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KENTUCKY
ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

— Official Publication of the Academy

Volume 40
Numbers 1-2
March 1979

The Kentucky Academy of Science
Founded 8 May 1914

OFFICERS FOR 1979

President: Sanford L. Jones, Eastern Kentucky University, Richmond 40475

President Elect: Rudolph Prins, Western Kentucky University, Bowling Green
42101

Past President: Charles E. Kupchella, Cancer Center, University of Louisville, —
Louisville 40202

Vice President: Frank A. Butler, Northern Kentucky University, Highland Heights
41076

Secretary: Robert Creek, Eastern Kentucky University, Richmond 40475

Treasurer: Morris Taylor, Eastern Kentucky University, Richmond 40475

Director of the Junior Academy: Herbert Leopold, Western Kentucky
University, Bowling Green 42101
Representatives to AAAS Council: Branley A. Granson, Eastern Kentucky
University, Richmond 40475
John M. Carpenter, University of Kentucky,
Lexington 40506

BOARD OF DIRECTORS

Thomas B. Calhoon 1979 Donald C. Haney 1981
Harold Eversmeyer 1979 William F. Wagner 1981
Gertrude Ridgel 1980 Jerry C. Davis 1982
Ivan Potter 1980 Daniel Knopf 1982

EDITORIAL BOARD
Editor: Louis A. Krumholz, Office of Academic Affairs, University of Louisville,
Louisville 40208
Associate Editor: Varley E. Wiedeman, Department of Biology, University of
Louisville, Louisville 40208
Editorial Board: John C. Philley, School of Science and Mathematics, Morehead
State University, Morehead 40351
Dennis E. Spetz, Department of Geography, University of
Louisville, Louisville, Kentucky 40208
William F. Wagner, Department of Chemistry, University of
Kentucky, Lexington 40506

All manuscripts and correspondence concerning manuscripts should be addressed to the
Editor. Authors must be members of the Academy.

The TRANSACTIONS are indexed in the Science Citation Index. Coden TKASAT.

Membership in the Academy is open to interested persons upon nomination, payment of
dues, and election. Application forms for membership may be obtained from the Secretary. The
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The TRANSACTIONS are issued semiannually in March and September. Four numbers
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Correspondence concerning memberships or subscriptions should be addressed to the Sec-
retary. Exchanges and correspondence relating to exchanges should be addressed to the Librar-
ian, University of Louisville, Louisville, Kentucky 40208, the exchange agent for the Academy.

TRANSACTIONS of the
KENTUCKY
ACADEMY of SCIENCE

March 1070

VOLUME 40
NUMBERS 1-2

Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 40(1—2), 1979, 1-20

Distribution, Abundance, and Species Diversity of Fishes
of the Upper Salt River Drainage, Kentucky

Rosert D. Hoyt’, Stuart E. NEFF, AND VINCENT H. REsH™
Water Resources Laboratory, University of Louisville, Louisville, Kentucky 40208

ABSTRACT

The fishes of the upper Salt River, Kentucky, and 2 of its major tributaries, the Beech Fork
and Chaplin River, were intensively studied during 1969-1972. All together, 46,825 fish
representing 6 orders, 12 families, 65 species, and 5 hybrids were collected. Twenty-three
species occurred in all 6 drainage components studied. Forage species represented the greatest
diversity of species (36) and number of individuals (72% ); rough species (18) had the lowest
number of individuals (2.7% ). Game species (11) had the lowest number of species but the
highest biomass component (50-59%). Standing crop estimates ranged from 31.8 lb/acre
(35.6 kg/ha, Chaplin River tributaries) to 68.1 Ib/acre (76.3 kg/ha, Beech Fork tributaries )
and was higher in the upstream reaches of the Beech Fork and Chaplin River as stream flow
diminished and stream intermittency developed. Standing crop estimates on the Salt River
were affected by local municipal sewage effluents. Wide ranges in diversity and standing
crop estimates were found in the 117 quantitative collections. Numerical diversity was highest
in the Beech Fork and its tributaries and lowest in the Salt River, its tributaries, and the
Chaplin River tributaries. Diversity generally increased from upstream to downstream stations
in all systems of the drainage. Numbers of species and individuals and standing crop and
diversity estimates are both mathematically and biologically interrelated. Significant differ-
ences were found between seining, electroshocking, and toxicant (hydrogen cyanide) collec-
tions. Hydrogen cyanide collecting techniques yielded the highest average number of species
collected (21.8) and standing crop estimates (49.3 Ib/acre, 55.3 kg/ha); seining techniques
yielded the lowest values (10.9 species, 17.4 lb/acre, 19.5 kg/ha). Electroshocking collections
had higher average numerical diversities (2.72) than the toxicant samples. Average biomass
diversities were also highest with the toxicant (2.76), but were the same for electroshocking
and seining collections (2.26). Large numbers of samples may be required to accurately
characterize stream systems by standing crop measurements.

INTRODUCTION

During the past decade, studies of stream
fish communities have flourished. Such in-
vestigations have been encouraged by the

‘Present address:
Western Kentucky University,
Kentucky 42101.

* Present address: Division of Entomology and
Parasitology, University of California, Berkeley,
California 94720.

of Biology,
Green,

Department
Bowling

frequent inquiry into stream systems and
the recognition of the increasing pollution
that endangers them. The information
gleaned from such studies has ranged from
annotated faunal lists and surveys to the
use of various indexes to describe and
quantify community structure and compo-
sition (e.g., Smith and Powell 1971, Bar-

bour and Brown 1974).

2 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 40( 1-2)

This report represents part of an exten-
sive, preimpoundment study of the upper
Salt River, Kentucky, and 2 upstream trib-
utaries, the Beech Fork and Chaplin
River. Earlier reports from the study area
include an annotated list of fishes of the
upper Salt River drainage area (Hoyt et al.
1970), autecology of the silverjaw minnow
Ericymba buccata (Hoyt 1970, 1971a,
1971b) and the fantail darter Etheostoma
flabellare (Baker 1978), community struc-
ture (Resh et al. 1975), life histories and
production dynamics of caddisflies (Resh
1976, 1977), distribution of stoneflies
(White 1974), water chemistry (Miller et
al. 1977), and general ecology of the drain-
age area (Krumholz 1971, Krumholz and
Neff 1972, Neff and Krumholz 1973). The
objectives of this phase of the preimpound-
ment survey were to determine the quality
and quantity of the ichthyofauna, to de-
scribe its community organization by means
of various diversity indexes, and to compare
the effectiveness of sampling fish popula-
tions by several methods.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

We thank Dr. Louis A. Krumholz for his
advice and comments throughout this study
and for his review of the manuscript. The
assistance of E. J. Bacon, S. B. Crider, S. A.
Elbert, D. E. Hinton, A. C. Hoyt, D. E.
Jennings, R. L. Lattis, S. Neff, J. S. Parsons,
D. S. White, and J. D. Woodling in the col-
lecting, sorting, and weighing of specimens
is appreciated. We also thank R. McCurry,
M. Barnby, and G. Lamberti, for assistance
in final preparation of the manuscript. The
work on which this report is based was sup-
ported in part by the U.S. Department of
the Interior, Office of Water Resources Re-
search, as authorized under the Water Re-
sources Act of 1964, Project No. B-022-KY.

METHODS AND MATERIALS

The Study Area

The Salt River drains 2,920 square miles
(7,563 km?) of the Bluegrass and Knobs
regions of north-central Kentucky (Fig. 1).

The basin’s gently rolling topography and
shallow, limestone bedrock that forms the
stream bed in much of the river system con-
tributes to rapid surface runoff and fre-
quent flooding along the Salt River (Hen-
drickson and Krieger 1964). Because of the
history of disastrous downstream flooding,
3 upstream flood control reservoirs were
proposed in 1962. Taylorsville Lake (Fig.
1) on the river's main stem is now under
construction; Campground Lake on the
Beech Fork and Chaplin River is in the
final planning stage; and Howardstown
Lake on the Rolling Fork is being held in
abeyance.

As part of the preimpoundment survey,
physical, chemical and biological data re-
lating to water quality have been gathered
(Krumholz 1971, Krumholz and Neff 1972,
Miller et al. 1977). In general, the river’s
water quality is very good, with medium
hard to hard water (120-230 mg/1 total
alkalinity) and relatively few domestic
point source effluents of pollution. Some
nutrient enrichment from agricultural, non-
point source runoff is evident (Miller et al.
1977). The Salt River supports a rather
rich, diversified macroinvertebrate benthic
fauna that in turn maintains a good, stable
fish community (Hoyt et al. 1970, Krum-
holz 1971).

The Collections

Fishes were collected with a 30-foot
(9.15-m) bag seine, minnow seines, and
dip nets in conjunction with electroshocking
gear, and with sodium cyanide. Electro-
shocking gear included a U.S. Army Signal
Corps Generator, Model GN-51-B (Hoyt et
al. 1970), and a Tiny Tiger portable gen-
erator. Cyanide was applied as small
briquets, in numbers based upon stream
dimensions at the collecting station, water
temperature, and rate of flow. Collecting
stations varied in length from 50 to 250 feet
(15.2 to 76.2 m) and were categorized by
habitat type and sampling method; surface
area at time of collection was calculated
for each station. Stations were approxi-
mately 5 miles (8 km) apart along the main

Diversity OF FisHEs IN SALT River, Kenrucky—Hoyt et al.

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4 Trans. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 40(1-2)

TaBLE 1.—LisT OF SPECIES AND THEIR DISTRIBUTION IN THE SALT RIVER DRAINAGE BASED ON 117 COL-
LECTIONS, 1969-1972

Salt Beech Chaplin
Salt River Beech Fork Chaplin River
Species River tribs Fork tribs River tribs

Lepisosteus osseus xX xX Xx
Anguilla rostrata’ XxX

Alosa_ chrysochloris*
Dorosoma cepedianum
Campostoma anomalum
Phoxinus erythrogaster
Cyprinus carpio

Ericymba_ buccata

Hybopsis amblops
Notemigonus crysoleucas
Notropis ardens

Notropis boops

Notropis buchanani*
Notropis cornutus

Notropis photogenis*
Notropis spilopterus
Notropis stramineus
Notropis whipplei
Phenacobius mirabilis
Pimephales notatus
Pimephales promelas
Semotilus atromaculatus
Carpiodes carpio+

Carpiodes cyprinus*
Catostomus commersoni
Hypentelium nigricans
Ictiobus cyprinellus
Minytrema melanops
Moxostoma duquesnei*
Moxostoma erythrurum
Moxostoma macrolepidotum'
Ictalurus melas

Ictalurus natalis

Ictalurus nebulosus

Ictalurus punctatus

Noturus eleutherus*

Noturus flavus

Noturus gyrinus*

Noturus miurus

Pylodictis olivaris*

Fundulus catenatus*
Fundulus notatus
Labidesthes sicculus
Ambloplites rupestris
Lepomis cyanellus

Lepomis humilis

Lepomis macrochirus
Lepomis megalotis

Lepomis microlophus
Lepomis cyanellus * humilis
Lepomis cyanellus > macrochirus*
Lepomis cyanellus ~ megalotis
Lepomis humilis > macrochirus
Lepomis macrochirus * megalotis
Micropterus dolomieui
Micropterus punctulatus
Micropterus salmoides

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DIVERSITY OF

FisHEs IN SALT River, KENrucky—Hoyt et al. 5

TABLE 1.—CONTINUED

/ Salt Ree Beech Beech Chaplin eet

Species River tribs Fork tribs River tribs
Pomoxis annularis X
Etheostoma blennioides X X X xX X xX
Etheostoma caeruleum xX Xx XxX XxX XxX X
Etheostoma flabellare X X X xX xX x
Etheostoma nigrum Xx XxX X X X X
Etheostoma_ spectabile' X
Etheostoma zonale Xx
Percina caprodes Xx Xx xX X X xX
Percina maculata XxX x X X X X
Percina phoxocephala' X XxX X
Stizostedion canadense XxX
Aplodinotus grunniens xX xX Se
Cottus carolinae XxX X

1 Denotes species not reported in 1970 study by Hoyt et al.

stems of the Salt River, Beech Fork, and
Chaplin River and were numbered from
downstream to upstream reaches (Fig. 1).

Data presented here represent 117 col-
lections made from 1969 to 1972, and in-
clude 45 samples from 37 stations on the
main stem of the Salt River, 17 samples
from Salt River tributaries, 18 samples from
14 stations on the Beech Fork, 7 samples
from Beech Fork tributaries, 23 samples
from 20 stations on the Chaplin River, and
7 samples from Chaplin River tributaries
(Fig. 1). Samples were collected from May
through November, but the most intensive
effort was made during summer. For pur-
poses of comparing downstream and up-
stream data, each stream was divided into
an upper and a lower section: Stations 1-18
and 19-37, respectively, on the Salt River;
Stations 1-7 and 8-14 on the Beech Fork;
and Stations 1-10 and 11-20 on the Chaplin
River (Fig. 1).

Ninety collections were made by electro-
fishing, 13 by standard seining methods,
and 14 by toxicant application. A total of
46,825 fish representing 6 orders, 12 fam-
ilies, and 70 species including 5 hybrids,
was taken in the study (Table 1). All speci-
mens were fixed in 10 percent formalin,
preserved in 70 percent ethyl alcohol and
deposited in the University of Louisville
fish collection.

Fishes were separated into 3 categories:
forage fishes or small fishes that serve as

prey throughout most of their lives; rough
fishes (including commercial species) or
those not sought by sportsmen and which
may or may not be of commercial value;
and game fishes or those sought by anglers
(Lagler 1956, Appendix F). Common and
scientific names of fishes follow Bailey et
ale G@l9O7O))r

Estimates of individual species diversity
were calculated by means of formulas de-
scribed in Wilhm (1967) and Wilhm and
Dorris (1968). Both numerical and_bio-
mass data were used in determining com-
munity diversity, maximum and minimum
diversity, and redundancy.

RESULTS
Species Composition

The main stem of the Salt River and its
tributaries had 57 species collected during
our study, the Chaplin River and its trib-
utaries, 53 species, and the Beech Fork sys-
tem, 43 species. Species collected subse-
quent to the report of Hoyt et al. (1970)
are annotated here, and all are considered
rare based on the percentage of the total
117 stations at which each species was col-
lected.

Anguilla rostrata (Lesueur), American eel,

0.8 percent.

Two specimens were taken in a sample
at Station 1 on the Beech Fork, in the lower

6 Trans. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 40( 1-2)

end of a long, deep pool among large boul-
ders. The species showed only a temporary
reaction to electroshocking, a reaction that
makes their capture very difficuit.

Alosa chrysochloris (Rafinesque ), skipjack
herring, 0.8 percent.

One specimen taken in the main stem of
the Salt River in a swift chute at Station 5.
The rarity of this species and its absence
in the upper reaches apparently is corre-
lated with its intolerance to turbidity and
its preference for large rivers such as the
Ohio (Trautman 1957).

Notropis buchanani Meek, ghost shiner, 5
percent.

Taken in 6 of the lowermost stations on
Beech Fork and Chaplin River. None were
taken in tributaries or in the main stem of
the Salt River. Not uncommon at some
stations where as many as 26 specimens
were collected in 1 sample.

Notropis photogenis (Cope), silver shiner,

3 percent.

Collected from 3 stations in lower reaches
of Beech Fork, Chaplin River, and a Chap-
lin tributary. Record extends statewide
range of Clay (1975) to include the Salt
River drainage in Nelson, Washington, and
Anderson counties. Normally represented
by only 1 or 2 specimens per collection, al-
though 1 sample contained 90 specimens.

Carpiodes carpio (Ratinesque ), river carp-
sucker, 3 percent.
Five young-of-the-year specimens taken
from the most downstream tributaries of
the Salt River sampled in this study.

Carpiodes cyprinus (Lesueur), quillback,

1.7 percent.

Taken at 2 stations on the most down-
stream tributary of the Beech Fork and at
the first station on the Chaplin River. Only
young of the year were taken.

Moxostoma duquesnei (Lesueur), black red-
horse, 0.5 percent.
One specimen was taken in a large pool
at the most downstream station on the
Beech Fork.

Moxostoma macrolepidotum (Lesueur),
shorthead redhorse, 3 percent.

Specimens were taken at Stations 2 and
3 on the Salt River, and 6 adults from the
lowermost station on the Chaplin River.

Noturus eleutherus Jordan, mountain mad-
tom, 0.8 percent.

Sixteen specimens were collected from a
riffle-shallow pool area with a gravel-bed-
rock substrate at Station 17 on the Salt
River. This record extends Clay’s (1975)
statewide distribution to the Salt River,
Anderson County.

Noturus gyrinus (Mitchill), tadpole mad-
tom, 0.8 percent.

One specimen was taken from the lower-
most station on the Chaplin River.

Pylodictis olivaris (Rafinesque), flathead
catfish, 3 percent.

Collected from lowermost stations on Salt
River, Beech Fork, and Chaplin River.
Usually, this species is confined to the
lower and middle portions of Kentucky
streams (Clay 1975), and it is resistant to
capture by seining and electroshocking.

Fundulus catenatus (Storer), northern stud-
fish, 0.8 percent.

One specimen was taken at the upper-
most station on the Chaplin River in a long,
shallow, silty bedrock pool.

Etheostoma spectabile (Agassiz), orange-
throat darter, 0.8 percent.

Nine specimens were taken in the same
pool with the northern studfish.

Percina phoxocephala (Nelson), slender-
head darter, 6 percent.

Taken in 6 of the lower stations of Salt
River and Beech Fork, also extending up to
midstream stations on Chaplin River.

Lepomis cyanellus x L. macrochirus, green
suntish xX bluegill.

One specimen was taken in the lower-
most tributary to the Salt River; 2 speci-
mens were also taken at the lowermost
station on the Beech Fork.

Diversity OF FISHES IN SALT RiIveR, KENtucKy—Hoyt et al.
; Y

Lepomis macrochirus X L. megalotis, blue-
gill < longear sunfish.

One specimen was collected at the sec-
ond uppermost station on the Beech Fork.

Species not represented in the Salt River
system but taken in the Chaplin River and
the Beech Fork included the black red-
horse, quillback, ghost shiner, and_ silver
shiner. The American eel was collected
only in the Beech Fork, and the brindled
madtom, northern studfish, and orange-
throat darter were taken only in the Chap-
lin River (Table 1).

Of the 65 species taken during the study,
23 were taken in all 6 drainage systems, 2 in
5 systems, 10 in 4, 9 in 2, and 15 in only 1
system (Table 1). Such distribution in-
cludes a nucleus of resident, cosmopolitan
species and a component of nonresident
species whose presence is controlled or
influenced by particular habitats or specific
physicochemical conditions. Harima and
Mundy (1974) have suggested the presence
of a resident segment of the fish popula-
tion on an annual basis in a small stream in
Alabama, whereas Harrell et al. (1967)
reported data that suggested a resident
community component from third order
through sixth order streams in Oklahoma.
Bell (1977, unpublished master’s thesis,
Western Kentucky University, Bowling
Green, Kentucky), in his study of 3 sta-
tions of the Middle Fork of Drakes Creek,
Kentucky, reported resident and_nonresi-
dent components of the stream fish com-
munity on a seasonal and a stream reach
basis.

Eighteen species taken in the present
study were categorized as rough species, 36
as forage species, and 11 as game species.
Forage fishes represented the dominant
category at each station in each drainage
and comprised from 51 to 62 percent of all
species (Fig. 2). Rough fishes made up
from 11 to 21 percent of the total, whereas
game fishes made up 22 to 34 percent ( Fig.
2). The percentage of forage species was
lowest in the Salt River and Beech Fork and
highest in the Chaplin River and its tribu-
taries (Fig. 2). Conversely, game species
were highest in the Salt River and lowest

© = g =I =| S|
aimee aoa? (ne E = Ei
= a = = = iS
a ” =| =| =| =|
a 304 =| = ro =
> |B 5 |5 =
- B jm W=| =|
Saeecet iie| | S| Ei
° He | =| S|
@ E | | 5B
a 105 =| =| =| =|
bs z S 5 = Bi
° 2 iu = A OB =|
| RGF
> i}
=)
2
Ww 604
2 7 ; Wee fl
al |
Ww 50) f] [] | |
i || | |
= 404 |
|
& L
‘, o | | | L
z © 3 =
Ww E | | =| S|
2 £ E S| |e | 5
ae ms =| =| =| = =|
a: tte E E 5 ; :
o a =| i= =|
B =I = B E
Salt Salt Beech Beech hap Chaplin
River Tribs Fork Tribs Riv ribs
Fic. 2. Average percentage frequency of occur-

rence of number of species and percentage bio-
mass of rough species (R = solid black bars),
game species (G = open bars), and forage species
(F = hatched bars) per station in each of the
6 drainage systems of the Salt River 1969-1972.

in the Beech Fork tributaries and the Chap-
lin River and its tributaries (Fig. 2). The
qualitative and quantitative composition of
fish communities throughout the study
area are in general agreement with data
reported for streams in other parts of the
country. Smith and Powell (1971) reported
a species list for Brier Creek, Oklahoma,
having 16.7 percent rough species, 53.3 per-
cent forage, and 30 percent game species.
Harrell et al. (1967) in Otter Creek, Okla-
homa, and Larimore et al. (1959), in Smiths
Branch, Hlinois, reported similar lists with
30 percent rough, 40 percent forage, and 30
percent game, and 20 percent rough, 63
percent forage, and 17 percent game, re-
spectively. Carter (1969) found cyprinids
(forage species) to rank first in order of
abundance throughout 3 segments of the
upper Barren River, Kentucky, followed by
rough and game species, respectively.

As pointed out by Odum (1971), the
use of biomass values illustrates the quan-
titative relations of standing crop better
than numbers. In terms of biomass, game
species in the present study represented the

8 Trans. Kentucky ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 40( 1-2)

8 8

ed

100000080081)
Too

00000)

m

TO

Species
bh
fo}
—¢--

OF
Number
- n
fo} fo}
i! i
I
(TIT

TOOTH

of

OCCURRENCE

DOOM

Lower Upper Lower Upper Lower Upper

FREQUENCY

Biomass

i

PERCENT
a5
TOO
I
TOO

=|

RGF

Lower Upper Lower Upper Lower Upper

Salt River Beech Fork Chaplin. River

Fic. 3. Average percentage frequency of occur-
rence of number of species and percentage bio-
mass of rough species (R = solid black bars),
game species (G = open bars), and forage species
(F = hatched bars) per station in the lower and
upper reaches of the main stem of the Salt River,
Beech Fork, and Chaplin River, 1969-1972.

highest average weight in each system, and
ranged from 50 to 59 percent (Fig. 2).
Rough and forage species were second and
third, respectively, in the main stems of
each drainage, but were reversed in order
in their tributaries.

Forage species had the greatest variety
of species as well as number of individuals
in the present study (33,679, 72% of total
number collected). Rough species, because
of their large individual size but low num-
bers (1,277, 2.7%), represented the second
highest biomass level in the larger streams
(behind game species), but were not com-
monly found in the smaller, lower order
tributaries, and were replaced by forage
species as the next highest biomass level.

The number of forage species increased
from downstream stations to upstream sta-
tions (Fig. 3) in the Salt River, Beech
Fork, and Chaplin River, and rough species
decreased markedly from lower to upper
reaches. Numbers of game species re-
mained approximately the same in the Salt
River and Beech Fork, but increased in the

1005 T= All Stations
v L= Lower Stations
oO 90
S | U= Upper Stations
SS
un 807
a
TO eS
a 604 |
fe) is
a 50-4
[S)
407
oO
Zz 304 |_|
(a)
Zz 20
ad
& 10
ip)
fe)
TalyU TLU TLU
Salt Beech Chaplin Salt Beech Chaplin
River Fork River Tribs Fork Tribs
Tribs
Fic. 4. Standing crop in pounds per acre for all

sampling stations throughout the study area and

for stations in the upper and lower reaches of the

main stems of the Salt River, Beech Fork, and
Chaplin River, 1969-1972.

Chaplin River, where the highest numbers
were recorded. Although game species fre-
quently did not vary noticeably within
streams, the percentage biomass of game
fish increased from downstream to up-
stream stations (Fig. 3). The increase in
weight of game fish was compensated for
by an equally marked reduction in weight
of rough fish from the lower to upper
reaches. The weight component of forage
species was relatively consistent through-
out all streams. Tramer and Rogers (1973)
reported similar data in an Ohio stream
with the number of forage species increas-
ing and rough species decreasing from
downstream to upstream stations, but gave
no information regarding changes in bio-
mass.

In the larger streams, the highest average
standing crop was observed in the Salt
River (55.5 Ib/acre, 62.2 kg/ha) and the
lowest (38.7 Ib/acre, 43.4 kg/ha) in the
Chaplin River (Fig. 4). The highest aver-
age standing crop in the study (68.1 Ib/
acre, 76.3 kg/ha) occurred in the tributaries
of the Beech Fork. A possible explanation
for the highest standing crop estimates in
the small Beech Fork tributaries could re-
sult from the progression of those small

Diversity OF FisHES IN SALT RivER, KENtucKy—Hoyt et al.

9

TABLE 2.—FREQUENCY OF OCCURRENCE AT SAMPLING STATIONS (NUMBER OF STATIONS COLLECTED/

TOTAL COLLECTIONS X 100 = %0) AND RELATIVE ABUNDANCE (TOTAL NUMBER OF SPECIES COL-
LECTED/TOTAL NUMBER OF FISH X 100 = %N) OF PREPONDERANT SPECIES PER DRAINAGE SYSTEM
Salt Beech Chaplin
Salt River Beech Fork Chaplin River
River Tributaries Fork Tributaries River Tributaries
Species %O %N %O TN JO TN %O JON %O TN %O %N
Stoneroller minnow 6.2 41.0 6.0 64.0 9.5 71.0 9.9 40.0
Rosefin shiner 8.9 35.0 6.9 29.0
Common shiner 15.6 86.0
Bluntnose minnow 13.5 46.0 26.5 76.0 7.5 57.0 32.6 100.0 12.6 55.0 15.0 71.0
Creek chub 6.3 29.0 5.8 28.0
Green sunfish 4.7 38.0 8.7 41.0 4.6 43.0 2.3 43.0 2.9 50.0 16.3 57.0
Bluegill 2.6 43.0 3.5 43.0
Longear sunfish 21.5 84.0 12.9 65.0 26.4 100.0 13.3 57.0 10.6 90.0 13.5 71.0
Fantail darter 29.7 43.0 21.7 65.0 37.9 43.0

first and second order streams toward inter-
mittent flow conditions that led to the en-
trapment of fishes in isolated pools, allow-
ing capture of the entire population. Those
estimates generally agree with values re-
ported for the Nolin River, 30 lb/acre (33.6
kg/ha); Rough River, 40 Ib/acre (44.8
kg/ha); Middle Fork of the Kentucky
River, 47 lb/acre (52.7 kg/ha); and Barren
River, 108 Ib/acre (121.1 kg/ha) (Carter
1968); and Elkhorn Creek, 91 Ib/acre (102
kg/ha) (Laflin 1970); all are similar streams
in Kentucky.

Significant differences in number of
species (P < 0.02) and number of individ-
uals (P < 0.005) collected in the Beech
Fork and its tributaries were noted as were
similar differences in species (P < 0.05) and
individuals (P < 0.002) collected when all
the main stem and tributary collections
from the Salt River, Beech Fork, and Chap-
lin River were compared.

No consistent pattern in standing crop
from downstream to upstream stations was
observed throughout the drainage. In the
Salt River, standing crop decreased by 39
percent from downstream to upstream
reaches, while in the Beech Fork and Chap-
lin River estimates increased, 62.5 and 60
percent, respectively. There was a correla-
tion between standing crop and location of
stream station in all drainage systems, rang-
ing from r = 0.57 (P < 0.001) in the Salt
River to r = 0.86 (P < 0.05) in the Beech
Fork tributaries. The concept of longi-

tudinal succession in predicting increasing
numbers and kinds of fishes with increasing
stream order and distance downstream is
well documented by Harrel and Dorris
(1968), Kuehne (1962), Smith and Powell
(1971), and Whiteside and McNatt (1972).

In the main stem of the Salt River, the
effluents of the Harrodsburg and Lawrence-
burg municipal sewage plants at River
Miles 129 and 91, respectively, may account
for some of the lowered standing crops that
ultimately affected the correlation analysis
among biomass sampling locations. For
example, the Salt River collections aver-
aged 55.5 Ib/acre (62.2 kg/ha); the collec-
tions immediately above and below the
Harrodsburg effluent averaged 59.55 Ib/
acre (66.75 kg/ha) and 21.7 Ib/acre (24.3
kg/ha), respectively. Laflin (1970) re-
ported similar effects on standing crops, 17
Ib/acre (19 kg/ha) above and 4.7 Ib/acre
(5.3 kg/ha) below the Lexington, Ken-
tucky, municipal sewage effluent on the
South Fork of Elkhorn Creek.

Of the most commonly occurring fishes
at each station throughout the study area
(Table 2), 5 were cyprinids, 3 were sun-
fishes, and 1 was a darter. The longear sun-
fish Lepomis megalotis was easily the most
ubiquitous species, being taken at 81 per-
cent (83 of 102) of all stations. Carter
(1970) found the longear sunfish to be the
most abundant species in all samples taken
in the upper Green River, Kentucky, and
it was reported to be the second most fre-

—
i)

acre

Pounds
per

Biomass
redundancy

Biomass

maximum minimum
diversity diversity

Biomass

.4594*

Biomass
diversity
.3024*

Margalef’s
diversity
index

Numerical
redundancy

diversity

minimum

Numerical Numerical
diversity

maximum

Numerical
diversity

Dorris (1968) EXCEPT MARGALEF’S INDEX ( WILHM 1967)
Number

of
individuals
1.0000

of
species

R-VALUES, PEARSON PRODUCT-MOMENT CORRELATION COEFFICENTS WHERE P < 0.05, BASED ON 117 SALT RIVER FISH COLLECTIONS;
Number

* INDICATES CORRELATION WHERE P < 0.001; DASHES REPRESENT CORRELATIONS WHERE P < 0.05. ALL DIVERSITY FORMULAS FROM WILHM AND

Number of species
Number of individuals

TABLE 3.

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 40( 1-2)

*
: S ae = oo
Se Say Suh .
aw | | MHoOA!S S Ss
AN AANA CD o WW 30 Wis
| = ei im || |
fey eae aw a
FS al | el] ||
* * * * = || |
OH OMOMM OS = | = ill
Oo Toot E | = lI ERD
Ore: ca OD 1D CO S DZ 104 | ee ws |
ma lananls "| | ve | \
ie bad a =a 2 ea ol a iver = Talay
fo) 5 ite) 15 Zo 25 30 35 oO 500 1000 1500
ao NUMBER of SPECIES NUMBER of INDIVIDUALS
iTame>) 20 = 30 [Sa]
Pt thes fib 5
: 6) | Z 25
lr a 154 Taal | 2
= 20)
tS ex mae ui 10} ale : 15
BS] | Ane z (ital es
o D we) & — as | | | | uw
Tat © | ke ze 54
se | lal |
x ¥ x * of ttit lt —) 0 = = tas
a 1 ce eS S NUMERCAINGEECIEC eRe a % RUNERICAY Has MUMIOTE RST
aon Oro 30, 305
Ine | aR S bag
| ial B 2s Ses La
x % * 3 20) 320 =o iy
wmO nt HO a me |
aocoon?e is Ww 15 | |
= © — | So = 104 lee ly a 5 lo
zis | IHG Oem a al
* * 24] | —— | } | -—
Q xs oS aa ae arr ST STEEN oosine eee ama
‘r= | LOGS NUMERICAL MINIMUM DIVERSITY REDUNDANCY
ES aSCRES
lain Fic. 5. Number of species and individuals, nu-
ee merical species diversity, theoretical maximum and
iS SS minimum numerical diversity, and redundancy (all
+55 diversity formulae from Wilhm and Dorris 1968)
es based on 117 collections from 6 drainages of the
Salt River, 1969-1972.
so
oo
oO
ins Rare
= quent species in the upper Cumberland
River (Carter and Jones 1969) and the
=) Licking River Drainage, Kentucky (Jones
S 1970). The bluntnose minnow Pimephales
re
notatus was likewise listed as the first or
second most frequent species in the Barren
River, Kentucky (Carter 1969), upper
Cumberland River, Kentucky (Carter and
Jones 1969), and Licking River Drainage,
Kentucky (Jones 1970). Of the species pre-
dominant in terms of biomass, the longear
sunfish was the predominant representa-
ane hue tive, (26.9% of the total weight), followed
9S HK ae by the green sunfish Lepomis cyanellus
ee a a ra :
nS eg) Sue (10.9% ), golden redhorse Moxostoma ery-
ROSIE pet peg eS! eas thrurum (6.5%), northern hogsucker Hy-
Cate PS) te) ~ Se q . . ’
BEBE SpEeEa, pentelium nigricans (5.3%), and spotted
OF a5 07 sad & .
Baeiupceess bass Micropterus punctulatus (4.5%).
TER HUS qs i
3555 4 opts & bs o : a De, .
SB Sab ys eaten ees Community Organization
Bee He Hem Annan
CoV0OOR SSS ST Q 9 .
Scie ar bc eicicne The development of a diversity index as
SxSs3seac066902 Sane ;
FAPCASOAMOOe a quantitative measure of community struc-

Diversity OF FISHES IN SALT RIVER,

ture has been reviewed in several articles
(e.g., Dickman 1968, DeBenedictis 1973,
Uetz 1974, Peet 1974, Pielou 1975), and
these indexes have been used widely in
examining the organization and structure
of both vertebrate and invertebrate com-
munities. However, because of the diffi-
culties in interpreting the meaning of cal-
culated indexes and the proliferation of
different diversity formulas, the use of such
models has received considerable and justi-
fiable criticism (e.g., Hurlbert 1971, van
Emden and Williams 1974).

Diversity indexes, however, offer a
means of establishing a numbers/kinds
analysis in which massive amounts of data
can be assimilated and presented in a
reasonable form. In recent years, diversity
indexes have been used widely in fisheries
studies, and a large, unreviewed body of
literature currently exists. For example,
such measurements have been used _ to
quantify trends in seasonal distribution
(Bechtel and Copeland 1970, Dahlberg and
Odum 1970, McErlean et al. 1973, Galla-
way and Strawn 1975, Harima and Mundy
1974, Subrahmanyam and Drake _ 1975,
Haedrich and Haedrich 1974,-Cain and
Dean 1976, Kushlan 1976, Livingston 1976,
Merriner et al. 1976, Hoff and Ibara 1977,
White et al. 1977), to examine temporal
changes in fish communities (Richards
1976), to relate community structure to
stream order (Harrell et al. 1967, Harrell
and Dorris 1968, Sheldon 1968, Lotrich
1973) and changing water leads (Kushlan
1976, Harrell 1978), to compare fishes that
occupy different biotopes (Jones and Chase
1975) and productivity areas (Nakashima
et al. 1977), and to assess effects of environ-
mental perturbations (Wilhm and Dorris
1968, Harrell and Dorris 1968, Grimes
1971, Whiteside and McNatt 1972, Tsai
1973, Haedrich and Haedrich 1974, Hug-
gins and Moss 1974, Gallaway and Strawn
1975, Haedrich 1975, Livingston 1975, Cor-
nell et al. 1976, Hillman et al. 1977, Reed
1977, White et al. 1977). Because of such
a diverse use of the term “diversity index,”
Hurlbert (1971) chose to call it a “non-
concept.”

Kentucky—Hoyt et al. 11

= np
Ga fo)

10

fo RELATIVE FREQUENCY

% RELATIVE FREQUENCY
= r
EES

Fa ll
| | i : |

| = — | {
} = SS ES eS} (0) es td at J
10 20 30 40 50 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
MARGALEF S INDEX BIOMASS SPECIES DIVERSITY

50

rs
ORF

mal

i ||
10 |
| |

—| |
fo) =—E } a

i)
is)

%RELATIVE FREQUENCY
3

% RELATIVE FREQUENCY
3
T
eel

°
=

i —— =

io 20) 30) 40 50. 60 Msi ne sume ie ane
BIOMASS MAXIMUM DIVERSITY BIOMASS MINIMUM DIVERSITY

3

=e |
n
a

|

np
°

aaa
i

|
ij at, ok choke on ate
BIOMASS REDUNDANCY

% RELATIVE FREQUENCY

% RELATIVE FREQUENCY
a

| |
5 at ||
[|| |
Woe

eat
Mee

ears ee Lee

O 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220
POUNDS PER ACRE

Fic. 6. Margalef’s Index (based on numerical
data, formula from Wilhm 1967), biomass species
diversity, theoretical maximum and minimum bio-
mass diversity, and redundancy (formulae from
Wilhm and Dorris 1968) based on 117 collections
from 6 drainages of the Salt River, 1969-1972.

The Salt River fish community (based on
the present 117 collections) exhibited both
ageregated and nonaggregated frequency
distributions, in terms of numbers of species
and individuals, standing stock, and mea-
surements of community structure using
both numbers and biomass (Figs. 5, 6).
The negative binomial patterns reflected
in the graphs of numbers of individuals,
pounds per acre, and theoretical minimum
diversity may indicate that environmental
factors that affect the development of those
parameters are not randomly distributed
throughout the basin, or that one or a few
environmental factors may have a dispro-
portionately greater effect on the fish com-
munities.

Average numerical diversity was highest
in the Beech Fork and its tributaries, and
the Chaplin River tributaries (Fig. 7). Sig-
nificant differences between the smaller

12 Trans. KenrucKy ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 40( 1-2)

T= All Stations

= species

le Biomass Diversity

Diversity
L= Lower Stations

= Upper Stations

iin ae

2.00
>
|
yn
a
ve}
> 1.00
a
fe)
Salt Beech Chaplin Salt Beech Chaplin
River Fork River Tribs Fork Tribs
Tribs
Fic. 7. Average diversity values for all sampling

stations throughout the study area and for sta-

tions in the upper and lower reaches of the main

stems of the Salt River, Beech Fork, and Chaplin
River, 1969-1972.

tributary streams and their respective main
streams were found in: (1) theoretical
minimum standing crop diversity (P <
0.005) between the Salt River and its trib-
utaries; (2) numerical species diversity
(P < 0.02) and Margalef’s index (P < 0.03)
between the Chaplin River and its tribu-
taries; and (3) theoretical maximum (P <
0.01) and minimum (P < 0.007) numerical
diversity, standing crop diversity (P < 0.05),
and theoretical maximum (P < 0.02) and
minimum (P < 0.007) standing crop di-
versity when all main stem collections from
the 3 systems were combined and compared
to all tributary collections. The lower aver-
age diversities in the main stem of the Salt
River were, to some degree, affected by
sewage effluents. Tsai (1968) reported a
direct correlation between species diversity
and distance from a source of pollution.
Significant correlations between numeri-
cal and biomass species diversity estimates
and station location were noted for all main
stem and tributary systems (Figs. 8, 9),
with highest correlation values (P < 0.001,
r = 0.85-0.87) in the Beech Fork and its

=e
3 © cee ri ° °
04 = ° ry oe
ae 7 °
é & ° a 6 S
= a
ae A o o °
25 efile
oS
o ry

Dil ViEIReSsleileay
ast
bo
be A
° pts

é
0. © = Species Diversity
ry
@ © Weight Diversity

2 4 6 86 © 12 4 6 18 20 2 24 26 28 3 32 MH %

Salt River
°
a
°
°
° ry
°
. ° a
3.0, | ta
> OR re ED ° °
i ry ee pose
= 5 A at
‘ ~o
wo 2.8, s—4 3 ooo Be
a ° z ry
°
iv) 8
> 2.0
— a
a

© *Species Diversity

a eWeignt Diversity

Beech Fork
6
3.
A °
a Sune ° °

——See a A ° z QO
ie oo: 6 y
b = :

SSS a ~_————_Spp, r=086 6
= 2.8 ina. a ae
on a Sa a
ine © 8 swe n
iy e ° 4 oes H
> 2.0 &
el a a
a a

6 a
1.6 a
© * Species Diversity
o = Weignt Diversity
°
2 4 6 8 10 2 14 16 18 20
Chaplin River

Fic. 8. Relationship between average numerical

(species ) diversity and biomass (weight) diversity

and station location from downstream to up-

stream on the main stem of the Salt River, Beech

Fork, and Chaplin River, 1969-1972. Station lo-
cations are illustrated in Fig. 1.

Diversiry OF FIsHEs IN SALT RIvER, KeENtucky—Hoyt et al. 13

tributaries and the Chaplin River. The
general trend in all drainages was for di-
versity values to increase from upstream to
downstream areas. Stream fish diversities
have been reported to progressively in-
crease with increasing stream order in clean
waterways by Kuehne (1962), Harrell and
Dorris (1966), and Whiteside and McNatt
(1972).

Harrell (1978) related species diversity
values and distance from river headwaters
to stream flooding patterns. Prior to flood-
ing, no correlation existed between the dis-
tance from river headwaters and _ species
diversity due to the fish communities hav-
ing experienced a long period of relative
stability (i.e., no major floods in approxi-
mately 2 years). Consequently, fishes were
at or near maximum diversity in their
respective habitats. After flooding and
subsequent habitat alteration, increasing
distance from headwaters and_ species
diversity were positively correlated (P <
0.05). The similar correlation between di-
versity and distance from headwaters ob-
served in the summer Salt River fish col-
lections (after the annual major spring
floods) could be related to the factors dis-
cussed by Harrell (1978).

Biomass diversities were slightly lower
than numerical diversities in all drainage
systems except the Beech Fork tributaries
which had the highest biomass diversities.
With the exception of magnitude, biomass
diversities exhibited the same general trend
of increased diversity with downstream
progression.

Efficiency of Collecting Methods

This 4-year study covered a broad geo-
graphic area including many diverse habi-
tats and employed a variety of collecting
methods. Since surface areas had been de-
termined at each station, a comparison of
the results of various sampling methods
seems appropriate.

Significant differences (P < 0.05) were
found in numbers of species and individuals
and several diversity measures for the sein-
ing, electroshocking, and toxicant (hydro-
gen cyanide) collections (Table 4). How-

>
[ool
7p)
a
lJ
>
Qa
5 Oo
o = Species Diversity
ao = Weight Diversity o
Teles ts T T tT ——
8 9 10 i rs TES © IES is 16 i7
Salt River Tributaries
3.5.
a
we &
4 Wt = 0.85
3.0 ° <
a a SK
b- Pen a
aa o SPR. r=08 =
° —
w A s°
d ae
vd °
uJ
>
= 2.0.
Qa os Species Diversity
a= Weight Diversity
Beech Fork Tributaries
3.5
3.
2.5
>
— 2.0
wn
“s 1
ra d
>
x °
a

1.0 osSpecies Diversity

b= Weight Diversity

Tributaries

Chaplin River

Fic. 9. Relationship between average numerical

(species) diversity and biomass (weight) diversity

and station location from downstream to upstream

on the tributaries of the Salt River, Beech Fork,

and Chaplin River, 1969-1972. Station locations
are illustrated in Fig. 1.

14 Trans. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 40( 1-2)

TABLE 4.—_RESULTS OF ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE AND MULTIPLE COMPARISON (LEAST SQUARE DIFFERENCES
AND DUNCAN’S MULTIPLE RANGE) TESTS FOR COMPARISON OF FISH COLLECTIONS MADE BY SEINING (13

COLLECTIONS ), ELECTROSHOCKING (90),

AND TOXICANT APPLICATION

(14), Satr RIVER DRAINAGE

1969-1972; a = 0.05 FOR ALL COMPARISONS. FOR A GIVEN FACTOR DIFFERENT SYMBOLS (+, —, 0) ARE
USED TO REPRESENT SIGNIFICANT DIFFERENCES (P < 0.05) BETWEEN TREATMENTS AND REPETITION OF A
SPECIFIC SYMBOL INDICATES NO SIGNIFICANT DIFFERENCE BETWEEN A TREATMENT PAIR

ANOVA MULTIPLE COMPARISON TESTS
Treatment
Electro-

Factor Significance Seining shocking Toxicant
Number of species P < 0.0001 ae fk a
Number of individuals P < 0.0001 -- ae iE
Numerical diversity P > 0.05 4h + ie
Numerical maximum diversity P < 0.0001 4s + =
Numerical minimum diversity P < 0.0001 + oe ES
Numerical redundancy P < 0.02 ste 2 =
Margalef’s index P< 0:01 + = a
Biomass diversity P< 0.01 of oft. is
Biomass maximum diversity P < 0.0001 + a 0
Biomass minimum diversity P < 0.0001 + - a.
Biomass redundancy P > 0.05 ok ak aie
Standing crop (Pounds per acre) P< 0.04 + = de

ever, no significant differences (P > 0.05)
were observed for numerical diversity or
biomass redundancy estimates. In terms of
numbers of species and individuals, numeri-
cal maximum and minimum diversity, and
biomass diversity, the seining and electro-
shocking collections were significantly dif-
ferent from toxicant collections (P < 0.05)
in all cases. The seining and toxicant col-
lections also were significantly different
from electroshocking collections, with Mar-
galef’s index, biomass minimum diversity,
and standing crop estimates (P < 0.05,
Table 4).

Thirty-five was the greatest number of
species taken by any technique with hydro-
gen cyanide in the Chaplin River (Fig. 10).
Only 2 such samples were taken on that
river, however, and there was a great dis-
parity in number of species between col-
lections as indicated by the extremes in the
confidence intervals for those 2 sets of data
(Fig. 10). Seining techniques represented
the lowest estimates for average number of
species collected (10.9), electroshocking was
slightly higher (13.8), and toxicants the
highest average number (21.8, Fig. 10).
Krumholz (1951) also reported discrepan-

cies in results of number of species taken
from farm ponds using minnow seines
versus bag seines and rotenone, the minnow
seines taking fewer species than either of
the other methods.

The highest average numerical diversity
(3.166) was observed at Chaplin River
stations sampled with toxicants (Fig. 11),
although electroshocking collections had a
higher average numerical diversity (2.72)
throughout the drainage (cf., 2.58 for toxi-
cants). Seining methods had the lowest
average numerical diversity (2.38).

Average biomass diversities were the
same for seining and electroshocking (2.26)
and were greatest (2.76) in the toxicant
samples (Fig. 11). As with numerical di-
versity, the highest biomass average (3.65)
occurred in Chaplin River toxicant samples.

Average standing crop was lowest with
seining collections (17.1 Ib/acre, 19.2
kg/ha) and highest (56.6 lIb/acre, 63.4
kg/ha) with toxicants. The highest average
standing crop in any drainage system was
88.5 Ib/acre (99.2 kg/ha) in the Chaplin
River toxicant samples, followed by 85.5
Ib/acre (95.8 kg/ha) and 80.1 Ib/acre (89.8
kg/ha) in the Salt River and Beech Fork

Diversity OF FIsHES IN SALT RiveR, KENrucKy—Hoyt et all. 15)

2

(2)

-s

= 6

bK

wn

Ss

n

uJ

O

uJ

eu

7p)

ve

(e)

jag

uJ

@

=

=)

4

uJ

oO

aq

jeg

uJ

>

<q

Salt Salt Salt Salt B.F. GR. C.R: Salt B.F BF C.R. CLR.
River Tribs River Tribs Tribs Tribs River Tribs Tribs
Seine Electroshocker Hydrogen Cyanide

Fic. 10. Average number of species taken per station using different collecting methods in the upper

Salt River drainage, 1969-1972.

tributary shocking samples, respectively
(Fig. 12).

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

The results of this study illustrate 2 im-
portant features that have broad applica-
tion in the study of stream fish commun-
ities.

1. Measurements of standing crop (biomass

Confidence intervals based on x + t (0.05) sx.

per unit area, e.g., Ib/acre, kg/ha) are
widely used as criteria for characterizing
both marine and freshwater fisheries. How-
ever, the aggregated distribution of the
frequency counts in the 117 quantitative
Salt River drainage collections suggest that
large numbers of samples may be necessary
to estimate that parameter accurately.
Based on the mean (47.5 Ib/acre, 53.2
kg/ha) and variance (2,052.1) estimates of

16 Trans. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 40( 1-2)

wn
w
oO
w
ron
-
ree
ep)
We
uJ
>
Oo Ww
wn
o
E
°
fea)
Salt Salt Salt Salt B.F. B.F. C.R. C.R. Salt B.F B.F. C.R. C.R.
River Tribs River Tribs Tribs Tribs River Tribs Tribs
Seine Electroshocker Hydrogen Cyanide
Fic. 11. Average numerical (species) and biomass (weight) diversity per station with different

collecting methods in the upper Salt River drainage, 1969-1972.

Confidence intervals based on

x + t (0.05) sx.

the 117 samples, at 95 percent confidence
limits, our biomass estimate is accurate
only +18 percent. This is not simply the
consequence of different collecting meth-
ods, e.g., in terms of the 90 electroshocking
collections (x + SD = 50.2 + 47.7 lb/acre,
53.2 kg/ha) at the 95 percent confidence,
the precision of the mean is +20 percent.
For a desired estimate of +10 percent for
electroshocking collections, approximately
360 samples would be required. This sug-
gests that if measurements of biomass per
unit area are used to characterize stream
communities and the aggregated distribu-
tional pattern of lotic fish communities,

very large numbers of samples will be re-
quired to characterize drainage systems
with precision.
2. The use of species diversity analysis to
describe fish communities is currently in
wide use, appearing in journal articles and
environmental impact statements and _as-
sessments. The range of estimates for both
biomass and numerical diversity measures
(Figs. 5, 6) strongly indicates that great
care must be taken in using those measure-
ments to characterize fish communities be-
cause such measurements do not ade-
quately reflect conditions with precision.
As Krumholz and Neff (1970) pointed

Diversity OF FIsHES IN SALT River, KENtucky—Hoyt et al. 17

ACRE

1S In

POUNDS

Salt Salt Salt Salt B.F. BF C.R. C.R. Salt B.F B.F. C.R. C.R.
River Tribs River Tribs Tribs Tribs River Tribs Tribs
Seine Electroshocker Hydrogen Cyanide

Fic. 12. Average standing crop in pounds per acre per station using different collecting methods in the
upper Salt River drainage, 1969-1972. Confidence intervals based on x + t (0.05) sx.

out, the biological aspects of a stream eco- extent, the numbers and varieties of stream
system are less easily defined and deter- organisms reflect their adaptations to the
mined than the physical and chemical physical and chemical characteristics of the
characteristics of the system. To a great flowing waters. Although the mobility of

18 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 40( 1-2)

fishes does not confine them to any par-
ticular portion of a stream, it is easily seen
that they are not distributed evenly
throughout the system.

Early in this century Shelford (1911) and
Hankinson (1910, 1913) pointed out that
the distribution and species composition of
fishes in streams in different parts of IIli-
nois depended on the presence or absence
of riffles and pools, regardless of the geo-
logical history of the stream. As Shelford
(1911:33-34) put it, “Fishes have definite
habitat preferences which cause them to be
definitely arranged in streams which have
graded series of conditions from mouth to
source... . This same concept was elab-
orated by Kuehne (1962) for the fishes of
Buckhorn Creek, Kentucky, who based his
stream classification on stream order, drain-
age patterns, and geomorphology.

The diversity of fishes in the Great Lakes
drainage, as described by Hubbs and Lag-
ler (1941, 1947, 1964) is traceable directly
to the extreme diversity of habitats. Al-
though there are no great river systems that
empty into the Great Lakes, the smaller
systems, such as the Huron, the Grand, the
Au Sable, and Escanaba rivers of Michigan
each contain the elements necessary for
restricting the distributions of fishes based
on the organisms’ ecological requirements.

In his study of Doe Run, Meade County,
Ky., Minckley (1963) depicted the longi-
tudinal distribution of fishes in that stream
according to their apparent relations to cur-
rent, depth of water, and type of bottom.
Hynes (1970) also noted that fishes of
running waters are restricted in their oc-
currence by such factors as oxygen content
of the water, temperature, and substrate
and the interactions of those parameters.

Given the habitat diversity prevailing in
any stream ecosystem and our ability to
assess the fish community on the basis of a
limited number of collections, it would be
ecologically unsound to characterize or to
explain changes in fish community structure
using any single measurement or analysis
approach. Undoubtedly, species diversity
indexes are a valuable addition to any com-
munity analysis, but it is absolutely essen-

tial that caution be used in the interpretation
and application of such indexes. No single
analysis can adequately characterize a part
or a component of such a diversified system
as a stream.

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Recognition of Lapies-Type Features in the
Kentucky Karst—An Example of Applied Geomorphology

PrREsTON McGrain
Kentucky Geological Survey, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky 40506

ABSTRACT

Lapies-type features are thought to represent a common, but little known and rarely
exposed, geomorphic development in the karst region of Kentucky. An understanding of the
occurrence and distribution of irregularly dissolved upper surfaces of limestone strata should
be of interest not only to the student of underground drainage phenomena but also to those
involved in construction activities and the removal of earth materials in limestone terranes.
Failure to recognize the existence and distribution of lapies-type surfaces could result in
unexpected and unplanned excavation costs or inadequate foundation conditions for anticipated

structures.

INTRODUCTION

The karst landscapes of Kentucky are
well known and have attracted the atten-
tion of geologists for many years. Much
has been published about the classical karst
region of the Commonwealth, especially the
development of subterranean solution fea-
tures. However, little attention has been
given to the irregular, furrowed, grooved,
corroded, and otherwise dissolved upper
surfaces of exposed limestone referred to as
lapies, or to the application of the recogni-
tion of their existence to land use problems
in Kentucky.

Opportunities to view exposed upper sur-
faces of etched and weathered limestone
strata usually are quite limited in areas of
low relief and humid climate. A cover of
red residual clay, that may vary in thickness
from a few inches (5 to 10 cm) to tens of
feet (10 m or more) blankets most of the
limestone terrane of Kentucky. Because of
this residual mantle, good examples of lime-
stone surfaces are relatively rare; generally,
man-made excavations must be sought in
order to view the detailed characteristics.
Therefore, one must be alert to problems
that relate to construction and excavation
in areas of variable thickness of soil cover,
and irregular and uneven subjacent bed-
rock surfaces.

Cvijic (1924), who described lapies in
the Dalmation karst region, maintained that
lapies is found chiefly on outcrops of bare,

inclined rock, and that it is rare on hori-
zontal rock, being replaced there by sink-
holes. In Kentucky, lapieslike features
have been developed by differential solu-
tion of relatively pure, massive appearing,
flat lying carbonate rocks beneath a soil
cover. Jointing of the stone is an important
aspect of the development of lapies. Mete-
oric waters, charged with inorganic and
organic acids, percolating through the soil
cover, are concentrated along preestab-
lished fractures and grooves, and enlarge
them many times and form the individual
features that characterize the lapies sur-
faces. Lapies that form beneath an over-
burden of soil generally exhibit rounded
features. When exposed, the upper surfaces
may be sculptured by moving water into
pinnacles, grooves, and other less subdued
forms. The geologic process that forms and
modifies the upper surfaces of limestone
strata is a continuing one. It is possible in
areas of moderate to heavy annual rainfall
for lapies features to be so altered in time
that they become inconspicuous, or even
largely destroyed.

EXAMPLES

Although generally hidden, _lapieslike
features are believed to be common and
widespread in Kentucky. Striking develop-
ment has been observed in the Ste. Gene-
vieve, Girkin, and Monteagle limestones of
Late Mississippian age and in the Jetfer-

22 Trans. Kentucky ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 40( 1-2)

Fic. 1.

sonville Limestone of Devonian age. Sim-
ilar expressions of this karst feature have
been observed in Silurian and Middle Or-
dovician carbonate rocks.

An excellent example of lapies developed
in the Ste. Genevieve Limestone is on the
north side of Kentucky Highway 102, ap-
proximately 1.5 miles (2.4 km) southeast
of Elkton, the county seat of Todd County
(Fig. 1). Soil generally mantles the karst
plain in western Kentucky, but at that site
the soil has been removed, apparently for
fill for the adjacent highway. After the
soil had been removed artificially, rainfall
and runoff waters removed some of the
remaining residual clay and rock fragments
that had filled joints, cracks, and other
openings, and revealed a ragged, irregular
rock surface with local relief of 2 to 3 feet

Lapies in Mississippian Ste. Genevieve Limestone adjacent to Kentucky Highway 102, south-
east of Elkton, Todd County, Kentucky.

(0.6 to 0.9 m). The residual material be-
tween and around the bedrock exposures
is a red clay, tough and sticky when wet,
with occasional silicified fossils and chert
fragments. The thickness of the residual
clay between the irregular rock masses
probably is as great as that already natur-
ally removed.

Another excellent example of lapies is in
the Jeffersonville Limestone (Devonian)
that caps a now abandoned quarry in the
St. Matthews area of Jefferson County
(Fig. 2). Soil removal operations prior to
quarrying revealed an irregular, uneven
rock surface with local relief of 6 feet (1.8
m) or more along the enlarged and deep-
ened joints. Several years ago, a developer
contracted to build a number of homes,
each with a basement, in an area of Jeffer-

ee a ee

Lapres-TyPpE FEATURES IN KENTUCKY Karst—McGrain 23

Fic. 2.

Lapies in Devonian Jeffersonville Limestone capping an abandoned quarry at the junction of
Brownsboro Road and Hubbards Lane, St. Matthews, Jefferson County, Kentucky.

Maximum relief

on the bedrock surface is approximately 6.5 feet (2 m).

sonville Limestone outcrop in Jefferson
County. His probings of the site indicated
that his excavations would be in soil. After
construction started, it became evident that
his probings had been along clay filled solu-
tion fractures of a lapieslike surface and
that much solid limestone had to be re-
moved to construct the basements. It is this
writers understanding that the transaction
was a financial disaster.

Exposures of solution enlarged, clay
filled joints in carbonate rocks may provide
clues to the presence of lapies-type surfaces
(Figs. 3, 4). Although very little of the
upper surface may be exposed in these in-
stances, it does not take much imagination
to visualize the configuration of the upper
rock surfaces if the soil cover were re-
moved.

In the central Blue Grass region, lapies-
type development was revealed by the min-
ing of phosphate from residuum overly-

ing the Ordovician Woodburn Limestone
(equivalent to the Tanglewood Member of
the Lexington Limestone) near Wallace,
Woodford County, more than a half century
ago. In mining parlance, the ridges and
troughs were referred to as “horses” and
“cutters;” they form a type of irregular bed-
rock surface similar to that referred to as
lapies.

Lapies features are not restricted to the
previously listed Kentucky formations; they
may be found in any massive, well-jointed,
shale-free limestone bed. For example, in
the building stone district of south-central
Indiana, the Salem Limestone ( Mississip-
pian) presents striking lapies development
(McGrain 1948). Where that formation ex-
hibits a thick-bedded facies in Kentucky,
such as found locally in the Elizabethtown
area, a similar irregular and uneven upper
surface can be expected.

Another example of a problem caused by

24 Trans. Kentucky ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 40( 1-2)

Fic. 3. Solution enlarged, clay filled joints in Mississippian Girkin Limestone, U.S. Highway 231,
northwest of Bowling Green, Warren County, Kentucky. Depth of the fractures at this point is 10
feet (3 m) or more. Such exposures provide clues to the presence of lapies-type surfaces.

lapies features is the quarry that supplied
the stone for concrete aggregate for Ken-
tucky Dam on the Tennessee River in
western Kentucky. The quarry, now aban-
doned, was in the Mississippian Warsaw
Limestone, on the north bank of the Ten-
nessee River at the edge of the Mississippi
Embayment region. The following account
is given in a published report (Tennessee
Valley Authority 1949:527-528 ) :

“Its development was seriously handi-
capped by the unexpected amount of over-
burden. This overburden was a mixture of
clay and badly channeled rock, and its re-
moval required expensive mixed excava-
tion. The presence of rock pinnacles pre-
vented the free use of scrapers in removing
the clay; also the presence of considerable
amounts of clay in deep vertical channels
within large masses of sound rock made it
necessary to waste large amounts of good
rock in order to dispose of the clay. The

stiffmess of the clay in these channels made
sluicing almost impossible. The total aver-
age thickness of the rock and clay over-
burden over the quarry was 50 feet—much
greater than that indicated from the ex-
ploratory drilling.”

A knowledge and recognition of lapies is
also applicable to highway design and con-
struction. Slope failures or rockfalls can
occur where deep cuts through a thick se-
quence of carbonate rock encounter clay
filled solution channels and associated lime-
stone pinnacles, such as on Interstate High-
way 75 in Rockcastle County, Kentucky. If
the presence of lapies-type surfaces is not
recognized until after excavation begins,
the cuts may have to be redesigned to avoid
future hazardous rockfalls and expensive
maintenance activities (E. M. Wright, Ken-
tucky Department of Transportation, pers.
comm. ).

Lapres-TyPpE FEATURES

IN KENTUCKY KArRsST—McGrain 25

Fic. 4. Solution enlarged, clay filled joints in Silurian Laurel Dolomite, Blue Grass Parkway, west of
Bardstown, Nelson County, Kentucky. Solution features such as this can greatly diminish the probable
reserve of a carbonate rock deposit and can cause quarrying problems.

SUMMARY

Field observations by the writer in the
limestone terrane of Kentucky indicate that
lapies-type development is greater than
has been generally recognized and_ re-
ported. This karst feature is, or should be,
of more than academic interest. Those con-
cerned with construction or the removal of
earth materials in limestone terranes should
be aware of the possible irregularities and
variations that might be encountered on
bedrock surfaces. Vertical clay filled solu-
tion openings may pose problems in quarry-
ing operations because of variations in
thickness of overburden and waste rock,
clay is deleterious to concrete aggregate,
the stone adjacent to solution features may
be soft or stained as the result of water
action, and cracks and solution openings
prevent the excavation of sound and uni-
form blocks of building stone. Contractors,

developers, engineers, and others engaged
in highway, housing, pipeline, sewer line,
underground cable, and similar projects in
areas of outcrop of the geologic formations
cited previously should be particularly
alert. They should know that this phenom-
enon can and does exist in carbonate rock
terranes; they should recognize that lapies-
like features can be present in certain strati-
graphic formations and in specific types of
lithologies and be alert to clues as to their
possible presence. This is an example of
applied geomorphology.

Except where man-made exposures are
available, few, if any, clues may be present
to warn one of these conditions. New
1:24,000-scale geologic maps, available for
the karst areas of Kentucky, should be use-
ful tools because they delineate the bound-
aries of many of the stratigraphic units that
may contain lapieslike features; some of
the maps show the strike of prominent

26 Trans. Kentucky ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 40( 1-2)

joints. A limited or improperly planned
probing program could fail to recognize the
existence of the irregular surfaces and cause
one to infer a greater or lesser amount of
soil cover than is actually present. This,
in turn, could result in unexpected or un-
planned excavation costs, unstable slopes,
or inadequate foundation conditions for
anticipated structures.

LITERATURE CITED

Cviyic, J. 1924. The evolution of lapies, a study
in karst physiography. Geol. Rev. 14:28—48.

McGrain, P. 1948. An example of lapies in the
Indiana karst region. Proc. Ind. Acad. Sci.
57:148-152.

