DAES TR Fil I a TF a TE Ei tmint Vicir Sa . ry : iweis a oF aed oeeytew ple WA . , et ne ly be) P59 ki ee ; Bishi ks de’ TRANSACTIONS OF THE KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE (Quarterly Series) AFFILIATED WITH THE A.A. A.S. VOLUME 12 (Double Issue) No. 1—April, 1945 No. 2—November, 1945 CONTENTS Foreword to the Forum on Kentucky Education _........... Forever In the Forties? Walang Sel avlOrs2 2s. 2 ieee Soe oe Education In Kentucky NREE ines 2) eke, A eee Elementary Education In Kentucky Puichardeh na SSers, see oho eee ee Secondary Education In Kentucky ohn red . Williams tees eo a ee (: Problems of Higher Education In Kentucky fd an OPP CMMCIMIC? f=. ae er et ee Aor ee The Density of Ether Dlarele SLeWal te ose a eh Leaf Glands in Ailanthus altissima et NOce) NCS ere ag ir ag eee ee ee ; TRANSACTIONS OF THE KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE EDITORIAL STAFF Lawrence Baker___.. Berea College.._..Psychology and Philosophy Be Wee Cooke. Centre::College ua. tse Bacteriology He Bs Lovell University .om Wousville ieee Biology A, C. McFarlan.____. Universityob Kentucky.) 22 es Geology Ward C. Sumpter...Western State Teachers College....Chemistry Jarvis; Todd) Universitysor Kentucky. eee Physics Harlow Bishop......-- University of Louisville, Managing Editor MANUuscrIPTS. The Transactions must be limited to the pro- ceedings of the annual meetings of the Kentucky Academy of Science and to original manuscripts pertaining to science. Manu- scripts are subject to the approval of the Editorial Staff and may be submitted to the Editor of the subject covered or to the Managing Editor. EXXTRA-CosT FEATURES. The extra cost of special features such as cuts, graphs, tables, etc., above the text-run price per page must be borne by the contributor. The Editorial Staff will advise contributors concerning the extra cost of features upon receipt of manuscript. Illustrations to be included in an article should ac- company the manuscript if possible, or, if sent in separate pack- age should be properly labeled as to the article in which they are to occur. ProoF. Galley proof will be sent for approval of contributors. The proof should be returned promptly to managing editor. REPRINTS. Reprints are furnished at publisher’s prices by ne- gotiating directly with the printer. Price quotations on reprints are submitted with the proof, and orders for reprints should ac- company the proof when returned to the printer. SUBSCRIPTION RATES. The Transacticns is sent without addi- tional expense to all members of the Kentucky Academy of Science who are not in arrears for annual dues. The annual sub- scription rate for non-members is $2.00 in the United States and Canada, 52.50 in foreign countries; single numbers 75 cents. One volume of four numbers appears each Academy fiscal year. BUSINESS CORRESPONDENCE. Remittances and correspondence concerning subscriptions, extra costs, and other financial matters except reprints should be addressed to Harlow Bishop, University of Louisville, Louisville, kentucky. AXQONIAN INST EL j “ArionatA MUS sEUe Snr FOREWORD Due to wartime restrictions, the regular meet- ing of the Kentucky Academy of Science for the spring of 1945 could not be held. Among the events planned for that occasion was a forum on Kentucky education. The scheduled speakers for this forum were invited to publish their papers in the Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science. The editorial board expresses its pleasure with the manner in which the authors have re- sponded. We hope that the Academy has contrib- uted in this way to the cause of good education in Kentucky. We wish to affirm our editorial policy of accept- ing papers at any time, in addition to accepting those papers which are submitted as part of the programs of the annual meetings. We feel that in this way only can the Transactions be considered truly a quarterly journal. Authors may send their papers to the appropriate assistant editor or to the managing editor. The papers contributed to the Forum on Ken- tucky Education follow immediately. Each paper in this series is so designated. Mr. Charles Farnsley was the chairman of the Forum and to him we are indebted for its initial stimulus. bo The Kentucky Academy of Science FOREVER IN THE FORTIES ?* WILLIAM S. TAYLOR Dean, College of Education, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Ky. Kentucky is still in the forties! Since the first rating of the states educationally, in 1918, Kentucky has been apologizing for its position. At first many persons maintained that the rating was unfair; that Kentucky had a better school system than the evaluation indicated. Other rating scales have been developed since that ‘time and Kentucky has been scored on these. By every test Kentucky has been rated in the forties. Great progress has been made in Kentucky in the past quar- ter of a century—but other states have made progress too. We are still in the forties and we cannot get out by pointing to our educational accomplishments or by feeling sorry for ourselves. If we want to improve our educational rank we must recognize our deficiencies and improve our program where it is weak. Under present conditions to be born in Kentucky is to be born with a potential educational handicap. It is true that some of our cities and counties have excellent school systems but in far too many school districts of the state teachers are poorly qualified, buildings are inferior, teaching materials and equipment are in- adequate, school terms are short, attendance is low, and learning is meager. Children attending such schools never have a chance to learn what education should do for ‘them and for the communi- ties in which they live. As citizens they will lack vision because they now lack opportunity to learn the things that contribute to effective ciizenship. We are in a vicious circle. Poor schools make poor citizens; poor citizens are content with poor schools. What are some of our handicaps in Kentucky? Why do we receive an embarrassingly low rating every time the states in the Union are ranked as to educational efficiency? Some of the most difficult problems we have to overcome are the result of constitutional limitations. Under a provision of the constitution the superintendent of public instruction must be selected on a political rather than a professional basis and his term of office is limited to four years. No intelligent person would think of re- quiring the president of the University and the presidents of the teachers colleges to seek their offices on a political basis. The position of state superintendent of schools in any state should be * Received for publication May 11, 1945. Contribution to the Forum On Kentucky Education. Ar" 1 * 1047 Forever in the Forties? 3 free from political influences and should be comparable in im- portance to the presidency of the state university. And not one reason can be found for limiting the term of office of the state superintendent to four years. It should be possible for a super- intendent of public instruction to stay in office as long as he is giving efficient service. No superintendent, however strong and efficient, can project and carry through a constructive state pro- gram of education in a period of four years. An additional handicap is the constitutional limitation of $5,000 on the salary that can be paid to any person in public education, including the state teachers colleges and the Univer- sity. The Legislature has added a further restriction in that it has authorized a salary of only $4,000 for the state superin- tendent of public instruction. The salary for this office is so small that few men can afford to offer themselves for the position. It takes a brave man to resign from a good school position in Kentucky, run for office on a political ticket, without prospect of a position when his four-year term of office is over. Another great handicap to the development of a strong educa- tional program in Kentucky is the meager financial support which has been given by the Legislature to the State Department of Education. It has been difficult for the Department to pro- cure men and women with the highest qualifications for leader- ship because of the low salaries paid and the uncertainty of tenure which results from the election of the superintendent on a party ballot. There has never been the security of office in the State Department of Education that has existed in the public- school systems of the state, in the teachers colleges, or in the University. A long-recognized need in Kentucky is a coordinated system of education from the elementary school through college or univer- sity. Great strides have been made in recent years in coordinat- ing the programs of elementary and secondary education. These programs are still not so well articulated with the program of higher education as they should be. Most authorities in the field of school administration agree that there are in Kentucky too many different boards administering the program of publicly supported education. This question needs serious study to dis- cover the steps that could be taken to strengthen Kentucky’s educational program. Closely related, if not actually a part of the question of a better coordinated system is the problem of reducing the number of school administrative units in the state. We have at present too 4 The Kentucky Academy of Science many small districts which are in most cases weak. There are many reasons for combining city and county programs of educa- tion. Around our larger cities are great suburban areas that have all the problems of city school systems; in many instances, how- ever, these areas are parts of county systems. The concentration of wealth within cities makes it easier for urban centers than for rural areas to support their programs of education. If larger school units could be established, the burden of support would be more nearly equalized and a more effective program would be realized. Not only must the tax laws be revised but property assess- ments must be increased to more nearly their actual value. But at best, Kentucky would not be able to compete with the wealthiest states or even with the average state of the nation. Federal sup- port for education must be provided if Kentucky is to approxi- mate the national average in the provision of educational oppor- tunity for its citizens. Kentucky does not have wealth to produce the income necessary for an educational program comparable to those of the upper 50 per cent of the states of the nation. Kentucky ranks lowest of all of the states in the Union in the percentage of its children between the ages of fourteen and seventeen who are enrolled in high school. Our secondary schools in America have frequently been called the peoples’ colleges. These are the schools in which the children of America should be given the kinds of education that will make possible richer lives and better work. Kentucky has not been able, in many areas, to provide transportation to high school for rural children. While there is a high school in every county in Kentucky, in a great number of counties the enrollments are exceptionally low. Elementary education is not enough for Kentucky’s children. Some means must be found of making secondary education available to all of the children of the state. All of us are agreed that longer terms must be made available in rural elementary schools. A rural child cannot learn as much in seven months in a poor school under an inadequately prepared teacher as a city child learns in nine months in a good school under a well-educated teacher. Public school programs in every state are affected by the col- leges and universities of that state. The institutions of higher learning in Kentucky have served well with the limited resources available. To insure adequate help from her state supported insti- tutions of higher education, Kentucky must provide a larger measure of support for these schools. The teachers colleges and Forever in the Forties? 5 the University need greatly increased funds if they are to give to the state the best possible service. The University should not only offer programs for the high school graduates who come to the campus for education, but it should also provide in-service education on the adult level for many groups of people who need training for the work they are doing or will do. Newly elected city and county officials should be able to come to the University for short courses before they take office; such public officials as county cierks, city clerks, county judges, city judges, and sheriffs should find at the University the help they need to enable them to give effective service. Business executives should have an op- portunity to come to the University for training which would help them to improve their organization and management. EKm- ployees of business and industry should receive services through the Extension Division of the University that would enable them to improve their earning power and to give better service to the organizations that employ them. There has been in existence for a long time an unusually effective in-service education program for farmers and for homemakers. Similar services should be ex- tended to people in other occupations. These are only a few of the many things that need to be done to give Kentucky an educational program that will meet the needs of her people. We must stir ourselves to vigorous effort. We are not a pauper state. We can finance better schools than we now have, but we cannot provide schools as good as our chil- dren deserve from money raised in Kentucky alone. We must pro- cure for our state the help necessary to give to children and adults an adequate educational program. 6 The Kentucky Academy of Science EDUCATION IN KENTUCKY* W. P. KING Executive Secretary, Kentucky Education Association There are in Kentucky 120 county school systems and 137 independent systems, or a total of 257 school units each adminis- tered by a board of education and a superintendent. The schools are financially supported by local tax and appropriations from the state. The latter consists of (1) a fund which is distributed on a per capita basis, and (2) an equalization fund which is dis- tributed on the basis of need. Districts which cannot raise from their local tax plus their per capita allotment from the state an amount equal to $40.00 for each pupil may participate in the equalization fund. Kentucky has struggled for a number of years under a tax sys- tem for schools which differentiated between districts. For ex- ample, a county could levy a maximum of 75 cents on each $100 of assessible property while independent districts could levy within a range from $1.00 to $1.50 for the same purpose. This inequality has been removed during the current session of the Legislature by the passage of a law which permits $1.50 tax in all districts. This law will become operative July 1, 1946. Under the tax system which has prevailed, 55 counties have only 7 months of school while most of the other 65 counties have 8 or 9 months as do nearly all independent districts. The new tax program will remedy this condition. There are slightly under 4,000 one-teacher schools in Ken- tucky. These are rural schools and are chiefly in the seven-month counties. Most of these counties are levying all the tax permitted by law. Many of them would be willing to raise their tax for schools if it were not for legal restrictions. Another retarding factor for the schools and other depart- ments of the state government is the great inequality in the as- sessment of property. The range of assessments runs all the way from approximately 35 per cent of the fair cash value as indi- cated by sales, to approximately 85 per cent in some of the high- est counties. On the other hand there is much potential wealth in the state owned and operated by corporations out of the state, which does not bear its part of the educational load. The circumstances set out above result in the very low ranking * Received for publication May 14, 1945. Contribution to the Forum On Kentucky Education. Education In Kentucky ] of Kentucky in so many categories. For example, among the 49 states including the District of Columbia, according to the latest data, Kentucky ranks 48th in number of days of school taught, 43rd in school attendance, 39th in per cent of persons 25 years of age and above who have completed less than five years of school, 40th in median school years completed by persons 25 years of age and older, 42nd in current expenditures for educa- tion per child in average daily attendance, 41st in average salary per teacher and 45th in the value of school property per child. Latest data also shows that Kentucky ranks as follows in items measuring the well being of her people: 45th in per capita in- come, 44th in per capita retail sales, 42nd in per capita output of industries, 39th in per capita life insurance in effect, 38th in per cent of homes having mechanical refrigeration, 40th in per cent of homes with running water and 43rd in per capita circula- tion of 18 national magazines. A question which logically arises is whether or not Kentucky is able to support a system of public education. Let us examine the facts. Three measures are frequently used to determine the economic ability of a state to support education and other governmental services by taxation. They are per capita economic income, per capita output of industry, including farming and mining, and per capita retail sales. In 1940, according to the Survey of Current Business, August, 1941, the per capita economic income in Kentucky was $298 and the average for the U. S. was $532. Judged by this measure, Ken- tucky therefore has only 56 per cent of the ability to support taxation of the average for the entire country. The U. S. Bureau of the Census reported in a special study in September, 1942, that the per capita value of the output of in- dustries, including farming and mining, was $161 in Kentucky and $277 in the U. S. for the year 1939. On this basis Kentucky has 58 per cent of the ability of the U.S. as a whole. In 1939, according to the same study by the U. S. Bureau of the Census the per capita retail sales was $185 in Kentucky whereas the average for the nation was $322. Using this cri- terion, Kentucky’s ability to support taxation is 57 per cent of the nation’s average. Combining these three measures we find that the state of Ken- tucky has 57 per cent of the economic ability of the U.S. asa whole, to support a program of taxation to pay the cost of edu- cation and other governmental services. 8 The Kentucky Academy of Science Let us now take a look at the tax burden carried by Ken- tuckians and compare it with the tax load of the average citizen of the United States. In 1941, according to the special study of the U. S. Bureau of the Census, the per capita tax burden for local purposes amounted to $39.89 in the United States as a whole and only $13.97 or 35 per cent of that amount for the state of Kentucky. Thus Kentuckians have 57 per cent of the tax paying ability of the average for the United States and they carry a local tax burden equal to only 35 per cent of the average for the nation. On the basis of these facts taxation for local purposes could be increased by 63 per cent before reaching the ratio of per capita local taxes to per capita taxpaying ability which now exists for the entire country. The facts recited here make a drab picture with very few high-lights. What it shall be in the future depends upon the recognition of the fact that the deficiencies in our program of education constitute a problem for all the people. ELEMENTARY EDUCATION IN KENTUCKY* RICHARD E.. JAGGERS Chief Bureau of Instruction Frankfort, Kentucky One of the chief functions of elementary education is to help the child take the first steps in becoming a practicing citizen of the social group in which he finds himself. This means that the elementary school must, if it serves this purpose, help him to learn the languages common to the group: he must learn the language of communication, oral and written; he must learn the language of numbers; he must learn the language of health and physical fitness; he must learn the language of human relation- ship; he must learn the language of space relations; and he must learn every language which will help him to become a part of the social, civic, economic and spiritual life of the group. He must be made to act, in a great measure, like the other members of the group in which he lives and works and plays. The other major function of elementary education is to dis- cover in each child the ways in which he differs from other members of the social group. This means that from the time the child enters school until he leaves special effort must be made to find his chief interest and chief aptitude. It is generally recog- nized that the thing for which a child has the greatest aptitude is generally the thing in which he is most interested. It is gener- ally believed that when the chief interest-aptitude is found the strength of the child is likely to be within that area. It means, then, that the elementary school program of living and learning should offer opportunity for discovering these strengths, i.e., interest-aptitudes. It follows that there must be means of developing the total child with due respect for his interest- aptitude. The effective achievement of this function lays the foundation for personal happiness and for vocational efficiency. It is believed that all the functions of elementary education may be grouped under the two functions mentioned, i.e., integra- tion of the child into the group in which his life is lived, and dif- ferentiation to discover and develop his individual aptitude. If this view is taken, then it is economy to provide the type of elementary school in which this kind of program operates. 1. There must be an educated teacher who believes that an individual human being is of immense worth, who believes that all children can learn, who understands how children * Received for publication May 10, 1945. Contribution to the Forum On Kentucky Education. 10 The Kentucky Academy of Science learn, and who is able to lead them in learning. Her edu- cation should be anchored in the biological sciences, psy- chologies, child growth and development and human prob- lems of living. It is only in rare instances that a person can become this kind of a teacher unless she has had a good elementary schoo! experience, has attended a good secon- dary school, and has followed this with four or five years in a teacher-educating institution which bases its programs upon the functions as suggested in this statement. This must be followed by continued study on the job. 2. The elementary school must be housed in a plant suited to the needs of the program undertaken. The place where children live-and-learn must be as good as or better than the home. This means that it must be as attractive and livable, not like but as the home. As much attention must be given to the health and happiness of a child in school as is given his health and happiness in the home by his parents whose beloved child he is. There should be absolute certainty that nothing in ‘the physical environment of the school shall in any way prevent a child from developing at his best rate. 3. Then the elementary school if it is to perform its function must be equipped with whatever is needed to provide the best learning conditions. Supplies suited to the needs of pupils at the elementary age level must be provided. Kentucky has, during all her life as a state, treated the ele- mentary school as her educational step-child. We, by law will employ a teacher for the elementary school who has only two years of college preparation, while we refuse by law to permit a person to teach in secondary schools until and unless he has at least four years of preparation in college. In 45 of our counties, we permit the operation of a minimum term of seven months for elementary children and require 9 months for secondary schools. We, therefore, give the child in the elementary grades a short term and a teacher with the low minimum level of training. The pupil cost is much larger in secondary schools than in the ele- mentary schools. The maximum teacher load is approximately 30 pupils in secondary schools while there is no limit to the number of pupils that may be assigned an elementary teacher. The secondary school is generally better housed. To sum up, the elementary child may have a poorly trained teacher, employed for the shortest term, with no load limit. The Elementary Education in Kentucky 11 result is that pupils become retarded. The number of children who have to repeat the first grade is appalling! To place the elementary school in a position where it will cease to be the educational step-child, the following appear to be necessary: 1. There should be a uniform school term throughout the state for grades 1 to 12. 2. Elementary as well as secondary teachers should be re- quired to have at least four years of training which will fit them for the job they are to fill. 3. The number of pupils per teacher should be limited to not more than 20 for the first grade and increased grade by grade with possible maximum number per teacher in the twelfth grade limited to 40. The principle followed should be: The younger the pupils, the smaller number to be assigned per teacher. 4. There should be at least as much money spent per teacher unit in the elementary grades as in the secondary grades. 5. All salaries should be calculated on an annual basis. When the war came the average elementary teacher in Ken- tucky had less than three years of college preparation while the average teacher in the secondary school had slightly more than four years of college preparation. The salary policy of the state as a whole is based upon the principle of the single salary sched- ule. This is a good principle. It means that a teacher in the eie- mentary grades will be paid as much as the secondary teacher if she has as much training and experience. The fallacy in the application of the principle lies in the fact that it is applied on a monthly basis. For example, the salary of a teacher who has a bachelor’s degree is $120 per month. This applies to the ele- mentary teacher who has a degree just as it does to the secon- dary teacher, but when we give the elementary teacher this salary for 7 months and the secondary teacher the salary for 9 months, it means that the annual salaries are $840 for the elementary teacher and $1,080 for the secondary teacher. One is without a job for five months and the other for three months. The curricula for the education of elementary teachers now required for the standard certificate meet the needs with reason- able effectiveness. As soon as conditions of salary, term, and teacher load in the elementary grades are equitably adjusted there will be no reason why any person should be admitted to teaching in the elementary school until she has been graduated from a four year teacher training curriculum. 12 The Kentucky Academy of Science SECONDARY EDUCATION IN KENTUCKY* JOHN FRED WILLIAMS Superintendent of Public Instruction Frankfort, Kentucky The chief function of secondary education is to develop young people so that they may become individually and socially useful members of society as it is constituted in a democracy such as ours. This means that secondary education must provide for (1) the maximum development of the individual as a person, (2) opportunity for the individual to develop wholesome human relations, (3) opportunity to develop the ability to attain economic security, and (4) to accept the responsibilities of citizenship. It means that the secondary school must so be planned, organized, staffed and financed that these ends may be achieved by pupils of secondary school age. To carry out its chief function, the secondary school must be a citizenship leadership laboratory. This means that it must meet the needs of all young people of secondary school age who are to become functioning citizens. It is not a school devoted exclusively to preparing young people for college; nor is it a school devoted only to those who would prepare for the pro- fessions; nor is it devoted only to the needs of those who live in favored areas. The secondary school must meet the needs of all its prospective citizens, regardless of what they will choose to do, regardless of where they live, regardless of race, regardless of what their needs may be. The secondary school is the people’s school, and this means all the people. This means that the people in a community served by a secondary school should have a voice in planning the pro- gram to be offered in their school. It means that the program offered in the secondary schools must grow out of the needs which are to be served by the program. The interests and aptitudes of the young people in each area, as well as the opportunities and needs for their services should determine to a large degree what kind of a secondary school should be estab- lished. These problems as they affect the locality, the county, the state, the nation and the world-at-large should be a part of the planning for secondary schools. The secondary schools in Kentucky are not serving the needs of all young people of secondary school age. There were in * Received for publication May 17, 1945. Contribution to the Forum On Kentucky Education. » Secondary Education in Kentucky 13 1943-44 in Kentucky 239,515 young people of secondary school age (14-17) but only 81,068 were enrolled in public high schools. For every young person of secondary school age in secondary school there were two of secondary school age not in school. Said in another way it means that of every 100 young people of secondary school age, there were 34 in school and 66 out of school. This means that the needs of 66 out of every 100 young people of secondary school age were not met by the secondary school. They did not go to school. There are 546 public secondary schools in Kentucky. During peace time the enrollment reached approximately 100,000 but that constituted only about 36 per cent of young people of secondary school age. The number of secondary schools in counties is 352 and in independent cities and villages 194. Approximately 4 in 10 secondary schools have 100 or fewer pupils, and 3 out of 4 have 200 or fewer. Forty per cent have from three to five teachers, and another 35 per cent have from six to ten teachers. It follows that small schools have few teachers and are unable to offer other than the most restricted program, usually the college preparatory program. There are excellent programs in most of the large secondary schools, and in a few of the small schools. There are 200 or 300 small secondary schools which have added agriculture, home economics or commerce, while a smaller number have all three courses. A large secondary school does not necessarily mean there will follow an effective secondary school program. There is, however, very little chance to have an effective secondary school program until a large school is provided. Most of the small secondary schools are in rural areas. It means that if we are to lay the foundation for an improved secondary school program, the attendance unit must be enlarged through consolidation. This must be accompanied by an effective and economical plan of county highway construction. Much has been done during the past ten years toward increasing the size of the secondary school through the consolidation of very small schools. If the secondary schools are to serve the function stated in the opening statement of this paper the people must take education seriously. We have never effectively done this. The people of the state must have faith that education is an invest- ment for all the children and not a luxury to be shared by only one-third of the children. They must not permit all the people to maintain a secondary school program which meets the needs 14 The Kentucky Academy of Science of only one-third of the children. They must invest enough in the enterprise to make it useful for everybody. Two-thirds of the people must be taught that they are investing their money and getting no return. All arms of the government at the state and local level should work cooperatively in making the schools effective. They should get the correct, truthful, statesmen’s answers to such questions as: 1. Should all children of secondary school age have a school which will help them to achieve their life purposes? If not, who should be left out? 2. What should the secondary school do for a young person to make him an effective citizen? 3. What will it cost to provide such a school? a. What kind of teachers must be employed and what will it cost to employ them ? b. What kind of a school plant will be needed to house the kind of program young people need? What will it cost? c. How can we procure the money with which to finance such a school? 4, What will be the penalty if such a program is not provided? 5. Can we afford not to offer a secondary school for our young people? The correct answers to these questions must be found! We can provide such a program but it will involve complete cooperation. There must be maximum of local effort in planning and financing the program, maximum efforts on the part of the state in planning and financing, and there must be a sane plan of federal aid to schools without federal control of education in any way. In this way only, it seems, can we change the secondary school from a minority institution to one which serves the majority or even all of the children. PROBLEMS OF HIGHER EDUCATION IN KENTUCKY * J. J. OPPENHEIMER Dean, College of Liberal Arts, University of Louisville Louisville, Kentucky Problems of the Colleges in Kentucky. No one can prophesy with any degree of assurity about the specific nature of higher education in the postwar period. However, general trends seein to be shaping up at the present time. The prophets of gloom, who predicted that most American colleges would close up during the war, have failed in their dire prediction. The colleges of Kentucky have weathered the war period much better than anyone would have predicted. The recent Roper poll (Fortune, April, 1945) on higher education indicates that the American public has greater faith in our higher education program than ever before. This poll gives the strongest sort of approval to the continuation of higher education and the desirability for both public and private support. The veterans are returning to the colleges, not in great numbers at the present time, but there is every indication that the colleges will have a greatly increased enrollment in the very near future. Most public institutions in Kentucky, and some of the private institutions, have had some kind of military program. These have been of great assistance in keeping colleges alive. It is probably true that the world is in the greatest revolution it has ever experienced and no world-wide change can take place without affecting higher education. Undoubtedly, higher educa- tion will change, and should change, but the change will be gradual and certainly one can make this statement with a great deal of assurance: The general outlines which we now have will carry over for many years to come. The Returning Veteran and the College. The prospect of good wages at the present time is holding back the enrollment of veterans in colleges in Kentucky. A relatively small number has returned, but that is a good thing for the colleges inasmuch as it gives the colleges a better chance to understand the returning veterans and to attempt to adjust programs to their needs and do a better job of counseling. Up to date the veteran has fit into the present program in an unusually satisfactory pattern. * Received for publication June 18, 1945. Contribution to the Forum On Kentucky Education. 16 The Kentucky Academy of Science They have been interested in pre-professional study, business administration, teaching, journalism, etc. It is true that they are looking forward to vocational adjustment when they with- draw from college, but they certainly have not expressed antagonism to liberal arts education. In fact, many of them are getting a distinct reward in studying the more general subjects. In regard to the vocational objective of the college, the afore- mentioned Roper survey indicated that the public thought that colleges should prepare students for vocational competence. That was the first objective; the second objective was that of citizenship. The adjustment of the veteran to college life has been better than some of the college administrators thought it would be. The colleges have already found that the returning veterans must be given a period of adjustment. Usually this takes two or three months. It is likewise true that a great deal of guidance and social contacts with both students and faculty are basic requirements. No great demand has been made on the colleges for short courses or any other type of short vocational training. This may be due to the counseling which has been given by the Veterans Administration and the fact that when men want technical training in short order they are put under apprenticeships. Interest in General Education. For many years the colleges have been deeply concerned with the problem of providing basic aids for all citizens. It is important for society to have a common cultural background. The older organizations followed the fixed requirements of freshman and sophomore years. These were usually group requirements. They included first courses in a number of departments. In more recent days colleges have been ~ interested in providing specific courses of general character which would reorganize not only much of the older knowledge, but newer knowledge needed for common understanding and appreciation of modern living. In Kentucky considerable interest has been indicated in this problem. Centre College and the College of Liberal Arts of the University of Louisville have done considerable reorganization to meet this need. The problem is a persistent one. Many critics, professional and lay people believe that there should be a greater unity in the education on the college level. Colleges should help modern men and women comprehend a great unity in living. How to provide this unity in subject matter, in ideals and methodology is a most serious problem. Survey courses, independent study, compre- Problems of Higher Education in Kentucky 7 hensive examinations and integrating courses for majors or divisions are some of the ways in which greater integration has been attempted. More and more pre-professional study in the fields of medicine, dentistry, law, engineering, and teaching requires fundamental training in general education. People are not satisfied with the simple problem of arithmetic, of adding together one hundred and twenty semester hours and calling it a college education. Vitalizing the College Curriculum. In addition to a greater unity in the curriculum offerings of the college and a genuine integration of understanding in the student himself, the problem of values is probably the most persistent one. In the early American college, there was much concern with the problem of values. Most of the institutions were denominational. The education of the ministry was an important function. This interest in religion and moral philosophy has faded out of the modern college to an alarming degree. The fact that higher education is so highly compartmentalized, our recent experience with totalitarian countries in which science has been used to such destructive human ends, and the little regard for moral values in modern living have all intensified the question of whether or not the college must not concern itself with some kind of moral undergirding in the education of youth. Modern science is too dangerous without moral direction. Modern eco- nomic practices are too tied into national welfare to be self- directive. The study of human goals should be the common concern of all college students. How is this to be done? A second problem in vitalizing the college is that of selection of content which is more modern and functional. There is much dead wood in courses, textbooks and curriculum. Students, whether they be veterans or civilians, will be more critical of college offerings in the future. The same complacency of taking what the professor “hands out” will be questioned. Referring again to the Roper survey, the non-college educated public is more sympathetic to higher education than the college graduate. What does this mean? Certainly this is a danger signal to the colleges themselves. If college administrators and professors are wise, they will seriously consider their offerings. Work-study. There is some reason to believe that interest in work-study programs on the college level will become more important in the future. Berea College has been a pioneer among the colleges of Kentucky. Its experience certainly should be of great value to the other colleges. The Speed Scientific School 18 The Kentucky Academy of Science of the University of Louisville has had a cooperative plan of education since its inception. The clinical years in the Medical School of the University of Louisville have shown the tremendous importance of connecting theory and good practice. Cooperative Study in Teacher Education. Under the leadership of the State Department of Education, all of the state institu- tions and two non-state colleges have worked in a cooperative plan to improve teacher education. Workshops have been held, county educational systems and a few separate schools have been sponsored by seven colleges of the state. This is a “grass roots” program inasmuch as the sponsoring institutions have gone back to local schools to see what could be done to improve the quality of living in the communities in which the schools exist. In actually attempting to improve the lives of people, the colleges undoubtedly will learn much which will influence general education and technical teacher education. This plan of coopera- tive study suggests wider uses of the general plan of higher education. One of the great needs in this state, as well as in other states, is for the colleges to study their mutual problems in a cooperative manner. They would do well to carry this type of program into their own constituent communities. Adult education lags far behind. Utilization of Natural Resources. Under the joint sponsorship of the Department of Conservation and the State Department of Education, a project is now under way to study better utilization of the natural and human resources of this state. Many separate studies have been made of utilization of natural and human resources by institutions and individuals. This material has been widely scattered and many times has been in a form which is not understandable to the citizens nor to the school child. Before much improvement can be made in this area these materials must be made available to all. The colleges of Kentucky have a genuine contribution to make, not only in furnishing maierials but also in seeing to it that these materials are made available to students, adult citizens and pupils in our schools. This brings up the larger question of state planning. State Planning. The three agencies now concerned with post- war plans for Kentucky indicates the wide interest that the state is taking in its future. There must be some over-all planning in which education has a prominent part, but without economical planning so that the basic wealth of the state can be increased there is little hope for any improvement in education in the state, higher, secondary or elementary. To improve the quality of Problems of Higher Education in Kentucky 19 living in Kentucky will require a great deal of expenditure of money and energy in fundamental research, Kentucky institu- tions have not had the opportunity to promote research. They have done well to maintain their instructional programs. Inci- dentally, a major problem is to get more young people to go to high school and then get the proper ones to go on to college. Our state is notably low in percentage of youth going to high school and college. The state and individual citizens have not supported research programs and yet any long-time policy of fundamental improvement of living is dependent upon scientific research. Of course, this research must not only concern itself with physical problems, but also with the human ones. The late President Roosevelt was eminently right in suggesting that we had much to do in the field of the science of social relations. The logical place for research is in the universities and colleges. When the people see the fundamental need of research, undoubt- edly support will be forthcoming. But the research must be tied in with the total program of education of men and women. In other words, there must be an integration of what the research scientists find and the study of values and the other liberal studies which make for all-round living. 20 The Kentucky Academy of Science THE DENSITY OF THE ETHER* The Wave Length of Photons Effecting Atomic Motion The Gas Constant—An Anomalous Doppler Shift OLUS J. STEWART Department of Chemistry, University of Kentucky Lexington, Ky. PART 1 THE DENSITY OF ETHER An earlier paper (1) sought to create a unitary system of matter and energy by invoking a new kind of ether. This unique ether is not static, but is conceived to flow at the velocity of light along the time axis of the space-time continuum, a property which defies detection by the Michelson-Morley experiment. This paper, the third in the series, proposes to estimate the density of ether. To do this we recall that the first paper (1) accounted for gravitation by declaring it to be the result of the operation of the Bernoulli principle. To be more specific, two bodies in the ether stream constitute, in effect, a Venturi tube, or a constriction. This is thought to be true because one would expect matter to exclude the ether, at least partially, from the region in which the matter is located. The velocity of the stream along the far sides of the two bodies should then be less than that along the near; consequently the pressures created by the flow would be greater along the far sides than along the near; hence the two bodies would be forced together. The argument will now be developed further by studying the Bernoulli effect as the ether stream flows past two selected portions of matter. Consider the proton, an atomic building block of great density. Its diameter is of the order, 1 x 10°°cm. The smallest cube that will contain the proton has a volume of 1 x 10°*° cm.*; and a spherical pile consisting of 6.06 x 10°° of these cubes will weigh a gram, and have a radius of 4.88 x 10°° cm. Place two such one gram masses of protons adjacent to one another, the centers of the two spherical piles, a and b, Fig. 1, being one cm. apart. The two parallel planes, c and d, introduced to simplify the discussion, bisect these spheres; and the small cylinder, indicated by the dotted lines, extending from plane to plane, contains one * Received for publication November 8, 1945. The Density of the Ether 2] Fig. 1 half of each sphere. In other words, the free space in the cylinder has been reduced by an amount equal to the volume of a one gram spherical pile of protons. As a consequence, the ether fluid flowing between the two bodies is accelerated by these obstruc- tions proportionate to the lessened free space in the cylinder. Likewise the ether’s velocity increases proportionate to the shortening of the free space across the throat of the constriction, the shortening of the distance being from 1 cm to (1-2 x 4.88 x 10°), or 0.99999024 cm. This number is slightly in error because the two piles of protons are not solid masses of matter, but are composed of particles which we here assume to be spherical. The ether will therefore freely penetrate the piles in proportion to their porosity. Since the protons themselves, if spherical and solid, occupy only two thirds of the space in their immediate region, recalculation shows that the effective width at the constriction is roughly 0.999994 cm., and the velocity of the ether stream at the throat is 2.9978 x 10° / 0.999994 = 2.99782 x 10°° em./sec. This figure is still somewhat in error for, according to the theory proposed in the first paper, all ultimate particles are vortices in the ether, and the charges which such particles carry are due to the flow of the ether stream through the properly oriented vortices. However, the uncertainties of the problem force us to neglect the correction for this type of porosity. Nevertheless, there is another correction that requires atten- tion. If the measurements under consideration were made on 22 The Kentucky Academy of Science this planet, the two masses of protons would be in motion relative to the ether because of the earth’s spin, orbital motion about the sun, and migration toward the northern constellation of Cygnus (2), as is brought out in the second section of this paper. This motion would reduce the relative velocity of the ether past the two bodies, and lessen the “force of attraction” between them. With this in mind, we deduct 3.5 x 10’ cm/sec., the velocity of the two bodies due to the earth’s spin, orbital motion, and drift toward Cygnus, from 2.998 x 10’ em/sec., the theory’s assumed velocity of the ether stream, obtaining 2.9945 x 10'° em/sec. as the velocity of the ether stream relative to the two bodies. Then the velocity of the ether stream at the throat of the constriction will be 2.9945 x 10'°/0.999994 cm/sec. The Bernoulli equation may take the form, p - P = (1 - v?/V7) pV?/2, or, p - P = (V’-v’)»/2, where P and V represent respectively the pressure and velocity of the fluid at some distance, p and v the pressure and velocity at some other point on the same stream-line, say at the throat, and p is the density of the fluid. However, in the absence of other objects, there will be no important constrictions on the far sides of the two bodies, and P will then be also the pressure on the far sides tending to force the bodies together. Now it is our contention that, after multiplying both sides of the Bernoulli equation by (unit cm?) to change the dimensions to that of force, the p - P term should equal the gravitation constant, 6.66 x 10“dyne. However, since P > p, the p - P term is negative in sign. So by substituting the required quantities in the equation, and solving for p, we have, p — - 6.66 x 10;°x 27 (2/9945 x 10)? - (2.99452 x10? )e Lal se Os en ere PART 2 THE WAVE LENGTH OF PHOTONS EFFECTING ATOMIC MOTION It is well known that atomic and molecular motion, wherein heat makes itself manifest, is initiated most characteristically by radiation from the infrared band, but the mechanism by which radiant energy brings about this motion has escaped discovery. Recently, however, the author of this paper succeeded in visualizing a mechanism to account for atomic motion (3), and he proposes now to test the validity of his theory of heat and motion by observing whether a study, closely adhering to the tenets of the theory, leads to the conclusion that it is The Density of the Ether 23 infrared radiation that produces the atomic motion. It is quite true that atomic motion may result from the absorbtion of radiation other than infrared, especially in black body absorbers. Nevertheless infrared radiation is definitely to be classed primarily as a source of heat. In order to estimate the wave length of the radiation which causes atomic motion, the temperature, mean free path and mean velocity of the atom under consideration being known, we resort to the use of the concept, “parasite drag’’, an aerodynamic term which one might say loosely designates the force of the wind against a bluff body, tending to carry it down-wind. Quantita- tively the term is defined by the equation (4), D, = 0.5xC, x p X V’ x A, where C, is the dimensionless coefficient of parasite drag, p is the density of the medium (air in aerodynamic studies), V is the velocity of the dragged body relative to the medium, and A is the body’s cross-sectional area projected on a plane orthogonal to the stream. In this paper the postulated ether replaces the atmospheric medium of aerodynamics, and we assume that the laws of aerodynamics also apply in “etho- dynamics’, to coin a new term. The theory proposed by the author asserts that vortices in the ether stream are to be identified by their frequencies of rotation as photons, i.e., corpuscles of radiation, electrons, neutrons, etc. Also, the stream is conceived to have the ability to accelerate quickly, and drag along with itself at its own constant velocity c, the relatively voluminous and almost mass- less photons, in somewhat the same fashion as autumn leaves are blown by the wind. But denser bodies, such as atoms, do not accelerate rapidly. However, if there are photons attached to the atoms, or combined with them in a loose chemical fashion, (this is equivalent, in conventional language, to saying the atoms possess energy), they accelerate more rapidly. Thus, all atoms whose temperatures are above O°K have attached to themselves one or more photons, and in consequence of this, are in ceaseless motion. A military illustration of an effect not unlike the one related, is that of a paratrooper landing in a breeze. Unless the parachute collapses promptly, it may drag the trooper and his heavy equipment violently over the rough terrain, and be a serious hazard to life and limb. But once the chute has collapsed, and its dragging force vanished, the trooper suffers no ill effect of the wind’s drag on his own person, for his mass is considerable 24 The Kentucky Academy of Science compared with the projected area of his body. In this fashion the theory seeks to account for the motion of material bodies. To apply the concept of parasite drag to the problem, we consider the behavior, at standard conditions, of a helium atom to which photons are attached. When the atom-photon assem- blage accelerates from a state of rest to one of motion, it does so because of the action of some force, F = ma, whose magnitude is measured by the acceleration and mass of the helium atom. Equating F and D,, one writes, C, x p x V? x A/2 = m xa, and A = 2xm x a/(C, x p x V’). Hence by evaluating the right hand terms, the area of the photons will be known. In aerodynamics, the value of C, for bluff bodies, in contrast with those having streamline contours, may be approximately unity (4). In heu of better information, we shall adopt this figure. The mass of the helium atom is found in the usual way, 4/(6.06 x 10°*) g. The velocity of the helium atom at 273.1°K relative to the ether stream is estimated as follows: Ble 44000 cm./sec., velocity of the helium atom, at rest relative to the earth, due to earth’s spin on axis. b. 2960000 cm./sec., velocity of helium atom, at rest relative to earth, due to earth’s orbital motion around the sun. ce. 32000000 cm./sec., velocity of helium atom, at rest relative to earth, due to solar system’s drift toward the northern constellation of Cygnus (2). d. 120000 cm./sec., velocity of helium atom relative to earth at 273.1°K. This is the atom’s mean velocity. e. 35120000 cm./sec., velocity of helium atom at 273.1°K, rela- tive to a three dimensional axis system, origin at Cygnus. fi @=v — Vi —= 2.998 x 102° = Silo x 109 — 2.9945) 1029 ema secs velocity of helium atom at 273.1°K, relative to the ether stream, or reciprocally, the velocity of the ether stream relative to the helium atom. For the present we shall consider the northern constellation of Cygnus fixed in space. Item (a) in the preceding paragraph, depends on the latitude; but maximum latitude change would affect the final results only The Density of the Ether 25 to the extent of one in 10°. Item (b) is a variable quantity, and affects the results only 1:10000. Item (c) may lack precision, but to omit it altogether would affect the results to the extent of only 1:1000. Item (d), the mean velocity of the helium atom at 273.1°K, even if doubled to represent a possible maximum velocity, can affect the final result only 1 : 300000. If then, those enumerated are the only types of motion to be considered, the value, V = 2.9945 x 10° cm./sec., is to be regarded as the velocity of the ether stream relative to the helium atom. In order to estimate the acceleration, a, of the helium atom, we discard kinetic theory’s pure assumption that the collisions are perfectly elastic, and instead, assume that they are perfectly inelastic. Thus we assume that when a helium atom collides with another body, it stops; and it regains velocity chiefly by virtue of the drag of the ether stream on the photons attached to the atom. This description is believed to be in accord with known fact. For example, at 0°K, the atom, lacking photons, fails to accelerate. The magnitude of a helium atom’s kinetic energy in one direc- tion may be stated in the terms, E = mv’?/2 = kT/2. It is immaterial whether the velocity, v, is constant, or is merely a momentary value reached during acceleration. That is, E — mie) 2) — in (1./t2) 41/2 — malL/2 = kT/2. Hence, its acceleration is, a = kT/mL, where k is the Boltzmann constant, T is the temperature, and m and L, for our purposes, are respectively the mass and the mean free path of the helium atom at standard conditions. Substitution of numerical values yields, a — 1.37 x Meee iol x 6.06.x9 1022 x 44 x 2:51- x 10° = °2:26. x 10* cm./sec’. It is necessary to comment briefly on the use here made of the term, L = 2.51 x 10° cm., the mean free path of the helium atom. It is assumed that the atom, starting from a state of rest, accelerates constantly along the mean free path until, at the end of this path, the instantaneous velocity, v = 1.2 x 10° cm./sec., or the mean velocity, has been reached. At this point the atom normally collides, and the cycle starts again. In other words, whereas classical kinetic theory assumes that the atom, traveling at constant velocity, v. collides, stops, rebounds, and immediately is again traveling at the same constant velocity, v, this theory assumes that the atom, after being stopped in a collision, constantly accelerates until it again collides; and it never acquires a constant velocity until it has accelerated to the velocity of light. This latter state cannot be realized except in the 26 The Kentucky Academy of Science Wig. 2 1 absence of all interference, as in the perfect vacuum of inter- nebular space, where such a speed, as suggested earlier (3), heralds the birth of a cosmic ray. Now, since all the terms are known, the value of A can be calculated thus: A = 2 x 4/(6.06 x 107%) x 2.26 x 10“ x 1/ [2s xn On? xe 10229945) 2 x 11020] — 25 x On emi aredsoteailil photons. Let A’ = area of one photon. Then nA’ = A. Let Ns;3, — 273.1. By this we mean the following: let us simply guess that the distribution of photons is one photon per atom per degree change of temperature. This arrangement leaves the atom devoid of photons at 0° K. Then A/n = 2.75 x 10°°/273.1 = A’ = 1.007 x 10° cm.’, the area of one photon. In estimating the wave length of this photon whose area we have just calculated, we recall the assumption made by the author (1) that a photon, like sub-atomic particles, is an ethereal vortex whose force impulse, as the photon is dragged through space at velocity c, traces a wave-like path, as illustrated in Fig. 2, wherein the force-impulse, a, of the disk-like photon, b, traces the wave-like path, c, of wave-length, \. By the time the ether stream has dragged the photon from x to y, the point, a, will have reached the point, a’, and the overall result will be equivalent to rolling the disk one revolution along the line, d - e. Hence the circumference of the photon equals the wave-length Neen AY = 717) — OO xO rr) — (OO Cx 1On x7 camel Dim Mi Nor LOOM xe 1 On? x 752) 2) — ded 3 xe Oss ende yor eres Since the infrared, or heat rays, are said to extend in the electromagnetic spectrum from 0.8 » to 420 wu, the result just found indicate that our surmise as to the distribution of photons, i.e., one photon per atom per degree change in temperature, was The Density of the Ether 27 probably correct, for the value, 1.13 », lies within this band. In this connection it is also worth observing that the area of the puoton, 1-007 x 10° em?., where ) = 1.13 x 10-*em., is 1.3 x 10%” times as large as the cross-sectional area of the helium nucleus. Hence the drag of the ether on the attached photons will be enormously greater than that on the nucleus alone. It is also an essential part of the theory that the ether stream flows freely through the outer part of the atom where the electrons are located. For this reason, the cross-sectional area of the atom as a whole is not to be regarded as a measure of the drag of the ether stream on the atom stripped of photons, but rather the projected area of the much smaller nucleus, together possibly with the cross-sectional area of all the electrons. PARTY3S THE GAS CONSTANT. AN ANOMALOUS DOPPLER SHIFT. The classical derivation of the gas constant was guided by kinetic theory, and consequently employed constant molecular velocities. Since the author of this paper has reason to doubt that atoms and molecules have constant velocities, and suspects that they have changing velocities and constant acceleration, it is desirable to derive R through the use of atomic acceleration. This will be done by employing the language and logic of the two preceding sections. Consider one mole of helium at standard conditions, and, anywhere within its bulk, select a small cubical portion, L cm. on the edge, containing N, x L*/22400 atoms, where L is the mean free path, and N, is the Avogadro number. Attached to each atom are 273.1 photons (See Part 2) which accelerate the atom through ether drag, and the force applied by the ether stream equals that which the accelerating atom, because of inertia, exerts in the opposite direction. To avoid confusion, this article will hereafter confine its attention to the force of the atom, even though the ether is to be regarded as the prime mover. With this in mind, we fix our attention first on the gas in the small cube. The mean acceleration, a, of the atoms in space may be resolved into three component accelerations, a,, a, and 4a,, referred to a three dimensional co-ordinate system with axes menyoand.z: this a? i— a2. = a7, q-.a7;.,As the:number of mole- cules is very large, one may say without sensible error, a*, = a’, = a?, = a?/3, and the acceleration of atoms parallel to the 28 The Kentucky Academy of Science x-axis, a,, equals a/3”. Then the force exerted by one helium atom toward one side is, 4/N, x a/3”, and the force exerted by 1/6 th. the total number of atoms toward the same side is, 4/N, x a/3% x L’/22400 x N,/6 dyne. Dividing by L’, the area of the’ side, gives, 4/N, x a/3* x 13?/22400 x N,/6 x li — ip dyne/cm’. Now multiply by L/L, or unity, and have, 4/N, x d/o? xl) 22400 x N,/6x le x L/L — p. Since 7 ¢,. Hence 1, the frequency of the ancient photon at the time of its arrival on this planet, is found to be less than 1, the frequency of the 8-minute-old photon, even though the two frequencies were equal at the time of emission. The argument just presented accounts then for a red shift which is not due to a receding emitter. The value of the con- clusions, of course, depends on whether the speculations, relative to the ether and the deceleration of light, have their foundations in truth. Indeed, it is the purpose of this paper to investigate the verity of the ether theory; and the fact that the theory, in Part 2, finds that atomic motion is initiated by infrared radia- tion, and now, in Part 3, discovers a fairly satisfactory explana- tion of an anomalous red shift, is an accomplishment which, in a small way, helps to establish the truth of the ether theory. Note. The use, in Part 3, of the quantity, a = 2.26 x 10** em./sec.’, as found in Part 2, is illogical because k, the Boltz- mann constant, which is related to R through N,, entered into the calculation of a. However, the estimation of R, as carried out in Part 3, is not without value, for it indicates that a, discovered by any other method not involving k, would yield a figure for R identical with that found. A rather rough approxi- mation of a, but one avoiding the use of k altogether, follows. One may write, a — L/t’, for accelerating particles, and t — L/v, for non-accelerating particles. Kinetic theory regards the quantity, v = 1.2 x 10° cm./sec., as the mean velocity of : helium atoms at standard conditions. Then t = 2.51/(10° x 1.2 x - 10°) sec. is the mean time required for the atom to travel the . mean free path L at constant velocity. But whether the atom moves at constant velocity, or starts from rest and reaches the velocity v by acceleration, the time required for either journey over the mean free path will be of the same order of magnitude. Hence one may substitute this value of t into the first equation and have without great error, a — 6 x 10“ cm./sec.’. This rough value of a, obtained without using k, compares quite favorably with the more precise figure obtained in Part 2. Bibliography (1) Stewart, Ky. Acad. Sci., Transactions, 7, 92-106 (1938). (2) Shapley, Sigma Xi Quarterly, 30, 1-15 (1942). (3) Stewart, Ky. Acad. Sci., Transactions, 9, 5-9 (1941). (4) von Mises, Theory of Flight, McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., 1945, pages 95-96. (5) Hubble, Sigma Xi Quarterly, 30, 99-115 (1942). Sil LEAF GLANDS IN AILANTHUS ALTISSIMA* P. A. DAVIES Department of Biology, University of Louisville Louisville, Ky. Two types of leaf glands are present in Ailanthus altissima: (1) simple glands that are scattered over the surface of young leaflets and are the outgrowths of epidermal cells, and (2) more specialized glands found along the basal margins of the leaflets. Although the epidermal glands are dispersed over the surface of the leaflets, they are more abundant along the veins. These simple glands are either one-celled hair-like projections of epi- dermal cells, or many-celled knob-like growths which arise by the division of epidermal cells. The first indication of a simple gland, regardless of type, is the outward arching of an epidermal cell. This takes place when the young leaflets are from 0.10 to 0.130 millimeters long. The initial arching shows that a gland is in the process of formation but does not indicate the kind. The nucleus which is large and stains heavily appears to have this controlling influence. If the nucleus does not divide, the cell continues to elongate and pro- duces the simple single-celled tubulary trichome, but if division of the nucleus occurs, a many celled knob-shaped gland develops. In the hair-like glands, illustrated in figure 1, the outward growth continues until at maturity they vary from 0.07 to 0.32 millimeters in length. The young gland possesses a thin wall and a single large nucleus, but at maturity the wall thickens (0.0012- 0.0015 millimeters) and the nucleus disappears. The planes of the first cellular divisions of the many-celled epidermal glands are parallel and form the stalk (2-6 cells) while the remaining divisions which occur in different planes form the knob-like head. The growth of this type of gland is shown in figures 2, 3, 4, and 5. These glands vary from 0.020 to 0.192 milli- meters in length and contain 4 to 56 cells. Both kinds of epi- dermal glands lack a vascular system, so the growth materials are obtained from the surrounding leaf cells. The secretion filters through the wall of the gland and evaporates from the surface. This method of secreting has been observed in three species of Pelargonium by Hannig.' Specialized leaf glands appear as small visual masses of secre- tory tissue on the auriculiform teeth at the base of the leaflets * Received for publication January 15, 1946. 32 The Kentucky Academy of Science . (figure 6). Statistical studies of one thousand leaflets show that the glands vary from 1 to 8 for each leaflet, with an average of 2.606. The shape and external features of the marginal gland are illustrated in figure 7. The outer surface is spherical with a small depressed opening near the center. Each gland is supplied by one or more veins that pass into the tooth. Microscopic examinations of expanding leaf buds show that marginal glands first appear on the tenth unit. Twelve per cent of these leaves show glands, while all leaves developing after the tenth possess glands (figures 8, 9,10, and 11). In studying the position and structure of glands in members of the family Simarubaceae, Solereder states: ‘So far as I know, the marginal leaf glands in Ailanthus have not as yet been ex- amined in detail.” * Figure 12 is a drawing of an auriculiform tooth made from a series of photomicrographs which shows a cross-section of a normal mature marginal gland. The glandular area is large and distinct from the remaining tissues of the tooth. The epidermal cells of the glandular portion of the tooth are elongated and lack uniformity in shape that are characteristic of normal cells. The opening in the center of the gland is pro- duced by the breaking of the epidermal layer in this area. The short cavity which is present below the opening is formed by the parting of secreting cells. The actively secreting cells are spindle-shaped, polygonal and rather uniform, and in mass appear to converge toward the cavity. The marginal cells of the gland are more granular and deeply stained than the surrounding non-glandular cells. The vascular system which extends into the tooth passes along the margins of the secreting area but does not enter it. The secretion passes from cell to cell until the border cells secrete it into the cavity. Bibliography 1 Hannig, E. Uber den mechanismus der Sekretausscheidung bei den Drusenhaaren von Pelargonium. Zeitschr. Bot. 23: 1004-1014, 1930. 2 Solereder, Hans. Systematic Anatomy of the Dicotyledons. Vol. I, p. 184, Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1908. Tig. 1. A small section of the surface tissue of a young leaflet showing the pesition and manner of growth of a hair-like gland. Figs. 2-5. Illustrating four stages in the development of a many-celled epidermal gland. Tig. 6. Two leaflets from a mature leaf showing the position of the mar- ginal glands on the basal portion of the ieaflet. Fig. 7. Enlarged section of the basal part of a leaflet showing the posi- tion of the marginal glands and the distribution of the vascular systems to them. Figs. 8-11. Showing the 9, 10, 11, and 12 units in the budscale-leaf series and indicating the stage at which the marginal glands appear. Fig, 12. Section through a marginal Jeaf gland showing the vascular dis- tribution, secretory tissues, secretory cavity, and the ostiole. faKa7" TRANSACTIONS of the KENTUCKY ACADEMY of SCIENCE Official Organ Kentucky Academy of Science CONTENTS Editorial: | A more active Academy. Alfred Brauer _. 2 Serenes in Society. Paul Kolachov = 3 SS eee Studies on flavone-like substances isolated from tobacco. Anna Shoulties Naff and Simon H. Wender ___._.. 10 Effect of glucose upon the viability of Lactobacillus casei. Mary, WMiuedekin gp) =. ee es a ee 14 Research Notes: A note on the elimination of Endamoeba coli in the human host. David Richard Lincicome and Robert Arthur Gold __._.... 17 | Occurrence of Neoechinorhynchus emydis (Acanthocephala) in Snails. David Richard Lincicome and Allie Whitt, Jr. __...-.... 19 i and Noten ey ee 20 > Abstracted Minutes of 1944 and 1946 meeting of the Kentucky es POR GOITe. Ol. mintence. 22 <0. 3. fe a 22 Printed Quarterly by THE THOROUGHBRED PRESS Lexington, Kentucky x TRANSACTIONS ss of the a Nigh comer: nny”, ee _ \2°.. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE Editors ed Dr. M. C. BROCKMAN Dr. DAVID R. LINCICOME Jos. E. SEAGRAM AND SONS. Department of Zoology 7th. Street Road University of Kentucky Louisville 1, Kentucky Lexington 29, Kentucky OFFICERS AND DIRECTORS “KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE, 1947-1948 President Vice President Secretary ALFRED BRAUER ARTHUR C. MCFARLAN WILLIAM H. STARK University of Kentucky University of Kentucky Jos. E. Seagram and Sons | eee Louisville, Kentucky Counselor to Junior Representative to Council | Treasurer Academy of the A. A. A. S. — RALPH H. WEAVER ANNA A. SCHNEIB AusTIN R. MIDDLETON University of Kentucky Eastern State Teachers University of Louisville College DIRECTORS Morris SCHERAGO, University of Kentucky, to 1951 PAUL KoLAcHoV, Jos. E. Seagram and Sons, Inc., to 1950 GEORGE V. PAGE, Western State Teachers College, to 1950 J. S. BANGSON, Berea College, to 1950 : ROBERT T. HINTON, Georgetown College, to 1949 H. B. LovELL, University of Louisville, to 1949 L. Y. LANCASTER, Western State Teachers College, to 1948 Ai ! AustTIN R. MIDDLETON, University of Louisville, to 1948 The Transactions are issued quarterly. The four issues constitute an an- — nual volume. Domestic subscription, $2.00 per volume, foreign, $2.50. Manuscripts, advertising and all other material for publication should — be addressed to the editors. Correspondence concerning membership in the Academy, subscriptions or other business matters should be addressed to the | 3 2 ea DR. ALFRED BRAUER President, Kentucky Academy of Science, 1947-48 EDITORIAL A MORE ACTIVE ACADEMY The Kentucky Academy of Sci- ence, one of about thirty-five such state or regional societies, endeavors to carry the torch of scientific en- lightenment within its environs. Its purpose is to advance science by in- vestigation and by the dissemination of discovered knowledge. It has a membership of slightly over 300, and among these are a_ representative number of the State’s outstanding re- search men and scholars. Among its members are also a_ considerable number who advance its cause as teachers, or as community, or as in- dustrial leaders. The Academy’s sci- entific accomplishments are present- ed, and its business largely transact- ed at the one annual meeting. Also at this meeting, its new business for the coming year is initiated, and, in the brief period of about one hour, this is presented, discussed, and leg- islated. Whatever legislation is en- acted is turned over to the Executive Committee for execution. Although most of its members thoroughly believe in the Academy and its purposes, this is no indica- tion that they think the Academy is all it should be. Almost all of them can see its shortcomings. Individual- ly its members believe in it to the extent that they can help to make it the kind of organization they most desire. In this column I wish to point out some failings which can be correct- ed, but first, as one who has been a member of the Executive Committee for several years let me come to the defense of that body and thereby at- tempt to disqualify one of the criti- cisms most often directed at it and at the Academy as a whole. It is not entirely correct for ex- ample, that we go to the annual meeting, hear some papers present- ed, initiate some business, and then proceed to forget about it till the next annual meeting. The members of the committee have their work to do, and as your representatives feel their responsibilities and do their ut- most to do the work with which they are charged. On numerous occasions, and especially during the war years, the committee not only executed duties, but initiated and set tasks for itself. Briefly this work consisted of letters to congressmen and sena- tors first, in regard to the scientific manpower bill, and second, in re- gard to the eternal question of opening national preserves to ex- ploitation. It initiated a new meas- ure in regard to conservation within the state and contributed to the work of the Committee for Kentucky. It initiated and set in mo- tion a study on the conditions under which science is taught in secondary schools, with the motive of improv- ing them. To go into further detail here regarding these movements would be missing the real point o1 this communication, so, let me also point out wherein we have failed and, if possible, how we can make im- provements. AUG 1 2 19. A More Active Academy First: we have not yet scratched the surface of possibilities in ob- taining sustaining memberships which are so necessary for carrying out the work of the Academy. These are open to educational and industrial institutions, to their departments, or to their libraries. In return for each membership of this kind all the priv- ileges of the society are granted namely, a voting membership and subscription to the Transactions. The possibilities in this direction are endless, and the ease of obtaining them makes us wonder why we have not ten times the present number. The only thing lacking here is a little effort, not only on the part of the salesman, but also on the part of those who present research and do not make it available for publication, on the part of those who have research but do not present it, and finally on the part of those who have charge of the publication of the Transactions. In other words when we sell such a membership, it is posi- tively necessary that we fulfill our obligations in the contract, and give something in return for the mem- bership. P Second: bring into the Academy a greater number of workers from in- dustrial research laboratories, where so much is done in the application of science, as well as in making real fundamental discoveries. In obtain- ing these memberships we could ap- proximately double our present mem- bership. Third: bring into affiliation with the Academy other scientific associa- tions. We do not have adequate rep- resentation from several engineering societies, for example. Semiscientifiec societies are often interested in, and worthy of member- ship. In this category are natural history groups, astronomical study groups, groups for the study of phys- ical sciences. The Academy can aid such organizations in much the same manner it does the Junior Academy, and in so doing, can advance science by the dissemination of knowledge. Fourth: do a great deal more than we are doing toward conservation of resources generally. This is a broad term, and we are sometimes not in harmony with one another as to its real meaning. Here we have refer- ence to mineral, land, and biological conservation. In connection with the latter, there are many representa- tives of fish and game societies who have learned what constitutes the fundamentals of their chief interests, and would be interested members of the society. Fifth: greater productiveness on the part of all members is highly de- sirable. Lack of this is now reflected in the number, if not in the quality of papers presented at the annual meeting. In the past, from 1938 to 1942, between 40 and 60 papers were read at meetings at Morehead, Richmond, Lexington, and Louisville. These were divided among six divi- sional meetings. At Louisville and at Morehead, demonstrational meetings were also successful. Since that time and especially since the war, there has been a dearth of papers. At the last annual meeting at Bowling Green, only three divisional meetings were held, and 15 papers were read. The Biology division arranged a pro- gram only during the last week be- fore the meeting when it was dis- covered that an insufficient number of papers were forthcoming from its membership to hold a meeting of the division. This was the only time in over fifteen years that this division had even approximated failure. A More Active Academy Otherwise the meeting might have been very successful, since about 140 members and their guests from out- side the host city participated in the meetings. Productiveness on the part of the younger members would be especially encouraging and stimulat- ing. If you have something worth while, get it on the program and present it. Finally, if you would like to see the Academy function as it should between annual meetings, and if you have ideas for making it more vigorous, bring those ideas to the business sessions and present them either in the form of motions, or in the form of resolutions which can be legislated in the same manner as motions. If carried, they will be executed during the year if at all possible. Herein all members can take a part whether or not they ever present a research paper. Resolu- tions may be presented by any mem- ber even though he is not on the resolutions committee, and in the past some of the most worth-while actions of the Academy have resulted from them. ALFRED BRAUER President, Kentucky Academy of Science SCIENCE IN SOCIETY* PAUL KOLACHOV Technical Counselor Jos. E. Seagram & Sons No doubt this eminent Society of Kentucky scientists did not know what they were letting themselves in for, when they elected this “crazy Rus- sian’”’ to be their president—not only a “crazy Russian’ but a fermentol- ogist at that! So if I trouble you with problems and keep you in a state of ‘‘suspended fermentation” do not blame me—but blame your- selves! Since August of last summer when atom bombs fell on two Jap- anese cities, science has been forced to face social and political respons- ibilities of staggering proportion. In many places and on many levels, men of science who think in terms of humanity are searching their minds and are coming to certain conclusions with regard to this his- toric challenge; among such men is Dr. A. J. Carlson, distinguished Pro- fessor of Physiology at the Univer- sity of Chicago. In his address as the retiring president of the Amer- ican Association for the Advance- _ ment of Science delivered at St. Louis on March 27th of this year, Dr. Carlson made these solemn re- marks: “On the basis of my under- standing of man and acquaint- ance with human history, I have . . advocated in the past that a man’s social responsibility is commensurate with his under- standing of man and nature .