-67^ Ib. per cu. ft. Hard- ness Grade I, compare Ebony. Smell peppery, often excites sneezing and running of the eyes when worked. Taste nauseous and bitter. Solution with water or alcohol faint yellow. Burns well with a lively crackling flame, heat expels a sepia-coloured juice, embers glow in still air. Grain. Extremely fine though open. Surface very lustrous, due to the ground-tissue : rays and pores dull. Bark. £-J inch thick, hard, shiny, coriaceous, cracked, per- sistent, brown without, yellow within. Uses, etc. "Turnery, building, water-work" (19), "works of construction, bridges : but slightly affected by water " (51). " One of the most desirable woods in the world : bearings for shafts : takes a beautiful polish : termite and teredo proof : very in- flammable even when green. May be met with in logs 20- 30 ft. long by 2-4 ft. in diameter" (19). Hard to saw, but not refractory. Authorities. Boulger (12), pp. 421-418. Laslett (60), p. 303. Kew Catalogue (57), p. 30. Cape Land Almanack (19). Colour. Rose colour, light citron to brownish-red with lighter and darker zones. Sap-wood milk-white about 20 rings wide, defined from the heart. Colour darkens upon exposure. Anatomical Characters. Transverse section : — Pores. Need lens, size 5-7, uniform : evenly distributed, but a slight tendency to gather into zones and a radial arrange- ment of the pores : rather fewer in the outer part of the rings : occasionally in radial groups of 2-7 : not subdivided : round : numerous, about 50-70 per mm. : contents mostly white, some- times dark red. Rays. Require the microscope to count them, but just visible with lens : extremely fine, size 7 : lightly undulating, not avoid- ing the pores : same density as the ground- tissue : white : very numerous, 20-25 per mm. : about the width of a pore apart. Rings. Very clear : the boundary a line of contrast between the density of the ground-tissue, accompanied by a very loose pore-zone against one " poor " in pores : contour undulating. Soft-tissue. None. Pith. ? Radial Section. The pores are minute lines upon the limit of vision, blood-red when filled with resin, otherwise whitish or hoary. The rays need the lens and are minute inconspicuous flakes. The rings are very clear and appear as light and dark- bands, making loops as in deal. Tangential Section. As the Radial, but the rays appear as 53 THE TIMBERS OF COMMERCE minute lines, which are invisible even with a microscope lens (a " Swift " 2 inch). Type specimens authenticated by the Forest Officer to the Government of Natal. No. 46. SYCAMORE. Acer Pseudo-Platanus. Linn. PLATE IV. FIG. 34. Natural Order. Sapindaceae. Alternative Names. Erable sycomore : Grand Arable de montagne : Faux Platane in France (69). Berg-ahorn in Germany (131). This species goes by the name of Sycamore in the United States (12), but the name is more commonly applied to the Plane-tree, Platanus occidentalis, Linn. Sources of Supply. Europe, British Isles, United States of America and Canada. Physical Characters, etc. Weight 281-49 ft>s. Per cu- ft- Hardness Grade 4, compare Maple. Smell or taste none. Burns unusually well with quiet but lively flame, embers glow in still air. Solution with water or alcohol colourless. Grain. Close, even and fine. Surface somewhat lustrous, especially in the radial section, where the rays are the most lustrous portion. Bark. Smooth : J inch thick : leathery : not fissured : supple : grey : becomes scaly with age. Uses, etc. Carpentry, especially table tops, on account of its whiteness : bobbins and other turnery. Durable when under cover, but not when exposed : splits cleanly but with difficulty. A tree of medium size, usually met with in logs as felled, with bark or in waney planks. Authorities. Hartig (42), pp. 30-41. Schwartz (106), p. 482 and pt. I. Nordlinger (87), p. 509. Ditto (86), vol. iii. p. 41. Mathieu (69), p. 37. Laslett (60), p. 164. Stevenson (113), p. 119. Wiesner (131), L. 12, p. 969. Colour. Milk-white : brownish : uniform. A sap-wood tree. Often streaked with green (a defect). Anatomical Characters. Transverse section : — Pores. Require lens, rather fine, size 4 : nearly uniform in size : evenly distributed : numerous, but not crowded, 20-30 per sq. mm. : occasionally in groups of from 2-5 pores. Rays. Require lens or just visible : medium, size 4 : nearly straight, only the fine ends avoiding the pores : short, soon tapering both ends : denser than the ground-tissue : about 2i~3i per mm. upon an average : white, with a satiny lustre. Rings. Obscure in the solid wood : boundary, a fine, clear, 54 HARD MAPLE brown line of Autumn wood scarcely wider than a ray, visible with lens : contour well rounded, otherwise little contrast between the Spring and Autumn zones. Soft-tissue. Not readily distinguishable from the ground, the whole rather wide- meshed and spongy. Flecks. ? Possibly the green stripes above referred to are of this nature. Pith. Some mm. thick : round : reddish or yellowish- white : "of two kinds of brownish, thick-walled cells " (86). Radial Section. The pores are difficult to see even with lens. The rays are small lines or flakes, which are readily visible by means of their lustre, not by their colour. The ring-boundaries appear as faint, thin brown lines. Tangential Section. As the radial, but the rays appear as fine, colourless lines about '5 to 1*0 mm. high (need micro.). Type specimens are from trees which were known when in leaf j No. 47. HARD MAPLE. Acer saccharinum. Wang. (Not Linn, nor Michx.) PLATE IV. FIG. 34. Natural Order. Sapindaceae. Synonyms. A. barbatum, Michx. A. nigrum, Michx. A. palmifolium, Borck. NOTE. — The A. saccharinum, Michx., is the var. nigrum of this species, of Torr. et Gray. The A. saccharinum, Linn., is A. dasycarpum, Ehrh. Alternative Names. Sugar Maple, Rock Maple, Sugar Tree (49), Bird's-eye Maple. Sources of Supply. Canada, Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, Newfoundland and the United States. Physical Characters, etc. Recorded dry- weight 33 (?)~54 Ibs. per cu. ft. Hardness Grade 4, compare Sycamore, Hornbeam. Smell none. Taste, if any, like Deal. Burns well and quietly with a lively flame, embers glow in still air. Solution with water or alcohol colourless. Grain. Fine, smooth, even, dense. Surface in radial section brilliantly lustrous, less so in other sections : the pores and rays being dull. Bark. Sometimes as much as i£ inches in thickness : of two layers, the outer deeply fissured, soft and corky, "scaling at length." The scales may be seen distinctly marked off in trans- verse section. These areas are not present in the inner layer, which is about J inch thick, woody and exhibits the continua- tions of the rays. Uses, etc. "Furniture, shoe-lasts, keels, keelsons, flooring, 55 THE TIMBERS OF COMMERCE turnery, interior finishing, saddle-trees " (100). " Tough, strong : one of our best woods for veneering, panelling and high- class furniture May be met with up to no ft. high by 4^ ft. in diameter." Authorities. Hough (49), pt. I. p. 48. Nordlinger (86), vol. iii. p. 41. Macoun (66), p. 99. Ditto (65), p. 21. Sargent titr-r» $W^$& «!$$& ,'•.'.'.• r.:'v;?. ;;;::;^.,;v,-r ^^ .- .'.'• ; •• •;•'•• '•' ' '.' ' i\,> •• . •-. A\*'« «/.**«« I'"''' s^»? '••r"' .••>»' »*'••' •' . •: '' j , , ..,',•: • ' * Fig. 43. V .ui.i (Myall). Baphia (Barwood). ^ Fig. 41. Pterocai-pus (Padouk). Fig. 44. Ar;n i:i melanoxylon (Black-wood). Fig. 39. Piptadenia (Angico). Fig. 42 Sophora. Fig. 45. Sabicu (No. 7^). AFRICAN BLACK No. 52. AFRICAN BLACK-WOOD. DalU melanoxylon. Guill. and Perr. ierra Leone . * -wood ( : ^'oholz ( i Hardness Grade I. Taste none. Solution with alcohol, deep por: 11 with a liv black juice. Grain. Coarse but glassy and cold to {he touc lustrous, pores dull if •k.? similar , ware, et< . Almost in'. Scott- 1 -ner (131), L. 12, ] Colour. Jet-black. sections. Sharply d sap-wood. Anatomical Characters. Pores. Visible only iy distributed br. occasionally grouped o nearly always with bla Rays. Almost invis than a large pore-wid avoiding them, genth denser and darker th. invisible in the solid. >igs. Fairly cl- , pores, almost a po zone poor in zone- prominent pigmei; Soft-tissue. Ab1 grou Ra brownis; the n<-; •ction like lines ab pigmented, Pith. • /? dark brown : of two layers, the inner compact, light brown, 77 THE TIMBERS OF COMMERCE | inch thick, soft : the outer, hard, darker, striped in section like the wood. Uses, etc. " Fence-posts, the best charcoal in Australia" (80). " Very dense, resists white ants, and in the ground seems to last for ever " (17). " Small dimensions " (61). Planes badly, being cross-grained : a handsome wood. Easily confused with Myall- wood and several other aromatic Australian Acacias. Authorities. K. F. von Mueller (80), p. 16. J. Ednie-Brown (17), p. 19. Laslett (61), p. 431. Colour. Very dark-brown or purplish-brown streaked with black. Sap-wood, sharply denned from the heart, J-tV inch thick, whitish. Pores. On the limit of vision, can be seen by reflection . size 3-4, considerable variation, diminishing regularly, the Autumn zone poor in pores, sometimes -in short oblique lines : mostly single, but many subdivided pairs, threes and fours in egg-shaped groups separated from each other by rays : moder- ately numerous, 20-40 per sq. mm. Rays. Need lens or rather micro., size 5-7, uniform : equi- distant, less than a pore-width apart : avoiding the pores, rarely straight, weak, thin, golden threads : many, 5-7 per mm. coarse-celled, yet denser than the ground. Rings. Clear, though not prominent : the boundary frequently a fine, white line equal to size 4 (ray-scale), or a line of contrast and a zone poor in pores and a considerable and striking difference in the size of the Spring and Autumn pores : contour undulating. Soft-tissue. Abundant in lop-sided borders to the pores, often extending laterally to oblique or concentric scraps in the Autumn zone. Pith. ? Radial Section. The pores are obscure, fine scratches : the rays minute, dull, black, inconspicuous lines : the rings are not traceable, but the light and dark pigmented bands are promi- nent : the soft-tissue needs the lens, but is abundant as light- brown borders and tails to the pores. Type specimen authenticated by the Forest Officer to the Government of Western Australia. No. 68. MYALL. Acacia pendula. A. Cunn. PLATE V. FIG. 43. Natural Order. Leguminoseae. Alternative Names. Weeping Myall in Queensland (5). Boree in N.S. Wales. Violet-wood in England (57). Sources of Supply. South Queensland. New South Wales. Victoria. 78 MYALL Physical Characters, etc. Recorded dry-weight 76 Ibs.1 per cu. ft. Hardness Grade i, compare Ebony. Smell fragrant like violets, more so when worked. Taste nauseous. Burns in- differently well : heat expels a juice along with puffs of vapour : embers glow brightly in still air. Solution, dirty brown. Grain. Rather fine, slightly sinuous, even, dense. Surface bright. Resin exudes after a time and hardens in globules. Bark. ? Uses, etc. " Much prized by cabinet makers and turners " (5). A good turners' wood and for such purposes where hardness is required: ornamental. " Tobacco pipes, stock whip-handles, and by the aborigines for boomerangs " (85). Authorities. F. M. Bailey (5), p. 53. Nilsson (85), p. 34. Kew Guide, No. 3 (57), p. 69. Colour. Very dark brown with light coloured lines, few, if any, black bands. Sap-wood. ? Anatomical Characters. Transverse section : — Pores. Very prominent from their colour and size, Grade 3 to 4, uniform except within the groups : evenly scattered, perhaps a tendency to wavy lines : groups rarely joined to others : many single or in pairs and threes and fours : contents not readily seen in the solid, but glisten after moistening : 10-25 P61" sq- nim. Rays. Need lens, size 5 to 6, uniform : equidistant, a pore- width apart, sometimes penetrating the soft-tissue around the pores : many 8-n per mm. Rings. Doubtful, but clear with lens. Boundary a fine white line at intervals, strongly suggesting the boundary : independent of the pores : contour irregular. Soft-tissue. Abundant in broad, brown borders to the pore- groups, but not connecting them except in crowded rings : perhaps also the ring-boundary (see above). Pith. ? Radial Section. Pores, prominent as light brown lines from which the gum often exudes and stains the wood. Rays, very minute, rather darker flakes. Colour bands rare, if any. Soft- tissue clear as borders to the pores. Tangential Section. As the Radial, but the rays are very minute, dark lines, blunt rather than spindle-shaped, about o'2 mm. high. Type specimen authenticated by F. M. Bailey. No. 69. MYALL. Acacia homolophylla. A. Cunn. PLATE V. FIG. 43. Natural Order. Leguminoseae. Alternative Names. Veilchen-holz (131). Wong-arrah on 79 THE TIMBERS OF COMMERCE the Cloncurry River. Gidgee in Queensland (5). Yarran in New South Wales (20). Gidia (12). Spear-wood (85). Sources of Supply. Queensland, New South Wales, South Australia, Victoria. United States (introduced). Physical Characters, etc. Recorded dry- weight 66 to 76! Ibs. per cu. ft. Hardness Grade i, compare Ebony. Burns in- differently well with a short, crackling flame and a little aroma : heat expels a juice : embers glow in still air. Smell fragrant, like violets, more so when worked. Solution feeble, dirty-brown. Grain. Very fine, even and dense, exceptionally sinuous, pro- duces a beautiful figure. Splits with a short-waved fracture. Surface lustrous. Bark. ? Uses, etc. As those of A. pendula, from which it is difficult to distinguish. " A small tree " (5). My specimen must have been cut from a tree not less than 8 inches in diameter. Authorities. F. M. Bailey (5), p. 53. Nilsson (854), p. .23. Wiesner (131), L. 6, p. 82. Col. Cardrew (20). Colour. Heart-wood, dark, rich, reddish-brown, sharply defined from the yellow sap-wood. Anatomical Characters. As those of A. pendula No. 68. (See this.) Transverse section : — Pores. Clearly visible but not prominent, occasionally in groups of as many as 8 pores. Rays. Need lens, and then not readily visible. Rings. The white lines sometimes succeed each other within the Radial diameter of a single pore. Radial Section. Pores, obscure, dark grooves filled with gum, appear hoary in the darker wood, very sinuous. Rings doubtful : the darker zones appear to limit the year's growth. Tangential Section. As the Radial, but the soft-tissue appears as sinuous, hoary borders to the pores. Type specimen authenticated by F. M. Bailey. No. 70. BRIGALOW. Acacia harpophylla. F. von M. PLATE V. FIG. 43. Natural Order. Leguminoseae. Sources of Supply. Queensland. Physical Characters, etc. Recorded dry-weight 75^ Ibs. per cu. ft. Hardness Grade i, compare Ebony. Smell like that of violets, very sweet. Taste none. Burns moderately well with considerable crackling : no juice expelled by heat : embers glow in still air. Solution, olive, turning brandy colour upon the addition of potash : a copious brown ppt. 80 AUSTRALIAN BLACKWOOD Grain. Straight, coarse, but close and compact. Surface bright. Bark. " Rough " (5). Uses, etc. Turnery and fancy-ware. " Elastic — a good cabi- net wood " (5). Authority. F. M. Bailey (5). Colour. Heart-wood, purplish-brown : contour somewhat irregular : not sharply denned from the white sap-wood, which is about i to i£ inches wide Anatomical Characters. As those of Acacia pendula No. 68, but with the following differences : — Pores. Often (apparently) connected in short, oblique lines : size 3 : 10 to 30 per sq. mm. Rays, size 5 to 6 : 6 to q per mm. Radial Section. Rays very bright and distinct, though small. Few (if any) gum stains or globules. Pores, inconspicuous grooves on a freshly-cut section, but rapidly becoming prominent on exposure to the air as the soft-tissue turns colour. Type specimens from commercial sources and also authenticated by F. M. Bailey. No. 71. AUSTRALIAN BLACKWOOD. Acacia melanoxylon. R. Br. PLATE V. FIG. 44. Natural Order. Leguminosae. Sources of Supply. South Australia. Introduced into S. Africa, the United States of America, India, and the Cape of Good Hope. Alternative Names. Black Wattle of the Nilgiris (37). Light- wood (85), in New South Wales. Physical Characters, etc. These appear to differ very much in the various regions where they have been introduced. Re- corded dry weights, 36 to 42 Ibs. per cu. ft. (37) ; 41 to 48 Ibs. (83). My specimens are partly sap-wood. Hardness of South Australian specimen Grade 7, compare English Birch ; of North American specimen, Grade 3, compare Blackthorn ; of South African specimen, Grade 6, compare English Beech. Smell or taste none. Burns well and quietly without aroma ; no juice expelled by heat : embers glow in still air. Solution olive turn- ing brandy colour upon the addition of potash : no ppt. : after extraction with water the chips do not yield any further colour with alcohol. Grain. Straight, fine, and even. Surface rather lustrous, does not exude drops of resin. Uses, etc. Works easily : the most promising of all the Australian Acacias on this account. " Very durable, finely 81 c THE TIMBERS OF COMMERCE veined, and celebrated for cabinet-work " (15). " One of the most valuable timbers of Australia, and employed for all kinds of construction, carpentry, and ornamental work " (60). "Carriage-building and agricultural implements " (31). Gamble thinks the tree may have degenerated in Indian soil judging from its lesser weight per cu. ft. The differences in colour and hardness may also be additional indications. Bark. Dark brown, about £ inch thick, of two layers, the outer dark-coloured, fissured, separating in small, rough scales : the inner lighter coloured, of concentric layers showing the continuations of the rays : both filled with rod-like bodies, some of which are lustrous. Authorities. Wiesner (131), L. 6, p. 82. Laslett (60), p. 253. Watt (127), p. 53. Gamble (37), ed. 1902, p. 301. Newbury <83). Nillson (85), p. 24. Colour. Heart- wood a lively Mahogany-red to reddish- walnut, sharply defined from the brownish-white sap-wood, which is from | inch to 2 inches wide. In my specimens there is a narrow greyish zone by which the sap-wood passes over into the heart- wood. Anatomical Characters as those of A. pendula No. 68, but the tissue is much laxer. It may readily be distinguished from nearly all the other Australian Acacias by its physical char- acters. Type specimens authenticated by R. T. Baker (South Australia), R. B. Hough (North America), and the Forest Officer to the Government of the Cape of Good Hope. No. 72. SABICU (from Tunas de Zazas). Species unknown. PLATE V. FIG. 45. Natural Qrder. Leguminoseae. Source of Supply. Cuba. Physical Characters, etc. Recorded dry-weight 62^ Ibs. per cu. ft. Hardness Grade 4, compare Hornbeam. Smell none, taste intensely bitter. Burns very badly, maintains a flame with difficulty, but embers glow in still air. No smell during combustion. Solution with water reddish or dark claret-colour, begins to appear even before boiling. Grain. Coarse and open, except where filled with resin or white deposit. Surface rather waxy to the touch : lustrous : pores shining, but the soft tissue and rays dull. Bark. ? Uses, etc. Railway-carriage-making, cabinet-making, turnery. 82 PLATE VI. Fig. 46. Sal iicu ( Fig. 49. Castanospermum. Fig. 50. •;•; TIMBERS O:. ' , .ind agricultural implements " (31). . iv have degenerated in Indian soil It. The differences in •Iditional indications. vo layers, the rough scales : \ving the some :nto the heart- wood. of A. pendula No. 6^ It may readily be <-r Australian Acacias by its South : Officer ' No. 72. SABICU (from Tunas de Zazas,). Species unknown. PLATE V. FIG. 45. rder. I luring i -in or lustrous : ••. l-ill. nery. PLATE VI. Fig. 46. Sabicu (No. 73). Fig. 47. Copaifera (Purple-heart). Fig. 48. Epenia (Wallaba). Fig. 49. Castanospermum. Fig. 50. Andira (Partridge-wood). Fig. 52. Dimorphandra (Mora). Fig. 51. Andira inermis (Prince-wood). FIlJ. 54. Brya (Co u-). SABICU A handsome wood : splits and planes easily (one way of the grain) notwithstanding its hardness. Colour. Dark brown with bold black streaks. Sap-wood ? Anatomical Characters. Transverse section : — Pores. Readily visible, prominent when white, size i, coarse, little variation : evenly distributed, isolated except where sub- divided into compact groups of 2-3 (rarely more), mostly single ; round or oval ; often with red or milk-white contents. Rays. Require lens, fine, size 5, uniform ; equidistant, much less than a large pore-width apart : running round or stopped short by the pores : numerous, 6-9 per mm. : much denser than the ground-tissue : appear red against the dark ground ; nearly straight. Rings. Very doubtful : zones of darker wood here and there : contour uniform. Soft-tissue abundant in broad borders encircling the pores sometimes extending laterally into spindle-shaped patches ; cells very coarse, size 6 (pore-scale), also many fine, black con- centric lines, (in transparent section), which appear white in the solid; size 6. Pith. ? Radial Section. Colour rich hazel-brown with black lines; much lighter in shade than the transverse section. Pores prominent, mostly black, some white. Rings doubtful. Soft- tissue traceable as black, spongy continuations or tails to the pores. Tangential Section. As the radial but the pores appear as bold, black, broad lines. Unusually prominent. Rays, fine dark lines about o-5 mm. high. Rings. Rather prominent, not defined, rather of a watered appearance. Type specimen from commercial sources, not authenticated. No. 73. SABICU. Species unknown. PART VI. FIG. 46. Natural Order. Leguminoseae. Physical Characters, etc. Recorded dry weight 43$ Ibs. per •cu. ft. Hardness Grade 5, compare English Ash. Smell and taste none. Burns indifferently well with a faint aroma : embers glow in still air. Solution with water reddish, appears at boiling- point only. Grain. Moderately fine and open. Surface scarcely lustrous, the pores glistening, the ground bright, not waxy to the touch. Bark. ? Uses. A substitute for Mahogany, for which it may easily be mistaken. 83 THE TIMBERS OF COMMERCE Colour. Dark red not streaked with black or light brown. Sap-wood ? Anatomical Characters. Transverse section : — Pores. Readily visible, not prominent, rather coarse, size 1-2, little variation : evenly distributed, but loosely grouped in oblique, radial lines sometimes reversed in their direction in succeeding rings : few 4-10 per sq. mm. : mostly single many pairs, occasionally subdivided in groups of 3-5 pores : often with red but not white contents. Rays. Require lens, size 5-6, uniform : equidistant much • less than the width of a large pore apart, running round and interrupted by the pores : numerous 9-11 per mm. : much denser than the ground : nearly straight : appear red against the dark ground. Rings. Very doubtful : zones of darker wood here and there but no definite boundary : an occasional fine dark line. Soft-tissue. Abundant in irregular, broken borders encircling the pores apparently uniting them to oblique lines : diminish- ing in width between the pores. Pith. ? Radial Section. Pores fine but readily visible lines : no contrast : glisten from the drops within. Rays scarcely visible, fine lines rather than flakes. Rings very vague. Soft- tissue greyish, traceable as spongy tails to the pores. Tangential Section. As the Radial, but the rays are fine, vertical lines about 0*1 mm. high, and the soft-tissue is never prominent but is readily visible with lens in favourable sections. Type specimen from commercial sources, not authenti- cated. No. 74. PURPLEHEART. Copaifera (possibly bracteata var. pubiflora. Bth.) PLATE VI. FIG. 47. Natural Order. Leguminoseae. Synonym. Copaifera = Copaiba. Adans = Copaiva. Jacq. Alternative Names. Marawinaroo : Marawayana (78) : Koo- roobovilli (12) in British Guiana : Purpuurhart (12) in Dutch Guiana. Bois violet : Amarante (99) in French Guiana and Brazil. Purplewood. Those names resembling Copaiva and Courbaril are more properly applied to Copaifera officinalis. (Fig 144, PI. xvi.) Possibly the Violettholz, Luftholz or Blaues Ebenholz of the Germans (68). Marawagana : Simiridi (99) in Brazil. Sources of Supply. Tropical America, chiefly British Guiana. Physical Characters, etc. Recorded dry-weight 49 to 62 Ibs. 84 PURPLEHEART per cu. ft. Hardness Grade 2, compare Boxwood. Smell or taste none. Burns well, embers glow in still air, and consume exceptionally slowly : the heat brings the purple colour out. Solution with water dark brown. Grain rather coarse and open. Surface comparatively dull : rapidly becomes purple upon exposure. A log received in a very wet (green) condition turned colour before my eyes after being sawn in half. Bark. Resembles that of Beech but is of a brick-red tinge ; about J inch thick. Uses, etc. " Mill-beds, mortar-beds, house- framing, and all pur- poses where shock has to be resisted — durable " (78). " Ramrods, buhl- work, marquetry, and turnery" (48). "Less durable than Kooroobooilli ; capable of resisting great strain ; may be met with in logs from 100-120 ft. long by 30 inches in diam., free of sap-wood" (72). Almost invariably confused with the other species of purpleheart, but never with anything else. Authorities. McTurk (78). Ditto (72). Cat. Kew Museum No. i. Holtzapffel (48), p. 103. Martin (68), p. 226. Saldanha da Gama (99). Wiesner (131), L. 12, p. 927. Colour. Brown heart-wood turning purplish on exposure ; well but not sharply defined from the dirty-white sap-wood. The phenomenon of the change of colour is evidently due to oxida- tion. It is quite superficial as when freshly planed the surface is brown and the purple colour disappears when the wood is polished with a spirit varnish. Anatomical Characters. Transverse section : — Pores. Conspicuous and large, size 1-2 (or rather larger), varying in no particular order in the individual ring, but the average size increasing as the tree ages : uniformly scattered : few 1-6 per sq. mm. : single, or in pairs or threes ; often filled, beautifully round when not subdivided. Rays. Clearly visible, size 5-6 : uniform : more or less equidistant, about the width of a large pore apart (sometimes less) weak but otherwise straight, scarcely avoiding the pores : numerous 5-7 per mm. : very short, frequently tapering both ends : whitish : much denser than the ground-tissue. Rings. Doubtful : the fine, whitish lines may indicate the boundary. Soft-tissue. Abundant, chiefly in large, spindle-shaped patches enclosing the pores or joining two or more groups. The most prominent feature : perhaps the fine, whitish, concentric lines may also be soft-tissue. Pith. ? Radial Section. Considerably lighter in shade than the transverse section, the pores are inconspicuous though large, and 85 THE TIMBERS OF COMMERCE are obscured by soft-tissue which forms numerous, narrow, inconspicuous, grey borders to the pores. The rays are promin- ent though small flakes. Tangential Section. A shade lighter than either of the above. The rings are sometimes traceable, are cloudy lines or loops. The rays need lens being extremely fine lines about ro mm. high and the borders to the pores are several times as broad as in the Radial section. Type specimens authenticated by the Forest Officer to the Government of British Guiana. No. 75. PURPLEHEART. Copaifera sp. PLATE VI. FIG. 47. Natural Order. Leguminoseae. Synonyms. See No. 74. Alternative Names. Koorooballi : Kooroobooilli (12). Com- pare also Courbaril and other corruptions of an European origin. See also No. 74. Sources of Supply. South America, chiefly British Guiana. Surinam, Brazil. Physical Characters, etc. Recorded dry-weight 53 Ibs. per cu. ft. Hardness Grade 2, compare Boxwood. Smell and taste none. Burns well, embers glow in still air, and consume slowly away to the ash. The heat brings out. the purple colour. Solution with water purplish-brown, afterwards with alcohol more purplish. Upon drying a purple sediment is left. Grain fine and open. Surface rather dull, the pores being the brightest part. Bark. ? Uses, etc. As those of C. bracteata (No. 74), with which this species is always confused. Difficult to distinguish from Deme- rara Purpleheart also. For Authorities see foregoing species. Colour. Dark brown heart-wood, turning deep purple or magenta upon exposure. Sap-wood. ? Anatomical Characters. Transverse section. Pores. Con- spicuous though not large, size 2-3, varying in no particular order in the individual ring but increasing slightly as the tree ages : uniformly scattered : few, 2-12 per sq. mm. : single but more often in nested groups of 3-5, enclosed in small spindle- shaped patches of tissue which are not nearly so coarse as in C. bracteata : often filled. Rays. Visible in certain lights, size 5-6 : uniform : equi- distant : about the width of a large pore apart : weak but scarcely avoiding the pores : numerous, 5-7 per mm. : much denser than the ground : brown. 86 DEMERARA PURPLEHEART Rings. Doubtful. There are abundant fine, whitish lines which may indicate the boundary of the year's growth. Soft-tissue. Abundant, chiefly in spindle-shaped patches enclosing a pore or group or joining up 2 or more groups : also fine concentric lines (see Rings). Pith. ? Radial Section. Pores inconspicuous, sometimes obscured by the soft-tissue : rays inconspicuous, brown flakes : rings just visible when two or more lines occur close together. Tangential Section. As the Radial, but the rays are fine lines about 0*1 mm. high, and the rings are doubtful. Type specimen from commercial sources. Not authenti- cated but without doubt a Copaifera. I believe this to be the Kooroobooilli described by McTurk. This is the kind most frequently met with in England. No. 76. DEMERARA PURPLEHEART. Copai- fera sp. PLATE VI. FIG. 47. Natural Order. Leguminoseas. Alternative Names. Practically the same as those applied to the other species of Purple-heart with the exception of their strictly local names. Sources of Supply. British Guiana. The Moluccas. Physical Characters, etc. Recorded dry-weight 50^ Ibs. per cu. ft. Hardness Grade 2, compare Boxwood. Smell or taste none. Burns well with a crackling flame, embers glow in still air : the heat brings out the purple colour upon the brown surface of freshly cut wood. Solution with water golden yellow. Grain very fine, open. Surface bright to lustrous, the ground - tissue the brightest part. Bark.? Uses. The same as of the other species of Purple-heart (which see). Usually confused with the other woods of the same name but never with anything else. Colour. Heart-wood brown turning to pinkish- purple (with a little magenta) in a very short time upon exposure. My specimen, which was quite dry, turned colour in the course of an hour after being planed. Anatomical Characters. Transverse section : — Pores. Conspicuous by reason of their numbers not of their size : little variation, size 2-3 : uniformly distributed, crowded throughout the whole section, very densely in some zones: many 12-35 Per sq- mm- : mostly paired, a few radial groups of 3-5 : accompanied but not surrounded by small irregular 87 THE TIMBERS OF COMMERCE patches of soft-tissue, difficult to make out in the transparent section : mostly filled with resin. Rays. Difficult to see with lens in the solid, size 5-6 uniform : equidistant, more than the width of a large pore apart : lack contrast with the ground-tissue although much denser : many about 5 per mm. : undulating, not avoiding the pores : long, not often tapering. Rings. Doubtful : the occasionally fine lines which are of denser wood (not soft-tissue) may indicate the boundaries of the year's growth. Soft-tissue in small, irregular patches adjoining, but not sur- rounding the pores. The small amount of this makes the pores appear much smaller than those of other Copaiferae, whereas they are much about the same size. Pith. ? Radial Section. Lighter in shade than the transverse sec- tion. The pores are fine but readily visible lines with much red resin. The rays are visible in certain lights. The rings are doubt- ful, and the soft-tissue is scarcely visible. Tangential Section. As the Radial, but the pores appear prominent on account of the number of their borders of soft- tissue which are lighter than the ground-tissue. The rays need the lens, being very minute lines about 0*5 mm. high. The rings are a little plainer as the denser zones of pores make themselves evident here and there. Type specimen from commercial sources, not authenticated, but without doubt a Copaifera. No. 77. WALLABA. Eperua falcata. Aubl. PLATE VI. FIG. 48. Natural Order. Leguminosege. The E. falcata of Blanco = Afzelia rhomboidea of Vidal and not the present species. Synonym. Pangera falcata. Willd. . So-urces of Supply. British Guiana : Brazil : Dominica. Alternative Names. Pois sabre : Wapa (78). Jebaru-rana : Vouapa-tabaca : Bainha de Espada in Guiana (3) and the Ama- zonas region (76) : Parive : Eperu in French Guiana (3). Wapa huileux : Wapa Patouve in Brazil (99). Physical Characters, etc. Recorded dry- weight 65 £ Ibs. per cu. ft. Hardness Grade 3, compare Blackthorn or Whitethorn. Smell and taste like Oeasote. Burns noisily and badly, main- tains a flame with difficulty but embers glow in still air. Solu- tion with water faint-yellow : afterwards with alcohol, crimson. 88 WALLABA Grain. Very coarse but more or less even as a large number of the pores are filled. Surface dull : pores bright but not shining : the wood soon becomes disagreeably sticky. Bark. Smooth, not fissured but apparently shelling off in thin plates : f to £ inch thick : grey or black. Uses, etc. " Chiefly for shingles, which have been known to last 40 years — stands exposure under all circumstances : may be met with in logs from 30 to 80 ft. long by 15 to 20 in- square free of sap-wood" (78). Splits very easily and fairly cleanly. Authorities. Saldanha da Gama (99). Nordlinger (86), vol. vii. p. 45. McTurk (78). Miers (3). Colour. Purplish-red heart-wood (like dried blood) sharply defined from the dirty-white sap-wood. Anatomical Characters. Transverse section : — Pores. Conspicuous, Size 2, moderate-sized : variable : evenly distributed except where collected in a i -rowed ring of small pores : few 2-9 per sq. mm. (in the pores-ring) : single or from 2-5 in well-closed, radial, subdivided groups : appear light-red in the solid wood : occasional amber or red contents which exude copiously. Rays. Clearly visible, medium; size 3 or 2-3, uniform : equi- distant, less than the width of a large pore apart : gently un- dulating but not avoiding even the larger pores : numerous, 7-8 per mm. : unusually long, rarely tapering if at all : very much coarser than the ground- tissue (exceptionally so). Rings. Clear, the boundary a single row of small pores with wide-meshed tissue between them : contour regular. Soft-tissue. In zones in the pore ring : Size i (ray-scale) : also narrowly encircling the pores and in isolated irregular patches. Flecks. The objects I take to be flecks are long, narrow, bands tapering each end, 0*25 mm. wide by 5-15 mm. long. They are dense and brown. Pith. ? Radial Section. Pores long, conspicuous grooves having chambers to o'5 mm. long, which are easily visible to the naked eye ; a drop of resin in each. Rays prominent, purple flakes, a little deeper in colour than the ground. Neither the rings nor the soft-tissue are traceable. Tangential Section. As the Radial, but not quite so light in colour and with more red streaks. The rays are minute, faint, brown lines about f inch high. Type specimen authenticated by the Forest Officer to the Government of British Guiana. From a log sent to the Colonial and Indian Exhibition. 89 THE TIMBERS OF COMMERCE No. 78. BLACK BEAN (of N. S. Wales.) Castano- spermum australe. A. Cunn. PLATE VI. FIG. 49. Natural Order. Leguminoseae. Alternative Names. Bean-tree ; Moreton Bay Chestnut in Queensland (5) and N.S.W. (85). Australische Kastanje in South Africa (51). Irtalie in N.S.W. (12). Sources of Supply. Australia, Queensland, and New South Wales ; introduced into South Africa. Physical Characters, etc. Recorded dry-weight 35-46^ Ibs. per cu. ft. Hardness Grade 3, compare Blackthorn. Smell none. Taste very faintly astringent. Solution with water or alcohol slightly brownish. Burns very well and rather noisily, embers glow in still air, heat expels a brown juice. Grain. Coarse open. Surface bright ; rays, pores, and soft- tissue dull, especially the latter. Bark. " Glabrous, i.e. smooth, or nearly so " (85). Uses, etc. " Very handsome, suitable for cabinet work " (85). " Prized by cabinet-makers and turners " (5). This wood has a superficial resemblance to the greyish kinds of Teak. Authorities. Nilsson (85), p. 40. F. M. Bailey (5), p. 47. Hutchins (51). Colour. Dark-brown to almost black. Sap-wood yellow. Anatomical Characters. Transverse section : — Pores. Prominent from their colour and size, Grade 2, not much variation except within the groups ; very evenly distri- buted but a distinct zonal arrangement with a tendency to occa- sional oblique lines ; few, 3-15 per sq mm. ; mostly single, but in subdivided groups of as many as 12 pores. Rays. Need lens, size 5-6, uniform ; less than a pore-width apart, equidistant ; stopped short by or running round the pores ; numerous 9-13 per mm. ; lighter in colour than the ground. Rings. Vague, indicated by a change in the disposition of the pores and by a slightly less porous zone here and there. Soft-tissue. Abundant and prominent ; imbedding and some- times winging the pores, or connecting a few concentrically or obliquely ; light in colour. Pith. ? Radial Section. Pores; prominent lines with light-coloured borders (in the dark wood) : red or black contents. Rays just visible with the lens, minute, hoary dull flakes. No indica- tion of the rings. Soft-tissue appears as hoary borders to the pores and equalling them in breadth. 90 PARTRIDGE-WOOD Tangential Section. As the radial, but the rays are extremely minute, colourless, large-celled lines of one row of round cells. Type specimens authenticated by R. F. Baker and F. M. Bailey. No. 79. PARTRIDGE-WOOD. Andira sp. PLATE VI. FIG. 50. Natural Order. Leguminoseae. Alternative Names. Pheasant-wood : Sweet Partridge-wood : Red, Brown or Black Partridge-wood in England. Acapu- rajada (ragged bark) in Brazil (76). Angelin or Rebhiihnerholz (68). (See below.) Source of Supply. Brazil. Physical Characters, etc. Recorded dry- weight yof-SgJ Ibs. per cu. ft. Hardness Grade i, compare Ebony. Smell none. Taste faintly nutty. Burns badly : difficult to ignite : small sluggish flame. Solution with water deep reddish-brown : ditto with alcohol but fainter. Grain. Coarse but even, the pores being filled up. Surface lustrous : the pores when full reflect the light. Bark. Like a skin of shellac, 3V inch thick, dark brown, brittle, closely adherent. Uses, etc. Cabinet-making, turnery. Used as a substitute for Cocus (Brya Ebenus), and frequently sold for that wood. Authorities. Holtzapffel (48), p. 99. Miers (76). Martin and Spitzbarth (68), p. 242. Wiesner (131), L. 12, p. 945. Colour. Very dark brown, often nearly black heart- wood, sharply denned from the £-|- inch wide, light brown or brownish-white sap-wood. Contour jagged and irregularly undulating. Anatomical Characters. Transverse section : — Pores. Readily visible from their colour and size, Grade 2, little variation except within the groups : collected somewhat into zones : the large ones mostly single, the small sub-divided or clustered radially in groups of 2-7 : numerous 14-50 per sq. mm. : irregularly and unevenly distributed : oval : filled with brown resin or gum. Rays. Need lens, size 5-6, uniform : long, weak and avoiding the pores : equidistant, rather less than a pore-width apart : lighter in the solid, darker in thin section : numerous, 9-12 per mm. : hoary : not coarse-celled. Rings. Apparentlv very clear ; doubtful, the lines of tissue being too indefinite and not concentric with the other portions of the structure : contour gently undulating. 91 THE TIMBERS OF COMMERCE Soft-tissue. Very abundant and though fine, the most con- spicuous feature : in thin, weak, hoary, concentric or anasto- mosing, thread-like lines, gently undulating : size about 3-5 (ray-scale) and about 5-8 per mm. but absent at intervals : fluctuating in width, widening at, but seldom completely sur- rounding the pores. Pith. ? Radial Section. Pores readily visible, but dark, inconspicuous lines usually completely filled with black contents. Rays minute, darker, shining flakes when cleft, lighter when planed. Soft- tissue needs lens : close fine lines (like " machine-ruling") and also as more prominent borders to the pores. Tangential Section. As the Radial, but the rays are minute, inconspicuous lines about O'l mm. high and the soft-tissue is scarcely traceable except alongside the pores. Type specimens from commercial sources. Not authenticated. They agree sufficiently closely with the specimens of Andirain the Museum No. I, Kew, to justify the assumption that they all belong to the same genus, but the whole of the species examined differ entirely from a specimen sent me from Jamaica by Messrs. Elder Dempster and Co. under the name of Andira inermis. See No. 80. I incline to the view that this wood is Andira excelsa. H. B. and K. syn., Vouacapoua americana . Aubl., Geffroya racemosa. Poir., or Andira racemosa. Lam., called Vouacapoua, or Angelin in Guiana. Miers, whose descriptions are excellent, has unfortunately mixed up the Systematic names in inextricable confusion. The description which tallies perfectly with the present species is referred to both A. Aubletti and to A. racemosa, besides which he gives cross references which leave one in doubt whether he means either of the two foregoing or A. amazonum, A. stipulacea, or A. retusa, all five being good species according to the Index Kewensis. We find the following : — Under A. amazonum : ' ' Angelim de Para and Andara-Uichi probably that known in England as Partridge-wood." Under A. racemosa "ibairiba. Tiss., A. stipulacea. Benth., Andaia-uichi (See Uichi)." Under A. racemosa. Lam. : " Uichi : Uici : Andaia Uichi (See Angelim de Para)." Under Uichi : " ULxi. (see Andaia de Para)," which latter he refers to A. retusa. H. B. and K. ) The description which he gives under the head of " Acapu- rajada from Para " is the one which is much the nearest to the commercial Partridge-wood. As it is quite possible that the proper name may be A. Aubletti, 92 ANGELIN it is as well to note the vernacular names mentioned by Saldanhada Gama as being current in Brazil, viz. : — Acapu, Epi de Ble Wacapou, Dacamaballi and Blackheart. No. 80. ANGELIN. Andira inermis. Kunth. ? PLATE VI. FIG. 57. Natural Order. Leguminoseae. Synonyms. A. acuminata. Bth. A. grandiflora. Guill. et Perr. Geoffraea inermis. Sw. Alter native Names. Yaba in Cuba (12). Bastard Cabban (76), Angelim, Cabbage-bark Tree, Lombricero all in Brazil (go). Bilge-water Tree. Not the Partridge-wood of the English market. Sources of Supply. " Trop. America, West Indies, Brazil in the Northern Provinces of the Amazonas Region " (49). Physical Characters, etc. Recorded dry-weight 33|~4oJ Ibs. per cu. ft. The latter figure is given by Miers (sp. gr., 644). The weights given by Boulger cannot apply to this species besides which it is not clear what he means by his figures as those cited for the specific gravity do not work out to the same as those representing Ibs. per cu. ft. The former, 563-639, correspond with those given above, but his weights per cu. ft. (56*8 to6i'4) are very much out. Hardness Grade 6. compare English Beech or American Birch. Smell none. Taste astringent. Burns very well with a long, quiet, smoky flame : embers glow brightly in still air. Solution faint brown. Grain. Fine and open, not very straight. Surface lustrous, silky, with a pretty play of light. Bark. ? Uses, etc. "A strong, durable wood for carpenter's work and ship-building — works well — of very large dimensions " (76). Authorities. Boulger (15), Miers (74). Saldanha da Gama (99). Laslett (60), p. 297. Kew Guide (57). Colour. Light, red, uniform. Sap-wood (?) Anatomical Characters. Transverse section : — Pores. Need lens, size 3-4 : uniform : evenly distributed : in short, radial, sub-divided groups of 2-3 between the rays : occasionally with red contents : rather scarce, 0-20 per sq. mm. : roundish when single : few and usually widely separated. Rays. Need lens, size 4-5, uniform : equidistant, a pore- width apart : firm, not avoiding the pores : numerous, 15-20 per mm. : lighter in colour than the ground : unevenly s; and tapering to exceedingly fine ends. Rings. Vaguely indicated : very doubtful. 93 Soft-tissue. Neatly encircling the pores, narrow, of the same colour as the rays. Pith. The same colour as the rays, 3-4 mm. wide, hard. Cells very coarse, nearly as large as the pores of the wood. Radial Section. Pores, very fine lines with narrow, hoary borders (lens). Rays, inconspicuous yet visible flakes. Rings not traceable. Soft-tissue (lens) bordering the pores. Pith, contrasting but little. Tangential Section. As the Radial, but the rays are minute lines about 0-25 mm. high (need micro.). This wood is quite unlike all other species of Andira that I have seen, but it tallies well with the description given by Miers. Type specimen sent me by Messrs. Elder Dempster and Co., authenticated by Sir Thomas Hughes. No. 81. MORA. Dimorphandra Mora. Benth. PLATE VI. FIG. 52. Natural Order. Leguminoseae. Synonyms. Mora excelsa. Baill. and Benth. Dimorphandra •excelsa. Baill. D. guianensis. Baill. Alternative Names. Moraballi in British Guiana (78). Moreira in the Amazonas region (76). Source of Supplv. Tropical America. Physical Characters, etc. Recorded dry-weight, 67^-68^ Ib. per cu. ft. Hardness Grade 3, compare Blackthorn. Smell none, taste bitterly astringent, but it is not perceptible until the shavings have remained in the mouth for a time. Burns well with much crackling. Solution the colour of brown brandy. Grain. Very coarse, but the pores are usually filled with Thyloses. Surface lustrous. Bark. ? Uses, etc. " Very durable, more so than Teak, . . . ship- building, . . . tough, strong, polishes well, star-shake frequent, . . . recommended for the larger parts of ships and buildings, also piles: rated first-class at Lloyd's" (60). See Laslett for mechanical tests. Schomburghk gives it unstinted praise. " Does not splinter, resists dry-rot. There are three varieties, the Red, the White and Mora bucquia : the latter is not durable" (76). Mora does not resist the Teredo, see a specimen in the Museum No. i, Kew, which is honey-combed by them. It turns badly, planes well and smoothly, is hard to saw, but splits evenly. It is a handsome wood but is sometimes marred by lines of white secretion. It is worthy of more attention. Mora maybe met with in logs of " 18-35 feet l°ng by 12-20 in. square. It is the largest tree of British Guiana, and grows to 94 IROKO a height of as much as 150 feet. When very large it is gener- ally hollow " (8). Authorities. Laslett (4), p. 275. Kew Guide (57), pp. 43, 38. Miers (76). McTurk (78), No. 55. Holtzapffel (48), p. 94. Colour. Dark brown or dark reddish-brown streaked with white or brown lines. Heart-wood sharply denned from the yellowish or light brown sap-wood. Anatomical Characters. Transverse section: — Pores. Very prominent, giving the wood a ' ' caney appearance' ' (60) : size 2, little variation : evenly distributed over the whole surface : few, 17-40 per sq. mm. : in groups of 1-6 pores but mostly in threes, irregularly or radially subdivided : groups en- closed in patches of soft- tissue which connect two or three of them together : occasionally contain resin or gum. Rays. Need lens, size 5, uniform : equidistant, about the width of a large pore apart, weak but scarcely avoiding them : numer- ous, 5-7 per mm. : denser than the ground and of nearly the same colour as the soft-tissue. Soft-tissue. Prominent : abundant in broad patches imbedding and connecting the pores in an oblique or concentrically- waved fashion. Pith. ? Radial Section. Considerably lighter in shade than the Trans. Pores very prominent, light brown when bordered by soft-tissue or chalky when filled with Apatite. Soft-tissue readily visible as hoary borders to the pores but scarcely prominent. Tangential Section. The pores give the wood the appearance of that of a Palm, being very prominent. Rays minute brown, spindle-shaped lines about 0*5 mm. high. Soft-tissue the chief feature, affording much contrast of colour and occupying at least half the surface of this section. Type specimens from a log sent by the Government of British Guiana to the Colonial and Indian Exhibition. No. 82. IROKO. Sp. unknown (see below) PLATE VI. FIG. 53. Natural Order. Leguminoseae. Source of Supply. West Coast of Africa : Lagos. Physical Characters, etc. Recorded dry-weight 39* Ibs. per cu. ft. Hardness Grade 6, compare Oak. Cleaves very easily. Smell none, but the sawdust is very irritating to the nostrils. Taste extremely vapid. Burns badly : supports a flame with difficulty : embers glow in still air : much snow-white ash : no resin or gum expelled by heat : no smell. Solution faint, clear yellow. 95 THE TIMBERS OF COMMERCE Grain. Very coarse and open. Surface lustrous and satiny. Bark. ? Authority (as to the vernacular name) the Governor of Lagos, from whom the type specimen was received. This is not the wood mentioned by Sir A. Moloney (Kew Bull., Feb., 1891, p. 41), which is Chlorophora excelsa. Colour. Heart-wood deep brown. Sap-wood. ? Anatomical Characters. Transverse section : — Pores. Readily visible, large, size 1-2, few, 0-6 per mm. : little variation in size except in the groups : evenly distributed, connected by the soft-tissue into short, undulating, often interrupted festoons : single or in short, sub-divided, radial groups or clusters of as many as five pores : some with brown contents. Rays. Visible though fine, size 5-6, uniform : equidistant, a pore-width or less apart : many 4-8 per mm. : sometimes avoiding the pores, weak : considerably lighter in colour and denser than the ground- tissue. Rings. Visible but not conspicuous : boundary a clear, fine line of hoary soft-tissue without contrast in the density of the ground-tissue. Soft-tissue. Very abundant and prominent, the chief feature. In light-brown, interrupted and waved (but scarcely cruciform) festoons imbedding and connecting the pores, composed of parallel rows of cells radially disposed. Pith.? Radial Section. Pores, very prominent and coarse often run- ning out of parallel. Rays, readily visible by difference of reflection not of colour : brown, shining almost metallic flakes. Rings, very obscure, traceable as continuous, hoary lines. Soft- tissue prominent as hoary continuations of the pores and as the boundary-line : not equally prominent in all lights. Tangential Section. As the Radial, but the rays appear as inconspicuous lines (lens) about ro mm. high. No. 83. COCUS or COCOS WOOD. Brya Ebenus. DC. PLATE VI. FIG. 54. Natural Order. Leguminoseae. Synonyms. Amerimnum Ebenus. Sw. Amerimnon Ebenus. Sw. Aspalathus Ebenus. Linn. Brya leucoxylon. Alternative Names. Green Ebony : West Indian Ebony : Jamaica Ebony : Cocoa-wood: Brown Ebony. Chichipate (12). Granadillo : Granillo, and also a number of names of Spanish origin supposed to refer to this wood, see Holtzapffel, (29). 