TENNESSEE VALLEY AutTHority. 1949. Geology
and foundation treatment, Tennessee Valley
Authority projects. Tennessee Valley Auth.
Tech. Rept. 22, U.S. Govt. Print. Off., Wash-
ington, D.C., 548 pp.

Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 40(1-2), 1979, 27-32

Oribatid Mites as Intermediate Hosts of Certain
Anoplocephalid Cestodes'

Larry N. GLEASON AND RicHARD L. BUCKNER®
Department of Biology, Western Kentucky University, Bowling Green, Kentucky 42101

ABSTRACT

A total of 3,402 oribatid mites referable to 6 species was exposed to the eggs of Apro-
statandrya macrocephala and Paranoplocephala variabilis. Of the 2,538 mites exposed to
the eggs of A. macrocephala, 20 (0.78% ) were infested as follows: 2 of 269 Galumna curvum,
0 of 12 Galumna virginiensis, 6 of 324 Galumna sp., 4 of 1,797 Scheloribates laevigatus,
1 of 32 Oribatella quadricornuta, and 7 of 104 Platynothrus peltifer. A total of 864 mites
was exposed to the eggs of P. variabilis and 12 (1.38%) were infested as follows: 0 of 43
G. curvum, 0 of 32 G. virginiensis, 1 of 136 Galumna sp., 9 of 591 S. laevigatus, 2 of 42
O. quadricornuta, and 0 of 20 P. peltifer. Development of the cysticercoids in the mites was
variable and was not related to host species or crowding. Within the mites, larvae progressed
from spherical forms with oncosphere hooks to filiform stages with or without hooks, and a
slight differentiation of suckers. This was followed by differentiation of the body into 2 parts
(the presumptive scolex and cysticercoid wall) with cercomer, and finally the mature
cysticercoid. The suckers of A. macrocephala were more developed than those of P. variabilis

at the time of retraction of the scolex into the cysticercoid wall.

INTRODUCTION

The cestodes Aprostatandrya macro-
cephala and Paranoplocephala variabilis are
common inhabitants of the intestines of
prairie voles Microtus ochrogaster in south-
central Kentucky. The life cycles of those
cestodes have not been reported previously.

As indicated by Kates and Runkel (1948),
Freeman (1952), and Melvin (1952), the
known life cycles of cestodes of the sub-
family Anoplocephalinae all involve orib-
atid mites as the intermediate hosts. This
study was initiated to determine if A.
macrocephala and P. variabilis also use
oribatid mites as intermediate hosts and, if
so, something about their development
within the hosts.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The authors gatefully acknowledge the
assistance of Dr. John A. Wallwork, West-
field College, University of London, who

‘Supported in part by a Faculty Summer Re-
search Fellowship awarded by Western Kentucky
University to the senior author.

* Present address: Division of Natural Science
and Mathematics, Livingston University, Living-
ston, Alabama 35470.

identified the mites. We are also indebted
to Scott Gleason and Kelly Gleason for
their help in setting and maintaining trap
lines for prairie voles and collecting grass
litter.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Cestodes used in this study were ob-
tained from naturally infested prairie voles
Microtus ochrogaster trapped in and around
Bowling Green, Warren County, Kentucky.
Traps were set in the evening and checked
the following morning with necropsies per-
formed on the voles within 6 hours after
removal from the traps. The intestine of
each vole was ribboned out in a dissecting
pan, pinned in place, and slit from end to
end. Specimens of P. variabilis were at-
tached at the anterior end of the intestine
and A. macrocephala were attached from
the midregion of the intestine posteriorly.
Individual worms were isolated, the gravid
proglottids removed for use in exposing the
mites to eggs, and the remainder of the
worm fixed in formalin-aceto-alcohol solu-
tion. Later, whole mounts were made of
the individual worms for confirmation of
specific diagnosis.

28 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 40( 1-2)

Mites used in this study were collected
using modified Berlese funnels from grass
litter obtained in fields where infested M.
ochrogaster were found. However, care
was taken not to collect the litter in areas
near runs of the voles. No attempt was
made to rear mites in the laboratory. Grass
litter was obtained when moist in the early
morning or late evening and stored in plas-
tic bags until placed in the Berlese funnels.
Mites obtained in that manner were not
separated by species but were placed to-
gether in 4-0z jars that contained a layer of
moist filter paper on the bottom and an
elevated pyramid of filter paper on top.
The jars were then placed in a humid
incubator at 25 C. The mites were exposed
to eggs of A. macrocephala or P. variabilis
by placing gravid proglottids on a small
piece of moist filter paper, macerating the
proglottids with dissecting needles, and plac-
ing the filter paper with eggs on the bottom
of the jar. Eggs of cestodes were removed
from the jar after 3-5 days, and a small
amount of grass litter from the Berlese fun-
nels was placed in the jars with the mites.
Jars were examined at intervals of 2-3 days,
and additional water added as needed to
maintain a small amount of condensation
on the sides.

Mites were examined for the presence of
cestode larvae by placing 6-10 of the same
species in a drop of saline on a clean micro-
scope slide, covering them with a cover
glass, and applying enough gentle pressure
to the cover glass to crack the exoskeletons.
Larvae were studied using a Wild M-20
research microscope. Figures of the larval
stages were made with the aid of the draw-
ing tube and subsequently measured. Be-
cause of the low number of larvae found
and the variability of developmental time,
measurements of size at the different stages
are restricted to the larval forms illustrated.
The only exceptions are for the completely
developed cysticercoids, where the aver-
ages are for 10 cysticercoids.

To determine the extent of naturally
occurring infestations in mites from the same
areas as those used for exposure to cestode
eggs, mites were examined within 24 hours

after removal from the grass litter. Those
mites were examined for the presence of
cestode larvae in the same manner as those
exposed to the cestode eggs in the labora-
tory. No effort was made to determine the
infestation rates of mites in and around
runs and feeding areas of the voles.

RESULTS

The 6 most common species of oribatid
mites found in the grass litter were used
in this study. These were identified as
Galumna_ curvum, Galumna_ virginiensis,
Scheloribates laevigatus, Oribatella quadri-
cornuta, and Platynothrus peltifer; in ad-
dition, there was an unidentified species of
Galumna. None of the 1,547 mites of those
6 species, examined for the presence of
cestode larvae, were infested naturally
(Table 1).

The survival of mites in the laboratory
was not good. This was especially true for
members of the 3 species of Galumna, prob-
ably a reflection of laboratory conditions
and not the infestations, because such dif-
ficulty has been reported previously (Krull
1939, Freeman 1952). Under the condi-
tions in the laboratory, S. laevigatus and P.
peltifer survived best.

The infestation rates in the surviving
mites were very low (Table 1). Of the 2,538
surviving mites exposed to the eggs of A.
macrocephala, only 20 (0.78%) were infested.
Of those, P. peltifer and the unidentified
species of Galumna had the most infesta-
tions, 7 of 104 (6.73%) and 6 of 324 (1.85%),
respectively, while P. peltifer and O. quad-
ricornuta had the highest percentage of in-
festations 6.73% and 3.12% (1 of 32), re-
spectively. Two of 269 (0.74%) G. curvum
and 4 of 1,797 S. laevigatus (0.22%) were
infested. No infestations were found in G.
virginiensis. The number of larvae per in-
fested mite ranged from 1 to 4 with the
greatest number in P. peltifer.

Development of A. macrocephala within
the mites apparently was not affected by
the species of mite, but varied within in-
dividuals of the same species and within
individuals having multiple infestations.
The first stage observed was spherical and

Or1iBATID MITEs As INTERMEDIATE Hosts oF CestopEs—Gleason and Buckner 29

TABLE 1.—NUMBER OF NATURAL AND EXPERIMENTAL INFESTATIONS WITH Aprostatandrya macrocephala
AND Paranoplocephala variabilis in 6 SPECIES OF ORIBATID MITES

Experimentally exposed mites

Naturally
exposed mites

Species of mite D1 ti
Galumna curvum 397 0
Galumna virginiensis 168 0
Galumna sp. 87 0
Scheloribates laevigatus 737 0
Oribatella quadricornuta 4] 0)
Platynothrus peltifer 117 0
Total 1,547 0

A. macrocephala P. variabilis

D I J D I %
269 2 0.74 43 0) 0.00
12 0 0.00 32 0 0.00
324 6 1.85 136 1 0.73
1,797 4 0.22 591 9 1.52
32 1 3.12 42 2 4.76
104 i 6.73 20 0 0.00
2,538 20 0.78 864 12 1.38

1D = Number of mites dissected; I= Number of dissected mites found infested.

was found 14 days after exposure. How-
ever, stages similar in development were
found in mites that also had fully developed
cysticercoids as late as 51 days after ex-
posure to the eggs. Sometimes, the spheri-
cal form was vacuolated and still retained
the hooks of the oncosphere (Fig. 1). The
cercomere developed at the region near
the oncosphere hooks (Fig. 2). The fili-
form stage was elongate, had rudimentary
suckers, and had lost the oncosphere hooks
(Fig. 3). The anterior end then widened,
and there were 2 areas to the body: the
developing scolex with suckers, and the
presumptive cysticercoid wall (Fig. 4). In
A. macrocephala, the suckers were well de-
veloped prior to withdrawal of the scolex
into the cysticercoid wall (Fig. 5). The
cercomere apparently was lost on some
cysticercoids during development for it was
observed on only 4 of 10 mature cysti-
cercoids measured. However, that could
have been due to mechanical separation
during dissection. Prior to invagination of
the scolex, the muscle fibers responsible
for the withdrawal of the scolex were easily
visible. Calcareous granules were present
in the scolex and within the cysticercoid
cavity.

The average sizes of fully developed cys-
ticercoids (Fig. 6) were 0.135 (range 0.108-
0.158) mm long by 0.135 (range 0.113-0.158)
mm wide. The wall of the cyst was 0.016
(range 0.013-0.019) mm thick. The di-

ameter of the suckers varied depending

upon the state of contraction, but averaged
0.044 (range 0.30-0.064) mm.

Of the 864 mites exposed to the eggs of
P. variabilis that survived until examined,
only 12 (1.38%) were infested. No infesta-
tions were found in G. curvum, G. virgin-
iensis, or P. peltifer. Nine of the 591 (1.52%)
S. laevigatus, 1 of the 136 (0.73%) Galumna
sp., and 2 of the 42 (4.76%) O. quadri-
cornuta were infested with P. variabilis.
The number of larvae per infested mite
ranged from 1 to 5 with the greatest num-
ber in S. laevigatus.

The spherical form was first observed 10
days after exposure of the mites to the eggs
of P. variabilis. That form (Fig. 7) was
vacuolated and retained the oncosphere
hooks. The stage with cercomere (Fig. 8)
was very similar to that of A. macrocephala.
No filiform stage was observed. At the
time the body was divided into the scolex
and presumptive cysticercoid wall, the
hooks of the oncosphere had been lost
and the suckers were poorly developed
(Fig. 9). In fact, withdrawal of the sco-
lex occurred prior to complete develop-
ment of the suckers. Calcareous gran-
ules were numerous in the scolex and
within the cysticercoid cavity. The average
sizes of fully developed cysticercoids (Fig.
10) were 0.108 (range 0.110-0.119) mm
long by 0.117 (range 0.101-0.129) mm wide.
The wall of the cyst was 0.014 (range 0.009-
0.020) mm thick. As in A. macrocephala,
the diameter of the suckers varied depend-

30 Trans. Kentucky ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 40( 1-2)

Fics. 1-6. Developmental stages of Aprostatandrya macrocephala recovered from oribatid mites
after exposure to eggs in the laboratory. 1. Spherical stage with oncosphere hooks recovered from
Platynothrus peltifer 14 days after exposure. 2. Developing larva with cercomere and oncosphere
hooks recovered from Galumna sp. 20 days after exposure. 3. Filiform stage with developing suckers
recovered from Scheloribates laevigatus 33 days after exposure. 4. Larval stage with presumptive
scolex and cysticercoid wall recovered from Scheloribates laevigatus 30 days after exposure. 5. Pre-
invagination cysticercoid with fully developed suckers and cysticercoid wall recovered from Galumna
curvum 39 days after exposure. 6. Fully developed cysticercoid recovered from Scheloribates laevigatus
54 days after exposure.

OrIBATID MItTEs AS INTERMEDIATE Hosts oF CestopEs—Gleason and Buckner Sill

Fics. 7-10. Developmental stages of Paranoplocephala variabilis recovered from oribatid mites after
exposure to eggs in the laboratory. 7. Spherical stage with oncosphere hooks recovered from Schelorib-
ates laevigatus 51 days after exposure. 8. Developing larva with cercomere and oncosphere hooks
found in the same mite as larva in Fig. 7. 9. Developing cysticercoid with presumptive scolex and
cysticercoid wall recovered from Oribatella quadricornuta 35 days after exposure. 10. Fully developed
cysticercoid with cercomere still attached recovered from Galumna sp. 81 days after exposure.

ing upon the state of contraction, but aver-
aged 0.035 (range 0.026-0.055) mm. Only
2 of the 10 cysticercoids measured had in-
tact cercomeres. However, that could have
been due to physical removal during dis-
section.

DIscussIon

It has been shown in this study that A.
macrocephala and P. variabilis can develop
in oribatid mites. The results implicate the
oribatid mites as being the natural inter-
mediate hosts for these parasites of voles.
As with other herbivorous hosts of anop-
locephaline cestodes, infestations are due
to accidental ingestion of mites by the voles
while grazing.

The degree of specificity exhibited by

the cestodes for the different mites as inter-
mediate hosts was low as previously re-
ported by Freeman (1952) for Monoeco-
cestus americanus and M. variabilis. There
was some specificity in that A. macro-
cephala was found in G. curvum, Galumna
sp., S. laevigatus, O. quadricornuta, and P.
peltifer, but not in G. virginiensis. P. vari-
abilis was found in Galumna sp., S. laeviga-
tus, and O. quadricornuta but not in G.
curoum, G. virginiensis, or P. peltifer. How-
ever, in each case where no_ infestations
were found, the number of exposed mites
that survived until the dissection time was
small. The apparent specificity of the
cestodes probably was a reflection of the
low numbers rather than an inability to
infest.

32 TrANs. Kentucky ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 40( 1-2)

The development of A. macrocephala and
P. variabilis was somewhat different in
that, at the time of invagination and with-
drawal of the scolex into the cysticercoid
cavity, the suckers of A. macrocephala were
more completely developed. Otherwise,
development of the 2 species was similar
to that described by Freeman (1952) and
Melvin (1952) for species of Monoecoces-
tus.

Stunkard (1941) reported that the rate
of development of 2 species of Cittotaenia
was highly variable within the mite hosts.
The same type of variability was observed
in this study and did not appear to depend
on temperature or species of mite. The
larvae were observed to be in different
stages of development within the same mite
species exposed to eggs at the same time
and even within the same individual. How-
ever, there was no overt evidence of a
crowding effect because as many as 5 cysti-

cercoids were found in the same mite and
all were at the same stage of development.

LITERATURE CITED

FREEMAN, R. S. 1952. The biology and life
history of Monoecocestus Beddard, 1914
(Cestoda: Anoplocephalidae) from the por-
cupine. J. Parasitol. 38:111-129.

Kates, K. C., anp C. E. RuNKEL. 1948. Ob-
servations on oribatid mite vectors of Monie-
zid expansa on pastures, with a report of
several new vectors from the United States.
Proc. Helminth. Soc. Wash. 15:18-33.

Krutt, W. H. 1939. Observations on the dis-
tribution and ecology of the oribatid mites. J.
Wash. Acad. Sci. 29:519-528.

Me.vin, D. M. 1952. Studies on the life cycle
and biology of Monoecocestus sigmodontis
(Cestoda: Anoplocephalidae) from the cotton
rat, Sigmodon hispidus. J. Parasitol. 38:346-
355.

StunKARD, H. W. 1941. Studies on the life
history of the anoplocephaline cestodes of
hares and rabbits. J. Parasitol. 27:299-325.

Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 40(1—2), 1979, 33-40

Effects of Root System Submergence on Sweet Gum
Seedlings Under Laboratory Conditions

Lynn H. WELLMAN’ AND JoE E. WINSTEAD
Department of Biology, Western Kentucky University, Bowling Green, Kentucky 42101

ABSTRACT

Laboratory germinated seedlings of sweet gum Liquidambar styraciflua L. from Barren
County, Kentucky, subjected to flooding or inundation were shown to respond in significantly
different ways than controls. Plants with root systems in water showed a much shorter
period of nondormancy than plants not subjected to submergence when both were grown
under long-day, warm temperature conditions in growth chambers. There was no evidence
of transfer of a growth retardant or dormin-like compound in water transferred from plants
grown under short-day (long-night) conditions to plants with roots submerged and grown
under long-day (short-night) periods.

The root weights and shoot weights of plants grown under long-day dry conditions were
significantly higher (P < 0.001) than the root and shoot weights of seedlings subjected to
root submergence although there was no significant difference between the root-shoot ratios.

Wood from plants under submerged treatment showed significantly higher (P < 0.001)
values of specific gravity than control seedlings grown under dry or normal test conditions.

Rootstocks of the submerged plants showed anatomical differences compared with plants
not submerged during the test. Submerged rootstocks possessed structures that superficially

resembled enlarged lenticels.

INTRODUCTION

While there have been numerous studies
in the past on ecological relationships of
important hardwood species in field trials,
relatively little information is available that
has been acquired under controlled labora-
tory conditions. One genus, Liquidambar,
has received attention in recent years as its
importance to the timber industry has
grown.

Sweet gum Liquidambar styraciflua L.
has been the subject of many studies of
intraspecific variation because of its wide
geographic range in North and Central
America. Populations of sweet gum have
been shown to vary in seed germination
and stratification requirements (Wilcox
1968, Winstead 1971), in growth and photo-
period response (Farmer 1968, Williams
and McMillan 197la, McMillan and Win-
stead 1976), in cell and wood character-
istics (Winstead 1972, Randel and Win-
stead 1976a), in frost tolerance (Williams
and McMillan 1971b), in the Hill reaction

Permanent mailing address: 8809 Denington

Drive, Louisville, KY 40222.

33

(Williams 1971a), and in the levels of solu-
ble sugar and ATP (Williams 1971b).

Recent work at Western Kentucky Uni-
versity concerning local populations of
sweet gum (Winstead 1975, Randel and
Winstead 1976b) has provided baseline
data for further studies. This study is an
attempt to assess the effects of inundation
on seedlings and the potential effects of
flooding on wood quality.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Seeds collected in the field (Barren
County, Kentucky) from several different
trees were germinated under controlled
environmental conditions using Environ-
ator Corporation growth chambers (Model
E3348). The seeds were placed in trays
of sand, watered, and covered with
plastic to prevent water loss. Upon ger-
mination, the plastic was removed. The en-
vironmental chambers were programmed
for continuous light under a 12-hour tem-
perature cycle (30-22 C). Light intensities
averaged 4,842 lux and humidity ranged
from 30 to 100 percent. After 2 months, the
seedlings were potted in 4-inch (10-cm)

34 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 40( 1-2)

square pots, in a 3:1 peat—perlite mixture.
At that time, the program was changed to
a 14-hour day and 10-hour night with the
same temperature cycle, and the higher
temperature beginning with the light pe-
riod. Plants were watered regularly with
tap water and given full strength Hoag-
land’s solution fortified with CIBA-GEIGY’s
Sequestrene when needed throughout the
remainder of the experiment. After 10
weeks, seedlings were divided into 2 groups
and placed under different controlled en-
vironmental conditions in the growth cham-
bers.

Each group consisted of 30 seedlings
with one group placed under a long-day
photoperiod (14 hours) and an identical
group grown under a short-day program
(11 hours). Temperature programs of the
growth chambers were kept identical with
a 12-hour period set at 35 C corresponding
with the light period and a 12-hour period
of 24 C matching much of the dark period.

Each group of seedlings was divided into
3 sets (each set of 10 seedlings) within
each chamber. Set 1 consisted of potted
seedlings under regular (dry) conditions.
Set 2 consisted of potted seedlings sub-
merged with water 0.5 inch (12 mm) from
the pot top. Set 3 was submerged in a sim-
ilar manner with the water from the con-
tainers transferred from the third set of
the short-day chamber to the third set of
seedlings in the long-day chamber every
3 to 4 days.

After 3 months, seedlings from the long-
day photoperiod were compared in specific
gravity and shoot-root ratio. Five plants
from the dry (Set 1) treatment and 10 sub-
merged plants (from both Sets 2 and 3)
were used. Plants were taken from the
pots, and the soil mixture was washed from
the root stocks with a soap solution. The
seedlings were cut at the point of attach-
ment of the cotyledons. The shoots and
roots were weighed on a triple-beam bal-
ance to compute shoot-root ratios. A l-cm
section directly above the point of attach-
ment was cut from the shoot and the bark
removed for specific gravity determination.
Specific gravity was determined using the

maximum moisture content developed by
Smith (1954), and outlined by Winstead
(1972) and Randel and Winstead (1976a).

The remaining seedlings were transferred
to a greenhouse. Greenhouse temperatures
ranged from 18 to 41 C and humidity
ranged from 14 to 93 percent. The light
intensities ranged from 21,520 to 26,900 lux.
The plants from Set 1 (short-day condi-
tions) were repotted in 8-inch (20-cm)
circular pots in Pro-Mix B, a commercial
soil mix manufactured by Premier Brands
Inc., New York, N. Y. Plants from Sets 2
and 3 (those submerged and under long-
day treatment) were transferred to similar
submerged conditions in the greenhouse.
The second set of seedlings from the short-
day treatment was transferred from the
submerged treatment in the growth cham-
ber to dry conditions in the greenhouse.
Seedlings of Set 3 from the short-day con-
dition were transferred to the greenhouse
in similar conditions to those in the growth
chamber.

RESULTS

Analysis of the data indicates significant
variances between sweet gum _ seedlings
subjected to different treatments that in-
volved varying photoperiods (long-day
verses short-day) and different growing
conditions (dry versus submerged). Those
differences involved photoperiod reaction
(cessation of growth, formation of apical
buds, and bud burst), growth (root weight,
shoot weight, while maintaining a constant
shoot-root ratio), wood quality (specific
gravity), and structural differences in the
rootstocks.

It was apparent that under the test con-
ditions in this study there was no evidence
of transfer of a growth retardant or dormin-
like substance in water from one plant to
another. There was no difference in the
reaction to photoperiod between plants
under the long-day submerged treatment
that received water from the short-day sub-
merged plants and the long-day submerged
control plants (those submerged but not
receiving any water transfer between cham-

bers).

EFFECTS OF SUBMERGENCE ON SWEET GuM SEEDLINGS—Wellman and Winstead 35

TABLE 1.—MEAN NUMBER OF HOURS OF DARKNESS
REQUIRED FOR CESSATION OF GROWTH OF 50) PER-
CENT OF SWEET GUM SEEDLINGS

TABLE 3.—MEAN NUMBER OF HOURS OF DARKNESS
REQUIRED FOR 50 PERCENT APICAL BUD FORMATION
IN SWEET GUM SEEDLINGS

Short-day Long-day Short-day Long-day
program program program program
Dry Dry
Mean 981? 997.6" Mean 1163.0 1271.8
Standard deviation 0 59.5 Standard deviation 0 0
Submerged Submerged
Mean 9811 886.8 Mean 1186.4 1032.4
Standard deviation 0 7.3 Standard deviation 8.2 20.4

1Means not significantly different at the 0.05 level.

The seedlings tested showed variation in
the number of hours of darkness required
for cessation of growth. The seedlings of
the long-day submerged set required sig-
nificantly fewer (P < 0.05) hours of dark-
ness for 50 percent cessation of growth
(Table 1). There was no significant dif-
ference in that test for the other 3 treat-
ments (short-day dry, short-day submerged,
and long-day dry). The plants of the long-
day submerged program also required sig-
nificantly fewer (P < 0.05) hours of dark-
ness for complete cessation of growth
(Table 2). There was also no significant
difference between the other 3 treatments
for that test.

The result of the test concerning the
number of hours of darkness required for
apical bud formation did not correspond
with the results of the cessation of growth
test. All treatments differed significantly
in the requirement of hours of darkness
required for 50 percent formation of apical
buds (the long-day submerged treatment

TABLE 2.—MEAN NUMBER OF HOURS OF DARKNESS
REQUIRED FOR CESSATION OF GROWTH FOR ALL

SEEDLINGS
Short-day Long-day
program program
Dry
Mean 1053.87 1131.8
Standard deviation 94.0 141.8
Submerged
Mean 1053.8" 949.4
Standard deviation 112.8 80.6

still required the fewest hours of darkness,
Table 3). The short-day dry and short-day
submerged treatments did not differ sig-
nificantly in the number of hours of dark-
ness required for complete apical bud
formation. The other 2 treatments did dif-
fer significantly in that requirement (again,
the long-day submerged treatment required
the fewest hours of darkness, Table 4). It
should be noted that the standard devia-
tions for these results were extremely low.

Sweet gum plants transferred to the
greenhouse also showed differences in
growth responses based on their previous
treatment in the growth chambers. Seed-
lings that received the short-day submerged
treatment in the chambers were _trans-
ferred to submerged conditions in the
greenhouse. Those plants never underwent
bud burst. Seedlings that received long-
day submerged treatments were also trans-
ferred to submerged conditions in the
greenhouse and a few (3 of 10) exhibited
bud burst. Plants that received short-day

TABLE 4.—MEAN NUMBER OF HOURS OF DARKNESS
REQUIRED FOR COMPLETE APICAL BUD FORMATION
IN SWEET GUM SEEDLINGS

Short-day Teonguday
program program
Dry
Mean 1182.5" 1285.8
Standard deviation 28.2 9.3
Submerged
Mean 1187.7? 1076.8
Standard deviation 5.8

84.5

1 Means not significantly different at the 0.05 level.

1 Means not significantly different at the 0.05 level.

36 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 40( 1-2)

TABLE 5.—COMPARISON OF ROOT WEIGHT, SHOOT
WEIGHT, AND SHOOT—ROOT RATIOS OF 23-WEEK-OLD

TABLE 6.—COMPARISON OF WOOD SPECIFIC GRAVITY
OF 23-WEEK-OLD SWEET GUM SEEDLINGS, DRY AND

SWEET GUM SEEDLINGS, DRY AND SUBMERGED, GROWN SUBMERGED, GROWN UNDER CONTROLLED CONDI-
UNDER CONTROLLED CONDITIONS TIONS
Dry Dry
Plant Root Shoot j Shoot—root Plant number Specific gravity
number weight (g) weight (g) ratio
= i 1 0.4765
l 14.7 43.2 2.94 9 Oa
2 13.0 36.0 2.77 5 eect
3 20.3 41.0 2.002 i REO
} 44.6 Di
ee ad vn
beet ni F ries Standard deviation 0.0316
Standard deviation 3.1 33 45
: Submerged
Submerged
Plant number Specific gravity
Plant Root Shoot Shoot—root
number weight (g) weight (¢) ratio 1 0.5929
1 8.6 28.6 Sey) 2 0.5565
2 Nee. 27.0 rit 3 0.5803
3 6.6 21.9 BOP 4 0.5518
4 8.4 19.3 2.30 5 0.5735
5 5.2 16.7 3.21 6 0.5507
6 4.8 14.6 3.04 @ 0.5419
7 9.2 18.4 2.00 8 0.5573
8 5.0 14.2 2.84 9 0.5779
9 4.5 11.4 HOS 10 0.5834
10 6.5 14.7 2.33 Mean 0.5666!
Mean 7.0' Issa 2.44 Standard deviation 0.0170
Standard deviation 2.4 5.7 49

1 Means within column differ significantly at the 0.001
level.

dry and short-day submerged treatments in
the chambers also exhibited bud burst
when exposed to greenhouse and dry con-
ditions. Seven of 10 plants with previous
short-day and submerged treatment showed
bud burst, and 9 of 10 plants previously
grown under short-day and dry conditions
exhibited bud burst.

The root weights and shoot weights of
the long-day dry plants differed signif-
icantly (P < 0.001) from the root weights
and shoot weights of the long-day sub-
merged plants. The weights of the dry
plants were higher than those of the seed-
lings that received submerged treatments.
Although a difference in weights was ob-
served, there was no significant difference
in the shoot-root ratio of both tests
(Table 5).

Seedlings of long-day treatments also
differed from the long-day submerged

1 Means within the column differ significantly at the
C.001 level.

seedlings in specific gravity. Plants that re-
ceived the submerged treatment had a
higher value for specific gravity that was
statistically significant at the 0.001 level
(Table 6).

The rootstocks of the submerged plants
showed anatomical differences from the
rootstocks of the dry plants; only those
plants used for the shoot-root ratios and
specific gravity tests were used for that
observation. The submerged rootstocks
possessed structures that superficially re-
sembled enlarged lenticels (Fig. 1). Their
internal anatomy as observed from free-
hand cross sections also resembled that of
a lenticel (Esau 1962).

DISCUSSION

Submergence was similar to photoperiod
in being able to induce cessation of growth

and formation of dormant buds. Submer-

EFFECTS OF SUBMERGENCE ON SWEET GuM SEEDLINGS—Wellman and Winstead 37

Fic. 1.

Typical rootstock of Liquidambar styraciflua seedlings grown under controlled conditions

with roots not submerged (left photograph). Rootstock of Liquidambar styraciflua seedlings grown

under controlled conditions with roots continually submerged in water (right photograph)

gence also resulted in a reduction of growth
but not in altering biomass allocation. A
final result of submergence was the pro-
duction of lenticel type structures on the
rootstocks of treated seedlings.

The transfer of water between sub-
merged plants of different chambers was
done to detect the possibility of a water
soluble hormone that might be connected
with dormancy. This test was attempted
because of previous work in submerging
populations of sweet gum from the United
States and Mexico together under green-
house conditions. In that test, Mexican
plants became dormant when submerged,
but dry (unsubmerged) control plants did
not. In that test, there were no controls
under different day-night cycles nor were
any populations kept separate under the
submerged conditions. It was thought that
the submerged plants under short-day
treatments might produce a water soluble
hormone that would induce dormancy
when introduced into the simulated pond
conditions of the submerged plants under
the long-day treatment. The fact that sub-
merged control plants, under long-day
treatment that did not receive water trans-
ferred from the short-day chamber, under-

went cessation of growth and formation of
apical buds at the same time as those sub-
merged plants involved in the water trans-
fer, indicates that placing the seedlings in
water was enough to induce dormancy.

Still, the presence of a growth regulating
compound in the water of the submerged
plants cannot be ruled out. Perhaps photo-
period impinged on the stress of submer-
gence is enough to cause the production
of a dormancy stimulating compound (or
a decrease in the production of a dormancy
inhibiting compound). A reasonable ex-
planation for the induction of dormancy
may be that the stress put upon the plant
by the reduction of available oxygen to the
root system is enough to induce a dormant
state. But for a few exceptions, the plants
never broke dormancy when they were
submerged; those that did exhibit bud
burst had minimal growth.

Liquidambar styraciflua is found in bot-
tomlands, and seedlings are sometimes ex-
posed to partial or complete flooding. It
has been shown that such seedlings can
survive approximately 2 weeks (16 days)
of complete inundation. The recovery time
is slower than that of other bottomland
species such as black willow Salix nigra

38 Trans. Kentucky ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 40( 1-2)

Marsh. and green ash Fraxinus pennsyl-
vanica Marsh. (Hosner 1958). Also, mature
trees of L. styraciflua can stand _ partial
flooding for 3-6 months, and the only
noticeable effect was that roots produced
during that time were not associated with
mycorrhizae and there was a reduction in
the survival of mycorrhizae during the test
period (Filer 1975). The results of the cur-
rent study indicate that areas that contain
first year seedlings and become saturated
or waterlogged during the growing season
would not provide a habitat for optimum
growth. A practical application might be
seen if some managed watershed area were
subjected to periodic or continual satura-
tion. If Liquidambar was a significant spe-
cies of that particular system, the chances
would be that the forest composition would
change due to probable decreased growth
of the species.

There are 2 possible explanations for the
low standard deviations in Tables 1, 3, and
4; (1) the observations may have been in-
sufficiently accurate, and (2) the time of
darkness was measured as total hours of
darkness and not as applications of a con-
stant dark period. The dark treatment was
given in blocks of 8 and 12 hours of dark-
ness. In analyzing the data in terms of
hours of darkness, the values are restricted
to multiples of the numbers of hours of the
dark treatment.

The values in Tables 1 and 2 were cal-
culated from graphs of the growth of the
seedlings and may be more representative
than the values in Tables 3 and 4 that were
obtained from physical observations. No
significant differences were detected be-
tween the means of seedlings that received
long-day dry treatments, short-day dry
treatments, and short-day submerged treat-
ments. The means of the short-day dry and
short-day submerged treatments were iden-
tical, but the standard deviations were zero
(Table 1). In both cases, the number of
hours of darkness for the long-day sub-
merged treatment was_ significantly less
than those required for the other treat-
ments.

The data indicate that approximately

1,000 hours of darkness is required for ces-
sation of growth in terms of photoperiodic
response. There is also a limit to the
amount of time the seedlings can remain
submerged before showing the effects of in-
undation by the reduction of growth. Seed-
lings in the short-day chamber received
more hours of darkness during the same
amount of time than those in the long-day
chamber. The short-day submerged plants
reached the limit of the hours of darkness
before (or at the same time) the effects of
submergence were shown. The long-day
submerged plants, however, received fewer
hours of darkness in the same amount of
time than those in the short-day chamber.
The number of days required for the ef-
fects of submergence to be shown was
reached before the total number of hours
of darkness was received. In that case, the
effect of submergence was more important
than the photoperiodic effect.

All treatments required significantly dif-
ferent numbers of hours of darkness for 50
percent apical bud formation (Table 3)
and the only nonsignificant difference
between the mean number of hours of
darkness required for complete apical bud
formation was between the short-day treat-
ments, dry and submerged (Table 4).
Again, the standard deviations are very
low and, therefore, the differences become
significantly different when they may not
actually fall outside the range of normal
variation. The value for the long-day sub-
merged treatment in both tables was lower
than the means of the other 3 treatments.
This may continue the trend shown in
Tables 1 and 2, or it may be that submer-
gence results merely in the reduction of
growth, and a certain number of hours of
darkness is required for apical bud forma-
tion. The means of the hours of darkness
required for apical bud formation fall
within the range of previously reported
data from similar treatments (Randel 1975,
unpublished master’s thesis, Western Ken-
tucky University, Green, Ken-
tucky ).

Plants moved to the greenhouse varied in
their response to photoperiod according to

Bowling

EFFECTS OF SUBMERGENCE ON SWEET GuM SEEDLINGS—Wellman and Winstead 39

previous and continued treatments. Those
that remained under dry conditions exhib-
ited bud burst after apical bud formation
(with 1 exception). Plants given continued
submerged treatments did not exhibit bud
burst with few exceptions (3 out of 10).
The fact that the submerged plants that
did exhibit bud burst had previously re-
ceived long-day photoperiods whereas no
submerged plants that had _ previously
received short-day photoperiods initiated
growth may indicate a cumulative effect of
the hours of darkness. The short-day plants
received more hours of darkness and pos-
sibly may have accumulated more of a
dormancy compound. The long-day plants
received fewer hours of darkness and,
therefore, possibly had a lower amount of
dormancy compound. Dormancy caused by
submergence was reinforced by the photo-
periodic response to a greater extent by
the long nights. The only submerged plants
to exhibit bud burst were those that had
previously received the long-day treatment
as only 3 seedlings out of 40 submerged
plants exhibited bud burst. The submerged
seedlings that did exhibit bud burst showed
only minimal growth. Submergence will
reduce growth again, probably by the re-
duction of available oxygen. Plants that
received normal (dry) treatments in the
greenhouse that had previously been sub-
merged also exhibited bud burst. Once
submerged conditions are removed, seed-
lings may return to normal growth patterns.

Submergence resulted in reduced growth
but no difference in the shoot—root ratio. The
primary effect of submergence is the reduc-
tion of available oxygen to the roots that
would produce the expected result of di-
minished growth. The weights of the root-
stocks and shoots were significantly lower
for the submerged seedlings than for the
seedlings that received the dry treatments
(both groups were in the long-day cham-
ber) (Table 5). Although there was a
reduction in growth, there was no change
in the shoot-root ratios. There is some evi-
dence that for some desert plants, more
biomass is put into the production of roots
since water is the limiting factor in that
climate (Krause and Kummerow 1977). It

is apparent that submergence has no effect
on the biomass allocation and indicates that
it is genetically controlled and not subject
to environmental conditions.

Although specific gravity of the seed-
lings fell within the range of the specific
gravity of the wood of mature trees re-
ported in the literature, submergence has
an effect on the quality of the wood of the
seedlings. It has been shown previously
that Liquidambar styraciflua seedlings
from different latitudes vary in specific
gravity, plants of the lower latitudes having
a lower specific gravity (Winstead 1972).
It has been shown that it is possible that
the difference in specific gravity is related
to different cell diameters, woods having a
higher specific gravity have smaller cell
diameters (Randel and Winstead 1976a).
In that instance, the environmental condi-
tion of submergence increased specific
gravity. A likely explanation is that sub-
mergence causes a decrease in growth and a
decrease in cell diameter. It would seem
that optimal growth conditions would re-
sult in a lower specific gravity. It would
be expected that optimal growth conditions
would be shown by larger growth rings.
However, in field collected data there is no
correlation between the width of growth
rings and specific gravity (Taylor 1977). It
should be emphasized that these data were
obtained from field collected material and
not from trees grown under identical en-
vironmentally controlled conditions.

A final effect of submergence was the
production of enlarged lenticels of the root-
stocks of the submerged plants. Again, this
may be explained by the primary effect of
the water on the seedlings, the reduction
of available oxygen to the roots. Lenticels
are structures that function in gaseous ex-
change. It might be that lenticels were
produced in response to the stress of the
lowered concentration of oxygen. This
would seem to be an adaptive character-
istic in reaction to adverse environmental
conditions.

LITERATURE CITED

Esau, K. 1962. Anatomy of seed plants. John
Wiley & Sons, Inc. New York, N.Y. 376 pp.

4() TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 40( 1-2)

Farmer, R. E., Jr. 1968. Sweetgum dormancy
release: effects of chilling, photoperiod, and
genotype. Physiol. Plant. 21:1241-1248.

Fiter, T. H., Jr. 1975. Mycorrhizae and _ soil
microflora in a green tree reservoir. Forest
Sci. 21:723-735.

Hosner, J. F. 1958. The effects of complete
inundation upon seedlings of six bottomland
species. Ecology 39:371-373.

Krause, D. A., AND J. KumMMEROw. 1977. Root
and shoot growth rates of chaparral shrubs.
Bot. Soc. Amer. Misc. Publ. 154. 25 pp.

McMiLtan, C., AND J. E. Wrnsteap. 1976.
Adaptive differentiation in Liquidambar sty-
raciflua L. from eastern United States and
northeastern Mexico under uniform environ-
mental conditions. Bot. Gaz. 137:361—367.

RANDEL, W. R., AND J. E. Wrnsteap. 1976a.
Environmental influence on cell and wood

characters of Liquidambar styraciflua L.
Bot. Gaz. 137:45-51.
AND 1976b. Cold treat-

ment and budbursting in sweetgum from
south-central Kentucky. Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci.
37:104—105.

SmirH, D. 1954. Maximum moisture content for
determining specific gravity of small wood
samples. Forest Prod. Lab. Rept. No. 2014.
U.S. Dept. Agric., Washington, D.C. 3 pp.

Taytor, F. W. 1977. Variation in specific grav-
ity and fiber length of selected hardwoods

Witcox, J. R.

WituiaMs, G. J., III.

WINSTEAD, J. E.

throughout the mid-south. Forest Sci. 23:
190-194.
1968. Sweetgum seed stratifica-
tion requirements related to winter climate at
seed source. Forest Sci. 14:16-19.
197la. Populational dif-
ferentiation in the Hill reaction of United
States, Mexico, and Central America Liquid-
ambar styraciflua LL. Photosynthetica 5:139-
145.

1971b. Levels of soluble sugars and
ATP in ecotypes of Liquidambar styraciflua
L. Photosynthetica 5:399—405.

, AND C. McMILLAN. 197la. Phenology
of six United States provences of Liquidambar
styraciflua under controlled conditions. Amer.
J. Bot. 58:24—31.

, AND 1971b. Frost tolerance

in Liquidambar styraciflua native to the
United States, Mexico, and Central America.
Can. J. Bot. 49:1551—-1558.
1971. Populational differences
in seed germination and_ stratification re-
quirements of sweetgum. Forest Sci. 17:34—
36.

1972. Fiber tracheid length and wood
specific gravity of seedlings as ecotypic char-
acters in Liquidambar styraciflua L. Ecology
53:165-172.

1975. Population differences in sur-
vival patterns of sweetgum. Trans. Ky. Acad.
Sci. 36:80-82.

Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 40(1—2), 1979, 41-42

The Occurrence of Two Species of Shrews

in Central Kentucky

Hau Bryan
Division of Environmental Analysis, Kentucky Department of Transportation,
Frankfort, Kentucky 40601

ABSTRACT

The southeastern shrew Sorex l. longirostris has been collected from Hardin County and
Henry County, and the smoky shrew S. f. fwmeus has been collected from Franklin County,
thus extending the ranges of those insectivores into north-central Kentucky.

The exact range of the southeastern shew,
Sorex longirostris longirostris, has yet to
be determined in Kentucky. Barbour and
Davis (1974) documented its occurrence in
western Kentucky and as far north and east
as Meade and Bullitt counties, and sug-
gested that it is likely to occur in south-
central Kentucky.

A specimen of Sorex I. longirostris was
collected by the Division of Environmental
Analysis in southeastern Hardin County in
a sunken can during the first week of
February 1977. This is the first record of
that shrew in Hardin County.

The collection site is in the headwaters
of East Rhudes Creek (N37°38’30”, W85°
50/00”) about 9 km_ south-southeast of
Elizabethtown. The habitat is an ecotone
between an open stand of upland hard-
woods and a harvested cornfield. A small
intermittent stream runs northeast to south-
west just inside the upland hardwoods.
Three sunken cans were placed at each of
5 stations adjoining the stream. Five nights
of trapping along the ecotone caught only
the solitary southeastern shrew. The un-
derstory vegetation consists primarily of
honeysuckle Lonicera japonica Thunb.,
blackberry Rubus sp., and periwinkle Vinca
minor L. The site was adjacent to an
abandoned logging road and appeared peri-
odically wet.

Approximately 2 weeks later, another
specimen of Sorex |. longirostris was iden-
tified from Henry County near the Ken-
tucky River (N38°26’00”, W84°56’15”).
The specimen was captured by a domestic
dog. That locale represents the known

4]

northern and eastern limits of S. 1. longi-
rostris in Kentucky.

The smoky shrew Sorex fumeus fumeus
is most often found on the Cumberland
Plateau and in the southeastern mountains
of Kentucky. Barbour and Davis (1974)
documented specimens from Edmonson
County in south-central Kentucky and con-
cluded that the species is evidently locally
distributed across southern and eastern
Kentucky where suitable habitat is avail-
able. Fassler (1974) reported a specimen
caught by a house cat in Pulaski County.

A specimen of Sorex f. fumeus was iden-
tified from Franklin County (N38°17’00”,
W84°52’30”) along the Kentucky River ap-
proximately 17.7 km north of Frankfort
during December 1977. The specimen was
caught by a domestic cat. Apparently, this
is the first record of the smoky shrew in
north-central Kentucky.

Since the localities in Henry and Franklin
counties are separated by a linear distance
of approximately 11 miles (17.7 km), there
is a possibility that S. f. fumeus and S. lL.
longirostris may be sympatric along the
Kentucky River in north-central Kentucky.

The Hardin County specimen of S. L
longirostris and the Franklin County speci-
men of S. f. fumeus are in the zoological
collection of the University of Kentucky.
The Henry County specimen of S. /. longi-
rostris is in the collection of the Division
of Environmental Analysis of the Kentucky
Department of Transportation in Frank-
fort.

42 Trans. Kentucky ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 40( 1-2)

I gratefully acknowledge Drs. R. W. Bar- LITERATURE CITED
bour and W. H. Davis for confirming iden- Barpour, R. W., AND W. H. Davis. 1974. Mam-
tifications of the 3 specimens and_ for mals of Kentucky. Univ. Press of Kentucky,
reviewing this manuscript. I also gratefully Lexington, Ky. 322 pp.

: . FassterR, D. J. 1974. Mammals of Pulaski
acknowledge Dr. M. D. Hassell for review- Goin kentucky MeTiaeon Ky. eden

ing the manuscript. 35( 1-2) :37—43.

Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 40(1—2), 1979, 43-51

Field Botany in Kentucky: A Reference List’

MARIAN J. FULLER
Department of Biological Sciences,
Murray State University, Murray, Kentucky 42071

ABSTRACT

This reference list, concerned with field botany in Kentucky, contains 323 references, and

includes the titles of 56 master’s theses. The references date from Rafinesque’s 1819 Botany

of Kentucky through papers published in 197

Three sources provided the foundation
upon which this reference list of botanical
field studies in Kentucky was built: (1)
Shacklette’s 1940 unpublished list entitled
“A preliminary bibliography of Kentucky
botany,’ (2) Davies’s 1953 article on “The
status of floristic studies in Kentucky,” and
(3) Meijer’s 1970 article “The flora and
vegetation of Kentucky as a field for re-
search and teaching.” The references they
cited have been checked and most have
been included in this list. No judgments
have been made concerning the “scientific”
acceptability of the entries. The only re-
quirements for inclusion were that the en-
tries dealt with (1) fungi, lichens, mosses,
ferns, conifers, and flowering plants of
Kentucky, and (2) some aspects of field
botany in its broadest sense.

The list includes 323 entries, of which
44 date from 1819 to 1899, 99 from 1900 to
1949, and 173 from 1950 to 1976, inclusive.
Of the 56 master’s theses included, 44 have
been written since 1950. The study areas
extend from the loess bluffs along the Mis-
sissippi River to the deciduous forests of
the Cumberland Plateau. Topics include
floristics, taxonomy, biosystematics, and
ecology, including physiological ecology.

This reference list could not have been
as complete without the assistance of nu-
merous persons. David H. Webb, Joe E.
Winstead, and Raymond Athley not only
supplied references, but also provided en-
couragement and incentive to present this
material in published form. Jerry M. Bas-
kin, University of Kentucky; Arland_ T.

* Contribution No. 3 from the Murray State Uni-
versity Herbarium.

Uf

43

Hotchkiss, University of Louisville; J. Stuart
Lassetter, Eastern Kentucky University;
Joe E. Winstead, Western Kentucky Uni-
versity, David M. Brumagen, Morehead
State University; and E. W. Chester, Austin
Peay State University, Clarksville, Tennes-
see, provided titles for most of the theses.

List OF REFERENCES

ApaMs, B., G. E. Hunter, D. F. Austin, AND K.
E. Kerricx. 1968. The flora of Murphey’s
Pond. Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci. 29( 1-4) :25-28.

Anperson, W. A. 1924. Graminales of Kentucky.
Master’s thesis, University of Kentucky, Lex-
ington, Ky.

. 1947. New distribution records in
Kentucky. Castanea 12(1):50-56.

, AND A. R. RippeLy. 1927. Ferns of
vicinity of Irvine, Kentucky. Amer. Fern J.
17:130-133.

ANDREASEN, M. L., AND W. H. Esusaucu. 1973.
Solidago albopilosa Braun, a_ little known
goldenrod from Kentucky. Castanea 38(2):
117-132.

Bascock, J. V. 1977. Endangered plants and ani-
mals of Kentucky. IMM R25-GR4-77. ORES
Publ., Coll. Engin., Univ. Ky., Lexington, Ky.
128 pp.

Barsour, R. W., AND B. L. Barsour. 1950.
Notes on the plants of Harlan County, Ken-
tucky. Castanea 15(3):125.

Baskin, C. C., anp J. M. Baskin. 1975. The
cedar glade flora of Bullitt County, Kentucky.
Castanea 49(3):184—190.

, AND 1977. A disjunct popu-
lation of Liatris mucronata DC. in Grayson
County, Kentucky. Bull. Torr. Bot. Club 104:
66.

BASKIN, J. M., AND C. C. Baskin. 1972.
rezia dracunculoides new to Kentucky.
tanea 37(4):287-290.

, AND 1977. Leavenworthia
torulosa Gray; and endangered plant species
in Kentucky. Castanea 42(1):15—17.

Bearpry, J. R. 1959. Solidago albopilosa Braun
and S. flaxicaulis L. Castanea 24(2):53-54.

Gutier-
Cas-

44 TrANs. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 40( 1-2)

Beckett, M. R. 1956. The flora of Clark County,
Kentucky in relation to geologic regions. Mas-
ter’s thesis, University of Kentucky, Lexington,
Ky.

BrcxEL, D. 1965. A revised checklist of Kentucky
mosses. Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci. 26(1—2):1-1!1.

Buaucu, D. S. 1975. Toward a natural delin-
eation of the area known as the Southern
Appalachian Highlands. Castanea 40(3):197-
201.

Boucuer, C. K. 1973. A phytosociological study
of a relict hardwood forest in Barren County,
Kentucky. Master's thesis, Western Kentucky
University, Bowling Green, Ky.

, AND J. E. WinstEAp. 1974. A phyto-
sociological study of a relict hardwood forest
in Barren County, Kentucky. Trans. Ky. Acad.
Sci. 35( 1-2) :44—45.

Braun, E. L. 1934. The Lea Herbarium and the
flora of Cincinnati. Amer. Midl. Nat. 15(1):
1-75.

1935. The vegetation of Pine Moun-
tain, Kentucky. Amer. Midl. Nat. 16:517—565.
1935. The undifferentiated deciduous
forest climax and the association-segregate.

Ecology 16(3):514-519.

. 1936. Notes on Kentucky plants I.
Castanea 1:41—45.
= 1937. A remarkable colony of coastal

plain plants on the Cumberland Plateau in
Laurel County, Kentucky. Amer. Midl. Nat.
18:363-366.
1937. Some relationships of the flora
on the Cumberland Plateau and the Cumber-
land Mountains in Kentucky. Rhodora 39:
193-208.

. 1938. Deciduous forest climaxes.
Ecology 19(4):515-522.

1939. Notes on Kentucky plants II.

Castanea 4:127-131.

—= . 1940. Satureja glabella in Kentucky.
Rhodora 42:525.
= 1940. Silphium incisum Greene in

Kentucky. Castanea 5:6—-7.
1940. An ecological transect of Black
Mountain, Kentucky. Ecol. Monogr. 10:193—

241.
. 1940. New plants from Kentucky.
Rhodora 42:47-51.
1941. The red azalea of the Cumber-

lands. Rhodora 43:31-35.
. 1941. A new locality for Solidago
shortii. Rhodora 43:484.
—. 1941. Notes on Kentucky plants III.
Castanea 6: 10-12.

1941. Notes on Kentucky plants IV.
Castanea 6:28-30.

1941. A new station for Pachystima
canbyi. Castanea 6:52.

. 1941. Notes on Kentucky plants V.

Castanea 6:137—140.
1942. Forests of the Cumberland
Mountains. Ecol. Monogr. 12:413-447.

. 1942. Notes on Kentucky plants VI.
The genus Solidago in Kentucky. Castanea 7:
7-10.

1942. A new species and a new
variety of Solidago from Kentucky. Rhodora
44; 1-4,

1943. An
spermatophytes of Kentucky.
Co., Cincinnati, O. 161 pp.

. 1950. Deciduous forests of eastern

North America. The Blakiston Co., Phila-

delphia, Pa. 596 pp.

Brown, W. L., ANpd E. ANpERSON. 1940. Poa
cuspidata of the Appalachian Plateau and
Atlantic Coastal Plain. Castanea 5:124—126.

Browne, E. M., AND E. T. Browne, Jr. 1965.
Flowering plants new or rare in Kentucky.
Rhodora 67(770): 180-181.

Browne, E. T., Jr. 1961. A preliminary report
on the Liliaceae of Kentucky. Ass. Southeast.
Biol. Bull. 8(2):23.

1961. Some new or otherwise interest-

ing reports of Liliaceae from the southeastern

states. Rhodora 63(775) :304-311.

annotated catalogue of
John S. Swift

1961. “Lost” species of Kentucky
Liliaceae. Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci. 23(3-4):
51-57.

1963. Some new county distribution

records of ferns and fern-allies in Kentucky.
Castanea 28(3):100—103.
—. 1964. A floristic study of Kentucky
Point, Kentucky. Ass. Southeast. Biol. Bull.
11(2):40.

1965. Floristic studies in Pike County,
Kentucky. Ass. Southeast. Biol. Bull. 12(2):
43.

. 1965. Botany in Kentucky since 1914.
Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci. 25(3—4) :77-82.
1966. An instance of possible inter-
familial hybridization in the ferns. Ass. South-
east. Biol. Bull. 13(2):31.

1967. Remarks concerning the en-
demics of Tygarts Creek gorge, Carter County,
Kentucky. Ass. Southeast. Biol. Bull. 14(2):
24.

1967. Herbarium and field notes on
Kentucky plants I. New state records, rarities
and a new form. Castanea 32(2):77-84.

—. 1968. Correlation of environmental
factors and known distribution of Taxus cana-
densis Marsh. in Kentucky. Ass. Southeast.
Biol. Bull. 15(2):32.

1974. Herbarium and field studies of
Kentucky plants II. New state records and
rarities. Sida 5(4):271-273.

, AND R. ArHrey. 1976. Herbarium and
field studies of Kentucky plants III. New or
rare flowering plants in western Kentucky. J.
Elisha Mitchell Sci. Soc. 92(3):104—-109.

AND —, 1977. The “lost”
Liliaceae of Kentucky: a reevaluation. Trans.
Ky. Acad. Sci. 38( 1-2) :95-96.

, AND E. Guunarpya. 1964.

Bourbon

REFERENCE List OF FIELD BOTANY IN KEeNTUCKY—Fuller 45

County, Kentucky and its vegetation. Ass.
Southeast. Biol. Bull. 11(2):46.

, AND D. Pittitto. 1965. Some new or
rarely reported species of angiosperms in
Kentucky. J. Elisha Mitchell Sci. Soc. 81(1):
15-16.

Bryan, C. A. 1977. A floristic survey of the
vascular plants in loess bluff ravines in Carlisle,
Hickman, and Fulton counties in Kentucky.
Master’s thesis, Murray State University, Mur-
ray, Ky.

Cau, R. E. 1916. Observations on the flora of
Mammoth Cave, Kentucky. Mem. N.Y. Bot.
Gard. 6:65-68.

CARPENTER, S. B. 1976. Stand structure of a
forest in the Cumberland Plateau of eastern
Kentucky fifty years after logging and burn-
ing. Castanea 41(4):325-337.

—, AND R. L. Rumsey. 1976. Trees and
shrubs of Robinson Forest, Breathitt County,
Kentucky. Castanea 41(4):277-282.

Carr, K., AND J. Conn. 1941. Three plants pre-
viously unreported from Kentucky. Castanea
6:17-18.

CuEsTER, E. W. 1967.
Kentucky, Indiana, and Ohio.
380-382.

, L. J. Scurpic, AND R. J. JENSEN. 1976.
The woody flora of Land Between the Lakes,
Kentucky and Tennessee. J. Tenn. Acad. Sci.
51(4):124—129.

CLaAusEN, J., R. B. CHANNEL, AND N. Nur. 1964.
Viola rafinesquii, the only Melanium violet
native to North America. Rhodora 66:32—46.

Halesia carolina L. in
Rhodora 69:

Ciausen, R. T. 1938. A monograph of the
Ophioglossaceae. Mem. Bot. Club 19(2):1-
ets

. 1940. Two ferns new to Kentucky.
Amer. Fern J. 30:27-28.

Ciesscu, A. 1974. Bryophytes of Land Between
the Lakes, Kentucky—Tennessee. Castanea 39:
295-339.

Ciute, W. N. 1906. <A checklist of the North
American fernworts. Fern Bull. 14:56—58.
( Trichomanes radicans. ) :

1907. <A checklist of the North
American fernworts. Fern Bull. 15:120-127.
(Woodsia ilvensis. )

1908. A checklist of the North
American fernworts. Fern Bull. 16:16—32.
(Lycopodium lucidulum var. porophilum. )

CorFey, J. C. 1970. Investigations in Luzula:
species of the southeastern United States.
Castanea 35(1):68—77.

Conran, J. D. 1972. <A survey of the flora of
the western Kentucky coalfields region with
emphasis on the flora of the interior of the
region. Master’s thesis, University of Ken-
tucky, Lexington, Ky.

Conrap, O. W. 1973. The effects of water ex-
tracts from Juglans nigra L. on the germina-
tion of native deciduous tree species. Master's

thesis, Morehead State University, Morehead,
Ky.

Core, 1938. Plant migrations and vegetational
history of the southern Appalachian regions.
Lilloa 3:5-29.

CrANDELL, A. R. 1884. Report on the timber
growth of Greenup, Carter, Boyd, and Carter
counties in eastern Kentucky. Ky. Geol. Surv.
(Timber and Botany). 23 pp.

Crum, H. 1954. Additions to the moss flora of
Kentucky. Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci. 15:24-26.

—. 1956. Additions to the moss flora of
Kentucky II. Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci. 17:131-
134.

Daoup, H. S., ann R. L. Witpur. 1965. A
revision of the North American species of
Helianthemum (Cistaceae ). Rhodora 67 :255-
Bl:

Davipson, U. M. 1950. The original vegetation
of Lexington, Kentucky and vicinity. Master's
thesis, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Ky.

Davies, P. A. 1949. Keys to the ferns and fem-
allies of Jefferson County, Kentucky. Ann.
Ky. Soc. Nat. Hist. 1(5) :33-34.

1950. Botanical history of Jefferson
County, Kentucky. Ann. Ky. Soc. Nat. Hist.
5:38.

. 1952. New stations for Asplenosorus
ebenoides. Amer. Fern J. 42(2):57-58.

1953. The status of floristic studies
in Kentucky. Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci. 14(2):
49-58.

1955. <A preliminary list of the vas-
cular plants of Meade County, Kentucky.
Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci. 16(4):88—97.

1955. <A preliminary list of the vas-
cular plants of Mammoth Cave National Park.
Castanea 20(3): 107-127.

Dearincer, J. A. 1968. Esthetic and recreational
potential of small naturalistic streams near
urban areas. Univ. Ky. Water Res. Inst., Res.
Rept. No. 13.

DeFriese, L. H. 1884. Reports on the timber of
Grayson, Breckinridge, Ohio, and Hancock
counties, Kentucky. Ky. Geol. Surv. (Timber
and Botany). 20 pp.

1884. Timbers in North Cumberland,
Bell, and Harlan counties, Kentucky. Ky. Geol.
Surv. (Timber and Botany). 24 pp.

1884. Reports of the timbers of the
Tradewater region, Caldwell, Lyon, Critten-
den, Hopkins, Webster, and Union counties.
Ky. Geol. Surv. (Timber and Botany). 34 pp.

1884. Report on the timber of the
district west of the Tennessee River, commonly
known as the Purchase District, Kentucky.
Ky. Geol. Surv. (Timber and Botany ). 34 pp.

1884. Report on a belt of Kentucky
timbers, extending east and west along the
southcentral part of the state from Columbus
to Round Gap, Kentucky. Ky. Geol. Surv.
(Timber and Botany). 62 pp.

46 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 40( 1-2)

Dicken, S. N. 1935. The Kentucky barrens. Bull.
Geol. Soc. Phila. 33:42—51.

Duncan, W. H. 1967. Woody vines of the south-
eastern states. Sida 3(1):1-76.

Exuis, W. H., E. Worrorp, AND E.. W. CHESTER.
1971. <A preliminary checklist of the flower-
ing plants of the Land Between the Lakes.
Castanea 36( 4) :229-246.

, AND E. W. Cuester. 1971. Spring
wildflowers of Land Between the Lakes.
Tenn. Valley Auth. Publ. 74 pp.

, AND 1973. Summer and
fall wildflowers of Land Between the Lakes.
Tenn. Valley Auth. Publ. 71 pp.

EtrMan, J. K. 1976. An annotated checklist of
the Orchidaceae of Bell County, Kentucky.
Ann. Ky. Nat. Hist. 3: 1-7.

Fauuter, A. 1975. The plant ecology of Mam-
moth Cave National Park, Kentucky. Doctoral
dissertation. Indiana State University, Terre
Haute, Ind.

Fetix, C. J. 1958. Mosses of Harlan County,
Kentucky. Bryologist 61:242-246.

FERNALD, M. L. 1931. Specific segregation and
identities in some floras of eastern North
America and the Old World. Rhodora 33:
25-63.

Frazer, L. J. 1869. Report on the indigenous
botany in Kentucky. Proc. Ky. St. Med. Soc.
14:47-62.

Futrorp, M. 1934. List of Hepaticae of Ken-
tucky. Bryologist 37:21-28.

1936. Additions to the Hepaticae of
Kentucky. Bryologist 39:119-122.

, AND H. T. SHACKLETTE. 1942. A list
of Kentucky mosses. Bryologist 45:;125-134.

Funk, V. A. 1975. A floristic and geologic sur-
vey of selected seeps of Calloway County,
Kentucky. Master’s thesis, Murray State Uni-
versity, Murray, Ky.

GauuinER, L. 1931. The Erysiphaceae of Ken-
tucky. Master’s thesis, University of Kentucky,
Lexington, Ky.

GANSNER, D. A., AND P. S. DeBALp. 1966. Ken-
tucky forests, western unit. U.S. Forest Serv.,
Res. Bull. SO-32. 58 pp.

GarMAN, H. 1900. Kentucky forage plants,
grasses. Bull. Ky. Agric. Exp. Sta. 87:55-121.

1901. Poisonous and edible mush-
rooms. Bull. Ky. Agric. Exp. Sta. 96:215-222

1902. Kentucky forage plants, the
clovers and allies. Bull. Ky. Agric. Exp. Sta.
98: 1-46.

. 1913 The woody plants of Kentucky.
Bull. Ky. Agric. Exp. Sta. 169:3-62.

1914. Some Kentucky weeds and
poisonous plants. Bull. Ky. Agric. Exp. Sta.
183:255-339.

1921. The relation of the Kentucky
species of Solidago to the period of activity of
adult Cyllene robiniae. Bull. Ky. Agric. Exp.
Sta. 231:3-22.

. 1925. The vegetation of the barrens.
Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci. 2: 107-111.

Geitinc, W. T. 1962. A limnological survey of
sinkhole ponds in the vicinity of Doe Run,
Meade County, Kentucky. Master’s thesis,
University of Louisville, Louisville, Ky.

Gentry, J. L., Jk. 1963. The vascular plants of
Henry County, Kentucky. Master’s _ thesis,
University of Kentucky, Lexington, Ky.

, AND E.. T. Browne, Jr. 1964. Vas-
cular plants of Henry County, Kentucky. Ass.
Southeast. Biol. Bull. 11(2):43-45.

GERSBACKER, E. O., AND E. M. Morton. 1939.
Typical plant succession at Reelfoot. J. Tenn.
Acad. Sci. 14:230-238.