-- Men of science are urged to ‘knock at the door of politics’ . . I think that our social re- sponsibility compels us to knock at this door not only as individ- uals but as organized profes- sional people.” *Address of the retiring president, Kentucky Academy of Science, April, 1946 But Dr. Carlson is not alone in his opinion. Indeed scientific societies in many centers are stepping upon the economic, the industrial, and the political scene. As you no doubt know there is ‘fermentation’ for a National Science Foundation whose duty would be to promote fund- amental and basic sciences for na- tional defense, for public health, for better use of national resources. In the past, science has been the pioneer in society and economics and politics have followed. But I ven- ture to predict that since the re- lease of nuclear energy, science will examine very carefully the social consequences of its inventions. It will ask itself continuously WHAT IS THE FUNCTION OF SCIENCE IN SOCIETY? Now I am proud to say that in cur own state of Kentucky, science is not alone in social progress. Two organizations which are not afraid to face facts have been started within the past two years: one is the Postwar Advisory Planning Commission of Kentucky, created by Executive Order of our Governor; the other is the Committee for Ken- tucky, a voluntary fact-finding com- mittee. The Postwar Advisory Planning Commission of Kentucky was created to study and investigate the Physical and human resources of the state and make plans and recom- mendations for the full develop- ment of such resources for the aid of agriculture, labor, manufacture, mining, transportation, conservation, and all other interests of the state. Here in our commonwealth the Science in Society very door of government is open- ing to science and certainly it is our duty and opportunity to walk in and offer our services. This hour con- tains a challenge of great good; if we let the hour pass, we do not de- serve the name either of scientist or Kentuckian. Now what are the jobs to be done as set forth by the two fact-finding groups of aroused citizens; let me note but a few—the rehabilitation of veterans through training, education, and jobs. There is the complex of public interest programs, as health, conservation of natural resources of all kinds, water supply, natural gas, electricity, forests, and mines. There is the challenge of inadequate edu- cation! Lastly because I like ‘to press home the point—the many unsolved problems of agriculture. Even if we had no social con- science, still long-view selfishness would demand that soil conditions be improved, that new crops be de- veloped, that old crops be brought into balance, that surplus crops be processed and saved, not wasted. As we all know, Kentucky is a state of contrasts: in the Bluegrass region the product value per acre is about twice that of the national average per acre. Yet on the basis of value PER PERSON engaged in farming, Kentucky falls near the bottom of the list of states. In other words, we have some of the most valuable farm land in the whole United States, yet we have some of the most impoverished farmers. Since in a democracy, the HUMAN element counts most, it is the work of science to improve agri- culture so that the standard of liv- ing for farm families can be raised. We cannot delay this kind of job; improvement must be made and made right World famine would never have come about if in- ternationally, men of science had given their energies to the welfare of mankind instead of being forced to invent methods of destruction. So then, while there is yet time, let us make Kentucky a commonwealth laboratory where science and gov- ernment work hand in hand for the betterment of all. In the past, society expected a great lag between scientific discov- ery and practical application. In this regard, I like to recall my own experience with the Russian dande- lion named KOK-SAGYZ from which rubber can be produced. When I started to talk about this back in 1941, I was laughed at by official agriculture. Now in February of 1946, in the first draft of the Inter- Agency Policy Rubber Report the following appears on pages 40-41: “Seeds of the Russian dandelion, a plant used as a rubber source by the U.S. S. R., were flown here in 1942. The Department of Agriculture has not yet had the time fully to ex- plore the potentialities of this plant. Such research as has been conducted with experimental plantings indi- cates that rubber from Russian dandelion is of better quality than guayule ... Government research on plant improvement and cultivation of guayule and Russian dandelion should continue.” I merely men- tion this official apathy in getting started on such needed research and utilization as the sort of thing we should avoid in Kentucky. Slowness in making use of scientific improve- ments is an offense against our economy and welfare. We failed to develop native sources of much- needed quinine — another example of national waste. During the war now. Science in Society especially in the mechanical field, science was translated very quick- ly into practical application. What was done in war for the purpose of destruction surely can be done in peace-time in order for men to live —and live better. The world is too sick, too critically explosive for us to go to sleep—scientifically. Perhaps you have been aware, ladies and gentlemen, that under- neath my thoughts as expressed here today, there runs a theme: concern for the HUMAN element in society. Just what can science do to raise the HUMAN element? How can we, as men of science, help develop high- type individuals, the very base of our commonwealth? Since we are a democracy, that is the most fund- amental of all our problems. I be- lieve democracy is only workable where the citizens are secure eco- nomically and well-informed polit- ically. Hungry people do not think straight; despair leads to tyranny! How then can the Kentucky Acad- emy of Science help raise the intel- lectual level of its fellow citizens? Let me quote again from the speech of Dr. Carlson with regard to the function of science in the training of men’s minds. He said: “Men in science have or should have greater experience, train- ing, and conditioning than the rest of mankind because the scientific method and scientific research demand absolute in- tegrity, the absolute sticking to the facts as known or discov- ered.” As we must admit, men of science are not born more honest than other men, but by virtue of their training, they must face facts and draw con- clusions from them. INSIDE the laboratory, at least, the man of science must be honest or his exper- iment will fail. This is the type of mental training which is one of the most valuable contributions of science to society. It is the kind of thinking needed most urgently in state, and national, yes, and even in international fields. Wishful think- ing will not built a new world; but science can start a sound framework. Let me add here, I believe that science without social conscience ends in destruction of society—as witness Germany. But social con- science without science is also a grave danger. Our democracy is very subject to the troubles rising from a conscience without know- ledge of HOW to implement that conscience. Only confusion can re- sult from this, as we Americans know bitterly. Implementing social conscience is not always easy. The man of science, when knocking at the door of politics, often finds himself speaking a different language from the administrator and the statesman. The statesman and the politician may look upon us as ‘‘odd ducks” or “old fogies’’. Why this gulf between us? Let us examine our education and try to discover if there is some lack that explains this lack of under- standing. After examining the cur- ricula of many colleges, I am forced to the unhappy conclusion that the training of the scientist, even in the best schools, includes little or no awareness of the social consequences of his work. On the other hand, the education of the administrator and the politician is without sufficient information and adjustment as to the rapid changes taking place in our society because of scientific and technical discoveries and inventions. Here is a very serious inability of two vital parts of our society to Science in Society understand each other. For instance, read the arguments pro and con for giving or not giving out information on the atomic bomb. But here, in the Commonwealth of Kentucky, we are in a very for- tunate position. Our politicians, our industrialists, our economists have reached out the hands of co-oper- ation to us. They have in their re- ports pointed out the jobs that are unfinished and that cry out to be done. We cannot hold back. We DARE NOT shun the challenge. Here, at least in Kentucky, we talk the same language—the language of social betterment for all our citizens. When we look abroad, we see the world standing on the threshold of a new era: progress untold, or utter destruction. Internationally, men of science must lead humanity into the good light of decency and progress; nationally, we must find the paths of health and stability; and inside our own state, we cannot rest until all “unfinished business” is taken care of—and in good measure. My friends, the historians tell me that the word KENTUCKY means the “dark and bloody ground.” That name was given to this region of ours because, being rich with natural resources, men gave their lives, shedding their blood to possess that wealth. Much was lost in that battle. Man’s greed was short-sighted. It is up to us, as the Kentucky Acad- emy of Science, to lead the way in restoring their resources, and _ to increasing our wealth in order to raise the level of our state’s stand- ard of living. We cannot rest until Kentucky takes her place among the leading progressive states of the Union. Let us then change the name KENTUCKY from “dark and bloody ground” to the rich and ruddy ground. This, then, must be our goal, function, our duty, in the society of Kentucky. There is always the danger at meetings of this kind, particularly at meetings which come together but once a year, to ventilate noble sent- iments, exchange opinions — and then afterwards to go home and for- get all about it until next time. I do not want you to do this. As I said in the opening of my address, I should like to put you, my col- leagues, into a ferment of activity with regard to Kentucky’s problems and their solution. To examine, to investigate, and to inform ourselves about statewide problems is not enough. We can- not be content to be mere paper scientists, with elegant plans in- scribed on books and pamphlets. We want to get into action. So then, that is my program of ‘continuous cooking’”’, if I may borrow a phrase from the institution where I have the honor of earning my bread—and sometimes a little refreshment on the side. My opinion is that our Academy should come together oftener than once a year. At a time like this, when the world finds itself in a new era—The Atomic Age—cer- tainly people like ourselves have to get together often enough to keep informed as to what is happening in science and society. Therefore, I suggest we consider how often we can meet, where we can meet, and if we should met by sections, or by communities. I feel our state should be divided into various ‘problem areas’? so we can apply ourselves to those prob- lems and help get the jobs done. We should get to know the various Science in Society members on the Postwar Advisory Planning Commission of Kentucky and the Committee for Kentucky and get busy with these men—so their postwar plans and their re- ports use the spark-plug of science. Thus we all can move forward faster together than any one group could, alone. Another suggestion: I should like to see the Divisions of our Society be increased in number to include engineers of all types, sociologists especially those interested in rural problems, and experts in city plan- ning and improvement. Still another thought: industry should be stimulated to co-operate with science so that educational facilities in research and training can be stepped up greatly. Better education, more education is basic to all Kentucky problems. Industry will help science if it sees clearly that only in this way can it obtain the high-type personnel which _ it needs. No matter what product is made, its quality depends in large part on the integrity and skill of the men who make it. Our state is in great need of technically trained men to help solve our problems— yet the very men we need most go OUTSIDE the state for jobs. This is economic nonsense and we can’t af- ford it! It is sound investment, not charity, for industry to help estab- lish scholarships, fellowships, aid education in every way possible. The rewards will come back to industry —and in good measure. In a highly developed society, technical men hold the key. If we are foolish enough to let public machinery get into the hands of dishonest or in- competent men—vwe are giving over the future into the hands of children —or worse. Our Society then should have continuous vital contact with the in- dustries of the state and make plans and programs to encourage new in- dustries to come here and settle. This will enrich the state and in turn aid education. To sum up: Let us meet more often; let us so organize our mem- bership that we keep in touch with community problems in order to co- operate in their solution; let us re- port more often to the Society as a whole with regard to local and re- gional problems; let us work with industry in order to step up educa- tion within the Commonwealth. If we do follow a vital program such as this, I am certain we shall begin to feel new blood coursing in our veins; we shall sense the excitement and satisfaction of creating a Ken- tucky even better than the old. We should certainy keep the best of the old but let us infuse into it the finest of the new. As men of science we are well-equipped to help Kentucky make that transition—without dis- location, without class hate, without disaster. As I see it, to help lead the way into a better life for all, to epen the doors to a more just future —these are the functions of science in society! Let us now apply these principles at home—in our own Commonwealth of Kentucky! Cc NOC) yd ss ser £229 SUOIOIUNNTTI SLE WNUIXEy—z OWI Y SVOVOIW I/4b4 wt ¥rb0a7 eAgY OLt e/ t/ 9 or SUOMI QTp wNUIxepy—¢ juoWsIg SUOFIIMI//IPpJ Ul Y4f6ua7 ahoy SIP? Ors SIP O6E OnE SUOINIUNTTTA, Cgg Wnunxepi—] Juoursrg SUOsILII/IP) Ul UL SUDT DIEM ozo See alr 5% ozo Ones ooe 00F Ooe ool Ta:) 13 Effect of Glucose Upon the Viability of Lactobacil- lus Casei MARY MUEDEKING Department of Bacteriology University of Kentucky Lexington, Ky. In discussing the bacterial growth curve with respect to the viable count, it is often stated that the population begins to decrease soon after reaching a maximum, and a logarithmic death phase _ ensues (Porter, 1946). Evidence that, un- der certain conditions, the viable count may remain close to the maxi- mum for a considerable time rela- tive to the preceding phases of the growth curve, was obtained in .con- nection with a study of the lactic acid fermentation. Evidence was also found that this was not due to balanced multiplication and death rates, but rather to the maintenance of a stationary population. It is be- lieved that the results are of suf- ficient interest to warrant publica- tion as a preliminary note. The organism used was Lactobacil- lus) casez, A. T. C. C: 7649.) It was grown in yeast extract-glucose broth cultures, with excess calcium carbon- ate added as a buffer. The media were made up in a 1-200 dilution of salt solution B of the Snell-Strong (1939) riboflavin assay medium; 0.04% (final concentration) dibasic potassium phosphate was added aiter autoclaving. Cultures were incu- bated at 37°C. The viable counts were determined by plating the cul- tures upon a medium containing 2% yeast extract, 0.5% glucose, and 1.5%agar. Usually six plates per culture were made; two at each of three critical dilutions, or three at two. It was observed that the viable count decreased several fold between 14 48 and 72 hours in a culture in which the glucose (2% initial con- centration) was exhausted at about 24 hours. Addition of glucose to such a culture resulted in utilization of the glucose and an increase in the viable count. In a culture with an initial glu- cose concentration of 12% the count at 86 hours was 4.8 x 10» cells per ml., as compared to the maximum of 5.9 x 109 cells per ml. at 40 hours. At 32 hours the population was 5.4 x 10°; thus this culture had an ap- parently nearly stationary popula- tion during the 32-86 hour period. During this time glucose analyses showed that the fermentation pro- ceeded at a constant rate, and at 86 hours 1.2% glucose remained. To study further the effect of glucose upon maintenance of the vi- able count the following experiment was done. Three cultures of L. casei, similar except that two had an in- itial glucose concentration of 2%, and one had 12%, were plated out at 24, 48, 72, and 96 hours. To one of the cultures with 2% glucose at 24 hours, and subsequently every 24 hours, enough sterile glucose solution was added to bring the concentration to 1%. Data obtained are given in Table 1. According to these results, in the presence of fermentable sugar, the population stays close to the maxi- mum until the culture is at least 96 hours old, whereas it falls off mark- edly in the same time if the sugar is depleted. To determine if the stationary vi- Effect of Glucose Upon the Viability of Lactobacillus Caset able count was due to balanced mul- tiplication and death rates a similar experiment using direct counts was done. Two cultures, containing 2% and 12% glucose, were prepared. The salts concentrations, slightly dif- ferent from Solution B, were as fol- lows: 10 g. Mg. SO4:7H20; 0.5 g. Na Cl; 1.0 g. (Fe)2(SO4)3 (anhyd- rous), and 0.5 g. Mg. SO4:H20 in were chosen at random and counted. Every cell distinguishable in a chain was counted. Two,three, and four cells in a chain were common. The average number of individual cells per field was determined, and from this the total number of cells per ml. culture was computed. Results are given in Table 2. The discrepancy between the to- 250 ml. glass-distilled water. Final tal and viable counts may possibly TABLE 1 Plate Counts—cells per ml. 1 2 Time 2% glucose 2% glucose 12% Hours none added bee. 24% glucose glucose solution added every 24 hours ; 24 3.2 x 10° 5.7 x 10° 1.7 x 102 48 3.8 x 10° @)-3} o< Je Hows 2¢ IE 72 6.6 x 10s 7.9 x 102 8.7 x 102 96 3.4 x 10s 8.3 x 102 6.4 x 102 concentrations were equivalent to a 1-200 dilution of this solution. After sterilization enough K2HPO4 to make a final concentration of 0.01% was added. Cultures were plated at 24 and 120 hours, and direct counts were done at 24, 50, 72 and 96 be because short chains of cells, counted as several individuals in the direct count, produced only one col- ony on a plate. Since both plate and direct counts were not done at 96 and 120 hours the results are not ab- solutely comparable; yet they indi- hours. Technique of the direct cate very clearly the effect of glu- TABLE 2 Plate counts and Direct Count of L .casei Cultures Time 2% 12% Hours Glucose Glucose Direct Count Plate Count Direct Count Plate Count 24 6.7 x 109 2.3 x 109 5.1 x 10° 2.6 x 102 50 Daiexe Os — 5.4 x 109 = he, eslepxcnlli() 2 — 6.9 x 109 — 96 ot x IOs — 4.0 x 10 — 120 — Boo oe De — 2.3 x 102 counts was as follows: 0.01 ml. of a cose in maintaining the viable count, 1-10 dilution of the culture was smeared as evenly as possible over an area of 6 sq. cm. in two loopfuls of nigrosin. The smear was allowed to air-dry, and from 13 to 20 fields 15 and show that the total count is no greater in the medium containing 12% glucose. Therefore, the con- stant viable count must be the result of a truly stationary population and Effect of Glucose Upon the Viability of Lactobacillus Casei not equal multiplication and death rates. Autolysis of dead cells can be discounted since in the 2% culture the viable count had decreased near- ly 100 fold; yet the direct count re- mained the same within experimental error at 96 hours. Thus many of the cells visible on the slide were actual- ly dead. Glucose probably remained in the culture containing 12%; in a similar experiment glucose analysis showed 1.6 mg. per ml. remaining at 135 hours. Discussion Apparently the presence of a fer- mentable sugar, with the energy available from the fermentation, is sufficient to keep the great majority of cells of Lactobacillus casei alive (capable of growth when transferred to a fresh medium) for a period of 96 to 120 hours. If the energy source is exhausted, however, the cells begin to die in 48 to 72 hours. The death of the cells cannot be as- to the exhaustion of essential growth factors or nitrogen, since these fac- tors would, if they were influencing the viability of the cells, tend to be more injurious in the culture with 12% initial glucose. The presence of an adequate energy source is appar- ently the only important difference between a culture having a viable count of 2.3x10° cells per ml. at 120 hours, and one with 3.3 x 107 cells per ml. End products of metab- olism, in this case calcium lactate, do not adversely affect viability or fer- mentation. The time of occurrence of the log- arithmic death phase in relation to the rest of the bacterial growth cycle, in the case of Lactobacillus casei, is dependent upon certain en- vironmental conditions. References (1) Porter, J. R. 1946. Bacterial Chemistry and Physiology, p. 102. John Wiley and Sons, Inc. (2) Snell, E. E. and Strong, F. M. cribed to a low pH, to the accumula- 1939. Ind. Eng. Chem. Anal. tion of toxic metabolic products, or Ed, 11: 346. (Se OO 16 RESEARCH NOTES A Note on the Elimination of Endamoeba coli Cysts in the Human Host The irregularity in occurrence of Endamoeba histolytica and Enda- moeba coli cysts and trophozoites in human stools has been observed by several investigators. Quantitative studies on the elimination of these parasites from the human body have been carried out by only a _ few. Cropper (1918-1919. Proc. Roy. Soe. Med. 12 Marcus Beck Lab Reports No. 8: 1-14) concluded from his work on EF. coli that no “periodicity” was indicated “either in the number of cysts per gramme of stool or in the number excreted per day”. Von Brand (1982: Zentralbl. f. Bakt. Abt. 1. Orig. 128: 358-365) also was unable to describe any “periodic” elimination of cysts in his study of E. histolytica from a.human case. Tsuchiya (1982. Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. and Med. 29: 930-932) observed an ‘“encystment cycle” in a study of the same or- ganism. Lincicome (1942. Amer. J. Hyg. 36: 821-337) reported cysts of Endamoeba histolytica and Endamoeba coli were eliminated with a certain frequency in the stools of rhesus monkeys under prescribed standard and controlled conditions. Maximum numbers of cysts were discharged on the average of every 7 days with a range of 4 to 10 days, occasionally as long as 14 days. The numbers of cysts present in the stool usually declined rapidly after a maximum output, and remain- ed at a lower level until the next rise occurred. Such frequencies were found in animals maintained on a high carbohydrate diet. Using a method previously develop- ed (Lincicome, 1942) observations have been made on the elimination of Endamoeba coli cysts in the stools of a male human volunteer. On October 6, 1942, a human volun- teer naturally infected with Enda- moeba coli and passing cysts of this organism, was placed on a low-residue diet. An adequate amount of meta- mucil was included for soft, non-fib- rous bulk. ““Embo” was added to furn- ish sufficient vitamin-B complex in- take (Thanks are expressed here to Dr. Statie Erikson, Professor of Home Economics, University of Kentucky, who has kindly helped in arranging the diet). The dietary carbohydrate level was maintained high while the protein level was kept at a point as low as was commensurate with health. Beginning October 16, 1942, twenty- four-hour stool specimens were col- lected and the cysts of H. coli enumer- ated. Since it was physically impos- sible to analyze quantitatively each daily specimen, twenty - four - hour stools on alternate days were prepar- ed for cyst counts. Alternate daily counts continued through November 23, 1942. No trophozoites were en- countered. The text figure is a graph showing the number of E. coli cysts eliminated per twenty-four-hour period per milli- liter of a one-in-ten saline suspension of the fecal sample from October 16 through November 23, 1942. Presenta- tion of the numerical fluctuation of cysts in this manner eliminates the factor of stool-volume variation which Research Notes f 7 Hu un Gere ESE RSE might in itself account for increases or decreases in numbers of cysts. No cysts were observed in the stools until October 24. After this there oc- curred three maximum rises in num- bers of cysts. Following each maxi- mum output the number of cysts de- clined to a minimum whence they arose again. One one day, November 17, no stool was deposited. There is here evidence of an orderly fluctuation in numbers of E. coli cysts 18 not wholly unlike that already de- scribed for the same organism in the rhesus monkey. Fourteen days elapsed between the first two maximum rises while ten days elapsed between the second and third. Further study of the discharge of E. coli cysts in the stools of human volunteers is in pro- gress.—David Richard Lincicome and Robert Arthur Gold, Parasitology Laboratory, Department of Zoology, University of Kentucky, Lexington. Occurrence of Neoechinorhynchus emydis (Acanthocephala) in Snails In June 1942 an acanthocephalan was found in the foot of the snail Campeloma rufum (Haldeman) col- lected from a point on the North Elk- horn Creek known as Johnson’s Mill, about 12 miles northwest of Lexing- ton, Kentucky. Numerous collections have been made subsequently and the snails found infected indicating that the infection is probably not accident- al. Ceriphasia semicarinata (Say) collected from the same locality has also been infected but less consistent- ly than C. rufum. (The snails in this report have been identified by Dr. J. P. E. Morrison, Division of Mollusks, U. S. National Museum, Washington, 1D); (G5) The worms have been identified as Neoechinorhynchus emydis (Leidy 1851) a common parasite of turtles, although they possess certain charact- eristics apparently heretofore unre- ported. These are being reported in a separate communication. All worms were in a post-larval or juvenile stage of development, en- closed in a cystic membrane. Usually but one worm was found within a cyst wall. Cysts ordinarily were situated superficially in the foot tissue, oc- casionally at the base of tentacles or in the tissue around the mouth or in the mantle. 19 This is apparently the third pub- lished record of acanthocephala from snails, and constitutes the first record for C. rufum and C. semicarinata. The first published record was by Meyer in his monograph (1932-1933. Acantho- cephala. Bronn’s Klassen and Ord- nungen des Tierreichs 4 Abt. 2, Buch 2) in which he says regarding Neo- echinorhynchus rutili “und experi- mentell im Lymnaea .. .” This is without bibliographical citation, and is therefore assumed to be the result of Meyer’s work (personal communi- cation from H. J. Van Cleave, Janu- ary 1947). However, on p. 2938 of his monograph Meyer makes no mention of Lymnaea in discussing the life cycle of N. rutili. Whitlock (1939. Snails as Inter- mediate Hosts of Acanthocephala. J. Parasit. 25: 443) records a species of Neoechinorhynchus from Campeloma decisum and Pleurocera acuta in Grand River near Lansing, Michigan. Cable (January, 1947) in a person- al communication indicated that Hopp working in his laboratory had found a Neoechinorhynchus in snails.— David Richard Lincicome and Allie Whitt, Jr. Parasitology Laboratory, Department of Zoology, University of Kentucky, Lexington. Dr. Paul O. Ritcher has been elect- ed Vice-President of the North Cen- tral States Branch of the American Association of Economic Entomol- ogists. Dr. Ravid Richard Lincicome has been elected Fellow of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hy- giene in London, England. Dr. Frank Pattie of the Rice In- stitute, Houston, Texas, will become Head of the Department of Psy- chology, University of Kentucky on 1 July 1947. Dr. Pattie holds the A. B. from Vanderbilt University and the Ph. D. from Princeton. It is with regret that the death of Dr. Henry Beaumont, Professor of Psychology, University of Kentucky, in March 1947 is noted. Drweaul Ps Boyd retires on 16 June 1947 as Dean of the College of Arts and Sciences, University of Kentucky. Dr. M. M. White, Professor of Psychology and Associate Dean of Arts and Sciences, University of Kentucky, will become Dean of the college upon retirement of Dr. Boyd. Mr. Elisha B. Lewis, Assistant Chemist, Experiment Station, Uni- versity of Kentucky, has resigned to become Research Chemist with En- gineering Company of Ohio in Day- ton, Ohio, effective 16 June 1947. The Department of Bacteriology, University of Kentucky announces the institution of the Ph. D. degree in the following fields: morphology and physiology of microorganisms, immunology and serology and public health bacteriology. Dr. Robert N. Jeffrey, Plant NEWS and NOTES 20 Physiologist, Department of Agron- omy, Experiment Station, Univer- sity of Kentucky, is now Plant Physi- ologist with the Firestone Planta- tions Corporation in Harbel, Liberia. Dr. James W. Archdeacon has been promoted to Associate Profes- sor of Anatomy and Physiology, University of Kentucky. Dr. Joe Kendall Neel will become Assistant Professor of Zoology, Uni- versity of Kentucky, on 1 September 1947. Dr. Neel holds the B. S. in 1937 and M. S. in 1988 from the University of Kentucky and the Ph. D. from the University of Michigan in’ 194'7. Dr. William R. Brown has been promoted to Associate Professor of Geology, University of Kentucky. The Department of Psychology, University of Kentucky, is one of the first in the United States to be select- ed by the American Psychological Association to give the Ph. D. in Psychology with a major in clinical psychology. Mr. A. S. Bradshaw, Assistant Professor of Biology, Transylvania College, will spend the summer quar- ter at the Franz Theodore Stone Laboratory at Put-in-Bay, Lake Erie. The Keeneland Foundation has placed an electron microscope in the laboratories of the Department of Bacteriology, University of Ken- tucky. Dr. O. F. Edwards, in charge of the microscope, has completed a special study of techniques for the microscope at the National Institute of Health. Dr. David Richard Lincicome, As- sistant Professor of Zoology, Univer- News and Notes sity of Kentucky, has resigned to become Assistant Professor of Para- sitology, School of Medicine, Uni- versity of Wisconsin, on 1 July 1947. Dr. Morris Scherago has been awarded a _ research grant of $1,500.00 from the American Col- lege of Allergists for work on the standardization of allergens. The Department of Bacteriology, University of Kentucky, announces the following promotions: Dr. Mar- garet Hotchkiss to full Professor; Dr. O. F. Edwards to Associate Pro- fessor and Dr. Mary Muedeking to Assistant Professor. Dr. L. A. Brown, Professor of Bi- ology at Transylvania College spent the winter quarter at Harvard Uni- versity preparing a curriculum in bi- ology in the field of General Educa- tion to be instituted at Transylvania. 21 Dr. L. K. Wood, Assistant Soil Scientist, Oregon State College at Corvallis, Oregon, has become Chem- ist and spectroscopist, Department of Chemistry, Experiment Station, Uni- versity of Kentucky. Dr. H. B. Lovell, Associate Pro- fessor of Zoology, University of Louisville, will spend part of the summer in study of birds in the Allegheny Mountains of Eastern Kentucky and Tennessee. Drs. P. A. Davies and H. B. Lovell, University of Louisville, represented the Academy at the Field Day of the Indiana Academy of Science in May. Dr. William M. Clay, instructor in Biology, University of Louisville, will be a member of the party studying the herpetofauna of Southern Ari- zona under the auspices of the Chi- cago Academy of Sciences. Abstracted Minutes of 1944 and 1946 Meetings of the Kentucky Academy of Science THIRTY-FIRST ANNUAL MEETING University of Kentucky April 28 and 29, 1944 Officers: PRESIDENT—L. A. Brown, Transylvania College, Lexington, Ky. PAST PRESIDENT—J. T. Skinner, W. S. T. C., Bowling Green, Ky. VICE ee ee ate Kolachov, Joseph E. Seagram & Sons, Louis- ville, K SECRETARY—Alfred Brauer, University of ee terrae Lexington, Ky. TREASURER—William J. Moore, E. K. S. T. C. REPRESENTATIVE TO A. A. A. any oe R. Middleton, University of Louisville. COUNSELOR TO JR. ACADEMY—Anna Schneib Local Committee on Arrangements: H. P. Riley D. G. Steele A. J. Bradshaw (Transylvania) Dave Young Reports were read by the Secretary, Treasurer, Representative to the A. A. A. S. and the Counselor to the Junior Academy. Elected to Membership were: David Armstrong, Manual High School, Louisville Glenn Dooley, Dept. of Chemistry, W. K. S. T. C., Bowling Green Paul Maizlick, Dept. of Physics, E. K. S. T. C., Richmond Vernon S. Gentry, Georgetown College, Georgetown A constitutional amendment providing for sustaining memberships was passed. A by-law fixing the annual dues of sustaining members at ten dollars was passed. Officers for a following year were elected. THIRTY-SECOND ANNUAL MEETING University of Louisville April 26 and 27, 1946 PRESIDENT—Paul Kolachov, Joseph E. Seagram & Sons, Inc., Louisville PAST PRESIDENT—L. A. Brown, Transylvania College, Lexington VICE PRESIDENT—Ward Sumpter, W. K. S. T. C., Bowling Green, Ky. SECRETARY—Alfred Bauer, U. of Ky., Lexington, Ky. TREASURER—W. J. Moore, E. K. S. T. C., Richmond, Ky. REP. ON COUNCIL OF A. A. A. S.—Austin R. Middleton, U. of Louisville COUNSELOR TO JR. ACADEMY—Anna Schneib Reports were read by the Treasurer, Representative to the Council of the A. A. A. S. and the Counselor to the Ky. Jr. Acad. New Members Elected to Academy: Adams, Carl E. Grossman, James A. Roberts, V. D. Balen, Virgil A. Houchins, John Sloan, Earl] P. Bennett, E. M. Hutter, Harry K. Roth, George Carey, Henry Jeffery, Robert N. Schwendeman, Jos. R. Cole, Mrs. Constance L, Lewis, Elisha Betts Snyder, Marion Coy, Fred MacLaury, Donald W. Steen, Russell Crawley, Clyde B. Mayo, Mrs. Elizabeth Stevens, Russell Dawson, Lyle R. McErlean, George Sutherland, William R. Erickson, R. J. Nelson, Vincent E. Townsend, Lee Hill Gardner, Jos. H. Ormsby, Robert L. Westad, J. W. Hotchkiss, Margaret Pauls, Franklin B. Wetzel, Harold F. Heimerdinger, Jane Wharton, Mary E. No new business was forthcoming. Officers for the following year were elected. 22 - NOTICE TO CONTRIBUTORS » The TRANSACTIONS OF THE KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE is a medium for the publication of original investigations in science. As the official organ of the Kentucky Academy of Science it publishes in addi- tion programs of the annual meetings of the society, abstracts of papers presented before the annual meetings, reports of the society’s officers and com- mittees, as well as news and announcements of interest to the membership. 5 Manuscripts may be submitted at any time to the co-editors: DR. M. C. BROCKMAN DR. DAVID R. LINCICOME Jos. E. Seagram and Sons Department of Zoology 7th Street Road University of Kentucky Louisville, Kentucky Lexington 29, Kentucky Papers should be submitted typewritten, double-spaced, with wide mar- gins, in an original and 1 carbon copy, on substantial quality paper. Articles are accepted for publication with the understanding that they are to be published exclusively in the TRANSACTIONS. Each paper will be reviewed - by one or more persons qualified in the field covered by the article in addition to the editors before a contribution is accepted for publication. Bibliographic citations should follow textual material (except in Research Notes, see later). Abbreviations for the names of periodicals should follow the current system employed by either Chemical Abstracts or Biological Abstracts. Biblographie citations in Research Notes should be in the same form as for _ longer papers but enclosed in parentheses within the text of the note. Footnotes should be avoided. Titles must be clear and concise, and provide for precise and accurate catologuing. Tables and illustrations are expensive, and should be included in an article only to give effective presentation of the data. Articles with an excessive number of tables or illustrations, or with poorly arranged or executed tables or illustrations may be returned to the author for modification. Textual material should be in clear, brief and condensed form in order for a maximum amount of material to be published. bs Reprints may be obtained from the publisher and must be ordered at the time galley proof is returned. - Authors are requested to submit an abstract of their papers when galley proof is returned. This abstract must be no longer than 250 words, nor to ex- ceed in any case 3% of the length of the original article. Abstracts will be submitted to Biological Abstracts for publication. ae Kes) Volume 12 October, 1947 Number 4 TRANSACTIONS of the KENTUCKY ACADEMY of SCIENCE Offiicial Organ KeEentTucKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE CONTENTS Editorial: Power and, ‘Paneh:\\ The) Bditors. oy NN _ 55 Physiological variation in isolates of Polyporus schweinitzti Fr. (Fungi; Basidiomycetes). William D. Gray... 59 Pollination in Asclepias, H. H. La Fuze and V. A. Greulach_..__ 79 A comprehensive survey of controlled grain alcohol production methods they eer War eae N SN ee NG NEA ZS ty oh a MSZ A planned economy for Kentucky’s waters. W. R. Allen. 89 Alcoholic fermentation under reduced pressure. MG; Brockmann.and T.\J);B.Stier oo Mn A Oe 19 Report of the committee for the Kentucky Junior Academy. Para riaa) Ac Cin Re eA Phy Nout Sy ha) NE Ay AE 101 Report of the representative of the Kentucky Academy of Science on the _ Council of the A.A.A.S. Austin R. Middleton... 105 ES a AE TRA ERE VPS TANDEM SEN Us MES MRA CL LOS OR OER Pe Nad Wl 110 pT Spa ch Fie Aa LS RUS NOS UU RIG ALUCALAI MONS EIS SE VAC) A A112 Printed Quarterly by THE THOROUGHBRED PRESS Lexington, Kentucky TRANSACTIONS of the | KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE Editors Dr. M. C. BROCKMAN Dr. DAvip R. LINCICOME JOS. KE. SEAGRAM AND SONS School of Medicine 7th Street Road University of Wisconsin Louisville 1, Kentucky Madison, Wisconsin OFFICERS AND DIRECTORS KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE, 1947-1948 President Vice President Secretary ALFRED BRAUER ArtTHuR C. McFaruAN J. R. STUETZ University of Kentucky University of Kentucky Jos. E. Seagram and Sons Louisville, Kentucky Counselor to Junior Representative to Council Treasurer Academy of the A. ALA. S. RALPH H. WEAVER ANNA A. SCHNEIB AUSTIN R. MIDDLETON University of Kentucky Eastern State Teachers University of Louisville College ve DIRECTORS A Morris SCHERAGO, University of Kentucky, to 1951 U/ . PauL KoLacnuoy, Jos. E. Seagram and Sons, Inc., to 1950 GEORGE V. PAGE, Western State Teachers College, to 1950 J. S. BANGSON, Berea College, to 1950 | Rozert T. HINTON, Georgetown College, to 1949 H. B. Lovett, University of Louisville, to 1949 L. Y. LANCASTER, Western State Teachers College, to 1948 AUSTIN R. MIDDLETON, University of Louisville, to 1948 The Transactions are issued quarterly. The four issues constitute an an- nual volume. Domestic subscription, $2.00 per volume, foreign, $2.50. Manuscripts, advertising and all other material for publication should be addressed to the editors. Correspondence concerning membership in the Academy, subscriptions or other business matters should be addressed to the secretary. ne he ey a ve eG EDITORIAL POWER AND PUNCH At nine o’clock on the morning of May 8, 1914, a group of about twenty-five persons assembled in the Physics Building, the University of Kentucky, to organize the Kentucky Academy of Science. Forty-six per- sons had earlier indicated in a signed statement their sympathy with and their approval for an Academy of Science in the State. The secretary’s report read at the second annual meeting of the Acad- emy on May 15, 1915, showed that the roll of members had increased to some sixty individuals who had either signed the organizational state- ment or who otherwise had indicatea they wished to become members. A balance of two dollars was on hand in the treasury. By the next year 81 names were on the membership list, and by 1917 there were 91, of whom 39 were ac- tive members in good standing and 39 whose dues were in arrears. The membership in the Kentucky Academy of Science since the early organizational days in 1914, 1915 and 1916 has grown slowly by small yearly increments to the present membership of about 330 for 1947. Stated thus it might be said that the Academy has done well in view of the many obstacles encountered during the thirty odd years of its life. Not only has there been an an- nual growth in membership, how- ever small, but a journal, the TRANSACTIONS, has been launched since 1924 under circumstances that Ee FEB ASP have been a little more than diffi- cult and discouraging and is now completing its twelfth volume. With this volume a new policy has been inaugurated which provides for a broader editorial horizon than was possible at any time previously. The Academy has weathered World War I, the great depression of the thirties, World War II and so far has maintained fair balance in post World War II inflation, although how much longer seems a matter of conjecture in view of the tremendous rise in cost of everything including printing of the journal. The Academy has now advanced to an age of maturity in a powerful new world with vast new horizons stretching out before her. They bring new and greater responsibili- ties and emphasize old problems that have never been solved. Dr. Paul P. Boyd in the presiden- tial address of 1920 viewing the fu- ture of the Kentucky Academy of Science, laid before the members a series of goals that are still today short of attainment. In 1947 as in 1920 the Academy is still ineffective as the representative organization of Science in the State. Our member- ship still does not encompass all fields of scientific thought, and largely be- cause of this the roster roll remains at a relatively low figure. We have yet to cooperate to the fullest extent with educational and industrial lead- ers and businesses, the public still looms as a vast uninformed mass and ~ Power and Punch our fundamental excuse for birth, the zealous advancement of knowledge and the dissemination thereof, still lies abandoned for want of sufficient support. In order to have a _ vigorous, healthy society new horizons in at- tainable objectives must ever be be- for us, and all efrort must be di- rected toward accomplishment of these objectives. The Academy has too long been content to remain a mediocre organization, impotent in attainments and offering nothing to prospective members, sustaining or otherwise, for their participation. The time has now come, the cross- roads are before us, for us to re-ex- amine ourselves to discover what the reasons are for thirty-three years of coasting along. We must then over- haul our organization to give it power and punch. It is the opinion of the writers that one of the fundamental causes of our disease is a species of stagna- tion resulting from an attitude of general indifference. It is an atti- tude that has permeated through many levels of society in the State. The Academy collectively is but re- flecting this state of mind of the population, and is taking what seems to be the path of least resistance as the guide to conduct. This stagnation now and then raises its dark countenance in many forms, for example: the indignant letters of citizens to newspaper edi- tors protesting the paying of respec- table and adequate salaries to the faculty of our institutions of higher learning, the orations of political candidates for high office demanding that the University deny the right of freedom of speech, investigation and publication to its faculty members. This educational decay is reflected in the shameful salaries paid to teach- 56 ers in our schools, and it reflects in the amount of money available in our colleges for research, facilities and salaries. Everywhere the forces of ignorance, intolerance and indif- ference resist progress. The Academy is doubly guilty of neglect of duty when it fails in its mission to promote truth and its dis- semination, for after all ignorance, intolerance, indifference, and inaction as well, are attributes that follow in the absence of truth. Stagnation immediately within the Academy is marked in many ways, but principally in our lack of critical, constructive and progressive action. The membership is content with a single general meeting once in every year at which time it repeats many words of fine and noble sentiment and then promptly forgets the whole thing. The general attitude does not encourage or breed enthusiasm and a deep desire to render service or to pursue research, and it does not serve as a stimulus for others who are not members to join with us. We offer nothing in return for partici- pation in the Academy. We take no bold or aggressive action in the name of Science. On this basis there seems little excuse to warrant the Acad- emy’s existence. The Academy has no alternative, no choice or selection from which to choose success but through enthusi- astic, hard sacrifice to work. We have got to sell ourselves first on the worthwhileness of the Academy. Then we have got to sell it to others. The immediate necessity is to en- large the membership to all fields of scientific endeavor in the State whether educational or industrial. Increase in membership per se is not a notable objective for the Academy, but it is as necessary as the very Power and Punch food we eat to our metabolic proc- esses. The aftermath of World War II has brought important sequelae di- rectly concerned with Academy mem- bers both as individuals in a frus- trated society and as responsible sci- entists. As informed and enlightened citizens in a democracy we owe it to ourselves and fellow statemen and countrymen to contribute to the sane and wise deliberations on the establishment and keeping of just peace in the world. Again as _ in- formed and enlightened citizens, Academy members are responsible for disseminating truth as a means of conquering fear and_ distrust. Public education then is a continu- ing and necessary objective that this society has too long ignored. It is now past time that the Academy for- mulate and execute plans for public education on matters that pertain to its dominion. The broad general function of any Academy of Science incorporates the injunction to promote and foster re- search or the acquisition and dis- semination of truth. Research and the search for truth in the old days was a matter of a room with a bench, a shelf for books, perhaps a micro- scope, and a keen, burning, passion- ate desire for knowledge. The cost was not more than the simple imple- ments that it required. The thirst for truth lay deep and powerful with- in the individual. In the course of years research has undergone change, it has evolved or undergone evolu- tion, and the old way has passed into the great beyond. Research today is spelled with a capital “R.” It requires the coopera- tion of many persons, institutions, and considerable physical assets. Con- siderable sums of money are neces- sary to pay the hire of assistants, for purchasing instruments and ma- terial. Travel abroad from one’s im- mediate environment is often a sine Research today has meta- morphosed from the general store era to the age of streamlined specialties. quo non. Has the Kentucky Academy kept pace with this evolution in Research? The answer is not difficult to find. There are many Academy mem- bers who have had the enthusiasm to be “companions in zealous research” only to have it wither and die away as the years have gone by because research was and is not supported well, either morally or financially, either by the state government or by industry at large. Many of the news- papers throughout the State have de- cried the fact that teachers in col- leges of Kentucky have been leaving for more lucrative positions in other states, and all have uniformly as- signed “low salaries’ as the main reason for doing so. While it cannot be denied that higher salaries else- where do in many instances account for resignations, lack of facilities for, financial support of, and philosophic sympathy with, research has played no small part in the decision of a faculty man to go elsewhere. The statement that Kentucky’s institu- tions of higher learning are serving “as the happy hunting ground” for other institutions is rightly and just- ly made, but the question why has not been correctly answered in full. There seems little doubt that stagna- tion in philosophy and provision for research play a mighty important role in the decision of an individual to go elsewhere. There has been an adage somewhere down the line that one gets in return as much as one is willing to put into a thing. This may be applied to support for research. As long as the people of the State are content to spend very little to- 57 Power and Punch ward support of research, their bene- fits, their rewards, their return on such will be proportionately small. The individual Academy member has been cognizant of this situation for many years, there can be little doubt; and the Academy as a whole has been aware of the general atti- tude, but has taken few if any steps to remedy the condition. The only research fund available to the Academy has been supplied from the national offices of the A.A.A.S., and that has rarely ex- ceeded fifty or sixty dollars a year! Can there be, therefore, any doubt or hesitation as to the course of ac- tion this Academy ought to take to fulfill so important an injunction as that of the promotion of research? We must at once consider the estab- lishment of a fund for the develop- ment, encouragement and execution of research at all levels in the State. This fund must come from the peo- ple and it must be wisely and justly administered in the interests of those who have supported it. THE EDITORS 6D DOS 58 Physiological Variation in Isolates of Polyporus schweinitzii Fr. (Fungi; Basidiomycetes). * WILLIAM D. GRAY Department of Botany Ohio State University Columbus Of the many forest tree diseases caused by wood-rotting fungi, one of the most widespread and most destruc- tive is that caused by Polyporus schweinitzit Fries. Commonly called brown cubical rot, red-brown butt rot, brown rot, butt rot, red rot, or stump rot, this disease is known to foresters of both Europe and North America. Hartig (1900) reported that in Europe this fungus attacks only pine, but in the United States its host list includes most conifers. The disease has been reported as occurring on nine species of Abies, four species of Larix, eight species of Picea, thirty species of Pinus, two species of Tsuga, two species of Thuja, Chamaecyparis thyoides Britt., Libocedrus decurrens Torr., Taxus brevifolia Nutt., and Pseudotsuga taxifolia (Lam.) Britt.— a total of fifty-nine coniferous hosts. In addition to this large number of conifers, several broadleaf species have also been reported as hosts of P. schweinitzii; Hubert (1931, p. 356) reported its occurrence on Quercus spp. and Liquidambar styraciflua L., and Rhoads (1921) reported Eculayp- tus globulus Labill. as another hard- wood host. In the United States the disease is most prevalent in the north- ern forests but is found to some extent wherever conifers occur. Apparently the fungus may attack young trees as well as older ones, entering the tree through the root system and growing up into the trunk (von Schrenk, 1900). *Paper No. 504 from the Department of Botany, Ohio State University. Childs (1937), working with isolates of Polyporus schweinitzii from numer- ous, and, in some instances, widely separated sources, has shown that there exist certain cultural types within the species. In culture upon artificial media these isolates all had a few characters in common, but with the exception of isolates which were taken from within a few feet of each other, no two were identical. His conclusion was that this species of fungus is made up of many indi- viduals which differ rather widely from each other. This investigator also reported a difference in wood-de- caying ability between different iso- lates; however, only a small number of samples was used, and only two isolates were involved in this study. It is the purpose of the present in- vestigation to ascertain whether such physiological differences, as evidenced by (1) variability in wood-decaying ability, (2) variations in appearance when cultured on wood blocks or arti- ficial media, and (3) variations in growth rate, do exist among isolates of this fungus. The concept of physiological spe- cialization in fungi may be considered as relatively new, since the majority of the work in this field has been con- ducted since 1880. In this regard the rusts have received particular atten- tion as it evidenced by the work of Eriksson (1894, 1902), Dietel (1889), Stakman (1914) and Hungerford and Owens (1923). There are also ac- counts of physiological variation in 59 Physiological Variation in Isolates of Polyporus schweinitzu Fr. (Fungi; Basidiomycetes) . species of such fungi as Erysiphe, Glomerella, Sphaeropsis, Rhizoctonia, Septoria and others, but strangely enough, little work has been done with regard to the problem of physiological variation in wood-destroying basidi- omycetes. Since the character and general properties of the host plant are thought by some to exert certain influences upon the fungi infecting it, tending to produce physiological spe- cialization, a study of the various wood-destroying fungi should prove a most fruitful investigation. These fungi remain in close proximity with their hosts for a considerable period of time, and if they are susceptible to any type of host influence should prove to be excellent material for the detection of an influence of this na- ture. Boyce (1920) has determined _ that Polyporus amarus may vegetate in the trunk of the incense cedar (Libocedrus decurrens) for a period of three hundred years; it would seem quite reasonable to postulate that un- der such conditions the chances would be very good for the produc- tion of specialized forms or varieties among the wood-destroying basidiomy- cetes. Several references to investi- gations concerning this particular problem have been encountered; such references will be discussed in con- junction with the results herein pre- sented. MATERIALS AND METHODS Ten different isolates of Polyporus schweinitzti were used throughout the present study.* These isolates were from rather widely separate localities and were obtained from several dif- ferent coniferous hosts. The follow- ing list gives the isolate number, host and locality from which each isolate was obtained: *Supplied to the writer by Dr. Thomas Childs. 60 No. 1—Pinus strobus, Springwater, INES No. 10—Pinus strobus, Springwater, INES NG. No. 19—Pinus strobus, Springwater, Nowe No. 31—Pinus strobus, Honeoye, N. Ve No. 32—Pinus strobus, Weston, Ont. No. 38—Pinus sylvestris, Great Brit- ain. No. 89—Pinus rigida, Medford, N. J. No. 40—Pinus mughus, Central Ex- perimental Farm, Ottawa, Ontario. No. 40e—Fifth monosporus genera- tion from No. 40. No. 40j—-Tenth monosporus genera- tion from No. 40. Stock cultures were maintained on 2% Fleischman’s Malt agar, and this same medium was employed in the studies which involved observa- tions on the characteristics of single colonies of the various isolates as well as the behavior of paired ESOIEN ES on the same petri plate. For studies concerned with determi- nation of the capacities of the various isolates for decaying wood (as meas- ured by weight loss of the wood), white pine sapwood was used. Several hundred blocks were cut from sap- wood of white pine (Pinus stobus L.) obtained by Dr. Harlan H. York at Springwater, N. Y., during the sum- mer of 1936. These blocks were cut to approximately the same _ size (%4 x % x 4 inches) and were care- fully selected: any showing a trace of heartwood or incipient decay be- ing discarded. The resultant num- ber of sound blocks selected for use was two hundred; these blocks were then numbered consecutively, air- dried, and weighed at intervals to the nearest O.1 gm. until the weight of each block was constant. After their air-dry weights had been obtained, the Physiological Variation in Isolates of Polyporus schweinitzii Fr. (Fungi; Basidiomycetes) blocks were placed in distilled water and allowed to absorb as much as possible. Each block was then placed in a 38x200 mm. test tube, 10 ml. of two per cent malt was added, the tube stoppered with a tightly rolled cotton plug and then autoclaved. In- oculations were made on Dee. 12, 1936 by dropping a small piece of agar, upon which mycelium was growing, into the liquid medium in each tube; twenty wood-block cultures were pre- pared for each of the isolates under consideration. Since these cultures were maintained for a period of ten months, considerable loss of moisture through evaporation occurred, and it was necessary to add water to the tubes at intervals: 15 ml. of sterile, distilled water were added to each tube on January 15, 1987; 25 ml. were added on May 15, 1937; 20 ml. were added on July 30, 1937. Air-dry, the blocks used in this experiment varied in weight from 11.0 to 14.5 gms.; initial weight data for the en- tire series of blocks are presented in to remove surface mycelia and spore- bearing structures, air-dried, and fi- nal weights determined. In order to determine if growth rate was correlated with destructive- ness to wood blocks, one experiment was designed to determine growth rates of the various isolates on arti- ficial medium. In this experiment the medium employed was a modification of Reitsma’s nutrient medium and was prepared as follows: 2% Bacto peptone - 250.00 ml. M/2 dextrose - - - 300.00 ml. M/2 sucrose - - - - 200.00 ml. 0.4% MgS0:.H20 - - 49.00 ml. 1.0% ferric citrate - 1.00 ml. N/2 HePOt - - - - 9.00 ml. N/2 K2HPO: - - - - 3p22 mile Cultures were made in 388x200 mm. test tubes by inoculating exactly 75 ml. of the above medium (which had been found satisfactory for all isolates) with a single loopful of hyphae from ten-day old stock cul- tures growing in 2% Fleischman’s Malt. Ten replicate tubes were pre- pared for each isolate; these were TABLE 1.—Weights and numbers of white pine sapwood blocks used in experiments involving the determination of weight losses of wood by different isolates of P. schweinitzii. Isolate Block Total Average No. Nos. Weight Weight ie eee Se SE eee _ 1— 20 DAQEA 12.460 TEC) <8 ak Ss SS eae Rae are 21— 40 236.3 11.815 Tug) OS ee en eee 41— 60 247.0 12.350 S50”) ie ieee ee er 61— 80 251.0 12.510 So. Ns kde 5 SS Ae eel ae aes aera 81—100 247.4 12.370 SiS)” St a nea eee 101—120 251-9 12.595 So) 22 ee ee eae .121—140 250.1 12.505 i IM Be yr el IS A 141—160 243.5 12.175 07. ol a eS 161—180 246.8 12.340 LI) 2 (ee) Oe ey ae i os ae 181—200 259.4 12.970 Table I. then placed in the dark at a tempera- Observation on woodblock cultures were recorded at intervals during the ten month incubation period and at the end of this time the experiment was terminated. The blocks were re- moved from the tubes, washed lightly ture of 23 degrees—25 degrees C. and incubated for 35 days. At the end of the incubation period a _ large mycelial mat had formed in each tube. The mats were filtered on num- bered, dried, weighed filter papers, 61 Physiological Variation in Isolates of Polyporus schweimtzu Fr. (Fungi; Basidiomycetes). dried in an oven at 105 degrees C. and placed in a desiccator. The dry weight of each mat was then obtained and average weights were calculated for each series. RESULTS Appearance of single colonies on petri plates.—In culture on artificial medium, the isolates varied widely in such characters as color, density of growth, presence or absence of con- centric zonation, and rapidity of spread. A summary of the observed growth characters of each isolate is presented in Table II, while photo- graphs of representative cultures of each of the various isolates are shown in Figures 1-10, Plate I. Behavior of isolates in paired cul- tures. — Several workers have de- scribed the line of demarcation that ~ generally develops when two different fungal mycelia are grown on the same substratum; Schmitz (1925) and Mounce (1929) have described this phenomenon for Fomes pinicola (Sw.) Cooke, and Childs (1987) described the same reaction for P. schweinitzti. Accordingly, paired cultures were prepared using the ten isolates being studied; the cultures were arranged so that all possible combinations of two isolates per petri dish were ob- tained. In every instance a line of demarcation appeared when the two colonies met except in those petri dishes in which there had been placed two pieces of inoculum from the same isolates. This was found to be true even for pairings involving Nos. 40, 40e and 40j, which is rather sur- prising in view of the fact that Nos. 40e and 40j are monospore cultures derived from No. 40. Three different types of reactions were observed when two different isolates were grown on the same sub- stratum. The first, and most strik- 62 ing type was that in which a definite line of avoidance about 1 mm. wide occurred between the two colonies, and the agar in this line became very dark brown; this type of reaction is illustrated in Figure 11, Plate I (paired culture of Nos. 1 and 32) and Figure 12, Plate I (paired culture of Nos. 1 and 39). The second type of reaction was similar to the first with the exception that the agar be- tween the colonies did not change color; this is interpreted as being a reaction in which the antagonism between the two mycelia is not as great as that shown by isolate pair- ings exhibiting the first type of re- action. In the third type the region between the two colonies was not dis- colored, was quite narrow, and one of the two mycelia formed a solid line of fluffy aerial hyphae imme- diately adjacent to the line of de- marcation. This third type of. reac- tion occurred only in pairings involv- ing Isolate No. 38, and it was always this isolate which formed the line of aerial hyphae. In practically all pairings there was an enhancement of color of both isolates. The types of reactions (1, 2 or 8) occurring with all possible combinations of two isolates are indicated in Table III; in this table “N’”’ indicates that no line of demarcation was formed. Appearance of five month old wood block cultures.—Within each series the cultures were remarkably uniform in so far as color, amount of growth, wood discoloration, and wood crack- ing were concerned. That cultures of different series differed widely from each other is shown by the following summation of the general appearance of each series of cultures five months after inoculation. Isolate 1 (Blocks 1-20): Surface growth slight, mycelium appressed, somewhat powdery in Physiological Variation in Isolates of Polyporus schweinitzii Fr. (Fungi; Basidiomycetes). pesserddy -f£,esoTo {ao TTa4 [Ing pesserdde-f£,o80TO aAoTTos-G8 tT dang esuop {moTToA-Ys FUMOIG Near aa RNOILVNOZ OTMILNIONOO eTtyd esusp tact ted zo soyoged aoz wv UATA ‘ORTT A UZAOIF BT99TT AOA a oTttd dosp taoTTes 4qF Tag pesserdde-sTex0TS fe, UA celia ettd desp {aot {sys tppey pessordde -f{esoTo ty4aom osrede Az0oa tao,tTos eTteg pos serdde-f,esoto fosreds {o4Tum YIMOIF OTF44T tpessordde-fL[e80T9 AOTTON OTeg ae ettd esuep {morTek eTeg ils UysIeU ze AOTTOA YRTA ae eTTd deep taot{os eTeg asuep {mottos 4u#t1g | pesserddu-fjes0To fe Teg AOTTOA-18 FUAOIG esieds ‘aoT{os-cowey 134 O4UT Sup pels “ys pUAOIg posserdde- fs, os80TO *qu@tT Ar0A fosredg esuep faoTTes 4OqeTIg MOTTOA BUST Ig AOTTOL YyBtuACIg *AIeG fTesoTO ‘asreds ssavt| "| pte | ROIPGY GIVICHNEALNI WOTNOONI HVEH HLMOwD fO LLOVAVHO pesseidde TABLE II.—Growth characters of isolates of P. schweinitzii. Physiological Variation in Isolates of Polyporus schweinitzu Fr. (Fungi; Basidiomycetes) . appearance, white - brown where dry. Blocks showing a dark pink discoloration. Figure 1, Plate II. Isolate 10 (Blocks 21-40): Surface growth slight except for the occurrence of occasional large clumps of bright yellow, fluffy hyphae. Wood block discoloration darker than in Series 1. Figure 2, Plate II. Isolate 19 (Blocks 41-60); Surface growth slight; mycelium appressed, pale cream- colored; no clumping of hyphae. Wood blocks with reddish-brown discoloration, and almost every block exhibited one or more large areas which had been eroded by the fungus. Figure 3, Plate II. Isolate 31 (Blocks 61-80) Surface growth for the most part slight but there were occa- sional fluffy masses of hyphae which were almost white in color. Wood block dis- coloration was reddish-brown and_ rather evenly distributed. A few small eroded areas, similar to those of the preceding series, were found. Figure 1, Plate III. Isolate 32 (Blocks 81-100): Mycelium bright yellow, covering the surfaces of the blocks, and forming both fluffy and compact masses of hyphae; very little mycelial growth on tops of blocks. Reddish discoloration un- evenly distributed over the blocks. Figure 2 2, Plate III. Isolate 38 (Blocks 101-120): Mycelium yellow in color, sparsely and reticulately covering the sides of the blocks but concentrating in dense, compact, darker masses at the tops. Block discoloration in the form of reddish streaks. Figure 3, Plate III. Isolate 39 (Blocks 121-140): Even growth over surfaces of blocks; the few clumpings of hyphae that occurred were small and were fluffy rather than compact. Mycelium very pale yellow. Reddish-orange discoloration occurring irregularly through the wood blocks. Figure 1, Plate IV. Isolate 40 (Blocks 141-160): Mycelium bright yellow, forming large fluffy masses which oc- curred largely near the bases of the blocks. Wood block discoloration was orange and was distributed irregularly. Figure 2, Plate IV. Isolate 40e (Blocks 181-200): Surface growth of bright yellow, fluffy hyphae. Growth rather dense near the tops of the blocks. Very dark, irregularly distributed, discolora- tion of wood blocks. Figure 1, Plate V. Isolate 40j (Blocks 161-180): Mycelium yellow, showing a tendency to form small, rather compact masses near the bases and along the sides of the wood blocks. Discoloration of blocks reddish, distributed irregularly. Figure 3, Plate IV. Production of fruiting bodies in weod block cultures.—After the five months observations were made, the wood block cultures were observed at intervals until the end of the incuba- tion period (ten months) in order to determine if fruiting bodies were pro- duced, and, if so, if there were any observable differences between isolates with regard to this characteristic. Of the ten isolates, five produced spore- bearing structures on wood blocks. Childs (1937) mentioned the produc- tion of sporophores by P. schweinitzit on agar medium, but this was not ob- served in the present study. The isolates varied widely in the total number of spore-bearing struc- tures they produced as well as in lengths of time required for their pro- duction. The series inoculated with tsolate 40 produced the most fruit- ing bodies (nineteen of the twenty tubes contained such structures), a total of fifty-four being produced; Isolate 39 produced the next greatest TABLE III.—Types of reactions obtained in paired cultures of isolates of of P. schweinitzit. (Type of reaction is indicated by number of ex- planation in text). “N” indicates that there was no line of demarcation. Now: il 10 19 jl ° oe N 2, 2 : aL 32 : if : 3 il 2, 2, 2 NNONNWNHENZ NNHHwrwHZ BNR WHIZ 32 38 39 40 40e 40j N 5) N 1 3 N 2 3 il N 2 3 ak 2 N 2 3 IL 2 2 N 64 Physiological Variation in Isolates of Polyporus schweinitzii Fr. (Fungi; Basidiomycetes). number, No. 40e was next, then No. 40j, and No. 32 produced the least. Isolates 1, 10, 19, 31 and 88 produced no fruiting bodies during the ten months incubation period. None of the fruiting bodies that were produced in culture resembled the normal sporophores of P schwein- ited either in shape or size, but nearly all of them produced spores in great abundance. Isolates 32, 40, 40e and 40j produced fruiting bodies which were largely of a cerebroid or lamell- ate type with a tendency in some in- stances toward a porose condition; Isolate 39, however, produced fruit- ing bodies which macroscopically were clavaria-like in their appearance. Al- though Nos. 40e and 40j, which were monospore cultures from No. 40, did not correlate with the parent isolate in the number of fruiting bodies pro- duced, they did produce structures of the same type. Fruiting bodies varied in diameter from 2 mm. to 2 cm.; most of them being roughly hemi- spherical except when produced on the corner or edge of a wood block. Figure 2, Plate V and Figure 3, Plate VI, show the type of fruiting bodies pro- duced by Isolates 32, 40, 40e, and 40j; Figure 3, Plate V, shows the clavaria- like type produced by Isolate 39; Figure 2, Plate VI, shows a normal sporophore of P. schweinitzii. The or- der of appearance and number of spore-bearing structures produced by each of the five isolates are shown in Table IV. Appearance of wood blocks after ten months.—Cultures were discon- tinued on October 12, 1937, after having been maintained for a period of ten months. The wood blosks were removed from their tubes, wiped care- fully with a moist cloth to remove all surface mycelia and fruiting bodies, and were then air-dried. The appear- ance of the air-dry wood blocks were as follows: Blocks 1-20 (inoculated with No. 1): Dark, reddish-brown discoloration in spots; cubical cracking occurring in the discolored areas. Discolored spots occurring largely near the middle portions of the wood blocks, in which regions the moisture content of the wood was probably more nearly optimum for the mycelium. Blocks 21-40 (inoculated with No. 10): Brown discoloration as in the first series, but the discolored areas were greatly depressed and cubical cracking was much more pro- nounced. Blocks 41-60 (inoculated with No. 19): Dis- colored spots reddish-brown, small, and in every instance confined to the middle por- tions of the blocks. Cubical cracking was very obvious; depression in discolored areas was slight. Blocks 61-80 (inoculated with No. 31): In- fected blocks were only slightly darker than uninfected ones. Eroded, dark red areas very scarce and quite small. Cubical crack- ing only in one or two instances and then it was confined to the dark red, eroded areas. Blocks 81-100 (inoculated with No. 32): Brown discolored areas occupying approximately the middle two-thirds of each block. Shrinkage slight; cubical cracking evident in every block. Blocks 101-120 (inoculated with No. 38): Slight discoloration; cubical cracking apparent; slight shrinkage at the middle regions of the blocks. Blocks 121-140 (inoculated with No. 39): Tan discoloration; large eroded areas evident in a few instances; shrinkage evident in the lower portions of most blocks. Blocks 141-160 (inoculated with No. 40): Mid- dle two-thirds of all blocks greatly shrunk; dark brown discoloration; cubical cracking quite evident. Blocks 161-180 (inoculated with No. 40j): discoloration, occurring mostly in small de- pressed areas where cubical cracking was evident. Blocks 181-200 (inoculated with No. 40e): Cen- tral portions of blocks brown, slightly shrunk; cubical cracking very obvious in these areas. From the above summation of the appearance of the various wood block series, it is evident that the isolates behave somewhat differently when cul- tured in this manner. In most blocks, wherever destruction reached any con- siderable degree, the cubical cracking, so characteristic of attack by P. schweinitzti, was quite evident. As 65 Physiological Variation in Isolates of Polyporus schweinitztt Fr. (Fungi; Basidiomycetes) . TABLE IV.—Fruiting body production in wood culture by isolates of of P. schweinitzii. No. of cultures ing bodies No. of cultures with fruit ing bodies No. of fruiting bodies No. of cultures with fruiting bodies No. of fruiting bodies | Hoe of cultures _with fruiting bodies No. of _fruiting bodies _| No. of cultures with fruiting No. of fruiting bodies | No. of cultures | With fruiting bodies No. of fruiting bodies noted above, in some series the blocks were greatly discolored, whereas in others there was almost no discolora- tion. Figure 1, Plate VI, shows a group of attacked blocks selected to show differences in amount of crack- ing, degree of discoloration, and ef shrinkage. Weight losses from infected wood blocks.—When the infected wood bodies | 66 blocks were completely air-dry, each was weighed and its percentage of weight loss was calculated. Average percentage weight losses were then calculated for each series; these aver- age percentage weight losses and their probable errors are presented in Table V. : From the results shown in Table V it may be seen that the isolates Physiological Variation in Isolates of Polyporus schweinitzii Fr. (Fungi; Basidiomycetes) ‘aried considerably in their wood-de- aying abilities when grown in pure ulture on wood blocks. In a com- varison of the percentage weight osses caused by any two isolates, two yrobable errors must be taken into .ecount, and the probable error of the lifference is always greater than ither of the two probable errors in- ‘olved; however, the probable error f the difference is so small in a num- ver of instances that the difference s a significant figure. Isolate No. 40 nay be said to be the most destruc- ive and Isolate No. 19 the least de- tructive of the isolate studied, with rarious intergradations occurring be- ween these two extremes. On the Masis of percentage weight losses the en isolates may be arranged accord- ng to the following series: 40>40e> 107 >38>32>10>39>1>31>19. ent lengths of time, and perhaps their differences may be explained on this basis; however, the possibility exists that, even under natural condi- tions, subsequent monospore genera- tions may have a tendency to become attenuated in degree of destructive- ness. In Table VI, the differences in per- centage weight losses induced by the various isolates are presented; the table is so arranged that the difference in percentage weight loss caused by any two isolates may be found at the intersections of the horizontal and vertical rows of the isolates being compared. Standard deviation was calculated by means of the formula: Se D.=Vv Probable error of ay- by the prob- was calculated P. B—2:6745_S. D. -E=— Ny erage formula: TABLE V.—Differences in percentage of weight losses from white pine sapwood blocks induced by isolates of P. schweinitzii. Isolate No. It has already been pointed out that Isolate No. 40j varied more widely than No. 40e from the parent isolate (No. 40) both in culture on artificial medium and on wood blocks as well as in the number of fruiting bodies pro- duced. It is interesting to note also that both Nos. 40e and 40j were less destructive than No. 40, and that No. 40j was less destructive than No. 40e. Naturally, these mycelia have been cultured on artificial media for differ- Average Block Percentage Nos. Weight Losses 1— 20 9,.25+ (or-) 0.38 21— 40 12.994 (or-) 0.52 41— 60 7.29+ (or-) 0.38 61— 80 8.52-+-(or-) 0.33 81—100 13.30-+ (or-) 0.60 101—120 14.12+ (or-) 0.50 121—140 11.75+ (or-) 0.55 141—160 20.28-+ (or-) 1.28 161—180 14.424 (or-) 0.90 181—200 18.10+ (or-) 0.66 able error of difference by the formula: P.E.(d)=\VP.E. 2 +P.E. 2 a Statisticians are not in complete agreement as to which should be considered significant in analyses of this type; however, many will agree that the figure is probably a sig- nificant one if the difference is three times as great as the probable error of the difference, and, if the difference is six times as great as the probable error of the difference, it is agreed 67 Physiological Variation in Isolates of Polyporus schweinitzu Fr. (Fungi; Basidiomycetes) TABLE VI.—Differences in percentage of weight losses from white pine sapwood blocks induced by isolates of P. schweinitzzi. The isolates, on the basis of their destructivenessmay be arranged as follows: 40>40e>40j>-88>32 >10539 51531519. 2.69+ 0.32¢ 3.954 1.144 1 &> a e e Dm IO 7.152 0. 78+ 76 12. 5. 08+ 1.754 8.82+ 0.76 1.03 . 5.198 0.9% Physiological Variation in Isolates of Polyporus schweinitzii Fr. (Fungi; Basidiomycetes) that the difference is a certainty. In Table VI, the differences which are at least three times as great as their probable error are underlined once; those which are at least six times as great as their probable error are un- derlined twice. Out of a _ possible forty-five comparisons, thirty-three may be considered to represent sig- nificant differences. In a series of similar wood-decay studies, Schmitz (1925) found simi- lar variations among different isolates of Fomes pinicola Fr. This author, working with four isolates from Douglas fir, western hemlock, west- ern white pine, and white fir, found differences in percentage weight losses caused by the action of the dif- ferent isolates on various woods; he also reported differences in enzy- matic activities of the different iso- lates. Percival (1933), working with mycelia of Fomes pint (Thore) Lloyd, which had been isolated from specific hosts, found no differences such as those described by Schmitz for F. pinicola or by the present writer for P. schweinitzu. Percival stated of P. pini: “The extent of decay in spruce judged by loss in specific gravity and crushing strength showed as great variation when pro- duced by cultures from the same host as that produced by cultures from different hosts. . .”’ On the basis of Percival’s results it must be admitted that physiological specialization with- in the species need not necessarily occur in all wood-destroying fungi. This would scarcely be expected, however, because in all groups of or- ganisms there are some species in which individuals occur which are subject to variation over a rather wide range in their activities, where- as there are other species in which the individuals are confined to more narrow limits. It is to be expected that further investiagtion of the ac- tivities of many wood-destroying iungi will reveal species of both types. Growth rates of isolates in liquid medium. Since the results of the weight loss measurement experiment showed definitely that differences be- tween isolates do exist, the question concerning the cause for such dif- ferences naturally arises. The sim- plest explanation might be that the cifferences were due to differential growth rates and for that reason an attempt was made to measure the growth rates of the different isolates in liquid medium. Growth rates (based upon weight of mycelium pro- duced in five weeks) were determin- ed; the average weights (based on ten replicates) of the mycelial mats produced by each isolate were as fol- lows: Isolate .5 mg. Isolate 10 128.5 mg. Isolate 19 : 130.0 mg. Isolate 31 153.0 mg. Isolatewe2. 2 ees 118.0 mg. AGH SVG os se ee ee eh 110.0 mg. Isolaten 30) ee ee 169.5 mg. isolates 0, =.= ees 104.0 mg. isolates, 0 ewer oa sa 88.0 mg. lig@lennge. diy) a jo 116.5 mg. As may be seen from the above figures, No. 40e produced the small- est amount of mycelium (88 milli- grams per culture), whereas No. 39 produced the greatest amount (169.5 milligrams per culture). This does not correlate in any way with the wood-destroying activity of the iso- lates, since No. 19, not No. 40e, was least destructive to wood blocks, and No. 40, not No. 39 caused the great- est destruction. This lack of corre- lation is well-illustrated in Text Fig- ure 1. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS Ten different isolates of Polyporus ‘Soinj[nd pinbi] ue, UL peoonpoad szyeuw [eljooAU 944 FO JYSIOM OSvIBAV OY} SJUDSOIdaa Ieq poxjop Yoaeo {syao0[q ayeorjded AJUeM} WoOaAy SSO] JYUSIOM JO aseyUsoIed oSeIOAe oY} S}UESET -dei 1eq pljos yoey “poomdes ourd o1yM 0} SsousATJONAYSOp SuUIsvertoUT ALOY} JO LOp1O OY} UL JYSII 0} JJZo] WOIJ posuvslIe 91¥8 SozBOSI oY, ‘amd -[hd Yoo[q poom UI Sorjloeded oATJONAJSOp ALeY} YIM Wipe prnbiy ut UzjULANYIS *"q FO Sozyeplost Jo YAMOAS oy JO uostedwio0ds W— | eanS1y 1x0], QUAN 24CTOST On 407 LOR, 18s eS 0), 6£ / [= 6/ ee @,.0,006 e% e° e° e° Physiological Variation in Isolates of Polyporus schweinitzu Fr. (Fungi; Basidiomycetes) Soescsee e @ WATTOOAW FO SUBLETTTIN OF ) og+ o/ o2z/+ Sy 09/+ 02 SSOT QUSFSR SIeqQucor0g 70 Physiological Variation in Isolates of Polyporus schweinitzii Fr. (Fungi; Basidiomycetes). schweinitew Fr., which were derived from different sources and were shown to differ in color, gross co- lonial appearance, and rate of spread on agar medium, were tested in order to determine their growth rates in liquid medium and also to determine their relative capacities for destruc- tion of white pine sapwood. This de- structive capacity was judged by weight loss of inoculated wood blocks. From these studies the fol- lowing conclusions may be drawn: 1. Isolates vary as widely from each other in appearance in wood-block culture as they do upon artificial medium. 2. Isolates of this species differ in fruiting body production not only as to number and rate of production, but also as to form. Of the ten iso- lates examined only five pro- duced fruiting bodies’ on wood-blocks during a _ ten month incubation period. Iso- late No. 89 produced struc- tures which were clavaria- like in appearance; the other four produced cerebroid or lameilate fruiting bodies. The number of fruiting bodies (per twenty cultures) de- veloped by such isolate was as follows: No. 40-54, No. 39-53, No. 40e-46, No. 40j-25, . Further lates varied widely. Average percentage weight losses from twenty replicate blocks varied from 7.29+(or-)0.88 per cent in wood blocks inocolated with Isolate 19 to 20.26+ (or-) 1.23 per cent in blocks inoculated with Isolate 40. With regard to Isolate 40 and the two mon- ospore generations derived from it, it is obvious that the destructive capacity of No. 40>No. 40e>Ne. 40j. Under the conditions of the experi- ment, subsequent monospore generations show a tendency to become attenuated in de- gree of destructiveness. evidence as to the existence of differences be- tween the ten isolates is ob- tained by comparing the dif- ferences in weight losses in- duced by the isolates. In such a comparison, there exist forty-five possible combina- tions using two isolates for each; of these forty-five pos- sibilities, thirty-three yielded differences, which on the ba- sis of standard statistical methods may be considered significant. . Studies made on the growth rates of isolates show clearly that there is no correlation between capacity for destruc- tion of wood and growth in liquid medium. and No. 32-2. It should be noted that No. 40 produced a greater number than No. 40e (fifth monosporous gen- eration from No. 40), and that No. 40e in turn pro- duced a greater a greater number than No. 40j (tenth monosporous generation from No. 40). These data seem to indicate the loss of capacity for fruiting body production in succeeding monospore gen- erations; however, this point will need further investiga- tion before a definite state- ment may be made. . When the destructive capac- ity of the isolates on white pine sapwood was measured it was again found that iso- The general conclusion which may be drawn from the above studies is in agreement with the opinion of Childs (1937) who concluded that Polyporus schweinitzii Fr. is a spe- cies composed of many widely dif- fering individuals. Subjection of the various individuals to critical bio- chemical studies would undoubtedly reveal still further differences. LITERATURE CITED Boyce, J. s- 192050 Lhe dry rot of incense cedar. U. S. Dept. Agr. Bur. Plant Ind. Bull. 871: 1-58. Childs, T. W. 1987. Variability of Polyporus’ schweinitzii culture. Phytopath. 27: 29-50. Dietel, P. 1889. War~en die Rost- (a Physiological Variation in Isolates of Polyporus schweinitzii Fr. (Fungi; Basidiomycetes). pilze in fruheren Zeitan plurivor? Bot. Centralbl. 79: 81-118. Eriksson, J. 1894. Ueber die Spe- cialisierung des Parasitimus bei den Getreiderostpilzen. Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Ges. 12: 292-331. — 1902. Ueber die Specialisierung des Getreide- schwartzrostes in Schwenden un anderen Landen. Centralbl. Bakt. II, 9:654-658. Hartig, R. 1900. Lehrbuch der Pflanzenkrankheiten. Dritte vollig neu bearbeitete Auflag des Lehr- buch de Baumkrankhe'ten. Ju- lius Springer, Berlin. Hubert, E. E. 1931. An outline of forest pathology. John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York. Hungerford, C. W. and C. E. Owens. 1923. Specialized varieties of Puc- cinia glumarum and hosts for va- riety tritici. Jour. Agr. Res. 25: 363-401. Mounce, I. 1929. Studies in forest pathology. II. The biology of Fomes pinicola (Sw.) Cooke, Can- ada Dept. Agr. Bull. (n. s.) III. Percival, W. C. 19383. A contribution to the biology of Fomes pini (Thore) Lloyd [Trametes pini (Thor) Fries]. Bull. N. Y. State Coll. Forestry Tech. Bull. No. 40. Rhoads, A. S. 1921. Some new or little known hosts for wood-de- stroying fungi. 8. Phytopath. 11: Bos Schmitz, H. 1925. Studies in wood decay. V. Physiological speciali- zation in Fomes pinicolo. Fr. Amer. Jour. Bot. 12: 1638-177. Schrenk, H. von. 1900. Some dis- eases of New England conifers: a preliminary report. U. S. Dept. Agr., Div. of Vegetable Physiol. and Path. Bull. 25. Stakman, E. C. 1914. A study in cereal rusts; physiological races. Minn. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull: 138: 1-56. 72 PLATE ! EXPLANATION OF PLATE I. Fig. 1. Culture of Isolate 1, two weeks after inoculation Fig. 2. Culture of Isolate 10, two weeks after inoculation tig. 3. Culture of Isolate 19, two weeks after inoculation Fig. 4. Culture of Isolate 31, two weeks after inoculation Fig. 5. Culture of Isolate 32, two weeks after inoculation Fig. 6. Culture of Isolate 38, two weeks after inoculation Fig. 7. Culture of Isolate 39, two weeks after inoculation Fig. 8, Culture of Isolate 40, two weeks after inoculation Fig. 9. Culture of Isolate 40e, two weeks after inoculation Fig. 10. Culture of Isolate 40j, two weeks after inoculation 1 Paired culture of Isolates 1 and 32 showing line of demarcation. Fig. 12. Paired culture of Isolates 1 and 39 showing line of demarcation. 9) ne ow = 73 Physiological Variation in Isolates of Polyporus schweimtzu Fr. (Fungi; Basidiomycetes). PLATE Il EXPLANATION OF PLATE II. Fig. 1. Five month old wood block culture of Isolate 1. (Magnification x 2/3). Fig. 2. Five month old wood block culture of Isolate 10. (Magnification x 2/3). Fig. 8. Five month old wood block culture of Isolate 19. (Magnification x 2/3). 74 Physiological Variation m Isolates of Polyporus schweinitzii Fr. (Fungi; Basidiomycetes). PLATE III EXPLANATION OF PLATE III. Fig. 1. Five month old wood block culture of Isolate 31. (x 2/8). Fig. 2. Five month old wood block culture of Isolate 32. (x 2/38). Fig. 3. Five month old wood block culture of Isolate 38. (x 2/3). 75 Physiological Variation in Isolates of Polyporus schweinitzi Fr. (Fungi; Basidiomycetes). PLATE IV EXPLANATION OF PLATE IV. Fig. 1. Five month old wood block culture of Isolate 39. (x 2/8). Fig. 2. Five month old wood block culture of Isolate 40. (x 2/3). Fig. 8. Five month old wood block culture of Isolate 40j. (x 2/8). Physiological Variation in Isolates of Polyporus schweinitzii Fr. (Fungi; Basidiomycetes). PLATE V EXPLANATION OF PLATE V. Fig. 1. Five month old wood block culture of Isolate 40e. (x 2/3). Fig. 2. Fruiting body of the type developed by Isolates 32, 40, 40e and 40j in wood block culture. (x 4). Fig. 3. Clavaria-like fruiting body developed by Isolate 39 in wood block culture. (x Zao) 77 Physiological Variation in Isolates of Polyporus schweinitzu Fr. (Fungi; Basidiomycetes). PLATE VI : / : = % EXPLANATION OF PLATE VI. Fig. 1. White pine sapwood blocks showing destruction caused by P. schweinitzii, block at extreme left uninfected. (x 1). Fig. 2. Normal sporophore of P. schweinitzii growing on needle-duff of forest floor. (x 1/2). Fig. 3. Fruiting bodies of the type developed by Isolates 32, 40, 40e and 40j in wood block culture. (x 2). POLLINATION IN ASCLEPIAS H. H. LAFUZE AND V. A. GREULACH Department of Biology, Eastern Kentucky State Teachers College, Richmond, Ky. and Agricultural and Mechanical College of Texas, College Station, Texas. Introduction parts. Distinction was drawn _ be- Possible commercial uses of milk- tween milkweed visiting insects week (2, 17) suggest the value of knowing how milkweeds propagate. The production of fruits and seeds in angiosperms usually depends on the process of pollination. That this is accomplished only by insects in milkweeds has long been assumed but never clearly demonstrated. In the Asclepiadaceae are found species in which the pollen grains are not separate as in other families but are bound into waxy masses or pollinia. In the formation of a pol- linium pollen masses from two neighboring stamens become joined by stalks and a disc-shaped corpuscu- lum. Between the pollinia is a slit which is open from below and leads upward to a point near the corpuscu- lum. When the insect alights on a flower its legs slip down into the flower and as the leg is moved a hair, claw or other part is caught in the slit below the corpusculum. As the insect leaves the corpusculum the two attached pollinia are pulled out of the flower. The pollinia are thus carried to other flowers in the process of pollination. The problem of milkweed pollina- tion seems to have been approached indirectly by several investigators (3- 16) who reported trapping different kinds of insects in milkweed flowers. Those insects usually included in these reports were of the orders Hy- menoptera, Diptera, Lepidoptera and Coleoptera. In most cases, the in- sects were examined to determine if pollinia were carried on their leg carrying pollinia and those not carry- ing pollinia or corpuscula. The manner in which pollinia are removed from one flower and intro- duced into another has been ob- served (14). Within a few seconds after removal of the pollinia and cor- pusculum from a flower the stalks supporting the pollinia were reported to twist in such a way as to bring the pollinia into a new plane, thus enabling them to be more easily in- troduced through the corpuscular slit into the stigmatic chamber of the next flower. Knuth (8) stated that flowers on a milkweed plant are self- sterile and an anonymous author (1) commented without scientific evi- dence that syriaca Was never self-pollinating. Several -bot- anists have expressed opinions to one of the authors that the elaborate ap- paratus of the milkweed flower may have been greatly overrated and that it may be worthless, or even a handi- cap (1). The purpose of this study was to determine if milkweeds may pollinate themselves without the aid of insects. Asclepias Observations General observations showed that on twenty purple inflorescences of Asclepias syriaca there was an aver- age of 90.6 flowers per inflorescence as compared with Nordham’s (11) count of 60 for purple flowers and 95 for white flowers. The average num- ber of fruits initiating from these in- florescences was 7.8 pair or 8.6 per- cent of the number of flowers in an 79 Pollination In Asclepias inflorescence. As the fruits mature, however, all but a few die. On ten plants observed there was an aver- age of five inflorescences per plant and only three, or six percent of the 53 inflorescences, failed to develop fruit. These figures suggest a higher percentage of fruit development in milkweed than has been generally recognized. The pollinia on the legs of several insects were examined to determine their relative position following re- moval from the flower. The pollen masses were found to be oriented face to face, even after a period of several days, which appears to con- tradict the earlier report (14) that the pollinia stalks twist soon after being removed from the flower. Bees were observed to be by far the most common pollinating agent—every bee trapped in the neighborhood having pollinia or corpuscula on its legs. To study the role of insects in pollination, inflorescences were cov- ered with bags to exclude the insects. At first paper bags were used but the flowers appeared to mature abnor- mally in these cases. In later experi- ments when light weight muslin bags were used the flowers developed nor- mally and the visitation of insects to the flowers was prevented. Ex- treme care was taken to make cer- tain no flowers had been partially opened and that the inflorescence did not conceal any hidden insects at the time of bagging. The bagged in- floresences were inspected after one week when the flowers had opened and again two weeks later to deter- mine if fruit had set. In most cases, the bags were allowed to remain in place until the fruits on uncovered plants had fully developed. All bags were inspected for holes and their contents were examined for bodies or 80 parts of insects which may have penetrated the bags. In July, 19389, at Columbus, Ohio, 28 inflorescen:es of Asclepias syriaca covered with paper bags failed to set fruit. The flowers within the bags were observed to be pale and some- what ‘‘cooked’’ looking. In June, 1943, near Richmond, Ky., 48 inflorescences of Asclepias syriaca were bagged with paper and muslin bags. Twelve of these ini- tiated fruit but in each case the bag had been penetrated by an insect (usually a bee) and parts of the in- sects were found within the bag. It thus appeared that insect pollination had occurred. The fruit, however, aborted early and never matured, only attaining a length of one and one-quarter inches. The inflorescence stalk seemed uninjured at the con- clusion of the experiment and the flowers appeared normal one week after bagging. No explanation for the failure of continued development following pollination was evident. However, it is possible that in milk- weed any fruit initiated as the re- sult of self-fertilization may fail to mature due to self-sterility. The re- maining 36 inflorescences did not in- itiate fruit of any kind. Ten mature inflorescences on the same plants ex- posed to insects before bagging de- veloped normally. Fifty-five inflorescences of As- clepias purpurescens were bagged in muslin near Richmond, Ky., in June, 1944. None of these initiated fruit. The peduncles of 28 of these remain- ed firm and green, while the remain- ing 27 dried up and turned brown as if injured. These observations and _ experi- ments indicate that pollination by in- sects is essential for the normal de- velopment of milkweed fruit. Literature Cited 1. Anon. 1917. The too-perfect Pollination In milkweed. Jour. 460-463. . Beckett, R- R: and Stitt, R. S. 1935. The desert milkweed. (Asclepias subalata) as a pos- sible source of rubber. USDA Tech. Bull. No. 472. 20 pp. . Brown, W. 18382. On the organs and mode of fecundation in Orchidaceae and Asclepiadeae. Heredity 8: Mlora 15: 353-366, 378-382, 673-676. mCoryvneel. eH 1883. On) the structure and mode of fertiliza- tion of the flower Asclepias cor- nuti Decne. Trans. Lin. Soc., Bot. Ser. II, vol. 2, part 8, 186- 187. . Delpino, F. 1865. Relazione sull apparecchio della fecondazione nelle Asclepiadeae, etc. Torino. . Harlow, W. M. 1930. The pinch- trap flowers in milkweeds. Am. Bee Jour. 70: 432. . Hildebrand, F. 1866. Ueber die Befruchtung von Asclepias cor- nuti Dec. Bot. Zeit. 24: 376. . Knuth, P. 1906. Handbook of flower pollination. 3 vols. Ox- ford Press. We late 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. fife Asclepias Legget, W. H. 1872. Fertiliza- tion of Asclepias. Bull. Torrey Bot. Club. 3: 34. . Muller, Hermann. 1883. The fertilization of flowers. Mac- millan. Nordholm, L. M. 1926. The common milkweed. Am. Bee. Jour. 66: 597. Payson, Edwin. 1916. The pol- lination of Asclepias cryotoce- ras. Bot. Gaz. 61: 72-74. Potts, Ed. 1878 and 1879. Sen- sitive organs in Asclepias. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci., Philadelphia, 30:293-296, and 31: 205-207. Robertson, C. 1886. Notes on the mode of pollination of As- clepias. Bot. Gaz. 11: 262-269. Robertson, C. 1918. Pollination of Asclepias cryptoceras. Bot. Gaz, 66: 177: Robertson, C. 1928. Flowers and insects. Sci. Press. Whiting, A. G. 1948. A sum- mary of literature on milk- weeds (Asclepias spp.) and their utilization. USDA _ Bib- liog. Bull. No. 2. A COMPREHENSIVE SURVEY OF CONTROLLED GRAIN ALCOHOL PRODUCTION METHODS A. I. ZARow: GENERAL DISTILLERS CORPORATION OF KENTUCKY LOUISVILLE 6. KENTUCKY Scientific control of production de- pends upon the application of rapid, reliablez, and valid: methods of an- alyses of variables and their effect upon unit operations. The time requirements of a con- trol method should not exceed the time of the unit operation being con- trolled. The distilling industry is undergo- ing an evolutionary change of pro- duction methods—from an art to a science. The former is a result of post-mortem analyses, utilizing un- reliable and invalid control methods. It is the purpose of this paper to identify rapid, reliable, and valid methods suitable for distillery con- trol. Starch Determination Corn, rye, milo, wheat, and malt are the chief sources of starch for grain alcohol productien. The con- version of grain starch to ethyl alco- hol is nearly quantitative; therefore, iThe writer wishes to thank Dr. E. H. Scofield, Director of Research & Control of Jos. E. Seagram and Sons, Inc., for valuable guidance and W. R. Gonevia, Superintendent of Fleischmann Distilleries, for his suggestions. eReliability indicates a high degree of corre- lation between two sets of independent results obtained under theoretical identical conditions. 3Validity is the correlation between opera- tional data and the criterion which serves as the point of departure. aFermentation Efficiency equals Actual Proof gallons/56++ of grain over Theoretical Proof gallons/56++ of grain. Theoretical grain Proof gallons/56+} of equals % starch x 1.725. 5S. Em equals equals © over N-1l. S. Em equals 2.3 ", or 95% of the cases con- sidered ™ equals Standard deviation N equals Number of cases N-l equals Number of cases less than 25 Standard error of the mean a theoretical amount of alcohol can be calculated from the known amount of starch. The amount of starch in the grain varies with the grades and type of grain, and since distilleries use varlous grades and types of grain, the only method for the de- termination of fermentation effi- ciency, anticipated yield, and econo- ical operations, is based on starch determination. The grain is processed in the following manner: (A) The grain is ground on roller, hammer, or attrition mills, (B) To the ground grain, water and _ stillage (screened residue from distillation) are added, and this mixture is cook- ed either under pressure or atmos- pheric conditions. (C) The cooked mixture is cooled to 148-150°F and then converted to sugar (primary conversion) by the addition of either a water slurry of ground malt or dried ground malt that contains amylases. (D) The resulting sugar from the initial, converted starch plus residual starch and various intermed- iate starch-sugar molecules is cooled to 70-86°F and fermented to ethyl alcohol and by-products by the addi- tion of yeast. The polarimetric method for the determination of fermentable starch in grain is more rapid and reliable, and contains fewer sources for errors than other methods, such as numer- ous transfers of material, tempera- ture control, and the skill of the analyst. Seagram’s results (1) on wheat when using cold hydrochloric acid for the solubilization of starch previously washed with ether, alco- 82 A Comprehensive Survey of Controlled Grain Alcohol Production Methods hol, and water, produced results which had a S. Em’ of 0.28. The amount of starch in the wheat deter- mined by the polarimetric method and the ASSOCIATION OFFICIAL AGRICULTURAL CHEMIST method was correlated with fermentation ef- ficiencies. The actual proof gallons per 56 lb. bushel of grain was ob- tained by laboratory fermentations. Canadian method (2, 2a), which uses CaCl’ in place of HCl has therefore been tentatively accepted by the A. O. A. C. as the method of choice. Based on the correlation obtained be- tween the amount of starch in grain and fermentation efficiency using the A. O. A. C. method minus pentosans, the validity of the polarimetric method without a factor is not ef- TABLE 1—FERMENTATION EFFICIENCIES APPARENT STARCH. METHOD Ae Os A. C. (Diastase-HCl) #09 BO ps Polarimetric (No Factor) M equals 2.3 plus minus. The wheat starch was determined by pies A: ©: A. C. (Diastase—HCl) (10) and Polarimetric methods. The results are illustrated in Table I. Metzner’s work (3b) indicates the pentosans in grain, especially in wheat, give high results in starch de- terminations by the A. O. A. C. meth- od, and thus low fermentation effi- ciency. In order to correct for the amount of pentosans, the pentosans were de- termined by the A. O. A. C. method, and the resulting amount was sub- tracted from the total starch deter- mined by the A. O. A. C. method. Often a factor is used to convert starch equivalents from the _ polari- metric method to the A. O. A. C. method. The angle of rotation used is 200. The A. O. A. C. method measures starch and other material such as pentosans and hemicelluloses (3, 3a). Methods 2 or 3 in Table I appear more reasonable. This is based on 95 percent conversion of starch to re- ducing sugar, and 2-3 percent sugar utilization for yeast growth, and 2- 8 percent converted to non-ferment- able material such as dextrins. How- A. O. A. C. (Diastase-HCl minus Pentosans) 63 (DRY *FERMENTATION BASIS) EFFICIENCIES 69 83.8— 87.6 91.6— 95.9 59.5 90.9—100.4 ever, cold concentrated hydrochloric acid may cause partial hydolysis of hemicelluloses and pentosans. The fected. In addition the polarimetric method is more rapid, reliable, and practical than the colorimetric (4), Rask (5), or the A. O. A. C. (diastase HCl) method (10). Percent Conversion of Mash— Maltose-Dextrin Ratio The conversion of starch to fer- mentable sugar is a function of the following factors: (A) conversion temperature; (B) conversion power of malt; (C) holding time; (D) pH. Thus the percent conversion of starch to sugar reveals whether variables that govern the conversion of starch are within the limits of good opera- tions, and if not, what variable or combination of variables are causing low results, The procedure consists of the fol- lowing steps: (A) The converted grain solution is filtered; (B) a mea- sured amount of the filtrate is placed into a flask containing (sp. gr. 1.125) hydrochloric acid and refluxed 2 1-2 hours. (C) the refluxed solution is cooled and neutralized with sodium hydroxide to pH 7; (D) The neutral- 83 A Comprehensive Survey of Controlled Grain Alcohol Production Methods ized solution is made up to a known volume which is used to titrate a known amount of standard Fehling’s solution according to the Lane-Eynon procedure (10)—this result indicates the total possible amount of reducing sugar in the cooked grain solution. The initial or primary amount of sugar in the grain cook is determined by titrating a measured amount of standard Fehling’s solution before acid hydolysis. %Conversion equals initial reducing sugar as glucose x 100% over total reducing sugar as Slucose. A modification of the above meth- od decreases the total time from three hours to one hour. The relia- bility is not altered. This is accomp- lished by the use of concentrated in- stead of (sp. gr. 1.125) hydrochloric acid for the hydrolysis of the dex- trins. As a result, the reflux time is reduced from two and one half hours to one-half hour. The effect of the concentrated acid on the pentosan or hemicelluloses is minimized by the partial insolubility of these sub- stances. Amlyase The initial conversion of the grain starch to reducing sugar by the ad- dition of ground malt or a malt slurry containing the amylases is ap- proximately 70-85%; therefore, there is 10-25% starch present at the start of fermentation, and this re- sidual starch must be converted to sugar, to large extent, by the residual amylase in malt for the production of the maximum amount of alcohol. Thus, the amount of active amylases present in the fermenter is essential. The amount of active residual amyl- ase present during fermentation is a function of pH, alcohol concentra- tion, concentration of sugar, and temperature. The determination of amylase in grain alcohol fermentation mash can be completed within six minutes, and with a minimum of equipment; whereas, the modified Wohlgemuth method (7) takes one and one-half hours and uses comparatively large, precision equipment. In addition, the latter method has many possible sources of errors such as prepara- tion of the starch solution and water bath temperature control. The test for residual amylase ac- tivity is conducted by the addition of tincture of guaiac (7a) to 5 milli- liters of filtered mash. A blue colored compound is formed. The retention and extinction point of this color ap- pears to be a function of the con- centration of the amylase in the mash. The method appears specific for amylase. Starch, protein hydroly- zates, inorganic or organic nitrogen, and glucose do not interfere with the test; ethyl alcohol tends to dissolve the precipitate but does not influence the formation and intensity of color other than the tolerance of alcohol on amylase. The reliability of this determination is signified by a S. Em equal 0.50 minute. The validity of this method is based on the correla- tion of the guaiac time of malt and the amount of reducing sugar formed trom starch by the addition of var- ious alcoholic malt slurries to 2% starch solution. It appears’ that guaiac time of four minutes signifies that there is sufficient amylase to convert 5-10% starch, 10 minutes— 25% starch, and 15 minutes—35% starch, or in Wohlgemuth units 110- 330 is equivalent 4-8 minutes guaiac time. Contamination Determination For maximum alcohol production, milling, cooking, conversion, and fer- mentation operations must conform — 84 A Comprehensive Survey of Controlled Grain Alcohol Production Methods to a high level of sanitary practices. If contaminants are present in the plant mash the amount of alcohol produced will be low. These con- taminants will utilize the sugars and starch for the production of products other than ethyl alcohol. Therefore, in the control of production it is es- sential that the amount of contam- ination (and the level of contamina- * tion) in a plant be known. An acid rise-bacteria count-yield curve, (Figure 1) can be established in each distillery. This curve will 50] Figure at | 44 3 Py 48]| ¥ & 4 ¥ SS sas 44 4.23 4b fe) 4... reveal immediately that amount of contamination in the plant. The method of approach is illustrated in Figure 2. In this second figure, each total acid, from the set time (the time when a fermenter containing yeast is filled to a designated vol- ume) to the time the fermenter is ready for distillation has a corres- ponding increase at x hours after set. Therefore, once the acid rise at x hours is known, the correspond- ing acid rise at the time the ferment- er is distilled can be determined from the chart, figure 2. The media used for these studies were thioglycollate and _ tryptone, both of which were prepared by Difco. Besides producing rapid re- sults, the method eliminates a great deal of time in preparation of ma- terial for the bacteriological test. However, any specific part of the system which contains bacteria that Reid Rise ~ Bacteria Cout - Yield Cuaeve Legend Upper Vint Lowe. eee Upper fit Lowgr lest Mean Ling : O ileacee rent Treranse Fa) (c.