96 COCUS OR COCOS WOOD Lignum-vitae : Billy-web in Honduras (46). American Ebony (131). Not the Coco-wood of Gamble (48), nor Kokkra-wood (Kew. Mus.). Sources of Supply. Tropical America and the West Indies, chiefly Jamaica. Physical Characters, etc. Recorded dry-weight 77-87 Ib. per cu. ft. Hardness Grade i, compare Ebony. Smell or taste none. Burns well, ignites slowly : embers glow in still air. Solution with water none : with alcohol brown. Grain. Very fine, dense and even. Surface dull and cold to the touch. Bark. About •$• in. thick, light grey, brown or white, peels in strips like bast : fissured and laminated. Uses. "Turnery, flageolets, inlaying, cabinet-making, turnery" (60). Durable (64). Planes smoothly, a choice turner's wood but high in price. Cocus is often confused with Partridge-wood, which is fre- quently substituted for it. Authorities. Kew Cat. (57), p. 41. J. Leman (64). Royle (in Holtzapffel) (48), p. 81. Wiesner (131), L. 12, p. 924. Laslett (60), p. 290. Colour. Heart-wood dark, rich brown almost black: very sharply defined from the sulphur-yellow sap-wood, which is about £-{j- inch wide. Anatomical Characters. Transverse section : — Pores. Need lens, rather fine, size 4, slightly variable : scattered and rare, 1-7 per sq. mm. : appear of a lighter brown in the brown bands, almost imperceptible in the black ones •' in short, sub-divided groups. Rays. Need lens, very fine, size 6, uniform : equidistant : less dense than the ground-tissue : very numerous, 7-9 per mm. : brown but scarcely discernible in the solid wood in the black zones : a pore-width or less apart, rarely if ever avoiding them. Rings. Apparently clear but the boundary is not perceptible with the lens : many alternate bands of rich brown and black which do not indicate the year's growth. Soft-tissue. In concentric lines as fine as the rays and equally abundant making a network with them : prominent with lens in the brown zones : also encircling the pores. Radial Section. Considerably lighter in shade than the Trans- verse section, often purplish-brown. Pores, very fine, cellular lines containing minute drops of blackish resin (not to be con- fused with the blackish lines of soft-tissue, see below). Rays, minute almost indistinguishable flakes. Rings not perceptible, but the zones of colour clear ; black alternating with brown or brownish-purple. Soft-tissue, visible only in the zones corres- 97 H THE TIMBERS OF COMMERCE ponding to the black zones in Transverse section, appears as extremely fine, black, parallel lines. Tangential Section. As the Radial, but the rays are imper- ceptible even with lens : about o'2 mm. high. Soft- tissue not so readily visible but the pores are more prominent. Plate XXI. Fig. 172. Type specimens from commercial sources. Not authenticated but checked by the specimens in the Museum No. i, Kew. Wiesner, whose description exactly corresponds with this wood, calls it Inga vera. WiUd., but as it is quite unlike other species of Inga described by Nordlinger and as the Kew specimen is doubtless as authentic as his, I adhere to the name of Brya ebenus. No. 84. HOOBOOBALLI.. Stryphnodendron guianense. Benth. (see note.) PLATE VII. FIG. 55. Natural Order. Leguminoseae. Synonym. Mimosa guianensis. Aubl. The vernacular name may be met with variously spelled. Cassie (3). Physical Characters, etc. Recorded dry- weight 55! Ib. per cu. ft. Hardness Grade 3, compare Blackthorn. Smell none. Taste astringent. Solution pinkish-brown. Burns well, embers glow in still air : the ash is left in the form of a skeleton of the soft-tissue. Grain. Moderately fine and open. Surface lustrous, but the soft-tissue, which is a feature, is dull. Bark. " Contains a sticky gum " (78). The surface of the log after the removal of the bark is striated like the surface of cane. Uses, etc. " Cabinet-making and all purposes where it is exposed to the action of water : will outlast almost any other wood at the bottom of a boat. A wood of great beauty which takes an excellent finish. A tree of the average height of 100 feet, which will square 20 inches free of sap-wood " (78). This wood deserves attention on account of its pretty figure and other good qualities. Authorities. McTurk (78), No. 36. Stone (117). Imp. Inst. Jour. No. 70, p. 266. Colour. Whitish-brown heart-wood streaked with blackish or brownish concentric bands which approach and recede from each other in loops in Transverse section, and form lines in the Radial section. Sap-wood about i inch wide, white, defined from the heart-wood. 98 PLATE VII. Fig '. Stryphn Fig. 58. Pygeum. Fig. 59. Pyrus Fig Pru (Ara*ri Fig. 62 t ig 63. ponding to tl •mely fir ire imper- tissue not e at. Plate Typ-.- 'henticated . i, Kew. his wood, calls it Ii •:• species of Inga o- .,aen is doubtless as autfa Brya ebenus. No. 84. HOOBOOBALLI. . Stryph 'on guianense. Benth. (see note.) PLATE VII. FIG. 55. ral Order. Leguminoseae. Synonym. Mimosa guianensis. Aubl. * The vernacular name may be met with variously spelled. (3)- Physical Characters, etc. Recorded dry- weight 55^ Ib. per Hardness Grade 3, compar -iell none. ;tion pinK -11, embers ^h is left in the form < ,lon of the "ne and o[^n. Surface lustrous, but the all. ,.m " (78). The surface of the k is striated like the surface of inet-making and all purposes where it is '^on of water : will out] .ilmost any other wood t. A wood of ^reat beauty A tree < \ height of mches" fr. (78). 1 i account :igure and (117). Imp. Inst. with blackish •,d recede from irm lines in the e, denned from • PLATE VII. Fig 55. Stryphnodendron. Fig. 56. Hymenoea Courbaril-plum). Fig. 57. Parinarium (Washiba). Fig. 58. Pygeum. Fig. 59. Pyrus (Apple). Fig. 61. Prunus serotina (American Cherry). Anatomical Characters, etc. Transverse section : — Pores. Readily visible though not prominent, size 2, rather coarse, little variation except in the groups : evenly scattered in groups of as many as 33 pores, radially disposed, sometimes two-rowed : rarely isolated pores : few, 0-38 per sq. mm. accord- ing to the number in a single group : some filled with resin or gum. Rays. Need lens, size 4-5, uniform : straight, but avoiding the larger groups or interrupted by them : many, 7-10 per mm. ; sometimes much less than the width of a pore-cluster apart, being unevenly spaced. Rings. Doubtful as the concentric lines of soft-tissue often cross the radial pore-groups without interrupting them. The dusky or brown bands are quite independent of the structure. Soft-tissue. Abundant, encircling the pores and also in close regular lines (about size 3), crenate between the rays and wavy in contour, composed of conspicuously large (micro.) isolated cells, about size 6 and 3-5 per mm. : brownish. The lines form a beautiful reticulation with the rays and are of the same colour. Pith. ? Radial Section. The dusky zones appear as prominent lines. Pores, large and clear but not prominent. Rays, small and pronounced by reason of their dullness and whiteness. Rings not traceable : the dusky lines do not coincide with the structure. Soft- tissue visible as fine whitish lines even with the unaided eye. Tangential Section. As the Radial, but apparently very unlike as the dusky lines lose their character entirely and thus are apt to deceive. The rays are fine, white lines about 2.0 mm. high, the soft-tissue is not so fine and the lines are not so close together. Type specimen from a log sent to the Indian and Colonial Exhibition by the Government of British Guiana. I suspect an error in the nomenclature as the structure is not that of a Leguminous wood. It resembles rather that of some Meliaceous woods such as Dysoxylon. I place it here hoping that someone on the spot in British Guiana may clear the matter up. No. 85. COURBARIL PLUM. Hymenoea Courbaril. Linn. PLATE VII. • FIG. 56. Natural Order. Leguminoseae. Synonyms. H. aminifera. Stokes. H. resinifera. Salisb. generic names Courbari and Courbaril are synonymous with Hymencea. Alternative Names. Courbaril : Locust. Jetahy : Jetahy- 99 THE TIMBERS OF COMMERCE accu in N. and Amazonas Prov. Brazil (76). Simiri and K'wan- narri (representing two different qualities), in British Guiana (78) : also Locust Gum (12). Pois confiture : Gomme animee : Jatoba in Barbadoes, and Jatai in Brazil (105). Leathery-leaved Locust- tree : West Indian Locust-tree in the West Indies. Quapinole (131). Locustrier : Algarroba, in Rio de Janeiro (99). Sources of Supply. Tropical South America. Physical Characters, etc. Recorded dry-weight, 33^-57^ Ib. per cu. ft. The lower figure is taken from a tainted or unsound sample. McTurk calls the wood " hard " : my specimen is not reliable. Smell none. Taste faintly astringent. Burns well : embers glow in still air. Solution with water yellowish-brown. Grain . Rather coarse and open, but as there is a large pro- portion of wood without pores the whole has a close-grained appearance. Surface dull, the ground-tissue the brightest portion. Bark. Dark brown with shallow fissures, as hard as the wood : the rays continued into the bark, readily visible. It can be detached from the log entire and is employed by the Indians for making bark canoes. Authorities. Nordlinger (86), vol. v. p. 34. McTurk (78), No. 37. Miers (76). Schomburgk (105). Kew Cat. (57), 37. Laslett (60), p. 296. J. Smith, pp. (in), 131, 136. Wiesner (131), Lief 6, p. 85. Saldanha da Gama (99). Colour. Heart-wood light brown streaked with darker brown, fairly well defined from the yellow or dirty- white Sap-wood, which is " about 4 inches wide " (78). Anatomical Characters. Transverse section : — Pores. Readily visible, size 2, uniform in size within the limits of each ring, but increasing from the pith outwards as the tree ages : very evenly distributed : few, 5-13 per sq. mm. : single or in sub-divided groups of 2-7 together, radial or nested : sometimes filled with yellowish or ruby gum. Rays. Just visible, medium, size 4-5, uniform : equidistant : undulating, scarcely avoiding the pores : very long, rarely tapering outwardly and very gradually inwardly : slightly denser than the ground-tissue : numerous, 4-6 per mm. : yellow- ish : a pore-width or less apart. Soft-tissue. Abundant at times. In concentric lines or bands, often forming complete circles, sometimes as narrow as the rays, at others as broad as the pore-groups which are imbedded in them. Pith. Small, about I mm. wide with four wings or lobes : reddish or yellowish. Radial Section. Pores dark brown, rather coarse. Rays faint, almost colourless flakes. Rings imperceptible. 100 WASHIBA Tangential Section. As the Radial, but the pores are scarcely so coarse. The rays are spindle-shaped lines, just visible by their numbers appearing something like those of Mahogany. Type specimen authenticated by the Forest Officer to the Government of British Guiana. The figure from a section by Nordlinger, No. 86. WASHIBA. Parinarium sp. (probably guianense). Aubl. PLATE VII. FIG. 57. It is upon the assumption that this is the correct name that the various references have been compiled. Natural Order. Rosaceae. Synonyms. Ferolia guianense. Aubl. F. variegata, Lam. Alternative Names. Waciba : Bow- wood. Ferolier : Bois Satine. Bois Ferole (3). Source of Supply. Guiana. Guadeloupe. Physical Characters, etc. Weight, about 55 Ibs. per cu. ft. Hardness Grade 3, compare Blackthorn. Solution with water faint brown. Grain. Moderately fine : open. Surface, rather lustrous : Pores dull with some shining resin-drops : rays dull but incon- spicuous. Bark. ? Uses, etc. " Bows, fishing-rods, exceedingly tough and elastic. Rare. Will square 30 inches free of sap-wood, by 120 feet long" (78). Authorities. McTurk, No. 54 (78). Aublett (3). Wiesner (131), L. 6, p. 80. Colour. Heart-wood rich reddish-brown " a beautiful red splashed with yellow, satiny " (3), well but not sharply defined from the brownish or yellowish-white sap-wood, which is "two feet thick to one of heart, white, hard, heavy and compact " (3). Anatomical Characters. Transverse section : — Pores. Prominent, size 2, little variation : evenly and widely scattered : few, o-io per sq. mm. : single, sub-divided a few threes and sometimes as many as seven in a group, radially disposed or clustered : many with red contents. Rays. Need lens : size 6 (or rather larger), uniform : equi- distant : weak but not avoiding the pores though often inter- rupted by them : much less than the width of a large pore :> long: denser than the ground: extremely numerous, n 13 per mm. : the same colour as the ground but lighter. Rings. Doubtful, but if indicated by the lines of soft-' 101 THE TIMBERS OF COMMERCE then very definite and clear with the lens, but they display no harmony with the arrangement of the pores. Soft-tissue. Abundant in concentric lines, about 120 per inch : size equal to 4 (ray scale) : contour weak : otherwise well- rounded : cells coarse, equal to size 6 (pore scale) : brown : very distinct and characteristic in the transparent section, though sometimes reduced to vanishing point. Radial Section. Pores prominent though rare, usually dull often with shining drops : rays minute, dull flakes or lines : difficult to see : light coloured. Soft-tissue visible as fine, whitish lines very close together. Tangential Section. As the Radial, but the pores are much finer as they are cut through the narrow way. Rays minute, whitish lines upon the limit of vision about o'l mm. high. Soft- tissue not so coarse or close together. . Type specimen authenticated by the Forest Officer to the Government of British Guiana. The structure of this wood agrees closely writh that of Parina- rium Nonda, but as the specimen was not accompanied by its systematic name I cannot vouch for more than the genus. No. 87. Pygeum africanum. Hook. PLATE VII. FIG. 58. Natural Order. Rosaceae. Source of Supply. South Africa. Physical Characters, -etc. Recorded dry-weight 57^ Ibs. per cu. ft. Hardness Grade 5, compare English Elm. Smell or taste none. Burns well and quietly : an orange-coloured juice is expelled by heat : embers glow in still air : no aroma. Solu- tion colourless : a copious red ppt. with potash. Neither water nor alcohol will completely bleach the wood. In order to do this it needs to be boiled in potash. Bark. ? There is a thin, scaly, chocolate-brown skin about •sV inch thick upon the outside of my specimen which may be the bark or only an inner layer. A wood of fine texture which planes and saws exceptionally smoothly and well. Colour. Uniform red passing gradually over into the light brown sap-wood, which is about 4 inches wide. Anatomical Characters. Transverse section : — Pores. Visible, size 4-5, little variation : uniformly scattered, single or in small radial sub-divided groups of 2-4 between the rays : 10-25 P61" sq- mm. Rays. Need lens or just visible, size 5-6, uniform though apparently of two sizes : stout, tapering rapidly to fine threads 102 PEAR both ends : red : a pore-width apart : occupy half the transverse surface : 10-14 Per mm- (i-e- " middles and ends " together). Rings. Vague. Soft-tissue. Encircling the pores. Pith. ? Radial Section. Pores, rather coarse scratches containing drops of reddish gum at intervals. Rays, prominent though small, dark red flakes. Tangential Section. As the Radial, but the rays are j ust visible, rather broad, spindle-shaped lines about i mm. high. Type specimen authenticated by the Forest Officer to the Government of Natal. The structure is quite unlike that of any of the European woods belonging to the same natural order. No. 88. PEAR. Pyrus communis. Linn. PLATE VII. FIG. 59. Natural Order. Rosaceae. Synonyms. P. Pyraster. Linn. Sources of Supply. Europe : Western Asia : introduced into most temperate climates. Physical Characters, etc. Recorded dry- weight 44-52 Ibs. per cu. ft. Hardness Grade 6, compare Apple or Beech. Smell or taste none. Grain. Fine, the pores just visible. Surface dull. Bark. £-f inch thick, smooth, silvery-grey or yellowish when young with prominent lenticels : breaking later into rectangular scales and becoming rough when old. Uses, etc. Turnery, carving. Difficult to split, tough : durable in dry places. " Works well in all directions, liable to twist : shrinks £ of its original bulk when green. Wood-engraving, musical instruments : takes a black stain well and then resembles Ebony." (69) Authorities. Nordlinger (87), p. 534. Ditto (86), vol. iii. p. 58. Laslett (60), p. 165. Hartig (42), pp. 31 and 41. Schwartz (106), p. 484. Westermeier (31), p. 10. Holtzapffel (29), p. 99. Mathieu (129), p. 167. Wiesner (131), L. 12, p. 918. Colour. Reddish-brown sap-wood. Heart-wood only in old trees and then apparently the result of disease. Anatomical Characters. Transverse section : — Pores. Need lens, fine, size 5, little variation : slightly smaller in the Autumn wood : equally crowded throughout the ring : very numerous, 200-300 per sq. mm. : single or in groups of 2-5 : loose strings may appear to be formed here and there (" wurmformig," 86). Rays. Just visible in certain lights : fine to medium, size 4-5 : 103 THE TIMBERS OF COMMERCE equidistant, a pore-width or more apart : very numerous, 15-20 per mm. : not quite straight but firm, not avoiding the pores : they occupy nearly half the transverse section. Rings. Very clear : the boundary a line of contrast and usually a fairly regular single line of pores in the Spring wood : contour rather uneven. Soft-tissue. Single cells and strings of cells. Pith. Small, about 1-2 mm. diameter, roundish : white to brown : hard. Radial Section. The pores need the lens, very fine lines, difficult to make out. The rays very small, inconspicuous brownish flakes. The rings are very clear but not prominent lines. Tangential Section. As the Radial, but the rays are colourless, vertical lines imperceptible with the lens. Type specimens from commercial sources : also from trees known before felling. No. 89. APPLE. Pyrus Malus. Linn. PLATE VII. FIG. 59. Natural Order. Rosaceae. Synonyms. Pirus acerba. D.C. Malus communis. Poir. Alternative Names. Crab : Crab-apple : Wild Apple : Crab- tree. Sources of Supply. Europe : Western Asia : Himalayas. Physical Characters, eto. Recorded dry-weight 41-50 Ibs. per cu. ft. Hardness Grade 6, compare Beech or Walnut. Smell and taste none. Burns very well and quietly, ignites readily, embers glow in still air. Solution with water or alcohol colour- less. Grain. Very fine, close and dense. Surface not lustrous : the pores may be seen shining with lens. Bark. Thin, £ inch thick, rough, wrinkled, bright : brownish or purplish-black when young : scaling later in rectangular scales. Uses, etc. Turnery. Not durable. Splits with great difficulty. Rarely of large size, usually met with as small logs or under- wood. Authorities. Nordlinger (87), p. 534. Ditto (86), vol. iii. p. 59. Schwartz (106), p. 485. Hartig (42), p. 29. Mathieu (69), p. 173. Wiesner (131), L. 12, p. 919. Colour. Heart-wood quite uniform, light reddish-brown not sharply defined from the brownish or reddish-white sap-wood which is about 12-20 rings wide. Anatomical Characters. Transverse section : — 104 MOUNTAIN ASH Pores. Need lens, fine, size 5, little variation : evenly distributed in groups of from 2-5 occupying the whole ring : very numerous, 100-200 per sq. mm. Rays. Need lens, fine to medium, size 4-5 : somewhat irregu- larly spaced, a pore-width or more apart : not long : slightly undulating, tapering gently at both ends : little if any denser than the ground-tissue : difficult to see in a transparent section : very numerous, 6-8 per mm. : " 10-13 " (T3*) : weak or waved, but scarcely avoiding the pores. Rings. Very clear : the boundary a fine clear line of dense Autumn wood : contour undulating. Soft-tissue. In occasional isolated cells or lines. Pith. Small, 1-3 mm. diameter, round or lobed, nearly as hard as the wood. Radial Section. Pores minute, colourless lines sometimes shining. Rays, minute flakes slightly darker than the ground- tissue. Rings clear but the very fine boundary lines a little darker than ihe remainder of the ring. Tangential Section. As the Radial, but the rays are minute, almost imperceptible vertical lines ; about 0.5 mm. high. Type specimens from commercial sources and also from trees known before felling. No. 90. MOUNTAIN ASH. Pyrus aucuparia. Ehrh. PLATE VII. FIG. 59. Natural Order. Rosaceae. Synonyms. Sorbus aucuparia. Linn. ( Pi rus = Pyrus). Alternative Names. Rowan tree : Fowler's Service Tree : Quicken Tree. Cochene : Sorbier des Oiseaux (69). Eberesche (87)- Sources of Supply. Europe : Madeira : N. and W. Asia : N. America. Physical Characters, etc. Recorded dry- weight 35 £-48* Ibs. per cu. ft. Hardness Grade 6, compare Beech or Apple. Smell or taste little if any. Burns well : embers glow in still air. Solu- tion with water or alcohol colourless. Grain. Extremely fine, close and dense. Surface bright : " Satine " (69). Bark. Reddish-brown, smooth, shining. Grey later, shining only here and there where the original epidermis remains. Uses, etc. " Turnery, tools, frictional parts of machines " (69). " Wood-engraving, tool? especially screw, to- (70). "Furniture, turnery and carving : flexible: not durable" (129). Splits unevenly and with difficulty. 105 THE TIMBERS OF COMMERCE It is sometimes confused with the Common Ash (Fraxinus). Authorities. Nordlinger (87), p. 540. Ditto (86), vol. iii. p. 61. Mathieu (69), p. 181. Schwartz (106). p. 485. Wester- meier (129), p. 12. DuMornay (70), p. 68. Hartig (42). Wies- ner (131), L. 12, p. 921. Colour. Heart-wood reddish-brown or reddish-white not well denned from the reddish-white or dirty-white sap-wood. Anatomical Characters. Transverse section : — Pores. Need lens, size 5, fine, little variation : eventy scattered. In groups of from 2-5 pores here and there : very numerous, about 450 per sq. mm. : less abundant in the Autumn zone. Rays. Need lens, size 5, fine, uniform : equidistant, a pore- width or more apart : slightly curved, not avoiding the pores : rather denser than the ground- tissue : numerous, 10-14 per mm. : very short, rarely continued across many rings : tapering both ends : brown. Rings. Very clear : the boundary a line of contrast between the dense autumn and the lax spring wood enhanced by the deeper colour of the former : contour well rounded. Soft-tissue in irregular patches and also in radial, i-rowed strings of cells. Flecks. Rather numerous in the neighbourhood of the pith : very narrow if in the early Spring wood : often with prominent tails or " false rays." Pith. Dark brown : about 2 mm. diameter : quite round : very soft and coarse. • Radial Section. Pores need lens, fine, colourless, inconspicuous scratches. Rays extremely fine, brown lines. Rings very clear but not prominent lines. Flecks long, narrow lines with tail- like " false rays " proceeding from them outwardly. Pith. A bold, very soft, dark brown strip. Tangential Section. As the Radial, but the rays are practically imperceptible with the lens, the rings are not so clearly defined and the flakes do not exhibit the " tails." Type specimens from commercial sources and from trees known 1 before felling. No. 91. ENGLISH CHERRY. Primus Cerasus. Linn. PLATE XVIII. FIG. 155. Natural Order. Rosaceae. Alternative Names. Garden Cherry, Sour Cherry in U.S.A. (49). Cerisier a Fruits acides, in France (69). Sources of Supply. Europe generally, North America. 106 AMERICAN CHERRY Physical Characters, etc. Recorded dry-weight 33^-49 Ibs. per cu. ft. Hardness Grade 7, compare Alder or English Birch. Smell or taste none. Burns well and quietly : embers do not glow in still air : the flame leaves the charred stick unconsumed. Solution with water or alcohol light yellow. Grain. Fine, smooth, close and even. Surface of the ground somewhat lustrous : the pores usually dull. Bark. Shining, laminated, peeling in thin sheets like Birch : lenticels prominent. Uses, etc. Turnery, tobacco-pipes, etc. : not durable : splits easily and cleanly. Authorities. Nordlinger (86), vol. iii. p. 71. Schwartz (106), p. 481. Hartig (42). Mathieu (69), p. 139. Colour. Heart-wood uniform light or dark brown, well denned from the reddish-white sap-wood. Anatomical Characters. Transverse Section : — Pores. Need lens, size 5, fine, decreasing uniformly from the Spring to the Autumn wood : uniformly crowded throughout the ring : very numerous, 100-150 per sq. mm. : in irregular groups of from 2 to sometimes 13 pores, occasionally branched. Rays. Readily visible when moistened, size 3-4, fine, uni- form : equidistant : direct : long but tapering gradually at both ends scarcely denser than the ground-tissue : numerous, 3-6 per mm. : more than a pore- width apart. Rings. Clear through a dark brown, narrow line of Autumn wood adjoining the porous Spring wood or pore-ring : contour well-rounded. Soft-tissue. In patches and lines here and there. Flecks. Singly near the pith : few : clear, narrow lines. Pith. Rounded or lobed, about o'5-ro mm. diameter. Radial Section. Pores clearly visible though minute, fine lines : dark brown or red. Rays inconspicuous lines, 0*5 mm. high with little contrast except in the transparent section. Rings very clear. Tangential Section. As the Radial, but the rays are scarcely perceptible with lens : almost colourless fine lines. Type specimens from trees known before felling. No. 92. AMERICAN CHERRY. Prunus sero- tina. Ehrh. (not of Poir., Roth., or Schur). PLATE VII. FIG. 61. Natural Order. Rosaceae. Synonyms. P. salicifolia. H. B. and K. P. virginica. Duroi. Padus serotina. Borck. Cerasus serotina. Loisel. (not of Hook.). 107 THE TIMBERS OF COMMERCE Alternative Names. Black Cherry : Wild Black Cherry (49) : Spate Traubenkirsche (131). Sources of Supply. North America, Southern Canada and Eastern U.S.A. (49). Physical Characters, etc. Recorded dry-weight, 36^ Ibs. per cu. ft. Hardness Grade 7, soft, compare Deal, Alder, English Birch. Smell or taste none. Burns well with a lively flame : embers glow in still air. Solution with water faint brown ; with alcohol afterwards, faint red. Grain. Very fine but open. Surface bright : the pores the dullest, the rays the brightest part. Bark. " Smooth, close, the outer layer peeling off in strips transversely — breaking into small hard scales of dark colour and giving old trunks a very characteristic appearance" (49). Uses, etc. " One of the most valuable and popular of our native woods (U.S.A.) for interior finishing and furniture " (49.) Authorities. Hough (49), pt. ii. p. 17. Wiesner (131), L. 6, p. 80. Sargent (100), p. 68. Colour. Uniform dark red. Sap-wood light yellowish (49). Anatomical Characters. Transverse section : — Pores. Need lens, fine, size 5, little variation : evenly distri- buted, but a single line of pores following the boundary of the ring : mostly single or in groups of from 2-3 pores : numerous 65-115 per sq. mm. : occasionally drops of dark .red gum especially in the pore-ring. Rays. Very sharp and clear : size 4, medium, uniform : almost equidistant : gently curved, not avoiding the pores : many, 4-6 per mm. : long, tapering both ends, much denser and much lighter than the ground-tissue : more than a pore-width apart. Rings. Clear : boundary a fine, dense line of Autumn wood usually accompanied by a fairly continuous row of pores in the early Spring wood. Soft-tissue. Isolated cells only : in considerable quantity but scattered. (In certain species of Prunus it forms conspicuous and characteristic flame-shaped patches.) Rows of gum-galls resembling those of the Eucalypti occur here and there. Pith. ? Radial Section. Rather lighter in shade than the above. The pores are fine lines (need lens) containing frequent drops of gum which are more easily seen when moistened. The rays are small, light-coloured flakes visible in certain lights : lustrous. The rings are scarcely traceable. Tangential Section. As the Radial, but the pores are visible to the naked eye as a fine, dull shading. The rays need lens, but are broad, spindle-shaped, vertical lines about ro mm. high, 1 08 RED ELZENHOUT of the same colour as the soft-tissue. The rings are faint loops or bands of slightly larger pores : rather indefinite. Type specimens from commercial sources and also authenti- cated by Romeyn B. Hough. No. 93. CANADIAN CHERRY. Prunus emar- ginata. Walp. PLATE VII. FIG. 60. Natural Order. Rosaceae. Synonym. Cerasus emarginata. Dougl. Sources of Supply. United States of America, British Colum- bia. Physical Characters, etc. Recorded dry-weight, 35 i Ibs. per cu. ft. Hardness Grade 6, compare Beech. Taste or smell none. Burns well : embers glow in still air : a copious yellow juice is expelled by heat. Solution colourless : the alcoholic solution yields a slight ppt., with potash. Surface lustrous, especially in radial section. Grain. Fine, open and straight. Bark. ? Authorities. Macoun (66), p. 125. Sargent (100), p. 67. Colour. Heart-wood brownish : uniform. Sap-wood ? Anatomical Characters. As those of Prunus serotina, No. 92, with the following variations : — Pore-ring. Not a single line and not sharply marked off from the later pores : no red gum anywhere. Rays. Only just visible to good sight : size 5, and 5-6 per sq. mm. : tapering very little : a trifle lighter in colour than the ground. Radial Section. Rings clearly traceable : rays lustrous, especially when weathered, but there is little contrast of colour. Tangential Section. The rays are not visible with the lens in the solid section except when moistened. Type specimen authenticated by Hough. No. 94. RED ELZENHOUT. Cunoma capensis. Linn. PLATE VII. FIG. 62. Natural Order. Saxifrageae. Alternative Names. Red Alder : Red Els : Rood Els or Elze : Red Cedar (59) : Umgwasube (61). Source of Supply. South Africa. Physical Characters, etc. Recorded dry-weight, about 46$ Ibs. per cu. ft. Hardness Grade 2, compare Boxwood. Smell 109 THE TIMBERS OF COMMERCE none. Taste slightly insipid. Burns well and quietly, embers glow in still air. Solution with water clear red resembling the colour of the wood. Grain. Extremely fine though open. Surface scarcely bright : rays dull : pores shining : ground a little brighter. Bark. ? (The surface of the log under the bark is finely striated). Uses, etc. " Cabinet making, turnery, wheels : durable in the wet. A tree from 15-60 ft. high by ii-2 ft. diam." (57). An excellent turner's wood : well worth importing. Authorities. Kew Guide (59), p. 33. Laslett (60), p. 304. Ditto (61), p. 438. Cape S.A. (19). Colour. Red like Apple-tree wood but deeper. Sap-wood similar but lighter, not defined from the heart-wood. Pores. Just visible from their lighter colour, size 4, little variation : evenly distributed : sometimes arranged in loose strings : a narrow zone poor in pores : numerous. 40-50 per mm. : single, rarely grouped, occasional twos and threes, not sub- divided ; longish-oval. Rays. On the limit of vision, size 5-6 : in appearance two sizes, but the smaller are the much attenuated ends of the larger, giving the impression that there are many small between the large ones : "ends" much less than a pore-width apart, 19-27 per mm. : "middles" a large pore-width apart, 3-5 per mm. : very lax and large-celled. Rings. Fairly clear, the boundary a narrow band of darker and denser wood : contour gently undulating. Soft-tissue. In scattered single cells. Pith. ? Radial Section. Quite uniform in colour : pores scarcely visible : rays rather prominent from their deeper colour, though small : they make a pretty silver-grain : rings just traceable. Tangential Section. As the Radial, but the rays appear as large, red, spindle-shaped lines of coarse, round cells filled with red gum : about 0*5 mm. high ; rings a little clearer where the loops show broadly. Type Specimen. A portion of a log sent to the Colonial and Indian Exhibition. No. 95. CORKWOOD. Weinmannia rubifolia. Benth. PLATE VII. FIG. 63. Natural Order. Saxifrageae. Alternative Names. Marara (85) in N.S.W., not in Queens- land. It is not the Corkwood of Dominica (Ochroma Lagopus) no K AM AH I nor Duboisia myoporoides. R. Br., sometimes called Corkwood in N.S.W. and Queensland. Sources of Supply. Australia, New South Wales and Queens- land. Physical Characters, etc. Recorded dry-weight, 48^ Ibs. per cu. ft. Hardness Grade 3, compare Blackthorn. Smell none. Taste insipid. Solution with water faint amber. Burns well and quietly with little smoke and an agreeable smell : heat expels a copious gum. Grain. Extremely fine but open. Surface scarcely bright : pores shining. Rays and ground dull. Bark. "Light grey" (85). Uses, etc. "A tree attaining the dimensions of 150 ft. in height by 3 ft. in diameter. : wood close-grained and tough, but easily wrought. Highly spoken of by those who have used it (85)." Authority. Nilson (85) p. 124. Colour. Light brown or pink, quite uniform. Pores. Upon the limit of vision, size 4-5, little variation : evenly distributed, occasionally a narrow zone poor in pores : numerous, 40-90 per sq. mm. : arranged radially : many single, pairs, and subdivided in groups of as many as 8 : oval : empty. Rays. Upon the limit of vision, size 5-6 : in appearance two sizes, but the smaller are the attenuated ends ; uniform ; equi- distant but apparently many small between the large ones ; "ends" a pore-width apart; "middles" much more : together about 12 per mm. : very lax and large-celled. Rings. Very faint, by no means clear : the boundary only occasionally visible as a vague, darker band or a zone poor in pores : much less distinct with lens than appears to the naked eye. Pith. ? Radial Section. Pores visible but very fine and inconspicuous : no contrast : the rays need the lens and are slightly pinker, minute, inconspicuous flakes : the rings are just traceable with care. Tangential Section. As the Radial, but the rays are minute, inconspicuous, pinkish lines about o'2 mm. high. Type specimen authenticated by the Sydney Technological Museum. No. 96. KAMAHI. Weinmannia racemosa. Linn. PLATE VII. FIG. 63. Natural Order. Saxifrages. Source of Supply. New Zealand only. Alternative Names. Towhai, Kamai (91). ill THE TIMBERS OF COMMERCE Physical Characters, etc. Recorded dry-weight, 45^ Ibs. pei cu. ft. Hardness Grade 7, compare English Alder. Taste or smell, little if any. Burns well with little or no aroma : embers glow in still air. Solution with water the colour of the wood deepening to dark port-wine colour upon the addition of potash : noppt. Boiled afterwards with alcohol the chips yield a faint brown solution. Grain. Very fine. Surface dull. Bark. Very smooth with a whitish skin, reddish-brown be- neath : y\ to J inch thick : large pits here and there : hard, woody, not fissured, closely adherent. Uses, etc. Unrecorded. Saws easily. Needs careful season- ing, otherwise it will crack badly in drying. Authorities. Perceval (91), p. n. Colour. Heart- wood uniform deep reddish-brown, occasionally with dusk}' streaks. A sap-wood tree. Anatomical Characters. As W. rubifolia (No. 95) with the following differences : — Pores. Size 4 : usually single : 100-150 per sq. mm. : need lens in all sections. Rays. Size 4, and 15-20 per mm. : very obscure : need lens. The dusky ring-like zones are independent of the structure, and are not concentric with the true zones of growth. Type specimen authenticated by the Forest Officer to the Government of New Zealand. No. 97. SATIN-WALNUT. Liquidambar styraciflua. Linn. PLATE VIII. FIG. 64. Natural Order. Hamamelideae. Synonyms. L. styraciflua var. mexicana. Oerst. L. mono- phylla. Oerst. Alternative Names. Sweet Gum : Red Gum : Bilsted : Star- leaved Gum (100). Satin Walnut : California Red Gum (traders' names in England). Copalm (15). Sources of Supply. U.S. America : Mexico. Physical Characters, etc. Recorded dry-weight, 36f-59£ Ibs. per cu. ft. Hardness Grade 7. compare Beech, Alder. Smell and taste none. Burns well and quietly : embers glow in still air. Solution with water faint brown or dirty- white. Grain. Extremely fine, close and even. Surface dull, but glistening as though frosted (like micaceous sandstone). Bark. " Soft, greyish-brown with rough, narrow, longitudinal ridges" (49). Uses, etc. " Furniture, road-paving blocks, shingles. Durability 112 Fig. 64. am bar Fig. 67. Eu. lox'jphleba (Vork Gum). dBERS OF COMME1 Recorded dry . pei English Alder. ^ ith little or no aroma : embers water the : Jour of the ^ :ion of pot yield a faint ;h skin, iv -i.^-h -"brown be^ there: hard, L] season- are, and to the Liqindambar Oerst. • L. Oerst. L. mono- •'m : Bilsted: Star- Red Gum (traders' 2-59i Ibs. Smell •nbers glow in still white. Surface dull, but 'stone), narrow, longitudinal h ingles. Durability PLATE VII t. Liquidambar (Red Gum). Fig. 67. Eu. loxophleba (York Gum). Fig. 68. Eu. salubris (Gimlet Gum). Fig. 65. Fig. 66. Eucalyptus marginata Ku. diversicolor (Karri). (Jarrah). Fig. 69. Eu. globulus (Blue Gum). Fig. 71. Melaleuca (Paper-bark). Fig. 72. Eugenia. SATIN-WALNUT much disputed " (100). "Warps and twists badly if not steamed immediately after sawing into planks" (49). " Not strong, rather tough, compact, its great economic value is scarcely appreciated on account of the difficulty experienced in perfectly seasoning it. Inclined to shrink and warp badly in seasoning, susceptible of a beautiful polish : building timbers, plates, boarding and clap-boards, cabinet-making, veneering and street-paving " (100). Very resilient and withstands traffic well from that reason, equalling even much harder woods: silent and smooth but extremely perishable from decay, creasoting being absolutely essential if it is to be used for street-paving. Liable to crack in the sun — always more or less defective in the centre. In bad repute in England owing to inferior wood being used without creasoting, thus obscuring its many excellent qualities. Only used for the commonest class of furniture. Authorities. Nordlinger (87). Hough (49), pt. iii. p. 24. Sargent (100), No. 39. Lefroy (63). Boulger (17). Colour. Red or reddish-brown, excentric heart-wood well de- fined from the cream-coloured or whitish sap-wood. Usually marked with smoky streaks. Dull brown in inferior grades. Anatomical Characters. Transverse section : — Pores. Need lens, rather fine, size 4, little variation : evenly crowded throughout the ring : in occasional groups of 2-3 or apparently crowded into straggling lines : very numerous, 160-200 per sq. mm. : sometimes a few containing gum. Rays. Just visible in certain lights, medium, size 4, uniform : straight, not avoiding the pores, a pore-width or less apart : denser than the ground-tissue : numerous, 8-9 per mm. : rather short, frequently tapering : brown. Rings. Clear, not prominent : boundary, a fine line or zone of Autumn wood, sometimes very clear, at others difficult to see : the smoky zones are independent of the rings : contour uneven. Soft-tissue. In many isolated cells. Flakes. Rare, long, narrow, yellow — of a lighter colour than the wood. Pith. ? Radial Section. Innumerable, fine, shining lines, many con- taining drops of gum. Rays inconspicuous, fine flakes of the same colour as the ground-tissue. Rings rarely traceable, though the smoky zones are frequently prominent. Flakes appear as very fine lines. Tangential Section. As the Radial, but the rays are im- perceptible with lens: about 0*5 mm. high, not spindle-shaped, but rather blunt. Very beautiful objects in the solid under the microscope. The smoky zones widen out in this section. Type specimens authenticated by Hough. 113 i THE TIMBERS OF COMMERCE No. 98. JARRAH. Eucalyptus marginata. Sm. PLATE VIII. FIG. 65. Natural Order. Myrtaceae. Synonyms. E. floribunda. Hueg. E. Mahagoni. F. v. M. E. hypoleuca. Schau. Alternative Names. Mahogany Gum. Australian Mahogany. Yarrow- tree (42). Curly Jarrah, in Victoria (46). Sources of Supply. Western Australia, New Zealand, Victoria. Physical Characters, etc. Dry weight, 50^-64 Ibs. per cu. ft. Hardness Grade 2, compare Boxwood. Smell or taste none. Burns indifferently, embers soon die out and leave the carbonized wood. Heat expels drops of resin or gum. Ash black. " One of the least inflammable woods " (42). Solution with water or alcohol brownish. Commercial form, chiefly paving blocks or planks from which they are cut. Grain. Course, open — sinuous. Surface rather dull. The ground tissue the brightest portion, the pores and rays very dull. Bark. Deeply fissured, dark grey or brownish, fibrous, per- sistent, J-f inch thick, of two layers, the outer fibrous, the inner compact : grey. Uses, etc. " Good for paving, piles, sleepers, ship-building and for purposes where it is exposed to the attacks of the teredo, chelura or white ants." Durable under all circumstances properly seasoned. Liable to be unsound in the heart and to contain "gum- veins" or cavities. Becomes harder with age. " It appears imperishable, excellent qualities for paving : apt to warp if not well selected " (28). Authorities. J. Ednie-Brown (21), p. 10. Laslett (4), p. 231. Petsch (28), p. 125. F. von Mueller (42), p. 3. Lefroy (59), Miller's (20). Anatomical Characters. Transverse section : — Colour. Very dark chocolate or the colour of dried blood with black zones here and there : runs lighter in colour at times. Sap-wood brownish, ecru : £ to f inch wide, well defined from the heart. Pores. Clear in certain lights in dark pieces, clearer in light wood, not prominent on account of the lack of contrast of colour. Size, i or 1-2, with considerable variation in each ring in no particular order : irregularly distributed, often running in oblique, straggling lines which occasionally reverse their direction : mostly single, but joining up into compact strings of about 15 pores : numerous, 0-15 per sq. mm. : round or oval : often contain resin or gum. Radial sec., pro- minent, coarse, open grooves usually filled with dark contents : often reversed in adjoining bands. In tang, sec., usually sinuous. 114 AUSTRALIAN RED MAHOGANY Rays. Require the lens : size 5 : uniform and equidistant, much less than the width of the large pores apart : avoiding or interrupted by the pores : very much waved : very numerous, 10-12 per mm. ; denser than the ground tissue. In radial sec. scarcely perceptible : appear as fine, black (or lighter) shining flakes under the lens. In tang, sec., extremely fine blackish lines : scarcely visible with lens, less than o-i mm. high. Rings. Bands or zones of few . or crowded pores, often in regular rows of oblique straggling lines : often zones of black colour having no relation to the structure : also denser and softer zones of the ground tissue causing contrast in the solid wood : contour waved. Soft-tissue. Encircling the pores and compacting the oblique lines. Type specimens authenticated by the Forest Officer to the Government of Western Australia. In the figure the Rays appear much too broad. No. 99. AUSTRALIAN RED MAHOGANY. Eucalyptus resinifera. Sm. As PLATE VIII. FIG. 65. Natural Order. Myrtacese. Synonyms. E. hemilampra. F. v. M. E. multiflora. Poir. Alternative Names. Red Gum : Jimmy Low in Queensland {12). Red Gum : Forest Mahogany in Queensland and X.S. Wales (85). Red Stringy-bark. (Iron-bark by Laslett (60), possibly in error.) Sources of Supply. Australia, New South Wales, Queensland (the Southern parts). Physical Characters, etc. Recorded dry-weight, 61-72^ Ibs. per cu. ft. Hardness Grade 2, compare Boxwood. No smell or taste when dry. Burns moderately well with much crackling : embers glow in still air. Solution with water and alcohol faint brown. Grain. Coarse and open in radial section, much finer in tangential section, cross-grained, sinuous. Surface scarcely bright, the pores dull. Bark. " Reddish, fibrous, rough" (5). " Rough, persistent on the trunk, but more or less deciduous on the branches " (85). Uses, etc. "Piles, fencing, posts, joists: very durable in the ground " (5). " II resiste au Sea-worm " (92). " Very strong and durable ; used extensively for fencing, beams, rafters and rough carpentry. In building St. John's Church at Parramatta in 1798, rafters of this timber were used, which were found It is well spoken of as a paving wood in Sydney. THE TIMBERS OF COMMERCE Authorities. Nilsson (85), p. 70. F. M. Bailey (5), p. 75. J. F. Bailey (6), p. 398. A. Petsche (92), p. 123. Laslett's remarks, [see (4) p, 241] do not apply to this species. Easily confused with Jarrah and many other Red Eucalypti. Colour. Dark red, like dried blood at times. Sap-wood brown, not sharply defined from the heart. Anatomical Characters. Similar to E. marginata, No. 98. Transverse section : — Pores. Very prominent, coarse, size i, little variation : mostly single, but joining up in the strings to as many as 24 or more : few, 9-13 per sq. mm. : roundish : often ruby contents. Rays. Fairly straight : rather numerous, 9-13 per mm. Rings. Bands with more or less crowded pores, sometimes in regular rows of oblique straggling strings : also zones of denser and laxer tissue contrasted with each other : no definite boun- dary. Soft-tissue. Sparing : encircling the pores and occasionally joining 2 or more pores : also a few fine lines in the denser zones of wood. Pith. ? Type specimens authenticated by F. M. Bailey and also by the Sydney Technological Museum. No. 100. KARRI. Eucalyptus versicolor. F. von Mueller. PLATE VIII. FIG. 66. Natural Order. Myrtaceae. Synonym. Eu. collosea. F. v. M. Alternative Names. Kari. White Gum. Sources of Supply. Western Australia between Cape Hamelin and Albany. Very local. Physical Characters, etc. Dry weight, 53 to 63lbs.per cu. ft. Hardness Grade 2, about equal to Boxwood. No smell or taste. Burns well with much crackling, embers glow in still air and consume away to the ash. Solution with water colourless, with alcohol faint brown. Imported usually in deals, etc., for wood paving, but is obtainable to " 12 feet wide " (42). Grain. Undulating, apparently reversed in adjoining belts, but not interlaced : coarse and open in radial sec., much closer in tang. sec. Surface bright and even lustrous or satiny : the pores shine dully, the ground-tissue bright and lighter : the rays dull. Bark. Deciduous, yellowish white or brown, soft, fibrous, smooth, fV~i inch thick, "renewed each year" (21). Uses, etc. Street paving. " It cracks more than the Jarrah, H6 RED GUM but is better for paving " (28). " Durable under exposure, but less so than Jarrah: when used for paving does not become so slippery for the horses' feet " (21). Rafters, bridges, floors, shafts, spokes, felloes and rails. Elastic, tough ; does not finish well. Usually confused with Jarrah and other red Eucalypti. Authorities. J. Ednie Brown (21), p. 12. Petsch (28), p. 129. Millar's (20), p. i, et seq. Lefroy (59). Colour. Very dark red, flesh red or like dried blood. Sap- wood sharply defined from the heart-wood, whitish-brown, f-i inch wide. Anatomical Characters. As E. marginata (No. 98), with tha following trifling differences. Transverse section : — Pores. Conspicuous : some variation in no particular order : few, 4-10 per sq. mm. : oval : appear pinkish in the solid wood. Rays. Require the lens : size 5-6 : very numerous, 15-19 per mm. Rings. Clear where a dense zone adjoins a regular pore-zone, but no definite boundary line : bands of a few or crowded pores. See above. Ground-tissue. Coarse and dense by turns. Soft-tissue. Encircling, or rather, in patches around, the pores. Pith. ? Radial Section. Much lighter in colour than above sec., pores conspicuous, coarse, dark brown, often in numbers side by side with occasional drops of red gum ; rays require lens, minute lines or flakes of similar colour to the ground tissue : ring boun- daries imperceptible : soft-tissue in light streaks giving the wood the appearance of animal muscle. Tangential Section. The pores very much less conspicuous than in radial section. Type specimens authenticated by the Forest Officer to the Government of Western Australia. No. 101. RED GUM (of South-western Australia). Eucalyptus calophylla. R. Br. PLATE VIII. FIG. 65. Natural Order. Myrtaceae. Alternative Names. Mahogany in Western Australia (12). Fraaiblad Gom-boom in S. Africa (45). Sources of Supply. Western Australia. Introduced into South Africa and elsewhere. Physical Characters, etc. Recorded dry- weight, 60-61 Ibv JHT cu. ft. Hardness Grade 3, compare Blackthorn, taste none. Burns very well, rather noisily, easily maintains 117 THE TIMBERS OF COMMERCE a flame, embers glow in still air and consume away to white ash. No doubt good fuel. Solution with water or alcohol yellow. Grain. Moderately fine, sinuous at times. Surface bright, somewhat lustrous when cleft (not when planed) ; rays dull. Ground bright. Pores dull except when containing resin-drops. Bark. '' Hard, tough, irregularly fissured, rugged" (17). Brown to brick-red within, crumbling, full of longitudinal, whitish, spindle-shaped, separable threads : £-1 inch thick. Uses, etc. "Spokes, shafts, handles: not durable under- ground " (80). " Sometimes attacked by white ants, otherwise very durable — splits freely — splendid firewood " (17). " Suit- able for engineering and architectural works " (61). Authorities. F. von Mueller (80), p. 4. Ednie-Brown (17). Laslett (61), p. 431. Hutchins (45). Colour. Brownish-grey. Anatomical Characters. Similar to those of Eu. marginata, No. 98. Transverse section : — Pores. Just visible, very plain with lens on account of their brown colour, size 1-2, considerable variation : rather regularly distributed, only joining up to oblique lines in broad rings, otherwise in isolated groups of about 5 pores : scattered : many single, mostly pairs, also nested and radial groups, but when joined forming longer strings : groups separated each by a ray : much brown resin : darker than the ground. The frequency of radial, subdivided groups is a feature. Few 0-3 per sq. mm. Rays. Need lens, size 5-6, uniform : equidistant : much less than a pore-width apart, widely avoiding the pores, though fairly straight between : weak, thin, white threads : numerous, 9-13 per mm. : about as dense as the ground. Rings. Fairly clear if indicated by the white, visible, limp, irregular zones of soft-tissue : contour regularly undulating. Soft-tissue. Fairly visible or at least the most visible feature : limp, white, boundary-like lines irregular in thickness : also short arcs and part circles in the Autumn ? wood near the boundary : cells rather large in radial rows of irregular length : also often encircling the pores and winged (reduced) arcs, almost disappear- ing on the inner side of the ring. Pith. ? Gum-galls present in concentric arcs often to an in- jurious extent. Radial Section. Pores fairly prominent, often undulating and out of parallel (cross-grained) : appear brown from the resin- drops within them. Rays minute, inconspicuous, colourless, white, dull lines or flakes. Rings doubtful. The gum-galls appear crimson under the miscroscope, and are surrounded by degenerated tissue. Tangential Section. As the Radial, but the rays appear as very 118 YORK GUM lax, minute, white lines about 0*5 mm. high, of large cells in a single row. Type specimen authenticated by the Forest Officer to the Government of Western Australia. No. 102. YORK GUM. Eucalyptus loxophleba. Benth. PLATE VIII. FIG. 67. Natural Order. Myrtaceae. Source of Supply. Western Australia. Physical Characters, etc. Recorded dry-weight, 64-68 Ibs. per cu. ft. Hardness Grade 3, compare Blackthorn. Smell slightly vinegary, if any. Taste, none. Burns very well, with a noisy, crackling flame, which is easily maintained : no smell : embers glow in still air and consume away to white ash. Solution with water dirty-yellow : with alcohol similar but fainter. Grain. Fine, close, sinuous, mottled. Surface bright with dull rays and pores. Bark. " Persistent, rough " (80). " Dark coloured, rugged " (17). Brown with shallow fissures, of a fibrous nature, though compact, J-| in. thick, moderately adherent. Uses, etc. " The very best in Australia for naves and felloes on account of its toughness. Not fissile enough to spilt into rails, and hence is sought after for this reason for general pur- poses " (80). " The best in the Colony for naves, felloes and wheelwright's work — felloes in use for over forty years" (17). "Tough, strong — suitable for engineering and architectural purposes " (61). Very hard to saw, planes indifferently, as the grain picks-up in the wood near the centre. Authorities. F. von Mueller (80), p. 7. Laslett (60), p. 25. J. Ednie-Brown (17), p. 23. Easily confused with, and difficult to distinguish from all other greyish Eucalypti. Colour. Greyish-brown: reddish-brown: "reddish" (17). Sap-wood £-1 inch wide, brownish-white : sharply defined from, and much lighter in shade than the heart-wood. Anatomical Characters. Transverse section : — Pores. Need lens, lack both size and contrast, size 4, rather variable, sometimes one ring all large and another all small ; fairly evenly distributed in an oblique arrangement, but loose and only discernible in some few rings : usually isolated or few together : subdivided groups extremely rare : oblique strings of from 6-7 separated by rays : few, 30-60 per sq. mm. : a little light-coloured resin : appear as mere perforations. Rays. Need lens, size 5-6, uniform : equidistant, much less 119 THE TIMBERS OF COMMERCE than a pore-width apart : widely avoiding the pores, rarely a straight interval, very weak, white, thin threads ; many, 16-20 per mm. : denser than the ground-tissues. Rings. Fairly clear : boundary a narrow zone of wood, poor in pores : contour regular, with long undulations. Soft-tissue. Difficult to find, very narrow white borders encircling the pores, visible in the solid only. Radial Section. Pores mere striations, minute, shining lines with brown drops here and there. Rays extremely incon- spicuous, dull, white lines, visible in certain lights only. Rings doubtful, a gently shaded, banded appearance. Tangential Section. As the Radial, but the rays are minute, colourless lines about o-2 mm. high : they appear to contain drops of resin at times. Type specimen authenticated by Walter Gill, Forest Officer for Western Australia. This species is one of the small-pored Eucalypti. It much resembles Gimlet-wood (E. salubris) in structure. No. 103. GIMLET- WOOD. Eucalyptus salubris. F. v. M. PLATE VIII. FIG. 68. Natural Order. Myrtaceae. Alternative Names. Fluted Eucalypt (80). Gimlet Gum (67). Source of Supply. Western Australia. Physical Characters, etc. Recorded dry-weight, 65-68 Ibs. per cu. ft. Hardness Grade 5, compare English Ash. Smell and taste none. Burns fairly well, with a short, lively, crackling flame, little smell : embers glow in still air and consume away to the snow-white ash. Solution with water brown. Grain. Very fine and compact, though open: interlaced. Surface dull in all parts. Bark. " Smooth, shining, and of a brownish tinge " (80). Thin, smooth, closely adherent, scarcely wrinkled, of a leather- like appearance : dark-brown : pores distinctly visible in transverse section. The trunk of the tree is fluted. My specimen is three-lobed in section. Uses, etc. " Poles, shafts, rails — although tough, is worked with comparative ease ; the best wood for engraving purposes known from Western Australia " (80). " Cabinet-work and general purposes " (17). Splits badly, planes very smoothly, and is hard to cut with a knife. A good solid wood. Not ornamental. Colour. Dark neutral-brown, with wanner coloured bands. Sap-wood brownish-white, about £ inch wide, sharply defined from the heart-wood. 1 20 TUART Anatomical Characters. Transverse section : — Pores. Need lens, small, inconspicuous, size 4, little varia- tion : rather regularly distributed in bands : oblique strings are only visible in well-grown rings, the pores are otherwise too crowded : usually single, but frequent subdivided pairs : each group of pores separated from others by a ray : many, 70-120 per sq. mm. : appear lighter than the ground : many with white contents. Rays. Difficult to see with the lens, size 5^6, uniform : equi- distant : less than a pore-width apart : avoiding the pores more or less : light-coloured threads : rarely straight at any point : many, 12-16 per mm. : scarcely denser than the ground-tissue. Rings. Fairly clear : colour-bands very clear to the naked eye : boundary a line of contrast and often a zone poor in pores : contour in long waves approaching and receding from each other, causing the rings to become alternately broad and narrow. Soft-tissue. Inconspicuous, very narrow borders encircling the pores, sometimes joining them up to oblique strings. Pith. ? Radial Section. The pores are fine, scarcely visible lines, partially filled with brown resin or some with a white deposit which is visible to the naked eye, especially where they cross the denser zones. Rays inconspicuous, minute, dull, white lines, visible in certain lights only. Tangential Section. As the Radial, but the rays are practically imperceptible with microscope (2 inch objective). The rings are readily traceable, almost prominent. Type specimen authenticated by the Forest Officer to the Government of Western Australia. This is one of the small-pored Eucalypti, and is allied to the York Gum (E. loxophleba) in point of structure. No. 104. TUART. Eucalyptus gomocephala. D.C. As FIG. 69. PLATE VIII. Natural Order. Myrtaceae. Alternative Names. White Gum (60). Tewart, Tooart, etc. Source of Supply. Western Australia. Physical Characters, etc. Recorded dry-weight, 72-75 Ibs. per cu. ft. Hardness Grade 4, compare Maple. Smell and taste none. Burns well with a short, lively, crackling flame and a slight tarry smell ; embers glow in still air : ash, grey. Solution with water, dirty yellow. Grain. Sinuous, cross-grained, rather fine and open. Su oily-looking, the ground-tissue greasy when cut with a knife : pores dull. 121 THE TIMBERS OF COMMERCE Bark. " Persistent, wrinkled " (80). " Greyish-white, smoothly wrinkled " (17). Fibrous, not corky, about J inch thick. Uses, etc. " Strong, durable, does not split in seasoning : invaluable for engineering, cabinet-making, turnery and archi- tectural work ; shafts, naves, felloes and various implements, shipbuilding, and general purposes " (80). " The strongest and toughest wood in Western Australia " (17). " Tough and rigid — difficult to cleave. Sound, with few or no defects, most valuable in large scantlings where great strength is needed, shrinks little in seasoning and does not split, not in the least affected by weather, stands high temperatures (i.e., that of the engine room) " (60). See Laslett for mechanical tests. Pares easily with the knife, planes badly, saws with great ease. Not ornamental. Authorities. F. v. Mueller (80), p. 9. Ednie-Brown (17), p. 15. Laslett (60), p. 432. Easily confused with other Eucalypti of the same colour. Colour. " Yellowish-white " (17). Yellowish or straw- colour ; light brown. Sap-wood sharply defined from the heart, dull brown. Anatomical Characters. Similar to E. globulus, No. 106. Transverse section : — Pores. Readily visible from their lighter colour and masses, size 2, considerable variation from one year to another, but not of necessity increasing in size as the tree ages : usually joined to others but frequent single, isolated pores : often subdivided : few, 6-20 per sq. mm. :. sometimes as many as 15 in a string. Rays. Clearly visible with lens, always traceable : rarely quite straight : very weak, thin, light-coloured threads : many 10-14 Per mm- Rings. Clear. The boundary varies : sometimes a zone poor in pores or a fine white line about the width of a ray, both accompanied by a change in the direction of the pore-strings. Soft-tissue. Readily visible, as rather wide borders encircling the pores, and perhaps also the fine white boundary-like line. Pith. ? Radial Section. Pores readily visible but scarcely prominent, usually reversed in adjoining belts, undulating : contain gummy- looking drops. Rays very inconspicuous, colourless, visible in certain lights only. Rings indicated by the reversed pores and fibres. Tangential Section. As the Radial, but the rays only just visible with the lens as white, coarse-celled lines about o'l mm. high. Type specimen authenticated by the Forest Officer to the Government of Western Australia. 