Gipson, D. 1961. Life-forms of Kentucky flower-
ing plants. Amer. Midl. Nat. 66:1-66.

GREENWELL, R. A. 1935. <A flora of Nelson
County, Kentucky with a selected list of
economically important plants. Nazareth Coll.,
Louisville, Ky. 204 pp.

GrossMANn, J., AND D. Pirrm.to. 1962. Shrubby
and herbaceous flora of the Berea College
Forest. Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci. 23(3-4):61-73.

GunarpyA, E. 1962. The flora of Bourbon
County, Kentucky. Master's thesis, University
of Kentucky, Lexington, Ky.

, AND E. T. Browne, Jr. 1962.
flora of Bourbon County, Kentucky.
Southeast. Biol. Bull. 9(2):41.

Gunn, C. R. 1956. <A guide to some recent state
floras. Castanea 21(1):33-38.

1958. The occurrences of Aegilops
cylindrica Host in Indiana and Kentucky.
Castanea 23(1):14-19.

1958. <A flora of Bernheim Forest,
Bullitt County, Kentucky. Master's thesis,
University of Louisville, Louisville, Ky.

1968. The flora of Jefferson and seven
adjacent counties, Kentucky. Ann. Ky. Soc.
Nat. Hist. 2:1-322.

. 1968. A checklist of vascular plants
of Bullitt County, Kentucky. Castanea 33(2):
89-106.

HANNAN, R. R. 1978. An ecological study of an
upland hardwood swamp in Rockcastle County,
Kentucky. Master’s thesis, Eastern Kentucky
University, Richmond, Ky.

Harpin, J. W. 1957. A revision of the American
Hippocastaneaceae I. Brittonia 9:145-172.

1957. <A revision of the American
Hippocastaneaceae IJ. Brittonia 9:173-195.

Harper, R. M. 1947. Preliminary list of southern
appalachian endemics. Castanea 12(3):100-
Ieee

Harvitt, A. M. 1941. A contribution to the
Compositae of Kentucky. Master’s thesis, Uni-
versity of Kentucky, Lexington, Ky.

Harvitte, A. M. 1950. Diphysicum cumber-
landianum, a pre-Pleiocene relic with paleo-
tropical affinities. Bryologist 53:277-282.

Haskins, C. C. 1876. A two day excursion

The
Ass.

REFERENCE LIST OF FIELD BOTANY IN KENTUCKY—Fuller 47

(Grayson Co.). Bull. Torrey Bot. Club 6:
123-124.

Heiman, N. R. 1972. Floristic affinities of the
Land Between the Lakes, Kentucky—Tennes-
see. Master’s thesis, Austin Peay State Uni-
versity, Clarksville, Tenn.

Hetp, M. E. 1975. Structure and composition
of a climax forest system in Boone County,
Kentucky. Master’s thesis, Western Kentucky
University, Bowling Green, Ky.

, AND J. E. WinstEAp. 1975. Basal area
and climax status in mesic forest systems.
Ann. Bot. 39:1147-1148.

, AND 1976. Structure and
composition of a climax forest in Boone
County, Kentucky. Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci. 37
(3-4) :57-67.

HerMAN, T., AND M. C. Sez. 1973. Secondary
succession following fire in “Tight Holler,”
Kentucky. Castanea 38:227-285.

Hiccins, P. D. 1970. <A preliminary survey of
the vascular flora of the Red River Gorge
of Kentucky (Menifee, Powell and Wolfe
counties ). Master’s thesis, University of Louis-
ville, Louisville, Ky.

Hinxie, C. R. 1975. <A preliminary study of the
flora and vegetation of Cumberland Gap Na-
tional Historical Park, Middlesboro, Kentucky.
Master’s thesis, University of Tennessee, Knox-
ville, Tenn.

Houpert, G. K, 1937. Ferns of Hardin County,
Kentucky. Amer. Fern J. 27:91-97.

Hosxinson, R. C. 1951. A flora of Meade County,
Kentucky. Master’s thesis, University of Louis-
ville, Louisville, Ky.

Howe.i, H. H. 1975. Some ecological factors
affecting the occurrence of water willow
Justicia americana in Jessamine Creek, Ken-
tucky. Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci. 36( 3-4) :43-50.

Hurraker, W. M. 1975. A preliminary survey
of the vascular flora of upper Tygarts Creek,
Carter County, Kentucky. Master’s thesis,
Morehead State University, Morehead, Ky.

Hussey, J. 1875. Trichomanes radicans Swartz.
Bull. Torrey Bot. Club 6(1):6.

. 1875. Spiraea arumcus. Bull. Torrey
Bot. Club 6(1):15—-16.

1884. Report on the botany of Barren
and Edmonson counties, Kentucky. Ky. Geol.
Surv. (Timber and Botany ). 32 pp.

Hurcuins, R. B. 1972. The influence of micro-
climate on the soils and vegetation of steep
forested slopes in eastern Kentucky. Master's
thesis, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Ky.

Isety, D. 1946. Manual of herbaceous plants of
the Tennessee Valley Resources. Tenn. Valley
Auth., Wilson Dam, Ala. 165 pp. (partial
reprint ).

JoHnson, M. C. 1960. A new evergreen grape-
fern discovered in Johnson County, Kentucky.
Castanea 25(3):103-105.

Jounson, R. G. 1968. Notes on the distribution

of Disporum maculatum (Buckl.) Britton.
Castanea 33(3):262-266.
, AND T. N. McCoy. 1975. Some Ly-

copodium new to eastern Kentucky. Amer.
Fern J. 65(1):28.

Jones, J. K. 1970. Some aspects of the seasonal
recovery of chlorotic needles in Scotch pine,
Pinus sylvestris L. Masters thesis, Eastern
Kentucky University, Richmond, Ky.

KeARNEY, T. H., Jr. 1893. Notes on the flora
of southeastern Kentucky. Bull. Torrey Bot.
Club 20:474—485.

1894. Notes on the flora of south-
eastern Kentucky. Bull. Torrey Bot. Club 21:
260-266.

Keirn, J. R. 1967. A study of vegetation in the
Pleistocene drift region of northern Kentucky.
Master's thesis, University of Kentucky, Lex-
ington, Ky.

1968. Vegetation of the Pleistocene
drift region, northern Kentucky. Trans. Ky.
Acad. Sci. 29( 1-4): 10-20.

KELLERMAN, G. D. 1959. <A survey of aquatic
plants of western Kentucky (Ballard, Bullitt,
Carroll, Davies, Hardin, Hickman, Jefferson,
Livingston, Meade, Nelson, Oldham, Lyons,
Shelby, Trimble and Warren counties). Mas-
ter’s thesis, University of Louisville, Louisville,
Ky.

KIRKLAND, G. C. 1932. Preliminary checklist of
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48

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f

i

|
|
|
|
|
|

Cine Bull. 4:66.

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Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 40(1—2), 1979, 52

New Species Records of Damselflies
(Odonata: Zygoptera) in Kentucky

Puitre H. CROWLEY AND ALLAN D. WILSON

T. H. Morgan School of Biological Sciences,
University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky 40506

ABSTRACT

Argia tibialis, Enallagma traviatum, Ishnura ramburii, and Lestes rectangularis have been
collected in Fayette County, Kentucky. E. traviatum and I. ramburii are new state records.

With this note, we add 2 species of
damselflies to the list of species for Ken-
tucky and 5 species of damselflies to the
list for Fayette County. The new state
records are Enallagma traviatum Selys 1876
and Ishnura ramburii (Selys) 1850. One
male E. traviatum was collected 24 June
1978 and another on 27 June 1978 at Lake
Mildred, a shallow 1-ha impoundment on
Spindletop Farm, Iron Works Pike, in
northern Fayette County, Kentucky. On
4 July 1978, a male I. ramburii was col-
lected at Lake Mildred. Females of those
species were not found. Determinations
have been confirmed by M. J. Westfall, Jr.,
University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida.

We have collected individuals of 3 addi-
tional species not recorded previously from
Fayette County in the published literature.
They are Argia tibialis Rambur 1842, Lestes
eurinus Say 1839, and Lestes rectangularis
Say 1839. A mating pair of A. tibialis was
netted along a dirt path beside East Hick-
man Creek in southern Fayette County on
5 July 1978. A single male of L. eurinus
and both sexes of L. rectangularis were
taken beside a 0.02-ha pond in Burr Oak
Woods, east of Tates Creek Pike in southern
Fayette County on 26 July 1978.

Specimens were identified from keys and
species descriptions of Garman (1927),
Needham and Heywood (1929), Johnson
and Westfall (1970), and Johnson (1972).

These new records supplement the list
of Kentucky Odonata recently published by
Resener (1970), and bring the current state
total to 138 species.

Since E. traviatum is known already

from Illinois, Indiana, Ohio, and Tennessee
(Montgomery 1967, Goodwin 1968), its
discovery in Kentucky is hardly unexpected.
But since I. ramburii apparently has not yet
been found in Indiana, Ohio, West Virginia,
or Tennessee (M. J. Westfall, Jr., pers.
comm.), the shape of its distributional
range has been changed by the inclusion
of Kentucky.

We thank M. J. Westfall, Jr. for confirm-
ing our identifications of E. traviatum and
I. ramburii, and we acknowledge research
support from National Science Foundation
Grant DEB 78-02832 to one of us (Crow-

ley ).
LITERATURE CITED

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32-44.

Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 40(1—2), 1979, 53-55

Distributional Records for and Additions to the
Ichthyofauna of Kentucky

Bruce H. BAvER
Department of Zoology, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, Tennessee 37916

AND

BRANLEY A. BRANSON

Department of Biological Sciences, Eastern Kentucky University,
Richmond, Kentucky 40475

ABSTRACT

Recent collections of fishes in Kentucky as well as the discovery of older, previously unsorted
materials have yielded new distributional records for several Kentucky fishes, including 3 species
previously unreported from the state, Notropis camurus, Etheostoma neopterum, and E. swaini.

Ichthyomyzon fossor Reighard and Cum-
mins. Northern brook lamprey.—This non-
parasitic species was known previously in
Kentucky from the Big Sandy and Barren
river drainages. On 24 October 1976, 5
specimens were collected from Greasy
Creek, tributary to Middle Fork of Ken-
tucky River, Leslie County. Our collection
from the Kentucky River system is geo-
graphically intermediate between those
drainages. Clay (1975) noted that I. fossor
was a relict species in the Ohio River valley
where it was widely but discontinuously
distributed. The distribution of this lam-
prey may be discontinuous simply because
of the difficulty of adequately collecting its
preferred habitat.

Percopsis omiscomaycus (Walbaum). Trout-
perch.—The troutperch is an uncommon
fish in Kentucky, the southern limit of its
range. In the state, it is known from the
Salt River system in Jefferson County, east-
ward in the Ohio River and its tributaries
(Clay 1975). On 24 September 1963, 2
adult specimens of P. omiscomaycus were
collected from Long Creek, tributary to
Barren River, in Allen County.

Notropis camurus (Jordan and Meek).
Bluntface shiner—Three specimens of N.
camurus were collected on 18 July 1978 in
Terrapin Creek, a northern tributary to
Obion River, in Graves County. This shiner
very closely resembles the steelcolor shiner,

53

N. whipplei, from which it can be distin-
guished by a combination of characters
such as the number of lateral line scales,
caudal peduncle pigmentation, and tuber-
culation pattern of the head and _ snout.
Gibbs (1961) recorded no collection of N.
camurus from western Kentucky or western
Tennessee. N. camurus has been reported
as common in tributaries to the Mississippi
and Tennessee rivers in western Tennessee
(Starnes 1973; Dickinson 1973; Clark 1974;
and Boronow 1975, unpublished masters’
theses, University of Tennessee, Knoxville,
Tennessee). Our collection from Kentucky
represents the northern known limit of the
range of the bluntface shiner east of the
Mississippi River, it also represents the
first published record for N. camurus from
Kentucky.

Notropis whipplei (Girard). Steelcolor
shiner.—The steelcolor shiner is an uncom-
mon inhabitant of Mississippi River tribu-
taries of western Tennessee and Kentucky.
Dickinson (unpublished thesis) reported a
single specimen from the Obion River in
Tennessee. A large series (168 specimens )
was collected from the West Fork of Clarks
River on 18 July 1978. That series con-
tained several highly tuberculate males.
Sisk (1969) failed to collect the species in
Clarks River, however, he did report a
single specimen of the spotfin shiner, N.
spilopterus, a closely related and often con-
fused species, from the same locality in

54 Trans. Kentucky ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 40( 1-2)

Marshall County as the above collection
was made. It seems likely that his was
a misidentification and in reality was N.
whipplei. Smith and Sisk (1969) recorded
specimens from Obion Creek, Carlisle
County, in extreme western Kentucky. Re-
cent examination of many previously un-
sorted Tennessee Valley Authority collec-
tions from the late 1930's and early 1940's
housed at the University of Michigan Mu-
seum of Zoology revealed 7 collections of
the steelcolor shiner from Tennessee River
tributaries in Trigg, Lyon, Marshall, and
Calloway counties.

Phenacobius mirabilis (Girard). Sucker-
mouth minnow.—A series of 21 specimens
of the suckermouth minnow was also col-
lected on 18 July 1978 in West Fork of
Clarks River, Marshall County. Sisk (1969)
did not report P. mirabilis from his survey
of Clarks River, although the species is
widespread in all major drainages of the
state (Clay 1975). The present series con-
tains several tuberculate males, one of
which possessed breeding coloration on
the ventral margin of the posterior caudal
peduncle. That coloration consisted of an
orange-yellow flush to the first 8 simple
(unbranched) caudal rays.

Noturus elegans Taylor. Elegant madtom.
—Previously, N. elegans was thought to be
confined in Kentucky to the Green River
system (Clay 1975). On 17 July 1971, 2
specimens were collected from Ruin Creek,
tributary to Little Sandy River, in Elliott
County. Taylor (1969) listed the total
range of N. elegans as portions of the Green
River system in Kentucky and Duck River
system in Tennessee with questionable
records from the Cumberland River and
upper Tennessee River systems in Tennes-
see.

Etheostoma kennicotti (Putnam). Stripe-
tail darter.—A single specimen of the stripe-
tail darter was collected on 10 November
1973 from Slate Creek, tributary to Licking
River, in Bath County. Page and Smith
(1976) listed the Poor Fork of Cumberland
River as the most eastern distribution for
E. kennicotti in Kentucky, and considered

a literature record (Turner 1959) from the
Middle Fork of Kentucky River invalid.
The discovery of the stripetail darter in the
Licking River system could place a degree
of reliability on the literature record for
the Kentucky River, however, no specimens
are extant for that collection.

Etheostoma neopterum Howell and Dinger-
kus. Lollypop darter.—This recently de-
scribed species was thought to be confined
to the Tennessee River in northern Alabama
and central Tennessee ( Howell and Dinger-
kus 1978). Tennessee Valley Authority
preimpoundment collections from the late
1930's and early 1940’s contained 7 collec-
tions of the lollypop darter from Tennessee
River tributaries in Calloway, Lyon, Mar-
shall, and Trigg counties. A collection of
E. squamiceps from West Fork of Clarks
River in Marshall County housed at the
University of Louisville (UL 12867) is here
tentatively reidentified as E. neopterum.
That collection contains juvenile specimens
only, and thus the possibility that they are
E. squamiceps does exist. Several collec-
tions of the lollypop darter are in the col-
lection at Murray State University and
represent additional records for tributaries
of Tennessee River in Stewart County as
well as the above-mentioned counties.
Etheostoma neopterum was previously un-
reported from Kentucky.

Etheostoma swaini (Jordan). Gulf darter.
—This darter has not been reported from
Kentucky. On 18 July 1978, 5 specimens
were collected from Terrapin Creek in
Graves County. Examination of uncata-
logued material at Murray State University
Biological Station revealed several addi-
tional specimens from Terrapin Creek.

Percina oxyrhyncha (Hubbs and Raney).
Sharpnose darter.—Denoncourt et al. (1977)
reported specimens of the sharpnose darter
from the Kentucky River system (Redbird
Creek). This appears to be the only pub-
lished record for the state as Clay (1975)
did not include the species in his listing of
the fishes of Kentucky. Two specimens of
P. oxyrhyncha were collected from the
Licking River at the Bath-Rowan county

ICHTHYOFAUNA OF KENTUCKY—Bauer and Branson 55

line on 4 October 1968. On 7 May 1966
and 21 July 1967, collections in Russell Fork
of Big Sandy River at Elkhorn City, Pike
County yielded 1 and 7 specimens, respec-
tively.

Percina squamata (Gilbert and Swain).
Olive darter.—Previously known from 3
specimens from 2 localities in Kentucky:
Tennessee River, Marshall County (UL
5302) and Fishing Creek, Cumberland
River system, Pulaski County (UL 5089)
(Clay 1975). A single large adult was col-
lected from the Rockcastle River, Laurel—
Rockcastle county line on 23 April 1978.

Representative specimens of the above-
mentioned species have been deposited at
Eastern Kentucky University. Appreciation
is expressed to Dr. Bruce A. Thompson,
formerly of Tulane University, for verifica-
tion of the Percina oxyrhyncha specimens.

LITERATURE CITED

Ciay, W. M. 1975. The Fishes of Kentucky.
Ky. Dept. Fish Wildl. Res., Frankfort, Ky.
416 pp.

DeENONCOuRT, R. F., C. H. Hocutt, anp J. R.
STAUFFER, JR. 1977. Notes on the habitat,
description and distribution of the sharpnose
darter, Percina oxyrhyncha. Copeia 1977(1):
168-171.

HowELL, W. M., anpD G. DincEerkus. 1978. Etheo-
stoma neopterum, a new percid fish from the
Tennessee River system in Alabama and Ten-
nessee. Bull. Ala. Mus. Nat. Hist. 3:13-26.

Gisss, R. H. 1961. Cyprinid fishes of the sub-
genus Cyprinella of Notropis. IV. The No-
tropis galacturus—camurus complex.
Mid]. Nat. 66( 2) :337-354.

PacE, L. M., AND P. W. SmirH. 1976. Variation
and systematics of the stripetail darter, Etheo-
stoma kennicotti. Copeia 1976(3):532-541.

Sisk, M. E. 1969. The fishes of West Kentucky.
I. Fishes of Clark’s River. Trans. Ky. Acad.
Sci. 30( 3-4 ) 54-59.

SmirH, P. L., AnD M. E. Sisk. 1969. The fishes
of West Kentucky. II. The fishes of Obion
Creek. Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci. 30(3-4):60-68.

Taytor, W. R. 1969. A revision of the catfish
genus Noturus Rafinesque, with an analysis
of higher groups in the Ictaluridae. U.S. Natl.
Mus. Bull. 282:1-315.

TurNER, W. R. 1959. Pre-impoundment surveys
of six Kentucky streams. Ky. Fish. Bull. 24:
1-43.

Amer.

Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 40(1—2), 1979, 56-57

Nesting Site of the Lollypop Darter Etheostoma neopterum

LAWRENCE M. PAGE AND RicHARD L. MAYDEN
Illinois Natural History Survey, Urbana, Illinois 61801

ABSTRACT

Two nests of the lollypop darter Etheostoma neopterum were found in tributaries of Birdsong
Creek, Benton County, Tennessee, on 15 April 1978. One nest contained 577 eggs, the other
685 eggs. Eggs were deposited on the undersides of stones, as they are in other species of the

subgenus Catonotus.

Species of the subgenus Catonotus (genus
Etheostoma) deposit adhesive eggs on the
undersides of stones, usually in pools of
small streams (Page 1975a). Species for
which such a nesting site has been reported
thus far are E. flabellare (Lake 1936, Winn
1958), E. squamiceps (Page 1974), E. ken-
nicotti (Page 1975b), and E. smithi (Page
and Burr 1976). Other than species of
Catonotus, the only darters known to use
the undersides of stones as nesting sites are
E. (Boleosoma) olmstedi (Atz 1940), E.
(B.) nigrum (Winn 1958), and E. ( Notho-
notus) maculatum (Raney and Lachner
1939).

Howell and Dingerkus (1978) made
observations on E. (Catonotus) neopterum
in Little Butler and Butler creeks (Shoal
Creek system, Tennessee and Alabama)
where there is a paucity of slab stones.

Fic. 1. Etheostoma neopterum male and his nest
of eggs on the underside of a stone removed from
a stream on 15 April 1978. The male was guarding
the eggs prior to their removal from the stream.

They found breeding males and females
only under shallow undercut banks in slow
water areas of the stream.

On 15 April 1978, we found 2 nests of
E. neopterum in tributaries of Birdsong
Creek (Tennessee River drainage), Benton
County, Tennessee. Each nest was on the
underside of a stone near the center of the
stream in slow current and was guarded
by a male. One nest in 9 cm of water,
guarded by a 58-mm SL male, contained
977 eggs. The other, guarded by a 65-mm
SL male, contained 685 eggs (Fig. 1) and
was at a depth of 20 cm. Water tempera-
tures were 14 and 15 C, respectively.

On one nest, several eggs had been laid
on top of other eggs. For other species of
Catonotus, eggs were found to have been
deposited only in a single layer. Presum-
ably insufficient space for additional eggs
on the exposed underside of the stone
necessitated the addition of a second layer.

In one of the tributaries in which a nest
of E. neopterum was found, E. kennicotti
was common. However, no nests of E.
kennicotti were found and the species ap-
parently had not commenced spawning. In
the other tributary, E. neopterum was the
only species of Catonotus found.

Etheostoma neopterum uses the under-
sides of stones as nesting sites as does its
closest relative, E. squamiceps. It is likely
that study of the breeding behavior of E.
neopterum will demonstrate that, as in E.
squamiceps, spawning is accomplished in a
head-to-head position with both the male
and female inverted for only a few seconds
(Page 1974).

NEsTING SITE OF LoLLypop DARTER—Page and Mayden 57

LITERATURE CITED

Artz, J. W. 1940. Reproductive behavior in the
eastern johnny darter, Boleosoma nigrum olm-
stedi (Storer). Copeia 1940(1):100-106.

HowELt, W. M., AND G. Dincerkus. 1978. Etheo-
stoma neopterum, a new percid fish from the
Tennessee River system in Alabama and Ten-
nessee. Bull. Ala. Mus. Nat. Hist. 3:13-26.

Lake, C. T. 1936. The life history of the fan-
tailed darter Catonotus flabellaris flabellaris
(Rafinesque). Amer. Midl. Nat. 17(5):816-
830.

Pacr, L. M. 1974. The life history of the spot-
tail darter, Etheostoma squamiceps, in Big
Creek, Illinois, and Ferguson Creek, Kentucky.
Ill. Nat. Hist. Surv. Biol. Notes 89. 20 pp.

1975a. Relations among the darters

of the subgenus Catonotus of Etheostoma.
Copeia 1975(4):782-784.

1975b. The life history of the stripe-
tail darter, Etheostoma kennicotti, in Big Creek,

Illinois. Ill. Nat. Hist. Surv. Biol. Notes 93.

15 pp.

—, AND B. M. Burr. 1976. The life his-
tory of the slabrock darter, Etheostoma smithi,
in Ferguson Creek, Kentucky. II]. Nat. Hist.
Surv. Biol. Notes 99. 12 pp.

RANEY, E. C., anp E. A. LacHner. 1939. Ob-
servations on the life history of the spotted

darter, Poecilichthys maculatus (Kirtland).
Copeia 1939(3):157-165.
Winn, H. E. 1958. Comparative reproductive

behavior and ecology of fourteen species of
darters (Pisces—Percidae ). Ecol. Monog. 28
(2):155-191.

Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 40(1-—2), 1979, 58-67

Records of Fishes in Western Kentucky With
Additions to the Known Fauna

Brooxs M. Burr AND RicHARD L. MAYDEN

Department of Zoology, Southern Illinois University,
Carbondale, Illinois 62901

ABSTRACT

Recent collections in western Kentucky (west of the Green River) have added 4 species,
Ichthyomyzon gagei, Noturus hildebrandi, Lepomis marginatus, and Etheostoma parvipinne,
to the faunal list of the state and significant distributional records for the following poorly
known species: Lampetra aepyptera, Esox niger, Clinostomus funduloides, Noturus phaeus,
Lepomis punctatus, Percina copelandi, P. evides, Etheostoma zonale, E. asprigene, E. swaini,
E. neopterum, and E. proeliare. Specimens of Etheostoma from the Tennessee River are tenta-
tively identified as E. neopterum, although they do not agree in all respects with populations
from Tennessee and Alabama. The present total of 211 species of fishes in Kentucky probably
will be increased by additional surveys in poorly collected areas.

INTRODUCTION

A recent review of the fishes of Kentucky
(Clay 1975) included a provisional list of
201 species dated 23 March 1973 [although
left out of the checklist, Clay mentioned
Sisk’s (1973) record for Etheostoma fusi-
forme in a text footnote, thus bringing the
total number of Kentucky fishes to 202].
Prior to and since the publication of Clay’s
review, a number of fishes have been dis-
covered in Kentucky waters that have not
been reported previously. Some are species
newly described or newly discovered by
additional collecting. Despite the contribu-
tions of Sisk (1969, 1973), Smith and Sisk
(1969), and Webb and Sisk (1975) on
fishes of western Kentucky, a considerable
number of unreported species have turned
up in the area west of the Tennessee River.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

M. E. Braasch, P. A. Burr, S. D. Ogle,
L. M. Page, and P. W. Smith assisted in
the collection and identification of the
fishes reported herein. R. M. Bailey and
E. Koon (UMMZ) and L. M. Page (INHS)
provided information on specimens at their
respective institutions. Officials at Murray
State University allowed us to examine col-
lections of fishes made by the late Morgan
E. Sisk. R. M. Bailey and W. L. Pflieger

confirmed our original identifications of

58

certain species. B. H. Bauer informed us
of his work on Kentucky fish records and
supplied us with other information. R. A.
Brandon and M. A. Morris made helpful
comments on the manuscript.

ACCOUNTS OF SPECIES

Three species that had not been pre-
viously reported for Kentucky were inde-
pendently discovered in western Kentucky
by ourselves and B. H. Bauer and B. A.
Branson, and their paper [Bauer and Bran-
son (1979)] appears in this same issue.
Our paper adds 4 more fishes to the Ken-
tucky ichthyofauna, confirms the presence
of several species not recorded since Wool-
man’s (1892) survey or previously known
from only one or a few specimens, and
clarifies the ranges of several others. Rec-
ords are based on several collections made
by the authors in western Kentucky and
collections deposited at the Illinois Natural
History Survey (INHS), Murray State Uni-
versity (MSU), Southern Illinois University
at Carbondale (SIUC), and University of
Michigan Museum of Zoology (UMMZ).
David A. Etnier and his students first iden-
tified some University of Michigan Museum
of Zoology collections made by Tennessee
Valley Authority personnel in western Ken-
tucky (during preimpoundment surveys of
the Tennessee River) and some of those
collections are reported here.

AppiTions TO Kentucky IcutHyorAUNA—Burr and Mayden 59

Species accounts include the catalog
number, locality, major drainage, county,
date of collection and, in parentheses, the
number of specimens followed by the range
of standard length or total length (only
for lampreys) in millimeters. Counts and
measurements follow Hubbs and Lagler
(1964).

Ichthyomyzon gagei Hubbs and Trautman
Southern brook lamprey

SIUC uncat., W. Fk. Clarks R. (Tennessee
R. dr.), at Backusburg, Calloway Co., 30
April 1971 (1, 140 mm).

Remarks: The southern brook lamprey
has not been reported previously from
Kentucky. The specimen, now at Southern
Illinois University at Carbondale was dis-
covered at Murray State University in col-
lections made by the late Morgan E. Sisk.
The specimen has well developed disc teeth
except in the posterior field, a shallowly
notched dorsal fin, and 54 myomeres. The
nonparasitic I. gagei may be distinguished
from its parasitic counterpart I. castaneus
by its smaller size, narrower disc, and
poorly developed teeth on the posterior
field.

The southern brook lamprey apparently
prefers clear, shallow, gravel- or sand-
bottomed streams with current and may be
found near piles of debris composed of
leaves and other organic matter (Dendy
and Scott 1953).

The Clarks River specimen of I. gagei is
the only one known from the Tennessee
River and represents a significant range
extension. Pflieger (1975) recorded I. gagei
from the Gasconade River, Missouri. The
Clarks River record is from about the same
latitude as the Gasconade River record and
further substantiates the more northern
penetration of a species thought for many
years to be restricted to more southern
drainages.

Lampetra aepyptera (Abbott)
Least brook lamprey

SIUC uncat., Beechy Cr. (Tennessee R. dr.),
1.6 km SE New Concord, Calloway Co.,

23 March 1978 (4, 112-121); SIUC uncat.,
Panther Cr. (Tennessee R. dr. ), 2.4 km NW
New Concord, Calloway Co., 19 March
1967 (5, 103-111.5); SIUC uncat., W. Fk.
Clarks R. (Tennessee R. dr.), at Backus-
burg, Calloway Co., 27 April 1969 (1, 134);
SIUC uncat., trib., Terrapin Cr. (Obion R.
dr.), 0.8 km SE Bell City, Graves Co., 23
March 1978 (1, 78.5); SIUC uncat., Ter-
rapin Cr. (Obion R. dr.), just north of
Tennessee state line, Graves Co., 20 July
1978 (3, 82-123).

Remarks: This species was previously
known only from the lower Cumberland
River and eastward in Kentucky (Clay
1975). Specimens from Terrapin Creek,
collected on 20 July 1978, are ammocoetes
and were allocated to L. aepyptera using
descriptive characters given by Vladykov
(1950). The number of myomeres for am-
mocoetes ranges from 53 to 58, for adults
from 54 to 57. The 4 adults (3 males, 1
female ) from Beechy Creek had built nests
in the sand and gravel and evidently were
spawning or preparing to spawn on the date
of capture.

Esox niger Lesueur
Chain pickerel

INHS 78677, Metropolis Lake (Ohio R. dr.),
4.8 km N Grahamville, McCracken Co., 28
May 1972 (1, 64); INHS 77990, Colvin
Lake (Ohio R. dr.), 2.4 km N Monkeys
Eyebrow, Ballard Co., 14 August 1969 (1,
66); SIUC uncat., Fish Lake (Mississippi
R. dr.), 1.6 km W Burkley, Carlisle Co., 19
July 1978 (1, 68).

Remarks: Esox niger was formerly known
from | locality in Kentucky: Middle Fork
Clarks River, 0.8 km SE Murray, Calloway
County (Sisk 1969). That specimen was
not found at Murray State University, but
Sisk (1969) recognized both E. americanus
and E. niger and the record is believed
valid. The specimens reported herein have
14-15, 15-14, and 14-13 branchiostegal rays
and a snout length characteristic of E. niger.
Esox americanus, the species with which
it is most often confused, usually has 11
or 12 branchiostegal rays per side and a

60 Trans. Kentucky ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 40( 1-2)

shorter snout. In Fish Lake, both species
were collected together. Esox niger was
found along the vegetated shorelines of
cypress bordered oxbow lakes.

Clinostomus funduloides Girard
Rosyside dace

INHS 78959, Donaldson Cr. (Cumberland
R. dr.), 5.6 km E Donaldson, Trigg Co., 29
March 1964 (17, 60-82); INHS 78949, Don-
aldson Cr. (Cumberland R. dr.), 6.4 km S$
Canton, Trigg Co., 29 March 1964 (80, 24—
80); SIUC uncat., Beechy Cr. (Tennessee
R. dr.), 1.6 km SE New Concord, Calloway
Co., 23 March 1978 (3, 30-36).

Remarks: Earlier records for this species
were restricted to extreme eastern Ken-
tucky, in Big Sandy and Little Sandy rivers
and Tygarts and Kinniconick creeks (Clay
1975). Miller (1978) recently reported C.
funduloides from 3 localities in the lower
Tennessee River, Calloway County. Speci-
mens from Donaldson Creek have a range
of 43-48 lateral line scales, 19-21 predorsal
scales, 33-36 body circumferential scales,
16-18 caudal peduncle scales, 9 anal rays,
15-16 pectoral rays and in 3 specimens a
2,5-4,2 pharyngeal tooth count. The taxo-
nomic status of those populations has not
been determined (Deubler 1955, unpub-
lished doctoral dissertation, Cornell Univer-
sity, Ithaca, New York) but western Ken-
tucky specimens probably are C. f. estor.

Noturus phaeus Taylor
Brown madtom

SIUC uncat., Terrapin Cr. (Obion R. dr.),
just north of Tennessee state line, Graves
Co., 20 July 1978 (2, 45.5-51); SIUC uncat.,
Powell Cr. (Obion R. dr.), 8 km E Duke-
dom, Graves Co., 20 July 1978 (1, 21).

Remarks: Clay (1975) reported 1 speci-
men of the brown madtom from Terrapin
Creek. The recently collected specimens
reconfirm the presence of the brown mad-
tom in Kentucky and extend its known
range slightly to the west. Noturus phaeus
was collected from riffles that contained
logs, dead leaves, and other debris, usually
over a sandy bottom.

Noturus hildebrandi (Bailey and Taylor)
Least madtom

SIUC uncat., Terrapin Cr. (Obion R. dr.),
at Kentucky—Tennessee state line, Graves
Co., 1 October 1978 (1, 37); SIUC uncat.,
same locality as above, 6 October 1978 (5,
34-40).

Remarks: Previous records for the least
madtom extended into western Tennessee
to very near the Kentucky border (Taylor
1969: Map 9), but no specimens were re-
ported from Kentucky. Noturus hildebrandi
was captured in Terrapin Creek at depths
of 16 to 40 cm, over a bottom of gravel and
sand, in riffles usually below clumps of ac-
cumulated debris (log jams, sticks, leaves ).
It was collected in greater numbers at night
and was often associated with N. phaeus.
The subspecies in Kentucky is the distinc-
tive N. h. lautus (Taylor 1969).

Lepomis punctatus (Valenciennes )
Spotted sunfish

INHS 78654, Metropolis Lake (Ohio R.
dr.), 4.48 km N Grahamville, McCracken
Co., 26 April 1975 (1, 84); INHS 82793,
Fish Lake (Ohio R. dr.), 4.8 km W Barlow,
Ballard Co., 27 July 1978 (1, 95); SIUC
uncat., Fish Lake (Mississippi R. dr.), 1.6
km W Burkley, Carlisle Co., 19 July 1978
(3, 55-88); SIUC uncat., Shelton Cr. ( Mis-
sissippi R. dr.), 6 km W jet. 121 and 802,
Ballard Co., no date (5, 58-72); SIUC un-
cat., Hurricane Cr. ( Mississippi R. dr.), 4.8
km SE Blandville, Carlisle Co., 4 October
1974 (5, 26.5-79.5).

Remarks: This species was reported by
Woolman (1892), as Lepomis garmani, from
Bayou du Chien, near Moscow, Hickman
County, and Cumberland River at Barbour-
ville, Knox County. The latter is clearly
based on a_ misidentification. Although
University of Michigan Museum of Zoology
has a number of Woolman’s original col-
lections from Kentucky, the specimens of
L. garmani are not among them (E. Koon,
pers. comm.). Lepomis punctatus has not
been formally reported from Kentucky since
Woolman’s study, although Burr and Page

i
{

AppITIONS TO KENTUCKY IcHTHYOFAUNA—Burr and Mayden

(1975) listed it as a species associate of
Notropis maculatus.

The 15 specimens have a range of 36-39
lateral line scales, 18-21 caudal peduncle
scales, 13-14 pectoral rays, and 10-12 short
gill rakers. The males had longitudinal
rows of reddish-orange spots on their bodies
and a large orange spot above the opercular
flap. A female from Fish Lake was ripe
with eggs on 19 July. The subspecies in
Kentucky, L. p. miniatus, was captured
along vegetated shorelines of oxbow lakes
with bottoms of mud or sand overlain by
organic sediment, at a depth of 0.5-1 m.

Lepomis marginatus (Holbrook )
Dollar sunfish

SIUC uncat., Murpheys Pond (Obion Cr.
dr.), 3.2 km SE Beulah, Hickman Co., 19
July 1978 (1, 68).

Remarks: Although known from adjacent
western Tennessee, the dollar sunfish has
not been reported in Kentucky. The speci-
men has a 12-12 pectoral ray count, 9 infra-
orbital pores, 39 lateral line scales, and 4
rows of cheek scales. Lepomis marginatus
is a close relative of the more widespread
and abundant L. megalotis. Lepomis mega-
lotis usually has 13-13 pectoral rays, 5-6
rows of cheek scales, and 12-13 infraorbital
pores. Murpheys Pond is a heavily vege-
tated, cypress swamp inhabited by other
characteristic swamp sunfishes such as L.
symmetricus and Elassoma zonatum.

Percina copelandi (Jordan)
Channel darter

UMMZ 202531, Tennessee R. at head of
Blood R. Island, Calloway Co., 22 October
1942 (5, 29-34).

Remarks: Percina copelandi was formerly
known from the Green River drainage east-
ward in Kentucky (Clay 1975). The speci-
mens reported herein extend the known
range of the species in Kentucky about 200
km to the west. Percina copelandi probably
no longer exists at the above site; the speci-
mens are from a preimpoundment survey
made by Tennessee Valley Authority per-

61

sonnel. The area is now inundated by
Kentucky Lake. Miller (1972) listed the
species as rare in Kentucky.

Percina evides (Jordan and Copeland)
Gilt darter

UMMZ 202532, same locality and date as
for P. copelandi (1, 45).

Remarks: Clay (1975) listed the gilt
darter as occurring from Brush Creek (Ohio
R. dr.) Crittenden County eastward in
Kentucky. It is rare (Miller 1972) in Ken-
tucky and sporadic in occurrence. The
comments made about the status of P. cope-
landi in the lower Tennessee River also
apply to P. evides.

Etheostoma zonale (Cope)
Banded darter

SIUC uncat., Terrapin Cr. (Obion R. dr.),
just north of Kentucky—Tennessee state line,

Graves Co., 20 July 1978 (28, 35-48).

Remarks: The banded darter was pre-
viously known from the Green River east-
ward in Kentucky (Clay 1975). The speci-
mens from Terrapin Creek represent the
very distinctive subspecies, E. z. lynceum,
which is restricted to streams on the Coastal
Plain (Tsai and Raney 1974). Recent
workers (e.g., D. A. Etnier, W. C. Starnes )
feel that this subspecies should be elevated
to full specific rank. Individuals were cap-
tured in sand and gravel riffles with accu-
mulations of dead leaves, twigs, and logs.
Females were still ripe with eggs on 20 July.
Etheostoma z. lynceum is fairly common in
tributaries of the Obion River in adjacent
western Tennessee.

Etheostoma parvipinne Gilbert and Swain
Goldstripe darter

SIUC uncat., Powell Cr. (Obion R. dr.),
§ km E Dukedom, Graves Co., 20 July 1978
(7, 25-49); SIUC uncat., trib., Terrapin Cr.
(Obion R. dr.), 2.4 km SE Bell City, Graves
Co., 20 July 1978 (1, 43); SIUC uncat.,
trib., Sugar Cr. (Tennessee R. dr.), 3.2 km
NE Pottertown, Calloway Co., 21 July 1975
(2, 30-33).

62 Trans. Kentucky ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 40( 1-2)

Fic. 1.

ree vy eee

Distribution of Etheostoma swaini and E. asprigene in western Kentucky. Squares represent

record stations for E. swaini, circles represent record stations for E. asprigene.

Remarks: Miller (1978) reported that
M. E. Sisk collected E. parvipinne from
Billie Branch, Calloway County; however
we were unable to locate Sisk’s specimens
during our recent examination of collections
at Murray State University. Therefore, we
consider the above specimens to be the
first documented records for the species in
Kentucky. Etheostoma parvipinne is an
uncommon inhabitant of tributaries to the
Mississippi and Tennessee river drainages
in adjacent western Tennessee. The gold-
stripe darter is poorly known throughout
its range except for a recent report on its
status in Arkansas (Robison 1977). It was
only recently discovered in a vegetated
spring in southeastern Missouri (Pflieger
1975). The Kentucky specimens were col-
lected in small spring-fed creeks (1-2 m
wide ), with overhanging banks, over a sand
or gravel substrate. No aquatic vegetation
was present. The specimens agree for the

most part with the meristic data presented

by Robison (1977).

Etheostoma swaini (Jordan)
Gulf darter

All Obion River drainage. SIUC uncat.,
Powell Cr., 8 km E Dukedom, Graves Co.,
20 July 1978 (1, 57.5); SIUC uncat., trib.,
Terrapin Cr., 0.8 km SW Bell City, Graves
Co., 23 March 1978 (1, 42); SIUC uncat.,
Terrapin Cr., 3.2 km SE Tri City, Graves
Co., 23 March 1978 (16, 33-57); SIUC
uncat., Terrapin Cr., just north of Tennessee
state line, Graves Co., 19 July 1978 (5,
26.5-52.5).

Remarks: The gulf darter was recently
reported from Terrapin Creek, Kentucky,
by Bauer and Branson (1979). The Ken-
tucky distribution of E. swaini and its close
relative E. asprigene is shown in Fig. 1.
Etheostoma asprigene has been considered

ADDITIONS TO KENTUCKY IcHTHYOFAUNA—Burr and Mayden

63

TaBLE 1.—CouNntTs FOR 4 MERISTIC CHARACTERS THAT DISTINGUISH KENTUCKY SPECIMENS OF Etheo-
stoma swaini AND E. asprigene

No. pored lateral line scales

33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 N x
E. swaini 1 1 1 1 3 i 2 10 41.3
E. asprigene 2, I 1 4 2 10 30.3
No. rays in second dorsal fin
11 12 13 14 15 N x
E. swaini 5 5 10 ED
E. asprigene - 2 3 I 10 13.1
No. caudal peduncle scales
19 20 21 22 23 N x
E. swaini 3 3 3 1 10 20.2
E. asprigene 2 3 5 10 22:3
No. left pectoral rays
12 13 14 15 N x
E. swaini 4 10 12.6
E. asprigene 7 1 10 13.9

rare and endangered in Kentucky (Miller
1972) but collections at Southern Illinois
University at Carbondale, Illinois Natural
History Survey, and Murray State Univer-
sity indicate that the species is more com-
mon than formerly believed. In a cypress
swamp, 12 km S Wickliffe, Carlisle County,
19 July 1978, 13 specimens of E. asprigene
were collected in only a few seine hauls.
Etheostoma swaini and E. asprigene can
be distinguished by certain meristic charac-
ters (Table 1). In addition, E. swaini is
more brightly colored. Breeding males of
E. swaini have alternating red-orange and
light blue vertical bands laterally. The first
dorsal fin has red-orange at its base, a wide
submarginal blue band, a wide submarginal
red-orange band and a narrow blue mar-
ginal band. The second dorsal fin is mostly
red-orange with narrow blue marginal and
subdistal bands. Anal and pelvic fins are
mostly blue with some red-orange in the
anal fin. Etheostoma swaini was found in
small to medium-sized creeks over a sand,
sometimes gravel bottom in riffles that
contained sticks, logs, and other debris.
Females from 23 March were ripe with ova

and males were brilliantly colored. The
gulf darter is common in western Tennessee.

Etheostoma neopterum Howell
and Dingerkus
Lollypop darter

All Tennessee River drainage. INHS 77773,
trib., Jonathan Cr., 4.8 km W Aurora, Mar-
shall Co., 19 April 1977 (10 examined);
INHS 75540, Wildcat Cr., 0.8 km S Potter-
town, Calloway Co., 23 October 1976 (2
examined ); INHS 77602, trib., E. Fk. Clarks
R., 1.6 km E Dexter, Calloway Co., 11 April
1977 (2 examined); INHS 78649, E. Fk.
Clarks R., 1.6 km NE Hardin, Marshall Co.,
11 November 1970 (3 examined); INHS
77680, same locality as INHS 78649, 11
April 1977 (9 examined); INHS 75788, Cr.,
3.2 km W Murray, Calloway Co., 18 April
1964 (10 examined); SIUC uncat., Beechy
Cr., 1.6 km SE New Concord, Calloway Co.,
23 March 1978 (10 examined); SIUC uncat.,
Sugar Cr., 3.2 km § Faxon, Calloway Co.,
23 March 1978 (6 examined); SIUC uncat.,
trib., Blood R., 3.2 km NE New Concord,
Calloway Co., 20 July 1978 (3 examined );
SIUC uncat., trib., Blood R., 5.6 km SW

64 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 40( 1-2)

Fic. 2.

Distribution of Ethesostoma neopterum and E. squamiceps in western Kentucky. Squares rep-

resent record stations for E. squamiceps, circles represent record stations for E. neopterum. Records for
Bayou du Chien were not plotted because of their questionable status.

New Concord, Calloway Co., 20 July 1978
(19 examined); SIUC uncat., trib., Sugar
Cr., 3.2 km NE Pottertown, Calloway Co.,
21 July 1978 (24 examined).

Remarks: The lollypop darter has only
recently been described from western Ten-
nessee and northwestern Alabama (Howell
and Dingerkus 1978). Records for E. neop-
terum given by Howell and Dingerkus ex-
tend up to the Kentucky—Tennessee border,
but the species was not reported from
Kentucky. Without listing precise localities,
Bauer and Branson (1979) reported E.
neopterum from western Kentucky.

E. neopterum is abundant in smaller
tributaries to the Tennessee River in Ken-
tucky, and was formerly known under the
name E. squamiceps (its closest relative).
The distributions of the 2 species in west-
ern Kentucky are compared in Fig. 2. E.
squamiceps extends further east into the
Green River system. Specimens of E. squa-

miceps reported from Bayou du Chien by
Webb and Sisk (1975) are under study by
other workers.

Some of the diagnostic characters given
by Howell and Dingerkus (1978) for E.
neopterum and E. squamiceps are com-
pared in Kentucky specimens in Table 2.
There is more overlap for the 2 fin counts
in Kentucky specimens than counts pre-
sented by Howell and Dingerkus (1978)
for Tennessee and Alabama _ specimens.
However, the 2 distinctive morphotypes
(squamiceps and neopterum) clearly repre-
sented in Kentucky, appear allopatric and
can be separated 100 percent of the time
by the following breeding characters: males
of E. neopterum develop expanded nobs in
their second dorsal fins, the interradial
membranes are absent from the distal half
of the second dorsal fin, and the rays in
that region are thus free from one another.
In contrast, E. squamiceps does not develop

ADDITIONS TO KENTUCKY IcHTHYOFAUNA—Burr and Mayden 65

TABLE 2.—CouUNTS FOR 3 MERISTIC CHARACTERS
THAT DISTINGUISH KENTUCKY SPECIMENS OF Etheo-
stoma neopterum AND E. squamiceps

No. rays in second dorsal fin

10 11 12 13 14 N x
E. neopterum 8) 240) 2) 7/ 52 11.6
E. squamiceps 14°33 58 oo 12:9

Total no. pectoral rays (from both sides )

20 21 22 23 24 25 26 N x
E. neopterum 1} 4b SS) IL Bhs BA BBG
E. squamiceps 3 145 3 3 55 «22.0

Infraorbital canal

complete incomplete

E. neopterum 45 1

E. squamiceps o 42

expanded nobs, and interradial membranes
are present nearly to the fin’s edge ( Howell
and Dingerkus 1978: Fig. 1). Numerous
breeding males of E. neopterum that ex-
hibit that unique feature are deposited at
Illinois Natural History Survey, Murray
State University, Southern Illinois Univer-
sity at Carbondale, and University of Mich-
igan Museum of Zoology. Further study
and additional characters are needed to
clarify the taxonomic relationship of E.
squamiceps and E. neopterum.

Etheostoma proeliare (Hay)
Cypress darter

INHS 75840, Bayou Cr. (Ohio R. dr.), 1.6
km N Burna, Livingston Co., 3 March 1973
(10, 28-32); INHS 77989, Colvin Lake
(Ohio R. dr.), 2.4 km N Monkeys Eyebrow,
Ballard Co., 3 August 1973 (5, 20-23);
INHS 82797, Fish Lake (Ohio R. dr.), 4.8
km W Barlow, Ballard Co., 27 July 1978
(7, 18-20); INHS 75839, Sugar Cr. (Cum-
berland R. dr.), 3.2 km SW Tiline, Living-
ston Co., 27 July 1971 (3, 19-21); INHS
75841, Richland Cr. (Cumberland R. dr.),
3.2 km N luka, Livingston Co., 30 January
1964 (6, 26.5-29); UMMZ 202528, Duncan
Cr. (Tennessee R. dr.), ca. 0.8 km above
mouth, Lyon Co., 13 October 1942 (4, 23-
27); UMMZ 202529, Sugar Cr. (Tennessee

R. dr.), above junction with Schoolhouse
Branch, Trigg Co., 13 October 1942 (4, 24—
25); UMMZ 202530, Jonathan Cr. (Tennes-
see R. dr.), below U.S. 68 at mouth of Wolf
Branch, Marshall Co., 18 October 1942 (8,
18-27).

Remarks: The above records extend con-
siderably the known range of E. proeliare
in Kentucky (Fig. 3). Woolman first col-
lected the cypress darter in Bayou du Chien
near Moscow in 1890 (UMMZ 198980)
although the specimen remained misiden-
tified until recently. Sisk (1973) formally
reported E. proeliare from 2 localities in
extreme southwestern Kentucky. The spe-
cies is found in leaf-laden and/or vegetated
sluggish water bodies, in small to medium-
sized streams and the margins of oxbow
lakes. The morphology and taxonomy of
the species are discussed by Burr (1978).

Discussion

The list of Kentucky fishes has expanded
considerably in the last few years, due in
part to the descriptions of new species, the
resurrection of others from synonymy, and
intensive collecting in poorly worked areas.
Additional species that have been added to
the list of Kentucky fishes or for which
voucher specimens are now known include
the following: Phoxinus cumberlandensis
(Starnes and Starnes 1978), Notropis camu-
rus (Bauer and Branson 1979), Notropis
venustus (Webb and Sisk 1975), Percina
burtoni (Comiskey and Etnier 1972), Per-
cina oxyrhyncha (Thompson 1978), Am-
mocrypta vivax (Starnes et al. 1977), A.
clara (Williams 1975), and Etheostoma
smithi (Page and Braasch 1976).

Other species found in the Mississippi
River on the Missouri side of the river, but
which are likely to be found on the Ken-
tucky side are Scaphirhynchus albus, Hybo-
gnathus argyritis, H. placitus, Hybopsis
meeki, H. gelida, Notropis hudsonius, and
Ctenopharyngodon idella (Pflieger 1975).
Most of those species are distributed in the
Mississippi River at least to the mouth of
the Ohio River, and S. albus, C. idella, and
H. meeki extend in the Mississippi River to

66 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 40( 1-2)

[r. [4 moe

) f_§ Sal SN ae

4

Fic. 3.

extreme southeastern Missouri (Bailey and
Allum 1962, Pflieger 1975) or further south.
Notropis hubbsi (Bailey and Robison 1978),
found in southern Illinois, should also be
searched for in Kentucky. In addition,
several Kentucky fishes remain to be for-
mally described and distinguished. Not
counting undescribed species or those with-
out definite voucher specimens, the total
number of Kentucky fishes is 211 ( Notropis
heterolepis and N. coccogenis have been
removed from the list because no specimens
are extant).

Because of the limited habitat available
and the few presently known specimens,
the following species should be considered
for a Kentucky list of threatened fishes:
Ichthyomyzon gagei, Esox niger, Notropis
venustus, N. camurus, Noturus phaeus, N.

hildebrandi, Lepomis punctatus, L. mar-
ginatus, Etheostoma parvipinne, and E.

swaini. Etheostoma asprigene and E. proe-
liare appear to be common enough to justify

Distribution of Etheostoma proeliare in Kentucky.

their removal from threatened or endan-
gered categories.

LITERATURE CITED

BaiLey, R. M., AND M. O. ALLuM. 1962. Fishes
of South Dakota. Misc. Publ. Mus. Zool. Univ.
Mich. 119:1-131.

, AND H. W. Rosison. 1978. Notropis
hubbsi, a new cyprinid fish from the Missis-
sippi River basin, with comments on Notropis

welaka. Occ. Pap. Mus. Zool. Univ. Mich.
683: 1-21.
Bauer, B. H., anp B. A. Branson. 1979. Dis-

tributional records for and additions to the
ichthyofauna of Kentucky. Trans. Ky. Acad.
Sci. 40( 1-2) :53-55.

Burr, B. M. 1978. Systematics of the percid
fishes of the subgenus Microperca, genus
Etheostoma. Bull. Ala. Mus. Nat. Hist. 4:
1-53.

, AND L. M. Pace. 1975. Distribution
and life history notes on the taillight shiner
Notropis maculatus in Kentucky. Trans. Ky.
Acad. Sci. 36( 3-4) :71-74.

Ciay, W.M. 1975. The fishes of Kentucky. Ky.
Dept. Fish Wildl. Res., Frankfort, Ky. 416 pp.

Comiskey, C. E., Anp D. A. Ernrer. 1972. Fishes

H
|
\
|
|

AppITIoNns TO KENTUCKY IcHTHYOFAUNA—Burr and Mayden 67

of the Big South Fork of the Cumberland
River. J. Tenn. Acad. Sci. 47(4):140-145.

Denpy, J. S., AND D. C. Scorr. 1953. Distribu-
tion, life history, and morphological variations
of the southern brook lamprey, Ichthyomyzon
gagei. Copeia 1953(3):152-162.

Howe t, W. M., AND G. Dincerkus. 1978. Etheo-
stoma neopterum, a new percid fish from the
Tennessee River system in Alabama and Ten-
nessee. Bull. Ala. Mus. Nat. Hist. 3:13-26.

Husss, C. L., anp K. F. Lacter. 1964. Fishes
of the Great Lakes region. Univ. Mich. Press,
Ann Arbor, Mich. 213 pp.

Miter, L. G. 1978. New distributional records
for the rosyside dace in Kentucky. Trans. Ky.
Acad. Sci. 39( 3-4): 142-144.

Miuter, R. R. 1972. Threatened freshwater fishes
of the United States. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc.
101(2):239-252.

Pacr, L. M., anp M. E. BraascH. 1976. System-
atic studies of darters of the subgenus Cato-
notus (Percidae), with the description of a
new species from the lower Cumberland and
Tennessee River systems. Occ. Pap. Mus. Nat.
Hist. Univ. Kans. 60:1-18.

Prurecer, W. L. 1975. The fishes of Missouri.
Mo. Dept. Cons., Jefferson City, Mo. 343 pp.

Rosison, H. W. 1977. Distribution, habitat, vari-
ation, and status of the goldstripe darter,
Etheostoma parvipinne Gilbert and Swain, in
Arkansas. Southwest. Nat. 22(4):435-442.

Sisk, M. E. 1969. The fishes of west Kentucky.
I. Fishes of Clark’s River. Trans. Ky. Acad.
Sci. 30( 3-4) :54—-59.

1973. Six additions to the known pis-
cine fauna of Kentucky. Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci.
34( 3-4) :49-50.

SmirH, P. L., AND M. E. Sisk. 1969. The fishes

of west Kentucky. II. The fishes of Obion

Creek. Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci. 30(3—4 ) :60-68.

STARNES, W. C., anp L. B. Starnes. 1978. A
new cyprinid of the genus Phoxinus endemic
to the upper Cumberland River drainage.
Copeia 1978(3) :508-516.

, D. A. Ernter, L. B. STARNES, AND N. H.
Dovuctas. 1977. Zoogeographic implications
of the rediscovery of the percid genus Am-
mocrypta in the Tennessee River drainage.
Copeia 1977(4):783-786.

Taytor, W. R. 1969. A revision of the catfish
genus Noturus Rafinesque with an analysis of
higher groups in the Ictaluridae. U.S. Natl.
Mus. Bull. 282:1-315.

TuHompson, B. A. 1978. An analysis of three
subgenera (Hypohomus, Odontopholis and
Swainia) of the genus Percina (Tribe Etheo-

stomatini, Family Percidae). Diss. Abstr.
Intern. 38(9):4114B-4115B.
Tsar, C., AND E. C. RANEy. 1974. Systematics

of the banded darter, Etheostoma zonale ( Pis-
ces:Percidae). Copeia 1974(1):1-24.

Vuapykov, V. D. 1950. Larvae of eastern Amer-
ican lampreys (Petromyzonidae). I. Species
with two dorsal fins. Nat. Can. 77(3-4):
73-94.

Wess, D. H., ANp M. E. Sisk. 1975. The fishes
of west Kentucky. III. The fishes of Bayou
de Chien. Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci. 36(3-4):
63-70.

WiuuiaMs, J. D. 1975. Systematics of the percid
fishes of the subgenus Ammocrypta, genus
Ammocrypta, with descriptions of two new
species. Bull. Ala. Mus. Nat. Hist. 1:1-56.

Wootman, A. J. 1892. Report of an examina-
tion of the rivers of Kentucky, with lists of the
fishes obtained. Bull. U.S. Fish Comm. 10:
249-288.

Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 40(1-2), 1979, 68

DISTINGUISHED SCIENTIST AWARD

Dr.

Mary Eugenia Wharton

This evening we will honor an individual
who has not only made outstanding contri-
butions to science for the Commonwealth
of Kentucky, but also has been and still is
active in the affairs of the Kentucky Acad-
emy of Science.

The person we honor, Dr. Mary Eugenia
Wharton, received her baccalaureate
degree from the University of Kentucky and
her masters and doctorate degrees from
the University of Michigan.

Dr. Wharton’s teaching career includes
assignments at Morehead State University,
Wheaton College, The University of Ten-
nessee, and Georgetown College. She came
to Georgetown College in 1947, and served
as Professor and Chairman of Biological
Sciences and Geology from 1948 until she
retired in 1974. Her retirement has been a
time of continued activity in the behalf of
science and the Kentucky Academy of Sci-
ence.

Dr. Wharton served the Academy as
Secretary from 1952 to 1956, as an Academy
Representative to the Council of the Ameri-
can Association for the Advancement of
Science from 1956 to 1970, and on the Ex-
ecutive Committee of the Academy from
1956 to 1970.

Among Dr. Wharton’s distinguished ac-
complishments and contributions to science
are:

(1) As senior author (with Dr. Roger W.
Barbour) of two excellent books on the
flora of Kentucky:

68

“A Guide to the Wildflowers & Ferns of
Kentucky” Kentucky Nature Studies: 1,
Sponsored by the National Audubon So-
ciety and The Garden Club of Kentucky,

Inc., and

“Trees and Shrubs of Kentucky”

tucky Nature Studies: 4.

Both books were published by The Uni-

versity Press of Kentucky.

(2) Naturalist of the Year (1974) by the
Kentucky Society of Natural History.

(3) The plant Rubus whartoniae Bailey,
named by Dr. Liberty Hyde Bailey for its
discoverer.

(4) One of the Founders of the Bluegrass
Land and Nature Trust and as its Vice
President.

(5) Has been extremely active and effec-
tive in opposing, quite successfully it ap-
pears, the damming of the Red River by
the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. To be
sure, these are but a few of the many con-
tributions Dr. Wharton has made to science
and the Commonwealth of Kentucky.

Dr. Wharton, on behalf of the Kentucky
Academy of Science, it is my sincere plea-
sure to present to you this plaque that
designates you as our Distinguished Sci-
entist for 1978.

Ken-

Harold W. Eversmeyer,
Chairman
Board of Directors

Response by Dr. Wharton

I shall take the opportunity to express in
the Transactions of the Academy my deep
gratitude for the 1978 Distinguished Sci-
ence Award, since at the meeting in No-
vember I was suffering from a cold and
laryngitis and could not have been heard.

I sincerely thank you for this honor in
recognition of long years of guiding stu-
dents, of books designed to increase aware-
ness of Kentucky’s plant life, and for efforts
to convey scientific information and ap-
preciation to citizens at large after a heart
attack brought an early ‘termination of
teaching.

This award is indeed an inspiration to
keep going even when the going may be

hard.

Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 40(1—2), 1979, 69-81

ACADEMY AFFAIRS

THe Sixty-FourtH ANNUAL Business MEETING
OF THE KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

EASTERN KENTUCKY UNIversiry, RICHMOND, KENTUCKY
3 and 4 November 1978
Hosts: Drs. Ted George and Sanford Jones

MINUTES OF THE ANNUAL BUSINESS MEETING

The meeting was called to order by President
Kupchella at 0805, 4 November, in Room 100, La
Fuze Room, Moore Building, with about 60 mem-
bers in attendance.

After a motion by Secretary Seay and a second
from the floor, the minutes of the 1977 Annual
Business Meeting at Western Kentucky University,
as recorded in the Transactions Vol. 39( 1-2), were
approved.

The Treasurer's report to the Audit Committee
was given by Dr. Dickinson. The report had been
audited by Genevieve Clark, Dwight Lindsay, and
Tom Seay (Chairman) and found to be in order.

Treasurer's Report to the Audit Committee
Kentucky Academy of Science
5 November 1977-30 October 1978

Cash in Farmer’s National Bank,
Georgetown, Kentucky,

5S IN@vcsvonl oysre UC /7f shee $ 7,238.89
Receipts:
Membership dues $ 3,376.50
Annual meeting 1,145.00
Subscriptions
to Transactions 307.50
Transactions to Uni-
versity of Louisville _. —_—:1,125.00
AAAS research grant __ 384.00
Grant transfer 22 500.00
Page charges __.._______ 1,590.00
Institutional affiliations _ 1,900.00
$10,328.00 10,328.00
$17,566.89
Disbursements:
Annual meeting Se OtO9
AAAS research grants __ 128.00
Operating expenses—
Annual report,
postage, etc. 733.03
Hlonsticmerant seas 500.00
Botany Foundation grant 500.00
AAAS dues, 1977 49.00

Publication

of Transactions 9,849.11

500.00
500.00

$13,479.63 13,479.63

Teer eGot ws bagel ies, $ 4,087.26

Junior Academy
Grant transfer

Balance

Cash in Farmer's National Bank,
Georgetown, Kentucky,
30 October 1978 —_.. $ 4,087.26

Savings account, Lexington

Federal Savings and Loan 1,415.01

Savings account ( Botany Foundation ),
Farmer's National Bank,
Ceorsetowni ee

Savings account (Floristic Grant),
Citizens National Bank,

Bowline? Greeny eee ees

733.04

1,846.14
Savings account ( Botany Foundation ),

First National Bank,

Georceto wn ee 221.30
Certificates of Deposit ( Botany

Foundation ), Citizens National

Bank, Bowling Green ee 5,500.00
Certificate of Deposit ( Botany

Foundation ), First National

Bank. Georgetown) = = 2,000.00

‘ARG AGS a _ $15,802.75
* $500.00 of each of these savings accounts
($1,000.00) belongs to the checking account.

President Kupchella made the following remarks
concerning activities during his tenure as President
of the Academy.

Part of my obligation as President of the Acad-
emy is to report to the members on the activities,
progress, and problems I have seen during my
year as your president. The following are my
subjective impressions of the direction and momen-
tum of the Academy, and they may be redirected
or followed as desired by the incoming officers.