<. 01% NaGt) act as a seed can only be found by the use of bacteriological media. Bacteria counts were determined by the use of the Halverson and Zieg- ler’s (11) Probability table. Crude Fiber The residue from alcohol distilla- tion is further processed for the production of animal feed. This pro- cess produces two types of feed (A) 85 A Comprehensive Survey of Controlled Grain Alcohol Production . Methods light or dark dried grain, and (B) distillers’ solubles. Light grain is pro- duced by screening the alcohol-free distillation residue; the coarse ma- terial which is retained on the screen is pressed, and finally dried to 8-10% moisture in a rotary drier. If syrup is added to this material before it is fed to a rotary drier, the product is known as dark dried grain. The syrup is produced by evaporating to a solids content of 25-30%, the fluid portion of the alcohol-free distilla- tion residue in multiple effect evapor- ators. In production of distillers’ sol- ubles this syrup is dried on drum dryers. Distillers’ solubles is a high nutritive animal feed, and since it is usually used in various mixed feeds, its chemical composition (ni- trogen, fats, fibers, mineral salts, and vitamins) is important. In the mar- keting of by-products grain residues a statement of moisture, protein, fat, and fiber is required. Since the de- termination of the crude fiber con- tent of grain products requires more time than any other analyses it is essential that a rapid, reliable, and valid method for determining the amount of crude fiber be employed. Whitehouse’s (8) method for the determination of crude fiber in dried grain is twice as rapid as the A. O. A. C. method. The inherent errors are reduced by the decrease in the num- ber of transfers of the material. The above determination had a S. Em equal 0.03 compared to 0.08 for the A. O. A. C. procedure (10). There- fore, the distribution of the data is significantly greater in case of the A. O. A. C. method as compared to the Whitehouse’s procedure. The new method eliminates sep- arate digestions with caustic and acid, and instead uses one digestion with a mixture of glacial acetic, ni- tric, and trichloracetic. The White- house method markedly accelerates filtration time after treatment com- pared to extended periods with the A. O. A. C. procedure. Protein Determination The determination of the amount of protein in grain aids in establish- ing the cooking procedure, as pro- teins indirectly effect the percentage starch converted to sugar (9); also, the protein content of dried grain and dried solubles (products of alco- bol-free residue after distillation) is required for marketing. The method for determining the amount of protein in grain, dried grain, and solubles developed by Whitehouse (6) can be completed within an hour and has a reliablity of S. Em equal 0.04 compared to a minimum of 38 hours and S. Em. equal 0.12 for the A. O. A. C. (10) method. The Whitehouse method uses H202, and P205 as oxidizing agents, HgO as catalyst, and K2S04 to ele- vate the boiling point of the mixture. Based on values obtained with the A. O. A. C. method the validity is not affected by the use of the above reagents, Discussion The application of these methods in distilleries has aided to a great extent in producing high efficiencies, economical operations, and simultan- eously, uniformity and quality of product. These fundamental objec- tives can be realized by the estab- lishment of operational limits based on reliable and valid analytical meth- ods. All phases of operations can be measured. Reliable and valid meth- ods correlated with normal operations will produce economical operations, uniformity and quality of product. Normal operations are defined as 86 A Comprehensive Survey of Controlled Grain Alcohol Production Methods x hours Time phases of productions of constant variability within fixed limits. The methods discussed above all meet the time requirements for con- trolled operations; in addition neither skilled technicians nor _ elaborate equipment is necessary; in other words, these methods give the pro- duction man the tools essential for the attainment of the principles men- tioned here. References 1. Seagram’s Research and Control Dept. 1944 Unpublished. 2. Hopkins, C. 1935. Polarimetric de- termination of starch. Canad. J. Res. 11: 757-758. 2a. Etheredge, M. P. 1944. Report on the Determination of Starch in Raw and Baked Cereals. J. Assoc. Off. Agr. Chem. 29: 404-412. 3. Baker, J. D:, Parker, H. K.. and Mize, M. D. 1943. Pentosans of Wheat Flour. Cereal Chem. 20: 267-280. (Hours) Figucr sf ees Acid Rise Curve #1 3a. Mirils, D. I., Gorokhlolinskaya, U. S. 19385. Mechanisms of the Step- wise Hydrolysis in Prepartion of Furfural from Substances contain- ing Pentosans. J. Chem. Ind. (Moscow) 12: 156 through C. A. 29: 5838. 3b. Vernon, C. C. and Metzner, M. A. 1941. The determination of fur- furalyielding substances and fer- mentable carbohydrates in grain. Cereal Chem. 18: 572-584. 4. Simeral, J. E. and Browning, B. L. 1939. Photocolorimetric Determin- ation of Starch, Anal. Ed. 11: 121. 5. Rash, O. S. 1929. Rapid Method for the Determination of Starch. J. Assoc. Agri. Chem. 10: 108-120. 6. Whitehouse, K. Unpublished. 7. Wohlgemuth, J. 1908. A new Method for the Quantitative De- termination of Amylolytic Fer- ment. Biochem. Z. 9: 1-9. Ta. Wender, 1903. Diastase Test. 87 A Comprehensive Survey of Controlled Grain Aleohol Production Methods Apoth. Ztg. 471 through Merck In- 10. A. O. A. C. Official and Tentative dex. Methods of the Association of Of- 8. Whitehouse, K., Zarow, A. I., Shay: ficial Agricultural Chemists. Wash- H.,1945. A Rapid Method for the ington, D. €. 1940, 1945. Determinating Crude Fiber in Dis- 11. Halverson, H. O. and Ziegler, N. tillers Dried Grain. J. Assoc. Agr. R. 1934. Quantitative Bacteriol- Chem. 29: 147. ogy, Burgess Publishing Co., Min- 9. Gortner, R. A. and Hamalainen, C. neapolis. 1941. Protein films and the Sus- 12. Lindquist, E. F. ‘‘Course in Sta- ceptibility of Raw Starch to Dia- tistics” 1942. Houghton Mifflin Co. static attack. Cereal Chem. 17: 378. GND Ca 88 A Planned Economy For Kentucky’s Waters* W. R. ALLEN Department of Zoology University of Kentucky Lexington If all Kentucky’s rainfall should happen to be precipitated in an in- stant, it might be considered her greatest crop, standing, as it would, some forty inches deep over lands, rooftops and roads. If it should fall in the form of snow, it would average more than thirty feet upon field, forest and town. This crop is one produced without labor, without expenditure for seed, rentals, or overhead of any kind. It falls almost equally upon all of the lands of the state, without regard to fertility or other variable. The total production of some 120 bil- lion tons at the domestic rate of 8.4 cents per ton, delivered at the kitchen sink, would amount to more than ten billion dollars. At this so-called cheap rate Kentucky’s rainfall should pay off the national debt within the lifetime of many persons here present. The above calculations are without value except to emphasize the magni- tude of a natural resource, which to- gether with the sunshine and air, claim little attention. Possibly no po- litical division of the United States gives less consideration to water-sup- ply and what might be done about it. Ideally this resource should be evenly distributed at perhaps weekly intervals throughout the year, just enough to mature crops and replenish ground-water, with none left. over. But actually it is uneven as between one year and another, one season and another, and between the weeks of the same season. The range is be- tween total failure and great excess at any time of the year. Of course mankind can do nothing about it—or *Presented before the annual meeting of the Ken- tucky Academy of Science, April, 1947. can we? The tradition is now and has always been THAT MAN IS HELPLESS IN THE HANDS OF A RELENTLESS FATE—that neither the individual nor the State may hope to control so great a force of Nature. We either believe that or behave as though we do. In some of the more level lands of the prairie states, the farm owner has more or less successfully controlled the ex- cess rainfall through artificial sub- surface drainage and systems of pub- lic ditches. But in Kentucky most of the land lies on a decided slope and is closely underlain by its parent rock, so drain-tile is no answer to excessive rainfall here. The more than one-hundred billion tons of water therefore dashes precipitously toward the streams, except as restrained by the porosity of the soil, the rock, and the root-systems of vegetation. The fate of the cargo of soil swept down into the streams has begun but recently to be a matter of general pub- lic coneern, and one about which it was believed that united action might be taken. Yet to this moment little planning has related directly to the water itself, or otherwise than as the agent of erosion. From the point of view of those citizens whose theory of government is strongly on the side of state- sovereignty and state responsibility, it may appear unfortunate that Ken- tucky has done so little on her own initiative. She has awaited the na- tion-wide program of conservation so belatedly handed down to her in re- cent years from higher up. Being the oldest of the mid-western states, she has suffered from this neglect longer 89 A Planned Economy For Kentucky’s Waters than most of her neighbor-states. Not only that, but Kentucky has failed to this moment to assume the leading part in her own restoration. As the situation may be summarized today, Kentucky is playing only the support- ing role in the soil and forest con- servation, while neither the federal nor state government is attacking the problems of water-control and aquatic resources through any equitable and all-round plan. In the early history of the state, while there was sufficient forested land to restrain the turbulence of rainfall on hillsides, streamflow was sufficiently constant to contribute to the industry of many communities, especially in transportation and in the operation of flour-mills. Records well attest their further usefulness to the inhabitants in the matters of food and water-supply. Since the passing of the primitive social and economic organization of that day, the water-resources, then largely a small- scale, private concern, have been lost in our preoccupation with greater matters—lumbering, mining, railroad- ing, etc. Interest in our streams has lagged for generations and a new population has grown up which knows them not. It is not to be wondered at, then, that the Federal Government found our people ready to welcome the flood-control project without sus- picion, especially as it came upon us during the stress of the Depression and that of the 1937 Flood—a period of anxiety, deprivation, and uncer- tainty. Public work—made work of any kind were the accepted panacea everywhere. In the experience of a decade, what is Kentucky gaining and what is she losing in the transaction? We entered the New Deal period with one of the most magnificent 0 systems of streams to be found on the map. Encircling the great arch of the Blue Grass country the 120 billions of tons of annual precipitation of the state had sculptured out the sweeping arcs of the wide Tennessee, the scarcely less impressive Cumber- land, Green River, the Tradewater and the Kentucky—and flanking the other side, the Licking and the Big Sandy. One by one these assets are being traded in on a system of storage reservoirs, sold to the public under the name of Lakes, which is more euphonious and unintentionally phony as well. Lakes they are not, nor any longer rivers—only so much water. Their necessary system of operation precludes the development of estab- lished stages, of fixed shore-lines, sta- tionary boat-docks, littoral planting of feeding-grounds for wildlife. A further exchange has been that of temporary floods downstream for per- manent floods up-river—at least until the not remote time when they are silted up full and revert to alluvial land. The engineer’s dream has be- come the valley-farmer’s nightmare and a disappointment to the vaca- tioner and sportsman. Meanwhile the smaller streams sug- gest a second line of defense—a re- fuge from the encroachment of the flood-control engineer and his one- track program—a refuge where other interests may still be much better represented. A wealth of such tribu- tary waters is available, most of them masterpieces of beauty and adapti- bility. The roll-call of these streams in itself evokes mental images of what Kentucky’s outdoors with its wildlife might come to be: Rock- castle river, Nolin river, Rough river, Barren river, Salt river; such creeks as Troublesome and Quicksand, Kinni- connick, Elkhorn, Bluebird, Rolling Fork, Fishing creek, Beaver creek, — A Planned Economy For Kentucky’s Waters Muddy fork, Station Camp creek, and a hundred more. Shall Kentucky’s master-planners now begin the strategy of acquiring some of those streams for the use of the public? What are some of the arguments for and against? For: A common-sense reason is that water areas have been shown to be capable of producing more food than equal areas of land. On top of that count the income from hunters and fishermen — sale of ammunition, boat-hire, cabin rentals. Thus more or less waste land can be, and often has been, made to produce revenue. Thus all the recreation, and health- giving activity, all the intellectual and spiritual advantages which Na- ture affords, and the aesthetic ad- vancement of which Kentucky is ca- pable, come gratis, or at least within the bounds of reason. Against: 1. The backwaters from the impoundments of main rivers have already drowned, and will drown more, of the lower courses of the secondary streams. 2. Power-interests and flood-control engineers not only have their eyes upon our minor streams, but have already driven stakes along their courses, in some instances. Thus there is something of an emergency about the acquisition of these waters, if the Commonwealth of Kentucky cares to administer any of them for the benefit of its citizens. Should the state go out for conser- vation of all natural resources in a big way, there are numerous fields into which it might enter. To name a few only: the increase of the fur- bearing aquatic-mammal population, of commercial fisheries, of button- shell resources, in addition to the hunting and fishing usually thought of in this connection. In the aggregate these have never been considered a matter of first importance to the busi- ness of the state, comparable, if not of equal magnitude, with a road- building program, for example. Meanwhile we have assigned im- possible responsibilities to the various conservation agencies of the state. We have made them attempt the produc- tion of large amounts of timber and of wildlife on small tracts of land and with few men and tools to do the work. But large populations of living organisms require large areas, and thus on the present scale of opera- tion, we are doomed to be disappointed in the results, so long as we expect adequate output. The timber require- ments and the recreational possibili- ties within a population of three mil- lion people should be very high. We have the people, but not the acreage of publicly owned land, in a situation of superabundant land suitable for such exploitation. In addition to the hundreds of thousands of people who could get profit and enjoyment from frequent excursions into Kentucky’s outdoors and the other thousands who would break the long drive to Florida or Michigan if Kentucky had facilities to offer, we have made no signi- ficant gestures in behalf of numerous groups of citizens and young people. Among these so very inadequately provided for are: the 4H _ clubs, sportsmen’s clubs, the youth-hostel movement, Boy Scouts and Girl Scouts, Natural History Clubs, school clubs and classes in Biology and Na- ture Study. All these groups are carrying on, but they are missing valuable experiences from which our urban civilization is isolating them. The situation has only one right solu- tion: state parks greatly amplified, hunting preserves and fish and game refuges, much more extensive state forests, hiking trails and trailside museums, so-called, trained personnel. 91 A Planned Economy For Kentucky's Waters They should be matched by smaller regional and municipal facilities, both terrestrial and aquatic. What does all this have to do with Science and with an Academy of Science? As a matter of fact all that I have said is only a preface to a paragraph or two which deal with matters pertaining to Science. Paren- thetically I may be permitted to re- peat here what I have said on an- other occasion: that I myself believe that the peculiar function which a state academy of science should assume should be that of counsellor in matters scientific, to the state—bring- ing science into the service of the state, in much the same manner as the National Academy of Science in its relation to the Federal Govern- ment. Kentucky’s 120 billion tons of water should be ample for all public and private necessities, including its function of chief sculptor of the land- scape, and even though so much as one-third of it be lost by evaporation. That would still leave some 25,000 tons or more for each man, woman, and child, and I should like to vote my share and those of my family as wisely as possible. There are, how- ever, many agencies now in sharp competition for this major resource, some of which are: 1) Flood-control 4) Sanitation 2) Navigation 5) Fisheries 38) Water-supply 6) Recreation As many additional lesser demands, actual and potential, might be named. Among these rivalries, both open and covert, some well entrenched, the pub- lic interest is not well represented. Although it is now later than we think, the State of Kentucky owes it to herself and to her citizens that the machinery be set up to handle the matter. Possibly two agencies of the state government not now in existence could do so. The first of these agencies should include those functions usually associ- ated with state tourist or travel bureaus, together with the all phases of conservation and public recreation. It should therefore be composed in part of persons representing recrea- tional activities, conservation, hotel, tourist camp, transportation and other interests. This group should get to- gether and lay out a workable pro- gram for the location and acquisition of lands for state parks, state forests, camps, ete., in accordance with the needs of three million people, a pro- gram to be submitted to the legisla- ture for action. A second, more specialized body might be considered essential—to have the functions, whether or not the name of, Water Control Board. Its membership chosen from among power, flood-control, water-supply, sanitation, and biological resources, including forestry, personnel, should work out an over-all state program for administering the public waters of Kentucky. Thus the various interests of Kentuckians might have a more equitable representation in dealing with internal affairs than is now the case, with all the emphasis on flooding Kentucky valleys to withhold flood- waters from down-river. This paper is intended not so much a criticism of the flood-control program as a defen- sive gesture in favor of other equally important aspects of the water-supply program, not getting much public consideration. The water-control board would re- quire a technical staff, of course, con- sisting of engineers, geologists, sani- tarians, biologists, and no doubt others, who would initiate and carry out the necessary preliminary re- 92 A Planned Economy For Kentucky's Waters search on which action by the main body could be based under sound prin- ciples—principles of equity and law included. This is where Science comes in, then, in any sweeping public program by which Kentucky might see fit to assay her remaining natural _ re- sources, and to salvage all that she can. I have emphasized the matter of the waters rather than the land because that is far more neglected. In an en- hanced conservation program I can visualize the Academy of Science assuming some share in either a gen- eral advisory way, or in some frac- tional part of the enterprise which may be assigned to it. The job needs the academy; perhaps the academy needs certain concrete objectives. Cer- tainly various members of the biolo- gical section should have an impor- tant share in the survey, or advisory phases of such a program; in the custodianship of certain activities such as a guide service for parks; in the training of personnel. 93 ALCOHOLIC FERMENTATION UNDER REDUCED PRESSURE! M. C. BROCKMANN’ AND T. J. B. STIER Department of Physiology, Indiana University, Bloomington, Indiana The experiments here presented are related to the fermentative be- havior of yeast cultures maintained at 30°C. under an absolute pressure of water while being vigorously sparged with water vapor. The pri- mary objective of the experimental approach, which represents virtually a steam distillation under vacuum, was to study the effect on the pro- duction of glycerol of the partial re- moval of acetaldehyde formed in the course of fermentation. Several authors, e.g. Joslyn (1940) and Wallerstein and Stern (1945), have stated without reference to spe- cific data that fermentation under reduced pressure or under strong aeration during the so-called induc- tion period materially increases the rate of glycerol production, presum- ably, by removing the acetaldehyde. From the classical work of Neuberg and co-workers (Kobel and Neuberg, 1933), it is known that a marked in- crease in the formation of glycerol is produced by the addition to a fer- menting medium of chemical agents interfering with the ultimate reduc- tion of acetaldehyde to alcohol. A secondary objective of this in- vestigation was concerned with the frequently discussed problem of the inhibitory effect of alcohol on cell multiplication and on the rate of fer- I Presented before the Kentucky-T ennessee Branch of the Society of American Bacteri- ologists at the thirty-third annual meeting of the Kentucky Academy of Science, Bowl- ing Green, April 26, 1947. 2 Seagram Research Associate at the Laboratory of Cell Physiology, Indiana University, 1944-1946; on special assignment from Jo- seph E. Seagram & Sons, Inc., Louisville, Kentucky. mentation. The experimental method employed, steam distillation under vacuum, made it possible to main- tain the ethyl alcohol concentration of the cultures at relatively low values throughout the observation periods. In such an experimental en- vironment, rates of growth and sugar utilization should be higher than in the control cultures in which “‘inhibi- tory’? metabolic products, such as al- cohol, can accumulate, see Gause (1934) and Rahn (19382). Experimental Yeast strain. Way | SS aie 3| 2 Tie ui) ¢ 2 — (o) MEVANSib =GbIEIES 500 MG/100 ML MG/IOOML oN (eo) _ HOURS GLYCEROL FORMED - Ze LJ Y) Li) a a i) O > al ud a) a L< k Fe uJ 7) Ww oa a s) O ae | O oO =} < GEUCOSE- USED lO G/I00 ML 98 flasks which correspond to low pressure runs represented by solid triangles and squares. Cir- cles represent average data for 5 runs conducted at atmospheric pressure (Type II control) with medium of reduced oxygen ten- sion (sparged with tank CO2). 9 OOML. e% a SED 3 GLUCOSE U Fe) IS HOURS Fig. 2 Alcoholic Fermentation Under Reduced Pressure tion and the rate of glucose utiliza- tion. As seen from the data of Fig. 2, cultures held under reduced pressure have significantly higher rates of glycerol production than cultures held under atmospheric pressure. After about eight hours the rate of glycerol producion in low pressure cultures appears to diminish as evi- denced by a reduced slope in the glycerol formed-time curves. A some- what parallel rate decrease is seen in the glucose used-time curves for the same cultures. From the curves char- acterizing glycerol formation as a function of glucose consumed it is evident that throughout the obser- vation periods, glycerol is formed in a relatively stable relationship to glucose consumed. While there can be no doubt that the production of glycero! was sig- nificantly increased under reduced pressure, it should be pointed out that the theoretical yield of glycerol has been increased only from 7 to 12 percent, calculated on the basis of the equation for Neuberg’s second type of fermentation: glucose glycerol + actalde- lhyde+carbon dioxide. The concept that glycerol forma- tion is controlled by the availability of acetaldehyde, which in the course of normal alcoholic fermentmation is reduced to alcohol, is difficult to align with the data here reported. The aldehyde concentration of the medium maintained under reduced pressure averaged approximately one- half of that of the CO2 sparged con- trol. Nevertheless, the rate of glu- cose utilization in the low pressure cultures was approximately the same as the CO2 sparged control. Conse- quently, the concentration of acetal- dehyde in the low pressure cultures cannot be regarded as limiting the 99 rate of glucose utilization. More- over, even in the control culture, the aldehyde content of the medium showed a marked tendency to de- crease after fermentation became well established. This decrease ap- pears to be without influence either on the rate of glucose utilization for the culture as a whole or on the amount of glycerol formed per unit of glucose metaboiized. Further- more, according to the previously mentioned Neuberg equation, gly- cerol and acetaldehyde should be formed in equal molar ratios, 92 g. of glycerol and 44 g. of acetaldehyde. However, on the basis of the ob- served glycerol, only a very small part of the theoretically formed al- dehyde appears in the medium, and instead of increasing along with the formed glycerol, the aldehyde con- tent of the culture diminishes during the greater part of the observation period. Moreover, the authors have observed a marked increase in the al- dehyde content of yeast cultures fol- lowing the addition of various sur- face active agent, which depress yeast multiplication. This increase is not attended by an alteration in the amount of glycerol produced per unit of glucose metabolized. These ob- servations present an _ interesting problem, namely, what is the dispo- sition of the 2 or 3 carbon oxidation compound which must be formed si- multaneously with the reduction of a portion of the glucose molecule to glycerol under the conditions of nor- mal alcoholic fermentation. Under the conditions of the experi- ments here reported no significance can be attached to the aldehyde con- tent of the culture. A possible ex- planation for the observed relation- ship between acetaldehyde and gly- cerol is suggested by the disclosure of Negelein and Bromel (1939) Alcoholic Fermentation Under Reduced Pressure that acetaldehyde is much more readily reduced by a reduced yeast pyridine nucleotide than dihydroxy- acetone. It appears quite possible that in the low pressure cultures the depressed aldehyde concentration fa- vored the reduction of slightly great- er amounts of dihydroxyacetone. Summary Data have been presented for glu- cose utilization, yeast population, glycerol formation and the concen- trations of alcohol and acetaldehyde ’ in cultures continuously sparged with water vapor while held at a pressure close to the vapor pressure of water. In comparison with cultures having a similar oxygen tension and main- tained at atmospheric pressure, the slight elevation in rate of glucose utilization seen in the low pressure cultures is accounted for on the basis of the somewhat higher yeast popu- lations. It appears probable that the low alcohol concentration of the cul- tures maintained under reduced pres- sure favored a somewhat greater yeast population and thus, indirectly, an increased over-all rate of glucose utilization. In cultures maintained under re- duced pressure glycerol formation is definitely elevated. No conclusion is forthcoming regarding the relation- ship between the increased glycerol tormation and the lowered aldehyde concentration of the cultures. Literature Cited Amerine, Maynard A. and Dietrich, William C. 1948. lycerol in wines. J. Assoc. Official Agr. Chem., 26, 408-413. Assoc. Official Agr. Chem. 1940. Of- ficial and tentative methods of analysis. Official Agricultural Chemists, Washington, D. C. Brockman, M. C. and Stier, T. J. B. 1947. The use of solium azide for determining the fermenta- tive ability of yeast developed under different oxygen tensions. J. Bact., 53, 621-629. Gause, G. F. 1934. The struggle for existence. Williams and Wilkins Co., Baltimore. Joslyn, M. A. 1940. The by-products of alcoholic fermentation. Wal- as Labs. Commun., 3, 30- 43. Kobel, Maria and Neuberg, Carl 1933. Handbuch der Pflanzen- analyse (G. Klein, Editor) Vol. 4 part 3, 1253-1344. Negelein, Erwin and Bromel, Heinz 1939. Uber die Entstehung von Glycerin bei der Garung. Bio- chem, 303, 231-233. Rahn, Otto 1932. Physiology of Bac- teria. P. Blakiston’s Son and Co., Philadelphia. Wallerstein, James and Stern, Kurt G. 1945. On bisulfite as an in- hibitor of carboxylase and the mechanism of glycerol fermen- pation: J. Biol. Chem., 158, 1- 2: 100 REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE for the KENTUCKY JUNIOR ACADEMY The Committee, H. B. Lovell, W. R. Sebastian, Tandy Chenault, Austin Durham, Hazel Nollau, and Anna A. Schnieb, submits the fol- lowing report: I. Work of the Committee 1. Conferences held with indi- dividual members of the committee and much additional business trans- acted through correspondence with high school science teachers. 2. The third Sponsor-Delegate conference held in October, Eastern Teachers College, with seventy-six present. The officers were installed. List of problems previously sent to the clubs were discussed and plans for the year’s work were made. 3. Directed the Christmas Bird Census for the Junior Academy. 4. Assisted in securing financial contributions. 5. Assisted in organizing five new clubs. 6. Appointed the honorary mem- bers to A.A.A.S.: Mrs. Alice Summers, Atherton, Louisville. Mr. Jimmy Garritson, Tilghman, Paducah. 7. Answered many letters. II. Junior Academy Activities: 1. Five issues of Junior Science Bulletin, two eight page and three six page issues, published. 2. Definite efforts taken to im- prove the articles in the Bulletin. 38. A decided increase noted in the number and the size of the Special Financial contributions. 4. Formulated a_ standard for conferring honors: a. Quality and number of ar- ticles contributed to Bulle- tin. b. Sustained interest in sci- ence and in the Academy. ce. Cooperation on the part of members and sponsors. d. Effort and interest shown in organizing new clubs. e. Some financial contribution made. 5. Much effort put forth to or- ganize new clubs, especially on the part of the members. III. Annual Convention: The thirteenth annual convention was held Friday and Saturday, March 18 and 19 at Maysville High School with the Maysville science clubs as hosts. Mr. Tandy Chenault and Supt. Laukhuf were in charge of the con- vention assisted by Dr. Schnieb, state counselor. The Friday evening pro- gram was entirely social and was planned by the Maysville High School 1 phd ae About three hundred attended the Saturday meeting which was presided over by the president, Burt Monroe. The program consisted of addresses, exhibits, demonstrations, a trip to the Carnation Plant, music, and confer- ring the honors and the awards. Considering the deep snow which fell on Thursday, the attendance was considered good. IV. Highlights of the Convention: 1. The quality and the wide range of interests shown in the ex- hibits and demonstrations. Each ex- hibit as well as demonstration in- cluded a clear statement of the prob- lem, and what was learned. 2. The interest shown by the members and the sponsors in the ex- hibits and in the demonstrations. They wanted to see just what made them good. Many took close notes. 3. The interest of the judges who were rather critical. ‘Some sloppy 101 Report of the Committee for the Kentucky Junior Academy work.” “Yes, this is good, but they must be taught to do better,” were statements frequently made by the judges. 4, The interest of Maysville in science and in the convention. Not only the newspapers, but the mayor, the churches, and the citizens in gen- eral showed much interest by attend- ing the sessions and by making favor- able comments, as well as giving in- valuable assistanec in making the meeting a success. V. Affiliation: The Junior Academy today has a membership of 950 representing 16 Class A and 18 Class B Clubs. VI. Outstanding Accomplishments: 1. Five new clubs organized and only two fatalities. 2. Decided increase in the num- ber of Christmas Bird Census. 3. Improvement in the quality and arragnement of exhibits. 4. Decided improvement Bulletin. in the 5. The Junior Science Bulletin maintaining the rating as an out- standing publication issued regularly by the members. 6. Decided increase in the Special Financial Contributions. 7. Decided improvement Sponsor-Delegate Conference. 8. Better judgment noted in making the nominations for officers. VII. Honors Received: 1. Recognition by The Kentucky Academy of Science in offering hon- orary memberships to four club spon- sors and to four junior members. 2. The Library at Havana, Cuba, requesting to be placed on the mail- ing list for the Junior Science Bulle- tin and sending a check to meet the expenses of mailing the Bulletin. 38. Citation received from the Michigan Junior Academy of Science quote: “For excellent set-up of the Kentucky Junior Academy and for the outstanding publication—The Junior Science Bulletin.” in the SUMMARY 1. New Clubs Breathitt County High —._ SNe Bee ie ie Ss VOOGLes Sponsors aren: Mrs. Dickerson, Sponsor ____ Robert Sentz, Sponsor_________- Ormsby Village, Mrs. Searles. bates Valley Station, Mrs. H. B. Lovell ____ he i NBO) IWlertnloeres 56 Members 49 Members 25 Members 16 Members 50 Members 2a hinancials Contributions frome Clubsie==—ssse Be ORION By pce. $201.00 Total Expenses Awards Bulletins K.A.S. Affiliation 438.64 Postage, Long Distance, Telegrams Sponsor-Delegate Conference Dues, contributions from interested friends, and sponsorship of the Kentucky Academy of Science give a balance to be carried for 1947-1948. 3. Clubs with Distinction: Cane Run, Jefferson County Kingston, Madison County Maysville Model High, Richmond 102 Report of the Committee for the Kentucky Junior Academy Morehead Owensboro Waco 4. Honorary Members to A.A.A.S.: Miss Rlice Summers, Atherton, Louisville Mr. Jimmy Garritson, Tilghman, Paducah 5. Honorary Members to Kentucky Academy of Science: Sponsors: Mr. Tandy Chenault, Maysville Mrs. M. S. Dickerson, Jackson Miss Hazel Nollau, Morehead Miss Elizabeth Maupin, Kingston Junior Members: Burt Monroe, Anchorage Proctor Riggins, Harrodsburg Susanne Newell, Maysville Geraldine Maupin, Waco 6. Officers Elected: President: Turner Burns, Owensboro Vice President: Harold Cox, Model High, Richmond Secretary: Mary Buetel, Atherton, Louisville Treasurer: Chad Christine, Maysville 7. Club Affiliation PCH GT ASC, en ees, ee er ee et eee eet ee 27 FAtnercon! 9 22.2 2. ARE SND eee aa ae Oe OES mE Re ee 48 Teyellikesyae, kee ee I a a ee 40 rer Gintiee ountyen( ho SreulOOre i= «kt ee 56 Brean @ounty (Mrs: Dickerson) == 29 ota: Becaunittt County "(RGbert Oembz 4. a2 2 ee » BE SSUES DEIN OCG OIG EA alae SE eee 25 CSTE SEU 0 gee eee ee RN res ors ik nk aie oe Bes Ney eee EGR 35 (Cyasantirranll cs eat ee or ee ee ee 16 Shader, We ian iis ee A ee ae ee ee On Wes Se ee a ASRS 29 PERS) ae ee se ee SEALE Wie a Lae ee 25 PEE Ye eaNTal cali 1 ee ann oI oc ree ea ae ea ee ee 19 (Bireczyeran aS ae ie te ED A ee ee ee es 10 ingmntie S ih nee eee ee ee 13 Pimeiieeida te nONINS = 2 ee ee ee ee 30 eoimeston a RE Sey ce ge te ee A 32 (cdkey Soa ee eee 14 Termes (Cea ee Se ee ee ae eas Sed oe RAE 33 [LT LEE BUT Shy IL 09 A eS se eae ps 2a fete ens 20 BenchLea SemtO re = he ee es ee ee 20 Terie ee ce 2 ae Se BEE ee ee 15 eroswillothOr. We a ee ADs Ser ee ee ee Eli Maysville Senior —.-_____. Fe ie) ok. SER ©! OE Ee Ea eee anton 38 Wray eax cD Sy ip a Seg ls a ee 25 VGC Cl eee ee ee NMaeM ErD P B ee ee 26 IMCamnalingvagl GARR: a ee 20 Report of the Committee for the Kentucky Junior Academy IMOreEHe Ads SOMUON? 225. Be) Rael ed eee CN Os Ree 13 INT TV esi ieee BS NATO ee a a 10 Ormsby: Villages 6 ee 16 CS TAS TT Or a gee a SI Ale a oe ai Ae Wess 1 33 Paducalas Tile bnyma ny 22 sles ie ae os oe ea ee SS lade 45 Aerts es CT ie a ae SS ee EP, cael ec 15 IVER Mey ED a ge A PSI Ota A nee ee 50 WiC Ol ees Pe TS PI Le ae eae EP ee GEN ERMAN eet a ne a pac aemne, 26 919 SSP OVS OWS ea ae ee eee Al aie et Gee ee 31 Respectfully submitted, ANNA A. SCHNIEB, April 25, 1947 Counselor GSS) CEs) 104 Report of the Representative of the Kentucky Academy of Science on the Council of the Amer. Assoc. for the Advancement of Science Boston, Dee. 1946 Minutes of the A.A.A.S. Academy Conference The first meeting of the Council of the A.A.A.S. was concerned with rou- tine business, i.e., the report of the Administrative Secretary, election of emeritus members, the operating bud- get, etc. It was explained that under its new constitution the A.A.A.S. now will have, each year, a Retiring President, a President and a President Elect. The President Elect serves one year in that capacity, the succeeding year as President, and the third year as Retiring President, who delivers the Annual Address. The Second Council Meeting was concerned with the presidential elec- tions. It was necessary to elect a President and a President Elect to meet the provisions of the new consti- tution. Dr. Shapley was elected Pres- ident and Dr. Sinnot was elected Pres- ident Elect. Dr. Baitsell and Dr. Martin were elected to the Executive Committee. There followed a long discussion of the proposed National Science Foun- dation at the conclusion of which the President was instructed to designate representatives of the A.A.A.S. on an Inter-Society Committee on the National Science Foundation and to invite all scientific societies of na- tional scope to do so. This was done because of the failure of adoption of past national legislation was largely due to lack of agreement among scientists as to its provisions. Report of the Proceedings of the Conference of State Academies of Science The minutes of the meeting of the Conference of State Academies is ap- pended hereto, together with the paper presented by Dr. E. C. L. Miller of the Virginia Academy. Dr. Degering, Indiana Academy, Chairman, had prepared an agenda for the conference which centered about three problems, to wit, improve- ment of the services to and its rela- tions with its own state by the state academy. The development of valu- able additional scientific personnel. How can the academy supplement its research funds? Your representative wishes to bring to the critical attention of the Ken- tucky Academy of Science certain sug- gestions that were presented at the Conference. (1) That the academy form a special committee to contact industrial firms to initiate a study of problems of mutual interest and of means of funneling funds to research workers. (2) That the Academy use its influence toward the promotion of research in the smaller institutions of higher education in the state. (38) The participation of the Academy in the administration of national and other grants for research in the state. (4) The guidance of young people of ability into research, and (5) the de- vising of some means for the educa- tion of the layman in the advances of science and its needs. This last car- ried the further suggestion that the academy organize a speakers’ bureau among the public speakers of its mem- bership and also bring in occasionally some scientist of national repute. These five suggestions were incorpor- ated in the address of Dr. Miller. 105 Report of the Representative of the Kentucky Academy of Science on the Council of the Amer. Assoc. for the Advancement of Science A great deal of the discussion fol- lowing that address centered on the importance of the Junior Academy in developing young scientists. The Ten- nessee Academy conducts a Science Talent Search in its state which gives awards to young people who were not selected in the National Science Tal- ent Search. It was pointed out that more atten- tion should be given to high school teachers of science to encourage them and to demand high quality teaching by them. There is a need for abstracts of new developments in science for use by these high school teachers of science in their work in the science club. Your representative wishes to urge upon the Academy the serious con- sideration of these proposals, with ‘especial attention to the matter of in- forming the layman about science and its needs, the committee on cooperative study with industry, the matter of the administration of grants from all sources, and the matter of the en- couragement of the high school science teacher, since the high school is the ultimate source from which will come the scientists of the future. Dr. Michaud of Purdue was elected Chair- man of the Conference and Dr. Mid- dleton, of Kentucky, Secretary. Respectfully submitted, Austin R. Middleton Representative of the Academy on Council of A.A.A.S. Minutes of the A.A.A.S. Academy Conference The A.A.A.S. Academy Conference was called to order at 4:00 P. M., Friday, December 27, 1946, in Parlor C of the Statler Hotel, Boston, Massa- chusetts, by the Chairman, Dr. Ed. F. Degering of Purdue University. There were 28 delegates present represent- ing 24 Academies of Science. Dr. F. R. Moulton, Permanent Secretary and Dr. Otis W. Caldwell, General Secre- tary were present, representing the American Association for the Ad- vancement of Science. Previous to the opening of the meet- ing, Dr. Degering appointed a nomi- nating committee composed of the fol- lowing persons: Dr. Arthur H. Bragg, Chairman, Oklahoma Academy of Science. Dr. Austin R. Middleton, Kentucky Academy of Science. Dr. Glenn W. Blaydes, Ohio Acad- emy of Science. The Committee nominated Dr. Howard H. Michaud, Purdue Univer- sity as Chairman of the Academy Con- ference for 1947; and Dr. Austin R. Middleton, University of Louisville, as Secretary. Both the nominees were unanimously elected by the Academy Conference group. Chairman Degering introduced Dr. Otis Caldwell, who presented greet- ings from the A.A.A.S. to the Acad- emy delegates. He spoke of the great responsibility borne by the affiliated Academies for improvement of serv- ices and relations to state educational and industrial enterprises, the prep- aration of scientific personnel, the sponsoring of Science Clubs and de- velopment of the Junior Academy as a valuable educational procedure and channels for directing interested and competent young people into the field of science. He spoke briefly on federal research subsidies. This led to consideration of the agenda prepared by Dr. Degering as follows: 1. In what ways may a State Academy improve its serv- ices and relations with its own state educational and industrial enterprises? 2. What can be done by the State Academy toward de- 106 Report of the Representative of the Kentucky Academy of Science on the Council of the Amer. Assoc. for the Advancement of Science veloping valuable additional scientific personnel? 3. How may the services of the Junior Academy be in- creased? 4. Should the State Academies supplement their research funds? If so, how and for what specific purposes? Mr. Glenn O. Carter, representing the American Institute of the City of New York suggested that the Academies could make _ substantial contributions to education and indus- try by sponsoring lecture programs on human relationships throughout the year. He indicated that industry has much to offer education and that closer cooperation should be secured between the Academies of Science and industrial organizations. From New Hampshire, Professor H. D. Carle described their mountain experiment station which was spon- sored by that Academy. Cooperation and financial aid has been obtained from industry and the Federal Govy- ernment in its development. Studies in meterology, and the effects of severe weather condition on various materials of industry are _ being studied. Also biological surveys are being conducted. Dr. Otis W. Caldwell spoke of the many grants being made from the Federal Government, particularly under the auspices of the Army and Navy, made to relatively isolated groups. The grants are of such a number that they affect the assign- ment of research funds from the A.A.A.S, Dr. Ed. F. Degering of Purdue Uni- versity suggested that the State Acad- emies of Science have the responsi- bility of sponsoring research in the smaller institutions, where the larger Federal funds will likely not be avail- able. Dr. G. W. Prescott, Michigan State College, believes that the State Acad- emies of Science should have commit- tees who have the duties of contacting industrial concerns for research aid. Dr. Austin R. Middleton of Ken- tucky pointed out that the Kentucky Academy has made valuable industrial contacts, and that the past President is head of research in one of Louis- ville’s large industrial organizations. Dr. Joseph C. Gilman, Iowa State College, suggested that the A.A.A.S. research grants should be directed to the smaller institutions. He indicated that there is some difficulty in placing research funds at present because of the excessive teaching and administra- tive burdens being carried by the per- sonnel of the smaller schools. Dr. C. L. Porter of the Colorado- Wyoming Academy of Science, sug- gested that the Academies should in- vite industrialists to take part in the Academy meetings, and in this way cultivate a better understanding be- tween the Academies and industry. Dr. Waldo Schmidt, of the Wash- ington, D. C. Academy said that the small grants of the A.A.A.S. are of importance and may mean a great deal to many investigators. Dr. E. C. L. Miller of the Virginia Academy of Science, presented a paper on the responsibilities of the State Academies of Science. A copy of this paper is attached to these minutes. Dr. H. A. Webb of the Tennessee Academy, spoke of the importance of continuing and developing the Science Talent Search. Tennessee has in addi- tion developed a State Science Talent Search. He suggested that this may be of great importance in guiding the most talented young people into the field of science. From Wisconsin, Dr. L. E. Noland expressed himself concerning the in- 107 Report of the Representative of the Kentucky Academy of Science on the Council of the Amer. Assoc. for the Advancement of Science spiration they had received because of the development of the Junior Acad- emy of Science in Virginia and Ten- nessee. In Wisconsin, the Junior Academy has a program of meetings at several centers in the State. Papers are presented by the Junior scientists. The best from each center are selected and sent to the Senior Academy meet- ing. This appears to be of much im- portance in guiding talented young people into further science studies. He enthusiastically told of the work of Dr. John Thompson of Wisconsin, who has the duty of traveling about the State aiding in science teaching in the secondary schools. From the American Institute of the City of New York, Mr. Glenn O. Car- ter, suggested that we do something for the Junior scientists through in- dustry. Industry does not know about these needs. Closer cooperation of the Academies with industry is very de- sirable. Dr. Otis W. Caldwell pointed out that there are 10,500 Science Clubs in the United States, with an average enrollment of 25 per club. A new fea- ture of the A.A.A.S. meeting this year is the Junior Scientific Assembly, an- nounced by Dr. Morris Meister, presi- dent of N.S.T.A. It is expected that this will be an annual feature of the A.A.A.S. meetings. From Minnesota, Dr. John W. Moore indicated that in his Academy each member acts as a committee of one to contact new members. Small grants are made to the Junior Acad- emy. Considerable care is taken in selecting a sponsor of the Junior group. Dr. Howard H. Michaud from In- diana, spoke of the 52 Science Clubs in Indiana. Representatives from these clubs meet with the Senior Academy at their regular autumn meeting. The assembling of ‘youngsters at meetings is a considerable problem. In about 50% of the schools, teachers lose sal- ary for days away on Junior Academy trips. Teachers are so over-burdened that it is difficult to get them to stimulate students to enter contests. Dr. Joseph C. Gilman of Iowa, sug- gested that there is the difficulty in interesting and _ stimulating high school teachers to organize and direct the activities of Science Clubs. In Iowa a high school teacher acts as a permanent secretary of the Junior Academy. This is regarded as an im- portant feature of their success. Dr. Martin D. Young of South Carolina indicated that there are 151 Science Clubs in that State, which are affiliated with the S. C. Academy of Science. A Junior Academy congress is planned and will be held in conjunc- tion with the Senior Academy meet- ing. Several of the Clubs have entered the Westinghouse Science Talent Search Examination. Mr. Glenn O. Carter of New York, presented a motion which was am- mended by Dr. Ditmer of New Mexico. The motion as ammended is as fol- lows: We request the officers and direc- tors of the A.A.A.S. to consider pos- sible measures of working through the Academies of Science for the encour- agement of Junior Academies, or Jun- ior Science Activities, and prepare a report for publication on the present status of Junior Academies of Science in the United States, with recommen- dations. The motion was seconded and ac- cepted by the Academy Conference. Dr. Otis W. Caldwell, while speak- ing of the fourth item of the agenda, pointed out that in order to obtain research funds from the A.A.A.S., ap- plication must be made by each acad- 108 Report of the Representative of the Kentucky Academy of Science on the Council of the Amer. Assoc. for the Advancement of Science emy for these funds. Such funds can- funds for the sole use of the Academy not be used for publication purposes. of Science for research. As to supplementing these grants from the A.A.A.S., he suggested that Respectfully submitted, a resolution might be made to state GLENN W. BLAYDES, The some kind of principle of obtaining Ohio State University ways of setting up and underwriting Acting Secretary. CSSD 109 NEWS and NOTES Editors’ Note: Pagination for Number 3, Vol. 12 of the Transactions was not made continuous with the preceding journal number through error. The nages of this issue (Number 4) are numbered in sequence from Number 3 had the latter been correctly paged. Page numbers for Number 3 will be considered from 34 to and including 54 in the volume index. The Springfield conference of the Kentucky Geological Society was held on May 2, 3, and 4, 1947. Ap- proximately seventy-five geologists assembled at Tazewell, Tennessee, and examined sections of the Knox dolomite under the direction of Dr. Charles R. L. Oder of the American Zinc Company. The party was con- ducted over the Thorn Hill, Halls Mill, and Jockey Creek sections. Dr. Oder spoke on the paleogeographic, stratisgraphic and lithologic features of the Knox dolomite. The annual business meeting of the Kentucky Geological Society was held Saturday 4 May, 1947. The fol- lowing papers were presented: 1. The Geology of Pickett County, Tennessee, by Willard R. Jill- son. 2. The Warwick Abandoned Chan- nel of the Kentucky River by Willard R. Jillson. 3. Paleogeographic Elements Dur- ing Knox Deposition by Dan K. Hamilton. Dr. Frank Fisher, Ashland Oil and Refining Co., Ashland, Kentucky, has been elected President of the Ken- tucky Geological Society at its an- nual meeting in May 1947. Dr. David Richard Lincicome in collaboration with the Manitoba Mu- seum, Winnipeg, Manitoba, spent two weeks in August making extensive collections of parasites from birds in the spruce forests of upper Mani- toba. The annual meeting of the Ken- tucky section of the Mathematical Association of America was held at the University of Kentucky on Sat- urday, May 10, 1947. The following papers were pre- sented: 1. Trisection of an angle by means of higher plane curves, by Paul P. Boyd. 2. Development of the Frenet For- mulas for N-dimensions, by S. J. Jasper. 3. Contrasting two solutions of a certain problem in Modern Ge- ometry, by W. R. Hutcherson. 4. Application of mathematics in Meteorology, by McClellan Cook, Jr. 5. The Graphic Construction of a Human Eclipse, by F. V. Rohde. Rohde. Prof. D. W. Pugsley, Berea Col- lege, has been elected chairman of the Kentucky Section of the Mathe- matical Association of America. Dr. Sallie Pence, University of Kentucky, has been elected Secretary of the Kentucky Geological Society. Mr. W. M. Insko, University of Kentucky, has been elected 2nd Vice- 110 News and Notes president of the Poultry Science As- sociation at the annual meeting at Clemson College, South Carolina, 25- 28 August. Dr. Dan K. Hamilton, University of Kentucky, has been elected Secre- tary of the Kentucky Geological So- ciety. Dr. W. D. Gray is now associate professor of Botany at the Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio. Siig INDEX TO VOLUME 12 TRANSACTIONS OF THE KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE Academy : - Greulach}VicA ns a2o= Seb e ie eee 79 EN TAOS COIN. Uensyerrsy Laie neve) Dy ee 9 Kentucky, Science, minutes of 1944 and Kentucky 1946 annual meetings ~---------------~-- Academy representative to A.A.A.S. : Councilgreport 2 ee eee eee 105 Ailanthus altissima, leaf glands in ~-------- 31 3 Academy, minutes of 1944 and 1946 Alcohol annual ;mectingsi 2 — ose sees 54 Survey of production methods ~--~-----~-~ 82 Biication Gnu hae ie 6 Fermentation under reduced pressure ~--~~ 94 Elementary Education in _________-_-____ 9 PAD Te ea WV ea ce eee eee al ie Se eles 89 Forum) on) Education: 2222222222) ee 1 Alsclepias;apollinationsiny sees ees see 79 Higher Education in -___-_____________- 15 Bee CATE Sao eae hy AU mene ae 34 Junior Academy, committee report ~_--___ 101 Planned Economy of Waters ~_---------~- 89 LORIE | coecaee see e eo 33 Secondary, Education in, 2222222) 12 Brockanan, eV ie Org eae 94 Kang Wick ie te ae oon 6 Committee reports Lactobacillus casei, effect of glucose on _____ 46 Kentucky Junior Academy ~-_----------_-_ 101 Tea Ra ee EO 79 Representative to A.A.A.S. Council —-~_- 105 Leaf Glands in Ailanthus altissima _—----- 31 ) DRAUSS a ee eS 31 incicomes| sR ee 49, 51 Density soi tb then ie cons as wee Leal 20 Middleton;s AustingR y= === === a =a 105 Editorial Milkweed. Rollinationy anes en 79 A more active academy —______-_________ 34 Minutes, Kentucky Academy, 1944 and 2 Apenen =e 1946, meetings) 2=—--— 22 eee 54 BM een ty tye te Oras GOs ta Trae Muedéking, “Mary .-/22- 5 eae 46 Editors wNoteyeos.22- 22 Sepia eee 109 Naf Ane (Si ce oe 42 Education i a Neoechinorhynchus emydis, occurrence IORI He IIOHIES cote 2 Sit Stats eee es cea EO ee 51 InsKentuckyge 2 kee ee Se es 6 INewsmand = Note sie 52, 110 Elementary in Kentucky ___..____________ 9 Oppenheimer, J. J. -----_----------------- 15 Spins A weed. or 79 Secondary: ARGH Eich oe Ree oe ort 12 Pollination, in milkweed Polyporus schweinitzii, physiological roblemsmofmlrliig he reese eee 15 Variations! of 222-225 22 eee 59 Endamoeba coli, elimination of ~___________ 49 Power and Punch ~—----___-_______-_______ 55 Ether density gees ane ees anew eee 20 PS ect cilia) Sia Re eae 37 Fermentation, alcoholic under reduced Science inuSocietya se 37 PRESS UNC yee ee Dee Sere ee 94 Research notes ; Forum on Kentucky Education Elimination of Endamoeba coli in man ___ 49 VORWORG) eee ane eS eee 1 Neoechinorhynchus emydis, occurrence in Rorevensinethe stortiess = soe annem 2 snails §~---~---------------------------- 51 i Ks pa heft a Se SS 101 Education in Kentucky _________________ 6 SOMETEDy ADINO 2 Science: in’) Society) —2-_--—_-—- 37 Elementary Education in Kentucky ______ 9 stoiware Ole It ee 20 Secondary Education in Kentucky ~_______ 12 Stier DIB ee ae 2 94 Exoblems of Higher Education in Taylor;-William’S, -=2--2) 2 entuck yi eee ee eee 1S iabacco aflavoneslikeeubstances ink === 42 Flavone-like substances in tobacco _________ 42 Waters, planned economy for Kentucky’s _--- 89 Srcoe es effect on viability on Wender, Simon Hi 22-22 =s ss =e eee 42 : s actobactlltsmcase: maaan ea 46 Whitt Allies rit -- Se 51 CO ARON S NG ee Se 49" Williams: JohnvR) 22-2 eee 12 Grays Winns D) eyes cere UR este HEARN 59. Zarow; An ls coe ee 82 112 . _ D + oe * twee Ps ce. & 3 J 8 7 an bd i * Om d - ~*~ es 4 _ i ; f 0 & ~~ - 4 7 mo. i ay - y a Y - baat - va 7 syed Ban ih Tis Oa a eR ee Re be 7 a i oe ree as | es pts ; ; ie rs ‘Wa eo NOTICE TO CONTRIBUTORS The TRANSACTIONS OF THE KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE is a medium for the publication of original investigations in science. As the official organ of the Kentucky Academy of Science it publishes in addi- tion programs of the annual meetings of the society, abstracts of papers presented before the annual meetings, reports of the society’s officers and com- mittees, as well as news and announcements of interest to the membership. Manuscripts may be submitted at any time to the co-editors: DR. M. C. BROCKMAN DR. DAVID R. LINCICOME Jos. E. Seagram and Sons School of Medicine 7th Street Road University of Wisconsin Louisville, Kentucky Madison, Wisconsin Papers should be submitted typewritten, double-spaced, with wide mar- gins, in an original and 1 carbon copy, on substantial quality paper. Articles are accepted for publication with the understanding that they are to be published exclusively in the TRANSACTIONS. Each paper will be reviewed by one or more persons qualified in the field covered by the article in addition to the editors before a contribution is accepted for publication. Bibliographic citations should follow textual material (except in Research Notes, see later). Abbreviations for the names of periodicals should follow the current system employed by either Chemical Abstracts or Biological Abstracts. Biblographic citations in Research Notes should be in the same form as for longer papers but enclosed in parentheses within the text of the note. Footnotes should be avoided. Titles must be clear and concise, and provide for precise and accurate catologuing. Tables and illustrations are expensive, and should be ineluded in an article only to give effective presentation of the data. Articles with an excessive number of tables or illustrations, or with poorly arranged or executed tables or illustrations may be returned to the author for modification. Textual material should be in clear, brief and condensed form in order for a maximum amount of material to be published. Reprints may be obtained from the publisher and must be ordered at the time galley proof is returned. Authors are requested to submit an abstract of their papers when galley proof is returned. This abstract must be no longer than 250 words, nor to ex- ceed in any case 3% of the length of the original article. Abstracts will be submitted to Biological Abstracts for publication. = | Volume 13 | 1949-1952 ff aay 4 TABLE OF CONTENTS» aye Le VIDS Sle) SEs Ry 0 0 (oy (ga A Bacteriological Survey of Well Waeters From Central Ken- tucky Counties. Rafael A. Cartin and R. H. Weaver .....__.. Comparison of the Sherman Tests With the Chapman Plate for Identification of the Streptococci From Teeth. C. B. Maman andar ranicy JsGruchallay 2.) A Modified Procedure for the Formol Titration. A. A. Rosen and B. S. Andrews A Preliminary List of Kentucky Cicadellidae (Homoptera). Dye Am YOUNG sic ce cacao Academy Holds Spring Meeting Effect of Commercial Malt Sprouts on the Anaerobic Growth of Disilersmevrcastavh ere ocaky andl. J. Oller. Preparation of Ketones by the Sommelet Reaction. M. I. Bow- man, Irving B. Joffe, W. W. Rinne and James C. Wilkes ........ Economic Status of Lespedeza Seed Oil. Richard H. Wiley —.............. Performance of an Earth Heat Pump on Intermittent Operation. E. B. Penrod, E. L. Dunning, and H. H. Thompson ._.......... The Effects of Small Amounts of Glycine and Ethyl Glycine on Food Ingestion in the Dog. J. W. Archdeacon and A. B. CHEW ASSN (0) | SSS APE oe re a ee oe en ee Reve eee The Precision and Accuracy of Meter Sticks. Sigfred Peterson _..... The Effects of Composition on the Specific Gravity of Binary Wax Mixtures. John R. Koch and Sister M. Concetta _........ Chromosome Behavior in a Second Gasteria-Aloe Hybrid. Her- lovebes VeRErS FOES GEO eee ee aero (20 EEO STRES TSE aS ogee Re eee No. 3 Bibliography of Sarah F. Price, Kentucky Naturalist. ET el Nav, Cyan a 0 150, UL ce te ere ee I ee a eee The Electrical Conductance of Solutions of Ferric Chloride in Acetone at 20° and 40° C. Lyle R. Dawson and Ralph SNC ES Lh Corea ae as eS Pe eae shee none The Distribution of Alkali Iodides Between Ethylene Glycol and Ethyl Acetate. Lyle R. Dawson and Edward J. SEER an J Ag aL eR le oe RS se Set on MN The Free Energy of Copper Chromate. Sigfred Peterson and Rr re i ONE go aa re ee cates sod Seg Rencesmncecctonacbaasne Emissivities of Protective Coatings. W. R. Barnes and N. P. Shah.... 149 Performance of an Earth Heat Pump Operating Intermittently on the Cooling Cycle. E. B. Penrod and R. C. Thornton ............ 156 Effects of Staphylococcus aureus Infections on Blood and_ Liver Catalase in Mice. I. Titrimetric Method. Sister Mary Adeline O'Leary, S.C.N., Sister Virginia Heines, S.C.N., Sister Roderick Juhasz, S.C.N., Sister Rose Agnes Green- well, S.C.N., and Corenlius W. Kreke _......000000002 173 Effects of Staphylococcus aureus Infections on Blood and _ Liver Catalase in Mice. II. Gasometric Method. Sister Mary Adeline O’Leary, S.C.N., Sister Virginia Heines, S.C.N., Sister Roderick Juhasz, S.C.N., Sister Hose Agnes Green- well, S.C.N., and Corenlius W. Kreke 178 Antibotic-Producing Species of Bacillus from Well Water. R. H. Weaver and Theodore Bolter _............00..-..220-.-s eee 183 Subsurface Earth Exploration By Electrical Resistivity Method. Ter C2 Pend ey iss eae oie ae ene oe Fe ee Nees 3c, 189 Matling Bist. a eS rete re 201 Weademy:Atharrs: 2.20. ch ks Sono Ses aly ell esse ee 208 No. 4 Preparation of Acylaminoacid Esters. Richard H. Wiley and OlinvH. :Borum: 215 248 es es aes ee ee 213 Animal Habitats on Big Black Mountain in Kentucky. Roger We Biarbo ur. siceii ek eee at ed re ne ce 215 Electrical Conductances of Moderately Concentrated Solutions of Several Salts in Dimethylformamide. L. R. Dawson, M. Golben, G. R. Leader, and H. K. Zimmerman __.................... 221 Structure and Function of the Mature Glands on the Petals of Frasera. carolinensis) Ps AS Davies) = eee 228 Performance of a Domestic Heat Pump Water Heater. E. B. POnrod's 2232) 2 05 eek eG SU eer IU Sa 9 es GD eae 235 Comparison of Electron and Optical Photomicrcgraphs of a Cop- per-berylium Alloy. H. W. Maynor, Jr., C. J. McHargue, and::@ii-Fe Edwards) 20525 es se a 248 Structural Settlement Computations. John E. Heer, Jr. _.................. 258 Preparation of 1-xylyl-1, 3-butanediones using Diketene. Reedus Ray Estes and Albert:Tockman 2.0000 .42) 2 ae eee 265 A Look at Kentucky Woodlands. Eugene Cypert, Jr. _....................... 270 Geological Sketch of the Jackson Purchase. E. B. Wood ___........ 275 Adsorption of Aliphatic Acids on a Weak Base Anion Exchanger. Sigfred Peterson and Robert W. Jeffers 277 Research Notes: An Albino Snake (Elaphe obsoleta). William M, Clay .......... 285 Academy HA ffaars icy p08 = kn nds eb y Vogtle My Sell CN cS nd Senor oe 286 Index oF 506.73 ths ho Volume 13 ! November, 1949 Number 1 TRANSACTIONS of the KENTUCKY ACADEMY of SCIENCE Official Organ KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE Pee AR PIER EDS.) jaa ee TAEOVER 0 01 scctss covetacuvconebeal su vale udeas sate vanisns cducces gers de pau atventesievaadetarisccassuiet 1 A Bacteriological Survey of Well Waters From Four Central Kentucky Counties. Rafael A. Cartin and R. H. Weaver ...............00 38 Comparison of the Sherman Tests With the Chapman Plate for Identifica- tion of the Streptococci From Teeth. C. B. Hamann and Frank SPU OMIMMG RNA DESE Reset Mei bihe em nU re ccbhie uedthanh: wus cists tbaudl ssp attiee tio nas eeadleuc aaeeamededteuse adele 45 A Modified Procedure for the Formol Titration. A. A. Rosen and B. S. PR SACST EWU eect iC TIOSe one cies el rac ose tabica Save Cheh dnd sy vies tune y Kcachaches be dacdudpmecedcogiddasseuateus 48 A Preliminary List of Kentucky Cicadellidae (Homoptera). David A. DT) AT aE LS aA TAR BTA SPIN EVER EAS AAT I PRL REN SGN GH NSC RE RECOM SPO ROEED E R eB 54 PCIE GY ELOIOS ESTILO OLIN siifonty vcs nuasccestaneakQeuce dorstesydbsovvbewssepeycessivebcuanduduaacsiseeaen cen 68 KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE OFFICERS AND DIRECTORS, 1948-1949 President Morris SCHERAGO, University of Kentucky, Lexington Secretary C. B. HAMANN, Asbury College, Wilmore Representative to the Council of the A. A. A.S. Austin R. MIDDLETON, University of Louisville, Louisville WILLIAM M. Cray, University of Louisville, Vice President M. L. BrILLinss, Western State College, Bowling Green Treasurer R. H. WEAVER, University of Kentucky, Lexington Counselor to the Junior Academy of Science ANNA A. SCHNEIB, Eastern State College, Richmond M. C. BROCKMANN, Joseph E. Seagram & Sons, Inc., Louisville Louisville Directors Warp C. Sumpter, Western State College, Bowling Green. foe to 1952 W. D. VaLLEAu, University of eee Keying Gh ee 1952 Morris SCHERAGO, aR ID ive Renty ck J re 1951 PauL Kotacuov, Joseph i f GR ecrarn 342 a dui oy en GeorcE V. Pace, Western; State College) ost 1950 J. S. Bancson, Berea oe BCL OH as tacarn share es alchore eto a tage ...to 1950 ALFRED BRAUER, University 0 Ghitneky, Je singten\ 1949 H. B. Lovext, University of Louies Ate yee ete 1949 The TRANSACTIONS are issued quarterly. Four numbers constitute a volume. Domestic subscription, $2.00 per volume, foreign, $2.50 per volume. Correspondence concerning membership in the Academy, subscriptions or other business matters should be addressed to the secretary. Manuscripts and other material for publication should be addressed to the editors, HEAT PUMPS E. B. PENRop Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Kentucky Lexington 29, Kentucky INTRODUCTION Three distinct types of heat pumps which may be used for continuous air conditioning are considered in this paper; namely, the Peltier heat pump, the absorption heat pump, and the compression heat pump. Commercial heat pumps of the last type have been developed to a high state of per- fection and can be recommended whenever a good application presents itself (1). The domestic heat pump systems are in the experimental stage at the present time and considerable research must be done before the most economical heat ex~ changer can be designed for extracting the heat from its source. At the present time there are over three hundred domestic heat pump systems (pilot-plants) in operation in the United States. In this paper attention will be given primarily to heat pumps for continuous air conditioning and some con= sideration will be given to fundamental principles. A heat pump may be defined as a device arranged so that heat is absorbed from one medium at a low temperature level and delivered to another medium at a higher temperature level. A heat pump system is a heat pump plus the auxiliary equip- ment such as fans, pumps, and automatic controls. This distinction is made primarily for the purpose of determining the performance characteristics of different heat pump systems. THE REVERSIBLE CYCLE In 182) Sadi Carnot described an engine that could transform heat into mechanical work with the minimum unavoiu- able waste. He pointed out also that the efficiency of his reversible engine depends on the absolute temperatures of the source and sink, and that the efficiency is independent of the nature of the working substance. Twenty-four years later Kelvin, after making a careful study of the Carnot cycle, introduced the thermodynamic scale of temperature. According to this temperature scale, any two temperatures on it are proportional to the quantities of heat absorbed and rejected by a reversible Carnot engine working between APR 17 1969 Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science these temperatures. That is Qn oy Qe - - —(() Th Te where Ty, Te are the absolute temperatures of the source and sink respectively, and Q are the quantities of heat absorbed and rejected. t can be seen that the ratio of the heat taken in (or given out) to the absolute temperature at which it is taken in (or given out) is the same for ail isothermal changes between any two adiabatics, This sug- gested to Clausius, in 1651, that the quantity 2. is the change in &@ certain property of the working T substance which remains constant during any reversible adiabatic process, but changes when the substance passes from one adiabatic to another, Clausius named this prop- erty entropy. If the Carnot cycle is plotted on the temperature-entropy plane, Fig. 1, it has the form of the rectangle ABCD. The area ABFE represents the quantity of heat taken from the source, in a reversible way, at the absolute temperature T,, and the area DCFE represents the unavoidable waste or the heat discharged, in a4 reversible way, to the sink at the absolute temperature T, (2). The area ABCD represents the maximum amount of useful mechani- cal work that can be obtained from the Carnot engine. The ee of a Carnot engine is given by the equation uly tha... by ye 2 Se ee Mie (C£S)) 9 rn Qn ise af varnot engine were reversed it would absorb a quantity of heat, in a reversible way, represented by the area DCFE from a cold body at the absolute temperature T,, and discharge an amount of heat, in a reversible way, represented by the area ABFE to a hot body at the absolute vemperature T,. The area ABCD now represents the minimum amount of oa berelertl work that must be supplied to the reversed Carnot engine, If the function of the reversed Carnot engine is to cool a given space, its efficiency is called the coefficient of performance and is given by the equation q Te C 0 P as a cooling machine = =) 7 Ale Ta- Te If the purpose of the reversed Carnot engine is to heat a given space, or medium, then "That 7 em C O P as a heating machine = no Heat Pump Carnot never suggested that his reversed engine be used as a heating machine. Now it is impossible to make an actual engine that will operate on the Carnot cycle and therefore no refrigeration machine has ever been constructed that operates on the reversed Carnot cycle. The actual com- pression refrigeration cycle used today is a cycle in its own right and should not be considered as a reversed engine of any type. If a compression refrigeration plant is used for continuous air conditioning, for example, the events of the refrigeration cycle are not altered in any way what- soever when the machine is changed from heating to cooling, or vice versa. If the refrigeration machine is to have a special name it is preferable to call it a heat pump instead of "the reversed cycle". A heat pump may be changed from a heating to a cooling machine either by the use of a system of dampers (3), or by the use of several valves (li). In the former the functions of the two heat exchangers are unchanged, while in the latter the functions of the two heat exchangers are interchanged although the various events of the refrigeration cycle are unaltered .+#+ In 1852 Kelvin suggested that a building could be heated or cooled with the same equipment (5). A year later, in order to determine the size of his heating and cooling machines, Kelvin showed that it would require 0.286 horse- power for changing the temperature of one pound of air per second from 50 F to 80 F and that the volume of the com- pression cylinder should be 15.63 cubic feet, requiring a diameter of 2.23 feet and a length of ) feet (6). Kelvin's proposed machine had to be modified considerably in changing over from heating to cooling, and consequently was never built. However, refrigeration machines operating on the Kelvin air cycle came into common use. # The events of an ordinary compression refrigeration machine are: (a) the compression of a vapor at low tempera- ture and pressure to a higher temperature and pressure; (b) the condensation of the vapor; (c) the expansion of the liquid through a valve or capillary tube; and (d) the evaporation of the liquid. These events are always followed in the same cyclic order no matter whether the plant is used for heating or cooling a given space or medium. Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science 1 0) S Fig. 1.— The Carnot cycle on the temperature-entrophy plane. @¢O ARE THE TWO ARMS OF THE THERMOCOUPLE T = TIME P = POWER SUPPLIED Q,= PELTIER HEAT EVOLVED Q,= PELTIER HEAT De ABSORBED poe Th,=PELTIER EMF. AT THE SUPPLY HOT JUNCTION T,= PELTIER E.M.E AT THE COLD JUNCTION Q,2 MIT Q°1,1T P =(71,-Tl, ) I JUNCTION~s-] || 7.2 le. Fig. 2.— A simple Peltier heat pump. 4s Heat Pump THE PELTIER HEAT PUMP In 1821 Seebeck discovered that electric charges flow in a circuit composed of two metallic conductors of differ- ent materials if the temperatures of the two junctions are different (7)(8). The combination of two such conductors is generally referred to as a thermocouple. The energy expended as the electric charges flow in the circuit is supplied by the absorption of heat from external sources, assuming the temperature at every point in the circuit is maintained unchanged since there is no other means of supply. In 183) Peltier found that when electric charges flow across the junction of two dissimilar metals it gives rise to an absorption or liberation of heat. If electric charges flow across the junction in one direction, heat is absorbed, while if they flow in the opposite direction heat is liberated. The Peltier heat liberated or absorbed at either junction of the thermocouple is given by Qh mae. where Q represents the quantity of heat, tf the Peltier eom.f., I the electric current, and Y the time (9). In 185) Kelvin noticed that when electric charges flow through a wire of homogeneous material and cross-section, but of non-uniform temperature, heat must be supplied in order to maintain the temperature gradient. The amount of heat imparted for a temperature rise dt in time 7 is given h uation aes dAQ= ch cedt, where dQ is the quantity of heat absorbed in time 7% , l the electric current, and. @ the specific heat of elec- tricity.* This phenomenon is known as the Thomson effect and is perfectly reversible. % The specific heat of electricity is defined by the equation ae ta dt } where g” is the specific heat of electricity, dQ the hcat absorbed by an elemental lengtn of a conductor, IT the quantity of electricity, and dt is the temperature difference between the two ends of the elemental length of the conductor. LS) ¢ Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science A simple Peltier heat pump is shown schematically in Fig. 2. The arm "a" of a thermocouple is connected to a D. C. power line. If P is the power input the energy supplied in time y is P@ , the heat absorbed at the cold junction at temperature Tg is Q,=™1L@Y_ , and the heat liberated at the hot junction at temperature T, is = +. Thus it can be seen that when electric energy is supplied to a thermocouple as shown in Fig. 2 itis essentially a heat pump capable of absorbing heat from one medium at a low temperature level and delivering heat to another at a higher temperature level. If the Peltier heat pump is considered as a Carnot engine, the reversible Thomson heat and the irreversible Joule heat being neglected, it can be seen from (1) that ap lig hs os oy ie We, oe ero te Te lig ; ire tle Th-Te The efficiency of the Peltier heat pump is = Tho Te and the energy supplied is Th Pr= @— Qtr —mlit, P=(t,-Me)I, 242. A Se j TL The coefficients of performance of the Peltier heat nump are given by / ; Te 6) C O PtKcooling) = —~ - =i( J ; Tipe ile and CO P(heating) = A = || aI pA IESE (6) . Th, - We My-TMe The Peltier refrigerator has been discussed by Alten- kirsch (10), and patents on this type of refrigerator were obtained as far back as 1889. If a pile is made of a large number of thermocouples the capacity of the Peltier heat pump will be increased in proportion to the number used. Fig. 3 is a schematic diagram of one thermocouple in the pile of a Peltier heat pump. The arms "a" and "b" of the thermocouple are thermally insulated. For an elemental section, length dx, of one arm of the thermocouple the irreversible Joule heat absorbed per second is Heat Pump Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science uu Ht o dQ, = Tar * = (i 4)? Es 3 82) dv. i A The reversible Thomson heat developed per second i.~ Qn Soo kat = cate ate ie ate ay g dx dx The irreversible Fourier heat (heat conducted along the element of the couple) per second is dQp = Qpn - Qer > (for steady state heat flow, where d Qen = Qpr + OF ax Orr — k A Seti On, = eel dx dx2 ace Hence, dQp =-k a dv 2] ae E's dat ciate. dt Also dQ, = dQy + dQns then Sy ee PO tA dx Cte yin dt 42 = (8) where Q; = Joule heat Qp = Thomson heat Qp- Fourier heat I = electric current = 10 electric current per unit area R = electric resistance * According to Joule's law, the heat produced in a con- ductor is proportional to the product of the square of the current, the electrical resistance, and the time. #%* The electrical resistivity of a conductor, p , is the resistance of a bar of the substance one centimeter long and one square centimeter cross-section. Heat Pump electrical resistivity = i @ =- specific heat of electricity k = thermal conductivity t - temperature dt = drop in temperature along dx oe ‘ — = temperature gradient dx L = length of an arm of the thermocouple av -A dx or elemental volume Equation (8) is a linear differential equation of the second order and first degree. Introducing the dimension- less ratios S t x : = = Bier and a= aoe equation (8) transforms to dae¢G d¢ - 0 (9) ay ix dn S p where 2 Loe (Th = Te) seaenie (ip = ine « L a total Thomson heat per unit area 4 ’ Fourier heat per unit area 2 and - pie Ate May ; P = x(n, - 1) L p = Joule heat per unit area per arm Fourier heat per unit area Rearranging the terms in equation (9), d , : ay ( oe +xXS) = -B » integrating Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science ae +S = A-BN. The solution of this linear differential equation of the first order is Integrating by parts it is seen that _x<7 @=1(a-pu)+4+B¢ 5 Ov ie t=(hr TA (ab a)4 4% pee =e where A and B are constants of integration. Equation (10) is a general solution of (8); anda particular solution is obtained by applying the boundary conditions WS Be 15 2keho 2 tt Oy; ! od e t=-0, Ones = Hence B nee a t=(h- Te)fi— Seal =6 °° )- Bxt- (11). Equation (11) shows the variation of the temperature along the arm of the thermocouple. Expanding the exponential terms, equation (11) transforms to - ! B B 2 eo ees (())) t=(The Te) $1 -(o hae T 4 Differentiating equation (12) to obtain the temperature gradient along an arm of the thermocouple, it is seen that dt - is Be val - ae ne HOO 4-8.) At the hot junction, x = 0, then B PTE Aa dt dx x 1 ae) ae. 10 Heat Pump Hence, Boi iets, eae ry i, ) a= 25 ee c) L a = == Qr (13) At the cold junction, x = L, then dt MP a: dx, Stee (57 t= Cleese leds And 1,8 LS + CT aD Ce So Go Bia, Cn te) L SA oye Bee (1h) The heat absorbed per unit area, Qabs? from the sink, or external medium, is equal to the difference between the Peltier heat, Q,, and Q, _ ;+ Hence 2 ‘ nay I Qr. eae YE) - but = = abs Te 2 Qp fp Qn 3 - Bes 2 so that Qe ee = (Qe+ 5 i ie L) ’ ke (fs =, TT) Sat Oe ee 53° pL, or 2 gece -~ i; p L} (15) ale é To obtain the maximum value for the heat absorbed at the cold junction differentiate equation (15) with respect to il and set the result equal to zero. The value of iL which mares Qabs a maximum is P 11 “-“ Ww JIN dd Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science pate ee K(Ta- Te) _ Ap /zKGH Te an ears aki) +4 ? abs ae pare == (iiaiie ow _ a pilot al ° : P= eRe) Substituting the pres of iL from (16) it is readily seen that 8 = 2. Thus it is seen that for maximum refrigera- tion, the length and cross-sectional area of the arms of the thermocouple should be constructed so that the Joule heat will be equal to twice the Fourier heat. Flacing 8 = 2 in equation (13) it is seen that Q, _ , = 0, which shows that Peltier heat only is transferred” to the external medium at the hot junction. From equation (17) it is seen that Qabs t fme—Valiet) VKP $ » (for one arm) fre VF LV kaprVkig] } co When the Joule and Thomson heats were neglected it was shown that the power supplied to the Peltier heat pump was given by the equation he (a, — 112) 16 . When the irreversible Joule heat is taken into con- sideration the power supplied per unit area is given by the equation Cabs | | or See ee Cabs i pz fare +12 Gate) [ (haa + Vk] $ couple. If the cross-sectional area of the arms of the thermo— couple is sufficiently large so that the current density is relatively small the Feltier heat pump cycle approximates a Carnot refrigerator, and it can be seen that 12 Heat Pump 5 (es M,— Te = HoT Tle c Hence, the above equation becomes =) dna y | p=if — Tet 2 (TT) h Kaf + ral For substances that obey the Wiedemann-Franz-Lorenz law (11) Hence Rafa — Kipp = Bales P= if tel, Tr 8 (T,-T) y KP } ie The coefficients of performance of the Peltier heat pump are given by the equations couple. gic CO P(cooling) -. -~- (19) TL Te A Te +Y8(Th Tey KP SRme (lest ine) yates es a (90) For alloys that obey the Wiedemann-Franz—Lorenz law, the heat absorbed at the cold junction is given by the equation : Cabs = i $Me ¥8(T,- Te} \/K P | is positive it follows that (tte - YF (Th Te) kp) ies then ae eran Vip squaring, a? > 8 Gea Kp transposing, ( Msetake ) Since abs lars COUR BK Pp Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science FLUE GAS 6500 BTU PER HR. Q NY, 5 36,000 BTU PER HR. = REMOVED FROM AIR VN FOR COOLING BUILDING OV @ + fe Cy FLUE GAS mis \<@ BYPASS DS p<