122 AUSTRALIAN BOX No. 105. AUSTRALIAN BOX. Eucalyptus hemi- phloia. F. v. M. As FIG. 69. PLATE VIII. Natural Order. Myrtaceae. Physical Characters, etc. Recorded dry-weight, 70 Ibs. per cu. ft. Hardness Grade 2, compare Boxwood. Smell and taste, little if any when dry. Burns well with a lively flame, little smoke or smell : heat expels resin. Solution with water faint brown. Grain. Very fine, though open. Surface bright, smooth, feels like Boxwood : when exposed it weathers a silvery-grey. Bark. " Silvery-grey, persistent, wrinkled and full of clefts upon the butt of the tree, deciduous in long strips upon the branches " (85). Uses, etc. " Timber of first-rate quality, obtainable in large scantlings — tough, durable, but liable to suffer from dry-rot and the attacks of the white ant ; does not stand long in the ground : excellent fuel " (85). " Famous for hardness, tough- ness and durability" (C. Morris). "Excellent, tough, durable, of great lateral strength ; sleepers, naves, felloes, jetty and bridge piles, mining slabs, fence-posts, cogs, tree-nails, large screws, mauls and handles " (67). " Very tough and elastic " (5). " Many varieties. Non-fissile : of great durability when exposed : recommended for bridge-work " (27). A tree attaining a height of 180 ft. by 6 ft. in diameter. Authorities. F. M. Bailey (5), p. 72. Maiden (67). De Coque (27), p. 206. Nilson (85). Colour. "White" (85). " Yellowish-grey" (5). Khaki, with white pores, uniform. Anatomical Characters. As Tuart (No. 104), with variations as follows. Transverse section : — Pores. Clear, sometimes prominent in the solid from their colour : size 2, little variation. Rings. Very doubtful : an occasional incomplete pore-ring of one or two rows, but chiefly indicated by a change in the disposition and number of the pores : contour irregular : seldom a pore-less zone. Soft-tissue. In narrow borders encircling the pores. Radial Section. Pores readily visible, lighter in colour than the ground. Type specimens authenticated by F. M. Bailey and by Frank C. Stone. This wood is easily confused with many other Eucalypti of the same colour, especially E. gomocephala, which should be referred to (see No. 104.). 123 THE TIMBERS OF COMMERCE No. 1 06. BLACKBUTT. Eucalyptus pilularis. Sm. As FIG. 69. PLATE VIII. Natural Order. Myrtaceae. Synonyms. E. semicorticata F. v. M. E. incrassata Sieb. E. ornata Sieb. E. persiciflora D.C. The E. pilularis D.C. is E. viminalis. Labill., and not the present species. Alternative Names. Tcheergun. Toi in Queensland (5). Mahogany (60). Flintwood (85). White-top : Benaroon : Willow : Mountain Ash (12). Sources of Supply. New South Wales, Queensland and Victoria. Physical Characters, etc. Recorded dry- weight 46 to 59 \ Ibs. per cu. ft. Hardness Grade 3, compare Blackthorn. Smell none. Taste astringent. Burns well, with a lively crackling flame : embers do not glow in still air, but leave the carbonized wood. Said to be inflammable. Solution brown. Grain. Coarse and open, but very dense. Surface dull. Bark. " Persistent at the base of the tree, but falling off in strips from the upper part of the trunk and branches " (5). " Sub-fibrous " (67). Uses, etc. " House-building and fencing in Queensland. Tough, durable and strong " (5). " Flooring-boards, telegraph- poles and sleepers " (52). " Particularly recommended for paving " (92). " First-class timber for general building pur- poses, liable to crack and open, subject to pin-holes " (27). " Size, 50-150 high by 2-4 ft. diameter " (15). " Often confused with Tallow-wood " (27). " Excellent for strength and durability : bridge-planking, decking, piles, paving-blocks : warps and twists when exposed to the sun " (67). Hard to saw : pieces rip out during planing. Authorities. F. M. Bailey (5), p. 70. Kew Guide, (57), No. 3, pp. 49, 51 and 68. Boulger (15), p. 169. Laslett (60), p. 251. Russell (52), .p. 7, with mechanical tests. Petsche (92), p. 123. Maiden (67). De Coque (27). Colour. Rosy yellow (92). Light grey (52). Khaki or uniform greyish-brown, with lighter sap-wood. Anatomical Characters. As those of Tuart, No. 104 (which see), with the following trifling differences : — Transverse Section. Conspicuous, little variation in size. Rings very doubtful, chiefly indicated by the change in the arrangement or number of the pores : no definite boundary : contour regular. " Often gum-veins in circles " (27). Radial Section. A shade lighter than the transverse, pores prominent, open, clearly-cut lines, darker in colour than the ground-tissue, and often running obliquely to each other. .Type specimens authenticated by F. M. Bailey and R. T. Baker. 124 BLUE GUM No. 107. BLUE GUM. (of Tasmania) Eucalyptus Globulus. Lab. PLATE VIII. FIG. 69. Natural Order. Myrtaceae. Synonym. E. globulosus. St. Laz. Alternative Names. Grey Gum : Bastard Box in N.S.W. Kurpoora maram in Madras (37). . The Blue Gum of Queensland and N.S.W. mentioned by Bailey is E. tereticornis. Sm., and that of Western Australia cited by J. Ednie-Brown is E. megacarpa. Sources of Supply. Australia in Victoria, rare in N. S. Wales : South Tasmania. Introduced into Europe, N. Africa, N. America, India and S. Africa. Physical Characters, etc. Recorded dry-weight, 43-54 Ibs. per cu. ft. Hardness Grade 2, compare Boxwood. Smell dur- ing working like acetic acid. Taste astringent. Burns well, embers glow in still air. Solution with water pale brown. Grain. Moderately fine and open. Surface bright, the pores dull. Bark. " Fibrous, deciduous " (37). Uses, etc. " Beams, railway-sleepers, piers, bridges, keels, keelsons, fences. Very durable. Liable to warp and often un- sound in the heart " (60). "Difficult to work, tenacious : . . . the least valuable of the Eucalypti " (69). " Strong and durable : . . . equal to English Oak in transverse strength " (85). Splits readily and cleanly. I have met with hidden cavities in this wood where the fibres have been torn asunder by the shrinkage while drying. Authorities. Gamble (37), p. 188. Nordlinger (86), vol. vi. p. 18. Laslett (60), p. 243. Holtzapffel (48), p. 86 (as E. piperita ?). Newbery (83). Mathieu (69), p. 189. Nilson (85), P- 63. Colour. Pale straw : pinkish : brownish. Sap-wood reddish- white. Anatomical Characters. Transverse section : — Pores. Readily visible, size 3, medium, variable, and in- creasing in size as the tree ages : in loose, oblique, straggling lines leaning to the right in some rings and to the left in others : few, 5-24 per sq. mm. In narrow rings too crowded to show the true arrangement, and more numerous, 8-40 per sq. mm. Rarely two in contact, almost invariably single : appear white in the solid. Rays. Difficult to see with lens, size 5-6, uniform : equi- distant, less than the width of a pore apart, avoiding or running closely round the pores : numerous, about 17 per mm. : larely tapering : less dense than the ground-tissue. 125 THE TIMBERS OF COMMERCE Rings. Doubtful : the change in the disposition of the pores may indicate the limit of the year's growth : fast grown and wide. Soft-tissue. Very narrowly encircling the pores. It is inter- esting to note that it shows up best in the transparent section when polarised with a dark background and the prisms crossed. Pith. ? Radial Section. The pores are prominent, colourless lines. The rays are small colourless flakes, just visible. The rings are doubtful, but the reversed direction of the pores is usually apparent, and gives the wood a waved or cross-grained appear- ance. Tangential Section. The pores appear less numerous and the rays are imperceptible with lens, being about o'5 mm. high. Soft tissue usually visible. Type specimens authenticated by R. T. Baker and R. B. Hough, and also from logs sent to the Colonial and Indian Exhibition from South Africa. No. 108. BLACKBUTT. Eucalyptus patens. Benth. As FIG. 69. PLATE VIII. Natural Order. Myrtaceae. Alternative Names. The Blackbutts of N.S. Wales are E. obtusifolia and E. pilularis (85). Source of Supply. Western Australia. Physical Characters, etc. Recorded dry- weight, 74 Ibs. per cu. ft. Hardness Grade 4, compare Oak. Smell none or slightly vinegary. Taste none. Burns with a lively, crackling flame, very inflammable, but the embers do not glow in still air, but leave a carbonized stick. Solution with water, very thin brown. Grain. Moderately fine and open. Surface dull : rays rather crystalline under lens. Bark. \ inch thick (about) : of two layers, the inner £ of the thickness, finely fibrous, compact, khaki- coloured : the outer thin, smooth, coarsely fibrous, inclined to crumble, separable. Uses, etc. " Tough, durable — wheels, shafts and farming implements : appears to last well underground, difficult to split or burn" (17). Authorities. J. Ednie-Brown (17), p. 26. Easily mistaken for many other greyish or brownish Eucalpyti. Colour. Greyish-brown : khaki. Sapwood brownish-white, i inch or so wide, well defined from the heart-wood. Anatomical Characters. Similar to E. globulus, No 107*. Transverse section : — Pores. Conspicuous, size 1-2, little variation : irregularly distributed in oblique, straggling lines, often interrupted, 126 SALMON GUM continuous only in wide rings : sometimes reversed in direction, sometimes crossing or branched : mostly single or pairs : few, 2-25 per sq. mm. : filled : appear much lighter in the solid wood. Rays. Need lens : many, 13-16 per mm. Rings. Very clear : boundary and zone poor in pores and a strong definite contrast between neighbouring zones : contour regular. Soft-tissue. Prominent in very narrow borders encircling the pores : conspicuous from their lighter colour : cells in radial rows forming patches rather than circles. Radial Section. Pores rather prominent, scarcely clearly-cut lines : sinuous : rather darker than the ground. Rays just visible in certain lights; white or hoary. Rings doubtful, but there are occasional denser zones with few pores. Type specimen authenticated by the Forest Officer to the Government of Western Australia. No. 109. SALMON GUM. Eucalyptus salmonophloia. F. v. M. As FIG. 65. PLATE VIII. Natural Order. Myrtaceae. Alternative Names. Salmon-barked Eucalypt. Salmon- barked Jarrah (80). Source of Supply. Western Australia. Physical Characters, etc. Recorded dry-weight, 79 Ibs. per cu. ft. Hardness Grade 3, compare Blackthorn. Smell or taste none. Burns very well, with a lively, crackling flame, easily maintained : no smell, embers glow in still air, ash white. Solution with water the colour of the wood, afterwards with alcohol scarcely perceptible. Grain. Very fine and smooth, though open. Surface rather dull. Rays rich, obscure, but shining: pores with resinous lustre : feels like Boxwood. Bark. " Grey : slightly purplish : oily lustre " (80). Brown, with a silvery lustre like micaceous sandstone, finely wrinkled otherwise quite smooth : £-£ inch thick : one layer only : en- closes large, white, spindle-shaped fibres. Uses, etc. " Exceedingly tough and hard, believed to be superior to any of the Western Australian timbers " (80). " Durable : mining, wheelwright's work, piles " (17). Can scarcely be split. Saws almost as easily as English Beech: planes badly, as the grain " picks-up " in belts : very tough : a good solid wood: the most beautiful of all the Eucalypti in of colour. 127 THE TIMBERS OF COMMERCE Authorities. F. v. Mueller (80), p. 13. J. Ednie-Brown (17), p. 27. Practically indistinguishable from the Morrel Gum (E. longi- cornis), No. no, except by means of the bark. Also much like all the red Eucalypti. Colour. Deep, rich red : blush-red : carmine : salmon-colour : sap-wood pinkish white, £ to I inch wide, well denned (not sharply) from the heart-wood. Anatomical Characters. Transverse section : — Pores. Need lens, though the pore-groups are occasionally visible, size 3, little variation, and that irregular : rather evenly distributed, often forming oblique lines without actually touch- ing each other : rarely subdivided groups or pairs, practically all single : few, 10-35 Per sq- nun. : filled with beautiful carmine resin, of which more than one globule is visible in each pore. Rays. Need lens, size 5-6 (nearer • 6), uniform : equidistant, much less than a pore-width apart, widely avoiding the pores, rarely straight, crooked at the ring-boundaries : very weak, thin, lighter-coloured threads : many, 16 to 22 per mm. Rings. Faintly indicated : boundary, a zone poor in pores : contour regular or very gently undulating. Soft-tissue. Difficult to see, merely narrow borders encircling the pores : lighter in colour, easily overlooked. Radial Section. Pores very fine, open grooves containing brilliant, carmine resin : extremely tortuous, sinuous and re- versed (cross-grained), interlaced to a greater degree than most Eucalypti. Rays extremely minute, inconspicuous white lines. Rings visible by the conspicuous change of direction in the pores, and also the occasional smooth bands. Tangential Section. As the radial, except the rays, which need the microscope, about o.i mm. high. When moistened they appear as large-celled, spindle-shaped lines, of 6 to 7 cells mostly containing resin. Type specimen authenticated by the Forest Officer to the Government of Western Australia. No. no. MORRELL. Eucalyptus longicornis. F. v. M. As FIG. 65. PLATE VIII. Alternative Names. Morrell Gum (17). The same popular name is applied to E. microcarpa. Source of Supply. Western Australia. Physical Characters, etc. Recorded dry-weight, 66 Ibs. per cu. ft. Hardness Grade 3, compare Blackthorn. Smell faintly vinegary or none. Taste none. Burns badly, with a 128 RATA short, noisy flame : embers glow in still air : pure white ash : no smell. Solution with cold water red : none when treated after- wards with alcohol. Potash gives a vinous-brown reaction, and sulphuric acid a dark ppt. in a crimson solution. Grain. Fine and open. Surface dull. Bark. Rough, irregularly fissured, dark brown : one layer, the outer scales marked off by a light-coloured layer enclosing spindle-shaped strands of hard tissue : £ to i inch thick. Uses, etc. " Remarkably hard : rafters, shafts, naves, spokes, wheelwright's work : straight and lasting : rails up to 25 feet long can be obtained " (80). " Very strong in every way, especially laterally : handles, mallets, etc. : durable " (17). Splits readily, saws easily and sweetly, planes easily, but pieces rip out : brittle. Authorities. F. von Mueller (80), p. 12. Brown (17), p. 25. Kew Guide (57), p. 70. Colour. Rich red, carmine, like Salmon Gum. Sap-wood whitish, i to i£ inches wide, well but not very sharply defined from the heart-wood. Anatomical Characters. Identical with those of Salmon Gum (No. 109), from which it is extremely difficult to distinguish when the bark is not present. The greater fissibility, the tortuousness of the grain in tangential section, and the greater number of pores to the sq. mm. (16-35) may provide useful guides. The rings are visible by the slight reversal in the direction of the pores, and the soft-tissue is scarcely traceable. Type specimen authenticated by the Forest Officer to the Government of Western Australia. No. in. RATA. Metrosideros robusta. A. Cunn. PLATE VIII. FIG. 70. Natural Order. Myrtaceae. Sources of Supply. New Zealand, in the North Island only. Alternative Name. Northern Rata. Physical Characters, etc. Recorded dry-weight, 6i£ Ibs. per cu. ft. Hardness Grade 4, compare Maple. No taste or smell. Solution, faint brownish, deepens upon the addition of potash ; the chips if afterwards treated with alcohol yield no further colour. Burns well with a noisy, spurting flame ; heat expels a gum ; embers glow brightly in still air ; no aroma. " Ignites readily " (24). Grain. Fine though open ; compact and dense. Bark. Red, £-£ inch thick, of two layers, the inner fibrous and laminated, the outer covered with thin, brittle scales like those of pine ; not very closely adherent. " Dark brown and rugged in appearance " (60). I2Q K THE TIMBERS OF COMMERCE Uses, etc. Saws and planes up sweetly and smoothly though hard. " A large tree " (91). " Timber 12-30 inches square, by 20-30 ft. long, not difficult to work . . . fit for shipbuilding and any work in civil architecture requiring timber of straight growth and large dimensions . . . said to be durable" (60). "Suitable for piles, bridge and engineering work " (61). " Very dense and durable . . . railway-waggons, shipbuilding " (57). " Strong, tough crooked . . . difficult to get a plank out of it ... resists wet " (24). Authorities. Laslett (60), p. 309. Ditto (61), p. 434. Kew Guide (57), p. 76. Collinson (24). Colour. Heart-wood, brownish-red, very uniform. Sap-wood, slightly lighter and browner than the heart-wood and generally merging into it. " Red " (61). Anatomical Characters. Transverse section : — Pores. Large, prominent and readily visible on account of their size and colour, size 3, considerable regular variation but never very small : in loose oblique lines : no poreless zones : evenly distributed : rarely if ever subdivided or in contact with each other : few, 3 to 12 per mm. : occasionally with red or white contents. Rays. Need lens, size 5-6, uniform : equidistant, less than a pore-width apart but rarely avoiding the pores : many, 10-15 per mm. : red. Rings. Obscure, not traceable in the solid wood. Soft-tissue. Rare, in extremely narrow circles round the pores. Pith. ? Radial Section. Much lighter in colour than the transverse. Pores, obscure, fine, slightly darker or hoary scratches : not sinuous. Rays just discernible, narrow lines with very little contrast of colour. Rings not traceable. Soft-tissue, fine, hoary borders to the pores. Type specimen authenticated by the Forest Officer to the Government of New Zealand. No. 112. RATA. Metrosideros lucida. A. Rich. PLATE VIII. FIQ. 70. Natural Order. Myrtaceae. Source of Supply. New Zealand only. Alternative Names. Ironwood : Southern Rata (91). Physical Characters, etc. Recorded dry-weight 63-71^ Ibs. per cu. ft. Hardness Grade 3, compare Blackthorn. Smell or taste none. Solution pinkish turning deep brownish purple with potash : no ppt. Burns well with a long, crackling, smoky flame and tarry smell : heat expels drops of yellow gum : embers glow in still air. 130 POHUTIKAWA Bark. Whitish externally, red or brown beneath with a pur- plish cast : £-J inch thick, compact, fibrous : scaling in papery flakes. Uses, etc. Very hard to work. " One of the strongest woods In existence, . . . logs may be had 20-50 ft. long by 1-4 ft. in diam. ... its durability is astounding, . . . shipbuilding, sleepers, railway-carriage building, bridges, wharves and all purposes where great strength is required, . . . spokes, hubs, felloes and wheelwright's work " (91). Authorities. Perceval (91), pp. n, 14, 44. Smith (in), p. 347. Colour. " Red, varying greatly in depth of tint " (91). No distinction between sap-wood and heart-wood or they gradually merge one into the other. Anatomical Characters. Transverse section. Pores. Very readily perceptible, occasionally prominent on account of their white contents : size 3-4, little variation if any : few 10-25 Per S<1- mm- : thinly scattered, but rather more numerous in certain zones (? Spring wood) : a tendency to very loose oblique lines, mostly single and seldom in contact with each other : frequently with chalk-like contents. Rays. Need lens, size 5-6, uniform : equidistant, a pore- width apart, scarcely avoiding the pores : weak but straight : slightly lighter than the ground-tissue : many 10-14 P61" mm- Rings. Extremely vague, perhaps indicated by an occasional pore -less zone. Soft-tissue. Rare : an extremely fine border encircling the pores, scarcely perceptible. Lines connecting the pores (if any) imperceptible with lens. Pith. ? Radial Section. Pores readily visible, rather fine scratches, often with white contents : rays just perceptible fine brown lines on a planed surface : rings and soft-tissue not perceptible. Tangential Section. As the Radial, but the rays are scarcely visible fine lines but with the microscope they look like chains of fine brown dots : an unusual appearance. Rings traceable as vague fringes and loops of pore-less wood. Type specimens authenticated by the Forest Officer to the Government of New Zealand. No. 113. POHUTIKAWA. Metrosideros tomentosa. A. Rich. PLATE VIII. FIG. 70. Natural Order. Myrtaceae. Source of Supply. New Zealand only. Physical Characters, etc. Recorded dry-weight 53^-65 N*. THE TIMBERS OF COMMERCE per cu. ft. Hardness Grade 4, compare Maple. Taste or smell none. Burns well with a long, smoky flame and a slightly tarry smell ; a brown juice is expelled by heat : embers glow in still air. Solution pinkish, turning brown upon the addition of potash with a copious reddish-brown ppt. Grain. Rather fine. Surface scarcely bright. Bark. " Ragged in appearance, thick, reddish-grey in colour " (60). Grey above, brown internally, fibrous, dry, about £ inch thick, separating in small scales. Uses, etc. " Strong, admirably adapted for the frames of ships. Timber 10-20 ft. long by 9-16 inches square " (60). " Like Rosewood . . . difficult to work as it breaks the edges of tools " (in). Authorities. Laslett (60), p. 309. Smith (in), p. 331. Colour. Uniform, red heart-wood ill-defined from the i-ij inches of lighter sap-wood. Anatomical Characters. As those of Metrosideros lucida (No-. 112), with the following differences: — Pores. Regularly diminishing a little from the inner to the outer side of the ring and rarely if ever having white contents : size 3 : 5-12 per sq. mm. Rays. Size 5-6 and from 14-18 per mm. Rings. A little more definite and considerably clearer in tangential section in alternate light and dark loops. Type specimens authenticated by the Forest Officer to the Government of New Zealand. No. 114. PAPER-BARK TREE. Melaleuca leuca- dendron. Linn. PLATE VIII. FIG. 71. Natural Order. Myrtaceae. Alternative Names. White Tea-tree (66). Paper-barked Tea- tree (12). Bethar at the Mitchell River : Atchoourgo at Port Curtis (5). Milk-wood tree (61). Swamp Tea-tree in New South Wales (85). Physical Characters, etc. Recorded .dry-weight 47-54! Ibs. per cu. ft. Hardness Grade 6, compare Beech. Taste insipid. Smell when worked like Brazil nuts. Burns well with a short, lively flame : heat expels resin : embers glow in the still air : sometimes an unpleasant smell : ash, grey. Solution with water, yellow : afterwards with alcohol, dirty white. Grain. "Close" (5). Fine to medium, open: sometimes very sinuous, at others straight. Surface uniformly dull. Bark. White, easily detached, consisting of many layers of filmy tissue like thin, transparent tissue-paper (i cell only in. 132 PAPER-BARK TREE thickness) held together by pink strips of bast : the inner sur- face next the log resembles chamois leather : £-1 inch thick. Uses, etc. " Resists white ants, . . . shipbuilding, houses, . . . generally useful " (80). " Extremely durable in the ground " (61). " Valuable for underground work and wharf -piles " (5). " Dur- able, cross-grained, . . . lasts well underground, resists white ants : posts, fencing " (17). " Recommended for millwright's work, carpentry, turnery and possibly wood-engraving " (61). " Excellent for fencing-posts in damp situations, being almost imperishable underground" (85). Warps badly during drying. A remarkably variable wood. My specimen from Western Australia weighs only 38^ Ibs. per cu. ft., being partly sap-wood. It had the typical bark and is the one described here. One would hardly suspect its relationship with the other equally well authenticated specimens from Queensland hi my collection. Authorities. F. v. Mueller (80), p. 16. F. M. Bailey (5), p. 67. Ednie-Brown (17), p. 28. Laslett (61), p. 423. Nilson (85), p. 5. Colour. Pinkish (5). Yellow (61). Red : brownish-red. Sap-wood ecru or brownish- white, not denned from the heart- wood but merging into it gradually. Anatomical Characters. Transverse section : — Pores. Need lens, size 2-3, not much variation : irregularly distributed occurring in straggling, oblique strings like Eucalyptus but not always joining nor even indicating them: chiefly single, rarely subdivided or grouped : few 20-30 per sq. mm. : little resin : appear as perforations. Rays. On the limit of vision : size 5-6, uniform : equidistant, a pore-width or less apart, slightly avoiding the pores, fairly straight, firm, brownish threads : many 12-13 per mm. Rings. Very indistinct, boundary perhaps the zones poor in pores along with a contrast in the size of the pores. Soft-tissue. Abundant in irregular patches, sometimes uniting to regular, concentric lines but generally forming the bulk of the tissue : also in borders encircling the pores, which are broad in some dark specimens and practically imperceptible in light ones (see note abo\e). Radial Section. Pores readily visible scratches with hoary borders in dark wood : often a white deposit which fills the pores more completely than the resin does. Rays visible in certain lights. Rings faintly indicated by the contrast of the denser and laxer zones. Tangential Section. As the Radial, but the rings are more prominent. Rays just visible with lens when moistened (in the solid wood). Type specimens authenticated by F. M. Bailey and by the Forest Officer to the Government of Western Australia, but the 133 THE TIMBERS OF COMMERCE difference between them is so great, as mentioned above, that I am forced to conclude that the specimen from the former locality is from a very old tree and that the variation of the structure as the tree ages is very much greater than is usual in woods of other kinds. (Compare Fig. 161, PL XVIII.). The pith-side of Fig 71 is to the left. No. 115. A Variety, Melaleuca Leucadendron. Var. Cunninghami. Received from Mr. F. M. Bailey, Brisbane, weighs 66 Ibs. per cu. ft. Hardness Grade 2, compare Boxwood. Colour, dark, nut-brown. This shows a further considerable departure from the above type. No. 1 1 6. WATERBOOM. Eugenia cordata. Laws (not D.C.). PLATE VIII. FIG. 72. Natural Order. Myrtaceae. Source of Supply. South Africa, Natal. Physical Characters, etc. Recorded dry-weight 60 Ibs. per cu. ft. Hardness Grade 5, compare English Elm. SmeU or taste none. Burns very well, no aroma, heat expels an unusually copious orange-coloured juice : embers glow in still air. Solution pale, the colour of the wood: gives a copious ppt. upon the addi- tion of potash. Grain. Very fine, compact, dense and even. Surface dull. Bark. About \ inch thick : light yellowish brown, of two layers, the inner woody, the outer separating in small, soft, thin scales : like cork to the touch. Uses, etc. Unrecorded. An extremely tough and solid wood, which saws with some trouble yet kindly : a good turner's wood, much resembling that of the European Pear tree. It would probably be useful for screws and levers. Colour. Heart-wood uniform, brown : denned from the sap-wood, which is rather lighter and about 2-3 inches wide. Anatomical Characters. Transverse section : — Pores. Need lens, size 5, considerable variation : widely scattered : nearly all single, pairs very rare : few 11-20 per sq. mm. Rays. Need lens, size 5-6, apparently two sizes, but really thick in the middle, tapering both ends to fine points : " middles " only, 2-4 per mm., or together with " ends," 18-26 per mm : direct, not avoiding the pores : slightly lighter in colour than the ground-tissue. 134 PLATE IX. Fig. 73. Lecythis (Monkey-pot). Fig. 76. Conius (Cornel). Fig. 79. Calycophyllum (Deg ante- wood). Fig. 74. Physocallyma (Tulip-wood). •A. '^"i^^^^-^^-^^r^ -C^: Fig. 77 Sambucus (Elder). Fig. 80. Arctostaphyllos (Manzanita). Fig. 75. Curtisia ( Assagai-wood). Fig. 78. Ixora (Hackia). KAKERALLI Rings. wood at Soft-it suri :y clear : boundary ? a zone of ontour undulating in long .adant, occupying half the ti • he light-coloured .. ' a transparen Typ .c.n auth; nment of Natal, other Myrtaceous woods. visible scratches. Rays fairly deh xns of a ial, but the ra the For. od displays little - No. 117. KAKERALLI. PLATE IX Myrtacc >>es. Moi (78) : S;.. Barklak in Sottrces of Supply. Tro] Physical Prope> cu. ft. Hardness Grade . when worked. Taste none. ' lively flame without smell little ash. Solution with v Grain. Extremely d smooth and cold like El tissue. Bark. ? " Bast like -. iie Lime tree. Lecythis Ollaria. Lin 73- Sapucaia-nu1 ointheprovi: ::ode ma (12). ;ca, chiefly B: 'I dry- weight, 61 Ibs Boxwood. Smell peculiar th a noisy, sl •ow in still air : extre: >r alcohol sn and smooth, iittle lustre due to the gro Use* " House-fram teredo and barnacles. (78). Finishes well, n< Authorities. McTuri J. Collins (24). Miers Easily confuse Almanac (19). L Zealand Hone Colour. B' Anatomi^, Pores. Rea-j the rays and per mm. le hi size. Rav X. FIG. 82. >ut. . Natal. 'ecorded dry-w- compare Horn quietly: embers glow >ood. fing di otherwise smot the rays, w! . ton, ixxxlofex< but far excelling r crackmg or ^ne-tree a PLATE X. CAPE BEECH 5-6 per mm. : the tapered ends a pore-width apart, the thicker portions widely separated, not avoiding the pores : red. Rings. Clear, not prominent : contour very irregularly un- dulating : boundary the rather more porous Spring zone, no line. Soft-tissue. In indefinite patches imbedding the pores not encircling them but loosely connecting the groups. Flecks? There are often imperfectly-healed insect galleries. Pith. Irregularly oval, about 2-4 mm. diam. red or dark brown, coarse-celled, hard. Radial Section. Pores need lens, minute, empty, shining grooves. Rays, just visible by contrast only. Rings, faintly indicated by a lighter-coloured margin. Tangential Section. As the Radial, but the rays are minute, red lines, rather broad for their height, about 0*25 mm. high. Type specimens authenticated by Hough. No. 128. CAPE BEECH. Myrsine melanophleos. R. Br. PLATE X. FIG. 82. Natural Order. Myrsineae. Alternative Name. Beukenhout. Source of Supply. South Africa, Natal. Physical Characters, etc. Recorded dry-weight 39^-46^5. per cu. ft. Hardness Grade 4, compare Hornbeam. Smell and taste none. Burns well and quietly : embers glow in still air. Solution with water brown, darker than the wood. Grain. Very fine, dense and even. The surface of the ground is the brightest portion, the prominent rays being dull. Bark. J~| inch thick, brownish, not deeply fissured, rugose from the large corky lenticels, otherwise smooth. Internally the bark shows the impressions of the rays, which are deeply marked. PI. XIX. Fig. 165. Uses, etc. "Wagons, . . . tough" (19). A wood of exceptional beauty, resembling that of Oak, but far excelling it. It works well and stands well without either cracking or warping. Authorities. Nordlinger (86), vol. vii. p. 18. Cape Settlers' Almanac (19). Easily confused with Plane-tree and with New Zealand Honeysuckle woods.. Colour. Brownish relieved by prominent reddish silver-grain. Anatomical Characters. Transverse section : — Pores. Readily visible though small, rather fine, size 4 : evenly •distributed in closed radial groups or nests in long rows between the rays and sometimes apparently within them : 10-23 groups per mm. : variable in size. Rays. Very prominent, size 2-3, increasing in breadth out- 147 wards, tapering inwards only : about 2 per mm. : red : coarsely cellular : gently undulating yet direct. Rings. Vague : more readily perceptible in the solid : bound- ary a zone of rather more closely-packed pores : contour gently undulating. Soft-tissue. Encircling the pores. All the ground-tissue is more or less spongy. Pith. Rounded or bluntly-lobed. Radial Section. Of great beauty owing to the large flakes of silver-grain, which are red in colour, the rays being often as much as i inch deep : the rings are not traceable. Tangential Section. The meshes of the ground-tissue resemble the fibres of a Loofah, or as if the rays were threaded through a hank of flax. The pores are less visible than in the radial sec. and the rays are less striking but still prominent and are linear rather than spindle-shaped. Type specimens authenticated by the Forest Officer to the Government of Natal. No. 129. BULLETWOOD. Mimusops globosa. Gaertn. PLATE X. FIG. 83. Natural Order. Sapotaceae. Synonym. Mmiusops Balata. Crueg. Sapota Muelleri, Lind. Alternative Names. Balata : Bully-tree : Bollitree. Melk- hout (see below) in South Africa. Balata rouge in Surinam : possibly Pferdefleischholz (131). Balata saignant : Balata des Galibis (21). Barome : Barueh : Purgo in Brazil (99). Sources of Supply. British Guiana. West Indies. Physical Characters, etc. Recorded dry- weight 63^-67 £ Ibs. cu. ft. Hardness Grade i, compare Ebony. Smell and taste none. Burns well with much crackling but no smell : embers glow in still air. Solution with water deep crimson. Grain. Moderately fine but open. Surface of the ground bright. Bark. ? Authorities. Wiesner (131), vol. vi. p. 131. Charpentier (21), p. 156. Saldanha da Gama (99). Uses, etc. " Windmill-arms, posts, house-building, . . . very durable, stands exposure, suffers from teredo and worms, . . . polishes well" (78). Colour. Deep red or flesh-red heart-wood not sharply defined from the brown sap-wood. Anatomical Characters. Transverse section: — Pores. Prominent from their masses, size 2-3, little variation . 148 PERSIMMON-WOOD irregulary distributed, tree-like on account of the radial groups being close together separated only by rays but at suc- cessively higher levels, thus appearing as long groups : the true groups are radial from 2-17 pores compactly arranged : pores rather numerous, 20-35 P^ sq- mrn- : contrast little with the ground except when filled with white contents. Rays. Need lens, size 5 or rather less, uniform : rather less than a large pore-width apart : weak otherwise straight : much denser than the ground : very numerous, 10-15 Per nun. Rings doubtful unless indicated by the concentric lines of soft-tissue which however seem too much interrupted and irregular; Soft-tissue. Abundant in concentric lines which are undulat- ing, irregular and interrupted : brown : size 4-5 (ray-scale) and 4-5 per mm. : often mere angles or scraps : also encircling the pores and of a lighter colour than the lines. Pith.? Radial Section. Quite uniform in colour : pores very small but readily visible as hoary (not black) scratches with red con- tents : the rays are minute, obscure, shining flakes of the colour of the ground : the rings are not indicated. Tangential Section. As the Radial, but the pores are apparently sinuous : the rays are minute, brown lines of one row of cells, visible with micro., after moistening (in the solid). Type specimens authenticated by the Forest Officer to the Government of British Guiana. Boulger mentions Bulletwoods under the names of Lucuma mammosum and Sapota Muelleri. Neither appears to refer to this species. No. 130. PERSIMMON- WOOD. Diospyros vir- giniana. Linn. PLATE X. FIG. 84. Natural Order. Ebenaceae. Alternative Names. Persimmons : Date-plum : Plaqueminier de Virginie (49). Source? of Supply. North America : Japan. Physical Characters, etc. Recorded dry-weight 45-53 Ibs. per cu. ft. Hardness Grade 3, very hard, compare Blackthorn. Smell and taste none : burns well with a lively flame : embers glow in still air. Solution with water or alcohol colourless. Grain. Open, of medium coarseness : dense. Surface scarcely bright. Bark. Fissured deeply, \ to i£ inches thick : broken up into scaly lumps when old : dark brown like that of English Walnut : of 2 layers : the inner TV inch thick, soft and corky. Uses, etc. Shuttle-making, turnery, shoe-lasts, plane-stocks. 149 THE TIMBERS OF COMMERCE " A tree attaining a height of 70 to even 100 ft. by 24 inches in diam." (49). Splits with great difficulty. Authorities. Nordlinger (86), vol. vii. p. 52. Hough (49), vol. iii. p. 25. Sargent (100), No. 184. Wiesner (131), L. 12, p. 991. Colour. " Heart-wood dark or nearly black, only developed in very oldspecimens" (100). Sap-wood whitish-brown : brown : grey: usually with a cast of grey or greyish-green in irregular patches. " Very thick, upwards of 100 rings" (49). This sap-wood is the wood commonly met with in commerce. Anatomical Characters. Transverse section: — Pores. Readily visible in the pore-ring, rather fine, size 4, very variable : scattered uniformly or rather more numerous in the Spring wood in wide rings : few, 7-25 per mm. : here and there united in short radial lines of 2-5 pores together : appear light against the dark ground. Rays. Just visible, fine, size 5, uniform : long, tapering very gradually : very numerous about 12 per mm. : direct but running round the larger pores : very little denser than the ground. Rings. Clear on account of a coarser-pored Spring zone : contour well-rounded. Soft-tissue. Obscurely and narrowly encircling the pores and in exceedingly fine, close, continuous, concentric lines, like fine shad- ing at right-angles to the rays. Pith. Yellowish, about I mm. wide. Radial Section. Usually much lighter in shade than the trans. sec. Apparently coarser in grain owing to the pores being often exposed in parallel pairs,. darker than the ground : rays visible in certain lights as minute flakes : rings only indicated by the recurring bands of pores : soft-tissue abundant in excessively fine vertical, whitish lines (lens). Tangential Section. As the Radial, but the pore-bands appear finer and the Rays are indistinguishable with lens (need micro.). The rings are more or less vague loops and the soft-tissue runs in horizontal waved lines. Type specimens from commercial sources and also authenti- cated by Hough. No. 131. MARBLE EBONY (Madagascar) Dios- pyros sp. PLATE X. FIG. 85. Natural Order. Ebenaceae. Physical Characters, et~. Recorded dry-weight 49 Ibs. per cu. ft. Hardness Grade 3, compare Blackthorn. Smell none: taste slightly astringent. Burns well and quietly : embers glow brightly in still air : no resin expelled by heat. Solution with 150 MACASSAR EBONY water olive-brown : afterwards with alcohol more olive than brown, somewhat of a citron colour while it is being heated. Grain. Fine, close, even and dense. Surface bright, lustrous when cleft. Bark. ? Colour. Brown streaked with black, sometimes of a greenish cast. Sap-wood sharply denned from the heart- wood ; brown. Anatomical Characters. Transverse section: — Pores. Need lens but just visible by reflection in the black bands after moistening : size 2 ; groups scattered uniformly, s:arcely any indication of zones: considerable variation: from o 10 per sq. mm. in radially-disposed groups of 1-5 pores : black in the lighter bands. Rays. Difficult to see even with lens : size 5 to 6, uniform : equidistant but apparently irregularly spaced : very numerous, 8 to 22 per mm. the attenuated ends occur in numbers together at intervals and avoid the pores : a pore-width or less apart, slightly lighter in colour than the ground, but of the same tint. Rings. Doubtful or very obscure : the zones of colour are quite independent of the structure : contour scarcely to be spoken of. Soft-tissue. Fine concentric lines, often interrupted and re- duced to bars between the rays : size 6 or about that of the rays : visible in intense light with lens in the solid wood in the light wood only : coarsely cellular in transparent section as single rows of cells, each cell rather widely separated from the next. Radial Section. Pores, visible as fine, dark lines, more or less filled with black resin in grains. Rays, readily visible when cleft as small, shining, crystalline flakes without contrast of colour. Rings, doubtful. Tangential Section. As the Radial, but the rays are perceptible in the solid wood with lens only when moistened : they appear as fine darker lines about 0*25 mm. high. Type specimen bears the label of the Madagascar (Sumbawa and Antalha) Forests Syndicate, Limited : not authenticated. As the rays of this wood are not red I conclude that the Mada- gascar Ebony described byWiesner (131), L. 12, p. 989, as being derived from D. haplostylis Boiv. and D. microrhombus. Hiern. is another species. No. 132. MACASSAR EBONY. Diospyros sp. (probably D. Ebenus). PLATE X. FIG. 85. Natural Order. Ebenaceae. Sources of Supply. India, Burmah, Straits Settlements. Malay Archipelago, and the West Indies. THE TIMBERS OF COMMERCE Physical Characters, etc. Recorded dry-weight 61 Ibs. per cu. ft. Hardness Grade i, compare Black Ebony. Smell slight, like tan when worked. Taste none. Burns well without smell : embers glow in still air. Solution with water brown to claret- colour : alcohol extracts still more. Grain. Rather fine : open or close according to the presence or absence of black contents. Surface bright, scarcely lustrous : pores reflect the light like mirrors when filled, especially when dried after moistening. Bark. ? Uses, etc. Turnery, cabinet-making, inlaying, Tunbridge- ware, etc. May be met with in logs 28 in. diameter by 20-30 ft. long. Usually confused with other Ebonies. Colour. Mingled black and brown stripes : the black is in smoky (not jet-black), ill-defined, excentric, waved colour-bands (see Rings below). Sap-wood sharply defined from the heart- wood : brown, much like the lighter zones of the heart-wood. Anatomical Characters. Transverse section : — Pores. Visible in the black wood and even prominent, especi- ally after moistening, owing to the reflection from the contents : size 2-3, little variation : scattered, collected more in some zones than others : few, 1-17 per sq. mm. : here and there in compact, radial, subdivided groups of 2-4 or more rarely n : red as well as black resin at times. Rays. Difficult to see, size 6, very fine : uniform : evenly dis- tributed : too fine to taper : very numerous, 16-18 per mm. : lighter in colour and denser than the ground-tissue : direct, but running round the larger pores. Rings. Doubtful, but many concentric zones of different shades independent of the structure : contour undulating and very irregular : neighbouring bands often meeting and again receding. Soft-tissue. Fine concentric lines often interrupted or re- duced to mere bars between the rays : equalling the rays in size : obscure in the solid : coarsely cellular in transparent section, equalling size 7 (pore-scale) : very much waved. Pith. Hard, about 2 mm. wide, angular : of very coarse cells. Radial Section. Rather lighter in shade : pores readily visible, often shining : filled with black resin, sometimes in granules : rays, readily visible, shining plates (especially when cleft) : rings, alternating bands of brown and black only. Tangential Section. As the Radial, but the pores less numer- ous and narrower : rays, on the limit of vision with lens : under the micro, they appear as a single row of rather large cells : height about I mm. Type specimens from commercial sources not authenticated, 152 BLACK EBONY but the wood is undoubtedly a Diospyros from its structure. It resembles the specimen in Museum No. I, Kew, labelled D. Ebenus, but not that labelled D. Ebenaster. No. 133. BLACK EBONY. Diospyros Dendo. Welw. (131) PLATE X. FIG. 85. Natural Order. Ebenaceae. Alternative Names. Billet-wood Ebony, Gaboon, Lagos, Calabar Ebony or Niger Ebony. These are trade names for different varieties, which are all evidently of the same species. Source of Supply. Tropical West Africa. Physical Characters, etc. Recorded dry-weight 72^ Ibs. per cu. ft. Hardness Grade i, the hardest next below Lignum Vitae, but without its flinty character. Smell or taste none. Burns like coal, difficult to ignite, much crackling : the flame soon passes off, but the embers glow in still air. Solution with water yellowish-brown : requires caustic potash to extract the black pigment. Grain. Rather fine : open or close, according to the presence or absence of black resin. Surface of the ground-tissue bright : pores dull when empty, reflecting when filled : rays of a coaly lustre : cold to the touch. Bark. ? Uses, etc. Turnery, inlaying, and all purposes where the colour is of value and where small size is no disadvantage. Usually met with in the form of small billets, made by splitting the heart-wood of the tree into 5 or 6 sectors. Colour. Heart-wood black or black with brown streaks well defined from the brownish- white sap-wood. Authorities. Wiesner (131), L. 12, p. 986. Anatomical Characters. Transverse section : — Pores. Just visible in the solid black wood (after moisten- ing) by their reflection : size 4, rather fine, little variation : scattered but collected rather more in some zones than in others : few 2-9 or even fewer per sq. mm. : in compact radial groups of 1-4 or occasionally n pores : contents black and some few red. Rays. Difficult to see even with micro. : very fine, size 6, uniform : evenly distributed, equidistant, running close round the pores : otherwise direct and more than a pore-width apart : 16-18 per mm. Rings. Doubtful or rarely any contrast in colour except in Niger Ebony. Soft-tissue. In fine, concentric lines, waved and rare : some- 153 THE TIMBERS OF COMMERCE times reduced to mere b'irs : " crystals of oxalate of lime at in- tervals" (131). Pith. ? Radial Section. Pores fine, but still visible, showing up after moistening : filled with black resin, sometimes in grains. Rays readily visible when cleft. Tangential Section. As the Radial, but the pores are less numerous and narrower. Rays invisible except in thin section under the micro. : height about I mm., of a single row of rather large cells : sometimes a larger cell where the ray is intersected by a line of soft- tissue. Type specimens from commercial sources, not authenticated. No. 134. EBONY. Diospyros melanoxylon. Roxb. PLATE X. FIG. -85. Natural Order. Ebenacex. Synonyms. D. Wightiana, Bedd. D. Tupru, Buch. D. exsculpta, Ham. D. tomentosa, Roxb. Alternative Names. For those in the Indian dialects, see Gamble (37), p. 247. Sources of Supply. Throughout India (37). Physical Characters, etc. Recorded dry-weight 61-82 Ibs. per cu. ft. : the lower figure for the sap-wood only, I imagine, as my specimens all range much higher. Hardness Grade I. Smell none. Taste of the sap-wood astringent or bitter, of the heart- wood less so. Burns well, little smell or smoke. Solution very- faint brown, rather more extracted by alcohol. Grain. Moderately fine and even. Surface bright, scarcely lustrous. Bark. " Greyish-black, £ inch thick : the inner substance black and charcoal-like with numerous transverse, rough cracks, exfoliating in regular oblong scales " (37). Uses, etc. Cabinet-making, turnery, etc. " In India the sap-wood is used for shoulder-poles, building purposes, carriage- shafts and the Ebony for carving " (37). Splits readily and straight : planes easily compared with other Ebonies. Authorities. Gamble (37), pp. 247-249. Xordlinger (86), vol. ix. p. 13. Nordlinger describes D. tomentosa as a separate species. This wood is usually confused with other Ebonies, from which it is difficult to separate unless some sap-wood be present. Colour. Heart -wood black with brown or purplish streaks, sharply defined from the uniform pinkish or light-red sap-wood. Anatomical Characters. Transverse section : — Pores. On the limit of vision, size 3, medium : scattered 154 ZWARTBAST practically uniformly : no pore-ring : variable in size, especially within the groups, some groups contain very small pores : few 4-50 per mm., according to the subdivision of the groups, which are radial and sometimes two-rowed, and of 2-11 pores : clear only in the sap-wood, where there is sometimes resin. Rays. Need lens, size 5-7 : uniform : equidistant, rather more than a pore-group apart : scarcely avoiding the pores, in- terrupted or running round them: very numerous, 8-23 per mm. : straight or gently waved : in the sap-wood much lighter than the ground and coarser-celled : obscure in the Ebony. Rings. Not traceable, all indications quite absent, unless the clearer lines of soft-tissue occurring at intervals indicate them. Soft-tissue. Needs lens, abundant in concentric lines or bars, size equals that of the rays (5-6 ray-scale) : the perfect lines chiefly in the Spring (?) zones, only bars in the later (?) wood : numerous, 6-8 per mm. : contour much serrated or jagged : equidistant. Pith. ? Radial Section. Pores readily visible but scarcely prominent : usually filled. Rays inconspicuous yet readily visible, shining flakes of the colour of the ground. Rings not traceable : in the sap-wood the soft-tissue appears as excessively fine, continuous pink lines. Tangential Section. As the Radial, but the rays in the sap- wood are on the limit of vision with lens, but clearer when moistened : about o-5 mm. high : and the soft-tissue is not traceable. Type specimens from commercial sources not authenticated, but checked by Nordlinger's description and section, and Gamble's description. No. 135. ZWARTBAST. Royena lucida. Linn. PLATE X. FIG. 85. Natural Order. Ebenaceae. Alternative Name. Black-wood (57). Sources of Supply. South Africa. Physical Characters, etc. Recorded dry-weight 39 Ibs. per cu. ft. My specimen has only a small proportion of the Ebony, hence the "weight appears unduly low. Hardness of the Ebony Grade 2, compare Boxwood : of the lighter wood Grade 7, .compare Beech. Smell or taste none. The lighter part of the wood burns well, heat expels a copious brown juice, embers ^low dully in still air. Solution pale, the colour of the lighter I a brown ppt. upon the addition of potash. 