In my inaugural remarks, I indicated that 1
would address myself to defining the role of the
Academy in the affairs of state government. Early
during my term, I wrote to the Director of the
Legislative Research Commission, to the Governor,
and to the chief executive officer of the Council
on Higher Education. Those letters were followed

70 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 40( 1-2)

by a daylong visit to Frankfort. Dr. William
Lloyd, Dr. Marvin Russell, and I met with Vic
Hellard of the Legislative Research Commission,
Commissioner Damon Harrison (at the request of
the Governor's office), and with Mr. Ted Morford
and Mr. Tom Braun of the Council on Higher
Education. We discussed with the Legislative Re-
search Commission a possible future role of the
Academy as a broker for scientific expertise in
matters under study by the Commission. With
Commissioner Harrison, we discussed the possi-
bility of a science advisor for the Governor, and
with the Council on Higher Education we dis-
cussed the need for a study of federally funded
research and development activities in Kentucky
as well as the need for a_ scientific manpower
registry. The first two items are still under dis-
cussion and are in need of follow-up. Considerable
progress relative to the third item has been made
in concert with both the Council on Higher Edu-
cation and the Legislative Research Commission
with some assistance from the Legislature.

Letters that expressed our concern about the
status of research and development activities in
Kentucky were sent to the Speaker of the House,
William Kenton, and President of the Senate,
Joseph Prather; they were also sent to the Gov-
ernor, to the head of the Legislative Research
Commission and the Council on Higher Education.
Subsequent discussions ultimately led to the pas-
sage of Senate Resolution #33 that called for
complete study of the status of Kentucky in fed-
erally funded research and development activities.
A 15-member task group was formed, seven mem-
bers of which I appointed as President of the
Academy. Three alternates for the Academy were
also appointed. Each of the presidents of the
eight public institutions of higher education in
Kentucky was asked to appoint one representative.
The seven members from the Academy are: Gary
Boggess, Fletcher Gabbard, Louis A. Krumbholz,
Charles E. Kupchella, William Lloyd, Charles
Payne, and Marvin A. Russell. The alternates are:
Robert D. Hoyt, Sanford L. Jones, and Howard
Powell. The Committee met for the first time on
12 September 1978 in Frankfort, and agreed on
the procedures and scope of the update of the
Lloyd Report and on the scope of a more detailed
study to be done via a questionnaire that will
compare research and development activities in
Kentucky and in adjoining states. A report will
be made to the Legislature during the summer of
1979. Members of the Academy will continue to
receive reports on the work of the Committee.

As you have already seen, the Academy is on
relatively sound financial footing, but additional
work needs to be done. The new system of page
charges for articles that appear in the Transactions
have been going well. Our effort to secure firm
institutional affiliations in the Commonwealth have
been successful to the extent that it now provides
a substantial segment of support for the Academy.
Membership continues to grow. An area where

work is needed in regard to finances is in the
exploration of possible grants and funds to be
administered by the Academy in support of re-
search at various levels. The Junior Academy of
Science continues to grow under the guidance of
Dr. Leopold. For the past several years we have
secured a subsidy from the state to help in the
publication of the Transactions and we understand
that another such subsidy is forthcoming.

Response to our invitation to institutions of
higher education throughout Kentucky has been
gratifying. Our current list includes

Eastern Kentucky University
Morehead State University
Western Kentucky University
University of Louisville
Murray State University
Bellarmine College

Kentucky State University
Kentucky Wesleyan College
Spalding College

Northern Kentucky State University
Alice Lloyd College

I have tried to achieve a good balance and mix
of traditional supporters of the Academy and new
members to serve as members of committees so as
to provide continuity and for new ideas and ap-
proaches. I appointed nine members to committees
who heretofore had not been directly involved in
our activities, and I hope the practice will con-
tinue.

The Academy must continue to become more
visible within the Commonwealth. I found my
visits to various institutions throughout the state
to be very productive, informative, and pleasur-
able, and I hope that those visits helped increase
the visibility of the Academy.

Although many members have written and have
received certificates of membership, many mem-
bers have not yet done so. A display of such
membership certificates will contribute to the
visibility of the Academy, and we urge you to
write to President Jones or Secretary Creek at
Eastern Kentucky University for your certificate.

With authorization from the Executive Com-
mittee, I have accepted an invitation from North-
ern Kentucky University for the Annual Meeting
of the Academy in 1979. The 1980 Annual Meet-
ing will be held at Transylvania University as part
of their Bicentennial Celebration. That meeting
had been scheduled for Murray State University,
but when Transylvania asked that the meeting be
scheduled as part of their bicentennial, Murray
State University acquiesced. The 1981 Annual
Meeting will be held at Murray State University.

President Kupchella called for reports from the
following committees:

1. Research Committee. Dr. Joe E. Winstead
presented the following written report that is to be
sent to the Executive Committee for action next
year.

ACADEMY AFFAIRS fal

Kentucky Academy of Science Research Grants

To support research by members of the Acad-
emy and/or their students, the Kentucky Academy
of Science shall provide grants in multiples of
$150.00 to aid worthwhile projects.

These grants, to be administered from funds
other than those research grants, foundations, and
awards already established, are to be financed from
the resources of the Academy.

I. Funding shall be provided from the follow-
sources:

(1) $150.00 shall be budgeted from the
treasury of the Academy each Novem-
ber to support such proposals of re-
search projects as deemed worthy by an
appropriate committee of the Academy;

(2) As a part of the registration fee col-
lected from members attending the
annual meeting, a levy of 25¢ per reg-
istering individual be collected for addi-
tion to the KAS Research Grant fund
which will become part of the funding
for such grants to be awarded the fol-
lowing year;

(3) Solicitations be made to the member-
ship, business and industry, state gov-
ernment leaders, and the citizens of the
Commonwealth for donations to build a
permanent endowment.

Il. Administration and handling of funds in the
KAS research grants program:

(1) A separate savings account will be
established to hold the registration levy
and monies received for a permanent
endowment. Interest earnings from the
endowment and registration levy will be
added to the registration levy of the
previous year and to the $150.00 an-
nual support from the treasury to make
awards;

(2) A committee of three individuals will be
appointed by the President of the Ken-
tucky Academy of Science to administer
this grant program and to develop the
guidelines and requirements concerning
such awards.

2. The Junior Academy. Dr. Herbert Leopold

reported the following.

The activities of the Junior Academy for the
past year consisted of its basic program with the
addition of several steps taken toward changes and
improvements that are needed. Activities in the
past year include:

a. Five seminars on science based industrial
activities and occupational opportunities in
the sciences. These included a rerun, on
demand, at Morehead.

b. Research grants were made to 12 students
from junior and senior high schools across
the state.

c. Our spring symposium was held at Western
Kentucky University on 29 April 1978 fol-
lowed by the spring meeting of the Delegate
Assembly.

d. Efforts to secure funding from sources out-
side the Academy have produced $525.00 to
date, and a continuing effort is being made
to improve and stabilize funding.

e. A number of outstanding science graduate
awards were made, and all recipients were
invited to apply for scholarships or financial
aid.

f. The fall delegate assembly met at the Uni-
versity of Louisville on 7 October 1978. Dr.
K. Lal Gauri was the speaker. Two resolu-
tions were passed; one was designed to en-
courage support for the major state educa-
tional agencies and institutions, the other to
set aside, in school calendars, the last Saturday
of April for the Junior Academy symposium.
Those resolutions are ready for distribution.

g. A vacancy on the governing board caused by
the resignation of Dr. Karen Hackney has
been filled by the appointment of Ms. Peggy
Hyland of the Kentucky Legislative Research
Commission.

h. Treasurer’s report:

Balance on hand 26 April 1978 —_ $631.79
Disbursements:
Spring meeting awards 302.84

Science laboratory skills award _. 45.00
Brian Kerns (Talent search) 50.00
Bill Martine Pla qe eee ee 20.95
TU teal cst a Mees Su aah 2g Sea $418.79
Deposits:
Wesker ne 56.75

AAAS grant ( Kentucky
Academy of Science )
Return of unused research grant

500.00
50.00
$606.75
. $819.75

3. Committee on Public Science Education.
The following report was submitted by Dr. Ted

George.

In November 1972, the Academy appointed an
ad hoc committee to make recommendations con-
cerning the certification of science teachers in the
state of Kentucky. The Committee worked dili-
gently on the problem, and at the same time
collaborated with the science groups across the
state, for example, Kentucky Association for Prog-
ress in Science (KAPS) and the Science Advisory

72 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 40( 1-2)

Committee (SAC) which was appointed by the
Superintendent of Public Instruction, Dr. Lyman
Ginger. The guidelines for SAC were to make
recommendations on the improvement of science
instruction for the public schools in Kentucky.
These three committees mutually agreed to a set
of recommendations for teacher certification which
was presented to the Academy in November 1974.
Those recommendations were presented to the
Kentucky Council on Teacher Education and Certi-
fication.

In November 1977, this Committee reported to
the Academy that new guidelines for certification
of teachers of middle school had been passed.
Those guidelines were quite different from the
recommendations that the Academy had made in
conjunction with KAPS and SAC, and would have
required three separate areas of certification: (1)
elementary, grades 1 through 6; (2) middle
grades, grades 5 through 9; and (3) secondary,
grades 9 through 12. A teacher who teaches in
an area must meet certification requirements for
that area.

This Committee registered strong protests against
the new middle grades guidelines for the reasons
listed in our report of last year: (1) insufficient
training in the sciences for science teachers; (2)
introductory science courses were not required;
(3) imbalance of required preparation in various
fields, especially mathematics and science; and
(4) imbalance of preparation between primary
and secondary teaching fields. In addition, nu-
merous other groups, such as superintendents,
principals, and teachers vigorously protested the
new guidelines. The State Department of Edu-
cation scheduled open hearings around the state
in January and February 1978 to hear various
opinions. Those hearings had to be rescheduled
because of bad weather. Representatives of this
Committee attended the meeting at Winchester
along with many other parties, and again registered
our protests formally.

Unofficially, we have heard that the State De-
partment of Education now plans to withdraw the
new certification guidelines for middle school. If
so, the present certifications rules will apply: two
areas of certification (1) elementary, grades 1
through 8, and (2) secondary, grades 7 through
12.

We have heard that the objections by the Acad-
emy played a significant role in the withdrawal
of the proposal. This confirms the feeling of the
Committee that the Academy has a significant
role to play and can, indeed, have some effect
upon science education across Kentucky.

With reference to secondary certification, it
appears that the State Department of Education
is considering a compromise to our proposal for
certification. Our proposal is: Prospective teach-
ers of secondary school science should take a core
of courses as follows: Introductory biology, 2
courses; Introductory chemistry, 2 courses; Intro-

ductory earth sciences, 2 courses; Introductory
physics, 2 courses; Mathematics, 2 courses; and
Astronomy, 1 course. Laboratory must be af-
forded in 1 course in each of the four sciences. The
prospective secondary teacher must complete the
core and have either a major of 24 hours or two
minors of 18 hours each selected from a science
discipline or disciplines. In addition, a science
methods course must be taken. A teacher so certi-
fied may teach in the disciplines of the major or
minor as well as all interdisciplinary science
courses at the secondary level.

We had proposed that this be the only means
of certification of secondary teachers. The com-
promise proposal being considered by the State
Department of Education would accept this as one
means of certification but would also accept a
major in a science for certification. That would
eliminate the minor as a means of certification for
science. Such a proposal merits careful study that
we propose to carry out in the near future.

Members of the Committee are:

Shaw Blankenship, Murray State University

Ted M. George, Eastern Kentucky University,
Chairman

Rudy Prins, Western Kentucky University, ex
officio

Larry Morrow, Trimble County High School

Anna Neal, Fayette County School System

4. Membership Committee. Donald Batch pre-
sented the report.

The Committee extended the membership drive
to this year’s annual meeting. A letter was sent
in mid-September to all members of the Academy
to assist in the membership drive. A plan was
outlined whereby five new members recommended
by a member of the Academy would entitle that
member to a free banquet ticket for 1978.

The Committee thanks all members who helped
in the membership drive and who helped to dis-
seminate scientific information to improve scien-
tific endeavor in the Commonwealth.

Members who obtained five or more new mem-
bers are: Donald L. Batch, Eastern Kentucky
University; Charles V. Covell, Jr., University of
Louisville; Larry P. Elliott, Western Kentucky
University; Paul L. Freytag, University of Ken-
tucky; Louis A. Krumholz, University of Louis-
ville; C. Ronald Seeger, Western Kentucky Uni-
versity; and Joe E. Winstead, Western Kentucky
University.

5. Committee on Publications. Editor Krumholz
gave the following report.

During 1978, 2 issues of Volume 39 of the
Transactions were published and distributed to
the membership.

Volume 38(1-2) consisted of 100 pages that
included 10 papers, the Distinguished Scientist
Award, Academy Affairs, and News and Comment.

ACADEMY AFFAIRS 78}

Volume 39(3-4) consisted of 76 pages that in-
cluded 14 papers and News and Comment. The
Index for Volume 39 was distributed as a separate
4-page insert late in 1978. The cost for Volume
39(1-2) was $4,295.04 and that for Volume
39(3-4) was $3,397.67 for an annual total of
$7,692.71, but does not include the costs for the
index. Thus, the cost per page for Volume 39
was $43.71 including all blank pages and covers,
an increase of $2.26 per page (5.4%) over Volume
38.

The subjects of the 24 papers in Volume 39
were distributed among the various disciplines as
follows: Zoology, 9 (50 pages); Botany, 7 (36
pages); Chemistry, 3 (17 pages); Geology, 1 (15
pages); Hydrology, 1 (8 pages); Education, 1
(12 pages); Sociology, 1 (6 pages); and General,
1 (4 pages).

The policy of assessing page charges of $15.00
per page or portion thereof for each printed page
yielded $1,185.00 for Volume 38(1-2) and _ all
authors responded with the full amounts assessed.
All receipts for Volume 39(3-4) have not yet
been received, but it is hoped that all authors will
respond as they did for Volume 38(1-2); that
amount will be $1,035.00. If all authors do re-
spond, it will amount to an income of $2,220.00
for 1978 and will make up 28.9 percent of the
total cost of printing.

Following presentation of the report, Dr. Krum-
holz gave a summary of returns to the question-
naire on publication of abstracts of papers pre-
sented at the annual meeting. The response to the
questionnaire has been disappointing, since fewer
than 50 questionnaires have been returned. After
some discussion, it was decided, without formal
action, that the membership would be asked to
continue to express views and comments with the
thought that a more comprehensive report would
be given at the next annual meeting.

6. Board of Directors. Chairman Harold W.
Eversmeyer gave the report.

The Board selected Dr. Mary Wharton, Botanist,
Georgetown College, retired, to receive the “Dis-
tinguished Scientist Award.”

The Board sincerely requests that members of
the Academy submit nominations, along with ap-
propriate vitae to the Board as soon as possible
so that the selection may be made well in advance
of the annual meeting.

The Board is concerned about the enlistment of
industrial and commercial members to the Acad-
emy and seeks advice and assistance in that area
from the membership.

7. Committee on Distribution of Research
Funds. Dr. Jerry Howell reported.

The Committee requested 1970 “head count”
funds from AAAS through President Kupchella in
late August 1978. The money was received in
September and was available to provide awards.

The application deadline was 15 October.
Committee awarded grants as follows:

The

Charles V. Covell, Jr., University of Louisville,
$64.00

Bruce H. Bauer, Eastern Kentucky University,
$64.00

Dr. Covell will use the money for travel to Big
Black Mountain, Harlan County, Kentucky, for
further characterization of Kentucky’s lepidopteran
fauna. Mr. Bauer will use the funds for travel to
collect polytypic species of the sculpin Cottus
bairdi.

The Committee (Jerry F. Howell, Jr., Morehead
State University; Larry Elliott, Western Kentucky
University; Edwin A. Hess, Eastern Kentucky
University) recommends that the Academy ap-
prove the distribution of those funds.

An informational postscript: this is the last
year for “head count” funds. AAAS has already
accepted on a limited basis, and will, in the
future, only accept competitive proposals from the
academies for secondary student research.

8. Resolutions Committee. Charles V.
Jr., submitted the following resolution.

Whereas, Eastern Kentucky University has
graciously served as the Host Institution for the
Sixty-fourth Annual Meeting of the Kentucky
Academy of Science, and whereas Dr. Ted George,
Dr. Sanford Jones, and others at Eastern Ken-
tucky University have worked diligently to make
the meeting a success and,

Whereas, Eastern Kentucky University has made
outstanding contributions to scientific thought and
leadership,

Therefore, be it resolved herewith:

Covell,

That the Kentucky Academy of Science expres-
ses its appreciation to Eastern Kentucky Uni-
versity and the above individuals, and that the
Academy’s Secretary be instructed to so inform
them.

At this time, the Secretary reported that as of
2 November 1978 the Academy had 608 individual
members, 11 institutional affiliates, and 62 li-
braries that subscribe to the Transactions. During
the course of the year, the Secretary learned of
the deaths of three members:

J. Elmer Weldon, Georgetown College
E. Wilbur Cook, Centre College of Kentucky

Ben Gossick, University of Kentucky
The Secretary moved that the Academy accept
into membership all who have joined during the

past year. The motion was seconded and _ passed
unanimously.

9. Floristie Grant Committee. Joe FE. Winstead
submitted the following report in behalf of Dr.
Marian J. Fuller.

74 Trans. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 40( 1-2)

As of 1 November 1978, the Committee had
awarded three grants as follows:

1. Patrick Applegarth, Northern Kentucky Uni-
versity, who is working on the floristics of
Kenton County, Kentucky. Mr. Applegarth
is working under the supervision of Dr. John
W. Thieret. The grant was awarded for the
1976-1977 two-year term. We have not re-
ceived a final report.

2. Raymond Cranfill, University of Kentucky,
who is working on the floristics of Hardin
County, Kentucky. Mr. Cranfill is working
under the supervision of Dr. Willem Meijer.
The grant was awarded for the 1977-1978
two-year term. The final report is due next
year.

3. George Johnson, Western Kentucky Univer-
sity, who is working on the floristics of
Barren County, Kentucky. Mr. Johnson is
working under the supervision of Dr. Ken-
neth A. Nicely. The grant was awarded for
the 1978-1979 two-year term.

The Committee has received no request for
funding the 1979-1980 two-year term. Applica-
tion received prior to 31 December 1978 will be
considered for funding for this period. Applica-
tions for funding during the 1980-1981 two-year
term will be accepted any time prior to 15 No-
vember 1979.

Dr. Winstead moved that the report be ac-
cepted. Seconded and passed unanimously.

10. Nominating Committee. Dr. John Philley of-
fered the following nominations and moved their
acceptance.
Vice President: Frank A. Butler, Northern
Kentucky University

Secretary: Robert Creek, Eastern Kentucky
University

Treasurer: Morris Taylor, Eastern Kentucky
University

Representatives to AAAS Council: Branley A.
Branson, Eastern Kentucky University, and
John M. Carpenter, University of Kentucky

Members, Board of Directors to 1982: Daniel
Knopf, Brown-Forman Distillers Corpora-
tion; Jerry C. Davis, Alice Lloyd College

The motion was seconded and passed unani-
mously, there having been no nominations from
the floor.

President Kupchella then passed the gavel to
President-Elect Sanford L. Jones. Dr. Jones ad-
dressed the Academy and outlined his proposed
aims for the coming year (see News and Com-
ment ).

Following those comments, the meeting was ad-
journed at 0915.

Thomas Seay, Secretary
Kentucky Academy of Science

PROGRAM
Friday, 3 November 1978

1200-1600 REGISTRATION, Moore
Lobby

SCIENTIFIC EXHIBITS,
Building Lobby
SECTIONAL MEETINGS (see fol-
lowing pages )

COFFEE BREAK

PLENARY SESSION: “Energy pro-
duction and environmental impact,”
LaFuze Room, Moore Building

Dr. Robert Statnick, Office of Min-
erals, Energy and Industry, The En-
vironmental Protection Agency, Wash-
ington, D.C.

“Revisions to the new source perfor-
mance standards for utility boilers
with emphasis on: economic, environ-
mental, and energy impact”

Dr. Clayton S. Gist, Oak Rridge As-
sociated Universities Manpower Edu-
cation Research and Training Di-
vision, Oak Ridge, Tennessee

Building

1200-1700 Moore

1300-1500

1500-1530
1530-1730

“Survey of environmental impact on
energy development with emphasis on
coal utilization”

Comments by Dr. David Pimentel,
College of Agriculture and Life Sci-
ences, Cornell University, Ithaca, New
York

ANNUAL BANQUET, Keen Johnson
Banquet Hall

Dr. David Pimentel, College of Agri-
culture and Life Sciences, Cornell
University, Ithaca, New York
“Energy, food, and the future of man”
HOSPITALITY HOUR, Holiday Inn,
Richmond

1830-2030

2100-2300

Saturday, 4 November 1978

0800-0915 ANNUAL BUSINESS MEETING,
LaFuze Room, Moore Building

0800-1000 REGISTRATION, Moore Building
Lobby

0915-0930 COFFEE BREAK

0930-1200 SECTIONAL MEETINGS

0800-1200 SCIENTIFIC EXHIBITS, Moore
Building Lobby

1300- SECTIONAL MEETINGS (as needed)

Note:

ACADEMY AFFAIRS TD

Sectional meetings will be held in Moore

Building, Memorial Science Building, and Roark
Building. The buildings are contiguous.

SECTIONAL PROGRAMS

BoTraNy AND MICROBIOLOGY

Black Room, Moore Building (Room 116)

William H. Martin, Chairman, Presiding

Willem Meijer, Secretary

Friday, 3 November

1305

1335

1345

1400

1415

1430

1445

Growth characteristics of yeast phase Histo-
plasma capsulatum. M. Sue Jones, Depart-
ment of Medical Microbiology, University
of Kentucky.

Isolation and enumeration of Clostridium
perfringens from the Barren River above
and below the sewage disposal plant. M. V.
Hansen and L. P. Elliott, Department of
Biology, Western Kentucky University.

Isolation and enumeration of yeasts from
the Barren River. R. A. Van Enck and
L. P. Elliott, Department of Biology, West-
ern Kentucky University.

Three seasons of herbaceous recovery fol-
lowing groundfire in the Knobs of Marion
County. Les McClain, Department of Bi-
ology, St. Catharine College.

Analysis of Kentucky coffeetree sites in
Indiana by the ordination method. Les
McClain, St. Catharine College.

Virgin hemlock Tsuga canadensis near
Highland, North Carolina. Ronald R. Van
Stockum, Department of Biology, Univer-
sity of Louisville.

Forests of the Eden Shale Belt of central
Kentucky. William Bryant, Thomas More
College.

Strip mine spoil ecotypes in Andropogon
virginicus. Valina Hurt and Joe H. Win-
stead, Department of Biology, Western
Kentucky University.

Saturday, 4 November

0930

1000

1030

The effect of phosfon and _ bifferellic acid
on drought resistance of pinto bean plants.
Madonna Lee Kohne, Notre Dame Acad-
emy (sponsored by H. A. Leopold).
Commentary on vegetational and _ floristic
inventories in Kentucky. William H. Mar-
tin, Eastern Kentucky University, and
Donald Harker, Nature Preserves Commis-
sion, Frankfort.

A floristic survey of Kenton County, Ken-
tucky. Patrick C. Applegarth, Department
of Biological Sciences, Northern Kentucky
University.

1045 Swamp forests of central Kentucky. Julian
Campbell, T. H. Morgan School of Bio-
logical Sciences, University of Kentucky.

1100 A modern pteridophyte flora of Kentucky
nearing completion. Ray Cranfill, T. H.
Morgan School of Biological Sciences, Uni-
versity of Kentucky.

1115 A rapid straining procedure for many plant
tissues. Harold E. Eversmeyer, Murray
State University.

1130 Evidence of gibberellic-like substances in
the green alga Pediastrum tetras. Robert
Creek, Eastern Kentucky University.

1145 The flora and vegetation of Hardin County,
Kentucky. Ray Cranfill, T. H. Morgan
School of Biological Sciences, University
of Kentucky.

1210 Election of officers for 1978-1979. New
officers are:

William S. Byrant, Thomas More College,
Chairman

Stuart Lassetter, Eastern Kentucky Uni-
versity, Secretary.

1235 Field trip to Pilot Knob—S8 participants.

CHEMISTRY
Room 107, Moore Building

Howard B. Powell, Chairman, Presiding
Gordon Wilson, Jr., Secretary

Friday, 3 November

1300 Reduction pathways of the benzoylpyri-
dines. Ellis V. Brown, Department of
Chemistry, University of Kentucky.

1315 Synthesis and polymerization of 6-uracil-
methyl acrylate. Nanda Brahme and Wal-
ter T. Smith, Jr., Department of Chemistry,
University of Kentucky.

1330 Metallocenes of ylides. Richard Fowler and
Norman L. Holy, Department of Chemistry,
Western Kentucky University.

1345 Alkyne cyclotrimerization with (CpPPhsCo
(CO):)*Co(CO)s+. Terry Goolsby and
Norman L. Holy, Department of Chemistry,
Western Kentucky University.

1400 Low pressure liquid chromatography as an
economical alternative for the determina-
tion of selected pesticides in the environ-
ment. Mark B. Lyles, P. C. Goodley, and
Annette Gordon, Department of Chemistry
and Geology, Murray State University.

1415 Derivation activation analysis for phos-
phorus utilizing a Cf-252 neutron source.
Robert C. Young and William D. Ehmann,
Department of Chemistry, University of
Kentucky.

76 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 40( 1-2)

1430 Characterization of biological materials
using pyrolysis-GC. Paul C. Goodley and
Marshall Gordon, Department of Chemistry
and Geology, Murray State University.

1445 A rapid and low cost method for determin-

ing organics in aqueous environmental sam-

ples. Curtis R. Hart, Mark B. Lyles, Paul

C. Goodley, and Marshall Gordon. De-

partment of Chemistry and Geology, Mur-

ray State University.

Saturday, 4 November

0930 Kinetics of the base catalyzed rearrange-
ments of cobalt complexes of some amino-
nitriles. Harry M. Smiley, Department of

Chemistry, Eastern Kentucky University.
Kinetics of hydrolysis of organophosphates.
Harry Conley, Department of Chemistry
and Geology, Murray State University.
Ruthenium phthalocyanines. Laurence J.
Boucher, Department of Chemistry, West-
ern Kentucky University.

0945

1000

1015 Synthesis of some platinum (II) complexes
as potential anticancer compounds. Arthur
Fowler, Ellis V. Brown, and Walter T.
Smith, Jr., Department of Chemistry, Uni-

versity of Kentucky.
1030
1045

Sectional business meeting

The cuprous chloride catalyzed rearrange-
ment of 3-chloro-3-phenyl-1-propyne. O. J.
Muscio, Jr. and Y. M. Jun, Department of
Chemistry and Geology, Murray State Uni-
versity.

The optical activities of sugar solutions and
the effect of alcohol impurities upon those
activities. Deborah A. Cahill, Notre Dame
Academy.

Treatment of whole blood with protein pre-
cipitants. Andrew Raterman and Vaughn
Vandergrift, Department of Chemistry and
Geology, Murray State University.
Photoelectron spectra of aminobenzoic acids.
James L. Meeks, Department of Chemistry
and Geology, Murray State University, and
A. Wahlborg and S. P. McGlynn, Cates
Chemical Laboratories, Louisiana State Uni-
versity.

A differential thermal analysis study of
some transition metal complexes involving
aminonitrile ligands. Harry M. Smiley, De-
partment of Chemistry, Eastern Kentucky
University.

1100

1115,

1130

1145

GEOGRAPHY

Friday, 3 November

Concurrent Sessions

ENVIRONMENTAL GEOGRAPHY, Room 103, Moore
Building

The land resource and its utilization in
Madison County, Kentucky. R. L. Marion-
neaux, Eastern Kentucky University.

The Rochester Dam: a socioeconomic anal-
ysis. Wayne L. Hoffman, Western Kentucky
University.

Flood hazard evaluation and perception at
West Point, Kentucky. Dale Monsebroten,
Eastern Kentucky University.
Geomycology of Transappalachia. Milos M.
Sebor and Patrick H. McHaffie, Eastern
Kentucky University.

1300
1315
1330

1345

APPLIED GEOGRAPHY, Room 103, Moore Building

1400 Applied geography. William G. Adams,
Eastern Kentucky University.

1415 Alternative strategies for mapping spatial
patterns of temporal changes in population.
William H. Bailey, Eastern Kentucky Uni-
versity.

1430 Geography at Chulalongkorn University,

Bangkok, Thailand. Pongsri Banasin, East-
ern Kentucky University.

CuLTuRAL GEoGRAPHY, Room 111, Moore Building

1300 Landings on the Ohio: a vanishing cultural

feature. Dennis L. Spetz, University of
Louisville.

1315 Kentucky fatal automobile accident pattem.
Dennis E. Quillen, Eastern Kentucky Uni-
versity.

1330 Wet and dry precincts: Richmond’s use
impact. T. J. Kubiak, Eastern Kentucky
University.

1345 Images of Appalachia. Wilma J. Walker,

Eastern Kentucky University.

Po.iricaAL GEOGRAPHY, Room 111, Moore Building

1400 The Azores: a representative case of a
microregion. Christopher M. Maddocks,
Eastern Kentucky University.

1415 The evolution of the transportation network
in Kentucky and some of its effects on
Kentucky politics. J. Allen Singleton, East-
erm Kentucky University.

All Sessions

1500 Sectional business meeting, Room 103,

Moore Building
GEOLOGY

Friday, 3 November

Concurrent Sessions

Concurrent Session A, Room 203, Roark Hall
C. Ronald Seeger, Chairman, Presiding

1300

1320

1340

1400

1420

1440

1500

ACADEMY AFFAIRS 1

Features indicating the former presence of
evaporites in the St. Louis Limestone ( Mis-
sissippian) of eastern Kentucky. Garland
R. Dever, Jr., Kentucky Geological Survey,
Jojok Sumartojo, Vanderbilt University, and
Warren H. Anderson, Kentucky Geological
Survey (Sponsored by Harry P. Hoge).

Occurrence of chert in Devonian, Mississip-
pian, and Pennsylvanian beds in eastern
Kentucky. Harry P. Hoge, Eastern Ken-
tucky University.

An investigation of the Devonian black shale
on the west flank of the Cincinnati Arch.
John G. Beard, Kentucky Geological Survey
(Sponsored by Donald C. Haney).

Coal resources estimates, development, con-
cepts, and applications. Russell A. Brant,
Kentucky Geological Survey (Sponsored by
Norman C. Hester).

Depositional environment of the Manchester
coal. Gary Cole and David Williams, Ken-
tucky Geological Survey (Sponsored by
Donald C. Haney).

Depositional environment of the Upper Elk-
horn Number 3 Coal Zone. James Currans,
Kentucky Geological Survey (Sponsored by
Donald C. Haney).

Interpretation of paleogeography and en-
vironments of deposition for the Brush
Creek marine horizon of the Conemaugh
Formation (Pennsylvanian) in northeastern
Kentucky. John Walters, Eastern Kentucky
University (Sponsored by Perry B. Wigley).

Concurrent Session B, Room 111, Roark Hall

1300

1320

1340

1400

1420

1440

Perry B. Wigley, Secretary, Presiding

Recognition of lapies-type features in the
Kentucky karst—an example of applied geo-
morphology. Preston McGrain, Kentucky
Geological Survey.

Some remarks on the color of sphalerite.
William H. Dennen, University of Kentucky.

Petrology of the Louisville Meteorite: its
significance with regard to chondrite clas-
sification. Graham H. Hunt, University of
Louisville.

Apex Natural Bridge, Christian County,
Kentucky. Elaine M. Faust and J. David
Childs, Austin Peay State University (Spon-
sored by James X. Corgan).

Origin of the morphology of siderite con-
cretions. Conrad T. Lawrence III, Eastern
Kentucky University (Sponsored by Harry
P. Hoge).

Neogene geology of the Ojo-Caliente-Rio
Chama area of the Rio Grande Rift, north-
ern New Mexico. S. Judson May, Eastern

1500

Kentucky University (Sponsored by Perry
B. Wigley).

Water quality at three surface coal mines
in eastern Kentucky. Samuel S. Leung,
Eastern Kentucky University (Sponsored by
Charles T. Helfrich).

Saturday, 4 November

Combined Session, Room 203, Roark Hall

0930

0950

1010

1030

1050

1110

1130

C. Ronald Seeger, Chairman, Presiding

A newly recognized marine horizon in the
lower part of the Breathitt Formation, east-
em Kentucky. T. Dennis Coskren, Eastern
Kentucky University (Sponsored by Charles
T. Helfrich).

Fossil plants from the Mauch Chunk Forma-
tion of Pennsylvania. James R. Jennings,
University of Kentucky, Paducah Commu-
nity College.

Paleoecology of the Clays Ferry Formation
along the Blue Grass Parkway. Raphael
Ketani, Eastern Kentucky University (Spon-
sored by Charles T. Helfrich).
Mississippian conodont biostratigraphy of
the Renfro Member of the Borden Forma-
tion and the St. Louis Member of the
Newman Limestone in the Morehead, Ken-
tucky, area. James R. Chaplin, Morehead
State University.

Echinoderm faunas from the Lower Pen-
nington in south-central Kentucky. Don
Chestnut and F. R. Ettensohn, University
of Kentucky.

Paleozoic stemless crinoids of Kentucky. F.
R. Ettensohn, University of Kentucky.
Playnological possibilities in the Pennsyl-
vanian of eastern Kentucky. C. Douglas
Ochsenbein and Charles T. Helfrich, East-
ern Kentucky University.

Conodonts and some observations on the
new Silurian-Devonian boundary. Charles
T. Helfrich, Eastern Kentucky University.
Sectional business meeting

Puysics

Room 123, Moore Building

Charles B. Teague, Chairman, Presiding

Manuel Schwartz, Secretary

Friday, 3 November

1300

1330

1340

KAPT business meeting, Charles D. Teague,
Chairman, Presiding.

AAPT report and summer meeting. F. Six,
Western Kentucky University.
Measurement of resistance of a single bio-
logical membrane in a double membrane

1430

1440

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 40( 1-2)

system. M. Schwartz, University of Louis-
ville.

Tutorial physics by CAI using DECAL.
K. F. Kuhn and J. S. Vaughn, Eastern
Kentucky University.

Jumping motorcycles in the Astrodome. D.
D. Duncan, Murray State University.

Selective optical excitation and inversions
via the Excimer channel: superradiance at
T1 green line. Santorum Chilukuri, Union
College.

A study of emission and absorption of nucle-
ons by intermediate mass nuclei. R. Hersh-
berger, University of Kentucky.

Solar neutrino experiments—what is next?
C. E. Laird, Eastern Kentucky University.
The triangle University Nuclear Laboratory:
a survey of the present facility and research.
J. D. Turner, Eastern Kentucky University.

Saturday, 4 November

0930

0940

0950

1000

1010

1020

1030

1040

1050

1100

1110

Formation of low mass stars at shock fronts.
F. O. Clark and J. Biretta, University of
Kentucky and Thomas More College.

On the mass and rotation of Uranus. R. C.

Fleck, Jr., University of Kentucky.

Zr and Mo nuclei with an excess of neu-
trons. B. D. Kern, University of Kentucky.

Positron annihilation in metal hydrides. L.
D. Burton and W. F. Huang, Jefferson
Community College and University of
Louisville.

Experience with prelab interviews in an
introductory physics course. P. W. Murphy,
Centre College of Kentucky.

Noise characterization in the vicinity of a
newly opened expressway. P. J. Oldiges
and D. J. Doyle, Thomas More College.

A microcomputer based method of obtain-
ing expressway traffic data. T. J. Morthorst
and J. E. Lang, Thomas More College.
An analysis of high density expressway traf-
fic data. D. K)) Probst and J. E. Lang,
Thomas More College.

The polarizability of metastable helium
atoms. D. Crosby, University of Kentucky.

Photoelectric measurement of Schotty Bar-
rier Heights with a double beam spectrom-
eter. D. S. Smith, University of Kentucky.
Crystal field parameters and site populations
of Gd- and Yb-doped strontium fluoride.
D. T. Roenker and J. R. Dixon, Thomas
More College.

An interpretation of the Orion Molecular
Cloud Dynamics. J. A. Biretta, Thomas
More College, and F. O. Clark and H. M.
Martin, University of Kentucky.

PHYSIOLOGY, BIOPHYSICS, AND PHARMACOLOGY

Room 111, Memorial Science Building

Thomas B. Calhoon, Chairman, Presiding

William W. Farrar, Secretary

Friday, 3 November

1330

1345

1400

1415

1445

Analysis of a SDS-PAGE homogeneous, 8M
urea heterogeneous protein. Joseph S. Hays
and Eugene Hoffman, Biophysics Program,
Western Kentucky University.

Isolation, purification, and partial character-
ization of some isozymes of human serum
alkaline phosphatase. M. Susan _ Jones,
Morehead State University.

Study of alkaline phosphatase activity in
diabetic patients. Karen Laytart, Harrison
County High School, Cynthiana (Sponsored
by M. Susan Jones).

Preliminary studies on six glycolytic enzymes
from flight muscle of the house sparrow.
W. W. Farrar, Rodney Perry, Jeffrey Palmer,
and Richard Roy, Department of Biological
Sciences, Eastern Kentucky University.
Memory transfer and retention in planaria.
Traci Thompson, Paducah Tilghman High
School, Paducah (Sponsored by H. Leo-
pold).

The effect of sodium nitrite on living or-
ganisms. Katie LaGeese, St. Mary's High
School, Paducah (Sponsored by H. Leo-
pold).

Saturday, 4 November

0930

0945

1000

1015

Glycosaminoglycan patterns associated with
three different behavioral/histological types
of Morris hepatoma. Elaine Drake, Charles
Kupchella, Kevin Corran, and Jeffrey Ken-
nedy, Cancer Center and Department of
Physiology and Biophysics, School of Medi-
cine, University of Louisville.
Glycosaminoglycan changes associated with
hepatic tumors: the contributions of re-
generation and necrosis. E. Secskas, C. E.
Kupchella, C. E. Kennedy, and E. Spinosa,
Cancer Center and Department of Physiol-
ogy and Biophysics, School of Medicine,
University of Louisville.

Age related kidney glycosaminoglycan
changes induced by dehydration and anti-
diuretic hormone. Margret Fisher and
Charles Kupchella, Cancer Center and De-
partment of Physiology and_ Biophysics,
School of Medicine, University of Louisville
The inhibitory effects of exercise and diet
on N-nitrosomethylurea breast tumor induc-
tion in female rats. Condict Moore and R.
Adcock, Price Institute of Surgical Researcl:.
Department of Surgery, School of Medi.
cine, University of Louisville.

1030

1045

1100

ACADEMY AFFAIRS 79

Effect of high pressure oxygen on the sur-
vival of tumor bearing mice. Raymond
Richmond, Department of Biological Sci-
ences, Northern Kentucky University.

The effect of cell culture age on cell ca-
pacity and ultraviolet enhanced viral reacti-
vation in a mammalian cell—virus system.
Sharon P. Moore and T. P. Coohil, Depart-
ment of Biology, Western Kentucky Uni-
versity.

Sectional business meeting and election of
officers

PsyCHOLOGY
Room 111, Moore Building

James S. Calvin, Presiding

Saturday, 4 November

0930

0950

1010

1030

1050

1110

1130

1150
1300

1320

1340

The role of horizontal—vertical illusion in
shape perception. Jack G. Thompson and
Katherina A. Fowler, Centre College of
Kentucky.

An experimental psychodynamic model of
psychopathology. Larry Smyth, Morehead
State University.

The effects of shock intensity and distribu-
tion of practice on Shuttle Sidman avoid-
ance in rats. Francis H. Osborne and Cluster
Glenn Robbins, Morehead State University.

Interhemispheric asymmetries in EEG ac-
tivity: task of cognitive specificity? Ingrid
N. Leckliter, Jack G. Thompson, and Don-
ald H. Brown, Centre College of Kentucky.

The effects of physiological and psycho-
analytic activation on humor processes.
Cathy Kassab and Donald H. Brown, Centre
College of Kentucky.

The effects of apomorphine on_ passive
avoidance. Allan L. Levay, Morehead State
University (Sponsored by Francis H. Os-
borne ).

The role of preexperimental set in adult
concept formation. Charmaine Kirkpatrick
and Jack G. Thompson, Centre College of
Kentucky.

Recess

Social communication of food aversion.
Brent White, Centre College of Kentucky.

The effects of dream oriented presleep
manipulations on sleep quality and_ psy-
chological functioning. Patricia S. Heizer,
Cathy Kassab, and Donald H. Brown,
Centre College of Kentucky.

EMG biofeedback treatment of the psycho-
somatic and psychological correlates of aca-
demic anxiety. Richard D. Sanders and
Jack G. Thompson, Centre College of
Kentucky.

1400

1440

(r

A new measure of sleep time: comparison
of micturition and righting reflexes follow-
ing pentobarbital and amphetamine. John
M. Lacy and Brent White, Centre College
of Kentucky. :
Recovery of function after sequential de-
struction of the hippocampus in young,
adult, and senescent rats. Linda Ristine.
Steve Curtis, and Arthur Nonneman, Uni-
versity of Kentucky.

Concept learning in the pigeon.
Hogan, University of Kentucky.

David

SCIENCE EDUCATION
Room 14, Memorial Science Building

Stephen A. Henderson, Presiding
Jack H. Fletcher, Secretary

Saturday, 4 November

0930

0950

1010

1030

1150

Science teaching in Kentucky schools, K-12:
will the new money for advanced certifica-
tion produce improvement? Ron K. At-
wood, University of Kentucky.

The microcomputer and its interfacing to
the outside world. William S. Wagner, De-
partment of Physical Science, Northern
Kentucky University.

Regional centers for environmental educa-
tion: a future trend? Shaw Blankenship,
Murray State University.

Reservations concerning competency testing.
Herbert Leopold, Western Kentucky Uni-
versity.

Aerospace education in Kentucky. Robert
J. Miller, Eastern Kentucky University.
Effects of concentration on surface tension.
Danny Williams, Student Winner, St. Mary’s
High School, Paducah (Sponsored by Sister
Mary Leon).

Design a drug: a chemistry related com-
puter game. John L. Meisenheimer, Depart-
ment of Chemistry, Eastern Kentucky Uni-
versity.

Maywood Natural Area: potential for
development as an environmental education
facility. William H. Martin, Eastern Ken-
tucky University.

SOCIOLOGY

Room 113, Moore Building

Edward G. Armnstrong, Chairman, Presiding

Craig H. Taylor, Secretary

Friday, 3 November

1300

Epistemological dilemmas in the sociology
of science; an overview of some issues and

Rick Aniskiewiez, Uni

possible solutions.

80

1340

1420

TRANS. Kentucky ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 40( 1-2)

versity of Akron (Sponsored by Craig H.
Taylor).

Phasic progression of self-esteem in teen
challenge—cross culturally. LeRoy Gruner
and Ellen Gamble, Northern Kentucky Uni-
versity.

Methadone center society: an ethnographic
account. Phyllis D. Coontz, Duquesne Uni-
versity (Sponsored by Craig H. Taylor).

Saturday, 4 November

1010

1030

1050

1110

Sartre and Merleau-Ponty on the notion of
society. Robert Miller, Eastern Kentucky
University.

Health, care, and health care: a hermeneu-
tic approach. Joseph A. Petrick, Northern
Kentucky University.

The question of individuality and science:
the instance of Darwin. Erling Eng, Vet-
erans Administration Hospital, Lexington.

The role of phenomenology in a critical
social science. Herbert G. Reid, University
of Kentucky.

Meaning, methodology, and motives: con-
siderations for phenomenology and the so-
cial sciences. James J. Valone, Bellarmine
College.

The progressive-regressive method. Ed-
ward G. Armstrong, Murray State Uni-
versity.

ZOOLOGY AND ENTOMOLOGY

LaFuze Room, Moore Building

Paul H. Freytag, Chairman, Presiding
Robert D. Hoyt, Secretary

Friday, 3 November

1300

1315

1330

1345

1400

Pathology in the northern hog sucker
Hypentelium nigricans resulting from in-
fections with the acanthocephalan Pompho-
rynchus bubocolli. Larry N. Gleason and
Melissa McDonough, Department of Biol-
ogy, Western Kentucky University.
Reproductive adaptation in Drosophila mel-
anogaster exposed to oxygen enriched at-
mospheres. Gerrit Kloek, Department of
Biology, Kentucky State University.
Preservation of habitat and food source by
woodchucks in old fields. M. Pete Thomp-
son, Department of Biological Sciences,
Eastern Kentucky University.
Histopathology of acanthocephalan infec-
tions in Etheostoma caeruleum. Melissa
McDonough, Department of Biology, West-
ern Kentucky University.

Temperature effects on oxygen toxicity in
Drosophila melanogaster. Linda Winkle,

1415

1430

1445

Department of Biology, Kentucky State Uni-
versity.

Breeding bird densities on some eastern
Kentucky reclaimed surface mines—a pleas-
ant surprise. Pierre N. Allaire, Department
of Science and Mathematics, Lees Junior
College.

Examination of the Salt River area, Spencer
and Anderson counties, for the Indiana bat
Myotis sodalis. Andrew Miller, U.S. Army
Corps of Engineers, Louisville.

Nesting behavior of a pair of red-tailed
hawks in Madison County, Kentucky. Mark
Bennett, Department of Biological Sciences,
Eastern Kentucky University (Sponsored by
W. Rudersdorf ).

Saturday, 4 November

0945

1000

1015

1030
1045

1100

1115

1145

1200
1300

Comments on the fish fauna of Kentucky.
Bruce H. Bauer and Branley A. Branson,
Department of Zoology, University of Ten-
nessee, and Department of Biological Sci-
ences, Eastern Kentucky University.

Adult lone star tick morphology as seen
with the electron microscope. Steven J.
Brown, Department of Entomology, Univer-
sity of Kentucky.

Distribution of some new and poorly known
species of Kentucky crayfishes. Donald L.
Batch, Department of Biological Sciences,
Eastern Kentucky University.

Coffee break

Summary of 1978 insect problems in Ken-
tucky (with comparisons to 1977 and pre-
dictions for 1979). Phillip E. Sloderbeck,
Department of Entomology, University of
Kentucky.

Ground surface spiders in soybeans. Joseph
D. Cullin, Department of Entomology, Uni-
versity of Kentucky.

Studies of Patasson lameerei, an egg parasite
of Sitona spp. Gary L. Leibee, Department
of Entomology, University of Kentucky.

A search of wood rat (Neotoma) nests in
Taylor and Jones counties, Texas, for the
presence of Reduviidae infected with Try-
panosoma cruzi. David M. Garippa, De-
partment of Biology, University of Louis-
ville.

Protein variation and genetic differentiation
in the genus Chologaster (Pisces: Amblyop-
sidae). David L. Swofford and Branley A.
Branson, Department of Biological Sciences,
Eastern Kentucky University.

Lunch

The Bernheim Forest insect survey: biting
diptera of Bernheim Forest. Carl H. Kaster,
Department of Biology, University of Louis-
ville.

1315

1330

1345

1400

1415

1430

1445

ACADEMY AFFAIRS 81

Progress of the Kentucky Lepidoptera sur-
vey. Charles V. Covell, Jr., Department of
Biology, University of Louisville.

The effect of prey density and plant topog-
raphy of Orius insidiosus (Say) preying on
Sericothrips variabilis (Byach). D. J. Isen-
haur, Department of Entomology, Univer-
sity of Kentucky.

Entomological problems associated with the
establishment of alfalfa in a no tillage sys-
tem. Jerome F. Grant, Department of
Entomology, University of Kentucky.

The effect of various bovine diets on face
fly larval development. Lisa d’Amato, De-
partment of Entomology, University of
Kentucky.

The effects of canavanine on organic con-
stituents of Manduca sexta hemolymph.
Douglas L. Dahlman, Department of En-
tomology, University of Kentucky.

The effects of canavanine on hemolymph
levels of potassium and sodium in Manduca
sexta. Jeffrey V. Racioppi and Douglas L.
Dahlman, Department of Entomology, Uni-
versity of Kentucky.

Aggressive behavior in the seal salamander
Desmognathus monticola. Linda J. Nelson

and Paul V. Cupp, Jr., Department of Bio-
logical Sciences, Eastern Kentucky Uni-
versity.

EXHIBITORS

Citizen’s Workshop on Energy and the Environ-
ment, Department of Energy and Eastern Ken-
tucky University

Department of Biochemistry, School of Medicine,
University of Louisville

Department of Physics and Astronomy,
University of Kentucky

Fisher Scientific Company
Perkin-Elmer, Inc.

Exhibits are on display in the lobby of the Moore
Building 3 November 1978, 1200-1700, and 4
November 1978, 0800-1200. Exhibitors invite
questions from all participants in the meetings.

The Academy acknowledges the support of all
exhibitors and recognizes that the meetings are
enhanced by the displays of materials and the op-
portunity to exchange viewpoints with the persons
in charge.

Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 40(1—2), 1979, 82-83

NEWS AND
President’s | What is the unity of the Ken-
Remarks tucky Academy of Science?

What are the collective ac-
complishments that make it worthy of our
membership and support? We state that
the objectives of the Academy are to en-
courage scientific research, to promote the
diffusion of scientific knowledge, and to
unify the scientific interest of the Common-
wealth of Kentucky. We accomplish these
objectives through the Annual Meeting, the
publication of the Transactions, and the
continued effort of the Executive Commit-
tee, Board of Directors, and various com-
mittees that respond and chart the direction
of involvement of the Academy. Such re-
sponsibilities are not taken lightly and
command a considerable amount of work on
the part of the Academy’s representatives.

The Kentucky Academy of Science,
through its annual meetings, provides the
organizational structure for its members and
other sponsored scientists to present their
research and teaching methods. Graduate
students and students in the Junior Acad-
emy's research program may gain their first
experience in the presentation of the re-
search findings. We need to encourage
graduate students to avail themselves of
this excellent opportunity to develop their
scientific skills.

There accrues from the Annual Meeting
a cohesive quality derived from the sharing
of research interest and teaching, and a
mutual fellowship of renewed acquain-
tances. A new impetus of purpose and in-
tent to further the objectives of the Acad-
emy can be one result of the Annual
Meeting.

In addition to the Annual Meeting, the
publication of the Transactions represents
a major means of continuity of the Acad-
emy's affairs. A considerable amount of the
financial resources of the Academy is ex-
pended in supporting the costs of publica-
tion of the Transactions. Through the di-
rection of Dr. William F. Wagner, the past
Editor, and Dr. Louis A. Krumholz, the
present Editor, we have been able to im-

82

COMMENT

prove the quality of the Transactions and
defray part of the costs through the initia-
tion of page charges.

For a greater continuity and expanded
role of the Academy, in the fulfillment of
its objectives, a part-time or full-time ex-
ecutive officer will be required. It was
some seven years ago, in 1971, the last time
the Kentucky Academy of Science met at
Eastern Kentucky University, that Dr. John
H. Melvin (deceased), Executive Officer
of the Ohio Academy of Science, appeared
before us to present his views on a greater
role of the Academy through the efforts of
an Executive Director. The means of sup-
port of a part-time executive officer has not
been solved, but continues to be a goal of
the Executive Committee of the Academy.

One means of creating a continuity and
greater cohesive quality of the Academy
could be accomplished through various
kinds of symposia. We accomplish this in
part through our Plenary Session which is
becoming established as part of the pro-
gram on the Annual Meeting. I would like
to urge that individual sections of the Acad-
emy give consideration to sponsorship of a
symposium that would be of mutual interest
to its membership. It might be possible that
the Academy, in joint effort with state
agencies, could sponsor and present sym-
posia that accrue from various studies ini-
tiated by the Kentucy Academy of Science.

One of the very significant efforts of
the Academy, under the leadership of Dr.
Charles Kupchella, has been the renewed
effort to update the Lloyd Report on Re-
search and Development in the state.
Through the initiative of Dr. Kupchella
working with the Legislative Research
Commission, Senate Resolution No. 33 was
passed so that the Legislative Research
Commission and the Council on Higher
Education could study the status of the
Commonwealth in federally funded research
and development. Subsequently, a commit-
tee was appointed that consisted of mem-
bers of the Academy and representatives of
the public institutions of higher education.

——7=_—_ ~

News AND COMMENT 83

Dr. Kupchella is Chairman of the Commit-
tee, and he will help complete that study
so that we will have a better understanding
of research and development and its sig-
nificance on the well-being of all Ken-
tuckians.

Although the quality and quantity of re-
search and development is a major concern
of the Academy, and in all probability has
a considerable impact on the economic
status and well-being of the citizens of the
Commonwealth, there is probably an
equally important area of concern, the qual-
ity and quantity of science education at
the precollege level. The concern of the
Academy for the quality of science educa-
tion is reflected through the Junior Acad-
emy of Science, which seeks to encourage
student research projects and the presenta-
tion of scientific papers at regional, state,
and national meetings. Also, the Kentucky
Academy of Science has a committee,
chaired by Dr. Ted George, that has worked
jointly with the Science Advisory Council
and the Kentucky Association for Progress
in Science (KAPS) to formulate recom-
mendations for certification of teachers in
science.

The involvement of the Academy in pre-
college teaching of science is further indi-
cated from previous efforts to effect its
improvement. It is of interest to note that
Dr. Alfred Brauer (deceased), who was
President of the Academy in 1947-1948,
stated in an editorial in the Transactions
of July 1947 that the Academy “initiated
and set in motion a study on the conditions
under which science is taught in secondary
schools, with the motive of improving
them.” In conjunction with the continuing
effort of the Academy to obtain information
on research and development, I would like
to reinitiate a study on the quality of sci-
ence available to our young people at the
secondary level of education and to update
our information from the previous study
prior to 1947. The initial approach prob-
ably will consist of gathering information
from existing reports that will be used to
define certain problems that should be
given indepth study.

The financial affairs of the Academy re-

quire a dedicated effort on the part of the
Executive Committee and the Board of Di-
rectors. The income from membership in
the Academy is a major means of financial
support. We have been successful in in-
creasing the membership through the direc-
tion of Dr. Donald Batch and the Member-
ship Committee. A significant improvement
in financial support has been achieved
through institutional affiliations. Even with
those new sources of income, we have had
to seek support from the state to help defray
the costs of publication of the Transactions.

As the Kentucky Academy of Science
seeks a larger financial base, we must have
plans and effort and involvement that com-
mands the confidence of those we seek to
support us. The work of the Academy must
be of substance, reflecting zeal and prepara-
tion that will secure the confidence of our
members and the public. I believe that we
have that involvement and momentum to
build on to further the role of the Academy
in the fulfillment of its objectives.

To obtain additional financial support,
we need to direct our attention to the fol-
lowing: (1) contributions from the mem-
bership through gifts, (2) seek “major
donor” category from industry and specific
persons, (3) estate planning, and (4) ex-
pansion of membership from appropriate
governmental agencies and industry.

I hope that we can, with the assistance of
the Membership Committee and special ap-
pointed committees, develop a greater base
of financial support so that the Kentucky
Academy of Science can assume a more
involved role in the Progression of Science
in the Commonwealth.

* * * k *

Distinguished Nominations for the Dis-

Scientist tinguished Scientist Award
Award are being sought. One of

the highlights of recent an-
nual meetings of the Kentucky Academy
of Science has been the awarding of the
Distinguished Scientist Award by the Board
of Directors to one of our members.
The award consists of a citation of ac-
complishments and presentation of a bronze
plaque at the annual banquet.

84 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 40( 1-2)

The recipient shall be a member of the
Academy, a resident of the Commonwealth
of Kentucky, and shall have made some
major contribution either directly to the
Commonwealth, or contribution to the im-
provement of the quality of life in the Com-
monwealth, or contribution to the intellect-
ual growth of the Commonwealth.

The Board of Directors is seeking nomi-
nations for the award for the Annual Ban-
quet in 1979. Please submit a complete
curriculum vitae for each nominee to Dr.
Harold Eversmeyer, Department of Biol-
ogy, Murray State University, Murray,
Kentucky 42071.

The deadline for nominations is 2 July
Ine),

k *

The Annual Meeting of the
Kentucky Academy of Science is
scheduled for Northern Ken-
tucky University on 2 and 3 November
1979. This is the first time the Annual
Meeting is to be held at Northern Kentucky
University, and this early notification is
intended to alert the membership to set
aside those dates for attendance at the
meeting.

It was encouraging to see such a large
number of participants, about 250 persons,
at the 1978 meeting at Eastern Kentucky
University. A total of 158 papers afforded
a wide variety of subjects in the various

Annual
Meeting

sections. About 150 persons attended the
Annual Banquet where Dr. David Pimentel,
Cornell University, presented a talk on
“Energy, food, and the future of Man.”
Another highlight of the evening was the
presentation of the Distinguished Scientist
Award to Dr. Mary E. Wharton for her out-
standing contributions to studies in the
field of botany in Kentucky.

Arrangements for the Annual Meeting at
Northern Kentucky University are under
the guidance of Drs. Debra Pearce and
Larry Giesman. Further announcements of
the meeting will be forthcoming in the
Academy's Newsletter.

st ste “Ye se ste
*K BS « s ok

Thirteenth The Australian Academy of
International Science will sponsor the
Botanical Thirteenth International
Congress Botanical Congress to be

held at Sidney, Australia,
21-28 August 1981. The program will con-
sist of 12 sections. There will be plenary
sessions, symposia, and sessions for sub-
mitted contributions. Field trips include
visits to arid and semiarid regions, eucalypt
forest, rain forest, heath, coastal vegetation,
and specialist trips. The first circular will
be sent out in August 1979. To ensure in-
clusion on the mailing list, send your name
and full address to Dr. W. J. Cram, Execu-
tive Secretary, Thirteenth I. B. €., Uni-
versity of Sidney, N. S. W. 2006, Australia.

Instructions for Contributors

Original papers based on research in any field of science will be considered for pub-
lication in the Transactions. Also, as the official publication of the Academy, news and
announcements of interest to the membership will be included as received.

Manuscripts may be submitted at any time to the Editor. Each manuscript will be
reviewed by one or more persons prior to its acceptance for publication, and, once ac-
cepted, an attempt will be made to publish papers in the order of their acceptance. Manu-
scripts should be typed, double spaced throughout, on good quality white paper 8% x 11
inches (216 x 279 mm). The original and one copy should be sent to the Editor and the
author should retain a copy for his own use in correcting proof. Metric and Celsius units
are to be used for all measurements instead of, or in addition to, English and Fahrenheit
units. Format and style may vary somewhat depending on the scientific discipline, but the
basic pattern of presentation will be consistent for all manuscripts. The Style Manual of
the Council of Biological Editors (CBE Style Manual), the Handbook for Authors of papers
in the Journals of the American Chemical Society, the Handbook for Authors of the Amer-
ican Institute of Physics, Webster's Third New International Dictionary, and A Manual of
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underlined.

The sequence of material in the manuscript should be: title page, abstract, body of
the manuscript, literature cited, tables with table headings, and figure legends and figures.

1. The title page should include the title of the paper, the author's name and address,
and any footnote material concerning credits, changes of address, and so forth.

2. The abstract should be concise and descriptive of the information contained in the
paper. It should be complete in itself without reference to the body of the paper.

3. The body of the manuscript should include the following sections: Introduction, Ac-
knowledgments (if applicable), Materials and Methods, Results, Discussion, Summary,
and Literature Cited. In manuscripts of only a few pages, there is no need to break it up
into sections, except for the Literature Cited. All tables and figures, as well as all literature
cited must be referred to in the text.

4. All references in the Literature Cited must be typewritten, double spaced, and should
provide complete information on the material referred to, as in the following examples:

Article:
JoHNSON, A. E., AND E. V. HARRELL. 1962. An analysis of factors governing density
patterns in desert plants. J. Bot. 44(3):419-432.

Book:
DARLINGTON, P. J., JR. 1965. Biogeography of the southern end of the world. Harvard
Univ. Press, Cambridge, Mass. 236 pp.

5. Hach table, together with its heading, must be double spaced, numbered in arabic
numerals, and set on a separate page. The heading of the table should be informative of
its contents.

Each figure should be reproduced as a glossy print either 5 x 7 or 8 x 10 inches. Line
drawings in India ink on white paper are acceptable, but should be no larger than 8% x 11
inches. Photographs should have good contrast so they can be reproduced satisfactorily.
All figures should be numbered in arabic numerals and should be accompanied by an
appropriate legend. It is strongly suggested that all contributors follow the guidelines of
Allen’s (1977) “Steps Toward Better Scientific Illustrations” published by the Allen Press,
Inc., Lawrence, Kansas 66044.

The author is responsible for correcting galley proofs. He is also responsible for check-
ing all literature cited to make certain that each article or book is cited correctly. Extensive
alterations on the galley proofs are expensive and such costs are to be borne by the author.
Reprints are to be ordered when the galley proofs are returned to the Editor.

CONTENTS

Distribution, Abundance, and Species Diversity of Fishes of the Upper
Salt River Drainage, Kentucky. Robert D. Hoyt, Stuart E. Neff, and
Vinteent tig Resiiy:. 200: SNP) a Laks RN Oe eas eo Wai a

Recognition of Lapies-Type Features in the Kentucky Karst—An Example
of Applied Geomorphology. Preston McGrain__._.......-..-

Oribatid Mites as Intermediate Hosts of Certain Anoplocephalid Ces-
todes:)\ Larry N. Gleason and: Richard. Buckner «o> esa

Effects of Root System Submergence on Sweet Gum Seedlings Under
Laboratory Conditions. Lynn H. Wellman and Joe E. Winstead __.

The Occurrence of Two Species of Shrews in Central Kentucky. Hal
NBT SS Nias Ae TS SS a oO A 08 NS, Eo

Field Botany in Kentucky: A Reference List. Marian J. Fuller

New Species Records of Damselflies (Odonata: Zygoptera) in Kentucky.
Rhilinste Cromley and Allan 12) Wilson tas ae Oe a eee

Distributional Records for and Additions to the Ichthyofauna of Kentucky.
Bruce H: Bauer aud Branley AvBranson, 22). Oy ee ae

_ Nesting Site of the Lollypop Darter Etheostoma neopterum. Lawrence
Me Pace and Richard Ex Mdyden: 220500) (Oe as ea vee

Records of Fishes in Western Kentucky With Additions to the Known
Fauna. Brooks M. Burr and Richard kL. Mayden 2 ea) 2s.