mM = a Pan) Z yo) on x vU co) cz > m @ ve =~ a d m 4 9 x je 2) ; ; a Fig. 4.— A schematic diagram of an absorption refrigeration heat pump system. 14 Heat Pump The efficiency of the Peltier heat pump (or that of the Peltier generator) is relatively low when calculated from data on existing metals and alloys (12).* The effi- ciency may be improved if alloys having higher Peltier co- efficients can be found through research. The Peltier heat pump has no maving parts, and if its efficiency can be im proved may have application for continuous air conditioning and in industries that require both warm and cold water for processing. ABSORPTION HEAT PUMP From tests it has been shown that a 3-ton absorption refrigeration plant, having an efficiency of 5.7 per cent requires 66,000 Btu per hour, produces refrigeration at the rate of 36,000 Btu per hour (13). If a 3-ton absorption refrigeration plant is arranged as shown schematically in Fig. 4, it can be used as a heat pump system capable of delivering approximately 95,500 Btu per hour for heating a given space. The C 0 P's of the absorption refrigeration heat pump will be about 1.) and 0.55 respectively for heat- ing and cooling. There will be a saving in the consumption of gas during the heating season which will reduce the annual operating cost for continuous air conditioning as compared to the gas-fired air conditioner that does not function as a heat pump. By the use of a bypass valve enough heat can be absorbed from the flue-gas during the heating period to prevent frosting the evaporator coils when outdoor air drops below 38 F. Applied to domestic air con- ditioning the absorption heat pump would smooth out the gas- sending-out curve and make a good load factor for the Gas Utility. On the other hand, the absorption heat pump would be a little more complicated than the gas-fired package air conditioner and therefore would have a higher installation cost. (1),) ’ (15) © * Cullity reports an efficiency of about 6% for a thermo- electric generator in which a bismuth-selenium alloy was used as one arm of the thermocouple and a zinc-antimony alloy as the other. This value compres favorably with the effi- ciency of a non-compound steam engine which varies from ) to 8%. "The Thermoelectric Properties and Electrical Comiuc- tivity of Bismuth-selenium Alloys" by B. D. Cullity, Metals Technology -— A.I.M.E. Vol. 15, No. 1, January 1948, Tech. Publ. No. 2313. 15 Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science COMPRESSION HEAT PUMP An air-to-air heat pump system is shown in Fig. 5 when the plant is used for heating. The fan that forces air into the rooms to be air conditioned is called the cir- culating fan, and that which discharges air to the outside after it gives up heat to the evaporator is referred to as the discard fan. The refrigeration cycle and the air-flow for the same heat pump instellation are shown in Fig. 6 when the plant is used for cooling. The performance characteristics of an air-to-air heat pump system were calculated for a well insulated six-room house in Lexington, Ky. where the outside design tempera- ture is 0 F. The inside dry-—bulb temperature was assumed to be kept at 70 F. The building heat losses for differ- ent outside mean air temperatures are given in Table I. In making these calculations the following assumptions were made: 1. Specific heat of air = 0.2) Btu per lb per OF. 2. Freon-l2 evaporates at -20 F. 3. Evaporator terminal temperature difference = 10 F. 4. Condenser terminal temperature difference = 10 F. 5. Total static pressure iin the air circulating system = 1.25 inches water. 6. Interior volume of the house = 15,000 cu.ft. 7s One air change per hr., outside air introduced - 250 cfm at OF. 8. Circulating fan to supply air at the rate of 1,500 cfm. 9. Fan efficiency = 50%. 10. Fan-motor efficiency = 80%. ll. Refrigeration compressor efficiency - 85%. 12. Compressor-motor efficiency = 90%. 13. Expansion at constant enthalpy. - Isentropic compression. 15. Atmospheric pressure = 29.92 inches Hg. Calculation for the heating period on a 0° F: 0.2 wx 1500t = 0.2) (wx 250 x 0 + 0.075 x 1250 x 70) Moty= Li si5 16 Heat Pump GAN VAS ONNEC TION eee FAN Tp— HEAT {| EXCHANGER HEAT EXC (EVAPORATOR) (CONDENSER) COLD AIR ———— (DISCARDED AFTER —_——— GIVING UP HEAT TO REFRIGERANT) HUMIDIFYING NOZZLES CANVAS CONNECTION ELECTRIC REFRIGERATION MOTOR COMPRESSOR Fig. 5.— A schematic diagram of an air-to-air heat pump system showing the refrigeration cycle and the air flow during the heating period. The circulating fan operates continuously while the discard fan operates only when the heat pump is in operation. 17 Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science BELT DRIVE —||. C O P(heating) - sig ak _ 90-9 - 3.5 lens | Wee 20 Heal Pump (aq) 132°E 106.3°F = 1-106. 30F ST FLUID FLOW THROUGH THE CONDENSER -10°F -20°F FLUID FLOW THROUGH THE EVAPORATOR Fig. 7.— A schematic diagram showing the temperatures of the air and the re- frigerant on passing through the heat exchangers of an air-to-air heat pump on a day when the outside mean air temperature is 0 F. 21 Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science (z) 0 143.4 PSIA PRESSURE, PSIA (6) 4 3132°F TEMPERATURE, F 0.17275 ENTROPY S Fig. 8.— The refrigeration cycle shown on the pressure-enthalpy plane and on the temperature-entropy plane on a day when the outside mean air temperature Is 0 F. ho ho Heat Pump h, geo. ce. O-P(cooling) =) 26-4 == 43-2 _ ais =] = F-12 circulated = en _ 65,000 Btu hr - h) Btu ipbet | s« O58 Beu Ib 1075 1b hr7L 43.2 Btu b+ x 1075 1b hr Capacity of the compressor 12,000 Btu hr7+ ton71 = 3.87 tons cal} -1 Capacity of compressor-motor - ENE SOL ast ermal 0.85 x 0.90 x 3413 Btu kwhr7L Tele kw, or-9253) hp. Energy supplied to heat pump - 2h hr x 7.12 kw = 171.0 kwhr. Compression ratio = 143.4 9.34 TUS 0.000157 x 1500 x 1.25 0250 se 0580 0.736 hp or 0.55 kw. Power input to circulating fan-motor - Energy supplied to circulating fan-motor = 2 hr x 0.55 kw 13.2 kwhr. Use discard fan-motor with the same rating as the circulating fan-motor,. -1 Power output - POU hee - 19.0 kw 313 Btu kwhr7+ 19.0, kw = 2.67 712 kw Actual C O P(heating) for the heat pump - Total power input to the heat pump system - 7.12 kw + 0.55 kw + 0.55 kw = 8.22 kw Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science Actual C O P(heating) for heat pump system = = - 2.32 The daily heat loss from the house on a O F day, or the hea delivered by the heat pump system 2, hr day7) x 65,000 Btu hr7t 1,560,000 Btu per day - 57.1 kwhr per day. Energy supplied to heat pump = 2) hr x 7.12 kw = 171.0 kwhr. 2 hr x 8.22 kw 197.4 kwhr. Energy supplied to heat pump system Similar calculations were made for various outside mean air temperatures. The results of these calculations are recorded in Tables I and II, and are shown graphically in Fig. 9. This heat pump system was designed to operate con- tinuously when the outside mean temperature was O F. The effect of the increase in the mean temperature of the fresh air admitted (and the decrease in the specific weight) upon the head pressure was considered in these calculations. The actual C 0 P's of the heat pump system at O F and 60 F were found to be 2.3 and 1.2 respectively (16). It should be pointed out that the heat pump operates only 1.85 hours per day, and at its lowest efficiency, when the outside mean temperature is 60 F. An earth-to-air heat pump system is shown schematically in Figs. 10 and 11. Calculations were made to determine the performance charecteristics of this heat pump system when used to heat a well insulated six-room house under exactly the same conditions as for the above air-to-air heat pump system. The results of these calculations are recorded in Table III and are shown graphically in Fig. 12. In making these calculations the effect of the increase of temperature (and decrease in specific weight) in the 250 cfm fresh air admitted on the increase in the condensing temperature of the refrigerant was considered. The actual C O P's of the earth- to-air heat pump system at O F and 60 F were found to be 3.@ and 1.5 respectively. When this effect was neglected the corresponding C O P's were found to be 3.52 and 1.57 respec- tively (17). Heat Pump Table JI. Performance characteristics of an air-to-air heat pump system for various outside mean air temperatures. Freon-l12 evaporates at -20 F. The heat pump was designed to operate continuously at O F outside air temperature and inter mittently at higher air temperatures. The circulating fan operates continuously and the discard fan intermittently. Mean outside air temps. F (@) 10 20 30 0 50 60 Temp. of air enter- Pre codeiscr F 57.0 59.0 60.9 62.9 64.8 66.7 68.2 emp. of air leav- ine condenser, F 96.3 98. 100.) 102.6 104.7 106.6 108.2 emp. of F-12 enter- Be eo cicnser Roe eo Ly 38 OY 3 hs Temp. of F-12 leav- FSi be ing condenser, F 106.3 108.4 110.4 112.6 114.7 116.6 116.2 C. ity of ace, cee Be9 Be 38 368308 3 AT Oo al ge i Peo see 9.9) Oc? 10.5: 1068. 1.0 Capacity of com SubweOO 69.9. 10.2 > 10.3 -10.5,.. 10.6 ressor-motor, h nergy to heat pump Tee ae ay NU elo We BN (ee 43 15 Energy to discard day, kwhr Energy to circu- lating fan-motor ipcneloee eis .e lace! lee eee age er da kwhr Eserey to heat pump system per 197 py DS 2B) 89 60 29 day kwhr Heat delivered by heat pump system 57 513 yf mame a Ii 26° “176 106 35 per day, kwhr Carnot C O P aro seo meaeo) asco. 340 i FY es i es COP of the 315 Salta ese 3363 S23 Bee) See a Actual C O P of the heat pum el pen teuaa a ine anaes Actual C O P of the ‘eat pump system 2.3 2 ittew bees eel) 2.0 a False PR mm 25 Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science 70 i) Oo (eo) | a fe) @ ° | 7) ro) | DAILY ENERGY CONSUMPTION, KW. HR. FS {o) | HEAT LOSS, |OO0O BTU PER HR-WELL INSULATED 6 ROOM HOUSE 120 —£ 30 100 — 80-5 20 60 — 40-3 10 20 — ee 0 “10 20 30 es 50 60 MEAN OUTSIDE TEMPERATURE, F Fig. 9.— Performance characteristics of an air-to-air heat pump system during the heating period. The circulating fan operates continuously. The heat pump and discard fan operate continuously for an outside temperature of O F and inter- mittently for higher temperatures. The refrigerant evaporates at —20 F. 26 Heat Pump CANVAS CONNECTION FAN 4- WAY VALVES EXPANSION VALVE AIR bx FILTERS & HUMIDIFYIN NOZZLES AIR AT 70°F FROM ROOMS AUTO DAMPERS REFRIGERATION COMPRESSOR HEAT EXCHANGER CANVAS CONNECTION ELECTRIC MOTCR ~ GROUND >: TEMP. 30°F — REFRIGERANT i TEMPERATURE 20°F Fig. 10.— A schematic diagram of an ecarth-to-air heat pump system for heating a building. Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science BELT (YY AT orive 4 AIR TO —P ROOMS CANVAS CONNECTION FAN ANT \b>— HEAT EXCHANGER (EVAPORATOR) EXPANSION WARM AIR iM MS FouSP iid DAMPERS \ \Y, \y \Y, Ly \yy/ CANVAS ? Be eS NMS ELECTRIC REFRIGERATION NECTI (2 ; 2 ios MOTOR COMPRESSOR acahitn sl HEAT _ EXGHANGER (CONDENSER) Fig. 11.—A schematic diagram of an earth-to-air heat pump system used for cooling a building. Heat Pump Table III. Performance characteristics of an earth-to-air heat pump system for various outside mean air temperatures, Freon-12 evaporates at + 20 F. The heat pump was designed to operate continuously at O F outside air temperature and intermittently at higher air temperatures. The circulating fan operates continuously. Mean outside air es @) 10 20 30 ho SO 60 ia MOEA Ronchi li A ee in Me oe al bom ing condenser, F B70) 59.0 GOL9 62.9 6h.6- 65.7 68.2 femp Of air Teav= 96.3 98.1, 100.) 102.6 101.7 106.6 108.2 ing condenser, F Temp. of F-l2 enter- ing condenser, F Gy 22 25" 127 329. 132 Bh Temp. of F-12 leav- 196,3 108.4 110.4 112.6 114.7 116.6 118.2 ing condenser, F SS eS. ee ee pee a ee Oe Compression ae eed Meteo en he2. lish oh 5. lsorelie Capacity of com- pressor-motor, hp Oem eS eerie to eOln ect oo) Oso Energy to heat wane Senge Tene 108 96 81 oie NY 29,10 Energy to circu= lating fan-motor I) Sele ats ea ei casas be ede ada ce a ce beg per day, kwhr Energy to heat eae Te Fi pump system per i2i= | 109 OPT COs sham 23 day, kwhr Heat delivered by heat pump system 457 387 317 26 176 106 35 per day, kwhr Carmo: O Po 5.9 Bird Be) 55 Delt 5.8 ae Theo. CO P, of the 5,6 5,3 5.1 5.0 TIE Nels es, ey UE heat pump Paintatearota Celi at aes oo eee a en ee eee Seae Mesna tele 73260 eorGee 20 okt. 366 Baar@ceent role thcuns ©... 1 +. lee oes heat pump system 3.0 3.6 Sele ei Setpeege coco, les 29 Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science a ce) | ~ ° | 1000 BTU PER HR.- WELL INSULATED 6 ROOM HOUSE ieee sy (+2) @ Oo (eo) fo) (eo) | | | 40 - DAILY ENERGY CONSUMPTION, KW. HR HEAT LOSS, a a N : a | i) o Oo | | O io 20 30 40 50 60 MEAN OUTSIDE TEMPERATURE, F Fig. 12.— Performance characteristics of an earth-to-air heat pump system during the heating period. The circulating fan operates continuously. The heat pump operates continuously for a mean outside temperature of 0 F and intermittently for higher temperatures. The refrigerant evaporates at + 20 F. 30 Heat Pump Comparative results are shown in Table IV for an air- to-air and an earth-to-air heat pump system designed to heat the same well insulated six-room house in a locality where the outside temperature is 0 F. From this table it can be seen that the operating cost is less for the earth-to-air than that for the air-to-air heat pump system since less energy is required to operate the former. The earth-to-air heat pump requires a much smaller compressor-motor than the air-to-air type and there is no danger of ice collecting on the evaporator coils. However, the earth coil is much more expensive to install and will be less accessible if and when repairs are required. CONSERVATION OF FUEL The following calculations were made to show that the compression type heat pump system must have a C O P greater than 3.33 before it can be used to conserve our natural fuel supply: One pound of eastern Kentucky coal (14,500 Btu per lb) burned in a boiler of a modern steam power plant and con- verted into electric energy at an efficiency of 2.4% would result in 3537 Btu (0.828 kwhr) available at the terminal of the electric generator. Assume a 20% loss between the genera- tor and a house, 2830 Btu would be available for direct electrical heating for each pound of coal burned. On the other hand, the 2830 Btu (0.828 kwhr) of electric energy supplied to a domestic heat pump system having a C OP of 3.33 would result in 9420 Btu (3.33 x 2830) per pound of coal burned at the power plant available for heating the house. One pound of the same coal burned in a good stoker- fired furnace at an efficiency of 65% in a house, would result in 9420 Btu (0.65 x 14,500) available for heating. On this basis of comparison, the domestic heat pump system’ Will only deliver just as much heat per pound of coal burned as the stoker-fired furnace. HEAT PUMP PROGRESS There are twenty-four commercial heat pump installations in the Americas which provide continuous air conditioning, seven of which are not in offices of electric utilities. Of the latter, three were installed on the Pacific coast in 197, one of which has a nominal capacity of 225 tons and one 50 tons. A 550-ton heat pump system has been installed in the +welve-story Equitable Building in Portland, Oregon. a Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science Table IV Comparison of an earth-to-air and an air-to-air heat pump system Type of System Earth-to-Air Air-to-Air Outside mean air temperature OVE OF Inside dry-bulb temperature 70 F 70 F Evaporator temperature +20 F -20 F Carnot C O PL Bo) 3.9 Theoretical C O P, of heat pump B56 365 Actual C O P, of heat pump has} Zod Actual C O P, of heat pump system 3.8 253} Compressor capacity, tons 4.0 B69) Compression ratio 4.0 9.3 Compressor-motor, hp Soll 705 Energy supplied to system, kwhr 120.7 Mall Operating time, hrs per day 2h 2h Heat Pump The General Engineering and Manufacturing Co., St. Louis, Mo. manufactured a limited number of domestic heat pump units in 1948 and installed them as pilot-plants in various parts of the United States to obtain performance data. This Com pany has had one domestic heat pump in operation for several years. The Webber Engineering Company, Indianapolis, Ind. made experimental heat pump units for electric utilities. Three earth-to-air heat pumps of the direct expansion type are now in operation in the Indianapolis area and two more are now in the process of construction. In 1938 C. E, Boggs designed and installed a heat pump system to provide panel heating in his new house in Boise, Idaho. During 197 he designed two domestic heat pumps, water- to-water type, for the Boise area. One of these was installed in a new house to provide panel heating and the other replaced a hot air furnace in a house already constructed. In addition to these, he designed a 3-ton package heat pump system which was installed in the Idaho Power Company System Dispatcher's office where the heat source is waste cooling water from feeder regulators. The Northwestern Heat Pump Company of Boise planned to make about six domestic heat pumps last year. This Company is interested particularly in designing heat pump systems with hot water storage tanks of sufficient size to make off-peak house heating with the heat pump mre economi- cal, Drayer-Hanson, Inc., of Los Angeles, has approximately 300 heat pump units in operation, most of which are semi- commercial installations. Recently the Gay Engineering Com- pany of Los Angeles installed a heat pump system in the ware- house of the Spector Produce Co. of Phoenix, Arizone to ripen bananas, Here the heat pump rinciple is used very efficiently since both heat exchangers are used simultaneously, one ex- tracting heat from the frozen food rooms at a low temperature level and the other discharging heat to three banana lockers at a higher temperature level. SUMMARY 1. The Peltier heat pump was proposed nearly sixty years ago. However, a heat pump constructed from alloys available at that time was known to have a low efficiency. Recently research has been done to develop new alloys which obey the Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science Wiedemann-Franz—Lorenz law and at the same time have a much higher thermoelectric power, in order to improve the effi- ciency of the thermocouple when used as either a direct current generator or a Peltier heat pump (12). It is hoped that the review of the theory of the Peltier heat pump given here will stimulate research in metallurgy in order to pro- duce alloys which will be malleable, have a very high thermo- electric power, and at the same time obey the Wiedemann- Franz-Lorenz relation. 2. Although the absorption heat pump may have a low COP, if perfected it would lower the annual operating cost as compared to the gas-fired package air conditioner when used for continuous air conditioning, by reducing the gas consumption during the heating season. hesearch is recom mended. 3. The commercial heat pump of the compression type has been applied successfully in industries for processing and for continuous air conditioning. When used for air condi- tioning, the maintenance cost is comparable with that of the ordinary refrigeration plant. The refrigeration engineer may also find many good applications of the heat pump by making a careful survey of industries other than air conditioning. h. The domestic heat pump is in the experimental state at the present time. aA theoretical analysis has been given here to determine the performance characteristics of an earth-to-air and an air-to-air heat pump system. A water- to-air heat pump system will have performance characteristics similar to that of the earth-to-air type. From Table IV it can be seen that the air-to-air heat pump requires a motor whose capacity is about 50 per cent greater than an earth- to-air heat pump for heating the same house under the same conditions. The condensing temperature of the refrigerant could be lowered if panel heating were provided. This in turn would increase the C O P, decrease the compression ratio, and thereby decrease the horsepower of the compressor-motor. 5. At the present time very little engineering data are available on the transient flow of heat through the earth.# * Data on the strength of a earth heat source will be pub- lished in a bulletin by the Engineering Experiment Station of the University of Kentucky. 34 Heat Pump In case the time rate of heat flow through the earth is very low the heat transfer surface per ton of refrigeration, in the evaporator, will be larger unless the moisture around the coil is frozen. Considerable research will be necessary before it can be decided whether the earth is a suitable heat source. The cost of digging trenches to install an earth coil at the present time will make this type of heat pump system more expensive than the air-to-air type. However, a machine might be developed for digging deep holes for placing hair-pin coils in the earth. 6. It has been shown that solar house heating may be possible with relatively short-term heat storage (18). It might be possible to supplement an earth heat pump in the northern states and the air heat pump in the southern states with solar heat. However, it should be pointed out that by combining two different types of heating systems the initial installation cost will be increased but the annual operating cost may be reduced. 7. There will be practically no saving of our natural fuels if the heat pump is employed unless the C O P for heating is above 3.33. 8. In general it is not easy to predict the cost of a commodity until it has been made. It is therefore rather difficult to estimate the initial cost of a domestic heat pump system until the manufacturers have produced it. The economics of the heat pump has been discussed recently (19). 9. A domestic heat pump system should be completely automatic and entirely reliable. The reliability of the domestic heat pump system should be determined by installing a large number of pilot plants before it is placed on the market. 35 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ‘The author had the privilege of reading an unpublished report on “Thermo-Electric Refrigeration” by Dr. David B. Smith of the Philco Corporation and wishes to thank him specially for permission to use some of his material. He also wishes to thank George A. Stetsen, Editor, Mechanical Engineering; Dean D. V. Terrell, Director of the Engineering Experiment Station of the University of Kentucky; and Dr. George A. Baitsell, Editor of the American Scientist for permission to use some material that appears in this paper. 36 BIBLIOGRAPHY 1. “A Review of Some Heat Pump Installations”, by E. B. Penrod, Mechanical Engineering, Vol. 69, No. 8, August 1947, pp. 639-647. 2. “Entropy”, by Karl K. Darrow, The Bell System Technical Journal, Vol. 21, MNES ISSA pp. ol-o4: 3. “Practical Aspects of the Heat Pump”, by F. W. Jordan, Electrical West, Vol. 94, April 1945, pp. 65-69. f. “The Heat Pump: An Ail Electric Year Round Air Conditioning System”, by Philip Sporn and E. R. Ambrose, Heating & Ventilating, Vol. 41, January 1944, pp. 68-78. 5. “On the Economy of Heating and Cooling of Buildings by Means of Air”, by Sir William Thomson (Kelvin), Proceedings of the Philosophical Society, Glas- gow, Scotland, Vol. 3, December 1852, pp. 269-272; Collected Papers of Lord Kelvin, WolselipscoL5. 6. “The Power Required for the Thermodynamic Heating of Buildings’, by Sir William Thomson (Kelvin), Mathematical and Physical Papers of Kelvin, Vol. 5 reprint 1910, pp. 125-133. (This set was published in 1882, 1883, and 1890.) 7. “Elements of Electricity and Magnetism”, by Sir J. J. Thomson, p. 377 (Cambridge University Press 1921). 8. “Principles of Electricity”, by Page and Adams, p. 218 (D. Van Nostrand Co., Inc., 1931). 9. “Vextbook of Thermodynamics”, by Epstein, p. 363 (John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1937). 10. “Elektrothermische Kalteerzengung und Reversible Elektrische Heitzung”, by Edmund Altenkirch, Zeitschrift fur die gezamte Kalte—Industrie, Vol. 19, pp. 1-95 (1912): Il. “Heat and Thermodynamics”, by J. K. Roberts, p. 233 (Blackie and Sons, Ltd., 1933). 12. “The Efficiency of ‘Phermoelectric Generators”, by Maria ‘Velkes, Journal of Applied Physics, Vol. 18, No. 12, December 1947, pp. 1116-1127. 13. American Gas Association “Summer Air Conditioning Research Bulletin No. 18", (American Gas Association ‘Vesting Laboratories, Cleveland, O., or Los Angeles, Calif.). I4. “Gas for Summer Air Conditioning”, Heating and Ventilating, Vol. 41, February 1944, pp. 56-78. 15. “An All-Year Gas Air-Conditioning Unit", by H. C. Pierce, Mechanical Engineering, Vol. 67, March 1945, pp. 171-174. 16. “Continuous Air Conditioning with the Heat Pump”, by E. B. Penrod, American Scientist, Vol. 35, No. 4, October 1947, pp. 515-516, 17. “Development of the Heat Pump”, by E. B. Penrod, Engineering Experi- ment Station Bulletin, Vol. 1, No. 4, June 1947, pp. 47-56, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Ky. 18. “Solar House Heating—A Problem of Heat Storage”, by Maria Telkes, Heating and Ventilating, Vol. 44, No. 5, May 1947, pp. 68-75. 19. “Economic and Technical Aspects of the Heat Pump”, by W. E. Johnson, Heating, Piping and Air Conditioning, Vol. 19, No. 12, December, 1947, pp. 119-126. A BACTERIOLOGICAL SURVEY OF WELL WATERS FROM FOUR CENTRAL KENTUCKY COUNTIES RAFAEL A. CARTIN AND R. H. WEAVER Bacteriology Department, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Ky. In the Drinking Water Standards adopted by the Public Health Service in 1942 ts the statement: “A brief summary of the pertinent facts relating to the sanitary condition of the water supply, as revealed by the field survey, should be submitted.” Among the pertinent facts are listed, “Nature of soil and underlying strata; depth to water table” and “Nature of rock penetrated, noting especially existence of porous limestone.” In the Sanitation Manual for Ground Water Supplies, 1944, is the statement: “Formations such as limestone, broken lava rock, coarse eravel, and brittle rocks whose interstices are in the form of channels, joints, and fissures, provide little filtering action to prevent contamina- tion from reaching the water-bearing stratum.” In spite of these statements, a search of the literature will reveal a deficiency in studies of the effect of soil and rock types on the sanitary quality of water supplies. Through the cooperation of the U. S. Geological Survey and the Department of Geology of the University of Kentucky, who have been making a survey of the water supplies of four Central Kentucky coun- ties, Bourbon, Fayette, Jessamine and Scott, it has been possible to obtain samples of water from 73 wells in this area, together with geolog- ical data concerning the locations of the wells. Along with studies to correlate the bacteriological quality of the water with the geological surroundings of the well, studies have been made of the effect of storage of the water samples for 24 and 48 hour periods at room temperature on the results of tests for members of the coliform group in the water. Although the Standard Methods for the Examination of water and Sewage (Ninth edition, 1946) specifies that samples of relatively pure waters shall not be held for more than 12 hours (impure waters waters 6 hours) at 6 to 10 C, the majority of water samples from rural regions in Kentucky are examined only after prolonged storage at room temperature. Many of them are mailed to the laboratories where the examinations are made. ‘The work of Hutchison, 1943, on the influence of the presence of antagonists for Escherichia coli in water samples on the results of tests for coliform organisms has suggested that results obtained after such handling of samples may be very unreliable. 38 A Bacteriological Survey of Well Waters EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES The samples were taken by members of the Geology Department of the University of Kentucky. ‘Three samples were taken from each well, all at the same time, in sterile glass-stoppered bottles of approxi- mately 100 ml capacity. “hey were brought to the laboratory, uniced. In most cases, the time between sampling and commencement of ana- lysis was less than one hour, and in no case was it greater than two hours. One of three samples from each well was examined immediately upon receipt in the labortary for bacterial content by means of the standard 37 C plate count and for density of coliform organisms, the most probable number (M. P. N.) being determined. “The procedures of the Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Sewage, 1946, were followed. For the coliform determination five 10-ml por- tions, five I-ml portions and five 0.1-ml portions were planted in lac- tose broth. All positive presumptives were confirmed in brilliant green lactose bile broth. The remaining two samples from each well were stored at room temperature. At the end of 24 hours, one of the two stored samples was exzmined for density of coliform organisms, and at the end of 48 hours, the other sample was examined. RESULTS The results are included in table 1. Information on depth of wells and rock formations in which the wells are located is also included in the table. In some cases such information was not available. Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science TABEES BACTERIOLOGICAL RESULTS ON CENTRAL KENTUCKY WELL WATERS Well Depth Formation at No. feet bottom of well I 120 Curdsville 2 165 Hermitage 3 65 Jessamine { 2000 5 17 6 75 7 195 Hermitage 8 185 ‘Tyrone 9 10 185 ‘Tyrone 11 180 Curdsville 12 85 Jessamine 13 65 Hermitage 14 90 Jessamine 15 28 Jessamine 16 42 Jessamine 17 78 Hermitage 18 135 Jessamine 19 20 75 Curdsville 2) 100 Hermitage 22 70 23 24. 60 ‘Tyrone 25 26 70 Standard plate count FAYETTE COUNTY 140 230 6600 70 70 110 2900 7 350 600 34 we J 40) M. P. N. coliforms* 1] *1600 240 2 Sample 2 3 17 6.1 0 0 350 540 0 0 130 240 350 *1600 920, 920 540 540 2 4.5 0 2 23 45 130 49 33 4.5 4.5 6.8 1600 *1600 0 0 0 0 33 170 0 0 220 170 23 11 2) 0 7.8 2 *1600 49 79 14 2 0) A Bacteriological Survey of Well Waters Well Depth Formation at Standard plate M. P. N. coliforms? No. feet bottom of well count Sample | 2 3 JESSAMINE C@UNTY 27 350 130 79 17 28 500 110 130 29 14 9,600 *1600 *1600 *1600 30 86 35 4 1 0 31 30 700 81 *1600 220 32 75 *30,000 19 33 17 33 170 2,900 64 540 240 34 65 6 4.5 0 0 35 85 10 19 33 17 Scott COUNTY 56 135 Jessamine 130 ail 4.5 0 37 60 Woodburn { 14 16 23 38 190 ‘Tyrone 75 19 17 22 39 80 150 6.8 0 0 40 500 Tyrone 110 4.5 0 0 11 100 Curdsville 95 23 4.5 4:5 +2 A4 Jessamine 85 4] 7.8 a) 43 60-75 Jessamine 1 0 0 0 44 25 Benson 30 240 41 17 45 65 Benson 38 39 140 33 46 30 27 33 33 47 55 15 17 21 13 48 100 2900 7.8 4.5 0 49 140 920 920 33 50 123 ‘Tyrone 15 0 2 1.8 51 76 Jessamine 80 Z 2 0 52 75 Benson 85 19 040) 53 80 Curdsville 110 110 79 130 Df 50 Benson 190 540 240 920 55 132 Hermitage 3 0 0 0 56 55 ‘Tyrone i) 2 0 0 oY 90) Curdsville 250 *1600 *1600 *1600 58 78 Jessamine 60 350 95 33 59 100 Jessamine 170 0 0 0 60 90-100 Jessamine 85 49 19 1.5 61 84 Tyrone 32 11 1] 13 62 150 ‘Tyrone 325 22 23 14 63 135 Jessamine 7 0 0 0 64 135 Jessamine 16 540 7.8 5 65 200 Tyrone 31 350 31 49 66 200 Jessamine 240 540). 920: 4920 67 18 21 2 4.5 4] Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science Well Depth Formation at Standard plate M. P. N. coliformst No. feet bottom of well count Sample 1 2 3 BOURBON COUNTY 68 73 30 79 70 33 69 65 240, 240 350 70 350 240 *1600 2 71 31 33 1.8 0 0 72 30 5 0 0 0 73 140 85 0 0 0 7 Sample 1 examined immediately after arrival at laboratory. Sample 2 stored 24 hours at room temperature before examination. Sample 3 stored 48 hours at room temperature before examination. * Greater than. In accordance with the usual results of water surveys little correla- tion can be found between the standard plate count results and the results of the tests for members of the coliform group. Judgment of the sanitary quality of the waters should be based primarily upon the coliform results. Of the 73 wells examined, 62 (84.99) were positive for coliforms. Standard plate counts of samples from these wells varied from 1 to greater than 50,000; the median was 80. Of the 62 coliform positive samples, 50 had M. P. N. values of over 10 and the wells may be con- sidered zs heavily polluted. Standard plate counts on these samples varied between 4 and greater than 30,000; the median was 85. Stand- ard plate counts on the samples from the 12 lightly polluted wells varied between | and 2,900; the median was 33. Standard plate counts on the Il samples that were negative for coliforms varied between 1 and 375; the median was between 5 and 6. While the wells from which these samples were taken should not be considered as polluted, at least 2, with plate counts of 325 and 375, should be viewed with suspicion. Rock formations in the region studied are Ordovician, and are pri- marily limestone formations. No correlation could be found between the specific formations in which the wells were located and the sanitary quality of the water; nor could any correlation be found between the depths of the wells and the sanitary quality of the water. Likewise no correlation could be found with the soil types in which the wells were located. For the sake of brevity, data on soil types have not been included in the table of results. Samples from 61 of the 62 wells that yielded coliform oryanisms when the samples were examined immediately were studied for the complete storage period of 48 hours. 42 A Bacteriological Survey of Well Waters Of the 61 stored samples, 43° (70.5°,) showed decreases in the coli- form content during the storage period. Fifteen (24.69%) showed increases. Of the remaining 3 samples, one showed no change in coliform content in the 48 hour period and the other 2 had M. P. N. values greater than 1600, so that the serial dilutions used did not give accurate results. Of the 62 samples from sources that yielded coliform organisms from the samples that were examined without storage, 6 yielded no coliform organisms after they had been stored for 24 hours at room temperature. Of these, only one was from a source that had a M. PLN. of over 6.8 as determined from the unstored sample. ‘Uhis well had a M. P. N. of 49 from the unstored sample, a M. P. N. of 0 from the sample that was stored for 24 hours, and a M.P.N. of 2 from the sample that was stored for 48 hours. Of 61 samples from sources that yielded coliform organisms from the samples that were examined without storage, 11 yielded no coli- form organisms after they had been stored for 48 hours at room temperature. Of these only one was from a source that had a M. P.N. of over 27 as determined from the unstored sample. ‘This well had a M. P. N. of 540 from the unstored sample, a M. P. N. of 7.8 from the sample that was stored for 24 hours, and a M. P. N. of 0 from the sample that was stored for 48 hours. DISCUSSION Little information was available concerning the construction of the wells from which the samples were obtained. It is probable that some of the wells are not so constructed as to avoid the entrance of surface pollution. Allowing for the presence of some wells of this type in the test group, it is still evident that much of the pollution can only be ascribed to the geological features of the region. It may be concluded that comparatively few unpolluted wells exist in the area studied. Only 15 per cent of the wells studied were un- polluted on the basis of the coliform test as judged by a single sampIl- ing. High plate counts indicate that some of these wells might be found to be polluted at certain times if a series of samples were to be examined. The results obtained with the stored samples emphasize the im- portance of the Standard Methods limitations on the storage of samples. Quantitative results to indicate the extent of pollution are 43 Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science almost worthless on samples that have been stored for 24 hours or more at room temperature. Qualitatively, pollution can usually be detected with samples that have been stored under these conditions, provided the extent of the pollution is comparatively great. Positive results on stored samples may be trusted but negative results should be looked upon with suspicion. SUMMARY Samples of water from 73 wells in four Central Kentucky counties have been examined. Of these wells 50 were found to be heavily polluted, and 12 to be lightly polluted, as judged by tests for coliform organisms. High plate counts indicate that some of the remaining 11 wells should be viewed with suspicion pending further investigation. The high degree of pollution of well waters in Central Kentucky is associated with the predominantly limestone formation of the region. No correlation could be established, however, between the quality of the well water and the depth of the well or the formation in which the well was located. Studies on the effect of storage of samples of well water at room temperature before examination emphasizes the importance of follow- ing Standard Methods provisions on the handling of samples if corrcet results are to be obtained. REFERENCES Hutchison, D. 1943. The incidence and significance of antagonists to Escherichia coli in water with respect to Standard Methods procedures. Thesis, Univ. of Ky. Public health service drinking water standards and manual of recommended water sanitation practice. 1943. Public Health Reports 58. 69-111. Sanitation manual for ground water supplies. 1944. Public Health Reports 59: U3 9E Wile Standard methods for the examination of water and sewage. Ninth edition, 1946. American Public Health Association, New York, N. Y. COMPARISON OF THE SHERMAN TESTS WITH THE CHAPMAN PLATE FOR IDENTIFICATION OF THE STREPTOCOCCI FROM TEETH C. B. HAMANN AND FRANK J. GRUCHALLA Asbury College, Wilmore, Kentucky. St. Louis University, School of Dentistry. The present paper is a part of a larger study involving the flora of infected root canals of teeth.’ In the course of the study it became apparent that in over 90°) of the cases, streptococci were present, usually in pure culture. The clinical men soon observed that not all teeth responded equally well to treatment and as one of the variables was the bacteria, an attempt was made to differentiate the various species of streptococci. Isolations were made by inserting sterile cotton points into the root canal, dropping into Brewer’s Fluid ‘Thioglycollate medium (Bacto), and incubating 24-96 hours. Growth’ was usually apparent in 24 hours. Blood agar plates were streaked as soon as growth became visible. From these plates pure cultures were started using serum tryptose broth. As a majority of the cocci isolated gave either an alpha or gamma reaction on blood agar, further identification became a_ necessity. While the author was aware of Chapman’s medium? for isolation of the streptococci, it seemed advisable to check the results of this plating medium against the fermentation test and the Sherman series of tests.* Accordingly 44 pure cultures of streptococci isolated from the root canals as well as stock strains of streptococci were subjected to the three techniques. The substances for fermentation included: adonitol, cellobiose, dextrin, dextrose, dulcitol, maltose, mannitol, mannose, melezitose, raffinose, rhamnose, salacin, sorbitol, sucrose, and xylose. All were sterilized by filtration and tubed in 2 ml. amounts in serological tubes. Phenol red was used as the indicator and was added before sterilization. The pH was adjusted to 7.8. All innoculated tubes were incubated at 37° C. for 96 hours, and read at 24 hour intervals. In addition to the fermentation tests, liquifaction of gelatin was noted. The Sherman tests included: Growth in litmus milk at 45° C., final pH of dextrose broth, growth in 0.19 methylene blue, production of ammonia, growth in 6.5°% salt broth and growth in serum tryptose ata pH of 9.6. Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science The Chapman technique was carried out as described by him.? The results of the fermentation tests may be summarized as follows: All strains fermented dextrin, dextrose, galactose, lactose, maltose, mannose and sucrose. None of the strains fermented dulcitol or inositol. Strains varied in their fermentation of adonitol, cellobiose, esculin, glycerol, inulin, mannitol, melezitose, raffinose, rhamnose, salicin, sorbitol and xylose. ‘The results of the Sherman tests were interpreted as follows: No growth in the 0.1% methylene blue, 6.5% salt broth, or in the high pH medium and no production of ammonia, were considered to be Streptococcus salwarius. No growth in the 0.1% methylene blue, but growth in the other media and production of ammonia, were considered to be Strepto- coccus mitts. Growth in all media and production of ammonia were considered to be Streptococcus felcalis, or liquifaciens. “Vhose liquifying gelatin were designated liquifaciens. According to this classification of the 44 unknown strains: 16 were Streptococcus salivarius 6 were Streptococcus mitis 17 were Streptococcus fecalis 5 were Streptococcus liquifaciens Chapman’s description of the colonies on the plate was used as the basis of classification. Pale blue opaque colonies 2-5 mm. in diameter and giving a “gum drop” appearance, (a few were rugose), were considered to be Strepto- coccus salivarius. Small blue colonies about 0.2 mm. in diameter were called Streptococcus mitts. Dark brown to black, smooth, slightly raised colonies 0.5-1.5 mm. in diameter were considered enterococci and later differentiated on the basis of gelatin liquification. ‘This gave from the 44 strains: 13 Streptococcus salivarius 9 Streptococcus mitis 15 Streptococcus fecalis 5 Streptococcus liquifaciens 2 no growth (salivarius by Sherman’s tests) 46 Comparison of the Sherman Tests With the Chapman Plate By the way of correlation: Of three strains determined by the Sherman tests to be salivarius, two refused to grow on the Chapman medium and one was considered to be mitis by the appearance of the colony. No strains identified as salivarius on the plates differed from the determination by the Sherman tests. None of these determined by the Sherman tests to be sal:varius fermented cellobiose or esculin. While only six strains were determined by the Sherman tests to be mitis, five of these six checked with the plate and one gave the black colony of fecalis. In addition, three considered to be enterococci by the Sherman test, gave mitis colonies, and as noted above, one mitis colonial type was salivarius. “Those considered to be mitis by the Sherman test did not ferment cellobiose or esculin, except with one strain and it gave a typical mitis colony. ‘Twenty-two strains were identified as enterococci by the Sherman tests. Three of these gave typical mitis colonies and one black colony gave a mitis reaction as noted above. Otherwise they correlated in determining this species. “Two of the mitis colonies were liquifaciens and one fecalis, according to gelatin liquifaction. All of the strains except one identified as enterococci. by the Sherman test, fermented cellobiose and esculin. As every worker on the streptococci has discovered, the fermenta- tion reaction of these organisms is in general too variable to be of value. However, the very high number of strains of enterococci fer- menting cellobiose and esculin may be of some use. “The Chapman plate appears to be a rapid and fairly reliable means of identifying Streptococcus salivarius, though less reliable in differentiating between Streptococcus mitis and the enterococci. REFERENCES 'Gruchalla, F. J., and C. B. Hamann, J. Mo. State Dental Assoc. 27: 230-231. Chapman, G. H:, J. Bact., 1944, 48, 113-114. * Sherman, J. M., Bact. Rev., 1937, I. 47 A MODIFIED PROCEDURE FOR THE FORMOL TITRATION* A. A. ROSEN AND B. S. ANDREWS Joseph E. Seagram & Sons, Inc., Louisville, Kentucky The formol titration, described in 1907 by Sorensen (6), has been a most valuable tool in the study of protein hydrolysis and for the determination of amino acids. “The method is based on the reaction be.ween tormaldehyde and amino compounds to produce Schiff compounds (5). When formaldehyde is added to a solution of an amino acid, the end-point of the titration with alkali is displaced from a pH value over 12 to a pH value about 9. Not only is it possible to select an indicator for the lower pH, but the titration curve breaks more sharply under this condition, and the end-point can be deter- mined more precisely. The nature of the reaction between amino acids and formalde- hyde has been the subject of intensive investigation by Levy and others (2) (3). The following conclusions may be drawn from the work of these investigators: (a) the formol titration is essentially a determination of the amino groups, not the carboxyl, of an amino acid; (b) the formaldehyde forms methylol as well as methylene derivatives of the amino group. ‘The titration can be carried out both electrometrically and colori- metrically, using suitable indicators. Dunn and Loshakoff (1) have described the use of the glass electrode in the formol titration. ‘Their procedure gave greater accuracy and precision than can be obtained by the use of indicators. However, the procedure is tedious and re- quires apparatus not readily available in many laboratories. Phenolphthalein is an indicator of suitable pH range for the formol titration. ‘The first appearance of color, however, occurs at a pH somewhat below the stoichiometric end-point for most amino acids, which is pH 9.0 to 9.1 (2). Northrop (4) has devised a pro- cedure which takes advantage of the property of a one-color indicator to fix the end-point more exactly. In his method, the amino acid solution is first adjusted to pH 7 with neutral red indicator, then formalin is added and the titration is completed with phenolphthalein. * Presented before the Section on Chemistry, Kentucky Academy of Science April, 1947. A Modified Procedure for the Formol Titration Color standards for each indicator are prepared from the sample under conditions identical to those in the determination. By using half as much phenolphthalein in the color standard as in the titration and developing the maximum color intensity in the standard, this color is matched in the titration of the sample when the pH is in the middle of the range for phenolphthalein. Two advantages of this method are evident: (a) the volumes of the color standards are automatically equal to the volumes of the sample at the corresponding stages of the titration; (b) the color standards automatically adjust for moderate amounts of color in the sample to be titrated, thus enabling the method to be applied to many protein hydrolyzates. Several trials of Northrop’s method did not produce a desirable degree of accuracy, in the titration of pure amino acids. ‘This pro- cedure is a semi-micro one, using 5 ml. of a 0.01 molar solution of the amino acid sample. “The formaldehyde concentration at the end of the titration is about 3.5%. The work of Levy (2) suggests an ex- planation for the inaccuracy of this method. He has shown that increased accuracy is obtained in the formol titration when the con- centration of the amino acid 1s increased, the dilution during titration is held at a minimum, and the formaldehyde concentration at the end- point is 6 to 9%. In order to modify the Northrop method to obtain greater accuracy in the Hight of the factors described above, the concentration of the sample and the standard alkali were increased tenfold and the volumes used were doubled to avoid the use of semi-micro equipment. ‘The optimum proportions of formaldehyde and indicator for the titration were selected. “The resulting modification of the formol titration is described in the following Experimental section. EXPERIMENTAL MODIFIED FORMOL TITRATION Four 10 ml. aliquots at 0.1 molar concentration are transterred to separate Erlenmeyer titration flasks. NerurrRAL Rep STANDARD.—To thé first flask is added 2 ml. of 0.05 M. sodium phosphate and 2 drops of 19% neutral red. The solution is titrated to the point of sharp color change. ALKALINE STANDARD.—To the second flask is added 2 drops of the neutral red indicator and the sample is titrated to neutrality. Then 6 ml. of 37% formalin and 3 drops of 0.29% phenolphthalein are added 49 Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science and the standard is titrated with the 0.1 N. alkali to a maximum color, adding a small excess of the alkali. Tirration.—The two remaining flasks contain the aliquots to be titrated. ‘To the sample is added 2 drops of neutral red, then the solution is adjusted roughly to neutrality with strong alkali or acid, as required, to avoid excessive dilution of the sample. The neutraliza- tion is completed with 0.1 N. reagent, to match the color of the neutral red standard. Six ml. of formalin and 6 drops of the phenolphthalein are added, then the sample is titrated with the standard alkali to match the color of the alkaiine standard. ‘The end-point is thus controlled at pH 9.0 to 9.1. The amount of alkali required to bring the solution from the neutral red standard to the alkaline standard provides the titration figure. FORMALDEHYDE BLANK.—To 6 ml. of formalin in 10 ml. of distilled water is added 3 drops of the phenolphthalein and the solution is titrated wwith the standard alkali. ‘This blank is subsracted from the titration value. EFFECT OF FORMALDEHYDE CONCENTRATION Accuracy in the formol method requires a 6 to 9% formaldehyde concentration at the end of the titration (2). A 0.1 molar solution of DL-alanine was titrated according to the modified method described above, verying the amount of formalin added from 2 to 10 ml. The results, graphical.y presented in Figure I, showed that a maximum recovery of the amino acid was obtained with the use of 6 ml. of forma- lin and that additional formalin did not affect the recovery. “The con- centration of formaldghyde at the end of the titration was 8.4%, which is within the required range. Therefore 6 ml. of formalin was selected for use in this method. EFFECT OF VARIATION IN ALKALINE STANDARD A variation in the ratio of phenolphthalein used in the titration to the amount used in the alkaline standard will affect the completeness of the titration. In Northrop’s procedure (4) the ratio was 6 to 1, which does not agree with the theoretical basis for using the alkaline color standard—a ratio of 2 to 1. A series of titrations were performed to determine the effect of varying the phenolphthalein concentration in the alkaline standard. ‘The variation was from | to 4 drops, while in each case 6 drops were used in the sample being titrated. At the end of each titration, the end-point pH was determined by means of a glass electrode. Figure II illustrates the relation between alkaline 50 PERCENT RECOVERY ALANINE ° APPARENT RECOVERY ALANINE, A Modified Procedure for the Formol Titration PERCENT FORMALIN AT ENO OF TITRATION 34 6/ 8/ 10.3 19 2 a i ir 402 40/ 100 FIGURE 1 99 98 FORMOL T/TRAT/ION = OF OL -ALAN/NE LFFECT OF FORMAL/N ON PERCENT RECOVERY %6 95 Qo / 2 = F Si 6 7 8 9 10 VOLUME 397% FORMALIN ML pH AL END POIinT : 8.75 9/ /06 /04 FIGURE 2 102 FORMOL T/TRATION OF DOL-ALANINE /00 %8 fFFECT OF ALKALINE COLOR STANDARD ON PERCENT RECOVERY AND END PO/NT pA 96 / 2) a 4 DROPS PHENOLPHTHALE/N IN ALKALINE COLOR STANDARD 5] Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science standard, recovery of titrated amino acid, and end-point pH. It is noteworthy that when the alkaline standard contained 3 drops of phenolphthalein (half the amount used in the titrated sample) the end-point occurred at pH 9.1. This is the proper value for the stoichiometric end-point. APPLICATION OF THE METHOD The modified procedure for the formol titration described above was applied to a number of different amino acids, each at 0.1 molar concentration. When the amino acid was difficultly soluble in water, a small amount of HCl was used in preparing the solution. ‘The re- sults are contained in Table I (simple amino acids) and Table II (polyfunctional amino acids). In most cases the results were within 2% of the theoretical, a deviation 4 times the theoretical minimum cal- culated by Levy (2). TABLE I FORMOL TITRATION OF AMINO ACIDS Amino Acid Recovery, % JANIE Ov TOV Sy aust ene an at a ts MT rlnnae coe ots Git OE 102.6 GIVGin esau itiiy xlactntonst cian eae Ornate atone ere 102.6 Isoleucine nt se See Be ee Dee saat 97.3 1 LS BYGil oq ehemmaRRee Nes AD eae nna eye eer lite ail uar a RUN ELLA 96.0 MS ETO MTN EH tees ees aie lin Wee Wet eae ie aT eet 100.4 INMoye) (SU VeaVes We erattia re obs win Gata nS bis hie ee 99.7 Phenylalamimed een yes ar meee iaenrer attra 100.2 PrOlINe ri eet aee CAC Magic Ins ae cMtic nme TREC 84.6 SYS G0 Taare ve li leone ay Soa elbaay es A weet 99.7 ASHE EONINVE Re Aer arpa aaa REl epi eL ON 105.1 Tiryptophane ane cs eee eee eens 84.8 Wallies Basin Ginx che Aenea arate sh Oe, SNE nm eA ae 99.8 TABLE II FORMOL TITRATION OF POLYFUNCTIONAL AMINO ACIDS Amino Acid Recovery, % Equivalents ‘Titrated ZN STDIN Ccyepieyaieyelean ocekeent Gh ene 100.6 1 INS PAU GWACIG! yack penei ya ce oe 99.3 1 (CGI OTOL SA aint sina staoeeshone A entaei ea 98.1 2 ClumavicnAcidr eres uate 97.0 ] Histidine s See i yoacsari ek acnask cee 101.8 1 I EVES OVC emt Cosh rece tne mae une een 99.1 2 PE OST CUTE Mian sey ay sue au tan a 76.9 2 Van Slyke and Kirk (7) have shown that under the conditions of this method the titration is a measure of the reactive amino and imino groups. Accordingly, all the amino acids in Table I titrated as one equivalent per mole of amino acid. Of the amino acids listed in Table Or ho A Modified Procedure for the Formol Titration il, the two dicarboxylic amino acids reacted with only one equivalent of alkali, corresponding to their single amino groups. In the case of cystine and lysine, both amino groups of each amino acid were titrated. Because of the very slight solubility of cystine the reaction with alkali was slow. It was necessary to allow the flask to stand several minutes before determining when the end-point was reached. Only one nitro- gen atom in the arginine and histidine molecules is sufficiently basic to be determined by the formol method. In the case of histidine, the value obtained was unexpectedly close to the theoretical. This fact may be explained as a compensation of errors in the two end-points in this method, inasmuch as the adjustment to pH 7 with this amino acid involves a large error (2). ‘he stoichiometric end-points for proline and tryptophan occur at pH values more alkaline than is ob- tained with phenolphthalein in this method (3) (7), thus accounting for the low values obtained. Under the conditions of this method, the phenolic group of tyrosine is incompletely titrated. The titration procedure has been applied with similar convenience to protein hy- drolyzates and mixtures of amino acids. SUMMARY A modification of the Northrop procedure for the formol titration is described in which increased accuracy and convenience is obtained through the use of larger and more concentrated samples. “The condi- tions for establishing the indicator end-point have been shown to re- sult in an optimum degree of accuracy. “The determination of a large number of amino acids is reported. BIBLIOGRAPHY 1. M. Dunn and A. Loshakoff; J. Biol: Chem. 113: 359 (1936) 2 Me Levy; J. Biol. Chem. 99: 767° (1933) de Biol @hem: 103: 157 (1934) J. Biol. Chem. 109: 365 (1935) 3. M. Levy and D. E. Silverman; J. Biol. Chem. 118: 723 (1937) 4. J. Northrop; J. Gen. Physiol. 9: 767 (1926) 5. H. Schiff; Ann. Chem. 319: 59 (1901) Ann. Chem. 325: 348 (1902) 6S. P. L. Sorensen; Biochem. Z.; 7: 45 (1907) 7. D. D. Van Slyke and E. Kirk; J: Biol. Chem. 102: 651 (1933) A PRELIMINARY LIST OF KENTUCKY CICADELLIDAE (HOMOPTERA) Davip A. YOUNG, JR. University of Louisville, Louisville, Ky. Since the first World War, many new species of leafhoppers have been described from the United States, and several studies have been carried on to determine the distribution of these insects, many species of which are economically important. Noteworthy among such studies are those of DeLong for ‘Tennessee, Osborn and Johnson for Ohio, Medler for Minnesota, Buys for New York, Lathrop for South Carolina and DeLong for Illinois. The present study was begun while the writer was a candidate for the degree of M.S. at Cor nell University, and continued, with a con- siderable interruption during the years of World War II, to the pres- ent. The present list will receive many additions in the future, for the family is one of the largest in North America. DeLong recently estimated that the Illinois list will exceed 600 forms when complete, and it ‘s probable that the Kentucky fauna will present no fewer forms, when more completely known. Credit is due Dr. J. S. Bangson (J.S.B.) of Berea College, Miss Liza Spann (L.S.) of Murray State Teachers College, Mr. F. H. Bunce (F.H.B.) formerly at the Otter Creek Recreational Area, all of whom operated trap lights to assist in the project, and to Dr. William M. Clay (W.M.C.) of the University of Louisville who helped during a particularly profitable collecting trip near Henderson. Records of the above collectors are indicated below by the initials employed above. Mr. D. L. Harmon and Miss Genrose Haselwood, students at the University of Louisville, contributed records obtained on the Univer- sity campus. ‘These are indicated below (D.L.H. & G.H.) also. Rec- ords not credited to other collectors were obtained by the author. Dr. P. W. Oman of the National Museum identified some trouble- some specimens and made corrections on a portion of the manuscript. The writer is greatly indebted to the late Prof. P. A. Readio of Cornell University under whose kind guidance the problem was begun. The arrangement of genera into subfamilies is essentially that of the recent Evans classification.! 2 ‘Evans, J. W., A Natural Classification of Leafhoppers. ‘Trans. Roy, Ent. Soc. Lond. 96 (part 3): 47-60. 1946; 97 (part 2): 39-54. 1946; 98 (part 6): 105-271. 1947. ~A more recent reclassification appeared while this paper was in the hands of the printer: Oman, P. W. The Nearctic Leafhoppers. A Generic Classification and Index. Mem. Ent. Soc. Wash. No. 3, 253 pp., 1949. 54 A Preliminary List of Kentucky Cicadellidae The distribution cited is, in most cases, that listed by DeLong and Knull, in “Check List of the Cicadellidae of America North of Mexico.”! Where the distribution was taken from another source, the author’s name is cited in parentheses after the citation. SUBFAMILY LEDINAE Genus Xerophloeca Germar majesta Lawson. Brandenburg, Aug. 21, 1941; Louisville, Oct. 14, 1942. DISTRIBUTION: Kans., Miss., S. C., Tex. major Baker. Louisville, May 20, 1948 (G. E. Sproatt); May 2, 1948. (J. McGuire). DisTRIBUTTION: Kans., N. J., N. Y., Tenn., Va. SUBFAMILY HECALINAE Genus Parabolacralus Fieber flavidus Signoret. Louisville, Aug. 4, 1940, July 17, 1940; Berea, Sept. 7, 1941 (J-S:B.); Murray, Aug. 15, 1941 (L.S.): Pineville, July 3, 1948. Distrinution: Southeastern states and Ark., Kans. Genus Spangbergiella Signoret quadripunctata Lawson. Brandenburg, Aug. 21, 1941; Louisville, Sept. 19, 1941; Henderson, July 10, 1948. DISTRIBUTION: Ala., Ark., D. C., Fla., Kans., Ill., La., Minn. SUBFAMILY TE TTIGELLINAE Genus Carneocephala Ball flaviceps (Riley). Murray, July 18, 1941 (L.S.), July 29, 1941, July 31, 1941, Aug. I, 1941, Aug. 11, 1941, Aug. 13, 1941, Aug. 14, 1941, Aug. 15, 1941 all [-S:); Rock Haven, Sept. 21, 1940. DisTRIBUTION: Ala., Ariz., Ark., Calif., Fla., Ga., Kans., Ky., La., Miss., Mo., NED NaiViex: sOkila-; Ss iG) Wenn. lex... Va, Wis: Genus Acopsis Amyot and Serville mollipes (Say). Pactolus, Aug. 14, 1918; Grayson, Aug. 14, 1948; Middlesboro, Aug. 3, 1948. DIsTRIBUTION: Eastern and Ariz., Br. Col., Calif., Colo., Kans., Mo., N. Mex. antica (Walker). Princeton, July 25, 1948; Henderson, July 10, 1948. DisTRIBUTION: Eastern. states. constricta (Davidson and DeLong). Berea, May 29, 1941 (J.S.B.); Louisville, June 7, 1940; Brandenburg, Aug. 21, 1941; Middlesboro, July 3, 1948. Disrripution: Alberta, Fla., Ill., Ta., Kans., Ky., Me., Mich., Minn., Mo., Nebr., Nee ODO mOkKla.. Pas Oue... Whex.. Wis. producta (Walker). Kuttawa, July 25, 1948; Murray, Aug. II, 1941 (L.S.); Hen- derson, July 10, 1918; Middlesboro, July 3, 1948. DIstRIBUTION: Fla. Genus Graphocephala Van Duzee coccinea (Forster). Rock Haven, Sept. 27, 1941; Louisville, Sept. 19, 1941, Feb. 29, 1948, Nov. 1, 1942; Brandenburg, Aug. 21, 1941; Berea, Sept. 20, 1941 (J.S.B); Henderson, July 10, 1948 (W.M.C.). DistRiBUTION: Eastern and Kans., Mo., Okla., ‘Vex. versula (Say). Brandenburg, Aug. 21, 1941, Sept. 14, 1941; Louisville, Sept. 19, 1941, Oct. 14,-1941, Nov. 1, 1942; Berea, July 3, 1941 (J.S.B.); Rock Haven, Sept. 27, 1941; Murray, Aug. 13, 1941 (L.S.); Pactolus, Aug. 14, 1948; Kuttawa, July 25, 1948; Henderson, July 10, 1948 (W.M.C.). DisrriguTION: Southern states and Mo., Tex. ‘Ohio State University Press, 1945. Jt Or Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science Genus Helochara Fitch communis Fitch. Middlesboro, July 3, 1948. DistRIBUTION: Eastern states and Ariz., Calif.; Colo., N. Mex., Tex. Genus Kolla Distant bifida (Say). Berea, Sept. 7, 1941 (J.S.B.); Louisville, Aug. 21, 1941, Sept. 9, 1941, Sept. 19, 1941; Rock Haven, Sept. 27, 1941; Brandenburg, Aug. 21, 1941; Kuttawa, July 25, 1948; Grayson, Aug. 14, 1948; Henderson, July 10, 1948; Mid- dlesboro, July 3, 1948; Pineville, July 3, 1948. DisrrRiBUTION: Eastern and Kans., Mo., Nebr. geometrica (Signoret). Louisville, May 8, 1941, May 15, 1941, May 22, 1941; Grayson, Aug. 14, 1948. DistripuTion: Ark., D. C., Fla., Ill., Ky., La., Mo., Ohio, Tenn. Genus Neokolla Melichar gothica (Signoret). Louisville, May 16, 1948 (H. C. Soehner). DISTRIBUTION: Eastern and Kans., Mo. Genus Plesiommata Provancher tripunctata (Fitch). Louisville, Sept. 9, 1941, Sept. 19, 1941; Rock Haven, Sept Zip Oalr DISTRIBUTION: Eastern and Mo. Genus Aulacizes Amyot and Serville irrorata (Fab.). Middlesboro, July 3, 1948. DIstRIBUTION: Eastern and Mo., Tex. Genus Cuerna Melichar costalis (Fab.). Brandenburg, June 9, 1938, Aug. 21, 1941; Louisville, Oct. 14, 1942; Kuttawa, July 25, 1948. DisTRIBUTION: Eastern and Mo., Tex. Genus Oncometopia Stal undata (Fab.). Louisville, Oct. 14, 1942, Nov. 11, 1942; Rock Haven, June 8, 1941; Kuttawa, July 25, 1948; Henderson, July 10, 1948. DISTRIBUTION: Fla., Ga., Mass., N. J., N. Mex., N. C., Pa., Que., Tex. SuBFAMILY MACROPSINAE Genus Oncopsis Burmeister verticis (Say). Louisville, May 21, 1948, June 7, 1948. Taken on Juglans. DIsTRIBUTION: Colo., Ia., Me., Tenn. Genus Nionia Ball palmeri (Van Duzee). Middlesboro, July 3, 1948; Louisville, May 10, 1948 (J. Arnold), DISTRIBUTION: Southeastern states. SUBFAMILY AGALLILNAE Genus Aceratagallia Kirkaldy sanguinolenta (Provancher). Brandenburg, June:l, 1941, June 9, 1941, Aug. 21, 1941; Rock Haven, June 8, 1941; Murray, Apr. 18, 1941 (L.S.); Louisville, Sept. 9, 1941; Princeton, July 25, 1948 Dawson Springs, July 24, 1948; Henderson, July 10, 1948; Pineville, July 3, 1948. an) DISTRIBUTION: Canada and Eastern states to Ariz., Utah. Genus Agallia Curtis constricta Van Duzee. Louisville, Apr. 24, 1941, May 1, 1941, May 9, 1947, May 10, 1941, July 17, 1940, July 22, 1940, July 23, 1940, July 24, 1940, July 27, 1940, July 30 1941, Aug. 2, 1940, Aug. 20, 1940; Berea, June 28, 1941 (J.S.B.), July 1, 1941 (J.S.B.); Brandenburg, Apr. 17, 1941, June 1, 1941, Aug. 21, 1941; Murray, Aug. 11, 1941 (L.S.), Aug. 18, 1941 (L.S.) Aug. 19, 1941 (L.S.); Jefferson Co., May 10, 1941; Madison Co., Apr. 26. 1941; Boyle Co., Apr. 26, 1941; Rock Haven, June 8, 1941, Sept. 21, 1948; Dawson Springs, July 24, 1948; Princeton, July 25, 1948; Kuttawa, July 25, 1948; Pactolus, Aug. 14, 1948; Grayson, Aug. 14, 1948; Henderson, July 10, 1948; Middlesboro, July 3, 1948; Pineville, July 3, 1948. 56 A Preliminary List of Kentucky Cicadellidae DISTRIBUTION: Southeastern states, Ill., Ind., Ia., Nebr., Ohio, Okla., Tex. quadripunctata (Provancher). Louisville, May 8, 1941, May 9, 1947, May 10, 1941 (all females). y ‘ DisTRIBUTION: Br. Col., Calif., Canada, Colo., Ida., Northeastern States, Ore.. Se ID We ites Genus Agalliopsis Kirkaldy novella (Say). Louisville, Apr. 24, 1941, Apr. 26, 1941, May 1, 1941, May 8, 1941, July 22, 1940, Sept. 9, 1941, Sept. 19, 1941; Brandenburg, Aug. 21, 1941; Madison Co., Apr. 26, 1941; Henderson, July 10, 1948; Middlesboro, July 3, 1948. DisTRIBUTION: Eastern. states. et SUBFAMILY ITIDIOCERINAE Genus Idiocerus Lewis fitchii Van Duzee. Jefferson Co., June 25, 1940; Louisville, Aug. 4, 1940. DIsrRIBUTION: Eastern states and Ta. alternatus Fitch. Louisville, July 22, 1940. DISTRIBUTION: Eastern states and Calif., Colo., Utah. scurrus (Germar). Louisville, Aug. 20, 1947. On Lombardy poplar. DISTRIBUTION: N. Y. SUBFAMILY CICADELLINAE Genus dAlebra Fieber albostriella var. agresta McA.* Louisville, June 19, 1948, June 25, 1948 (D.L.H. & G.H.), June 29, 1948, June 10, 1947. ‘Taken on elm and sycamore. DisrripuTion: Md., Kans., Va. albostriella var. fulveola (Her.-Sch.). Murray, July 18, 1941 (L.S.); Louisville, June 7, 1941, June 10, 1947 on elm; Berea, June 30, 1941 (J.S.B.); Henderson, July 10, 1948. DIstTRIBUTION: D. C., Ill., Kans., Md., Minn., N. Y. albostriella var. pallidula (Walsh).* Louisville, June 10, 1947, July 9, 1948 (DEE cGs): DisTRiBUTION: Il]., Kans., Mass., Mo., N. Y. albostriella var. rubrafrons DeL. Jefferson Co., June 25, 1940. DisrRiBuTION: Ill., Tenn. fumida Gillette. Louisville, Aug. 6, 1940, June 19, 1948, July 24, 1941. DisrripuTION: Ill., Kans., Minn., ‘Venn. Genus Alconeura Ball and DeLong unipuncta (Gillette). Murray, July 28, 1941, July 29, 1941, Aug. 7, 1941, Aug. S941) Vall cs:): DistRIBUTION: Ala., Ariz., Calif., Fla., Miss., Ore. Genus Dikraneura Hardy abnormis (Walsh). Louisville, Apr. 24, 1941, May 15, 1941, May 22, 1941, Sept. 9, 1941; Rock Haven, June &, 1941. DistRisuTION: Conn., D. C., Ga., Tl., Ia., Kans., Mo., N. Y., Ohio, Pa., Wis., Tex. angustata Ball and DeL. Louisville, May 9, 1947, May 22, 1941, Sept. 9, 1941, Sept. 19, 1941; Rock Haven, June 8, 1941, Sept. 27, 1941; Brandenburg, June 1, 1941, Aug. 21, 1941, Sept. 14, 1941; Jefferson Co., May 10, 1941; Murray, Aug. 13, 1941 (L.S.); Middlesboro, July 3, 1948. DIsTRIBUTION: Kans., S. C., Tenn., Tex. cruentata Gillette. Rock Haven, Sept. 27, 1941; Louisville, July 30, 1940, Sept. 9, 1941, Sept. 19, 1941; Brandenburg, Sept. 14, 1941; Henderson, July 10, 1948 (W.M.C.), DisTRIBUTION: B. C., Calif., Colo., Kans., Me., Md., N. Y., Ohio, Tenn., Va. maculata Gillette. Louisville, Sept. 9, 1941, Sept. 19, 1941; Berea, Oct. 6, 1941] (J.S.B.); Rock Haven, Sept. 27, 1941; Brandenburg, Sept. 14, 1941. * Previously reported in Ky. Nat. 3: 19. 1948. Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science DisTRIBUTION: La., Eastern U. S. (DeL. and Caldwell). Genus Empoasca Walsh bifurcata DeL. Middlesboro, July 3, 1948. DistripuTION: Ala., Del., D.C., Fla., Kans., Mass., Miss., N. J., Pa., Wis. convergens DeL. and Davidson. Henderson, July 10, 1948. DIsTRIBUTION: Can., Ohio. decurvata Dav. and DeL. Louisville, Sept. 19, 1941. DIsTRIBUTION: Kans., Tenn. fabae Harris. Henderson, July 10, 1948 (W.M.C.); Berea, June 25, 1941 (J.S.B.), Aug. 30, 1941 (J.S.B.); Louisville, July 25, 1940, July 24, 1940, Aug. 5, 1941, Aug. 20, 1940; Murray, July 31, 1941, Aug. 11, 194], Aug. 14, 1941, Aug. 18, 1941 (all L:sS:). DistRIBUTION: Ala., Ark., D.C., Fla., Ill., La., Mass., Mich., Pa., Va. patula DeL. Louisville, June 7, 1941. DisTRIBUTION: Me., Pa., Venn. pergandei Gillette. Rock Haven, May 24, 1941, July 17, 1940. DistripuTion: Colo., Conn., Mass., Pa. trifasciata Gillette. Jefferson Co., June 25, 1940. DISTRIBUTION: II]l., Ia., Kans., Mass., Mo. Genus Erythroneura Fitch aclys McA.* Louisville, May 22, 1947, June 21, 1948, July 1, 1948; Brandenburg, Sept. 14, 1941; Henderson, July 10, 1948. Several of the records from Cercis. DIsTRIBUTION: ‘Throughout U. S., east of the Rocky Mountains (Beamer). acuticephala Rob. Henderson, July 10, 1948 (W.M.C.). DIsTRIBUTION: Kans., Minn. (Beamer). affinis Fitch. Louisville, Sept. 9, 1941, Sept. 19, 1941; Henderson, July 10, 1948. DIstRIBUTION: Kans., Ohio. albescens Beamer. Louisville, Sept. 9, 1941, Sept. 19, 1941. DistripuTion: Ill., Kans., Okla., Ohio (Beamer and DeL.) atra Johnson. Murray, July 28, 1941 (L.S.); Louisville, Sept. 19, 1941; Hender- son, July 10, 1948 (W.M.C.). DisTRIBUTION: Onio. beameri Rob. Louisville, Sept. 9, 1941, Sept. 19, 1941; Rock Haven, Sept. 27, 1941; Henderson, July 10, 1948 (W.M.C.). DistripuTion: U. S. east of the Rocky Mountains (Beamer). bella McA. Louisville, Sept. 9, 1941, Sept. 19, 1941; Rock Haven, Sept. 27, 1941; Brandenburg, Sept. 14, 1941. DIstRIBUTION: Md., Ohio. bicornis Beamer. Rock Haven, Sept. 27, 1941. Disrripution: Ill, Md. bidens McA. Henderson, July 10, 1948. DistripuTion: Md., Va. bistrata var. stricta McA.* Louisville, June 21, 1948 from Cercis; Henderson, July 10, 1948. DISTRIBUTION: Colo., Ind., Ja., Kans., Md., Pa. brundusa Rob. Henderson, July 10, 1948 (W.M.C.). DistriputTion: Kans. (DeL. and Knull), Ohio (Johnson). calycula McA. Rock Haven, Sept. 27, 1941; Murray, July 31, 1941 (L.S.), Aug. 7, 1941 (L.S.); Louisville, Sept. 19, 1941, Feb. 17, 1948; Henderson, July 10, 1948. DistRiBUTION: Throughout the eastern half of U. S. and Canada (Beamer). campora Rob.* Louisville, Aug. 16, 1948 (D.L.H. and G.H.). DistripuTion: Ark., Kans., Nebr., N. Y., Ohio, Ont. * Previously reported in Ky. Nat. 3: 19. 1948. 58 A Preliminary List of Kentucky Cicadellidae comes (Say). Henderson, July 10, 1948 (W.M.C.). DistRiBuUTION: Throughout U. S. east of the Rocky Mountains (Beamer). compta McA. Henderson, July 10, 1948 (author and W.M.C.). DisrrinuTiON: Ala., Ill., Ind., Kans., Mich., Miss., Ohio, Ont. cornt Rob.* Louisville, July 7, 1948, July 9, 1948 (both D.L.H. & G.H.), July 1, 1948. DistRIBUTION: Kans., Nebr., Ohio. cuneata Beamer. Henderson, July 10, 1948. DIstRIBUTION: Okla. cymbium McA. Rock Haven, Sept. 27, 1941; Louisville, July 17, 1940; Hender- son, July 10, 1948 (W.M.C.). DistRIBUTION: Eastern half of the U.S. (Beamer). cymbium var. disjuncta McA. Henderson, July 10, 1948. DistRiBuTION: Kans., Pa. (DeL. and Knull), La., Ill. (Beamer). delictata McA. Henderson, July 10, 1948. DisrripuTion: U. S. east of the Rocky Mountains (Beamer). delicata var. accepta McA. Henderson, July 10, 1948. DisrRiBUTION: As in delicata (Beamer). diffisa Beamer, Henderson, July 10, 1948. DisrriputTion: Kans., Ohio, Okla., Tenn. diva McA. Louisville, Aug. 4, 1940. DistRIBUTION: Eastern half of U. S. (Beamer). elegans McA.* Louisville, June 23, 1948 (D.L.H. & G.H.). DisrriButtion: ‘Phroughout most of U. S. (Beamer). eluta McA. Henderson, July 10, 1948. DisrrimuTion: Tl., Ind., Va. festiva Beamer. Brandenburg, Sept. 14, 1941; Henderson, July 10, 1948 (W.M.C.). DisrripuTion: Ill., La., Kans., Ark., Tenn. (Beamer). fraxa Rob. Louisville, Sept. 19, 1941; Henderson, July 10, 1948. Disrripution: Kans., Ark., Ill. (Beamer). fulmina McA. Henderson, July 10, 1948 (W.M.C.). Disrripution: Md., Ill., Kans. fulvocephala Rob.* Louisville, Aug. 16, 1948 (D.L.H. & G.H.). DistRIBUTION: Kans. (DeL. and Knull), Ohio (Johnson). gleditsia Beamer. Henderson, July 10, 1948. DistRIBUTION: Ohio, Okla. harpax Beamer. Henderson, July 10, 1948 (W.M.C.). DisrRiBUTION: D. C., Ohio, ‘Venn. illinoiensis var. illinoiensis (Gillette). Louisville, Feb. 17, 1948, Sept. 8, 1941, Oct. 12, 1940; Henderson, July 10, 1948. DisrRiBUTION: III. illinoiensis var. spectra McA. Henderson, July 10, 1948. Disrripution: Md., Ohio, Va. infuscata (Gillette). Berea, June 27, 1941 (J.S.B.), June 30, 1941 (J.S.B.), Sept. 18, 1941 (J.S.B.); Henderson, July 10, 1948. DisTRIBUTION: Throughout U. S. east of the Rocky Mountains (Beamer). integra McA. Henderson, July 10, 1948 (W.M.C.). Disrripution: ‘Throughout eastern half of U. S. (Beamer). kansana var. kansana Baker.* Louisville, Aug. 16, 1948 (D.L.H. & G.H.), Sept. 19, 1941, Oct. 12, 1940; Brandenburg, Apr. 14, 1941. Distripution: Conn., Kans., Md., Mo., Ohio, ‘Venn., Va. * Previously reported in Ky. Nat. 3: 19. 1948. 59 Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science kanza Rob. Louisville, May 22, 1941, Sept. 9, 1941, Sept. 19, 1941; Rock Haven, Septepedny osde DisrriputTioN: Kans., Nebr., Ohio. lawsoni Rob.* Louisville, June 29, 1948 (D.L.H. & G. H.), July 15, 1948, July 26, 1948 (both D.L.H. & G.H.); Henderson, July 10, 1948 (W.M.C.). DisrriputTion: Ark., D. C., TL, Ta., Kans., Md., Ohio, Okla. lawsoniana Baker. July 24, 1940, Aug. 2, 1940, Sept. 30, 1940. DisrriBuTION: Calif., Conn., Tl., Kans., Md., Minn., Mo., Nebr., N. C., Ont., Tenn., Va. morgani DeL.* Louisville, June 29, 1948, July 15, 1948 (both D.L.H. & G.H.), Sept. 9, 1941, Sept. 19, 1941; Brandenburg, Sept. 14, 1941; Henderson, July 10, 1948 (W.M.C,). DisTRIBUTION: Ohio, Tenn. nigra Gillette. Rock Haven, Sept. 27, 1941; Brandenburg, Sept. 14, 1941; Hen- derson, July 10, 1948 (W.M.C.). DistRIBUTION: Colo., Conn., Ill., la., Kans., Md., Nebr., N. Y., Va., (DeL. and Knull), Ohio (Johnson). nigra var. decora McA. Brandenburg, Sept. 14, 1941; Henderson, July 10, 1948 (W.M.C.). DistripuTION: Md. (DeL. and Knull), Ohio (Johnson). nigerrima McA. Henderson, July 10, 1948 (W.M.C.). Distripution: Colo., Conn., Ill., Ia., Kans., Md., Nebr., N. Y., Va., (DeL. and Knull), Ohio (Johnson). noeva (Gillette). Louisville, Apr. 24, 1941, July 17, 1940, July 22, 1940, Sept. 9, 1941. DisrrRiBuTION: Calif., Colo., Conn., Ill., Ind., Kans., Md., Nebr.. Ont., ‘Tenn. (DeL. and Knull), Ohio (Johnson). nudata McA. Brandenburg, Sept. 14, 1941; Henderson, July 10, 1948 (W.M.C.). DisrRIRUTION: ‘Throughout the eastern half of the U. S. (Beamer). obliqua (Say). Louisville, July 28, 1940, Sept. 9, 1941, Sept. 19, 1941; Boyle Co., Apr. 26, 1941; Rock Haven, Sept. 27, 1941. DistRIBUTION: Can., United States. omaska Rob. Henderson, July 10, 1948. DistripuTion: ‘Throughout U. S. east of the Rocky Mountains (Beamer). osborni (DeL.). Henderson, July 10, 1948. DisrriButTion: Ark., Hl., Ohio, ‘Tenn. quadraia Beamer. Henderson, July 10, 1948 (W.M.C.). DisrripuTion: Ill., Kans. (DeL. and Knull), Okla. (Beamer). rubens Beamer.* Louisville, June 25, 1948 (D.L.H. & G.H.); Brandenburg, Sept. 14, 1941. DIsTRIBUTION: II. rubra (Gillette). Louisville, Sept. 19, 1941; Rock Haven, Sept. 27, 1941; Hen- derson, July 10, 1948. DisrRiBUTION: Throughout the eastern two-thirds of U. §. and Canada (Beamer). rufostigmosa var. subnubila Beamer. Brandenburg, Sept. 14, 1941. Disrripution: Tl., Kans. (DeL. and Knull), Ohio (Johnson). scissa Beamer. Henderson, July 10, 1948 (W.M.C,). DisrRIBUTION: Ark., I. stolata McA. Rock Haven, Sept. 27, 1941. DistRIBUTION: Kans., Ia., Md. (Beamer), Ohio (Johnson). tenuispica Beamer. Henderson, July 10, 1948. DisTRIBUTION: Kans. (Beamer), Ohio (Johnson). * Previously reported in Ky. Nat. 3: 19. 1948. 60 A Preliminary List of Kentucky Cicadellidae lricincla Fitch. Rock Haven, Sept. 27, 1941; Louisville, Feb. 17, burg, Sept. 14, 1941; Henderson, July 10, 1948 (W.M.C.). Disrrinurtion: Throughout the eastern half of U.S. and Canada (Beamer). unicus pidis Beamer. Henderson, July 10, 1948 (W.M.C.). DisrRiBUTION: Kans., Ill. (Beamer), Ohio (Johnson). 1948; Branden- vaga Johnson. Henderson, July 10, 1948. DisrriputioN: Ohio (Johnson), La., Ark., Ill., Kans. (Beamer). vitis (Harris).* Berea, July 3, 1941, Sept. 3, 1941, Sept. 28, 1941, Oct. 1, 1941, Oct. 6, 1941 (All J.S.B.); Louisville, Sept. 19, 1941, June 23, 1948 (D.L.H. & G.H.), May 22, 1947; Brandenburg, Sept. 14, 1941; Henderson, July 10, 1948 (W.M.C.). DistrRiputton: Throughout U.S. east of the Rocky Mountains (Beamer). vitis var. corona McA.* Louisville, June 23, 1948 (D.L.H. & G.H.), Sept. 9, 1941; Berea, Oct. 4, 1941 (J.S.B.); Henderson, July 10, 1948. DisrriBuTION: As in vitis. vulnerata Fitch.* Louisville, June 23, 1948 (D.L.H. & G.H.), July 17, 1940, July 22, 1940, July 28, 1940, July 30, 1940, Aug. 6, 1940, Sept. 9, 1941; Berea, mers Loa june 0 OL Miuly 3, LOL july 7 194 Sept 75 L9LIl Sept. 15; 1941; Sept. 20; 1941, Oct. 1, 1941, Oct. 6, 1941, Oct. 8, 1941, Oct. 28,1941 (all J.S.B.); Murray, July 18, 1941 (L.S.); Brandenburg, Sept. 14, 1941; Henderson, July 10, 1948 (W.M.C.). DistRIBUTION: Canada and United States. ziczac Walsh. Henderson, July 10, 1948 (W.M.C.). DisrrRipuTion: Ill., Calif., Colo., Ia., Kans., Md., Mich., Miss, Nebr., Ont. Genus Forcipata DeLong and Caldwell loca DeL. and Caldwell. Louisville, May 15, 1941, May 16, 1941, May 22, 1941, Sept. 9, 1941, Sept. 19, 1941, July 17, 1940; Jefferson Co., May 10, 1941, Berea, June 27, 1941, July 7, 1941, Oct. 6, 1941 (all J.S:B.); Brandenburg, Aug: 21, 1941; Rock Haven, Sept. 27, 1941; Middlesboro, July 3, 1948; Henderson, July 10, 1948 (W.M.C. and author). DisrRIBUTION: Eastern states and Canada. Genus Hymetla McAtee balteata var. balteala McA.* Rock Haven, Sept. 27, 1941; Louisville, June 23, - 1948, July 9, 1948 (both D.L.H. & G.H.)* Henderson, July 10, 1948. DISTRIBUTION: D. C., Kans., Md., Tex., Va. balteata var. anthisma McA. Rock Haven, Sept. 27, 1941; Henderson, July 10, 1948. DistRIBUTION: Md., ‘Tex. distincta Fairbairn. Henderson, July 10, 1918. DistRIBUTION: United States. Genus Typhlocyba Germar arisnoe McA. Henderson, July 10, 1948 (W.M.C.). DISTRIBUTION: Mass. danae McA. Berea, June 28, 1941, July 3, 1941, June 14, 1941 (all J.S.B.); DisrRIBUTION: N. Y., Va. gillettei var. apicata McA. Louisville, June 10, 1947. DisTRIBUTION: D. C..,. Ill., Ia.. Kans., Md., Ont., Va., Wisc. (McA.), Ohio (Johnson). gillettei var. casta McA. Berea, May 31, 1941, June 19, 1941, June 27, 1941 (all J.S.B.). DistTRiBUTION: Ill., Ia., Kans., Md., Mass., Mich., N. Y., Ont., Wis., Va. (McAtee), Ohio (Johnson). hockingensis Knull. Louisville, June 7, 1941, July 28, 1940. DIsTRIBUTION: Ohio, ‘Tenn. * Previously reported in Ky. Nat. 3: 19. 1948. 61 Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science modes'a Gibson. Louisville, June 27, 1940. DisrrrButION: HL, Ia., La., Mo., Va. (McAtee), Ohio (Johnson). piscator McA. Brandenburg, Sept. 14, 1941. DisrrizuTIon: Ill., Ia. (McAtee). pomaria McAtee. Louisville, Oct. 12, 1940. DisTRIBUTION: Eastern states and Ark., Colo., Kans. SuBFAMILY COELIDITNAE Genus Coelidia Germar olitoria (Say). Louisville, Sept. 9, 1941; Sept. 19, 1941; Rock Haven, Sept. 27, 1941; Henderson, July 10, 1948 (W.M.C.). DisTRIBUTION: Ariz., Eastern and Kans., Mo. SuBFAMILY JASSINAE Genus Gyponana Ball octolineata (Say). Louisville, July 24, 1940. DISTRIBUTION: N. Y., Pa. vincula DeL. Henderson, July 10, 1948; Louisville, July 22, 1940. DiIsrRIBUTION: Conn., Kans., Nebr., Pa., Tex., Utah, Wis. Genus Ponana Ball limonea Ball and Reeves. Berea, May 31, 1941 (J.S.B.). DISTRIBUTION: Ohio. quadralaba DeL. Louisville, Aug. 22, 1947. DistBipuTIoN: Ariz., Nebr., N. J., Ohio, Tenn., ‘Tex. Genus Rugosana DeLong querci DeL. Berea, Sept. 21, 1941 (J.S.B.). DIstRIBUTION: Ariz., Fla., Md., Mich., Miss., Ohio, Pa., ‘Tex., Utah. SUBFAMILY EUSCELINAE Genus Aligia Ball modesta (Osborn and Ball). Murray, July 18, 1941 (L.S.), July 21, 1941 (L.S.). DISTRIBUTION: D:C., Ia., N. C., Pa. Genus Amodlysellus Sleesman curtisit (Fitch). Louisville, Sept. 19, 1941; Brandenburg, June 1, 1941. DIsTRIBUTION: Northeastern states and Ia., Mo., Tenn. Genus Amplicephalus DeLong estacadus (Ball). Louisville, Sept. 9, 1941, Sept. 19, 1941. DistTRIBUTION: ‘Tenn., Tex. Genus Chlorotettix Van Duzee borealis Sanders and DeL. Pineville, July 3, 1948. DISTRIBUTION: Wis. tunicatus Ball. Rock Haven, Sept. 21, 1940. DisTRIBUTION: Ark., Fla., Kans., La., Mo., N. C., Tenn., Tex. viridius Van Duzee. Murray, July 18, 1941, July 29, 1941, Aug. 7, 1941, (all L.S.); Louisville, Aug. 4, 1940; Berea, Oct. 1, 1941 (J.S.B.); Brandenburg, Aug. 21, 1941; Rock Haven, June 8, 1941, Sept. 21, 1940. DistRIBUTION: Ark., Mich., and N. Y. to Fla., and west to Kans. and Tex. vacunus Crumb. Rock Haven, Sept. 21, 1940. DISTRIBUTION: ‘Tenn. lusorius (Osb. and Ball). Louisville, Sept. 9, 1941. DisrRiBUTION: Northeastern states and Colo., Ia., Utah. necopinus Van Duzee. Louisville, Sept. 19, 1941; Henderson, July 10, 1948 (W.M.C.). DISTRIBUTION: Southeastern states, A Preliminary List of Kentucky Cicadellidae oF rugicollis Ball. Louisville, July 27, 1940. DIsTRIBUTION: Fla., N. J., Tex. galbanatus Van Duzee. Brandenburg, June 1, 1941, Aug. 21, 1941; Berea, Oct. 6 1941 (J.S.B.); Louisville, July 22, 1940, July 27, 1940, sept. 9, 1941, Sept. 19, 1941, Sept. 30, 1940, Oct. 14, 1942; Rock Haven, Sept. 21, 1940, Sept. 27, 1941; Kuttawa, July 25, 1948: Grayson, Aug. 14, 1948; Pactolus, Aug. 14, 1948; Hen- derson, July 10, 1948; Middlesboro, July 3, 1948. DisTRIBUTION: Eastern and Ta., Mont., N. D. balli Osborn. Louisville, Sept. 9, 1941. DisrRiBUTION: Ia., Ohio, Tenn. Genus Colladonus Ball clitellarius (Say). Berea, May 20, 1941, Aug. 30, 1941, Oct. 8, 1941, Oct. 22, 1941 (all J.S.B.); Louisville, May 22, 1941, June 7, 1941, July 24, 1940, July 30, 1940, Aug. 4, 1940, Aug. 20, 1940; Rock Haven Sept. 21, 1940. ee DistrRiBUuTION: Colo., Kans., eastern, Mo. Genus Deltocephalus Burmeister balli Van Duzee. Murray, Aug. 11-13 incl., 1941, Aug. 15, 1941 (all L.S.); Louis- ville; June 7, 1941, July 22- of incl., 1940, Aug. 4, 1940, Aug. 20, 1940, Aug. 27, 1940; Rock Haven, May 24, 1941 (F.H.B.), Sept. 21, 1940; Brandenburg, Aug. 21, 1941; Henderson, July 10, 1948. DistRIBUTION: Ia., Ohio, Pa., Wis. flavicosta Stal. Murray, July 28, 1941 (L.S.), Aug. 19, 1941 (L.S.); Brandenburg, Aug. 21, 1941; Louisville, June 7, 1941, July 97, 1940, July 30, 1940; Berea, June 28, 1941 (J.S.B.): Kuttawa, July 25, 1948; Dawson Springs, July 24, 1948; Pactolus, Aug. 14, 1948; Grayson, Aug. 14, 1948; Henderson, July 10, 1948 (W.M.C.); Maddlesboro, July 3, 1948. DisrripuTION: Eastern and Ia., southern and Kans., Mo. melsheimerii (Fitch). Rock Haven, June 8, 1941. DisTRIBUTION: Colo., Ia., Kans., and Me. to Gulf Coast. sonorus Ball. Murray, July 31, 1941, Aug. 4, 1941, Aug. 6, 1941, Aug. 8, 1941, Aug. 14, 1941, Aug. 15, 1941 (all L.S.); Brandenburg Aug. 21, 1941; Rock Haven, June 8, 1941, Sept. 27, 1941. DISTRIBUTION: Ariz., Calif., Fla., Kans., Miss., N. Mex., N. C., S. D., Tenn., Tex. sylvestris Osborn and Ball. (Determined in part by Dr. P. W. Oman). Bran- denburg, June 1, 1941, Aug. 21, 1941; Rock Haven, May 24, 1941 (F.H.B.); Louisville, May 22, 1941, May 30, 1941, Sept. 9, 1941; Middlesboro, July 3, 1948. DisrrinuTiON: la., Me., and Gr. Lakes to Gulf Coast. uhleri Oman, Louisville, May 15, 1941. DISTRIBUTION: Colo:, Ta., Kans., Me., Mo., N. Y., N. H., Ont., Pa., Tenn. Genus Doleranus Ball vividus (Crumb). Berea, June 30, 1941 (J.S.B.), July 7, 1941 (J.S.B.); Murray, July si, 1941 (L:S:): DistRIBUTION: Kans., Ohio, S. C., Tenn. longulus (Gill. and Baker). Jefferson Co., May 10, 1941; Rock Haven, Sept. 27, 1941; Louisville, May 22, 1941. DistTRIBUTION: Colo., Ta., Kans., Pa., Tenn. Genus Driotura Osb. and Ball gammaroides (Van D.). Dawson Springs, July 24, 1948; Pineville, July 3, 1948. DisrrinuTion: East of Rockies. gammaroides var. fulva Ball. Dawson Springs, July 24, 1948; Pineville, July 3, 1948. DisrriputTion: Colo., Tl., Kans., Tenn., Tex., Utah. Genus Exitianus Ball obscurinervis (Stal.). Rock Haven, Sept. 21, 1940; Berea, June 27, 1941 (J.S.B.), June 30, 1941 (J.S.B.), July 7, 1941 (J.S.B.); Murray, July 30, 1941 (L.S.), July 63 Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Sciénce 31, 1941, Aug. 1, 1941, Aug] 4, 1941, Aug. 11, 1941, Aug. 18, 1941, Aug. 19, 1941 (all L.S.); Louisville, Aug. 6, 1940; Brandenburg, Aug. 21, 1941. DistRiBUTION: Throughout U. S., Haiti, Mex. Genus Ficberiella Signoret florii (Stal.). Louisville, July 24, 1940, Aug. 20, 1947. DisTRIBUTION: Conn., Il. Genus Flexamia DeLong areolata Ball. Louisville, Sept. 9, 1941. DistRIBUTION: Ariz., Kans., Mo., N. Y., S. C., to Miss. sandersi. (Osborn). Rock Haven, June 8, 1941; Pineville, July 3, 1948. DIstRIBUTION: Conn., Miss. to Gulf, Ohio, -Pa., ‘Penn. stylata (Ball). Brandenburg, June I, 1941. DISTRIBUTION: la., Neb. picta (Osborn). Rock Haven, June 8, 1941; Brandenburg, June 9, 1938; Daw- son Springs, July 24, 1948. DIsrRIBUTION: Kans., Md., Miss., N. Y., Ohio, Pa., Tenn., Va. Genus Graminella DeLong fitchii (Van D.). Pactolus, Aug. 14, 19148; Middlesboro, July 3, 1948. DisTRIBUTION: Eastern and Ia., Kans. nigrifrons (Forbes) (determined in part by Dr. P. W. Oman). Murray, Aug. II, 1941, Aug. 12, 1941, Aug. 15, 1941 (all L.S.); Louisville, July 17, 1940, July 24, 1940, Aug. 4, 1940, Aug. 20, 1940; Brandenburg, June I, 1941; Berea, June 25, 1941 (J.S.B.); Grayson, Aug. 14, 1948; Pactolus, Aug. 14, 1948; Henderson, July 10, 1948 (W.M.C.); Middlesboro, July 3, 1948. DistRiBUTION: Eastern and Colo., Ia. pallidula (Osborn). Louisville, July 22, 1940. DisTRIBUTION: ITa., Pa. Genus Idiodonus Ball subcupraeus (Provancher). Louisville, June 7, 1941. DISTRIBUTION: East coast. kennicottii (Uhler). Rock Haven, May 24, 1941 (F.H.B.). DistRIBUTION: Eastern states and Br. Col., Colo. Genus lowanus Ball majestus (Osb. and Ball). Louisville, Sept. 19, 1941. DIstRIBUTION: Ia., N. J., N. C., Ohio, Tex. Genus Latalus DeLong and Sleesman sayi (Fitch). Louisville, May 15, 1941, May 30, 1941, Sept. 9, 1941 Brandenburg, June 1, 1941; Rock Haven, Sept. 27, 1941. DistripuTion: Colo., Dak., Ia., Kans., Ky., Me., Mass., Miss., Mo., N. H., N. J., N. G., Ohio, Ont., Pa., Que., ‘Venn. Genus Alenosoma Ball cincta (Osb. and Ball). Louisville, Aug. 4, 1940, Sept. 20, 1940, July 6, 1948; Rock Haven, Sept. 21, 1940; Henderson, July 10, 1948 (W.M.C.). DistRIBUTION: Eastern and Colo., Ta., ‘Vex. Genus Norvellina Ball helenae Ball. Louisville, June 7, 1941, July 24, 1940; Rock Haven, May 22, 1941 (F.H.B.), May 24, 1941. DisTRIBUTION: Fla., Ky., Mo., Tex. seminuda (Say). Jefferson Co., June 25, 1940; Louisville, July 24, 1940, July 30, 1940, Aug. 6, 1940, Aug. 20, 1940, Sept. 30, 1940, Oct. 12, 1940; Rock Haven, May 24, 1941 (F.H.B.); Berea, May 29, 1941 (J.S.B.), June 12, 1941, Oct. 6, 1941 (both J.S.B.); Brandenburg, May 26, 1941; Henderson, July 10, 1948. DIsTRIBUTION: Eastern and Ia., Kans., Mo., Tex. Genus Opsius Fieber stactogalus Fieber. Louisville, May 5, 1941, June 7, 1941, Oct. 12, 1940. DIstRIBUTION: Coast to coast. : 64 A Preliminary List of Kentucky Cicadellidae Genus Paraphlepsius Baker slossonae (Ball). Rock Haven, Sept. 21, 1940. DISTRIBUTION: Fla., N..C., S. CG. fuscipennis (Van D.). Louisville, July 24, 1940, July 30, 1940. DistripuTION: N. Y., eastern to Fla. humidus (Van D.). Louisville, July 17, 1940; Kuttawa, July 25, 1948. DIsTRIBUTION: Conn., Me., Md., N. H., N. Y., Ohio, Pa., Tenn. collitus (Ball). Louisville, June 7, 1941, July 24, 1940, July 30, 1940, Aug. 20, 1940; Berea, May 20, 1941. (J.S.B.), May 28, 1941, June 21, 1941 (both J.S.B.); Rock Haven, May 24, 1941 (F.H.B.), Sept. 21, 1940; Brandenburg, June 1, 1941; Henderson, July 10, 1948. DisrripuTion: Me. to Fla. and west to Ia. irroratus (Say). Berea, May 20, 1941, May 23, 1941, May 29, 1941, June 25, 1941, June 27, 1941, Sept. 7, 1941 (all J.S.B.); Murray, Aug. 1, 1941, Aug. 6, 1941 (both L.S.); Louisville, May 15, 1941, July 22, 1940, July 24, 1940, Aug. 4, 1940; Rock Haven, Sept. 21, 1940; Brandenburg, Aug. 21, 1941; Princeton, July 25, 1948; Kuttawa, July 25, 1948; Dawson Springs, July 24, 1948. DistRIBUTION: Coast to coast. pusillus (Baker). Dawson Springs, July 24, 1948. DISTRIBUTION: D. C., Md., N. C. rossi (?) (DeL.). Louisville, Sept. 9, 1941. DistRiBUTION: Conn., IIL. tenessus (DeL.). Henderson, July 10, 1948 (\W.M.C.). DistRIBUTION: D.C., N. C., Ohio. Genus Polyamia DeLong interrupta DeL. Jefferson Co., June 25, 1940. DISTRIBUTION: Ill., Mass., N. Y., N. C., Ohio, Pa., ‘Tenn. inimica (Say). Louisville, July 24, 1940; Berea, May 31, 1941, June 27, 1941 (both J.S.B.); Murray, July 30, 1941, July 31, 1941, Aug. 14, 1941, Aug. 19, 1941 (all L.S.); Kuttawa, July 25, 1948; Henderson, July 10, 1948. DISTRIBUTION: Coast to coast. apicalis (Osb.). Rock Haven, June 8, 1941; Henderson, July 10, 1948. DisTRIBUTION: Eastern and Md., Vt. compacta (Osb. and Ball). Brandenburg, June 1, 1941; Rock Haven, June 8, 1941; Grayson, Aug. 14, 1948; Kuttawa, July 25, 1948. DisrRIBUTION: Eastern and Ta., Kans., Wis. oblecta (Osb. and Ball), Brandenburg, June 1, 1941, Aug. 21, 1941; Murray, July 18, 1941, Aug. 11, 1941, Aug. 15, 1941 (all L.S.); Pineville, July 3, 1948. DistRIBUTION: Eastern and Ta., Kans., Mo. similaris Del. and Davidson. Dawson Springs, July 24, 1948. DistRipuTion: Tll., Lenn. weedi (Van Duzee). Murray, July 18, 1941, July 28, 1941, July 29, 1941, July 30, 1941, Aug. 1, 1941, Aue. 4-8 incl., 1941, Aug. I1, 1941, Aug. 13, 1941, Aug. 19, 1941 (all L.S.); Brandenburg, June 1, 1941, Aug. 21, 1941; Rock Haven, June 8, 1941; Kuttawa, July 25, 1948; Dawson Springs, July 24, 1948; Middlesboro, July 3, 1948. DisrriputTion: Eastern and Ta., Kans., Miss. Genus Psammotettix Haupt striatus (L.). Louisville, May 22, 1941; Berea, June 27, 1941 (J.S.B.); Rock Haven, Sept. 27, 1941. DISTRIBUTION: Coast to coast. Genus Scleroracus Van Duzee anthracina (Van Duzee). Rock Haven, June 8, 1941. DIsTRIBUTION: Northeastern states and Colo., Ia., Kans. Genus Stirellus Osborn and Ball bicolor (Van Duzee). Brandenburg, Aug. 21, 1941; Murray, Aug. 11, 1941 (L.S.), 65 Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science Aug. 15, 1941 (L.S.); Dawson Springs, July 24, 1948; Pineville, July 3, 1948. DIsTRIBUTION: Kans., Miss., N. J., and Md. to Ia. and Nebr. and south. dixianus var. acutus Thomas. Louisville, Sept. 9, 1941. DistripuTION: Ala., Fla., Miss. obtutus (Van Duzee). Brandenburg, Aug. 21, 1941, Sept. 14, 1941; Louisville, May 15, 1941, Sept. 9, 1941, Sept. 19, 1941; Jefferson Co., May 10, 1941; Rock Haven, Sept. 27, 1941. DistRIBUTION: Miss., throughout the South and Southwest. Genus Texananus Ball decorus (Osb. and Ball). Pineville, July 3, 1948: DISTRIBUTION: Fla., Ill., Ia., Me., N. C., Ohio, Tenn. Genus Unerus DeLong colonus (Uhler). Rock Haven, Sept. 27, 1941; Louisville, Sept. 19, 1941; Murray, July 18, 1941 (L.S.): Aug. 6, 1941, Aug. 7, 1941, Aug. 11, 1941 (all L.S.); Berea, Sept. 7. 1941 (J.S.B.): Brandenburg, Sept. 14, 1941. DIstRIBUTION: Fla., Tenn. Genus Acurhinus Osborn pyrops (Crumb). Dawson Springs, July 24, 1948. DisrRIBUTION: Md., N. C., Ohio, Pa., Tenn., Va. Genus Cloanthanus Ball scriptus (Ball). Berea, May 27, 1941 (J.S.B.). DistRIBUTION: Kans., Tenn. fulvus (2) (Osborn). Brandenburg, June 1, 1941; Rock Haven, Sept. 21, 1940. DistRIBUTION: N.Y., Ohio, Pa. acutus (Say). Rock Haven, June 8, 1941, Sept. 21, 1940; Louisville, Sept. 9, 1941. DisTRIBUTION: Eastern states and Br. Col., Calif., Colo., Mo., Kans., Utah. cuprescens (Osborn). Rock Haven, Sept. 21, 1941, Sept. 27, 1941. DIsTRIBUTION: Colo., Me., N. Y., N. G., Ont., Que., Tenn. frontalis (Van Duzee). Rock Haven, May 24, 1941 (F.H.B.), June 8, 1941, Sept. 21, 1940° Brandenburg, June 1, 1941, Aug. 21, 1941; Berea, Sept. 14, 1941 (J.S.B.); Louisville, June 7, 1941; Kuttawa, July 25, 1948; Grayson, Aug. 14, 1948; Pactolus, Aug. 14, 1948: Pineville, July 3, 1948. DISTRIBUTION: Eastern and Calif., Ta., Kans., Mo. cinereus (Osborn and Ball). Murray, July 29, 1941 (L.S.); Louisville, June 7, 1941; Princeton, July 25, 1948; Pineville, July 3, 1948. DIsPRIBUTION: Ariz., Fla., Ta., Kans., Nebr., N. €., Tenn. Genus Japananus Ball c hyalinus Osborn. Murray, July 28, 1941, July 30, 1941, July 31, 1941, Aug. II, 1941, Aug. 14, 1941, Aug. 18, 1941 (all L.S.); Louisville, June 25, 1940, July 17, 1940; July 22) 1940; July 24, 1942° July 27, 1940, Sept. 30, 11940: Distripution: D. C., Tl., Ohio, Pa. Genus Afesamia Osborn nigridorsum Ball. Louisville, June 2, 1948 (H. L. Bockman). DisTRIBUTION: Eastern states and Colo., Dak., Ia., Kans., Utah. Genus Osbornellus Ball auronitens (Uhler). Louisville, Sept. 19, 1941; Henderson, July 10, 1948 (W.M.C.). Cidee DistRiBuTION: Eastern states only. consors (Uhler). Berea, July 4, 1941 (J.S.B.); Louisville, May 20, 1940; Hender- son, July 10, 1948 (W.M.C)). DIstRIBUTION: Eastern and Colo., Il., Tex., Utah. clarus Beamer. Rock Haven, Sept. 27, 1941. DisrrrBuTION: Ala., Ariz., D. C., Fla., Ga., Kans.. Ky., La., Md., Miss., S. C. rotundus Beamer. Henderson, July 10, 1948 (W.M.C.). DsITRIBUTION: Ala., Conn., D. C., Fla., Ga., Miss., S. CG. 66 A Preliminary List of Kentucky Cicadellidae Genus Sanclanus Ball sanctus (Say). Previously reported from Ky., but not seen by author. Genus Scaphoideus Uhler dilatus DeL. and Mohr. Louisville, July 22, 1940, July 23, 1940, July 24, 1940, July 27, 1940, July 28, 1940, July 30, 1940. Dist RIBUTION: Pa. diutius DeL. and Mohr. Henderson, July 10, 1948 (W.M.C.). DisrRiBUTION: T1L., Pa. immistus (Say). Louisville, June 17, 1940, July 23, 1940; Berea, June 25, 1941 (J-8-B.); Brandenburg, Sept. 14, 1941. DistRiBUTION: Eastern and Calif., Colo., la., Kans., Mo., Tex. productus Osborn. Previously taken in Ky. Not seen by author. Genus Xeslocephalus Van Duzee pulicarius Van D. Rock Haven, Sept. 9, 1941, Sept. 27, 1941; Louisville, Jan. 22, 1940, July 17, 1940, Sept. 9, 1941; Murray, Aug. 14, 1941, Aug. 15, 1941 (both L.S.); Berea, June 27, 1941, July 3, 1941, Oct. 28, 1941 (ail J.S.B.); Henderson, July 10, 1948. DisTRIBUTION: Eastern and fa., Kans., Mo., Utah. Genus Balclutha Kirkaldy punctata (Thunberg). Rock Haven, June 8, 1941; Louisville, Sept. 9, 1941; Boyle Co., Apr. 26, 1941. DistRIRUTION: Br. Col., Colo., Eastern, Mo. impicta (Van Duzee). Boyle Co., Apr. 26, 1941; Rock Haven, Sept. 27, 1941; Pactolus, Aug, 14, 1948; Dawson Springs, July 24, 1948. DistRIBUTION: Eastern and Calif., Kans., Mo., Wash. impicta var. maculata DeL. and Davidson. Brandenburg, Apr. 17, 1941; Madi- son Co., Apr. 26, 1941: Boyle Co., Apr. 26, 1941. DISTRIBUTION: Conn., D. C., Pa.,. Tenn., Wis. abdominalis (Van Duzee). Madison Co., Apr. 26, 1941; Brandenburg, Aug. 21, 1941; Boyle Co., Apr. 26, 1941; Louisville, Apr. 24, 1941, May 9, 1947, May 15, 1941; July 24, 1940, Aug. 4, 1940, Aug. 5, 1940, Sept. 9, 1941; Pactolus, Aug. 14, 1948; Dawson Springs, July 24, 1948; Pineville, July 3, 1948. DistRiBUTION: Br. Col., Eastern and Calif., Colo. neglecta (DeL. and Dav.). Murray, July 30, 1941, July 31, 1941, Aug. 7, 1941, Aug. 8, 1941, Aug. 11, 1941, Aug. 15, 1941, Aug. 19, 1941 (all L.S.); Louisville, July 30, 1940; Brandenburg, Aug. 21, 1941; Middlesboro, July 3, 1948. DisTRIBUTION: U. S. Genus Davisonia Dorst delongi Dorst. Louisville, June 7, 1941; Jefferson Co., June 25, 1940. DISTRIBUTION: Canada, IIJ., Ia., Md., Mass., N. Mex., N. Y., Ohio, Pa., Va., Wis. Genus Macrosteles Fieber lepidus (Van Duzee). Jefferson Co., June 25, 1940; Rock Haven, Sept. 27, 1941. DISTRIBUTION: Kans., N. Y., Ohio, Tenn., Wis. divisus (Uhler). Rock Haven, May 24, 1941 (F.H.B.), Sept. 21, 1940; Louisville, May 10, 1941, July 17, 1940, July 24, 1940, Aug. 4, 1940, Aug. 5, 1940; Murray, July 29, 1941 (L.S.), July 30, 1941 (L.S.), throughout August 1941 (L.S.); Berea, May 23, 1941 (J.S.B.); Brandenburg, Apr. 17, 1941; Princeton, July 25, 1948; Dawson Springs, July 24, 1948. DisrriputTion: Alaska, Can., Calif., to Me., Minn. to Tex. variatus (Fall.). Henderson, July 10, 1948. DisTRIBUTION: Colo., Conn., Kans., Me., Man., N. H., N. J., N. Mex., N. Y., Ohio, Pa., Que., Tenn. wilburi Dorst. Louisville, July 17, 1940, July 30, 1940, Aug. 21, 1941. DisTRIBUTION: Kans. ACADEMY HOLDS SPRING MEETING The Kentucky Academy of Science held its Spring meeting at Cumberland Falls State Park on Friday afternoon and Saturday morn- ing, April 29 and 30, 1949. Main feature of the Friday afternoon program was a symposium on “Fish and Streams”. ‘The following speakers participated in the program: Mr. Hudson Biery, Chairman of the Ohio River Valley Water Sanitation Commission. Subject: “Ohio Valley States Undertake Pollution Abatement”. Dr. Peter Doudorff, Environmental Health Center, Cincinnati. Subject: “Standardization of ‘Toxicity Bio-assays in Relation to Waste Disposal Control”. Mr. Earl Wallace, Director of the Division of Fish and Game, Frankfort. Subject: “How You Can Use Wildlife Resources”. Mr. Glen Gentry, Aquatic Biologist, Paris, ‘Tennessee. Subject: “The Fisheries Program of the ‘Tennessee Department of Con- servation’. Dr. A. H. Wiebe, Chief of the Fish and Game Branch, Division of Forestry Relations, T. V. A. Subject: “Density Currents in Norris Reservoir”. Following the dinner meeting Friday evening, Mr. Ben East, Field Editor of Outdcor Life, spoke on the subject of “Conservation Educa- tion”. A short business meeting was held following Mr. East’s address. The schedule for Saturday morning included an early morning bird hike, mid-morning field trips to points of interest in Cumberland Falls State Park and a late morning trip to the fish hatcheries a short dis- tance from the Falls. Main feature of this latter trip was a demonstra- tion of an electric seine by Mr. Minor Clark, Superintendent of Fisheries. ‘The outdoor meeting at Cumberland Falls was an experiment in response to a long felt need for ‘a type of Academy meeting which pro- vided our biologists and geologists with greater opportunity for field trips. ‘The number and enthusiasm of those participating in this meeting provide ample evidence that the experiment was a success. It must be remembered, however, that this outdoor meeting was under- taken to complement, not to replace, our annual meeting which this year will be held on the Campus of Eastern State College, Richmond, Kentucky, October 21 and 22. 68 NOTICE TO CONTRIBUTORS The TRANSACTIONS OF THE KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE is a medium for the publication of original investigations in science. In addition, as the official organ of the Kentucky Academy of Science, it publishes programs of the meetings of the Academy, abstracts of papers presented before the annual meetings, reports of the Academy’s officers and committees, as well as news and announce- ments of interest to the membership. Manuscripts may be submitted at any time to the co-editors: M. C. BROCKMANN, WILLIAM M. Cray, Joseph E. Seagram & Sons, Inc. Department of Biology, Seventh Street Road, University of Louisville, Louisville, Kentucky. Louisville, Kentucky. Papers should be submitted typewritten, double-spaced, with wide margins, in an original and | carbon copy, on substantial quality paper. Articles are ac- cepted for publication with the understanding that they are to be published exclusively in the TRANSACTIONS. Each paper will be reviewed by one or more persons qualified in the field covered by the article in addition to the editors before a contribution is accepted for publication. Bibliographic citations should follow textual material (except in Research Notes, see later). Abbreviations for the names of periodicals should follow the current system employed by either Chemical Abstracts or Biological Abstracts. Bibliographic citations in Research Notes should be in the same form as for longer papers but enclosed in parentheses within the text of the note. Footnotes should be avoided. ‘Titles must be clear and concise, and provide for precise and accurate cataloguing. Tables and illustrations are expensive, and should be included in an article only to give effective presentation of the data. Articles with an excessive number of tables or illustrations, or with poorly arranged or executed tables or illustrations may be returned to the author for modification. Textual material should be in clear, brief and condensed form in order for a maximum amount of material to be published. Reprints must be ordered at the time galley proof is returned. The following individuals, educational institutions and industrial organiza- tions have subscribed to one or more sustaining memberships in the KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE, Berea College, Berea, Kentucky. Blankmeyer, H. C., Joseph E. Seagram & Sons, Inc., Louisvilie, Kentucky. Borgerding, Walter L., General Distillers Corporation of Kentucky, Louis- ville, Kentucky. Cedar Bluff Stone Company, Inc., Princeton, Kentucky. Centre College, Danville, Kentucky. Corhart Refractories Company, Louisville, Kentucky. Devoe and Raynolds Company, Inc., Louisville, Kentucky. DeSpain, T. H., Southern Textile Machinery Company, Paducah, Kentucky. B. F. Goodrich Chemical Company, Louisville, Kentucky. Kentucky Brewers Association (10), Louisville, Kentucky. _Kolachov, Paul, Joseph E. Seagram & Sons, Inc., Louisville, Kentuckw Lanham Hardwood Flooring Company, Louisville, Kentucky. Lee Clay Products Company, Inc. (2), Clearfield, Kentucky. Louisville Free Public Library, Louisville, Kentucky. Medley Distilling Company, Owensboro, Kentucky. Mileti, Otto J., The Mileti Company, Inc., Louisville, Kentucky. Moser, Harold C., Gamble Brothers, Inc., Louisville, Kentucky. Old Joe Distillery Company, Lawrenceburg, Kentucky. Peerless Manufacturing Company, Louisville, Kentucky. Perkins, George, Reynolds Metals Company, Louisville, Kentucky. Scofield, E. H., Joseph E, Seagram & Sons, Inc., Louisville, Kentucky. Skirvin, J. B., General Refractories Company, Olive Hill, Kentucky. Smith, L. A., Joseph E. Seagram & Sons, Inc., Louisville, Kentucky. Spanyer, William, Brown-Forman Distillers Corp., Louisville, Kentucky. Willkie, H. F., Joseph E, Seagram & Sons, Inc., Louisville, Kentucky. A special grant from the UNIVERSITY OF KENTUCKY PRESS made possible the publication of a part of this number of the TRANSACTIONS. 