155 THE TIMBERS OF COMMERCE Bark. Black, quite smooth and brittle like vulcanite : hard : about ^V to TV inch thick. Grain. Rather fine. Surface dull. Uses, etc. " Well adapted for furniture, tools and screws, but is used chiefly for wagon-work . . . timber 40-50 ft. long by 1-2 ft. in diameter . . . tough" (57). Rather difficult to work: planes hard and badly. Authorities. Kew Guide (57), p. 32. Nordlinger (86), vol. iv. p. 7. Colour. Heart-wood dirty brown, with occasional pieces of Ebony, which are irregular in occurrence and shape, and are sharply cut off from the rest of the wood. " Earthy- yellow " (86). Sap-wood, 2^-3 in. wide, well defined from the heart-wood. Anatomical Characters. As those of Diospyros melanoxylon, No. 134, but considerable variations, especially in the size of the elements. Pores. On the limit of vision with a good lens, size 4, in characteristic radial groups of as many as 10 : 40-60 per sq. mm. Rays. Size 5-6 : about 20 per mm. Rings. Not prominent, but clear : boundary a line of con- trast in the density of the ground-tissue here and there : scarcely visible. Soft-tissue. As in other Ebonies, but needs a high power of magnification. Pith. " Very small, angularly-round, partly filled with red contents " (86). Radial Section. Pores, not visible except when filled with black pigment in the lighter-coloured wood. Rings scarcely visible. Type specimen authenticated by the Forest Officer to the Government of Natal. No. 136. OLIVE-WOOD. Olea europea. Linn. PLATE X. FIG. 86. Natural Order. Oleaceae. Synonym. O. verrucosa, Rafin. The 0. europea of Thunberg is the O. verrucosa of Link. Sources of Supply. Southern Europe. Cultivated in many other parts of the temperate zone. Alternative Names. Olijf (de geweekte) (51) at the Cape of Good Hope. Oelbaum (131). Physical Characters, etc. Recorded dry-weight 57-69^ Ibs. per cu. ft. Hardness Grade 2, compare Boxwood. Smell" faint or none. Taste intensely bitter. Burns well, ignites readily, embers glow in still air. Solution faint brown. 156 BLACK IRONWOOD Grain. Very fine, dense, even and smooth. Surface dull. Bark. Brownish-grey, about £-£ inch thick, fissured into narrow, fibrous, thick-scaled ridges (49). Uses, etc. Turnery, small articles of fancy-ware, such as pen- holders : a wood of very pretty figure : turns very well : splits badly, or rather crumbles under the knife. Authorities. Nordlinger (86), vol. iii. p. 25. Hough (49), pt. viii. p. 29. Mathieu (69), p. 249. Wiesner (131), L. 12, p. 996. Not easily confused with any other wood. Colour. Yellowish-brown with varied bands of white passing through brown to black. Heart-wood not sharply defined from the yellowish sap-wood. " No apparent sap-wood " (69). Anatomical Characters. Transverse section : — Pores. Very small yet visible, fine, size 5, little variation : uniformly distributed : very many, 100-150 per sq. mm. : mostly in radial groups of 2-5 pores : a loosely branched arrangement may be discerned amongst the pores, which are joined by soft- tissue. Rays. Need lens, size 5, fine, uniform : equidistant, short : very many, 10-12 per mm. : yellow or golden : less dense than the ground-tissue : not avoiding the pores, about a pore-width apart. Rings. Very indistinct, not concentric with the dark bands : boundary, a zone with more crowded pores contrasted with a slightly less crowded one : contour rounded but irregular. Soft-tissue. Abundant but difficult to make out : encircling the pores and joining them. It occupies a large proportion of the transverse surface. Radial Section. Pores exceedingly fine : rings imperceptible, but the colour bands very striking. Rays imperceptible even with lens. Tangential Section. As the Radial, but the rays are still more difficult to make out, being very minute lines. Type specimens from commercial sources, not authenticated, but without doubt this species. No. 137. BLACK IRONWOOD. Olea laurifolia. Lam. PLATE X. FIG. 86. Natural Order. Oleaceae. Synonyms. 0. intermedia, Tausch. O. undulata, Jacq. Alternative Names. Tamboti (12). Igqwanxe (61). Source of Supply. South Africa. Physical Characters, etc. Recorded dry- weight 73 \ Ibs. per cu. ft. (My specimen is 55% sap-wood and 45% only of heart- 157 THE TIMBERS OF COMMERCE wood.) Hardness Grade i, compare Ebony. Smell none when - cu. ft. Hardness Grade 6, compare Beech, Chestnut. Smell 161 M THE TIMBERS OF COMMERCE and taste none. Burns well and quietly : embers glow in still air heat expels an orange-red juice. Solution faint, dirty brown. Grain. Open : very coarss, about the same as English Ash. Surface bright, almost lustrous. Bark. Very similar to that of the English Ash when the latter is old : i layer : not deeply fissured : reticulated in trans- verse section: "flaking off in thin scales" (100). Uses, etc. " Furniture, interior-finishing, chair-bottoms, . . . splits into laths when bent in small sticks " (49). " Not strong : tough, compact, durable, separating easily into thin layers : . . . fencing, barrel-hoops, cabinet-making " (100). Authorities. Sargent (100). Hough (49), vol. iii. p. 26. Macoun (66), p. 317. Wiesner (131), L. 6, p. 134. Colour. Heart-wood, brown, of irregular contour, but well defined from the brownish-white sap-wood. Much lighter in shade in vertical section. Anatomical Characters. Transverse section : — Pores. Very prominent, size 1-2, rather coarse, very variable, diminishing abruptly outside the Spring pore-ring : large pores, 3-5 rows deep and 6-10 per sq. mm. Small pores in groups of as many as 7 : 12-19 pir sq. mm. Rays. Need lens : 6-8 per mm. : brownish. Radial Section. Rays minute, brownish flakes, faint, yet readily visible to the naked eye. Tangential Section. The rings appear as bands or fringed loops of by no means coarse pores. Type specimen authenticated by Hough and also from a log received from the Imperial Institute. The structure is identical with the wood of F. excelsior in all other respects (see No. 140). No. 142. AMERICAN ASH. Fraxinus americana. Linn. PLATE X. KIG. 88. Natural Order. Oleaceae. Synonyms. F. acuminata, Lam. F. canadensis, Mich. F. epiptera, Mich. F. americana, var. latifolia, Loud. Alternative Names. Green Ash (113). Quebec Ash, United States Ash in England (60). White Ash (95). White River Ash in Canada (12). Mountain Ash in Newfoundland (12). Black Ash, White Ash in Nova Scotia (12) and in New Brunswick, where it bears also the name of Red Ash. Weissesche in Ger- many (131). Sources of Supply. As indicated by the names given above. .Physical Characters, etc. Recorded" dry- weight 37-52 Ibs. per 162 ARKANSAS ASH cu. ft. Hardness Grade 5, compare English Ash. Smell and taste little, if any. Grain. Very coarse and open in regular bands. Surface bright, often lustrous, with a kind of horny, natural polish on the denser bands when planed. Bark. Corky, f-i inch thick, fissured deeply : light brown : beautifully reticulated in transverse section. Uses, etc. Chiefly as a substitute for English Ash, to which it is inferior : wagon-building, oars. " Very strong, stiff yet elastic, much easier to work than the English species : becomes brittle with age. Tough, elastic, . . . felloes, carriage- frames, cues, rods, handles, . . . the young wood much the best, . . . soon rots in the damp or in wet-and-dry " (95). Authorities. Nordlinger (87), p. 520. Ditto (86), vol. i. p. 93. Hough (49), pt. i. p. 54. Laslett (60), p. 176. Holtzapffel (48), p. 73. Stevenson (113), p. 29. Sargent (100). Macoun (66), p. 317. C. Robb (95). Wiesner (191). L. 6, p. 133. Colour. Brownish or light-reddish heart-wood, well denned from the nearly white sap-wood, of which one of my specimens has 29 rings. Anatomical Characters. Transverse section. As F. excelsior, No. 140, with the following variations : — Pores. Very prominent, size 1-2, rather coarse, very variable, diminishing (not very abruptly) from the Spring pore-ring out- wards : large pores of pore-rings, 3-5 rows deep and 4-17 per sq. mm. : the smaller 12-20 per sq. mm. Rings. Very prominent. Boundary, a narrow line of dense Autumn wood accompanied by the conspicuous ring of pores : no other contrast between Spring and Autumn wood. Ground-tissue. Dense throughout the ring : uniform. Flecks. Rare, like brown linear stains, fVi inch long in the •early Spring wood. Pith. Oval : i-i'5 mm. wide. Type specimens authenticated by Hough and from commercial sources. No. 143. ARKANSAS ASH. Fraxinus platycarpa. Michx. PLATE X. FIG. 88. Natural Order. Oleaceae. Synonyms. F. caroliniana, Mill. F. excelsior, Watt, americana, Marsh. F. pallida, Bosc. F. americana, var. caro- iliniana. Browne., etc, etc. Alternative Names. Water Ash. American Ash (100). 163 THE TIMBERS OF COMMERCE Sources of Supply. North America, United States, West Indies. Physical Characters, etc. Recorded dry- weight 35! Ibs. per cu. ft. Hardness Grade 6, compare Chestnut or Beech. Smell or taste none. Grain. Very coarse and open in bands, much more so than in other species of Ash. Surface dull. Bark. ? In all other respects as F. excelsior (No. 140). Uses, etc. " Brittle, not strong " (100). Usually confused with other species of Ash, but readily distinguishable from them. Colour. Milk-white or white tinged with yellow. Sap-wood lighter. Authority. Sargent (100). Anatomical Characters. Similar to those of F. excelsior (No. 140), and other species of Ash, which should be compared. Trans- verse section varies as follows : — Pores. Very prominent, size 1-2, rather coarse, diminishing in size abruptly immediately outside the Spring pore-ring. Large pores close, 2-3 rows deep and 3-5 per sq. mm. : the small pores or groups scattered uniformly : rarely 3 in a group. Rays. Need lens, size 5-6, and 6-9 per mm. Ground-tissue. All very coarse and spongy throughout the width of the ring. Radial Section. Lighter in shade than the transverse. Pores rather more prominent in this section than in the tangential. Type specimen from commercial sources checked by Sargent's description. No. 144. EAST-LONDON BOXWOOD. Gonioma Kamassi. E. Mey. PLATE X. FIG. 89. Natural Order. Apocynaceae. Alternative Names. Cape Boxwood : Kamassihout (71)'. Knysna Boxwood. Sources of Supply. South Africa, Natal. Physical Characters, etc. Recorded dry-weight 58 Ibs. per cu. ft. Hardness Grade 3, compare Blackthorn, or rather harder. Smell none. Taste faintly astringent. Burns well and quietly, the heat expels an orange-red juice, the embers glow in still air. Solution with water or alcohol light, clear yellow. Grain. Very fine, dense and open. Surface bright, the rays and pores dull. Bark. Brown, f-jV inch thick, fissured, scaling in flakes : of two layers. 164 PLATE XI. Fig. 97. Ocotea (Stink-wood) Fig. 99 Nectandra Rodioei (Greenheart). Uses. fused with th ... -40 per sq. n ers. m : equi- otherwise straight. ienser than s the ground- ti (or else two sizes Rings. Clear to the naked .gue : boundary, an indefinite narrow z Soft-tissue, ft -0-500 p< Hexangular or six Radial Uniform ir col ••• light or dark bands : pores r readily visible and sh'ghtlv white, much broader ti. od. Ri and not often traceable. Tangential Section. As t! .1, but th lines which are practice' ible on a of contrast : about \ '.• vich deej Type specimens, iron: linger's section ; also from a log received fnwr Institute. The structure of d strongly recalls tha; traceae, especially as P ;e rays. No. 145. SALIEHOUT. Buddleia salvifolia. Lam. PLATE XL Natural Order. Loganiac Source of Sup-ply. Souti Alternative Names. ^ (12). Physical ' Characters, cu. ft. Hardness Gr. PLATE XI. Fig. 99 SALIEHOUT Uses, etc. As a substitute for Boxwood, and is usually con- fused with the straight-grained Boxwoods : " i-i J ft. diameter: . . . veneering, tools" (19). Authorities. Nordlinger (86), vol. vii. p. 28. Wiesner (131), p. 1002. Cape Settlers' Almanac (19). Colour. Quite uniform light yellow. A sap-wood tree. Anatomical Characters. Transverse section : — Pores. Need lens, size 4, almost uniform : evenly distributed : rather numerous, 60-240 per sq. mm. : an occasional narrow, irregular zone, poorer in pores : single or often in radial groups of large numbers. Rays. Fine but clear in certain lights, size 5, uniform : equi- distant : a pore-width or more apart : slightly undulating, otherwise straight, not avoiding the pores : considerably denser than the ground-tissue : white, tapering to long slender points (or else two sizes) : very numerous, 13-20 per mm. Rings. Clear to the naked eye, but really rather vague : boundary, an indefinite narrow zone, poorer in pores. Soft-tissue. Many isolated, scattered cells of larger size : irregularly scattered, 80-500 per sq. mm., easily mistaken for small pores. Flakes. Sometimes present : very narrow lines. Pith. Hexangular or six-lobed. Radial Section. Uniform in colour, without alternation of light or dark bands : pores need lens, extremely fine lines : rays readily visible and slightly lighter in colour than the ground : white, much broader than in any true Boxwood. Rings vague and not often traceable. Tangential Section. As the Radial, but the rays are vertical lines which are practically imperceptible on account of the lack of contrast : about £ inch high : much deeper than in Buxus. Type specimens from commercial sources checked by Nord- linger's section ; also from a log received from the Imperial Institute. The structure of this wood strongly recalls that of the Celas- traceae, especially as regards the rays. No. 145. SALIEHOUT. Buddleia salvifolia. Lam. PLATE XL FIG. 91. Natural Order. Loganiacea. Source of Supply. South Africa. Alternative Names. Salie-wood (51). Umkaya (61). Unkaya (12). Physical Characters, etc. Recorded dry-weight 54 Ibs. pov cu. ft. Hardness Grade 3, compare Blackthorn. Smell or 165 THE TIMBERS OF COMMERCE taste none. Burns well with faint aroma ; heat expels a brownish juice ; embers glow in still air ; little ash. Solution pale straw- colour deepened by potash : no ppt. Grain. Fine and compact. Surface scarcely bright. Bark. About £ inch thick, of one layer, light brown, separating in thin, laminated, brittle scales : filled with white rod-like bodies. Uses, etc. " A small shrubby tree from 15-20 feet high by 10-15 inches in diameter, . . . tough, . . . cabinet-making and teeth for mill-wheels, . . . said to be suitable for wood type " (57)- " Tough . . . wagons, yokes, etc." (19). Authorities. Kew Guide (57), p. 32. Laslett (61), p. 457. Nordlinger (86), vol. ix. p. 39. Cape Settlers' Almanac (19). Colour. Reddish-brown. Anatomical Characters. Transverse section : — Pores. Visible from their masses not their size, Grade 3-4: no great variation except within the groups but a few widely- separated large pores in the early Spring- wood : chiefly in nested groups of as many as twelve united by the soft-tissue into wavy lines : few, 15-40 per sq. mm. Rays. Need lens, size 5, uniform : broad in the middle and tapering to fine points both ends : " middles and ends " together 9-12 per mm., " middles " only widely separated, 2-3 per mm., the " ends " a large pore-width apart : lighter than the ground- tissue. Rings. Clear : boundary a scanty pore-ring along a narrow line of soft-tissue. Soft-tissue. The boundary-line and also imbedding and com- pacting the pores into the wavy lines. Pith. ? Vertical Sections. Pores, fine but readily visible scratches. Rays, minute, inconspicuous flakes which require the micro- scope and a transparent preparation in tangential section. Type specimen authenticated by the Forest Officer to the Government of Natal. No. 146. VLIER. Nuxia floribunda. PLATE XI. FIG. 92. Natural Order. Loganiaceae. Source of Supply. South Africa. Alternative Name. Elder. The only statement regarding this wood which I have seen (W. and E. vol. L, pt. 2), describes this wood as " light yellow tinged with pink, . . . used for felloes and schamels of wagons." This points to an error in the nomenclature somewhere. 1 66 PRINCE-WOOD Physical Characters, etc. Recorded dry-weight 60 Ibs. per cu. ft. Hardness Grade 2, compare Boxwood. Smell or taste none. Burns well and quietly without aroma : a brown juice expelled by heat : embers glow in still air and consume very slowly. Solution [light red commencing to appear immediately in cold water : much intensified by potash : a copious dark red ppt. Grain. Very close, fine and compact. Surface bright and slightly cold to the touch. Bark. Corky, resembling that of Boxwood but softer : fissured, brown with a leathery lining ^ inch thick. Uses, etc. A very good turners' wood : takes a good finish with ease. Saws freely, planes well and works generally much like Boxwood. Colour. Uniform, deep, rich brownish red : purplish red. Sap-wood. ? Anatomical Characters. Transverse section : — Pores. Need strong lens, size 7, much variation, diminishing to vanishing point : widely scattered : few, 20-50 per mm. : the small pores cannot be seen without a microscope. Rays. Just visible, size 5, uniform but tapering both ends to fine points : direct not avoiding the pores : red. In a transparent section they glow as though filled with ruby-coloured gum : irregularly spaced, " middles and ends " together 7-13 per mm. Rings. Doubtful, See further. Soft-tissue. Abundant and prominent in wavy, concentric ines resembling ring-boundaries,but which stop short of complete circles at times. Filled with ruby gum. As the largest pores are confined to these zones there is a possibility that they indicate the limit of the years' growth. Pith. ? Radial Section. Pores, need lens : extremely fine scratches. Rays just visible on a cleft surface. Soft-tissue, important though scarcely prominent : it gives the reddish tone to the wood and the vertical lines are seen with the lens to be very clearly marked off. Type specimen authenticated by the Forest Officer to the Government of Cape Colony from a log sent to the Colonial and Indian Exhibition. No. 147. PRINCE- WOOD. Cordia gerascanthus. Linn. (Not of H. B. and K. or of Sw. The former is C. tinifolia and the latter C. gerascanthoides. H. B. and K. not Rich). PLATE XL FIG. 93. Natural Order. Boragineae. 167 THE TIMBERS OF COMMERCE Synonym. C. Geraschcanthus. Jacq. Sources of Supply. Tropical America and the West Indies, chiefly Jamaica. Alternative Names. Spanish Elm (8). Dominica Rosewood : Bois de Cypre: Bois de Roses. Bois de Rhodes (131). Claraiba in Brazil (76). Physical Characters, etc. Recorded dry-weight 42-45 Ibs. per cu. ft. Hardness Grade 6 compare Beech. " Hath a very sweet, pleasant smell almost like a rose " (8). Taste none. Burns very well : heat expels a juice : embers glow un- usually brightly in still air : much ash. Solution faint pinkish- brown. Grain. Rather coarse and open : "a very veiny wood of the grain of Elm " (8). Surface bright, but where the pores occupy much of the surface the effect is dull. Bark.? Uses, etc. " One of the best timber woods of Jamaica " (8). It is worthy of attention and would probably make a good paving wood when creasoted. It is not exactly an ornamental wood. Authorities. Barham (8). Wiesner (131), L. 6, p. 137. Miers (76). Colour. Brown with dusky excentric zones, otherwise uni- form. Anatomical Characters. Transverse section : — Pores. Prominent from their size and masses, size 2 : slightly more numerous and larger on the inner side of the ring ; a loosely-waved, concentric arrangement visible with the unaided eye but not when magnified : many 10-15 per sq. mm. : sub- divided, many pairs and also some with the divisions radially disposed : round when single. Rays. Prominent, size 3 : medium, uniform, equidistant, the width of a large pore apart, not avoiding them : firm ; taper- ing : brown : 4-5 per mm. : occasional " false rays," i.e., large, conspicuous tails. Rings. Apparently well defined, may be superficially con- fused with the dusky pigment-zones :" contour regular : some- times only a boundary line of soft-tissue but chiefly indicated by a smaller and rather more crowded zone or a loose pore- ring of larger pores. Soft-tissue. Neatly encircling, and sometimes concentrically connecting the pores : of the same colour as the rays : also occasionally a fine boundary-like line. Pith. Round, hard, blackish, about I mm. diam. Radial Section. Slightly lighter in shade than the Transverse. Pores, readily visible, dull grooves. Rays, inconspicuous but 1 68 WEST INDIAN BOXWOOD form a pretty silver-grain : readily visible, dull. Rings, doubt- ful but the dusky pigment-zones are prominent. Tangential Section. As the Radial, but the rays are only just visible to good sight when the wood is moistened : about i mm. high. Type specimen sent me by Messrs. Elder, Dempster & Co., authenticated by Sir Thomas Hughes. I have followed Wiesner in the nomenclature which is very confusing. Miers describes the wood under the name of " Claraiba " (Cordia excelsa), and as his description tallies so closely with my specimen I have included that name. No. 148. WEST INDIAN BOXWOOD (reputed to be Tabebuia pentaphylla. Hemsl.). As Buxus, PLATE XII. FIG. 105. Natural Order. Bignoniaceae. Synonym. Tecoma pentaphylla. D.C. Sources of Supply. West Indies, Brazil, Panama. Alternative Names. Zapatero in England. White Cedar in Bermuda and the Windward Isles : Roble bianco in Cuba and Cogvvood also in the Windward Isles (12). Poirier de la Mar- tinique. Poirier blanc. Whitewood in Brazil (88). Amarilla yema de huevo. Dottergelb (131). Under a magnifying power of x 3 the appearance of this wood is the same as Buxus. Physical Characters, etc. Recorded dry-weight 49-54^ Ibs. per cu. ft. Hardness Grade 2, compare Boxwood. Smell and taste none. Burns well : ignites slowly but embers glow in still air. Solution with water or alcohol colourless. Absorbs water unusually rapidly. Grain. Fine, close, dense and even. Surface dull : smooth and cold to the touch. Curly wood and knots scarcely ever occur. Bark. Yellowish, about £ inch thick, not fissured, lenticels rare : usually much battered : sometimes exudes an unpleasant gum. Uses, etc. Similar to those of the true Boxwoods for the in- ferior qualities which it serves very well. Very liable to split in drying : rends easily and straight. Usually met with in straight, cylindrical logs (with bark) up to 12 inches in diam., also in half-round flitches of inferior colour. Authorities. Wiesner (13), L. 12, p. 999. Catalogue-Museum No. i, Kew (57). Saldanha da Gama (99). Colour. Uniform light yellow to brown. A sap-wood tree, no heart-wood. Anatomical Characters. Transverse section : — 169 THE TIMBERS OF COMMERCE Pores. Need lens, fine, 5-6, almost uniform : evenly distri- buted throughout the whole width of the ring : very numerous, 200-400 per sq. mm. : in the solid wood they have the appearance of clinging to the rays. Rays. Need lens, very fine, size 6, uniform : weak, running round the pores : long, very slightly denser than the ground- tissue and very difficult to see in the transparent section : numerous, 7-8 per mm. : more than a pore-width apart : white. Rings. Doubtful. An occasional zone poorer in pores but not of necessity indicating the ring-boundary : little contrast of colour : always narrow, i.e. slowly grown. Soft-tissue. None or only occasional wide-meshed cells. Pith. Round, to 2 mm. diam. Rarely perfect usually being destroyed by cracks at the centre. Radial Section. Pores need lens, practically indistinguish- able as are also the rays except when the wood is cleft. The rings are quite indistinguishable. Tangential Section. As the Radial, but the rings are a trifle clearer but still vague : the rays are fine lines about 0*2 mm. high. Type specimens from commercial sources checked by the specimen in the Museum No. i, Kew. I do not wish to question the accuracy of its nomenclature, but the structure of this wood is so unlike all the other species belonging to the same order which I have seen, that I think there may be an error somewhere. Wiesner says it is Aspidosperma Vargasii, D.C., but it totally disagrees with his description (p. 1000) of A. Quebracho in material particulars. No. 149. TEAK. Tectona grandis. Linn. fil. PLATE XL FIG. 94. Natural Order. Verbenaceae. Alternative Names. Indian Oak and many others in the Indian dialects, see Gamble (37). Sources of Supply. Central and South India and Burmah (37). North Borneo. Physical Characters, etc. Recorded dry-weight 34-55 Ibs. per cu. ft. Hardness Grade 6, compare Oak. Smell characteristic and powerful, like old shoe-leather, very offensive when being worked. Gamble says " it has a pleasant and strong aromatic fragrance." Possibly it changes during drying. Burns well with a long lively flame and much crackling : embers do not glow in still air, but expire and leave the carbonized wood. Solution with water or alcohol brown. Grain. Coarse and open, but much smooth wood in fast-grown timber. Surface, greasy to the touch, dull. 170 PURIRI Bark. " " Grey, £ inch thick, fibrous with shallow, longi- tudinal wrinkles, peeling off in long thin flakes " (37). Uses, etc. Shipbuilding, railway-carriage building, etc. " Does not split, crack, warp or alter its shape when once seasoned, does not suffer in contact with iron, and is rarely if ever attacked by white ants " (37). Almost imperishable in some climates, as that of Japan. A very variable wood. The several varieties which are commonly met with in England suggest something more than a difference in the vigour of their growth. " Siam Teak is generally lighter in colour, and Malabar open in the grain and tough. Annamalay Teak is the narrow-ringed, brown (not golden or grey) stinking Teak " (109). Authorities. Gamble (37), p. 283. Nordlinger (86), vol. iv. p. 44. Sinclair (109). Wiesner (131), L. 12, p. 1003. Colour. Uniform dark golden-yellow : brown : greyish- brown. Sap-wood white or dirty-white. Anatomical Characters. Transverse section : — Pores. Very prominent, size 2, " large in the pore-ring, moderate-sized and small elsewhere " (37). Rather crowded in the pore-ring, 8-20 per sq. mm. in one or two rows : somewhat rarer in the later wood, 8-12 per sq. mm. : usually single, some pairs and groups of three or four : white deposit frequent. (Apatite, Calcium-phosphate. Ca. HP04) (131). Rays. Just visible, medium, size 4, uniform : equidistant, weak but scarcely avoiding the pores : 4-6 per mm. : colour, a lighter brown than the ground. Rings. Very clear on account of the dense pore-ring and looser Spring-wood following the denser tissue of Autumn. Soft-tissue. "In patches between the Spring Pores" (86). Neatly encircling the pores, brown. Pith. Large, quadrangular. Radial Section. Pores well-marked, cellular grooves with finer ones between, often in pairs, bright when empty. Rays, well- marked dark flakes. Rings indicated by the bands of pores only. Tangential Section. As the Radial, but the pores are as a rule much finer : rays fine lines on the limit of vision, being almost too narrow to taper : rings prominent as fringed loops. Type specimens from commercial sources checked by Nordlinger's section and by the specimens in Museum No. i, Kew. No. 150. PURIRI. Vitex littoralis. A. Cunn. (not Decaisne). PLATE XI. FIG. 95. Natural Order. Verbenaceae. Alternative Name. New Zealand Teak (91). THE TIMBERS OF COMMERCE Source of Supply. New Zealand only. Physical Characters, etc. Recorded dry-weight 62^-76 Ibs. per cu. ft. Hardness Grade 5, compare English Elm. Taste un- pleasantly astringent though not strong. Smell not pleasant, rather like leather and reminiscent of Indian Teak. Burns badly with a spurting, explosive flame, ignites and supports a flame with difficulty : embers glow in still air and consume very slowly indeed to the ash. Solution faint-greenish or olive turning brandy-colour upon the addition of potash : no ppt. Bark. Greyish-brown, about £ inch thick, hard and fibrous : full of hard, whitish bodies. " Thin, smooth, greyish-white " (60). Grain. Rather fine, though open : dense, compact and even. Surface somewhat lustrous. Uses, etc. " Fencing-posts, piles, sleepers " (57). " Timber, 9-18 ft. long by 6-9 ft. in circumference, . . . generally free from defects, . . . very durable, suitable for the frames of ships " (60). My specimen log is riddled with large wormholes. ' ' The strongest and most durable timber supplied by the Colony, and in order to split it, it needs blasting powder or dynamite. Suitable for purposes where immense strength and great powers of resistance are required " (91). Very tough and hard to work. Authorities. Perceval (91), pp. 14 and 46. Laslett (60), p. 310. Kew Guide (57), p. 79. Colour. Heart-wood dull, greyish-brown with a greenish tinge ; not defined from the sap-wood which is about i£ inches thick (at least in my specimen). " Dark-brownish " (91). " Sap- wood 2-3 inches thick, and of a yellowish colour " (60). Anatomical Characters. ' As those of Tectona grandis (Teak), No. 149, with the following differences : — Pores. Of the pore-ring just visible, widely separated and scanty, never a continuous ring : 3-4 in a group : few, 6-10 per sq. mm. Rays. Size, 4-5 : 4-6 per mm. Rings obscure as is also the soft- tissue. Radial Section. Pores readily visible, but not prominent. Rays: scarcely visible, and in Tangential section require the microscope. Type spe:imen authenticated by the Forest Officer to the Government of New Zealand. No. 151. I-MIUGA. Halleria lucida. Linn. PLATE XL FIG. 96. Natural Order. Scrophularineae. Synonym. H. elliptica. Thb. Source of Supply. Tropical and South Africa. 172 STINK-WOOD Physical Characters, etc. Recorded dry-weight 52^ Ibs. per cu. ft. Hardness Grade 5, compare English Alder. Smell none. Taste slightly astringent. Burns well and quietly : an orange-coloured juice is expelled by heat : little or no aroma : embers glow in still air. Solution colourless : white ppt. upon the addition of potash. Grain. Very fine and dense. Surface bright. Bark. Cinnamon-brown, about \ inch thick separating in thin scales which are seen to be marked off till close against the wood, in alternate light and dark layers. Saws easily : planes easily and well, especially across-grain, i.e. transversely. It works some- thing like Pear Wood. Authority. Nordlinger (86), vol. viii. p. 29. Colour. Brownish-white or e"cru. White (86). A sap-wood tree. Anatomical Characters. Transverse section : — Pores. Need lens, size 4, little variation : irregularly scattered between the rays : single or in short groups of 2-7: few, 20-35 per sq. mm. Rays. Readily visible, size 5, apparently two sizes, tapering to fine points both ends : " middles," 2-4 per mm., or " middles and ends " together, 14-17 per mm. : stout, not avoiding the pores : lighter and laxer than the ground-tissue. Rings. Very doubtful, not easily made out with the lens though apparently clear on a not-too-smooth section. Ground-tissue. Composed of cells almost as coarse as the smallest of the pores. Pith. " Small, four-lobed, whitish " (86). Radial Section. Pores, fine scratches. Rays inconspicuous, usually white or brownish flakes. Tangential Section. As the Radial, but the rays need lens and are rather broad, spindle-shaped lines about ro mm. high. Rings fairly evident as slightly darker loops. Type specimens authenticated by the Forest Officer to the Government of Natal. No. 152. STINK-WOOD. Ocotea bullata. E. Mey. PLATE XL FIG. 97. Natural Order. Laurineae. Synonyms. Oreodaphne bullata. Nees. Laurus bullata. Burch. Source of Supply. South Africa. Alternative Names. Cape Walnut. Stinkhout. Cannibal Stinkwood (not Camdeboo Stinkwood) : Witte or White Stink- 173 THE TIMBERS OF COMMERCE wood : Cape Laurel : Bean Trefoil : Laurel-wood : Hard Black Stinkwood (60). Soft-grey Stinkwood ? (61). Physical Characters, etc. Dry-weight 5i| Ib. per cu. ft. Hard- ness Grade 2, compare Boxwood. Smell none when dry, even when worked : " strong and unpleasant when fresh felled." (60). Laslett says that it smells when worked but my specimens did not. Taste none. Burns badly : flame readily dies out : very little ash : unusually noisy : embers glow in still air. Solution brown like brandy. Grain. Extremely fine, close, dense and smooth. Surface lustrous and cold to the touch ; exhibits much " fire " or phos- phorescent lustre. Bark. Leathery, brown, not fissured, about \ inch thick : covered with a cuticle on which are small, oval, clearly-visible lenticels. Uses, etc. " Building purposes in South Africa " (60). It is the most beautiful dark-coloured wood that I have yet met with. It is to be hoped that it will be preserved from extinction as it is much better worth attention than many of the exotic trees which seem to be the favourites of Colonial foresters. " A substi- tute for Teak and equally durable, . . . wagons, cabinet-making, gun-stocks . . . extremely tough " (57). " Beams and planks, farm instruments, . . . 3-4 feet wide " (51). Authorities. Nordlinger (86), vol. vii., p. 33. Wiesner (46), L. 6, p. 75. Boulger (12). Hutchins (51). Laslett (60), pp. 303, 305. Ditto (61), p. 440. Kew Guide (57), p. 32. Colour. Dark walnut, or reddish-brown to black : uniform. Sap-wood yellow, fairly well defined. Anatomical Characters. Transverse section : — Pores. Just visible in certain lights, rather coarse, size 1-2, little variation ; uniformly distributed, occupying the whole of the ring sometimes in loose lines : few 9-35 per sq. mm. rarely the latter : often sub-divided in groups of 2-4 or even 6, radial or concentric : some with dark contents. Rays. Just visible, fine, size 5, uniform : long, tapering very gradually : many, 5-9 per mm. : more or less equidistant : less dense than the ground-tissue : weak, slightly avoiding the larger pores. Rings. Rather obscure : discernible sometimes in a transparent section : boundary a line of contrast between the lax tissue of the inner part of each ring and the dense wood of the ring within : contour well-rounded. Soft-tissue. Encircling the pores : also minute patches here and there. Pith. ? Radial Section. Slightly lighter in shade than the Transverse 174 MANGEAO section. Pores, narrow lines : fine except where a radial group is exposed. Rays, small lighter-coloured flakes. Rings, im- perceptible. Tangential Section. As the Radial, but the pores appear finer because they are exposed in smaller numbers. Rays, imper- ceptible with lens, about 0*5 mm. high. Type specimens authenticated by the Forest Officer to the Government of the Cape of Good Hope : from logs sent to the Indian and Colonial Exhibition. Laslett (61) says the Soft Grey Stinkwood is believed to be a variety. This is not the case ; see Celtis Kraussiana, No. 175. No. 153. MANGEAO. Litsea calicaris. (Not mentioned in the Index Kewensis.) PLATE XL FIG. 98. Natural Order. Laurines. Synonym. Tetranthera calicaris. Hook. fil. Source of Supply. New Zealand only. Alternative Names. Mangeas (60). Tangeao (90). Physical Characters, etc. Recorded dry- weight 48 i Ibs. per cu. ft. Hardness Grade 7, compare English Alder. Smell delightfully fragrant and spicy when worked. Taste faint or none. Burns well : ignites readily but embers soon die out and leave the carbonized wood : little aroma. Solution very faint, turning pink upon the addition of potash : ppt. reddish- brown. Bark. Brown, J-4 inch thick : of two layers, the outer rather soft and crumbling : fragrant when sawn : the inner about rV inch thick like a dark line following the undulating contour of the outside of the wood, which latter is deeply channelled. Uses, etc. " Ships' -blocks " (60). " Tough, . . . seldom exceeds 40 feet in height" (57), p. 311. Authorities. Laslett (60), p. 311. Perceval (91), p. n. Kew Guide (57), p. 79. Colour. Heart-wood ecru : brownish white : defined from the darker sap-wood, which is from 2-2^ inches (or more) wide. Anatomical Characters. As those of Ocotea bullata (No. 152) with the following differences: — Pores. Just visible from their lighter colour, size 3 : mostly empty : 8-15 per sq. mm. Rays. Just visible on account of their white colour, size 5-6 : firm, not avoiding the pores : 5-7 per mm. Rings. Just traceable by means of a rather denser pore-less zone. Soft-tissue. White borders encircling the pores. Pith. ? 175 THE TIMBERS OF COMMERCE The pores are about equally fine in Radial and Tangential sections. The Rays are short, broad, blunt, spindle-shaped lines about 0'2 mm. high in Tangential section. Type specimen authenticated by the Forest Officer to the Government of New Zealand. No. 154. GREENHEART. Nectandra Rodioei. Hook. PLATE XI. FIG. 99. Natural Order. Laurineae. Synonyms. N. Rodier. Schk. Alternative Names. Sipiri : Sipiera : Bibiru : Yellow Green- heart. Cogwood ? Geelheart in Dutch Guiana. Itauba- branca in the N. Province, Brazil : Itauba vermelho in the Amazonas region (76). Sources of Supply. British Guiana, Brazil and Tropical South America generally. Physical Characters, etc. Recorded dry-weight 64-75 Ibs. per cu. ft. Hardness Grade 2, compare Boxwood. Smell or taste none. Burns well with a lively flame : heat expels drops of brown resin : embers glow in still air. Solution with water pale brown : treated afterwards with alcohol, colourless. Grain. Smooth, dense and even, though coarse in some sections. Surface of the ground-tissue lustrous. Bark ? Uses, etc. " Ship-building (rated first class at Lloyd's), sub- merged work of all kinds, piles, wharves, etc., . . . cracks when exposed to the sun" (78). Reported by McTurk in 1878, to be getting scarcer. Authorities. Miers (76). Boulger (12), under the systematic name of Tecoma, p. 440. McTurk (78), No. 27. Laslett (60), p. 270. Kew Bull., 1898, ad. ser. i. p. 33. Kew Guide (57), p. 36, 38. Holtzapffel (48), p. 85. Gamble (37), p. 313. Wiesner (131), L. 12, p. 915. Colour. Green or greenish-brown to brown. In transverse section dark green, almost black. Heart-wood ill-defined from the sap-wood which is about 5 inches wide. Anatomical Characters. Transverse section : — Pores. Conspicuous, green, large, numerous enough to give the section " the appearance of cane " (60) : size 1-2, rather coar.se, practically uniform : evenly distributed : some single but mostly sub-divided, also compact groups of 3-4 : few 4-13 per sq. mm. : oval. Rays. Need lens, size 5, fine, uniform : equidistant, less than 176 PLATE XII. Fig. 100. TH in Radial and T tnt, spindle-shaped lines about the Forest Officer to the Cectandra Rodioei. or taste Is drops of ith water in some ub- IcTurk in jS ^ v igh tc .t her coarse, but i equiaist.' PLATE XII. Fig. 100. Nectandra exaltata. Fig. 103. Santalum ( Sandal- wood). Fig 101. Nectandra (Kretti). Pioteacese (The Silky Oaks). Fig. 105. Buxus (Box-wood). Fig. 107. Ulmus (Elm). Fig. 108. Ulmu* racemosa (Rock Elm). YELLOW CIROUABALLI the width of the large pores apart yet scarcely avoiding them, gently undulating, long : scarcely denser than the ground-tissue : many, 4-6 per mm. Rings. Rarely if ever traceable. Soft-tissue. Encircling the pores and in very small lines and patches close to them. Pith. ? Radial Section. Much lighter than the Transverse section. Pores prominent in some sections as hoary lines or chambered grooves containing drops of dark-coloured resin. Rays very inconspicuous, small, dull flakes. Rins;s rarely traceable. Soft- tissue just visible as hoary borders to the pores. Tangential Section. As the Radial, but the rays need lens, being minute lines about 0*5 mm. high. Type specimens authenticated by the Forest Officer to the Government of British Guiana, also from commercial sources. No. 155. YELLOW CIROUABALLI. Nectandra pisi. Miq. PLATE XI. As FIG. 99. Natural Order. Laurineae. Alternative Names. Black Cedar (12). Yellow Siruaballi. Sources of Supply. ritish Guiana and neighbouring regions. Physical Characters, etc. Recorded dry-weight 52 Ibs. per cu. ft. Hardness Grade 3, compare Blackthorn. Smell when worked like certain kinds of Cedar or Callitris. Taste like spice with a suggestion of Havana (cigar-box) Cedar. Burns indiffer- ently with much crackling : embers glow in still air but no resin is expelled by the heat. The flame will char the outside of a thin stick without burning through. Solution brownish. Grain. Fine and even though open. Surface bright almost lustrous. Bark. Smooth, reddish, about J inch thick. Uses, etc. "As planking for boats it is most durable" (78). It works well with all tools and turns especially well. It takes an excellent polish without much trouble but it cannot be called an ornamental wood. Authorities. McTurk (78), No. 60. Boulger (12), p. 424. The name " Black Cedar " applied to this species by Boulger probably belongs to Brown Cirouaballi, No. 157. Colour. Light brown heart-wood gradually merging into the dirty- white sap-wood which is about i ipch wide. Anatomical Characters. Transverse section : — Pores. Clear, scarcely prominent, rather coarse, size little variation : evenly distributed but with a tendency to form 177 N THE TIMBERS OF COMMERCE loose straggling lines : some single, mostly subdivided in compact groups of 4-5 pores : few, 9-15 per mm. : glisten at times. Rays. Need lens, size 4-5, uniform : almost equidistant, slightly less than the width of the large pores apart which they lightly avoid, otherwise fairly straight : somewnat denser than the ground-tissue : many, 7-9 per mm. Rings. Very regular bands of light and shade corresponding with certain zones of pores when they form straggling lines, but nothing of the nature of a boundary line. Soft-tissue. Very little : narrowly encircling the pores and a few lines of single cells here and there. Pith. ? Radial Section. Much lighter in shade than the Transverse section, a greenish tinge occasionally. Pores rather prominent, coarse, colourless, cellular grooves containing drops of resin which look like silver beads. Rays visible in certain light, very inconspicuous flakes. Rings vague or rarely perceptible. Tangential Section. As the Radial but a little darker in shade. Rays, minute lines on the limit of vision, about o-5 mm. high. Type specimens authenticated by the Forest Officer to the Government of British Guiana. No. 156. TIMBER SWEET-WOOD. Nectandra exaltata. Griseb. PLATE XII. FIG. 100. Natural Order. Laurineae. Synonyms. In partim N. sanguinea. Griseb (not of Nees., or Rottb.). Alternative Name. Boniato amarillo in Cuba (12). Source of Supply. West Indies, chiefly Jamaica. Physical Characters, etc. Recorded dry-weight 53 Ibs. per cu. ft. Hardness Grade 2, compare Boxwood. Smell none. Taste bitter, unpleasant. Burns very well : no juice expelled by heat : embers glow very brightly in still air. Solution faint brown. Grain. Rather fine and open. Surface lustrous. Bark. ? Uses, etc. " Interior work " (12). A dense, solid wood re- sembling Greenheart : liable to crack in the sun. Authorities. Wiesner (131), L. p. 75. Boulger (12). Colour. Brownish with a tinge of green. Cloudy, irregular zones at times. Anatomical Characters. Transverse section : — . Fores. Prominent from their lighter-coloured masses, size 2-3, nearly uniform : evenly distributed : single or subdivided, 178 KRETTI mostly pairs but occasionally fours : rather numerous, 10-20 per sq. mm. : a loose arrangement suggesting straggling, wavy lines to the unaided eye : round. Rays. Just visible, size 3-4, uniform : equidistant : a pore- width apart, gently avoiding the larger pores, undulating : numerous 8-10 per mm. Rings. Faintly indicated to the unaided eye but not with the lens : perhaps due to the rather closer arrangement of the pores in the Autumn zones : no definite boundary : contour regular. Soft-tissue. Neatly encircling the pores but not joining them. Pith. Round, hard, about 3 mm. diam. Radial Section. Considerably lighter in shade than the Transverse. Pores readily visible, dull grooves. Rays, visible by contrast of lustre being dull against the bright ground. Rings not indicated. Tangential Section. As the Radial, but the rays are minute, dark brown lines visible with micro. Type specimen received from Messrs. Elder, Dempster and Co. : authenticated by Sir Thos. Hughes. No. 157. KRETTI. Nectranda sp. PLATE XII. FIG. 101. Natural Order. Laurineae. Alternative Name. Keritee. Source of Supply. British Guiana. Physical Characters, etc. Recorded dry-weight 32 Ibs. per cu. ft. Hardness Grade 5, compare Ash and Elm. Smell and taste resembling those of Cigar-box Cedar. Burns well with a lively flame and much crackling : heat expels a brown juice : •embers glow in still air. Solution with water crimson, with alcohol brownish-red. Grain. Moderately coarse and open. Surface lustrous, not cold to the touch. Bark. About £ inch thick, resembling that of Sycamore but reddish in colour. Uses, etc. " The upper planking of boats, partitions, etc " (78). It has a strong resemblance to some species of Cedrela, for example Havana Cedar, with which it can easily be confused. It works equally well with all tools and takes a good finish. Not ornamental. Can be obtained in logs 80 ft. by 20 in. free of sap-wood (78). Authority. McTurk, No. 56 (78). Colour. Heart-wood brown, gradually fading into the palci sap-wood, which is about 1-2 inches wide. 179 THE TIMBERS OF COMMERCE Anatomical Characters. Transverse section : — As those of the Brown Cirouaballi, No. 158 which should be compared. Pores. Readily visible on account of their large size, grade 1-2 : rather coarse, fairly uniform : evenly distributed : some single, many subdivided into groups of as many as 7 : few, 9-15 per sq. mm. : oval : sometimes glistening. Radial Section. Lighter in shade than the Transverse. Pores rather prominent though colourless : coarsely-cellular, contain- ing drops of resin which look like silver beads. Rays, clearly visible though not at all conspicuous, reddish flakes ; bright. Type specimens authenticated by the Forest Officer to the Government of British Guiana, from a log sent to the Colonial and Indian Exhibition. No. 158. BROWN CIROUABALLI. Nectandra sp. PLATE XL AS FIG 99. Natural Order. Laurineae. Alternative Name. Dark Cirouaballi or Sirouaballi. Sources of Supply. British Guiana. Physical Characters, etc. Recorded dry-weight 49^ Ibs. per cu. ft. Hardness Grade 3, compare Blackthorn. Smell none. Taste slightly astringent. Smell slightly resembling Sandal- wood when sawn. Burns well \vith much crackling : heat expels drops of brown resin : embers glow in still air. Solution with water colourless, with alcohol pale brown. Grain. Moderately coarse and open ; dense. Surface lustrous. Bark. ? Uses, etc. " Boat-building, for which it is specially adapted " (47). A serviceable though not very ornamental wood : turns exceptionally well and takes an excellent finish without trouble : planes smoothly in one direction : saws easily. Can be met with in logs up to 90 ft. long by 36 in. sq. (78). Authority. McTurk (78), No. 50. Colour. Dark brown with black here and there. Sap-wood ? Anatomical Characters. Transverse section: — Pores. Conspicuous (when the wood is scraped), on account of their size and colour : difficult to see when the wood is merely planed : size i, coarse, little variation : evenly distributed : some single, many subdivided in groups up to 10 : few 9-22 per sq. mm. : oval : a suggestion of loose straggling lines : some- times contain a dark resin. Rays. Just visible, size 5, fine, uniform : equidistant, less than the width of the large pores apart, avoiding them, other- 180 WAIBAIMA wise straight, scarcely as dense as the ground-tissue : many 6-8 per mm. Rings. Doubtful : zones of darker and lighter colour here and there and occasionally a zone of more closely-packed pores. Soft-tissue. Very small lines or patches close to the pores or encircling them. Pith. ? Radial Section. Lighter in shade than the Transverse. Pores, prominent, dark, sometimes blackish lines : coarsely chambered and containing drops of dark resin. Rays, rather prominent but small, dark, dull, flakes. Tangential Section. As the Radial, but the rays appear as minute dark lines about 0*5 mm. high (need lens). Type specimen authenticated by the Forest Officer to the Government of British Guiana, from a log sent to the Colonial and Indian Exhibition. McTurk says that this wood is either a species of Nectandra or Oreodapfme but the former is more probably the correct name. The structure shows no affinity with Oreodaphne while it agrees well with several species of Nectandra in my collection. No. 159. WAIBAIMA. Nectandra. sp. PLATE XI. As FIG. 99. Natural Order. Laurineae. Sour 'c; of Supply. British Guiana. Physical Characters, etc. Recorded dry-weight 57 Ibs. per cu. ft. Hardness Grade 2, compare Boxwood or Greenheart. Smell none. McTurk says, " a strong aromatic scent," but I think this is due to the bark, not to the wood itself. He also mentions a " bitter taste," which is not very evident in my specimens. Burns well with a lively flame and much crackling : embers glow in still air. Solution bright green. Grain. Very dense but coarse and open. Surface bright : scarcely lustrous : feels cold like Greenheart or Boxwood. Bark. About f inch thick, composed of small roundish flakes or scales which easily become detached and expose others of varied colour from white to brown. A remarkable and unusual form. Uses, etc. " Ship-building and all purposes for which Green- heart is used, and to which it is superior. The best wood of British Guiana for planking vessels,and as Greenheart is becoming scarcer Waibaima is worth attention. Abundant in the Colony." (78). It works well with all tools, more easily than Greer and takes an excellent finish without trouble. Colour. Heart-wood green shading to brown, fairly \u 11 181 THE TIMBERS OF COMMERCE defined from the reddish-white sap-wood which is about i inch wide. Anatomical Characters. Transverse section : — Pores. Conspicuous on account of their colour and size, Grade i, coarse, little variation : evenly distributed : some single, mostly subdivided in compact groups of 2-4 : few 1-5 per sq. mm. : a tendency to loose, straggling lines. The contents swell up on exposure and feel like a fine rasp. Rays. Readily visible, size 4, medium, uniform : equidistant slightly less than the width of the largest pores apart which they avoid but are otherwise nearly straight : long : less dense than the ground- tissue, quite spongy: many, 6-8 per mm. Rings. Doubtful : vague bands of varying colour without corresponding difference in the structure. Soft-tissue. Very narrowly encircling the pores : very obscure. Pith ? Radial Section. Colour, light yellowish -green, with a brown or golden shade here and there. Pores not prominent, being colourless but at the same time coarse. Rays, small, incon- spicuous, whitish flakes : dull against the bright ground. Rings, vague bands of different shade here and there. Tangential Section. As the radial, but the pores appear as whitish streaks. Rays, need lens and are then difficult to make out : minute, whitish lines about 0*5 mm. high. Type specimen authenticated by the Forest Officer to the Government of British Guiana : from a log sent to the Colonial and Indian Exhibition. No. 1 60. TAWA. Beilschmiedia Tawa. Bth. and Hook. PLATE XVIII. FIG. 154 Natural Order. Laurineae. Synonyms. Lauras Tawa, A. Cunn. L. Tama. Meissn. Neso- daphne Tawa. Hook. Alternative Name. Taua. Physical Characters, etc. Recorded dry-weight, 43 Jibs, percu. ft. Hardness Grade 7, compare English Birch. Smell little if any. Taste none. Burns well : embers glow in still air. Solution colourless : a dirty white ppt. upon the addition of potash. Grain. Rather fine, open and straight. Surface dull. Bark. T\V-| inch thick, one layer, brown, brittle, separating easily from the wood : filled with very small, hard, round, white bodies. Uses, etc " Not used in carpentry " (24). " Used at present 182 NEW ZEALAND HONEYSUCKLE for fire-wood only" (59). "Useful for furniture work" (61). " A tree 60-70 ft. high by 1-2 ft. in diameter, . . . wood com- pact, suitable for furniture but not durable in exposed situa- tions" (57). Saws and planes very easily but the surface of the wood tends to " pick up " in scales. Authorities. Laslett (60), p. 311. Kew Guide (57), p. 78. Collinson (24). Kirk (59). Colour. White or dirty-white. A sap-wood tree. Anatomical Characters. Transverse section :^ — Pores. Need lens, size 3-4, uniform : thinly and evenly distributed : very few, 7-20 per sq. mm. : mostly single but many subdivided pairs, rarely threes. Rays. Need lens. In appearance of two sizes, tapering to fine ends, size 5-6 : many " middles " 3-5 per mm. or together with " ends " 5-16 per mm : straight not avoiding the pores. Rings. Clear not prominent : boundary a fine zone of darker wood accompanied by a finer and lighter-coloured line probably of soft- tissue. Soft-tissue. Encircling the pores with a narrow, white border, and probatly also the boundary line. Pith. ? Radial Section. Pores, fine scratches. Rays, narrow, dirty brown lines, readily visible but not prominent. Ring- boundaries not very easily located. Tangential Section. As the Radial, but the rays appear to be of two sizes if not of two kinds : pigmented. The rings appear as vague loops and lines. Type specimen authenticated by the Forest Officer to the Government of New Zealand. No. 161. NEW ZEALAND HONEYSUCKLE. Knightia excelsa. R. Br. PLATE XVIII. FIG. 159. Natural Order. Proteaceze. Alternate Name. Rewa-Rewa. The Honeysuckle, White or Coast Honeysuckle of Queensland, New South Wales and Victoria is a different tree (Banksia integrifolia. Linn, or Banksia marginata. Cav.). The wood mentioned by Laslett is probably one of these two. Source of Supply. New Zealand only. Physical Characters, etc. Dry-weight 46^-50^ Ibs per cu. ft. Hardness Grade 4, compare Maple. Smell or taste none Burns well, ignites readily, no aroma : embers glow in still air. Solution brownish. 