Distinguished Seientist Awards 4 5a 2 \ 0 tsi NU a Te ieee a
ANe@adermy (Atfairs ite bhi STN Na Ra PU aM nea Oe Ne eg

Newstand' Comment. 22. =o wi aR Bey SRR ON C Ui ae Se Nc MS

Volume 40
Numbers 3-4
September 1979

i)

The Kentucky Academy of Science
Founded 8 May 1914

OFFICERS FOR 1979

President: Sanford L. Jones, Eastern Kentucky University, Richmond 40475

President Elect: Rudolph Prins, Western Kentucky University, Bowling Green
42101

Past President: Charles E. Kupchella, Cancer Center, University of Louisville,
Louisville 40202

Vice President: Frank A. Butler, Northern Kentucky University, Highland Heights
41076

Secretary: Robert Creek, Eastern Kentucky University, Richmond 40475

Treasurer: Morris Taylor, Eastern Kentucky University, Richmond 40475

Director of the Junior Academy: Herbert Leopold, Western Kentucky
University, Bowling Green 42101
Representatives to AAAS Council: Branley A. Granson, Eastern Kentucky
University, Richmond 40475
John M. Carpenter, University of Kentucky,
Lexington 40506

BOARD OF DIRECTORS

Thomas B. Calhoon 1979 Donald C. Haney 1981
Harold Eversmeyer 1979 William F. Wagner 1981
Gertrude Ridgel 1980 Jerry C. Davis 1982
Ivan Potter 1980 Daniel Knopf 1982

EDITORIAL BOARD
Editor: Louis A. Krumholz, Office of Academic Affairs, University of Louisville,
Louisville 40208
Associate Editor: Varley E. Wiedeman, Department of Biology, University of
Louisville, Louisville 40208
Editorial Board: John C. Philley, School of Science and Mathematics, Morehead
State University, Morehead 40351
Dennis E. Spetz, Department of Geography, University of
Louisville, Louisville, Kentucky 40208
William F. Wagner, Department of Chemistry, University of
Kentucky, Lexington 40506

All manuscripts and correspondence concerning manuscripts should be addressed to the
Editor. Authors must be members of the Academy.

The TRANSACTIONS are indexed in the Science Citation Index. Coden TKASAT.

Membership in the Academy is open to interested persons upon nomination, payment of
dues, and election. Application forms for membership may be obtained from the Secretary. The
TRANSACTIONS are sent free to all members in good standing. Annual dues are $10.00 for
Active Members; $7.00 for Student Members.

Subscription rates for nonmembers are: domestic, $12.00; foreign, $14.00; back issues are
$12.00 per volume.

The TRANSACTIONS are issued semiannually in March and September. Four numbers
comprise a volume.

Correspondence concerning memberships or subscriptions should be addressed to the Sec-
retary. Exchanges and correspondence relating to exchanges should be addressed to the Librar-
ian, University of Louisville, Louisville, Kentucky 40208, the exchange agent for the Academy.

TRANSACTIONS of the

KENTUCKY

ACADEMY of SCIENCE

September 1070

VOLUME 40
NUMBERS 3-4

Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 40( 3-4), 1979, 85-95

The Applicability of Cyclic and Dynamie Approaches
of Landscape Development to the Kentucky Bluegrass

Tuomas C. Kinp
Department of Geography, Murray State University, Murray, Kentucky 42071

ABSTRACT

The applicability of 2 concepts of landscape development was tested in a portion of the

Kentucky Bluegrass region, an area often referred to as the Lexington Peneplain. The ap-
proaches analyzed, the geographic cycle of William Morris Davis (1954) and the dynamic
equilibrium model introduced more recently by John T. Hack (1966), present distinct theories
as to the development of landscapes. Topographic, lithologic, and structural data were analyzed
both qualitatively and quantitatively to determine their affinity to 3 assumptions: (1) if there
is a correlation between topographic and lithologic variations, but no evidence that they cor-
relate with or directly reflect regional structure, the cyclic theory would tend to be supported;
(2) if there is no reflection of lithologic variation or structural pattern in the topography, the
cyclic concept would be strongly supported; and (3) if the topography corresponds with both
lithologic differences and regional structure, the noncyclic or dynamic approach would explain

the present landscape most reasonably.

Data from quantitative evaluation of the input variables analyzed by visual comparison,
trend—-surface analysis, and correlation indicated that the third assumption provided the most

reasonable explanation.

INTRODUCTION

The theory of the geographic cycle of
erosion as stressed by William Morris Davis
(1954) has strongly influenced the science
of geomorphology since the turn of the
century. That approach stated that after
rapid uplift of a portion of the earth’s crust,
erosion proceeds through the stages of
youth, maturity, and old age, the end
product being a landscape of low relief,
one that has been reduced nearly to base
level. Davis theorized that only on rare
occasions would the cycle be completed.
Changes in base level would interrupt the

‘that of dynamic equilibrium.

formation of and initiate the dissection of
incomplete peneplain surfaces.

More recently, there has emerged an-
other concept of landscape interpretation,
Proponents
of that concept, among them Arthur N.
Strahler (1952) and, more recently, John
T. Hack (1966), have advocated noncyclic
landform development in which the reten-
tion of the characteristics of any given land-
scape can be explained by the fact that
energy entering and leaving the system is
equal, thus producing a steady-state equi-
librium. When diastrophic forces operate at
a gradual rate, the topography is lowered

86 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 4(0(3-4)

slowly, but remains in a state of balance.
The amount of relief in any region, there-
fore, varies directly with the fluctuation of
the diastrophic forces.

Some geomorphologists consider the Ken-
tucky Bluegrass region to be a remnant of
a cyclic topography that has been desig-
nated the Lexington Peneplain. Willard R.
Jillson, formerly Kentucky State Geologist,
supported the cyclical theory in his research
(Jillson 1928, 1945, 1961). Other research
(Campbell et al. 1898, Fenneman 1938, and
Thornbury 1965) also supported the cyclic
theory in the Kentucky Bluegrass. On the
other hand, no major work has as yet been
published that directly relates the develop-
ment of the Kentucky Bluegrass region to
the dynamic concept. The dynamic model
has been only indirectly related to the study
area by Hack (1966) and Forsyth (1962).
Hack refuted the claim that the Highland
Rim of Tennessee, equivalent to the Lexing-
ton Peneplain, is of cyclic origin. Forsyth’s
work in southeastern Ohio disclaimed the
cyclic origin of the Worthington Peneplain,
also a supposed extension of the Lexington
surface. The purpose of this study is to
analyze a portion of the Kentucky Bluegrass
region in the light of these opposing con-
cepts, and to attempt to ascertain their
applicability to the development of the
topography of that area.

THe Stupy AREA

The area under consideration is in north-
central Kentucky on the western flank of
the Cincinnati Arch. Lexington, Kentucky,
is in the southeastern corner of the rectan-
gular 1,761-mile? (4,579-km?) study area,
the geographic boundaries of which are
37° 52’30”N to 38°20’00’N latitude and
84° 29’30” W to 85° 7’30” W longitude ( Fig.
1):
The study area includes portions of the
Inner Bluegrass, the Eden Shale Belt, and
the Outer Bluegrass, subdivisions of the
Bluegrass section of the Interior Low Pla-
teaus Province (Fenneman 1938). The
topographic contrasts among those “sub-
sections” are striking. The Inner Bluegrass
is a gently rolling, moderately dissected

upland underlain primarily by limestone of
the Cynthiana Formation and interbedded
limestones and shales of the Lexington
Group. Much of its drainage is subsurface
except for a few major streams. Elevations
in the area, which have been designated as
a part of the Lexington Peneplain, range
between 800 and 1,100 feet (244 to 335 m).
The topography of the Eden Shale Belt
contrasts strongly with that of the Inner
Bluegrass, the former being an intensely
dissected shale zone with long, narrow,
steep-sided ridges and narrow, winding V-
shaped valleys. The Eden Shale Belt con-
sists of the Garrard Siltstone and the Clays
Ferry Formation; although dominated by
shales, it also contains interbedded lime-
stones, silty shales, and siltstones. Local
relief increases greatly in the vicinity of
such major streams as the Kentucky and
Licking rivers, where elevations range from
450 to approximately 850 feet (137 to 259
m).

The Outer Bluegrass is represented
locally in the northern and northwestern
portions of the study area by the Richmond
and Maysville groups composed primarily
of limestones, although shale outcroppings
are common. The topography is best char-
acterized as a gently to moderately rolling
upland, except near major streams where
dissection is intense. Sinkholes are common
where limestone beds thicken (Hall and
Palmquist 1960).

METHODOLOGY

The basic differences between the cyclic
and noncyclic approaches as applied to
the study area are based upon the inter-
relationships of topography, lithology, and
structure. The proponents of the Davisian
concept have supported their research by
presenting qualitative evidence for a dis-
cordance of structure and topography on
a regional basis, although some have ad-
mitted that “locally” an accordance can be
seen. The same authors have also stated
that, in general, there seems to be only a
minimal relationship between lithologic
variation, resistant strata, and _ regional
topography. Only locally, might lithology

LANDSCAPE DEVELOPMENT OF THE KENTUCKY BLUEGRAssS—Kind 87

AENTMUICK

50 MILES
80 KM

STUDY AREA

Fic. 1.

and topography coincide. By contrast,
Hack (1966) and other proponents of the
dynamic concept insist that there is no
solid evidence to support those claims,
although they feel that it is remotely
possible that one might visualize a regional
planation surface by correlating summit
elevations. In the Highland Rim area, Hack
(1966) found a definite coincidence of local
structural and lithologic characteristics with
topographic factors and concluded that the
landscape there meets the conditions of the
dynamic concept. Forsyth (1962) felt that
the dynamic approach is also applicable in
southeastern Ohio.

The determination of the applicability of
either the cyclic or dynamic concept with
respect to the Lexington surface rests on the
following assumptions:

CINCINNAT|
ARCH

Map of study area.

(1) There is a correlation between topo-
graphic and lithologic variations but no
evidence that they correlate with or directly
reflect regional structure. Such a region
would reflect a topography with nearly
level surfaces at different elevations, de-
pending upon the resistance of the underly-
ing bedrock. The slope of each surface
would not reflect local structure. Such a
surface, as depicted in Fig. 2a, would tend
to support the cyclic theory since topog-
raphy and structure are discordant.

(2) The strongest evidence for support of
the cyclic concept would be the presence
of an overall topographic form that reflects
neither lithologic variations nor structural
patterns. Fig. 2b depicts a gently undulat-
ing surface that ignores those factors and

88 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 40( 3-4)

Fic. 2. Diagrams of the 3 assumptions used to

test the efficacy of the cyclic and dynamic ap-

proaches: (a) correlation of erosion surface with

lithology but not with regional structure, (b) no

correlation of surface with lithology or regional

structure, and (c) correlation of erosional surface
with lithology and regional structure.

is the true beveled surface associated with
cyclic development.

(3) If the land surface in the study area
corresponds with lithologic differences and
regional structure, the dynamic concept
would be the most reasonable explanation.
Resistant rocks would stand higher, and
nonresistant strata lower, as depicted in
Fig. 2c. Within the bounds of each litho-
logic type there would be developed a
regionally dissected surface, the slope of
which corresponds to regional dip (Kind

1976, unpublished doctoral dissertation,
Indiana State University, Terre Haute,
Indiana ).

The analysis of the Lexington region
includes consideration of the present topo-
graphic, lithologic, and structural variables
mentioned in the preceding assumptions.
Each variable is treated separately, but the
primary goal of the study is to establish

the presence or absence of concrete rela-
tionships among them. The establishment
of such relationships, or lack thereof, should
lead to a clearer understanding of the
development of the landscape in the Ken-
tucky Bluegrass.

Topography

The land surface in the study area slopes
gently northwestward from the axis of the
Cincinnati Arch toward the Ohio River
Valley. The Lexington Peneplain, should,
if present, be represented in some topo-
graphic form. Past authors, particularly
Jillson (1928) relied upon visual observa-
tions or the plotting of relatively few maxi-
mum elevations as evidence in support of
the presence of the Lexington surface. The
topographic data used here are of an areal
nature because an erosion surface may not
necessarily be represented by maximum
spot elevations. An erosion surface is not
planar, but rather a surface of “low” relief.
In order for local relief to be considered,
total land area within each contour interval
was measured, according to a method
established by Haan and Johnson (1966).
That random sampling technique performs
a function identical to that of the polar
planimeter and requires less time and
physical dexterity. In that way, single or
multiple intercontour areas could be com-
pared so that land areas that fall between
certain elevations would be established as
representing the Lexington Peneplain. The
one problem remaining, however, is that
there is no precise quantitative definition
of a peneplain. What is the maximum
amount of relief found on such a surface,
100 feet (30 m), 200 feet (61 m), etc.?

Topographic variables were derived from
the data gathered from each of 150 sample
areas. An example of the data gathered
from such an area is shown in Table 1 from
which the following topographic variables
are derived.

1. Max..—The midpoint of the class in-
terval (contour interval) that contains
maximum elevation within the sample;
Max,; = 950 feet (289.5 m).

LANDSCAPE DEVELOPMENT OF THE KENTUCKY BLUEGRASS—Kind S9

TaBLE |1.—DISTRIBUTION OF LAND AREA FROM
A SAMPLE AREA, SADIEVILLE, KENTUCKY, QUAD-
RANGLE

Class interval1 % Total area

940-959 2.14
920-939 Oil
900-919 16.68
880-899 IME 5:
860-879 20.27
840-859 12.66
820-839 12.85
800-819 Util
780-799 6.62
760-779 1.73

1 Feet above mean sea level. One foot = 0.3048 m.

2. Min..—The midpoint of the class inter-
val that contains the minimum elevation
within the sample; Min,, = 770 feet
(234.7 m).

3. X..—The mean elevation derived from
the class intervals; X., = 860 feet (262.1
m).

4. Md,).—The median elevation is the value
that falls in the middle of the array
of the class interval; Md,., = 860 feet
(262.1 m).

5. Ra—The range between the bottom of
the minimum and the top of the maxi-
mum class interval values; R,, = 200 feet
(61.0 m).

6. Xecio—The mean elevation derived
from the class intervals, eliminating
those that contain less than 10 percent of
the land area within the sample; Xe<10
= 870 feet (265.2 m).

The preceding variables were utilized in
the analysis of the topography to determine
the possibility of any interrelationships that
might signify the presence or absence of
a peneplain. More importantly, possible
relationships between those topographic
variables and lithologic and structural vari-
ables were examined.

The techniques used in the investigation
of topographic variables were manual con-
touring, determination of correlation coef-
ficients (r), and trend-surface analysis.
The contour approach was used as a visual
comparison between the topographic vari-
ables Maxa, Xe, and Xe<ip. The data as-

sociated with each variable were plotted
and hand contoured at a 50-foot (15-m)
contour interval. The topographic variables
were also compared with lithologic and
structural variables. The correlation coef-
ficient (1) was utilized to determine quan-
titative relationships between topographic
variables and their association with litho-
logic and structural variables. Lastly, trend—
surface analysis (Davis 1973) was incorpo-
rated to provide both visual and quantitative
descriptions of topographic and structural
data.

Lithology

The strata within the study area are
generally representative of those through-
out the Bluegrass region, although they may
be absent locally or cover a relatively small
area. They range from Middle to Upper
Ordovician in age. The predominant rock
type is limestone; however, other types,
particularly shale, dominate in certain areas.
Sandstone, siltstone, claystone, chert, and
bentonite occur locally in minor amounts.
The areal distribution of the beds within
the groups and formations is concentric as
the result of uplift and subsequent erosion
of the Jessamine Dome (Cincinnati Arch).
Although the study area includes only a
portion of the western flank of the Jessa-
mine Dome, the general arcuate pattern of
the strata is evident (Fig. 3). Since the dip
is minimal and there are no major ridge
forming units present, the boundaries of
the individual units are quite irregular. The
strata within the Bluegrass region have been
divided into 3 zones, the Outer Bluegrass,
the Eden Shale Belt, and the Inner Blue-
grass (McFarlan 1961). Although those
zones have been used most often to de-
lineate physiographic boundaries, they are
stratigraphic in nature.

The Outer Bluegrass is underlain pri-
marily by limestones, but shale outcrop-
pings are quite common. The terrain of
the Richmond Group, although quite local
within the study area, can be characterized
as a gently undulating upland where lime-
stones are underlain by shales. That of the
Maysville Group is a moderately rolling

90 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 40(3-4)

85°7'30" 84°22'30"
38°30' ——+ 38°30!

37°52'30" 37°52'30"
85°

7'30" 84°22'30

OUTER BLUEGRASS

EDEN SHALE BELT |
— MILES
Scii] INNER BLUEGRASS Se NES
= to) 8 16 KM

Fic. 3. Generalized geologic map of study area.

upland, except along major streams where
dissection is intense. Where limestone beds
thicken, sinkholes may be present. This
group generally forms broad ridges between
steep-sided valleys that cut into the shale
of the underlying Eden Group (Hall and
Palmquist 1960).

The zone that exhibits the most rugged
character is the Eden Shale Belt. Long,
narrow, steep-sided ridges and narrow V-
shaped valleys dominate this intensely dis-
sected landscape. In many areas, the under-
lying Cynthiana Formation is exposed along
the sides of the broad, flat valleys cut
through the Eden Shale. There is a rather
striking contrast between the topography
of the Eden Shale Belt and the gently roll-
ing uplands of the Inner Bluegrass under-
lain by the Cynthiana Formation and the
Lexington Group. The Eden zone is com-
posed almost entirely of shale, except locally
where the Garrard Sandstone may be pres-
ent above or where thick limestone beds
appear at the base (Hall and Palmquist
1960).

The Inner Bluegrass is a broad, gently
rolling to moderately dissected upland sur-

face, the increase in dissection being related
to the proximity to major streams and to
the amount of shale exposed. Sinkholes are
common in the lower portion of the Cyn-
thiana Formation where most drainage is
subterranean. Most resistant beds in the
Lexington Group form a subdued benchlike
topography along hillsides and stream val-
ley walls (Hall and Palmquist 1960).

Lithologic variations, then, are reflected
in the landscape. Two zones, the Outer
Bluegrass and the Inner Bluegrass, can be
characterized as gently rolling uplands with
local relief that increases toward major
streams, particularly the Kentucky River.
The Eden Shale Belt, on the other hand, is
in marked contrast, and exhibits a rugged
topography, the result of intense dissection.

The data gathered for the analysis of
possible relationships between lithology
and topography and/or structure are based
upon information obtained from published
geologic maps. Although the data were
generally qualitative, they were subjected to
both qualitative and quantitative analyses.

Each sample (N = 150) was classified on
the basis of lithology by considering out-
crop patterns and stratigraphic columns.
The samples were placed in categories
based on predominant rock type; i.e., Class
1 = Limestone, Class 2 = Shale, and Class
3 = Limestone/Shale, and were used in cor-
relation analysis (Variable L) to establish
a relationship between lithologic variables
and topography or structure. The general-
ized geologic map (Fig. 3) was compared
visually with hand-drawn and machine-
drawn trend-surface topographic and struc-
tural maps.

Geologic Structure

The structural setting of the Kentucky
Bluegrass is controlled by a broad, low
anticline, the Cincinnati Arch. The study
area itself is on the western flank of the
arch, the axis of which lies a few miles
(kilometers) east of Lexington (Fig. 1).
The Cincinnati Arch has 2 local highs, the
Nashville Dome of Tennessee and the Jessa-
mine Dome of Kentucky. Erosion of the

LANDSCAPE DEVELOPMENT OF THE KENTUCKY BLUEGRASS—Kind 91

Paleozoic formations over the Jessamine
Dome has produced the irregular concentric
outcrop pattern within the study area.
Within the study area, the strata dip gently
in a northwesterly direction (Ray 1974).
Although faulting is common in some areas,
namely along the Switzer and Bryan Station
faults, with vertical displacement reaching
a maximum of a few hundred feet (ca 100
m), the offset along them is not reflected in
the topography (MacQuown and Dobro-
volny 1968 ).

Structural data for both qualitative and
quantitative analyses were obtained from
the available 7.5-min geologic quadrangles.
Lack of total coverage did not hamper
structural analysis since the overall struc-
ture varies little throughout the study area.
The general geologic structure of the study
area is shown in Fig. 4. The regional north-
easterly strike trend and the uniform north-
westerly dip are apparent. The broad ir-
regularities in the structure contours reflect
either local flexures in the Brannon Member
or changes in its thickness.

Qualitative analysis of the structural data
consisted of a visual comparison of the
generalized structural map (Fig. 4) with
hand- and machine-constructed trend-sur-
face topographic maps. That comparison
facilitated evaluation of the relationship
between structure and topography. Struc-
tural patterns were also compared visually
with the distribution of lithology.

Quantitative analysis included correlation
(r) and trend-surface analysis. The data
gathered as structural variables were ob-
tained from the geologic quadrangles.
Sample areas (N = 65) of identical size
and location to those constructed for topo-
graphic analysis were constructed on the
geologic quadrangles. Two structural vari-
ables were extracted from those samples,
dip magnitude (S,) and point elevation
(Sa). Those variables were used in cor-
relation analysis to determine possible rela-
tionships between topographic and _litho-
logic variables. Point elevation was used in
trend-surface analysis for map comparisons
and quantitative analysis.

85°7'30" 84°22'30"
San + 38°30)
|
[A aS S mye,
gS Sp |
|g Une
Wt =
=| yi ny \
= ») CS |
2 Me
oe) go) = Up
/ { eu » u-
i Z IL ;
j : al
aA A
/ (AAG soe ff G
I~ d
ON Ip
| ne J ) ] 00°]
37°52'30" + ENS HN al eocentars
85°7'30" 84°22'30"
——900—— STRUCTURE CONTOURS
Pee |
D FAULTS
5 10 MILES
) 8 T6 KM

Fic. 4. General structure contour map drawn on
the base of the Brannon Member of the Lexington
Limestone.

RESULTS
Visual Comparisons

Visual analysis of the 3 variables was
accomplished with the use of map overlays.
When topography and lithology were com-
pared, 3 topographic variables, Max, Xa,
ea appeared to be influenced by the
presence of the resistant Eden Shale Belt.
The variable Max,, had a higher correspon-
dence, since areas of highest topography
should, in general, coincide with areas of
maximum resistance. The Outer and Inner
Bluegrass, areas of less resistance, are lower
to a greater or lesser degree, depending
upon their respective positions on the west-
ern flank of the Cincinnati Arch. Three
topographic variables, Max.), Xa, and Xero,
were also compared with a structure con-
tour map of the base of the Brannon
Member of the Cynthiana Formation. A
similarity of topographic and_ structural
trend was readily apparent in portions of
the study area not greatly affected by dis-
Adjacent to major

section. entrenched

92 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 40(3-4)

TABLE 2.—FIT OF THE TREND—SURFACE MODELS AS
APPLIED TO TOPOGRAPHIC AND STRUCTURAL VARI-

ABLES
Goodness

Variable Order? N2 of fit R?
Xe 1 150 0.49 0.70
2, 150 0.57 0.75

3 150 0.66 0.81

4 150 0.77 0.88

Xe1 <i 1 150 0.52 0.72
2 150 0.57 0.75

3 150 0.67 0.82

4 150 0.72 0.85

Maxe: 1 150 0.38 0.62
2 150 0.49 0.70

3 150 0.60 0.77

4 150 0.67 0.82

Mine. 1 150 0.52 0.72
2 150 0.57 0.75

3 150 0.65 0.81

4 150 0.72 0.85

Sei 1 65 0.84 0.92
2 65 0.92 0.96

3 65 0.95 0.97

4 65 0.95 0.97

1 Linear, quadratic, cubic, quartic, respectively.
* Number of control data points.
° Correlation coefficient.

streams, the trend of the topographic vari-
ables did not correspond to the structural
trend. Lastly, upon comparing visually the
distribution of the various lithologies with
structure, the trends of the units compare
favorably and suggest a positive relation-
ship.

Trend-Surface Analysis

Trend-surface analysis is a technique
whereby the vertical distance between
control points is reduced to a minimum. A
map of a surface represented by the various
control points is then produced using a line
printer or plotter, thus providing a visual
representation of the hypothetical land-
scape.

Trend surfaces were produced for the
topographic variables Xa, Xe<1o, Make,
and Min,, and for the structural variable
point elevation. The order of the surfaces
prepared for each variable ranged from first
through fourth order; i.e., linear, quadratic,

cubic, and quartic surfaces (Chorley and
Haggett 1965). According to King (1969),
the complexity of the surfaces and, in gen-
eral, the fit of the surfaces to the control
points increase with higher order. That
improvement in the goodness of fit was
evident in the study area (Table 2).

The percentage variation of the control
point data accounted for by each surface is
represented by the goodness of fit. Cor-
relation coefficients are also included as
they describe the adequacy of fit of the
data points to the trend-surface. In a
number of studies associated with structural
analysis, Davis (1973) judged as follows:
“,.. first- and second-degree correlations of
less than 0.3 as providing a “poor fit.” Cor-
relations of 0.4-0.6 yield interpretable trend

. maps, and those higher than 0.7 are
regarded as conforming closely to the orig-
inal data points.” All variables with the
exception of the linear Max,, have correla-
tions of 0.7 or greater (Table 2). The
goodness of fit data also fall above the 0.4
level, most exceeding 0.7 at the quartic
level. There is little doubt that the surfaces
produced do in fact closely represent topo-
graphic and structural conditions even on a
linear (first order) basis. Higher order
surfaces are merely refinements of first
order fits in most instances.

After establishing the validity of the
trend-surface topographic and _ structural
variables, a visual comparison was made to
establish a positive or negative relationship.
No substantive conclusions were possible
for 2 reasons: (1) the topographic data
reflected the intense dissection in the Outer
Bluegrass and Eden Shale Belts, the dis-
section being accounted for in the trend—
surface maps; and (2) the offset of the
Brannon Member along the Bryan Station
Fault was reflected in maps that depicted
point elevation. Only in a small portion of
the Inner Bluegrass, where intense dissec-
tion and structural offset were least influ-
ential, was correspondence between struc-
tural and topographic variables evident.
Correspondence over such a limited area
negated the possibility of any sound con-
clusion.

LANDSCAPE DEVELOPMENT OF THE KENTUCKY BLUEGRASS—Kind 93

TABLE 3.—MATRIX OF CORRELATION COEFFICIENTS FOR TOPOGRAPHIC, LITHOLOGIC, AND STRUCTURAL

VARIABLES. SEE TEXT FOR DEFINITIONS OF TERMS
Max, , Min, , Ext ae Rie Md,, 1B o Sa a isoae
Maxei 1.00 ;
Mine 0.80 1.00
Kor 0.91 0.97 1.00
Xe <ao 0.87 0.86 0.91 1.00
Re —0.36 —0.83 —0.69 —0.56 1.00
Mde: 0.87 0.87 0.90 0.97 —0.59 1.00
Ly 0.33 0.51 0.47 0.43 —0.49 0.45 1.00
Sa —0.26 —0.24 —0.26 —0.27 0.11 —0.29 —0.23 1.00
Ser 0.81 0.72 0.79 0.82 —0.38 0.82 0.57 —0.15 1.00
Correlation only a small variation in rock resistance.
; Also, some of the least resistant rocks in the
The final method employed to measure

possible relationships between the topo-
graphic, lithologic, and structural variables
was correlation (Table 3). The coefficients
for the topographic variables as they are
related to one another are extremely high,
0.80 or above, with the exception of Rai,
which yielded negative values, —0.36 to
-0.83. Those negative values can be inter-
preted as showing an inverse relationship
between R,, and the other topographic
variables. As the value of any of the 5 topo-
graphic variables increases, the value of Ra
decreases; i.e., as the distance from en-
trenched streams increases, the value of
each of the 5 variables increases and the
range (R.) therefore decreases. Such a
positive relationship between the various
topographic aspects of the region leads one
to surmise that all are closely interrelated,
as one would expect in a dynamic situation.
Such evidence, however, does not neces-
sarily refute the cyclic concept.

The lithologic variable was defined earlier
as a specific rock type predominant in each
sample area, limestone, shale, or a lime-
stone/shale combination. Correlation coef-
ficients from 0.33 to 0.51, as related to 5
topographic variables, offer a low to mod-
erate magnitude of relationship at best.
Such results possibly reflect the intense
dissection and scalloped outcrop pattern.
The major problem encountered while
working with variations in lithology was
that whereas rock type did vary, there was

area were highest topographically because
of their structural and geographic position;
i.e., high on the flank of the Cincinnati Arch.
The sample size used to establish a rela-
tionship between topography and structure
was smaller (N=65) due to the limited
availability of structural data. The struc-
tural variable dip magnitude yielded very
low coefficients when related to the topo-
graphic variables, suggesting that such a
relationship was nonexistent. That variable
may not be an appropriate measure of
structure since it represents magnitude of
dip. The other variable, point elevation,
showed a relatively high coincidence with
the topographic variables, with coefficients
ranging from 0.73 to 0.82. That variable
actually represents a surface, the base of
the Brannon Member, and is likely the best
approximation of the structural configura-
tion. Its positive association suggests that
the topography and the structure closely
approximate each other in the southern and
southeastern portions of the study area.

DISCUSSION

The first assumption discussed earlier
supposes a correlation between topography
and lithology, with no evidence of any
relationship to regional structure. The first
portion of this assumption has been cor-
roborated with visual comparison of 3 topo-
graphical variables (Max.i, NG). and: Nato)
with lithologic distribution; i.e., the more

94 Trans. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 40(3-4)

resistant Eden Shale Belt is topograph-
ically higher than the Outer Bluegrass
or the Inner Bluegrass. Correlation analysis
also lends moderate support to the topo-
graphic/lithologic affinity with r ranging
from 0.33 to 0.51. Such support is somewhat
indirect because rock type and not rock
resistance was the input variable. The
acceptance of the first assumption may be
negated, however, since there was definite
evidence of a relationship between the afore-
mentioned variables and regional structure.
Further support for a positive relationship
between regional structure, point elevation,
and the topographic variables, Max, Ming,
Xa, and Xe<io, and Mdg, is evident by
the relatively high correlation between S,;
and L,. The value of 0.57 is somewhat
suspect, however, since structural coverage
was limited, i.e., it did not coincide with the
overall lithologic distribution.

The second assumption presents the
strongest argument in support of the cyclic
theory, that there is no reflection of litho-
logic or structural variation in the present
landscape. As stated in the discussion of
the first assumption, visual comparison of
topographic and lithologic variables shows
that lithologic variation is reflected in the
landscape. A similarity of topographic and
structural trends has also been noted through
the visual comparison of manually con-
structed maps; structure, therefore, is also
reflected in the topography. Further, cor-
relation analysis has shown a positive rela-
tionship between lithologic patterns and
structural variable S,, and the topographic
variables.

According to the third assumption, the
noncyclic or dynamic approach would be
the most logical explanation of the Blue-
grass landscape if its topography corre-
sponds with both lithologic differences and
regional structure. Visual comparisons of
manually constructed maps of the topo-
graphic variables Maxa, Xe, and Xec1o
with lithology and structural contours, and
comparison of lithology and structural con-
tour orientation, tend to support such an
assumption. In addition, it has been shown
that structure does, to a certain degree,

control lithologic distribution. Correlation
analysis also lends credence to that as-
sumption. A high correlation between topo-
graphic variables involved suggests a dy-
namic situation. Although the correlation
coefficients that represent the relationship
between topography and lithology were of
a lower magnitude, they also suggest the
noncyclic thesis. A positive relationship
between the topographic variables and
structural variable S,., lends further support.
Trend-surface analysis has established a
close relationship between topographic
variables Xa, Xe<io, and Min, on the
basis of goodness of fit and/or correlation
results. The trend of those variables cor-
responds closely to the structural trend of
the first order.

SUMMARY

It has been concluded by Fenneman,
Thornbury, Jillson, and others that the
landscape in the Kentucky Bluegrass region
is the result of cyclic development, that this
area displays characteristics associated with
the Davisian peneplain. Their work was
based primarily on distant visual alignment
of upland tracts or the utilization of spot
elevations to project a hypothetical surface.
If one were to rely on either or both of those
techniques, it would doubtlessly be easy to
visualize the accordant upland heights of
the Kentucky Bluegrass as a gently sloping
flat or nearly flat surface, a peneplain.
However, this in itself would certainly not
constitute proof of that “peneplain’s” exis-
tence. It is equally possible to visualize,
in terms of a dynamic approach, the topog-
raphy of the Kentucky Bluegrass as a topog-
raphy well adjusted to lithologic variation
and regional structure. The present study
tends to support the latter scheme, in that
it has revealed concrete relationships be-
tween those variables. The landscape vari-
ables are therefore considered to be in
adjustment in a dynamic situation.

LITERATURE CITED

CAMPBELL, M. R., J. A. TAFF, AND W. C. MENDEN-
HALL. 1898. Description of the Richmond
Quadrangle, Geologic Atlas of the United

LANDSCAPE DEVELOPMENT OF THE KENTUCKY BLUEGRASS—Kind 95

States, Folio 46. U.S. Geol. Surv., Washing-
ton, D.C.

CuHoRLEY, R. J., AND P. Haccetr. 1965. Trend—
surface mapping in geographical research.
Trans. Inst. Brit. Geogr. 37:47-67.

Davis, J. C. 1973. Statistics and data analysis
in geology. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New
York, N.Y. 550 pp.

Davis, W. M. 1954. Geographical essays. D.
W. Johnson (Ed.). Dover Publications, Inc.,
New York, N.Y. 777 pp.

FENNEMAN, N. M. 1938. Physiography of the
eastern United States. McGraw-Hill Book
Company, Inc., New York, N.Y. 714 pp.

Forsytu, J. L. 1962. Upland flats in eastern
Ohio—peneplain or one-cycle erosion surface.
Ohio J. Sci. 62:311-314.

Haan, C. T., AND H. P. Jonnson. 1966.
determination of hypsometric curves.
Soc. Amer. Bull. 82:123-126.

Hack, J. T. 1966. Interpretation of Cumberland
Escarpment and Highland Rim south-central
Tennessee and northeast Alabama. U.S. Geol.
Surv. Prof. Pap. 524C. U.S. Geol. Surv., Wash-
ington, D.C. 16 pp.

Hau, F. R., anp W. N. Patmeuist, Jr. 1960.
Availability of ground water in Carroll, Gal-
latin, Henry, Owen, and Trimble counties,
Kentucky. Availability of ground water in
Anderson, Franklin, Shelby, Spencer, and
Woodford counties, Kentucky; and availability
of ground water in Bourbon, Fayette, Jessa-
mine, and Scott counties, Kentucky. U-S.

Rapid
Geol.

Geol. Surv. Hydrol. Invest. Atlas HA 23, HA
24, and HA 25. U.S. Geol. Surv., Washing-
ton, D.C.

Jittson, W. R. 1928. Peneplains in Kentucky.
Pan-Amer. Geol. 50:333-339.

1945. The Kentucky River: an out-
line of the drainage modification of a master
stream during geologic time. The State J. 14:
1-104.

1961. Erosion cycles in central Ken-
tucky. Roberts Printing Company, Frankfort,

Ky. 12 pp.
Kinc, C. A. M. 1969. Trend-surface analysis of
central Penine erosion surfaces. Trans. Inst.

Brit. Geogr. 47:47-60.

MacQuown, W. C., AND E. Dosrovotny. 1968.
Geologic map of the Lexington East Quad-
rangle, Fayette and Bourbon counties. U.S.
Geol. Surv. Map GQ-683, U.S. Geol. Surv.,
Washington, D.C.

McFaruan, A. C. 1961. Geology of Kentucky.
The University of Kentucky, Lexington, Ky.
531 pp.

Ray, L. L. 1974. Geomorphology and quaternary
geology of the glaciated Ohio River Valley—a
reconnaissance study. U.S. Geol. Surv., Wash-
ington, D.C. 77 pp.

STRAHLER, A. N. 1952. Hypsometric (area—
altitude) analysis of erosional topography.
Geol. Soc. Amer. Bull. 63:1117-1142.

THorNbBury, W. D. 1965. Regional geomorphol-
ogy of the United States. John Wiley & Sons,
Inc., New York, N.Y. 609 pp.

Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 40( 3-4), 1979, 96-97

Massive Diurnal Activity in Nonmigrating Red Efts

of Notophthalmus v. viridescens

James W. PETRANKA AND ANN PHILLIPPI
Department of Biological Sciences, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky 40506

ABSTRACT

A large number of diurnally active red efts were observed following morning rains along

Roaring Branch, Wise County, Virginia.
individuals were nonmigrants.

Measurements of total length indicated that most
Massive diurnal activity in nonmigrants apparently is rare,
particularly in areas outside the Northeast and the southern Appalachian Mountains.

Our

sighting is the largest reported incident of such activity of which we are aware. Variation in
external morphology was most noticeable in the numbers and arrangements of spots.

The eastern red-spotted newt Notoph-
thalmus v. viridescens is perhaps the most
well known salamander of the eastern
United States because of its wide distribu-
tion, abundance, and _ strikingly colored
terrestrial stage, the red eft. The life history
of the species is unusual in that it includes
3 distinct stages; an aquatic larval stage,
an immature terrestrial stage, and an adult
aquatic stage. Eggs are laid in early spring,
and larvae metamorphose several months
later in late summer or early fall (Bishop
1941). The red eft stage may last for as
long as 7 years before transformation into
the aquatic adult (Healy 1974).

Red efts are strikingly colored in many
populations, particularly those of the Ap-
palachian Mountains and the northeastern
United States. Individuals of those popu-
lations are typically bright orange to red
with 2 dorsolateral rows of bright orange
spots sharply outlined with black. Red efts
produce highly toxic skin secretions (Brodie
1968), and their coloration apparently
serves an aposematic function (Brodie and
Howard 1973).

Red efts are more diurnally active than
other terrestrial salamanders, and frequently
have been sighted in large numbers during
the day. However, most accounts of diurnal
terrestrial activity have involved individuals
actively migrating to or from breeding
ponds. Postlarval migrations away from
breeding ponds following metamorphosis
have been observed by several authors
(Healy 1973, 1975; Hurlbert 1969). Others

96

have reported large numbers of efts migrat-
ing to breeding pools in spring and fall
prior to their transformation into adults
(Bishop 1941, Chadwick 1944, Healy 1974,
Hurlbert 1969). Such movements typically
occurred during rainy periods when the
forest floor was wet.

Massive diurnal activity in nonmigrating
red efts is poorly documented in the litera-
ture. Healy (1973) reported that efts
emerge during and following heavy rains
to forage on the forest floor. From 1968 to
1970, he collected 820 individuals from a
woodland study site by searching the forest
floor during or just following periods of
rain.

On 16 August 1978, we observed large
numbers of diurnally active red efts along
an §00-m stretch of Roaring Branch near
Big Stone Gap, Wise County, Virginia.
During 2.25 man-hours of searching be-
tween 1300 and 1500 hours, we observed
88 individuals. Most were lying motionless
on leaf litter, large rocks, or logs. Occasion-
ally, individuals were found resting on the
trunks of Rhododendron or clinging to fern
fronds and other foliage 30-70 cm above
the ground. Although the elevation of the
site is relatively low (ca. 622 feet, 190 m
msl), an extensive cove forest with eastern
hemlock Tsuga canadensis (L.), yellow
birch Betula lutea Michx., Rhododendron,
and other plants with northern or mountain-
ous affinities is present. Early morning
rains had preceded our visit. One week

Drurnat Activity or Rep Erts—Petranka and Phillippi 97

NUMBERS

o
o

TOTAL LENGTH(MM)

Fic. 1. Length frequencies of 77 red efts collected
16 August 1978, Wise County, Virginia.

earlier, we had visited the same spot, but
did not see any efts.

Seventy-seven of the 88 individuals ob-
served were captured to observe length
frequencies and intraspecific variation. A
size-frequency histogram (Fig. 1) suggests
that almost all individuals we observed
were nonmigrating. Hurlbert (1969, 1970)
reported postlarval migrants to range from
28 to 47 mm total length, while breeding
migrants averaged about 80 mm for most
of his samples. Bishop (1941) reported
average lengths of postlarval migrants as
36.7 mm and breeding migrants as 78.2 mm
total length. Of the individuals we col-
lected, we believe only 1 (possibly 2) were
postlarval migrants and only 3 were breed-
ing migrants. The remainder were 54-74
mm total length, characteristic of nonmi-
grants. This is the largest sighting of non-
migrant red efts of which we are aware.
Although several age groups may be repre-
sented in our sample, no such groupings
were apparent in the histogram.

The principal variation in morphology
within the captured animals was in the

number, arrangement, and characteristics
of the spots: the number of spots per indi-
vidual ranged from 6 to 22 with an average
of 12, 14 (18.4%) individuals had the same
numbers of spots on each side, 10 (13.0%)
had 2 or more fused spots, 13 (17.1%) had
some spots incompletely outlined in black,
18 (23.6%) had double rows of spots on
each side, and 50 (65.3%) were without
black spots on their venters.

LITERATURE CITED

BisHop, S. C. 1941. The salamanders of New
York. N.Y. St. Mus. Bull. 324:1-365.

Bropie, E. D., Jr. 1968. Investigations on the
skin toxin of the red-spotted newt, Notoph-
thalmus viridescens viridescens. Amer. Midl.
Nat. 80(1):276-280.

, AND R. R. Howarp. 1973. A batesian
mimetic complex in salamanders: responses to
avian predators. Herpetologica 29:33-41.

Cuapwick, C. S. 1944. Observations on the life
cycle of the common newt in western North
Carolina. Amer. Midl. Nat. 32:491—494.

Hearty, W. R. 1973. Life history variation and
the growth of juvenile Notophthalmus virides-
cens from Massachusetts. Copeia 1973(4):
641-647.

—. 1974. Population consequences of
alternative life histories in Notophthalmus v.
viridescens. Copeia 1974(1) :221-229.

1975. Breeding and postlarval mi-
grations of the red-spotted newt, Notophthal-
mus viridescens, in Massachusetts. Ecology
56(3) :673-680.

Hurvsert, S. H. 1969. The breeding migrations
and interhabitat wandering of the vermilion-
spotted newt Notophthalmus viridescens (Ra-
finesque). Ecol. Monogr. 39:465—-488.

1970. The postlarval migration of the
red-spotted newt Notophthalmus viridescens
(Rafinesque ). Copeia 1970(3) :515-528.

Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 40( 3-4), 1979, 98-99

The Ecological Life Cycle of Sedum pulchellum in Kentucky

Jerry M. Baskin AND Caroi C. BASKIN
School of Biological Sciences, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky 40506

ABSTRACT

The ecological life cycle of Sedum pulchellum in Kentucky is described from field observations
strictly as a winter annual, in contrast to a previous report of it being a biennial or perennial.

Sedum pulchellum Michx., a member
of the Crassulaceae, is a small succulent
plant distributed from Missouri to eastern
Texas and from southern Illinois through
Kentucky, Tennessee, and western Virginia
to northern Alabama and_ northwestern
Georgia (Baldwin 1943, Fernald 1950,
Steyermark 1963, Clausen 1975). Baldwin
(1943) studied the cytogeography of S.
pulchellum throughout most of its range
and found it to be composed of diploid,
tetraploid, and hexaploid chromosomal
races. From his cytological studies, Bald-
win concluded that only the diploid race
occurs in the western and southern parts
of its range, the tetraploid race occurs from
northern Tennessee through Kentucky into
southern Illinois, and all 3 races occur in
north-central Tennessee.

Throughout its range, S. pulchellum
occurs chiefly on limestone glades, ledges,
and outcrops (Fernald 1950, Steyermark
1983, Correll and Johnston 1970, Baskin and
Baskin 1977), but it also occurs on chert
and sandstone glades and outcrops in Mis-
souri (Steyermark 1963) and on sandstone
ledges in southern Ilinois (Winterringer
and Vestal 1956). In Kentucky, it is re-
stricted to very shallow soils on limestone
glades, ledges, and outcrops. It appears to
invade such habitats only after they are
disturbed, or else its numbers greatly in-
crease with disturbance. The species is
particularly abundant on disturbed cedar
glades and on rock outcrops in pastures and
limestone quarries, where it often is asso-
ciated with Arenaria patula Michx., Cype-
rus inflexcus Muhl., and Euphorbia humi-
strata Engelm., and on some glades with
Leavenworthia uniflora Michx. The blue-
green alga Nostoc commune Vauch. also is

98

a common associate. Although it most often
grows in full sunlight, S. pulchellum some-
times occurs on limestone outcrops in dry
deciduous woodlands. Steyermark (1963)
reported that the species grows either in
full sun or in wooded sites in Missouri.
Plants we have seen growing in shaded
situations become etiolated in spring when
most of the stem growth occurs.

Baldwin (1943) pointed out that there
was confusion in the literature about the
length of the life cycle of S. pulchellum,
but that he knew the species throughout
its range only as a winter annual. Likewise,
Steyermark (1963) said that the species
behaved as a winter annual in Missouri.
However, Gibson (1961), in her study of
the life forms of Kentucky flowering plants,
concluded from looking at herbarium speci-
mens of S. pulchellum that the species
could behave as a biennial or perennial,
and she made no mention of it being a
winter annual. In his book on Sedum of
North America North of the Mexican Pla-
teau, Clausen (1975) referred to S. pul-
chellum plants in the wild as being annual,
biennial, or perennial, but that the plants
in most populations are annual or biennial.
According to Clausen, plants under cultiva-
tion that are annual or biennial in nature
may behave as perennials, and plants that
are perennial in nature continue as peren-
nials. We have observed many populations
of S. pulchellum throughout a large portion
of its range in Kentucky, and have found
it to behave strictly as a winter annual in
nature.

Based on our field observations, the
ecological life cycle of S. pulchellum in
Kentucky is as follows. Seed germination
occurs mostly in September and October,

SEDUM PULCHELLUM IN KeNtTucKy—Baskin and Baskin 99

although a few newly germinated seedlings
have been seen in the field in late July and
August at the edges of streams or temporary
pools and/or in partial shade. After germi-
nation, a small rosette or semirosette of
leaves is produced and plants overwinter
in that vegetative stage; very little growth
occurs during winter. Flower bud initials
are formed in late winter or early spring,
flowering occurs in May and June, and
seeds are ripe by June or early July. Plants
in southern Kentucky flower and ripen their
seeds earlier than those in north-central
Kentucky. At maturity, the fruits (follicles)
remain attached to the dead, upright stems,
and the seeds are retained in them through-
out the summer. Most seeds are dispersed
in September and early October. Seeds
may germinate in autumn soon after dis-
persal, or germination may be delayed until
a subsequent autumn (Baskin and Baskin

1977).

LITERATURE Crrep

BaLpwIn, J. T., Jr. 1943. Polyploidy in Sedum
pulchellum—I. Cytogeography. Bull. Torrey
Bot. Club 70:26-33.

Baskin, J. M., AND C. C. Baskin. 1977. Germi-
nation ecology of Sedum pulchellum Michx.
(Crassulaceae). Amer. J. Bot. 64:1242-1247.

CLAusEN, R. T. 1975. Sedum of North America
north of the Mexican plateau. A Comstock

Book, Cornell Univ. Press. Ithaca, N.Y. 742
pp.
CorrELL, D. S., anp M. C. Jonnston. 1970.

Manual of the vascular plants of Texas. Texas
Research Foundation, Renner, Texas. 1881
Ppp.

FERNALD, M. L. 1950. Gray’s manual of botany.
8th ed. Amer. Book Co., New York, N.Y.
1632 pp.

Gipson, D. 1961. Life-forms of Kentucky flower-
ing plants. Amer. Midl. Nat. 66:1—60.

STEYERMARK, J. A. 1963. Flora of Missouri.
Iowa State Univ. Press, Ames, Ia. 1725 pp.

WINTERRINGER, G. S., AND A. G. VesTAL. 1956.
Rock-ledge vegetation in southern Illinois.
Ecol. Monogr. 26:105-130.

Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 40(3—4), 1979, 100-110

Fish Impingement at Two Coal-Fired Generating Plants

in Kentucky

Ropert D. Hoyt
Department of Biology, Western Kentucky University, Bowling Green, Kentucky 42101

ABSTRACT

Fish impingement was observed at the Tennessee Valley Authority’s Shawnee Steam Electric
Power Plant on the Ohio River and Paradise Power Plant on the Green River, Kentucky, from
August 1974 through October 1976. The Paradise Plant was studied for 13 months while the
Shawnee study lasted 26 months. Average daily (24-hour) impingement at the Shawnee Plant
was 4,558 fish compared to 632 at Paradise. Threadfin shad, gizzard shad, and freshwater drum
comprised the majority of fishes impinged by number and weight at both plants. Impingement
was greatest from September through April. Although no single physicochemical feature was
directly responsible for determining rate of impingement, low water temperature, small fish size,
rapid drops in river level in winter and early spring, and volume of water pumped into the power
plants were related to high impingement. No significant differences were observed in impinge-
ment between daylight and dark periods. Intake units adjacent to shoreline areas exhibited

higher impingement than more centrally located units.

INTRODUCTION

The impingement or entrapment of fishes
upon screens at water intake facilities along
major waterways has long been recognized.
In recent years, due to the development of
many large fossil fuel and nuclear powered
electric generating plants by private, mu-
nicipal, and federal concerns, and the pas-
sage of Public Law 92-500, Section 316(b),
impingement is viewed no longer as an
incidental occurrence and is now under
intensive study. Descriptive papers on im-
pingement at a variety of power plants and
water bodies (Mathur et al. 1977, Edwards
et al. 1975, Benda 1976, Bernhard and
Latvaitis 1976, and Landry and Strawn
1974), experimental approaches that iden-
tify physiological and behavioral patterns
related to impingement (Griffith and Toml-
janovich 1975), and regional and national
workshops have described various effects
of impingement.

This study was established to outline pat-
terns of impingement at 2 TVA coal-fired
power plants in Kentucky, the Shawnee
Steam Plant on the Ohio River and the
Paradise Steam Plant on the Green River.
Funds for the project were supplied by the
Office of Power, Tennessee Valley Author-
ity. The cooperation and assistance pro-

vided by the Plant Supervisors and their
personnel in carrying out this study was
extensive and very much appreciated.

Stupy AREA

The study was conducted at the Ten-
nessee Valley Authority's Shawnee and
Paradise Steam Plants, Kentucky. The
Shawnee Plant, completed in 1957, is on
the south bank of the Ohio River, River
Kilometer 1523 (Mile 946), 21 km down-
stream from the mouth of the Tennessee
River at Paducah, Kentucky. Shawnee is a
10-unit installation with a maximum gen-
erating capacity of 1,500 MW. The pump
house is at the end of a canal approximately
0.6 km from the Ohio River (Fig. 1). There
is a skimmer wall across the mouth of the
canal. Water is pumped from the canal by
2 3.38-m?/s (56,000-gal/min) pumps per
generating unit. Each unit contained 2
3.04-m (10-foot) wide travelling screens of
l-cm* mesh that extended 21 m from the
bottom of the screen to the intake deck.
Debris and fishes impinged on the screens
were washed into a trash sluice at the top
of the intake structure that emptied into
the condenser water outlet from the main
power house. A screen box, of l-cm? wire
mesh, was inserted into the trash sluice just

100

Fish IMPINGEMENT AT POWER PLANTS IN Kentucky—Hoyt

fa eee Fi eE YN

| ee - a \
IC

Intake

Structure

& Screens

erty
\

ayorUl
2
7

\
\skimmer wall .
\ Wes ows stp)

ea {so Ra TAY; E R
pruseastote Vy gy Ban ON
Fic. 1. Diagram of the Shawnee Electric Power

Tennessee Valley Authority,
Kentucky.

Generating Plant,

above its mouth for collecting samples. The
condenser water outlet emptied into the
Ohio River approximately 0.4 km down-
stream from the intake canal (Fig. 1).

The Paradise Steam Plant, constructed
in 1963 and enlarged in 1965 and 1969, is
on the Green River, River Kilometer 162
(Mile 101), 8 km northeast of Drakesboro,
Kentucky. The Paradise Plant is a 3-unit
installation with a maximum generating
capacity of 2,530 MW. Three cooling
towers were constructed in 1968 to ensure
that discharge temperatures in the Green
River would not exceed that described in
the operating permit.

The water intake structure is alongside
the Green River (Fig. 2). The intake chan-
nel was 25.6 m wide and separated from
the river by a concrete skimmer wall. The
skimmer wall was open at the bottom and
allowed only the deeper, cooler water to
enter the channel. The intake structure was
made up of 2 pumping units, each having
3 circulating water pumps. Each unit in-
cluded 3 3.04-m wide travelling screens
having 1-cm? mesh and extending 21.9 m

101

-
Cooling C) Power House

Towers aw
as /
()
Nes eS
SS oy oe
Intake Structure }
ye
& Screens
Fic. 2. Diagram of the Paradise Electric Power

Generating Plant, Tennessee Valley Authority,

Kentucky.

from the bottom of the screen to the intake
deck. Impinged trash was washed into a
sluiceway trench that emptied into the river
downstream (Fig. 2). A screen gate of 1-
cm? mesh was inserted across the trench
to collect samples.

METHODS AND MATERIALS

Ninety-nine weekly samples were taken
from the Shawnee Plant from September
1974 to October 1976 and 43 weekly sam-
ples were taken from the Paradise Plant
from August 1974 to August 1975. Sampling
periods were of 24 hours duration, normally
beginning at 0900 hours at Shawnee and
0800 hours at Paradise. At the start of each
sampling period, the travelling screens were
washed and then held in place for 24 hours.
At the end of 24 hours, all screens in opera-
tion during the sample period were washed
in pairs, by unit. The fish retrieved from
the sluice box were separated by species
and sorted into 25-mm length groups. The
number of individuals of each size group
was recorded and their collective weights
measured to the nearest gram. Fish not
identifiable at the sample site were fixed
in 10% formalin and returned to Western
Kentucky University for identification.
When recorded, fish were dumped into the
sluiceway and carried back into the river.

102

Specimens noticeably disfigured or in an
advanced state of decomposition were dis-
carded and not recorded.

During periods of peak impingement,
screens had to be elevated during the
sampling period but were not washed until
the 24-hour period had elapsed. Also, dur-
ing peak impingement, threadfin shad
Dorosoma petenense, gizzard shad D. ce-
pedianum, and freshwater drum Aplodino-
tus grunniens, were subsampled by intake
unit. Subsampling occurred on 12 days on
an average of 6 intake units. Six times at
Shawnee and 3 times at Paradise, 2 con-
secutive 12-hour samples were collected to
compare impingement under light and dark
conditions. Samples were collected at 1800
hours and 0600 hours the following day.

Six sampling periods were missed at
Shawnee and 10 at Paradise due to the
inability to hold the travelling screens dur-
ing flooding and dredging periods. During
July and August 1975 at Shawnee, samples
included only fish impinged on | travelling
screen per unit due to dredging of the
intake canal.

Statistical analyses included the linear
regression, correlation coefficient, one-way
analysis of variance, and Duncan's Multiple
Range test as given in Steel and Torrie
(1960). The regression test was used to
describe the relationship between impinge-
ment and several physicochemical variables
while the correlation coefficient was used
to measure the strength of those relation-
ships. The analysis of variance was used
to test the variability of impingement values
by month, day versus night, and intake
screen. Where significance was indicated,
means were arrayed by use of the Duncan’s
Multiple Range test. All statistical proce-
dures were computed on a PDP-8 data
processing machine. Nomenclature fol-
lowed that of Bailey et al. (1970).

RESULTS

Shawnee Steam Plant

A total of 451,221 fish referable to 60
species, 29 genera, and 15 families that
weighed a total of 5,765 kg (12,697 Ib)

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 40( 3-4)

were impinged during the study (Table 1).
An average of 4,558 fish that weighed 58 kg
(128 lb) were impinged during each 24-
hour sampling period. Impingement ex-
tremes ranged from a low of 38 fish (1,023
g) on 3 August 1975 to a high of 81,861 fish
(409.4 kg) on 3 October 1975. However,
on only 10 of the 99 sampling days did the
number of fish impinged exceed 10,000
individuals. An average of 16 species was
impinged daily with extremes of 30 on 6
June 1975 and 6 on 17 August 1975. Of the
60 species collected, 25 were represented
by fewer than 10 individuals and 6 of those
by single specimens (Table 1). Those 25
species contributed a total of only 95 fish
to the study and represented 0.02 percent
of the total number and 0.18 percent of
total weight. Of the 35 species having more
than 10 individuals each, 25 were common
to both Shawnee and Paradise species lists
(Table 1). Eight species were unique to
Shawnee and 2 to Paradise. The average
number of pumping units in operation on
each sampling day was 9.3 (18.5 travelling
screens ).

Three species, threadfin shad, gizzard
shad, and freshwater drum, represented
the majority of both numbers (92%) and
weight (89%) of all fish impinged (Table
1). Threadfin shad represented 40 percent
of the total number followed by gizzard
shad (35%) and freshwater drum (177%).
By weight, gizzard shad was greatest (41% )
followed by threadfin shad (28%) and
drum (20%) (Table 1). Other species with
lesser percentages included the blue catfish
Ictalurus furcatus, 2.2 percent of the total
number and 1.8 percent total weight, pad-
dlefish Polyodon spathula, total weight
0.94 percent, white bass Morone chrysops,
total weight 0.97 percent, and yellow bass
Morone interrupta, total weight 1.1 percent.

Eight species showed consistent annual
patterns of impingement in being recorded
in 80 percent or more of the samples (Table
1). They included gizzard shad (100%),
drum (99%), channel catfish I. punctatus
(94% ), yellow bass and blue catfish (927% ),
threadfin shad (88%), skipjack herring
Alosa chrysochloris (87%), and white bass

FisH IMPINGEMENT AT POWER PLANTS IN KENTUCKY—Hoyt 103

TABLE 1.—NUMBERS, WEIGHTS (G), AND PERCENTAGE FREQUENCY OF IMPINGEMENT (NUMBER OF SAMPLE
DAYS IMPINGED/TOTAL NUMBER OF SAMPLE DAYS > 100) OF FISHES IMPINGED AT THE SHAWNEE AND
PARADISE STEAM PLANTS 1974-1976

Shawnee Paradise
Species % No. Wt. i: Z No. Wt.
Allegheny brook lamprey 4 4 454
Silver lamprey 2 2 101
Paddlefish 61 Silat 54,190
Longnose gar WY 24 4,465 2 l 6
Shortnose gar 10 36 7,937
Alligator gar 10 20 3,375
Spotted gar 1 1 80
Bowfin 3 6 188
Skipjack herring 86 20,377 178,102
Gizzard shad 100 Ieee OAS RLS 95 12,009 55,320
Threadfin shad 88 182,405 1,638,190 63 14,087 24.102
Grass pickerel 2 1 78
Goldeye 29 39 6,155 2 1 170
Mooneye 64 250 16,701 14 6 384
River carpsucker AT 69 32,343 2 1 4
Quillback carpsucker 22, 34 4,828 2 1 2
Highfin carpsucker 2 2 460
Creek chubsucker 7 4 173
Lake chubsucker ] 1 160
Smallmouth buffalo 16 ON 18,101 5 3 1,109
Bigmouth buffalo 1 1 8
Black buffalo 4 4 3,635
River redhorse 1 1 523
Black redhorse 2 1 5
Golden redhorse 19 22 464
Goldfish 4 5 235 2 1 2
Carp 12 20 14,985 a a 2,042
Silvery minnow 2 1 6
Silver chub 65 185 2,365 17 5 85
Golden shiner 10 11 59 12 5 57
Rosefin shiner 2 1 3
Emerald shiner 1A 22 89
River shiner 8 9 47
Silver shiner 1 1 4
Rosyface shiner 18 31 128 47 67 337
Spotfin shiner 2 3 18
Sand shiner 14 17 15
Steelcolor shiner 7 3 14
Suckermouth minnow 2 1 7
Bluntnose minnow 9 6 13
Fathead minnow 9 5 28
Blue catfish 92 9,987 104,136 12 13 686
Black bullhead 18 64 3,307 12 10 1,106
Yellow bullhead 8 36 337 2 1 13
Brown bullhead 3 3 74 7 9 801
Channel catfish 94 IATA 26,010 63 141 3,347
Mountain madtom 3 2 19
Stonecat 2 2 33
Tadpole madtom 6 6 31 if 3 31
Brindled madtom 6 18 72 9g 4 15
Northern madtom ii 8 30
Flathead catfish 56 128 1,206 23 17 148
American eel 2 9 1,762 7 3 737
Pirate perch 4 7 67 2 I 10

104 TRANS.

Kentucky ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 40(3-4)

TABLE 1.—CONTINUED

Shawnee Paradise

Species % No. Wt. % No. Wt.
White bass 82 1,624 50,723 5 2 167
Yellow bass 92 1,249 62,653
Striped bass 17 37 1,597
Flier 4 4 86
Green sunfish 32 133 1,006 28 4] 547
Warmouth 9 32 518 26 28 470
Orangespotted sunfish 6 17 68
Bluegill 59 322, 9,327 42 54 1,746
Longear sunfish 19 25 596 28 30 1,150
Redear sunfish 6 8 374 5 3 194
Spotted bass 1 1 8 2 1 182
Largemouth bass 2} 4 256 5 2 14
White crappie 60 249 8,354 54 127 1,169
Black crappie 25 49 1,389 7 4 65
Logperch 9 4 67
River darter 2} 2 8
Sauger 44 141 30,078 5 2 311
Walleye 5 8 1,738 2 1 790
Freshwater drum 99 74,762 1,134,513 82 405 29,604

TOTAL 451,221 5,764,776 2770 128,114

(82%). Other notable species taken with
regularity were paddlefish (62% ), mooneye
Hiodon tergisus (64%), silver chub Hy-
bopsis storeriana (65%), white crappie
Pomoxis annularis (60%), and_ bluegill
Lepomis macrochirus (59% ).

Peaks of occurrence of species and sea-
sonal patterns of distribution were observed
in the study. A single species represented
at least 75 percent of total impingement in
4 months of the study; threadfin shad in
February 1975 (80%) and January 1976
(77%), gizzard shad in July 1975 (85%),

and drum in September 1975 (82%) (Table
2). Skipjack herring were present predom-
inantly in the fall and winter while blue
catfish peaked in winter-early spring. Yel-
low bass were common in spring, and blue-
gills in summer. Striped bass Roccus saxa-
tilis were unique in being observed only
from December through March. In winter
1974, striped bass occurred in only 1 sample,
but in 1975 were present in 16 samples.
Impingement was greatest from Septem-
ber through April with a bimodal pattern
during that period (Fig. 3). However,

TABLE 2.—AVERAGE MONTHLY PERCENTAGE COMPOSITION OF TOTAL IMPINGEMENT BY SPECIES AT THE
SHAWNEE STEAM PLANT, KENTUCKY, SEPTEMBER 1974 THROUGH JUNE 1976

Percentage by month

1974 1975 1976

SHOeNTD ae He MAT EMY | CTeATESELO. ONGb) Jj) SniewimeesioNeany
Threadfin shad 13 57 53 44 45 80 62 39 6 I 8) MO ey PAS BS BA OD
Gizzard shad 5218 19 23 8 4 7 35 50 73 85 54 4 45 28 40 15 29 31 39 35 19
Freshwater drum S49) OMG VS6R WI IOS B26 IGE27 ol) 26r Gin 2EIAN33) 42) -Allm 55
Skipjack herring Ib Wy ily ee ey" al
Blue catfish AV 7 lf} 4 8 6s IO lee, bal
Yellow bass I B38 5 410 3
White bass @ 3. 2 1
Bluegill 1 3

Paddlefish

}
LUO

FisH IMPINGEMENT AT POWER PLANTS IN KENTUCKY—H oyi 105

80
70
60
<
50
45
40 =
o ¢
35 a
30
|
p25 ie
° ©
6 b2o -
x HS =
x |
) 10
2 wi
t G = oO
6 : ‘ = <
& es
w 4 ] 1 ' 4 i)
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2 3 ! ‘ eee
ee f j lp
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a
Ww 4 hy
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>
ot = — + — Se lo
S749 ND og F MAMJSJIA SOND J aeF MAMJIJSAE O
MONTHS
Fic. 3. Average number and weight of fish im-

pinged each month at the Shawnee Electric Power

Generating Plant, Kentucky, September 1974

through October 1976. The broken line represents

the average daily number of fish impinged, the

solid line, the average daily weight of fish im-
pinged.

there was a discrepancy in that pattern
since the numbers impinged in September
and October 1976 samples were not as
great as in those months in 1974 and 1975.
Greatest average daily impingement oc-
curred in January 1975 (13,171), the lowest
in August 1976 (84). Although numbers of
fish impinged were greater from September
through April, no significant differences
were observed when daily impingements
were partitioned and compared by month
(ANOVA, 0.05 level). However, when
similar comparisons were made for weight
of fish impinged, April 1975 and January
1976 average daily impingement was sig-
nificantly higher than in remaining months,
while August 1976 values were significantly
lower as ranked by the Duncan’s Multiple
Range test.