506.73 ics ts?" Volume 13 October, 1950 Number 2 TRANSACTIONS of the KENTUCKY ACADEMY of SCIENCE Official Organ Kentucky ACADEMY OF SCIENCE CONTENTS Effect of Commercial Malt Sprouts on the Anaerobic Growth of of Distillers’ Yeast. R. E. Scalf and T. J. B. Stier —.......00000...... 69 Preparation of Ketones by the Sommelet Reaction. M. I. Bowman, Irving B. Joffe, W. W. Rinne and James C. Wilkes _............... 78 Economic Status of Lespedeza Seed Oil. Richard H. WHO Y, te See 80 Performance of an Earth Heat Pump on. Intermittent Operation. E. B. Penrod, E. L. Dunning, and H. H. Thompson .................. 82 The Effects of Small Amounts of Glycine and Ethyl Glycine on Food Ingestion in the Dog. J. W. Archdeacon and A. B. Carreiro .... 100 The Precision and Accuracy of Meter Sticks. Sigfred Peterson ............ 102 The Effects of Composition on the Specific Gravity of Binary Wax Mixtures. John R. Koch and Sister M. Concetta _..................... 104 Chromosome Behavior in a Second Gasteria-Aloe Hybrid. In IR ETA NOD ae ee ae 111 IO seh acs emucndaigucnvecctwadeesaduneneartaanenct 116 KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE OFFICERS AND DIRECTORS, 1949-1950 President Vice President W. E. BLackBuRN, E. B. PENROD, Murray State College, University of Kentucky, Murray Lexington Secretary Treasurer C. B. HAMANN, R. W. WEAVER, Asbury College, University of Kentucky, Wilmore Lexington Representative to the Council Counselor to the Junior of the A.A.A.S. Academy of Science Austin R. MIDDLETON, Anna A, SCHNEIB, — University of Louisville, Eastern State College Louisville Richmond Editors M. C. BRocKMANN, Joseph E. Seagram & Sons, Inc., Louisville Directors astern State College, Richmond: ..0..).0 ce to 1953 Mary E. Wuarton, Georgetown College, Georgetown..........-.-.-.-::-11-e0- to 1953 ALFRED BRAUER, University of Kentucky, Lexington..............-.222-------+ to 1952 Warp C. Sumpter, Western State College, Bowling Green.......................- to 1952 W. D. Vatieau, University of Kentucky, Lexington ..........-...2.....--..-----0: to 1951 Morris ScHERAGO, University of Kentucky, Lexington...................2..222---+- to 1951 Pau. Koiacuov, Joseph E. Seagram & Sons, Inc., Louisville.................-.... to 1950 J. S. Bancson,’ Berea ‘College; Berea:.. cee tse ee ee to 1950 The TRANSACTIONS are issued quarterly. Four numbers constitute a volume. Domestic subscription, $2.00 per volume, foreign, $2.50 per volume. Correspondence concerning membership in the Academy, subscriptions or other business matters should be addressed to the secretary. Manuscripts and other material for publication should be addressed to the editors. EFFECT OF COMMERCIAL MALT SPROUTS ON THE ANAEROBIC GROWTH OF DISTILLERS’ YEAST! R. E. Scalf? and T. J. B. Stier Department of Physiology, Indiana University Bloomington, Indiana Acceleration of lactic acid fermentation in a glucose or molasses medium by the addition of commercial malt sprouts was attributed to the presence of accessory substances for growth as well as fer- mention in this material (Pan, et al, 1940). Euler (1924) found that water extracts of malt sprouts stimulated cell multiplication and COz production of yeast and that water extracts of fresh barley sprouts gave higher rates of COz production than water extracts of the dried material. We will present evidence showing that, when the anaerobic growth of a distillery type of yeast is increased by the ad- dition of malt sprouts to a medium which is apparently complete with respect to the water soluble growth factors, lipid substances in the malt sprouts themselves account for the larger crops. MATERIALS AND METHODS Yeast strain. All experiments were conducted with a distillery type yeast obtained from Joseph E. Seagram & Sons, Inc., Louis- ville, Kentucky, under the identification, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, strain DCL. This strain is included in the culture collection of the Northern Regional Research Laboratory, Peoria, Illinois. ; Medium. A medium containing 10 gm glucose, 0.5 gm KH2PO,4 and various amounts of Difco yeast extract (see below) per 100 ml was used throughout these experiments. Seed yeast. The yeast for the inocula were grown under initially aerobic conditions, according to the method of Brockmann and Stier (1947) and, after dilution to 10 million cells/ml with the growth medium, were rendered oxygen-free by purging with Linde High Purity Nitrogen. The purging was carried out in a flask of special design from which an inoculating syringe could be loaded under strict anaerobic conditions. This syringe loading unit consisted of a 50 ml boiling flask (Corning 4100) with a special side tube assembly for inserting the 1 This work was aided by a grant from Joseph E. Seagram & Sons, Inc. 2 Formerly Seagram Research Associate at the Laboratory of Cell Physology, Indiana University. Present address: Joseph E. Seagram & Sons, Inc,, Louis- ville 1, Kentucky. NOV 2 0 1950 Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science Q 3 inch needle of the syringe and a ground glass head carrying both a center gas inlet tube (7 mm OD) extending to the bottom of the flask and a 1 mm capillary vent tube sealed into the dome of the head. The syringe loading sidearm consisted of a 25x5 mm tube sealed at a 60° angle near the neck of the flask, a short piece of rubber tubing for inserting the hypodermic needle and ended with a piece of 1 mm capillary tubing for the escape of nitrogen gas, thus ensuring the removal of any oxygen brought into the sidearm with the needle. The 3 inch needle of the 10 ml Luer-Lok syringe was inserted into the flask above the liquid level by perforating the rubber tubing of the sidearm connection, and nitrogen was alternately drawn into the syringe and discharged back into the flask several times in order to remove any entraped oxygen. The nitrogen purge rate through the inoculum was maintained at 80 ml/min for 30 minutes before the syringe was loaded for inocula- tion of the all-glass culture flasks described below. Experimental culture flasks. The growth studies were conduc- ted in all-glass units similar in design to those described by Stier, Scalf and Brockmann (1950, Fig. 1) except that they were fabricated from 250 ml wash bottles with standard taper stopper (Corning 1660). A straight bore stopcock was attached to the original water outlet tube of the stopper, and a mercury trap was attached to the original air inlet tube. A short length of heavy walled rubber tub- ing connected the stopcock of the center tube of each flask to a manifold which was attached by copper tubing to the cylinder of purified nitrogen. Anaerobic conditions were established by purg- ing the rubber tubing and the attached flasks, with their experi- mental growth medium (25 ml), with Linde High Purity Nitrogen at a rate of 80 ml/min for 40 minutes. The flasks were then inoculated with 1 ml of seed yeast, which had been treated as described above, by inserting the needle of the syringe through the rubber tubing and allowing the stream of nitrogen to carry the volume of inoculum into the flask. Purging with nitrogen was continued for an additional 20 minutes in order to remove any oxygen which may have been introduced during the inoculating procedure. The trap on the gas outlet tube was then filled with mercury to a height of 2 cm and the stopcock was closed. Malt sprouts. The malt sprouts employed in these studies were obtained from Joseph E. Seagram and Sons, Inc., and were ground 70 Lipid Anaerobic Growth Factors In Malt Sprouts fine in a Wiley mill before being used. In the experiments reported below, the dry malt sprouts were added to the basal growth medium (see legend, Fig. 2) and autoclaved together at 120°C for 12 minutes. Yeast population. The number of yeast cells in a known dilu- tion of medium was determined, after cessation of cell multiplication (circa 40 hours at 30°C), by direct count in a Neubauer counting chamber. Interference with the counting of the yeast cells by par- ticles of malt sprouts was eliminated by filtering the entire contents of each flask at the end of the growth period through four thicknesses of cheese cloth and washing the residue free of yeast cells with sufficient water to make a final volume of 200 ml. Various extraction procedures employed for determining the gross nature of the anaerobic growth stimulating material in the malt sprouts will be given in the following section. RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS In order to set up nutritional conditions which would reveal the presence of any unusual growth factors in the added malt sprouts, we first studied the relation between the Difco yeast extract con- centration of the medium and the resultant crops produced under anaerobic conditions. Figure 1 shows that the final crops increased in cell number as the yeast concentration was increased in the range 0 to 7% and that no further increase in crop production re- sulted beyond the 7% yeast extract concentration. The final crops reported in these experiments were obtained after 42 hours at 30°C. Periodic sampling at low and high yeast extract concentrations established this period of time as being suf- ficient for the complete development of maximum crop. Additional ex- periments, not reported, showed that the dextrose concentration of the medium did not limit the development of the maximum crops. On the basis of the findings reported in Fig. 1, a basal medium consisting of 7% yeast extract, 0.5% KH2PO, and 10% dextrose 71 Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science was chosen for subsequent studies of the relation between malt sprouts concentration and magnitude of the final crop. These re- sults are given in Fig. 2. Note that the addition of malt sprouts to the basal medium resulted in an increase in the size of the final crop. It was found that 5% malt sprouts was the maximum concen- tration which could be handled satisfactorily for these growth studies. To determine the nature of the stimulatory substance in the added malt sprouts, we first made extracts of the water-soluble materials and the fat solvent soluble substances. An outline of the fractionation Bucci and results from a typical experiment are given in Figure 3. The procedure employed was as follows: 10 gm a malt sprouts in 100 ml of distilled water, adjusted to pH 4.8, was autoclaved in a 200 ml centrifuge bottle at 120°C for 12 minutes, and the solids were removed and washed with three 100 ml portions of distilled water by centrifugation. The combined liquids contain- ing the water extractable substances were evaporated under reduced pressure at 50°C to a final volume of 100 ml and assayed in the 7% yeast extract medium. The washed solids, obtained above, were dried at 60°C in a vacuum oven for 24 hours and their weight determined. Triplicate portions of this residue, each equivalent to 1.25 gm of the original sprouts material, were assayed under sterile edie in 25) aoltot basal medium for their anaerobic growth promoting activity. The remainder of the solids was extracted with three 100 ml portions of absolute alcohol by refluxing for 30 minutes over a steam bath. This treatment of the solids was followed by a similar extraction with absolute ethyl ether. The two extracts were then combined by eva- porating the ether and redissolving the residue from the ether extract in the alcohol extract. This fraction called the “alcohol-ether ex- tract’, was assayed in triplicate by measuring an aliquot, representing the fat solvent soluble material in 1.25 gm of the original malt sprouts, into a sterile culture flask and evaporating the alcohol under re- duced pressure at 60° C. Sterile medium was then added to the ma- terial deposited on the bottom of the flask, and the whole culture unit was prepared for inoculation with oxygen-free seed yeast as de- scribed above. The alcohol-ether extracted solids were dryed at 60° C in a vacuum oven for 24 hours, weighed and assayed in the same manner as the water extracted solids. 72 Lipid Anaerobic Growth Factors In Malt Sprouts The results given in Figure 3 indicate that it was the lipid materials in the malt sprouts which had induced the extra anaerobic growth. The material in the alcohol-ether extract was then fraction- ated by saponification. An aliquot of the alcohol-ether extract was sap- onified by refluxing 4 hours with KOH on a steam bath, followed by extraction with ethyl ether and washing the ether extract with water. The final washed ether fraction which Sede a the non-saponifiable substances was then tested for its anaerobic growth promoting pro- perties by the same procedure described above for the alcohol- ether extractives. Additions of the non-saponifiable material (11.2 mg), obtained from 1.25 gm malt sprouts, to 25 ml of basal yeast extract medium gave yeast crops with values within + 10 per cent of those obtained with the alcohol-ether extracts. Therefore, it is concluded that the lipid anaerobic growth stimulating material of malt sprouts belongs to the non-saponifiable class of substances. We have reported a si- milar finding for the lipids extracted from distillers’ dried solubles (Stier and Scalf, 1949). The work of Devloo (1938), on the stimu- lation of cell multiplication of yeast by various sterols, suggests that the sterol fraction of malt sprouts might contain the material which stimulates the anaerobic growth of our distillers’ yeast. The manner in which the lipid growth stimulating substances .of malt sprouts are absorbed and metabolically utilized by the yeast cell has not been investigated as yet. In some recent experiments (unpublished) with oils from plants and animals, we have found that these oils will form stable emulsions in the yeast extract medium itself. The possibility that this process also takes in the case of the lipids of finely ground malt sprouts, or that some process of solubili- zation takes place whereby the growth stimulating fat-soluble sub- stances couple with certain water-soluble substances in the medium (for example, see Wald, 1949), will be considered in future in- vestigations. 3 The average yields of the various extractives from the malt sprouts were as follows: water-soluble substances, 27%; alcohol-ether extractives, 8.4%; non- saponifiable substances, 0.9%. Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science nm (o) ANAE ROBIC ) o) @ (oe) 6 aS (S) al 20 FINAL YEAST CROP 10° CELLS fe) ] Bi Sse ae4 5 625 7 8) S89 10 % YEAST EXTRACT (Difco) Figure 1. Relation of concentration of Difco yeast extract to magnitude of the final anaerobic yeast crop. The growth medium consisted of 0.5% KH,PO, (Merk, reagent), 10% dextrose (Merck, reagent) and varying concentrations of Difco yeast extract (Control # 395778). The Difco yeast extract employed in this laboratory has generally given final anaerobic crops of 90-100 x 106 cells/ml at a concentration of 7%. However, some shipments of Difco yeast extract gave maximum crops in the range 15-25x 106 cells/ml and therefore were not suitable for the experiments reported in this paper. 74 Lipid Anaerobic Growth Factors In Malt Sprouts = a = a ANAEROBIC = 200 O. QO 160 O ae 120 { 7% YEAST EXTRACT MEDIUM = ag q Zz Ee 0 1 2 3 4 5 S% MALT SPROUTS Figure 2. Relation of concentration of malt sprouts to magnitude of the final anaerobic yeast crop. The basal medium consisted of 7% Difco yeast extract, 0.5% KH>- PO, and 10% dextrose and produced anaerobic crops of 90 x 106 cells/ml. The basal medium was apparently complete with respect to water-soluble growth factors since additions of water extracts of malt sprouts (Fig. 3), or of liver (unpublished) or higher concentra- tions of yeast extract (Fig. 1) did not increase the final yeast crops. 75 Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science | FRACTIONATION OF MALT SPROUTS MALT_SPROUTS ANAEROBIC ne RESIDUE HO EXTR. MALT SPROUTS 2 ALC. = ETHER ALC. RESIDUE EXTR ETHER i ee ine) =) S q 4] ‘) ae Ky ne qd RESIDUE ne ta Oa) 4,0 ee AX 80!:] 7% YEAST EXTRACT FINAL RESIDUE FINAL YEAST CROP 10° CELLS / ML g eit a SB 0 Es ; : ° % MALT SPROUTS ESIDUES EXTRACTS Figure 3. Anaerobic growth promoting activity of the water and fat solvent solu- ble fractions of malt sprouts. Note that the water extracted residue gave approximately the same anaerobic yeast crop as the untreated malt sprouts. Extraction with absolute alcohol followed by ethyl ether gave a residue producing no extra anaerobic growth when added to the basal 7% yeast extract me- dium. Addition of the materials in the water extract also gave no significant increase in anaerobic growth; addition of the alcohol-ether extractives from 5 gm of malt sprouts per 100 ml of basal medium, however, gave an average crop of 175x 106 cells/ml. We have not been able, so far, to produce larger crops by extracting the lipid ma- terial with other fat solvents. 76 Lipid Anaerobic Growth Factors In Malt Sprouts SUMMARY The production of anaerobic crops of a distillery type of yeast was increased from 100 to 195 x 10® cells/ml by the addition of com- mercial malt sprouts to a basal medium which was apparently complete with respect to the water-soluble growth factors. Water extracts of the malt sprouts were shown not to contain the substances which produced the larger anaerobic yeast crops. The anaerobic growth stimulating material was extracted by alcohol and ether and all of the active lipid substance (or substances) was shown to be present in the unsaponifiable fraction. LITERATURE CITED Brockmann, M. C. and Stier, T. J. B. 1947. Cellular mechanisms controlling rates of glucose consumption by yeast. J. Cell. and Comp. Physiol., 29: 159-178. Devloo, R. 1938. Un Sterol Indispensable a la Levure W. Arch. Int. de Physiol., 46, 157-188. Euler, H. V. and Swartz, Olof. 1924. Uber den Zusammenhang der wasserloslichen Wachstumsfaktoren mit Aktivatoren des Zuck- erabbaues and uber einen thermostabilen Biokatalyzator in der Hefe. Z. Physiol. Chem., 140, 146-163. Pan, S. C., Peterson, W. H. and Johnson, M. J. 1940. Acceleration of lactic acid fermentation by heat labile substances. Ind. Eng. Chem., 32, 709-714. Stier, T. J. B. and Scalf, R. E. 1949. Nutrient limited anaerobic growth of yeast at high temperatures. J. Cell. and Comp. Physiol., 33: 18. Stier, T. J. B., Scalf, R. E. and Brockmann, M. C. 1950. An all-glass apparatus for the continuous cultivation of yeast under anaerobic conditions. J. Bact., 59: 45-49. Wald, George. 1949. The enzymatic reduction of the retinenes to the vitamins A. Science, 109, 482-483. an PREPARATION OF KETONES BY THE SOMMELET REACTION M. I. Bowman, Irving B. Joffe, W. W. Rinne and James C. Wilkes* University of Louisville The Sommelet reaction involves reacting a halogen compound with hexamethylene tetramine to give a salt of the quaternary amine type. This is then decomposed by steam distillation to give the aldehyde. Little or no work has been done in preparing ketones by this method and it appears likely that secondary halides do not ordinarily undergo this reaction to any great extent. In the cases discussed here, it is possible that the fact that the halogen is adjacent to the double bond activates this reaction. A possible mechanism for the Sommelet reaction has been suggested by Graymore and Davis (1945). Two procedures are commonly used, one involving actual isola- tion of the quaternary salt and the other steam distillation of the reaction mixture without isolating the salt. We have found the latter to give better results in the cases studied. Experimental 2-Methyl-2-cyclohexen-l-one. 1-Methylcyclohexene (30 g.) was bro- minated with N-bromosuccinimide in carbon tetrachloride in the us- ual manner (Ziegler, 1942). Two fractions were obtained (A) b.p. 53-60/10mm (20 g.) and (B) b.p. 60-90/10mm. (11 g.). Both fractions were subject to the Sommelet procedure as described by Weygand (1945). Both of these products were analyzed by treatment of aliquot portions with dinitrophenylhydrazine. The dinitrphenylhydrazones were not pure but could be recrystallized from benzene-ethanol and gla- cial acetic acid to bring the melting point up to 204-6°. Chromato- graphy gave somewhat better results. Two bands were formed with either chloroform or benzene on alumina, a top band about 1/5 of the total, m.p. above 300°, and a lower band m.p. 208°, about 4/5 of the total. According to Butz (1947) the dinitrophenyl hydrazone of * This work was carried out under contract N8onr76201 between the Navy Department, Office of Naval Research, and the University of Louisville. 78 Preparation Of Ketones By The Sommelet Reaction 2-methyl-2-cyclohexen-l-one melts at 207-10°. From the quantities obtained it appeared that the yield of ketone from (A) was only 3% wrereas from (B) it was 18% The identity of the 208° m.p. derivative was checked by mixed melting point with that from several samples of 2-methyl-2-cyclo- hexen-l-one prepared by other methods. Also mixed chromatograms ‘were run using many different solvents and no separation of bands could be produced. An attempt to prepare this ketone from the bromo derivative by the oxidative hydrolysis method of Mousseron (1947) gave only traces of the desired product. However, refluxing with potassium carbonate gave a 15% yield of 2-methyl-2-cyclohexen-l-ol, (Urion, 1934) readily converted to the phenyl urethane m. p. 209-10°. 6-Methyl-2- -cyclohexen- -I-one. Starting with 4-methylceyclohexene + and subjecting it to the same procedure as above, there was obtained a small amount of ketone yielding a dinitrophenylhydrazone m.p. 158°. This corresponds to the 6-methyl derivative as indicated by Birch (1946) rather than the 5-methyl which Mousseron obtained by oxidative hydrolysis of the bromo compound obtained in the same manner as ours. Our bromo derivative differs slightly from Mousseron’s in physical properties. Further investigation of this reaction is being made. References Birch, A. J., J. Chem. Soc., 1945, 595 Butz, L. W., Benjamin L. Davis and Adam M. Gaddis, J. Org. Chem. EAD ( VO4T ). Graymore, John, and David R. Davies, J. Chem. Soc., 1945, 293 Mousseron, Max, Francois Winternitz and Robert Jacquier, Compt. rend. 224 1062-4 (1947). Urion, Edmond, Compt. rend., 199, 363-5 (1934). Weygand, C. “Organic Preparations”, Interscience Publishers, New York, 1945, p. 156. Ziegler, K., E. Schauf, W. Schumann and E. Winkelmann, Ann. 551, 80-122 (1942). + Kindly supplied by the Phillips Petroleum Company, Bartlesville, Okla. 79 ECONOMIC STATUS OF LESPEDEZA SEED OIL Richard H. Wiley Department of Chemistry University of Louisville, Louisville, Kentucky A preliminary report on the isolation and characterization of lespedeza seed oil has occasioned a general interest in the economic Bos ciblties involved in the progluetlon and utilization of lespedeza seed oil. This discussion summarizes some of the pertinent informa- tion on this topic. Lespedeza is rapidly becoming a major agricultural crop in Southern states. It is widely and readily accepted as a forage crop of the legume family. Its acceptance is due to its excellent growth during hot months (July and August) when other forage crops do not provide good pastures and to its value as a legume in rebuilding exhausted soils. Lespedeza seed is harvested for replanting on a fairly large scale. An estimated (2) 250,000,000 pounds was harvested in the United States in 1948. The oil from the seed has not been studied prior to our work. Neither has the possibility of cultivating the plant as a seed crop other than for replanting been examined. Preliminary studies (1) of its unsaturation and drying pro- petries indicate that the oil has properties that will make it of value as a drying oil for the paint and varnish industry. If the oil is of commercial value, the Southern farmers have available, without now realizing it, an oil seed crop which may be as valuable to them as the soy bean crop has been to Middle Western farmers. Such use of lespedeza as a seed crop is of obvious value in developing a diversification of Southern agriculture. The potential cost of lespedeza seed oil is determined by the yield per acre of seed. Current yields of the Korean strain average 200 pounds per acre but “yields of 500 pounds of cleaned Korean seed per acre are not unusual.” (3) Yields of Sericea seed of up to 1200 pounds per acre have been reported (4). Using 500 pounds as an average yield of seed, $10 per acre as minimum costs for harvesting by combine, and a 10% yield of oil from seed, the estimated cost of the oil not including costs of extraction is $0.20 per 80 Economic Status Of Lespedeza Seed Oil pound. This might well be halved by developments in increasing seed yield per acre. Current quotations on linseed oil are $0.18 per pound and reflect a decrease of 30% in the last year. This is re- garted as unusually favorable for this development when it is remem- bered that current oil prices are low and that lespedeza culture as a seed crop has received little if any development. If Southern lespedeza seed oil, based on a crop readily ac- cepted by the Southern farmer, can replace Northern linseed oil, based on a crop which must be subsidized to find acceptance by farmers who are loath to grow it, the Southern agricultural leaders should know about it and plan and work accordingly for the benefit of the region. Such developments take many years during which short range economic factors—particularly market values—will un- doubtedly go through many fluctuations in the $0.10 to $0.40 range. The most important problems facing this development at present are: (1) to relate oil yields from seed to seed production particularly with strains giving high seed yields and (2) to complete a thorough characterization of the oil. Both are receiving active, although limited, attention in our laboratories. BIBLIOGRAPHY fh HH. Wiley and A. W. Cagle. Paper presented at the Richmond meeting of the Kentucky Academy of Science, October 22, 1949. J. Am. Oil Chemists’ Soc. 27, 34 (1950). 2. December 1, 1948, General Farm Report, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Agricultural Economics, Raleigh, North Carolina. a “Lespedeza in Kentucky,” University of Kentucky, Agriculture Extension Division, Circular 407, page 9. 4, “Lespedeza Culture and Utilization,” U. S. Department of Agricul- ture, Farmers Bulletin, No. 1852. Sl PERFORMANCE OF AN EARTH HEAT PUMP ON INTERMITTENT OPERATION E. B. Penrod, E. L. Dunning*, and H. H. Thompson** Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Kentucky, Lexingion, Kentucky INTRODUCTION From October 31, 1949 to May 1, 1950 the earth heat pump at the University of Kentucky operated intermittently on the heat- ing cycle (1)!. By the use of an electric clock, the plant was set in operation at 6 p.m. and stopped at 6 a.m. daily. While the plant was in operation heat was extracted from the earth, thereby lowering the temperature of the soil surrounding the earth heat exchanger (2,3,4)?. The heat absorbed from the earth at a low temperature level was dis- charged at a higher temperature level to the air stream going to the space to be air conditioned. During the twelve hour period in which the heat pump was idle, heat flowed from the more remote soil into that surrounding the earth heat exchanger, thereby restoring its tem- perature wholly, or partially to its original value. Tue Heat Pump INSTILATION The earth heat pump system installed in the mechanical engineer- ing laboratory consists of a Marvair package unit manufactured by the Muncie Gear Works, Muncie, Indiana, an instrument panel, and an earth heat exchanger (Fig. 1) buried at an average depth of Now Instructor in Mechanical Engineering, Evansville College, Evansville, Indiana. ** Now Research Engineer, Refrigeration Division, International Harvester Company, Evansville, Indiana. i Numbers in parentheses refer to references in the Bibliography. bo For a description of an earth heat pump and how it functions, see pages 47-58, reference (2); pages 506-513, reference (3); and pages 24-30, reference (4). Earth Heat Pump On Intermittent Operation v z|9 = o wo m = v0 t mae r = ro) dd z © mM : a 2a) 0) DEPTH-4.2 y m | (@) ae S to ie > / 0 x = % oO = 4 WY S a LY N SS x i eae Le ee eee ae Figure 1. The earth heat exchanger or ground coil. 83 Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science about 4.5 ft. in the soil nearby (1, 5). The essential parts of the package unit are two heat exchangers; a 4-cylinder, single stage, air- cooled, refrigeration compressor manufactured by Servel, Inc., Evans- ville, Indiana; a 5-hp, single phase, electric motor used to drive the compressor!; a fan driven by a %%-hp, single phase, electric motor; and a circulating pump driven by a '%-hp, single phase, electric motor. The earth heat exchanger (Fig. 1) consists of an effective length of 489 ft. of one inch copper tubing through which an anti- freeze solution is circulated. Thermocouples were installed so tem- peratures could be measured at the center of the antifreeze line at Stations’ 1 to 37 inclusive. The line) heat source is) L797 t slong and consists of the portion of the earth heat exchanger from stations 2 to 5, and from stations 7 to 8, except the length of tubing which is thermally insulated as shown in Fig 1. The grid has a length of 317.1 ft., and is that portion of the earth heat exchanger be- tween stations 5 and 7°. Thermocouples (Fig. 2) were installed so that the temperature of the soil at stations 3 and 6 could be measured. DEFINITIONS It has been shown that a heat pump system should have a heating energy ratio of about 3.33 to deliver as much heat energy as a pound of coal burned in stoker-fired furnace*. If the heat pump is to replace conventional heating equipment for the sake of economy its efficiency must be improved considerably. The French use the term coefficient of amplification as a measure of the efficiency of a refrigeration plant, while Davies and Watts use the term performance energy ratio (6, 7). In the United 1 For the tests during the heating season of 1949-1950 a 5-hp motor was used instead of the 3-hp motor which was originally installed in the Marvair package unit. 2 For a description of the heat pump installation used in this research, see pages 8-21, reference (1). In this paper the heat source will be considered as the entire effective length of copper tubing in the earth heat exchanger, namely 489 ft. In a future Engineering Experiment Station Bulletin a more detailed analysis will be given in which the earth heat exchanger will be considered as a line heat source of 171.9 ft. and a srid heat source of SI7l ttmor copper tubing. 4 See page 58, reference (2); and page 521, reference (3), (es) 84 Earth Heat Pump On Intermittent Operation STATION 3 STATION 6 ARTH’S SURFAC EARTH’S SURFACE E WEN VISTO SWS WIS INT. YIN UN 10 e le 6a eas 6 6" CU TUBING 12 e ioe 18" 16 13 5 e @ THERMOCOUPLE BEADS 14 e Figure 2. Schematic diagram showing the location of thermocouples used to determine the soil temperatures at stations 3 and 6. 85 Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science States the term coefficient of performance (COP) is generally used as a measure of the efficiency of a refrigeration plant!. In heat pump engineering these terms are somewhat misleading since the energy ratio for heating exceeds, theoretically, that for cooling by unity?. In this paper the term coefficient of performance will be replaced by the term heating energy ratio. The object of this research is to determine the factors responsible for the low performance energy ratios, and to find out if the earth is a suitable heat source. In order to make a careful analysis of data taken, the following definitions were used: lk bo 8. 1 A Carnot heat pump is a highly idealized machine which re- moves heat reversibly from a cold body at a constant tem- perature, and discharges heat reversibly to a hot body at a constant temperature, it operates on a cycle consisting of two isothermal and two isentropic processes. A vapor compression refrigeration plant is a system consisting of an evaporator, condenser, precooler, expansion valve (or capillary tube), and a compressor. A heat pump is a refrigeration plant and the electric motor used to drive the compressor. A heat pump system is defined as a heat pump plus the necessary auxiliary equipment (which consumes electric energy ) needed for air conditioning. The heating energy ratio (HER) of a Carnot heat pump is the ratio of the heat absorbed by the hot body to the heat equivalent of the net work of the cycle. The heating energy ratio (HER) of a refrigeration plant is the ratio of the heat absorbed by the condenser to the heat equivalent of the work of compression. The heating energy ratio (HER) of a heat pump is the heat absorbed by the fluid which removes heat from the condenser to the heat equivalent of the electric energy sup- plied to the motor used to drive the refrigeration compressor. The heating energy ratio (HER) of a heat pump system is For two years the senior author has been using the team heating energy ratio (HER), in his classes in thermodynamics and refrigeration, as a measure of the efficiency of the heat pump when it operates on the heating cycle, and the term cooling energy ratio (CER) when it operates on the cooling cycle. 2 See page 506, reference (3); and page 2, reference (4). 86 Earth Heat Pump On Intermittent Operation the ratio of the heat absorbed by the fluid which removes heat from the condenser to the heat equivalent of the electric energy supplied to the entire system!. PERFORMANCE TESTS O¥ SHORT DURATION During the summer of 1949, four heating tests ot short dura- tion were made to determine the efficiency of the Marvair package heat pump unit, and the general operating performance of the entire installation?. For the sake of comparison with the six-month heating test considered here, the average values obtained from these four tests are listed in Table IS. Items 19 and 20, clearly indi- cate that a very inefficient refrigeration compressor was installed in the Marvair package unit4. From item 5, it can be seen that 25,650 B of heat were discharged to the air stream per hour. In reference (2), it was shown in an 8-hour heating test made on June 24, 1949, that 6,670 B of heat were absorbed from the air stream by the evaporator and connecting pipes each hour, thereby reducing the useful heat power to the air stream from 31,420 to 24,750 B/hr. This shows clearly that the evaporator (and pipes leading to and from it) should have been either more thoroughly insulated, or should have been placed in a separate compartment through which the air steam did not pass during the heating cycle. As shown in item 14, 14,630 B of heat per hour were absorbed by the antifreeze from the earth, which is one indication that the evaporator in the package unit is an inefficient heat exchanger. From items 21 and 22 it can be seen that the heating energy ratio of the refrigeration cycle is 5.6 or 87.5% of that for the Carnot heat pump. The actual HER for the heat pump is 2.3 or 41% of that for the refrigeration plant; this re- duction in the heating energy ratio is due to taking the single phase compressor motor into consideration, and to insufficient insulation on the evaporator and connecting pipes. By including the single phase fan and pump motors, there is a further reduction in the HER, and it can be seen that the heating energy ratio of the heat pump system is 1.7, or about 74% of that for the heat pump. This fur- See reference (5). See pages 35-46, reference (1) and 24-30, reference (4). Pages 55-64, reference (1). By reducing the compressor speed from about 1130 to 700 rpm, the capacity of the refrigeration plant was reduced from 2.0 to 1.6 tons although the volumetric efficiency increased from about 52.7 to about 71.5% Bm OO py 87 Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science ther reduction is due to the additional energy consumed by the fan motor and circulating pump motor. From the above it can be seen that the package heat pump under consideration is very inefficient. TABLE IL AVERAGE VALUES OBTAINED FROM FOUR HEATING TESTS OF SHORT DURATION DURING THE SUMMER OF 1949. 1. Air-temp. in Mech. Engr. Lab., OF 85.9 2. Inlet temp. of air stream, OF 85.8 3. Outlet temp. of air stream, OF 104.9 4. Increase in temp, of air stream, OF 19.1 5. Heat power to air stream, B/hr. 25,650 6. Inlet temp. of antifreeze, OF 36.0 7. Outlet temp. of antifreeze, OF 39.6 8. Increase in temp. of antifreeze, OF 3.6 9. Temp. of antifreeze in earth heat exchanger, OF Biot 10. Soil temp. 6 in. below center of antifreeze line, OF 60.2 11, Soil temp. 12 in. below center of antifreeze line, OF 61.0 12. Soil temp. 18 in. below center of antifreeze line, OF 61.5 3. Strength of heat source (entire earth heat exchanger ), B/hr/ft. 974A 14. Heat power from soil, B/hr 14,630 15. Electric power input to compressor motor, kw 3.632 16. Electric power input to fan motor, kw 0.484 17. Electric power input to pump motor, kw 0.810 18. Total electric power to heat pump system, kw 4.926 19. Volumetric efficiency of refrigeration compressor, % Bol 20. Compression efficiency of refrigeration compressor, .% 66.7 21. HER for Carnot heat pump 6.4 22. HER for refrigeration plant 5.6 23. HER for heat pump (actual) 8) 24. HER for heat pump system (actual ) 1.7 25. Heating cost, kwhr/therm 18.1 26. Actual capacity of refrigeration plant, tons 2.0 The heating energy ratios determined in the tests of short duration are in line with those calculated from a hypothetical earth- to-air heat pump installation!. It is hoped that designers of new heat pump installations will take cognizance of the various factors which are responsible for the reduction in the heating energy ratio (i. e., from 5.6 to 1.7 in the case under consideration ). I Page 29; reference (4): 88 Earth Heat Pump On Intermittent Operation Heatinc Test From Ocroser 31, 1949 To May 1, 1950 A great deal of information concerning the performance of an earth heat pump system has been obtained through tests of short ‘duration. However, such tests give little or no information as to the actual quantity of heat that is available, in the earth, for heat- ing a building during the entire season. A long-term heating test in which the heat pump operates continuously throughout the entire season will not give the true performance because actual plants generally operate on a demand basis. During the heating test of 1949-1950, the heat pump system operated intermittently, extracting heat from the earth daily from 6 p.m. to 6 a.m. It was recognized, however, that by operating the plant in this manner, more heat would be absorbed from the earth during the first and last parts of the heating season than would be required normally to heat a house on the demand basis. Nevertheless, this procedure simulates actual operation much better than where the heat pump system is kept operating continuously. The chief results obtained from the test made during the heat- ing season of 1949—1950 are listed in Table Hl. The total degree- days! during the test period were about 92% of normal for 48 seasons. From Table HI, however, it can be seen that the average outdoor temperature for the season? was 42°F and the normal temperature for the same period was 41.1°F. The rain fall was 2 36.48 inches as compared with 22.33 inches which is the normal for the same _ period. The average heat power supplied to the air stream for the season considered was 92.36 therms per month, and the average electric power input to the heat pump system was 1893 kwhr per month. Hence the average monthly heating cost 1 The degree-day is a term based on the idea that heat is not required i a building maintained at 700F when the aver: age outdoor air Benet 9 represented by the mean of the maximum and minimum outdoor air tem- peratures for the day, does not fall below 65°F (8). If the average outdoor air temperature is 64°F, there is one degree-day, and if the average outdoor air temperature is 400F, there are 25 degree-days. The actual average outdoor air temperatures reported in this paper are the average hourly temperatures instead of averages of the maximum and minimum temperatures. bo 89 Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science 1893. kwhr/month 92.36 nerinev anon. = 20.5 kwhr/therm. Whence, the average heating cost from October 31, 1949 to May 1, 1950 was found to be 20.5 kwhr/therm for cold wet soil! (average soil temperature 6” below the center of the antifreeze line for the season was 43°F). For the four tests of short duration, the average heating cost was found to be 18.1 kwhr/therm for warm dry soil (average soil temperature 6” below the center of the antifreeze line was 60.2°F ). By the strength of the heat source is meant the heat absorbed per unit time per unit length of the earth heat exchanger. The average strength of the heat source (Table III) was 27.5 B/hr/ft for the season of 1949-1950, and that obtained from the four tests of short duration was 27.4 B/hr/ft for the summer of 1949. Curve E, Fig- ure 3b shows the variation of the strength of the total heat source (489 ft of pipe) versus time. From Fig. 8a and 3b it can be seen that the maximum value of the strength of the heat source occurs at the time of maximum rainfall. For the season under consideration the average temperature of antifreeze solution in the earth heat exchanger was 28.1°F for Novem- ber and 17.5°F in April. The average temperature of the antifreeze in the earth heat exchanger was 23.3°F for the entire season. TABLE II. AVERAGE MONTHLY VALUES OBTAINED DURING AN IN- TERMITTENT HEATING TEST FROM 6 P.M., OCTOBER 31, 1949 TO 6 A.M., MAY 1, 1950. Nov. -"Dee, Jan: “Heb: Marsemeapr 1. Outdoor air temp., OF 43.4 40.0 40.0 387.9 406 499 2. Normal outdoor air temp., O9F 44.8 35.8 329 35.4 43.7 543 3. Air temp. in Mech. Engr, Lab., OF Ue OOS) ks 70 VQ THe 4. Inlet temp. of air stream, OF (ae Wel Wer We WO B04 5. Outlet temp. of air stream, OF 97.9 95.2 97.4 94.7 966 99.9 | In Fig. 3(a) the actual and normal monthly rainfalls are shown graphically for the season. 90 S| 2 Earth Heat Pump On Intermittent Operation Increase in temp. of air stream, OF 21.4 Heat power to air stream, B/hr 27,265 Total heat power to air stream, therms/mo. 98.15* Temp, of antifreeze entering line, OF 28.1 Temp. of antifreeze leaving line, OF 31.4 Increase in temp. of antifreeze, OF 3.3 Temp. at center of antifreeze line, OF 28.7 Soil temp. 6 in. below center of antifreeze line, OF 51.9 Soil temp. 12 in. below center of antifreeze line, OF 56.4 Soil temp. 18 in. below center of antifreeze line, OF 55.4 Strength of heat source (for 489 ft), B/hr/ft 27.8 Heat power from earth to antifreeze, B/hr 13,560 Total heat power from earth to antifreeze, therms/mo 48.80* Elect. power to compressor motor, kw 4391 Elect. power to fan motor, kw 0.503 Elect. power to pump motor, kw 0.832 Elect. power to heat pump system, kw 5.726 Elect energy supplied to heat pump system, kwhr 2061* HER for heat pump 1.82 HER for heat pump system 1.39 Rainfall, inches Beal ge Normal rainfall, inches 318) Degree days 625 Normal degree days 601* Total values—not average values. ol 20.1 20.7 25,620 26,590 95.31* 98.91* 26.4 23.7 29:4 29:4 3.0 3.7 27.6 25.7 45.1 40.2 49.2 41.0 48.6 43.2 23.8 30,5 11,840 14,890 44.15" 54.39% 4.430 3.780 0.500 0.502 0.842 0.875 5.772 95.157 2147* 1918* 1.82 2.06 1.30 1.50 1.25" 15.63" S.01, -<4eko* iio... Go4* 916") (964* 19.5 24,900 83.66° 19.2 22.7 14,150 47.69* 3.560 0.501 0.871 19.6 24,440 § 90.92 17.8 50.90° 3.540 0.489 0.860 4.889 1819* 2.02 1.46 3.62* AB) 743° 650° 26.2 12,800 46.10° 3.540 0.482 0.858 4.880 Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science RAINFALL AND STRENGTH OF HEAT SOURCE VS TIME FROM NOV.1,1I949 TO MAY1I,1950 A. AGTUAL RAINFALL B. NORMAL RAINFALL C. STRENGTH OF LINE HEAT SOURCE D. STRENGTH OF GRID HEAT SOURCE E. STRENGTH OF TOTAL HEAT SOURCE INCHES TOTAL RAINFALL B. PER HR. PER FT. a : NOV. DEG: JAN. FEB. MAR. APRI Figure 3. Graphs showing the variation of rainfall and strength of the heat source with respect to time. 2 Earth Heat Pump On Intermittent Operation TABLE III. AVERAGE VALUES OBTAINED FOR THE SIX-MONTH HEAT- ING TEST. HEAT WAS ABSTRACTED FROM THE EARTH TWELVE HOURS EACH DAY. 1. Outdoor air temperature, OF 42.9 2. Normal outdoor air temperature, OF 41] 3. Inlet air temperature, OF 76.8 4. Outlet air temperature, OF 97.0 5. Heat power to air stream, B/hr! 25,510 6. Heat power to air stream, therm/mo2 92.36 7. Heat power from earth, B/hr 13,490 8. Heat power from earth, therm/mo 48.66 9. Temperature at center of antifreeze line, OF DBS) 10. Soil temperature 6 in. below center of antifreeze line, OF 43.0 11. Soil temperature 12 in. below center of antifreeze line, OF 46.1 12. Soil temperature 18 in. below center of antifreeze line, OF 46.0 13. Strength of heat source (489 ft.), B/hr/ft Piles 14. Electric energy to heat pump system, kwhr 1893 15. HER for heat pump 1.96 16. HER for heat pump system 1.43 17. Heating cost, kwhr/therm 20.5 The average value of the soil temperature 6 in. below the center of the antifreeze line was 43°F for the season’. The average soil temperatures for the season were 46.1°F and 46.0°F at distances of 12 and 18 inches below the center of the antifreeze line, respec- tively. The average heating energy ratios for the heat pump and the heat pump system are 1.96 and 1.43, respectively, while those re- ported for the four tests of short duration were 2.3 and 1.7, re- spectively. The performance of the actual earth-to-air heat pump system for the test season is shown graphically in Fig. 4. The effect of heavy rainfall upon the temperature of the antifreeze in the earth heat exchanger, the soil temperatures, and the rate of absorbing heat is quite apparent. It should be pointed out that the intermittent opera- 1 B/hr means British thermal units per hour. 2 Therms/mo means 100,000 British thermal units per month. 3 It may be more than passing interest to not that the average outdoor air temperature for the season was 42° F. 93 Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science GRAPHICAL PRESENTATI » STATION 3, ANTIFREEZE LINE 5.6 FT. BELOW GF CURVE NOTATION . TEMPERATURE AT CENTER OF ANTIFREEZE LINE . TEMPERATURE 6° BELOW CENTER OF ANTIFREI . TEMPERATURE 12" BELOW CENTER OF ANTIFRE . TEMPERATURE 18" BELOW CENTER OF ANTIFRE a ———— 9000 p> 70 45 20 OUTSIDE AIR TEMP -F TEMPERATURE —F RAIN FALL- INCHES i) NOV. t DEC.I JAN. I Figure 4. Graphical presentation of hee 94 Earth Heat Pump On Intermittent Operation T PUMP DATA EATING SEASON FROM NOV.1,1949 TO MAY I, 1950 E. AVERAGE OUTDOOR DRY BULB TEMPERATURE F TIME RATE OF ABSORBING HEAT FROM SOIL G. RAINFALL HEAT ABSORBED FROM GROUND — B. PER HR. MAR. 1 APRIL | MAY | ita during the heating season of 1949-1950. 95 Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science Earth Heat Pump On Intermittent Operation ) GRAPHICAL PRESENTATIoy (ygat PUMP DATA . STATION 3, ANTIFREEZE LINE 5.6 FT. BELOW GRoy HEATING SEASON FROM NOV.1,1949 TO MAY I, 1950 GURVE NOTATION NONE: A. TEMPERATURE AT CENTER OF ANTIFREEZE Line \ & AVERAGE OUTDOOR DRY BULB TEMPERATURE B. TEMPERATURE 6° BELOW CENTER oF ANTIFREE zp ¢ TIME RATE OF ABSORBING HEAT FROM SOIL C. TEMPERATURE 12” BELOW CENTER OF AntigR ¢. RAINFALL D. TEMPERATURE 18" BELOW CENTER OF ANTIEREESE \ EEZe { 2 | P| ma Vi 45 65 nO ian AP : = te 20 60 | i { x . 2 r 55 IL | 8 50 j u _|| ee || : ai .—— | WV fe / lu 35 A) a z 3 ty 30 | i mt | S ° lu F 25 i ) 20 : f \ PNY —= es | ' ; | — S 10,000 UNIT INOPERATIVE MAY | HEAT ABSORBED FROM GROUND — B. PER HR. RAIN FALL- INCHES n NOV. = a DEG.I JAN. | FEB. MAR.I APRIL | es igure 4. Graphical presentation of heat pump data during the heating season of 1949-1950. 4 95 Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science tion, also, is responsible for the irregularities in the graphs. From curve F, Fig. 4, and item 17 of Vable I it can be seen that the time rate of absorbing heat from the earth is nearly constant for the test season!. Professor Coogan reports a gradual decrease in the strength of the heat source and the heat absorbed for continuous operation of 700 and 900 hours (9, 10). It should be pointed out that on comparing curves F and A (Fig. 4), that apparently there is no correlation between the variation in the outdoor air temperature and the rate of absorbing heat from the earth. According to Ingersoll and Plass (Problem 6, page 121) there should be a periodic varia- tion of the soil temperature in the vicinity of the earth heat ex- changer due to the variation in the solar energy absorbed at the earth's surface (11, 12). Neglecting the effect produced on the soil by extracting heat from it and that due to rainfall, the soil tempera- ture should have decreased (somewhat in a sinusoidal manner) from, say, the middle of October to the middle of April. The decrease in the soil temperatures (items 13, 14, 15 in Table IL) from October 31, 1949 to May 1, 1950 is partly due to the extraction of heat from the soil and partly due to the periodic reception of solar radiation. Graphs A, B, C, and D show that considerable heat was carried to the soil in the vicinity of the earth heat exchanger (due to moisture migration ) on December 10-14 and 18, January 3-6, 10-14 and 29-31, February 1, and March 11-13. CONCLUSIONS 1. Some of the average results from the six-month heating test compare favorably with those obtained from tests of short duration using the same installation; namely, SIX-MONTH TESTS SO TEST SHORT DURATION Outlet air temp., °F 97.0 104.9 Heat power to air stream, B/hr 25,510 25,650 Heat power from earth, B/hr 13,910 14,630 Elect. input to entire system, kw 5.259 4.926 Strength of heat source (489 ft), B/hr/ft OSS 274 HER for heat pump 1.96 23 HER for heat pump system 1.48 Ie Heating cost, kwhr/therm 20.5 18.1 1 The time rate of absorbing heat from the soil probably would have decreased from November to May if the ratio of the refrigeration capacity to ground coil length had been 5 tons to 489 ft. instead of about 2 tons to 489 ft, 96 Earth Heat Pump On Intermittent Operation 2. The heating energy ratios obtained from tests of short duration show clearly Ww Here the reduction in efficiency takes place; to wit, HER for the Carnot heat pump 6.4 HER for the refrigeration plant 5.6 HER for the heat pump ZS HER for the heat pump system 1 Leh 3. The heating energy ratio of the refrigeration plant can be increased by producing better heat exchangers and_ refrigeration compressors. A more efficient heat exchanger can be manufactured by decreasing the pressure drop through it and its connecting pipes, and by increasing the amount of heat transfer surface. Professor Budenholzer has shown that the HER of a refrigeration plant can be improved by decreasing compressor losses, low side pressure drop losses, and high side pressure drop losses (13). Through re- search and development it ought to be possible to produce an axial-flow vapor refrigeration compressor with a volumetric effici- ency of 88% (or better) and with a very high mechanical efficiency. In using the axial-flow vapor compressor, the above high and low side pressure drops will be reduced greatly. It has been observed that there was very little loss in efficiency due to departure from isentropic compression in the four tests of short duration!. Also, the HER of the refrigeration plant can be increased by using a heat pump of the direct expansion type, thereby eliminating one heat exchanger, the circulating pump and its driving motor. By doing this, the initial cost of the earth heat pump system could be decreased considerably, and the operating cost would be decreased by about 17%. 4. It is probably possible to manufacture electric motors in the low capacity bracket having an efficiency of about 85%. with- out increasing the cost of production, assuming wages and the cost of raw materials remain the same. 5. The evaporator of the package unit should not be in the air stream during the heating cycle, and the condenser should not be in the air stream during the cooling cycle. 1 The average increase in entropy during compression for the four heating tests was 0.0043 B/Ib/deg. Rankine. In two cooling tests of short duration, the entropy increased by 0.0089 in one test, and decreased by 0.0007 B/lb/deg. Rankine in the other. 97 Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science 6. From October 31, 1949 to May 1, 1950, the rainfall was in excess of the normal for that period by 64.4%. Therefore, the per- formance of the earth heat exchanger should be interpreted ac- cordingly. Additional heat was carried to the ground coil by moisture migration so that the time rate of absorbing heat from the soil did not decrease appreciably with time. If the rainfall had been normal. the soil temperature in the vicinity of the earth heat exchanger would have decreased with time as the heating test progressed, there- by reducing the capacity of the refrigeration plant?. 7. The demand, particularly, for domestic heat pumps will probably increase in direct proportion to improvements in the design and methods of manufacturing refrigeration equipment. The cost of production will naturally decrease as the volume of sales is increased. BIBLIOGRAPHY 1. “Earth Heat Pump Research—Part I”, by E. B. Penrod, O. W. Gard, C. D. Jones, H. E. Collier, and R. N. Patey, University of Kentucky Engineering Experiment Station Bulletin, Vol. 4. No. 14, December, 1949, pp. 1-64. 2. “Development Of The Heat Pump”, by E. B. Penrod, University of Kentucky Engineering Experiment Station Bulletin, Vol. 1. No. 4, June, 1947, pp. 1-78. 3. “Continuous Air Conditioning With The Heat Pump’, by E. B. Penrod, American Scientist, Vol. 35, No. 4, October, 1947, pp. 502-525. 4, “Heat Pumps’, by E. B. Penrod, Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science, Vol. 13, No. 1, November, 1949, pp. 1-37. 5. “Earth Heat Pump Research”, by E. B. Penrod, Proceedings of the Midwest Power Conference, Vol. 12, April, 1950, pp. 394-398. 6. “Fuel and Power Economy, with Special Reference to Heat Pumps’, by S. J. Davies and F. G. Watts, Engineering, Vol. 166. 1 During the six-month heating test the rotameter readings were not reliable due to flashing of the refrigerant in passing through the rotameter. There- fore, the capacity of the refrigeration plant was not measured. 98 ~ a, LO. Be 13. Earth Heat Pump On Intermittent Operation No. 4312, September 17, 1948, pp. 268-287; Ibid, No. 4318, September 24, 1948,pp. 309-312. “Heat Pumps And Thermal Compressors”, by S. J. Davies, 1950 (Constable and Company, Ltd., London), pp. 1-126 “Heating, Ventilating, and Air Conditioning Fundamentals”, by W. H. Severns and J. R. Fellows, 1949 (John Wiley and Sons, Inc.,) page 118. “The Residential Heat Pump In New England”, by C. H. Coogan, Jr., Bulletin published by The Connecticut Light and Power Co., Watterbury. Conn., August 1948, pp 1-48. “Heat-Transfer Rates”, by C. H. Coogan, Jr., Mechanical Engineer- ing, Vol. 71, No. 6, June, 1949, pp. 495-498. “Theory of the Ground Pipe Heat Source for the Heat Pump’, by L. R. Ingersoll and H. J. Plass, Heating, Piping, and Air Conditioning, Vol. 20 No. 7, July, 1948, pp. 119-122. . “Heat Conduction With Engineering And Geological Applica- tions”, by L. R. Ingersoll, O. J. Zobel, and A. C. Ingersoll, 1948 (McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc.,), pp. 151-154. “Losses In The Cycle Of A Heat Pump Using A Ground Coil”, by R. A. Budenholzer, Proceedings of the Midwest Power Conference, Vol. 9, March, 1947, pp. 67-78. 99 THE EFFECTS OF SMALL AMOUNTS OF GLYCINE AND ETHYL GLYCINE ON FOOD INGESTION IN THE DOG J. W. Archdeacon and A. B. Carreiro Department of Anatomy and Physiology, University of Kentucky Lexington, Kentucky One of the unsolved problems in the physiology of the mammal is the urge to eat. In general investigators have attempted to eluci- date the role of mechanical and/or metabolic factors in the regula- tion of food ingestion. The rat and the dog have been used often as experimental subjects. Brobeck (1) has reported data to sub- stantiate the importance of the metabolic factor in food ingestion regulation. In this study with rats he concluded that food intake appears to be controlled is if it is a mechanism of temperature regulation, and that the amount of food eaten appears to be de- termined partly by the organism's ability to dissipate the heat of food metabolism (Rubner’s “Specific Dynamic Action” ). It is known that certain amino acids exert the specific dynamic action effect more than others. One of these amino acids is glycine. In the following experiments glycine and its ethyl derivative were injected intraperitoneally into the dog. The assumption was that if body heat production was raised the ingestion of food might be inhibited. The experiments in which one and two grams of glycine and ethyl glycine were injected are reported here. Data were collected on three adult dogs and are presented in Table I. The figures represent average values, and each was obtained from at least three days’ experiments. The days were “scattered” in order that eating cycles be avoided. The amino acid was injected in a 0.3% sodium chloride solution, and the total volume injected was twenty milliliters. As a control, a similar volume of .9% sodium chloride solution was injected. The animals were exposed to food (block Purina) forty-five minutes after the injection of the amino acid. They were then allowed to eat as much food as they desired in a half hour interval. The quanity of food eaten was determined. The animals received food at no other time during the day. They were kept separately in metabolism cages each of which was large enough for the animal to move about freely. 100 The Effects of Glycine and Ethyl Glycine On Food Ingestion It may be seen from Table I that glycine in the amounts of one and two grams exerted no constant inhibitory effect on food ingestion. In fact, dog 5 ate more food when two grams of glycine were in- jected than when the animal received the control saline solution. However, an interesting effect was obtained with the ethyl deriva- tive of glycine. It may be seen from Table I that there was an inhibition of food ingestion both with one and with two grams of ethyl glycine. Dogs 4, 5, and 6 ate only 41%, 10%, and 23% respectively of the food eaten in the saline interval when one gram of ethyl glycine was injected. With two grams of ethyl glycine the inhibition was quite marked. Only dogs 4 and 6 ate, the. former 18 grams and latter 1 gram. + The data in these experiments seem to indicate that the ethyl group on the glycine molecule exerted an inhibitory effect on. food ingestion, at least when the compound was used in the quanity of two grams. The mechanism of probable inhibition is not. clear. Meites (2) has reported on the effects of adminsitration of natural and artificial estrogens on the food intakes of rats. It was concluded that diethylistilbestrol decreases growth and food and water intakes. The substance was administered in comparatively small amounts. Again the presence of an ethyl group in a food intake depressing compound is to be noted. This, in conjunction with the present ex- periment, indicates that the ethyl group may have been the respon- sible factor of food intake inhibition which occurred in these ex- periments. TABLE I Average Quantity of Food Ingested (Grams ) 1 Gram 2 Grams NaCl 1 Gram 2 Grams Ethyl Glycine Glycine Glycine Glycine Ethyl Dog 4 148 113 81 61 18 Dog 5 135 108 196 13 0 Dog 6 207 LF 17 47 i REFERENCES (1) “Food Intake as a Mechanism of Temperature Regulation’, John R. Brobeck, The Yale Journal of Biology and Medicine, vol. 20, No. 6, July, 1948, pp. 545-552. (2) “Regulation of Food Intake to Growth-Depressing Action of Natural and Artificial Estrogens”, Joseph Meites, American Jour- nal of Physiology, vol. 159, No. 2, November, 1949, pp. 281-286. 101 THE PRECISION AND ACCURACY OF METER STICKS Sigfred Peterson Chemistry Department, College of Arts and Sciences University of Louisville, Louisville §, Ky. It seems unusual to think of an ordinary laboratory meter stick as a precise or accurate instrument. Yet a successful student ex- periment illustrating the statistical laws governing precision has been based on the meter stick as an instrument (1). By application of stati- stical formulas to 100 measurements of the same length with ran- domly chosen portions of the same meter stick, the probable error of a single measurement is frequently found to be as low as 0.01cem. or less, and seldom greater than 0.02 cm. This means that the average of 100 measurements with the same meter stick is precise to 0.01 millimeter! A sufficiently large number of classes have now performed this experiment measuring the same specimens so that it now becomes possible to compare measurements of the same length with several different meter sticks. Table I gives typical sets of results, each result the average of about 100 measurements with the same meter stick. Since there were about 12 meter sticks available for the ex- periment, it is possible that some pairs of results on the same specimen used the same stick, but the variations must be due to differences between different meter sticks. For each specimen studied at least five times, Table II gives the average of the average lengths, the difference between the high- est and the lowest values, and the average deviation from the average. It appears that different meter sticks can differ by as much as 0.10 cm. when used very carefully to measure the same length. However, if one can assume that the errors of different meter sticks are random, it can be concluded that the average of several measurements with the same meter stick is certainly accurate to within a few hundredths of a centimeter and is probably within 0.02 cm. of the truth. 102 The Precision and Accuracy of Meter Sticks Table I Typical Average Measurements of Rods 38.80 cm. 38.81 38.82 38.86 38.87 38.87 38.89 Number of Values ~I Ol “10 Ol ~1 Ol oO 60.23 cm. 60.24 60.26 60.32 60.32 Table II Spread of Values Average Length 36.87 38.85 43.75 46.78 47.38 58.16 60.27 61.43 cm. 46.725 cm. 46.75 46.765 46.77 46.79 46.80 46.80 46.80 46.81 Maximum Average Spread Deviation 0.03 cm. 0.014 cm. 0.09 0.03 0.10 0.03 0.09 0.025 0.05 0.02 0.08 0.02 0.09 0.04 0.07 0.02 (1) Peterson, J. Chem. Ed., 26, 408 (1949). 103 THE EFFECT OF COMPOSITION ON THE SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF BINARY WAX MIXTURES John R. Koch, Ph. D. Marquette University Sister M. Concetta, M.S. Ursuline College, Louisville, Kentucky Commercial waxes when used in binary mixtures show some in- teresting expansion results with increase of temperature. In the pre- sent study these results were observed over a temperature range of 25° C to 80° C. In some mixtures this expansion proved to be regular no matter what the percentages of the binary composition. With some other mixtures this was definitely not the case. Because of the very many theoretical and practical applications ~ and because of the accuracy with which the values can be deter- mined, it was thought best to work out the problem by specific gravity or density determinations. The density of the wax mixtures at 25° was determined by the pycnometer method using a Hubbard pycnometer, and at higher temperatures it was determined by the dilatometer method. The density of the commercial waxes at 25°C was determined in the following manner. Twenty grams of the wax were placed in a 50 milliliter beaker and heated on a steam bath until the wax melted. The melted wax was carefully poured in a petri dish to cool. This required from two to three hours for complete shrinkage. Small slabs of approximately one and a half by three centimeters were cut; the edges were smoothed, and the corners rounded. These were weighed. The Hubbard pycnometer was cleaned, dried, and weighed. It was filled with recently boiled and cooled distilled water, and again dried and weighed. The pycnometer stopper was removed. A weighed wax slab was lowered into the distilled water as carefully as possible to avoid the adherence of air bubbles. The stopper was replaced and the pynometer and contents were weighed. The density or specific gravity could be calculated at 25/25°C from the follow- ing equation. 104 Specific Gravity Of Binary Wax Mixtures Weight of the wax Specific Gravity = — - — A — B + Weight of the wax where A =weight of the pycnometer filled with water, and B= the weight of the pycnometer, water, and wax sample. Results were re- producible to 0.001. The specific gravity of the waxes at higher temperatures was determined by the dilatometer method. Ten milliliter graduated cylin- ders were cut off at the four milliliter mark, and the’ edges were fire polished. One milliliter Mohr pipettes graduated in hundredths were cut off, polished, and placed in rubber stoppers so that the ends were just even with the ends of the stoppers. The empty dilato- meter was weighed, then the dilatometer and wax, and finally, the dilatometer, wax, and water were weighed. After these we‘ghings were made the cut off Mohr pipette was inserted carefully so as not to trap any air bubbles, and the water rose to some constant level. This was taken as the initial reading. The dilatometer was placed in the water bath and the temperature was increased about ene degree per minute. Readings on the pipette were made at the desired temperatures. (Fig. 1). Fis = ure l. iG) 105 Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science a fo} 80) 70 60° 50' REFINED, BEESWAX fe) Figure 2. PERCENT y [e} [s) 1) 4 1 75 280 2-85 298 SPECIFIC GRAVITY REFINED BEESWAX - YELLOW BEESWAX The volume of the wax was determined by dividing the weight of the wax sample by the specific gravity as calculated at 250 C. The volume of the water used was determined by dividing the weight of the water by the specific gravity of water at 25°C, which value can be obtained from a hand book. The total volume of wax and water used was obtained by adding these two volumes together. The volume of water at the elevated temperatures was calculated. The total volume minus the volume of water equaled the volume of wax at the higher temperatures. The specific gravity of the wax sample at the desired tempera- ture was obtained from the equation Weight of wax Specific Gravity = Volume of wax The values at the higher temperatures agree to 0.01 or 0.02. In some cases the agreement is less than this. The volume of the dilato- meter was read to the third place. but this third place was neces- sarily an estimation. A difference of 0.001 milliliters in volume makes a difference of about 0.01 in the specific gravity value, depending up- on the wax used. From the calculated specific gavity values at 25°C to 80°C the volume increase of the waxes were as follows: Mineral Waxes Paraffin Wax 20.7 % Ozocerite Wax 25.9% Montan Wax 11.8% 106 Specific Gravity Of Binary Wax Mixtures Vegetable Waxes Carnauba Wax 12.0% Candelilla Wax 18.7% Japan Wax 15.1% Ouricury Wax 11.0% Animal Waxes Refined Beeswax 15.8 % Yellow Beeswax 15.1% Chinese Insect Wax 8.9% It will be seen that the mineral waxes expand the most and animal waxes the least. The hard, microcrystalline, tough, high melt- ing waxes show less expansion than those which are soft and have low melting points, and Chinese Insect Wax, which is a fairly hard, crystalline wax, shows the least expansion. It was found that there is an interesting relation of the melting point to the extent of expansion. Usually where the melting point curve follows the normal pattern the expansion curve will likewise do so. When the beeswax curves are studied certain similarities are noticed. The expansion between 25°C and 30°C is very slight. The greatest amount of expansion is between 50°C and 60°C. Mixtures of waxes with melting points lower than 70°C show very little expansion between 70°C and 80° C. The most striking graph in this group is presented by the mix- ture of refined beeswax with yellow beeswax. (Fig. 2). Refined beeswax has a specific gravity at 25° C of 0.957 and yellow beeswax one of 0.953. Mixtures of these two waxes show an average value of 0.974 which means that the two waxes shrink in mixtures at 25° C. This change is equally observable at 30° C, less so at 40° C, still less at 50°C, and at 60°C, 70°C, and 80°C the average value is the same for the mixtures as it is for the individual waxes. The greatest amount of expansion in the beeswax occurs with the largest percentages of beeswax except in the case of paraffin and ozocerite (Fig. 3). The 25°C and 30°C curves are regular. We see the increase of expansion toward the middle of the curve in the 40° C, 50° C, and 60° C curves. The candelilla wax mixtures at 25°C give normal curves and the individual specific gravity values could be calculated from the values of the original waxes within the limits of experimental 107 Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science error. The candelilla mixtures with vegetable waxes, with refined beeswax and with ozocerite wax show a decreased volume at 30° C. In most of the candelilla mixtures we see that between 30% and 70% of candelilla there is almost no increase in the amount of expansion. The most interesting sets of curves are obtained with the car- nauba mixture. The greatest amount of expansion with increase of temperature occurs where the percentage of carnauba is small. The specific gravity values of the wax mixture at 25°C can be calculated within the limits of experimental error from the values of the original waxes. A study of the carnauba wax—montan wax curves will point out this regularity in the 25°C curve. (Fig. 4). This same graph can be used to point out that the 50-50% mixtures with carnauba call for special attention. The greatest per- centage of expansion is found in these mixtures when carnauba is studied with refined beeswax, yellow beeswax, candelilla, Japan wax, montan, paraffin, and ozocerite. On the other hand, the great- est amount of shrinkage is found when equal amounts of carnauba and Chinese Insect wax are mixed. (Fig. 5). The most regular sets of curves are obtained with the paraffin wax mixtures. The paraffin wax—montan wax curves serve as an example. (Fig. 6). The 25°, 30°, and 40° curves are very regular. There are only slight deviations in the 50°, 60°, and 70° curves. The 80° curve again follows the regular pattern. The experimental specific gravity values for the mixtures at 25° C agree very accurately with the calculated values in all the mixtures except those with carnauba (where the difference is more marked). The greatest amount of expansion occurs between 40° C and 50°C. In most cases the amount of expan- sion increases with the increase of the percentage of paraffin. A careful study of the graphs and a check with mathematical calculations show that in most cases the values for the specific gravity of the wax mixtures at 25°C can be calculated from the values of the components and that the experimental values agree very well with the calculated values, except in the cases pointed out. Most of the calculated values for higher temperatures have been found to agree with the experimental values by 0.01, and rarely have the differences been more than 0.02. 108 XY¥M 3LI¥3D0Z0 -X¥MS339 DINIII ‘KYA LDISNI JSINIHD - XVM VENYNYYD ALIAWYD 21519305 ALIAWHD 914519390dS Si* 09" sw 0s" © e Specific Gravity Of Binary Wax Mixtures PERCENT BEESWAX CER aan ~ a a = = PERCENT CARNAUBA So © ° ° fo 2 o a ~ : > is} °o s o a 3 2 2 Cent rr > mm oo *° > 7 ry | : S ° oO 50' 35 2 2 40° SiS rh = e ° 39 x «x . FERCENT PARAFFIN o o ° fo} [e} ° a og° Nijdivavd - KYM 314193dS S NY¥LNOW ALIAVYD G6" xVM (olona Figure 3, top left Figure 4, top right Figure 5, bottom left Figure 6, bottom right 109 Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science One other set of observations may be made. The mixture of a soft low melting wax with another soft low melting wax exhibits a very normal expansion between the 30° and 40° curves. Past this temperature the mixtures show more expansion than do the original components. The mixture of a soft low melting wax with a hard micro cry- stalline high melting wax or with a hard crystalline wax also give normal curves. When hard high melting waxes are mixed together their curves exhibit marked abnormalities as was pointed out in the carnauba— montan mixtures. When these same waxes are mixed with hard crystalline waxes marked volume changes are noticed at the different temperatures. The carnauba—Chinese Insect wax mixtures illustrate this point. We may summarize our conclusions as follows: 1. Various waxes exert different effects upon the expansion of any individual wax. 2. The greatest amount of expansion occurs just before the melt- ing point of the wax mixture. 3. Paraffin wax mixtures give the most normal sets of curves. 4. Carnauba wax exerts the most marked effect in expansion values. The 50-50 mixtures show the greatest deviations. 5. Candelilla wax mixtures tend to shrink most in the neighbor- hood of 30° C. 6. Hard, microcrystalline, high melting waxes show less expansion in the 80° range. 7. Chinese Insect wax which is a fairly hard, crystalline, high melting wax shows the least expansion. 8. Mixtures of soft low melting waxes with each other or with other waxes, at temperatures higher than 40°C expand more than do the original wax components. 9. When hard high melting waxes are mixed together, or are mixed with high melting crystalline waxes their curves show marked abnormalities. Examples: carnauba—montan, carnauba— Chinese Insect wax. 10. Care should be taken in calculating the specific gravity of a wax mixture unless the specific gravity versus composition curve at the desired temperature is known to be a straight line. 110 CHROMOSOME BEHAVIOR IN A SECOND GASTERIA-ALOE HYBRID Herbert Parkes Riley University of Kentucky The author (Riley, 1948) has recently described the behavior of the chromosomes in a putative hybrid between Gasteria and Aloe, found among a collection of succulents growing at the University of Kentucky. More recently, a second putative hybrid has been studi- ed from the same collection. Both plants had been obtained from Figure | Mr. Charles Cass of Pacific Grove, California, but are considerably different in general appearance. The second plant is herbaceous and has a very short stem. The leaves form a rosette but lack the prominent spines so often pre- sent on the margins of Aloe leaves (Fig. 1). The leaves are pale 111 Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science green, approximately the color of those of Gasteria sulcata and they are not covered with white dots. The flowers resemble those of Aloe, being straight at the end and not swollen at the base, but the ra- cemes are lax and not dense and, except for a tendency to be not secund, are like those of Gasteria (Fig. 2). The inflorescences and flowers of the two putative hybrids are much alike. Observations — Pairing at the first meiotic metaphase was much more frequent than it was in the hybrid reported previously, al- Chromosome Behavior In A Second Gasteria-Aloe Hybrid. though not so frequent as has been observed in plants of either genus. As Table I shows, there was a large proportion of cells with three or four bivalents among the eight long chromosomes. The chiasma frequency was 1.40 per bivalent and 0.51 per chromosome, and about 45 per cent of the chiasmata were terminalized. The six short chromosomes showed a greater tendency to pair than did the long ones, and no cell showed a complete failure of pairing among the short chromosomes. The chiasma frequency was apparently 1.00 per bivalent and 0.43 per chromosome, and all the chiasmata were terminalized. Table I Frequency of bivalents at first meiotic metaphase in a Gasteria-Aloe hybrid. No. of Eight long chromosomes Six short chromosomes bivalents No. of cells Per cent No. of cells Per cent + 30 28.93 3 55 45.45 74 G27 2 18 14.88 29 26.36 i 10 §.26 i 6.36 0 3 2.48 0 0.00 et 100.00 110 99.99 There were a number of irregularities at first anaphase and only 48 of the 87 cells which were examined showed a 4-4 distribution of the long chromosomes. In four cells the distribution was 4-3 with one chromosome lagging on the equator and in one cell was 4-2 with two laggards. In 24 cells there was an equational separation of one or more chromosomes at the first division. In nine cells the distribution was 5-3 and in one cell it was 6-2. Six cells had chromatid bridges with fragments. For the short chromosomes, 90 per cent of the cells were normal. In one cell there was a 4-2 distribution and a few cells had lagging chromosomes or the equational separation of chromatids. A chromatid bridge between the short chromosomes was present in one cell. 113 Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science Of 320 cells in first telophase, 190 appeared normal. In 115 cells there was one micronucleus and in 15 cells two micronuclei were found. Thirty-eight cells were examined in anaphase of the second meio- tic division. In 26, four long chromosomes were going to each pole on both spindles, but the other twelve cells showed various ab- normalities including lagging chromosomes. The loss of chromosomes or of chromatids at the first meiotic division was clearly reflected in some of the cells at second anaphase. In two figures chromatid bridges connected the two daughter nuclei on one spindle, and in one figure a bridge appeared to connect one nucleus of each spindle. Second telophase did not appear so abnormal as in the hybrid previously reported. The tetrad consisted of four daughter cells in about 74 per cent of the figures, and all four nuclei always appeared to be about the same size. “Tetrads” of five cells were found in about 24 per cent of the figures, groups of six cells in two per cent, and a group of seven cells was found once. When the “tetrad” Table II Stages of successive buds on the main raceme of a Gasteria-Aloe plant. The buds with the lowest numbers are the smallest. Bud Stage i Early prophase of first meiotic division (leptotene and zygotene ). 2 Zygotene through diplotene. 3 First metaphase through second telophase. 4-8 Tetrads; microspores together. 9-16 Microspores separated; nuclei generally central; in later buds some nuclei towards one side of cells which are somewhat more elliptical; in buds 15 and 16, some cells shrunken. 17 Same but an occasional prophase of the microspore division. 18 Some cells empty; cytoplasm becoming very oily in most cells; an occasional dividing cell, chiefly in prophase. 19-20 More cells appear empty; only a few have nuclei. 21-40 All but a very small per cent empty and shriveled; none with two nuclei. 114 Chromosome Behavior In A Second Gasteria-Aloe Hybrid. consisted of more than four cells, one or two were frequently smal- ler than the others. In spite of the normal appearance of well over half the te- trads, the mature pollen appeared to be 100 per cent inviable. As Table II shows, development proceeds normally until the tetrad stage. The microspores separate from one another normally and be- gin to take on a mature shape and to develop a pollen grain wall, but very few develop so far as the nuclear division. Most of them remain in interkinesis. Their cytoplasm becomes very oily and sooner or later the nucleus and cytoplasm disappear and the cells appear to be merely shrunken pollen grain walls. No microspore metaphases or anaphases were observed, but a few cells were found in prophase. When cells were studied from buds of various sizes, about four per cent appeared to be shrunken and empty shortely after meiosis. About one per cent was unusually large and probably was a diploid microspore, and about two per cent were unusually small but ap- parently contained cytoplasm and a nucleus. About four per cent of the cells that seemed to be otherwise normal contained one or two micronuclei: On the other hand, in one of the largest unopened buds there were 497 shrunken and empty cells, four large cells without nuclei, and 27 cells that were unusually small but which ap- peared to contain cytoplasm but no visible nucleus; no cell appeared to be normal in the largest buds. Meiotic pairing in this plant was considerably more frequent than in the plant previously described, which would indicate a greater homology between the genomes of its parents. However, both plants appear to be 100 per cent pollen sterile. The high per- centage of bivalents would suggest that some mature pollen grains would be found. It is possible that the failure to find any fertile grains is in part due to a disharmony between chromosomes and cytoplasm in an intergeneric cross. LITERATURE CITED Riley, H. P. 1948. Chromosome studies in a hybrid between Gasteria and Aloe. Amer. J. Bot. 35: 645-650. 115 ACADEMY AFFAIRS THE 1949 FALL MEETING The thirty-fifth annual meeting of the Kentucky Academy of Science was held at Eastern State College, Richmond, Kentucky on Friday afternoon and Saturday morning, October 21 and 22, 1949. Main feature of the Friday afternoon program was a symposium on “Recent Scientific Developments.” Participating in this program were: Dr. J. M. Schreyer, University of Kentucky. “Recent Developments: in Chemistry.” Dr. D. M. Bennett, University of Louisville. “Recent Developments in Physics.” Dr. W. R. Jillson, Transylvania College, “Recent Developments in Geology.” Dr. J. S. Bangson, Berea College. “Recent Developments in Biology.” Mr. J. Stephen Watkins, President of the Kentucky Chamber of Com- merce. “Recent Industrial Development in Kentucky.” Following the annual dinner of the Academy Friday evening there was held a symposium on “Research Facilities in Kentucky”. Speaking on_ this symposium were: Dean R. C. Ernest, Dean of the Speed Scientific School, University of Louisville. “Research Facilities at the University of Louisville.” Dr. Leo Chamberlain, Vice-President of the University of Kentucky. “Research Facilities at the University of Kentucky.” Mr. Ervin Kaufman, Chief-Chemist, Hirsch Bro. & Co., Louisville. “Research Facilities in Kentucky Industries.” At the business meeting Saturday morning officers were elected for the Academy year, 1949-1950. President: W. E. Blackburn, Murray State College, Murray Vice-President: E. B. Penrod, University of Kentucky, Lexington. Secretary: C. B. Hamann, Asbury College, Wilmore. Treasurer: KR. H. Weaver, University of Kentucky, Lexington. Representitive to the Council of the A.A.A.S.: Austin R. Middleton, University of Louisville, Louisville. William Moore and Mary E. Wharton were elected to serve on the Board of Directors until 1953. Following the Saturday morning business meeting the various Divisions of the Academy met for the presentation of specialized papers and for the transaction of divisional business. The programs of the various Divisions are recorded as follows: 116 Academy Affairs Medical Technology and Bacteriology Miss Mary Benedict Clark, Presiding. “A comparison of methods of giving blood transfusions”. L. C. Harrison, Good Samaritan Hospital and University of Kentucky, Lexington. “Rh-Hr classification and antibody determination”. Mary Benedict Clark, Louisville. “Techniques of Huggins thermal coagulation test for carcinoma”. Oscar M. Alton, Norton Infirmary, Louisville. “Quick microtenchniques for bacteriological work”. R. H. Weever, Univer- sity of Kentucky, Lexington. “Mycological techniques in clinical diagnosis”. Margaret Hotchkiss, Univer- sity of Kentucky, Lexington. “A weekly mold survey of air and dust in Lexington”. M. Elizabeth Wal- lace, R. H. Weaver and M, Scherago, University of Kentucky, Lexington. “Problems in the standardization of allergenic extracts”. Morris Scherago, University of Kentucky, Lexington. “The laboratory production of penicillin”. Robert Blair, University of Ken- tucky, Lexington. Marcus Allen, Howard Clinic, Glasgow, Kentucky, was elected Chairman of the Division of Medical Technology and Bacteriology for the coming year. Biology Division Dr. Joe Neel, Presiding. “Observations on the life history of Cyclops bicuspidatus thomasi”’. Gerald A. Cole, University of Louisville, Louisville. “Biographical data on the life of Sadie F. Price, Kentucky naturalist.” Harvey B. Lovell, University of Louisville, Louisville. William M. Clay, University of Louisville was elected Chairman of the Biology Division for the coming year. Engineering. Prof. E. B. Penrod, Presiding. “Finishing steels for decorative and corrosion resistance purposes’. Reid Kenyon, Armco Steel Co. “Research in highway engineering”. William B. Drake, Kentucky Department of Highways. “The heat pump from a home owner’s viewpoint”. O. G. Petersen, Somer- set, Kentucky. “Teaching electronics at the junior college level”. H. Alex Romanowitz, University of Kentucky, Lexington. “Physiological aspects of flight”. W. F. Savage, University of Kentucky, Lexington. “Hydrogen manufacture”. Robert Reed, Girdler Corporation, Louisville. “Chemical colors”. J. D. Todd, Kentucky Color and Chemical Co., Louisville. “Aluminum in the petroleum industry”. William B. Moore, Reynolds Metals Co., Louisville. “Manufactured tobacco products”. Jesse Simpson, Brown and Williamson Tobacco Corp., Louisville. E. B. Penrod, University of Kentucky was reelected Chairman of the En- gineering Division for the coming year. 117 Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science Chemistry. Dr. G. L. Corley, Presiding. “The banding of silver chromate and silicic acid gel”. Miss Cooper, Centre College, Danville. “Increase in dissolved solids and acidic components during the aging of whisky”. M. C. Brockmann, Joesph E. Seagram & Sons, Inc., Louisville. “A preliminary characterization of lespedeza seed oil”. Richard H. Wiley and A. W. Cagle, University of Louisville. “Soil iodine”. Forrest G. Houston, Kentucky Agricultural Experiment Sta- tion, Lexington. “Determining sugars in plant material”. J. H. Hamilton, Ivan Stewart and M. E. Weeks, Kentucky Agricultural Experiment Station, Lexington. “Comparative rates of growth and calcification of the humeri of male and female New Hampshire chickens having crooked keels”. G. Davis Buckner, W. M. Insko, Amanda H. Henry and Elizabeth F. Wachs, Kentucky Agricultural Experiment Station, Lexington. “Comparative rates of growth and calcification of the femur, tibia and metatarsus bones of male and female New Hampshire chickens having crooked keels”. G. Davis Buckner, W. M. Insko, Amanda H. Henry and Elizabeth F. Wachs, Kentucky Agricultural Experiment Station, Lexington. “The catalase activity of normal tissues”. Sister Mary Julitta, Donna keller and Richard Klare, Villa Madonna College, Covington. “Effects of Staphylococcus aureus on blood and liver catalase in mice”. Sister Rose Agnes, Sister Mary Adeline and Cornelius W. Kreke, Nazareth College Unit of Institutum Divi Thomas, Louisville. “Some observations on tidal disturbances. in the atmosphere”. G. C. Mance, Union College, Barbourville. “The effect of composition on the specific gravity of binary wax mixtures”. John R. Koch, Marquette University, and Sister M. Concetta, Ursuline College, Louisville. “Pigment derived from dioximes”. Max I. Bowman, Carl E. Moore, Leonard Viola and Shelden Weinstein, University of Louisville. “Cyclo octa tetraine”. Norman O. Long, University of Kentucky, Lexington. Dr. T. C. Herndon, Eastern State College was elected Chairman of the Chemistry Division for the coming year. The final event of the Richmond meeting was an address by the Hon. Charles Farnsley, Mayor of Louisville. Mayor F arnsley spoke on “The Role of Scientists in City Government” at a Saturday luncheon in the Student Union Building. The following faculty members of Eastern State College served as the Committee on Arrangements for the Richmond meeting: Anna A. Schnieb (Chairman), T. C. Herndon, Meredity Cox J. G. Black, L. G. Kennamer and Smith Park. 118 Academy Affairs THE 1950 SPRING MEETING Murray State College was host to the Kentucky Academy of Science at its spring meeting held on Friday and Saturday, April 28 and 29, 1950. It is the intent of the Academy that these spring meetings, which were inaugarated last year at Cumberland Falls State Park, should provide the maximum opportunity for field trips in regions of the Commonwealth which are of special interest to outdoor scientists. Following registration Friday afternoon provision was made for an in- spection of the new science building at Murray State College. President of the Academy, W. E. Blackburn of Murray State College presided at the Friday afternoon program. The following papers were presented: “Geological sketch of the Jackson Purchase”. E. B. Wood, Kentucky Geolo- gical Survey. “A look at Kentucky Woodlands”. Eugene Cypert, U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service. “Wild turkey in Kentucky Woodlands”. John DeLime, Kentucky Division of Fish and Game. At the dinner Saturday evening, Dr. R. H. Woods, President of Murray State College gave a short address of welcome. Following dinner, members and guests reconyv ae for a general program consisting of addresses on: “Research and development activities at the T.V.A. chemical works, Wilson Dam, Ala.”, Ralph Stitzer, Tennessee Valley Authority. “Recent advances in medical science”. Hugh L. Houston, Kentucky State Medical Association. “Indian corn in Old America”. Paul Weatherwax, Indiana University, Bloom- ington. The program for Saturday was intended to provide members an opportunity to participate in a variety of field trips or to pursue special outdoor interests. The schedule provided for a trip to Kentucky Woodlands, a sightseeing tour of Kentucky Lake, an inspection of the Kentucky Dam and Generating Station and a conducted tour through the plant of the Pennsylvania Salt & Manufactur- ing Co. which produces hydrofluoric and sulfuric acids. Facilities were provided for small fishing parties. Arrangements were made for a Saturday noon luncheon. In the evening the membership of the Academy was inv ited to a social and informal dance sponsored jointly by the honory ‘biological sciences fraternity and the American Chemical Society student affiliate chapter of Murray State College. Preparations for the meeting were in the hands of the following committees which were drawn from the faculty of Murray State College: Program—A. M. Wolfson (Chairman), Grace Wyatt and Peter Panzera. Dinner—Mrs. A. M. Wolfson. Arrangements—C. W. Kemper (Chairman), Collus Johnson, William G. Reed, Paul Bryant and R. A. Johnston. Registration—Liza Spann (Chairman), Roberta Whitnah, A. G. Canon, and R. E. Goodgion. 119 Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science THE 1950 FALL MEETING The thirty-sixth annual meeting of the Academy will be held at the Univer- sity of Louisville on October 27 and 28, 1950. All sessions will meet in the main building of the Speed Scientific School, located on the south side of Eastern Parkway near South Third Street. The program of Friday afternoon will consist of conducted tours to certain industrial plants in Louisville. These tours will leave the University of Louis- ville at 2:30 p.m., and will return in time for the annual dinner at the Seelbach Hotel at 5:30. The guest speaker at the dinner is to be Dr. Anton J. Carlson, of the University of Chicago, who will address the Acacemy on “Science and Society”. It is necessary to meet promptly for the dinner, inasmuch as Dr. Carlson must leave Louisville at 8:00 o'clock for another engagement. A business session will conclude Friday's activities. Saturday morning will be allotted to scientific sessions, held in the Speed Scientific School, and to any remaining matters of business. CALL FOR PAPERS A third number of the TRANSACTIONS can be published before the end of the present calendar year if a sufficient number of manuscripts are submitted to the editors in the near future. 