183 Grain. Very fine, even and close. Surface of the ground scarcely bright : that of the rays very dull. Bark. J-f inch thick, hard, smooth, not fissured, covered with pimples : separating in small thin papery scales. The rays are continued into the bark. Uses, etc. " Marquetrie, cabinet-making, flooring, panelling " (91). " Not used in carpentry and joinery but frequently in fencing, as it splits easily : size of logs 4 ft. long by 18 inches in diameter " (24). Works easily. Authorities. Perceval (91), p. 35. Laslett (60), pp. 249-411. Collins (24). Colour. Light brown, brownish-white or reddish with dark lines. Anatomical Characters. Transverse sections : — Pores. Readily visible, size 3, medium, uniform : regularly distributed in concave loops between the rays (dentate) : pore- ring of one or at most two rows, no pores in the later wood : mostly in contact laterally : in compact, concentric or clustered groups of as many as 12 pores : few, 30-50 per sq. mm. : empty. Rays. Very prominent, size 2, broad, apparently com- pound and of two sizes. The larger fairly equidistant, rarely less than i mm. apart : straight and direct : nodose : very lax yet denser than the ground-tissue : marked transversely with fine bars : sometimes separating outwardly into more than one. smaller ray, i.e. forked. Smaller rays very weak : follojv the contour of the nodes of the larger when close to them : bright : light red or brown. Rings. Clear, distinctly visible. Boundary the pore-ring and its line of soft-tissue : contour finely dentate. Soft-tissue. Abundant in concentric lines following the contour of the pore-ring : size about 5 : cells extended in a tangential direction, rectangular : brown. Pith. ? Radial Section. Lighter in shade than the Transverse section, pores very fine but readily visible being shown up by their borders of brown soft-tissue. Rays, bold, brown flakes resembling those of the Plane tree. Rings very clear. Soft-tissue in very fine light brown lines, close and parallel but often undulating. Tangential Section. As the Radial, but the rays are bold spindle-shaped lines forming a reticulation with the ground- tissue : to about £ inch high by 0-5 mm. broad. The soft-tissue appears as small, light brown flakes resembling the silver grain of very fine-rayed wood. Type specimen authenticated by the Forest Officer to the Government of New Zealand and also from commercial sources. 184 SILKY OAK No. 162. SILKY OAK. Grevillea robusta. A. Cunn. PLATE XII. FIG. 102. Natural Order. Proteaceae. Synonyms. C-. venusta. A. Cunn. G. Umbratica. A. Cunn. Alternative Names. Tuggan-tuggan (5). Warra-garria. Koom- kabang (120). Grevillea (49). Sources of Supply. South Queensland, New South Wales. Physical Characters, etc. Dry-weight about 37 J Ibs. per cu. ft. Boulger gives the weight per cu. ft. as 35*25-38-8 Ibs. and the specific gravity as -564 only, thus making it appear that the weight varies while the specific gravity does not. Smell and taste none. Hardness Grade 6, compare Beech. Burns very well, ignites readily : embers glow in still air : heat expels a yellowish juice. Solution with water colourless. Grain. Of medium coarseness, cpen and even. Surface lustrous or silky, the rays dull. Bark. " Rugged " (5). Uses, etc. " Elastic and durable " (131). " Staves for tallow- casks, cabinet-work " (5). " Interior-work, . . . becoming scarce " " May be met with in logs of 50-100 feet in length by even as much as 6-8 ft. in diameter " (in). Authorities. F. M. Bailey (5), p. 117. Laslett (60), p. 255. J. Smith (in), p. 379. Nilson (85), p. 85. Wiesner (131), L. p. 70. Timber Trades Journal (120), June 6, 1903, p. 998. HougTi (49), pt. ix. p. 35. Colour. Pinkish to light-brown. Anatomical Characters. Transverse section : — Pores. Very clear, size 2, medium, uniform : evenly distri- buted in concave loops between the rays (dentate) : a pore-ring of one or at most two rows : no pores in the later wood : isolated or in subdivided clusters of from 3-5 ; few, 5-12 per mm. : accompanied by a line of brown soft-tissue : round or if oval the long axis tangential : amber or ruby contents. Rays. Conspicuous : size 2-3, apparently compound and of two sizes. Large ones fairly equidistant, rarely less than i mm. apart : straight and direct : nodose at long intervals : very lax yet denser than the ground : marked transversely with fine bars. Small rays avoid the pores : straggling, following the contour of the nodes of the larger when close to them : bright, light brown. Rings. Clear and distinctly visible though fine : boundary the pore-ring and its loops : contour finely dentate. Soft-tissue. Abundant in concentric lines following the pore- rings: joining the pores: size about 4: cells extended in a tangential direction, rectangular but minute : brown. 185 THE TIMBERS OF COMMERCE Radial Section. Of a lighter shade than the Transverse. Pores readily visible, mostly empty grooves of medium coarse- ness, often with a drop of yellow resin. Rays, broad, dull, bold, brownish flakes, resembling those of the Plane-tree. Rings not traceable. Tangential Section. As the Radial, but the pores straggle out of their original plane at times. The rays are bold spindle- shaped lines forming a reticulation with the ground-tissue : about 7-0 mm. high by 0'5 broad. Type specimen bears the label of the Technological Museum, Sydney. No. 163. NATIVE PEAR. Xylomelum occidentale. R. Br. PLATE XII. FIG. -102. Natural Order. Proteaceae. Source of Supply. Western Australia. The same popular name is applied to X. salicinum (5), X. pyriforme. Kn., and Hakea acicularis (57). Physical Characters, etc. Recorded dry-weight 43 £ Ibs. per cu. ft. Hardness Grade 7, compare Birch. Smell none. Taste none or slightly astringent. Burns well, embers glow in still air. Solution with water or alcohol (cold), crimson ; of deeper colour if hot. The colouring matter is almost entirely extracted. The wood would lose much of its fine colour if left exposed to the rain. Grain. Rather coarse and open. Surface of the rays of a silky lustre, of the ground bright, of the pores dull. A beautiful play of light upon every part. Bark. Coarse, fibrous, about £ inch thick, deciduous, made up of strong, bristly fibres very lightly held together like the bristles of a broom and come away at a touch ; dark red. Uses, etc. An exceptionally beautiful wood. It combines a colour rivalling Mahogany with a figure more beautiful than that of Oak. Would be highly prized if obtainable of sufficient dimensions and properly seasoned. Liable to split if hurriedly dried : works well and easily with all tools : brittle : planes readily to a smooth surface. Authorities. Kew Cat. (57), p. 72. Colour. Blood-red : dark crimson to brownish-red heart- wood irregularly shaped, defined from the light-brown sap-wood which is from \ to f inch wide. Anatomical Characters. Transverse section : — Pores. Very clear from their size and colour : size 2-3, large, rather variable in no particular order : evenly distributed, single 186 BANKSIA or in irregular, isolated, few-pored groups between the large rays. Pore-ring not continuous : no pores in the later zones : few, 0-20 per sq. mm. accompanied by or strung upon a loop of soft- tissue : usually filled with dark resin and also some white deposit The groups and pores not readily visible in the solid apart from the soft-tissue. Rays. Of two kinds or sizes, magnificently conspicuous. The larger, size oo, exceptionally broad, compound, many-rowed : the cells visible with a good hand-lens, rectangular, extended radially, filled with a crimson pigment : fairly equidistant : not nodose: i mm. or so apart : gently curved : lax but denser than the ground : forking and tapering both ends occasionally : " tongued and grooved " into the part which penetrates the bark. Small rays extremely fine and few : rather thicker than a row of cells of the larger : scarce, weak and difficult to find in the solid : size 5-6 : about 2 per mm. Rings. Not very clear : discontinuous, vague, shaded bands. Pith. Coarse-celled, about I mm. diameter. Soft-tissue. In small rope-ladder-like, reddish loops between the larger rays connecting and imbedding the pores. Obscure in a transparent section but clear in the solid. Radial Section. Pores, easily discernible though not pro- minent : follow the deviations of the mesh-like ground-tissue. Rays, magnificent, broad, crimson, shining flakes of exceptional beauty, like watered silk. Tangential Section. As the Radial, but the rays appear as broad spindles interrupted and distorted by the ground- tissue : about 2i or more inches high. The net- work of the rays and ground-tissue suggest the fibres of a " Loofah." Type specimens authenticated by the Forest Officer to the Government of Western Australia. No. 164. BANKSIA. Banksia littoralis. R. Br. (Not of Lindley : this latter is the B. collina of R. Brown). PLATE XII. FIG 102. Alternative Name. Sea-side Banksia. Source of Supply. Western Australia. Physical Characters, etc. Recorded dry-weight 43! Ibs. per cu. ft. Hardness Grade 6, compare Ash. Smell faint if any. Taste none. Burns fairly well with a faint sickly smell and quiet flame : embers glow in still air : no resin expelled by heat : ash grey. Solution pinkish. Grain. Very fine though open. Surface silky. The rnvs are dull in tangential section, but have a slight lustre in other sections. "Slightly sticky to the touch." 187 THE TIMBERS OF COMMERCE Bark. Rugged, brown, from £-1 inch thick, corky : the inner layer forming an apparent transition from the woody tissue to the cork. The rays are easily traceable in the Radial as well as in the Transverse section. Uses, etc. " A tree more ornamental 'than useful" (17). Height 24-40 feet : diameter I foot " (15). Very suitable for cabinet-making on account of the beauty of its figure. Authorities. Ednie Brown (17). Boulger (15). Colour. Reddish-brown heart -wood fading gradually into the whitish-brown sap-wood which is about 2^ inches wide. Anatomical Characters. Transverse section : — Pores. Need lens, size 5, uniform : regularly distributed in concave loops (dentate) between the larger rays : pore-ring of one or two rows, closely arranged and compressed one against the other : no pores in the later wood : each loop a continuous cluster : few, about 60 per sq. mm. accompanied by a loop of soft-tissue, together appearing unusually conspicuous, the pores themselves as perforations only : often some white deposit. Rays. Of two kinds. Conspicuous. The larger size o, com- pounded of as many as 16 rows of cells : almost equidistant : nearly i mm. apart : slightly undulating : not nodose : very lax and of large rectangular cells coarser than the ground-tissue : tapering both ends without fringeing out. Smaller rays extremely fine, thinner by far than the single cell-rows of the larger, size 5-6, weak : hoary. The larger rays the colour of the wood but brighter. Rings. Clear : unusually prominent on account of their colour. Boundary the pore-ring and its soft-tissue, which is as light-coloured as the rays : contour obscurely dentate and un- dulating. The colour is much aided by the white deposit in the pores. Soft-tissue. Abundant, conspicuous in concentric lines follow- ing the pore-rings : actually a series of excessively fine, con- centric lines of whitish cells. Radial Section. Darker than the Transverse section : pores just visible, whitish, undulating, lines shining or filled with brown resin. Rays rather broad, conspicuous, soft-looking, red flakes, lustrous in certain lights. Rings indicated by the pore-lines and a line of soft-tissue. Tangential Section. As the Radial, but the rays are broad, prominent spindles divided or interrupted, as it were, by the extremely irregular net-work of the ground-tissue : often dis- torted as though pushed aside. Type specimen authenticated by the Forest Officer to the Government of Western Australia. 1 88 BEEFWOOD No. 165. BEEFWOOD. Stenocarpus salignus. R. Br. PLATE XVIII. FIG. 158. Natural Order. Proteaceae. Alternative Names. Silky Oak : Silvery Oak • (85). Many species belonging to this order and to the Casuarineae pass under the name of Silky Oak or Beefwood. The latter name is also applied to several Sapotaceous woods. Sources of Supply. South Queensland, New South Wales, Eastern Australia. Physical Characters, etc. Recorded dry-weight 32-59^ Ibs. per cu. ft. Hardness Grade 5-8. Smell none. Taste astringent. Burns well with a lively, noisy flame : little smoke, but a peculiar smell : no resin expelled by heat. Solution golden-brown. Grain. Coarse and open. Surface of the ground-tissue lustrous, silky. Rays bright in transverse section, but dull in vertical section. Bark. ? The ends of the rays appearing upon the outer surface of the log occupy about half the area exposed. Uses, etc. " Cabinet-making, cooper's work " (5). " Splits readily, . . . the finer kinds of cooper's work " (78). A beauti- fully-marked wood of bold and pretty figure. Authorities. F. M. Bailey (5), p. 119. Kew Cat. (57), pp. 49, 51. Nilson (85), p. 119. Boulger (12). Laslett (60), p. 256. C. Morris (78). Colour. Deep red heart-wood. Sap-wood brown, about I inch wide. Anatomical Characters. Transverse section : — Pores. Readily visible from their size, Grade 2, uniform : regularly distributed in concave loops between the rays (dentate) : pore-ring scarcely to be spoken of, a pore-group or two between each large ray alternating with zones of the later wood without pores : isolated or in sub-divided clusters, mostly single pores or pairs : few, 1-13 per sq. mm. : accompanied by or strung on a line of lighter-red soft-tissue : often ruby contents. Rays. Conspicuous : bright in this section, size 2, broad : made up of rectangular cells in rows (as many as 13 rows), not two sizes (at least within the limits of my specimen) : somewhat irregularly spaced : few, some 2 per mm. but mostly above i mm. apart : straight and direct, not nodose : very lax, cells coarse, about size 5 : transparent and varying in colour : very dark red. Rings. Clear with lens. Boundary the loop or ring of lighter red soft- tissue. Contour finely dentate. Ground-tissue. Abundant in concentric lines enclosing and joining the few pores, size about Grade 7, cells round or com- pressed (squarish) of a lighter red colour than the ground. 189 THE TIMBERS OF COMMERCE Pith. ? Radial Section. Rather lighter than the Transverse section. Pores, prominent, coarse and sinuous, often filled with black resin. Rays, bold, dark red, very dull, conspicuous flakes strongly resembling those of Grevillea robusta (see No. 162). Rings, not traceable. Plate XXIII. Fig. 182. Tangential Section as the Radial, but the pores sometimes straggle out of their original plane being dislodged by the rays. Rays, large, dark-red, conspicuous, spindle-shaped bodies, dull and plainly spongy to the naked eye, forming a net-work with the ground- tissue : about 5 mm. high by o'5 mm. broad. Plate XXI. Fig- 175- Type specimens authenticated by F. M. Bailey and also by the Technological Museum, Sydney. No. 1 66. AUSTRALIAN SANDALWOOD. Fusanus spicatus. R. Br. PLATE XII. FIG. 104. Natural Order. Santalaceae. Synonyms. F. spicatum. A. DC. F. Cygnorum Bth. San- talum cygnorum. Miq. Physical Characters, etc. Recorded dry-weight 46^ Ibs. per cu. ft. Hardness Grade 7, compare Alder. Smell character- istic, like burning" joss-sticks" : overpowering and sickly when in quantity : soon passing off. Taste nauseous. Burns well, with lively flame : embers glow in still air : ash beautifully white. The aroma when burning is not exactly that which one expects from the smell of the wood. Solution with water colourless, with alcohol faint yellow. Grain. Very fine but open, rather irregular. Surface dull. Bark. Of one layer, hard, about J-£ inch thick : of the colour of Rosewood in section : fissured, rugged, dark brown, hard and crisp to the touch. Uses, etc. Carving and the making of " joss-sticks ". At present exported to China only. Authorities. Laslett (60), p. 254. Ednie Brown (17), p. 17. Colour. Yellow to brown : golden-yellow, streaked with dark lines similiar to Olive-wood. Heart-wood sharply defined from the ecru sap-wood which is about |-| inch wide. Anatomical Character* Transverse section : — Pores. Need lens, small and inconspicuous, size 5, a little regular diminution towards the outer side of the ring : rather -evenly scattered : 70-100 per sq. mm. : mostly single ? if ever grouped or subdivided : no pore-ring : carmine contents visible here and there. 190 SANDALVVOOD Rays. Just visible with lens, size 5-6, one size only : lack contrast of colour : short, not avoiding the pores : firm : reddish : about twice the width of a pore apart : denser than the ground : numerous, 9-14 per mm. undulating : tapering rapidly. Rings. Apparently clear with the unaided eye but less so with lens : a denser zone of later wood which may or may not be poor in pores : the dark-coloured bands are sometimes excentric and have nothing to do with the structure. Soft-tissue. Isolated cells only. Pith.? Radial Section. As dark or darker than the Transverse section, and the blackish stripes are more prominent. Pores need lens, fine striations, a few of which contain a rare drop of amber or crimson resin. Rays minute, obscure, reddish lines (scarcely flakes) almost needing microscope. Pigment-bands, prominent. Tangential Section. As the Radial, but the rays are minute, red, spindle-shaped lines about 0*1 mm. or 6 cells deep, contain- ing more red resin than the pores. Type specimens from Western Australia and authenticated by the Forest Officer to the Government of that Colony. No. 167. SANDALWOOD. Santalum album. Linn. PLATE XII. FIG 103. Natural Order. Santalaceae. Source of Supply. Malay Archipelago : India. Alternative Names. For those in the Indian dialects see Gamble. Weisse or Gelbes Santalholz (131). Physical Characters, etc. Recorded dry-weight 56 to 71 Ibs. (37). Hardness Grade 6, compare Oak. Smell character- istic, strong and lasting, not sickly. Taste spicy at first, afterwards nauseous. Burns well with a powerful aroma and a crackling flame : embers glow dully in still air. Solution colour- less : the alcoholic solution is turned brownish by potash. Grain. Extremely fine and even. Surface bright. Bark. " Dark grey, nearly black, rough with short, vertical cracks : inner substance dark red " (37). Uses, etc. Fancy-ware and incense. The dust is mixed with the powdered bark of " Lignea Cassia " and swine's dung to make the well-known Chinese Joss-sticks (in). It is exported from India in the form " of billets, chips or dust, . . . used for making the coffins of the wealthy Chinese and also for the distillation of an essential oil " (37). The billets are usually from 3 £ to 5 ft. long by 3! to 10 inches wide. Authorities. Gamble (37), new ed. p. 584-5. Smith (ml, p. 365. Wiesner (131), p. 908. Kew Guide (57), p. 1*5. 191 THE TIMBERS OF COMMERCE Colour. Heart-wood cinnamon-brown. Sap-wood white (37). Anatomical Characters. Transverse section : — Pores. Visible from their numbers and colour, size 4 : from 12 to 20 per sq. mm. Rays. Clear with lens : size 5 to 6 : from 5 to 9 per mm. : about a pore-width apart. Rings. Clear to the unaided eye : no excentric, dark-coloured bands and no real boundary-line. Soft-tissue. Encircling the pores and giving them their light yellow appearance. Radial Section. The rays are narrow lines, inconspicuous yet readily visible. There is no resemblance to Olive-wood. In other respects as Fusanus spicatus (see No. 166). Type specimen from commercial sources. Not authenti- cated but no doubt this species. No. 1 68. BOXWOOD. Buxus sempervirens. Linn. PLATE XII. FIG. 105. Natural Order. Euphorbiacese. The B. sempervirens of Thunberg is B. Japonica and not the present species. Alternative Names. English, Abassia, Turkish, Anatolian, Circassian, Corsican, Partheni, and Persian Boxwoods. Papri in the Indian Middle region (12). Buis commun in France (69). Sources of Supply. Europe, Asia : as indicated by the names above. Physical Characters. Recorded dry-weight 53-72 Ibs. per cu. ft. My lightest specimen is of the Persian variety and my heaviest of the Turkish (67 lb.), but the maximum weight given is after Mathieu. Hardness Grade 2, compare Lilac. Smell none, taste slightly astringent. Burns well : ignites slowly but the embers glow in still air. Solution with water or alcohol colourless. Grain. Extremely fine, close and dense. Surface cold and smooth to the touch especially in heavier samples. The lustre also increases in proportion to the density. Bark. Very thin, about TV to £ inch : greyish : wrinkled rather than fissured, closely adherent, lenticels large and visible when the sticks are not too much battered, as they usually are. Uses, etc. " Turnery, inlaying, wood-engraving, rules and in- struments " (69). Rapidly being replaced by West Indian Box- wood except for the very best articles, on account of its increasing cost. Splits with great difficulty, takes a kind of natural polish. Always in small rugged pieces. 192 CAPE BOXWOOD Authorities. Nordlinger (86), p. 514. Ditto (86), vol. iii. p. 42- Mathieu (69), p. 306. Laslett (60), p. 162. Gamble (37), p. 369. Hartig (42), p. 33. Boulger (12), Stevenson (113), p. 131. Wies- ner (131), L. 12, p. 962. Commonly confused with West Indian Box, from which it is not readily distinguishable when once worked up. Colour. Light to dark yellow or brownish, in zones of lighter and darker shade. A sap-wood tree, no heart. Anatomical Characters. Transverse section : — Pores. Need lens, very fine, size 6, almost uniform : evenly scattered : numerous, 200-400 per sq. mm. : a narrow zone of Autumn wood without them : no groups, practically all single : round. Rays. Need lens, very fine, size 6, uniform : straight, long : very slightly denser than the ground- tissue, difficult to see with lens in a transparent section : rather numerous, 5-11 per mm. : white : much more than a pore-width apart. Rings. Clear. Boundary a narrow, pore-less zone of Autumn wood, little contrast except by depth of colour : always narrow, i.e. of slow growth. Soft-tissue. Scattered cells perhaps in finely marked undulat- ing lines (micro.). " In nests in the neighbourhood of the pores ' ' (86). Pith. Very small, about '3-ro mm. diam., of a diamond, lozenge or winged shape : nearly always perfect. Plate XXII. Fig. 178 Radial Section. A trifle lighter in shade than the Transverse. Pores need lens, practically imperceptible. Rays just visible with lens in certain lights. Rings indicated by variation in light and shade with a faint, fine line at the boundary. Tangential Section. As the Radial, but the rays are imper- ceptible except with the microscope in any light. Type specimens from commercial sources as regards the foreign woods, but from trees known before felling in the case of the English Boxwood. No. 169. CAPE BOXWOOD. Buxus Macowani. Oliv. PLATE XII. FIG. 105. Natiiral Order. Euphorbiaceae. Alternative Name. East London Boxwood. Gonioma Kam- assi also goes by this name (see No. 143). Source of Supply. South Africa. Physical Characters, etc. Recorded dry- weight 74 Ibs. per cu. ft. Hardness Grade 2, compare English Boxwood. Smoll 193 o THE TIMBERS OF COMMERCE or taste none. Burns well and quietly : embers glow in still air and consume very slowly. Solution colourless. Grain. Smooth, fine, dense, even and cold to the touch. Surface indifferently bright. Bark. About £ inch thick, very hard. Two layers, the inner a dark ring, the outer brown, chalky, with vertical fissures. In Transverse section there are alternate brown and black layers : lenticels rare. Uses, etc. Splits extremely easily and cleanly, may be cleft into thin plates. Usually met with in the form of small straight logs or sticks a few inches in diam., with bark still attached. Colour and Anatomical Characters. Nearly identical with Buxus sempervirens, the European Boxwood, No. 168. Flecks may be occasionally met with as dusky, narrow lines or spots, apparently of two kinds. When present they are a dis- tinctive mark. Type specimens from commercial sources. Not authen- ticated but reputed to be this species. No. 170. CHINESE BOXWOOD. Buxus sp. PLATE XII. FIG. 105. Natural Order. Euphorbiaceae. Physical Characters. As those of the European Boxwood except as regards the weight per cu. ft., for which I have no reliable data. A good, freely-working wood. Grain. Extremely fine and dense. Surface lustrous. Colour. Deep yellow approaching orange. No heart- wood. Anatomical Characters, etc. As those of B. sempervirens with 1he following slight variations. Transverse section : — Pores. Distinctly larger than in the Common Boxwood, No. 168, diminishing considerably in size towards the outer side of the ring and apparently in number also : numerous, about 90 per sq. mm. : a broad conspicuous zone of dark, pore-less wood : few if any subdivided. Rays. Need lens, size 5-6 : straight : long : denser than the ground : visible with ease with the lens in transparent section : very many, 9-13 per mm. Rings. Conspicuous on account of the dark zone, which is rather broad for a Boxwood and free from pores. My specimen has 10 rings per inch of radius. Radial Section. Lighter in shade but more uniform in colour. Rings, very clear, though not prominent, lines of Autumn Avood. Type specimen from commercial sources. Not authen- ticated. 194 AFRICAN OAK No. 171. AFRICAN OAK. Oldfieldia africana. Bth. and Hook. PLATE XII. FIG. 106. Natural Order. Euphorbiaceae. Alternative Name. African Teak. Sources of Supply. Tropical Africa. Sierra Leone (107). Physical Characters, etc. Recorded dry-weight 58^ to 68 Ibs. per cu. ft. Hardness Grade, 2 compare Boxwood. Smell none. Taste strong and nauseous. Burns well with a quiet, steady flame : embers glow in still air : much ash. Solution brown : with water it gives off a peculiar smell. Grain. Fine and open. Surface bright. Bark. ? Uses, etc. " For all strong work and one of the best woods of Sierra Leone" (107). " Rated second class at Lloyd's" (60). Las- lett gives useful mechanical tests. This is not the African Oak commonly met with on the English market, which is Lophira elata. No. 6. The specimen from which this description is made is a piece sent me from Kew by the kindness of Sir Wm. Th. Dyer and is, I believe, from a block supplied by Laslett himself. I have never met with the wood elsewhere, and consider that it should be more generally used. Authorities. Kew Guide (574). Laslett (60), p. 299. Scott- Elliot and Raisin (107). Colour. Uniform dark brown. Sap-wood. ? Anatomical Characters. Transverse section : — Pores. Prominent from their numbers and colour, size 3-4, rather smaller in the outer side of the ring : uniformly distributed, not numerous, about 40 per sq. mm. : a few subdivided to groups of 3 or 4 but mostly single : oval : many contain a white deposit, others red. Rays. Just visible, size 5-6, uniform : equidistant : weak, avoiding the pores (wriggling, so to speak) : long : very numerous, about 12 per mm. : lighter in colour than the ground : a pore- width or less apart. Rings. Very clearly marked : contour slightly undulating : boundary a zone of wood poor in pores, no distinct line. Soft-tissue. Narrowly and neatly encircling the pores : also minute imperfect cross-bars (micro.), which in the later wood of the ring are sometimes developed into, continuous, concentric lines finer than the rays. Pith. ? Radial Section. Pores just visible with lens as empty, shining grooves filled with white or red contents. Rays, imperceptible from lack of contrast. Rings, scarcely indicated. 195 THE TIMBERS OF COMMERCE Tangential Section. As the Radial, but the rays are extremely fine lines about 0*25 mm. high, rather coarse-celled (need micro.). Type specimen see above (Uses, etc). No. 172. COMMON ELM. Ulmus campestris. Linn. PLATE XII. FIG. 107. Natural Order. Urticaceae. Synonyms. Ulmus suberosa. Sm : U. glabra. Mill. Alternative Names. Cork Elm (a variety) : Orme rouge (69). Ipreau : Orme champetre in France. European Elm in the U.S.A. Steinlinde in Germany, also Feldulme, Rothriister and Glattriister (131). Physical Characters, etc. Recorded dry-weight 35-52^ Ibs. per cu. ft. Hardness Grade 5, compare Ash or Holly. Smell none, taste astringent. Burns weD, embers glow in still air. Solution with water faint brown. Grain. Very coarse and open. Surface somewhat lustrous, the rays, however, dull. Bark. Greyish-brown, dark, fissured but not deeply : corky : resembles that of Oak but is softer and of a lighter colour. The branches, especially of second-growth wood, are frequently winged with corky ridges. Uses, etc. " Wheelwrights' -work especially naves, submerged- work, piles, pipes, pumps, keels and planking of ships below water and many other purposes. It is difficult to split, most durable under water and in dry places, but decays rapidly if exposed to the weather" (87). " Better than Ulmus montana (Wych Elm) or U. effusus : extraordinarily tenacious : as durable as Oak especially in wet places . . . dries slowly . . . shrinks 12% of its bulk, twists and warps" (69). It is employed by the makers of tin plates for packing as it does not discolour the goods. It is easily confused with the Wych and other Elms. Authorities. Nordlinger (87), p. 543. Ditto (86), vol. iii. p. 103. Hartig (42), pp. 18, 39. Schwartz (106), p. 484. Steven- son (113), p. 33. Laslett (60), p. 153. De Mornay (70), p. 50. Boppe (n), p. 75. Westermeier (129).. Mathieu (69), p. 29. Wiesner (130), p. 135. Ditto (131), L. 12, p. 901. Colour. Dark brown or brownish-red heart-wood. Sap-wood white or yellow, " abundant, the more so in slowly-grown trees " (69) : 10-20 rings (131). Anatomical Characters. Transverse section : — Pores. Clear from their size and also from their masses, size 2 ; great variation : a conspicuous pore-ring of two or more rows of large roundish-oval pores. The remainder of the ring occupied by small pores arranged in wavy lines or festoons but not closely 196 AMERICAN ELM packed except in the outer part of the ring : gradually (i.e. not abruptly] decreasing outwards from the pore-ring : single or paired or in the late Autumn wood in. closely-packed groups of 3-15 pores. The larger pores 10-12 per sq. mm. : smallest (exclud- ing pore-ring) 20-90 per sq. mm. Rays. Just visible, size 3-5, uniform : equidistant, rather less than the width of a large pore apart : direct but avoiding the larger pores : long, tapering : much denser than the ground- tissue : 5-7 per mm. : golden-brown. Rings. Very clear on account of the broad zone of large pores which appears light brown in the solid wood : contour undulating. Soft-tissue. Obscure : patches accompanying and joining the pores into the festoons. Pith. About 1-2 mm. diam., rounded or obtusely lobed : white. Radial Section. Golden-brown spotted with dark brown. Pores, prominent, deep, open, brown lines. Rays, prominent, small, dark brown flakes giving the wood a spotted appearance. Rings, conspicuous, as several rows of the pores are exposed in a continuous band. Tangential Section. As the Radial, but more of the pores are exposed at a time. The rays appear as just visible, fine lines about i mm. high. The rings appear as conspicuously fringed loops and lines. Type specimens from commercial sources and from trees known before felling. No. 173. AMERICAN ELM. Ulmus americana. Linn. PLATE XII. FIG. 108. Natural Order. Urticaceae. Synonyms. U. alba. Rafin. U. floridana. Chap. U. molle- folia. Marsh. Alternative Names. White Elm : \Yater Elm : Weisse Ulme : Orme parasol : Olmo bianco (49). Red or Nova Scotia Elm (12). Swamp Elm (95). Canada Elm (95). Sources of Supply. North America : United States and Canada. Physical Characters, etc. As U. Campestris (No. 171) with the following variations. Recorded dry-weight 35-41 Ibs. per cu. ft. Grain. Moderately fine and open. Surface dull without the caney appearance and feeling of the Rock Elm, but smoother. Bark. " Light grey and rough with longitudinal and not very closely adherent ridges" (49). Uses, etc. " Agricultural implements, tool-handles, wagon- 197 THE TIMBERS OF COMMERCE wheels especially the hubs, in cooperage and ship-building " (49). " Less valuable than the Rock Elm, durable when not exposed, . . . twists, shrinks much, warps . . . will take nails" (95). " Difficult to split . . . wheel-stock, saddle-trees, flooring, boats " (100). " To about 100 ft. high by 6 ft. diam. . . . tough . . . sheaves, gunwales, coffins . . . will withstand the driving of bolts . . . strong but not durable" (65). Authorities. Hough (49), pt. ii. p. 22. Stevenson (113), p. 39. Laslett (60), p. 177. Sargent (100), No. 224. C. Robb (95), Macoun (65), p. 23. Wiesner (131), L. 6, p. 66. Colour. Heart-wood light brown. Sap-wood yellowish white. Anatomical Characters. Transverse section. (Compare U. Campestris, No. 172). Pores. Clear from their masses not from their size (between i and 1-2). Nearly twice as long as broad, about 7 per sq. mm. : the remainder of the ring occupied by small, closely packed pores, size 3-4, in long wavy lines or festoons. These decrease perceptibly in size right up to the Autumn boundary, where they are about 160 per sq. mm. Rays. Just visible, size 4, numerous, 6-8 per mm. : straight, not avoiding the pores : brown. Rings. My specimen has 12 rings per inch. No contrast in colour. Pith. ? Radial Section. Much lighter in shade than the Transverse section: pores prominent and coarse though colourless lines: rays minute, dull-browTi or whitish flakes : rings fairly evident as the pores of the pore-ring are regularly exposed. Tangential Section. As the Radial, but the pores are much finer than in that section. The rings show as prominent lines and fringed loops of open pores. Other details as No. 171. Type specimens from commercial sources, unauthenticated but reputed to be this species. ? No. 174. ROCK ELM. Ulmus racemosa. D. Thomas. PLATE XII. FiG..io8. Natural Order. Urticaceae. Alternative Names. American Elm. Swamp Elm : Cliff Elm : Cork Elm : White Elm : Trauben Ulme : Orme a grappes : Olmo de Corcho (49). Sources of Supply. North America : United States and Canada. Physical Characters, etc. As Ulmus americana except : — Re- corded dry-weight 43-45* Ibs. per cu. ft. Grain. Very fine and close. Surface bright : feels like cane, and has a similar appearance in some sections. 198 PLATE XIII. Fig. 112. Brosimum (Letter-wood). lift ffl . ' • ; i * • Fig. 113. Artocarpus (Jak-tree). Fig. 111. Chlorophora (Fustic). Fig. 114. Platanus occidentalis (Western Plane-tree). Fig. 115. Platanus orientalis (European Plane-tree). Fig. 116. Juglans (Walnut). Fig. 117. Carya (Hickory). JRIr Bark hoarv-h logs 12-18 inct the round. Authorities. C. Robb(95). Colour. thick An .can Elm, No. learly marked of; t liable to split, bears rur ricultural i:: :S,' sills" (100.). • . the U.S. A. t and strong, is ei 1h in th denned li ,'X)d. with th man the long •• American Elm. age 18 per inch o Radial Secti- give the woo.1 • but No. 175. Natural Order. ' The popular obviously*' a c< • Hardness, et Grain. species. • • AM WOOD. Ulmus sp. XIII. I- ' ' PLATE XIII. Fig. 112. Brosimum ( Letter- wood i . Fig. 113. • Fig. 114. Platanus occidental!*; (Western Plane-tree). ORHAM WOOD Bark. Thick (about i inch) : rough, deeply fissured : grey or hoary-brown : corky, rather velvety to the touch. The scales which fall away from time to time are clearly marked off in trans- verse section. Plate XIX. Fie;. 167. Uses, etc. " Piles . . . not liable to split, bears nails better than any other timber, exceedingly durable in wet situations . . . naves, tackle-blocks, gunwales . . . stands rough usage without splitting" (95). "Agricultural implements, wheel- stocks, railway ties, bridge timbers,' sills " (100). "Wheel-hubs, axe-handles, for which it is reputed in the U.S.A. to be superior to Hickory, . . . exceedingly tough and strong, is elastic and bends easily" (49). Usually met with in the form of squared logs 12-18 inches square by 12-30 ft. long : seldom imported in the round. Authorities. Hough (49), pt. ii. p. 23. Sargent (100), No. 225. C. Robb (95). Stevenson (113), p. 139. Wiesner (131), L. 6, p. 66. Colour. Heart- wood light brown not well defined from the thick yellowish or greenish-white sap-wood. Anatomical Characters. Almost identical with those of the American Elm, No. 173. Transverse section :— Pores. A pore-ring of a single, much interrupted row of round or very shortly-oval pores. The gaps in the ring and the re- maining wood occupied by small, closely-packed pores, size 4, the long festoons about half as numerous in each ring as in the American Elm. Well-developed rings rare : my specimens aver- age 18 per inch of radius. Radial Section. Pores clear without appearing coarse : they give the wood its caney appearance. Tangential Section. Pores not quite so frequent as in the Radial section, but of nearly equal width, being cylindrical. Type specimens from commercial sources. Not authenticated but no doubt this species. No. 175. ORHAM WOOD. Ulmus sp. PLATE XIII. FIG. 109. Natural Order. Urticaceae. The popular name by which it is known in England is obviously a corruption of the French " Orme." Source of Supply. Canada. Physical Characters, etc. Recorded dry-weight 32 Ibs. per cu. ft. Hardness, etc., as the English Elm, see No. 172. Grain. Very coarse and open, coarser than in the English species. Used in England as a building timber. Bark. ? 199 THE TIMBERS OF COMMERCE Colour. Brownish heart-wood well defined from the brownish or dirty-white sap-wood. Anatomical Characters. Transverse section : — Pores. Clear on account of their size and also from their masses : size 2, great variation : a conspicuous pore-ring of a single, al- most perfectly continuous row of large, oval pores (nearly i£ times as long as broad) : the remainder of the Ring occupied by very small, closely-packed pores, size 4 to 5, in long wavy lines or festoons : these small pores decrease but little in size outwards. Rays. Just visible, size 4, uniform : equidistant : the width of a large pore apart : many, 5 to 9 per mm. : long, tapering both ends : denser than the ground-tissue : brown : straight, not avoiding the pores. Rings. Very clear. Boundary the conspicuous pore-line contrasted with the dense, small-pored Autumn wood. My speci- men has 13 rings per inch. Contour undulating. Soft tissue. In patches or isolated cells here and there near the Pores. Pith. ? Radial Section. Colour light brown with darker lines. Pores very prominent, open, coarse, brown lines. Rays pale, incon- spicuous, narrow flakes. Rings fairly evident as the pores of the pore-ring are regularly exposed. Tangential Section. As the Radial, but the colour inclines more to silvery or hoary- brown. Pores much finer though more are exposed at a time. Rays appear as minute lines (lens) about 0*5 mm. high. Rings, prominent brown lines and fringed loops with silvery fringes between. Type specimens from commercial sources. Unauthenticated. I have given a specially full description of this species in the hope that it will lead to the identification of this useful wood. It is without doubt an Elm. Inquiries made of the Canadian authori- ties through the medium of Kew failed to elicit any information. No. 176. CAMDEBOO STINK-WOOD. Celtis Kraussiana. Pursh. PLATE XIII. FIG. no. Natural Order. Urticaceae. The synonym quoted by Wiesner, C. rhamnifolia, does not appear in the Index Kewensis. Charpentier calls it Rhamnus celtidifolia probably in error for R. celtifolia. Thb. Alternative Names. Soft grey Stink- wood : Umvanuri (61). Um-Vumvu (Fourcade). Kamdeboo Stinkhout. Source of Supply. South Africa. Physical Characters, etc. Recorded dry-weight 49^-53 Ibs. per 200 CAMDEBOO STINK-WOOD cu. ft. Hardness Grade 7, compare English Beech. Taste or smell none when dry. Burns rather badly but embers glow brightly in still air : heat expels a brown juice. Solution colour- less : a white ppt. upon the addition of potash. Bark. Yellowish-grey, -&-\ inch thick, hard, compact, woody i layer composed of alternate zones of hard, brownish bodies and a light- coloured tissue. Grain. Rather fine and even, though open. Surface, slightly lustrous. Uses, etc. " A tree about 20 ft. high by 2 ft. diam, . . . tough, . . . planks, axe-handles, fences, and coopers' work, yokes, poles and table-legs, . . . liable to warp" (57). "Railway-sleepers" (Fourcade). Saws rather firmly. Planes badly, for although a soft wood it "lugs," resists the knife and makes a rough surface. Authorities. Wiesner (131), L. 6, p. 66. Laslett (60), p. 304. Ditto (61), p. 440. Kew Guide (51), p. 31 and 33. Charpentier (21), p. 137. Nordlinger (86), vol. vii. p. 68. Colour. Greyish heart-wood well defined from the slightly lighter sap-wood, which is about I inch wide. " Dark greenish beautifully veined and very hard" ? (60). Light greenish-yellow (86). Anatomical Characters. Transverse section : — Pores. Need lens yet visible when moistened, size 2-3, much larger in the pore-ring than in the later wood : few, 10-15 Per mm- scattered in small clusters. In slowly-grown wood there is little more than a succession of pore-rings. Rays. Just visible, size 3, uniform though apparently of two sizes, tapering rapidly both ends to fine threads : many, 5-9 per mm. rather more than a large pore- width apart : bold, not avoid- ing the pores : of lighter colour than the ground-tissue. Rings. Prominent (on a surface not too smooth) : boundary, the pore-ring accompanied by a whitish line finer than the rays : contour regular. Soft-tissue. Encircling the pores and connecting those of the later wood in wide rings (like those of Fustic). Pith. "White, bluntly-angular, about i mm. wide" (86). Radial Section. Pores prominent on account of their numbers : fine, dark scratches. Rays just visible by contrast of lustre : brown on a cleft surface. 'Rings distinct, even prominent. Tangential Section. As the Radial, but the rays are minute inconspicuous lines and the pore-rings appear as prominent fringed loops or lines. Type specimens authenticated by the Forest Officer to the Government of Natal. The structure of this wood is similar to that of Chlorophora though the scantiness of the soft-tissue makes it appear unlike that species. 201 THE TIMBERS OF COMMERCE No. 177. FUSTIC. Chlorophora tinctoria. Gaudich. PLATE XIII. FIG. in. Natural Order, Urticaceae. Synonyms. Maclura tinctoria. D. Don. Moms tinctoria. W. Alternative Names. Fustick-wood. Palo Narango (lit., Orange-wood) in Trinidad and Fustete in Cuba (12). Bois jaune : Bois de Cuba in France. Tatajuba : Tatacajuba : Tatajiba in the Amazonas region and N. Prov. Brazil (76). Fiset holz : Gelbholz : Lignum citrinum (131). Dyer's Mulberry in Barbadoes (78). Tatajuba de tincta in Brazil (99). Futeiba : Gelbes Bra- silholz (131). Sources of Supply. Tropical America, West Indies. Physical Characters, etc. Recorded dry-weight 39-46 Hbs. per cu. ft. Hardness Grade 3, compare Blackthorn. Smell or taste none. Burns badly : no smell : embers glow in still air : Solu- tion bright yellow. Grain. Of medium fineness, even though open. Surface lustrous, satiny : has much "fire" : that of the rays dull. Bark. ? Uses, etc. " Dyeing greens and yellows . . . mosaic, cabinet-mak- ing and turnery " (42). " Light and durable. Suitable for carriage- work and furniture " (37). Often confused by name with other woods sold for dyeing. Species of Zanthoxylon, Chloroxylon and Rhus are called Fustic. The wood of the Osage Orange or Bow-wood (Maclura aurantiaca. Mill) is sometimes substituted for this species, but differs as the pore-ring is "more conspicuous and the rays more beautiful" (131). Fustic may be met with in the form of hewn logs in the round from 2-4 feet long by 3-8 inches in diam. : usually of scraggy appearance. Authorities. Laslett (60), p. 298. Holtzapffel (48), p. 85. Gamble (37), p. 32. Charpentier (21), p. 384. Miers (76). Hen- kel (46). Wiesner (131), p. 904. Saldanha da Gama (99). Colour. Yellow : golden-yellow : greenish-yellow. Sap-wood pale. Anatomical Characters. Transverse section : — Pores. Conspicuous from their masses in light-coloured wavy lines, size 2-3, not much variation except in the groups : no con- tinuous pore-ring but successive clusters joined by soft-tissue : clusters two pores wide, elongated radially, subdivided into as many as u (rarely so many) : few, 10-20 per sq. mm. : contain thyloses. Rays. Need lens, size 5-6, uniform : equidistant, the width of a large pore apart and only avoiding the clusters : nearly straight : many, 7-10 per mm. : slightly denser and of lighter colour than the ground : short. 202 SNAKE-WOOD Rings. Very prominent if indicated by the wavy lines : no other boundary. Soft-tissue. Abundant in characteristic, conspicuous, con- centric, wavy lines, size 2 (ray-scale), enclosing the pore-clusters in festoons which are built up of radial lines of cells. Flecks. Probably present at times. My specimen shows a large one about i by ^ inch, besides worm-holes. Pith. ? Radial Section. Rather lighter and brighter than the Trans- verse : pores rather prominent, rarely shining, being mostly filled with thyloses. Rays inconspicuous, dull flakes, very small. Rings appear as cloudy lines only, due to the soft-tissue. Tangential Section. As the Radial, but the pores are obscured by borders of soft-tissue. Rings, cloudy, whitish, hoary loops. Soft- tissue very conspicuous. Type specimens from commercial sources : not authenticated but checked by Nordlinger's section and by Miers' description. A variety, C. tinctoria var. xanthoxylon (Madura xanthoxylon Endl.) is darker and more valued. It is called Amoreira de espinho branco, Palo narango and Bois d'orange (131). No. 178. SNAKE-WOOD. Brosimum Aubletti. Sw. PLATE XIII. FIG. 112. Natural Order. Urticaceae. Synonym. Piratinera guianensis. Aubl. Alternative Names. Letter-wood, Speckled- wood, Buro-Koro, Burracurra, Paira, Leopard-wood (99). Cangica (not Angica), Pae Rainha de listras in Guiana and the Amazonas region : Ga- melleira preta in Pernambuco (76). Bois lezard in the Leeward Isles ? (46). Gatia : Gateado in Brazil (99). Buchstabenholz, Tigerholz (131). Source of Supply. Tropical America, chiefly British Guiana. Physical Characters, etc. Recorded dry-weight 77-83 Ibs. per cu. ft. : sinks like stone in water. Hardness Grade I, compare Ebony. Smell none. Taste faint but insipid. Burns very badly with much crackling : embers glow in still air. Solution strong reddish-brown. Grain. Moderately fine but close. Surface lustrous. Bark. " Blueish " (76). Uses, etc. Walking-sticks, inlaying, bows, etc. It is an ex- tremely beautiful wood and takes a superb finish but it is already rare and is becoming more so. The heart-wood only is used but the sap-wood might be worth importing on its own account as it is very wide and would be valuable in small pieces for the same purposes as those for which Box-wood is used. 203 THE TIMBERS OF COMMERCE Authorities. McTurk, No. 57 (78). Holtzapffel (48), p. 106. Miers(76). Boulger (12). Wiesner (131), L. 12, p. 905. Saldanha da Gama (99). Colour. Heart-wood nut-brown curiously mottled with black, sharply denned from the brownish-yellow sap-wood which is from 3^-65 inches wide. Anatomical Characters. Transverse section : — Pores. Rather prominent, size 2-3, little variation : sub- divided in groups of from 2-13 pores : not very numerous, from 10-17 per sq. mm. : filled with ruby or dark resin or curious thick- walled thyloses (131). Rays. Need lens, fine, size 5, uniform : equidistant : numer- ous, from 9-11 per mm. : tapering both ends : denser than the ground-tissue : lightly avoiding the pores : brown. Rings. Doubtful : a zone richer or poorer in pores here and there, no definite boundary. Soft-tissue. Encircling the pores and extending laterally into wings : width equal to that of the rays. Pith. ? Radial Section. This is the section which shows the markings from which the popular names are derived. They are supposed to resemble the markings upon the skin of a snake. Pores, incon- spicuous, though large, being lost amongst the black markings : usually filled with dark resin. Rays, fine, brown, narrow flakes : lustrous : abundant at times and obscuring the black zones in patches thus causing the patchy markings already referred to. Rings doubtful but the dark or black pigment zones are very prominent. Tangential Section. As the Radial, but the effect caused by the rays is, of course, absent : the latter appear as minute, incon- spicuous lines about 0*5 mm. high. Type specimens authenticated by the Forest Officer to the Government of British Guiana. No. 179. DEL. Artocarpus nobilis. Thw. PLATE XIII. FIG. 113. Natural Order. Urticaceae. Synonym. A pubescens. Moon. Cingalese name, Aludel. Source of Supply. Ceylon. Physical Characters, etc. Recorded dry-weight 39^-50 Ibs. per cu. ft. Hardness Grade 5, compare English Ash. Smell and taste none. Burns well and quietly : embers glow in still air : much ash. Solution with water yellowish-green. Grain. Moderatelv fine, open and even. Surface of the ground has a beautiful metallic lustre. 204 THE JACK TREE Bark. ? Uses, etc. "Canoes and furniture in Ceylon . . . a large tree" (37). A wood of good appearance but works badly being very cross-grained. The soft parts which alternate with the metallic green bands not only rip out but if required for finished work absorb much polish and make the process tedious. Authorities. Gamble (37), p. 331. Colour. Greenish or greenish-brown heart-wood. Sap-wood ? Anatomical Characters. Transverse Section :— Pores. Conspicuous from their size, Grade 2, little variation : uniformly distributed : few, 1-9 per sq. mm. : single, or sub- divided into compact groups of 2-4 : pores radial or clustered : appear white in the solid being sometimes filled with a white deposit. Rays. Very distinct, size 5, uniform : nearly equidistant, the width of a large pore apart : weak, scarcely avoiding the pores but otherwise straight : numerous, 4-6 per mm. : denser and much lighter in colour than the ground-tissue. Rings. Doubtful : no traceable boundary. Ground-tissue uniformly spongy, the cells are arranged in radial lines. Soft-tissue. Conspicuous in patches partly imbedding and connecting the pores, sometimes as wings to them : resembles the spongy ground-tissue. Pith. ? Radial Section. Pores, prominent from their hoary borders and sometimes from their white contents. Rays, very clear on account of their white colour resembling that of the soft tissue. Small shining flakes. Neither rings nor soft-tissue traceable. Tangential Section. As the Radial, but the rays are upon the limit of vision, minute lines about 2'O mm. high. Type specimens authenticated by the Forest Officer to the Government of Ceylon ; from a plank sent to the Colonial and Indian Exhibition. The sizes of the pores and of the rays given above scarcely tally with Gamble's description. No. 1 80. THE JACK TREE. Artocarpus integri- folia. Linn. PLATE XIII. FIG. 113. Natural Order. Urticaceae. Alternative Names. For those in the various dialects of India see Gamble, p. 329. Jak-wood, Jaack-wood, Jaca-tree, etc. Kuthul : Orange-wood (48). Kos in Ceylon (37). Nangka buhriet (Timor) : Nangka (Malacca) : Nongko (Java). Tjoebadah kam- pong (Malacca, Sumbawa), Rappo tjedo (N. Java) (123). Jac- queira, Jaca, Brazil (76). 