Various aspects of impingement such as
number of fish impinged, number of spe-
cies, and average weight of individual fish
were related to such variables as water
temperature, river elevation, and turbidity,

TABLE 3.—CORRELATION COEFFICIENTS FOR VARI-

OUS ENVIRONMENTAL AND BIOLOGICAL PARAMETERS

FOR FISHES IMPINGED AT SHAWNEE AND PARADISE
STEAM PLANTS

Variables Since Paradise
Water temperature to
number of fish impinged —0.286 -0.674
Water temperature to
average fish weight 0.468 0.568

Water temperature to
average number of species 0.013 0.383

River elevation to

number of fish impinged 0.242 0.166
River elevation to

average fish weight —0.311 —-0.060
River elevation to

average number of species 0.164 0.216
Turbidity to

number of fish impinged 0.254 —-0.101
Turbidity to

average fish weight —0.089 0.329
Turbidity to

average number of species 0.409 0.069
Number of fish impinged to

average fish weight —0.479

—0.489

coefficients that identified the strength of
those relationships ranged from —0.479 to
0.468 (Table 3). There was an inverse rela-
tionship between the average size (weight )
of the fish and the number impinged, as the
number impinged increased, the average
weight decreased (Fig. 3). A regression
analysis of that relationship yielded a cor-
relation value of 0.48 (Table 3, Fig. 4).
More than 328,000 fish (over 72% of the
total number impinged during the study)
were less than 100 mm total length (range
50-100 mm). Average weight of impinged
fish was directly related to temperature;
fish weight increased as temperature in-
creased, r = 0.468 (Fig. 5).

Water level fluctuations 48 hours prior
to the start of each sampling period were
examined November 1975-October 1976,
and while not statistically analyzed, the
empirical data indicated that impingement
was greatest following drops in water level
greater than 1 m. Sampling periods pre-
ceded by drops less than 1 m averaged 1,124
fish (N = 17) while those preceded by
drops ereater than 1 m averaged 14,592

106

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fo
ak nama)

70
wn
s 601,
¢
w sof
© Shawnee Plant
=x
wn
Ww
ve
(eo)
Fb + : —
a5 18 2l 24
2 Number of Raivsshi xe) SOOO
Ww 80
=

70}
WwW 607
1o)
< 50
a t Paradise Plant
eu) 407
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<q 30P

207

re -0.489
104
°°? °
oto is
O+ = T =F T aE 1
(e) 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40

Number of Fish x 100

Fic. 4. Linear regression and correlation coef-
ficients for average weight of fish and number of
fish impinged at the Shawnee and Paradise Electric
Power Generating Plants, Kentucky, 1974-1976.

(N = 7). Samples preceded by water level
rises less than 1 m averaged 1,759 (N = 17)
and those by rises greater than 1 m aver-
aged 1,851 (N = 4).

No significant differences were observed
in number or weight of fish impinged under
day versus night conditions. The qualita-
tive makeup of light and dark impingements
was similar, 28 species in light samples and
31 in dark. Twenty-four species were
common to both sampling periods while 4
species, bowfin Amia calva, longnose gar
Lepososteus osseus, shortnose gar L. plato-
stomus, and warmouth Lepomis gulosus,
were unique to daylight samples, and seven,
goldfish Carassius auratus, pirate perch
Aphredoderus sayanus, black bullhead I.
melas, white crappie, alligator gar L.
spatula, quillback carpsucker Carpiodes cy-
prinus, and river darter Percina shumardi,
were limited to dark samples.

Trans. KeNTucKy ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 40( 3-4)

Shawnee

Plant

GRAMS
3

ac
op)
ve
Ww
fo)
=
IX 1004
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9074
a 8

fo}
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70
Ww 607 Paradise Plant
oO

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dq 5074 °
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q 305

2074

104

fo)

fo} 30

WATER TEMPERATURE, ts

Fic. 5. Linear regression and correlation coef-

ficients for average weight of fish and temperature

of the water at the Shawnee and Paradise Electric
Power Generating Plants, Kentucky, 1974-1976.

The number of fish impinged varied
annually for the first 2 years of the study.
For the period 1 November 1974-31 Octo-
ber 1975, the average daily number of fish
impinged (4,953) was greater than that
(3,347) for the same period in 1975-1976.

Impingement was greatest on units 1, 2,
9, and 10, at the ends of the pump house
adjacent to the shoreline. However, there
were no significant differences in the daily
number of fish impinged on each unit.
Average daily weights of fish impinged by
unit were significantly different among the
generating units, and, as ranked by the
Duncan’s Multiple Range test, represented
3 distinct groups. Units 1 and 2 were higher
while units 5 and 7 were lower.

Fish IMPINGEMENT AT PowER PLANTs IN KENTUCKY—Hoyi

Paradise Steam Plant

A total of 27,170 fish that weighed 128 ke
(283 Ib) was impinged during the study
(Table 1). Forty-nine species referable to
28 genera and 13 families were represented
in the study. An average of 632 fish that
weighed 2.9 kg (6.6 lb) were impinged
during each 24-hour period. Impingement
extremes ranged from 1 fish that weighed
244 g on 2 November 1974 to 9,252 fish that
weighed 15.5 kg on 28 December 1974.
Impingement exceeded 1,000 individuals
on only 6 days during the study. Of the 49
species collected, 34 were represented by
fewer than 10 individuals and 14 of those
by single specimens (Table 1). Those 34
species with fewer than 10 individuals con-
tributed only 97 fish (0.36%) and 7,603 ¢
(5.43% ) of the total catch. In the collec-
tions from the Paradise Plant, only 3 species,
the golden redhorse Moxostoma erythru-
rum, sand shiner Notropis stramineus, and
the longear sunfish Lepomis megalotis were
represented by more individuals than in the
collections from Shawnee (Table 1). An
average of 4 pumping units, or 8 travel-
ling screens, were in operation during the
sampling days.

Threadfin shad (52%) and gizzard shad
(44%) represented the major species im-
pinged (Table 1). Gizzard shad, however,
provided the greatest biomass (43%) fol-
lowed by freshwater drum (23%) and
threadfin shad (19%). Drum also repre-
sented 1.5 percent of the total number of
individuals impinged while carp Cyprinus
carpio represented 1.6 percent of the total
weight and channel catfish 2.6 percent of
the total weight (Table 1).

Species represented most consistently in
samples throughout the study were gizzard
shad (95%), drum (81%), threadfin shad
(63%), and channel catfish (63%). Sum-
mer occurrences were observed for the spot-
fin shiner Notropis spilopterus, sand shiner
N. stramineus, steelcolor shiner N. whipplei,
and bluntnose minnow Pimephales notatus.

Impingement was greatest from Novem-
ber through March and lowest from June
through August (Fig. 6). Average daily
impingement was greatest in December

107

100

WEIGHT, GRAMS

NUMBER OF FISH X

AVERAGE

AVERAGE

ot ~ a Saal ——tc
A. s ° N ° ‘ane M A M J J a

MONTHS

Fic. 6. Average number and weight of fish im-
pinged each month at the Paradise Electric Power
Generating Plant, Kentucky, August 1974 through
August 1975. The broken line represents the
average daily number of fish impinged, the solid
line, the average daily weight of fish impinged.

1974 (3,850) and lowest in June 1975 (13).
The average number of fish impinged daily
was significantly higher in December 1974
than the other months of the study. Aver-
age daily biomass impinged was likewise
significantly higher in January 1975 and
December 1974. An average of 8 species
was impinged daily throughout the study
with extremes of 21 on 19 April 1975 and
1 on 2 November 1974.

A series of comparisons was made _ to
determine the strength of relationships
between environmental variables and vari-
ous aspects of impingement. They included
water temperature, river elevation, and
turbidity versus number of fish, average
weight of individual fish, and average num-
ber of species impinged. Correlation coef-
ficients ranged from —0.674 to 0.568 (Table
3). The average number of fish impinged
daily was inversely related to the average
weight of fish impinged (Fig. 6). How-
ever, that relationship was not strong as
indicated by a correlation coefficient of
-0.49 (Table 3, Fig. 4). The average weight
of fish was directly related to temperature;
fish size increased as temperature increased

225
205
18+
164
144
Shawnee PI
125
fo}
° 10
©
2 °
x
6 r+ -0.286
°
4 °° a
es
x= 2 oF =
n °
im ot—|/ Sane - CRRA D =
ie) 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
505
uw
fe}
407
ita
WwW
a Poradise Plant
= 30
=)
2 fo) |
io)
= 207 °
= 1 re -0.674
4 be
| 2 As
1 °
SS
e °
A) : : o__*__* s,s 4%
26 i 20 30 40° 50 60 70 80 30
WATER TEMPERATURE, Nts

Fic. 7. Linear regression and correlation coef-

ficients for the number of fish impinged and

temperature of the water at the Shawnee and

Paradise Electric Power Generating Plants, Ken-
tucky, 1974-1976.

(Fig. 5). Number of impinged fish was
inversely related to temperature (Fig. 7).

The number and weight of fish impinged
between periods of daylight and darkness
showed no significant differences for 3
samples.

DISCUSSION

Several similar trends were observed at
both power plants with regard to com-
position of fish populations, major species
impinged, peak periods of impingement,
and fish size versus number of fish im-
pinged. However, while those patterns of
impingement were observed, no one or
combination of environmental factors could
be designated as solely responsible for influ-
encing impingement.

Impingement is a function of the size
and composition of native fish populations.
Both the Ohio River and Green River have

Trans. KeENTucKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 40(3-4)

an extensive ichthyofauna that includes
approximately 130 species and an estimated
standing crop average of 155 Ib/acre (174
kg/ha) (Krumbholz et al. 1962), and 107
species and from 274 to 519 Ib/acre (307-
582 kg/ha) estimated standing crop (Charles
1964), respectively. The species in the
Green River study were similar, in general,
to those of the Ohio River. Of the 49 species
at Paradise, 36 were common to both plants.
This was not unexpected however, since the
Green River is a tributary to the Ohio River,
and not too far removed geographically
from the Shawnee Plant site. Species ob-
served in this study that were not reported
in the literature for these water bodies
included the Allegheny brook lamprey
Ichthyomyzon greeleyi, silver shiner No-
tropis photogenis, and striped bass in the
Ohio River, and sand shiner and brown
bullhead Ictalurus nebulosus, in the Green
River. With the exception of the striped
bass, those species were all native inhabit-
ants of the Ohio River drainage (Clay 1975)
and probably represented range extensions.
Since 17 specimens of the sand shiner were
collected at the Paradise Plant, that species
probably is now established in the Green
River. The striped bass in the Ohio River
is the result of recent intensive stocking
programs upstream in Kentucky Lake and
the Ohio River.

A significant feature observed in the
study was the greater number of species,
individuals, and biomass impinged at the
Shawnee Plant than at Paradise. That dif-
ference, when considering the presence of
substantial fish populations at both plant
sites can probably best be explained by the
greater volume of water pumped daily at
the Shawnee Plant, an average of 18.5
travelling screens in operation compared
with only 8 at Paradise. The utilization of
cooling towers, which provided for the re-
use of pumped water, at Paradise appeared
to be largely responsible for the reduced
water intake and subsequent lowered daily
impingement.

The 3 dominant species impinged in this
study, threadfin shad, gizzard shad, and

freshwater drum, also were the major

Fish IMPINGEMENT AT POWER PLANTS IN KENTUCKY—Hoyi

species observed in the Ohio River study
(Krumholz et al. 1962). Differences were
observed however, in the percentage com-
position of the above species of the total
number impinged (92%) as compared to
that of the Ohio River study (64%). Notice-
able also was the presence of threadfin shad
that made up 40 percent of the total fish
number and 28 percent of the total weight
in this study versus 16 percent of the total
number and less than 6 percent of the total
weight in the 1962 study. While annual
abundance of species can vary tremendously
in riverine populations, that percentage
composition shift might also indicate an
increase in the threadfin shad population in
the lower Ohio River. The same 3 species
as above represented the major species im-
pinged in both number and weight at the
Paradise Plant. Although no _ literature
source was available to describe the quan-
titative composition of the ichthyofauna of
the Green River, Charles (1964) did cite
those species as being present in the lower
reaches.

Gizzard shad and threadfin shad are
commonly impinged species as reported
in studies by Griffith and Tomljanovich
(1975), Benda (1976), Bernhard and Lat-
vaitis (1976) and Voigtlander (pers. comm.).
Hypotheses projected to explain this char-
acteristic range from high velocities at in-
take screens (Bernhard and Latvaitis 1976)
to cold induced sluggishness (Grimes 1975,
Griffith and Tomljanovich 1975).

The pattern of threadfin shad impinge-
ment at the Shawnee Plant conformed
closely to that presented by Griffith and
Tomljanovich (1975). Threadfin shad im-
pingement began to increase in October
1974 and November 1975 and_ reached
seasonal maxima in February 1975 and Jan-
uary 1976. The time lag between the onset
of cold water temperatures and maximum
impingement probably represented the tol-
erance limits of the shad to lower tempera-
tures after which they became susceptible
to impingement through cold induced slug-
gishness.

Seasonal patterns of winter and spring
impingement of blue catfish observed in

108

this study were similar to that reported by
Voigtlander (pers.. comm.). The
majority of specimens impinged
young-of-the-year individuals.

Although Voigtlander (pers. comm.) and
Mathur et al. (1977) reported sunfish im-
pingement in winter, the greatest impinge-
ment of bluegills in this study was in June,
the majority of which were 50 to 125 mm
total length.

The period of peak impingement observed
in this study at both plants, September
through April, corresponded with that
reported by Mathur et al. (1977). They
also reported that regression coefficients
indicated impingements to increase with
increased river flow, decreased pool eleva-
tion, and decreased water temperature,
while length of fish, time of day, and num-
ber of water pumps in operation affected
impingement negligibly. The results from
this study generally agreed with that sum-
mary, but differed in a few instances. In
concurring with Mathur and his coworkers’
findings, impingement at both plants was
greatest in winter during the lowest tem-
perature, when river flow was considerable,
and pool level was high. It was also ob-
served that when pool levels in the Ohio
River dropped more than 1 m within 48
hours of sampling, impingements averaged
up to 8 times greater than during other
conditions. Mathur et al. (1977) reported
similar trends for water level drops of 1.5 m.
In contrast to their data, the water level
decrease /impingement increase in this study
was a function of both water level drop and
time of year acting together rather than
water level fluctuation alone. Impingement
increases occurred when water level de-
creases of more than | m per 48-hour period

great
were

were observed in the winter-early spring.
Similar decreases in water level in the late
spring-summer-early fall were accompanied
by decreases in impingement.

Long-term low pool elevations, such as
those from June through October 1976, in
the Ohio River may have been partially
responsible for the lower impingement in
1976 than for the similar period in 1975.

110

Water levels averaged 1.7 m lower in 1976
than during that period in 1975.

While lowered water temperature is
accepted as being an important factor in
determining impingement rate as cited
earlier, Mathur et al. (1977) reported find-
ing little significance of fish size upon
impingement. Data in this study suggested
a strong influence of low temperature on
both fish size and number impinged.
Smaller fish represented a much greater
component of impingement than did larger
specimens during colder periods. Size was
also related to number of fish impinged,
size decreased as impingement increased,
circuitously identifying the importance of
lower temperature upon impingement.

Mathur et al. (1977) reported no differ-
ences in impingement between light and
dark periods while Landry and Strawn
(1974) reported lower impingement during
daylight, possibly a result of visual response
to the intake screens by the fish. No values
that related turbidity to impingement in
this study were sufficient to identify tur-
bidity as a strong influence upon impinge-
ment.

LITERATURE CITED

BaILey, R. M., J. E. Fircn, E. S. Herap, E. A.
LAcHNER, C. C. LrnpsEy, C. R. Ropins, AND
W. B. Scorr. 1970. A list of common and
scientific names of fishes from the United
States and Canada. Amer. Fish. Soc. Spec.
Publ. No. 6. 150 pp.

Benpa, R. S. 1976. Impingement studies at 16

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 4(0( 3-4)

plants on the Great Lakes and various rivers
in Michigan. Third National Workshop on
Entrainment and Impingement, New York,
N.Y.

BERNHARD, H. F., AND B. Latvartris. 1976. Im-
pingement studies at the Quad Cities Nuclear
Station. Third National Workshop on Entrain-
ment and Impingement, New York, N.Y.

CHARLES, J. R. 1964. Effects of oilfield brines.
Proc. SE. Ass. Game Fish Comm. 16:371-—403.

Ciay, W. M. 1975. The fishes of Kentucky.
Ky. Dept. Fish Wildl. Res., Frankfort, Ky.
416 pp.

Epwarps, T. J.. W. H. Junt, L. E. Mituer, anp
J. J. Sevic. 1975. Fish impingement at four
Duke Power Company Steam Generating Fa-
cilities. Duke Power Company Prepublication
Manuscript.

GriFFITH, J. S., AND D. A. TomLyANovicH. 1975.
Susceptibility of threadfin shad to impinge-
ment. Proc. SE. Ass. Game Fish Comm. 29:
223-234.

Grme_s, C. B. 1975. Entrapment of fishes on
intake water screens at a steam electric gen-
erating station. Chesapeake Sci. 16:172—-177.

Lanpry, A. M., AND K. Strawn. 1974. Number
of individuals and injury rates of fishes caught
on revolving screens at the P. H. Robinson
Generating Station. Proc. Second Entrainment
and Intake Screening Workshop. 263-271.

KrRuMHo.Lz, L. A., J. R. CHARLES, AND W. L.
MincktEy. 1962. The fish population of
the Ohio River. In Aquatic-life resources of
the Ohio River. Ohio River Valley Water
Sanitation Commission, Cincinnati, Ohio. 218
pp.

MatTuor, D., P. G. Hersey, AND N. C. MAGNuSSON.
1977. Impingement of fishes at Peach Bot-
tom Atomic Power Station, Pennsylvania.
Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc. 106(3):258—267.

STEEL, R. G. D., anp J. H. Torr. 1960. Prin-
ciples and procedures of statistics. McGraw-
Hill Book Co., New York, N.Y. 481 pp.

Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 40(3—4), 1979, 111

Distributional Records of Some Kentucky Mammals

WaynE H. Davis AND ROGER W.

BARBOUR

School of Biological Sciences, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky 40506

ABSTRACT
Range extensions reported: Scalopus aquaticus in southeastern Kentucky, Sigmodon hispidus
in southeastern Kentucky and western Virginia, Napaeozapus insignis at various localities in
southeastern Kentucky, and the first record of Mustela nivalis for Kentucky.

The collection of mammals at the Univer-
sity of Kentucky contains several recently
captured specimens that add to our knowl-
edge of the distribution of mammals in the
state. These include:

Scalopus aquaticus.—Barbour and Davis
(1974) said this mole apparently was
absent in extreme southeastern Kentucky.
During the spring of 1978, we found a small
population of the species in the narrow
sandy floodplain of Little Yellow Creek in
Cumberland Gap National Historical Park
in Bell County, Kentucky, at an elevation
of 338 m. Two specimens were taken.

Sigmodon hispidus.—On 15 October 1977,
we trapped 7 cotton rats around the Visitor's
Center at Cumberland Gap National His-
torical Park at 338 m in Bell County, Ken-
tucky. On 26 November 1977, we caught
6 S. hispidus on a steep north-facing road-
side bank at the recently reconstructed
junction of U.S. Highways 58 and 25E at
an elevation of 460 m in Lee County, Vir-
ginia. The species has not been previously
reported from southeastern Kentucky or
western Virginia.

It seems surprising ge cotton rats had
survived the extremely cold winter of 1976-
1977 when the temperature fell to -28 C at
the Visitor's Center. Apparently, they did
not survive the rugged winter of 1977-1978
for we have been unable to find any sign
of cotton rats in our extensive field work
at the park this year.

Napaeozapus insignis.—The westernmost
records of the woodland jumping mouse in
Kentucky were provided to us by Ronald
B. Stephens. He brought us 2 adult speci-
mens that had been captured by Mr. Hoover

Keith behind his home on Highway 92 on
the western side of the Big South Fork of
the Cumberland River at an elevation of
262 m in McCreary County. The animals
were captured during the spring or summer
of 1976 on a wooded northeastern slope
dominated by beech and buckeye.

On 28 June 1977, Mr. Stephens found a
juvenile woodland jumping mouse 12 mi
(19.3 km) west of that locality. The animal
was on the south side of Rock Creek on a
northwestern slope that supports a beech,
hickory, and tulip poplar forest with a dense
undercover of hornbeam.

Mr. Bill Asher gave us a N. insignis his
cat had caught at his home in Letcher,
Letcher County, elevation 310 m, in mid-
July 1977. The specimen, an adult female,
contained 5 8-mm embryos.

On 2 August and 4 August 1975, we
captured 2 N. insignis in 900 trap nights
on a wooded north-facing slope with an
herbaceous ground cover dominated by
ferns above Martin’s Fork, elevation 923 m,
in Cumberland Gap National Historical
Park in Bell County. The one taken on
4 August had 4 4-mm embryos.

Mustela nivalis—Mr. Bill Asher gave us a
least weasel his cat had caught at his home
in Letcher, Letcher County, elevation 310
m, about February 1976. The animal, an
adult male which had been in a freezer
more than a year, measured 1$2-30-21 mm
and weighed 39.25 g when we received it.
That specimen is the first record of the
species for Kentucky.

LITERATURE CITED
Barpour, R. W., AND W. H. Davis. 1974. Mam-
mals of Kentucky. University Press of Ken-
tucky, Lexington, Ky. 322 pp.

IU

Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 40(3-4), 1979, 112-121

Variation in the Olfactory Organ in
Hybopsis aestivalis (Pisces: Cyprinidae)

BRANLEY ALLAN BRANSON

Department of Biological Sciences, Eastern Kentucky University,
Richmond, Kentucky 40475

ABSTRACT

Clinal and environmental] variations were studied for 4 characteristics of the olfactory organ
in the cyprinid fish Hybopsis aestivalis based upon 630 specimens from 35 localities. The mean
size of the external olfactory complex was largest in populations from turbid waters and in
southern and western fish, and smallest in populations from clear waters and eastern and northern
fish. Weekly defined clinal variation was also observed in the number of olfactory lamellae
above the organ’s median as a function of the number below it, the index being smallest in the
east and north and largest in the south and west, and smaller in fish from turbid water than in
those from clear waters. The subspecies H. aestivalis sterleta possessed the largest index, whereas
the Mississippi River population had the smallest. Although there were regional trends toward
clinal variation in total number of olfactory lamellae as a function of standard length, no marked
ecological relationships were observed in that character. With regard to width of the olfactory
rosette as a function of its length, the Mississippi River population and some populations of H.
aestivalis hyostoma from the eastern United States is bimodal, certain segments having high
indexes, other segments having low ones. No marked clinal tendencies were observed for that
index. Factors that affect variation are discussed.

INTRODUCTION

The speckled chub Hybopsis ( Extrarius )
aestivalis occurs in both turbid and clear
streams of the Mississippi River system from
southern Minnesota to Nebraska, south-
ward to Gulf Coastal streams, from western
Florida westward to the Rio Grande drain-
age (Moore 1968). Various authors have
recognized 6 subspecies on the basis of
morphological differences between popula-
tions (references in Davis and Miller 1967,
Hubbs and Ortenburger 1929, Jordan et al.
1930): H. a. aestivalis in clear Rio Grande
tributaries, H. a. sterleta from the Rio
Grande proper, H. a. marconis from the San
Marcos River, H. a. australis from the Red
River, H. a. tetranema from the Arkansas
River system, and H. a. hyostoma from
streams east of the Mississippi River. Speci-
mens from the Gulf Coastal drainages of
Texas have but 2 barbels, hence pose a
taxonomic problem that lies beyond the
framework of this discussion. Whether all
6 forms merit infraspecific recognition is
important here only in so far as it indicates
variability of the species being investigated.

Mt

Burne (1909) pointed out how little was
known regarding variation of the fish olfac-
tory organ, and the state of knowledge has
changed very little since. It has been known
for some time, however, that the number
of olfactory lamellae and size of the organ
is a function of growth (Allison 1953;
Crockett 1967, unpublished master’s thesis,
Eastern Kentucky University, Richmond,
Kentucky; Kleerekoper 1969; Titova 1956).
On each side of the head, the olfactory
organ commences as an ectodermal anlagen
(Hoffman 1884) that quickly proliferates
cells to produce a thickened placode (Holm
1894). After approximately the 45-somite
stage, that placode starts differentiating
sensory epithelium (Kleerekoper 1969),
bladelike lamellae (of sustentacular and hair
cells) being budded off below and above
the central portion of the placode (Holl
1965). That activity commences posteriorly
and progresses rostrad to produce the olfac-
tory rosette (Teichmann 1954). New
lamellae are produced throughout life
(Branson 1975). The rosette lies beneath
paired nostrils separated by a nasal flap on

9)

a

OLFACTORY ORGAN IN HYBOPSIS AESTIVALIS—Branson

each side of the head (Branson 1963, Burne
1909). Those external features also vary
with ontologic stage (Burne 1909).

It has been shown that practically any
morphological feature may vary clinally
(Smith and Cuellar 1972). Morphological
clines of serially repeated meristic charac-
teristics have been demonstrated repeatedly
along north-to-south gradients (Barlow
1961) and, to a lesser degree, from east to
west.

The relationships between ecology, hab-
itat, and morphological features in general
and sensory organs specifically have been
the subject of considerable conjectural writ-
ing (Branson and Moore 1962, Bertmar
1972, and others), and it is known that
fishes living in dark or murky waters appear
to make greater use of olfaction as con-
trasted with vision while feeding (Grimm
1960, Wunder 1927). Hubbs and Orten-
burger (1929) considered an increase in
the number and length of barbels in various
races of Hybopsis aestivalis to be a sensory
adaptation to compensate for reduced vision
in silty Great Plains streams, and a histo-
logical investigation (Moore 1950) disclosed
an overall increase in the development of
cutaneous sense organs (excluding the
olfactory organ) to compensate for a loss
of vision as reflected by eye size; races with
large eyes (clear water populations) have
1 pair of short barbels, whereas races with
small eyes (turbid water populations ) have
elongated barbels and sometimes 2 per side.
Also, Schnitzlein (1964) demonstrated a
correlation between the shape and size of
the olfactory lobes and the habits of fishes.

Stimulated by this type of investigation,
Davis and Miller (1967) analyzed popu-
lations of H. aestivalis according to river
system and found a correlation between the
facial width/optic width ratio and habitat
conditions, fishes with high indexes having
the largest eyes.

The present paper, accordingly, attempts
to analyze the geographical variation of 4
features of the olfactory system according
to directional gradients and by race and
type of habitat. The studies of Davis and
Miller (1967) and Moore (1950), that

113

suggested marked gradients in habitat
selection, prompted a consideration of a
possible correlation between olfactory de-
velopment and ecological station.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I am greatly indebted to many individ-
uals for research materials. The following
persons donated or loaned specimens for
analysis: R. D. Suttkus (Tulane University),
M. R. Curd (Oklahoma State University ),
R. M. Bailey (University of Michigan), D.
A. Etnier ( University of Tennessee), J. Van
Conner (Louisiana State University), and
Clark Hubbs (University of Texas ).

In my field work, I was accompanied by
Mr. James Tripplett (University of Kansas).

I am particularly indebted to Mrs. Carol
Teague, Research Analyst, Eastern Ken-
tucky University, for her assistance in con-
ducting FORTRAN analyses of my data
and for various other helpful suggestions.

The study was commenced at Kansas
State College of Pittsburg under the spon-
sorship of a National Institute of Health
grant. Financial support for its completion
was provided by Eastern Kentucky Univer-
sity.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The material studied comprised 630
specimens from 35 localities (Table 1)
throughout most of the known range of the
species. Standard lengths were obtained
under magnification by means of needle-
nose dial calipers graduated and read to
0.1 mm. Other measurements were made
with a filar micrometer accurate to 0.01
mm, mounted on a dissecting microscope,
and necessitated removal of the skin cover-
ing the olfactory organ.

The following characteristics were inves-
tigated. Diameter of the external olfactory
complex (DE) was measured on the left
side from the anteriormost extent of the
anterior nostril to the posteriormost extent
of the posterior nostril. Specimens with
contorted or disfigured heads were not
included. Width of the olfactory rosette
(Fig. 1) was measured across the widest

114 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 40(3-4)

TasBLEe 1.—Loca.ities FROM WHICH Hybopsis WERE EXAMINED. EKU: EASTERN KENTUCKY UNIVERSITY
Museum; OAM: OKLAHOMA STATE UNIVERSITY MusEuM; TU: TULANE UNIvERsIry Museum; UMMZ:
UNIvErRSITY OF MICHIGAN MusEuM oF ZooLocy; UNC: UNCATALOGUED MATERIAL FROM VARIOUS SOURCES;

UT: University of TENNESSEE MUSEUM. POPULATION NUMBERS ARE USED FOR REFERENCE IN TEXT

Standard length Number Population

Locality Museum number (mm ) examined number
Alabama

Cahaba River TU-29912 35.8-55.0 15 5

Alabama River TU-53499 29.1-38.0 20 5

Alabama River TU-46803 31.5-50.0 95 5
Arkansas

Arkansas River EKU-302 21.0-41.5 10 2
Indiana

West Fork White River EKU-361 43.0—49.5 2 1
lowa

Cedar River UMMZ- 146921 26.8—31.0 15 9
Kansas

Cimarron River EKU-579 35.0-61.3 14 2
Kentucky

Licking River # KU-345 40.6-45.6 3 15

Licking River EKU-313 29.6-50.0 i 15

Green River EKU-84 37.0-61.8 9, 16

Fallen Timber Creek EKU-Unce 45 .2-47.3 2 16

Green River EKU-Unc 38.0-53.5 4 16
Louisiana

Pearl River TU-62182 36.8—46.2 30 6
Mississippi

Strong River TU-57271 34.0-50.8 15 6

Leaf River TU-53791 33.5-55.6 15 vi,

Leaf River TU-57692 31.3-51.5 25 q

Tombigbee River TU-37587 26.0-46.5 20 8
Nebraska

Platte-—Loup River EKU-584 35.4—49.3 15 14

Elkhorn River EKU-316 35.4-41.2 25 14
Oklahoma

Cimarron River OAM-1465 28.1-37.5 5 2

South Fork Arkansas River EKU-581 25.0—30.0 15 D}

Washita River EKU-529 24,.2-40.5 ll 13

Red River EKU-265 21.3-31.5 43 13
Tennessee

Holston River UT-Unc 29.5-52.5 10 3

Mississippi River UT-Unc 14.8-40.5 20 4
Texas

Sabine River TU-44975 25.3-52.5 15 10

Sabine River EKU-518 33.8—48.0 15 10

Brazos River EKU-586 29.5—43.5 20 fall

Brazos River EKU-507 28.0-52.8 15 ll

Pecos River EKU-453 21.0-46.5 21 12

Red River EKU-583 23.5-32.5 15 13

Red River EKU-265 21.0-31.5 43 13

Rio Grande EKU-299 22,.5—-44.5 9 17

Rio Grande EKU-307 17.0—43.0 15 Wig

Rio Grande EKU-585 2.4.0-33.0 15 17

OLFACTORY ORGAN IN HyBopPsis

Fic. 1. Olfactory measurements in Hybopsis aesti-

valis. G, generative area; La, lamella; LR, length

of olfactory rosette; M, median lamella; R, rosette;
WR, width of rosette.

portion of the organ, whereas length of the
rosette was measured from the posterior
edge of the long lamellae in front of the
eye to the anteriormost extremity of the
generative area of the median lamella.
Numbers of lamellae were determined by
counting under magnification, and every
flap was included regardless of size. Since
there is an increase in lamellar number with
growth, it was necessary to convert counts
to ratios of thousandths of eye diameter;
the width of the rosette was converted to
thousandths of rosette length; and the num-
ber of lamellae above the median was con-
verted to thousandths of the number below
it. The resulting ratios were graphed for
various comparisons following the method
of Hubbs and Hubbs (1953) and subjected
to analysis of variance (F-test). For the
purpose of analysis, some collections were

grouped (Table 1).

VARIATION IN SIZE OF EXTERNAL
OLFACTORY COMPLEX

Specimens from the Pearl River in Loui-
siana and from the Red River in Oklahoma
were examined to determine if any of the

TABLE 2.—VARIANCE RATIOS OF THE INDEX DIAMETER OF EXTERNAL COMPLEX/DIAMETER OF EYE IN Hybopsis aestivalis FOR EACH PAIR OF GEOGRAPHIC

P< 0.001

12 OO

l|

O5; *

oS);
10

SNIFICANT; *

fea

NS = Nor SI

SIGNIFICANCE LEVELS:

LOCALITIES (1-17).

AESTIV ALIS—Branson

17

16

15

14

13

11

9

6

a

stinaoo
AOCAS
IOAN a
1
Ort 19 ©
nmAOonor
= OMS 4
si
Sw Ve) CAO) S
AOA S =
OANA
VeaN
SO) Od 0910 ©
Oto xt
Ga) Gay Gai —|
oo nN Sol
DHA toO
CATO
000 OOM a
o+HiIn«
AHO
19 SOM Da
DAormoen
NANYANG
wDonD
DOrMoNn
ATA

1.08 1.35
1O;94%) A 8:7.9*
1.00 1.24
2.99 2.41

1.25
9.43°
1.60
2.58*

1.54
Coty
42

1.

231
5.12°
2.14

2
3.65°
2.99"

;oN co tn

ei
me

1:92?
2.36°

No)

1.56
3.41°
4

2:36"
2.74
2.20

O7

IL

1.60

t

1.81 2.99 2.19
2.41 1.45 2.41!
1.10

2.997

Bailey
if

1.81
2.20

NS
NS

co Oo

1.51

1.10

NS

LO
1]

NS

1.65
LES

1.00

1.89

1.68
1.14

NS

NS

NS

NS

co

1

NS

NS

NS

NS

NS
NS

NS
NS

NS

NS
NS

16

116

POPULATIONS

0.3

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 40( 3-4)

STANDARD DEVIATION UNITS

0.4 0.5 0.6

nl

_ Tar
_ an
=)
_ in
oe

0.7

0.8

; oo
; a 8

Fic. 2. Significance diagrams of the ratio diam-
eter of external olfactory complex/eye diameter in
various nominal subspecies of Hybopsis aestivalis.
Horizontal line, range; open boxes, 1 standard
deviation on each side of the mean; solid boxes,
2 standard errors on each side of the mean; vertical
line, mean. Nonoverlapping standard errors indi-
cate significance at the 95 percent confidence level
(Hubbs and Hubbs 1953). Population numbers
refer to those in Table 1. Populations 1, 3, 5-8 and
15-16 = hyostoma; 2 = tetranema; 4 = Missis-
sippi River; 9 = Iowa; 10, 13 = australis; 11 =
Brazos River; 12 = aestivalis; 14 = Platte River;
and 17 = sterleta.

characteristics varied from side to side and
with sex (as determined by dissection of
the gonads). No significant variations were
apparent.

Preliminary overall analysis of variance,
however, demonstrated very high signif-
icance (P < 0.0001). Single-pair compari-
sons (Table 2) demonstrated broad overlap
between populations and that much of the
added variance components were derived
from populations that inhabit silty water
(i.e., populations 2, 4, 9, 10, 13, and 17 in
Table 2), in other words, correlation be-
tween environment and morphology. The

TABLE 3.—VARIANCE RATIOS OF THE INDEX NUMBER OF LAMELLAE ABOVE MEDIAN/NUMBER OF LAMELLAE BELOW MEDIAN FOR PAIRS OF GEOGRAPHIC

LOCALITIES AND SIGNIFICANCE LEVELS AS IN TABLE 2

LOCALITIES IN Hybopsis aestivalis.

17
2.29
1.16
1.00
1.11
1.03
1.05
1.00
1.24
4.69°
1.44
WetLil
1.55
1.39
2.06"

16
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00

15
4.00
2.03
1.75
1.93
1.70
1.66
1.75
1.41
2.691
1.21
1.57
2.70°

14
1.11
1.78
2.06
1.87
ed oe
Dee
2.06*
2.567
9.70°

13
1.64
1.20'
1.39
1.26
1.43
1.47
1.39
1.73
6.53°
2.00"

11

2.54

10
3.26
1.67
1.44
1.59
1.40
137
1.44

bt

a

1.48
1.33
1.54
1.40
1.59
1.63
1.55
1.92

10.74"

2.84
1.44
1.24
1.37
1.21

2:29
1.60
1.00
1.11
1.03

2.41
1.26
1.05
1.16

2.35
1.19
1.03

2.07

1.50

2.29

1.29
1.11
1.23
1.08
1.05
1.11
1.12

5.44°
4.69°
5.18°
4.57"
4,46°
4.69°

a2:

4.23?

nN

2.96:

1

2.297

ANON OLY OOD

10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17

OLFACTORY ORGAN IN HYBOPSIS AESTIV ALIS—Branson

Arkansas River drainage population showed
an exceptionally large variance and differed
significantly from all others. Weakly dif-
ferentiated clinal trends were discerned,
i.e., smaller external complexes in eastern
and northern populations and larger ones
in the southern and western populations.
Some differences were apparent between
populations in relatively close geographic
areas, but those regional differences only
moderately obscured the generalized trends.

Finally, the data were arranged graph-
ically according to subspecies designation.
As shown in Fig. 2, the Sabine River (tur-
bid) population of H. a. australis, the Cedar
River (Iowa) population (turbid) and the
Red River drainage (turbid to artificially
clear because of dams) population of H. a.
australis differ most markedly for that eco-
logically plastic characteristic. The Brazos
River (clear) population (11) and the
Platte River population are more similar to
tetranema. Throughout its range, hyostoma
is more or less uniform for the character.

VARIATION IN NUMBERS OF
OLFACTORY LAMELLAE

Minnows produce new olfactory lamellae
at the anterior end of the organ as the fish
increase in length (Branson 1963). How-
ever, new lamellae are not produced simul-
taneously above and below the median.
Instead, one is budded off ventrally, then
one dorsally, and so forth, thereby produc-
ing a degree of asymmetry in the olfactory
rosette. Furthermore, large samples of H.
aestivalis had a slightly higher average
number of lamellae below the median than
above it (Branson 1975).

Because of these considerations, numbers
of lamellae can not be used directly for
population comparisons. Instead, ratios
were again calculated, one for total lamellar
counts as a function of standard length,
another for the number of lamellae above
the median as a function of the number
below it. Preliminary analyses of variance
demonstrated highly significant added vari-
ance components (P < 0.001). Reduction
to pair-by-pair comparisons for the above-
below data demonstrated that much of the

TABLE 4.—VARIANCE RATIOS OF THE INDEX TOTAL NUMBER OF LAMELLAE/STANDARD LENGTH FOR PAIRS OF GEOGRAPHIC LOCALITIES IN Hybopsis aestivalis.

LOCALITIES AND SIGNIFICANCE LEVELS AS IN TABLE 2

117

16

15

14

13

11

10

6

a

tele
SAMNMNHSHDHDANDODHEELS 7
AANANADOCOCHANSHTSRONDD | |
ANMNMANNANKR AHA HHO AA |
|
FAwMIMM AK SCHRBOOH+HIN |
AAA SADDAM M SSAA | }
AAA AAANN GOGH |” |
DANNDHMDOMNHONDDIN
HAAOACAAOMAYHE | 7, |
AnH AHA HAN RA AA SEN |
es zs |
Ow TIWIe-MODAHOCCO fs |
SSSA SSMNHANARwD | SF |
Ana SHAN OR AHA Pamir
POrFADBNDAKR+SO
— > |
TRE SSAARSIES |, 2S |
| ee ee ee ee piace dea,
DANDARBDAANMNN | nHnDH
SOOTOHANSHHAMW | FASS
ole ee ee en ph
HO HIN t cto Ho
~Ho oO Nn NN
Naa aaa AANA z e
THE onoinnse |n n
SHAWARONS |Z .ZZZ
On HHA AN Os 26 Be =
ana wa AN
NDWOHANOD NWN ae
ARARQHaAN |, Zz BF
ANNAN DAA S Rn) alse
PS ee er)
LOKNOCOM]N NM ¢
CWMY~ARWOS |, 22, Zee
HANNA aioe spy ig omaha
rT ADOLD1|NH NHNNNH
rg OS La Ply as LG (Le PLN PL PL, PL
Sn ne ee
ech | NAN ANNNNN
O1wm1w SI | AAA CZOL4GGa
HHH |
OHA n NNN NNN
Dirac PL as ena CCL PEACE
Ana
ADS |nnN ANNNNNN
Dal ah PA al A PA, PA VAIL PL OL
Ana
Sl |RAND NNNNNNN
YN APA ea ol CAPA PAPE AAS
No
S| RMNNNH NNNNNNN
Be PL PLL PL PL Cy PEPE PA CL A Pin

NS
NS
NS
NS
NS
NS
NS
NS

118

added variance was derived from 2 popu-
lations, Iowa (9) and Platte River (14)
fish (Table 3). The Iowa specimens dif-
fered significantly to very highly signifi-
cantly from most other populations, and
those from the Platte from more than half
the others. Mostly because of 1 or 2 addi-
tional lamellae on the lower half of the
rosette, the olfactory organ is skewed for-
ward in that region.

There does not appear to be a strong
correlation between that character and
habitat, nor is east-to-west or north-to-south
clinal variation evident. As far as racial
correlation is concerned, only the Missis-
sippi River population (4) and specimens
from Iowa (9) deviated from the mode.

VARIATION IN TOTAL LAMELLAR
NuMBER WITH Bopy LENGTH

The relationship between body length
and total number of olfactory lamellae
showed considerable variation throughout
the range of the species, as evidenced by
a significant overall analysis of variance
(P < 0.05). Reduction of that analysis to
single-pair comparisons (Table 4) although
indicating that much of the added variance
was derived from the silty water popula-
tions, i.e., the Rio Grande (17) and Sabine
River and the Iowa population (9) and
the specimens from the Tombigbee River
in Mississippi (8), the differences between
clear and silty waters broadly overlap and
are only moderately impressive. Individual
fish from those populations averaged 3 to 6
fewer lamellae at comparable sizes than
individuals from clear water habitats.

Graphic analysis (Fig. 3) for possible
clinal variation did not disclose any marked
tendencies, although between given sets
of latitudinal and longitudinal coordinates
there appears to be a weakly defined trend
from north to south, with a higher total
count in the north.

Although there is some evident regional
deviation from modal counts, as in some
populations of H. aestivalis hyostoma (6,
16) and in the Iowa population (9), it does
not seem possible to separate any of the
races on the basis of that single character.

Trans. KENTucKy ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 40( 3-4)

STANDARD DEVIATION UNITS

0.5 0.6 07 08 0.9 1.0 1
; —
; Biereineitd — iaulebae
1 (CM oy
“al || le
nf cm sen eaee
i a. oe
: a el
2 T=
; | Ju? Eee oe AL
2 police] ial awedade
a on
“ll Cie
“a! — i
11 a
14 i ce
a i
wf haa

Fic. 3. Significance diagrams of the ratio total
lamellae number/standard length in Hybopsis aesti-
valis that compare populations from silty and clear
streams. Symbols and population sites as in Fig. 2.

VARIATION IN DIMENSIONS OF
OLFACTORY ROSETTE

The olfactory rosette is slightly to greatly
longer than wide in most teleosts (Burne
1909), although only moderately so in Hy-
bopsis (Branson 1963). The length-width
variation of the organ showed only mod-
erate, although significant (P < 0.05) varia-
tion throughout the range of the species.
Reduction of the overall analysis of variance
to single-pair comparisons (Table 5) again
demonstrates some regional variation. How-
ever, a few populations are responsible for
the major portion of the added variance
components, specifically those from the
Arkansas River (2), Pearl River (6), Sabine
River (10), and the Green River system
of Kentucky. The added variance is derived
from differing influences. Some popula-
tions, (2) for example, have rosettes with
model lengths slightly longer (about 0.3

TABLE 5.—VARIANCE RATIOS OF THE INDEX WIDTH OF OLFACTORY ROSETTE/LENGTH OF OLFACTORY ROSETTE FOR PAIRS OF GEOGRAPHIC LOCALITIES IN

LOCALITIES AND SIGNIFICANCE LEVELS AS IN TABLE 2

Hybopsis aestivalis.

17
1.84
1.22
1.50
1.74

16
8.67
3.027
1.92
1.65
1.75
1.33

15

13.85 25.00

14

13
ee
1.22
1.50

12
8.

11

8.67

10
8.66

a

67

18.78 13.04 8.67 6.53

14.27
2.017
ILS)

15.12

1.95"
1.06
1.09
1.03
1.35

1.09

1.69

1.22
1.50

2.64°
1.44

1.50
1.74
1.65

2.14
1.84
1.95?

99
2.32
2219

1.50
1.74
1.65

1.00

1.64°
Dest
1.50
1.00
1.33
O22?
1.00
1.00
1.00

1.85*
2.43°

1.65
alee
1.50

1.65
De
1.50
1.00
1.33

1.09

OLFACTORY ORGAN IN HYBOPSIS AESTIV ALIS—Branson

1.69"

1.50
1.00
1.33

2.14?

2.88"
3.837
lal

2.88"
2.88"
2.88"

3.216

2.12
2.01
1.59
1.60

1.18
3.61°
1.12
1.12

1.33

a

al

a

NS

NS

NS

NS

ANOTMOrADOn
i! t=!

GA)

bop
|

ia)
7

16
if

IS)

STANDARD DEVIATION UNITS
0.6

0.5 07 0.8 09 1.0

POPULATIONS

Fic. 4. Significance diagrams of the ratio width
of olfactory rosette/length of olfactory rosette in
various nominal subspecies of Hybopsis aestivalis.
Symbols and subspecies designations as in Fig. 2.

mm) than most of the compared popula-
tions, whereas others (10) have slightly
shorter ones with a greater depth. Because
of that type of variation, it was not possible
to invoke habitat influences for explana-
tions.

There seems to be weakly developed
tendencies toward east-to-west and north-
to-south variation. Northern populations
possess slightly shorter rosettes than the
more southerly and westerly distributed
forms, a feature apt to be obscured by
regional deviations from mean measure-
ments,

Other than a tendency for most subpopu-
lations of H. aestivalis hyostoma and H. a.
australis to deviate toward the right (Fig.
4) for that characteristic, there does not
appear to be much readily observable sub-
specific differentiation unless one wishes to

120

compare individual pairs of races, i.e., aus-
tralis versus hyostoma, or sterleta versus the
Mississippi River population.

GENERAL DISCUSSION

The basis for variation in the morphology
of the olfactory organ in Hybopsis aestivalis
is, of course, speculative. Observed differ-
ences may be genetic, although a consider-
able degree of environmental influence
probably affects the regional variation.

Clinal patterns may have resulted from
fragmented distribution caused by glacia-
tion that allowed subsequent differentiation
in separate areas (Nelson 1969). That by
Wisconsin glaciation the blockage of the
lower stretches of the Licking, Kentucky,
and Green rivers has been extensively docu-
mented (Flint 1947, Fowke 1933, Janssen
1953, McFarlan 1943, Tight 1903, Ver Steeg
1946), as has the extensive fluctuations of
the Mississippi River by melt waters. It is
possible, then, that Hybopsis aestivalis
occupied a mosaic distribution that facili-
tated moderate allopatric differentiation.
Following retreat of the glaciers, reinvasion
would have allowed partial gene flow, to
account in part for clinal variation. Some
of the regional variation may be accounted
for by unequal exchange of genetic mate-
rials between populations, since even within
a given area, such as in the Kentucky,
Green, and Licking rivers, the distribution
of the species has broad hiatuses between
them.

Another possibility is related to the so-
called founders effect, i-e., populations now
living in previously glaciated areas were
derived from relatively small populations.
Hence, it is not probable that Indiana fish
would possess the same constellation of
genetic materials possessed by Iowa or
Texas fish. Coupled with the fact that
distance alone tends to retard gene flow
and to enhance local differentiation, that
phenomenon could partially explain the
modes of variation observed in H. aestivalis.
Furthermore, it may account for the ten-
dency of H. aestivalis hyostoma to differ
considerably from one part of its range to
the next. The fact that southeastern popu-

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 40( 3-4)

lations of that race differ considerably from
other segregates may indicate a need for
reevaluation of those populations from a
broader base than is possible here.

The hypothesis that the sensory charac-
teristics are locally adapted to environ-
mental conditions in each population ap-
pears to be a sound one based upon the
available evidence. Moore (1950) found
a very strong correlation between eye size
in H. aestivalis and habitat, i.e., large-eyed
forms lived in clear waters, small-eyed ones
in turbid or silty waters. Furthermore,
large-eyed races had fewer and_ shorter
barbels than the small-eyed races that
represented a decrease or increase in the
number of taste buds, respectively (Davis
and Miller 1967). Thus, an increase in
number or complexity of olfactory lamellar
folds probably would provide a_ greater
surface area for contact with water and
thereby increase the efficiency of the or-
gan’s function. However, the relative
development in numbers of olfactory sense
cells and supporting cells per unit of lamel-
lar tissue between turbid water and clear
water populations needs to be investigated
before it can be fully accepted.

LITERATURE CITED

Auuison, A. C. 1953. The morphology of the
olfactory system in the vertebrates. Biol. Rev.
28:193-244.

Bartow, G. M. 1961. Causes and significance
of morphological variation in fishes. Syst.
Zool. 10:105-117.

BertMar, G. 1972. Ecostructural studies on the
olfactory organ in young and adult sea trout
(Osteichthyes, Salmonidae). J. Morph. Tiere
72:307—330.

Branson, B. A. 1963. The olfactory apparatus
of Hybopsis gelida (Girard) and Hybopsis
aestivalis (Girard) (Pisces: Cyprinidae). J.
Morph. 113:215-229.

1975. Post-hatching sequence of ol-
factory lamellae formation and pigmentation
in Hybopsis aestivalis (Pisces: Cyprinidae).
Copeia 1975: 109-112.

, AND G. A. Moore. 1962. The lateralis
components of the acousticolateralis system in
the sunfish family Centrarchidae. Copeia 1962:
1-108.

Burne, R. H. 1909. The anatomy of the olfac-
tory organ of teleostean fishes. Proc. Zool.
Soc. London 1909:610-663.

OLFACTORY ORGAN IN HYBOPSIS AESTIVALIS—Branson

Davis, B. J., AND R. J. Mituer. 1967. Brain
patterns in minnows of the genus Hybopsis in
relation to feeding habits and habitat. Copeia
1967 :1-39.

Fuint, R. F. 1947. Glacial Geology of the Pleis-
tocene Epoch. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New
York, N.Y. 589 pp.

Fowxe, G. 1933. The Evolution of the Ohio
River. Hollenbeck Press, Indianapolis, Ind.
273 pp.

Grimm, R. J. 1960. Feeding behavior and elec-
trical stimulation of the brain in Carassius
auratus. Science 131:162-163.

HorrMan, C. K. 1884. Zur Ontogenis der Knock-
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Hoii, A. 1965. Vergleichende morphologische
und histologische Untersuchungen am Geruchs-
organ der Knochenfische. Z. Morphol. Oekol.
Tiere 54:707-782.

Hom, J. K. 1894. The development of the ol-
factory organ in Teleostei. Morphol. Jahrb.
Gegenbauer 21:620-624.

Husps, C. L., Aanp C. Hupss. 1953. An improved
graphical analysis and comparison of series of
samples. Syst. Zool. 2:49-57.

, AND A. I. ORTENBURGER. 1929. Fur-
ther notes on the fishes of Oklahoma with
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JANSSEN, R. E. 1953. The Teays River, ancient
precursor of the east. Sci. Month. 77:307-314.

Jorpan, D. S., B. W. EveRMANN, AND H. W.
Cuark. 1930. Checklist of the fishes of
North and Middle America. Rept. U.S. Comm.
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121

KLEEREKOPER, H. 1969. Olfaction in Fishes. In-
diana Univ. Press, Bloomington, Ind. 222 pp.

McFartan, A. C. 1943. Geology of Kentucky.
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Moorr, G. A. 1950. The cutaneous sense organs
of barbled minnows adapted to life in the
muddy waters of the Great Plains region.
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1968. Pp. 21-165. In Vertebrates of
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NeEtson, J. S. 1969. Geographic variation in the
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SCHNITZLEIN, H. W. 1964. Correlation of habitat
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SmiTH, H. M., anp H. S. Cuetitar. 1972. A
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TEICHMANN, H. 1954. Vergleicheichende Unter-
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Ticut, W. G. 1903. Drainage modifications in
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Pap. 13:1-111.

Trrova, J. A. 1956. Development of the olfac-
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Acad. Sci. USSR 107:749-751.

Ver STEEG, K. 1946. The Teays River. Ohio J.
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Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 40( 3-4), 1979, 122-128

Early Piscivory and Timing of the Critical Period in Postlarval

Longnose Gar at Mile 571 of the Ohio River’*

WituiAM D. PEARSON, GREGORY A. THOMAS, AND AARON L. CLARK
Water Resources Laboratory, University of Louisville, Louisville, Kentucky 40208

ABSTRACT

Postlarval longnose gar Lepisosteus osseus of 14.1-42.5 mm total length were collected at
Ohio River Mile 571 in Trimble County, Kentucky, in May and June of 1977 and 1978. In 1977,
only 13.3 percent of those gar with food in their stomachs had consumed other fishes, while
cladocerans were the dominant items in the diet. In 1978, however, larval fishes were found in
the guts of 84.1 percent of the gar that contained some food. Gar smaller than 20 mm total
length contained no food. Apparently, the “critical period” in which postlarval gar must switch
over to exogenous foods ends at a body length of 25 to 26 mm when the fish are estimated to

be 18 days old.

INTRODUCTION

The longnose gar Lepisosteus osseus has
long been considered an unusual and primi-
tive fish. At one time thought to eat but
rarely, they were subsequently thought to
devour everything in the water ( Hay 1894).
Forbes and Richardson (1920) devoted an
entire paragraph to describing the longnose
gar with such demeaning adjectives as
voracious, destructive, a nuisance, and an
enemy to everything. Yet, in more recent
times gar have been found to be less villain-
ous than once thought. The description by
Forbes and Richardson is, in many cases,
inaccurate. Gar usually are rather seden-
tary and lie in ambush rather than actually
stalking prey. Netsch and Witt (1962) con-
sidered that same inactivity to be partially
responsible for the gar’s efficient utilization
of food.

Hay (1894) found that young gar in
Indiana feed on mosquito larvae. Forbes
and Richardson (1920) similarly reported
that they knew of a professor who had
raised an entire group of young gar on
nothing but mosquito larvae. They also
found that young gar feed initially on Ento-
mostraca. However, they found 16 small

‘This work was supported in part by a grant
from the Kentucky Institute for Mining and Min-
erals Research.

* Contribution No. 195 (New Series) from the
Department of Biology, University of Louisville,
Louisville, Kentucky 40208.

fishes in the stomach of a longnose gar
2 inches (51 mm) long and a single fish in
the stomach of another gar just 1.25 inches
(32 mm) long. Cahn (1927) found larval
fishes comprised half of the diet of longnose
gar 2.5 inches (64 mm) long. He also re-
ported that “very young” gar feed almost
entirely on Entomostraca, . . but very
small minnows appear early in the diets of
the fish.”

Perhaps the most definitive work on
feeding habits of young longnose gar was
done by Echelle (1968). Echelle found
that while Entomostraca were the main
food in the initial feeding stage of gar
(17-21 mm TL), that same size group also
consumed other larval fishes, though rather
infrequently. He also reported that fishes
were the main food item for all gar over
8 inches (203 mm) long.

Forbes and Richardson (1920) described
the spawning of gar over vegetation during
May and early June. Hatching takes place
after 8 days and the prolarval gar then
adhere to nearby objects by means of a
“suctorial” (actually adhesive) disk on the
end of their snouts. That disk is lost during
transition to the postlarval stage.

The purpose of our investigation was to
determine the degree to which postlarval
longnose gar are piscivorous in the Ohio
River as part of an overall attempt to assess
the extent and importance of predator-prey
relations among all larval fishes in the Ohio

122

Foops oF LARVAL AND POsTLARVAL LONGNOSE GAar—Pearson et al. 123

River, and to identify the existence of any
“critical periods” in the early life history
of fishes in the river. Hjort (1926) used the
term “critical period” to refer to that early
stage in the life histories of herring and cod
when the subsequent strength of the year
class was set. May (1974), in reviewing
Hjort’s assumptions, suggested that impor-
tant mortality factors such as starvation and
starvation enhanced deaths (i.e., predation )
have the greatest impact at the time larvae
begin to feed on exogenous foods.

Even though the critical period concept
is well established, few quantitative data
are available to prove its existence in most
fish populations.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

We thank Drs. Randall G. Farmer of
AMOCO Chemical Corporation, Mt. Pleas-
ant, South Carolina, and B. Douglas Steel
of the Water Resources Division, West Vir-
ginia Department of Natural Resources, for
their assistance in the field and for stimulat-
ing conversation.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Postlarval longnose gar were collected
at Mile 571 of the Ohio River in Trimble
County, Kentucky, on 30 May 1977 (n =
A5), and 2, 22, and 29 June 1978 (n = 210).
All collections were made in water less than
1 m deep within 10 m of shore and while
the gar were visible at the surface, either
resting or swimming. The gar were col-
lected with a fine mesh dip net between
1200 and 2000 hours and preserved in 10
percent formalin.

In the laboratory, each gar was measured
to the nearest 0.01 mm (total length) with
an ocular micrometer mounted in a binoc-
ular dissecting microscope. The ventral
body wall of each specimen was slit with a
microscalpel and the entire alimentary
canal removed and opened along its entire
length. The contents of the alimentary
canal were then sorted to the following cat-
egories: larval fishes, Cladocera, Trichop-
tera (larvae), Chironomidae (larvae and
pupae), Dixidae (larvae), and Chaoborinae
(larvae). The fullness of the entire diges-

tive tract canal was then estimated to the
nearest 25 percent.

RESULTS

The 255 larval gar were grouped into
l-mm total length groups that ranged from
14-15 to 42-43 mm. Several such groupings
(15-16, 17-19, 29-32, 33-36, and 38-42 mm)
contained no fish. The smallest gar exam-
ined was 14.1 mm long and the largest was
42.5 mm. The mean length for all gar
examined was 24.7 mm in 1977 and 24.3
mm in 1978. No gar less than 20 mm con-
tained exogenous foods, and most had large
deposits of yellow yolk in the anterior
portion of the body cavity.

Other larval fishes were the most fre-
quently encountered food items in the guts
of larval gar in 1978 (62 to 100% of those
in each group that contained some food,
or 85% overall, Table 1). Most of the in-
gested larval fishes were in an advanced
state of digestion and could not be iden-
tified, even to family level. Those fishes
that could be identified were cyprinids
(Notropis sp., some were definitely N.
atherinoides ) and catostomids. The mean
number of larval fish in the guts of the
11 gar that had consumed fishes in 1975
was 1.7, with a range of 1-8 fish/gar (only
the individual that had consumed § larval
fishes had eaten more than 4). Total
lengths of the fish larvae consumed ranged
from 5.0 to 10.5 mm.

Cladocerans were the second most fre-
quent food item of postlarval gar in 1975
(Table 1). Cladocerans ranged in frequency
of occurrence from 0 to 100 percent among
the different sizes, and occurred in 35 (27%)
of the gar. The mean number of clado-
cerans in those gar was 2.6 per gar, with a
range of 1 to 27. Many cladocerans were
without appendages and hairs and or were
so distorted that identification was difficult
or impossible. However, most of those that
could be identified were Bosmina_ longi-
rostris, while a few (less than 2%) were
Daphnia sp.

Aquatic insect larvae and pupae in the
gar guts included trichopteran larvae, chi-

124

TrANs. Kentucky ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 4(0)(3-4)

TABLE ].—PERCENTAGE FREQUENCY OF OCCURRENCE OF FOOD ITEMS IN 210 POSTLARVAL LONGNOSE GAR
(14.1-42.5 MM) COLLECTED AT Onto RIVER MILE 571 IN JUNE 1978 EXPRESSED AS PERCENTAGES OF
THOSE 132 FISH THAT CONTAINED FOOD

Percentage frequency

Chironomidae

Total length Larval Trichoptera Dixidae
(mm ) n fishes Cladocera larvae larvae pupae larvae
14-15 1 0 0 0 0 0 0)
16-17 1 0 0 0 0 0 0
19-20 4 0 0 0 0 0 0
20-21 7 100 0 0 0 0 0
21-22 21 78 De) 0 0 11 0
22-23 Hil 89 22, 11 0 0 0
23-24 36 62 48 0 0 0 0
24-25 39 84 25 0 9 0 0
25-26 34 89 19 0 4 0 4
26-27 20 92 23 8 0 0 0
27-28 12 92 25 8 0 0 0
28-29 4 100 25 0 0 0 0)
32-33 1 100 0 0 0 0 0
36-37 1 100 100 0 0) 0 0
37-38 1 100 0 0 0 100 0
42-43 1 100 0) 0 100 0 0)
Total or overall values 210 84 hy 2 2 4 1

ronomid larvae and pupae, and dixid larvae
(Table 1). However, the frequency of
occurrence of each group was less than 5
percent in those gar that contained food.
The gut contents of larval gar in 1977
differed in several significant ways from
the contents in 1978. Cladocerans were
encountered in 98 percent of the guts in
1977 (Table 2). The mean number of
cladocerans per gar was 17.8 (range, 1 to
42). All other food items, including larval
fishes, occurred in less than 20 percent of
the 45 guts examined. Chironomid larvae
were the second most frequently encoun-

tered item (16% overall) followed by larval
fishes (13%), chironomid pupae (7%), and
Chaoborus larvae (7%).

The estimated percentage fullness of gar
guts increased steadily with increasing
length of the gar in each year. When data
from both years were combined, the per-
centage fullness increased from 0 at 14-15
mm to 75 percent or more at lengths exceed-
ing 30 mm (Fig. 1). The percentage of
empty guts declined steadily with increas-
ing length from 100 at lengths less than 20
mm to 0 at lengths greater than 27 mm
(Fig. 1).