120 NOTICE TO CONTRIBUTORS The TRANSACTIONS OF THE KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE is a medium for publication of original investigations in science. In addition, as the official organ of the Kentucky Academy of Science, it publishes programs of the meetings of the Academy, abstracts of papers presented before the annual meetings, reports of the Academy’s officers and committees, as well as news and announce- ments of interest to the membership. Manuscripts may be submitted at any time to the co-editors: M. C. BrockMANN, WILLIAM M. Cray, Joseph E. Seagram & Sons, Inc., Department of Biology, Seventh Street Road, University of Louisville Louisville, Kentucky Louisville, Kentucky Papers should be submitted typewritten, double-spaced, with wide margins, in an original and 1 carbon copy, on substantial quality paper. Articles are ac- cepted for publication with the understanding that they are to be published exclusively in the TRANSACTIONS, Each paper will be reviewed by one or more persons qualified in the field covered by article in addition to the editors before a contribution is accepted for publication. 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The following individuals, educational institutions and industrial organiza- tions have subscribed to one or more sustaining memberships in the KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE. Berea College, Berea, Kentucky. Blankmeyer, H. C., Joseph E. Seagram & Sons, Inc., Louisville, Kentucky. Borgerding, Walter L., General Distillers Corporation of Kentucky, Louis- ville, Kentucky. Cedar Bluff Stone Company, Inc., Princeton, Kentucky. Centre College, Danville, Kentucky. Corhart Refractories Company, Louisville, Kentucky. Devoe and Raynolds Company, Inc., Louisville, Kentucky. DeSpain, T. H., Southern Textile Machinery Company, Paducah, Kentucky. B. F. Goodrich Chemical Company, Louisville, Kentucky. Kentucky Brewers Association (10), Louisville, Kentucky. Kolachov, Paul, Joseph E. Seagram & Sons, Inc., Louisville, Kentucky. Lanham Hardwood Flooring Company, Louisville, Kentucky. Lee Clay Products Company, Inc. (2), Clearfield, Kentucky. Louisville Free Public Library, Louisville, Kentucky, Medley Distilling Company, Owensboro, Kentucky. Mileti, Otto J., The Mileti Company, Inc., Louisville, Kentucky. Moser, Harold C., Gamble Brothers, Inc., Louisville, Kentucky. Old Joe Distillery Company, Lawrenceburg, Kentucky. Peerless Manufacturing Company, Louisville, Kentucky . Perkins, George, Reynolds Metals Company, Louisville, Kentucky. Scofield, E. H. Joseph E. Seagram & Sons, Inc., Louisville, Kentucky. Skirvin, J. B., General Refractories Company, Olive Hill, Kentucky. Smith, L. A., Joseph E. Seagram & Sons, Inc., Louisville, Kentucky. Spanyer, William, Brown-Forman Distillers Corp., Louisville, Kentucky. Willkie, H. F., Joseph E. Seagram & Sons, Inc., Louisville, Kentucky. A special grant from the UNIVERSITY OF KENTUCKY PRESS made pos- sible the publication of a part of this number of the TRANSACTIONS. al » = he ) \ 5 0 & oy 3 fy. 4 ; t —p muy ' j} - KK 3 rt S/ ane “ eee/ } ee MATH INA he | Volume 18 August, 1951 ccs" Number 3 TRANSACTIONS of the KENTUCKY CADEMY of SCIENCE Official Organ KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE CONTENTS . Bibliography of Sarah F. Price, Kentucky Naturalist. RN I I eee en ee Soccbasagaece 121 The Electrical Conductance of Solutions of Ferric Chloride in Acetone at 20° and 40°C. Lyle R, Dawson and Ralph VEE Tees hed ney NOM Su aug A as EAN RR a ee 129 The Distribution of Alkali Iodides Between Ethylene Glycol and Ethyl Acetate. Lyle R. Dawson and Edward J. LL MARRIES SECS Teac ASA Na ate 0 EE SCOR a 137 The Free Energy of Copper Chromate. Sigfred Peterson and pS IM Oe 2 oso a A RS UE RAR a ay ee 146 Emissivities of Protective Coatings. W. R. Barnes and N. P. Shah... 149 Performance of an Earth Heat Pump Operating Intermittently on the Cooling Cycle. E. B, Penrod and R. C. Thornion ............ 156 Effects of Staphylococcus aureus Infections on Blood and Liver Catalase in Mice. I. Titrimetric Method. Sister Mary Adeline O’Leary, S.C.N., Sister Virginia Heines, §.C.N., Sister Roderick Juhasz, S.C.N., Sister Rose Agnes Green- well, S.C.N., and Corenlius W. Kreke .......0.000.2.00....00--.0.-..0--00--- 173 Effects of Staphylococcus aureus Infections on Blood and Liver Catalase in Mice. II. Gasometric Method. Sister Mary Adeline O’Leary, S.C.N., Sister Virginia Heines, S.C.N., Sister Roderick Juhasz, S.C.N., Sister Rose Agnes Green- ae ey ee zs 2 aa ae + well, S.C.N., and Corenlius W, Kreke .................. ote Antibotic-Producing Species of Bacillus from Well Water. R. H. Weaver and Theodore Boiter .......02.2.22..2.0..20-22-eeceeceeesee 183 Subsurface Earth ee By Electrical Resistivity Method. L. C. Pendley .. TELA CTU RR Gea tly MSN RAR ROE CSRS RRR, | a SSL couade nea ddectueectecdeccecceeece 201 ERR RN) Se oe asic eanecueteacecesscunaceadeucvnsesenece 208 OE a EE oe Fe —— ioe aa KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE OFFICERS AND DIRECTORS, 1950-1951 President Vice President } 5 E. B. Penrop, M. C. BrockMANN, : University of Kentucky, Joseph E. Seagram & Sons, Inc., Lexington Louisville Secretary Treasurer C. B. Hamann, R. H. WEAVER, Asbury College, University of Kentucky, Wilmore Lexington Representative to the Council Counselor to the Junior of the A.A.A.S. Academy of Science AusTIn R. MIDDLETON, ANNA A. SCHNEIB, University of Louisville, Eastern Kentucky State College, : Louisville Richmond ‘ Editor WituiaM M. Cray, University of Louisville, Louisville Directors W. E. Biackpurn, Murray EState College, Murray...) Se ae to 1954 Pau. Ko.acnovy, Joseph E. Seagram & Sons, Inc., Louisville... to 1954. Witt1aAM Moore, Eastern Kentucky State College, Richmond................ to 1953 Mary E. Wuarron, Georgetown College, Georgetown....:0. Gc ages to 1953 ALFRED BRAUER, University of Kentucky, Lexington3.00). 2 2 ee to 1952 Warp C. Sumpter, Western Kentucky State College, Bowling Green........ to 1952 W. D. VaLiEav, University of Kentucky, Gexihgton.. i. 3 ae ee to 1951 Morris ScHERAGO, University of Kentucky, Lexmpton:...:) 2 3 ey to 1951 The TRANSACTIONS are issued semiannually. Four numbers constitute a volume. Domestic subscription, $2.00 per volume, foreign, $2.50 per volume. — Correspondence concerning membership in the Academy, subscriptions or other business matters should be addressed to the secretary. Manuscripts and — other material for publication should be addressed to the editors. BIBLIOGRAPHY OF SARAH F. PRICE, KENTUCKY NATURALIST By Harvey B. Lovell Biology Department, University of Louisville Louisville, Kentucky INTRODUCTION Sarah Frances Price was born in Evansville, Indiana, in 1849, the daughter of Alexander and Maria Morehouse Price. The family moved to Bowling Green, Kentucky, while she was still quite young. She was educated at a church school in Terra Haute, Indiana. An injury to her back invalided her for many years but after six months’ treatment by Dr. Weir Mitchell of Philadelphia, she was sufficiently improved to follow her interests in natural history. Miss Price first taught a class painting but later gave a course in nature study. From 1889 to 1893 she prepared an exhibit of water-color sketches of the native plants and birds of Warren County, Kentucky, for an exhibit at the Chicago World’s Fair; this exhibit took first place in it class. She had previously published two compilations, Songs from the South- land in 1890, and Shakespeare's Twilights in 1892. The list of plants which she had made while preparing her plant exhibit for the fair she privately published as the Flora of Warren County, Kentucky in 1893. It contained 714 species of vascular plants. In several copies of this list which I have seen, Miss Price has written in 255 additional species, the number which she found during the next ten years. Miss Price now began to subscribe to several botanical journals and published many short articles on her discoveries. Many of these are quotations from letters which she wrote to the editors. Several contain questions which are answered then or later. Her earliest contributions were to GARDEN AND FOREST, the ASA GRAY BULLETIN, and the LINNAEAN FERN BULLETIN (later cal- led the FERN BULLETIN). She also wrote for the PLANT WORLD. Her most extensive botanical work was The Fern Col- lectors Handbook published by Henry Holt and Co. in 1897, which contained drawings of the ferns of northeastern United States. In 1898 she printed privately the Trees and Shrubs of Kentucky, which contained a list of 255 species of woody plants. Miss Sadie was an all round naturalist and made observations in several other fields. Many of these were published, such as her SEP 141951 Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science articles on A Peculiar Stone Mound, Kentucky Folk Lore, and the Mollusca of Southern Kentucky, the latter containing a list of 151 species of mollusks which she wrote that she had collected “while engaged in botanical work.” She also wrote several articles on birds, although most of her bird observations were never published. Her drawings of birds are mounted in a large book which was de- posited in the library of the Missouri Botanic Garden by her sister in 1908. There is also a portfolio of water-color sketches of moths and butterflies in the same library. The majority of these include the caterpillar on the host plant, the chrysalis, and the mature in- sect. She had evidently reared these from caterpillars to the adult stages. Her sudden death (from dysentery) on July 8, 1903, at the age of 54 left much unpublished material and many projects un- finished. Several of her unpublished manuscripts were submitted for publication by her sister and life long companion, Mary Price. Miss Sadie had been earlier commissioned by Willard N. Clute, editor of the FERN BULLETIN, to prepare an article on the fern flora of Kentucky. This appeared in the July, 1904, issue with the comment that it had been complied from her notes. Other posthu- mous contributions were her illustrated manuscript on Kentucky Oaks published in the PLANT WORLD in February, 1904, and two bird articles in the AMERICAN ORNITHOLOGIST also in 1904. An autobiographicai article describing in detail one of her longer field trips was entitled “Perusin” the “Pennyrile’ County. It ap- peared in two parts in the AMERICAN BOTANIST for December, 1906, and January, 1907. In this paper Miss Price describes her visits with one companion to the back country along the Green and Nolin rivers in search of rare plants. Much of Miss Price’s fame rests on her discovery of several new species of plants, five of which were named in her honor. These were Cornus Priceae Small, Ovxalis Priceae Small, Viola Priceana Pollard, Apios Priceana Robinson, and Aster Priceae Britton. Other species discovered by her include Clematis flaccida Small, Ly- copodium porophilum Lloyd and Underwood, Polyporus juniperus Schrenk, and Ganoderma sessile Schrenk. A sketch of her life ap- peared in Who's Who in America (1903-1905). The FERN BUL- 122 Bibliography of Sarah F. Price, Kentucky Naturalist LETIN published a brief biography of her life in the January, 1904, issue which contains the only known picture of Miss Sadie. Miss Price’s nature class at Bowling Green continued to meet regularly for nearly thirty years after her death. The members called themselves the Sadie Price Nature Class and continued to explore and collect in Warren County, the locale of her labors. THE BIBLIOGRAPHY 1890. Songs from the Southland, selected by S. F. Price. D. Lo- throp and Company, Boston. 32 pages, illus. 1892. Shakespeare’s Twilights. D. Lothrop and Company, Bos- ton. Illus. Part I. Shakespeare’s mornings. Part II. Shake- speare’s sunsets. 1893a. Flora of Warren County, Kentucky. C. F. Carr, New London, Wisconsin. 31 pages. A list of 714 species of vascular plants. In addition to the scientific name and common name, a local name occasionally added. The copies in the Missiouri Botanic Garden, the Filson Club, and the Louisville Public Library have 255 additional species written in, bringing the list to 969. 1893b. Cave plants. Garden and Forest, vol. 6, no. 292, p. “A different growth of plants is to be found in the cave entrances and large sink holes than along the banks of streams. She describes Wolfs Sink and Lost River. 1893c. A rare fern. Garden and Forest, vol. 6, no. 262, pp. 99-100. Asplenium Bradleyi was found September 10, 1892 in a very wild spot 13 miles from Bowling Green. 1894a. The buck bush. Garden and Forest, vol. 7, no. 438, p. 429. Deer formerly fed on the bush. 1894b. The ferns of Warren County, Kentucky, Part I. Illustrated Kentuckian, vol. 2, no. 11, March. 1894c. The ferns of Warren County, Kentucky, Part II. Illustrated Kentuckian, vol. 2, no. 12, p. 277, April. 123 1894d. 1895. 1896b. 1896c. 1897a. Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science The ferns of Warren County, Kentucky, Part III. Illustrated Kentuckian, vol. 3, no. 1, p. 291 and pp. 294-295. May. Queer misfortunes of birds. American Naturalist, vol. 29, p. 341. A crow blackbird died from entanglement in string and a hairy woodpecker was found dead with its bill stuck in a tree. A plea for the trees. Bowling Green Courier, March 6, Friday. She states that trees are being trimmmed so badly that many die. Article is signed P. F. S. (In scrapbook). Kentucky birds. Bowling Green Courier, May 31, Sunday. “I have frequently been asked to give a list of Ken- tucky song birds.” She then lists by families the species which she considers songsters. Two rare ferns—Asplenium Bradleyi and Trichomanes radi- cans. Garden and Forest, vol. 9, no. 451, p. 418. In a letter to editor she describes the finding of these ferns on a trip to Edmonson County. She noted many changes in the flora since Professor Shaler had camped there ma JESS), A few Kentucky plants. Asa Gray Bulletin, vol. 4, no. 6, p. 66. Miscellaneous notes on albino blackberries, Solanum rostratum, and the spider lily (“the most fragrant flower” ). Trichomanes radicans. The Linnaean Fern Bulletin, vol. 4, no. 4, pp. 57-59. Ophioglossum vulgatum. The Linnaean Fern Bulletin, vol. 4, no. 4, pp. 61-62. (No title; in: Our Miscellany). The Linnaean Fern Bulle- tiny vol) 4) no, 405: 66: “A \note son a worked) imondijon Trichomanes radicans. The fern-collector’s handbook and herbarium. Henry Holt 124 1897b. 1897c. 1898a. 1898b. 1898c. 1899a. 1899b. 1900a. Bibliography of Sarah F. Price, Kentucky Naturalist and Company, New York. 72 drawings. Opposite each drawing there is a blank page to be used for mounting ferns. There are no descriptions but a guide in front is arranged in part as a key. Albino plants. Asa Gray Bulletin, vol. 5, no. 3, p. 47. Signed S. F. Rice but was pasted in her scrapbook. A peculiar stone mound. The Antiquarian, vol. 1, p. 107. An oblong knob named “Indian Fort” in Warren County has a group of limestone slabs, set endwise at regular dis- tances. Trees and shrubs of Kentucky. Privately printed. 6 pages. A list of 255 woody plants based on work of several botanists including her own. The list contains 145 trees and 110 shrubs and woody climbers. Seven additional species have been added in writing to the copy in the Filson Club library. (No title; in: Our Miscellany). The Fern Bulletin, vol. 6, no. 2, p. 30. She describes the growing of ferns indoors in winter. (No title; in: Our Miscellany). The Fern Bulletin, vol. 6, no. 2, p. 3l. She asks about a crested form of Aspidium marginale. (No title; in: Notes and News). Plant World, vol. 2, No. 10, p. 175. Miscellaneous notes on a gentian, the poisonous ber- ries of Solanum Carolinense and the irritating properties of Tragia macrocarpa. Our state flower. Illustrated Kentuckian, vol. 8, no. 7, November. Includes a drawing by Miss Price of the trumpet creeper, the Kentucky state flower at that time. The poisonous plants of Kentucky. In: Western Farmers Almanac, pp. 43-48. John P. Morton and Company, Louisville. Water hemlock causes the death of more people than any other native plant. 125 1900b. 1900c. 1900d. 1900e. 1900f. 1900¢. 1900h. 1901la. 1901b. Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science (No title; in: Notes and News), Plant World, vol. 3, no. 3, p. 47. Large trees of Kentucky are the tulip tree (the largest), the American elm, silver poplar, sycamore and chestnut. Abnormal leaves and flowers. Plant World, vol. 3, no. 4, p. 53. 1 figure. She describes abnormal leaves of clover, Bignonia, English ivy, and buckeye and abnormal flowers of zephyr lily and wild rocket. (No title; in: Notes and News). Plant World, vol. 3, no. 6, pp. 94-95. She describes variations in persimmons, and states that 6 or more varieties occur in southern Kentucky. A fern enemy. The Fern Bulletin, vol. 8, no. 4, pp. 86-87. A podurid insect destroyed ferns. (No title, in: Our Miscellany). The Fern Bulletin, vol. 8, MOK as, jon wl The country people call Botrichium virginianum a ‘sang-sign and say it points to a ginseng plant. Mollusca of Southern Kentucky. The Nautilus, vol. 15, no. i] ppsato-19: A list of 151 species with data on locality and abund- ance. (No title; in: Our Miscellany). The Fern Bulletin, vol. oh 00h Wh job wk, She lists Botrichium virginianum, B. ternatum, Phegop- teris hexagonoptera and ginseng from Warren County. Kentucky folk-lore. Journal of American Folk-lore, vol. 14, no. 52, pp. 30-38. She lists the superstitions of the country people in south- ern Kentucky, which she has learned on her “numerous bo- tanical collecting trips.” (No; ttle) The Fern Bulletin, vol. 9) no. 1.ep. 15; A specimen of Dryopteris spinulosa intermedia from Tennesee with a majority of the pinnae forked. 126 190 1c. 1901d. 1901e. 1901f. 1904a. 1904b. 1904c. 1904d. Bibliography of Sarah F. Price, Kentucky Naturalist Poison hemlock. In: Western Farmers’ Almanac, page 39. John P. Morton and Company, Louisville. She describes a case of hemlock poisoning in Warren County in which a 7-year-old child died and the mother and two older children were very sick. Notes from Western Kentucky. Plant World, vol. 4, no. 8, pp: 143-144. At Airdrie, the home of General Buell, she found many interesting plants in a Green River marsh. (No title; in: Notes on Current Literature). Plant World, vol. 4, no. 9, p. 177. She writes that Styrax americana should have been S. pulverulenta, and adds some additional species to her list from Ohio County. (No title; in: General Notes). Plant World, vol. 4 no. 11, p- 215. Heuchera macrorhiza cured a sore on a horse. Kentucky Oaks. Plant World, vol. 7, no. 2, pp. 32-36. Contains 8 drawings showing both the leaves and acorns of 17 species of oaks. Contributions toward the fern flora of Kentucky. The Fern Bulletin, vol. 12, no. 3, pp. 65-70. This article complied from notes left by Sadie Price contains data on forty-two species. Wild plants of Warren Co. Bowling Green Times-Journal, February. She describes the buttercups, poppies and violets of the area. Bird sketches from southern Kentucky. American Orni- thology, vol. 4, no. 5, pp. 146-150. Contains drawings of the Wood Pewee and Bobolink by Miss Price and observations and anecdotes on the birds of southern Kentucky. 1904e. 1906. 1907. Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science Kentucky birds. American Ornithology, vol. 4, no. 6, pp. 166-167. An annotated list of 36 species of unusual occurrence. The Passenger Pigeon is “Exceedingly rare in southern Ken- tucky, where forty years ago there used to be any number of ‘pigeon roosts.’ ” “Perusin’ the “Pennyrile” County. American Botanist, vol. 11, no. 4, pp. 76-81. “Perusin” the “Pennyrile” Country (cont.). American Bo- tanist, vol. 11, no. 5, pp. 105-112. A spirited description af a collecting trip to the Green and Nolin Rivers accompanied by one companion. She tells of finding many new or rare plants and describes the coun- try and the people. The following newspaper articles have been found in the scrapbook, which is now in the library of the Missouri Botanical Garden. The Wildflower Preservation Society of America. Louis- ville Post. This is a plea for the protection of the plants of the eastern mountains. The heaven tree. Louisville Times Miss Price states that if the tree is prevented from flower- ing by cutting back the branches every second year, the bad odors are eliminated. No title. Louisville Post. Not signed but S. F. Price An article about the need for bird protection. written at the bottom of the copy in the scrapbook. 128 THE ELECTRICAL CONDUCTANCE OF SOLUTIONS OF FERRIC CHLORIDE IN ACETONE AT 20° AND 40°C Lyle R. Dawson and Ralph L. Belcher? Department of Chemistry, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky A study of the conductance of solutions of ferric chloride in acetone was undertaken with a view toward obtaining evidence con- cerning the nature and extent of dissociation of a tri-univalent salt in a solvent having a relatively low dielectric constant. Generally, it is assumed that no strong electrolytes exist in non-aqueous solu- tions where the dielectric constant of the solvent is less than 40 (1). Therefore it seemed of interest to study the influence of tempera- ture on the primary dissociation of a 3-1 electrolyte and investigate the extent to which secondary dissociation occurs. Anhydrous ferric chloride dissolves readily in acetone with the liberation of considerable heat. In dilute solutions, the heat effect may be caused by solvation or it may result from neutraliza- tion in the Lewis sense. Timmermans (2) reported that in more concentrated solutions the yellow color produced at first deepens rapidly and evidence of extensive reaction appears; however, _de Coninck (3) found that dilute solutions of ferric chloride in ace- tone are stable. Rabinowitch and Stockmayer (4) have reported evidence that aqueous solutions of ferric chloride contain a variety of forms of ions including Fe (OH)++, Fe (OH)2*, FeCl*++*, and FeCl:*. No report of extensive studies of the molecular or ionic species occurr- ing in solutions of ferric chloride in acetone has appeared. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES Commercial anhydrous ferric chloride, which analysis by the Mohr method and titration with standard dichromate showed to Present address: Battelle Memorial Institute, Columbus, Ohio. 129 Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science be better than 99.5% pure, was used without further purification. Samples of acetone having a specific conductance as low as 4 x 10-8 ohm~! cm.—! were prepared by successive distillations from argentic oxide, sodium hydroxide, and anhydrous calcium oxide collecting only the middle fractions each time. However, sol- vent of this purity was very hygroscopic and seemed to offer no particular advantage. Every sample used in this investigation had a specific conductance of 3.8 x 10-7 chm! cm.~! or less. A shielded bridge similar to that described by Shedlovsky (5) was used for the resistance measurements, the null-point being determined by use of headphones. The conductivity cell was of the Freas type having a constant of approximately 0.4, which was determined by the method of Jones and Bradshaw (6). Between 20° and 40° the change in cell constant was negligible. A water-bath which maintained the temperature constant to within *0.01° held the conductivity cell and the viscometer. Vis- cosity data obtained for the solvent used were in good agreement with the values reported in the literature (7). All dilutions were made in a dry atmosphere and the solutions were prepared on a volumetric basis directly in the conductivity cell. In these dilute solutions, the molar concentrations were as- sumed to be equal to the product of the density of the solvent and the molal concentration. The conductances of solutions of ferric chloride in acetone were determined over the concentration range 0.00266 M to 0.00025 M at 20° and 40°, with some additional values being obtained at higher concentrations. Averages of duplicate or triplicate determinations comprise the data presented. 130 Electrical Conductance of Solutions of Ferric Chloride Concentration (Molar; x 108) 0.00 0.2603 0.7101 0.8115 0.8739 0.9467 1.033 1.136 2.271 Concentration (Molar; x 10°) 0.00 0.4792 0.5687 0.6635 0.8030 1.606 2.677 Concentration (Molar) 0.0149 0.0236 0.0406 0.0738 0.0775 0.2101 RESULTS TABLE I Solutions of Ferric Chloride in Acetone at 20°C Thermodynamic Mean Dissociation Degree of Dissociation Equivalent Activity Function Dissociation Constant Conductance Coofficient (Ostwald; x 10°) ( Fuoss) (x10) 109.9 95.2 0.877 1.49 0.934 1.15 84.2 0.812 1.80 ().864 1.19 82.7 0.801 1.88 0.856 1.20 82.3 0.795 1.98 0.856 1.25 80.0 0.790 1.88 0.836 M317/ 79.2 0.782 1.95 0.832 1.19 78.0 0.77 2.01 0.826 1.20 67.3 0.706 2129, 0.755 all TABLE II Solutions of Ferric Chloride in Acetone at 40°C Thermodynamle Mean Dissociation Degree of Dissociation Equivalent Activity Function Dissociation Constant Conductance Coefficient (Ostwald; x 10°) (Fuoss) (x10?) 116.2 102.1 0.829 3.01 0.982 PAOIT( 100.8 0.815 8.21 0.980 Za, 99.6 0.802 3.42 0.977 2.19 96.4 0.788 3.22 0.960 1.99 90.4 OE 7/Alal 4,33 0.963 2.19 82.1 0.644 4.55 0.937 1.89 TABLE III Conductance Data for Higher Concentrations of Ferric Chloride in Acetone 20° 40° Equivalent Concentration Equivalent Conductance (Molar) Conductance 49.2 0.0145 56.1 48.2 0.0719 53.9 48.7 0.0753 52.9 46.5 0.2060 50.9 44.3 39.9 131 Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science Ferric chloride in acetone was treated as a uni-univalent elec- trolyte which dissociates as follows: FeCl; s FeCl,* + Cl— Application of the Ostwald dilution law results in the following equation, /A = AC/K1A.2+ I/A, [1] This is the equation for a straight line in which 1/K‘A.” is the slope and 1/A., is the intercept. From conductance data, values of 1/A and AC were plotted, and by the method of least squares the intercept and slop of the line were obtained. 20e 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 C ; Fig.l. Conductance as a_ function of C* for solutions of ferric chloride in acetone. ni— In order to obtain more nearly accurate values for the limiting equivalent conductances and to permit calculation of the thermo- dynamic dissociation constants in which corrections for interionic effects were introduced, the Fuoss method of calculation was em- ployed. Using the value of A. obtained as described above, a 132 Electrical Conductance of Solutions of Ferric Chloride variable Z was calculated from the equations, 7 Ghat o)/ K-77) (LOL)*/2 7 [2] Oe 0.147 x 10°/ (DT 8/2 go = 81.86/y (DT)1/? The value of the function of Z, F(Z) as defined in the Fuoss treatment, was obtained from the Fuoss table (8). The apparent degree of dissociation, which was calculated from the relation a = A/A,F(Z), was substituted in the following equation to obtain the molar activity coefficient: -log f? = 2A(Ca)*/*/3] where A = (1.812 x 10*)/(DT)#/2. These values permitted use of the Fuoss equation Hak —(V/KAS*) (CALVE(Z) + 1/A,|4]. Plots of FEZAA versus CAf*/F(Z) resulted in straight lines with, in each case, the intercept equal to 1/A., and the slope equal to 1/KA.” By the method of least squares a value for the limiting equivalent conductance was obtained. Then this value was improved by substituting in equation [2] and calculating another value for the limiting conductance. This process was repeated until a constant value was obtained. 0.016 0.014 0.012 V/n 0.010 0.008 0.05 0.10 OAS 0.20 0.25 AG Fig.2. Plots of equation [11 for solutions of ferric chloride in acetone. 133 Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science 0027 0041 0106 | 0108) Olof oO l2aons CAT /E(2) Fig. 3. Plots of equation [4] for solutions of ferric chloride in acetone. 020 0.16 slong Oe 0.08 0.04 0.01 OO2T O03 jos ©:05 +) 0106 C Fig.4. The concentration dependence of the logarithm of the activity coeffecient of ferric chloride in acetone. Dashed lines are theoretical according to the limiting law. 134 Electrical Conductance of Solutions of Ferric Chloride Discussion The plots of conductance versus the square root of concentra- tion and of equation |1| are typical of those obtained for weak electrolytes. Cryoscopic data (2) for this system furnish additional evidence that the solute behaves as a weak uni-univalent electrolyte for at no concentration is the molecular weight found to be as low as 81, which would be the case if the first ionization were complete. According to Murray-Rust and Hartley (9) the limiting ionic conductance of the chloride ion is about 25 in ethanol having a viscosity of approximately 1.2 centipoises. In acetone, with a viscosity of 0.3 centipoise, the value would be expected to be three or four times as large. The conductance of the large FeCl.* ion would be much smaller than that of the chloride. Therefore a value of 109 for ferric chloride in acetone seems to be reasonable on the as- sumption that it behaves as a uni-univalent electrolyte. No break appears in the plot of equation |1| which seems to indicate that the second dissociation does not occur at obtainable concentrations: or if it does occur in dilute solutions at these temepratures, its effects must be almost entirely counterbalenced by interionic effects. The degree of dissociation increases with temperature in going from 20° to 40°. This produces a greater number of ions per unit volume resulting in a decrease in the mean activity coefficient. As would be expected, the molar activity coefficient increases with a decrease in concentration at both temperatures. In Fig. 4, the broken lines are plots in which the slopes have the theoretical values of the constant “A” in the equation for the Debye-Hiickel limiting law (equation [8 that at both temperatures the limiting law is obeyed at lower con- ). It may be observed centrations. Deviations from ideality become more pronounced at higher concentrations at 90° than at 40°. Conductance data for several higher concentrations are pre- sented in Table III, although at present there is available no satis- factory theoretical treatment for such solutions. 135 de) fe) een Sk Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science SUMMARY Conductances of solutions of ferric chloride in acetone have been determined at 20° and 40° over the concentration range 0.26 x 10-3M to 200 x 10—-3M. The Fuoss method has been used to calculate the thermodynamic degree of dissociation and this has been compared to the Ostwald dissociation function over the concentration range studied. It has been shown that ferric chloride in acetone behaves as an incompletely dissociated uni-univalent electrolyte at attainable concentrations at 20° and 40°. Conformity of the solutions to the Debye-Hiickel limiting law at low concentrations has been demonstrated. BIBLIOGRAPHY Fuoss, R. M., and Shedlovsky, T., J. Am. Chem. Soc., 71, 1496 (1949). Timmermans, J., Bull. Soc. Chim. Belg., 20, 21 (1906). de Coninck, W. F. O., Compt. rend., 130, 1551 (1900). Rabinowitch, E., and Stockmayer, W. H., J. Am. Chem. Soc., 64, 335 (1942). Shedlovsky, T., J. Am. Chem. Soc., 52, 1793 (1930). - Jones, G., and Bradshaw, B. C., J. Am. Chem. Soc. 55, 1780 (1933). {.-C. T., VII, 214 (1930). Fuoss, R. M., J. Am. Chem. Soc., 57, 488 (1935). Murray-Rust, D.M., and Hartley, H., Proc. Roy. Soc., A126, 84 (1929). 136 THE DISTRIBUTION OF ALKALI IODIDES BETWEEN ETHYLENE GLYCOL AND ETHYL ACETATE Lyle R. Dawson and Edward J. Griffith Department of Chemistry, University of Kentucky Lexington, Kentucky It is well known that the distribution rato for a solute between two immiscible solvents remains constant for varying concentra- tions only where it represents the ratio between the activities ot the solute in the two phases (1). The activity may be considered as the product of the activity coefficient and the concentration, or q@=yerC. Therefore, for a solution which exists in the same state of aggregation in both phases, the exact form of the equation for the distribution ratio is a aK a, [| or ec *C : Cc, =K 2] CR res Where y. refers to the stoichiometrical activity coefficient as de- fined by Bronsted (2). If the state of aggregation of the solute is different in the two phases, a suitable exponent must be used with one of the terms in equation [2] (3). In sufficiently dilute solution where the activity coefficients approach unity, the ratio of the concentrations becomes practically constant. Similarly, if two relatively immiscible solvents are chosen so that the solute to be studied is sparingly soluble in one giving a solution of low concentration in which the activity coefficient may be considered to be unity, equation [2] may be used to calculate the activity coefficients of the solute in the more concentrated phase at various concentrations (4). The purpose of this investigation was to determine the dis- tribution ratio for the iodides of ammonium, sodium, potassium, and lithium between the two slightly miscible solvents ethylene glycol and ethyl acetate. It was desired also to determine the 137 Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science variations in activity coefficients of the pure iodides in ethylene glycol solution with changes in concentration and to study the resulting effects when mixtures of these salts were used. REAGENTS Best grade, “anhydrous,” salts which were carried through a final re-drying operation immediately prior to use, were employed throughout the investigation. The cthylene glycol was dried over anhydrous sodium sulfate and distilled under reduced pressure. The ethyl acetate was tested for water with anhydrous copper sul- fate and its purity confirmed by measurement of its refractive index. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE One hundred ml. of glycol solution of the salt and_ three hundred ml. of pure ethyl acetate were mixed in a one-liter flask and stoppered with paraffin-sealed corks. The flask was supported in a thermostat at 30°C. and thoroughly agitated for twenty hours. Upon being removed from the thermostat, the greater part of the acetate solution was poured off and a 10-ml. sample of the glycol layer was removed by means of a pipet. Then the two solutions were analyzed for iodide by the Mohr method. Titration of the glycol solution directly with a water solu- tion of silver nitrate gave consistently satisfactory results, but analysis of the acetate layer was more difficult. The ethyl acetate was removed by carefully controlled high temperature evaporation, and the iodide redissolved in about 10 ml. of water. The iodide concentration was then determined by titration with standard silver nitrate solution. RESULTS The results are presented in Tables I to VII and in Figures 1 to 3. All data were obtained at 30°C. The activity coefficient, yo is a relative value based on the activity coefficient of ammonium iodide taken as a unity. 138 The Distribution of Alkali Iodides TABLE I Distribution Ratios of Ammonium Iodide Between Ethylene Glycol and Ethyl Acetate at 30°C. Moles/1. Moles/1. x 102 NHglI in NHgI in Glycol Ethyl Acetate 0.1483 0.0506 0.2779 0.0954 0.3232 0.1106 0.3260 0.1115 0.3955 0.1349 295 0.4903 0.1688 292 s 500 Lil 75 6) R O | pee B 400 U 1p | NH 4] S 300 © @ @> O O-O O S O 0 Nal R i ee a KI 7 O—-O0-0 0 | O 0. Or2 OLS: 0.4 IODIDE ION CGONCENTRATION GLYCOL LAYER Fig.l. The distribution ratios iodides between’ ethyl acetate ethylene = glycol. 139 of alkali Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science TABLE II Distribution Ratios and Activity Coefficients of Sodium Iodide Moles/1. Moles/1. x 10? Kk ye Nal in Nal in Glycol Ethyl Acetate 0.0683 0.0246 278 1.04 0.1082 0.0390 2 1.05 0.1466 0.0557 265 1.10 0.2406 0.0935 258 12 0.3059 0.1201 254 1.13 0.3629 0.1430 253 1.14 De | NH4l + Lil S 400 e T i B 300 NHal +Nal T | Be NHqal + KL A meye) T | @) Oi 20 530.40) 5©, 60,70) 80 90 MOLE PER CENT SUBSTITUTED IODIDE IN GLYCOL LAYER Fig.2. The distribution ratios of mixtures of ammonium iodide and alkali iodides between ethyl acetate and ethylene glycol. 140 The Distribution of Alkali lodides TABLE III Distribution Ratios and Activity Coefficients of Potassium Iodide Moles/1. Moles/1l. x 10? K Ye KI in KI in Glycol Ethyl Acetate 0.0694 0.0358 194 1.02 O51 0.0822 184 1.08 0.1870 0.1020 183 1.08 0.2123 0.1172 182 1.09 0.2770 0.1590 174 1.14 TABLE IV Distribution Ratios and Activity Coefficients of Lithium Iodide Moles/1. Moles/l. x 107 kK ye Lil in Lil in Glycol Ethyl Acetate 0.1336 0.0320 417 0.93 0.1859 0.0430 430 0.90 0.2496 0.0568 439 0.89 0.3681 0.0782 470 0.83 0.4759 0.0975 489 0.80 TABLE V Distribution Ratios and Activity Coefficients of Sodium Iodide-Ammonium Iodide Mixtures Series One Mole % Nal Moles I-—/1. Moles I—/1. x 10? Kk ye to in in NHgI Glycol Ethyl Acetate 5 0.2683 0.0885 304 0.96 25 0.2739 0.0909 301 0.96 40 0.2621 0.0910 288 1.02 Sp 0.2681 0.0945 283 1.03 70 (0.2668 0.0987 270 1.08 Series Two 10 0.4138 0.1316 0.93 20 0.4244 0.1366 0.94 30 0.4231 0.1473 1.02 50 0.4148 0.15380 1.07 70 0.4125 0.1538 1.09 141 Ve 1.0 | 0.8 0.6 me) 0.8 20 1.0 0.8 Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science a 6 ~ NH4I+Lil ®@ © NHal + Nal 6 © Cmarran Cane NHgl + KI os ae coe @ lO 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 MOLE PER CENT SUBSTITUTED IODIDE IN GLYCOL LAYER Fig.3. Effect on activity coeffecient of solute of substituting alkali ions for part of the ammonium ions in ethylene glycol. Distribution Ratios and Activity Coefficients of Potassium Iodide-Ammonium Iodide Mixtures Moles I-/1. x 102 Mole % KI to NHgI 10 25 50 60 70 Distribution Ratios and Activity Coefficients of Lithium Iodide-Ammonium Iodide Mixtures Mole % to NHglI 10 25 40) 60 70 80 al The Distribution of Alkali Iodides Moles I-—/l1. In Glycol 0.2680 0.2741 0.2421 0.2399 0.2377 Moles I-/1. Moles I-/1. x 10? in in Glycol Ethyl Acetate 0.2296 0.0760 0.2315 0.0713 0.2261 0.0654 0.2095 0.1595 0.2176 0.1528 0.2261 (0.1620 DIscussiON TABLE VI Ethyl Acetate TABLE VII m 0.875 0.965 0.991 1.062 1.103 kK 306 284 244 226 216 kK 310 325 346 381 396 413 0.97 0.90 0.83 0.76 O71 0.70 Activity coefficients of solutes may be influenced by solvation or other solvent effects or, in the case of electrolytes in solvents having low dielectric constants, by changes in the degree of dis- sociation as the concentration is varied. In the distribution of ammonium iodide between ethyl acetate and ethylene glycol it was found that the ratio did not vary with changes in concentration in the range from 0.1 M to 0.5 M with respect to the glycol layer (Fig. 1). This indicates that ammonium iodide exists in the same molecular form in both solvents, and that 143 Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science its activity coefficient is not altered appreciably by concentration changes. The activity coefficients, Yo listed in the tables given above and shown in Fig. 3 are calculated from equation [2] and are stoichiometrical in nature in that they are based on the total iodide concentration in the two phases irrespective of its relationship to the cations. It may be assumed that the solute exists essentially as “molecules” or “ion-pairs’ in ethyl acetate which has a low dielec- tric constant. Therefore, the activity coefficients calculated from the data obtained in this investigation, represent in each the ratio of the number of “molecules” or “ion-pairs” of a given solute in the glycol layer to the number of “ion-pairs” of ammonium iodide in the acetate layer at a given total electrolyte concentration. The decrease in the distribution ratio as the concentration of sodium iodide or potassium iodide is increased is probably caused by an increase in the relative number of “jon-pairs in the glycol layer, hence, a greater tendency to pass into the acetate layer. As would be expected, the equilibrium between “ion-pairs” and “free” ions is shifted to the left as the concentration is increased. The opposite effect observed with pure lithium iodide, that is, an increase in the distribution ratio resulting from a decreased tendency to pass into the acetate layer, indicates that at higher con- centrations there are relatively fewer of the species that cross the interface. It is difficult to conceive of increased dissociation at higher concentrations. However, it seems probable that, owing to the high charge density on the lithium ion, complex ions or “triple” ions of the type Lil>, or possibly others containing more iodide, would form in ever increasing numbers at higher concentrations. If these do not cross the interface, the distribution ratio would increase. Graphs illustrating the effects of substituting varying quanti- ties of foreign salts on the distribution of ammonium iodide are shown in Figure 2. Small amounts of sodium or potassium salts increase the partition ratio by shifting the equilibrium, “ion-pair’ < “free” ion, to the right as the result of a decrease of the 144 The Dis'ribution of Alkali lodides actual “ionic” activity of the free ions. At higher concentrations, greater solvation of the foreign cation in comparison to the am- monium ion causes the equilibrium to shift to the left, which re- sults in a smaller distribution ratio. Potassium ion appears to exert a greater influence in this respect than does sodiurn ion. Substitution of lithium ion for ammonium ion leads continually to larger distribution ratios, presumably because of complex ion formation, as mentioned above. SUMMARY 1. Distribution ratios for lithium, sodium, potassium and am- monium iodides and mixtures of each lithium, sodium, and_potas- sium iodides with ammon‘um iodide between ethylene glycol and ethyl acetate have been determined at 30°C. 2. Stoichiometrical activity coefficients for the alkali iodides and for solutes in solutions of mixed iodides have been calculated using the constant distribution ratio of pure ammonium iodide as a basis of reference. BIBLIOGRAPHY 1. Lewis, G. N., and Randall, M., “Thermodynamics and Free Energies of Chemical Substances,” McGraw-Hill Book Co., New Work, IN: Y:, 1923: Bronsted, J. N., J. Am. Chem. Soc., 42, 761 (1920). Nernst, W., Z. physik. Chem., 8, 110 (1891). 3 4. Hildebrand, J. H. “Solubilities of Non-Electrolytes,’ McGraw- Hill Book Co., New York N. Y., (1936). 5. lewis, G. N., Proc. Am. Acad., 43, 259 (1907). 6. Berthelot, M. P., and Jungfleisch, E. C., Ann. Chim. et Phys. 26, 400 (1872). 7. Landau, M., Z. physik. Chem., 73, 200 (1910). 8. Cavanagh, B., Proc. Roy. Soc., 106A, 243 (1924). to 145 THE FREE ENERGY OF COPPER CHROMATE* Sigfred Peterson and Orland W. Cooper College of Arts and Sciences, University of Louisville Louisville 8, Kentucky As an aid in predicting the behavior of argentic oxide, AgO, it was desired to know the extent of conversion of copper oxide to chromate by reaction with dichromate: (a) CuO +-Cr,O,— = CuCrO,= + CrO,— While a direct measurement of the equilibrium probably could be made by a series of spectrophotometric observations, it was decided to calculate the equilibrium constant from existing thermodynamic data and the solubility of copper chromate. The early literature on copper chromate (4) reports a number of preparations of both normal and basic salts but little study of their properties. Basic salts usually result from precipitation at elevated temperatures or from alkaline solutions. The normal di- hydrate was precipitated by Briggs (1) by adding sodium chromate to a copper dichromate solution; Pelletier, Cloutier, and Gagnon (5) find the normal salt precipitates when potassium chromate is added to cupric solutions. The validity of our calculations requires that the copper chromate formed by reaction (a) be the same as that in equilibrium with solutions containing Cut * and CrO,>~ and little else. This is reason- able since both conditions should give the normal salt and since the degree of hydration of copper chromate should not be appreciably affected by dichromate ion in the solution. Our calculations are based on the anhydrous formula CuCrO, although the chromate is probably hydrated as found by Briggs. In that case, the free energy of formation of hydrated copper chromate is our value plus the proper multiple of the free energy of formation of water; the equilibrum constant for reaction (a) will be unaffected. EXPERIMENTAL An aqueous solution of reagent quality cupric chloride was added to a solution of sodium chromate (also of reagent quality). The precipitate was filtered, washed with water and with methanol * Presented before the Chemistry Section of the Kentucky Academy of Science, October 28, 1950. 146 Free Energy of Copper Chromate (C. P. special acetone free), and dried in the air at room temperature. The copper chromate obtained was left in contact with distilled water and the mixture occasionally shaken. No effort was made to thermostat the mixture; the experiment was performed at laboratory temperatures not far from 25°C. The close agreement between measurements in two seasons (August, October) show the tempera- ture dependence of the solubility is not great. Samples of the saturated solution were removed after 3 and 9 weeks of equilibration and analyzed by a standard method for chromate (6). Since both ions of copper chromate oxidize iodide, equivalence was determined from the equation Sacro, 5 l- - 6 Ht = Cul + Crt+++ 4+ 4400 + The molarity found (x 10*) and average deviation were after three weeks, 3.47 + 0.06 (2 samples); after nine weeks, 3.42 + 0.03 (3 samples); average, 3.44 + 0.04. CALCULATIONS Solubility Product of CuCrO,: To calculate a solubility pro- duct from the measured solubility requires an estimate of the mean activity coefficient of copper chromate. The only available activity data for 2-2 electrolytes are for a number of sulfates—these data indicate that the activity coefficients depend far less upon the identity of the cation than those of other charge types (2), in fact, the extreme variation in values for different salts at the same con- centration is only a few percent. Accordingly, it seems reasonable that chromates should not differ very greatly from sulfates. Thus we take as the mean activity coefficient of 0.00344 M copper chro- mate the value 0.55 graphically interpolated from the values (3) for copper, cadmium and zinc sulfates at molalities of 0.001, 0.002 and 0.005, neglecting the small differences between molality and molarity. This gives as the solubility product of copper chromate 3.6 x 10~-® and the standard free energy of solution 7440 cal./mole. Free Energy of Copper Chromate: For the dissolution of cop- per chromate we have Piero .2— Cus —— CrOie AES Fo Oe Ee Se-F* @uaea CrO, CuCrO, Putting in the above value for the free energy of solution and litera- ture values (3) of 15,910 and -171,400 for the standard free energies of copper ion and chromate ion respectively we find for copper 147 Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science chromate a standard free energy of -162,930 cal./mole. Copper Oxide-Dichromate Reaction: For reaction (a) we have L\ F° — F° 7 F° —F°? == ]9'0 CuCrO, CrO,= CuO Cr,0,—- Putting in the above values for copper chromate and chromate ion and the values -30,400 for copper oxide and -306,000 for dichromate ion (3) gives as the standard free energy of the reaction 2,070 cal. This corresponds to an equilibrium constant of 0.030. This is the ratio at equilibrium of the activities of chromate ion and dichromate ion in a solution saturated with both copper oxide and copper chro- mate. This corresponds to reaction (a) proceeding until the dichro- mate is about 3% converted to chromate, since the activity coef- ficients of two similarly charged ions in the same solution should not be greatly different. SUMMARY The solubility in water of copper chromate is found to be 3.44 x 10-3 M at about 25°C. From this it is calculated that the thermodynamic solubility product is 3.6 x 10~°, the free energy of copper chromate is -162,930 cal./mole, and the equilibrium con- stant is 0.030 for CuO + Cr,O;— = CuCrO,+ CrO,4=. BIBLIOGRAPHY 1. Briggs, Samuel H. C., J. Chem. Soc. 1929, 242-5. Harned, H. S. and Owen, B. B., The Physical Chemistry of Elec- trolytic Solutions, pp. 425-6, Reinhold Publishing Corp., New York, 1943. 3. Latimer, W. M., The Oxidation State of the Elements and their Potentials in Aqueous Solution, Appendix II and IV, Prentice- Hall Inc., New York, 1938. 4. Mellor, J. W., A Comprehensive Treatise on Inorganic and Theo- retical Chemistry, Volume XI, pp. 260-2, Longmans, Green and Co., London, 1981. 5. Pelletier, P. E., Cloutier, L., and Gagnon, Paul E., Can. J. Research 16, B, #2, 37-45 (1938), C. A. 32, 4096 (1938). 6. Treadwell, F. P., and Hall, W. T., Analytical Chemistry, Volume II, Quantitative, eighth edition, p. 620, 1935. John Wiley and Sons. 148 EMISSIVITIES- OF PROTECTIVE GOATINGS W. R. Barnes University of Louisville Institute of Industrial Research and N22. Shah? Chemical Engineering Department, University of Louisville ABSTRACT A thermometer technique for the determination of surface emissivities of paints is described. The procedure involves the use of 1/10 degree thermometers coated with a paint and one reference thermometer to which has been applied a bright silver coating. Theoretical considerations, and ex- perimental values of five differently colored paints, lamp black, and a mercury-glass thermometer are given. Heat transfer is one of the important considerations in all branches of engineering and science. Traditionally, heat transfer mechanisms have been considered to be convenction, conduction and radiation. The mathematical and theoretical treatment of these mechanisms has been verified by thousands of experiments and in many Cases the heat transfer may be anticipated without recourse to experimental investigation. So frequently is heat transfer considered in many industrial operations that convection, conduction, radiation and appropriate combinations may be considered of major importance and the parti- cular operation of secondary significance by comparison. On the other hand, there are many instances wherein there are several fundamental processes occurring simultaneously, e.g., heat and mass transfer together with fluid flow. The continuing use of radiant heating in industrial and do- mestic installations has emphasized the importance of this mechanism. Many uses of radiant heating are such that it is difficult, if not impossible, to completely isolate the radiation from other phenomena. Nevertheless, the radiation is important, and appropriate constants and data for radiation calculations are required. One application of radiant heat transmission which has been of interest is the so-called radiant drying or baking of protective coatings on various objects. The baking of finishes or protective coatings on automobile body parts is an example of this type of operation. * Present Address: University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, Arkansas 149 Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science The conventional relationship (1) for calculating the net trans- fer of heat by radiation from a hot body to a cooler body separated by a nonabsorbing medium is, 1 G5)" “Go | ae = OG) 38 19 where gq, ~ net heat transfer by radiation, BTU/hr. F_ ~ emissivity factor relating the emissivities of the surfaces of the two bodies. F, ~ geometric factor relating the areas of the surfaces of the two bodies. T, ~— temperature of the surface of the hot body, °R. T, — temperature of the surface of the colder body, °R. An inspection of the above equation clearly indicates the need of emissivity values for the surfaces of objects to be subjected to radiant heat transmission if heat requinrements are to be calculated. The emissivity of a surface is the ratio of the emissive power of the surface to that of a “black body”. The “black body” has zero reflectivity, an absorptivity of unity, and is a perfect radiator, i.e., its emissivity is unity. Accordingly, the theoretical range of values of emissivity would be slightly above zero to unity. Then the closer the emissivity value is to unity the better the radiator, and the poor- er the reflectivity. In the following discussions and presentations the surface emis- sivities of several protective coatings are reported to illustrate the variations in values, and the experimental technique used in obtain- ing these emissivity values is described. The technique employed in these measurements has been termed a static thermometer technique and requires little specialized ap- paratus. Essentially, the apparatus consisted of tenth-degree thermo- meters, a duct fabricated from 8 inch diameter galvanized sheet iron pipe, a blower for moving warm air through the duct, an anemometer for measuring the air velocity within the duct, and a portable poten- 150 Emissivities of Protective Coatings tiometer for obtaining thermocouple readings of the pipe tempera- ture. The simplicity of the apparatus is shown in the sketch of Figure 1 where thermometers are shown inserted through the pipe wall into the warm air stream. THERMOMETERS WARM_ AIR STREAM PIPE WALL Ee SS SS SS SS SS SS SS SS SS SSS _THERMOCOUPLE __POTENTIOMETER FIGURE |, DIAGRAMMATIC SKETCH OF APPARATUS USED IN EMISSIVITY DETERMINATIONS In operation, warm air was passed through the duct with ther- mometers extending into the duct at right angles to the direction of air flow, and thermocouple in place as shown. When constant thermometer and thermocouple readings were obtained, the values were recorded and the air velocity determined with the anemometer. One thermometer was designated as a reference thermometer and was coated with silver by Brashear’s method (2). The second thermometer having dimensions substantially the same as those of the reference thermometer was coated with the paint and dried. This latter thermometer was called the materia! thermometer. Both thermometers were coated over the entire surface exposed to the warm air stream. When constant temperature readings were obtained, an ap- 151 Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science proximate heat balance was permissible, omens where q, ~ heat transfer by convection from warm air to thermo- meter, BTU/hr. Qe met heat transfer by radiation between thermometer and surfaces in sight of thermometer, BTU/hr. The simple heat transfer case of an air stream, with true air temperature t, flowing through a duct of a diameter large compared to that of the reference thermometer at temperature t, and the inner duct surface at temperature t, can be described by the heat balance, Gp sage or hWA (tet) a h_A (t,-t,) where h, ~ convection heat transfer coefficient, BTU/(hr) (sq.ft. ) (F) h, = radiation heat transfer coefficient, BTU/(hr) (sq-ft.) fk) A > thermometer area, sq.ft. The heat balance may be written, vAN(t -t.)) se a0 sre AG | e100) (7/100) 5 where e ~ emissivity of the reference thermometer. In this case of a small object, the thermometer, very nearly totally inclosed by the larger object, the duct, F, ~ e, the emissivity of the small object. Similarly, F, — A, the area of the small object, the thermometer The heat balance may be arranged to (Gai) aia) lige) and a similar expression may be written for the coated material thermometer eu) = (a) se) Under nearly identical conditions h. ~ h.” since the two thermometers 152 Emissivities of Protective Coatings have identical demensions and Ct, : ee) (h, /h, ) Ct : f) where h, and h,’ refer to the material thermometer. The value of h, can be calculated from the air velocity and equations for convection transfer from. air flowing at right angles to single cylinders (3), h D/k, — 0.32 + 0.43 ( DG/u, 0.52 for ranges of (DG/,,) from 0.1 to 1000 and h_D/k, 7 aQi24 ( DG/y, )0.6 for ranges of (DG/y, ) from 100 to 56000. In this case D is the thermometer diameter in feet, G is the mass velocity—the product of the linear velocity and air density—in lb/(hr) (sq.ft.), k. is the thermal conductiiiy of the air at the film conditions in BTU/(hr.) (sq.ft.) (°F/ft.), and 4, is the air viscosity at the film conditions mayelps/Gtits,) Car:.). Values of h,’ may then be obtained since the true air temperature can be calculated from the equation given above, (eet) = Chive) (t= ) by solving for t, as (h,/h, ) (tee) Sats Obviously lie for the silver coated reference thermometer must be obtained in order to solve for t, This evaluation of h, is made using the equality, AWE=t ) = Ol7sce ACT 7/100)4= (7 /100)*| For polished silver the emissivity, e, is 0.02 (1). With a value of t, the heat balance for the coated material ther- mometer can be used to calculate he Ge 7 ea ™ (h,’/h, ) Gee 7 &) and Mes Se hi) CU =a }/ (E.=) Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science The numerical value of h,’ is then used to calculate the emissivity as follows, Ihe ( tt ) "013 [(T.,/100)+ - (T_/100)4] Using the apparatus and calculation procedure described above, emissivities of six colored paints, lamp black and the uncoated thermometer were determined (4). The average numerical values of these emissivities are listed blow: TABLE I AVERAGE EmiIssiviry VALUES For The Temperature Range 90°F to 140° Finish Emissivity Lamp-Black 0.95 Yellow 0.46 Orange 0.60 Red 0.70 Green 0.74 Phythalocyanine Blue 0.91 Milori Blue 0.88 Glass-Mercury Thermometer 0.95 Obviously, the exact color and characteristic of the paint will influence the emissivity value. This fact is demonstrated in the range of values contributing to the averages listed above. The number of different paints of each color and the range of emissivity values are given in Table II. TABLE II Rance OF Emissiviry VALUES For Various COLORS Number of Colored Paints Color Emissivity Range 5 Yellow 0.32 - 0.66 5 Orange 0.32 - 0.74 5 Red 0.30 - 0.87 5) Green 0.66 - 0.78 5 Phthalocyanine Blue 0.89 - 0.94 5 Milori Blue 0.70 - 0.98 15-4 Emissivities of Protective Coatings An inspection of the data of Table Il shows the overlapping of emissivity values for the several colors even though repeated deter- minations with a given paint rarely gave deviations as great as 3.5 percent and in many cases less than 1.0 percent. These ranges of emissivities for a given color strongly empha- size the need for an evalution of the emissivity of the particular surface if precise radiant heat transmission calculations are import- ant. Frequently the determination of the emissivity cf the coated surface has been considered such a time-consuming task that the measurement of the property has been neglected or average values estimated. However, this thermometer technique is straight for- ward and requires little or no equipment not in common use in the industrial laboratory. Accordingly, it is felt that the appropriate use of the procedure can provide information of immediate use in a number of radiant heating operations. LITERATURE CITED (1) Perry, John H., “Chemical Egineers’ Handbook”, 3rd Edition, pp. 483-487. New York, McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., 1950. (2) Hodgman, Charles D., “Handbook of Chemistry and Physics”, 30th Edition, pp. 2537-39. Cleveland, Chemical Rubber Pub- lishing Company, 1948. (3) McAdams, W. H., ‘Heat Transmission”, 2nd Edition, pp. 220-24. New York, McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., 1946. (4) Shah, N. P., M.Ch.E. Thesis in Chemical Egineering, University of Louisville, 1949. PERFORMANCE OF AN EARTH HEAT PUMP OPERATING INTERMITTENTLY ON THE COOLING CYCLE E. B. Penrod and R. C. Thornton Department of Mechanical Engineering University of Kentucky, Lexington, Ky. INTRODUCTION The rate at which heat can be absorbed from, or discharged to the earth with a heat pump depends on the size and configuration of the ground coil as well as the physical properties of the soil. Some of the physical properties of the soil surrounding the earth heat exchanger are affected by rainfall, solar radiation and by altering the quantity of heat energy in the ground by artificial means. There- fore a brief history of the operation of the heat pump will be given here. From October 31, 1949 to May 1, 1950, the heat pump operated intermittently on the heating cycle extracting heat from the earth from 6 p.m. to 6 a.m. daily (1)!. During this period the rainfall was in excess of its normal value by 64.4%. The heat pump remained idle from May 1, 1950 to May 16, 1950 inorder to permit the tempera- ture of the soil surrounding the earth heat exchanger to recover its normal value. The plant operated continuously* on the heat- ing cycle from May 16, 1950 to July 1, 1950 in order to obtain data from which the thermal diffusivity of the soil could be calculated if desired (2,3). On June 9, 1950, data were taken, at two-hour in- tervals from 10 a.m. to 4 p.m. so that the calculated results from a heating test of short duration could be compared with the average results of seven cooling tests of short duration. The earth heat exchanger, Fig. 1, was buried in soil at an average depth of about 4.5 ft. It consists of an effective length of 489 ft. of one inch copper tubing through which an antifreeze solu- tion is circulated. Thermocouples were installed at the center of the antifreeze line at stations | to 8 inclusive. By use of thermocouples, 1 Numbers in parenthesis refer to the Bibliogray hy % From June 19 to July 1, the plant was stopped several times for making minor changes. 156 Performance of An Earth Heat Pump ‘ = ae J? ae) Vv z = a. A S) a ¥% S : or rt ©) cc = 2'b-Hid 3d ee 6 Zo? ba © Od + Sle ce) ae 2 qa @ = eal = a ul ) : = Te) in : (e) wo Oo wo _ == & : Ww pe Te) wo a Oo = r @ | & a uJ ui a \8°S-Hid3ad \\\—_ z'9g— ™N a a z Co) Oo \ = ak; = < & te er lu [A =) a (7p) = oS Zz S| Ee Figure 1. The earth heat exchanger or eround coil. 157 Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science soil temperatures can be measured at depths of 6, 12, and 18 inches below the center of the antifreeze line at station 3, and also at 6 and 18 inches below the line at station 6. The line heat sink is 171.9 ft. long and consists of the portion of the earth heat exchanger from station 2 to 5, and from station 7 to 8, except the length of tubing which is thermally insulated as shown in Fig. 1. The grid heat sink has a length of 317.1 ft. and is that portion of the earth heat exchanger between stations 5 and 7. The distances between the center of the grid pipes are 4.75 ft. The total heat sink includes the line and grid sections of the earth heat exchanger. The soil surrounding the earth heat exchanger falls in the general Casagrande classification of lean clay. Analysis of a sample of the soil at station 3 showed that about 60% of its grains are in the size generally termed clay, and less than 30% of the sample is silt. The liquid limit of the sample is 43.4% and its corresponding plasticity index is 16.1%. The bulk density of the dry soil is 103.4 Ib/cu. ft. (1). INTERMITTENT Coouinc TESTS From July 1, 1950 to October 1, 1950 the heat pump operated intermittently on the cooling cycle from 6 a.m. to 6 p.m. daily. When the plant was in operation, heat was absorbed from the air circulated throught the package unit (also from the compressor-motor and the fan-motor combinations), and discharged to the soil. The rainfall was 30.1% in excess of the normal rainfall for the same period. In addition to the three month test, seven tests of short dura- tion were made during the cooling season. In the tests of short duration, data were taken at two-hour intervals from 10 a.m. to 6 p.m., at the beginning and middle of each month. The results of the tests of short duration are listed in Table 1, and their average values are given in Table 2 During the heating test of June 9, 1950, the refrigeration com- pressor was driven at a speed cf 1180 rpm by a 5-hp, single phase, electric motor. Previous ccoling tests clearly indicated that the heat 158 Performance of An Earth Heat Pump pump could not be operated at this speed during the entire cooling season under controlled conditions. Therefore, the plant was changed so that the compressor was driven at an average speed of about 680 rpm by a 3-hp, single phase, electric motor during the cooling sea- son of 1950. By operating the refrigeration compressor at a speed much below its normal rating, its volumeric efficiency was increased from 61.2% for the heating test to 72.8% on the cooling tests. Coouinc Tests Or SHORT DuRATION From Table | it can be seen that the suction pressure remained nearly constant, (at about 35.6), but the discharge pressure increased from 143.1 to about 190 psia during three months of intermittent operation. The strength of the total heat sink (489 ft.) was practic- ally constant, and its average value for the seven tests was 34.8 B/hr/ft. The temperature of the antifreeze entering the soil increased from 91.7°F to 124.5°F, and then decreased to 120.5°F. At station 3, the soil temperature 6 in. below a center of the antifreeze line increased from 56.2°F on July 1 to 73.4°F on September 30, while that at station 6 increased from 53.8° = to 77.7°F. The cooling cost remained nearly constant from July 15 to September 30*. The soil temperatures 18 in. below the center of the antifreeze line increased slightly from July 1 to September 30. These increases in soil tem- perature are due, in part, to the effect of solar radiation (4). Table 1. Results obtained from seven cooling tests of eight hour duration. 7/1/50 7/15/50 8/1/50 8/15/50 9/1/50 9/15/50 9/30/50 Room temp., °F (HAS 79.0 85.5 79.2 80.5 72.8 74.2 Air temp. at entrance, saint 77.6 81.1 87.9 79.1 80.8 73.0 ost Air temp. at exit, °F 69.3 76.2 82.4 74.9 ioe OOO e men Ons R.H. of Room Air,% SO a OOn moses GEO “7A SSN) TRAY, Air circulated, lb/hr 5.320 5.240 5,125 5,840 5,060 5,840 5,180 Air circulated, cfm [ROTA WeIS8) 20a) EIS8O SO) E2208 ETO Heat power from air, B/hr 5,320 7,280 7,720 7,850 6,990 6,669 7,550 Heat power to evaporator, B/hr 20.250 18.949 18,76) 18,650 18,600 18,600 18,710 Heat power to condenser, B/hr 18.890 16,509 16,400 16,020 15,880 16,010 16,220 = In reference (1) it was shown that the package unit heat pump was very inefficient. 159 Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science 7/1/50 7/15/50 8/1/50 Suction press, psia 34.0 Discharge press, psia 143.1 F-12 circulated, lb/hr 315.2 Capacity of refrig. plant, tons 1.69 Vol. eff., % ales Comp. eff., % 74.8 Comp. speed, rpm 704 Comp. motor, kw D5) Fan motor, kw 0.50 Pump motor, kw 0.93 35.3 181.5 300.3 1.58 67.8 HO 701 2.58 0.49 0.88 35.9 191.0 298.6 1.56 mOe 85.0 673 2.64 0.49 0.91 8/15/50 9/1/50 9/15/50 9/30/50 35.9 190.1 36.6 198.2 36.4 ISS 35.4 188.1 299.6 300.0 303.0 302.0 1.55 69.2 79.8 677 2.60 0.50 0.73 Heat power to earth, B/hr 17,000 16,550 16,780 16,510 16,120 16,000 16,510 Total strength of heat sink, B/hr/ft 34.8 Antifreeze circulated, lb/hr 5,880 Temp. of antifreeze entering soil, °F 91.7 Temp. of antifreeze leaving soil, °F 88.6 Temp. of antifreeze, °F 93.0 Soil temp. 6 in. below center of line, °F 56.2 Soil temp. 12 in. below center of line, °F 59.9 Soil temp. 18 in. below center of line, °F 56.1 Approximate temp. grad., °F /ft 73.6 Temp. of antifreeze, °F 90.1 Soil temp. 6 in. below center of line, °F 53.8 Soil temp. 18 in. below center of line, °F 51.6 Approximate temp. grad., /it 72.6 CER, Carnot 5.38 CER, refrig. plant 4.89 CER, Heat pump 0.62 CER, Heat pump sys. 0.40 Cooling cost, kwhr/therm 74.0 SAO eo bel 5,890 5,910 116.5 119.7 IB Se Station 3 TONG eX.” EIU) S55 682 Re '> 65.2 69.2 64.0 68.1 96.2 94.0 Station 6 114.4 117.6 (70) > -78i83 60.7 67.9 94.2 88.6 5.02 4.43 AN9) 865 0.83 0.86 0.54 0.56 py EL bpd} 160 33.8 5,840 95.6 118.7 74.9 70.5 87.6 4.43 3.93 0.89 0.60 48.7 1:55 5 5ie aES6 6S) 15 687 eeeiont TOL = (Sco. Winter 675 680 651 2.66 2.65 2.63 0.47 049 0.49 ON, Oommen One 33.0 38.0 33.8 5,850 5,690 5,600 124.5 122.6 120.5 UPA AUIS ro} = IIL G5) 124.0" 12205 Peo 73.7 74.4 73.4 Ce errata: ©) 7/110) 69.5 68.4 66.7 100.6 96.2 89.4 122.6 121.2 119.8 Tl eS OMmenien CP SS) ALA! 89.8 864 84.2 4.35 444 4.46 3.84 3.92 3.98 0.77 0.74 0.84 0.53 0.50. 0.57 59.0 58.4 51.0 Performance of An Earth Heat Pump Table 2. Average results obtained from seven cooling tests while the heat pump operated intermittently from July 1, 1950 to October 1, 1950. Air temp. at entrance, °F Air temp. at exit, °F Heat power from air, B/hr Heat power to earth, B/hr Suction press., psia Discharge press., psia Capacity of refrigeration plant, tons Compressor speed, rpm Volumetric efficiency, % Compression efficiency, % Input to heat pump system, kw Total strength of heat sink (489 ft), B/hr/ft Temp. of antifreeze entering soil, °F Temp. of antifreeze leaving soil, °F Temp. of antifreeze at station 3, °F Soil temp. 6 in. below center of line at station 3, °F Soil temp. 12 in. below center of line at station 3, °F Soil temp. 18 in. below center of line at station 3, °F Temp. of antifreeze at station 6, °F Soil temp. 6 in. below center of line at station 6, °F Soil temp. 18 in. below center of line at station 6, °F CER, Carnot CER, refrigeration plant CER, heat pump CER, heat pump system Cooling cost, (sensible) kwhr/therm 79.3 74.2 7,050 16,500 35.6 183.4 1.58 680 72.8 78.7 3.91 34.8 116.6 113.5 116.2 70.1 67.6 65.8 114.9 71.8 67.4 4.64 Fig. 2a is a diagram which shows the relation between the tem- perature of the antifreeze and soil 6 in. below (at station 3), as the antifreeze passes through the earth heat exchanger, and Fig. 2b shows the average temperature difference between the antifreeze and the condensing temperature of the Freon-12 in the condenser. Fig. 3 shows the change in temperature of the antifreeze as it passes through the earth heat exchanger for three cooling tests of short duration, and for the six-hour heating test. 161 Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science COOLING TEST -AUGUST_ 15,1950 STATION 3 130°F 120 ANTIFREEZE 100 At =46.7°F -=—-—— 488 FT. ——_—_____» ‘a) EARTH HEAT EXCHANGER (6) CONDENSER Figure 2. (a) Graph showing the temperature difference between the anti- freeze in the earth heat exchanger and the soil 6 in. below. (b) Graph showing the temperature difference between the antifreeze and the Freon-12 in the condenser. 162 arth Heat Pump = 1 4 Performance of An E ee HEAT Saas © STATIONS peels 7 hae! ed LS a as ae io y rs chases fol (@) I lie 9 ee ee see eile \ Eo Tie telas Mega. © SST ENE MEY HOPS Se Y Za] aaa f ae nese flea a else © rd, le Shale al see el ellen IR, ) {EP SMD M: Bawa: [e) Baia es eae Se pas a 7 eee ey A a) oy Gs = An Oe ee, i eae gc a Ee ae [sl 20 a ere, ge [135 bee WmGsGet ooh em eae ‘ie — Pee qaly deat See Antifreeze temperature versus length of earth heat exchanger. 163 Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science COMPARISON Or Heratinc AND Coo.Linc TESTS The results of the heating test made on June 9 are listed in Table 3. During this test the refrigeration compressor was driven at a speed of 1180 rpm by a 5-hp motor. However, the compressor was driven at an average speed of 680 rpm by a 3-hp motor during all cooling tests reported in this paper. All tests were made during the summer of 1950. Comparative results of the cooling and heating tests of short duration are listed in Table 4. From Fig. 2a and 4a it can be seen that the difference in temperature between the antifreeze in the earth heat exchanger and the soil 6 in. below for the cooling and heating tests are 46.7°F and 17.2°F respectively. Similarly, from Fig. 2b and 4b the difference between the temperature of the anti- freeze and Freon-12 for the cooling and heating tests are 9.4°F and 25.5°F respectively. Coouinc Tests Or Lonc DurATION The average of the daily results obtained from the cooling tests made during July, August, and September of 1950 are listed for each month in Table 5. On August 13, the antifreeze line connecting the expansion tank and the heat pump broke, so that nearly all of the antifreeze was lost. The line was repaired and the earth heat ex- changer was filled with water. From September 15th to the 30th, the water was circulated counter clockwise instead of clockwise through the earth heat exchanger. Table 3. Results obtained from an eight hour heating test made on June 9, 1950. Air temp. at entrance, °F 76.8 AiG temp. ateexit. oF 99.6 Heat power to air, B/hr 28,600 Heat power from earth, B/hr 15,870 Suction press., psia 26.0 Discharge press., psia 142.0 Capacity of refrigeration plant, tons Nee, Compressor speed, rpm 1180 Volumetric efficiency, % 61.2 Compression efficiency, % 64.6 164 Performance of An Earth Heat Pump Input to heat pump system, kw 5.17 Total strength of heat source (489 ft), B/hr/ft 32.5 Temp. of antifreeze entering soil, °F 97.5 Temp. of antifreeze leaving soil, °F 31.4 Temp. of antifreeze at station 3, °F 28.0 Soil temp. 6 in. below center of line at station 3, °F 46.7 Soil temp. 12 in. below center of line at Station 3, °F 49.8 Soil temp. 18 in. below center of line at Station 3, °F BED Temp. of antifreeze at station 6, °F 29.5 Soil temp. 6 in. below center of line at station 6, °F 42.7 Soil temp. 18 in. below center of line at Station 6, °F 47.0 HER, Carnot Hal HER, refrigeration plant 4.99 HER, heat pump 2.19 HER, heat pump system 1.59 Heating cost, kwhr/therm 18.41 Table 4. | Average results of seven cooling tests versus those for a single heating ——Summer of 1950. Cooling Heating Room temp., °F 78.4 78.3 Air temp. at entrance, °F 79.3 76.8 Air temp. at exit, °F 74.3 99.6 Suction press., psia 35.6 26.0 Discharge press., psia 183.4 142.0 Nominal power of comp. motor, hp 3 5 Compressor speed, rpm 680 1180 Volumetric efficiency, % 72.8 61.2 Compression efficiency, % 78.7 64.6 Power input to system skw 3.91 oly Total strength heat sink or source, B/hr/ft 34.8 32.5 Temp. of antifreeze entering soil, °F 116.7 Diep Temp. of antifreeze leaving soil, °F 113.6 31.4 Temp. of antifreeze at station 3, °F 116.3 28.0 Soil temp. 6 in. below line at station 3, °F 70.1 46.7 Soil temp. 12 in. below line at station 3, °F 67.6 49.8 Soil temp. 18 in. below line at station 3, °F 65.8 51S Carnot GER,- 4:64, HERS “o:o7 Refrigeration plant CER, 4.06 HER, 4.99 Heat pump CERee 2089) EIB Res eke Heat pump system GEReY 105Se HER 1.59 Operating cost, kwhr/therm 56.3 18.41 165 Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science HEATING EST: = JUNE SSS 5© STATION 3 SOIL TEMP. 6" BELOW ANTIFREEZE LINE “ANTIFREEZE EEE 489 FT. ———+ | © (@)EARTH HEAT EXCHANGER FREON -12 (0) EVAPORATOR Figure 4. (a) Graph showing the temperature difference between the antifreeze in the earth heat exchanger and the soil 6 in. below. (b) Graph showing the temperature difference between the antifreeze and the Freon-12 in the evaporator. 166 Performance of An Earth Heat Pump Table 5. Monthly average of daily results obtained from cooling tests made in July, August, and September, 1950. The heat pump operated intermittently from 6 a.m. to 6 p.m. daily. Rainfall, 43 year average, inches Rainfall, 1950, inches *Outdoor air temp., °F Room, temp., °F R. H. at entrance, % R. H. at exit, % Inlet air temp., °F Outlet air temp., °F Air circulated, lb/hr Sensible heat absorbed from air, B/hr Total heat absorbed from air, B/hr Temp. of antifreeze entering soil, °F Temp. of antifreeze leaving soil, °F Antifreeze circulated, lb/hr Heat power to the earth, B/hr Strength of grid heat sink Collett) = B/hr/tt Total strength of heat sink (489 ft), B/hr/ft Temp. of antifreeze at station 3, °F Soil temp. 6 in. below center of line at station 3, °F Soil temp. 12 in. below center of line at station 3, °F Soil temp. 18 in. below center of line at station 3, °F Temp. of antifreeze at station 6, °F Soil temp. 6 in. below center of line at station 6, °F Power input to heat pump system, kw CER, heat pump (sensible ) CER, heat pump (total ) CER, heat pump system (sensible ) CER, heat pump system (total ) Cooling cost, kwhr/therm *Average of hourly readings. July 1950 3.65 6.24 799 (o.4 79.9 59.3 69.2 81.1 75.3 5,280 He329 §,530 115.9 eS 5,950 17,010 41.5 34.8 116.0 70.5 67.9 66.2 114.7 68.6 3.946 0.84 ().97 0.54 0.63 53.90 167 August 1950 3.45 2.70 71.0 TAs} 59.1 67.5 78.6 74.0 5,289 5,970 8,243 121.8 118.8 5,780 15,950 39.9 70.7 120.9 77.6 3.956 0.67 ().92 0.45 0.61 66.26 September 1950 Ist-15th 16th-30th 3.07 4.28 65 72.9 61.8 69.7 73.6 69.3 5,250 6,140 50) 7,800 6 PALE? i) 118.0 0 5,660 850 22,760 39.5 28.1 Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science The results of the three-month intermittent cooling test are shown graphically in Fig. 5. From curve A it can be seen that the temperature of the antifreeze in the earth heat exchanger increased from 104°F on July 1 to 124°F on September 1, after which it de- creased as shown. The rise in antifreeze temperature would probably have been greater for a cooling season with normal rainfall, since wet soil has a high thermal conductivity as compared with dry soil. Curves B, C, and D show soil temperatures at distances of 6, 12, and 18 inches below the center of the antifreeze line at station 3. The effect of heavy rainfalls on soil temperatures as well as the anti- freeze temperature in the ground coil is quite apparent. It can also be seen that the soil temperatures beneath the ground coil increased slightly from July 1 to the latter part of September, after which they decreased. This drop in soil temperature is partly due to the ex- cessive rainfall during the first three weeks of the month, and also to the decreasing effect of solar radiation on soil temperature at the depth under consideration, for this period of the year (4). | It is to be expected that the rate at which heat can be dis- charged to the earth would decrease with time. However with in- termittent operation during July the rate of discharge increased due to execessive rainfall. The precipitation in August was below normal, and it can be seen from curve F that the rate of discharging heat to the soil decreased until September 1, after which it increased. CONCLUSIONS 1. Valuable data for designing an earth heat pump are reported in this paper. These data, however, should be interpreted with the understanding that the rainfall was 30.1% in excess of the normal rainfall for the test period. In studying these data, it should be kept in mind that as previously reported, the heat pump package unit which is being used in this research, is not very efficient (1). The cooling comfort produced and the rate at which the soil dis- sipated the heat transferred to it depends upon the efficiency of the heat pump. 2. The performance of a heat pump is different when it is used for space heating than when used for space cooling. For this reason data from a three month cooling test and a six-month heating test are listed in Table 6. During the heating period the heat given 168 arth Heat Pump . Ly 4 Performance of An I ~ © ° ° OUTSIDE AIR TEMPERATURE -F a ° . ° | INGHES o | ° RAINFAUL , ° a GRAPHIGAL PRESENTATION OF HEAT PUMP DATA STATION 3, ANTIFREEZE LINE 5.6 FT. BELOW GROUND LINE, COOLING SEASON FROM JULY | TO OCTOBER !, 1950 CURVE NOTATION A TEMPERATURE AT CENTER OF ANTIFREEZE LINE —. AVERAGE OUTDOOR DRY BULB TEMPERATURE B TEMPERATURE 6° BELOW CENTER OF ANTIFREEZE LINE F TIME RATE OF DISCHARGING HEAT TO GROUND © TEMPERATURE 12” BELOW CENTER OF ANTIFREEZE LINE G RAINFALL D TEMPERATURE 18" BELOW CENTER OF ANTIFREEZE LINE aes Oe > i. eer se Boni: al ee a a | ar ee 1207 | 4a — w wi a a > - | 5 avi | E | « wi a = | w ci | UNIT) INOPERATIVE | =) RL | | } | 120,000 17,500 15,000 12,500 JULY | AUG | SEPT 1 : OCT! HEAT DISCHAGED TO GROUND— B PER HR. Graphical presentation of heat pump data during the cooling season € Figure 5. of 1950. The earth heat pump operated daily from 6 a.m. to 6 p.m. 169 Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science up by the compressor-motor and the fan-motor combinations is used to advantage to warm the air stream. However, during the cooling season the heat given up by the compressor-motor and the fan-motor combinations must be transferred to the earth, together with the heat removed from the air stream. This accounts for the small value (8,000 B/hr) of heat power taken from the air stream during the cooling cycle. The low value (25,510 B/hr of heat power to the air stream during the heating season is due to poor engineering practice in building the package unit (1). The heat power to the air stream is too low even though it includes the heat given to the air stream by the compressor-motor and the fan-motor combinations. 3. Low values are reported for the heat power to or from the earth (16,690 B/hr and 13,910 B/hr). These low results are due to the operation of an inefficient plant and are probably lower than they would have been under normal conditions as to rainfall. 4. The strength of the heat sink (35.6 B/hr/ft) was greater than the strength of the heat source as anticipated, and is due to the fact that the difference in temperature between the antifreeze in the ground coil and the soil was much greater during the cool- ing season than that during the heating period. Table 6. Average results of a three month cooling test made dur- ing the summer of 1950 versus the average results of a six month heating test made from October 31, 1949 to May 1, 1950. 3-month 6-month cooling test heating test Outlet temp. of air stream, °F 72.8 97.0 Suction press., psia 35.6 33.1 Discharge press., psia 183.4 149.9 Heat power from or to air stream, B/hr 8,000 25,510 Heat power to or from the earth, B/hr 16,690 13,910 Power input to heat pump system, kw 393% De Ge Total strength of heat sink or source, B/hr/ft 35.6 Dhl 5) Antifreeze temp. at station 3, °F 119.6 OR IL Soil temp. 6 in. below line at station 3, °F Te 43.1 Energy ratios, heat pump 0.90 1.96 Energy ratios, heat pump system 0.60 1.43 Operating cost, kwhr/therm 62.9 20.5 * 3-hp compressor motor **5-hp compressor motor 170 Performance of An Earth Heat Pump 5. The suction pressures during the cooling and heating periods are all right for good operating performance, but the discharge pres- sures are too high, particularly during the cooling period. The high discharge pressure are due to excessive pressure drops through the heat exchangers in the package unit. 6. From Table 5 it can be seen that the CER was much lower when the sensible heat only was taken into account, than when the removal of moisture from the air stream was considered. 7. There was no appreciable increase in the heat transfer from the ground coil to the soil when water replaced the prestone solution as the heat transfer medium. 8. During the last half of September the direction of flow through the earth heat exchanger was reversed so that the warm water entered the grid before passing through very much of the line. It was expected that the strength of the grid heat sink would be increased, since there was an increase in the difference between the temperature of the water in the ground coil and the soil. The strength of the grid heat sink was observed to drop from about 39.5 to 28.1 B/hr/ft. This apparent anomaly has not been fully accounted for. It may be due, in parts to the error resulting from taking the differences of temperatures of about the same value. The effect of reversing the direction of fluid flow through the ground coil will be investigated in the near future. 9. From this research it is believed that the earth is a suitable heat sink as well as a suitable heat source. 10. A more complete account of this investigation will be given in a future Engineering Experiment Station Bulletin of the University of Kentucky. 171 Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science BIBLIOGRAPHY “Performance of an Earth Heat Pump on Intermittent Operation’, by E. B. Penrod, E. L. Dunning, and H. H. Thompson. Trans- actions of the Kentucky Academy of Science, Vol. 13, No. 2, October, 1950, pp. 82-99. “Measurement of the Thermal Diffusivity of a Soil by the Use of a Heat Pump”, by E. B. Penrod. American Journal of Applied Physics, Vol. 21, No. 5, May, 1950, pp. 425-427. “Earth Heat Pump Research—Part I”, by E. B. Penrod, O. W. Gard, C. D. Jones, H. E. Collier, and R. N. Patey. University of Kentucky Egineering Experiment Station Bulletin, Vol. 4, No. 14, December, 1949, pp. 1-64. “Theory of the Ground Pipe Heat Source for the Heat Pump’, by WW) R. Ingersolland 11. J, Plass, H-PALC | Vol 2053Nowane July, 1948 pp. 119-122. EFFECTS OF STAPHYLOCOCCUS AUREUS INFECTIONS ON BLOOD AND LIVER CATALASE IN MICE. I TITRIMETRIC METHOD Sister Mary Adeline O'Leary, S.C.N., Sister Virginia Heines, S.C.N., Sister Roderick Juhasz, S.C.N., Sister Rose Agnes Greenwell, S.C.N., and Corenlius W. Kreke ® Nazareth College Unit of Institutum Divi Thomae, Louisville, Kentucky In one of the earliest reports, Brahn observed low liver catalase activity in human beings who had died with different forms of cancer tumors. Later work revealed that the liver catalase of tumor- bearing rats and mice is considerably more affected than many other individual enzyme systems studied (1). Within the last decade, intensive studies (2 3,4,5,6) have shown that this peroxide-splitting enzyme activity is considerably reduced in both the liver and kidney of these animals but not in the blood. The mechanism of action of catalase in these neoplastic conditions is not well understood, but as anemia generally accompanies tumor growth, it has been sug- gested that the progress of the tumor in some way interferes with the synthesis of the hemo-prosthetic group, which is possessed both by the hemoglobin and catalase (1). It was the purpose of the present investigation to compare the enzymatic pattern of the catalase activity in the blood and liver of mice infected with Staphylococcus aureus, with that reported for mice bearing tumors, two quite different types of pathology. EXPERIMENTAL Normal female mice from Rockland Farm, N. Y., and a patho- genic strain of S. aureus from the General Biological Supply House, Chicago, Ill., were used in these determinations. The virulency of the microorganism was kept up by transfers to a blood agar medium. All reagents used were of the c.p. grade or of the highest purity obtainable. About two dozen determinations were run to establish con- Assistant Research Professor of Chemistry, Institutum Divi Thomae, Cin- cinnati, Ohio. 173 Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science stant values for the enzyme activity, fahigkeit, of the blood and liver of normal animals. The permanganate titrimetric procedure, essentially the same as previously reported (7), showing the rate of decomposition of HzO2 by catalase, was employed. This method was used in determining the fahigkeit of blood and liver of normal and infected animals. In the preparation of the blood enzyme, the blood from the slit throat of the mouse was collected in a graduated certifuge tube and diluted. This dilution was made so as to contain the same weight of enzyme-containing material per ml. of blood to be used in the calculation of the fahigkeit from the kK values at zero time. The liver enzyme was prepared by placing the minced liver in 10 ml. of distilled water and allowing it to stand in the ice chest for 24 hours. Then it was diluted according to the original tissue- weight and filtered. From these dilutions, samples were taken for analysis and further diluted according to the activity of the enzyme. After an equilibrium period of 10 minutes, which allowed the solu- tion to come to 0°, 35 ml. of HzO, (0.9 ml. of 35% diluted to 1000 ml.) were mixed with 10 ml. of phosphate buffer (M/5 approxi- mately pH 6.8) containing 1 ml. of the diluted enzyme. At three 5 minute intervals, 5 ml. of the reaction mixture were pipetted into 20 ml. of HzSO4 (1:8) in order to stop the reaction, and the un- decomposed peroxide titrated with 0.0140 N KMnO,. Blanks run for reaction of KMnO, with blood and liver enzyme activity showed almost negligible results. RESULTS The analyses of the blood and liver catalase of 18 out of 24 normal mice are shown in Table I. The mean value for blood enzyme was found to be 99+ 3.4 and the liver enzyme to 195+ 3.2. Ratios of blood fahigkeit values to liver fahigkeit is 1:1.8 showing the liver enzyme activity average about twice that of the blood activity. Forty-eight animals were used in preliminary experiments to 174 Effects of Staphylococcus Aureus Infections In Mice 1 determine the day best suitable for the analysis of the blood and liver of mice infected with Staphlococcus aureus. The 9th day showed the enzyme values to be the most consistent, and the day when the lesions had reached the peak of severity. Analyses were then made on 37 more infected mice to determine the fahigkeit of the blood and liver catalase. The mean value for blood catalase is 81+ 4.7 and 216+ 18 for the liver enzyme. The ratio of blood catalase to liver catalase in the infected animals varies from approximately 0.5 to 8, while in the normal animals the variation is from 1 to 2. From the data in Table IH it can be seen that there is a wide variability in the enzyme values, particularly for liver, and no consistent yattern in the relationship between blood and _ liver catalase. I I TABLE I. DETERMINATION OF BLOOD AND LIVER CATALASE ACTIVITY IN NORMAL MICE Det. Mouse Wt. Blood Catzlase Liver Catalase 7 Kat. f. (liver) No. ¢ Zero time K at Kat.f. Zero time K at Kat.f. Kat.f. (blood) Blank O time Blank O time ile 22, 5.96 0.051 108 5.97 0.135 292 27 2. 21 “0.083 —— 7 0.104 226 +5 3. 21 ra 0.035 —— a 0.100 210 =. 4. Gal 5-03— 0.047 97 5.93 0.048 126 1.5 D. 24.5 en OL03 SS as = 0.068 176 2.3 6. 24.5 4 0.055 86 ds 0.059 166 1.9 Ue 20.9 6.00 0.050 124 5.80 0.062 167 1.3 8. 23.8 > 40085". 586 rf 0.088 223 2.5 2). 24.6 “0.046 108 zo 0.064 166 1.5 10. 23.0 Bis) AO OzNE 10) 2:00 0.074 224 2.48 ne 24.3 im OLOS6 ES rz 0.037 168 1.4 12. 21.3 (OOK Is) * 0.084 271 2.76 15. 26.0 ONL ONO)s yh Mala 5.90 0.050 22:7 2.04 14. 23.7 Op eae lelts >: 0.048 180 1.6 15. 20.9 SOLO SSM'S 4 0.058 222, 1.9 16. 21.0 5.93 0.037 81 5.95 0.039 130 1.6 ies 23.8 (OM SIS SIs ny 0.070 166 1.75 18. 21.2 0.032 80 i; 0.062 167 2.02 AVE. 99+3.4 AVE. 1953.2 AVE. 1.80 175 Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science TABLE II. FAHIGKEIT VALUES OF BLOOD AND LIVER CATALASE OF MICE INFECTED WITH STAPHYLOCOCCUS AUREUS Det. Day of Mouse Wt. Blood Kat.f. Liver Kat.f. Kat.f. (liver) No. Analysis g. Kat.f. (blood ) Ie 6 19.6 128 308 2.4 2: 6 23.6 38 286 7.5 8. 7 18.2 91 398 4.37 4, 7 18.2 91 185 2.05 5. df 20.4 96 196 2.04 6. 7 18.7 89 82 0.92 ie 9 18.0 32 110 3.4 8. 9 20.0 160 380 2.38 9. 9 18.4 106 284 2.68 10. 9 19.0 114 310 Deo, Li. 9 18.2 114 270 2.37 12, 9 26.6 54 179 3.31 13. 9 22:2) 113 63 0.557 14. 9 Zell 117 83 0.709 BY, 9 24.0 55 444 8.07 16. 9 27.4 86 276 3.2 17. 9 22.4 69 245 3.50 18. 9 21.0 Si 368 6.43 19. 9 pd) 52 271 5.2 20. 9 22.9 65 232 3.07 21 9 20.0 88 232 2.63 22 9 23.9 66 411 6.23 23. 9 SIO) 87 42 0.48 24, 9 24.8 82 lio 2.13 Dy, 9 19.9 61 D2 0.85 26. 9 2255 118 173 1.47 ile ) NY oe 35 191 5.45 28. 9 22.0 70 128 1.8 29. 9 29.0 85 84 0.99 30. 9 19.5 67 210 3.18 31 9 20.0 116 116 I, 32. 10 21.0 67 192 2.86 33. 10 21.0 87 411 4.72 34. 10 19.8 45 188 4.18 85. 10 19.8 62 98 1.58 36. 10 24.4 84 142 1.69 37. 15 18.5 63 163 2.58 AVE Oise 477, AVE. 21618 AVE. 2.6 176 Effects of Staphylococcus Aureus Infections In Mice I Discussion The data from the analyses of the infected animals indicates considerable variability in the catalase values of blood and _ particul- arly in the liver. The mean values of 81 and 216 for blood and liver catalase, respectively, point to the fact that on the average the blood enzyme in the infected animals was below normal, whereas the liver catalase, while slightly above normal, is less significantly so. Cal- culating the ratio of the normally distributed variant to its estimated Pederd error, (t) for blood is 15; for liver is 4.8. From these con- siderations it seems warranted to conclude that there tends to be a lowering of the blood catalase at the height of infection as revealed by the data on the 9th day. This work is at present being repeated by other methods to attempt to eliminate some of the variations due to method in the blood and liver catalase of the infected animals. SUMMARY 1. Normal blood catalase activity (Kat. fahigkeit) in mice was found to be 99+ 3.4, and normal liver catalase 195+ 3.2. Mean values of blood and liver catalase of infected animals are 81+ 4.7 and 216+ 18, respectively. The greatest variation was encountered in the liver catalase of infected animals. Lo 3. Blood catalase tends to drop below the normal value at the height of infection without a consistent change in the liver catalase. REFERENCES 1. Biochemistry of Cancer, J. P. Greenstein, pp. 321, Academic Press, Inc., N.Y. (1947). Greenstem, ||. —.; jenrette, ie a and White: J., J. Biol. Chem. £47, 5 (L941). o» Greenstein, J, P., Jenrette, oe and White, J., J. Nat. Cancer Inst. 2, 283, (1941). 4. Greenstein, J. P., and Andervont, H. B., J. Natl. Cancer Inst. 2, 345, (1942). jo. soreenstem, — P., J. Natl. Cancer Inst. 2, 525, 589, (1942); 3, 397, (1943). 6. Greenstein, J. P., and Andervont, H. B., J. Natl. Cancer Inst. 4, 283, (1943). 