205 THE TIMBERS OF COMMERCE Synonyms. A. heterophylla, 'Lam. A. Jaca, Lam. A. maxima, Blanco. A. pubescens, Willd. Sources of Supply. Throughout India, Ceylon : Malay Archi- pelago, West Indies, Brazil, Barbadoes. Physical Characters, etc. Recorded dry- weight 35-44^ Ibs. per cu. ft. Hardness Grade 6, compare Beech. Smell and taste none. Burns fairly well, embers glow in still air. Solution with water faint brown : with alcohol olive-brown, rather darker. Grain. Very coarse but close : irregular, being soft and hard by turns. Surface, lustrous bands alternating with dull ones : the ground-tissue of an almost metallic lustre. Bark. " Thick, blackish, deeply fissured " (37). Uses, etc. " Carpentry, boxes and furniture in India : cabinet- making, and brush-backs in Europe : marquetry" (37). " Soft, brittle, and of no use for building " (64) in the West Indies. May be met with in logs from 3-5 ft. diameter and also in planks of similar width. Furnishes a yellow dye (12). Authorities. Gamble (37), p. 329. Holtzapffel (48), p. 88. Boulger (12). Schomburgk (105). Van Eeden (123). J. Leman (64). Wiesner (131), L. 6, p. 68. Watt (127), vol. i. p. 332. Miers (76). Colour. Yellow or rich yellowish-brown heart-wood. Dar- kens on exposure (37). Sap-wood ?. Anatomical Characters. Transverse section : — Pores. Conspicuous, size 1-2, little variation : uniformly dis- tributed : few, 3-8 per sq. mm. : mostly single or in pairs, rarely more in a group : very slightly oval : appear white in the solid, being often filled with a white deposit. Rays. Very distinct, size 4-5, uniform : nearly equidistant, the width of a large pore apart : straight, scarcely avoiding the pores : many, 4-7 per mm. : slightly denser and very much lighter than the ground-tissue. Rings. Doubtful. No traceable boundary. Soft-tissue. Rather abundant in prominent patches of irregu- lar shape near the pores, and also in scattered threads of cells partly imbedding the pores and extending to short rings : very coarse-celled. Pith.? Radial Section. Of a metallic lustre. Pores conspicuous trom their white contents, which give the wood a hoary appearance : chambers shorter than the width of the groove. Rays, very clear from their whitish colour, resembling that of the contents of the pores. Rings not traceable. Tangential Section. As the radial, but the rays need lens and appear as clear, white, blunt lines about 0*5 high. Type specimens authenticated by the Forest Officer to the 206 THE WESTERN PLANE TREE Government of Ceylon. From a plank sent to the Indian and Colonial Exhibition. No. 181. THE WESTERN PLANE TREE. Platanus occidentalis. Linn, (not Hook). PLATE XIII. FIG. 114. Natural Order. Platanaceae. Alternative Names. Button-wood : Button-ball (49). Butter- wood, Plane, American Plane. Plataan (51) at the Cape of Good Hope. Californian Button-wood (12). Sources of Supply. Southern Canada to the Gulf of Mexico. Physical Characters, etc. Recorded dry-weight 28-41 Ibs. per cu. ft. Hardness Grade 6, compare Beech. Smell or taste none when dry. Burns well : embers glow in still air. Solution with water brownish. Grain. Compact, open and fine. Surface of the ground rather dull : of the rays, lustrous. Bark. " Greenish : deciduous in large flakes, leaving the newly-exposed bark a whitish or greyish mottled colour. On the upper branches it is smooth and has a whitewashed appearance " (49). Uses, etc. " Cabinet-making, fruit-baskets, tobacco-boxes, etc. : quay timbers" (49). "A clean wood, rather disposed to brittle- ness . . . furniture, screws, blocks " (95). " The largest tree of the Atlantic forests . . . not strong, difficult to split and work . . . ox-yokes, butchers' blocks, and (rarely) for cheap furniture : a tree 100-130 ft. high by 80-140 inches in diameter " (100). A wood of great beauty when quartered. Plane-tree wood, both Eastern and Western, may easily be confused with Honeysuckle (Knightia, No. 161) and Cape Beech (Myrsine, No. 128). Authorities. Hough (49), pt. i. p. 59. Wiesner (131), L. i, p. 78. Stevenson (113), p. 140. Laslett (60), p. 184. Du Mor- nay (70), p. 69. Holtzapffel (48), p. 101. Mathieu (69), p. 435. Robb (95). Sargent (100), No. 235. Colour. Heart- wood of irregular contour, brownish, not sharply defined from the brownish-yellow sap-wood. Anatomical Characters. Transverse section : — Pores. Need lens, size 5, somewhat variable : uniformly crowded throughout the ring, often almost monopolizing the space : smaller in the dense, late Autumn wood, but not so crowded : 150-200 per sq. mm. : not subdivided, but sometimes as many as 10 in a compact group. Rays. Conspicuous, size 3, rather broad : few 1-2 per mm. long, tapering very much both ends, clearly spindle-shaped : 207 THE TIMBERS OF COMMERCE gently undulating : much denser than the ground- tissue : swell - ing at the boundary of each ring : uniform in size and regularly spaced, though apparently otherwise : lighter than the ground and shining. Rings. Very clear in transparent section, but not always in the solid wood : boundary, a fine, clear line of Autumn wood, rather wider than the rays : contour regular. Soft-tissue. Occasional cells only. Pith. ? Radial Section. Lighter in shade than the Transverse section. Pores just visible, a multitude of fine, shining scratches, covering the greater part of the surface. Rays very prominent and beauti- ful, lustrous, pinkish flakes, not sharply contrasting with the ground. Rings faintly indicated, more clearly traceable where they cross the rays, which seem to be darkened by them. This peculiarity is very noticeable in slowly grown wood. Tangential Section. As the Radial, but the pores are rather less visible. Rays, short, light brown, broadly spindle-shaped lines, occupying about half of the entire surface : 1-2 mm. high by 0*2 mm. broad : cells not visible with lens. Rings inconspicuous, narrow bands or loops. Type specimen authenticated by Hough ; also others from commercial sources. No. 182. THE EASTERN PLANE TREE. Platanus orientalis. Linn. PLATE XIII. FIG. 115. Natural Order. Platanacese. Synonym. P. acerifolia. Willd. Alternative Names. Lace-wood : Maple-leaved Plane-tree : Platane d'Orient (69). Plataan at the Cape of Good Hope. Sources of Supply. Europe and the Levant : North Coast of Africa. Physical Characters, etc. Recorded dry- weight 30 J . 42 Ibs. per cu. ft. Hardness Grade 8, compare White Pine. Smell none when dry : when green, " nach Rossdunger " (87). Taste very faintly astringent. Burns very well and quietly with a faint smell, embers glow in still air. Solution faint brownish. Grain. Fine but open. Surface of the rays lustrous, but of the ground rather dull. Bark. Greyish, deciduous in large flakes, leaving the newly- exposed bark in patches of varied colour. Uses, etc. Cabinet-making, brush-backs, turnery. A wood of great beauty, " but durable only in dry situations " (87). " Less liable to decay in wet situations " (69). These contradictory 208 WALNUT opinions suggest that the wood is perishable in alternate wet and dry. " Little or no value as timber " (60). Authorities. Nordlinger (87), p. 528. Ditto (86), vol. iii. p. 56. De Mornay (70), p. 60. Stevenson (113), p. 138. Mathieu (69), p. 431. Holtzapffel (48), p. 101. Colour. Yellow, brownish to dark brown heart-wood. Sap- wood reddish-white, 15-20 rings wide, not very well denned from the heart-wood. Anatomical Characters. As those of the Western Plane, No. 181, with the following variations : — Rays. Brown : shining : can be separated from a thin section as tough fibres : size 3-4. Rings. Often vague in transparent section. Pores. Size 3-4. Ring-boundary rather wider than the rays. The radial section is of the same shade as the transverse, with a much darker silver grain than in No. 180. This is composed of very conspicuous, lustrous, sharply-contrasting, brown flakes of great beauty. Type specimens from commercial sources from North Africa checked by Nordlinger's section. No. 183. WALNUT. Juglans regia. Linn. PLATE XIII. FIG. 116. Natural Order. Juglandaceae. Distribution. Europe and the temperate parts of Asia as far east as Persia. Alternative Names. English, Italian, Circassian, Auvergne Walnut, etc. European Walnut in U.S.A. For names in the various Indian dialects, see Gamble and Watt. Physical Characters, etc. Recorded dry-weight 28-49^ Ibs. per cu. ft. Hardness Grade 6, compare Chestnut, Beech, or Oak. Smell none when dry. Taste faintly astringent. Burns well and quietly : embers glow in still air. Solution with water faint brown : afterwards with alcohol none Grain. Open, fine to coarse : varies with the cut. Surface lustrous : somewhat cold to the touch. Bark. Thick, deeply fissured with a hoary, smooth, leathery exterior : exhibits alternate bands of colour in radial section : smooth when young, with white lenticels. Uses, etc. Cabinet-making, gun-stocks, turnery. " Tough and flexible " (68). Usually met with in the log as felled, or in waney-edged planks. " The Black Sea Walnut comes to hand in square waney-edged logs, 6-9 ft. long by 10-18 inches square : also burrs. The Italian in planks or ' thick-stuff,' 4-9 in. thick by 10-16 in. broad by 5-12 ft. long : also burrs " (60). 209 ? THE TIMBERS OF COMMERCE Authorities. Schwartz (106), p. 483. Hartig (42). Laslett (60), p. 146. Martin (68), p. 240. Nordlinger (87), p. 523. Ditto (86), vol. iii. p. 53. Mathieu (69), p. 310. Gamble (37), p. 392. Watt (127). Wiesner (113), L. 12, p. 833. Colour. Dark brown, walnut to black heart-wood. Sap- wood yellowish, brownish, or dirty white. Anatomical Characters. Transverse section : — Pores. Readily visible from their size : grade 2 : somewhat variable, increasing in size as the tree ages : evenly distributed : few from 3-13 per sq. mm. : in most rings a distinct though loose pore-ring of 2-3 rows of pores : many subdivided groups of 2-5 pores in compact, radial groups. Rays. Need lens, size 3-4, medium, uniform : straight, rarely avoiding the pores : rather short : much denser than the ground- tissue throughout the ring : numerous, 7-9 per mm. : tapering gradually : a pore- width or less apart. - Rings. Clear but not striking : obscure in the solid wood in dark specimens : boundary a fine line of wood scarcely wider than the rays : gently undulating. Soft-tissue. In excessively fine lines, concentric and more or less continuous, very numerous and close : a much more pro- minent feature than in J. nigra : visible by reflected light only : also encircling the pores. Pith. Cavity 2-5 mm. wide : round or lobed : contains a series of thin, flinty diaphragms. Radial Section. Considerably lighter in shade than the Trans- verse : never purplish. Pores, open grooves, mostly black and shining. Rays, visible in certain rights, clear but not prominent. Ring-boundary line traceable with lens. Soft-tissue excessively fine, close, parallel lines (lens). Tangential Section. As the Radial, but the boundary-line trace- able by its lustre and by the fringes of the loops. Rays fine brown lines (lens), about 0*5 mm. high. Type specimens from commercial sources and from trees known before felling. No. 184. AMERICAN WALNUT. Juglans nigra. Linn. PLATE XIII. FIG. 116. Natural Order. Juglandaceae. The J. nigra of Thunberg is J. Sieboldiana, Max. Sources of Supply. North America, United States and Canada. Alternative Names. Black Walnut : Waney Black Walnut. Physical Characters, etc. Recorded dry- weight 30-55 Ibs. per cu. ft. Hardness Grade 6, firm, compare Chestnut, Beech or 210 HICKORY English Walnut. Smell none. Taste faintly astringent. Bums well, somewhat noisily, embers glow in still air. Solution with water brownish : after with alcohol vinous reddish-brown. Grain. Open, varies with the cut. Surface rather dull com- pared with the English wood : not so cold to the touch. Bark. Deeply fissured. Uses, etc. As those of the English Walnut. " Checks if not carefully seasoned : easily worked : susceptible of a beautiful polish : durable in contact with the soil " (100). " Very durable : not affected by worms . . . strong, tough, not liable to split " (95). " Fences, rails, shingles, boat-building " (49). " When worked up becomes more beautiful with age " (68). Authorities. Laslett (60), p. 181. Nordlinger (87), p. 522. Ditto (86), vol. iii. p. 53. Hough (49), pt. ii. p. 24. Sargent (100). Robb (95). Martin (68). Wiesner (113), L. 12, p. 884. This wood is readily confused with J. regia. " It is imported in logs of large size, from 15-30 inches square by 10-21 ft. long : imperfectly hewn with sap-wood, but without bark " (60). In- ferior sorts are sent over in the form of planks and boards. Colour. Heart-wood, dark brown to black, with frequently a tinge of purple in vertical section. Anatomical Characters. As those of J. regia, No. 183. Per- haps the following differences may be more or less constant : — Rays. In transverse section very slightly denser than the ground-tissue in the Spring and Autumn wood, but not denser than that of the Summer wood, in which they are difficult to de- tect. In radial section they are by no means clear, yet can be located in certain lights. Rings. Boundary line just traceable with the lens by its darker shade. The colour, lustre and the straightness of grain are the best guides for distinguishing this wood, but they must be learned by comparison with J . regia. Type specimens from commercial sources : also authenticated by Hough. No. 185. HICKORY. Carya sp. (probably amara). PLATE XIII. FIG. 117. Natural Order. Juglandaceae. Physical Characters, etc. Dry-weight about 50 Ibs. per cu. ft. Hardness Grade 4, compare Maple. Smell or taste none. Burns fairly well with a long, steady, quiet flame : no aroma and no juice expelled by heat : embers glow in still air : ash brown. Solution extremely faint, brownish. Grain. Very coarse and open. Surface bright. Bark. ? 211 Uses, etc. Tools, handles, oars, and for purposes for which Ash is used. " Comes to market in the form of round logs 14-28 in. diameter by 12-18 ft. long. The dark wood is the best and strongest. The bark frequently betrays the quality of the wood " (Sinclair). This points to the fact that different species are imported without distinction of name. As the systematic name is uncertain, I have omitted many of the usual details : those given apply to my type specimen only. Colour. Heart- wood of an almost uniform brown colour, with darker lines (the pores) sharply defined from the white sap-wood. Anatomical Characters. Transverse section : — Pores. Conspicuous from their size, Grade oo : very much larger in the loose, i-rowed pore-ring than in the Autumn wood, where they rapidly diminish, but not to vanishing point : not much difference as the tree ages as in other Hickories : few 1-8 per sq. mm. : isolated single pores or' in subdivided groups of 2-3 : nearly round when single. Rays. On the limit of vision, size 5-6 : very weak, avoiding the pores : much less than a large pore-width apart, even as many as 3-5 within that space : very numerous, 6-9 per mm. Tapering to fine ends, which are about a pore-width apart. Rings. Very clear : boundary the coarse pore-ring : contour undulating. Soft tissue. Excessively fine, continuous, concentric white lines in the Autumn wood, much finer than the rays : also neatly and narrowly encircling the pores. Pith.? Radial Section. Pores conspicuous and coarse : grooves filled with glistening thyloses. Rays very inconspicuous, minute, colourless flakes. Rings not easily traceable. Soft-tissue visible with lens as borders and continuations to the pores, but the concentric lines are difficult to see even with the microscope (2 inch objective). Type specimen from commercial sources, not authenticated. No. 1 86. SHE-OAK. Casuarina Fraseriana. Miq. PLATE X. FIG. 90. Natural Order. Casuarineae. Source of Supply. Western Australia. Physical Characters, etc. Recorded dry- weight 45 £ Ibs. per cu. ft. Hardness Grade 6, compare Beech. Smell none. Taste bitter. Burns fairly well with a lively, crackling flame and little smell : embers glow in still air : heat expels some juice : ash grey. Solution with water or alcohol yellow. Grain. Fine, open, and of great beauty of figure. Surface of the ground lustrous, mottled with broad dull rays. 212 SHE-OAK Bark. Deeply fissured, corky, about £ inch thick : light brown, rather hard : exhibits prominent rays, which are very striking in radial section, and are connected with the rays of the wood by a " tongue and groove." Uses, etc. " One of the most elegant furniture woods, . . . shingles " (80). "Good furniture wood, . . . easy to split, . . . durable " (17). Saws hard, without smell : planes easily and smoothly. Requires care in seasoning, as it is liable to split to the heart : a wood well worth attention. Authorities. F. von Mueller (80), p. 15. Bailey (5). Brown (17). Sometimes confused with Oak, and frequently with C. torulosa and other She-Oaks. Colour. Reddish-white, light red, pinkish : well denned from, though not strongly contrasting with, the light brown sap-wood, which is from i-ii inches wide. Anatomical Characters. Transverse section : — Pores. Need lens, very inconspicuous, size 2-3 : considerable variation in the ring, and increasing a little in size as the tree ages : irregularly distributed, scarcely more than a suggestion of the dendritic form : few 0-20 per sq. mm. : single, isolated : ap- pear as perforations : not confined to one part of the ring : often strung upon the lines of soft-tissue like beads, but in ones and twos, not as continuous loops of pores. Rays. Two sizes, the larger very striking, the smaller fine and obscure : large rays, size oo, widening continually outwards to over 2 mm. wide : tongued-and-grooved into the rays of the bark : few 10-12 per inch : similar in colour but more lustrous than the ground : not very large-celled, but very many-rowed : enclosed pores doubtful or rare. The small rays a pore-width apart, very fine, size 5-6 : 12-15 per mm. Rings. Apparently prominent, but really vague : the different spacing of the lines of the soft-tissue may indicate the boundaries. Soft-tissue. Prominent in fine white or brown lines, concentric- ally connecting the larger rays : coarse celled : convex outwards (crenate), connecting the pores in a string : also encircling the pores. Radial Section. Pores scarce, dully shining lines, occasionally sinuous. Rays unusually prominent, dull, rather deeper coloured broad flakes. Rings not indicated. Tangential Section. As the Radial, but the rays instead of being flakes are prominent, considerably deeper-coloured, frequently- interrupted spindles apout ii inches high. In this section they appear to distort the fibres of the ground-tissue as though they were threaded through them. Type specimen authenticated by the Forest Officer to the Government of Western Australia. 213 THE TIMBERS OF COMMERCE No. 187. FOREST OAK. Casuarina torulosa. Ait. (not Miq.) PLATE X. FIG. 90. Natural Order. Casuarineae. Synonyms. C. lugubris, Salisb. C. termissima, Sieber. Alternative Names. She-Oak, Beef-wood, Koondeba in Queensland (5). Australian Mahogany, Botany Bay Oak in England. Gedraaid Beef-wood at the Cape of Good Hope (51). Noo Loi and River Oak in New South Wales (12). Mountain Oak (15). Sources of Supply. Queensland, New South Wales and South Australia. Physical Characters, etc. Recorded dry- weight 48^-53 Ibs. per cu. ft. Hardness Grade 3, compare Blackthorn. Smell and taste none. Burns well : embers glow in still air. Solution with water or alcohol colourless. Grain. Fine, dense and even. Surface bright : the rays and ground-tissue equally reflecting. Bark. " Corky " (5). Uses, etc. Cabinet-making : splits very easily with a clear fracture : a very beautiful furniture wood. Authorities. Nordlinger (86), vol. iii. p. 42. Boulger (12). Ditto (15). Bailey (5), p. 133. Nilson (85), p. 42. Usually confused with Red Oak and other Casuarinas. Colour. Dark or brick red and light red in a striking network. Sap-wood light brown, sharply denned from the heart. Anatomical Characters. Transverse section : — Pores. Readily visible, medium, size 3 : very variable, in- creasing in size as the tree ages, irrespective of the annual fluctua- tion : 30-55 per sq. mm. : dendritic : isolated pores occasionally appearing in the midst of a ray : groups of 1-4 loosely connected : often with white contents. Rays. Of two sizes, the larger exceptionally prominent, very broad, size I, widening outwards, very long, only limited by the bark, into which they project beyond the wood : often forking outwards : few, 12-17 P61" ^ncn '• light red in the heart, light brown in the sap : denser than the ground- tissue. The small rays are extremely fine and need microscope. Rings. Not traceable. Soft-tissue. In fine, weak, microscopic lines concentrically connecting the rays : size 3-4 (ray scale): a fine network with the fine rays : also encircling the pores. Pith. Small, about i mm. in diameter, an elongated-oval in shape. Radial Section. The ground is very much lighter and the rays 214 BIRCH are very much darker, i.e. the converse of the transverse section. Pores, light coloured lines. Rays, exceptionally broad flakes. Rings imperceptible, as is also the soft-tissue, except as continua- tions and linings to the pores. Tangential Section. As the Radial, but the larger rays are broad, spindle-shaped, red stripes, sometimes several inches high. Plate XXI. Fig. 173. Type specimens authenticated by F. M. Bailey, and also from commercial sources. No. 188. BIRCH. Betula alba. Linn. PLATE XIV. FIG. 119. Natural Order. Cupuliferae. Synonyms. B. lenta, Duroi. B. verrucosa, Ehrh. B. pen- dula, Roth., and many others of no interest here. The B. lenta, Linn., is the B. nigra, Duroi. Alternative Names. Silver Birch, Black Birch (var. nigra). Russian Maple and Russian Birch (48). Sources of Supply. Northern Europe, Asia and America. Physical Characters, etc. Recorded dry-weight 32-48 Ibs. per cu. ft. Hardness Grade 7, soft, compare Deal : the black variety rather harder. Smell and taste none. Burns well with long lively flame and little smoke. Solution colourless. Grain. Very fine, close and even. Surface smooth with satiny lustre. " As though strewn with meal " (86). Bark. Shining, laminated, peeling off in curling bands. Len- ticels very large and laterally extended : white or silvery when young or purple-brown or black : deeply fissured and corky when old and at the butt. The transverse section shows numerous whitish, hard, ray-like bodies. Uses, etc. Turnery, pit props, put-logs. " Ladders, sabots, hoops . . . shrinks 15-20% of its bulk when green . . . rapidly decays under exposure . . . Moderately durable " (69). Very perishable if young, especially when not scotched (i.e. scored through the bark). Sometimes fails to stand a voyage of a few weeks. Authorities. Hartig (42), pp. 41, 32. Schwartz (106), p. 484, plate 2. Nordlinger(i87), p. 513. Ditto (86), vol. iii. pp. 47-48. Royle in Holtzapffel (48). Mathieu (69). Wiesner (113), L. 12, p. 886. Colour. White : yellowish-white : reddish white. A sap- wood tree, no heart. Anatomical Characters. Transverse section : — Pores. Need lens, rather fine, size 4, somewhat variable ii: size : evenly distributed throughout the ring : branched : i 215 THE TIMBERS OF COMMERCE numerous, 35-50 per sq. mm. : occasional groups of 2-8 pores : " in wide rings a net- work is sometimes discernible " (69). Rays. Need lens, fine, size 5 : nearly straight, but avoiding the pores a little : long : denser than the ground-tissue : rather numerous, 6-8 per mm. : rather irregularly spaced, a pore-width or more apart. Rings. Fairly clear : boundary, a narrow brown line of Autumn wood, accompanied at times by a thin pore-ring : con- tour coarsely undulating. Soft-tissue. " Intermingled with the fibres " (69). Scattered cells. Flakes. An important feature : yellowish-brown or brown : numerous towards the centre of the tree, rarer in the older wood. Pith. Small, about £ mm. diameter : oblong or three-cornered : brownish. Radial Section. Pores fine, inconspicuous scratches : rays need microscope: ring-boundaries rarely perceptible. Flakes long, narrow brown stripes to about 1-5 mm. wide. Tangential Section. As the Radial, but the flakes appear as much wider lines to about 3 mm. wide, and the rays are minute, vertical, colourless lines needing considerable magnification. Type specimens from trees known before felling. -' No. 189. AMERICAN BIRCH. Betula lenta. Linn. PLATE XIV. FIG. 120. Natural Order. Cupuliferae. Synonyms. B. carpinifolia, Ehrh. B. excelsa, Hook. B. nigra, Duroi. [NoxE. — The B. lenta, Duroi, is the B. alba, Linn. : that of Regel is B. carpinifolia, Griseb.] Alternative Names. Black Birch, Cherry Birch, Mountain Mahogany (49). Mahogany Birch (100). Sweet Birch, Yellow Birch in Prince Edward's Isle : Dwarf Birch in Nova Scotia : River Birch and Mountain Birch in Canada (12). Hainbirke (131). Merisier (65). Sources of Supply. Canada and the United States. Physical Characters, etc. Recorded dry- weight 37^-48 Ibs. per cu. ft. Hardness Grade 5, compare English Ash, Holly, Elm. Smell and taste none. Solution with water or alcohol colourless. Grain. Fine, close and even. Surface smooth and of spark- ling lustre, which is due to the ground and to the shining linings to the pores. Bark. " Smooth, reddish-brown when young, scaling later in hard, woody scales " (49). Like that of English Birch. Uses, etc. Cabinet-making and for very many other purposes. 216 . Fig. 118 Virgin! . 121 Fig. 126. THE TIMI rfERCE -50 per sq. mm. : i a net-work i I lens, fine, size 5 . long : (' s per mm. : i i-fis. An « • . > i genital .*• No. 189. AM1 Natma nigra, [NOTE.— groups of 2- •rnible " (69). straight, but avoiding ;|round-tissue : ra spaced, a pore-width rrow brown line of a thin pore-ring : con- (69). Scattered or brown : older wood. < 'tnered : ,;ys are minute, .e magnification, oiling. : CH. Betula lenta. Linn. 120. irh. B. excelsa, Hook. B. : B. alba, Linn. : that of Regel folia. Griseb.] ,ierry Birch, Mountain i (100). Sweet Birch, Yellow Dwarf Birch in Nova Si nada (12). Hainbirke ' 48 Ibs. per . Holly, Elm. >hol colourless. ' and of spark- shining linings caling la1 Birch, rher purposes. PLATE XIV. Fig. 121. Alnus (Aider). Fig. 122. Carpinus (Hornbeam). Fig. 123. Ostrya Corylus (Hazel). Fig. 125 Quercus (Oak). Fig. 126. Quercus oblongirolia nish Oak). ALDER It will not take nails as it splits too readily. " Good for turnery . . . compact, . . . easily worked, sometimes handsomely figured . . . not durable . . . ship-frames " (95). Authorities. Nordlinger (86), vol. v. p. 44. Hough (n), pt. ii., p. 35. Wiesner (131), L. i, p. 62. Macoun (65). Laslett (60), p. 182. Sargent (100), No. 299. C. Robb (95). Sometimes confused with Beech or Maple. Colour. Uniform reddish-brown heart-wood, well but not sharply defined from the 2-4 inches of yellowish-white sap-wood. Anatomical Characters. Transverse section :- — Pores. Clearly visible without lens : medium, size 3, somewhat variable : evenly distributed, loosely branched : numerous, 40-70 per sq. mm. : groups of subdivided pores from 1-5 pores in radial or nest-like groups : white. Rays. Need lens, fine, size 5 : nearly straight, slight undula- tions here and there : long, but often tapering to fine ends : uni- form in breadth : denser than the ground : rather numerous, 4-5 per mm. : brown : a pore-width or more apart, irregularly spaced. Rings. Fairly clear in the solid, less so in a transparent section: boundary, a fine, darker-brown line of Autumn wood, and often a loose ring or pores : contour well-rounded : colour uniform. Soft-tissue. None, or merely occasional cells or strings. Radial Section. Pores, fine scratches, sometimes shining : rays, minute brown lines or flakes readily visible or even notice- able, not lustrous : rings extremely fine but very clear, brown lines. Tangential Section. As the Radial, but the rays are extremely fine lines, scarcely visible with lens, and the rings broaden a little in the loops, but still remain very thin. Type specimens from commercial sources and also authenticated by Hough. No. 190. ALDER. Alnus glutinosa. W. PLATE XIV. FIG. 121. Natural Order. Cupuliferae. Synonyms. Alnus communis, Desf. Betula Alnus, Linn. B. glutinosa, Lam. Alternative Names. Black Alder, Common Alder. Aune commune : Vergne (69). Gemeine-, Schwartz-, or Roth-erle (86). Else : EUer (68). Sources of Supply. Europe. Physical Characters, etc. Recorded dry-weight 26-41 i Ibs. per cu. ft. Hardness Grade 7, compare Birch. Splits easily, none. Taste slightly astringent. Burns well in a current of air : 217 THE TIMBERS OF COMMERCE little smoke. " Deposits a kind of lustrous soot (Glanzruss) " (86). Embers readily die out. Grain. Very fine, sinuous and even. Surface bright, not very smooth. Bark. Smooth, black or greenish-brown when young, with sticky glands and large lenticels : later blackish-brown, scaling in large, flat flakes, separated by angular fissures : one layer. Uses, etc. " Of extraordinary durability under water, other- wise subject to the attacks of beetle-larvae " (86). " Decays almost as soon as Beech or Birch, in alternate wet and dry . . . water pipes, well timber and pit props, sabots . . . very brittle, cracks and warps very much " (89). " Dense and very elastic " (68). " Perishable in the air, but its durability under water is at least equal to that of the Oak " (n). " Used for the piles of the Realto, Venice. Interior fittings, turnery, bobbins, common toys and foundry-patterns " (48). Usually met with in logs with bark as felled. Authorities. Hartig (42), pp. 27, 41. Schwartz (106), p. 482. Nordlinger (87), p. 511. Ditto (86), vol. iii. p. 46. Mathieu (69), p. 421. Martin (68), p. 234. Boppe (n), p. 80. Mouille- fert (79), p. 242. Holtzapffel (48), p. 71. Wiesner (131), L. 12, p. 885. Colour. Brown, light red : white or greenish-orange when freshly felled. " Becomes lighter with age and dryness " (68). A sap-wood tree. " Heart not coloured when sound " (131). Anatomical Characters. Transverse section : — Pores. Need lens, fine, size 5, practically uniform : evenly dis- tributed : numerous, 75-100 per sq. mm. : single or in radial groups of 2-6 or even 10 : linear or branched (87). " Yellowish- red contents at times " (131). Rays. Clearly visible in certain lights. Two sizes, the larger rather broad to broad, size 2-3, gently undulating, nearly straight, very long, few : the smaller very numerous, 5-8 per mm., a pore-width apart, and sometimes avoiding the pores. Rings. Clear with lens, a line of contrast betwen the rather denser Autumn wood and the laxer Spring wood : contour con- vex outwards (crenate) between the larger rays : little difference in colour between the Autumn and Spring wood. Soft-tissue. Isolated cells. "None" (86). "Scattered amongst the wood-fibres " (69). Flecks. Frequent : brown. " Sometimes forming loose circles " (86). Pith. " Small, 1-2 mm. diameter, three-sided or lobed " (86). Radial Section. Pores, fine scratches without contrast of shade or colour. Large rays appear as occasional large flakes : the smaller numerous, obscure, narrow lines slightly darker than 218 HORNBEAM the ground. Ring-boundaries extremely fine, inconspicuous lines. Flecks, long, narrow brown bands. Tangential Section. As the Radial, but the larger rays appear as lines several inches high : the smaller about 0*5 mm. high. Type specimens from commercial sources and also from trees known before felling. No. 191. RED ALDER. Alnus rubra. Bong. PLATE XIV. FIG. 121. Natural Order. Cupuliferae. Synonym. A. glutinosa, Pursh.(not Willd.). A. oregona, Nutt, Sources of Supply. United States and Canada. Alternative Names. Western Alder (12). Alder (2). Oregon Alder (49). Physical Characters, etc. Recorded dry-weight 30 Ibs. per cu. ft. (No other details, as I have no solid specimen.) Bark. " Thin, scarcely more than J in. in thickness, smooth, excepting for very slight transverse ridges and excrescences, and is of a more or less mottled pale grey colour and often nearly white " (49). Uses, etc. " A large tree " (12). " Much of it is under 2 ft. in diameter . . . runs up to a considerable height, very straight . . . furniture, inside finishing " (2). " Light, soft, not strong, brittle, very close-grained, compact and easily worked . . . furniture . . ." (100). " Wooden ware . . . dug-out canoes " (49)- Authorities. Macoun (65), p. 437. Anderson (2), p. 13. Sar- gent (100), p. 113. Hough (49)> pt. ix. p. 40. Colour. " Light brownish, nearly white " (2). " Light brown tinged with red. Sap-wood nearly white " (100). " Assumes a brownish tint upon exposure to the air " (49). Rays. " Distinct, broad " (100). No. 192. HORNBEAM. Carpinus Betulus. Linn. PLATE XIV. FIG. 122. Natural Order. Cupuliferae. Alternative Names. Yoke-elm (48). Weissbuche : Hain- buche : Hagebuche : Hornbaum (131). Hagbuche (81). Car- pin : Charme in France : Carpy : Hardbeam : Quick- tree : Quickbeam : Quickenbeam (Glaser's Taschenworterbuch). Charmelle (69). Physical Characters, etc. Recorded dry-weight 45-56$ Ib-^. per cu. ft. Nordlinger quotes the specific gravity as 0-92 The latter figure is equal to 75-625 Ib. per cu. ft. and m ! 219 feel sure, have been taken from an abnormally heavy piece of wood. Hardness Grade 4, compare Maple. Smell or taste none. Burns well and quietly with a lively flame : embers glow in still air. Solution faint brown slightly deepened by potash : ppt. brownish. Bark. Brownish, about £ to -^ inch thick, one layer, level- ling up the intervals between the lobed exterior of the log, i.e. thinner and thicker alternately : hard, woody, smooth exter- nally: contains a few hard, white bodies." Dull grey, greenish" (106). " Ashen grey, supple " (69). Plate XIX. Fig. 166. Grain. Fine, dense and compact though open. Surface. Bright. Uses, etc. " Cogs, skittles, plumbers' dressers and mallets . . . tough and stringy." (48). " Difficult to split, strong and tough, not very durable " (131). " Stands exposure without being affected by it, . . . when subjected to. a vertical pressure, can- not be destroyed : its fibres instead of breaking short double up like threads " (60). " Indispensable to the turner and cannot be replaced by any other wood for many purposes — screws, etc." (68). Authorities. Holtzapffel (48), p. 87. Wiesner (131), p. 889. Nordlinger (87), p. 514. Ditto (86), vol. iii. p. 66. Laslett (60), p. 160. Schwartz (106), p. 479. Martin (68), p. 229. Mathieu (69), p. 396. Mouillefert (79), p. 139. Colour. Greyish- white. A sap-wood tree. Anatomical Characters. Transverse section : — Pores. Need lens, size 4 : uniform : scattered : few 40-75 per sq. mm., in groups" of 1-16. " Sometimes branched " (87), more usually in short, subdivided, radial groups. Rays. Clear : two sizes, the larger size 1-2, seldom less than 0*5 mm. apart, and gracefully curved : compound, i.e. made up of the smaller rays in a continuous mass : " the broad rays are absent in the branches " (87) : the smaller rays need lens, size 5-6 and 6-9 per mm. : rather more than a pore-width apart : both lighter in colour and denser than the ground-tissue. Rings. Visible but not prominent : of lobed or undulating (crenate) contour : boundary a more, prominent line of denser wood here and there and much clearer with the unaided eye than with the microscope. Soft-tissue. Abundant in numerous, fine, undulating lines, following the contour of the rings as in the Oak : narrower than the small rays and slung between the larger like the rungs of a rope-ladder. No wood parenchyma according to Nordlinger (87)- Pith. Five-lobed, about i mm. diam. Radial Section. Pores, just visible, minute colourless scratches. 220 HOP HORNBEAM Rays, readily visible narrow lines with an occasional broad white flake. Tangential Section as the Radial, but the smaller rays appear as minute fine lines under the microscope and the larger are just visible to the unaided eye, though of considerable size : they lack contrast of colour. The compound rays are built up into masses of considerable height. Many authors speak of them as " false rays," but " compound " is a much better term; as they are in no way adven- titious. At the same time they differ from all ordinary large rays inasmuch as there is a slight projection where they meet the bark in the place of the usual invagination (tongue and groove). The lines of soft-tissue behave towards these rays in precisely the same way as in the Oak. Type specimens from commercial sources and also from trees known before felling. No. 193. HOP HORNBEAM. Ostrya virginica. Willd. PLATE XIV. FIG. 123. Natural Order. Cupuliferae. Synonyms. O. vulgaris, Wats, (not Willd.). O. americana, Michx. O. virginiana, C. Koch. Carpinus Ostrya, Linn. C. virginiana, Mill (not Michx.). Alternative Names. Stone-wood in England. Iron- wood ; Leverwood in U.S.A. (49). Source of Supply. United States of America. Physical Characters, etc. Recorded dry-weight, 47^-58 Ibs. per cu. ft. Hardness Grade 4, compare Hornbeam. Smell or taste none. Burns well ; no smell ; embers glow brightly in still air. Solution the colour of the wood. Grain very fine though open. Surface dull. Bark. " A peculiar brownish-grey, checked into long, narrow oblique scales or strips loosely adhering to the trunk " (49). Thin, about | inch. Uses, etc. " A valuable timber for axe-helves, tool-handles, levers, fence-posts, but not generally found of sufficient size to make it a very important timber of commerce " (49). About 30-50 ft. by 1-2 ft. diam. (very durable in contact with the soil " (100) Authorities. Hough (49), pt. ii. p. 31. Robb (95). Sargent (100). Wiesner (131), L. 12, p. 890. No. 292. Nordlinger No. 13, p. 66. 221 THE TIMBERS OF COMMERCE Colour. Pink or pinkish-white to brown. Sap-wood about 2 in., wide : white. Sharply denned from the heart. Anatomical Characters. Transverse section : — Pores. Need lens, size 3-4, rare in the Autumn zone ; almost uniform in size ; 35-85 per sq. mm. ; often something approach- ing to a pore-zone ; single or in groups of from 2-17 pores, mostly one-rowed but some two-rowed groups ; in a radial or oftener a tree-like arrangement. Rays. Need lens, size 5-7, uniform ; equidistant, the ends being a pore-width apart ; weak but running round the large pores only ; scarcely denser than the ground-tissue ; very many, 10-17 per mm. ; taper considerably ; brown. Rings. Very clear in transparent section, less so in the solid but still definite. Boundary a line of Autumn wood. Soft-tissue. A series of fine, concentric lines (micro.) in the Spring zone which break up in the Autumn zone v/ood to vague bars ; also encircling and imbedding the pores and joining them into a tree-like (dendritic) arrangement. White and clearly visible to good eyesight. Pith. ? Flecks. Narrow oval flecks occasionally. Radial Section. Much lighter in shade than the transverse section. Pores need lens: minute colourless lines: bright when empty. Rays minute, inconspicuous, dull, whitish flakes. Rings not prominent but still clear, brown lines. Tangential Section. As the Radial, but the rays are just per- ceptible with lens (better with micro.), after moistening : brown, rather broad, spindle-shaped lines, about 0*3 mm. high. Soft- tissue not visible to the unaided eye. Type specimens from commercial sources, also authenticated by Hough. No. 194. HOP HORNBEAM. Ostrya carpinifolia Scop. PLATE XIV. FIG. 123. Natural Order. Cupuliferae. Synonyms. 0. italica. Spach. O. vulgaris. Willd. (not Wats.). Carpinus italica. Scop. Sources of Supply. Southern Europe, Asia Minor. Alternative Names. Ostrya commun : Charme-houblon in France (69). Hopfenbuche and Schwartzbuche, in Ger- many (131). Physical Characters, etc. Recorded dry-weight 57 to 58 Ibs. per cu. ft. Hardness Grade 3, compare Common Hornbeam. Smell or taste none. Burns well with a quiet steady flame : 222 HAZEL embers glow in still air : no smell or exudation with heat. Solu- tion colourless. Grain. Very fine, even, and dense though open : a compact, solid wood. Surface bright to dull. Bark. I to i£ inches thick, rich, deep brown : deeply fissured and scaling in long flakes which are seen to be clearly marked off in the inner layers in vertical section : closely adherent, corky but rather hard : many light-coloured sclerenchyma fibres. Uses, etc. Similar to those of the Common Hornbeam, a valuable wood for turnery resembling Pear-tree wood. " Very tenacious " (69). Authorities. Mathieu (69), p. 403. Wiesner (131), L. 13, p. 890. Colour. Heart-wood light-red, pinkish to brown fading gradually into the lighter sap-wood. Anatomical Characters. As those of O. virginica No. 193. Transverse section differs inasmuch as the tree-like arrangement is not so visible to good sight, the soft- tissue not being so white and therefore does not show up without considerable magni- fication. Tangential Section. The same feature provides a slight distinc- tion as S-T appears as clearly hoary fringes to the loops, readily visible to the unaided eye. Type specimens from a tree grown in the Royal Gardens, Kew, sent to me by the kindness of Sir Wm. Th. Dyer. No. 195. HAZEL. Corylus avellana. Linn. PLATE XIV. FIG. 124. Natural Order. Cupuliferae. Alternative Names. Nut-wood : Filbert : Noisetier. Cou- drier noisetier (69). Sources of Supply. Europe. Physical Characters, etc. Recorded dry-weight 35-45 Ibs. per cu. ft. Hardness Grade 7, compare Alder or Birch. Smell none. Taste faintly astringent. Burns well and quietly : embers glow in still air. Solution with water almost colourless. Grain. Very fine and close. Surface bright. Bark. About -fa inch thick with a shiny, brown skin readily peeling off : grey when old : lenticels conspicuous. The rays are continued nearly through the bark which is plainly indented within. Uses, etc. Barrel-hoops, ladder-rungs, turnery, charcoal for gunpowder . . . not durable, very elastic. Usually confused with Birch. Of small size. Authorities. Nordlinger (87), p. 517. Ditto (86). vol. iii. 223 THE TIMBERS OF COMMERCE p. 68. Hartig (42), pp. 28, 41. Schwartz, p. 479. Wester- meier, ' p. 59. Holtzapffel, p. 86. De Mornay (70), p. 98. Mathieu (69), p. 392. Wiesner (131), L. 12, p. 887. Colour. White or reddish-white. A sap-wood tree. Heart- wood only in old trees and then apparently caused by disease. Anatomical Characters. Transverse section : — Pores. Need lens, size 5-6, some variation, decreasing to- wards the outer side of the ring, in which they occupy less space : numerous, 160-180 per sq. mm. : many subdivided or in radial groups of as many as 12 : they are collected into a tree-like arrangement. Rays. Clear, two sizes. The larger compound, size 2, broad, rarely less than i mm. apart : swelled apparently at the junction with the ring-boundaries : very long, tapering inwards only : tissue dense and lax alternately, as though fine rays were com- pacted into a large one by softer tissue : brown. Small rays very fine, dense and slightly avoiding the pores. Rings. Very clear. Boundary, a line of contrast between the dense Autumn wood poor in pores and the porous Spring wood : contour convex outwards between the rays (crenate). Soft-tissue. Not visible with lens : fine wavy concentric lines. Flecks. Rare : brown : in the late Autumn wood. Pith. Three-lobed: brown: i-ij mm. wide. Radial Section. Pores needs lens : fine, isolated scratches except where a radial group is cut exposing several together. Rays, inconspicuous, almost without contrast with the ground. Rings appear as faint fine lines and the pith as a soft brown band. Tangential Section. As the Radial, but the pores are much less prominent and the rays appear as lines of considerable height, about £ inch : they can best be estimated immediately under the bark. Type specimens from trees known before felling. No. 196. OAK (European). Quercus Robur, var, sessiliflora, Sm. and var. pedunculata. Ehrh. PLATE XIV. FIG. 125. Natural Order. Cupuliferae. Alternative Names. Many, derived from the place of origin or port of shipment, such as Memel, Riga, Stettin, Danzig, etc. European White Oak in the U.S.A. (12). In France Q. pedunculata is called variously Chene blanc (Gironde, Landes, Picardy) : Chene & grappes, C. femelle, Gravelin : Chagne (in the South) : C. noir (Blasois). Q. sessiliflora is called Chene 224 OAK male, C. noir, Durelin, Rovre, Drille or Drillard (Compiegne) and C. blanc (Blasois and the South) (69). In Germany the former is called Stieleiche and Sommereiche : the latter Trau- beneiche and Wintereiche. Source of Supply. Europe generally. Physical Characters, etc. Recorded dry-weight 35-53 Ibs. per cu. ft. Hardness Grade 6, compare Walnut or Chestnut. Smell slight or none when dry. Taste astringent. Burns very well : embers glow dully in still air. Solution with water brownish. Grain. Very coarse and open. Surface scarcely bright. Bark. Of Q. pedunculata silvery, when young, often like dull tin-foil in patches, or lustrous-brown splashed with black : supple : deeply fissured when old, brownish, corky and scaling off in flakes. Of Q. sessiliflora hard, blackish or yellowish to brown, deeply fissured when thick. Uses, etc. Ship-building and all purposes where strength, rigidity and durability are needed. All other European woods are mere substitutes (69). Cannot be used in contact with iron as it quickly sets up corrosion. Authorities. Mathieu (69), pp. 345, 353. Nordlinger (87), p. 535. Ditto (86), vol. iii, p. 80. Schwartz (106), p. 478. Las- lett (60), pp. 92, 124, 127. Boppe (n), p. 56. Ward (124), p. 136 (much information). Westermeier (129), pp. 24, 26. Holtz- apffel (48), p. 95. Hartig(42). Stevenson (113). Wiesner (131). Colour. Heart-wood brown, well defined from the light-brown sap-wood, which is from 9-35 rings wide (69). Anatomical Characters. Transverse section : — Pores. Conspicuous, size i, coarse, much regular variation, diminishing in size to the outer side of the ring. The large pores in a prominent pore-ring 1-4 rows deep, crowded. Small pores arranged in a tree-like manner, or in radial or branched lines or in club-like masses compacted by soft-tissue and even widening to rejoin adjacent masses. Very numerous in the autumn wood. Usually contain thyloses. Rays. Conspicuous : of two sizes. The larger, size 2, broad, long, rarely less than i mm. apart : apparently swelling at their junction with the ring-boundaries : tapering both ways event- ually, brown : dense. The small rays very fine, size 6, need lens : avoid the pores slightly : many between each of the larger rays. Rings. Very prominent. Boundary, the conspicuous, boldly- contrasted pore-ring against the small-pored, dense Autumn zone : contour undulating. Soft-tissue. Imbedding and compacting the pores into the radial or tree-like groups : also in concentric lines alxmt 225 THE TIMBERS OF COMMERCE size 2 (ray-scale) and about o-5 mm. apart, undulating and following the contour of the rings. Pith. White or brownish, about 1-4 mm. thick, five-lobed. Radial Section. Pores, coarse grooves with chambers readily visible to the naked eye, shining when empty but often filled with thyloses. Rays, broad, bright (though not lustrous), con- spicuous and beautiful plates. Ring- boundaries not continu- ously traceable but the bands of coarse pores clearly divide each ring. (See Frontispiece.) Tangential Section. As the Radial, but the pores appear distinctly finer as they are exposed in the direction of their shorter diam. : rays inconspicuous (though large), darker-brown, narrow, spindle-shaped lines sometimes a? much as 2,\ inches high. The smaller rays need lens and are composed of a single row of cells. These cells are larger than those of which the large rays are composed. (See Frontispiece.) Type specimens from trees known before felling. No. 197. AMERICAN RED OAK. Quercus rubra. Linn. PLATE XIV. FIG. 125. Natural Order. Cupuliferse. Alternative Names. Canadian Red Oak. Black Oak (53). Source of Supply. North America : Canada and the United States. Naturalized in Europe. Physical Characters, etc. Recorded dry-weight 40 to 49^ Ibs. per cu. ft. Bark. " Remains supple for a long time, 60 to 70 years, but becomes fissured and scaly at length " (51). Uses, etc. " Not so desirable as the European species, little appreciated in America, and Michaux has given it a bad repu- tation (69) in Europe. It is valuable for fuel, clap-boards and furniture." " Light, spongy, not very durable " (95). " Unfit for architecture and engineering works requiring strength and durability "(60). " Does not check in drying, . . . rarely exceeding 2 ft. in diam." (53). Boulger says " unfit for staves of liquor casks," while Wiesner on the contrary states that the wood is " favoured for the manufacture of cask-staves." Authorities. Wiesner (131), L. 6, p. 64. Boulger (15), p. 26. Mathieu (69), 370. Nordlinger (87). Robb (95). Laslett (60), p. 173. Sargent (100), No. 273. Colour. Reddish-brown heart-wood, very sharply defined from the nearly white sap-wood. Anatomical Characters. As Quercus Robur, but the rays in Tangential section are very pale and inconspicuous and rarely 226 WESTERN WHITE OAK more than \ inch high and proportionately narrow. In Radial section they are silvery like white satin, very brilliant and beau- tiful. The pores are filled with reddish contents (thyloses) which are much deeper in colour than the rest of the wood. In transverse section the rays scarcely increase at all in width as they proceed outwards towards the bark. I have no solid specimen that I can call authentic, the above details being taken from Hough's section No. 15. No. 198. AMERICAN WHITE OAK. Quercus alba. Linn. PLATE XIV. FIG. 125. Natural Order. Cupuliferae. Alternative Names. Baltimore Oak (60). The popular name of " White Oak " is widely applied to many other species. Sources of Supply. North America, Canada and the United States. Physical Characters, etc. Recorded dry-weight 43^-65! Ibs. per cu. ft. Boulger (15) gives the figures " 1,054 to 695 " as the specific gravity and " 4635 " for the weight per cu. ft., thus im- plying that the former may vary while the latter is constant. Bark. " Whitish-grey " (49). Uses, etc. "Perfectly straight timber may be had from 25-40 ft. long by 11-20 in. square . . . the wood is less hard and horny than the White Oak (see note), and when thoroughly dry is scarcely so strong as Fir or Pine. Inferior to Q. robur " (60). Laslett deals with Q. alba under two quite different heads, viz. " White Oak " and " Baltimore Oak, "and ascribes different properties to each notwithstanding that he includes them in the same species. Authorities. Laslett (60), pp. 167, 172. Kew Guide (57), p. 45. Hough (49), part ii. p. 28. Boulger (15), p. 262. Colour. Heart-wood, brownish or reddish-brown, sharply de- fined from the nearly white sap-wood. Anatomical Characters. As those of Quercus Robur, No. 196, from which it is difficult to distinguish. As I possess no properly authenticated specimen, I have used Hough's section to arrive at the above facts. The rays in radial section are dull except when viewed in one direction. No. 199. WESTERN WHITE OAK. Quercus Gar- ryana. Dougl. PLATE XIV. FIG. 125. Natural Order. Cupuliferae. Synonym. Q. Jacobi, R. Br. 227 THE TIMBERS OF COMMERCE Alternative Names. Western Oak (2), Oregon Oak, Mountain White Oak (49), White Oak (100). Sources of Supply. North America and Canada. In British Columbia it is practically confined to Vancouver. Physical Characters, etc. Recorded dry-weight, 46^ Ibs. per cu. ft. I possess no other details, having no solid specimen. Grain. Compact, straight, coarse in radial section, moderately so in tangential section. Surface dull, except that of the rays in one direction of the light. Bark. " Light grey with rather narrow, scaly ridges " (49). Grain. Compact. Uses, etc. " Furniture and cabinet-work . . . logs 3-4 ft. in diameter by 10-20 ft. long are not uncommon " (65). " Not much used on account of the difficulty in seasoning it properly " (2). " Strong, tough and compact. One of the most valuable Oaks of the Western Coast, being that which the White Oak (Q. alba) is in the East, and is applied to the same uses " (49). " Wood strong . . . that of the young trees tough . . . carriage and cooperage stock, shipbuilding . . . the best substitute for the Eastern White Oak, produced in the Pacific Forest " (100). Authorities. Macoun (65), p. 27. Hough (49), pt. vii. p. 37. Anderson (2), p. 14. Sargent (100), p. 138. Colour. " Light brown or yellow : the sap-wood lighter, often nearly white " (100). Anatomical Characters. As those of Q. Robur, rubra and alba, No. 196 et seq. Rays. In tangential section narrow and short, about o-5 mm. wide by 2 cm. (say an inch) long : blunt and linear, not spindle- shaped. These details have been taken from as a section by Hough. No. 200. SPANISH OAK. Quercus oblongifolia. Torr. PLATE XIV. FIG. 126. Natural Order. Cupuliferae. Synonyms. Q. undulata, var. oblongata, Engel. Alternative Names. White Oak (100). Sources of Supply. America, California, New Mexico (100). Physical Characters, etc. Recorded dry-weight 54^-62 Ibs. per cu. ft. Hardness Grade 4, compare Hornbeam. Smell none. Taste strongly astringent. Burns very well, heat expels a brown juice, embers glow in still air. Solution with water faint brown. Grain. Very fine, close and dense. Surface scarcely bright. Pores shining but inconspicuous. Rays dull. 228 SPANISH OAK Bark. ? Uses, etc. Shuttle-making, turnery. A wood of great solidity and pretty figure in every section. A tree growing to a height of 50 ft. with a diameter of 24 inches (49). " Generally hollow and defective when large : checks badly in drying . . . little value except for fuel " (100). (This does not apply to the sap-wood.) Usually met with in England in the form of shuttle blocks. Authorities. Sargent (100), No. 263. Kew Museum, Xo. i. Colour. White : whitish-brown to brown striped with dark lines. " Very dark brown, almost black, . . . thick sap-wood " (100). See note. Anatomical Characters. Transverse section : — Pores. Need lens, size 2 : diminish gradually and regularly to the Autumn boundary : usually one large isolated pore com- mencing the tree-like radial group : never crowded : no con- tinuous pore-ring : few, 4-13 per mm. : no abrupt separation between large and small pores. Rays. Conspicuous, two sizes (not compound). The larger size, broad, size 2 : rarely less than I mm. apart : dilating at the ring-boundaries : very long : tapering both ends : tissue lax : light brown. Small rays very fine, size 7 : numerous, 16-24 per mm.: avoid the pores : need lens. Rings. Inconspicuous : the boundary a line of contrast between the lax, large-pored spring wood and the dense, small- pored Autumn wood : contour undulating, coarsely crenate (convex outwards). Soft-tissue. Abundant in broad radial patches or strips en- closing the whole pore system : also fine, continuous waved lines in the late Autumn wood, faintly visible in the solid only; and in well developed rings : follows their contour. Pith. ? Radial Section. Pores need lens : a few fine, shining, colour- less lines. Rays bold, dull flakes : when brown darker than the ground. Rings not traceable. Soft-tissue just visible as hoary stripes or lines. Tangential Section. As the Radial, but very different in appear- ance, the rays appearing a bold, conspicuous, spindle-shaped stripes, much darker than the ground, especially when brown : about 2 inches high by 0*5 mm. broad. Type specimens from commercial sources checked by specimens in Museum No. i, Kew. The apparent discrepancy between this description and that of Sargent (100) may be explained upon the assumption that the wood imported into this country is second- growth wood or perhaps sap-wood of large trees. On the hand this species has much resemblance to Hough's section of Q. virens (49), pt. v. p. 43. 