TABLE 2.—PERCENTAGE FREQUENCY OF OCCURRENCE OF FOOD ITEMS IN 45 POSTLARVAL LONGNOSE GAR
(22.0-24.7 MM) COLLECTED AT OHIO RIvER MILE 571 IN May 1977; ALL FISH CONTAINED SOME FOOD

Percentage frequency

Total length Larval

Chironomidae

Chaoborus

(mm ) n fishes Cladocera larvae larvae pupae
22-23 5 0 100 0 20 0
23-24 12 0 100 8 17 8
24-25 9 22, 100 0 22, 0)
25-26 11 18 100 9 9 9
26-27 6 17 83 17 17 17
27-28 9; 50 100 0) 0) 0

Total or overall values 45 13 98 7 16 7

Foops oF LARVAL AND PosTLARVAL LONGNosE Gar—Pearson et al.

PEIRCEN I

20 30 40

MOmAL | RENGIAy = Can an)

Fic. 1. The percentage of longnose gar in 1-mm
size groups with empty guts (circles), and the
estimated percentage fullness of the guts (squares )
of 255 postlarval gar collected at Ohio River Mile
571 in 1977 and 1978. The small arrows indicate

the lengths of 2 emaciated gar.

DIscussIoN

Echelle (1968) reported that longnose
gar 18-20 mm total length initially fed upon
Entomostraca, particularly cladocerans. As
the gar grew beyond 21 mm, he found that
Entomostraca became less important while
larval fishes became more important in the
diet. However, because of the large size
groups into which his gar were arranged
(i.e., 17-116 mm), it is difficult to tell
precisely the extent to which gar between
20 and 30 mm long were piscivorous.

Most identifiable larval fish ingested by
gar from the Ohio River were Notropis, and
those few that could be identified to species
were N. atherinoides. Those shiners were
observed in great numbers near the shore
during all collecting periods. Their middle-
to-surface schooling habits and their great
abundance in the Ohio River (Krumholz
et al. 1962) probably are important in their
utilization by gar. Echelle (1968) found
the Mississippi silverside Menidia audens
to be the most abundant food item in
juvenile longnose gar from Lake Texoma,
Oklahoma. He suggested that their surface
schooling habits contributed to their utiliza-
tion by the surface feeding gar. The same
reasoning can be used to explain the utiliza-
tion of emerald shiners by gar in the Ohio
River.

125

In a series of hauls with a 0.5-m plankton
net at the surface and near the bottom of
the Ohio River at Mile 571 in June 1977,
Daphnia spp. were the most abundant
cladocerans near the bottom and Bosmina
longirostris was most abundant at the sur-
face. The abundance at the surface, com-
bined with the smaller size of B. longirostris
may have made them more susceptible to
predation by postlarval gar.

Longnose gar are often nocturnal feeders
(Goodyear 1967). Since our collections
were made in the afternoon, we could not
determine whether postlarval gar were
feeding at night, but the advanced state of
digestion of most of the larval fishes we
examined may indicate that they were
eaten the night before.

Our results indicate that other larval
fishes were very important food resources
for gar in the 20-42-mm size range in 1978.
However, the relative scarcity of larval
fishes in the guts of gar in 1977 may indi-
cate that postlarval gar are opportunistic
feeders; cladocerans were more readily
available than larval fishes in 1977. The
extent to which early postlarval gar feed
upon other larval fishes, when considered
with similar examples of early piscivory
reported for freshwater drum, white bass
(Clark and Pearson 1978, 1979), and
smallmouth bass (Clark unpublished data),
indicate that predator-prey relations among
larval fishes may be of great significance in
determining the relative strengths of year
classes of the species involved. Such rela-
tions require more study, and may eventu-
ally suggest means of manipulating larval
fish populations to increase the survival
rates of species favored by mankind while
decreasing the survival rates of competing
or undesirable species.

Echelle (1968) raised longnose gar from
artificially fertilized eggs (at 19-21 C) and
found that the first exogenous foods were
consumed 10 to 11 days after hatching
when the gar were 18-20 mm total length.
Gar 14-20 mm long from the Ohio River
had empty guts, contained large yolk sup-
plies, and were therefore still dependent
upon endogenous food reserves. The 20-

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 40(3-4)

Fic. 2.

A 25-mm longnose gar in an emaciated condition with its empty, linear, and underdeveloped
g i > > p

viscera partially removed; collected at Ohio River Mile 571 in 1978.

23-mm total length range can be designated
as the initial feeding size in our gar.

We found 2 gar (total lengths 25.0 and
26.0 mm) that were emaciated, contained
no yolk reserves, and in which the digestive
tract appeared atrophied. The 25-mm
specimen is shown in Fig. 2 with its viscera
removed. A 24-mm specimen of normal
robustness is shown in Fig. 3 for compari-
son with its viscera removed and 3 larval

cyprinids partially removed from the
stomach. It seems unlikely that either
of the 2 emaciated individuals would

have survived to grow much larger. We
suggest that the time at which that
length (25-26 mm total length) is achieved
represents the end of the critical period
for longnose gar, and the critical period can
thus be defined as the time span during
which the postlarval gar grows from 20 to
26 mm total length. Additional evidence
to support this definition of the critical
period are: (1) yolk reserves were not
observed in individuals over 29 mm, and

(2) no empty guts were found in gar larger
than 27 mm (although the sample size of
22 is, admittedly, small).

Echelle (1968) and Echelle and Riggs
(1972) reported that longnose gar hatch
at a length of 10 mm following an incuba-
tion period of 8 days. The prolarval stage
exists for 10 days after which the yolk sac
is absorbed (although our gut analyses
show that some yolk-derived reserves may
remain in the anterior portion of the body
cavity of individuals up to 27 mm), and
the postlarvae are 18 mm long. If we as-
sume that a starved postlarval gar will
continue to increase in length at a maximum
rate of 0.6 mm per day, then the 25-26 mm
emaciated gars probably were 21 days old,
and the critical period for longnose gar
would be at ages of 12-21 days. A chro-
nology of the larval life history of the long-
nose gar is shown in Table 3. If the rate
of increase in length of starved postlarval
gar is less than that of prolarval gar, the
critical period may be longer than 9 days.

Fic. 3.

A 24-mm longnose gar in a condition of average robustness with its viscera partially removed,

and revealing stomach and intestinal contents of 3 larval cyprinids and several cladocerans (not visible
in this photo), collected at Ohio River Mile 571 in 1978.

It would be interesting to conduct labora-
tory studies on the rate of increase in length
and longevity of starved larval gar to com-
pare with our field observations.

On the collection dates, water tempera-
tures in the Ohio River were 21-23 C, 2.C
higher than the temperatures at which
Echelle (1968) raised his gar. Therefore,

TABLE 3.—CHRONOLOGY OF EVENTS IN THE LARVAL
LIFE OF THE LONGNOSE GAR, WITH A PRELIMINARY
IDENTIFICATION OF THE CRITICAL PERIOD

Total

length
of

larvae

Event Day (mm )
Spawning 0 —
Egg hatches 8 10
Yolk sac absorbed 18 18
Exogenous feeding begins 20 20

(beginning of critical period )

Starvation for nonfeeding larvae 27 26

(end of critical period )

we suspect that the growth rates of gar in
the Ohio River may have been higher than
those reported by Echelle, and that the
critical period may have extended only from
the 11th or 12th day after hatching to the
18th or 19th day after hatching.

LITERATURE CITED

An ecological study of south-
Biol. Monogr. XI

Caun, A. R. 1927.
ern Wisconsin fishes. Ill.
No. 1. 181 pp.

Criark, A. L., AND W. D. PEARSON. 1978.
piscivory in postlarvae of the white bass. Proc.
32nd Annu. Conf. Southeast. Ass. Fish. Wildl.
Agencies. In press.

AND =e 1979 N Hanky

larvae of the freshwater drum, Aplodinotus

Early

piscivory in

grunniens. Proc. 2nd Annu. Larval Fish
Workshop. Tenn. Val. Auth., Norris, Tenn.
In press.

Ecueiie, A. A. 1968. Food habits of young-of-
year longnose gar in Lake Texoma, Oklahoma.
Southwest. Nat. 13( 1) :45-50.

ECHELLE, A. A., AND C. D. Riccs. 1972.

of the early life history of gars ( Lepisosteus )

Aspects

in Lake Texoma. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc.
101(1):106-112.

Forses, S. A., AND R. E. RicHArpson. 1920. The
fishes of Illinois. 2nd ed. Ill. Dept. Regist.
Educ., Springfield, Il]. 357 pp.

GoopyEar, C. P. 1967. Feeding habits of three
species of gars, Lepisosteus, along the Missis-
sippi Gulf Coast. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc. 95:
296-300.

Hay, O. P. 1894. The lampreys and fishes of
Indiana. Pp. 146-296. In: 19th Annu. Rept.
St. Geol., Indianapolis, Ind.

Hyorrt, J. 1926. Fluctuations in the year classes
of important food fishes. J. Cons. Int. Explor.

Mer. 1:5-—38.

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 40( 3-4)

Krumuouz, L. A., J. R. CHARLES, AND W. L.
MinckLeEy. 1962. The fish population of the
Ohio River. Pp. 49-89. In Aquatic-life re-
sources of the Ohio River. Ohio River Valley
Water Sanitation Commission, Cincinnati,
Ohio. 218 pp.

May, R. C. 1974. Larval mortality in marine
fishes and the critical period concept. Pp.
3-19. In: J. H. S. Blaxter (Ed.) The early
life history of fish. Springer-Verlag, New York,
N.Y. 765 pp.

Netscu, N. F., anp A. Witt, Jr. 1962. Con-
tributions to the life history of the longnose
gar (Lepisosteus osseus) in Missouri. Trans.
Amer. Fish. Soc. 91(3):251-262.

Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 40( 3-4), 1979, 129-140

The Effects of Temperature and Photoperiod on Molting
in Seasonal Populations of the Crayfish
Orconectes rusticus rusticus

STEVEN G. SADEWASSER' AND RUDOLPH PRINS
Department of Biology, Western Kentucky University,
Bowling Green, Kentucky 42101

ABSTRACT

Three seasonal experiments, each 90 days in duration, were conducted on immature Orconectes
rusticus rusticus to examine the effects of 3 different temperatures (14, 18, and 22C) and 3
different photoperiods (6L:18D, 15L:9D, and LL) on seasonal molting patterns. For each
seasonal experiment, units were used that held a total of 144 crayfish arranged in a 3 & 3
experimental design.

In Experiment 1 (18 January—18 April 1972), 98 molts were attempted (98% successfully ).
There was a highly significant linear relationship both between increasing temperature and
increasing populational molt frequency and between increasing length of photophase and increas-
ing molt frequency. No crayfish molted during the first 15 days, and animals in the warmest
temperature molted an average of 17.06 days earlier than those in the coldest temperature.

Crayfish in Experiment 2 (3 June—1 September 1972) attempted to molt 144 times (30%
successfully). High molt mortalities appeared to occur independent of temperature and photo-
period, but could not be explained. Molt frequency showed a significant quadratic relationship
with temperature.

Crayfish in Experiment 3 (23 October 1972-20 January 1973) attempted to molt 43 times
(95% successfully). Responses to temperature and photoperiod were as in Experiment 1.
Animals molted immediately upon initiation of the experiment, and crayfish kept at 22 C molted
in highest numbers toward the end of the experiment.

In 2 auxiliary 90-day experiments, 48 adults were collected in June and October 1972 to
ascertain their molt frequencies in 3 different light intensities (107.6, 430.4, and 1,183.6 lux).
Their molt frequencies compared directly with those of 48 immatures. In both experiments,
adults molted in fewer numbers than immatures, the greatest difference being in the October
experiment (3 adult molts vs. 19 molts in immatures). No relationship between light intensity
and molt frequency was found.

No sex differences or interactions between treatments were found in any experiment.

INTRODUCTION from Doe Run, Meade County, Kentucky.
The effects of those treatments upon the
crayfish used were measured by observing
the frequency and success of individual
molts (ecdysis) as well as the temporal
arrangement of molting within the 90-day
period of each experiment.

At one time, the term molting referred
only to the actual exuviation (ecdysis ), but

The objectives of this study were to
determine, under controlled conditions, the
extent of the effects of temperature and
photoperiod upon molting patterns in the
crayfish Orconectes rusticus rusticus. Three
different temperatures (14, 18, and 22 C)
and 3 different photoperiods, 6 hours light:
18 hours dark (6L:18D), 15 hours light: more recently the term has come to include
Bayt ne dial Ja cee premolt, molt, : posunort | and Lene)
sh aneined at 3 different times of the year ( pies TR ane semo ees RUUD caus

‘ : S Aiken 1969a ).

(16 January, 1 June, and 22 October 1972) that take place in the crayfish exoskeleton
during the progression of the molt cycle,

*Present address: Inland Lake Management see Stevenson (1968, 1972).
Unit, Michigan Department of Natural Resources, * ; ie mc : a ; a es Se nareanra
P.O. Box 30028, Lansing, Michigan 48909. Aiken (1968) divided ecdysis (Stage ©

129

For a review of the changes

130

into 4 distinct terminal subcategories: E1,
E2, E3, and E4. Animals unable to com-
plete exuviation and died in the process
were termed El, E2, or E3. A molt success-
fully completed was termed E4.

Limited attention has been given to the
role of temperature in the molting cycle
of crustaceans. Hess (1941) found that
temperature changes were important in
regulating the diurnal molt cycle in the
shrimp Crangon armillatus. Temperature
influenced molt cycles have also been
proposed for the crab Gecarcinus lateralis
(Bliss and Boyer 1964), and for the cray-
fishes Faxonella clypeata (Mobberly 1963),
Orconectes propinquus (Van Deventer
1937), and O. r. rusticus (Prins 1968). Ste-
phens (1955) found that large percentages
of molts controlled by photoperiod resulted
when O. virilis were maintained in a tem-
perature (21 C) abnormally warm for the
October collected crayfish.

Crayfish in northern latitudes cease molt-
ing during winter conditions and resume
molting activity with the advent of spring
conditions (Ortmann 1906, Creaser 1934,
Van Deventer 1937, Tack 1941, Smart
1962); whereas, animals in relatively con-
stant temperature environments do not
demonstrate such clear-cut seasonal pat-
terns (Penn 1943, Prins 1968).

Most of the literature on photoperiod and
its implications in growth and development
has been done with insects (Beck 1968,
Adkisson 1966, Lees 1966, Lutz 1968). By
comparison, the Crustacea have been
studied very little (Aiken 1969a and litera-
ture cited therein).

Apparently, for crayfish as well as for
other arthropods, both duration and inten-
sity of illumination affect molting, but the
mechanisms are generally poorly defined
(Mobberly 1963; Rice and Armitage 1974a,
1974b; Stephens 1955; Bliss 1954; Aiken
1969b ). However, Talton and Prins (1978)
were unable to detect an hourglass response
mechanism in Orconectes immunis.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The authors wish to thank Dr. Samuel P.
Meyers, Department of Food Science, Loui-

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 40(3-4)

siana State University, for providing the
crayfish food used in all experiments, and
Michael O. Molley and Robert Van Hoff
for technical assistance.

METHODS AND MATERIALS

At least 144 subadult crayfish (14-17 mm
carapace length) were collected 2 miles
(3.2 km) from the spring source of Doe
Run, Meade County, Kentucky, for use in
each of the 3 90-day seasonal experiments.

Three experimental units, modified from
Harrison (1964, unpublished master’s thesis,
North Carolina State University, Raleigh,
North Carolina), were used in each experi-
ment (Fig. 1). Each unit contained its own
temperature controlled water supply that
circulated throughout its 6 subdivisions.
Those subdivisions comprised the compart-
ments among which 2 duplications of each
of the 3 photoperiods, 6 hours light:18 hours
dark (6L:18D), 15 hours light:9 hours dark
(15L:9D), and continuous light (LL), were
randomized. The 3 temperature units (14,
18, and 22 C), each containing the 3 photo-
periods, were arranged in a 3 X 3 com-
pletely random design with a_ factorial
arrangement of treatments (Cochran and
Cox 1957).

Each experimental unit contained ap-
proximately 75 1 of water. Water flow was
maintained within a unit by a_ gravity
system powered by a pump located beneath.
Water collected at the bottom was pumped
to the top of the unit where it flowed
through a glass wool, activated charcoal
filtering system and then into the tempera-
ture control reservoir (Fig. 1A). There, a
thermostatically controlled freon cooling
system alternated with an immersion heater
to maintain the designated temperature
within 0.5 C. Water then flowed into plastic
basins of the top 2 compartments at ap-
proximately 6 I/min (Fig. 1C).

Crayfish were arranged within each basin
by being confined in 2 partitioned plastic
trays (4 animals per tray) partially im-
mersed in water (Fig. 1D). Trays con-
tained equal numbers of each sex except in
Experiment 3 where a 5:3 male to female
ratio was used in each compartment due to

om eaten nl =

used for each experiment. (A) Reservoir contain-
Fluorescent light wrapped with opaque tape
fish. (E) Water pump.

Fic. 1. One experimental unit. Three of these were
ing thermostatically controlled heating—cooling system. (B)
to reduce light intensity. (C) Individual compartment. (D) Receptacle for 4 cray

132

a shortage of female crayfish in the collec-
tions made on October 21. Thus, a total of
144 animals were used for each experiment.

Plastic trays provided 585 mm+? of crawl-
ing surface and 200 ml of water directly
available to each crayfish. Holes were
drilled through the trays to allow for free
flow of water, and transparent plastic tops
were placed on each tray to prevent animals
from escaping.

The 3 photoperiods used were maintained
by time controlled fluorescent lights within
the compartments. In each compartment,
one 43-cm General Electric Cool White 15-
watt bulb (FI5T12-CW) was suspended
22 cm above water level (Fig. 1B). Inten-
sity was measured at the water surface level
and adjusted to 430.4 lux by partially wrap-
ping bulbs with opaque cloth tape. Trays
were rearranged randomly each week to
ensure equal reception of light intensity by
experimental animals.

Plastic tray tops reduced the visible
spectrum light intensity less than 10 per-
cent; however, the ultraviolet light band
was reduced by approximately 58 percent.

During each testing period, individuals
were checked daily, and molts (along with
molt condition) were recorded. Molt cate-
gorization was accomplished by consolidat-
ing the terminal molt stages proposed by
Aiken (1968a). Molt stages E1, E2, and
E3 were termed unsuccessful for purposes
of this study, and E4 molts were termed
successful.

Upon the termination of the experiments,
molting data were analyzed by analysis of
variance (Cochran and Cox 1957). A linear
and quadratic regression analysis was fur-
ther performed on treatment sums of squares
for more specific information. Sex differ-
ences in molting patterns were also analyzed
along with any possible interactions be-
tween treatment effects that might have
occurred. The average number of days
until animals within each treatment accom-
plished their first molt was computed along
with standard deviations. In Experiment 2,
analysis of variance and regression analyses
were also performed on data arranged in

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 40( 3-4)

categories of successful and unsuccessful
molts.

Supplementary experiments were con-
ducted with the following modifications.
During collection of animals for Experiment
2 (1 June 1972), 48 recently matured cray-
fish (average carapace length 22.6 mm)
were retained for use in Experiment 4-A.
In that experiment, animals were placed in
one experimental unit maintained at 18 C
and had 2 duplications of 3 different light
intensities (107.6, 430.4, and 1,183.6 lux)
randomized within. All light intensities
were on a 15L:9D photoperiod.

In another experiment (5-A), 48 adults
and 48 immature crayfish (collected 20
October 1972) were placed in one 18C
experimental unit with the 3 photoperiods
discussed above randomized within.

RESULTS

The highest number of molts recorded in
any seasonal experiment occurred during
Experiment 2 (Table 1). One hundred
twenty-five of the 144 crayfish molted at
least once with a total of 145 molts accom-
plished. The fewest number of molts oc-
curred in Experiment 3 with only 40 of the
crayfish molting at least once for a total of
43 molts. In Experiment 1, 98 molts were
observed with 85 animals completing 1 or
more.

Animals collected in June (Experiment
2), although registering the greatest num-
ber of molting attempts, had the lowest
degree of success in molting (Table 1). Of
the 145 molts recorded in this experiment,
only 30 percent of the animals survived
ecdysis. Mortalities associated with molting
did not exceed 5 percent in any of the
other experiments, including Experiment
4-A where 48 adults, collected and tested
at the same time as the immatures in Ex-
periment 2, completed 43 molts without a
single associated mortality. Data from all
experiments except Experiment 2 indicated
the same statistical significances when only
the successful molts were considered.

Major differences in the temporal molting
patterns in the 3 seasonal experiments ( Fig.
2) were most apparent when the first 15

MOLTING IN CRAYFISH POPpULATIONS—Sadewasser and Prins 133

TaBLE 1.—TOTAL, SUCCESSFUL, AND UNSUCCESSFUL MOLTS BY Orconectes rusticus rusticus AND MORTAL-

ITIES NOT ASSOCIATED WITH MOLTING.

NUMBERS IN PARENTHESES INDICATE THE NUMBER OF ANIMALS

THAT MOLTED TWICE

El, E2,

Tae Animals

otal no. a é 13 Jnexplainec

Experiment pean Total molts leeereree E4 molts eee Tne eee a

1 144 98 (13) 85 96 2 9

2) 144 145 (20) 125 43 102 11S}

3 144 43 (3) 40 4] 2, 15

4-A 48 43 (8) B59 43 0) 4

5-A Immatures 48 19 (2) 17 18 1 3
Adults 48 oy ((@) 3 3 4

J v 0

days of each experiment and the last 20
days of each experiment were compared.
For example, during the first 15-day inter-
vals, no molts were accomplished by ani-
mals in Experiment 1, 61 molts (42% of the
total number molting) were completed by
animals in Experiment 2, and Experiment 3
animals molted a total of 12 times (28% of
the total number molting).

In the last 20-day periods of the experi-
ments, only 3 molts (2% of the total) were
completed during Experiment 2, while 26
molts (27% of the total) and 16 molts (37%
of the total) were recorded in Experiments

NO. OF MOLTS
x)
fe)
|
N

\ WAN - pier EEG
VAX ca x ti
—o T T T “+ a | aK a a Pos 7 t= lao a 7 lz fan 7
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 5055 6065 70 75 80 85 SC

TIME (DAYS

Fic. 2. Number of molts per 5-day period for
Experiments 1 (18 January—18 April), 2 (3 June—
1 September), and 3 (23 October-20 January).

1 and 3, respectively. However, only 46 of
the original 144 crayfish survived to the
last 20 days of Experiment 2.

Those temporal molting patterns were
reflected in the values for the mean number
of days until individuals first molted in each
experiment and the standard deviations
from those means (Table 2). Crayfish
collected in January molted within an aver-
age of 58.78 days after the initiation of the
90-day experimental period, the longest
average of the 3 experiments, while animals
collected in June averaged the shortest
period of time prior to molting (25.82 days).
Crayfish collected in October molted in
equal numbers during the first and last
halves of their experimental period for a
mean of 45.00 days.

Standard deviations from those means
further clarified the comparative consis-

TABLE 2.—MEAN NUMBER OF DAYS AND STANDARD
DEVIATIONS TO THE COMPLETION OF THE FIRS1I
MOLT OF O. r. rusticus

Temperature

Standard

Experiment (C) Mean deviation
1 (Jan) 14 58.1 20.6
18 62.5 Pile
22, 41.] 17.9
Overall 58.8 23.6
2 (Jun) 14 34.6 93.3
18 22.8 19.1]
22, 20.5 18.3
Overall 95.8 20.9
3 (Oct) 14 29.7 93:3
1S 16.2 LO.9
22, {8.4 10.0
Overall 15.0 10.0

60 L
, x
aa vy, RS E
y Ya
aay) W/. |
” 40] Jf of a J
5 / B
{o)
a | / ~
u 304 / [_
fo} | /
= / ns
20-4 ye (o =
Wd yoke A +
10- Ve ts
| 2 ’ 3
i4 | is op | ie 18 eee 18 22

]
fe

x HST EM EAT fe Ean]

Fic. 3. Number of molts of immature O. r. rusticus
within 14, 18, and 22 C treatments of Experiments
1 (18 January—18 April), 2 (3 June—1 September ),
and 3 (23 October—20 January). (A) Total molts
initiated. (B) Unsuccessful (E1, E2, and E3)
molts. (C) Successful (E4) molts. * Significant
linear effect (P < 0.05), ** Highly significant
linear effect (P < 0.01), x Significant quadratic
effect, and n.s. nonsignificant effect.

tency of molting patterns (Table 2). Large
blocks of experimental time devoid of molt-
ing activity in Experiments | and 2, resulted
in high standard deviations of 23.6 and 20.9
days, respectively. The lowest standard
deviation (10.0) was in Experiment 3 where
molting was more consistent throughout
this experimental period than in the others.

The various temperatures affected ani-
mals differently during the 3 seasons in
which they were tested (Fig. 3). For
example, in Experiment 1, 13, 33, and 52
animals molted at 14, 18, and 22 C, respec-
tively. This represented a highly significant
(P < 0.01) linear molting response to tem-
perature in Experiment 3 with 7, 14, and
22 molts at the 3 progressively warmer
temperatures (P < 0.05).

Crayfish molting activity in Experiment
2 in relation to temperature was significant
(P < 0.05) in a quadratic manner, the high-
est numbers of molts being initiated at 18 C
(55 molts) rather than at 22C. Only 48
molts were attempted by crayfish in the
22. C water with 41 molts at 14 C. However,
when only successful molts completed were
considered, a different statistical pattern
was found. More animals completed molts
successfully at 18 C (19 E4’s) than at 14 C

TrANs. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 40( 3-4)

(6 E4’s). The relationship between increas-
ing temperature and increasing successful
molts, although statistically a linearly sig-
nificant (P < 0.05) effect, was not the same
relationship found in the overall analyses
of Experiments 1 and 3. In Experiment 2,
an increase from 18 to 22 C did not result
in as great an increase in the number of
successful molts as did the difference be-
tween 14 and 18C.

Although there was a greatly reduced
number of E4 molts in the 14 C treatment
of Experiment 2, unsuccessful molts were
not initiated with a greater frequency than
in the 18 C treatment (35 unsuccessful molts
attempted in each). In fact, there were no
statistically significant differences among
the molt mortalities in any of the treatments
used in this experiment; thus, unsuccessful
molting appeared to occur randomly
throughout the treatments. No such pat-
terns were observed in the other 2 seasonal
experiments because of the very low mor-
talities of animals in them.

Only 1 pattern of molting within the
separate temperature treatments of the 3
seasonal experiments was consistent from
experiment to experiment (Table 2). Stan-
dard deviations from the mean days to molt
in the 22C treatments were lower in all
experiments than the standard deviations in
the 14 and 15C treatments. For example,
in Experiment 2, standard deviations of
23.3, 19.1, and 18.3 days were found in the
14, 18, and 22C treatments, respectively.
Other than a slight discrepancy in data from
Experiment 1 (where a standard deviation
of 21.1 days was calculated from crayfish
molting dates in the 18 C treatment and a
deviation of 20.6 was found at 14C), the
general trend of the degrees of coordination
of crayfish molting was that the warmer the
temperature used, the lower the standard
deviation, or, in other words, the closer to
the mean that individuals molted.

The values for the mean number of days
until molt within the temperatures of each
experiment were not in the consistent pat-
terns of the values for the deviations. For
example, a linear increase in the mean
number of days until crayfish molting was

MOLTING IN CRAYFISH POPULATIONS—Sadewasser and Prins

correlated with increasing temperatures in
Experiment 3, but not in the other 2 (Table
DQ)
The effects of the 3 different photo-
periods used in Experiments 1 and 3 were
similar in pattern to the temperature effects
(Fig. 4). In both experiments, statistically
significant linear increases in molting fre-
quency correlated with increases in photo-
phase. In 6L:18D, 15L:9D, and 24LL, ani-
mals collected in January molted 25, 34,
and 39 times, respectively; the animals col-
lected in October molted 7, 14, and 22 times
in those same treatments.

In Experiment 3, however, no significant
effects of photoperiod were noted regard-
less of whether total molts (48, 49, and 47
molts arranged in the linear order of the
photoperiods ), successful molts (11, 17, and
15 E4 molts), or unsuccessful molts (36, 32,
and 33 molt mortalities) were considered,
indicating statistical randomness of molting
within the different photoperiods.

Results of Experiment 4-A indicated that
light intensities of 107.6 (14 molts), 430.4
(15 molts), and 1183.6 (14 molts) lux had
no significant effect on the molting fre-
quency of adult O. r. rusticus collected in
June.

A comparison of the results of Experi-
ment 4-A (Table 1) with those obtained
from immatures tested over the same period
and at the same temperature (18 C treat-
ment of Experiment 2, Fig. 3) indicated
that adults completed only 12 fewer molts
(78% ) than the same number of immatures.
Adults in Experiment 5-A, however, ex-
hibited a greatly reduced molting frequency
when compared with immatures tested in
the same experiment at the same time
(October). There, adults completed only
3 molts (16%) compared with 17 molts by
immatures (Table 1). In addition, when
compared with data from the same tem-
perature treatment of Experiment 3, all
statistical significances of Experiment 3
remained.

No significant differences in the molting
frequency or success of male and female
crayfish were found in any of the experi-
ments. Finally, no interactions were found

1oo
! ! ans
50_] ‘ |
—__-_——_.

40-

o * 7 |
A y

LF; | eae eB.
° | i S;
= 30_|
ie e
(oe)
fo}

20 : rn
z 20 c A

eee an
10] |
| y
| 2 | = 3
|
T T T . T le T 7 Te 4 ET | T +.
eS es DP De SS eS a

HOURS LIGHT PER DAY (PHOTOPHASE)

Fic. 4. Number cf molts of immature Orconectes
rusticus rusticus within 6L:18D, 15L:9D, and
24LL treatments of Experiments 1 (18 January—
18 April), 2 (3 June—l September), and 3 (23
October—20 January). (A) Total molts initiated.
(B) Unsuccessful (E1, E2, and E3) molts. * Sig-
nificant linear effect (P < 0.05), n.s. nonsignificant
effect.

between any of the treatments used in this
study.

Discussion
General

The seasonally variable molting fre-
quencies found in the populations of im-
mature O. r. rusticus tested in this study
can be at least partially supported by the
literature. Aiken (1969a) found differences
in the seasonal molting patterns of O. virilis
and proposed that populations that had
experienced different environmental condi-
tions prior to placement in an experiment
would be expected to exhibit different molt-
ing characteristics.

Prins (1968) indicated that the active
molting period for O. r. rusticus in Doe Run
extended from May through August and
that the molting frequency within the popu-
lation was reduced following that period
with a total cessation of activity over winter.
Similar reductions of molting activity were
observed in an Ohio fish pond population
of O. rusticus (Langlois 1935) as well as
in O. propinquus in Illinois (Van Deventer
1937). The low frequency of molting ob-
served in crayfish collected on October
(Fig. 2) might be attributed to the naturally
occurring fall activity of a molt inhibition

136

mechanism that was actively reducing molt-
ing activity at that time in anticipation of
winter.

The reduced frequency of molting among
crayfish in January, when compared with
the high number of molts by animals in
June, would appear to contradict an ob-
served field pattern of the crayfish which
indicated that at least the adult population
in Doe Run exhibited a more synchronized
mass molt upon being released from the
winter condition than at other seasonal
times (Prins 1968). This might, however,
be attributed either to the shortness of time
that crayfish collected on January 16 had
spent in actual winter conditions prior to
testing, or to an unnatural stimulation of
molt activity among the Experiment 2 cray-
fish that resulted in abnormally high fre-
quencies.

The first possibility might be supported
by Aiken’s (1969a) observation that the
longer a population of O. virilis was main-
tained in the winter torpid condition, the
greater was the percentage of individuals
molting upon being released from that con-
dition. This concept suggests that O. virilis
possesses a molt control mechanism which
actively suppresses molting activity until a
certain dormant period has passed. Aiken
further proposed that the increased molting
activity of cold adapted crayfish was due
more to a reduction of molt resistance in
individuals rather than a specific molt in-
duction. If the same mechanism was re-
sponsible for the frequencies observed in
this study, then the occurrence of molts by
crayfish collected in January would seem to
represent a reduced expression of the full
molt potential caused by a lack of sufficient
winter conditioning to completely eliminate
molt inhibition.

The second proposal that the difference
between the frequencies obtained in Ex-
periments | and 2 is due primarily to abnor-
mally high molting activity by animals
collected in June can also be _ partially
supported by the high number of mortalities
recorded in Experiment 2, suggesting an
unnatural occurrence of molting in that

TrANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 40(3-4)

experiment. The significance of those mor-
talities will be discussed later.

The temporal pattern of molting within
the different seasonal experiments (Fig. 2)
also suggests the influence of environmental
preconditioning. When animals were col-
lected in January, they had been exposed
to at least some period of reduced tempera-
ture (the water temperature at Doe Run on
16 January was 11 C), and the lack of molt-
ing activity in the initial stages of this
experiment suggests that an “acclimation
period” was required before animals, re-
cently released from cold conditions, could
once again initiate molt cycles.

Animals used in Experiments 2 and 3, on
the other hand, were collected at times
(June and October, respectively) when
molting in the field was occurring normally
(Prins 1968) which indicates the reason for
the immediate expression of molting by
those crayfish when placed under experi-
mental conditions.

Temperature

Crayfish used in Experiments 1 and 3
exhibited linear increases in molting fre-
quency when maintained in progressively
higher temperature treatments (Fig. 3), a
response possibly related to metabolic rates.
Although little work has been done recently
concerning the influence of temperature on
the crayfish molt cycle, Mobberly (1963)
and Passano (1960) both acknowledged the
possibility that low temperatures suppress
molting in crayfish by decreasing overall
metabolic rate. Metabolism is among the
poikilothermic physiological processes be-
lieved to react relatively linearly to changes
in temperature (Scholander et al. 1953).
However, Bullock (1955) indicated that
metabolism does not always follow a strictly
linear pattern in poikilotherms, but is sub-
ject to seasonal variation in environmental
conditions.

Thus, a correlation between metabolic
and molting activity cannot be ruled out
even in Experiment 2, where linear in-
creases in temperature did not result in
linear increases in molting activity. Some
support for a metabolic—molt correlation

MOoLTING IN CRAYFISH POpULATIONS—Sadewasser and Prins

might be found in recent work by Rice and
Armitage (1974b) who reported that the
populational metabolism of O. nais in a
study of photoperiod tended to follow the
population molting cycle.

Regardless of the nature of the mech-
anism, temperature apparently did have a
direct effect on the molting frequency of
immature animals collected in January and
October. Temperature signals would be
expected to be more effective sources of
information for the stimulation of inhibition
of molting cycles at those experimental
periods (late winter and late fall) than
during the summer period. A strict reliance
upon temperature information would not
normally be required by summer crayfish
since low temperatures (below 13C) are
not normally experienced by Doe Run O. r.
rusticus during that period (Prins 1968).
Therefore, although the coldest treatment
in Experiment 2 reduced molt frequency,
the 2 warmer treatments were evidently
interpreted the same by the crayfish molt
control mechanism and comparably large
numbers of molts were completed by each
group. Although the 18C treatment was
4C lower than the highest temperature
treatment, it would not have been expected
to signal the onset of winter conditions since
summer preconditioning would have virtu-
ally assured crayfish a safe period for full
molting cycle expression even though the
local temperature was somewhat lower than
the seasonal optimum.

On the other hand, variations in tempera-
ture might have provided vital information
regarding the progression of the seasons to
crayfish in Experiments 1 and 3, informa-
tion needed for the avoidance of unfavor-
able conditions. As such, a molt control
mechanism might have been responsible
for reduced molting frequencies at 18 C
even though molts could have been safely
attempted at that temperature.

This suggestion can be further supported
by reference to the temporal arrangement
of molting within the temperature treat-
ments of Experiments 1 and 3 (Fig. 5).
The crayfish in those experiments molted
in essentially opposite temporal patterns.

3 A
a“ x eee een,
6a) A A
3 8 / :
=| pe / eS
y aes \
S ey IN
0 HIN
aS ‘
° j a .
= / \ / a
av Ss = = _
Wwe
fo) 3 e 3
° : a
a _f0) oe. SESS = rm
B
3_]
NX x ; oP
Q WAS. EOE OSS SAIL
3 ° f
| A ae
fe) ES AS WEEE

et a a oo
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 45 45 50 55 6065 70 75 80 85 90
TIME (DAYS)

Fic 5. Number of molts per 5-day period within

the 14C (A), 18 C (B), and 22 C (C) treatments

of Experiments 1 (18 January—18 April) and 3 (23
October—20 January ).

Crayfish collected in January initiated molts
within progressively shorter times when
maintained in progressively warmer tem-
peratures while those collected in October
molted in an opposite pattern.

The animals collected in January were
facing the onset of the spring season, and
may have had low resistance to signals
indicating a safe period for molt preparation
(Aiken 1969a). Increased temperatures,
then, could have brought about earlier
expressions of molting activity than those
in the colder temperatures. Crayfish col-
lected in October, on the other hand, were
facing severe winter conditions at the time
of collection and already may have pos-
sessed high resistance to the initiation of
molt.

Photoperiod

Rice and Armitage (1974a) found that
photoperiod did not influence the total
number of molts completed by O. nais. Our
experiments with O. r. rusticus, however,
demonstrated clear differences in numbers
of molts within the different photoperiods

138

of experiments conducted during the spring
and fall.

A variety of proposed photoperiodic
models ( Pittendrigh and Minis 1964, Adkis-
son 1966, Aiken 1969a) considered that the
operation of molt control mechanisms,
where they exist, are essential during the
spring and fall, when the greatest danger
of improperly initiated molts exists. During
the summer months, however, animals
usually are insensitive to photoperiodic
phenomena since that period represents an
interval of almost unlimited molting poten-
tial with minimal danger of getting caught
in unfavorable environmental conditions at
some critical stage of the molting cycle.
Animals tested in this study fit this photo-
periodic model since significant differences
in molts within photoperiodic treatments
were found only in Experiments 1 and 3
(initiated on 18 January 1972 and 4 October
1972, respectively) and were completely
absent from Experiment 2 (initiated 3 June
1972).

The arrangement of molts within the
photoperiodic treatments of Experiments 1
and 3 did not, however, fit that found in
another species of crayfish from a different
geographic location. Stephens (1955) found
that individuals of O. virilis in Canada
collected in October successfully completed
only 1 molt at photoperiods shorter than
20L:4D but completed 6 molts at that
photoperiod. Aiken (1989b) supported the
existence of a minimal photoperiod thresh-
old in Canadian O. virilis collected in Octo-
ber and proceeded to demonstrate that that
threshold decreased with the exposure of
crayfish to prolonged winter conditions. It
would appear that these animals demon-
strated a “trigger” response to photoperiod
with molting activity tightly geared to the
detection of daylength (and consequently,
to the detection of seasonal progress). This
all-or-none photoperiod controlled molting
response was in sharp contrast to the strictly
linear molting pattern found in individuals
of O. r. rusticus collected in January and
October and tested at the different photo-
periods of this study (Fig. 4). The informa-
tion supplied by photoperiod, then, was not

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 40( 3-4)

acted upon as universally in O. r. rusticus
as it was in O. virilis suggesting a greater
variability in genetic response to photo-
periodic signals in O. r. rusticus. In experi-
ments on O. immunis, an hourglass model
of photoperiodic time measurement was
ruled out (Talton and Prins 1978).

The more southerly location of the O. r.
rusticus used in this study when compared
with the northern O. virilis might provide
some insight into those different patterns.
The temperate environment of O. r. rusticus
from Doe Run would provide less selective
pressure against crayfish initiating molts
prematurely in the spring or late in the
fall than would the severe winter experi-
enced by more northern crayfish. Thus,
the necessity for each individual to refer
strictly to photoperiodic signals as the most
stable indication of the progression of
seasons would not be as great in O. r.
rusticus.

In an associated experiment (4-A), it was
demonstrated that adults collected in June
did not appear to molt in relation to differ-
ent light intensities. It must be noted, how-
ever, that immatures tested during the same
period in Experiment 2 were not influenced
significantly in their molting frequency by
photoperiodic differences. It therefore ap-
pears possible that a molt control mech-
anism which is not relying on photoperiodic
signals for molting control during the rela-
tively safe summer period, would also not
be expected to rely on light intensity signals.

Adults vs. Immatures

Although adult molting was comparable
in frequency to that of immatures in Experi-
ment 2, adults collected in October molted
at a much lower frequency than immatures.
If that reduction of adult molting is the
result of a seasonal molt inhibition, then it
would appear that the mechanism respon-
sible goes into effect at an earlier time and
to a greater degree than that existing in
immatures tested over the same period.

Interactions

The lack of interactions among any of
the treatments tested in this study suggests

MOLTING IN CRAYFISH POPULATIONS—Sadewuasser and Prins

that individuals of O. r. rusticus possess a
molting control mechanism which is not
dependent upon the coordination of sepa-
rate environmental signals, but capable of
referring to the signals individually. This
is in sharp contrast to the overpowering
photoperiod reaction found in O. virilis
(Stephens 1955, Aiken 19692).

SUMMARY

1. This study was designed to examine
possible seasonal differences in the molting
response of experimental populations of O.
r. rusticus maintained at 3 different tem-
peratures (14, 18, and 22 C) and 3 different
photoperiod (6L:18D, 15L:9D, and LL)
for 90-day experimental periods.

2. Immature O. r. rusticus collected on
16 January and 21 October (and tested from
18 January to 18 April and 23 October to
20 January, respectively) responded to
linear increases in temperature and photo-
phase with linear increases in the percent-
age of experimental populational molting.

3. Immature O. r. rusticus collected on
1 June and tested from 3 June to 1 Sep-
tember responded to linear increases in
temperature with a quadratic increase in
molting frequency and did not respond to
photoperiodic treatments. Molt mortalities
were 70 percent in that experiment.

4. No molts were attempted by crayfish
collected in January during the first 15 days
of the experiment, and animals at warmer
temperatures averaged shorter times until
molting attempt than did those at colder
temperatures. Immatures collected in Octo-
ber molted immediately upon being placed
at experimental conditions and averaged a
longer time until initiation of molt at warmer
temperatures than at colder temperatures.

5. Two auxiliary experiments indicated
that adults molt in fewer numbers than im-
matures with the greatest difference found
with adults and immatures collected in
October. In addition, adults collected in
June did not react to different light inten-
sities with changes in molting frequency.

6. A molt control mechanism was pro-
posed for O. r. rusticus, characterized as
being less strictly dependent upon photo-

139

periodic signals than the mechanism pro-
posed for more northern populations of
crayfishes.

LITERATURE CITED

Apvxisson, P. L. 1966. Internal clocks and insect
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AIKEN, D. E. 1968. Subdivisions of stage E
(ecdysis) in the crayfish Orconectes. virilis.
Can. J. Zool. 46:153-155.

1969a. Photoperiod, endocrinology,
and the crustacean molt cycle. Science 164:
149-155.

1969b. Ovarian maturation and egg

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Breck, S. D. 1968. Insect photoperiodism. Aca-
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Buss, D. E. 1954. Light inhibition of regenera-
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, AND J. R. Boyer. 1964. Environ-
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Butiock, T. H. 1955. Compensation for tem-
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poikilotherms. Biol. Rev. 30:311-342.

Cocuran, W. D., AND G. M. Cox. 1957. Experi-
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York, N.Y. 611 pp.

Creaser, E. P. 1934. Age, growth, and sex ratios
in the crayfish Faxonius propinquus. Pap.
Mich. Acad. Sci., Arts Lett. 19:581-585.

"Dracu, P. 1939. Mue et cycle dintermue chez
les crustaces decapodes. Ann. L’Inst. Ocean-
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Hess, W. N. 1941.
in the crustacean, Crangon armillatus.
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Kurup, N. G. 1963. Crustacean hormones. J.
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Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 40(3—4), 1979, 141-148

Effects of Ethanol on in vitro Incorporation of C-14.
Leucine and Phenylalanine in Rat Spleen and Liver Cells

GERTRUDE C. RmcEL, Gina PorcNarp, DENIsE Lotrr, AND

Davip BARNETT
Department of Biology, Kentucky State University, Frankfort, Kentucky 40601

ABSTRACT

This investigation was undertaken to determine the in vitro effect of ethanol on the ability of
liver and spleen cells to incorporate radioactive phenylalanine and leucine. Liver and spleen
cells were exposed to varying concentrations (0.03, 0.06, 0.12, 0.24, 0.48 and 0.96%) of ethanol
per total volume of medium. The incorporation of phenylalanine was significantly higher than
that of leucine in both the experimental and control systems. In the experiments, the spleen
cells incorporated more of both of the amino acids than did the liver cells. Most ethanol con-
centrations appeared to inhibit the incorporation of both phenylalanine and leucine. Phenyl-
alanine inhibition, however, appeared to be greater at higher (0.96 and 0.48%) ethanol
concentrations and at the lower ethanol concentrations (0.03 and 0.06% ) while leucine incor-

poration failed to demonstrate that same pattern.

INTRODUCTION

There is currently much concern over the
effects of different environmental stresses
on humans and other organisms in the bio-
sphere. This research project involved a
study of the effects of various concentra-
tions of ethanol on the ability of crude prep-
arations of rat spleen and liver cells to
incorporate the radioactive amino acids,
leucine and phenylalanine.

Leloir and Munoz (1938), in their in-
vestigation of alcohol metabolism in animal
tissues, showed that comparing tissue slices
of rat kidney, testis, spleen, diaphragm, and
intestine, the liver metabolizes the largest
amount of alcohol. Rat kidney turns over
a small but definite amount of alcohol, but
the other tissues when exposed to alcohol
metabolized it in amounts within the ex-
perimental errors of controls.

It has been reported that the administra-
tion of certain concentrations of ethanol to
humans and rats produced hypertrophy of
the smooth endoplasmic reticulum (Ruben
and Hutterer 1968, Ruben and_ Lieber
1971). Those investigators found that when
rats were treated with puromycin or actino-
mycin prior to ethanol feeding, there was
no production of the hepatic aminolevulinic
synthetase. Ruben and Lieber further re-
ported that the addition of ethanol to sus-

141

pensions of rat hepatic microsomes, in con-
centrations found in the blood of inebriated
individuals, inhibited the hydroxylation of
aniline, pentabarbital, and benzopyrene,
and the demethylation of aminopyrene and
ethylmorphine.

Shields et al. (1976) investigated the role
of alcohol dehydrogenase (ADH) on vari-
ous cell lines in the presence of certain con-
centrations of ethanol. They demonstrated
that ADH was not inducible by the pres-
ence of ethanol and even cells with low con-
tent of ADH could tolerate ethanol as well
as those with high levels of that enzyme.

It appears that ethanol may be involved
in altering protein synthesis especially in
some of the proteins active in certain en-
zyme systems. The purpose of this investi-
gation was to determine if ethanol affects
the ability of certain cells to incorporate
amino acids, a process that must occur prior
to protein synthesis.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

This research was supported by a NIH
Minority Biomedical Support Program,
Grant No. 5 506 RR0S124. Special acknowl-
edgments are offered to Linda Larkin,
Danny Chacko, Eric Candler, and Clar-
ence Moore for their efforts in this investi-
gation as former student research trainees.

142

TABLE 1.—PROTOCOL FOR SAMPLES USED IN EXPERIMENTS.
FOR 0.9% ETHANOL = 0.06% ETOH, 1.8% ETHANOL = 0.12%

PER VOLUME OF THE TEST TUBES WERE:

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 40(3-4)

THE FINAL CONCENTRATIONS OF ETHANOL

ETOH, 3.6% ETHANOL = 0.24% ETOH, anp 14.4% ETHANOL = 0.96% ErOH

Reagent
Ethanol (% )
Glucose, (ml)
0.174%/vol. KRP-buffer Tissue-KRP
Group (ml) (nl) 0.9 1.8 3.6 14.4 (ml)
Glucose supplemented (S) 0.2 0.4 — — — — 10)
Basal (B) — 0.6 — — — — 2.2
Killed (K) 0.2 0.4 —— — — — 2:2;
Killed-spiked (2K) 0.2 0.4 = — = = 9)
0.9% ethanol — 0.4 0.2 — — — 39)
1.8% ethanol — 0.4 — 0.2 — — PH)
3.6% ethanol — 0.4 — — 0.2 — D2;
14.4% ethanol = 0.4 — — 0.2 DH

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Male Sprague Dawley rats, maintained
under normal laboratory conditions, were
fasted 24 hours prior to sacrificing in an
ethyl ether chamber. At the time of sacri-
fice, the animals weighed between 85.5 and
243 g; however, in a given experimental
series, the differences in weights among the
rats was less than 10 g. An incision was
made on the left side of the body through
which the spleen and a piece of liver were
removed quickly and weighed. Each tis-
sue was pressed through separate wire
strainers into 43 ml of cold Krebs Ringer
Phosphate Buffer (KRP) at pH 7.4. The
tissue-KRP solution was passed through
cheesecloth, and tissue remains on the
cheese cloth and strainer were collected
and weighed. Differences between the re-
mains and the intact spleen or pieces of
liver gave an approximate weight of the
tissue in the tissue-KRP preparation.

Duplicate, and in some instances tripli-
cate, experimental samples were prepared.
The contents of each sample are indicated
in Table 1. Prior to each addition of the tis-
sue-KRP solution, the solution was gently
agitated to attain an equal distribution of
cells.

Cells in the samples labeled K and 2K
were killed by adding 3 ml of freshly pre-
pared 20 percent trichloroacetic acid. The
K samples served to provide background

corrections. Samples labeled S were iden-
tical to K and 2K with the addition of 0.2
ml of 0.174 percent solution of glucose. The
B sample, another control, did not contain
the glucose supplement and was identical
to the experimental sample, except to the
latter was added 0.2 ml of alcohol to sub-
stitute for the same amount of KRP.
Radioactive amino acids used in this ex-
periment, L-[U-'C]-phenylalanine and L-
| U-14C |-leucine both with a radioactive con-
centration of 50 «Ci/ml were obtained from
Amersham Searle Corporation. The labeled
phenylalanine had a specific activity of 513
mCi/mmol while that of the leucine was
348 mCi/mmol. Each amino acid solution
was diluted with distilled deionized water
so that each 0.1 ml of the amino acid con-
tained 5.55 x 10* dpm and each sample re-
ceived 0.2 ml (1.11 x 10° dpm). The sam-
ples were mixed thoroughly and incubated
in a shaking water bath at 37-38 C for 90
min. After incubation, 3.0 ml of cold 20
percent TCA was added to each sample ex-
cept the “killed” which received it prior to
incubation. The contents of the samples
were mixed and allowed to stand under
refrigeration for complete precipitation of
the “protein.” All tubes were centrifuged at
300 x g for 10 min and the supernatant
transferred to the waste jar by careful pour-
ing. Five ml of 10 percent TCA was added
to each of the remaining pellets. Centrif-
ugation and decantation of the supernatant

In Virro ErFect oF ETHANOL ON Rats—Ridgel et al.

143

TABLE 2.—SUMMARY OF DATA ON INCORPORATION OF PHENYLALANINE BY SPLEEN. T-TEST FOR SIGNIFICANT
(0.05 LEVEL) DIFFERENCES OF MEANS ARE INDICATED BY +

Concentrations of ethanol %

X x 108 S- X 108 a pene
Samples dpm dpm B 0.03 0.06 0.12 0.24 0.48 0.96
S 120.59 18.07 ee ey eho eee
B 80 14.27 at IR ES gi Lo) ety
Concentrations
of ethanol (%)
0.03 48.75 9.65 fh, = aay eae
0.08 45 17.63 fo ah Sg nde © oe cl up, a
0.12 69.412 15.996 Sah ste ahs aie a5 = +
0.24 83.33 18.25 + — + + 4 ie
0.48 71.11 13.18 oe ee +
0.96 45 16.58 fe hh sae Ae ant

followed the wash in 5 ml of absolute al-
cohol to remove the lipid fraction. Two
successive washes with 5 ml of distilled
deionized water were used to remove traces
of ethanol. Also at that time 0.1 ml of radio-
active amino acid was added to the 2K
samples solution. Those samples were later
compared with the K samples to determine
the amount of quenching of the dpm in the
liquid scintillation system for correcting the
cpm. All samples were solubilized by add-
ing 0.3 ml of Soluene 350 (0.5N quartenary
ammonium hydroxide in toluene). That
mixture was heated in a water bath at 50 C
for at least 30 min and then allowed to stand
overnight at room temperature. Prior to
preparation for counting in the liquid scin-
tillation system, each sample was bleached
with 0.2 ml of a solution prepared by dis-
solving 3.2 g benzoyl peroxide in 15 ml of
toluene. The bleaching proved necessary
when a comparison was made on the counts
between bleached and unbleached samples.
Each sample-bleach mixture was heated for
one-half hour at 50 C, cooled, diluted with
PCS™ (a complete Phase Combining Sys-
tem obtained from Amersham/Searle
Corp.) and poured into a 25-ml plastic
counting vial that contained 1 ml of 6 per-
cent ascorbic acid. It was learned that the
addition of ascorbic acid or other weak acids
enabled the vials to be counted within 2-3
min of processing (pers. comm.). All sam-
ples were counted in a Searle Model 6868A

Isocap/300 Temperature Compensated Liq-
uid Scintillation System.

RESULTS

Uptake of L-[U-“C]-phenylalanine by
crude “bret” of spleen and liver cells.

Table 2 represents a summary of results
of the effects of incubation of spleen cells
with different concentrations of ethanol on
the ability of those cells to incorporate L-
[U-"C]-phenylalanine. Although there was
considerable variation in the results ob-
tained from individual experiments, the
summary data seem to indicate that all of
the experimental concentrations of ethanol
inhibited the ability of the spleen cells to
incorporate radioactive phenylalanine. Us-
ing t as a statistical test of differences be-
tween the means (Blommers and Linquist
1960), it was observed in the summary data
that significant differences do exist between
the means of all ethanol treated cells and
those provided with 0.174 percent glucose.
There were significant differences between
cells treated with 0.03 percent ethanol and
those treated with 0.12, 0.24 and 0.48 per-
cent ethanol. No significant difference in
incorporation was observed when the means
of cells exposed to 0.96 percent ethanol
were compared with those 0.03 and 0.06
percent ethanol treated spleen cells.

The results of the effects of different con-
centrations of ethanol upon the ability of

144

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 40( 3-4)

TABLE 3,—SUMMARY OF DATA ON INCORPORATION OF PHENYLALANINE BY LIVER. T-TEST FOR SIGNIFICANT
(0.05 LEVEL) DIFFERENCES OF MEANS ARE INDICATED BY +

Concentrations of ethanol %

X < 108 Sz X 108
Samples dpm dpm B 0.03 0.06 0.12 0.24 0.48 0.96
S 11.57 3.04 3 SI sete 2 8) ae
B 12.43 3.16 Es COB: 12°) ae Nn rally oo moe
Concentrations
of ethanol (%)
0.03 6.80 3.15 ee ee SRN ae 4) TE
0.08 6.30 2.95 ey A epee EF
0.12 13.00 3.66 er eet: ky et a2) EOLA
0.24 13.00 3.91 ee, LE AE ene (PSE ee SE
0.48 9.44 2.80 ee RE ay ts: Wipeneaen EPs Ay ae
0.96 10.40 1.22 — == — —_ = ee =

liver cells to incorporate radioactive phe-
nylalanine are shown in Table 3. Initially,
one observes that liver cells exposed to 0.12
and 0.24 percent ethanol, incorporated as
much or more phenylalanine than did the
cells exposed to glucose. The liver cells ex-
posed to 0.03 and 0.06 percent ethanol gave

CPM xX10°

Fic. 1. The uptake of radioactive phenylalanine
by spleen cells. S indicates the samples that re-
ceived a glucose supplement, B indicates the basal
samples, and the numerical values indicate the
percentage of ethanol exposed to the cells.

means of incorporation of phenylalanine
significantly lower than what was observed
in liver cells exposed to 0.12 and 0.24 per-
cent ethanol in final medium concentration.

Figs. 1 and 2 represent graphic illustra-

CRM exo sal;

Fic. 2. The uptake of radioactive phenylalanine
by liver cells. S indicates the samples that received
a glucose supplement, B indicates the basal sam-
ples, and the numerical values indicate the per-
centage of ethanol exposed to the cells.

IN Virro Errecr oF ETHANOL ON Rats—Ridgel et al.

145

TABLE 4.—SUMMARY OF DATA ON INCORPORATION OF LEUCINE BY SPLEEN. T-TEST FOR SIGNIFICANT (0.05
LEVEL ) DIFFERENCES OF MEANS ARE INDICATED BY ++

Concentrations of ethanol %

X x 103 Sz x 108
Samples dpm dpm S 0.12 0.48 0.96
S 42.672 7.385 + 4 ny i
Concentrations of
ethanol (%)
0.12 19.272 2.951 i fs. aul
0.48 22.528 6.992 + = am
0.96 15.57 3.611 ne ee ae

tions of the differences between the reac-
tion of spleen cells and liver cells to the
concentrations of ethanol. The uptake of
radioactive phenylalanine by spleen cells
is about 5 times that of the hepatic cell
mixture at all concentrations of ethanol ex-
posure. The difference in uptake of radio-
active phenylalanine in spleen cells exposed
to 0.174 percent glucose was about 10
times that of liver cells similarly exposed.

Uptake of L-[U-"C]-leucine by crude
spleen and liver cell preparations.

Table 4, series 2, shows spleen cells ex-
posed to 0.12, 0.48, and 0.96 percent etha-
nol, and to 0.174 percent glucose in final
medium concentrations. Those cells ex-
posed to glucose showed levels of incorpo-
ration of leucine 2 times higher than those
exposed to the 3 ethanol concentrations.
Table 5 gives results of amino acid incor-
poration into liver cells, exposed to concen-
trations of ethanol and glucose as indicated
above. Liver cell uptake of leucine was

TABLE 5.—SUMMARY OF DATA ON INCORPORATION OF LEUCINE BY LIVER, SERIES A.

higher in cells exposed to 0.174 percent
glucose but the means of the summary data
were statistically different only between
those cells treated with glucose and those
with 0.96 percent ethanol or untreated cells
(basal group). Statistical differences did
exist between the mean uptake of liver cells
exposed to 0.12 and 0.48 percent and with
0.96 percent ethanol per volume, but not
between 0.12 and 0.48 percent.

Tables 6 and 7 (series b) give results of
experiments designed especially to deter-
mine if the incorporation observed for
phenylalanine at the 0.24 percent ethanol
concentration is similar to leucine incor-
poration. In this series of experiments 0.06,
0.12, 0.24 and 0.96 percent ethanol con-
centrations were employed. Mean differ-
ences of incorporation of leucine between
0.06, 0.12, and 0.24 percent ethanol ex-
posures were significantly different from
the mean of the 0.96 percent in spleen cells
while the only significant difference in the
means among ethanol exposed liver cells
was between the 0.06 and 0.24 percent.

T-TEST FOR SIGNIFICANT

(0.05 LEVEL) DIFFERENCES OF MEANS ARE INDICATED BY ~-

Concentrations of ethanol %

X x 108 S. x 108 - - ~

Samples dpm “dpm Ss 0.12 0.48 0.96

S il 1.57 _- — ar
Concentrations of

ethanol (%)
0.12 4.31 0.937 — —_— +
0.48 4,22, 0.908 — — +
0.96 2.41 0.628 ar + 4

146

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 40( 3-4)

TABLE 6.—SUMMARY OF DATA ON INCORPORATION OF LEUCINE BY SPLEEN, SERIES B. T-TEST FOR SIGNIF-
ICANT (0.05 LEVEL) DIFFERENCES OF MEANS ARE INDICATED BY +

Concentrations of ethanol %

X X 108 S; x 108
Samples dpm dpm S 0.06 0.12 0.24 0.96
S 103.7 PAT PA — + + +
Concentrations of
ethanol (%)

0.06 56.7 14.2 + — — +
0.12 55.0 17.8 = = = aig
0.24 63.0 18.4 a — — +
0.96 39.0 80.7 + + + +

Leucine incorporation in a and b experi-
ments for spleen and liver cells are illus-
trated in Figs. 3 and 4, respectively.

DIscussION

Liver cells and spleen cells, by the tech-
niques employed in this investigation, had
different levels of incorporation of the
amino acid, phenylalanine, when exposed
to different concentrations of ethanol. For
spleen cells, there was inhibition of incor-
poration of radioactive phenylalanine for
all concentrations of ethanol used. That
the liver incorporated less phenylalanine
than did the spleen was unexpected since
the liver is known to play a major role in
metabolism. Cell counts, using the standard
procedures for counting leukocytes, regu-
larly indicated that more intact spleen cells
were present per milliliter of experimental
preparation than liver cells. The results
suggests that for all ethanol concentrations

except 0.12 and 0.24 percent, the incorpora-
tion of phenylalanine was less than that of
liver cells exposed to 0.174 percent glucose.
That organs react differently in the uptake
of amino acids was demonstrated by Guroff
and Udenfriend (1962). Those investiga-
tors observed that muscles incorporated
tyrosine more rapidly, and to a greater
extent, than did the brain. No literature
has been located comparing liver and
spleen amino acid incorporation. However,
LeCam and Freychet (1977) demonstrated
that hepatocytes concentrated alpha-amino-
isobutyric acid two- or threefold higher
than cycloleucine.

Those experiments were performed dur-
ing a 2-year period to determine the effect
of various concentrations of ethanol upon
the uptake of leucine, and in each of the 3
series the uptake of radioactive leucine
by the spleen cells exceeded the uptake by
the liver cells at all levels of ethanol ex-

TABLE 7.—SUMMARY OF DATA ON INCORPORATION OF LEUCINE BY LIVER, SERIES A. T-TEST FOR SIGNIFICANT
(0.05 LEVEL ) DIFFERENCES OF MEANS ARE INDICATED BY +

Concentrations of ethanol %

X X 103 S; x 108

Samples dpm dpm S 0.06 0.12 0.24 0.96

) 9.5 2.517 — — — —
Concentrations of

ethanol (%)
0.06 9.215 3.135 — —_— —= =
0.12 7.042 2.692 — — —= =
0.24 10.422 4,296 — = = a
0.96 7.477 5.834 — — = a

In Virro Errecr OF ETHANOL ON Rats—Ridgel et al. 147

CPM xX 10°

100

Serles -b

Series -a

0.06 012 0.24 0.96

S 012 048 096 5

Fic. 3. The incorporation of radioactive leucine
by rat spleen cells.

posure. In series a, liver and spleen cells
were exposed to 0.12, 0.48 and 0.96 percent
ethanol. As shown in Figs. 3 and 4, the
curves were similar, although the level of
uptake in the spleen exceeded that of the
liver by about 6 times. It appeared that at
those 3 concentrations, alcohol inhibited
protein synthesis but the concentration of
the alcohol may not have been a factor un-
til near lethal concentrations were reached.
No significant differences were observed in
the means of the three concentrations used
in the spleen cells, and only the 0.96 per-
cent exposed liver cells gave means sig-
nificantly different from the mean incor-
poration at other concentrations. Series b
was undertaken to determine if the cells ex-
posed to 0.24 percent ethanol would give
similar results for leucine uptake that were
observed with phenylalanine. It was quite
surprising to observe that the uptake of
leucine in that experiment was much higher
than had been observed in series a. The

TABLE 8.—SUMMARY OF DATA ON INCORPORATION OF LEUCINE BY SPLEEN, SERIES B.