7. Kreke, C. W., and Sister Paulette Maloney, J. Biol. Chem. 172, 317-324, (1948). Lo EFFECT OF STAPHYLOCOCCUS AUREUS INFECTIONS ON BLOOD AND LIVER CATALASE IN MICE. II. GASOMETRIC METHOD. Sister Mary Adeline O'Leary, S.C.N., Sister Virginia Heines, S.C.N., Sister Roderick Juhasz, S.C.N., Sister Rose Agnes Greenwell, S.C.N., and Cornelius W. Kreke * Nazareth College Unit of Institutum Divi Thomae, Louisville, Kentucky * Assistant Research Professor of Chemistry, Institutum Divi Thomae, Cin- cinnati, Ohio. Studies in this laboratory of the enzymatic pattern of the cata- lase activity in the blood and liver of mice infected with Micrococcus pyogenes var aureus have shown values of considerable variability. In a previous report (1) it was noted that on the average the blood enzyme in the infected animals was below normal, whereas the liver catalase, while slightly above normal, was less significantly so. In order to attempt to reduce some of the variations possibly due to technique of the titrimetric method (2), the work was re- peated using the gasometric procedure. EXPERIMENTAL The procedure of White and Winternitz (3), extensively used by Greenstein in catalase studies in relation to cancer, is based upon the rapid evolution of oxygen after addition of H2,O, to the enzyme mixture (Figure 1). The i00 ml. widemouth bottle moved through a distance of 10 cm. at the rate of 4 oscillations per second. The oxygen output was measured at constant pressure by the rate of displacement of a dilute solution of methylene blue from an in- verted buret attached to the reaction bottle by means of a rubber tubing. Readings were taken at 5-second intervals over a period of 30 seconds. In control experiments the wide-mouth bottle contained 5 ml. of M/5 prosphate buffer (pH 6.8), 2 ml. of distilled water, and 1 ml. of properly diluted enzyme, all kept at approximately 5°C. These were allowed to stand in contact 10 minutes at 5°C., at the end of which time a 1 ml. beaker containing 0.5 ml. of 30% H2O2 was placed upright in the wide-mouth bottle before putting the bottle in the shaking machine. As shaking began, the beaker tipped 178 Effects of Staphylococcus Aureus Infections In Mice II over, allowing the H2O2 to come in contact with the enzyme-buffer- mixture. en | Figure 1. PREPARATION OF ENZYME SOLUTION A mouse liver is thoroughly ground in a glass mortar, diluted with cold distilled water, filtered through four thicknesses of chees- cloth, and placed in an ice bath until ready for use. One ml. of the dilution added to the reaction mixture should give about 10 - 15 179 Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science ml. Oz in 10 sec. Dry weights are determined and the ml. Og per mg. dry weight is obtained. The blood from the slit throat of the mouse is collected in a graduated centrifuge tube, diluted and kept in ice bath. As it is not possible to maintain a constant temperature in the reaction mixture during the course of the experiment, all ingredients are kept in an ice bath until ready for use. Under these conditions the enzyme does not deteriorate very rapidly and many experiments can be run with one preparation. Readings taken at the 10 second period are reported. RESULTS Analyses of the blood and liver catalase of 12 control animais are shown in Table I. The mean value for the blood enzyme was found to be 1.57 0.37 and for the liver enzyme to be 3.44 0.55. The ratio of the blood values to liver values is 1:2.1 showing the liver enzyme activity averages twice that of the blood activity. Of the thirty-six animals infected with the organism, twenty- - five animals gave mean values of 1.37+ 0.32 and 3.882 1.18 for blood and liver catalase respectively (Table II). The ratio of blood to liver enzyme is 1:2.8 or about 3 times that of the blood activity. Table HI shows the comparison between the values obtained by the titrimetric and gasometric methods for both normal and infected animals. TABLE I. BLOOD AND LIVER CATALASE ACTIVITY IN MICE. GASOMETRIC METHOD CONTROLS Determination Blood Liver Number ml/O, mg. dry wt. extract le eS 4.49 on 1.36 3.46 3 eh, 3.22 4, 1.78 3.63 Be 1.34 3.33 6. 1.68 8.01 Lo 2.54 4.00 8. 1.26 4.11 9. Lal 4.14 10. Lae RT BIE ILA TK@ 2.36 1, 1.30 2.82 Average aise s8i7/ 3.44+ 0.55 180 Effects of Staphylococcus Aureus Infections In Mice II TABLE II. BLOOD AND LIVER CATALASE ACTIVITY IN MICE GASOMETRIC METHOD ANIMALS INFECTED WITH STAPHYLOCOCCUS AUREUS Days Blood Liver Infected ml/O,mg dry wt. extract 8 1.50 1.75 8 1.42 2.90 8 1.45 P13 8 ESS 2.63 9 1.43 4.00 9 1.26 8.72 9 1.36 1EnS 9 1.39 3.87 9 0.82 1.02 9 1.47 1.96 9 152, 1.40 9 1.90 3.33 9 1.23 5.43 9 1RO3 3.61 9 1.54 3.86 9 1.73 4.22 ) gay 4.93 9 1.29 5.52 11 MG 3.22 11 .90 4.03 13 1.02 3.47 13 R25 3.40 13 1.89 3.90 13 1.30 3.87 13 1.48 2.38 Average eis OLY Bela IE: TABLE III. CATALASE ACTIVITY IN MICE DETERMINED BY TITRIMETRIC AND GASOMETRIC METHODS Blood Liver Titrimetric Gasometric Titrimetric Gasometric ml. O./mg. ) ml. O,/mg. Reatents dry wt. extract Kate he dry wt. extract Controls 99+ 3.4 Wael 195+ 3.2 3.44—=- 0.55 Infected SMlar 4h7/ 137+ 0.32 PNGE== NS 3.88+ 18 181 Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science DISCUSSION The mean values of the blood and liver enzyme appear to show the same trend of activity by the gasometric as by the titrimetric method. Both procedures reveal a drop in the blood catalase and a rise in liver catalase of the infected animals. This increase of the liver enzyme activity shown by both methods may not be significant due to considerable variation in the liver values; however, calculat- ing the ratio of the normally distributed variant to its estimated error, (t) for blood is 7.1 and 5.6 for the liver. From Fisher's table of t, P is 0.01 for a t value of 2.797. A t of 7.1 or of 5.6 is definitely significant. SUMMARY Catalase activity of blood and liver in normal mice by the gaso- metric method was found to be 1.57+ 0.37 and 3.44+ 0.53 respec- tively. The blood and liver values of animals infected by Staphy- lococcus aureus were found to be 1.87+0.32 and 3.88+1.18 respectively. Both procedures (titrimetric and gasometric) revealed a drop in blood catalase during infection and an increase in the liver enzyme. As there exists a wide variability in the enzyme values, particularly for the liver, no consistent pattern seems to exist between the relationship of the blood and liver catalase for individual animals, but the t and P values show that the results are significant for the groups. REFERENCES 1. Proc. Kentucky Acad. of Science. In Press.* bo Kreke, C. W., and Sister Paulette Maloney, J. Biol. Chem. 172: 317-324, (1948). 325 White, |) and) Winternitz, M.-@.) Am, |) (‘CanceraaG: 269, (1989). = Volel3> noo, pp. lise 182 ANTIBIOTIC-PRODUCING SPECIES OF BACILLUS FROM WELL WATER R. H. Weaver and Theodore Boiter Department of Bacteriology University of Kentucky Lexington, Kentucky The studies reported upon were carried out on triplicate samples that were collected from each of 32 Fayette County Kentucky wells. Of each set of samples, one was examined within two hours of the time of collection, another after storage for 24 hours at room tem- perature, and the third after storage for 48 hours. Plate counts, coli- form determinations, and attempts to isolate antagonists for Escheri- chia coli were made on each sample. Attempts have been made to correlate the presence of antagonists with the presence of coliforms and with the decrease in number of coliforms during storage of the water samples. Antagonists isolated consisted chiefly of members of the actinomycetes, Bacillus and Pseudomonas groups. This paper deals only with the Bacillus strains. The method used for the isoluation of the antagonists was es- sentially that of Kelner, 1948. Plates were prepared containing ap- proximately 15 ml quantities of sterile nutrient agar. After the agar had solidified, a layer of 5 ml of nutrient agar containing an appro- priate dilution of the water sample was spread over the surface of the plate. Quintuplicate plates for each of three dilutions were made from each water sample. After one week's incubation at room temperature ali plates which contained a satisfactory number of colonies were tested for the presence of antagonists. For this pur- pose a 5 ml layer of nutrient agar containing 1:750,000 crystal violet and 1 ml per 50 ml of agar of a 24 hour nutrient broth cul- ture of a freshly isolated strain of E. coli was poured over the sur- face of each plate. The plates were then incubated over night at 37 C and examination was made for zones of inhibition of growth of the E. coli above and around colonies of organisms that produced diffusable antibiotic substances. Attempts were made to isolate 183 Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science cultures from all types of colonies of antagonists that were found on the plates. As the antibiotic substances produced by the Bacillus strains were apparently sufficiently bactericidal in almost all cases to kill the E. coli in the layer of agar above the colonies no difficulty was experienced in the isolation of pure cultures of these organisms. Species of Bacillus that were antagonistic for the strain of E. coli used were isolated from 24 of the 32 sets of samples. In about two thirds of the cases only one or two colonies of the antagonists were present on the plates but in the other third of the cases the numbers of antagonists amounted to from several hundred to several thousand per ml of sample. Several types of antagonists were some- times present on the same plate. The Bacillus isolates were identitied according to the procedure of Smith, Gordon and Clark, 1946. A total of 15 isolates of B. sub- tilis, 2 of B. subtilis var. aterrimus, 3 of B. pumilis, 13 of B. cereus, i of a B: megatherium - B. cereus intermediate, 1 of B. circulans, 1 of B. macerans, | of B. brevis, and 2 of B. laterosporus were identi- fied. After the purity of the cultures was established, they were stor- ed in tubes of semi-solid agar in the refrigerator. Approximately 12 to 18 months later their antibiotic activities were studied. For this purpose a cross streak method similar to that used by Cervagal, 1947, Gilliver, 1949, and others, was employed. Each culture was streak- ed across one diameter of a nutrient agar plate. The plates were in- cubated at 32C for 48 hours before cross streaking the other dia- meter of the plate with the test organisms. Test organisms used were Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Salmonella paratyphi, Salmonella typhosa, Shigella flexneri, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Aerobacter aerogenes, 3 strains of Escherichia coli including the one used in the isolations, a strain of Paracolobactrum, Micrococcus pyogenes var. aureus, My- cobacterium hominis, Mycobacterium phlei, Mycobacterium smeg- matis, and Candida albicans. After a 24-hour period of incubation the zones of inhibition were measured. The plates were incubated for another 24-hour period and the zones of inhibition were re- checked. In no case did the zones increase or decrease during the second 24-hour period. All isolates were tested at least once against 184 Antibiotic-Producing Species of Bacillus from Well Water each of the test organisms. Selected representative isolates were tested as many as six times. As his been shown by many workers, Bacillus strains tend to lose their antibiotic activity upon cultivation on laboratory media. Many of the cultures were found to have lost their antibiotic ability against the strain of E. coli which had been used for their original detection, and many of the other isolates produced a smaller antibiotic zone than had been produced on the original plate. It is evident that variations both in the antibiotic-producing abilities of the various isolates and in the resistance of the various test organisms occurred during the course of the tests. As examples of the former; On August 8, isolate 16 (B. subtilis) was antibiotic only to S. typhosa and M. pyogenes, although on July 26 it had also been antibiotic to S. paratyphi, S. flexneri, all 3 strains of E. coli, and the paracolon strain; On August 8, isolate 72 (B. subtilis) was antibiotic to S. flexneri, S. typhosa, one strain of E. coli, and M. pyo- genes, although on July 26 it had been antibiotic only to S. flexneri. As an example of the latter, S. paratyphi gradually became resistant to all antibiotic action during the period of approximately four months during which the tests were being performed so that on August 8 none of 10 isolates showed any antibiotic action toward it although 9 of the 10 had showed such action on previous tests. None of the Bacillus isolates showed antibiotic action against P. aeruginosa, K. pneumoniae, A. aerogenes, C. albicans, M. phlei, or M. smegmatis. The strongest meiotic action was shown against S. flexneri, S. typhosa and M. pyogenes. The best antibiotic action was produced by the B. subtilis iso- lates. On the original plates they had produced antibiotic zones of from 2 to 15 mm. In general, no loss in potency appears to have oc- curred during storage of the pure cultures before their antibiotic activities were tested. Some of the isolates produced larger zones than those on the original plates. Almost all the 15 isolates were antagonistic to S. paratyphi, S. typhosa, S. flexneri, the 3 strains of E. coli, and M. pyogenes. Four were antagonistic to the paracolon strain. Zones of inhibition varied from 2 to 18 mm, the largest being with S. flexneri (average 10 mm) and M. pyogenes (average 11 mm). The isolates of B. subtilis var. aterrimus were slightly less active. 185 Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science The 3 isolates of B. pumilis produced zones of 8, 8, and 5 mm respectively against E. coli on the original plates. The ability to antagonize E. coli was lost completely during storage of the cul- tures. One of the isolates produced no antagonistic effects, one an- tagonized S. flexneri and M. pyogenes, and the third antagonized S. flexneri, S. typhosa and M. pyogenes when it was first tested but was entirely negative when it was retested 3 times from one to two months later. The B. cereus isolates producted at least as large zones of in- hibition against E. coli as did the B. subtilis isolates at the time of isolation but they almost completely lost their antibiotic powers before the tests for antibiotic activity were made. Eight of the 138 isolates had no antibiotic action, 2 produced a slight inhibition of M. hominis on one test, 1 produced a slight inhibition of the para- colon strain, and the other 2 inhibited S. flexneri, S, typhosa, one of the strains of E. coli, and M. pyogenes when they were first tested but were negative when they were retested a few days later. The isolates of B. brevis, B. macerans, B. circulans and B. latero- sporus produced zones of inhibition against E. coli of 15 mm, 20 mm, 2 mm, and 5 mm, respectively when they were isolated. All these iso- lates produced spreading types of growth so that reliable tests could not be made with the method that was employed in this study. COMMENT The data available thus far from this study are not adequate to determine the significance of Bacillus species in connection with the longevity of coliforms in water. Previous work has presented strong evidence that antagonistic organisms in water may signifi- cantly decrease the longevity of coliforms that are present along with them. Hutchison, Weaver and Scherago, 1943, isolated antagonists for E. coli from water samples and showed that if they were ino- culated in fairly large numbers into water samples they would cause a rapid decrease in the number of coliforms present in the samples. Vaccaro, Briggs, Carey and Ketchum, 1950, have reviewed the ques- tion of viability of E. coli in sea water and have presented convinc- ing evidence that microorganisms produce bactericidal substances in the water which affect the viability of the E. coli. The detection 186 Antibiotic-Producing Species of Bacillus from Well Water of Bacillus strains in samples from 24 of 32 wells in this study is indicative that these organisms may have some signifiance. Samples from 29 of the wells yielded positive tests for coliform organisms. No direct correlation is evident between the number of coliforms and the number of antagonists present. Large numbers of Bacillus antagonists were found, however, only in heavily polluted water samples. The most significant groups of Bacillus antagonists appear to be the B. subtilis and B. cereus groups. It is not surprising that the B. subtilis group should be one of the dominant ones in view of the large number of antibiotic substances that have been shown to be produced by members of this group. It should be noted, however, that the B. cereus isolates, on the average, produced slightly broader zones of antibiosis at the time of isolation than did the B. subtilis isolates. This antibiotic ability was largely lost upon cultivation. From these results, the possibility should be considered that the B. cereus strains are better suited to antibiotic formation under na- tural conditions whereas the B. subtilis strains are better suited to antibiotic formation on artificial media, and that the presence of B. cereus strains, in the water, therefore, may have greater signifi cance. SUMMARY Members of the genus Bacillus that are antagonistic for Escheri- chia coli were isolated from samples of water from 24 of 32 Fayette County, Kentucky, wells. Of 39 isolates that were identified, 15 were B. subtilis and 13 were B. cereus. The B. cereus isolates had slightly broader zones of inhibition for E. coli than did the B. subtilis isolates at the time of isolation. When they were tested 12 to 18 months later, however, they had almost completely lost their anti- biotic-producing ability while the B. subtilis isolates had retained theirs. Almost all the B. subtilis isolates also produced antibiotic action against Shigella flexneri, Salmonella typhosa, Salmonella para- typhi and Micrococcus pyogenes var. aureus. Although the data presented are inadequate to determine the significance of Bacillus species in connection with the longevity of coliforms in water, the demonstrated prevelence of potentially antagonistic strains indicates that they may have some significance. 187 Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science REFERENCES Cervajal, Fernando. 1947. Screening test for antibiotics. Mycologia, 39:128-130. Gilliver, K. 1949. The antibacterial properties of some species of aerobic spore-forming bacilli. Br. J. Exp. Path., 30:214-220. Hutchison, Dorris, R. H. Weaver, and M. Scherago. 1943. The incidence and significance of microorganisms antagonistic to Escheri- chia coli in water. J. Bact., 45:29. Kelner, Albert. 1948. A method for investigating large microbial populations for antibiotic activity. J. Bact., 56:157-162. Smith, N. R., R. E. Gordon, and F. E. Clark. 1946. Aerobic mesophi- lic spore-forming bacteria. U. S. Dept. Agric. Misc. Pub. 559. Vaccaro, Ralph F., Margaret P. Briggs, Cornelia L. Carey, and Bost- wick H. Ketchum. 1950. Viability of Escherichia coli in sea water. Am. J. Pub. Health, 40: 1257-1266. 188 SUBSURFACE EARTH EXPLORATION BY ELECTRICAL RESISTIVITY METHOD by L. C. Pendley University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky Throughout the ages men have erected innumerable structures and have performed a multitude of engineering feats directly upon the earth’s crust or outer layer. In the planning for most of these projects, there has arisen the need for knowledge of the character and depth of the materials immediately below the surface at the site. On such occasions it has, until recently, been necessary to at- tack the problem by the direct, time-consuming, costly, and laborious method of digg’ng b >y some means a pit or a hole in order to examine the underlying material. Even with up-to-date methods, this pro- cedure is costly both in time and money. In recent years, how- ever, two geophysical methods for securing information regarding subsurface conditions have attracted considerable attention. They are known as the Refraction Seismic method and Electrical Re- sistivity method. Both of these methods have been used exten- sively in recent years by geologists, mining, and petroleum engineers for subsurface reconnaissance. In this paper, a brief discussion of the Electrical Resistivity method will be given. In addition, some results of a study now being made to attempt an_ evaluation of this method will be presented. The basic theory underiying measurements of the earth's re- sistance to the flow of an electric current was set forth in 1915 by Wenner.‘)* The method employed in this study is known as the four-electrode type. A schematic diagram of the four-electrode equipment as it is set up for use in the field is shown in Figure 1. In brief, the equipment used consists of a source of power such as “B” batteries, a milliameter to measure current passed, two current electrodes, two non-polarizing electrodes, a potentiometer to measure the drop in potential between the potential electrodes, and the necessary wiring to connect all parts of the equipment. This material is assembled in two independent circuits. The first or outer circuit includes the current source, the milliameter, and Numbers in parentheses refer to items in bibliography. 189 Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science the two current electrodes. The current electrodes which are two copper-coated steel rods are driven into the ground a distance of “3a” apart. The power source is equipped with a reversible switch which allows the current to be transmitted in either direction along the circuit. The second or inner circuit consists of the potentio- meter and the two non-polarizing electrodes. The non-polarizing electrodes consist essentially of a transparent plastic cartridge filled with a solution of copper sulfate and having a porous plug in one end to permit the solution to seep through in order to insure good electrical contact with the earth’s surface. The non-polarizing elec- trodes are placed on a line between the two current electrodes dividing the distance 3a into three equal parts “a”. A current “I” is then passed through the outer circuit and flows through the earth from one current electrode to the other. The drop in potential “E” between the intermediate potential electrodes is then measured. Current will flow from the current electrode in the usual pattern. Equipotential lines or equipotential surfaces normal to the current lines are also formed. Current is passed in one direction in the outer circuit and the drop E and voltage I are measured. In order MILLIAMMETER (T) POWER SUPPLY KS] it B BATTERIES POTENTIOMETER (V) CURRENT POTENTIAL CURRENT CI ELECTRODE ELECTRODES ELECTRODE [Cy ee a ieee : "AE HA TE) Tal TA AEE ae: Se a Cleese ~ — SS SS ee a_i SAS USE iat a ra eel rater TN ec haere —— => EN Sy ts a = SS —cURRENTIFLOWNE ==. 2 = Pai Fear — — —— DIAGRAM OF FIELD SET-UP Figure 1. Schematic Diagram of Equipment Used for Finding Resistivity of Soils by the Four-Electrode System. 190 Subsurface Earth Exploration By Electrical Resistivity Method to prevent polarization of the current electrodes and to eliminate or minimize the effect of stray currents present in the earth, the current direction is then reversed and the readings taken as be- fore. The resistivity of the material between the potential electrodes may then be foud by use of the formula E APY, Se Pe nea in which a is the electrode spacing in feet E is the drop in potential, in millivolts I is the current in milliamps flowing through the circuit and p= the resistivity of the soil between the potential elec- trodes in ohms-feet. If the material is homogeneous, the resistivity found by this for- mula can be assumed to be the specific resistivity of the material between the equipotential lines or surfaces passing through the potential electrodes. If the material is not homogeneous and _ soil seldom is, then the resistivity found is called the apparent resistivity and represents the average specific resistivity of the material in the area between the potential electrodes. Various investigators have found that the value of resistivity is influenced largly by the material in the above area to «< a depth “a” and that materials at a depth greater than “a” apparently have a negligible effect on the flow of the current lines and therefore on rota If the value of the electrode spacing “a” is increased through given increments, the current flow lines extend to deeper layers in the earth’s crust and the resistivity found reflects the apparent re- sistivity of the material to greater depths corresponding to the in- creased electrode interval The resistivity of materials of the earth's surface has been found to depend largely upon the amount of moisture and ionized salts present in the material. Since the amount of these electrolytic salts will vary greatly with different types of material, the resistivi- ties of layers of different materials may also be expected to vary 191 Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science greatly. For example, moist clay deposits may have a fair amount of these salts in their structure and as a result clays usually show very low resistivity value. Rock, on the other hand, is usually re- latively dense and has few pores for the electrolytic solution to oc- cupy and therefore shows correspondingly high resistivity values. Several different methods of interpreting resistivity data have been used or proposed. The method of interpretation used in this study is known as the Gish-Rooney method.“ By this system the resistivities found at each electrode spacing are plotted as ordi- nates against the electrode spacing as abscissae. If the curve plotted by this system is studied, it will usually show changes in slope at electrode spacings which correspond approximately with the depth at which changes in types of material occur. For the electrical resistivity method to be of much value to the Highway Engineer, it is obvious that some quick method such as this must be used which will enable the readings to be placed in usable form as soon as possible. One of the large problems of this study has been, therefore, to determine if depths of soil layers obtained by this method can be correlated with actual depths or thicknesses as obtained by direct methods. Also, if the correlation exists, is it close enough to allow the use of the data obtained in ordinary Highway work? Several sites were selected where records of borings were available and resistivity measurements were made at these sites. Results from four of the principal sites investigated are presented here with typical resistivity curves obtained shown along with a plot of the drill borings at the same site. TYRONE BRIDGE One of our most detailed investigations was made at Tyrone Bridge on the Kentucky River near Lawrenceburg, Kentucky. Resis- tivity readings were taken in the flat space on the Versailles side of the river ecween piers four and five. The resistivity measure- ments were made along a line parallel to and seventy-five feet toward the river from the face of pier five and 149 feet from pier four. The right hand drill log shown in Figure 2 is from a boring at pier five and the left drill log is from a boring made at pier four. Measurements were made on July 12 and 14. The weather 192 Subsurface Earth Exploration By Electrical Resistivity Method RESISTIVITY OHM-FEET 410 450 490 530 MAYA Vv co Rts) ALIAS KONE Se Be “Oo & Cr E- 7 oO be °G oe Peace ELECTRODE SPACING-FEET Figure 2. Resistivity Measurements and Drill Cores along Line D at Tyrone Bridge. Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science was clear and ground was moist from previous rains. The drill logs at this location show the upper layer of material to be a sandy clay. At pier five the log shows the sandy clay to be underlain at a depth of about twenty-five feet by sandy gravel which extends to bedrock (limestone) at a depth of about thirty- two feet. At pier four the borings show sandy clay to a depth of twenty-one feet and sandy gravel extending to bedrock at a depth of 39.5 feet. The resistivity curve at this location shows a marked increase in apparent resistivity at an electrode spacing corresponding to a depth of twenty-two feet. This increase would indicate the pre- sence of a more resistant material such as a sand or gravel. The decrease in the rate of increase of the apparent resistivity of the sandy gravel between twenty-two feet and thirty-four feet prob- ably reflects the increase in moisture content with depth as bed- rock is approached. The next significant change in slope of the resistivity curve occurs at a spacing of thirty-four feet. The in- crease in slope at this point would point to the presence of a more dense material such as bedrock. This depth of thirty-four feet _ corresponds to a depth cf about 34.5 feet to bedrock as predicted from the drill logs shown in Figure 2. BURNSIDE, KENTUCKY Studies at this site were made in the vicinity of the Monticello, Pitman Creek and U. S. 27 Highway bridges. Data for resistivity Line A shown in Figure 3, were taken at the site of the new high- way bridge on the Monticello-Burnside road. Measurements were taken on the north bank of the Cumberland River parallel to and 53.7 feet toward the river from pier five. The drill logs shown in Figure 3 are located on the same line that the resistivity data were taken on and were spaced twenty-five feet each way from the center line of the bridge. Data at this location were taken July 6, 1950. Adverse weather conditions consisting of intermittent showers were encountered. As shown in Figure 3, the drill logs here show sandy loam to a depth of about four feet. This is underlain by a firm yellow clay to a depth of about thirty-seven feet. Below this is found a 194 Subsurface Earth Exploration By Electrical Resistivity Method RESISTIVITY OHM-FEET Ge k130 170 210 250 \-— —S a ——— RXKG||REQ\MMBASSA AAA AAA ELECTRODE SPACING-FEET ee di} 0": oO a Figure 3. Resistivity Measurements and Drill Cores along Line A at Burnside, Kentucky. 195 Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science layer of loose sand and gravel and bedrock is encountered at depths of forty-two to forty-four feet. The low value for resistivity shown at four feet spacing un- doubtedly was caused by the completely saturated condition of the topsoil at the time the readings were taken. With the above ex- ception, this curve is practically ideal for the materials present at this location. The ideal curve for the soil layers found here would start with high resistivity values in the loam strata and the resistivity values would decrease as the electrode spacings were increased, permitting a greater percentage of current lines to flow through the clay strata. The resistivity values should decrease until an electrode spac- ing is reached which permits the major portion of the current lines to be flowing through the clay strata. At this point, the resistivity values should show a gradual increase with depth due to the com- bined effect of the overlying materials. This is the condition illu- _ strated by Line A at Burnside as shown in Figure 3. The first deviation from the above pattern may be noted at a spacing corresponding to a depth of thirty-six feet. The increase at this point is caused by the presence of the sandy gravel which is a more resistant material. Another change in slope is noted at forty-four feet indicating the possibility of a more resistant material at this depth. That this is the condition actually existing is shown by the drill logs which indicate bedrock at a depth from forty-two to forty-four feet. BOONESBORO BRIDGE Another location investigated was at Boonesboro Bridge on the Kentucky River. Resistivity readings were taken on the west bank of the river between piers eight and nine. The data were taken along a line parallel to and fifteen feet toward the river from pier nine. The right hand drill log shown in Figure 4a is from a boring at pier nine and the left hand drill log is from a boring made at pier eight. The readings were taken June 26. Weather was clear and very warm. The river was falling. Since the resistivity data were taken near the face of pier nine, it is believed that the drill log for the boring there presents a better 196 Subsurface Earth Exploration By Electrical Resistivity Method picture than would the drill log at pier eight of the conditions to be expected at the point where the resistivity data were taken. This drill log shows a firm clay to a depth of eighteen feet. This is underlain by a soft yellow clay stratum to a depth of twenty- six feet. At this point, the material changes to a very soft blue clay which continues to a depth of forty-two feet. Below this is found gravel extending to bedrock at a depth of forty-six feet. Down to a depth of twenty-six feet, the curve fotlows closely the ideal curve for a clay material. It is thought possible that the break in the curve at the electrode spacing corresponding to this depth can be attributed to a possible difference between the con- ductivity of the soft yellow clay and the very soft blue clay. The increase in the slope of the curve at thirty-six feet is believed to be caused by an extension of the sand strata into this area. A de- crease in the slope of the curve is noted at forty to aoa feet. This condition is contrary to what would normally be expected for the gravelly material shown on the drill log. Observations made at the time the resistivity data were taken indicate that this depth corresponded closely to the elevation of the water level of the river. In other words, it is thought probable that the decrease in resistivity values at this point was caused by a saturated condition cf the sand and gravel strata. Forty feet could then be taken as the upper limit of the water table at this point. The increase in slope at fifty feet and beyond clearly indicates that the current flow lines have entered a more resistant material such as bedrock. This corresponds closely with the depth to bedrock shown on the drill logs. Crays FERRY BRIDGE A number of different investigations were made on the Lexing- ton side of the Kentucky River at Clays Ferry Bridge. The line shown in Figure 4b was plotted from data taken between piers six and seven, twenty feet toward Lexington from the face of pier six, and along the line passing through the points where the cores shown in Figure 4b were taken. Measurements were made May 16, 1950. Weather was clear and soil moist. The center cores shown in the Figure were taken thirty feet apart. The outer cores were located fifteen feet on either side of the two center cores. 197 Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science | RESIOTIVITY CHa-7EET RL OIDTIVITY Onm—PaET 3 Ik | aBoe ANG = i Ei a sa isle B als : | | | YN OO AAA Bee ee = ~fEET ELECTROOE SPACIMNG-PEET ELECTRODE SPACING St =. + see Ho ae ae ee BOOMESBORO BRIDGE AY Figure 4a Figure 4b Cc Cc Figure 4a. Resistivity Measurements and Drill Core along Line A at Boones- boro Bridge, Ky. Figure 4b. Resistivity Measurements and Drill Core along Line A at Clays Ferry Bridge. The outer cores show eight to nine feet of sandy loam under- lain by brown sand and yellow clay to a depth of twenty-four to thirty-six feet below which there is sand and blue clay to a depth of forty-six feet. A sandy gravel is then noted which gives way to bedrock at about forty-eight to forty-nine feet. The center cores in F igure 4b show sixteen to eighteen feet of 198 Subsurface Earth Exploration By Electrical Resistivity Method sandy loam turning to a brown sand at about twenty-eight feet. This is underlain by blue clay and sand to about forty feet. Below this is coarse sand giving way to bedrock at forty-seven to forty- nine feet. This curve has been included to show some of the many pro- blems that may be encountered in a study of this type. First, it should be noted that there is a pocket of sand in the area covered by the center drill holes. The exact size and shape of this deposit are unknown. It is believed possible that this deposit of sand could have caused the peak in apparent resistivity values shown at an electrode spacing corresponding to a depth of sixteen feet. The erratic shape of this curve for electrode spacings from twenty-six to forty-two feet can possibly be attributed to the poor contact obtained with the current electrodes. At these electrode spacings, it was necessary to drive the current electrodes in an area which had been covered with rocky rubble used in backfilling around the pier. Between forty-two and fifty feet, the curve follows the pattern expected for a granular material underlain by bedrock. The de- crease in apparent resistivity values at this point is believed due to a solution channel. The presence of this channel is indicated by data from a core taken twenty feet toward the river on a line mid- way between the center cores shown in Figure 4b. The channel at that point was encountered at a depth of sixty-one feet. Drilling was discontinued at fifty feet on the cores shown on this figure which could explain why the channel is not shown. An extensive study is being made at this location in an at- tempt to obtain better correlation between the resistivity data and the usual conditions shown by the drill logs. CONCLUSIONS Inasmuch as this study is not yet complete and the data taken has been only partially analyzed, no broad or sweeping conclusions can be attempted. More field data are being taken and some of the 199 Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science other methods available for analyzing these data are being investi- gated. On the basis of the results to date, though, it is felt that the following conclusions are justified: 1. The amount of moisture present in the various soil strata encountered in this investigation was found to be the major factor influencing the resistivity of these materials. 2. The depth to bedrock can be ascertained with sufficient accuracy for general highway work. 3. By using this method in conjunction with properly located drill holes, it is possible to map the subsurface conditions of large areas at a saving of both time and money. 4. In the case of such a condition as illustrated in Figure 4b, this method can be used to direct core drilling operation in a man- ner that would insure drill holes being placed in the proper position to obtain the best survey of actual site conditions. For example, the resistivity data shown in Figure 4b indicate that another core should be taken midway between the two center cores in order to obtain a better idea of the shape of the sand pocket. Our data would also indicate that this core should be carried to a depth of at least sixty feet in order to investigate the possibility of a solution channel at this point. BIBLIOGRAPHY (1) Wenner, Frank, “Method of Measuring Earth Resistivity”, De- partment of Commerce Bureau of Standards, Scientific Paper pacar, JUGS), (2) Shepard, E. R., “Subsurface Exploration by Geophysical Me- thods”, 1949, ASTM Preprint. (3) Shepard, E. R., “Subsurface Exploration by the Earth Resis- tivity and Seismic Methods”, Public Roads, Vol. 16, +4, June 1935. (4) O. H. Gish and W. J. Rooney, Terrestrial Magnestism and Atmospheric Electricity, Vol. 30, pp. 161-187, December 1925, “Measurements of Resistivity of Large Masses of Undisturbed Earth”. 200 MAILING LIST TRANSACTIONS OF THE KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE is mailed to the following addresses by the University of Kentucky Library. 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AGT AS DD) EMG Ys ACE SAGE Eas THE 1950 FALL MEETING The University of Louisville was host to the thirty-sixth annual meeting of the KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE on Friday afternoon and Satur- day morning, October 27 and 28, 1950. The program for Friday afternoon, October 27, provided for conducted tours through various industrial plants in the Louisville area. Arrangments for the tours were handled by Dr. M. I. Bowman of the University of Louisville. The annual dinner of the ACADEMY was held Friday evening in the Seelbach hotel. High light of the dinner was an address delivered by Pro- fessor Anton J. Carleen of the University of Chicago on the subject, “Science and Society”. Professor Carlson was introducted ie Dr. Warren Rehm of the University of Louisville School of Medicine. Arrangments for the dinner and for the speaker were made by a committee, consisting of Dr. William Clay (Chairman), Dr. Paul Kolachoy and Dr. Richard Wiley. At the business meeting Saturday morning, October 28, officers were elected for the Academy year, 1950-1951. President: E. B. Penrod, University of Kentucky, Lexington. Vice President: M. C. Brockmann, Joseph E. Seagram & Sons, Inc., Louis- ville. Secretary: C. B. Hamann, Asbury College, Wilmore. Treasurer: R. H. Weaver, University of Kentucky, Lexington. Representative to the Council of the A.A.A.S.: Austin R. Middleton, Uni- versity of Louisville, Louisville. W. E. Blackburn of Murray State College and Paul Kolachov of Joseph E. Seagram & Sons, Inc., were elected to serve on the Board of Directors until 1954. Following the Saturday morning business meeting the various Divisions of the Academy met for the presentation of specialized papers and for the transaction of divisional business. The programs of the various Divisions are recorded as follows: MEDICAL TECHNOLOGY AND BACTERIOLOGY Mrs. Rose Conner, Presiding. “Metabolism of sodium in health and disease with a photometric method for its determination in biological fluids”. Mary Simonette, Nazareth College, Louisville. “The use of the flame photometer”. Jean Segar, Nichols General Hospital, Louisville. “A mycological study of a case of histoplasmosis in a three month old in- 208 Academy Affairs fant from Jessamine County Kentucky”. James T. McClellan, George H. Scherr and Margaret Hotchkiss, Lexington. “Standardization of dust extracts by biological methods”. Morton Reitman and Morris Scherago, University of Kentucky, Lexington. Role of vitamins in the oxidation of glucose and glycerol by Lactobacillus casei’. Mary M. Hardin, University of Kentucky, Lexington. “Antibiotic producing species of bacillus from water’. Theodore Bacter and R. H. Weaver, University of Kentucky, Lexington. “Comparison of the bacterial count on home and commercially packed frozen foods”. Leona Quigg and C. B. Hamann, Asbury College, Wilmore. The following were elected as officers of the Division of Medical Technology and Bacteriology for the year 1950-1951: Chairman: Dr. S. L. Adams, Joseph E. Seagram & Sons, Inc., Louisville. Secretary: Sister M. Simonette Savage, Nazareth College, Louisville. BIOLOGY William M. Clay, Presiding. “Report from the Seventh International Botanical Congress in Stockholn”. Arland Hotchkiss, University of Louisville, Louisville. “An ecological study of the microbenthic fauna of two Minnesota lakes”. Gerald A. Cole, University of Louisville, Louisville. “Notes on the vertical distribution of organ’sms in the profundal sediments of Douglas Lake, Michigan”. Gerald A. Cole, University of Louisville. Louisville. “An old case of gynandromorphism in Boros discicollis”. T. J]. Spilman, University of Louisville, Louisville. “Reptiles of Bullitt County, Kentucky”. Richard W. Allen, Louisville. “Amphibians of Bullett County, Kentucky”. Robert C. Cunningham, Louis- ville. “Multiplication of Bacterium tabacum in leaves of Nicoticna longiflora”. Stephen Diachum and Joseph Troutman, Kentucky Agricultural Experiment Station, Lexington. “Some X- and Gamma-radiation effects on peanuts”. J. S. Bangson, Berea College, Berea. The following were elected as officers of the Division of Biology for the year 1950-1951. Chairman: Dr. Gerald A. Cole, University of Louisville, Louisville. Secretary: Dr. Arland Hotchkiss, University of Louisville, Louisville. 209 Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science ENGINEERING E. B. Penrod, Presiding. “The relation of composition to the properties of hydraulic cement”. Eugene J. Wechter, Louisville Cement Company. “Performance of an earth heat pump operating intermittently on the cool- ing cycle”. R. C. Thorton and E. B. Penrod, University of Kentucky, Lexington. “New tools for processing vegetable oils”. Allen Bond, Votator Division, The Girdler Corporation, Louisville. “New techniques in the study of soils for engineering purposes”. James H. Havens, Kentucky Department of Highways, Lexington. “Emissivities of protective coatings’. W. R. Barnes, University of Louis- ville Institute of Industrial Research, Louisville. “Subsurface earth exploration by electrical resistivity method”. L. C. Pendley, University of Kentucky, Lexington. “Instruments and progress”. G. E. Smith, University of Kentucky, Lexington. The following were elected as officers of the Division of Engineering for the year 1950-1951: Chairman: Mr. L. X. Gregg, Department of Highways, Lexington. Secretary: Prof. Merl Baker, University of Kentucky, Lexington. CHEMISTRY T. C. Herndon, Presiding. “3-Methyl-2-Cyclohexene-l-one and derivatives”. M. I. Bowman and C. C. Ketterer, University of Louisville, Louisville. “Chromatography of amino acids on cellulose columns”. Forest G. Hous- ton, Kentucky Agricultural Experiment Station, Lexington. “The mechanism of action of certain sulfhydryl reagents on the cytochrome oxidase system”. M. Angelice Seibert, Ursuline College, Louisville and Cornelius W. Kreke, Institutium Divi Thomae, Cincinnati. “Effects of Staphlococcus aureus infections on blood and liver catalase in mice. I. Gasometric method”. Mary Adeline O'Leary, Virginia Heines, Rode- rick Juhasz, Rose Agnes Greenwell and Cornelius W. Kreke, Nazareth College Unit of Institutium Divi Thomae, Louisville. “The electrical conductance of solutions of ferric chloride in acetone at XN) araval ZO Ge Lyle R. Dawson and Ralph L. Belcher, University of Kentucky, Lexington. “The distribution of alkali iodides between ethylene glycol and ethyl acetate”. Lyle R. Dawson and Edward J. Griffith, University of Kentucky, Lexington. The tetra-hydroxy cobalt (II) ion as a qualitative test for cobalt”. Saul Gordon and James M. Schreyer, University of Kentucky, Lexington. The decomposition pH of the thio-anions of arsenic, antimony and iin”. 210 Academy Affairs G. L. Corley and Norma M. Woodward, University of Louisville, Louisville. “The free energy of copper chromate”. Sigfred Peterson and Orland W. Cooper, University of Louisville, Louisville. “Spectrophotometric studies of the composition of Lespedeza seed oil”. Richard H. Wiley, A. W. Cagle and Phil H. Wilken, University of Louisville, Louisville. “Improvement of soaps for GR-S polymerization. Retarding influence of multiple unsaturated acid soaps on the butadiene-styrene polymerization”. C. S. Marvel, University, of Illinois, Urbana; W. E. Blackburn, Murry State College, Murray; D. A. Shepherd, The Upjohn Co., Kalamazoo, Michigan; and J. A. Dammann, American Safety Razor Corp., Brooklyn, N.Y. The following were elected as officers of the Division of Chemistry for the year 1950-1951. Chairman: Sister M. Virginia Heines, Nazareth College & Academy, Nazareth. Secretary: Mr. Gerrit Levey, Berea College, Berea. THE 1951 SPRING MEETING The spring meeting of the Academy was initiated several years ago to provide field trips in regions of the Commonwealth which are of special interest to botanists, zoologists, geologists and others. The 1951 spring meet- ing was held at Morehead State College, Morehead, Kentucky, Friday and Saturday, April 27: and 28. The Friday afternoon program provided for re- gistration, refreshments served by the Home Economics Department, a con- ducted tour through the Lee Clay Products Company, and a short general meeting at which various field trips for Saturday were described. : At the dinner Friday evening, Dr. Warren C. Lappin, Dean and Acting President of Morehead State College gave a short address of welcome. Follow- ing dinner there were two addresses, “Related problems of water supply and sewage disposal” by Herman F. Dundberg, Chester Engineers, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania and “The science of color as seen by the physicist and the artist” by Tom Young of the Morehead State College Art Department. After the ad- dresses members of the Academy were invited to a dance in the college gymnasium. The Saturday schedule provided for the following conducted tours and field trips: Bird walk, tour of Lee Clay Products Company, tour of General Re- fractories at Olive Hill, trip to Carter Caves State Park, Forestry-Soil Conservation trip, scenic trip through Cumberland National Forest, trip to the Knob Licks area and a trip to Lochege. Arrangements for the meeting at Morehead State College were directed by Professor Fenton T. West of the Division of Science and Mathematics. Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science THE 1951 FALL MEETING The regular fall meeting of the Kentucky Academy of Science will be held on Friday and Saturday, October 26 and 27, 1951, at the University of Kentucky. OTHER NEWS Dr. M. C. Brockmann has resigned from the editorial staff of the TRANS- ACTIONS. He assisted, however, in editing the present issue and prepared the preceding portion of the “Academy Affairs” section. The Academy is deeply indebted to Dr. Brockmann for his excellent services as editor. William F. Savage, Assistant Professor of Mechanical Engineering at the University of Kentucky, has been appointed Associate Editor of the TRANS- ACTIONS. Manuscripts may be submitted either to Mr. Savage or to William M. Clay. The printing of the present issue of the TRANSACTIONS was delayed by mechanical difficulties which could not be avoided. These are not expected to recur, and papers which are received now should receive prompt publication. It is our intention to publish two numbers per year, each volume to consist of four numbers. Number 4 of the present volume will go to press as soon as a few more manuscripts are received. If you are preparing a paper for the fall meeting, let us have the manuscript as soon as possible. * oo Dr. Arland Hotchkiss, Secretary of the Biology Section, will spend the Academic year of 1951-52 on the staff of Robert College, Instanbul, Turkey. NOTICE TO CONTRIBUTORS The TRANSACTIONS OF THE KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE is a medium for publication of original investigations in science. In addition, as the official organ of the Kentucky Academy of Science, it publishes programs of the meetings of the Academy, abstracts of papers presented before the annual meetings, reports of the Academy’s officers and committees, as well as news and announce- ments of interest to the membership. Manuscripts may be submitted at any time to the editor: WiLuiaM M. Cray. Department of Biology, University of Louisville, Louisville, Kentucky Papers should be submitted typewritten, double-spaced, with wide margins, in an original and 1 carbon copy, on substantial quality paper. Articles are ac- cepted for publication with the understanding that they are to be published exclusively in the TRANSACTIONS. Each paper will be reviewed by one or more persons qualified in the field covered by article in addition to the editors before a contribution is accepted for publication. Bibliographic citations should follow textual material (except in Research Notes, see later). Abbreviations for the names of periodicals should follow the current system employed by either Chemical Abstracts or Biological Abstracts. Bibliographic citations in Research Notes should be in the same form as for longer papers but enclosed in parentheses within the text of the note. Footnotes should be avoided. Titles must be clear and concise, and provide for precise and accurate cataloging. Tables and illustrations are expensive, and should be included in an article only to give effective presentation of the data. Articles with an excessive number of tables or illustrations, or with poorly arranged or executed tables or illustrations may be returned to the author for modification. ‘Textual material should be in clear, brief and condensed form in order for a maximum amount of material to be published. Reprints must be ordered at the time galley proof is returned. The following individuals, educational institutions and industrial organiza- tions have subscribed to one or more sustaining memberships in the KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE. Borgerding, Walter L., General Distillers Corporation of Kentucky, Louis- ville, Kentucky. Cedar Bluff Stone Company, Inc., Princetia: Kentucky. Centre College, Danville, Kentucky. Corhart Refractories Company, Louisville, Kentucky. Eastern Kentucky State College Library, Richmond, Kentucky. Devoe and Raynolds Company, Inc., Louisville, Kentucky. DeSpain, T. H., Southern Textile Machinery Company, Paducah, Kentucky. Eve Printing Company, Inc., Louisville, Kentucky. B. F. Goodrich Chemical Company, Louisville, Kentucky. Kentucky Brewers Association (10), Louisville, Kentucky. Kolachoy, Paul, Joseph E. Seagram & Sons, Inc., Louisville, Kentucky. Lee Clay Products Company, Inc. (2), Clearfield, Kentucky. Louisville Free Public Library, Louisville, Kentucky. Medley Distilling Company, Owensboro, Kentucky. Mileti, Otto J., The Mileti Company, Inc., Louisville, Kentucky. Morehead State College, Johnson Camden Library, Morehead, Kentucky. Murray State College, Murray, Kentucky. Old Joe Distillery Company, Lawrenceburg, Kentucky. Perkins, George, Reynolds Metals Company, Louisville, Kentucky. Scofield, E. H. Joseph E. Seagram & Sons, Inc., Louisville, Kentucky. Skirvin, J. B., General Refractories Company, Olive Hill, Kentucky. Smith, L. A., Joseph E. Seagram & Sons, Inc., Louisville, Kentucky. Spanyer, William, Brown-Forman Distillers Corp., Louisville, Kentucky. Stallings, E. M. Joseph E. Seagram & Sons, Inc., Louisville, Kentucky. Union College, Abigal E. Weeks Memorial Library, Barbourville, Kentucky. F506. 73 meres K-37 ~ Volume 13 August, 19 TRANSACTIONS of the KENTUCKY ACADEMY of SCIENCE Official Organ KEentTucKy ACADEMY OF SCIENCE CONTENTS Preparation of Acylaminoacid Esters. Richard H. Wiley and wo aS 8 INN SS GI oa Ne RE 213 Di SD ev nate Ee ROO ee) CDSs BG a ON GT ER ES thay eg A ee eo ce 215 Electrical Conductances of Moderately Concentrated Solutions of Several Salts in Dimethylformamide. L. R. Dawson, M, Golben, G. R. Leader, and H. K. Zimmerman ........................ 221 Structure and Function of the Mature Glands on the Petals of Frasera carolinensis. P. A. Davies -.......220....cc.c.2c2cccccceccecccccceeseseneeee 228 Performance of a Domestic Heat Pump Water Heater. E, B. ER EG ac a alO) ICE Sao eo Sa CRE Cl Pe 235 Comparison of Electron and Optical Photomicrographs of a Cop- per-beryllium Alloy. H. W. Maynor, Jr., C. J. McHargue, RR MURAI ie ar ica nance boro SPY teh. teen tnscmecenseanenesoweesecwnes 248 Structural Settlement Computations. John E. Heer, Jr. ...00002000020...... 258 Preparation of 1-xylyl-1, 3-butanediones using Diketene. Reedus may, betes and Albert. Tockman’ ~2...2.-.......2..-....220:....ccccccccenseeees 265 A Look at Kentucky Woodlands. Eugene Cypert, Jr. -..000.000020220002..... 270 Geological Sketch of the Jackson Purchase. E. B. Wood .................... 275 Adsorption of Aliphatic Acids on a Weak Base Anion Exchanger. Sigfred Peterson and Robert W. Jeffers —........000000000000 ue. 277 Research Notes: An Albino Snake (Elaphe obsoleta), William M, Clay .......... 285 BT ES 8 ESC ST SAE A EN Sa a 286 PPT YE TS PIER ESR 8 a Sa ag a 288 “KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE OFFICERS AND DIRECTORS, 1951-1952 President _ President-Elect H. B. Lovett, 4 THoMAS HERNDON, University of Louisville, Eastern Kentucky State College, Louisville Richmond Past President Vice-President E. B. PENROD, Won. B. OwsLey, University of Kentucky, Morehead State College, Lexington Morehead Secretary Treasurer C. B. HAMANN, R. H. WEAVER, Asbury College, University of Kentucky, Wilmore Lexington Reresentative to the Council Counselor to the Junior of the AAAS, Academy of Science Austin R. MImpLeTon, ANNA A. SCHNEIB, University of Louisville, Eastern Kentucky State College, Louisville Richmond EDITORIAL STAFF Editor Wn. M. Cray, University of Louisville, Louisville Associate Editors Bacteriology and Medical Technology Chemistry SisteER Mary SIMEONETTE, *SIGFRED PETERSON, Nazareth College, University of Louisville, Louisville Louisville Biology Engineering H. H. LaFuze, *Wm. R. SAVAGE, Eastern Kentucky State College, University of Kentucky, Richmond Lexington Directors Jos S-SBANGSON SS 52 cet Se a eile cere ee eee to 1955 Msc Ds VD ART AAR ie PAN ey A et SOT a eR I Voge aN a to 1955 Wits BUACKBURN 62 au sale Rae S80 oes ith 5e HA a ere ee a en a to 1954 BAUT KOUAGCH OVE er ots CS ete ee ote ge EL tees Oe en a fe to 1954 Wire RAINE NIO ORR oo eh ees cts tee ese vatete Si A tu cg oe aa to 1953 MARY Hc WHARTON: 200 bi he ORR aie cco AEN RSE faces Neaaaiia cane neta aaa am to 19538 ALFRED‘ BRAUER] 2462550 AB Ue ENG ia CLES UR eae a rE Dnt a oa | Se a to 1952 Wianb Br. “SUMPTER Aon Soe ibaa Ais ie, St Bi a di alpen to 1952 The TRANSACTIONS are issued semiannually. Four numbers constitute a volume. Domestic subscription, $2.00 per volume, foreign, $2.50 per volume. Correspondence concerning membership in the Academy, subscriptions or other business matters should be addressed to the secretary. Manuscripts and other material for publication should be addressed to the editors. * Resigned Fer NERA AIR PREPARATION OF ACYLAMINOACID ESTERS Richard H. Wiley® and Olin H. Borum Ethyl esters of acetylglyci:e and acetylleucine are prepared by azeotropic distillation procedure There are a variety of methods available for the preparation of a-acylaminoacid esters, RCONHCHR’CO.R”. This report is based on a study of relative advantages of these methods and describes a preferred procedure for preparation of these esters. A review of the literature has shown that acetylglycine ethyl ester has been prepared by the action of ethyl iodide on the silver salt of acetylglycine (1); by passing dry hydrogen chloride into an alcholic suspension of acetylglycine (2); by heating glycine ethyl ester hydrochloride on the water bath with acetic anhydride and sodium acetate with (3) or without (4) copper sulfate; by the ac- tion of acetyl chloride on a suspension of glycine ethyl ester hydro- chloride in boiling benzene on the water bath (3); and by the ac- tion of ketene on glycine ethyl ester (5). Esters of other acylamino acids have been prepared by a simultaneous acetylation-esterifica- tion which takes place on treating the sodium salt of the amino acid in ethyl alcohol with acetic anhydride (6,7). The method described in this report is an adaptation of the azeotropic distillation procedure used for other esterifications (8,9). It is preferred to esterification by the ethanol-hydrogen chloride me- thod (2) which must be carefully controlled to prevent removal of the N-acyl radical. Preparation of Acetylglycine ethyl ester (Aceturic acid ethyl ester). In a 1-]. round-bottomed flask are placed 58.5 g. (0.5 moles) of acetylglycine (10), 200 cc. of carbon tetrachloride (319 g., 2.08 moles), 200 cc. (157.8 g., 3.42 moles) of absolute alcohol and 2g. of sulfosalicylic acid. Ordinary commercial absolute alcohol testing by specific gravity to be between 99.5 and 100% is used. During refluxing and distillation the system is protected from the atmos- phere by means of a calcium chloride tube. The mixture is refluxed slowly for one hour and thirty minutes over an open-coil resistance heater. At the end of this time about 200 cc. of solvent are distilled slowly from the mixture through a 36-inch vertical column. An apparatus similar to one previously described (9) is used, except that the arm provided for return of condensate to the reaction flask is omitted. A * Present address: Department of Chemistry, University of Louisville, Louisville, Kentucky. This report is a contribution from the Venable Chemical Labora- tory of the University of North Carolina. Inquiries may be addressed to this author. 213 Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science 36-inch condenser serves as a reflux condenser at first and later as a fractionat- ing column. A thermometer at the top of the column shows that the mixture starts to distill at about 63° and the temperature then rises slowly to 78°. The round-bottomed flask is placed about one to two inches above the heating coil which is regulated by a variable transformer for the slow refluxing and distilla- tion. One hundred cc. each of carbon tetrachloride and absolute alcohol are added and the mixture refluxed again for one hour, after which about 175 cc. are slowly removed by distillation through the column as above. The same amount of solvent mixture is added again, refluxed, and finally distilled until about 200 cc. of solution remain. During this period all of the acetylglycine dissolves. Until this time the acetylglycine is suspended in the reaction mixture. The clear remaining solution is then transferred to a 250-cc. Claisen distill- ing flask. The carbon tetrachloride and alcohol are removed at reduced pres- sure and then 62g. (85%) of acetylglycine ethyl ester of b.p. 124°-130° at 2-4imm are collected with the oil bath at 150°-180°. Toward the end of the distillation the bath is kept below 180° to prevent volatization of the catalyst. No attempt is made to remove the catalyst by washing prior to distillation be- -cause of difficulty in isolating the water soluble ester. The ester solidifies to hygroscopic solid, m.p. 47°-49°. Preparation of Acetylleucine ethyl ester. This ester is prepared by a similar procedure except that the heating period is lengthened to seven hours. From 60.3 g. of acetylleucine, prepared by the method of Karrer, Escher, and Widmer (11), there is obtained 61.5 g., 87.5%, of acetylleucine ethyl ester, b.p. 113°-120° at 2.5-3.5 mm. with the bath at 135°-145°. The ester solidifies to a solid, m.p. 55.5°-57.5°. LITERATURE CITED J. Curtis, Ber 17, 1672 (1884). 2. Radenhausen, J. Prakt. Chem. [2] 52, 4388 (1895). 3. Curtius, J. Prakt. Chem. [2] 94, 116 (1916). 4. Cherbuliez and Plattner, Helv. Chim. Acta 12, 322 (1929). 5. Bergmann, Chem. Zentr. 1928, I, 2663; German Patent 453,577; Frdl. 16, 237. 6. Ashley and Harington Biochem. J., 23, 1178 (1929). 7. DuVigneaud and Meyer, J. Biol. Chem. 99, 143 (1932-33). 8. Kendall and McKenzie, Organic Syntheses, Coll. Vol. I, 247 (1941). 9. Clarke and Davis, Organic Syntheses, Coll. Vol. I, 262 (1941). 10. Herbst and Shemin, Organic Syntheses, Coll. Vol. II, 11 (1943). ll. Karrer, Escher, and Widmer, Helv. Chim. Acta 9, 322 (1926). 214 ANIMAL HABITATS ON BIG BLACK MOUNTAIN IN KENTUCKY Roger W. Barbour Department of Zoology, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky Between 1939 and 1948 I camped over four months in Harlan County, Kentucky, making a study of the mammals, reptiles, and amphibians of Big Black Mountain. This mountain, the highest point in Kentucky, reaches a maximum elevation of 4150 feet above sea level. It lies largely in Harlan County, Kentucky, but occupies a portion of adjacent Wise County, Virginia. The majority of data were collected within a four-mile radius of the summit of the mountain, centering at a point designated “Grassy Gap” on the United States Geological Survey Estillville sheet. Collections made elsewhere in the region are so indicated. It is my purpose to herein present a classification of the animal habitats of the mountain, with notes on the occurrence of mammalian, reptilian, and amphibian species therein. The area under consideration has been, and still is, subjected to intensive logging operations. The trees are being cut indiscrimi- nately, with little apparent regard for young timber. In removing the timber, expediency rather than wise use seems to be the dominating factor. Such logging operations undoubtedly influence the fauna of the area and will continue to influence the animal population for years to come as the normal succession following logging operations takes place. No intensive study of the habitats was undertaken, except as they influenced animal distribution. Braun (1940) made a thorough ecological study (from a botanical standpoint) of a transect of Black Mountain in adjacent Letcher County, Kentucky. For my purposes, I have grouped the animal habitats of Big Black Mountain into six general categories, each with numerous sub- divisions. A clear-cut delineation of the habitats of the area is im- possible; frequently one habitat grades imperceptibly into another. More often a single habitat may be classified under two or more 215 Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science divisions, depending on the individual point of view. These divisions and subdivisions are discussed below. 1. Aquatic. Aquatic habitats of the area are divisible into two Inajor groups: standing water, as rain pools, and running water. The latter may be further divided into springs and streams. The streams, on the basis of size, may be divided into brooks and creeks. The latter two classifications grade insensibly into each other. Rain pools are common about the summit of the mountain: one puddle in a logging road was known to contain water continuously from June 4 to September 1, 1948. These puddles were extensively used as breeding pools by Bufo americanus americanus, Bufo wood- housii fowleri, Hyla v. versicolor, and Pseudacris brachyphona. A snapping turtle (Chelydra s. serpentina) was taken from one of them. At least seven springs occur within a radius of two miles of the summit of the mountain; each of them that formed a pool support- ed one or more Rana clamitans. One could always find Desmogna- thus fuscus welteri about the springs. Pseudacris brachyphona was known to breed in the largest spring. Nearly every cove about the summit of the mountain gave rise to a small but apparently permanent stream. These small, swift streams supported an abundance of salamanders, largely Desmogna- thus fuscus welteri, along their margins. The creeks in the lower valleys were not so rich in salamanders as the brooks, but supported a considerable population of frogs and toads, largely Rana catesbeiana, Rana clamitans, Bufo woodhousii fowleri, and Hyla v. versicolor. Natrix sipedon was abundant in the larger streams, but rare in the smaller tributaries. 2. Low Vecetation. This habitat comprises fields covered mostly with herbaceous vegetation. Extensive areas of this sort are found about the summit of the mountain. Some of these are largely in grass; others clothed with a mixture of Lysimachia quadrifolia, Fra- garia virginiana, and Potentilla simplex; still others support practically pure stands of ferns, largely Osmunda cinnamomea, Dryopteris nove- boracensis, and Dennstaedtia punctilobula. The origin of these fields is obscure. They have been cultivated 216 Animal Habitats On Big Black Mountain In Kentucky in past years when the mountain top was inhabited by man. Old res- idents informed me the fields had been there when they were chil- dren. At the present time, trees are beginning to appear, although most are still small. Possibly, these areas are comparable to the “balds” in the Great Smokies. As far as small mammals are concerned, these fields are practi- cally deserts. The edges are fairly rich in species, largely of the genera Peromyscus, Clethrionomys, Blarina, and Sorex, but only Synap- tomys was caught near the middle of the fields. Of the amphibians and reptiles, Bufo americanus americanus, Bufo woodhousii fowleri, Diadophis punctatus edwardsii, Coluber c. constrictor, and Thamno- phis s. sirtalis occurred frequently in the fields. In fields at lower elevations (obviously cleared), Carphophis a. amoena, Diadophis punctatus edwardsii, Lampropeltis t. triangulum, Storeria occipitomaculata, and Thamnophis s. sirtalis were taken as well as Pseudotriton montanus diastictus, Bufo americanus americanus, and Bufo woodhousii fowleri. All were taken from beneath stones with the exception of a large milk snake which was found in a weed patch near a pile of stones. 3. BRUSHLAND. This general habitat comprises areas in which the dominant species are shrubby. Areas of small individuals - of tree species are treated under the subsequent divisions. The brushland habitat, as defined above, may be subdivided into three groups, on the basis of the dominant species. a. Crataegus - Vaccinium - Rhododendron cumberlandense. These three genera are dominant in several once-open areas about the sum- mit of the mountain. These areas support a curious admixture of species from the beech - birch - maple and oak - hickory - chestnut as- sociations treated below. This habitat is perhaps the least well de- fined on the mountain. Sorex cinereus, Sorex fumeus, Peromyscus maniculatus nubiterrae, Peromyscus leucopus noveboracensis, and Clethrionomys gapperi maurus, among others, were taken from this habitat. Amphibians and reptiles are scarce in this habitat, although one Hyla crucifer was taken here. b. Rhododendron maximum. This species occupies extensive areas along the lower reaches of the mountain streams. In places, the 217 Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science growth extends upward along the stream to an elevation of about 3600 feet. c. Kalmia - Vaccinium. Some areas, where logging has been heavy, support practically pure stands of these two genera. In such areas, a few dead chestnuts remain standing; the ground is littered with decaying tree tops. According to natives, a little “red rabbit” is found only in such areas. A specimen of this “red rabbit” proved to be Sylvilagus transitionalis. 4. WoopLanp. Included in this habitat are those areas clothed with tree species; three subtypes are recognized, as follows: a. Beech - birch- maple. This association is apparently the cli- max forest of the upper, more humid, slopes of the mountain. Al- though occupying extensive areas above 3000 feet on the northern exposures, on the south slopes this habitat extends no lower than _ 8500 feet, and reaches this elevation only in densely shaded valleys. Few stands of virgin timber are left, and these seldom occupy more than a few acres. Here, the forest floor is relatively clean; there are few low woody plants, and the herbaceous plants are for the most part low. Humus ranges up to eight inches in depth, and is continually moist. even in the dryest seasons. Here is to be found perhaps a greater assemblage of mammalian species than in any other area of the mountain. When logged over, most of this area grew up again to the same woody species, with less beech and an admixture of oak and hickory. In places, these species, along with Rubus canadensis, Smilax rotundi- folia, and Pyrularia pubera form an almost impenetrable thicket. With continuous logging operations over the years, practically every stage of growth is represented. b. Oak - hickory - chestnut. This association clothes most of the lower slopes and extends up the drier areas to the very summit of the mountain. All the larger chestnuts have long since died, while most of the larger oaks have been removed. For a number of years, logging operations in the area were largely confined to removal of the dead chestnuts for mine timbers, but the remaining naked boles are still a conspicuous part of the landscape. In such areas, the woody species that have established themselves after logging are 218 Animal Habitats On Big Black Mountain In Kentucky predominantly oaks, hickories, and chestnut stump sprouts. Many other plants are abundant, among them Acer, Tilia, Rubus, Smilax, Kalmia, Vitis, and Vaccinium. These thickets form dense tangles. In some areas, logging has been remote enough for sufficient growth of the trees to occur to eliminate much of the rank undergrowth. In such areas, particularly at the lower elevations, there is a well marked growth of Liriodendron, Oxydendron, Robinia, and Cornus. From about 2400 to 3000 feet, particularly on southern exposures, a large part of this association supports a rank growth of Vitis. Along the highway on the Virginia (south) side of the mountain, these plants have vined vigorously into the tops of the trees and form a veritable canopy over the forest floor. Natives report that the opos- sum (Didelphis v. virginiana) is largely confined to this “grape belt.” However, I took one specimen near the summit of the mountain, considerably above this region. In other areas at lower elevations, Smilax enters as a conspicuous part of the flora, vining 30 to 40 feet into the trees. In this habitat alone was Peromyscus nuttalli found. c. Liriodendron. About the base of the mountain, at elevations ranging from 1800 to 2500 feet, regardless of exposure, are isolated areas consisting of practically pure stands of Liriodendron tulipifera. These areas have been logged over in the past, and the majority of the trees in the present stand vary from six to 14 inches in diameter breast high. Here the forest floor is relatively free of undergrowth. Blarina and Peromyscus are the most abundant mammalian genera in these areas. 5. Rocxianp. Herein are grouped those regions where exten- sive areas of bedrock are exposed, and jumbles of rock occur. Such places are rare on Black Mountain; those that do occur support Neotoma, Peromyscus, Clethrionomys, Sceloporus, and Crotalus. On Pine Mountain, however, exposed bedrock is a very conspicuous part of the terrain. The little collecting done there, just north of Cumberland, Harlan County, Kentucky, revealed only Neotoma and Aneides. 6. Man-MapE. In this category are grouped such works of man as buildings, roads, fences, orchards, and the like. Buildings shelter- ed Rattus and Mus, as well as various species of bats. Roads, especi- ally little used ones, proved an extremely fertile field for collection 219 Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science of amphibians and reptiles. Fences harbored Sceloporus and Eumeces. A single old orchard, located at the summit of the mountain, was examined briefly in 1939; at that time it proved to be a veritable desert, as far as amphibians, reptiles, and mammals were concerned. CONCLUSIONS The two most extensive habitats on the mountain are the beech - birch - maple and oak - hickory - chestnut subdivisions of the woodland group. The majority of mammalian species occurring on the moun- tain may be found most abundantly in these two habitats. Qualita- tively, there is little difference in the mammals of the two areas, but extensive trapping revealed that individuals were approximately three times as abundant in the beech - birch - maple regions as in the oak - hickory - chestnut habitat. Reptiles were most abundant, both in number of species and number of individuals in habitats herein classed as man-made. The edges of litile-used logging roads were the most fruitful collecting areas. This situation was undoubtedly due to several factors, among which might well be the exposing of rocks suitable for cover; the creation of woodland edges, affording two adjacent types of hunt- ing territory; and the drying out of a narrow strip through an other- wise moist woodland. Amphibians were most abundant, from the standpoint of in- dividuals, along streams and about springs and puddles. However, as many species were found in the beech - birch - maple subdivision of the woodland habitat, as in areas classed as aquatic. Several species found only in wooded areas are known to breed in water, hence the occurrence of a given species in a certain habitat is dependent, among other things, upon the time of year. At the present time, mining operations on the mountain are exposing extensive areas of bare soil. The effects of this wholesale destruction of the present-day habitats in the area are undoubtedly profound. Whether or not the operations will continue to the point of destroying the only known habitats in Kentucky for such animals as Sorex c. cinereus, Blarina brevicauda churchi, Mustela v. vision, Clethrionomys gapperi maurus, and Napaeozapus insignis roanensis, is a matter for the future. LITERATURE CITED 1. Braun, E. Lucy. 1940. An ecological transect of Black Mountain, Kentucky. Ecol. Monogr., 10 (2): 193-241. 290 ELECTRICAL CONDUCTANCES OF MODERATELY CONCENTRATED SOLUTIONS OF SEVERAL SALTS IN DIMETHYLFORMAMIDE* L. R. Dawson, M. Golben, G. R. Leader and H. K. Zimmerman, Jr. Department of Chemistry, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky Dimethylformamide combines the properties of a wide liquid range (1), good solvent power for inorganic salts, and fairly high dielectric constant (measurements in this labor: atory have shown the dielectric constant to be 36.7 at 25°). Consequently, it appears to have considerable promise as a solvent which may be used for elec- trolytic studies in the nonaqueous field. Reported here are the results of a study of the conducting properties of some solutions of magnesium and zinc iodides, magnesium, zinc and cadmium bromides, and silver perchlorate, all of which were found to be quite soluble in this solvent even at low temperatures. EXPERIMENTAL Dimethylformamide supplied by the du Pont company was used after puri- fication by fractional distillation under reduced pressure (specific conductance, 1.83 x 10-6 at 25°). The salts used were the best available commercial an- hydrous grade with the exception of the silver perchlorate, which was prepared from silver oxide and perchloric acid according to the method described by Hill (2) and dried at 110°C. Weighed amounts of each salt were added to weighed quantities of solvent, all transfers being made in a dry box. The final concentration of the perchlorate was confirmed by titration with standard thiocyanate solution. Conductance measurements were made with a standard Wheatstone Bridge assembly, with temperatures being adjusted by means of a manually controlled bath consisting of a dry ice-acetone mixture contained in a one-gallon Dewar flask. Two Washburn-type conductance cells, having constants of 0.072 and 0.012 were used. The cell constants were determined by the Jones and Brad- shaw (3) method. Because of the low specific conductance of the dimethylfor- mamide no solvent correction was necessary. * Based on research performed under contract No. w36-039-sc-32265 for the U. S. Army Signa! Corps. bo bo — Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Table 1. Conductance of Solutions of Various Salts in Dimethylformamide Conductancest at the Temperatures: Molality 20° 0° == ()2 —40° —50° Magnesium Bromide 0.00725 2.86 (326) 1.78 (246) 1.29 (178) 0.727 0.0434 6.56 (151) 4.40 (102) 2.86 (65.9) 1.40 0.104 7.27 (69.8) 4.26 (40.9) 2.19 (21.0) 0.800 0.132 6:67 (50:5) 3.25 (246) 1.57 (10.9) 0.450 (100) 0.572 (79.1) (32.2) 0.976 (22.6) (7.68) 0.334 (3.20) (3.41) 0.183 (1.01) Magnesium Iodide OONOSH A371 Se nC S62) e285; (276) 2.025 (196)) 29 i C125) ee nORSGremtoce op) OLOAOO P2904 C226) 6:54 (GES 4255) (CLOG) 2224 (5610) lea aan C3 aE49) ONO Oy CCA GCSE CGE) BOM (ROCIO (OS OR (44.98) OOS CQ. (00) VB MOUS) OL2S GIs). OMG 2 eta (2626) OLGA (ALONE = a Z 03020 pie OO (2552)) ey 189 39n(6:39))aaee * # Zinc Bromide 0.0146 1.00 (68.5) 1.01 (69.1) 0.871 (59.7) 0.599 (41.0) 0.472 (82.4) O:0588i338" 7(o7125)) 32298) (498) 2-20) (37-4) 120) (20:4) ee OLS a Glsss)) OMOM RA ASibs (418) ECLOSm (So Ete (215) 1209) 5 C1022) Oss 9S Garaas) ONAAI Al OSke (82:5 yio eat le) ST CSO) -O:667 14:68) ee Oe2 Glam Gla sop) Zinc Iodide CO OHEAO Es Tigo (abet IBS OO) ae Cie ieat Oaxe) ILS}. (TULL) 0:0440) 3:64 (82:9) 3:28 (74.6) 2:72 (61.9). 1.95 (44:4) Ab G33:0)) 0.0789)" 276. (60:4) (3:81 (48:3) 2:72) (84:5), | 1525-1923) 20:9 la Glele sy) O10) 35:00 (45:4) 3:84" (34.9) 25385) C214) 002 39:09) O74 Ol ecto) Cadmium Bromide 125) 01532" (GEA Ol367 1 (63:0) SN) AGS (L083) hey! = 0) 54.8) 3.54 (87.9) 1.99 (21.3) 0.880 39.9) 3.19 ce AL Mase, CDS) 0.00583 0.727 ( 8) 0.148 (25.4) 0.0408 3.32 ( ( ( 34 19.6) 0.625 (15.3) 9.42) 0.506 (5.41) 4.65) 0.304 (2.52) 0.0934 5.12 0.121 4.83 Silver Perchlorate 0.208 16" (55.8) Ser. (407) 5.57 (2618). 3.6 (5.0) onSamalors) 0580" 20:5 (38.7) 14.4 (272) 853 (161) 454 (856) 93.28) (Garo) 01945 7° 241 (5.5) 15.6 (165) 853 (9.01) 361 (3.82) soe 0p) VIO) 2Sou (ote). * # ® 8 tSpecific conductances (x 10?) are given followed by “molal” conductances in parentheses. *Conductance not measured either because part of the solute precipitated or because of extremely high viscosity. 222 Electrical Conductances of Moderately Concentrated Solutions 0.02 0.04 0.06 0:08 0.10 O12 0.14 MOLALITY FIGURE |. CONDUCTANCE ISOTHERMS FOR SOLUTIONS OF Mg Br, IN DIMETHYLFORMAMIDE 270 240 210 180 Am 150 loa) 120 AN 90 60 30 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 010 012 0.14 MOLALITY FIGURE 2. CONDUCTANCE ISOTHERMS FOR SOLUTIONS OF Mglz IN DIMETHYLFORMAMIDE 270 240 240 210 180 I5O Am 120 994 90 60 30 ——$— pontine ETE TS “0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 010 01 Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science x) fo) 2 0.14 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 010 O12 0.14 MOLALITY MOLALITY FIGURE 5. CONDUCTANCE ISOTHERMS FOR FiGURE 4. CONDUGTANGE ISOTHERMS FOR SOLUTIONS OF Zn Bro IN DIMETHYLFORMAMIDE SOLUTIONS OF Zn Ip IN DIMETHYLFORMAMIDE Electrical Conductances of Moderately Concentrated Solutions Of O4706 Car io Viz MOLALITY FIGURE 6. CONDUCTANCE ISOTHERMS FOR SOLUTIONS OF Ag CLOq IN DIMETHYLFORMAMIDE 0.02 0.04 0:06 0.08 0.10 O12 0.14 MOLALITY FIGURE 5. CONDUCTANCE ISOTHERMS FOR SOLUTIONS OF Cd Bro IN DIMETHYLFORMAMIDE Ye) AN Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science Since the nature of the dissociation of unsymmetrical salts in di- methylformamide is uncertain, “molal” conductances have been cal- culated and the conductance isotherms plotted in Figures 1 to 6. It may be observed that for magnesium bromide and silver perchlorate the conductance decreases uniformly with increasing concentration, the data showing no particular irregularities. The data for zinc iodide show similar behavior, but, in addition, there occurs a pronounced maximum in the conductance isosyst at 0.012 molal; thus there is a negative temperature coefficient of conductance over a part of the range studied. Evidence of the same type of behavior may be ob- served in the 0.0146 molal isosyst for zinc bromide also. The molal conductance isotherms for magnesium iodide, zinc iodide and cadmium bromide all display departures from the smoothly dropping curves which were obtained for the first two salts. For magnesium iodide this break occurs at about 0.11 molal and is pro- ‘nounced. Probably this phenomenon is due to a viscosity effect, since although magnesium iodide was found to be the most soluble of the salts in the halide group, its more concentrated solutions were ex- tremely viscous. It is to be noted that for this salt, the effect appears to persist at all the temperatures studied, and therefore may be the result of a marked change in the nature of the particles participating in viscous flow. The irregularity for the zinc bromide solutions oc- curs at a much lower concentration (about 0.04 molal) and appears only at the higher temperatures. Thus, it would seem that its primary cause is not to be found in the viscosity influence. Similar behavior has been reported from this laboratory (4) for solutions for zine chlo- ride and bromide in methanol, which appears most likely to be the result of changes in the degree of complex formation between zinc and halide ions. It should be remarked also that silver perchlorate in dimethylfor- mamide apparently is not a stable system as is shown by the ap- pearance of a dark deposit in the solutions upon standing. The reac- tion was slow, however, and appeared not to influence appreciably the results of the measurements. SUMMARY 1. Conductances of solutions of silver perchlorate, magnesium, zinc and cadmium bromides, and magnesium and zine iodides in dime- 226 Electrical Conductances of Moderately Concentrated Solutions thylformamide have been determined at concentrations ranging from 0.005 to 0.50 molal over the temperature range -50° to 20°. 2. Evidences of unexpected changes in the nature of the solute par- ticles at low concentrations and of behavior probably resulting from various solvent effects have been obtained. LITERATURE CITED Ruhoff, J. R. and Reid, E. E., J. Am. Chem. Soc., 59, 401 (1937). Hill, A. E., J. Am. Chem. Soc., 43, 254 (1921). Jones, G. and Bradshow, B. C., J. Am. Chem. Soc., 55, 1780 (1933). ee Oe ae Dawson, L. R., Tockman, A., Zimmerman, H. K. Jr., and Leader, G. R., J. Am. Chem. Soc., 73, 4327 (1951). STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF THE MATURE GLANDS ON THE PETALS OF FRASERA CAROLINENSIS P. A. Davies Department of Biology, University of Louisville, Louisville 8, Ky. On numerous occasions while on botanical field excursions, the writer has observed bumble bees actively working on the flowers of American Columbo, Frasera (Swertia) carolinensis. Although other insects were occasionally observed clinging to or resting upon the flowers, the bumble bee appears to be the only insect obtaining nec- tar from the flowers. Frasera carolinensis is widely distributed in Kentucky. This biennial or triennial is usually found in oak-hickory habitats on dry hillsides. It can be easily identified during the winter by a basal rosette of large leaves. During the spring and early summer a single stem 9-21 dm. (3-7 ft.) high develops and produces at the apex during July and August a paniculate, many-flowered inflores- cence from 1.5 to 6 dm. long. The flowers range from 1.5 to 3 cm. broad and the floral parts, except for the two-carpillate ovary, are arranged in fours (fig. 1). On the mid-vein of each yellowish- white petal, about one-third the distance from its base, is a large oval, fringed nectariferous gland 3.3-3.9 mm. long, 3.0-3.3 mm. wide, and, including the wall processes, 3.2-4.2 mm. high. This is the gland visited by the bumble bees and is the subject of this paper. A search through the literature has yielded but one reference on the floral morphology of Frasera carolinensis. McCoy (1940), in his studies on the floral organogenesis of this plant, has considered in detail the early structural development of the gland. He found that the glandular tissue arose in the adaxial subepidermal layer at the base of the petal. Periclinal divisions continue in this area until seven or eight cell layers are formed. This disk of adaxial derivatives forms the secretory tissue. Periclinal divisions in the glandular disk continue at its periphery to form the wall of the glandular cup. With periclinal divisions in the lower wall ceasing, and with divisions in different planes continuing in the upper part of the wall, the nume- rous wall processes are produced. These form the top of the gland 228 Mature Glands On The Petals of Frasera Carolinensis and cover the apical opening. Mature glands, which McCoy did not describe in detail, exhibit structures different from those us- ually found in entomophilous glands and so should be of interest to students of floral morphology. FIG. I Figure 1. Floral arrangement and the position of the glands. External features of a gland (fig. 2) show that the basal por- tion of the gland wall is solid and extends 0.3-0.4 mm. above the sur- face of the petals. Above the solid portion the gland wall splits into numerous sections. Each section divides and re-divides frequently several times resulting in a mat of hair-like processes which plug the apical opening. The wall processes, as they mature, become sclerified and rigid. Bumble bees work along the sides of the glands, indicating that it is easier for the tongue to be pushed through the 229 Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science wall crevices than to penetrate the closely matted sclerenchymous _ wall processes which plug the apical opening. Each gland is supplied by branches from the mid-vein and several small lateral ones. Vascular tissue extends into the base and walls of the gland but does not penetrate into the secreting area. \ \ | \ SOG FIG. 2 Figure 2. External features of a gland and the vascular supply to it. 230 Mature Glands On The Petals of Frasera Carolinensis Observations on the inner part of a gland (fig. 3) show that the solid lower walls and the nearly flat floor formed by the modi- fied upper surface of the petal produce a large cavity or well. That part of the petal beneath the gland floor is slightly thickened and the secreting area is composed of modified epidermis and paren- chyma tissue. Shon 7 ree Ge (3 ~~=S.YASCULAR SUPPLY FIG. 3 Figure 3. View of the cavity or well of a gland showing its size, thickness of the secretory area and the extent of cell stretching. The entire floor of the gland and the inner surface of the un- divided wall area possesses secreting cells. Fig. 4 depicts a section through the floor of the gland and the upper part of the petal. It shows that in the upper seven layers of cells the cytoplasm is more dense, indicating greater cell activity. The maximum amount of cell activity is in the upper three layers. The basal tissue on which the 231 Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science = CUCL | | >-SECRETING CELLS BASAL CELLS FIG. 4 Figure 4. Section through the floor of a gland and the upper part of the petal showing the depth of the secretory area. secreting cells rest is composed of the normal parenchyma cells of the petal. Covering the exposed surface of the upper layer of secret- ing cells and forming the floor layer of the gland is a medium- thick cuticle. Since no ducts or pores are present to carry the secre- tion through the surface layers and cuticle, the nectar must diffuse from cell to cell and then through the cuticle. Numerous mature glands were examined, and in each one only a thin film of liquid was present on the surface of the cuticle. Although the cuticle nor- mally retards the flow of nectar, it does not inhibit it. Behrens (1879) and Bonnier (1879) found the same to be true for many other plant secretory surfaces. While the flowers are in the bud, the walls of the glands are much reduced and the apical openings are large. As the buds open the floral parts expand, the walls extend upward and inward, form- ing conical-shaped glands. This reduces the size of the apical open- ing and brings the wall processes into a matted arrangement. A micro- 939 Mature Glands On The Petals of Frasera Carolinensis section through the lower part of the wall is shown in fig. 5. The secreting area, as indicated by cytoplasmic density, is confined to the two innermost layers of cells. The elongation of the walls, except : 4 » \GE : er ‘ gt SECRETING CELLS WALL CELLS FIG: 5 Figure 5. Section through the lower wall of a gland illustrating the depth of the secretory area and the extent of cell stretching. in the innermost layer and to some extent the next layer, is due to the stretching of the cells rather than to an increase in the number of cells. In the innermost layer the cells were able to divide rapidly Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science enough to keep pace with the stretching. The amount of stretching of the cells is indicated by the extent to which the nuclei are stretched. LITERATURE CiTED 1. Behrens, W. J. 1879. Die Nectarens de Bluthen. Flora, pp. 374-375. 2. Bonnier, Gaston 1879 Les Nectaires. Libraire ce |) academie de Medicine, Paris, pp. 1-212. 3. McCoy, R. W. 1940. Floral organo~enesis in Fracera carolinensis. Amer. Jour. Bot., 27:600-609 PERFORMANCE OF A DOMESTIC HEAT PUMP WATER HEATER E. B. Penrod Department of Mechanical Engineering University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky INTRODUCTION A study of a Master Kraft heat pump water heater was made during the last two weeks of June, 1951.