229 THE TIMBERS OF COMMERCE No. 20 1. CHESTNUT. Castanea saliva. Gaertn. PLATE XV. FIG. 127. Natural Order. Cupuliferae. Synonyms. C. vesca, Gaertn. C. vulgaris, Lam. Sources of Supply. Europe, North America. Alternative Names. Sweet, Spanish, or Edible Chestnut. American Chestnut in the U.S.A. (12). Europeesche or Kaap- sche Kastanje in South Africa (51). Physical Characters, etc. Recorded dry- weight 32-46 \ Ibs. per cu. ft. Hardness Grade 6, firm ; compare Oak. Smell none. Taste astringent and unpleasant. Burns well, but the embers expire in still air and leave the carbonized wood. Solution colourless. Grain. Coarse and open. Surface somewhat lustrous, but the rays and pores dull. Bark. Smooth, dull, dark brown, about the thickness of an annual ring when young : lenticels small and round. When old, thicker, fissured, usually in a spiral or latticed form. Uses, etc. "Difficult to obtain large logs quite sound . . . durable only in favourable situations : soon decays in alternate wet and dry, ... a useful coopers' wood, . . . clap-boards, ladders, hoops" (69). "Elastic (i.e. the young wood), durable . . . a post has been known to last eighty years in the ground . . . gives way without warning at the breaking-point" (95). This appears to refer to the American species, C. vulgaris, var. americana, which is reputed to be extremely durable when exposed. Splits rather easily with a scaly fracture. Authorities. Hartig (42), pp. 21, 29. Schwartz (106), p. 483. Nordlinger (87), p. 515. Ditto (86), vol. iii. p. 79. Mathieu (69), p. 325. C. Robb (95). Gamble (37), p. 379. Wiesner (131), L. 12, p. 890. Colour. Heart-wood, light to dark brown, well defined from the white sap-wood, which is about 2-6 rings wide. Anatomical Characters. Transverse section : — Pores. Prominent, size 2, very variable : coarse, I or few- rowed pore-ring, succeeded by much smaller pores arranged in branched, radial lines (i.e. dendritically), all readily visible to the unaided eye : not many, 3-12 per sq. mm. in the pore-ring : 20-55 per sq. mm. in the later wood : large pores, oval, to o-5 by o'3 mm. diam. Rays. Need lens, very fine, size 7, one size only : difficult to see, especially in transparent section : scarcely denser than the ground-tissue : long : very numerous, 8-10 per mm. : direct but avoiding the large pores. Rings. Very distinct on account of the prominent pore-ring 230 PLATE: xv Fig. 127. Cast . (Sweet CL Fig. 130. Fig. 132. Fig. 133. Fig. 134 Quebracho. \No. 201. CHESTNUT, Castanea sativa. Gaertn. PLATE XV 127. Cupuliferae. ;>ca, Gaertn. C. vui.^ris, Lam. -ak. Smell none. 'id unpleasant. 1 ;•!, but the embers '>od. Solution ' ,c-.i young : lem .ill and round. When old, usually in a spiral or lattic :lt to obtain large 1< id ... durable vourable situations :^soon - : alternate wet and a useful coopers' wood . . . clap-boards, ladders, " (69). "Elastic (i.e. the your:*: wood), durable ... a post ntolasteighi :L the ground . . . gives way Z at the breaking-point" (95). This appears to m species. C. vulgaris, var. americana. which is rep u arable when exposed. Splits rather easily witi Authorir, op. 21, 29. Schwartz (106), p. 483. Nordl vs- per cu. ft. Hardness Grade 7, compare Deal. Smell or taste none. Burns well without aroma : embers glow in still air. Solution very faint brown. Grain. Very fine, open. Surface of the ground-tissue lus- trous and silky : the pores shining, the rays dull. Bark. Very thick, dark chocolate-brown with conspicuous and curious marking where the scales are commencing to separate in the inner part of the bark. Uses, etc. Carpentry. " Not strong, compact, liable to warp in drying . . . ship-building, paper-pulp, light packing-cases, fence-boards, fuel . . . about 80-100 ft. high by 40-80 inches in diam." (100). " Carving . . . durable in dry places . . . does not readily take fire . . . soft, light, easy to work . . . wooden polishing- wheels " (95). Authorities. Mathieu (69), p. 496. Sargent (100), No. 324. C. Robb. (95). Hutchins (51). Macoun (66), p. 457. Wiesner (131), L. 6, p. 61. Irvin and Sellers (I. and S.). Difficult to distinguish from other Poplars when once cut up, and easily confounded with Canary Whitewood and other white woods. Colour. White : yellowish-white : brownish-white : in light and dark bands : " slightly reddish " (69). 'Often silvery- white in longitudinal section. Anatomical Characters. Transverse section. Compare No. 207. Pores. On the limit of vision, size 2-3, little variation, smaller in the Autumn zone in wide rings but not diminishing in narrow rings, uniformly scattered with a .tendency to loose, wavy, straggling lines : very numerous, 50-75 per sq. mm. : mostly pairs but also subdivided, radial groups (of as many as 10 in the outer part of the ring) which sometimes extend into the following year's ring. Rays. Just visible, size 5-6, uniform : equidistant, about the width of a large pore apart : very weak : bad to count : avoid the large pores : denser than the ground-tissue : numerous 7-8 per mm. Rings. Very clear : boundary the dense Autumn zone ad- 238 COCOBOLA WOOD joining the coarse-pored Spring wood : contour gently undulating : of light and dark bands. Soft tissue. In lines of single cells here and there : abundant. Pith.? Radial Section. Much lighter than the Transverse section. Pores just visible as brightly shining, empty grooves. Rays just visible, minute, dull flakes having scarcely any contrast with the ground. Tangential Section. As the Radial, but the rays need micro- scope about 075 mm. high, of one row of cells. Type specimens not authenticated but reputed to be this species. No. 209. COCOBOLA WOOD. Species unknown. PLATE XV. FIG. 131. Physical Characters, etc. Recorded dry-weight 75 Ibs. per cu. ft. Hardness Grade I, compare Ebony. Smell or taste none. Burns unusually well with a smell recalling sealing-wax : heat expels a crimson juice : embers glow in still air. Solution amber or brownish. Grain. Coarse but close and even. Surface bright, the pores shining like jet when filled with resin, otherwise dull. Bark. ? Uses, etc. Turnery, inlaying, Tunbridge-ware. The showiest and most strikingly-coloured of all our commercial woods. It usually comes to hand in the form of small, badly-hewn logs. Authority. Wiesner (131), L. 12, p. 911. Colour. Heart- wood deep orange or orange-red streaked with sharply marked jet-black lines. Sap-wood brownish- white sharply defined from the heart. Anatomical Characters. Transverse section : — Pores. Conspicuous on account of their jewel-like glistening. Size i to 2, rather coarse, little variation : fairly evenly and widely scattered : single or in compact groups of 2 or 3 : very few, from 0-4 per sq. mm., rarely as many as 7 : always filled with amber, ruby or black resin. (A gorgeous object under the microscope.) Rays. Need lens, size 5 to 6, uniform : equidistant, crowded : very numerous, 9 to u per mm. : rarely tapering : denser and lighter in colour than the ground- tissue : not avoiding the pores but interrupted by them. Rings. Doubtful, but there are fine, concentric lines broader than the rays that may indicate the boundaries. Soft-tissue. In concentric lines as above, size 5, clearly visible 239 THE TIMBERS OF COMMERCE by reflected light : also scattered single cells : also encircling the pores (very narrowly). Pith. ? Radial Section. Pores, colourless lines not conspicuous un- less filled with black resin but then very prominent and shining : few. Rays, mere scratches, almost imperceptible with lens. Rings, very doubtful : the numerous black, vertical streaks are quite independent of the structure. Tangential Section. As the Radial, but the rays are practic- ally imperceptible without a microscope : about 0-02 high. Type specimens from commercial sources : unauthenticated. This wood has nothing whatever in common with Coccoloba uvifera either in appearance or structure. The frequently repeated statement that Cocobola is the wood of that tree is due to an assumption based on the similarity of their names. Com- pare the specimen in Museum No. I, Kew, and also Fig. No. 132, Plate XV. No. 210. OPEPE. Species unknown. PLATE XV. FIG. 135. Source of Supply. West Coast of Africa : Lagos, Toruba. Physical Characters, etc. Recorded dry-weight 47^ Ibs. per cu. ft. Hardness Grade 4, compare Maple. Smell or taste none. Burns well with some noise and a little smell : yellow gum is expelled by heat accompanied by puffs of vapour : embers glow in still air : grey ash. Solution faint golden. Grain. Coarse and open, dense and compact. Surface dull, rather cold to the touch : the pores have shining linings. Bark. ? Uses, etc. There is at present no information to hand, but the wood is of great beauty being of a colour seldom met with. It planes well to a very smooth surface and takes an excellent polish without trouble, though the open pores require consider- able filling. I consider it a splendid cabinet wood and hope that we shall see more of it. Authorities. The Governor of Lagos (as to the vernacular name). Kew Bull., 1891, p. 41. Colour. A beautiful reddish- yellow or golden-red : quite uniform. Sap-wood. ? Anatomical Characters. Transverse section : — Pores. Prominent from their size not their colour, size o, a little variation in no particular order : uniformly arranged in a definite tracery : few, 0-5 per sq. mm. : the large ones oval, clean-cut : single not subdivided, always isolated : usually empty and it is possible to see a little way down them in the solid. 240 PLATE XVI. Fig. 136. Conifer. ( Fir Fig. 139. Fig. 140. Tvpe K F\t <>lourless lines not conspicuou rominent and shi .:ches, almost imperceptible with •he numerous black, vertical streaks are •he structure. As the Radial, but the rays are practic- 'hout a i about 0*02 high. -; .-•». j from commeT authenticated. Coccoloba rrequently •> due 1 : •: No. 210. OPEPE. Species unknown. •-.-•."• - J3- t Coast a : Lagos, Toruba. ight 47 £ Ibs. per : 4. )mpare Maple. 'Smell or taste and a little smell : yellow . mpanied by puffs of vapour : embers ;. Solution faint golden. >pen, dense and compact. Surface dull, ores have shining linings. -ent no information to hand, but the )i a colour seldom met with. It surface and takes an excellent the open pores require consider- •endid cabinet wood and hope sf Lagos (as to the vernacular 1 a-red : quite lion ; — •:c not their colour, size o, uniformly arranged in a : the large ones oval, ted : usually empty .- Q them in the solid. PLATE XVI. Fig. 136. Conifer, Type A Fig. 139. Conifer, Type D (Juniper). Fig. 137. Conifer, Type B Fig. 140. Conifer, Type E (Podocarpus). • M *• V " • '•• V •>:•• .:•••*•:••••*'•£ !;•••"••'•.:•;•"••, 1 • «•••• •••* j- «•••*, '•.»*r «^f:>&J Fig. 143. Actinidia arguta. Fig. 138. Conifer, Type C (Pitch Pin Fig. 141. Passi flora emarginata. Fig. 144. Copaifera officinalis. EAST INDIAN MAHOGANY The arrangement of the pores seems to be between very-loosely-oblique or festooned lines or a combination of the two. Rays. Just visible, size 5 to 6, uniform : equidistant, much less than a pore-width apart : avoiding the pores (even the second ray from a pore follows its contour) : numerous, 10-15 P61" mm- : much laxer than the ground-tissue : composed of elongated, rectangular cells, very coarse : appear hoary. Rings. Obscure : not traceable in any way. Ground-tissue. Some of the cells contain gum. Soft-tissue. None or scattered single cells. Radial Section. Slightly lighter in shade than the Transverse section : pores very prominent, orange-coloured, shining grooves : lustre due to the linings : undulating : contain a few globules of golden gum. Rays, just visible, dull, inconspicuous, hoary lines. Rings not traceable. Tangential Section. As the Radial, but the rays appear as fine, hoary, coarse-celled lines about i.o mm. high (lens). Type specimen received from the Governor of Lagos. The structure of this wood is very uncommon and inter- esting. No. 211. EAST INDIAN MAHOGANY. Species unknown. PLATE XV. FIG. 133. Physical Characters, etc. Recorded dry-weight 43 Ibs. per cu. ft. Hardness Grade 4, compare Maple. Smell or taste none. Burns well : embers glow in still air. Solution pinkish-brown. Grain. Rather coarse and open. Surface rather dull, relieved by the numerous glistening drops of resin in the otherwise dull pores. Bark. ? Colour. Dull brown, greyish-brown, reddish : quite uniform. Anatomical Characters. Transverse section : — Pores. Readily visible, size i to 2, moderate-sized, somewhat variable : in radial, subdivided groups of 10 or more pores uni- formly scattered : 10 to 20 per sq. mm., of tener the lesser number. Rays. Need lens, size 5, fine, uniform : equidistant, a pore- width or less apart : scarcely avoiding the pores : 6 to 10 per mm. of the same density but of lighter colour than the ground- tissue. Rings. Indistinguishable. Soft-tissue. In very fine lines a little coarser than the rays, size 4, in very close, concentric circles about a pore-width apart connecting the pores. Pith.? 241 R THE TIMBERS OF COMMERCE Radial Section. A shade lighter than the Transverse section, with a trifle more lustre. Pores very prominent, being exposed in numbers close together. Rays just visible in certain lights. Rings indistinguishable. Tangential Section. As the Radial, but the rays are imper- ceptible with lens : fine lines about 0*3 mm. high. Pores pro- minent but much less so than the radial in the radial section. Type specimen from commercial sources, unauthenticated. No. 212. QUEBRACHO. Species unknown. PLATE XV. FIG. 134. 1 Alternative Names. Quiebrahacha or Break-axe : Iron-wood : Axemaster. Quebracho Colorado (46). Source of Supply. (Tunas de Zazas.) Physical Characters, etc. Recorded dry-weight 65-70 Ibs. per cu. ft. Hardness Grade i, compare Ebony. Smell or taste none. Burns well : embers glow in still air. Solution with water the colour of the wood, but pale. Grain. Fine, close and dense. Surface bright. Bark. ? Uses, etc. Cabinet-making and other purposes where extreme hardness is desirable. Easily confused with another wood which passes under the same name, see No. 211 and also with Jamaica Cogwood. Colour. Heart-wood red or dark red. Sap-wood. ? Anatomical Characters. Transverse section : — Pores. Need lens, size 4, rather fine, little variation : evenly scattered, sometimes a narrow zone poor in pores : single or in compact groups of from 2 to 10 pores : often filled with yellow or ruby resin or gum. Rays. Need lens, size 5 to 6, uniform : equidistant : many, 8 to 10 per mm. : tapering both ends : lightly avoiding the pores if at all : gently undulating : red or brown : scarcely as dense as the ground-tissue. Rings. Doubtful : clear or not : sometimes a zone in the outer part of the ring, which is poor in pores, at others a crowded zone in the inner part or even a vague line of (apparently) soft- tissue. Soft-tissue. Very little : in very narrow rings encircling the pores or groups : very difficult to see in the solid. Pith. ? Radial Section. Pores. Clear though small : rather darker lines filled with resin. Rays, inconspicuous : very small flakes. Rings, vague and rarely traceable. 242 GUAYAQUIL LIGNUM-VITAE Tangential Section. As the Radial, but the Rays appear as minute lines about 0*5 mm. high : need lens. Type specimens from commercial sources, not authenticated. It is reputed to be the wood of Aspidosperma Quebracho or of Quebrachia Lorentzii. Griseb. (syn. Loxopterygium Lorentzii, Griseb.). Its structure agrees with that of several species belonging to the Natural Order to which the latter species belongs yet there is very little ground for affirming that this wood should be placed in it. The name "Quebracho" is very commonly applied to very hard woods, and the resemblance of the specific names to the popular one is a very unsafe guide. As regards Aspidosperma, I think that name may be safely discarded, as the structure of our present species bears no resemblance to the woods of the Apocynaceae. (See Wiesner, L. 12, p. 1000.) No. 2i2a. QUEBRACHO. Species unknown. PLATE XV. FIG. 134. I have met with a wood under this name which is extremely similar to the foregoing both in appearance and structure. It may be only a variety, but the following differences seem to point to a different, though allied, species. Physical Characters, etc. Recorded dry-weight 83 Jibs, per cu. ft. Burns badly and supports a flame with difficulty. Reaction with iron salts black turning greenish. Surface has a rather greasy lustre. Contains more tannin than the foregoing. Colour. Quite uniform nut-brown. My specimen, sent me by Mr. Wm. Sinclair, comes from Africa. It is imported in small sizes in the round. This agrees fairly, closely with Wiesner's description of Schinopsis (Quebrachia), but he does not state from whence his specimens come (L. 12, p. 964), No. 213. GUAYAQUIL LIGNUM-VITAE. Species unknown. Physical Characters, etc. Recorded dry-weight 49 Ibs. per cu. ft. Hardness Grade 2, compare Boxwood. Smell or taste none. Burns indifferently well : heat expels a red resin or gum : embers glow in still air. Grain. Very fine, open and dense. Surface dull with much duller pores : not cold to the touch : no exudation. Bark.? Uses, etc. An inferior substitute for Lignum-vitae (Guau- cum, Xo. 16), with which it has nothing whatever in common. 243 THE TIMBERS OF COMMERCE Colour. Heart-wood nut-brown, uniform in colour. Sap- wood ? Anatomical Characters. Transverse section : — Pores. Visible to the unaided eye, size 2 to 3, uniform : scattered evenly but usually a zone in the outer side of the ring with few pores : 13 to 25 per sq. mm. : single or in subdivided groups of 2 to 4 pores which appear light brown in the solid : some red-coloured contents : shine after moistening. Rays. Need lens, size 5, fine, uniform : equidistant : long : very nearly straight : brown : denser than the ground-tissue : numerous 6 to 9 per mm. : the width of a large pore or less apart. Rings. Doubtful : a zone of dense wood free from pores at intervals and an extremely fine boundary line. Soft-tissue. Perhaps the fine boundary-line : also encircling and sometimes concentrically linking the pores. Radial Section. A shade lighter than the Transverse section,. Pores open, empty, cellular grooves, some shining, others red but not quite filled with resin. Rays, need lens. Rings, not traceable. Tangential Section. As the Radial, but the rays are minute lines about 0*25 mm. high. Type specimens from commercial sources, unauthenticated. No. 214. CELERY PINE. Phyllocladus tricho- manoides. D. Don. PLATE XVI. FIG. 136. Natural Order. Coniferae. Synonyms. P. rhomboidalis. Rich. Alternative Names. Celery-topped Pine (12). Celery-leaved Pine (61). Tauekaha or Tanekaha (91). Source of Supply. New Zealand only : " almost confined to the Auckland district " (91). Physical Characters, etc. Recorded dry-weight 47^ Ibs. per cu. ft. Hardness, Grade 6, compare English Beech or rather softer. Smell faint but when worked, like bad cheese. Taste terebinthine like Pine. Burns well; ignites readily : no specific aroma : embers glow dully in still air. Solution colourless. Bark. Surface of the wood below the bark is reddish- brown, coarsely channelled and smooth to the touch. Uses, etc. '• Strong, fit for spars, planking and carpentry generally" (61). "Affords timber 40-70 ft. long by 1-3 ft. in diam." (91). " Durable, especially in moist situations " (57). Hard to saw. A compact wood for a Conifer. Authorities. Perceval (91), p. 66. Laslett (61), 434. Kew Guide (57), p. 79. 244 PLATE XVII. Fig. 145. Melia azedarach. Fig. 148. integerrima. .viV'lVv' Fig. 146. Fig. 149. Fig. 147. Fig. 150. Fig. 151. Old Oak. Fig. 153. I] nut-brown, uniform in colour. Sap- • section : — tided e\re, size 2 to 3, uniform : • ;,- lal . a zone in the outer side of the ring . ; to 25 per sq. mm. : single or- in subdivided Town in the solid : tening. m : equidistant : long : the ground- tissue : pore or less apart. irom pores at extremely fine bo Perhaps the fine boundar ;rcling ics concen 'nkingtlv Radial Secti*. han the Transverse section,. open, empty, cellular grooves, some shining, others red' but not quite th resin. R; -ings, not traceable. Tar •:. As the K t the rays are minute lines abou .m. high. irom commercial sources, unauthenticated- No. 214. CELERY PINE. Phyllocladus tricho- manoides. D. Don. PLATE XVI. FIG. 136. Natural Order. C Synonyms. P. rhomboidalis. Rich. Alternative Names. Celery- topped Pine (12). Celery-leaved Pine (61). Tauekaha or Tanekaha (91), fee of Supply. aland only: " almost confined to the Auckland district" (91). Physical Characters, c'c. Recorded dry-weight 47^ Ibs. per cu. ft. Hardness, Grade 6, compare English Beech or rather softer. Smell faint but >\hen worked, like bad cheese. Taste terebinthine like Pine. P- nrns well," ignites readily : no specific aroma : embers glow dully in still air. /Solution colourless. Bark. Surface of the .clow the bark is reddish-brown, vly channelled and snvwrh to the touch. Uses, etc. "Strong, fit 1 planking and carpentry 40-70 ft. long by 1-3 ft. in moist situations " (57). •mpact wood nifer. Perceval (91), p. 66. Laslett (61), 434. Kew 244 Fig. 145. Melia azedarach. Fig. 148. ( '.trail ia integerrima. PLATE XVII. • ^— Fig. 146. Cadaba farinosa. Fig. 149. Ulmus campcstrix var. viminalis. 'WfrVWJ «v_f*j ;•' 1 v-^. ^r A? Fig. 152. Young Oak. Fig. 147. Bombax malabaricum. Fig. 150. Drimys chilensis. Fig. 153. Acacia juniprrin.t. YEW TREE Colour. Sap-wood brown in my specimens, and darker than and sharply denned from, the white or brownish- white heart- wood (perhaps the sap-wood in my specimen is tainted ?). Anatomical Characters. As those of Pinus sylvestris No. 242, but without either horizontal or vertical resin canals. Autumn wood a band of much darker and denser wood yet gradually merging into that of the Spring. Rings sharply denned and appearing in bold bands and loops in tangential section (plank- wise) much resembling those of Deal. Rays visible by contrast of lustre on a cleft surface. Type specimen authenticated by the Forest Officer to the Gov- ernment of New Zealand. No. 215. YEW TREE. Taxus baccata. Linn, (not of Hook or Thun.) PLATE XVI. FIG. 136. Natural Order. Coniferas. Sources of Supply. Europe. India, Canada. Alternative Names. Deodar (God's Tree) in some parts of the Himalayas. For others in the various dialects of India see Gamble and Watt. Synonym. T. baccata var. canadensis. Gray. Physical Characters, etc. Recorded dry-weight 40-57 Ibs. per cu. ft. Hardness Grade 5, compare English Ash. Smell none. Taste bitter (develops slowly upon the tongue). Burns with a lively but quiet flame and little if any smell ; embers glow in still air. Solution with water very little, colour slightly brownish ; more afterwards extracted by alcohol. Bark. Red, about VV inch thick or less, leathery, smooth, scarcely fissured ; lenticels canoe-shaped ; falls away in thin, flat scales at length. Grain. Extremely fine and even. Surface scarcely bright. Uses, etc. " Turnery, carving, toys " (69). " Takes black stains well and then resembles Ebony " (69). " Difficult to split . . . very durable" (106). "Chair-making, walking-sticks, whip- stocks ... a suitable wood for bows, . . . not now obtainable " (113). "The hardest, heaviest and toughest of the European woods" (129). "Incense — works and polishes well" (37). "Takes and retains a polish for a long time" (69). "Of un- limited durability" (131). Authorities. Kew List Conif. (58), p. 21. Nordlinger (86), vol. iii. p. 8. Schwartz (106), p. 476. Stevenson (113), p. 142. Holtzapffel (48), p. no. Westermeier (129). Gamble (37), p. 413. Mathieu (69), p. 511. Macoun (66), p. 463. Wiesner (131), L.6, p. 166. Ditto (130). Watt (127). 245 THE TIMBERS OF COMMERCE Colour. Brown, reddish-brown, orange-brown, " reddish-chest- nut," (69). Fades upon exposure. Heart-wood sharply denned from the dirty- white sap-wood which is about 8 rings wide. Anatomical Characters. Transverse section : — Pores or resin-canals, o. Rays. Need lens, fine, size 5-6 ; denser than the ground- tissue : appear slightly different upon either side of the ring-boundary as though of different vigour. Colour orange, especially in a trans- parent section ; translucent like gum ; more resinous than the adjacent tissue ; 9-15 per mm. ; large ones rare if any. " Of one row of cells only " (131). Extend over many rings. Rings. Very clear. The boundary varies from a line of slight contrast to a distinct Autumn zone ; rarely developed to more than a line to the unaided eye. Ground-tissue. Resin-cells here and there in the Summer wood, isolated ; near the thickest part of the rays the cells are com- pressed laterally ; lustre pearly ; resin often present in the Autumn wood. Pith. Soft, very dark brown, about 0*5-1 -o mm. wide, of very large cells. Radial Section. Slightly lighter in shade than the Transverse section. Rays, need lens, minute, orange-coloured, translucent flakes of large cells containing resin (micro.). Ring-boundaries very distinct, darker lines which appear sharply cut. Tangential Section. As the Radial, but the rays appear as minute, very numerous, orange-coloured lines of one row of cells about i'o mm. high ;• resin-ducts not apparent, no resin globules. Rings appear as sharply-defined (not fringed) loops. Microscopic- ally a distinction may be drawn between this species and all other Conifers by " the narrow, pitted, spirally- thickened wood- cells and the small amount of Wood-parenchyma " (131), p. 150. Fig. 82. No. 216. WESTERN YEW. Taxus brevifolia. Nutt. (not Hort.) PLATE XVI. FIG. 136. Natural Order. Coniferae. Synonym. T. baccata. Hook. T. Lindleyana. Murray. Alternative Names. Pacific, Calif ornian or Oregon Yew (49). Sources of Supply. Canada and the United States. Physical Characters, etc. Rr corded dry- weight 40 Ibs. per cu. ft. Hardness Grade 6, compare Walnut. Smell little if any. Taste astringent. Burns very well without aroma : embers glow brightly in still air and consume very slowly : a good fuel : little ash. Solution with water brownish : with alcohol colourless. 246 NEW ZEALAND RED PINE Grain. Extremely fine and even. Surface scarcely bright, slightly frosted. Bark. Thick, fibrous,of one layer about £- ^ inch thick. " Thin reddish-brown, . . . exfoliating in fibrous strips or flakes off in irregular scales " (49). Uses, etc. " Strong, elastic, very durable in contact with the soil, . . . fence-posts, turnery, paddles, bows" (49). "Strong, brittle " (100). Authorities. Hough (49), pt. vii. p, 48. Sargent (100), p. 185. Colour. Heart- wood brownish-red, uniform, darkening but not fading on exposure, sharply defined from the whitish sap- wood, which is from £-£ inch wide. " Light, bright red, the thin sap-wood yellow" (100). Anatomical Characters. As those of Taxus baccata No. 214, but the wood is less resinous. The rays are not noticeably re- sinous and the resin cells of the wood are not easily found on a solid section. Type Specimens authenticated by Hough. No. 217. NEW ZEALAND RED PINE. Dacrydium cupressinum. Soland. PLATE XVI. FIG. 140. Natural Order. Coniferae. Source of Supply. New Zealand. " Common throughout the Colony " (91). Alternative Name. Rimu (A. G.). Physical Characters, etc. Recorded dry-weight 33^—45 Ibs. per cu. ft. Hardness Grade 8, very soft, compare American White Pine. No smell. Taste faintly astringent. Burns well with a long, smoky flame : embers glow in still air and consume away very rapidly. Solution with water pinkish or almost colourless : brown ppt. upon addition of potash. After the wood has been extracted with both water and alcohol it yields a deep red solution when boiled with Potash. Grain. Very fine, uniform and straight. Surface smooth and bright especially in tangential section. Bark. Deep red, fibrous, laminated, silky, soft, frosted in longitudinal section. Uses, etc. "Furniture . . . has more figure than Kauri " (59). " Yields timber 10-30 inches square by 20-50 ft. long, would be useful to the cabinet-maker, . . . appears to be deficient in tenacity" (60). "Building timber, interior finish, railway- sleepers, wood-paving, ship-building . . . young trees are no good for export . . . timber 40-80 ft. long by 2-5 ft. in diam . . . that grown upon the hills is the best quality . . . nearly 247 THE TIMBERS OF COMMERCE equal to English Oak in strength . . . the most widely distri- buted wood in New Zealand" (91). Works like English Birch, saws and planes easily and sweetly, but the grain "picks up" in little scales. "Shrinks laterally in drying, . . . spars . . . more used in carpentry than any other wood of the south of New Zealand " (91). Authorities. Perceval (91). pp. 14 and 30. Laslett (60), p. 400. Ditto (61), p. 433. Collinson (24). Smith (in), p. 353. Kirk (59). Agent-General for N.Z. (A.G.). Colour. Heart-wood blush-red or brown well denned from the yellowish-brown sap-wood. " Heart deep red, sap-wood less than 4 inches in trees 4 feet in diam., but proportionally greater in smaller trees" (91). "Much varied in colour . . . brown or chestnut with a nice diversity of shade and figure" (60). " Reddish-brown resembling Rose- wood " (66). Anatomical Characters. As those of Podocarpus dacrydioides No. 219, with the following differences : — Rays. Visible with difficulty with lens in the solid wood in all sections. There are also many cells filled with bright crimson contents which show up when moistened. Type specimens authenticated by the Forest Officer to the Government of New Zealand. No. 218. SILVER PINE (New Zealand). Dacrydium Westlandicum. T. Kirk. PLATE XVI. FIG. 140. Natural Order. Coniferse. Alternative Names. Manao (A. G.) Westland Pine (91). Source of supply. New Zealand only. Physical Characters, etc. Hardness Grade 7, compare English Birch : harder than Kahikatea. Recorded dry-weight 41 Ibs. per cu. ft. SmeU slightly fragrant when worked. Taste astrin- gent, even bitter. Burns very well with a long, smoky, quiet flame and a very slightly tarry smell : embers glow in still air. Solution with water a beautifully clear green (? if with distilled water) : becomes a deeper green upon the addition of potash, which throws down a brownish ppt. Grain. Very fine and even : moderately dense. Surface smooth and bright. Bark. Closely adherent, red, J-| inch thick : of three layers : the inner soft, brown and fibrous in structure : the middle very thin, hard pinkish or purplish serving to mark off the outer rough, brown, crumbling scales of the external layer. An un- usual form of bark. Uses, etc. Planes and saws cleanly and smoothly, something 248 PLATE XVIII. Knightin Fig. 160. jomoc THE TIMBERS O! -LKRCE equal to English Oak in strength . . . the most widely buted wood in New Zealand " (91). Works like English I saws and planes easily and sweetly, but the grain "picks in little scales. "Shrinks laterally in drying, . . . spar- more used in carpentry than any other wood of the south of New Zealand " (91). Authorities. Perceval (91), pp. 14 and 30. Laslett (60), p. 400. Ditto (61), p. 433. Collinson (24). Smith (in), p. 353. Kirk (59). Agent-General for N.Z. (A.G.). Colour. Heart-wood blush-red or brown well denned from^fcie yellowish-brown sap-wood. " Heart deep red, sap-wood less than 4 inches in trees 4 feet in diam., but proportionally greater in smaller trees" (91). "Much varied in colour . . . brown or chestnut with a nice diversity of shade and (60). " Reddish-brown resembling Rose-wood " (66). Anatomical Characters. As those of Podocarpus dacrydioides No. 219, with the following differences : — Rays. Visible \vith .difficulty with lens in the solid wood in all sections. Theiv many cells filled with bright crimson contents which sho\\ up when moistened. Type specini : -nticated by the Forest Officer to the Government of New Zealand. No. 218. SILVER PINE (New Zealand). Dacrydium Westlandicum. T. Kirk. PLATE XVI. FIG. 140. Order. Caniferae. Manao (A. G.) Westland Pine (91). • 7 supply. New Zealand only. Char act* Hardness Grade 7, compare English ^ahikatea. Recorded dry-weight 41 Ibs. tell ragrant when worked. Taste astrin- very well with a long, smoky, quiet • 5 *arry smell : embers glow in still air. rate] , utifully clear green (? if with distilled qreen upon the addition1 of potash, j>pt. ; : moderately dense. Surface j-J inch thick : of three : ous in structure : the middle ^rving to mark off the outer the external layer. An un- .ivvs cleanly and smoothly, something 248 - PLATE XVIII. Fig. 155. Prunus Cecasus. Fig. 158. Stenocarpus. Fig. 156. Fig. 160. Eucalyptus gomocephala. Fig. 161 Mclnleuca linariifolia NEW ZEALAND WHITE PINE after the manner of Deal. " Infinitely stronger, toughei and more durable, though smaller, than the White Pine (Kahikatea), . . . timber 50 ft. long by 2.\ ft. diam. may be met with, . . . marine- piles, . . . almost imperishable, . . . sleepers, ... of great strength and durability" (91). Authorities. Perceval (91), p. 53. The Agent-General for New Zealand (A.G.). Colour. Light brownish-yellow: heart-wood well defined from the whitish-brown to pure white, sap-wood, which is i to 2 inches wide. Anatomical Characters. As those of Podocarpus dacrydioides No. 219, with the following variations : Rays, on the limit of vision. Rings .clearly defined by a narrow, dense, darker boun- dary-line sharply defined from the summer wood of the same ring. The cells of this line are extremely fine. The rings are visible on a cleft surface in Radial section but scarcely traceable upon planed wood. Type specimens authenticated by the Forest Officer to the Government of New Zealand. No. 219. NEW ZEALAND WHITE PINE. Podo- carpus dacrydioides. A. Rich. PLATE XVI. FIG. 140. Natural Order. Coniferae. Synonyms. D. excelsum. D. Don. Alternative Names. Kahikatea. Not Kahikatoa (91), p. 12. Source of Supply. New Zealand. Physical Characters, etc. Recorded dry- weight 26J-35 Ibs. per cu. ft. Hardness Grade 8, very soft, compare White Pine of America (P. Strobus). Smell and taste none. Burns well and quietly with a slight, faint, sickly smell : embers glow in still air and leave a grey ash. Solution colourless. Grain. Very fine, even and smooth. Surface bright, lustrous when cleft : rays dull : ground- tissue crystalline : warm to the touch. Bark. ? Uses, etc. Works very much like White Pine (P. Strobus). "Cheap furniture, packing-cases and for works under cover, ... the sap-wood ought not to be used in contact with damp ground. As a rule the logs are remarkably sound, ... 150 ft. by 5 ft. diam. . . . 350 cu. feet in one tree by no means un- common " (91). " Not considered durable " (61). " Canoes, . . ^ does not wear well, . . . liable to the attacks of a small worm " (60). "Is greatly superior to the American Spruce and would successfully compete with the best Baltic White Deal in the 249 THE TIMBERS OF COMMERCE English market" (59). I question this latter statement as it is not of equal quality to European Spruce, but it should replace it in Australia and at the Cape of Good Hope. " Dries light, shrinks laterally, does not last more than 3 years in the ground " (24). Saws as easily as American White Pine : planes smoothly but being brittle is inclined to crumble. Authorities. Laslett (60), p. 434. T. Kirk (59), p. 462. Kew Cat. Conif (58), p. 23. Perceval (91), p. 53. Collins (24). Colour. Quite uniform, pure white or yellowish- white : yellow in the Transverse section. " Sap-wood large in proportion to the Heart" (91). Anatomical Characters. Transverse section : — Pores or resin ducts absent. Rays. Just visible on account of their white appearance in the solid wood : size 5 : 8-10 per mm. : gently undulating : large ones rare if any. .- Rings. Perceptible, very little contrast between one zone and another : the Autumn ? zone generally a band : contour gently undulating. Ground-tissue. Very coarse in radial rows of cells, which are not sharply separated from each other. Radial Section. The rays show up well by contrast of lustre (not of colour) with the ground- tissue. Rings clear or only just perceptible. Tangential Section. As the Radial, the rays are scarcely visible but they are deep, about i mm. high : the rings are a little more easily traceable. There are also a number of lines in this section of the nature of which I am doubtful. Type specimens authenticated by the Forest Officer to the Government of New Zealand. No. 220. MIRO. Podocarpus ferruginea. G. Benn. PLATE XVI. FIG. 140. Natural Order. Coniferae. Source of Supply. New Zealand only. Alternative Names. Black Pine (60), Bastard Black Pine (12). Miro toromiro (91). Physical Characters, etc. Recorded dry-weight 41^-52 Ibs. per cu. ft. Hardness Grade 7, compare English Beech. No smell or taste. Burns well with a long, quiet flame and little aroma : embers glow in still air. Solution pinkish unchanged by potash or slightly darkened only : no ppt. Grain. " Straight and even, compact " (91) : fine. Surface very dull except in Radial section, where it is a little brighter. Bark. Brown, J-£ inch thick, hard, smooth though uneven 250 NEW ZEALAND BLACK PINE as though "thumbed": covered with small papillae : separating in thin friable scales. " Like Kahikatea but smoother " (24). Uses, etc. " Of great strength but not durable in con- tact with the ground : useful, durable and strong under cover, . . . timber to 90 ft. long by 3 ft. in diam. . . . less easily worked than Kauri or Rimu, . . . piles, resists the teredo" (91). '•' Some of the logs are nicely figured, . . . very suitable for cabinet-makers' work, turnery, etc., . . . would no doubt be fit for civil architecture" (60). "Like Elm, short- grained, knotty, durable but not plentiful nor much used (in N.Z.)"(24). Authorities. Collinson (24). Perceval (91), pp. 14 and 50. Laslett (60), p. 401. Boulger (12), p. 480. Kew Guide (57), p. 79. Colour. Heart-wood uniform cinnamon- brown, irregular in contour : not well defined from the light brown sap-wood. " Dark and irregularly shaped" (91). "Light to dark brown" (60). Anatomical Characters. As those of Podocarpus dacrydioides No. 219 with the following differences : — Rings distinct. Rays rarely visible in Transverse section though very fine, visible, brown lines in Radial section : they need the lens in Tangential section and do not often exceed o-i mm. high. Type specimen authenticated by the Forest Officer to the Government of New Zealand. No. 221. NEW ZEALAND BLACK PINE. Podo- carpus spicata. R. Br. (not Poepp. and Endl.) PLATE XVI. FIG. 140. Natural Order. Coniferae. Source of Supply. New Zealand only. Alternative Names. Matai : Mai (24). Physical Characters, etc. Recorded dry-weight 35-40^ Ibs. per cu. ft. Hardness Grade 7, compare English Beech. Smell faint, something like hay. Taste astringent. Burns well with a long, quiet, not very smoky flame and a slightly tarry smell : embers glow in still air. Solution faint brownish turning slightly greenish upon the addition of potash. Grain. Very fine, compact and even. Surface bright. " Smooth and silky " (91). Bark. Deep red, about J inch thick, one layer, smooth, leathery, wrinkled and covered with minute papillae, not fissured. " Like that of Kahikatea " (24). Uses, etc. " Very good for all joiners' work, easy and fine working, . . . does not shrink in drying, being almost the only wood of N. Z. that does not ? ... greasy, brittle, . . . timlvr 251 THE TIMBERS OF COMMERCE plentiful, up to 50 ft. long by 2 ft. in diam." (24). " A tree about 80 ft. high by 2 to 4 ft. in diam." (57). " One of the hardest and toughest of the Coniferae, . . . hardens upon exposure and becomes greasy in the course of time, . . . outdoor-work, . . . extremely durable, . . . fencing posts, building- timber, weather boards, sleepers, bridge-building " (91). " Suitable for cabinet purposes and architecture " (60). Works readily and sweetly though not easily: the grain ''picks up" badly when planed. Authorities, Perceval (91), pp. 14 and 39. Laslett (61), p. 434. Kew Guide (57), p. 77. Collinson (24). Colour. Heart- wood " bright, rich cinnamon colour and occa- sionally of a brownish hue " (91). " Yellow " (61). Reddish or reddish-brown sharply defined from the ecru or brownish-white sap-wood, which is about I to i£ inches wide. Anatomical Characters. As those of • Podocarpus dacrydioides No. 219. Ring-boundaries as narrow, but fading gradually into the Summer wood of the same ring like those of P. spicata. Rays on the limit of vision, yellow or brown : in Radial section readily visible though not conspicuous on a planed surface. Type specimen authenticated by the Forest Officer to the Government of New Zealand. No. 222. TOTARA. Podocarpus Totara. G. Benn. PLATE XVI. FIG. 140. Natural Order. Coniferae. Synonyms. P. Totaro. A. Cunn (61). Alternative Names. New Zealand Yew. Source of Supply. New Zealand only. Physical Characters, etc. Recorded dry-weight 28-37 Ibs. per cu. ft. Hardness, Grade 7, compare Spruce. Slightly fragrant when worked. Taste very little. Burns very well with a long smoky flame and little aroma : embers glow in still air. Solution colourless : potash gives a copious, pale, brownish ppt. with aqueous solution. Grain. Extremely fine, uniform, close and even. Surface shining, crystalline under the lens : slightly sticky to the touch. Bark. Deep red or brown : about ij inch thick, soft, ragged, fibrous, laminated, stripping in strings : uniform in structure. Uses, etc. " Of short fibre, breaks easily, shrinks a good deal laterally and endwise, splits easily into shingles and laths, . . . greasy, . . . most durable when worm-eaten : useful in joinery but not in carpentry . . . the most valuable wood in N.Z. for building, fencing and furniture, for it is not affected by wet,which 252 PLATE XIX. Fig. 163. i contour ^ THE TIMBERS OF COMMERCE ful, up to 50 ft. long by •. diam." (24). " . 0 ft. high by 2 to 4 ft. i; diam." (57). "One of t and toughest of the Coniferae, . . . hardens u: and becom* ~ n the course of time, . . . •work, . . . e durable, . . . fencing posts, timber, weal' ;s, sleepers, bridge-building " (91). .'table for cabinet - and architecture " (60). x Works readily and swec' ;;ot easily: the grain "picks up" badly when phi Authorities. • i), pp. 14 and 3 -f t (61), p. 434. Kew Guide (- .Ilins< >n (24). Colour. Hea: " bright, rid: nd occa- sionally of a . " (61). Reddish or reddish- 1- brownish- white i T to i| inches wide. Anatomi- ' • ters. '• i 'Podocn No. 2i> .. irrow, b< ..^ gradu; •' into the .rood of the sam< Ke those of P. rita. R the limit -How or brown : in Radial s< not conspicuous on a luth ted the Forest Officer to the Gov< id. No. 22*' TARA. Podocarpus Totara. G. Benn. PLATE ~KVI. FIG. 140. Coniferae. Totaro. A. Cunn (61). es. New Zealand Yew. Zealand only. .V; . Recorded dry-weight 28-37 IDS- irade 7, compare Spruce. Slightly Taste very little. Burns very well nd little aroma : embers glow in still ash gives a copious, pale, brownish liform, close and even. Surface iens : slightly sticky to the touch. '.t ii inch thick, soft, ragged, ; • igs : uniform in structure. brinks a good deal :isily into shingles and laths, . . . worm-eaten : useful in joinery >st valuable wood in N.Z. for irni not affected by wet,which PLATE XIX. Fig. 163. Fig. 164. Eucalyptus goniocalyx, showing the sinuous course of the fibres in the Bark and in the Wood. Fig. 165. Cape Beech (Myrsine). Inside of Bark showing the impressions caused by the terminations of the K:i)-. Fig. 166. Hornbeam. Transverse section showing the undulating contour of the rings and the varying thickness of the Bark. Fig. 167. Kock Elm. Transverse section showing the marking- off of the scales of the Bark. REAL YELLOW-WOOD rather preserves than injures it " (Swainson quoted by Collin- son) (24). " Would be a good substitute for Mahogany " (60). "Canoes of this wood frequently serve three generations, . . . interior fittings, veneers, sleepers, . . . timber 120 feet long by 12 feetindiam. . . . a general-utility wood, resists the teredo, . . . piles, bridges, wharves, . . . very durable, easily worked, . . . wood paving, . . . never warps or twists " (91). Works beautifully freely like Deal. Authorities. Perceval (qi), pp. 14 and 41. Laslett (60), p. 401. Ditto (61), p. 434. Collinson (24). Colour. Heart-wood rosy red gradually passing over into the white sap-wood, which is about 3 inches wide. " Rich red, . . . varies in colour in the same plank, . . . sometimes iridescent " (91). " Reddish, resembles Mahogany " (61). " Three kinds, the red, the pale yellow (and a third not mentioned) " (24). Anatomical Characters. As Podocarpus dacrydioides No. 219. Type specimen authenticated by the Forest Officer to the Government of New Zealand. No. 223. REAL YELLOW-WOOD. Podocarpus Thunbergii. Hook, (not Siebold) PLATE XVI. FIG. 140. Natural Order. Conifers. Synonyms. P. latifolia, R. Br. P. latifolius, Boulger (12). Alternative Names. Upright Yellow- wood : Cape Geelhout (19). Umceya (12). Sources of Supply. South Africa. Physical Characters, etc. Recorded dry-weight 33^-38 Ibs. per cu. ft. Hardness Grade 7, compare Beech. Smell none. Taste " dealy " or vapid if any. Burns badly, the flame readily expires : embers glow in still air : a quiet, smoky flame. Solution colour- less. Grain. Very fine and even. Surface satiny and frosted. Bark. Reddish-brown, about £ inch thick : soft, fibrous, cracked in vertical lines : frosted : apparently of two layers. Uses, etc. Works of construction generally : not ornamental nor susceptible of much finish. " Rural implements, . . . 10-15 in. in diameter " (19). Works easily. Authorities. Nordlinger (86), vol. vii. p. 7. Laslett (60), p. 385. C. S. Almanack (19). Boulger (12). Colour. Uniform yellow. No distinction between sap- and heart-wood. Anatomical Characters : — Resin Canals. None. Rays. Scarcely visible, size 5-6, very fine : very many about 253 THE TIMBERS OF COMMERCE 8-13 per mm., but apparently one to each row of cells : snort : taper : slightly undulating. Rings. Very indistinct, just traceable with microscope : beautifully uniform : scarcely any contrast between the inner and outer side of the ring : contour undulating. Ground-tissue. Spongy and coarse : extremely uniform in the size of the cells, but some variation one row with another : cells in regular radial rows with little reduction in size outwards : no resin cells. Pith. ? Rays. In radial section scarcely perceptible through lack of contrast, yet evident in certain lights. Rings almost impercep- tible. Ground-tissue lustrous, frosted and brilliantly crystalline when viewed under the lens. Type specimens authenticated by the Forest Officer to the Government of Natal : also from a log sent to the Colonial and Indian Exhibition. No. 224. COMMON YELLOW-WOOD. Podocarpus elongata. Herit. PLATE XVI. FIG. 140. Natural Order. Coniferae. The P. elongata, E. Mey, is the P. Meyeriana, Endl. The specific name is frequently spelt " elongatus." Source of Supply. South Africa. Alternative Names. Outeniqua : South African Yellow- wood : African Podocarpus. White Yellow-wood and Geelhout in Natal (19). Bastard Yellow-wood : Umkoba in Cape Colony (12). Physical Characters, etc. Recorded dry-weight 34-45 Ibs. per cu. ft. Hardness Grade 8, compare White Pine (P. Strobus). Smell or taste none. Burns well with a quiet, lively flame and rather pleasant smell. Solution colourless. Grain. Extremely fine and even. Surface satiny : warm to the touch. Bark. Hard, about £-J inch thick : brown, smooth, not fis- sured nor fibrous but wrinkled : of one layer only. Uses, etc. " Beams, planks, 3-7 ft. wide " (19). Works of construction generally. Saws exceptionally easy. Authorities. Kew Cat. Conif. (58), p. 23. Nordlinger (86), vol. iv. p. 7. Laslett (60), p. 385. Cape Land Almanack (19). Boulger (12). Colour. Brownish-white. Anatomical Characters. As thos? of P. Thunbergii, No. 223. Rings sometimes clear : at others very indistinct, and just 254 PENCIL CEDAR traceable with microscope. Ground spongy and fine for a Conifer containing rows of resin-cells in zones. Pith. Small, about i-o mm. wide. Rays. In radial section not perceptible with lens, and smaller and of less height than those of P. Thunbergii. Type specimens authenticated by the Forest Officer to the Government of Natal, and also from a log sent to the Colonial and Indian Exhibition. No. 225. PENCIL CEDAR. Juniperus virginiana. Linn. PLATE XVI. FIG. 139. Natural Order. Coniferse. Synonyms. J. barbadensis, Michx. [This is given as a synonym of J. occidentalis, Hook, by Macoun (66).] Sources of Supply. United States of America and Canada. Alternative Names. Red Cedar : Savin (100). Virginische Wachholder, Bleistiftholz, Virginian Cedar (49). Sabino in Mexico (Kew MS.). Cedar, Potlood in South Africa (51). Physical Characters, etc. Recorded dry-weight 20^-35 Ibs. per cu. ft. Hardness Grade 7, compare Deal. Smell sweet, fragrant. Taste sweet. Burns very badly and supports a flame with diffi- culty : aromatic : noisy : embers glow in still air. Solution very pale brown with water : pale red with alcohol. A spot of caustic potash solution sinks instantly into the wood, which it turns deep black, afterwards changing to purple. Grain. Extremely fine, even and uniform. Surface shining when cleft, rather dull when planed. Bark. About i inch thick, deep reddish brown : fibrous, the fibres easily rubbing off : deciduous, " peeling and hanging in loose strips : smooth when young " (49). Soft to the touch : inner layer about iV inch thick. Uses, etc. Pencil-making, pen-holders, fancy turnery. "Fence- posts, railway ties . . . most durable in contact with the soil . . . moth and insect-proof " (49). " A tree about 80-100 ft. high by 2-4 ft. 6 in. diameter : not strong, brittle, easily worked " (100). Fades when exposed to the light : turns brown with a spirit polish. Authorities. Kew List Conif. (58), p. 31. Nordlinger (86), vol. iii. p. 8. Schwartz (106), p. 47. Stevenson (113), p. 209. Hough (49), pt. i. p. 76. Macoun (66), vol. iii. p. 46. Smith (in), p. 100. Holtzapffel (48), p. 79. Gamble (37), p. 411 Sargent (100), No. 339. Hutchins (51). Wiesner (131), L. ;, p. 163. 255 THE TIMBERS OF COMMERCE Colour. Heart- wood rich red, almost uniform : sharply de- fined from the white sap-wood. Heart slightly excentric. Anatomical Characters. Transverse section : — Pores or resin canals absent. Rays. Need lens, size 7, just visible to good sight on account of their deeper colour : slightly denser than the ground : 10-16 per mm., apparently one between each row of cells : narrower and yet more easily seen than those of J. communis. " A crystal- line efflorescence of Cedar camphor appears upon the surface of freshly-cut green wood " (131). Rings. Very clear : boundary darker in colour and varying from a fine line to a distinct zone, frequently the latter : contour in long, gentle undulations : distinct though scarcely prominent : often like fine shading. Ground-tissue. Rather coarse, with isolated, red resin-cells here and there. Pith. ? Radial Section. Slightly lighter than the Transverse section, practically uniform. Rays dull but conspicuous, small, dark red flakes, which show up against the shining ground : brilliant car- mine : crystalline under the microscope. Tangential Section. As the Radial, but the rays appear as lines about i'o mm. high of large round cells, containing a few drops of carmine resin. Rings appear a 5 clear loops without fringes. The resin-drops make their appearance in the tracheids (fibres) of sap-wood long before they do in the rays. Type specimens from commercial sources and also from the ex- hibit of the Mexican Government at the Paris Exhibition of 1900. Laslett mentions " Pencil Cedar " under the name of J.bermud- iana. I imagine that this is an error, as that species is not so suitable for the purpose of making pencils. The specimen in the Kew Museum is quite different to the commercial article and to the specimens of J. virginiana in the same case. No. 226. JUNIPER. Juniperus communis. Linn. PLATE XVI. FIG. 139. Natural Order. Coniferae. Sources of Supply. Europe. Alternative Names. Gemeiner Wachholder in Germany : Gen6vrier commun in France (Genebre in Provence) (69). Physical Characters, etc. Recorded dry- weight 33-41 Ibs. per cu. ft. Hardness Grade 5, compare Ash. Smell agreeable though slight when dry. Burns well with quiet, lively flame and a little aroma, embers glow brightly in still air. Solution with water brownish : with alcohol afterwards golden brown. 