* Data were taken each day to obtain the operating performance of the hot water heat pump and the effect produced on the relative humidity of the air in the room containing the unit. The heating energy ratio of the plant was determined through tests of short duration. PRINCIPLE OF THE Hor Water Heat Pump The Master Kraft** heat pump is designed to take heat, at a low temperature level, from the air in the basement (or utility room), containing the unit, and transfer the heat to the water in the tank at a higher temperature level (Fig. 1). When the heat pump is in operation the refrigerant (Freon-12) changes from the liquid phase to the vapor phase in the evaporator located in the air stream. In changing phase the refrigerant absorbs heat from the air reducing its temperature from, say, 76°F to 70°F. The temperature and pres- sure of the vapor are increased from about 62°F and 75 Ibs. per sq. in. abs. to approximately 322°F and 177 lbs. per sq. in. abs. in pass- ing through the refrigeration compressor. The Freon-12 vapor is superheated during compression. As it passes through the condenser, located in the tank, it gives up heat to the water in cooling to the saturation temperature at the existing pressure, and then gives up additional heat while condensing. The liquid refrigerant then passes through the expansion valve, thus completing the refrigeration cycle. The primary purpose of the refrigeration compressor is to circulate the refrigerant and to main- *The Kentucky Utilities Company purchased a Master Kraft heat pump water heater and installed it together with the necessary instruments in the author's house. He is indebted to the Heat Pump Committee of this Company who sponsored the investigation. *°The Master Kraft Heat Pump Water Heater is manufactured by Harvey- Whipple, Inc., Springfield, Mass. 235 Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science tain a difference in pressure on the opposite sides of the expansion valve. The heat given up by the refrigerant in cooling and condensing WATER AT |55°F TO KITCHEN OR BATH HOT WATER TANK HOT FREON-I2 VAPOR AT 322°F LIQUID FREON-I2 AT AND I77 PS.LA. 125°F AND 177 PS.LA. CONDENSER FROM MAIN AT 80°F EXPANSION VALVE LIQUID FREON -I2 REFRIGERATION AT 62°F AND 75 PSIL.A. COMPRESSOR = ° < AIR AT 76 F =— FROM —=— BASEMENT ELECTRIC UTILITY ROOM = MOTOR FREON-I2 VAPOR AT 62°F AND 75 PS.LA. Figure 1. A schematic diagram showing how a heat pump produces hot water for domestic purposes. is absorbed by the water surrounding the condenser. The heat absorbed by the water while cooling the superheated Freon-12 va- por from 322°F to 125°F is about 40% of that required to raise the temperature of the water from 80°F to 155°F. The remainder of the heat transferred to the water is supplied while the refrigerant con- denses at 125°F. 236 Performance of A Domestic Heat Pump Water Heater Heat Pump Water HEATER The Master Kraft heat pump water heater shown in Fig. 2, is 2634 inches in diameter and 70 inches high. It has a water capa- city of 53 gallons and weights 680 lbs. empty. The circulating fan and refrigeration compressor are driven by 1/20-hp. and 1/3-hp., single phase motors. The circulating fan draws air through the evap- orator coils and forces it out at the top of the unit. Fig. 3 is a photograph of the upper half of the unit showing the thermostat, refrigeration compressor, expansion valve, and the air coil or evap- orator. When the heat pump is in operation the refrigeration compres- sor circulates the refrigerant (Freon-12), through the condenser, ex- pansion valve, and the evaporator. During the test period, the compressor maintained discharge and suction pressures of about 163 and 63 lbs. per sq. in. gage while the plant was in operation. The air temperature in the basement determines the suction pres- sure; and the thermostat setting, the rate of water consumption, and compressor capacity determine the discharge pressure. INSTRUMENTATION A Bailey recording meter was used to measure the quantity of hot water used, and the inlet and outlet water temperatures. The thermometers were of the platinum resistance type, one being placed where the water enters and the other where it leaves the tank. The relative humidity of the basement air was obtained by the use of a Bristol's wet and dry bulb recording thermometer and Taylors relative humidity tables. The moisture taken from the air dropped in a trough beneath the evaporator coils. Provisions were made so that the condensed moisture could be piped to a suitable container and measured. An Esterline-Angus recording meter was used to determine the operating time of the heat pump water heater and the power input to the fan and compressor motors. A General Electric single phase watthour demand meter was also used to determine the power in- put to the heat pump as well as the demand. A similar General Electric single phase watthour meter was used to determine the electric energy supplied to the house exclusive of that supplied to the hot water heat pump. Darty OPERATING PERFORMANCE During the test period the house was occupied by a family 237 Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science Figure 2. A photograph of the Master Kraft heat pump water heater. Performance of A Domestic Heat Pump Water Heater Figure 3. A photograph of the upper half of the heat pump water heater showing the thermostat, refrigeration compressor, and air coil or evaporator. Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science consisting of two adult persons. The following electrical appliances were in the house and were used when desired: electric lights, iron, refrigerator, washing machine, percolator, toaster, two clocks, radio, and a hot water heat pump. Performance data are listed in Table I. The daily average electric energy supplied to the hot water heat pump was about 54% of that supplied to the entire house. The hot water used per day varied from 30 to 55 gallons. The average cost of producing hot water was about 0.117 kwhr per gallon. The temperature of the water entering and leaving the tank were ap- proximately 80°F and 155°F respectively. The quantity of moisture removed from the basement air was, on the average, 24% pints per day. The maximum amount of mois- ture was removed from the air on June 18th, 22nd, and 25th, the days that the washing machine was in operation, and laundry was hung in the basement to dry. The average daily operating time of the hot water heat pump was 8.1 hours. Table 1. Normal daily performance of a hot water heat pump from June 15, 1951 to July 1, 1951. Electric Energy Mositure Supplied Removed Date Opera- Total To To Hot Heat Hot From Discharge Suction ting House Water Pump Water Basement Pressure Pressure Time And Heat Demand Used Air Heat Pump Pump Hrs/Day kwhr. — kwhr. kw. Gallons Pints _ Psig. Psig. 6-16 IU 9 5 0.58 50 2 148 60 G7 6.2 9 5 58 AO 1% 152 63 - 6-18 8.6 10 5 8 40 3% 163 63 6-19 6.8 8 4 .60 35 2 160 62 6-20 T9) 8 4 .60 30 20 163 62 6-21 leo 9 5 Gl 35 24 161 63 6-22 8.3 9 5 ‘Gil 45 3h 158 62 6-23 9.3 10 6 61 50 3 155 62 6-24 6.2 8 4 .60 35 245 162 62 6-25 10.6 10 6 61 1) 64 162 62 6-26 6.8 8 4 09 30 2% 162 62 Coie ri 4 .60 AO 245 163 63 6-28 8 4 .60 SS 2% 157 63 6-29 8 4 .60 35 2 159 63 6-30 rf 4 .60 35 2% 163 63 Averages 8.1 8.53 4.2 0.598 39.3 21 159.2 62.3 * Difficulty with recording meter. Performance of A Domestic Heat Pump Water Heater The actual operating time is shown graphically in Fig. 4, and the average electric power demand was approximately 0.60 kw. From DRY act TEMPERATURE -°F [ AvONNS | oe el [iz anne | AWOSUNHL | ear ae ‘cea ears] Oz _aNnr AYOS3NG3M | a i A s ( | | ; ee ' » (ae = CaS tH LTT Lope cel pt py a): a ) : a Sie Pit : CEES : : Be aS | + Ee SC eS BS oT oo) PP DOT Pe EEE peer TEE PEN ATT eset SSL TAL Ter OMEN maase i ita A et at = oO x 8 ete ape ae Figure 4. Graphical representation of the operation of the heat pump water heater, and the effect produced on the temperature and relative humidity of the basement air. Curve A gives the dry bulb temperatures. The plateaus of Curve B indicates the maximum electric power demand, and shows when the plant was in operation. Curve C gives the value of the relative humidity of the basement air. 241 Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science Fig. 4 it can be seen that in general there was a slight decrease in the dry bulb temperature and a corresponding increase in the rel- ative humidity of the basement air when the plant was in operation. On the whole the heat taken from the basement air did not reduce the dry bulb temperature to a great extent. Fig. 5 is a photograph of the record of the wet and dry bulb temperature readings for a period of one week. The wet and dry bulb temperatures decreased simultaneously after the heat pump was set in operation. Shortly after the plant stopped the wet and dry bulb temperature readings returned to their previous values. The depressions in the two temperature graphs indicate clearly when the plant was in operation. Test Or SHORT DURATION During the normal intermittent operation of the domestic heat -pump water heater it is virtually impossible to determine the heating energy ratio of the system because the water does not flow in a steady stream in and out of the tank. Hot water may be drawn out of the storage tank a great deal of the time when the unit is not in operation, and the cold water which enters merely mixes with the hot water, thereby reducing its temperature. In addition to this, hot water is generally drawn off at such a high rate that the heat pump did not have the capacity to maintain a constant temperature differ- ential between the water at entrance to and exit from the storage tank. During a short test of 52 minutes duration, hot water was drawn off at a steady rate of 0.37 gallons per minute. Test data are listed in Table 2. The air temperature dropped from 76°F to 71°F on passing through the evaporator coil. From the table it can be seen that the temperature of the air leaving the evaporator coil was 1°F below that of the wet bulb temperature. Table 2. Results of a steady flow test of 52 minutes duration. Duration of test, hour 0.866 Temp. of air entering evaporator coil, °F 76 Temp. of air leaving evaporator coil, °F val Dry bulb temp. of basement air, °F 76 Wet bulb temp. of basement air, °F 72 Relative humidity of basement air, % 83 Avg. hot water temp., of 116.8 y ey Ft THURS Da Pas THURS Day Figure 5. A photograph of a weekly record made by Bristol’s recording wet and dry bulb thermometers. (A) With the heat pump water heater and (B) without the heat pump water heater. Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science Avg. cold water temp., °F 88 Increase in temp. of water, °F 28.8 Water heated, *gallons 19.2 Discharge press., psig. 136 Suction press., psig. 61 Theoretical H.E.R. 10.5 Actual H.E.R. 2.6 *The hot water was discharged into a small tank and then weighed. Energy supplied to heat pump system — 0.596 kw x 0.866 hr. — 0.516 kwhr. Energy delivered to water 98°8 x 19.9 -x 813 | 4580 Btu. | — 1.341 kwhr. energy delivered to the water Actually SHEERS R= energy supplied to the heat pump system 1.341 kwhr 0.516 kwhr = 2.6 The refrigeration cycle for the test of short duration is shown in Fig. 6. The theoretical heating energy ratio of the refrigeration cycle is given by the equation lay ol TENG ret cals Eun ees hit bs 90.6 — 33.7 ~ 90.6 — 85.2 ==. 06 The actual H.E.R. is just about one fourth of that for the re- frigeration cycle. The reduction in the heating energy ratio from 10.5 to 2.6 is due to the inefficient single phase motors together with compressor and radiation losses. From Fig. 6 it can be seen that the discharge and suction pres- sures are 150.7 and 75.7 lbs. per sq. in. abs., and the Freon-12 vapor 244 150.7 15.7 PRESSURE,PSIA 337 852 90.6 ENTHALPY, BTU PER LB. t (b) TEMPERATURE, °F 0.1673 ENTROPY, BTU PERLB°R. Figure 6. Refrigeration cycle of the heat pump water heater for a 52 minute test in which water flowed into and out of the storage tank at a constant rate. s Isentropic compression was assumed. (a) Refrigeration cycle shown on the I I : g ) pressure-enthalpy plane. (b) Refrigeration cycle shown on the temperature- entropy plane. 245 Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science was superheated only 7°F. In comparison, from Fig. 1 it can be seen that the discharge and suction pressures are 177 and 75 Ibs. per sq. in abs.; and that the Freon-12 vapor was superheated 197°F (322° — 125°). From an analysis of these data it can be shown that the actual heating energy ratio obtained from the test of short dura- tion will exceed the heating energy ratio obtained if the plant could be tested under normal operating conditions as shown in Fig. 1. CONCLUSIONS The following results give a good idea concerning the perfor- mance of the domestic heat pump water heater under actual operat- ing conditions: Test period, days 15 Operating time, hours/day 8.1 Elect. energy supplied to all appliances, kwhr. 128 - Elect. energy supplied to heat pump water, kwhr. 69 Demand, watts 598 Hot water used, gallons 590 Hot water used, gallons/day 39.3 Hot water, gallons/kwhr 8.54 Moisture removed from basement air, pints/day PAL) Average basement air temps he 76.3 Average discharge press., psig. 159.2 Average suction press., psig. 62.3 Freyder* gives the following results from a similar study on a Harvey-Whipple pilot model: Test period, days 91 Water Consumption, gal. Bile Power Consumption, kwhr 427.0 Gal/kwhr 12.0 Gal/day, avg. 56.3 Demand, watts 560 Basement air temperature, °F, avg. 70 Water inlet temperature, °F, avg. 67.9 Water outlet temperature, °F, avg. 140 Load factor, % 34.7 Performance factor | 2.14 ie : é ; : References are given in the Literature Cited 246 Performance of A Domestic Heat Pump Water Heater The results from the two studies compare favorably. For the test reported in this paper, hot water was supplied to a family of two, and for Freyder’s test, to a family of four. The following are some of the chief advantages of the heat pump water heater: i 2. Provides a high load factor for the electric utility. Operating costs at the regular residential rates are much lower for the heat pump water heater than for the electric resistance water heater operat- ing under the same conditions. Dehumidifies the air in the basement or utility room. Laundry dries much faster in a room where the heat pump water heater operates. It is not necessary to carry heavy wet laundry out of the house to dry. Laundry hung out of doors to dry is subject to weather changes and dirt in the atmosphere. The heat pump water heater can supply all the hot water needed and at the temperature desired. LITERATURE CITED Freyder, G. G., 1951. Domestic water heaters employing the heat pump principle. Proc. Midwest Power Conference, 13, 470-476. ____________ 1951. Heat pump domestic water heater. Heating & V entilat- ing, 48 (7) (July), 77-80. COMPARISON OF ELECTRON AND OPTICAL PHOTOMICROGRAPHS OF A COPPER-BERYLLIUM ALLOY H. W. Maynor, Jr. and C. J. McHargue Department of Mining and Metallurgical Engineering and O. F. Edwards Department of Bacteriology University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky INTRODUCTION It is conceivable that, (1) greater resolving power, (2) the pro- cess of replication of the surface and, (3) the shadowcasting tech- nique may constitute factors which will be reflected in the appearance of electron photomicrographs, and differentiate them from optical photomicrographs. Also, it is possible that variations, by large amounts, in the magnification of electron photomicrographs may be accompanied by changes in the appearance of microstructures dif- ficult to correlate. The objectives of this investigation (immediately following) were largely evolved from considerations of these possi- bilities. a. To effect a visual comparison of photomicrographs of selected areas of polished and etched specimens of a copper-beryllium alloy (2.5% Be, 1.1% Ni, balance Cu) at magnifications within the range of both the electron and optical microscopes. b. To further study the selected areas with the electron micros- cope: (1) by maintaining a nearly common geometric center of field as an orientation point for each individual series of photomicrographs and, (2) by varying the magnification in increments of approximately 12.000X. c. To ascertain if certain structural features can be distinguished with the electron microscope that cannot be distinguished with the optical microscope. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE The specimens were cut from copper-beryllium bar stock. All were solution treated at 800°C for one-half hour and quenched in water. Specimens A, B, and C were subsequently aged at 316-330°C for zero, one, and two hours re- 248 - Comparison of Electron and Optical Photomicrographs spectively. The surface of each was polished and lightly etched after aging. The production of a negative replica (1) of each specimen surface was carried out by dipping the specimen in ethylene dichloride containing one per cent by weight of Formvar. When the film had dried and hardened, a 250- mesh wire screen was placed in contact with the desired area and encircled by a scribed line. Then the replica was stripped by breathing upon it, covering it immediately with scotch tape, and gently pulling the tape with the at- tached replica away from the surface of the specimen. The time that elapsed between etching and stripping was never more than five minutes. This period of time appeared to be critical, and if exceeded, difficulty in stripping was encountered. Shadow-casting of the specimens was carried out at a grazing angle of nine to eleven degrees with chromium. A thin alumium film was deposited verti- cally to strengthen the replica. The electron photomicrographs were made with an EMU-2A, RCA electron microscope. The optical photomicrographs were made with a Bausch and Lomb research metallograph in the customary manner. RESULTS 1. Optical photomicrographs. The light and dark areas in the optical photomicrographs cor- responded directly with the apparently light and dark areas of the specimen surface which was illuminated by reflected light. Figure 1 was an optical photomicrograph of specimen A (zero aging time) at a magnification of 3,000X. The appearance was typi- cal of other areas of the same specimen. This photomicrograph showed annealing twins which characterize copper base alloys and which represent differences in orientation within grains. The small, white particles of a somewhat spheroidal shape comprised a_preci- pitate generally thought to be of the formula CuBe (2). The pre- sence of these particles in the specimen was due to the incomplete solution of the CuBe phase during the course of the solution treat- ment. Because this magnification was within the range of the opti- cal microscope, the absence of very fine detail in this photomicro- graph should be attributed to a lack of adequate resolving power rather than to insufficient magnification. This fact was confirmed when the area within the circle was enlarged to give a magnification of 15,000X, Figure 2. The appear- 249 Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science 250 Comparison of Electron and Optical Photomicrographs ance of the surface showed that although the magnification had been increased here by photographic enlargement, no new detail was re- vealed. Figure 3 was an optical photomicrograph of specimen C (two hours aging time) at 3,000X. As was shown in the optical photo- micrographs of specimen A (zero aging time), Figure 1, the anneal- ing twins and undissolved CuBe phase were readily revealed. The background presented a mottled appearance in which very little de- tail could be seen. This mottled appearance is common in age-hard- enable alloys during the relatively early stages of precipitation and is probably due to very fine particles of unresolved precipitate. The presence of extensive areas of this unresolved structure indicated that precipitation occurred during heat treatment. 2. Electron photomicrographs. The method used in preparing the replicas produced nega- tives of the surface, that is, depressions in the electron photomicro- graphs corresponded to raised places in the specimen surface. The black line in the various figures indicates a distance of one micron in the original specimen. Figure 4 was an electron photomicrograph of specimen A (zero aging time) at a magnification of 3,000X. The variations in top- ography were more evident than in Figure 1, the optical photomicro- graph of the same specimen at the same magnification, and were perhaps due to the use of the technique of shadow casting, which introduces artificial shadows, thus emphasizing contour differences. The apparent lack of depth and height in the optical photomicro- graph was probably due to the method of preparation, or to the means of examination of the specimen, or to the absence of shadows, rather than to an actual lack of depth and height in the specimen sur- face. The wealth of detail contained in the photomicrograph was to a great extent hidden because of the use of the relatively low order of magnification. Inspection of the small, ringed area (con- taining the particle with the constricted central portion) at a higher magnification (see Figure 5), substantiated this statement. However, the resolution was better than that in Figure 1 as was evident when higher magnifications of each, Figure 5 and 2, respectively, were compared. New detail, in the form of small particles (smaller bits 251 Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science of precipitate not dissolved during the solution treatment), were now seen (Figure 5) to accompany the larger particles of precipitate which were not dissolved during the solution treatment. No new smaller detail appeared in Figure 2. Figure 5 was an electron photomicrograph of specimen A (zero aging time) at a magnification of 18,000X. Measurements indicated that the large, dark areas corresponded in size with the large, light, spheroidal particles such as were easily discernible in Figure 1. The size, shape and distribution of the smaller particles could now be ascertained for the first time in this series of electron photomicro- graphs, because here, both magnification and resolving power were sufficiently great. The limit of resolution of the best optical microscopes is ap- proximately equal to one-fifth of a micron. Consequently, any particle in this photomicrograph which is less than about one-fifth of the micron line cannot be resolved and hence cannot be seen with an op- tical microscope. Some of the structural features were less than one- fifth micron and ranged in size from 30 to 60 millimicrons. It should be pointed out that it is extremely difficult, if not impossible, to interpret many electron photomicrographs solely up- on the basis of their appearance. Among these difficulties is the optical illusion effect (3), which is apparent in this figure, inasmuch as the same portion of an image will sometimes appear as a raised area, and again as a depression. Only when the object-shadow relationship is known does it become possible to determine the true elevations of the different areas of the image. Since, logically, shadows are contained within depressions, but lie out- side of raised areas, the orientation of the shadow with respect to the object serves to distinguish the hills from the valleys. The crack-like lines were probably due to the deterioration of the Formvar membrane under the unavoidable handling to which the replica was subjected. The presence of white particles in this photomicrograph was explained by any of the following reasons: 1. They may have been replicas of holes or depressions in the original specimen surface. 952 Comparison of Electron and Optical Photomicrographs 2. They may have been pseudo structures produced by the stripping process and unintentionally implanted on the Formvar replica. 3. They may have been foreign matter deposited after strip- ping and prior to shadowing. 4. They may have been foreign matter (chromium) deposited during the shadow-casting operation. Regardless of the reason for their existence in the photomicro- graph, the white particles do not represent a part of what was be- lieved to be the characteristic microstructure. In partial support of this contention, it could be stated that if they were indeed replicas of holes or depressions in the original specimen surface, then for each particle there must have been a hole in the original. The presence of such a large number of depresssions in the ori- ginal would have been detected, since many of the particles were within the limit of resolution of the optical microscope, during micro- scopic examination of the specimen at the various stages of its pre- paration. Because such an examination failed to reveal the presence of holes, the first reason was untenable. Evidence obtained by many workers in electron microscopy has indicated that Formvar is capable of producing faithful replicas. In view of this knowledge, the second possibility was believed to be remote. The storage environment of the replicas, after preparation and prior to examination with the electron microscope, was so free of dust that it was relatively certain that such a great number of particles could not be attributed to dust which had settled on the replica surface. It was possible that they were introduced during the shadow- casting process because rather concentrated quantities of metal have been observed over restricted areas of replicas (due to uneven in- crease of power input to heater filament) in other types of microscope preparations. The shapes and sizes of these particles were compati- ble with this viewpoint and not with the idea that they represented true structure, as they did not resemble any known structure of cop- 953 Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science per-beryllium alloys detectable in either optical or electron photo- micrographs (3). Figure 6 was an electron photomicrograph of specimen C (two hours aging time) at a magnification of 9,000X. It is considered at this point because of the large numbers of white particles that form- ed a pseudo structure and tended to mask the true structural fea- tures present. The interpretation of these particles was the same as for those in Figure 5. In addition, a careful examination of the shadows of the particles revealed that their orientation was incom- patible with the shadows of the grain boundary, if it was assumed that the grain boundary was raised. Only when the assumption was made that a one sided, v-shaped boundary existed, could the orienta- tion of the shadows of the particles be made compatible with the shadows of the grain boundary. The depressions in this photomicrograph did correspond to precipitated particles on the copper-beryllium specimen surface. Figure 7 was an electron photomicrograph of specimen A (zero aging time) at a magnification of 36,000X. The wrinkled area was produced by deterioration and collapse of the membrane. Since this photomicrograph did not contain any new, fine detail of structure heretofore unseen at lower magnifications, and since this magnifi- cation was concomitant with a reduced area of field, the working magnification for studies of this alloy should probably correspond more nearly to 18,000X than to 36,000X. Figure 8 was an electron photomicrograph of specimen A (zero aging time) at a magnification of 50,000X. No new, structural de- tail could be seen in this photomicrograph, which indicated that lower magnifications were appropriate for this specimen. Figure 9 was an electron photomicrograph of specimen C (two hours aging time) at a magnification of 3000X. The large, dark areas corresponded to the undissolved precipitate seen in Figure 3. However, the magnification used did not permit revelation of the finest details, which higher magnification proved to be present in the specimen. Figure 10 was an electron photomicrograph of specimen C (two hours aging time) at a magnification of 9,000X. The undissolved precipitate exhibited no new detail at this magnification, but the in- 954 Comparison of Electron and Optical Photomicrographs 255 Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science dividual particles of the newly formed precipitate were easily de- tected. They are not recognizable, as such, in optical photomicro- graphs after the elapse of periods of time of the order employed in this investigation. The doughnut-like appearance of some of these particles was explained on the basis of depressions resembling troughs, surrounding, and in contact with the precipitate. It was believed that this structure resulted from an accelerated rate of attack by the etchant at the CuBe-matrix interface. Figure 11 was an electron photomicrograph of specimen C (two hours aging time) at a magnification of 18,000X. The precipitate, which was more plentiful in this photomicrograph than in Figure 5, showed the effect of aging on the process of precipitation in Cu-Be alloys. Figure 12 was an electron photomicrograph of specimen C (two hours aging time) at a magnification of 36,000X. The doughnut- shaped configuration of the precipitate was revealed in greater de- tail, here. Shadows with orientation both inside and outside con- firmed the existence of the precipitate in this form. Figure 13 was an electron photomicrograph of specimen C (two hours aging time) at a magnification of 50,000X. The increase in magnification definitely revealed no new, fine detail, which indicat- ed the likelihood that all structural detail was large enough so that magnifications of a lesser degree were sufficient. Figure 14 was an electron photomicrograph of specimen B (one hour aging time) at a magnification of 9,000X. The dark spots were not interpreted as being characteristic of the microstructure. Quite probably they were holes in the Formvar, negative replica. The white areas immediately surrounding the dark areas were just as probably due to the folding back of the replica around the holes. Since it was reasonable for the replica to deteriorate at points where it was relatively thin, it seemed probable that the holes were made by projections of precipitate on the original surface. As such, the holes did not describe the form of the precipitate, but did indicate that precipitation occurred rather extensively. 256 Comparison of Electron and Optical Photomicrographs SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS Optical and electron photomicrographs of nonidentical, but similar areas of sections of a Cu-Be alloy aged for zero, one, and two hours were compared, and the following conclusions drawn: fe bo Lo ey) Electron photomicrographs of Formvar, negative revlicas, shadow- ed with chromium, revealed topographic variations to a greater degree than reflection-type, optical photomicrographs. The resolving power of the optical microscope did not permit the revelation of all detail present in the microstructure of the Cu-Be alloy. It was possible to follow, with assurance, the changes in appear- ance of the microstructure of the specimens during the transition in magnification from the upper optical range to 50,000X, with electron photomicrographs of intermediate magnifications. Certain structures which appeared in the electron photomicro- graphs were observed to be from 30 to 60 millimicrons in size. Obviously these were too small to be resolved with the optical microscope. The presence of certain particles, foreign to the true microstruc- ture, were attributed to defective shadowing. LITERATURE CITED Harker, D. and M. J]. Murphy. 1945. A study of age-hardening using the electron microscope and Formvar replicas. Trans... Amer. Inst. Mining and Metallurgical Engineers, 161, 75-89. Metals Handbook. 1948, 1176. Barnes, R. Bowling, Charles J. Burton, and Robert G. Scott. 1945. Electron microscopical replica techniques of the study of organic substances. Journ. Applied Physics, 16 (11), 730-739. STRUCTURAL SETTLEMENT COMPUTATIONS* John E. Heer, Jr. Department of Civil Engineering, University of Louisville, Louisville, Kentucky The Science of Soil Mechanics is one of the youngest of the Sciences, its entire history being within the past three decades. Shortly before World War I, Civil Engineers had rather dis- astrous experiences with soils in three countries almost simultaneously. In Sweden there were catastrophic slides, resulting in the loss of many lives, on the State Railways. The German engineers were sur- prised many times with slides of the banks of the Kiel Canal. At the same time our own engineers were experiencing some of their most trying times with failures in the cuts of the Panama canal. Previously the study of the soil and its properties was a distasteful task, undertaken only as a last resort after all other experimenta- ~ tion with changes in the structural elements had failed to correct the difficulties encountered. With this attitude toward the problem it is small wonder that the data accummulated were hardly worthy of the term science. Intensified experimentation from 1910 to 1930 led to the discovery of a whole series ef vitally important physical factors which had escaped the attention of the investigators of the previous generations. Among these new found facts was one pertaining to the continued settlement, for many months, of structural foundations at a constant load. From the discovery of this and other just as important facts came a desire to rebuild the existing theories to conform with the increased knowledge of the physical properties of the soil. As happens with the research program in many of the sciences, it is not always the oldest problem nor the one which is causing the maximum amount of real damage that receives the first atten- tion of the scientist; it is usually that problem which is causing the most spectacular and newsworthy concern that gets first call on the time of those in the field. In soil mechanics, in spite of the fact that settlements had been causing structural damage and finan- cial loss for many years, it was the lateral stability of earth slopes that received the primary consideration. This was probably as it *Presented at Kentucky Academy of Science annual meeting at Lexington, Kentucky, October 27, 1951 258 Structural Settlement Computations should have been since seldom had settlements caused loss of life: and while settlements were probably causing more extensive damage, they were occurring in too many places with a correspondingly smaller loss per occurrence. There is no complete theory of the settlement of foundations and probably there never will be, because of the non-homogeneity of the medium transmitting the forces. We have only theories which inform us by crude approximations of one or more of the aspects of the phenomena of soil behavior. At the present time, however, the theories that are available, while not exact, are adequate for a ma- jority of the more serious cases, yet they are seldom given study un- til after the structure is built and the settlement begins to occur. In view of the fact that the space allotted to this discussion is rather limited it would hardly be practicable to attempt to cover the settlement problem in its fullest details. I should like, there- fore, to confine my discussion to just one phase of the problem, this phase being that which I consider one of the most important: the theory of the distribution of stress in the loaded soil mass. In almost any recent text on Soil Mechanics can be found the development of an equation relating the physical properties of the soil mass, the loads on the soil, and the state of stress in the soil with the predicted settlement. The equation will take a form somewhat as follows: c i Ap S — H fap bee l+e P fe} (@) In this equation S is the predicted settlement, H is the thickness of the compressible layer, e. the void ratio of the compressible layer, Py and p the initial stress and increase in stress due to the superimposed load, and C., is the coefficient of consolidation of the soil. This equation has been developed from laboratory consolidation tests on both disturbed and undisturbed samples. The results of these tests have been extrapolated to give an equation which is pro- posed for use in computations involving virgin soil in a completely 259 Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science undisturbed state. This paper is primarily concerned with the calculation of a reasonable value for Ap, or the increase in pressure on the com- pressible layer caused by the load of the structure. Since the com- pressible layer hardly ever is in direct contact with the footing, and may be many feet below the surface, the problem is presented in evaluating the amount by which the footing load is spread over adjoining area, thus reducting the unit stress as the load is trans- ferred vertically into the ground. The analysis of stresses in a loaded soil mass is a complex pro- blem, the solution of which would be difficult even if we had a complete knowledge of the physical properties of the soil. The problem may be simplified by making various assumptions and ac- cepting certain approximations. If Soil Mechanics is to be applicable to engineering problems, it must be considered a part of the mathematical theory of elasticity and resistance of materials. The approach to solutions must be taken as special cases of that general theory. The solution of any design problem can be broadly divided in- to three general steps: 1. The determination of the forces acting in terms of the basic properties i) The basic properties of the materials under average conditions 8. The variation of the basic properties due to differences in assumption or non-homogeneity of the material. Considering step one, if we assume that the stresses in the soil are the same as in an elastic, homogeneous and isotropic material, then the theory of elasticity can be applied to the solution. It is well known that this assumption is not valid; perhaps the only real excuse that can be offered for its use is that it leads to a con- venient and generally a reasonable value for the stresses, and that the results, if accepted at their face value, are useful in estimating the probable settlement of a structure. One of the first methods used to compute the increase in pres- sure on a compressible layer due to a building load was to break 260 Structural Settlement Computations the loaded area into small parts, considering the load on each piece to be concentrated at its center. On this basis, if we accept the theory of elasticity, the increase in stress due to each concen- trated load could be computed. Then by the principle of super- position the results added to approximate the total increase in stress on the soil. This procedure, of course, amounts to a mechanical in- tegration of the stress due to a differential force on a differential area. If an external force acts on a very small area of a horizontal solid of semi-infinite dimensions, that is, one infinite in breadth only, the point load produces a state of stress with circular symmetry about a vertical line through the point of application of the load. On account of the symmetrical nature of the stress the shear- ing stresses on vertical radial planes are zero. The intensity of the other stresses has been computed, by Bousenseq in 1885, by means of a stress function which strictly satisfies the boundary conditions. The vertical stress at a point on a horizontal plane at depth z is expressed as as 3q 1 5/2 wr Bae | I+ Gy si TZ In this equation q is the point load on the differential area and r is the radial distance between the load and the point being stressed. We can see from this equation and the variety of sizes and shapes of footings under a modern structure with combinations of individual, combined and continuous footings, and the further pos- sibility of different unit loads on different footings, that a mechani- cal integration as such would require a tremendous amount of time and labor for a complete solution. In order to reduce the amount of time involved in these cal- culations several alternate methods have been proposed for a solu- tion of the problem. One of the first proposed is a solution using the same differential load and area but using the calculus for the integration or summa- tion. This method is satisfactory as long as the shape of the footing and hence the limits of integration are relatively simple, such as a 261 Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science circular footing. Unfortunately, this is seldom the case in the prac- tical structure. A second method that has been suggested for use when the foundation consists of a large number of footings or footings of an irregular shape is a graphical solution developed by Newmark at the University of Illinois. If we take the basic equation and integrate it to find the pressure on a point at depth z and immediately below the center of the loaded area circular in shape with a radius R, we get P, = 4] (a5 )| This can be rewritten in the form p 1 3/2 oA Fy s q I Se nz) A study of this equation shows that when r equals infinity peste 1. Carrying this process further we can find values for the , ; é Py ratio of radius of loaded area to depth z for which the term —— Py will be equal to 0.1, 0.2, 0.3, ete. As an example for —— equal to q 0.2 the ratio ~ will be equal to 0.401. This means in effect that if a loaded circular area has a radius equal to 0.401 times the depth z, the unit pressure at depth z will be 0.2 of that pressure being applied on the surface. If we proceed in this manner we can construct a chart showing the various circles to be loaded to give 0.7q, 0.8q, 0.9q as pressures at depth z. The first problem in the actual construction of the chart is to select a suitable scale. If we take any arbitrary length AB and let it be equal to the depth z we can use as radii of the 262 Structural Settlement Computations circles the proper fractional lengths of this scale to construct the chart. From this chart we see that if proagthe area in the circle marked p = 0.5q p°5Zis loaded the pressure at depth z is one half the applied load. Similar- ily if the circle marked p = 0.4q is loaded, the pressure is four tenths the applied load; then from the prin- ciple of superposition if only the an- nular ring between the two circles is loaded, the increase in pressure is 0.5q minus 0.4q or 0.lq. We can further divide this annular ring in- to smaller areas by n equally spaced radial lines the smaller areas being included between two radii and the two circles, as shown cross-sectioned on the chart, the increase in pressure due to a load 0.1q on this area being ———. Since all the areas are symmetrical about the center each will eeu equal influence on the stresses in the soil; if n is equal to ten, the influence of each area is 0.01 q. This proce- dure was followed by Newmark in the construction of his charts published in 1942 by the University of Illinois Engineering Experi- ment Station Bulletin No. 338. The method for using the chart is as follows: after the soil pro- file is throughly investigated, the depth to the center of the com- pressible layer is used as the depth z. Then to a scale such that z — AB from the chart a foundation plan is drawn showing the indi- vidual footings and their unit loads. This tracing is then laid over the chart in such a manner that the point on the foundation under which the stress is to be computed is directly over the center of the chart. The number of influence blocks covered is then counted, the increase in stress being equal to the product of the number of blocks, the influence stress per block, and the unit load on the foot- ing area. If all the footings have the same unit load one calculation is sufficient; however, if there are footings of different unit loads, each unit load must be handled independently and the final stresses added to give the total increase in stress in the soil. We have a notable example of the use of this theory in an 263 Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science article published by Dr. Karl Trezaghi in his text. In this article he compares the predicted settlements with the actual measured settlements on the Charity Hospital in New Orleans. It is remark- able that in spite of the complexity of the problem the predicted and measured contours of equal settlement virtually coincide. In closing I should like to call to your attention that while we are far from a complete solution, the problem is not as hopeless as some would lead us to believe. One of our most pressing needs today is to have more complete records from those people in the field who are having settlement problems. We must not only be told that the settlement is occurring, we must be given a complete description of the rate of its occurrence and the pattern of its occurrence throughout the building. Above all, it is necessary to have a detailed description of the soil profile and the results of laboratory tests of the soil. 264 PREPARATION OF 1—XYLYL—1, 3-BUTANEDIONES USING DIKETENE* Reedus Ray Estes and Albert Tockman Department of Chemistry, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky Hurd and Kelso (1) used diketene to prepare benzoyl acetone by three different methods in 11-25% yields. The preparation of benzoyl acetone in 73% yield by He reaction of diketene and ex- cess benzene at 50° in the presence of aluminum chloride was re- ported by Boese (2). This appeared to be an attractive method for the preparation of the xyloyl acetones and for observation of the directive effects in the ring during this Friedel-Crafts type of re- action. During preliminary experiments at 50° with diketene, excess p-xylene, and aluminum chloride it was noted that isomerization of p-xylene occurred. Re-use of the recovered p-xylene with dike- tene and aluminum chloride produced a non-separable mixture of d'ketones derived from m-xylene, p-xylene, and other substances which were not identified. (Isomerization of p-xylene to m-xylene at 100° by aluminum chloride (3) and at 55° by aluminum chlo- ride and hydrogen chloride (4,5) has been reported.) Reaction of diketene and p-xylene in the presence of the milder catalysts, stannic chloride and boron trifluoride, did not produce any of the desired product. Boese found that the best yields of benzoyl ace- tone were obtained by using two moles of aluminum chloride for each mole of diketene, because the diketone formed during the re- action complexes the aluminum chloride, making it less available for catalysis. The use of a lower reaction temperature made possible by the relatively greater ease of substitution of the xylenes, practically eliminated isomerization by aluminum chloride. The p-xylene re- covered from a typical run at 20° showed no appreciable change in index of refraction or freezing point. The viscous red complex formed by aluminum chloride and xylene (6) so decreased the ef- ficiency of stirring that the yield was appreciably lowered unless xylene was present in large excess. This necessitated combination of the products of several batches to obtain enough material for purification by fractional distillation. The structure of each dike- * From the M.S. dissertation of Albert Tockman, University of Kentucky, April, 1950. 265 Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science tone was determined by hypochlorite oxidation to the dimethyl ben- zoic acid, and conversion of the acid to the amide. Only one monosubstitution product is possible from p-xylene (1). This gave upon hypochlorite oxidation 2, 5-dimethyl benzoic acid, corresponding to 1—(2, 5-dimethylphenyl)—1, 3-butanedione (II). CH; ae (1) (1) ~ f a —CHo- a CH3 , HG-6- ae AlGls, 0-G=0 20° (1) 7 2 a be CH; 3 di a Three monosubtitution products are possible from m-xylene (III). The most probable position for the substituent is ortho- to one methyl group and para- to the other. A second possibility, ortho- to both methyl groups, is less probable because of the relatively weak ortho-directive influence of a methyl group and the likeli- hood of steric hindrance. The least probable position is meta- to both methyl groups. Hypochlorite oxidation of the product gave 2, 4-dimethyl benzoic acid, corresponding to 1—(2, 4-dimethylpheny] ) —I, 3-butanedione (IV). Two monosubstitution products are pos- (2) H3C CH3 H30\. 7 4 H2C=G-GHp AlClz. | : & 0-6-0 720" u ae —CH»-C—CH3 ie a) A) (3) Ii Iv 266 Preparation of 1—xylyl—1, 3—Butanediones Using Diketene sible from o-xylene (V). The more probable position for the substituent is para- to one methyl group and meta- to the other. A slightly less probable position is ortho- to one methyl group and meta- to the other. The product which was obtained could not be purified by fractional distillation; the major component crystallized upon cooling. Hypochlorite oxidation gave 3,4-dimethyl benzoic acid, pe peedine to 1-(3,4-dimethylphenyl )-1,3-butanedione (VI). Suf- ficient quantity for identification of the minor component (presum- ed to be 1-(2, 3-dimethylphenyl )-1, 3-butanedione (VII) could not be VI CH3 H30 9 9 CH C—CH»—CG—CH3 ke /2) H,C=C-—CH =~ 2 ! 2 0-¢=0 ny CH (2)7 Nay didhgs 6 lI fl AF H30\ 7 C—CHp—G—CH3 aig —< VIL obtained. The 1-xylyl-1,3-butamediones gave a deep red coloration with ferric chloride. The copper complexes of the “para’ * and “meta” are useful derivatives of the diketones. EXPERIMENTAL Melting points and boiling points are corrected. Analyses were made by the Clark Microanalytical Laboratory, Urbana, Illinois. MATERIALS. Ortho-, meta-, and para-xylenes were obtained from The Matheson Co. Anhydrous aluminum chloride was Merck reagent grade. Dike- tene was kindly supplied by Carbide and Carbon Chemicals Co., at the South Charleston, West Virginia plant. It was purified by fractional distillation at 40 mm. pressure through a 48-inch helices-packed vacuum-jacketed column mount- 267 Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science ed in a hood. The fraction boiling at 50° was collected and stored at —20° until needed. 1—(2, 5-Dimethylphenyl)—1, 3-butanedione (II). Using a three-necked flask equiped with Walter dropping funnel, reflux con- donee and Hershberg stirrer, 16.8 g. (0.2 mole) of diketene dissolved in 63.7 g. (0.6 mole) of p-xylene was added dropwise over a period of 40 minutes to a stirred suspension of 54 g. (0.4 mole) of anhydrous aluminum chloride in 63.7 g. (0.6 mole) of p-xylene. The reaction temperature was 20°; stirring was continued to give a total reaction time of one hour. The reaction mixture was decomposed by pouring onto 300 g. of ice and water containing 25 ml. of concentrated hydrochloric acid and was then gently refluxed for one hour. The unreacted p-xylene was recovered by steam distillation. About 100 ml. of acetone was added to the cool residue, the organic layer separated, and the acetone and any remaining p-xylene removed by distillation at 20 mm. pres- sure. The viscous red residue was then rapidly distilled at a pressure of 3 mm., leaving a considerable quantity of tars. Twenty-six grams of a pale yellow oil boiling at about 129° was obtained; the yield based on diketene was 68%. This material was combined with the products of other similiar runs and was fractionally distilled at a pressure of 10 mm. through a 10-inch helices-packed column, yielding a colorless oil boiling at 150.9-151.4°. Dielectric constant at 25.0° and 10 megacycles 14.15; d,?5 1.0512, nie? I aiO2: Anal, Galed. for ©)5H7,05: GC, 75:76; Hes7-42. ‘hound: €@) 76:50-3eawe5o Two milliliters of the purified material was suspended in 10 ml. of 10% aqueous sodium hydroxide and added with stirring to 100 ml. of 5.2% so- dium hypochlorite (Clorox) (7). After gentle warming for five minutes, 10 ml. of acetone was added cautiously and the mixture heated for 10 minutes. The solution was filtered and acidified with acetic acid. When cool, the precipitated white solid was separated by filtration and recrystallized twice from water-methanol mixture. The dried solid melted at 130.0-130.5° (litera- ture for 2, 5-dimethyl benzoic acid, 132°). One gram of the dry acid was converted to the amide by treating with thionyl chloride and adding the resulting acid chloride to cold concentrated ammonia water. The amide was decolorized with charcoal and recrystallized twice from water-methanol mix- ture. The dry amide melted at 184-185° (literature (8) for 2, 5-dimethy] benzamide, 186°). A freshly filtered solution of 12 g. of copper acetate monohydrate in 150 ml. of hot water was added with stirring to 2 g. of the purified diketone. When the precipitate had crystallized (about two hours), it was collected by filtration and recrystallized from methanol. After three recrystallizations, the gray-green copper complex melted sharply at 122.0° 1—(2, 4-Dimethylphenyl)—1, 3-butanedione (IV). The apparatus and general procedure were the same as above except for the substitution of m-xylene for p-xylene. Twenty-four grams of a pale yellow oil, boiling at about 135° at 3 mm. was obtained; the yield based on diketene was 63%. The products of several runs were combined and purified as above, 268 Preparation of 1—xylyl—1, 3—Butanediones Using Diketene giving a colorless oil boiling at 146.4-147.2° at 10 mm; dielectric constant at 25.0° and 10 megacycles 14.88; d,?° 1.0522; me 1.5754. Anal, Caled. for C,H, ,O5: C,; 75.76; H, 7.42.. Found: C, 75.91; H, 7.19. Hypochlorite oxidation as described above gave an acid which melted at 125° (literature (8) for 2, 4-dimethyl benzoic acid, 126°). The amide melted at 179° (literature (8): 179-181°). The blue-gray copper complex melted at 156°. 1—(3, 4-Dimethylphenyl)—1, 3-butanedione (V1). The apparatus and general procedure were the same as above except that o-xylene was used. Twenty grams of a pale yellow oil, boiling at about 160° at a pressure of 7 mm. was obtained. The yield based on diketene was 79%. The products of three runs were combined and subjected to fractional dis- tillation. No pure component could be isolated in this manner. Upon cooling, however, a solid separated and was recrystallized from Skellysolve B until its melting point became constant at 48.8-49.0°; Anal. Caled: for C,H, ,05: ©, 75.76; H, 7.42. Found: C, 75.96; H, 7.25. Hypochlorite oxidation gave an acid which melted at 166° (literature (8) for 3, 4-dimethyl benzoic acid, 165-166°). The amide melted at 130° (lit- erature (8): 131°). The green copper complex decomposed without melt- ing when heated. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Grateful acknowledgement is made of a grant-in-aid from The Research Corporation. The dielectric constants were determined by Mr. Frederick Gormley, using apparatus which has been described (9). SUMMARY 1-(2, 5-dimethylphenyl )-1, 3-butanedione, 1-(2, 4-dimethylpheny] )- 1, 3-butanedione, and 1-(3, 4-dimethylphenyl )-1, 3-butanedione have been prepared from diketene and para—, meta—, and ortho-xylene respectively. Copper complexes of the first two compounds are useful derivatives. LITERATURE CITED 1. Hurd and Kelso, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 62, 1548 (1940). 2. Boese, Ind. Eng. Chem., 32, 21 (1940). 3. Heise and Tohl, Ann., 270, 169 (1892). 4. Norris and Rubenstein, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 61, 1163 (1939). 5. Norris and Vaala, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 61, 213 (1939). 6. Dilke, Eley, and Perry, Research, 2, 538 (1949). 7. Fuson and Bull, Chem. Rev., 15, 275 (1934). 8. Heilbron, Dictionary of Organic Compounds, Oxtord University Press, New York, (1943). 9. Leader, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 73, 856 (1951). 269 A LOOK AT KENTUCKY WOODLANDS Eugene Cypert, Jr. Fish and Wildlife Service, U.S. Department of the Interior, Paris, Tennessee Kentucky Woodlands National Wildlife Refuge is one of the system of some 280 Wildlife Refuges administered by the United States Fish and Wildlife Service. It is the only National Wildlife Refuge in Kentucky. It was established for the preservation and propagation of all forms of native wildlife, particularly the wild turkey, the white-tailed deer, and waterfowl. HisToRICAL The refuge, which contains approximately 65,000 acres, is located in Lyon and Trigg Counties between the Cumberland River and Kentucky Lake. This area, which was made a national wildlife refuge in 1938, has an interesting history. Most of the land included in it was formerly owned by ihe Hillman Land and Iron Company. Iron was mined and smelted here, intermittently, between 1841 and 1912. The ruins of one of the three iron furnaces, known as Center furnace, still stand. It was on this area, in 1845 or 1846, that the first Chinese labor was used on this continent. It was here, during the decade fol- lowing the Civil War, that the so-called Bessemer process for mak- ing steel was developed. Here, also the famous Golden Pond moon- shine whiskey was produced during, and just following, the prohibi- tion era. The area is, largely, rough hilly woodlands interspersed with cleared hollows which have been used, more or less, for some form of agriculture since an early day. The Cumberland River and Ken- tucky Lake extend parallel to each other about eight or nine miles apart along the east and west sides of the refuge. The Dividing Ridge, running between the two streams, has an elevation of about 520 feet. On the west side, the land slopes off rather sharply to Kentucky Lake. The general slope on the Cumberland river side is less abrupt and the hills gradually play out into the flat fertile Cumberland river bottom which aver ages about a mile across. The timber on the wooded area has been cut heavily in the past. During the iron smelting day, it was clear cut. Everything 270 A Look At Kentucky Woodlands down to small trees, two inches in diameter, was used for making charcoal for smelting. Fortunately for the native wildlife, not more than 300 acres were clear cut in this way in any one year. After the cessation of iron mining and smelting, heavy timber cutting was car- ried on for the production of cross ties, until the land was purchased by the United States, through the Resettlement Administration, in 1936. During this long period, there was no attempt to control fires and the woods were burned over almost annually. Also, this coun- try was without a stock law and free ranging livestock often severely stripped the woodlands of palatable vegetation and mast. GENERAL PROGRESS Since the refuge was established, substantial progress has been made toward developing the area as wildlife habitat. Poaching, woods fires, and uncontrolled grazing have been practically eliminat- ed through the vigilance of the refuge personnel. Three small lakes, Hematite Lake with an area of about 125 acres, Honker Lake with an area of about 130 acres, and Empire Lake with an area of about 60 acres, have been created on the eastern side of the refuge and waterfowl food plants have been established in them. Field crops, suitable for wildlife food, are planted and tended each year by re- fuge personnel and by neighboring farmers. When farmers tend this land, a share of the crop is left unharvested for wildlife as rent payment. Some of the land is rented as pasture for cattle. This is not incidental to wildlife management but is, rather, a part of it. While rental of pasture land fits in desirably with the local economy, I wish to emphasize that grazing is permitted primarily with the view of maintaining wildlife habitat. It is desirable, from the stand- point of certain species, to maintain clearings and the grazing of livestock is simply an economical way of doing this. In fact it ap- pears that grazed clearings are actually more attractive to wild turkeys than clearings maintained in other ways. WiLp TURKEY Probably the most interesting form of wildlife on this refuge is the Eastern Wild Turkey. These birds are of the orignial wild stock and show no sign of being contaminated by domestic turkeys. Their spindle shaped bodies, small blue heads with practically no wattles, 271 Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science brown tipped tails and their nervous ever-alert manner all are char- acteristics peculiar to the pure strain wild turkey. The wild turkey is truly a wary and resourceful bird. During the iron working days, and afterward, the area between the rivers was fairly thickly populated and the turkeys were hunted the year around, The fact that they were able to survive in spite of this uncurbed hunting and the disturbance and habitat destruction result- ing from timber operations, fire, and uncontrolled grazing, speaks well for their adaptability. These birds increased very satisfactorily for the first few years after the refuge was established and then there was a sharp decline in their numbers. This decrease was not due to-poaching since the turkeys have been afforded good protection and the attitude of the local people toward turkey hunting has improved steadily. Apparent- ly there is some factor, or factors, in the turkey’s environment which tends to limit their density, that we have not yet determined. There are several factors which may contribute to this limitation of popula- tion: 1. The amount and availability of proper food and water at critical periods during the year. bo . The accessibility of the various types of conditions required by the turkey for feeding, nesting, and escape. 3. Competition with, and depredations by, other species of animals. 4, Disease and parasites. It is the work of those concerned with wildlife management to discover the factors and inter-relations of factors that govern wild- life populations and to make practical applications of such findings. WHITE-TAILED DEER The management of the white-tailed deer, on Kentucky Wood- lands, has been simpler than the management of the turkey, and more successful. Given brushy growth, adequate water supply, and salt, the deer will ordinarily increase satisfactorily when protected. In 1915, the last of the native white-tailed deer were killed by 272 A Look At Kentucky Woodlands hunters. In 1919, Mr. J. N. Esselstyn, superintendent of the Hill- man Land Company, introduced thirty white-tailed deer. These deer persisted through the years, in spite of a considerable amount of hunting, until the refuge was established. By 1948 the population appeared to be approaching the carrying capacity of the refuge. More than 350 deer were live trapped between 1946 and 1949 to restock wildlife areas managed by the state of Kentucky. In 1949, disease decimated the population so that trapping was discontinued. The remaining deer appear to be in good shape and it is expected that the population will build up again to its former density. WATERFOWL In the future, Kentucky Woodlands may be looked upon as, primarily, a waterfowl refuge. The success of waterfowl manage- ment here has surpassed expectations and the refuge promises to be an important unit in the management of waterfowl of the Mississippi flyway. Prior to the establishment of the lakes, ducks and geese were almost unknown in this vicinity. Within four years after their flooding, as many as 10,000 ducks of several species could be seen on these lakes during the winter. The mallard and the black duck are the principal species. Pintails, ringnecks, lesser scaups, wood ducks, baldpates, gadwalls, goldeneyes, ruddy ducks, buffleheads, and mergansers are common. The response of Canada geese to the refuge was not as im- mediate as that of the ducks but it is even more satisfactory. Large fields adjacent to Empire and Honker Lakes and to Kentucky Lake on the west side of the refuge have been cleared of brush and crops of small grain for winter green food and corn and milomaize are planted and are ready for the geese when they arrive in the fall. In 1940, eight crippled geese from Horseshoe Lake in Illinois were placed on Hematite Lake as decoys. It was encouraging to refuge personnel that six Canada geese stopped and spent a day on Empire Lake. During the fall and winter of 1941 and 1942 three flocks of 28, 48, and 50 were observed on the refuge. And so each year there was a gradual increase in the number of Canada geese us- ing the area. By the fall of 1945 there was a winter resident popu- 273 Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science lation of about 250 geese. In the following spring 56 pinioned de- coys from Carolina Sandhills Refuge were penned at Empire Lake. The following fall and winter there was a resident population of 475 geese. The following years showed a continued increase. Dur- ing the winter of 1949-50, a peak of about 3,000 geese used the refuge and spent the winter there and nearby on Kentucky Lake and in neighboring grain fields. Kentucky Woodlands is not considered as merely a kind of museum of native wildlife, but rather as a unit in a system of refuges and wildlife mangement areas whose object is the restoration of North American wildlife. It works in conjunction with a series of federal and state waterfowl refuges and managed hunting areas, extending along the system of T.V.A. lakes in Kentucky, Tennessee, and Ala- bama. This has resulted in a desirable eastward extension of the Mississippi waterfowl flyway. SUPERVISED HUNTING AND TRAPPING Since 1946, the state of Kentucky has conducted a live trapping project for the purpose of restocking wildlife refuges and manage- ment areas throughout the state with turkeys, deer, and raccoons taken from Kentucky Woodlands Refuge. Hunting and trapping are not entirely and forever excluded from this refuge. In fact, when a species becomes over-abundant, it may be good management to remove the surplus in this way. In years of a heavy squirrel crop, squirrel hunts, supervised by per- sonnel of the refuge and the Kentucky Department of Conservation, are held. In the fall of 1949, a supervised coon hunt was conducted. The trapping of fur animals under permit is allowed at times when it is deemed desirable to reduce the fur animal population. It is entirely possible that, in the future, some regulated hunting of deer and turkeys may be conducted if these species build up a popula- tion that can safely stand such removal. GEOLOGICAL SKETCH OF THE JACKSON PURCHASE* EK Wood Kentucky Geological Survey Kentucky is divided into several physiographic provinces each with its own rather distinctive characteristics. The Cumberland Pla- teau of eastern Kentucky, with its rugged mountains, scenic beauty, widespread forests and vast coal deposits, is one example of these provinces. Another is the Bluegrass Region, famous the world over for its fertile farm and pasture land which supports the very impor- tant tobacco and horse industries. Still others are the Pennyroyal famous for the great Mammoth and associated caverns, good farm land and high calcium limestones, and the western Kentucky Coal Basin which produces most of Kentucky's petroleum and a consid- erable amount of coal. The Jackson Purchase is another province with its own peculiar characteristics. The types of rocks present in outcrop and the influence of the elements (weathering) on them is an important factor in the forma- tion of these various provinces. The outcrop pattern of the different systems of rocks shown in colors on the geologic map of Kentucky corresponds very closely to the physiographic provinces. In the Jackson Purchase region some of the older rocks which outcrop in other parts of the state have been covered by younger formations consisting mainly of sands, gravels, and clays. This was accomplished by submergence of the area and the formation of a sort of glorified Gulf of Mexico which extended northward over what is now the Jackson Purchase region. These waters were re- sponsible for the deposition of these younger sediments. Thus we find a different type of formation in the Jackson Purchase from that in any other section of the state. It should be apparent from an east-west cross section through the state that one would not expect to find in the Purchase Region the coals of the western Kentucky Coal Basin or eastern Kentucky Coal Fields or the high calcium limestones of the Pennyroyal. Like- wise, the Mississippian oil bearing formations of the western Ken- tucky Coal Basin which account for perhaps 75% _ of Kentucky's oil production would not be present. So, while the Purchase lacks certain minerals found in other ® Condensation of a talk presented at the 1950 Spring Meeting of the Kentucky Academy of Science at Murray State College. 275 Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science parts of the state, it in turn possesses its own characteristic minerals. Probably the most important of these is its ball, sagger, wad and other high grade types of ceramic clay. In 1946 the value of ball clay alone totaled about one million dollars. Other mineral resources include ground water, sand and gravel, chert and the possibility of oil or gas. Not a great deal is known concerning these mineral resources and more information must be compiled if they are to be efficiently developed. At present, the Agricultural and Industrial Development Board through the Kentucky Geological Survey is carrying on mineral re- source investigations in the vicinity of Henderson, Hopkinsville and Paintsville. Ground water investigations are also being carried on in close cooperation with the above program and in Louisville and Covington. Four inner Bluegrass counties have already been survey- ed and water maps issued. Also of vital importance to many state industries and agencies is the topographic mapping program under the sponsorship of the Agricultural and Industrial Development Board in cooperation with the U.S. Geological Survey. The goal of this program is to provide statewide coverage of modern up-to-date topographic maps on a scale of 1 inch = 2600 feet. It is hoped that the mineral resource investigation will also be put on a statewide basis so that every section of Kentucky will know what mineral resources are present and how to develop them efficiently. 276 ADSORPTION OF ALIPHATIC ACIDS ON A WEAK BASE ANION EXCHANGER® Sigfred Peterson and Robert W. Jeffers Chemistry Department, College of Arts and Sciences, University of Louisville, Louisville 8, Ky. Equilibrium isotherms have been measured at 30.3°C. for the reaciion be- tween Amberlite IR-4B and the acids chloracetic, formic, acetic, propionic, butyric, and isobutyric. Formic and chloracetic are more strongly taken up than the others from dilute solutions. A strong adsorption from high concentrations of butyric and isobutyric is probably due to true adsorption. While considerable attention has been given in recent years to the factors influencing cation exchange equilibrium, little attention has been given to equilibria involving anion exchange resins. Kunin and Meyers (1) show graphically a variety of equilibria involving a weak-base resin, Bishop has correlated adsorption of a wide variety of acids by both weak base (2) and strong base (3) resins, and Robinson and Mills (4) show the adsorption by another weak base resin of normal aliphatic acids from water, acetone, and hydrocar- bon solvent. Cleaver and Cassidy (5) show adsorption of glutamic acid by both anion and cation exchangers. It is the purpose of this work to give a quantitative description of the adsorption of carboxylic acids by a weak base resin and to correlate the adsorption with other properties of the acids. EXPERIMENTAL Materials. — Amberlite IR-4B anion exchange resin (we are indebted to the Res- inous Products Division, Rohm and Haas Company, for a generous supply of the resin) in 500 g. batches was left in contact with distilled water for a week, with water changed once or twice daily. The resin was then placed in a large Buchner funnel, washed with one liter of distilled water using gentle suction, and treated with a 5% solution of hydrochloric acid without suction until sufficient acid had been run through to convert the resin to the chloride form. The resin was then similarly treated with three one-liter portions of 5% sodium hydroxide, and washed with water. This washing with sodium hydroxide followed by washing with water was continued until the pH of the washings was the same as that of the water used. Full suction was then applied for one hour. The resin was then removed from the funnel and dried in vacuo over calcium ‘This work was performed under a contract with the Atomic Energy Commission and also received some support from the College of Arts and Sciences Research Fund, The paper is based on the M.S. Thesis research of Mr. R. W_ Jeffers. Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science chloride for three days. Resin was used soon after processing to avoid decom- position. Laboratory distilled water was further demineralized by a mixed-bed ion exchange column. : C. P. Baker’s analyzed formic and acetic acid, Coleman and Bell C. P. butyric acid and Dow specially purified chloracetic acid were used. Eimer and Amend C. P. propionic acid and Sapon Laboratories isobutyric acid were distilled, the fractions used boiling respectively at 141.0°C. (750 mm.) and 158.4°C. (760 mm.). Procedure. — To weighed samples of resin (usually about 2 g.) in Pyrex glass stoppered bottles were added 100 ml. portions of acid of known concentration. The bottle was then agitated gently, sealed with paraffin wax and placed in a constant temperature bath at 30.3°C. for seventy-two hours, a time found to be quite sufficient for the system to reach equilibrium. The bottles were then removed and the concentration of the acid in the solution measured. Acid concentrations were measured by titration with standardized sodium hydroxide. For acid concentrations below 0.02 M conductometric titrations (6) -were used. RESULTS AND Discussion From the decrease in acid concentration in the solution the con- centration, y, of acid in the resin phase is calculated in millimoles per gram of dry resin. A number of graphical representations of the equilibrium data were plotted in order to find clues as to a suitable mathematical interpretation of the data. As illustrated in Fig. 1 for two of the acids, plots of y as a function of the equilibrium concen- tration, c, of the solution, as in typical adsorption isotherms, show slopes continuously decreasing from large values at low concentrations. While adsorption of strong mineral acids on a similar resin was found by Meyers, Eastes and Urquhart (7) to follow the Freundlich isotherm, graphs of log y versus log c for aliphatic acids on another similar resin were found by Robinson and Mills (4) to show slopes decreasing with increasing concentration, suggesting a saturation effect. Our data, as illustrated in Fig. 2 for chloracetic and acetic acids, show the same decreasing slope. This suggests fitting the data with the Langmuir isotherm which is derived for adsorbents of limited capacity, unquestionably a property of ion exchange resins if the “adsorption” is confined to the basic groups of the resin. In his report on the reaction between acids and weak base anion exchangers, Bishop (2) has derived the Langmuir isotherm in a form applicable to both weak and strong acids. 278 Anion Exchanger Adsorption of Aliphatic Acids On A Weak Base TP -2f/ Aisojuy uo spray ru4oy puo aW3wKh4NGOS/ 4O surseyzosy ‘1 BI ¥ (7/szjou) 2 b'o Zo oW BO 9'O UISE/ P/O Sh OF “JWwuE, UIS8s P/O Ee ee ‘asussoy @ of CE ‘Olu4o4 0 LUISOAP/0 SP'OE ‘BIAKZNIOS/ © USO P/O pps “QIIX~Nqos! @ DEOE 40 PIob DBUkyNYGos! O Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science SPIO 242204047 pub r/far[py yo sutsYyfos/ 2WYy,IJ0607 ‘2 6/4 ce 92 Boz 2oUee ey ov _ $0 24390 O : D/Y4ao040/49 ag: |20 \90 8O 280 ‘Adsorption of Aliphatic Acids On A Weak Base Anion Exchanger } } g The Langmuir isotherm can be reduced to the linear form Cf Ae By Cl) in which A is theoretically the reciprocal of the capacity of the resin and B is inversely proportional to the “affinity” of the resin for the acid. Fig. 3 shows a test of this equation for propionic acid and butyric acid. Formic, acetic and chloracetic fit equation (1) as well o 09 0. 8 0.7 | | () + iz O propionic acid 0.6 O butyric acid Os 0.4 C (Moles) Frg.3. /sotherms at 30.3° plotted to test the Langmuir /sotherm. Straight lines are eg.) with least squares values of Aand B 0.1/4 0/2 0/0 0.08 cly g./eal. 281 Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science as propionic, giving fair agreement with the data to about 0.7 M. Isobutyric, like butyric, does not fit very well, showing important de- viations above 0.25 M. A careful examination of Fig. 3 shows also deviations from the straight lines at low concentrations, possibly indicating a difference in the nature of the “adsorbed” state at low concentrations. No other interpretation has occurred to us which permits the calculation of numerical quantities giving a measure of the equilibrium. Lacking a satisfactory analytical comparison betwen the acids, we have read from smooth curves values of y for round concentra- tions. These are given in Table I along with the ionization constants compiled by Dippy (8). It can be seen that the stronger acids are more strongly adsorbed from dilute solutions, while the longer-chain acids are more strongly adsorbed from more concentrated solutions. Crossing of the isotherms in Fig. 1 also illustrates this. Table I. Adsorption (millimoles/g.) at round equilibrium molarities. Acid K x 105 Ges WIL @ S08 (eS OS 6s Lv Chloracetic 137.8 5.9 6.8 7.5 Formic TA 6.0 7.0 38 8.4 Acetic 1.754 4.3 5.2 5.6 6.3 Propionic 1.34 4.2 Ball 6.0 7.3 Butyric 1.50 4.6 6.5 9.3 Isobutyric 1.38 4.1 5.9 8.2 The increased adsorption at high concentrations (shown by the continued rise in Fig. 1 and the decreasing slope in Fig. 3) can be explained in a number of ways. Studies of cation-exchange (9) and strong base anion-exchange (10) equilibria have found that in some cases water taken up by the resin cannot be neglected in calculating compositions. If appreciable water is absorbed by the resin in our experiments, it can be shown that the error in y is proportional to the equilibrium acid concentration. This, however, is in the wrong direction unless we make the rather implausible assumption that the 282 Adsorption of Aliphatic Acids On A Weak Base Anion Exchanger resin carboxylate has a smaller affinity for water than does the resin base. There is no reason to believe that the resin phase is an ideal solution. Since one component of this phase is ionic, the other not, the activity coefficients should differ significantly from unity. This has been found (9, 11) to be true even when both components of the resin are ionic. The process studied here is called adsorption only because it is measured and described like adsorption; it is in truth an acid-base reaction, the resin being a high molecular weight polyamine which is converted by the acid to a polycation resin which somewhere in its structure contains anions in quantity sufficient to keep the phase electrically neutral. That adsorption at high concentration is far great- er for butyric acid and isobutyric suggests, however, that true adsorp- tion is taking place in addition to neutralization of the resin base, since (12) increasing chain length increases adsorption of fatty acids on charcoal from aqueous solution. Also, the total concentration in the resin phase in equilibrium with high concentrations in solution is in the case of butyric acid greater than that calculated from the re- ported (1) nitrogen content of the resin with the assumption that all the nitrogen is in active amino groups. True adsorption has for some time been considered (2, 13) a source of error in equilibrium studies of this type. Recently evidence for true adsorption has been presented in studies of carboxylic acids with a strong base anion ex- changer (14) and of weak bases with cation exchangers (15). Car- boxylic acids are also apparently adsorbed by cation exchange resins (15) and by salt forms of strong base anion exchangers (16), and adsorption even of salts has recently been found (9) an important factor in cation exchange equilibrium. To determine the temperature dependence of the equilibrium, parallel series of equilibrium measurements were made with the series of six acids at 24.4° and 30.4°C. The resin was older at the time of these experiments, and apparently less stable, since the solutions show- ed a yellow color due to resin decomposition products. Nevertheless the equilibria found at either temperature fit the 30.3° isotherms about as well as do the points upon which the iso- therms are based. This is illustrated for two of the acids in Fig. 1. From this we can conclude that the equilibrium does not depend Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science greatly upon temperature or upon age of the resin. The latter is reassuring to us since it was impossible to determine all petats on six isotherms simultaneously. LITERATURE CITED R. Kunin and R. J. Meyers, J. Am. Chem. Soc. 69, 2874 (1947). J. A. Bishop, J. Phys. Chem. 50, 6 (1946). J. A. Bishop, J. Phys. & Colloid Chem. 54, 697 (1950). D. A. Robinson and G. F. Mills, Ind. Eng. Chem. 41, 2221 (1949). C. S. Cleaver and H. G. Cassidy, J. Am. Chem. Soc. 72, 1147 (1950). H. H. Willard, L. L. Merritt, and J. A. Dean, Instrumental Methods of Analysis, 2nd Ed., D. Van Nostrand Co., New York, 1951, p. 235. R. J. Meyers, J. W. Eastes, and D. Urquhart, Ind. Eng. Chem. 33, 1270 (1941). J. F. J. Dippy, Chem. Rev. 25, 204 (1939) W. K. Lowen, R. W. Stoenner, W. J. Argersinger, Jr., A. W. Davidson and D. N. Hume, J. Am. Chem. Soc. 79, 2666 (1951). C. W. Davies and T. G. Jones, J. Chem. Soc. 1951, 2615. W. J. Argersinger, Jr., A. W. Davidson and O. D. Bonner, Trans. Kansas Acad. Sci. 53, 404 (1950). KE. R. Liner and R. A. Gortner, J. Phys. Chem. 39, 35 (1935). M. C. Schwartz, W. R. Edwards, Jr. and G. Boudreaux, Ind. Eng. Chem. 32, 1462 (1940). S. Peterson and R. W. Jeffers, J. Am. Chem. Soc. 74, 1605 (1952). C. W. Davies and G. Garrod Thomas, J. Chem. Soc. 1951, 2624. S. Peterson and H. Footerman, unpublished results. 284 RESEARCH NOTES AN ALBINO SNAKE (ELAPHE OBSOLETA) Inasmuch as reported instances of albinism in snakes are somewhat un- common, it seems desirable to record that an albino Elaphe obsoleta (Say) was taken in Oldham County, Kentucky about the 12th of September, 1951. The living specimen was presented to the writer by Perry Farmer, a teacher at Anchorage, Kentucky, who in turn had received it from one of his students. Description of specimen: This snake, a female 656 mm. in length, is es- sentially a “pure” albino in appearance. The general color is a light cream. The iris is of this same color, while the pupil is dark red and the tongue pink. The skin is not entirely without pigment, however, and the blotched pat- tern characteristic of Elaphe obsoleta confinis (Cope) and of immature E. o. obsoleta (Say) is faintly discernible. Examination under a lens reveals the presence of small amounts of red and yellow pigments in most of the body scales. The unequal distribution of these pigments, particularly the erythrin, is responsible for the appearance, faint though it be, of the coloration pat- tern. A third pigment, a melanin, is present as small punctations on most of the head shields and on a few of the body scales. There is one obvious dif- ference between the coloration of this snake and that of newly-born water- snakes (Natrix sipedon sipedon L.) described some years ago!. In the latter the areas corresponding to the dark blotches of normal individuals were of deep flesh or pink color, a condition which resulted from the visibility of cutaneous blood. In the Elaphe, however, these areas as well as the spaces between are pervaded by the opaque cream which seemingly is due to struc- ture rather than pigment. The scutellation and size appear to be not unusual for this species: dorsal scale rows 25-24- ea ventrals 236 plus divided anal; caudals 74; suprala- bials 11; oculars 1, 2; temporals (left) 2 + 3 and (right) 2(+1)+3; total length 656 mm; tail length 102 mm; ratio of tail to total length 0.155. Remarks: The present specimen _ provides further evidence (see loc. cit.) that albinism in snakes frequently or even generally is not com- plete but consists rather of the absence of a melanin which is abundant in normal individuals, while pigments normally present in small quantities are still present in albinos. It is logical to assume, therefore, that the different pigments are under the control of different genes. Albinism in its usual form (near or complete absence of melanin) appears to be inherited as a single factor Mendelian recessive, but little or nothing seems to have been published about the inheritance of the minor pigments. A problem in the application of common names arises in connection with the albino discussed in this paper, since one cannot determine whether it is referable to E. 0. obsoleta (the Pilot Black Snake) or E. 0. confinis (sometimes called the Gray Rat Snake). These two forms are generally distinguished, of course, by the amount of pigmentation (particularly melanin) present in 1 Clay, Copeia, 1935: 115-118 285 Research Notes normally-colored individuals. Geography does not provide the answer, for ob- soleta and confinis intergrade in this region. Since individuals frequently cannot be determined reliably to subspecies, particularly among highly polymorphic species or in areas of intergradation, it is desirable to extend the practice of applying one common name to the entire population of such species with the addition of adjectives for the re- spective subspecies. In this particular case, since the name “rat snake” is more firmly estab- lished for certain other species of Elaphe, and the term “black” is not descrip- tive of E. 0. confinis, it would be appropriate to apply to the species E. obsoleta the common name of “Pilot Snake”. The two forms under discussion may then be known as the Black Pilot (E. 0. obsoleta) and the Gray Pilot Snake (E. o. confinis). Wituiam M. Cray, DEPARTMENT OF BioLocy, UNIVERSITY OF LOUISVILLE, LouisviLLE 8, KENTUCKY. HAC fe 1D) Udy UE NES fee I as IE IG, S THE 1952 SPRING MEETING The 1952 spring meeting of the KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE was held at Mammoth Cave National Park, May 9 and 10, 1952. The com- mittee on arrangements consisted of L. Y. Lancaster (Chairman), Ward Sump- ter and Gordon Wilson. The program follows: Friday afternoon, May 9 A symposium on Mammoth Cave and Mammoth Cave National Park. “The history of Mammoth Cave and the Mammoth Cave Park.” H. B. Lovell. “The geology of Mammoth Cave and the Park.” C. T. Reid, Park Naturalist. “The anatomy of the eyes of some cave animals.” W. B. Owsley. “The birds of Mammoth Cave National Park.” Gordon Wilson. “The flora of Mammoth Cave National Park.” P. A. Davies. Friday evening, May 9 “The National Parks.” (illustrated) T. C. Miller, Superintendent of Mam- moth Cave National Park. Saturday morning, May 10 Field Trips: Plants. Mary Wharton and P. A. Davies, leaders. . Birds. Gordon Wilson and Harvey Lovell, leaders. . Amphibians and reptiles. Roger Barbour, leader. . Geology. C. T. Reid, leader. BO lS 286 Academy Affairs Due to rain, only a few members attended the field trips. Many members, however, enjoyed going through the caves and noting the beautiful formations. In spite of the weather, a successful meeting was held. 1952 CONFERENCE OF ACADEMIES OF SCIENCE The next Conference of Academies of Science will be held on December 28, 1952, in St. Louis, Mo., as a part of the program of the A.A.A.S. The morning session will be a business meeting devoted to a number of vitally important questions concerning academy functions. Committees will report on “Cooperation among Academies of Science,” “Cooperation of the Academies with the Academy Conference,* and “The Committee to Sponsor the Junior Scientists’ Assembly.” Dr. C. L. Baker will give a brief history of the Academy Conference. The Resolutions Committee will make recommendations as to what action the Conference should take in reference to the above reports. The morning session will conclude with a roundtable discussion on “The Responsibilities of Academies of Science in Promoting Improvement of Science Teaching in the Public Schools.” The afternoon will be devoted to a second roundtable discussion of aca- demy opportunities and should be of primary interest to all academy mem- bers. There topics will be discussed: “Relations of Academies to College Stu- dents,” “Relations of Academies to the Public,” and “Relations of Academies to the Press.” The evening meeting will be a dinner for members of the Conference and their guests. At this time Dr. Paul Klopsteg will speak on “What, from the Standpoint of Geographic Distribution, the National Science Foundation is Doing in the Allocation of Awards.” Conference of State Academies of Science. —Austin Ralph Middleton, President It is with regret that we report the resignation of two associate editors, both of whom have accepted positions outside the state of Kentucky. Dr. Sigfred Peterson has joined the staff of the Atomic Energy Commission at Oak Ridge, Tennessee, and Mr. William R. Savage now is with an engineer- ing firm in Cincinnati. Each assisted materially in the preparation of this issue. The Academy is grateful for their services. Manuscripts for the next issue are now being processed. Additional papers received in the near future should obtain prompt publication. Short papers, of generally not more than two pages, will appear under “Research Notes.” Distribution of the TRANSACTIONS to other libraries and _ societies is now being handled by the University of Louisville General Library. Under an agreement with the ‘Academy, materials received in exc change become the property of the University, but will be available to KAS members upon re- quest. A list of these publications will be printed in a future issue of the TRANSACTIONS. For this exchange privilege, the University of Louisville contributes $300 annually to the Academy. 287 INDEX Academy affairs, 68, 116, 208, 286 Acetone, conductance of ferric chloride solutions in, 129 Acylaminoacid esters, preparation of, 213 Air conditioners, heat pumps for, 1, 156 Albinism in snakes, 285 Aliphatic acids, adsorption on a weak base anion exchanger, 277 Alkali iodides: distribution between ethylene glycol and ethyl acetate, 137 Alloy, copper-beryllium, electron and optical photomicrographs of, 248 Aloe, 111 Andrews, B. S., 48 Archdeacon, J. W., 100 Barbour, Roger, 215 Barnes, W. R., 149 Belcher, Ralph L., 129 Borum, Olin H., 213 Bowman, M. I., 78 Carreiro, A. B., 100 Cartin, Rafael A., 38 Chapman Plate, comparison with Sherman ‘Test for streptococci, 45 Chromosome behaviour in a Gasteria-Aloe hybrid, 111 Cicadellidae of Kentucky, 54 Clay, William M., 285 Concetta, Sister M., 104 Conductance, electrical ferric chloride solutions in acetone, 129 salts in dimethylformamide, 221 Copper, Orland W., 146 Copper-beryllium alloy, photomicrographs of, 248 Copper chromate, free energy of, 146 Cypert, Eugene, ites 20 Davies, P. A., 228 Dawson, L. R., 129, 187, 221 Deer, White-tailed, 272 Diketene: use in preparation of 1-xylyl-1, 3-butanediones, 265 Dimethylformamide, electrical conductances of solutions of salts in, 221 Distribution ratios of alkali iodides between ethylene glycol and ethyl acetate, 137 Dunning, E. L., 82 Edwards, O. F., 248 Electron photomicrographs, comparison with optical, 248 Emissivites of paints, 149 Esters, acylaminoacid, preparation of, 213 288 Index Estes, Reedus Ray, 265 Ethyl acetate, 137 Ethyl glycine: effects on food ingestion, 100 Ethylene glycol, 137 Ferric chloride, conductance in acetone, 129 Formol titration, 48 Frasera carolinensis, structure and function of glands on the petals of, 228 Free energy, of copper chromate, 146 Gasteria, 111 Glands, of Frasera carolinensis, 228 Glycine: effects on food ingestion, 100 Golben, M., 221 Greenwell, Sister Rose Agnes, 173, 178 Griffith, Edward J., 137 Gruchalla, Frank J., 45 Habitats, animal, on Big Black Mountain in Kentucky, 215 Hamann. G. B:, 45 Heat pump absorption type, 15 compression type, 16 earth: performance on cooling cycle, 156 earth: performance on heating cycle, 82 for air conditioning, 1 Peltier, 5 water heater, 235 Heat transfer: paints, 149 Heat transmission, radiant, 149 Heer, John E., Jr., 258 Heines, Sister Virginia, 173, 178 Homoptera: Cicadellidae of Kentucky, 54 Ingestion, food, 100 Jackson Purchase, geological sketch of, 275 Jeffers, Robert W., 277 Joffe, Irving B., 78 Juhasz, Sister Roderick, 173, 178 Kentucky Woodlands National Wildlife Refuge, 270 Ketones: preparation by the Sommelet reaction, 78 Koch, John R., 104 Kreke, Corenilus W., 173, 178 Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science Leader, G. Rs 221 Leaf hoppers, 54 Lespedeza seed oil, economic status of, 80 Lovell, Harvey B., 121 Mailing list, 201 Malt sprouts: effect on anaerobic growth of distillers’ yeast, 69 Maynor, H. W., Jr., 248 McHargue, C. J., 248 Meter sticks, precision and accuracy of, 102 Middleton, A. R., 287 O'Leary, Sister Mary Adeline, 173, 178 Pendley, L. C., 189 Penrod EB ole Oo alo On 23. Peterson, Sigfred, 102, 146, 377 Photomicrographs, comparison of electron and optical, 248 Price, Sarah F., bibliography of, 121 Resistivity, electrical, in subsurface earth exploration, 189 Riley, Herbert Parkes, 111 Rinne, W. W., 78 Rosen, A. A., 48 Scalf, R. E., 69 Shah, N. P., 149 Sherman Test, comparison with Chapman Plate, 45 Snake, Albino, 285 Snakes (see “Habitats, animal’) Sommelet reaction in preparation of ketones, 78 Specific gravity of binary wax mixtures, 104 Staphylococcus aureus, effects on blood and liver catalase in mice, 173, 178 Stier alee. 109 Streptococci from teeth, comparison of Sherman tests with Chapman plate for identification, 45 Structural settlement computations, 258 Subsurface earth exploration, 189 Thompson, H. H., 82 Thornton, R. C., 156 Tockman, Albert, 265 Waterfowl: in Kentucky Woodlands National Wildlife Refuge, 271 Water heater, performance of a domestic heat pump, 235 Waters, bacteriological survey of well, 38 290 Index Waxes, binary: effects of composition on density, 104 Weaver, R. H., 38 Wiley, Richard H., 80, 213 Wild turkey in Kentucky Woodlands National Wildlife Refuge, 273 Wilkes, James C., 78 Wood, E. B., 275 Yeast, distillers, effect of malt sprouts on anaerobic growth of, 69 Young, D. A., Jr., 54 Zimmerman, H. K., Jr., 221 291 NOTICE TO CONTRIBUTORS The TRANSACTIONS OF THE KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE is a medium for publication of original investigations in science. In addition, as the official organ of the Kentucky Academy of Science, it publishes programs of the meetings of the Academy, abstracts of papers presented before the annual meetings, reports of the Academy’s officers and committees, as well as news and announce- ments of interest to the membership. 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