256 CANADIAN JUNIPER Grain. Very fine, smooth, dense and even. Surface bright. Bark. " Brownish-red, thin, fibrous " (37). Uses, etc. Turnery. " Rated third class at Lloyd's " (60). " Very tenacious, compact, durable : works very freely and easily " (69). Authorities. Nordlinger (86), vol. iii. p. 7. Schwartz (106), p. 477. Macoun (66), vol. iii. p. 462. Holtzapffel (48), p. 88. Westermeier (129), p. 62. Gamble (37), p. 411. Wiesner (131), L. 7, p. 161. Mathieu (69). Colour. Brown or nut-brown. " Brownish-yellow " (69). " Reddish or pale violet in places " (131). In alternate dark and light zones, sharply defined from the white or yellowish-white sap- wood. Heart slightly excentric. Anatomical Characters. As J. virginiana, No. 225. Transverse section : — Pores or resin ducts absent. Rays. Need lens, very fine, size 7, or rather less : scarcely visible with lens : denser than the ground-tissue and very slightly deeper in colour : 10-18 per mm. : apparently one between each row of cells. Rings. Very clear : boundary darker in colour : not often more than a mere line : contour undulating in long, gentle waves. Ground-tissue. Pearly in a transparent section. Pith. ? Radial Section. Rays narrow, inconspicuous, slightly darker bands. Rings very distinct. Tangential Section. As the radial, but the rays appear as in- numerable brown dots about i mm. high : neither the cells nor the resin-drops are visible with a 2 in. lens (micro.) : loops of the rings scarcely fringed : resin-containing cells appear in the sap- wood. Type specimens from commercial sources not authenticated, but checked by the specimens in the Museum No. i, Kew. No. 227. CANADIAN JUNIPER. Juniperus occi- dentalis. Hook, (not Hort. or Gord). PLATE XVI. FIG. 139. Natural Order. Coniferae. Synonyms. J. excelsa, Pursh. J. virginiana, Linn. Alternative Names. Pencil- wood (2). Western Red Cedar (66). Yellow Cedar: Western J uniper : Calif ornian Juniper (49). Sources of Supply. Canada and the United States of America. Physical Characters, etc. Recorded dry-weight about 36 Ibs. per cu. ft. Hardness Grade 7, compare Deal. Smell and taste similar to those of J. virginiana (Pencil Cedar), but the aroma 257 s THE TIMBERS OF COMMERCE is less enduring. " Moderately odorous " (49). Burns well but embers soon die out and leave a carbonized stick. Solution with water clear : with alcohol faint brown, darkening and giving a ppt. with potash. Surface dull except in tangential section. Grain. Fine, straight and even. Bark. About 1 inch thick, of two layers of equal thickness, the inner finely laminated (lens), the outer stripping in stiff layers, which are harsh to the touch. " Rather thin, of a rich purple- "brown colour, composed of laminae of alternately purple and light- brown colours . . . becomes fissured with age " (49). Uses, etc. " Very durable in contact with the soil " (49). Should be equally serviceable for pencil-making to the wood of J. virginiana commonly used, but would scarcely command the same price on account of its poorer appearance. " Fencing and fuel " (100). Authorities. Macoun (66), p. 461. • Hough (49), pt. vii. p. 47. Sargent (100), p. 181. Colour. Heart-wood, uniform, rich pinkish-brown. Sap-wood whitish. Anatomical Characters. As those of J. virginiana, No. 225, of which it might be taken to be a pale-coloured variety. Resin-cells. Difficult to see with lens, probably on account of the paler resin. Rays. Brown or yellow rather than red. Type specimen authenticated by Hough. No. 228. CLANWILLIAM CEDAR. Callitris arborea. Schrad. PLATE XVI. FIG. 140. Natural Order. Coniferae. Source of Supply. South Africa. Physical Characters, etc. Recorded dry-weight 36 Ibs. per cu. ft. Hardness Grade 7, compare Deal. Smell delightfully frag- rant. Taste nauseous. Burns well with a powerful, breath- catching, but not unpleasant odour : embers glow in still air. Solution colourless. Grain. Very smooth, fine and even. Surface rather dull but somewhat frosted : easily soils. Bark. ? Uses, etc. ? Colour. Light brown or yellow. Not resinous. Anatomical Characters. Transverse section : — Resin-pores. None, but there are certain resinous cells in series simulating the pores (without lining-cells) : dark brown, fine, need lens : only locally numerous, especially near the pith. 258 YELLOW CEDAR Rays. Need lens, size 5, rather large for a Conifer : orange- coloured : straight, rapidly tapering : large ones rare, if any : 5-10 per mm. : cells round, laxer than the ground-tissue : not regularly spaced. Rings. Clear even if not prominent : boundary apparently or actually a band of Autumn wood : some contrast, but nothing pronounced : the Summer and Autumn wood melt into one another. Pith. Round, about 0-5 mm. diameter, of large spherical brown and white cells. Radial Section. Rays readily visible, brown flakes : dull. Rings just traceable, fine lines. Ground-tissue bright, but scarcely crystalline. Tangential Section. As the Radial, but the rays are just visible with lens : brown lines about 0*2 mm. high. Type specimens from a log sent to the Indian and Colonial Exhibition. No. 229. YELLOW CEDAR. Chamaecyparis nut- kaensis. Spach. PLATE XVI. FIG. 140. Natural Order. Coniferae. Synonyms. Thuya excelsa, Bong. Cupressus nutkaensis, Hook. Sources of Supply. United States and Canada. Alternative Names. Cypress : Yellow Cypress (66). Physical Characters, etc. Recorded dry- weight 20j Ibs. per cu. ft. (100). I have no other details, as I do not possess a solid specimen. Uses, etc. " Not strong : easily worked : very durable in con- tact with the soil, . . . timber is manufactured from the buried trunks of this species dug from peat swamps . . . boat-build- ing, wooden-ware, cooperage, shingles, telegraph and fence posts and railway-ties " (100). " Sometimes exceeds 6 ft. in diam." (66). " Very durable and credited with resisting the teredo . . . greatly valued for interior finishing, and commands a higher price than either the Douglas Fir or Arbor vitae " (65). " Paddles, carving, boxes and articles of domestic use (amongst the Indians) . . . liable to shrink lengthwise unless well seasoned " (2). Authorities. Macoun (66), p. 461. Ditto (65), p. 31. Ander- son (2), p. ii. Sargent (100), p. 178. Colour. " Light brown tinged with red, growing darker on exposure : the sap-wood lighter " (100). 259 THE TIMBERS OF COMMERCE No. 230. WESTERN WHITE CEDAR. Thuya gigantea. Mull. PLATE XVI. FIG. 140. Natural Order. Conifene. Synonyms. T. plicata, Don. T. Menziesii, Dougl. Alternative Names. Canadian Red Cedar : Giant Arbor- Vitae : Red Cedar (65). Yellow Cedar (2). Arbor- Vitae (100) : Giant Cedar : Shingle-wood : North-Western Red Cedar : Pacific Arbor- Vitae (49). Sources of Supply. United States and Canada. Physical Characters, etc. Recorded dry- weight igf-26J Ibs. per cu. ft. Hardness Grade 8, compare White Pine. Smell agree- able : strong and spicy when worked. Taste faintly terebin- thine. Burns rather badly, embers soon die out in still air : pro- duces a long smoky flame and a slightly tarry smell. Solution with water the colour of the wood : with alcohol faint brown, and dar- kens upon addition of potash with a ppt. Grain. Close, even, but spongy. Surface of the Spring wood dull : of the Autumn wood brilliantly lustrous. Bark. ? Uses, etc. " Not strong, brittle, very durable in contact with soil " (100). " One of the finest trees of Western America " (66). For " shingles is unequalled by any other wood . . . well adapted for interior finishing of all kinds, . . . telegraph-poles, fence-posts and the immense canoes made by the West Coast Indians" (65). " Cabinet-making, doors, posts : shingles 22 in. wide and split boards 12-15 in. wide" by 12 ft. long were shown at the Chicago Exhibition " (2). " Of wonderful durability " (49). Authorities. Macoun (66), p. 460. Ditto (65), p. 30. Ander- son (2), p. 10. Sargent (100), p. 177. Hough (49), pt. ix. p. 45. Colour. Uniform brownish to reddish. " Light brown, turn- ing darker with exposure : the thin sap-wood nearly white " (100). Anatomical Characters. As those of Callitris arborea, No. 228. If a small strip of this wood be taken and bent in the direction of the rays the wood will separate at the .outer boundaries of the rings and the surfaces will be seen to be brilliantly lustrous like satin. Type specimen authenticated by Hough. No. 231. NEW ZEALAND CEDAR. Libocedrus Bidwilli. Hook. PLATE XVI. FIG. 140. Natural Order. Coniferae. Alternative Names. Kawhaka (A.G.) : (also applied to L. doni- ana, Endl). Pahautea (61). Paukatea (12). 260 PLATE XX. Fig. 16S. irioa). Rndial section showing the penetration of the Rays into llv Fig. 169. Dark :. The oval bodie- of tlv Fig 170. f the figure. (Compare Fig. 34-) 1SERS OF COMMERCE .r:RN WHITE CEDAR. Thuya gigantea. Mull. Mr XVI. FIG. 140. T. Men/iesii, Dougl. in Red Cedar : Giant Arbor- Vitae : >or-Vitae (100) : Giant ! • -tern Red Cedar : Pacific - am! Canada. Kecorded dry-weight iqJ-26J Ibs. per Grade £, com ';ite Pine. Smell agree- nd spicy .^ntly terebin- rather badly, embers soon die out in still air : pro- ;oky flame and a slightly tarry smell. Solution with Fig. 174 Lophi:. ' k), show coarse prominent pores and ill ; by the cutting of the of soft-tissue. Ilffl splitii THE TIMBERS OF COMMERCE . 1 Radial Section. Plate XXIII. Fig 181. Lighter in shade and more lustrous than the Transverse section : Rays minute, readily visible, brown flakes, giving the wood a speckled appearance. Rings : vague streaks, if any indication of the boundaries, no smoky lines or bands. Tangential Section. As the Radial, but the rays need lens, and are then plainly visible re> out i mm. high. Type specimens from commercial sources and also authenti- cated by the Forest Oft; e Government of New Zealand. Perceval (91) states that there are thirteen species of Kauri in New Zealand, but there are not so many species of Agathis. No. 234. WESTERN HEMLOCK. Tsuga Merten- ^na. Carr. iral Order ' Synonyms. :siana, Bong. P. canadensis. Bong., van B. P. P . McNab. Abies Pattoni, McXab. A. Albertiana, M Sources < • nited States and Canada. Allernaii Hemlock in British Columbia (2). This is not the -i species known by that name. Physical Ch .-tc. Recorded dry-weight 36^ Ibs. per cu. r. Vse$ ong, . . . coarse lumber " (100). " Often very larg 150 ft. high . . . yields a good wood, but has not been r (')6). " Abundant along the whole coast of Briti? For many purposes just as serviceable as woods wh; more: has been suggested as being suitable for paving b: . liable to decay if exposed .to the wet, but has nevei tirly tested . . . could be transported to -hipping points .vithout great expense " (65). Authorities. M •,<. Russian, etc., Spruce from the . N 01 wa - m United States of America (46). Fir (60). White Deal : Spruce Fir. Faux Sapin : Sapin 204 PLATE XXI. Tangential Sections. Natural Size. Fig. 172. Cocus, showing Heart-wood and Sap-wood. Fig. 173. Casuarinrx, showing the ends of the Rays after the removal of the Bark. Fig. 174 Lophira (African Oak), showing the coarse prominent pores and the tracery caused by the cutting of the rings of soft-tissue. Flf. 175. Sicnocarpus (Nilky O:»U, showing the splitting-up and distortion of the Ray*. WHITE SPRUCE Pesse : Serente " Alpes " : Sapin gentil : Finesse (5) : Bois blanc du Nord : Sap : Epicea : Pesse : Sapin blanc du Nord : Sapin de Perse in France (28). Fichte (4) : Gemeine Roth Tanne : Lafie (5) : Pechtanne : Edeltanne (36). Sources of Supply. The mountains of North and Central Europe. Introduced into many other countries with a similai climate. Physical Characters, etc. Recorded dry-weight 21-48$ Ibs. per cu. ft. Hardness Grade 7, compare English Birch, but rather softer. Burns well, ignites readily, extremely noisy : embers glow in still air : ash brown and small in quantity : practically no smell, otherwise as Pinus sylvestris. Surface of the ground- tissue satiny and brilliant : crystalline under the lens. Bark. When "young, reddish-brown, scaling in very fine flakes : when old, covered with roundish corky scales." Authorities. Kew List (58), p. 65. Nordlinger (86), vol. iii. p. 9. Schwartz (106), p. 477. Laslett (60), pp. 313, 338. Stevenson (113), p. 186. Smith (in), p. 175. Petsche (92), p. 75. Wiesner (131), L. 6, p. 147. Mathieu (37), p. 540. Uses, etc. Light, elastic : paper-pulp, scaffold-poles, spars, •etc., match-boarding, deals, packing-cases and other purposes too numerous to mention. Splits readily and straight : fairly durable. Fiddles and sounding-boards. " The better quality from the higher altitudes " (37). Colour. White or brownish. No distinction between sap- wood and heart- wood. " Light red from the North of Europe, off marshy soil " (37). Anatomical Characters. Similar to those of Pinus sylvestris, No. 242. The rings are very clear : the boundary darker in colour than the rest of the wood, varying from a fine line to half the width of the ring : gently undulating in contour. The hori- zontal resin-ducts are not distinguishable in the solid wood with the microscope (2 inch) from the ordinary rays in tangential section. In some kinds (Hazelfichten) there are " ray-like lines resembling the rays of the Hazel " (37). In longitudinal section the rings boundaries are not prominent except in fast-grown wood. Type specimens from commercial sources and from trees known before felling. No. 236. WHITE SPRUCE. Picea alba. Link. PLATE XVI. FIG. 137. Natural Order. Coniferae. Synonyms. Abies alba, Michx. A. canadensis, Mill. Finns alba, Lamb. Picea laxa, Ehrh. 265 THE TIMBERS OF COMMERCE Alternative Names. Single Spruce (60). Schimmel Fichte : Echte, Deutsche or Weiss-tanne. Sapin blanc : Epinette blanche (92). Sources of Supply. Newfoundland and Labrador to the Rocky Mountains and north-west to Alaska. United States, Nova Scotia and New Brunswick to twenty miles of the Arctic Sea (Richardson). Physical Characters, etc. Recorded dry-weight 25^-32^ Ibs. per cu. ft. Hardness Grade 7, compare European Spruce. The Summer wood is as soft as that of Sequoia : the Autumn about as the same as that of the Common Spruce (P. excelsa). Smell when burning faint but pleasant. Otherwise as Picea excelsa. Grain. Straight, compact. Surface lustrous, satiny. Bark. Thin, brown : not rough, scaling in very small flakes. Uses, etc. "Construction, musical instruments, paper-pulp . . . sonorous . . . not distinguished from Black Spruce in commerce " (49). Moderately strong. Authorities. Kew Cat. Conif. (58), p. 48. Laslett (60), p. 376. Hough (49), pt. iv. p. 43. Macoun (66), vol. iii. p. 469. Ditto (65), p. 94. Petsch (92), p. 105. Sargent (100), p. 204. Colour. " Yellowish- white : sap-wood hardly distinguish- able from the heart-wood " (49). Pure white. Anatomical Characters. As those of Pinus sylvestris and Picea excelsa, Nos. 242 and 235. Pores or vertical resin-ducts scarce but readily visible. The great difference in hardness between the Summer and Autumn woods of this species is almost the only character that can be used to distinguish this wood from that of P. excelsa. Pith. Brown : about 0*5 mm. wide : apparently winged. Type specimen authenticated by Hough. No. 237. WESTERN SPRUCE. Picea sitchensis. Traut. (Carr.) PLATE XVI. FIG. 137. Natural Order. Coniferae. Synonyms. Pinus sitchensis, Bong. Pinus Menziesii, Lindl. Abies sitchensis, Lindl. A. Menziesii, Dougl. Alternative Names. Menzies Spruce (66). Tide-land Spruce (49). Californian Coast Spruce (60). Black Spruce (12). Silk Spruce (79). Sources of Supply. Canada (British Columbia) and the United States in the West. Physical Characters, etc. Recorded dry-weight about 26| Ibs. per cu. f*. (49). Hardness Grade 7, compare Alder. Taste 266 LARCH flat like Deal. Smell none. Burns with a lively, spurting, crackling flame : embers glow brightly in still air. Solution colourless. Grain. Fine, straight and even. Surface satiny, frosted and even brilliant in Radial section. Bark. Dark brown, rugged : of one layer, filled with coarse, hard whitish bodies and covered with a brittle skin. " Thin . . . rather smooth reddish bark, which flakes off in irregular scales " (49). Uses, etc. " Coarse but strong and useful " (60). " Shrinkage unusually great " (2). " Attains a large size " (66). " No other tree of ihe West Coast is used for such varied purposes . . . very white : elastic, bends with the grain without splitting . . . much used in boat-building, light oars, staves, doors, window- sashes, etc., etc. . . . resists decay for a long time and is not attacked by insects " (65). Authorities. Macoun (65), p. 36. Hough (49), pt. vi. p. 54. Laslett (60), p. 379. Anderson (2), p. 10. Mouillefert (79), p. 315. Boulger (12), p. 451. Sargent (100), p. 206. Colour. " Deeper in colour than the Eastern Spruces " : heart-wood orange brown : sap-wood yellowish-white " (49). " Very white and light : resembles White Pine " (2). It somewhat suggests a brown Pencil-Cedar when cut transversely. Heart- wood defined, but not abruptly, from the sap-wood. Anatomical Characters. As those of the Piceas and Pines generally (see Nos. 242 and 235), but rays and pores readily visible when moistened. Tissue very dense and almost uniform. In tangential section the rays are visible as minute dots against the lustrous ground, being much darker, and are readily visible in the radial section, especially when moistened. Type specimens authenticated by Hough. No. 238. LARCH. Larix europea. DC. (not Michx.) PLATE XVI. FIG. 137. Natural Order. Coniferae. Alternative Names. Gemeine Laerche : Lorche : Lorcner Fichte : Gemeiner Lechenbaum : Terpintinbaum : Weissei Lorchen-baum : Europaische Ceder (113). Sources of Supply. Northern Europe. Physical Characters, etc. Recorded dry- weight 28^-41 1 IDS. per cu. ft. Hardness Grade 7, compare Deal. Smell and taste none. Burns very well with a lively and rather noisy flame : gi ash : some resin expelled by heat : little smell. Reaction iron salts black. 267 THE TIMBERS OF COMMERCE Grain. Fine, smooth and exceptionally even. Surface rather lustrous and frosted. Bark. Smooth, grey or yellowish when young : " later changing to a light red " (106). Uses, etc. " Very durable " (106). " Durable in wet or dry . . . beams, house-building, water-pipes, wheelwrights' work, boats, mining timber, sleepers . . . tough : shrinks excessively and warps " (60 and 113). " It is accepted as imputrescible " (n). " Venice is reputed to be built on Larch piles " (60). " Very good paving blocks when from high altitudes . . . does not crack" (92). " The most valuable wood for all building purposes " (113). With a knife this wood cuts like hard cheese. Authorities. Nordlinger (86), vol. iii. p. 10. Ditto (87). Schwartz (106), p. 477. Stevenson (113). Boppe (n), p. 90. Laslett (60), p. 344. Petsche (92), p. 107. Westermeier (129), p. 46. Schlich (104). Mathieu (69); p. 560. Wiesner (131), L. 6, p. 149. Larch is often confused with other Coniferous woods. Colour Heart- wood reddish-brown or purplish-red. "Brown- ish-red even when fresh" (106). " Yellowish- white " (60 and 92). Sap-wood denned from the heart, white to yellowish : " 6-20 rings wide " (106). Anatomical Characters. Transverse section : — Pores or Resin-canals. Abundant : need lens : " visible to the naked eye " (69). More often in pairs and threes than in the Pines : size 4 : not infrequently attached to the Spring side of the Autumn boundary : few, about 22 per inch of arc : chiefly in the Autumn wood, but sometimes in the Spring : inconspicuous in the solid : bleed when cut, and then appear as resin-globules even upon a rough saw-cut surface. Rays. Need lens, size 5-6 : numerous, 7-10 per mm. : white : difficult to see in the solid : taper considerably and seem to alter in size at the ring-boundaries. Rings. Very clear, prominent and sharply contrasted between the Spring, and the resinous and darker Autumn, wood : sharply separated from each other in the same ring : contour gently un- dulating. Horizontal resin-canals (see Rays). Pith. About ro mm. wide : red : angular. Radial Section. A trifle darker. Pores locally numerous : difficult to see unless soiled. Rays visible, but inconspicuous, brown lines. Rings very prominent, but not so much contrast in colour as in the Pines. Tangential Section. As the Radial, but the rays appear as minute lines about 03 mm. high, with a single round globule of dark resin in the centre of each : these bleed and become dusky specks. Rings appear as smooth-edged loops. 268 TAMARACK Type specimens from commercial sources and from trees known before felling. Wiesner (131), p. 149, gives details of the microscopic structure of this wood, with a " key " (after Burgers tein) arranged for the purpose of distinguishing it from the wood of the Fir. He also states that the wood consists entirely of tracheids without any woody parenchyma. No. 239. TAMARACK. Larix americana. Michx. PLATE XVI. FIG. 137. Natural Order. Coniferae. Synonyms. Pinus pendula, Ait. Abies pendula, Poir, etc. Alternative Names. Black Larch : American Larch : Hack- matack (49). Epinette rouge (108). Red Spruce (95). Sources of Supply. United States and Canada. Physical Characters, etc. Recorded dry-weight, 35-42 £ Ibs. per cu. ft. I have no other details, as I do not possess a solid speci- men. Grain. Fine. Surface not very lustrous : slightly satiny. Bark. " Of a bluish-grey colour . . . flakes off when old in small roundish scales " (49). Uses, etc. " Very strong : railway- ties, fence-posts, telegraph poles and knees for ships and shipbuilding generally ... is capable of supporting a great weight " (65). " Strong, com- pact and durable . . . one of the best timbers for railway-ties ... a favourite wood for shipbuilding " (49). " It has given good results as paving material in Canada " (108). " Very strong, durable in contact with the soil " (100). " Cannot be surpassed for knees, bends and garlands for shipbuilding " (95). Authorities. Robb (95). Macoun (65), p. 38. Ditto (66), p. 485. Hough (49), pt. i. p. 72. Laslett (60), p. 379. Petsche (108). Sargent (100), p. 215. Pinus contorta is spoken of by Petsche as " Tamarack or Hackmatack." Colour. " Light brown with lighter sap-wood " (49). " Red- dish-grey " (60). " Light brown : the sap-wood nearly white " (3). Heart very irregular in contour. Anatomical Characters. As those of L. europea, No. 238. Rays. Readily visible in Radial section in certain lights. Pores or vertical resin-canals readily visible as brown lines : prominent in Tangential section. Autumn wood rather sharply denned from Spring wood. The above details have been obtained from a section by Hough. 269 THE TIMBERS OF COMMERCE No. 240. WESTERN WHITE FIR. Abies grandis. Lindl. PLATE XVI. FIG. 136. Natural Order. Coniferae. Synonyms. A. Gordoniana, Carr. A. amabilis, Murray. Pinus grandis, Dougl. Picea grandis, Loudon. Alternative Names. Balsam (100). Balsam Fir (2). Great Silver Fir (49). Sources of Supply. Canada and the United States. Physical Characters, etc. Recorded dry-weight 22-29 IDS- P61" cu. ft. Hardness Grade 7, compare Deal. Smell or taste none. Burns well and quietly without crackling : aroma faint but agree- able : embers glow brightly in still air. Solution colourless. Grain. Fine and even. Surface has a frosted lustre. Bark. " When young is thickly covered with large bladders or cells filled with a liquid, resinous gum " (2). " Dark brown : fissured lengthwise, with quite regular, firm ridges which break away " (49). Uses, etc. " Common . . . grows to a large size . . . held in small esteem, being perishable and brittle " (2). " Not suited for any purpose for which strength is required . . . boxes, light barrels, etc." (65). Authorities. Anderson (2), p. 12. Macoun (65), p. 38. Sar- gent (100), p. 212. Hough (49), pt. ix. p. 51. Colour. Brownish-white. " White " (2). Anatomical Characters. As those of the Pines and Spruces generally (see Nos. 242"and 235), but without vertical resin-pores. Rays. Need lens and are difficult to see even with the micro- scope in the solid wood in Tangential section, but in Radial section they are readily visible to the naked eye as a pale incon- spicuous silver grain. The Spring wood passes over into that of the Autumn very gradually, and the contrast between the two zones is not very great except at the extreme boundary. The Spring wood appears as a narrow zone only, and in wide rings the Summer and Autumn wood account for the extra width. Type specimens authenticated by Hough. No. 241. OREGON PINE. Pseudotsuga Douglasii. Carr. PLATE XVI. FIG. 138. Natural Order. Coniferae. Synonyms. Abies Douglasii, Lindl. A. taxifolia, Poir. Picea Douglasii, Link. Pinus Douglasii, Sabine, also Lamb. Pinus taxifolia, Lamb. Tsuga Douglasii, Carr. 270 OREGON PINE Alternative Names. Douglas Pine, Fir or Spruce. Yellow or Red Fir in United States of America (n). Red Fir and Red Pine in Canada (12). Yellow Pine of Puget Sound (92). Sources of Supply. Canada, British Columbia, United States of America. Physical Characters, etc. Recorded dry- weight 30^-38 Ibs. per cu. ft. (131). Hardness Grade 7, compare Deal. Smell faint if any. Taste peculiar and flat : not vinous like Pinus Australis (Pitch Pine). Burns well with a lively noisy flame : embers soon die out in still air and leave a carbonized stick : strong tarry smell. Solution almost if not quite colourless. Grain. Even, smooth, close, the pores being filled. Surface partly of a resinous lustre and partly dull, in alternate bands. Bark. " Dark grey, rough, with thick firm ridges arranged in a latticed manner : contains pitch-galls when young " (49). Uses, etc. " A tree from 200-300 ft. high by 27-120 inches in diameter . . . wood strong, varying greatly : difficult to work : durable. The two varieties, Red and Yellow, distinguished by the lumbermen are probably dependent upon the age of the tree, the former coarse-grained, darker coloured and considerably less valuable than the Yellow Fir " (100). " Spars, flooring, works of construction, sleepers, piles, bridges, ships. Subject to the attacks of the teredo . . . durable when buried " (2). " Ship- building, bridge work, wharves, fencing, furniture " (65). " Good, but not equal to Pitch Pine for paving " (92). Authorities. Nordlinger (86), vol. v. p. 9. Laslett (60), p. 375. Hough (49), vol. vi. p. 55. Petsch (92), p. 106. Anderson (2), p. 9. Macoun (66). Ditto (65). Wiesner (131), p. 152. Sargent (100). Colour. Bands of a resinous-brown colour, alternating with lighter brown bands. " Splint yellowish " (86). Much lighter than the heart-wood. Anatomical Characters. Transverse section. (Compare No. 242.) Pores. Present as resin ducts : small, size 4 : few, very thinly scattered in the Summer and Autumn wood : imperfectly lined with soft-walled cells : uniform : bleed at the cut end after a time : absent over long stretches of the ring : clustered, single or paired. Rays. Just visible, size 5-6, or rather more : 3-9 per mm. : denser than the ground : yellowish : long, tapering at length : interrupted by or running round the ducts : large ones frequent, long and bold, occasionally as large as size 5. Rings. Very clear and prominent : the Summer and Autumn wood sharply separated with much contrast between • Autumn wood very resinous and dense, always a band and some- times very broad : contour undulating. 271 THE TIMBERS OF COMMERCE Ground-tissue. Spongy and coarse : cells diminishing out- wards considerably and becoming opaque and filled with resin, in regular radial rows : very irregular in size between one row and another oi the same ring. Pith. ? Horizontal R^stn Duds. Abundant on the limit of vision, but as they bleed and stain the adjoining wood they become readilv visible specks in Tangential section. Radial Section. Much lighter in shade than the transverse. Ducts appear as long, smeary lines. Rays scarcely prominent, but clear for a Conifer : brown, narrow and distinct. Rings (see Colour). Tangential Section. As the Radial, but the smeary ducts are a feature. Rays need microscope, and are easily confused with oblique sections of the ducts : brown, blunt lines about 0*2 mm. high. Rings sharply denned loops : the Spring zones are of a peculiar hoary appearance, scarcely if at all frosted : covered with stains and small spots both in the Spring and Autumn wood. (Plate XXII. Fi?. 177.) Type specimens from commercial sources ; also authenticated by Hough. No. 242. DEAL. Pinus sylvestris. Linn. (Not of Baume., Gouau., Herb., Lour., Mill., or Thunb.) PLATE XVI. FIG. 137. Natural Order. Conifene. Sources of Supply. Northern Europe, Asia and America. Alternative Names. Scotch Pine, Scots Fir, Red or Yellow Deal. Red, Yellow, Riga, Memel, Danzig, Stettin, Swedish, Nor- way, Polish, etc., Fir : Northern Pine, Red-wood, White-wood (60). Pin sylvestre, Sapin rouge du Nord, Bois rouge du Nord (92). Wild Pine ,(48). Pin de Hagenau : Pin a mature (70). Pin sauvage, Pin d'Ecosse (113). Pin de Geneve, P. d'Auvergne, P. blanc d'Autriche (92). Gemeine Kiefer, Fohre, Forle, Forche (123). Kiehne, Weiss- Kiefer (129). Physical Characters, etc. Recorded dry- weight 19^-52 Ibs. per cu. ft. Hardness Grade 7, compare Birch, or rather softer. Smell characteristic (dealy). Taste flat. Burns very well with a lively crackling flame and a tarry smell : embers glow in still air : ash dark-coloured : usually brown. Solution pale. Grain. Smooth, even, coarse in appearance, but the pores are very inconspicuous unless soiled. Surface lustrous, the Spring wood appearing crystalline under the lens, the Autumn wood of a resinous lustre. Uses, etc. Almost too well known to mention. " Durable : 272 DEAL splits well" (106). "Good for paving" (92). "Durable both in water and in the ground " (129). Bark. When young, parchment-like, of light yellowish-brown scales : later, very thick, red brown, deeply fissured, scaly (106). Authorities. Nordlinger (86), vol. iii. p. 12. Schwartz (106), p. 477. Laslett (60), p. 313. Stevenson (113), p. 154. Boppe (ii j, p. 92. Petsche (92), p. 77. De Mornay(7o), p. 115. Westermeier (129), p. 40. Mathieu (69), p. 588. Wiesner (131), L. 6, p. 153. Colour. Heart reddish and resin-coloured, well denned from the whitish sap-wood. " Honey-coloured to reddish-brown " (104). " Sap-wood 27-80 rings wide. The colour of the heart appears after exposure to the air" (131). Anatomical Characters. Transverse section : — Pores. Present as resin-canals : rather large : on the limit of vision : lighter than the ground, but contrasting little : not white-looking : few : often double the size of those of the Spruce. " Usually very clear " (131). Rays. Just visible from their lighter colour : light brown : apparently two sizes : one rowed and many rowed, a considerable number of the latter, but fewer than in the Spruce : taper rapidly. Rings. Very clear and prominent, often conspicuous : the Autumn wood much denser, but merging gradually into that of the Spring : a sharp contrast at the boundary. Ground-tissue. Very coarse : the cells gradually diminishing in size towards the outer side of the ring : in radial rows, which vary amongst themselves. Horizontal Resin Pores. In the many-rowed rays, and difficult to find : just visible with the lens : crimson. Pith. Brown, about i mm. diameter, round, radiating : of large, coarse, round cells. Radial Section. Much lighter in shade than the transverse section. Pores not easily seen except when soiled, though large : their resinous contents collect the dust. Rays readily visible from the play of light only. Ground-tissue satiny and crystal- line. Rays (see Horizontal Resin Pores). Type specimens from commercial sources. It is difficult to put the differences between this wood and that of the Spruce upon paper, but perhaps the more abundant resin, the larger pores and scarcer large rays may afford clues. Microscopically a distinction may be made. The bordered pits upon the walls of the cells of the tracheids of the rays adjoining those of the wood are the height of the former by the width of the latter : shortly, they are as large as the surfaces in contact allow, In the Spruce they are much smaller, and there may be s< within the same limits. 273 T THE TIMBERS OF COMMERCE No. 243. WHITE PINE. Pinus Strobus. Linn. (Not of Buch., or Thb.) PLATE XVI. FIG. 137. Natural Order. Coniferae. Alternative Names. Weymouth Pine. Yellow Pine (60). American White Pine. New England, Pumpkin, Apple or Sap- ling Pine (113). Pin du Lord (69). Pin blanc, Pin du Nord, Weymouths-kiefer (129). Hough calls this tree Wehmuths- kiefer, i.e. Melancholy Pine, which seems a much more probable derivation than that the tree was named after Lord Weymouth. Sources of Supply. North America, United States, Canada, Newfoundland and Nova Scotia. Cultivated in Europe and else- where. Boulger gives the names of Pitch, Hard or Norway Pine as being in use in Nova Scotia for this species. I suspect an error here as the adjectives are not appropriate to this wood. Physical Characters, etc. Recorded dry-weight, 20-30 Ibs. per cu. ft. Hardness Grade 8, one of the softest woods. Smell " dealy " if any. Taste terebinthine, as strong as that of Pitch Pine. Burns very well with a tarry, piquant smell and a lively vigorous flame : embers glow in still air : ash grey or white. Solu- tion colourless. Grain. Fine, even and smooth. Surface smooth, brilliantly lustrous : crystalline when magnified. Bark. " For a long time smooth, with a reddish lustrous ap- pearance " (106). When old i-i J inches thick, flaking in scales which are clearly marked off in section : deeply fissured, rugged, of a chocolate-brown colour : an inner lighter-coloured layer about -^ inch thick. Uses, etc. Similar to those of the Common Spruce in England. " Shrinks or swells but little " (49). " Has not much durability as paving blocks " (92). " Very fissile : moderately elastic and durable " (129). The common and most valuable building timber in the United States : not strong, easily worked. The European-grown wood " is not to be recommended : lacks elasti- city and durability : warps badly " (69) Authorities. Nordlinger (86), vol. iii. p. 12. Schwartz (106), p. 478. Laslett (60), p. 256. Stevenson (113), p. 171. Hough (49), pt. ii. p. 41. Macoun (66), p. 464. Westermeier (129), p. 44. Mathieu (69), p. 629. Sargent (100), No. 347. Wiesner (131), p. 147. Colour. Delicate pinkish-brown with a thin brown, white or yellowish sap-wood. Heart- wood excentric. " Often mottled " (gewassert) (86). " Orange to sienna " (104). " Reddish- yellow to bluish-red " (86). 274 PITCH PINE Anatomical Characters. Very similar to those of the Pines generally (see No. 242). Transverse section much darker than the vertical sections, unusually so. Pores. Present as resin-canals, rather small, size 4, but visible to the naked eye : chiefly in the Summer or middle zone of the ring : often in threes : appear white against the reddish colour of the wood (when cleanly cut). Rays. Just visible, size 5 or rather less : numerous, 9-14 per mm. : denser than the ground : tough and separable as threads from a thin section : white, rarely brown. Rings. Little contrast between the Spring and Autumn zones, the latter not very resinous, if at all, and not much darker in colour : contour well rounded. The ring-boundaries are barely perceptible on a Radial, and even less so on a Tangential, section. Pith. From 1-3 mm. wide : red, grey or brown : soft : of " fine, thin-walled cells " (86). Type specimens from commercial sources ; also authenticated by Hough. Wiesner makes the following distinction between this wood and that of Pinus sylvestris : — the contour of the inner side of the thickened cell-walls of the rays is even or gently undulating, while that of the Pine is ragged or toothed. No. 244. PITCH PINE. Pinus palustris. Mill. PLATE XVI. FIG. 138. Natural Order. Coniferas. Synonyms. Pinus australis, Mich., not of Dun. or Hort. Sources of Supply. The southern parts of the United States of America, chiefly upon the " Pine barrens " (49). Introduced elsewhere, and attains a considerable size in England. Alternative Names. Long-leaved Pine, Long-leaved Yellow Pine, Yellow Pine, Broom Pine, Southern Pine, Hard Pine, Georgia Pine (49). Red Pine, Brown Pine, Swamp Pine. Pensa- cola Pitch Pine and similar names derived from the port from whence it is shipped. Turpentine tree of the South (60). Pek Den at the Cape of Good Hope (51). Gelb-kiefer (131). Physical Characters, etc. Recorded dry-weight 37-43$ Ibs. per cu. ft. Hardness Grade 3, compare Blackthorn. Smell terebin- thine, often strong. Taste strong, terebinthine, even vinous. Burns well with a lively, noisy, smoky flame and resinous smell : heat expels resin : embers glow in still air : ash brown. Solu- tion colourless, but smells of the wood. Grain. Fine, smooth, even : pores all filled : compact. Sur- face resinous rather than bright : rays dull : ground-tissue dully •crystalline* 275 THE TIMBERS OF COMMERCE Bark. " Light brown, greyish-brown, checked into elongated patches, the outer surface of which flake off in irregular, friable scales " (49) or in " thin strips " (37). Uses, etc. " Durable, strong . . . opinions differ as to its durability . . . spars, church fittings, houses, works of con- struction, ships, sleepers, interiors . . . tough: shrinks" (49). "Durable in the earth . . . a paving wood of the first order" (92). Authorities. Kew Cat. Conif., p. 95. Nordlinger (86), vol. viii. p. 10. Laslett (60), p. 373. Stevenson (113). Hough (49), pt. v. p. 51. Hutchins (51). Petsche. (92), p. no. Wiesner (131), L. 6, p. 54. Colour. In alternate bands of a resinous colour and lighter brown. " Sap-wood lighter " (49). Anatomical Characters. Transverse section (compare No. 242). Pores. Present as resin-canals : rather large : few : generally isolated : size 2 : usually imperfect in the lining-cells, and on this account appear about size oo in a thin section. Rays. Just visible, size 5-6 : brown, strong, short, rapidly tapering : gently undulating : large ones rare if any. Rings. Conspicuously marked by a dark firm belt of Autumn wood : sometimes a mere line, but always a bold contrast, the Autumn wood being sharply cut off from both the Summer and Spring wood. Ground-tissue. That of the Spring very coarse : that of the Autumn very fine, dense and filled with resin. Horizontal Resin Ducts. Scarcely distinguishable with the microscope (2 inch) in the solid. Radial Section. Much lighter in shade than the Transverse section. Pores readily visible : cloudy and indefinite rather than sharp, with little tendency to collect the dust. Rays readily visible, but not conspicuous, dull brown flakes. Rings very de- finite : Spring and Autumn wood sharply separated. Tangential Section. As the Radial. The rings appear as sharp edged loops without fringes. The rays need microscope : very difficult to see : about o-i mm. high. Type specimens from commercial sources checked by the sec- tions of Hough and Nordlinger, and by the specimens hi the Museum No. I, Kew. No. 245. CLUSTER PINE. Pinus Pinaster. SolancL (Not of Bess, or Loud.) PLATE XVI. FIG. 137. Natural Order. Coniferae. Alternative Names. Sea Pine, Maritime Pine. Seef ochre- 276 Fit. 175. THE TIMBER:- CE .lit brown, greyish- brown, checked into elongated outer surface of whicl> flake off in irregular, friable or in " thin strips " (37). Durable, strong . . . opinions differ as to its . . spars, hurch fittings, houses, works of con- ips, sleepers, interiors . . . tough : shrinks " (49). in the earth ... a paving wood of the first order " Cat. Conif., p. 95. Nordlinger (86), vol. fo). P- 373- Stevenson (113). Hough (49), - (51). Petsche (92), p. no. Wiesner >us colour and lighter 1 " (49)- . Transverse section (con i 242)-. Pores. Present as resin-cr - >j\v : generally isolated: size 2: usv ntj-^ells, and on . •ng, short, rapidly .-> rare if any. : 'usly mar i dark firm belt of Autumn mere line, but always a bold contrast, the : "ing sharply cut off from both the Summer and •)f the Spring very coarse : that of the ;e and filled with resin. Scarcely distinguishable with the -olid. '• lighter in shade than the Transverse l •••ia. 235. 236. 245 272, 277 299 INDEX Fagara flava, 23 Fagarastrum, 24 Fagus ferruginea, 231, 234 fusca, 232 Solandri, 233 sylvatica, 231, 234 sylvestris, 234 Fau, 231 Fayard, 231 Feldulme, 196 Felt, xiii Ferolier, 101 Ferolia guianense, 101 variegata, 101 Fichte, 265 Lorcher, 267 Schimmel, 266 Fig, Blue, 14 Fiji. 75 Filbert, 223 Fir, 272 Balsam, 270 Douglas, 271 Great Silver, 270 Red, 271 Scots, 272 Spruce, 264 Western White, 270 White, 264 Yellow, 271 Fisetholz, 202 Flecks, xvii Flintwood, 124 Florida, 20 Fohre, 272 Fohre, See-, 276 Forche, 272 Foyard, 231 France, 219, 222, 235, 236, 265,277 Fraxinus acuminata, 162 americana, 162, 163 canadensis, 162 carolineana, 163 epiptera, 162 excelsior, 160, 163 nigra, 161 pallida, 163 platycarpa, 163 sambucifolia, 161 Fusanus, 158 cygnorum, 190 spicatum, 190 spicatus, 190 Fustete, 202 Fustic, xxxii and 202 Fustick-wood, 202 Futeiba, 202 Gabanholz, 70 Gaillard Franc, 18 Gamelleira preta, 203 Gateado, 203 Gatia, 203 Geelhart, 176 Geelhout, 254 Cape, 253 Geffroya racemosa, 92 Gelbholz, 202 Genebre, 256 Genevrier, 256 Geoffraea inermis, 93 Germany, 196, 222, 225, 256, 265, 277 Gidgee, 80 Gidia, 80 Gigan tabies taxifolia, 261 Gimlet-wood, 120 Gironde, 224, 277 Glattruster, 196 Gold Coast, 6 Gom-boom, Fraaiblad, 117 Gomme animee, 100 Gonioma Kamassi, 164 Granadillo, 96 Granillo, 96 Grani, xxxvi Gravelin, 224 Greenheart, 176 Yellow, 176 Grenadilla-wood, African, 61 Grevillea, 185 robusta, 185 umbra tica, 185 venusta, 185 Guadeloupe, 27, 101 Guaiacan, 19 Guaiacum, xxxii arboreum, 18 bijugum, 1 8 multijugum, 20 officinale, 18, 20 sanctum, 20 verticale, 20 -wood, 1 8 Guatteria quitarensis, 2 virgata, 2 Guayaca, 19 Guayacan, 18, 19 Guiana, 28, 38, 46, 84, 88, 94, 100, loi, 135, 136, 143, 148, 176, 177, 178, 179, 180, 181, 203 Gum Trees (Australian), xxix Blue (Tasmania), 125 California Red, 112 Gimlet, xii and 120 300 INDEX Gum Trees, Grey, 125 Mahogany, 114 Morrell, 128 Red (Australian), 115 Red (Liquidambar), 112 Red (S.W. Australia), 117 Salmon, xv and 127 South American, 112 Star-leaved, 112 Sweet, 112 White, 116, 121 York, 1 19 Hackia, 142 Hackmatack, 269 Haematoxylon campechianum, 68 Hagbuche, 219 Hagebuche, 219 Hainbirke, 216 Hainbuche, 219 Hakea acicularis, 186 Halleria elliptica, 172 lucida, 172 Halmillilla, 17 Hamamelideae, 112 Hangebuche, 231 Hardbeam, 219 Hardness of wood, xxv. 280 Hassagay-wood, 138 Hazel, 223 Heart-wood, x, xv Hemlock, 264 Western, 264 Hibiscus elatus, 9 populneus, 10 Tall, 9 tiliaceus, 9 Hickory, xiv and 211 Himalayas, 104 Hinau, 15 Hoheria populnea, 8 Holder, Schwartze, 141 Holly, xxi and 44 Honeysuckle, Coast, 183 White, New Zealand, 183 Honduras, 36 Hoobooballi, xii and 98 Hoop Tree, 31 Hopfenbuche, 222 Hornbaum, 219 Horse Chestnut, xix, xxii, 51 Hornbeam, xv, xxix, 219 Hop, 221, 222 Houi, 7 Huelsdorn, 44 Huelsen, Gemeine, 44 Humiriaceae, 46 Humiria arenaria, 46 elliptica, 46 noribuncla. 46 laurina, 46 mutittora, 46 parviflora, 46 surinamensis, 46 Humirium, 46 Hure mara, 73 Hurihi, 73 Hutu Tawhai, 232 Hymenoea aminifera, 99 Hymenoea Courbaril, 99 resinifera, 99 Ibiariba, 92 Igqwanxe, 157 Ilex aquifolium, 44 capensis, 45 Ilicineae, 44, 45 I-Miuga, 172 India, 10, 17, 29, 31, 37, 63, 70. 73. 75, 81, 151, 154, 170, 191. 206, 245 Inga vera, 97 Ipreau, 196 Iroko, 95 Iron-bark, xvi, 115 Tree, 143 Ironwood, Black (S. Africa), 157 (Hackia), 143 (New Zealand), 130 /Ostrya), 221 (Quebracho), 242 Irtalie, 90 Isle de France, 70 Itauba-branca, 176 vermelho, 176 Ixora ferrea, 142 triflorum, 142 Jaack-wood. 205 Jacaranda, 62 Cabiuna, 62 preto, 62 Jaca-tree, 205 Jack Tree, 204 Jacqueira, 205 Jak-wood, 205 Jam. 77 Jamaica. 9, 27. 31, 36, 50. 97, 168, 178 Japan. 149 Japanholz. 70 Jarrah, xxvi. xxxv, 1 14 Jarrah, Curly, 114 301 INDEX Jarrah, Salmon-barked, 127 Jatai, 100 Jatoba, 100 Java, 46, 205 Jebaru-rana, 88 Jetahy, 99 accu, 99 Jimmy Low, 115 Juglandaceae, 209-211 Juglans nigra, 210 regia, 209 Sieboldiana, 210 Juniper, 256 Calif ornian, 257 Canadian, 257 Western, 257 Juniperus barbadensis, 255 communis, 256 excelsa, 257 occidentals, 255, 257 virginiana, 255, 257 Kahikatea, 249 Kahikatoa, 249 Kakeralli, 135 Kamahi, in Kamai, 1 1 1 Kamassihout, 164 Kari, 116 Karri, 116 Kastanie, 26 Kastanje, Australische, 90 Europeesche, 230 Kaapsche, 230 Kaapje, 26 Katamanakku, 17 Katoenhout, 238 Kawhaka, 260 Kawri, 262 Kedgy-kedgy, 41 Keritee, 179 Khaya senegalensis, 32 Kiefer, Gemeiue, 272 Resin, 278 Weiss, 272 Weymouths, 274 Kiehne, 272 Kiggelaria Dregeana, 3 glandulosa, 3 integrifolia, 3 Kirton-wood, 1 3 Klipdoorn, 5 Knightia excelsa, 183 Knob-hout, 25 Knobthorn, 24 Kobe- Kobe, 42 Kokkra-wood, 97 Koomkabang, 185 Koondeba, 214 Koorooballi, 86 Kooroobooilli, 85, 86 Kooroobovilli, 84 Korbesche, 161 Kos, 205 Kowhai, 76 Kretti, xxxvi and 179 Kundi, 38 Kurpoora maram, 125 Kuthul, 205 K'wannarri, 100 Lace-bark, 7, 8 -wood, 208, 238 Laerche, Gemeine, 267 Lane, 265 Lagos, 6, 33, 95 Laintlain, 6 Lancewood, Cape, 138 Cuba, 2 Degame, 144 Jamaica, 2, 144 Landes, 224, 277 Laranjeira doce, 21 Larch, 267 American, 269 Black, 269 Larix, americana. 269 europea, 267 Laurel, Madrona, 146 Laurus bullata, 173 Tama, 182 Tawa, 182 Leard, 236 Lechenbaum, Gemeiner, 267 Lecythis grandiflora, 136 Ollaria, 135 Leeward Islands, 203 Leguminoseae, xxiii and 59-99 Lemon-wood, 22, 23 Lenticels, xvi Leopard-wood, 203 Letter-wood, 203 Levant, 208 Lever- wood, 221 Liardier, 236 Libocedrus Bidwilli, 260 Doniana, 260 Liege, bois de, 9 Lightwood (N.S.W.), 81 Lignum citrinum, 202 Guaiaci, 20 -vitae, xvi, xxvi, xxxvi and 18 (Cocus), 97 302 INDEX Lignum-vitae, Guayaquil, 243 (Hackia), 143 Maracaibo, 18 Lime Tree, 13 (Citrus), 23 (U.S.A.), ii Limoeiro, 23 Limon, 23 manie, 21 Lin, ii Linden (U.S.A.), ii Liquidambar monophylla, 1 12 styraciflua, 112 Liriodendron tulipifera, I tulipiflora, i procera, i Litsea calicaris, 175 Locust, 59 Black, 59 Gum, 100 (Hymenoea), 99 Red, 59 Tree, Leathery-leaved, 100 West Indian, 100 Locustrier, 100 Locust Yellow, 59 Loganiaceae, 165, 166 Log, surface of, xvi Logwood, xxxii and 68 Lombricero, 93 Lophira africana, 6 alata, 6 simplex, 6 Lorche, 267 Lorchen-baum, Weisser, 267 Luftholz, 84 Lythraries, 137 Macaco, Pao, 136 Maclura tinctoria, 202 Madeira, 105 Madras, 125 Madrona Laurel, 146 Madera, 146 Magnoliaceae, i Maha Neem, 31 Mahoe, Blue, xxvi and 9 do Mer, 9 Mountain, 9 Mahogany, xxxiii, 33 African, xxiv and 32,33 American, xxiv Assinee, 33 Australian, 40, 114, I24 (Casuarina), 214 Red, 115 Axim, 33 Mahogany, Bermuda, 33 City St. Domingo, 33. 35 Cuba, 33. 35 East Indian, 241 Forest, 115 Honduras, xxiv, 33 Indian, 37 Lagos. 33 Laguna. 33 (Logwood), 68 Mountain (Betula), 216 Natal, 3 Panama, 33, 35 St. Domingo, xxiv, 33. 35 Tenasserim, 75 Tabasco, xxiv and 33 (West Australian), 117 Mahot, Grand, 9 Mai, 251 Maire, Black, 158 -rau-nui, 158 White, 159 Majagna, 9 Malabar, 63 Malacca, 37, 75, 205 Malay Archipelago, 31, 151. 191, 206 Malus communis, 104 Malvaceae, 7-10 Mamin, 37 Manao, 248 Mangeao, 175 Mangeas, 175 Manzanita, 145 Maple, xvii, xxix Big-leaved, 57 Bird's-eye, 55 Broad- leaved, 57 Californian, 57 Hard. 55 Oregon. 57 Rock, 55 Russian, 215 Sugar, 55 Vine, 57 Maracaibo, 19 Marara, no Marawagana. 84 Marawayana. 84 Marawinaroo. 84 Margose, 29 Marmites de Singe, 136 Marronier d'Inde, 51 Marsaulc, 235 Marsault, 235 Maruba, 27 Mastbuche. 231 303 INDEX Matai, 251 Maubo do Mato, 9 Melia, 32 australasica, 3 1 Azadirachta, 3 1 dubia, 31 Indica, 31 Meliaceae, 29-42 Melaleuca leucadendron, 132 var. Cunningham!, 134 Melkhout, 148 Merisier (Betula), 216 Metrosideros lucida, 130 robusta, 129 tomentosa, 131 Meui, 6 Mexico, 34, 36, 112, 146, 207, 228 255 Microscope for wood, xxxiii Milk- wood Tree, 132 Millai, 6 Mimosa guianensis, 98 odoratissima, 73 serissa, 74 Sweet-scented, 72 Mimusops Balata, 148 globosa, 148 Miro, 250 toromiro, 250 Monkey Pot, 135, 136 Monocotyledons, xxxvii Moorgum, 14 Mora, 94 Moraballi, 94 Mora bucquia, 94 excelsa, 94 Red, 94 White, 94 Moreira, 94 Morrell, xv and 128 Morus tinctoria, 202 Mugurpul, 37 Mulberry, Dyer's, 202 Muswal, 29 Myall, 78, 79 Weeping, 78 Myrsinese, 147 Myrsine melanophleos, 147 Myrtaceae, xxxvii and 114-136 Nangka, 205 buhriet, 205 Nassau, 23 Natal, 3. 4. 26, 43. 47, 45, 49, 53, 58, 134, 147, 164 Nectandra, Sp., 179, 180, 181 exaltata, 178 Nectandra. pisi, 177 Rodier, 176 Rodioei, 176 sanguinea, 178 Neem, Maha, 31 Nesodaphne Tawa, 182 New Brunswick, u, 55, 162, 231, 234, 266 Newfoundland, 55, 162, 231, 266, 274 New Providence, 23 South Wales, 13, 37, 40, 41, 78, 80, 90, no, 115, 124, 125, 132, 183, 185, 189, 214 Zealand, 7, 8, 15, 42, 76, in, 114, 129, 130, 131, 158, 159, 172, 175, 183, 232, 244, 247, 248, 249, 250, 251, 252, 261, 262 Nicaragua, Bois de, 68 Niehbuhria, 45 Nieri, 46 Nieshout, 52 Nim, 31 Noisetier, 223 Nongko, 205 Noo Loi, 214 Nova Scotia, 55, 161, 162, 216, 234, 266, 274, 277 Nut-wood, 223 Nuxia floribunda, 166 Nym, 31 Oak, xii, xiii, xiv, xv, xvi, xviii, xxi, xxix, xxx, xxxiv, xxxvi African, 6, 195 American Red, 226 White, 227 Baltimore, 227 Black, 226 Botany Bay, 214 Canadian Red, 226 European, 224 White, 224 Forest (Casuarina), 214 Indian, 170 Memel, 224 Mountain, 214 White, 228 Oregon, 228 Riga, 224 River (Casuarina), 214 Scrubby, 6 Silky, 185, 189 Silvery, 189 Spanish, 228 Stettin, 224 304 INDEX Oak, Western, 228 Western White, 227 White, 228 Ochroma Lagopus, 1 10 Ocotea bullata, 173 Oganwo, 33 Olacineae, 43 Oldfieldia africana, 195 Oleaceae, 156-163 Olea Cunninghami, 158 europea, 156 intermedia, 157 lanceolata, 159 undulata, 157 verrucosa, 156 Olive-wood, xii and 156 Olmo bianco, 197 de Corcho, 198 Oomlehbe, 138 Opepe, 240 Orange, China, 21 -wood, 21 (Artocarpus), 205 Oreodaphne bullata, 173 Orham-wood, 199 Orme a grappes, 198 champetre, 196 parasol, 197 rouge, 196 Ostrya americana, 221 carpinifolia, 222 commun, 222 italica, 222 virginiana, 221 virginica, 221 vnlgaris, 221, 222 Outeniqua, 254 Oxandra virgata, 2 Padouk, 75 Padus serotina, 107 Pae Rainha de listras, 203 Pahautea, 260 Paira, 203 Palissander-wood, 62 Palissandre, 62 Panama, 169 Palo de Campeche, 68 Palo Narango, 202 Palo Santo, 19 Pangera falcata, 88 Pao de Campeche, 68 de Rosa, 137 Macaco, 136 Pomba, 27 Paper-bark Tree, 132 Papri, 192 Para, 19, 27 Parenchyma, Woody, xxii Parinarium, 101 Nonda. 102 Paritium elatum, 9 Parive, 88 Partridge-wood, 91, 93, 97 Black, 91 Brown, 91 Red, 91 Sweet, 91 Paukatea, 260 Pear, 103 Native, 186 Red, 5 White (S. Africa), 43 Pechtanne, 265 Peer, Wit. 43 Pencil-wood, 257 Pernambuco, 203 Persimmon-wood, 149 Peru, 137 Petwoon, 17 Peuplier de Virginie, 238 franc, 236 monilifere, 238 Suisse, 238 Pfefferholz. 36 Pferdefleischholz, 148 Pheasant-wood, 91 Philippines, 70 Phoberos Ecklonii, 5 Mundtii, 5 Photo-micrographs, scale of magni- fication, vi Phyllocladus rhomboidalis. 244 trichomanoides. 244 Physocallyma floribundum, 137 floridum. 137 scaberrimum, 137 Picardy, 224 Picea alba, 265 Douglasii, 270 excelsa, 264 grandis, 270 laxa. 265 sitchensis, 266 vulgaris, 264 Picraena excelsa, 28 ofncinalis, 27 Pigment-zones, xii Pignon,. 277 Pin a mature, 272 blanc, 274 d'Autriche, 272 bon, 277 d'Auvergne, 273 305 INDEX Pin de Bordeaux, 277 d'Ecosse, 272 de Geneve, 272 de Hagenau, 272 de Pierre, 277 des Landes, 277 du Lord, 274 du Nord, 274 franc, 277 gigantesque, 278 Maritime, 277 Pinier, 277 sauvage, 272 sylvestre, 272 Pinaster, 277 Pine, American White, 274, 278 Apple, 274 Bastard Black, 250 Black (Nova Scotia), 277 Black (N.Z.), 250, 251 Celery, 244 Celery-leaved, 244 Celery-topped, 244 Cluster, 276 Columbian, 278 Douglas, 271 Dundathi, 262 Great Sugar, 278 Italian Stone, 277 Kauri, 262 Maritime, 276 Mountain, 277 New England, 274 New Zealand (Kauri), 262 Red, 217 White, 249 North Carolina, 278 Northern, 272 Oregon, 270 Pitch, xxxiv, 275 Pumpkin, 274, 278 Red (Canada), 271 Sapling, 274 Scotch, 272 Sea, 275, 276 Silver (N.Z.), 248 Soft, 278 Stone, 277 Sugar, 278 Trees, xxi Umbrella, 277 Westland, 248 Weymouth, 274 White (American), 274 White (Nova Scotia), 277 White-barked, 278 Wild, 272 Pine, Yellow (P. Strobus), 24 Yellow (Puget Sound), 271 Pinesse, 265 Pinie, 277 Pinus abies, 264 alba, 265 albicaulis, 278 australis, 275 canadensis, 264 Douglasii, 270 excelsa, 264 flexilis, 278 grandis, 270 Lambertiana, 278 Menziesii, 266 Mertensiana, 264 palustris, 275 Pattoniana, 264 pendula, 269 Pinaster, 276 Pinea, 277 sitchensis, 266 Strobus, 274 sylvestris, 272 taxifolia, 270 Piptadenia rigida, 72 Piratinera guianensis, 203 Pirus acerba, 104 Pitch Tree, New Zealand, 262 Pith, xv Plagianthus betulinus, 7 Plane, xvi, and 207 American, 207 Tree, 54 Eastern, xii and 208 Maple-leaved, 208 Western, xv and 207 Plaqueminier de Virginie, 149 Plataan, 207, 208 Platanaceae, 207, 208 Platane d'Orient, 208 Faux, 54 Platanus acerifolia, 208 occidentalis, 207 orientalis, 208 Podocarpus, African, 254 dacrydioides, 249 elongata, 254 ferruginea, 250 latifolia, 253 latifolius, 253 Meyeri