CPM x 10°
10

Series-a Series -b

i

at

S012 048 096 ‘$0.06 012

0.24 096

Fic. 4. The incorporation of radioactive leucine
by rat liver cells.

liver cells in series b exposed to 0.24 per-
cent incorporated higher levels of leucine
than did those cells treated with 0.06 per-
cent ethanol.

Bacterial contamination was not a factor
accounting for the variations in and_ be-
tween experimental series, since the num-
ber of organisms found in aliquots of each
tube at the beginning and conclusion of the
initial experiments were essentially the
same. Those determinations were made by
a standard plate count method. Likewise,
preparation of heat killed cells gave uptake
of the radioactive amino acids similar to
data received from the TCA-killed prepara-
tions.

Shuster and Hannam (1964) demon-
strated a relationship between the body
temperature of rats and the incorporation
of histidine into brain protein. Although
the temperature of the room was not re-
corded at the time of the experiments, the
dates of the different experimental series

T-TEST SIGNIFICANT

(0.05 LEVEL) DIFFERENCES OF MEANS ARE INDICATED BY +>

Concentrations of ethanol %

X X 108 S. x 108 SSS
Samples dpm “dpm S 0.06 0.12 0.24 0.96
S 4.17 2.114 — — — —
Concentrations of
ethanol (%)
0.06 6.03 3.92 — — = —
0.12 3.82 2.47 — = =< —s
0.24 5.91 2.54 = = =e: +
0.96 2.57 1.44 = =e = HL

148

TRANS. KenTucKy ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 40(3-4)

TABLE 9.—SUMMARY OF DATA ON INCORPORATION OF LEUCINE BY LIVER, SERIES B. T-TEST FOR SIGNIFICANT
(0.05 LEVEL ) DIFFERENCES OF MEANS ARE INDICATED BY +

Concentrations of ethanol %

X08 S; x 108

Samples dpm dpm S 0.06 0.12 0.24 0.96

S 1.871 0.58 = = ats =
Concentrations of

ethanol (%)
0.06 2.153 0.814 — — + —
0.12 1.07 0.437 — — =f SF
0.24 2.19 0.894 —- + —+ —
0.96 1.463 0.496 — = ate =

suggest that the temperature differences in
the animals’ environment at the time of
sacrifice could have been a factor account-
ing for the difference in the types of data
obtained from experiments in series a and b.
Also, it appears that the average size of the
rats in a given experiment in each series
could have been a factor influencing the
variation. This could mean the liver and
spleen cells of younger rats contain less in-
tercellular amino acids than older rats. The
amount and type of available amino acids
within the cells may determine the ability
of cells of some organs to incorporate par-
ticular amino acids (Guroff and Uden-
friend 1962, LaCam and Freychet 1977).
Additional investigation is necessary to de-
termine the effects of temperature and age
variations on amino acid incorporation.

SUMMARY

1. The amino acids phenylalanine and leu-
cine are incorporated at higher levels in the
spleen cell preparations than in the liver
cell preparations at each ethanol exposure.

2. Most ethanol concentrations employed
in the experiments produced an_ inhibi-
tory effect upon amino acid incorporation.

3. The spleen cells exposed to 0.24 percent
ethanol gave a greater level of incorpora-
tion of phenylalanine than did other etha-
nol concentrations. Although a peak up-

take was evident in leucine, there was no
significant difference in the mean differ-
ences at that and other levels of exposure
to ethanol concentrations.

4. Experimental results suggest that when
liver and spleen cells are exposed to eth-
anol, inhibition of phenylalanine and leu-
cine incorporation results.

LITERATURE CITED

BLtomMenrs, P., AND E. F. Lineuisr. 1960. Ele-
mentary statistical methods. Houghton Mif-
flin Co., Boston, Mass. Pp. 346-353.

Gurorr, G., AND S. UDENFRIEND. 1962. Studies
on aromatic amino acid uptake by rat brain in
vivo. J. Biol. Chem. 237:803—806.

LeECaM, A., AND P. FreycHetT. 1977. Neutral
amino acid transport: characterization of the
A and L systems in isolated rat hepatocytes.
J. Biol. Chem. 252:148-156.

Letom, L. F., anp J. M. Munoz. 1938. Ethyl
alcohol metabolism in animal tissues. Bio-

chem. J. 32:299-307.

RuBEN, E., AND F. Hurrerer. 1968. Ethanol in-
creases hepatic smooth endoplasmic reticulum
and drug-metabolizing enzyme. Science 159:
1469-1470.
, AND C. Lieper. 1971. Alcoholism, al-
cohol and drugs. Science 172:1097-1102.
SureLps, A., D. BALTIMORE, AND R. RyBAck. 1976.
Viability of cells in ethanol: role of alcohol
dehydrogenase. J. Stud. Alcohol 37:321-326.

SHusTER, L., AND R. V. HannamM. 1964. The in-
direct inhibition of protein synthesis in vivo
by chlorpromazine. J. Biol. Chem. 299:3401-
3406.

Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 40( 3-4), 1979, 149-153

Federal Funding for Research and Development

in Kentucky: I. Background

CuHarRLEsS E. KupcHELLA,’ RicHaArD Stms, Mary Lynn Co uins,”
AND KENNETH WALKER‘

ABSTRACT

In a report published in 1974, based on data for Fiscal Year 1971, it was shown that Kentucky
ranked last or near last in nearly every way by which the share of federal research and develop-
ment (R&D) dollars going to individual states could be evaluated. A review of 1976 data
published by the National Science Foundation revealed that while Kentucky may have improved
slightly by then, the Commonwealth was still considerably below average. In late 1977, the
Kentucky Academy of Science petitioned the Governor, the Legislative Research Commission
(LRC), and the Council on Higher Education (CHE) to join the Academy in a careful docu-
mentation of Kentucky’s federal R&D support status, to find reasons for any apparent problem,
and to identify possible corrective action. Senate Resolution 33 which resulted from the
Academy’s petition, mandated that the CHE and the LRC join the Academy in such a study.
A study group was convened in mid-1978 and a report was to be delivered to the Legislature
in June 1979. This first of several reports to be published in this journal describes the back-

ground and nature of the study.

INTRODUCTION

This is the first in a series of articles
describing a 1978-1979 study of federal
funding for research and development
activities in the Commonwealth of Ken-
tucky. A second report to be published in
a later issue of this journal will document
Kentucky’s current status among the 50
states, particularly in comparison to neigh-
boring states and states similar to Kentucky.
A third report will present the results of a
study that attempted to identify the reasons
for Kentucky's status by describing the
characteristics shared by institutions and
states relatively successful in obtaining
federal research and development support.

1Chairman, Advisory Committee to the Council
on Higher Education and the Legislative Research
Commission on the 1979 study of the federal re-
search and development funding in Kentucky
described in this report; University of Louisville
Cancer Research Center, Louisville, Kentucky
40202. Present address: Department of Biological
Sciences, Murray State University, Murray, Ken-
tucky 42071.

* Legislative Analyst, Legislative Research Com-
mission, Frankfort, Kentucky 40601.

* Legislative Research Commission Intern, Frank-
fort, Kentucky 40601.

* Assistant Director for Analytical Studies, Council
on Higher Education, Frankfort, Kentucky 40601.

The Lloyd Report

In the early 1970s, a study funded by
the Kentucky Department of Commerce
was conducted under the joint auspices of
the Kentucky Academy of Science and the
Task Force on Public Science and Tech-
nology. A series of reports based on that
study was published in 1973 and 1974 and
covered various aspects of science and
technology in the Commonwealth. One of
those reports, written by William G. Lloyd
(1974), showed that Kentucky fared poorly
in comparison with the rest of the United
States in terms of federal support for re-
search and development activities. Quoting
from the Lloyd report: “.. . in fiscal 1971,
the U.S. government committed a total of
$15,180,000,000 to support research and
development activities throughout the na-
tion. That amounts to $74.71 for every man,
woman, and child in the United States. In
Kentucky, the federal research and develop-
ment investment for that year amounted
to $7.14 per capita, less than one-tenth of
the national average. This was the lowest
per capita! share of federal research and
1In the 1970 census, Kentucky ranked 23rd in
population with just over 3,200,000 people.

149

150

development money received by any state
in the union.”

The report showed that Kentucky also
fared poorly if research and development
support coming to the states from the
federal government was adjusted for per-
sonal income or taxes paid. The Common-
wealth received just over one-tenth of its
equitable income adjusted share of federal
research and development funding giving
Kentucky a rank of 50th among the 50 states
and Washington, D.C.; the Commonwealth
ranked 21st among the states in federal
taxes paid but received one-tenth of its
equitable share of tax adjusted research
and development dollars, again with a rank
of 50th. The Lloyd report went on to show
that in terms of federal research and devel-
opment funding versus taxes paid, Kentucky
had been in last place among the states for
1963, 1969, and 1970 as well. Lloyd showed
that Kentucky received about equal treat-
ment from all federal agencies with only
the Department of Agriculture spending
more than 1 percent of its research and
development budget in the Commonwealth.
Although the Lloyd report did not attempt
to ascertain the cause of Kentucky’s rela-
tively poor standing, the factors identified
above and a number of other factors sug-
gested that no simple explanation would be
found.

Kentucky is not unindustrial; its level of
industrialization exceeds that of most south-
ern states and indeed exceeds that of most
states (Lloyd 1974). In terms of the poten-
tial for research and development activity
embodied in scientific manpower, the Lloyd
report showed that the ratio of scientists
to manufacturing workers in Kentucky is
comparable to neighboring states. Ken-
tucky was also shown by Lloyd to be above
the national and regional averages in terms
of the percentage of science and engineer-
ing faculty holding doctorates. Although
Lloyd found the number of colleges and
institutions of higher education per million
people in Kentucky to be similar to that
of surrounding states, Kentucky did rank
relatively low in terms of the number of

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 40(3-4)

college and university scientists and engi-
neers per 100,000 population.

In summary, the Lloyd report showed
that Kentucky received only about one-
tenth of what might be considered by any
measure its equitable share of federal sup-
port for research and development.

Midwest Research Institute Study

In a comparative quality of life study
conducted by the Midwest Research In-
stitute (Pearce 1973), also based on data
for the early 1970s, similar conclusions were
reached. That study showed that Kentucky
received less than half the national per
capita average per college in federal grants
for research and development ($3 versus
$7) and half as much for academic science
($6 versus $12). Kentuckians got only about
13 fellowship and traineeship awards per
100,000 people compared to a national
average of 46. The study also showed that
Kentucky employed 77 scientists per 100,000
people versus a national average of 103.
The latter finding, together with some of
those presented in the Lloyd report, suggest
that the per capita number of scientists,
particularly university scientists and engi-
neers, may partly account for Kentucky’s
poor position in federal research and devel-
opment funding.

More Recent Data

In late 1977, the President and the Execu-
tive Committee of the Kentucky Academy
of Science concluded that an update of the
Lloyd report was in order and that an at-
tempt should be made to identify the factors
responsible for any continuing disparity. A
cursory review of National Science Founda-
tion data available for fiscal 1976 ( National
Science Foundation 1977, 1978) was con-
ducted and it showed that although Ken-
tucky’s status may have improved slightly
by that time, it was still well below average.
The Lloyd report showed that Kentucky
received 0.15 percent of the federal research
and development budget in 1971 and Na-
tional Science Foundation data indicated
that the Commonwealth received 0.25 per-

RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT FUNDING IN KeENtucKy—Kupchella et al.

cent in 1976. The 1976 data indicated that
Kentucky had improved in rank with regard
to both population adjusted dollars (to 43rd)
and income adjusted dollars (to 38th).
Based on those data, the Executive Com-
mittee instructed the President to look into
ways of more carefully documenting Ken-
tucky’s current position and it was thought
that the best way to go about this would be
in cooperation with various agencies of state
government.

Interaction with Agencies
of State Government

In December 1977, letters were written
by the President of the Kentucky Academy
of Science to: the Governor, the Executive
Director of the Council on Higher Educa-
tion, the Director of the Legislative Re-
search Commission, the President of the
Senate, and the Speaker of the House. In
those letters, findings of the Lloyd report
were highlighted and an appeal was made
to join the Academy in a comprehensive
study of the health of the federally-funded
research and development enterprise in the
Commonwealth. The letter suggested that
the task would be to update the Lloyd
report, and then go beyond exploring rea-
sons why Kentucky ranked so low and
possible ways of correcting any continuing
disparity. It was also pointed out that while
the health of science and technology in the
Commonwealth was of direct concern to
the Academy, the research and develop-
ment enterprise was directly related to the
economy and to many other facets of life
in the Commonwealth of interest to state
government.

Senate Resolution 33

As a result of the appeal made by the
Academy, the General Assembly of the
Commonwealth, through Senate Resolution
33, directed the Council on Higher Educa-
tion in cooperation with the Legislative
Research Commission to conduct a new
study. The tasks specifically outlined in
Senate Resolution 33 were to:

151

(1) document Kentucky’s share of federal
research and development funds for
the most recent fiscal year,

determine “why” Kentucky ranks and
has ranked relatively low, and

make recommendations relative to this
problem.

The Study Group

Senate Resolution 33 called for admin-
istrative responsibility for the study to be
undertaken jointly by the Legislative Re-
search Commission and the Council on
Higher Education. In addition to the
authors of this report, other members of the
staff of the two agencies that contributed
to the early organization and conduct of
the study included: Brian Kiernan of the
Legislative Research Commission, Charles
Lockyer of the Council on Higher Educa-
tion, and J. B. Rose of the Council on
Higher Education.

During the summer of 1978, a 15-member
advisory committee was established. Seven
members of the committee were appointed
by the President of the Academy and the
presidents of the 8 state-supported univer-
sities in Kentucky were each asked to ap-
point an institutional representative. The
Kentucky Academy of Science representa-
tives were: Gary Boggess, Ph.D. (Murray
State University ), Fletcher Gabbard, Ph.D.
(University of Kentucky), Louis A. Krum-
holz, Ph.D. (University of Louisville),
Charles E. Kupchella, Ph.D. (University
of Louisville), William G. Lloyd, Ph.D.
(University of Kentucky), Charles A. Payne,
Ph.D. (Morehead State University), and
Marvin A. Russell, Ph.D. (Western Ken-
tucky University ).

Three alternates appointed for the Acad-
emy were: Robert D. Hoyt, Ph.D. (West-
ern Kentucky University ), Sanford L. Jones,
Ph.D. (Eastern Kentucky University), and
Howard Powell, Ph.D. (Eastern Kentucky
University ).

Institutional representatives of the com-
mittee and the institutions they represented
were: Victor Ramey, Ph.D. ( Morehead
State University), Marshall Gordon, Ph.D.

152

(Murray State University), Frank Butler,
Ph.D. (Northern Kentucky University),
John W. Brown, Ph.D. ( University of Louis-
ville), Wimberly C. Royster, Ph.D. (Uni-
versity of Kentucky ), Marvin Russell, Ph.D.
(Western Kentucky University ), and Evans
D. Tracy (Eastern Kentucky University ).
The first meeting of the Advisory Com-
mittee was held on 12 September 1978 in
Frankfort in the offices of the Council on
Higher Education. At that meeting, an
approach for the study was agreed upon.

APPROACH

It was thought that the best way to go
about determining Kentucky’s current share
of federal research and development dollars
was to use data collected routinely and
made available by federal agencies such as
the National Science Foundation and the
Department of Labor. A decision was made
to limit the study to major federal agencies
including the Departments of Agriculture,
Health/Education and Welfare, Interior,
Transportation and Defense, as well as the
Energy Research and Development Admin-
istration, the Environmental Protection
Agency, the National Aeronautics and Space
Administration, and the National Science
Foundation. Since those 10 agencies dis-
tributed more than 97 percent of the total
federal research and development funds
obligated in fiscal 1977, this was not a
serious limitation in the study.

It was decided to use definitions of
research and development similar to those
used by the National Science Foundation.
Hereafter, in this series of reports basic
research means original investigation for
the advancement of scientific knowledge
that does not necessarily have specific
application. Applied research is defined
as investigations directed toward practical
application of knowledge. Development is
defined as the systematic use of scientific
knowledge directed toward the production
of useful materials, devices, systems, and
methods including the development and
design and prototypes of processes. The
term “research and development” as used
here is defined as all basic research, all

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 4(0( 3-4)

applied research, and all development in
the natural, psychological, and social sci-
ences. Industrial research is also included,
but is limited to the natural sciences.

It was decided at the outset to compare
Kentucky to all other states in the union
and that it would be instructive to make
detailed comparisons with 3 smaller cate-
gories of states. The first category is com-
prised of states contiguous to Kentucky.
This was chosen for scrutiny because, tradi-
tionally, Kentucky is compared to its neigh-
bors and there is some degree of cultural,
economic, and social kinship shared by
adjoining states. The second category was
identified as “benchmark states,” those states
similar to Kentucky in a significant number
of demographic and socioeconomic charac-
teristics. The methods used to identify such
states will be presented in a subsequent
report. A third category of states to be used
in comparison to Kentucky were those states
with the highest degree of success in obtain-
ing federal research and development fund-
ing. It was thought that that group would
be particularly useful in the identification
of characteristics shared by relatively suc-
cessful institutions within individual states.

Survey of Institutions in States
Singled Out for Comparison

While it was agreed that a number of
characteristics of the institutions be used for
purposes of comparison could be defined
through published data, e.g., the degree of
industrial base, number and types of in-
stitutions of higher learning, and the exis-
tence of national or federal laboratories, a
number of other characteristics deemed
important would, it was reasoned, have to
be gotten through a survey. It was decided
to focus on the institutions of higher educa-
tion at the exclusion of industry and other
categories of performers. This was done
primarily because the scope of the study
had to be limited to comply with the time
constraints of the study. Questionnaires
were sent to 570 colleges and universities in
21 states and the District of Columbia.

The approach embodied in the question-
naire, the nature of which will be described

RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT FUNDING IN KENTUCcKyY—Kupchella et al.

in detail in a subsequent report, was based
on a perceived need to get at such factors
as (1) the administrative structure of re-
search and development within institutions
of higher education, (2) the availability of
institutional funding, (3) whether or not
schools had internal review and approval
processes, and (4) the rank of the senior
person responsible for research and devel-
opment matters. The questionnaire also
attempted to get at the degree of emphasis
on research in faculty hiring practices, in
promotion, and tenure decisions, and in
the number of faculty committed to re-
search. It was thought that these factors
would help paint a more complete picture
added to the otherwise readily obtainable
data such as published research articles,
grant applications, and the number of on-
going studies.

This Study in Perspective

It should be emphasized here that the
study described in this series of reports
focused exclusively on federally supported
research and development in the Common-

153

wealth. The study was stimulated by the
observation that even though Kentucky has
done very well in getting money back from
the federal government overall (Fineman
1978), this does not hold true for the fund-
ing of research and development.

LITERATURE CITED

FINEMAN, H. 1978. State Loses Some Ground
in Returned Dollars. The Courier-Journal,
Louisville, Kentucky. 15 January. P. A-1.

Lioyp, W. G. 1974. Federal R&D Funding in
Kentucky: A report on a study conducted by
the Task Force on Public Science and Tech-
nology. Published as a technical report by the
Ogden College of Science and Technology,
Western Kentucky University, Bowling Green,
Kentucky, 15 May.

NATIONAL SCIENCE FounpATION. 1977. Federal
Funds for Research and Development—Fiscal
Year 1976, 1977, and 1978, Vol. 26, National
Science Foundation, Washington, D.C.

1978. Federal Funds for Research and
Development—Fiscal Year 1977, 1978, and
1979, Vol. 27, National Science Foundation,
Washington, D.C.

Pearce, J. B. 1973. Kentucky Now Rates 47th
in Quality of Life Report. The Courier-Journal
and Times, Louisville, Kentucky. 5 August.
P. E-1.

Academy affairs, 69-81

Ambloplites rupestris, 4

Amia calva, 106

Ammocrypta clara, 65

A. vivax, 65

Alosa chrysochloris, 4-5, 102

Anguilla rostrata, 4—5

Aphredoderus sayanus, 106

Aplodinotus grunniens, 5, 102

Aprostatandrya —macrocephala
27-30, 32

Arenaria patula, 98

Argia tibialis, 52

>

BARBOUR, ROGER W., 111
BARNETT, DAVID, 141
BASKIN, CAROL C., 98
BASKIN, JERRY M., 98
Bass, largemouth, 104
spotted, 104
striped, 104, 108
white, 102, 104
yellow, 102, 104
BAUER, BRUCE H., 53
Beech Fork, 1-20
Betula lutea, 96
Bluegill, 6, 9, 104
Bluegrass, of Kentucky, 85-95
Boleosoma, 56
Bosmina longirostris, 123, 125
Botany, field, in Kentucky, 43-
Silt
Bowfin, 103, 106
BRANSON, BRANLEY A., 53,
112
BRYAN, HAL, 41
BUCKNER, RICHARD L., 27
Buffalo, bigmouth, 103
black, 103
smallmouth, 103
Bullhead, black, 103, 106
brown, 103, 108
yellow, 103
BURR, BROOKS M., 58

Campostoma anomalum, 4
Carp, 103
white, 107
Carpiodes carpio, 4-5
C. cyprinus, 4, 6, 106
Carpsucker, highfin, 103
quillback, 103, 106
river, 5, 103
Carassius auratus, 106
Catfish, blue, 102-104
channel, 102-103, 107
flathead, 6, 103
Catonotus, 5-6
Catostomus commersoni, 4

INDEX TO VOLUME 40

Cestodes, anoplocephalid, 27
Chaoborus, 124
Chaplin River, 1-20
Chrosomus erythrogaster, 4
Chub, creek, 9

silver, 103-104

speckled, 112
Chubsucker, creek, 103

lake, 103
Cittotaenia, 32
Clinostomus funduloides, 58, 60
C. f. estor, 60
Coal-fired generating plants, fish

impingement, 100

COLLINS, MARY LYNN, 149
Cottus carolinae, 5
Crangon armillatus, 130
Crappie, black, 104

white, 104, 106
Crayfish, molting of, 129-140
CROWLEY, PHILIP H., 52
Ctenophryngodon idella, 65
Cyperus inflexus, 98
Cyprinus carpio, 4, 107

Dace, rosyside, 60
Damselflies, in Kentucky, 52
Daphnia, 123, 125
Darter, banded, 61
channel, 61
cypress, 65
fantail, 9
gilt, 61
goldstripe, 61
gulf, 54, 62
lollypop, 54, 56, 63-64
orangethroat, 6
river, 104, 106
sharpnose, 54
slenderhead, 6
stripetail, 54
DAVIS, WAYNE H., 111
Dorosoma cepedianum, 4, 102
D. petenense, 102
Drum, freshwater, 100, 102, 104,
107

Eel, American, 5, 103
Elassoma zonatum, 61
Enallagma traviatum, 52
Ericymba buccata, 2, 4
Esox americanus, 59

E. niger, 58-59, 66
Ethanol, effect on rats, 141-148
Etheostoma, 56

E. asprigene, 58, 62-63, 66
E. blennioides, 5

E. caeruleum, 5

154

. flabellare, 2, 5, 56
. fusiforme, 58

neopterum, 53-54, 56, 58,

63-65

nesting site of, 56

nigrum, 56

olmstedi, 56

parvipinne, 58, 61-62, 66
proeliare, 58, 65-66

smithi, 56, 65

spectabile, 5-6

squamiceps, 54, 56, 64-65
swaini, 53-54, 58, 62-63, 66
zonale, 5, 58, 61
Euphorbia humistrata, 98
EVERSMEYER, HAROLD W.,
68

bt oy os

bes tes bet ad Da Dat bt Dt bt

Faxonella clypeata, 130

Fish impingement, 100

Fishes, of Kentucky, 1

of western Kentucky, 58-67

Flier, 104

Fraxinus pennsylvanica, 38

FULLER, MARIAN J., 43

Funding, research and develop-
ment, in Kentucky, 149-153

Fundulus catenatus, 4, 6

F. notatus, 4

Galumna sp., 27, 29-31

G. curvum, 27-29, 31

G. virginiensis, 27-29, 31

Gar, alligator, 103, 106
longnose, 103, 106, 122-128
shortnose, 103, 106
spotted, 103

Gecarcinus lateralis, 130

Goldeye, 103

Goldfish, 103, 106

Herring, skipjack, 5, 102-104

Hiodon tergisus, 104

HOYT, ROBERT D., 1, 100

Hybognathus argyritis, 65

H. placitus, 65

Hybopsis aestivalis, 112-121
olfactory organ in, 112

H. a. sterleta, 112

H. amblops, 4

H. australis, 112

H. gelida, 65

H. hyostoma, 112

H. marconis, 112

H. meeki, 65

H. storeiana, 104

H. tetranema, 112

Hypentelium nigricans, 4, 9

Ichthyofauna, in Kentucky, 53
Ichthyomyzon castaneus, 59
I. fossor, 53

I. gagei, 58-59, 66

I. greeleyi, 108

Ictalurus furcatus, 102

I. melas, 4, 106

I. natalis, 4

I. nebulosus, 4, 108

I. punctatus, 4, 102
Ictiobus cyprinellus, 4
Ishnura ramburii, 52

Karst, of Kentucky, 21-26
lapies type features, 21-26
KIND, THOMAS C., 85
KUPCHELLA, CHARLES E.,
149

Labidesthes sicculus, 4
Lampetra aepyptera, 58-59
Lamprey, Allegheny brook, 103,
108
least brook, 59
northern brook, 53
silver, 103
southern brook, 59
Landscape development, 85-95
Leavenworthia uniflora, 98
Lepisosteus osseus, 4, 106, 122—
128
L. platostomus, 106
L. spatula, 106
Lepomis cyanellus, 4, 9
.c. X humilis, 4
. c. X macrochirus, 4, 6
.c. X megalotis, 4
. garmani, 60
. gulosus, 106
. humilis, 4
h. < macrochirus, 4
macrochirus, 4, 104
m. < megalotis, 4, 6
. marginatus, 58, 61, 66
. megalotus, 4, 9, 61, 107
. microlophus, 4
. punctatus, 58, 60, 66
. p. miniatus, 61
Lestes eurinus, 52
L. rectangularis, 52
L. symmetricus, 61
Leucine, incorporation in rats,
141-148
Liquidambar styraciflua, 33-40
Logperch, 104
Lonicera japonica, 41
LOTT, DENISE, 141

bo

Siall sisi el sla sisi ais

Madtom, brindled, 103
brown, 60
elegant, 54

INDEX TO VOLUME 40

least, 60
mountain, 6, 103
northern, 103
tadpole, 6, 103
Mammals, of Kentucky, 111
MAYDEN, RICHARD L., 56,
58
McGRAIN, PRESTON, 21
Menidia audens, 125
Micropterus dolomieui, 4
M. punctulatus, 4, 9
M. salmoides, 4
Microtus ochrogaster, 27-28
Minnow, bluntnose, 9, 103, 107
flathead, 103
silvery, 103
stoneroller, 9
suckermouth, 54, 103
Minytrema melanops, 4
Mites, oribatid, 27
Mooneye, 103
Morone chrysops, 102
M. interrupta, 102
Mouse, woodland jumping, 111
Moxostoma duquesnei, 4, 6
M. erythrurum, 4, 9, 107
M. macrolepidotum, 4, 6
Mustela nivalis, 111

Napaeozapus insignis, 111

NEFF, STUART E., 1

News and Comments, 82-83

Nostoc commune, 98

Notemigonus crysoleucas, 4

Nothonotus, 56

Notophthalmus wv. viridescens,
96-97

Notropis ardens, 4

. atherinoides, 123, 125

. boops, 4

. buchanani, 4-5

. camurus, 53, 65-66

. coccogenis, 66

. cornutus, 4

. heterolepis, 66

. hubbsi, 66

. hudsonius, 65

. maculatus, 61

. photogenis, 4-5, 108

. spilopterus, 4, 53, 107

. stramineus, 4, 107

. venustus, 65-66

. whipplei, 4, 53-54, 107

Noturus elegans, 54

N. eleutherus, 4, 6

N. flavus, 4

N. gyrinus, 4, 6

N. hildebrandi, 58, 60

N

N

N

z

S222 24 42242222224

_h. lautus, 60
. miurus, 4
. phaeus, 58, 60, 66

Odonata, 52
Oribatella quadricornuta, 27-29,
Si

Orconectes immunis, 130, 138

O. propinquus, 130

O. rusticus rusticus, 129-140
molting of, 129, 140

O. virilis, 130, 136, 138

Paddlefish, 102—104

PAGE, LAWRENCE M., 56

Paranoplocephala variabilis, 27—
29, 31-32

Perch, pirate, 103, 106

Percina burtoni, 65

. caprodes, 5

. copelandi, 58, 61

. evides, 58, 61

. maculata, 5

. oxyrhyncha, 54-55, 65

. phoxocephala, 5-6

. shumardi, 106

. squamata, 55

Percopsis omiscomaycus, 53

PETRANKA, JAMES W., 96

Phenacobius mirabilis, 4, 54

Phenylalanine, incorporation in
rats, 141-148

PHILLIPPI, ANN, 96

Phoxinus cumberlandensis, 65

Pickerel, grass, 103

Pimephales notatus, 4, 9, 107

P. promelas, 4

Platynothrus peltifer, 27-29

POIGNARD, GINA, 141

Polyodon spathula, 102

Pomoxis annularis, 5, 104

President’s remarks, 82-83

Pylodictis olivaris, 4, 6

Ins} las} lae}-lns} las}!ins) ie} (ac)

Quillback, 6

Rat, cotton, 111
Redhorse, black, 6, 103
golden, 103, 107
river, 103
shorthead, 6
RESH, VINCENT H., 1
RIDGEL, GERTRUDE C., 141
Rhododendron, 96
Roccus saxatilis, 104
Rubus, 41

Salix nigra, 37
Salt River, 1

fishes of, 1
Sauger, 104
Scalopus aquaticus, 111
Scaphirhynchus albus, 65
Scheloribates laevigatus, 27-28,

30-31

156 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 40(3-4)

Sedum pulchellum, 98-99
Semotilus atromaculatus, 4
Shad, gizzard, 100, 102-104,
107-108
threadfin, 100, 102-104, 107—
108
Shiner, bluntface, 53
common, 9
emerald, 103
ghost, 5
golden, 103
river, 103
rosefin, 9, 103
rosyface, 103
sand, 103, 107-108
silver, 5, 103, 108

spotfin, 53, 103, 107

steelcolor, 53, 103, 107
Shrews, in Kentucky, 41
Sigmodon hispidus, 111
Silverside, Mississippi, 125
SIMS, RICHARD, 149
Sorax fumeus fumeus, 41-42
S. longirostris longirostris, 41-42
Stizostedion canadense, 5
Stonecat, 103
Studfish, northern, 6
Sunfish, dollar, 61

green, 6, 9, 104

longear, 6, 9, 104, 107

orangespotted, 104

redear, 104

spotted, 60
Sweetgum, 33-40

Troutperch, 53
Tsuga canadensis, 96

Vinca minor, 41
Vole, prairie, 27

WALKER, KENNETH, 149

Walleye, 104

Warmouth, 104, 106

Weasel, least, 111

WELLMAN, LYNN H., 33

WHARTON, MARY EU-
GENIA, 68

WILSON, ALLAN D., 52

WINSTEAD, JOE E., 33

Zygoptera, 52

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CONTENTS

The Applicability of Cyclic and Dynamic Approaches of Landscape
Development to the Kentucky Bluegrass. Thomas C. Kind

Massive Diurnal Activity in Nonmigrating Red Efts of Notophthalmus
v. viridescens. James W. Petranka and Ann Phillippi

The Ecological Life Cycle of Sedum pulchellum in Kentucky. Jerry M.
Baskin and: CaroliC 7B skin c 22 ee ee ia a, Se

Fish Impingement at Two Coal-Fired Generating Plants in Kentucky.
Robert DSH Oye Maal a. Din TARR ORR canst aa eRe

Distributional Records of Some Kentucky Mammals. Wayne H. Davis
and: Roger! We Barboun (i. 8 su) Riles WT ol pin a ince

Variation in the Olfactory Organ in Hybopsis aestivalis (Pisces: Cyprini-
daé)=, Brantley Allan Brawson es.” Sel Ries. oan ae ian eae

Early Piscivory and Timing of the Critical Period in Postlarval Longnose
Gar at Mile 571 of the Ohio River. William D. Pearson, Gregory A.
Bhomas, andsAaron: Glark ice. AA Va GENE. Oe ee a a

The Effects of Temperature and Photoperiod on Molting in Seasonal
Populations of the Crayfish Orconectes rusticus rusticus. Steven
GY Sadewasser andehudol phy Prins 20) cov sae eal eae

Effects of Ethanol on in vitro Incorporation of C-14 Leucine and Pheny]-
alanine in Rat Spleen and Liver Cells. Gertrude C. Ridgel, Gina
Roignard, Denise Lott, and David Barmetin (3) i ae ee

Federal Funding for Research and Development in Kentucky: I. Back-
ground. Charles E. Kupchella, Richard Sims, Mary Lynn Collins,
anduKenneth Walker ws ltie i. 050i Se Th CR iO aU ee a ela

Index

85

96

98

100

Jala

112

122

129

14]

be SACTIONS

Or 1HE

“KENTUCKY

ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

Official Publication of the Abadentt

Volume 41
Numbers 1-2
March 1980

sie

The Kentucky Academy of Science
Founded 8 May 1914

OFFICERS FOR 1980

President: Rudolph Prins, Western Kentucky University, Bowling Green 42101
President Elect: John Philley, Morehead State University, Morehead 40351

Past President: Sanford L. Jones, Eastern Kentucky University, Richmond 40475
Vice President: Ted M. George, Eastern Kentucky University, Richmond 40475
Secretary: Robert Creek, Eastern Kentucky University, Richmond 40475
Treasurer: Morris Taylor, Eastern Kentucky University, Richmond 40475

Director of the Junior Academy: Herbert Leopold, Western Kentucky
University, Bowling Green 42101

Representatives to AAAS Council: Branley A. Granson, Eastern Kentucky
University, Richmond 40475

BOARD OF DIRECTORS

Gertrude Ridgel 1980 Jerry C. Davis 1982
Ivan Potter 1980 Daniel Knopf 1982
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TRANSACTIONS of the

KENTUCKY

ACADEMY of SCIENCE

March 1980

VOLUME 41
NUMBERS 1-2

Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 41(1-2), 1980, 1-11

Federal Funding for Research and Development in
Kentucky: II. Kentucky in Comparison with
Other States

CHARLES E.. KUPCHELLA,! KENNETH WALKER,? RICHARD SIMS,?
AND MARY LYNN COLLINS?

ABSTRACT

In 1978, a study of federal funding of research and development (R&D) in Kentucky was
undertaken jointly by the Legislative Research Commission, the Council on Higher Education,
and the Kentucky Academy of Science. One objective of the study was to compare Kentucky’s
share of federal funding for research and development with that of other states. Detailed com-
parisons were to be made with regard to specific federal agencies and specific categories of
research performers for 3 subsets of states: (1) states bordering Kentucky; (2) states judged to
have a high degree of socioeconomic and demographic similarity to Kentucky, “benchmark”
states; and (3) states with a high degree of success in capturing federal support for research and
development. In Fiscal 1977, Kentucky ranked 8th in a group of 11 benchmark states and next
to last among its contiguous states in total federal obligations for research and development. In
1977, Kentucky ranked no better than 22nd nationally with respect to funding from any of 10
major federal agencies. Per capita research and development funding of colleges and universities
placed Kentucky last both among its benchmark states and contiguous states. Overall, Kentucky
ranked 36th among the states in total federal research and development obligations. While it
ranked 23rd in population, it ranked only 47th in research and development dollars per capita.
While it ranked 25th in federal tax dollars paid (in 1976), it ranked only 40th in federal research
and development obligations per tax dollar contributed. While it ranked 24th in personal income
(in 1976), it was 38th in federal research and development obligations adjusted for personal
income.

INTRODUCTION

‘ Chairman, Senate Resolution 33 Advisory Com-
mittee (Council on Higher Education and the Leg-
islative Research Commission 1979 study of fed-
eral R&D funding in Kentucky described in this

report); Professor and Chairman, Department of

Biological Sciences, Murray State University, Mur-
ray, Kentucky 42071.

* Assistant Director for Analytical Studies, Coun-
cil on Higher Education, Frankfort, Kentucky
40601.

3 Legislative Analyst, Legislative Research Com-
mission, Frankfort, Kentucky 40601.

4 Legislative Research Commission Intern.

Events that led to the study described
herein were outlined in an earlier report
(Kupchella et al. 1979). This second in a
series of articles presents data and con-
clusions of a joint Legislative Research
Commission, Council on Higher Educa-
tion, Kentucky Academy of Science study
of federal research and development ob-
ligations going to states for Fiscal Year
1977, and in some cases 1976. A list of

9 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 41(1-2)

members of the Advisory Committee for
the study is included in the Appendix.

METHODS

As used in this study, research and de-
velopment includes all basic research, all
applied research, and all developmental
activities in the natural, psychological,
and social sciences. Development is de-
fined as the systematic application of
knowledge toward the production of use-
ful materials, devices, systems, and meth-
ods that include the design and devel-
opment of prototypes and processes. It
should be noted that the inclusion of the
psychological and social sciences in our
definition constitutes a somewhat broad-
er definition of research and develop-
ment than is used traditionally. Industrial
research is included in our definition of
research and development, but such re-
search is limited to natural sciences.

By federal research and development
support, we mean funds that come from
the 10 leading agencies of the federal
government that support research and
development: the Departments of Agri-
culture; Commerce; Defense; Energy;
Health, Education and Welfare; Interior;
and Transportation; as well as the Envi-
ronmental Protection Agency (EPA); the
National Aeronautics and Space Admin-
istration (NASA); and the National Sci-
ence Foundation (NSF). Those agencies,
together, spend about 97 percent of the
total federal research and development
budget.

Research and development are not sep-
arated in the data presented below; how-
ever, according to the National Science
Foundation (1978b), of all research and
development activities in 1979, includ-
ing those not supported by the federal
government, about 13 percent fell into
the category of basic research, 23 percent
into applied research, and the remaining
64 percent into development.

Selection of Benchmark States

The rationale for selecting the cate-
gories of benchmark, contiguous, and
top-ranked states for comparison were

presented in a previous report (Kupchel-
la et al. 1979). Ten criteria were selected
to define population, employment, in-
come, and educational characteristics
(Table 1) for Kentucky and each of the 10
socioeconomically and demographically
similar “benchmark states.” The ratio-
nale for choosing those criteria and the
definition of similarity for each are:

Number of Major Cities.—The number
of major cities in a state should be an in-
dicator of the state’s ability to attract
large-scale industry and business (and
R&D) headquarters. States similar in oth-
er respects, but with a widely different
number of major cities, would be expect-
ed to have different institutional charac-
teristics. States with either 1, 2, or 3 major
cities (population greater than 100,000)
were considered similar to Kentucky.

Population Growth.—Population growth
between 1970 and 1976 provides another
measure of economic growth or potential
for economic growth. Population growth
has a strong influence on tax base and the
need for various governmental services.
States within 15 percent of Kentucky's
growth rates for 1970 to 1976 were
judged similar.

Percentage Urban Population.—The per-
centage of each state’s population living
in urban areas is a significant factor for
determining the nature of the demand for
public service and the nature of the in-
stitutions in any state. A high urban con-
centration requires more social services
per capita than a rural population. Rural
populations have greater needs for agri-
cultural programs. States with an urban
population within 15 percent of Ken-
tucky’s were judged similar.

Per Capita Income.—Per capita income
is perhaps the best measure of the capac-
ity of any state to provide educational and
other public services. Because the range
of per capita income is narrower than the
range of the other criteria used here,
states with per capita incomes within 10
percent of Kentucky’s were considered
similar.

TABLE 1.—BENCHMARK STATES: STATES DETERMINED TO BE SIMILAR TO KENTUCKY AND THE CRITERIA USED IN THEIR SELECTION. AN ASTERISK

RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT FUNDING IN KENTUCKY—Kupchella et al. 3

Manufacturing and Mining Employ-
ment.—Nonagricultural employment in
manufacturing and mining are determi-

(*) DENOTES SIMILARITY TO KENTUCKY. SOURCE: U.S. BUREAU OF THE CENSUS 1976

2, |ormSondonowomn :
ie nants of average wage level and are in-
dicators of the level of development and
PE nt ee nature of the economy of a state. As an
are DHODSHNDoOOI . ; te ree On.
Pees |Add aw oucide a economy develops, economic activities
| Sah ESE SS ii! acl change from agricultural to manufactur-
a ; :
ic ing and then to services. A 15 percent
59s AG oe ti range above or below the value for Ken-
x i<e} . . . .
2a5 18 = = x 2 S B 6 S ip a tucky was judged as encompassing simi-
Za cua er os i lar states.
ee Expenditures for Education.—State ex-
gee. § Cu
82252 | minha odin oeNS penditures per student are representative
ge858| SaaS SSRSSRe of the state’s “attitude” toward education
he: and its ability to support education (in-
anew f cluding higher education). States with 15
= + x * > E
=2E5 | 2 ip in & % ak 2 oo percent of Kentucky’s per student expen-
gt | OAS ASIN 119 9 diture were considered similar.
SARS Se aah ae aes eee ; Jee
aoe Nonagricultural Labor Force Participa-
Fs tion Rates.—This index provides a mea-
gee ; ae aces ate
Bie lootmbakact4 sure of the extent to which a population
e2eS | Ft S10 iiss engages in the market economic activity
ABS and may serve as a crude indicator of the
ae opulation’s “‘attitude’’ toward work,
SEs @ aoe
BEE || centile ene eri availability of work, and demands for
SSE |} Se pote Oe Roe ES : eae a . hake
ae | Qa e OOaa governmental services. A 15 percent mar
75s gin was again used to demark similarity.
E Ge eee Poverty.—The percentage of families be-
fa. |hbet mon bh baad 4 ee
BEEC |S REN SRAADHS low the poverty level is a direct measure
SR ORSON er OL SHUCO LON CN aE ace : ee Ot :
BRET | adidas sis Hi ws ws wd as of the need for certain categories of gov-
ay A : ° Om ons
ernmental services, especially activities
that create employment. This parameter
a6 | Sos es eer also reflects the ability of state to support
o & 6 SS 5 8 re araleaieioee 9 2 : 3
S25 BSSASTSE RAD higher education. States with a percent-
= 19 1A B ae ay :
age of families below the poverty level
within 15 percent of the value in Ken-
& Ne) . . .
6 ok % i | SS een eo : ‘ J . ar.
22 lana tsaaaats tucky were considered similar |
“Z5e|GGosmovarr + It was decided in advance that states
a3 similar to Kentucky in at least 5 of the 10
3 categories named above would be de-
ei cico fined as “benchmark states” (Table 1).
ZEEE
Sources of Data on Federal Funding for
S s Research and Development
2 Sis ge Org The sources from which most of the
) ; Sey ay Gl ee ae way
g es a's gesOnse = data presented below were derived were
G| S2Hsnee .0°0 “are 1 my 77:
Seeeeasssex the National Science Foundation (1977a,
SBS*~ OSM O50 Q77 O7R. Q72 OTRaA O78) : :
BAO Ss 2a = 1977b, 1978a, 1978b, 1978c, 1978d) and

the U.S. Bureau of the Census (1976,

4 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 41(1-2)

TABLE 2.—F EDERAL OBLIGATIONS FOR RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT FISCAL YEAR 1977. SOURCE: NaA-

TIONAL SCIENCE FOUNDATION 1978A

Rank

States within group

Benchmark states:

Alabama
Arkansas
Georgia
Kentucky
Louisiana
Mississippi
New Mexico
South Carolina
Tennessee
Vermont
West Virginia

—

_
OODNAKR AK Se w

Contiguous states:

Illinois
Indiana
Kentucky
Missouri
Ohio
Tennessee
Virginia

West Virginia

Or hNWWAID Ul

Top ranked states:
California
District of Columbia
Florida
Maryland
Massachusetts
New York

United States total

Bm WNW UD

Percentage change 1970
to 1977 not adjusted
for inflation

Millions of dollars
Fiscal Year 1977

$ 433.6 21
24.3 148
110.8 53
36.2 175
156.4 i
95.2 236
750.9 69
67.0 276
546.0 182
36.4 283
49.7 154
517.0 116
102.7 12
36.2 175
638.4 119
694.4 52
546.0 182
799.2 126
49.7 154
6,106.6 58
729.6 56
919.1 11
2,030.2 91
1,474.4 94
1,202.8 =3)
$23,343.8 56

1978). National Science Foundation pub-
lications that describe federal funds for
research and development and other sci-
entific activities by fiscal year are pub-
lished regularly.

RESULTS

The status of Kentucky in relation to its
benchmark states, its contiguous states,
and the top-ranked states is shown in Ta-
ble 2. In this straight-forward comparison
of total dollars, Kentucky ranked 8th
among its benchmark states and 7th in
the group of contiguous states. Although
Kentucky enjoyed what looks at first
glance like an impressive 175 percent in-
crease in funding for research and devel-
opment between 1970 and 1977, 2 factors
take the gloss off that statistic. The first
is that the percentage is not adjusted for

inflation. The second is that the increase
was not enough for Kentucky to hold its
place relative to other states. From 1970
to 1977, Kentucky fell from seventh to
eighth among its benchmark states while
its rank relative to contiguous states re-
mained unchanged. Compared to what
would be true if each state received an
equal share of the federal research and
development dollar ($23,343,000,000/50),
Kentucky received a little over one-tenth
its equitable share of the federal research
and development dollar in 1977.
Federal obligations for research and
development in proportion to population,
federal taxes paid, and personal income
are shown in Table 3. The U.S. Bureau
of the Census (1978) estimated that Ken-
tucky’s 1977 population was 3,468,000
making Kentucky the 23rd most populous

|

\
\

RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT FUNDING IN KENTUCKY—Kupchella et al. 5
TABLE 3.—FEDERAL OBLIGATIONS FOR RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT IN PROPORTION TO POPULATION,
FEDERAL TAXES PAID, AND PERSONAL INCOME FISCAL YEARS 1976 AND 1977. SOURCES: NATIONAL SCI-
ENCE FOUNDATION 1977B, 1978B; U.S. BUREAU OF THE CENSUS 1977; AND CBS NEws ALMANAC 1978

Heder! R&D Federal
Federal R&D Rank Rank fedora fax Rank Rank | Rank Rank
funds per capita (within (all dollar paid (within (all income (within (all
States 1977 group) _ states) 1976 group) states) dollar 1976 group) _ states)
Benchmark states:
Alabama $ 117.48 3 13 $0.108 2 9 0.020 2 9
Arkansas 11.30 11 Sl 0.014 10 4] 0.002 10 44
Georgia 21.98 9 4] 0.017 8 38 0.003 8 38
Kentucky 16.21 10 47 0.015 9 4.0 0.003 8 38
Louisiana 39.78 6 32 0.033 6 30 0.006 6 30
Mississippi 39.89 5 31 0.038 5 26 0.007 5 26
New Mexico 627.81 1 2 0.576 i 1 0.103 1 1
South Carolina 23.28 8 40 0.011 11 46 0.002 10 44
Tennessee N2Me22, 2 10 0.093 3 10 0.018 3 10
Vermont 75.54 4 20 0.075 4 14 0.015 4 12
West Virginia 26.80 7 38 - 0.020 i 36 0.004 7 36
Contiguous states:
Illinois 46.04 5 29 0.024 5 34 0.005 5 34
Indiana 19.20 vik 44 0.014 8 4] 0.003 7 38
Kentucky 16.21 8 47 0.015 7 40 0.003 7 38
Missouri 132.40 2, 11 0.071 3 16 0.014 3 17
Ohio 64.93 4 24 0.044 4 23 0.009 4 21
Tennessee 127.22 3 10 0.093 DB 10 0.018 2 10
Virginia 156.85 1 8 0.120 1 8 0.024 ] 8
West Virginia 26.80 6 38 0.020 6 36 0.004 6 36
Top ranked states:
California 279.00 3 5 0.180 3 5 0.036 3 5
District of Columbia 1,065.04 1 1 0.488 1 2 0.094 1 2
Florida 108.56 5 15 0.071 5 16 0.015 5 12
Maryland 490.74 2 3 0.294 2, 3 0.062 2 3
Massachusetts 255.22 4 6 0.156 4 6 0.034 4 6
New York 67.08 6 23 0.040 6 25 0.009 6 21
United States total 107.88 0.073 0.015

came back per federal tax dollar paid,
Kentucky ranked behind 8 of the 11
states in the benchmark group (Table 3)
and was next to last among the contig-
uous states. Virginia, with 12 cents per
federal tax dollar paid and New Mexico
with 57.6 cents coming back per tax dol-

state. With only $16.21 in federal re-
search and development obligations per
capita in 1977, Kentucky ranked 47th
among all states, 10th among 11 bench-
mark states, and a distant last among its
contiguous states (Table 3). It is note-
worthy that some of the top-ranked states

received 20 to 30 times more funding per
capita than Kentucky (Table 3).

Table 3 also contains data for Fiscal
1976, because 1976 was the most recent
year for which tax data and personal in-
come data were available at the time this
study was conducted. In 1976, Kentuck-
ians paid federal taxes that amounted to
$3, 341,000,000, the 25th highest total
among the states. Yet, based on federal
research and development dollars that

lar paid ranked Ist among Kentucky's
contiguous and benchmark states, re-
spectively.

Kentuckians earned $18,590,000,000 in
personal income in 1976, placing Ken-
tucky 24th in this category among all
states. Federal obligations to the Com-
monwealth for research and develop-
ment amounted to 0.3 cents per personal
income dollar giving Kentucky a rank of
38th among the 50 states (and the District

6 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 41(1-2)

TABLE 4.—FEDERAL OBLIGATIONS FOR RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT (IN THOUSANDS OF DOLLARS) IN
KENTUCKY BY MAJOR FUNDING AGENCIES IN FISCAL YEAR 1977. SOURCE: NATIONAL SCIENCE FOUNDA-
TION, 1978B

%

% agency total
United States % Kentucky’s spent in
Agency total USS. total Kentucky total Kentucky
Dept. Agriculture 540,983 2 5,036 10 1.02
Dept. Commerce 244 227 1 99 1 0.04
Dept. Defense 10,948,257 47 7,263 13 0.07
Dept. Energy 3,525,469 15 23,958 43 0.68
Dept. Health, Education
and Welfare 2,750,732 12 10,543 19 0.38
Dept. Interior 295,146 ] 2,607 5 0.88
Dept. Transportation 354,270 2 1,461 2 0.41
Environmental Protection
Agency 289,422 1 1,383 2 0.48
National Aeronautics and
Space Administration 3,701,722 16 503 1 0.01
National Science
Foundation 693,548 3 2,871 5 0.41
Total $23,343,776 100 $56,224 100 0.24

of Columbia) overall, and again placed
the Commonwealth nearly last in com-
parison to its benchmark states and its
contiguous states (Table 3).

Research and Development Support by
Major Federal Agencies

The amount of support provided by
each of 10 major federal agencies for Fis-
cal 1977 is presented in Table 4. As in
Fiscal 1971 (Lloyd 1974), the Depart-
ment of Agriculture was the only federal
agency to spend more than | percent of
its research and development budget in
Kentucky. The Department of Energy
provided the largest percentage of Ken-
tucky’s federal support for research and
development activities, while the Com-
monwealth ranked particularly poorly
with respect to the Department of De-
fense, by far the biggest overall supporter
of research and development activities in
the country. The Commonwealth re-
ceived about 0.07 percent of the Depart-
ment of Defense’s research and devel-
opment budget. Only the National
Aeronautics and Space Administration
spent a smaller percentage (0.01%) of its
budget in Kentucky in Fiscal 1977.

Kentucky's performance relative to its
benchmark and contiguous states as well

TABLE 5.—KENTUCKY’S RANKING WITH EACH MA-
JOR FEDERAL AGENCY WITH RESPECT TO ALL
STATES, BENCHMARK STATES, AND CONTIGUOUS
STATES IN FISCAL 1977, (PERCENTAGE OF TOTAL
FEDERAL R&D BUDGET PROVIDED BY EACH AGEN-
CY IN PARENTHESIS). AN ASTERISK (*) DENOTES THE
4 BIGGEST SPENDERS OF RESEARCH AND DEVEL-
OPMENT DOLLARS. SOURCE: NATIONAL SCIENCE
FOUNDATION 1978A, 1978B

Agency or All Benchmark Contiguous
department states states states

Agriculture 30 6 4
(2)

Commerce 46 10 o
(1)

Defense* 37 9 U
(47)

Energy* 22 6 6
(15)

HEW* 32 6 ih
(12)

Interior 29 3 5
(1)

Transportation 22, 3 5
(2)

EPA 31 i 6
(1)

NASA* 4] ri 7
(16)

NSF 32 4 8

(3)

RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT FUNDING IN KENTUCKY—Kupchella et al. i

TABLE 6.—FEDERAL OBLIGATIONS FOR RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT (IN THOUSANDS OF DOLLARS) IN

FISCAL YEAR 1977 BY CATEGORY OF RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT PERFORMER. FFRDC REFERS TO

FEDERALLY FUNDED RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT CENTERS. SOURCE: NATIONAL SCIENCE FOUNDATION
1978c, 1978p

To

: % performer
United States % Kentucky's total spent
Performer total U.S. total Kentucky total in Kentucky
Federal intramural $ 5,921,901 25 $11,225 20 0.19
Industrial firms 11,084,451 47 22,804 40 0.20
FFRDC administered
by industrial firms 1,053,504 4 37 0 0.00
Universities and colleges 2,833,972 12 14,527 26 0.51
FFRDC administered
by universities and colleges 1,304,569 6 0 0 0.00
Other nonprofit institutions 692,316 3 2,268 4 0.33
FFRDC administered by
other nonprofit institutions 256,144 1 0 0 0.00
State and local government 196,919 1 5,333 fs) TAL
Total $23,343,776 100 $56,225 100 0.24

as all states in terms of rank is shown in
Table 5. Kentucky ranked no better than
22nd nationally in terms of funding from
any federal agency. Although Kentucky
did achieve that rank with respect to one
of the biggest providers of federal re-
search and development dollars, the De-
partment of Energy, the ranking is about
where the Commonwealth should be on
a per capita basis in an area in which
Kentucky could be expected to be a lead-
er. Kentucky is, after all, and has been for
sometime, the leading coal producing
state in the nation. Table 5 illustrates that
one of the major reasons for Kentucky's
poor overall showing is the fact that it
does relatively poorly with 3 of the 4 big-
gest supporters of federal research and
development. Although Kentucky ranks
third among its benchmark states with re-
spect to the Departments of Interior and
Transportation, those agencies spent
only 1 and 2 percent, respectively, of the
total federal research and development
budget.

Performers of Research and
Development in Kentucky

Research and development activities
are carried out by a variety of institutions
within any state. The 8 most important
such categories of performers are shown
together with their records for Fiscal

1977 in Table 6. The data in Table 6 in-
dicate that industrial firms do far more
research and development for the federal
government than do other categories of
performers, almost 4 times more, in fact,
than universities and colleges for the na-
tion as a whole. The fact that such a re-
lationship does not hold true in Kentucky
(Table 6) suggests that industrial firms in
the Commonwealth do less well categor-
ically, than colleges and universities. In-
dustrial firms in Kentucky received no
research and development funding from
Agriculture, Commerce, Transportation,
NASA, or the National Science Founda-
tion in Fiscal 1977.

Another notable point in Table 6 is that
Kentucky received almost 3 percent of
the money provided by the federal gov-
ernment for the support of research and
development activities carried out by
state and local governments. That pattern
is even more spectacular with respect to
certain individual agencies. For example,
the Commonwealth received 19 percent
of the funds spent by the Department of
Energy on research and development
carried out by state and local govern-
ments.

Kentucky's position relative to each of
the major categories of performer for Fis-
cal 1977 relative to benchmark states,
contiguous states, and all states is pre-

8 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 41(1-2)

TABLE 7.—KENTUCKY ’S RANKING WITH RESPECT TO ALL STATES, BENCHMARK STATES AND CONTIGUOUS

STATES BY CATEGORY OF RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT PERFORMER. FISCAL YEAR 1977. THE PERCENT-

AGE OF THE RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT BUDGET GOING TO EACH CATEGORY OF PERFORMER NATION-

ALLY IS GIVEN IN PARENTHESIS. FF RDC REFERS TO FEDERALLY FUNDED RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT
CENTERS. SOURCE: NATIONAL SCIENCE FOUNDATION 19784, 1978B, 1978c, 1978p

Performer

Federal intramural (25)
Industry (47)

FFRDC (4) (industrial mgmt)
Universities and colleges (12)
FFRDC (6) (university)

Other nonprofit (3)

FFRDC (1) nonprofit mgmt
State and local government (1)

All states Benchmark states Contiguous states

40 10 8
30 0 U
15 5 3
34 6 7
19 4 6
30 6 6

8 1 3
10 ] 3

sented in Table 7. Among the benchmark
states, Kentucky does most poorly in the
category of “federal intramural” (ranking
10th) indicating that very few federal in-
stallations in Kentucky conduct their re-
search and development activities in the
Commonwealth. In the same category,
Kentucky ranks last among its contiguous
states. The National Science Foundation,
the Environmental Protection Agency,
and the Departments of Transportation,
Energy, and Commerce spent none of
their intramural funding in Kentucky.
Again, it is interesting that Kentucky
ranks first among benchmark states in
funding for state and local governments.
Unfortunately, state and local govern-
ments capture far less than 1 percent of
the total federal research and develop-
ment budget.

Tables 6 and 7 also indicate that Ken-
tucky’s universities and colleges don’t do
very well with respect to federal funding
for research and development. The suc-
cess of Kentucky’s institutions of higher
education in attracting research and de-
velopment funding has been uneven.
During Fiscal 1976, for example, 6 state
supported universities and | private col-
lege received federal research and de-
velopment funds, but nearly three-quar-
ters of the total was received by the
University of Kentucky. Kentucky’s col-
leges and universities received less than
1 percent of the total spent by 9 of the 10
major federal agencies in the academic
category. Federal expenditures for re-

search and development at universities
and colleges places Kentucky last nation-
ally on a per capita basis. Per capita ex-
penditures for research and development
at colleges and universities was $3.41 in
Kentucky and $18.78 nationally (see Ta-
ble 8).

A disproportionate amount of funding
for research and development activities
in Kentucky’s colleges and universities
apparently comes from sources other
than the federal government (see Table
8). Kentucky received the next to lowest
percentage (42.8%) of its total college/
university research and development
funds from the federal government
among benchmark states and was a dis-
tant last among contiguous states. Nation-
ally, the federal government supported
66.8 percent of the research and devel-
opment carried out in U.S. colleges and
universities in 1977 (see Table 8). It is
noteworthy that state government appar-
ently provides a significant fraction of the
support for academic research and devel-
opment activities within the state, Ken-
tucky ranking third among benchmark
states and second among contiguous
states in that category with a ranking of
seventh nationally.

Federal Support for Things Other Than
Research and Development

As shown in Table 9, Kentucky does
not do so badly in terms of tax dollars
coming back to the state for major cate-
gories of federal expenditure other than

(

RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT FUNDING IN KENTUCKY—Kupchella et al. 9

| TABLE 8.—FEDERAL RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT FUNDS PER CAPITA AND AS A PERCENTAGE OF TOTAL

RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT FUNDS GOING TO UNIVERSITIES AND COLLEGES FISCAL YEAR 1977.
SOURCE: NATIONAL SCIENCE FOUNDATION 19784

research and development. In fact, with
regard to tax money for 5 major federal
programs including revenue sharing,
highways, education, employment, and
welfare for 1969 to 1975, Kentucky
ranked second among all contiguous
states (Table 9). In 1976, only 9 states
(excluding the District of Columbia) got
back more total federal dollars for every
tax dollar sent to Washington; of the con-
tiguous states, only Virginia had a higher
total ratio of federal spending to taxes
paid.

CONCLUSIONS

In terms of the original objective to up-
date the Lloyd report (Lloyd 1974), 2 con-
clusions stand out. The first is that Ken-
tucky’s national ranking in terms of total
obligations for research and development

Federal Rank Rank
Federal Total Percent R&D funds (within (all
States R&D funds R&D funds of total per capita group) states)

| Benchmark states:
Alabama $ 27,965 $ 42,340 66.0 7.58 5 38
Arkansas 7,807 16,789 46.5 3.63 9 49
Georgia 43,297 84,106 51.5 8.59 3 32
Kentucky 11,832 27,620 42.8 3.41 11 51
Louisiana 19,460 45,279 43.0 4.95 6 43
Mississippi 10,711 25,445 42.1 4.49 1 46
New Mexico 22,942 29,386 78.1 19.18 2, 11
South Carolina 11,984 21,813 50.8 3.85 8 47
Tennessee 33,845 46,009 73.6 7.88 4 34
Vermont 9,818 13,130 74.8 20.37 i i
West Virginia 6,452 11,684 55.2 3.48 10 50

Contiguous states:
Illinois 127,336 174,328 73.0 11.34 2 22.
Indiana 47,353 69,570 68.1 8.85 3 30
Kentucky 11,832 27,620 42.8 3.41 8 51
Missouri 56,434 88,176 64.0 11.70 1 20
Ohio 73,119 121,230 60.3 6.84 6 39
Tennessee 33,845 46,009 73.6 7.88 4 34
Virginia 39,437 58,551 67.4 7.74 5 35
West Virginia 6,452 11,684 55.2 3.48 u 50

Top ranked states:
California 423,856 537,838 78.8 19.36 3 10
District of Columbia 30,442 41,147 74.0 44.44 1 2
Florida 55,836 105,002 53.2 6.60 6 40
Maryland 78,490 102,599 76.5 18.97 4 12
Massachusetts 210,723 265,490 79.4 36.48 2 3
New York 313,501 435,799 71.9 17.48 5 15

United States total $2,716,767 $4,064,220 66.8 18.78

rose between 1970 and 1977, but not
much; the second is that Kentucky’s na-
tional ranking in federal research and de-
velopment expenditures at universities

TABLE 9.—TAX MONEY RETURNED TO KENTUCKY

AND CONTIGUOUS STATES PER INCOME TAX DOLLAR

PAID THROUGH 5 FEDERAL GRANT PROGRAMS IN-

CLUDING REVENUE SHARING, HIGHWAYS, EDUCA-

TION, EMPLOYMENT AND WELFARE FOR THE YEARS

1969 AND 1975. SOURCE: THE COURIER JOURNAL,
SUNDAY, 15 JANUARY, 1978

State 1969

Mississippi $1.05 $ .9]
Illinois 64 .79
Indiana 65 67
Ohio 69 tal
West Virginia 2.19 1.60
Virginia 90 86
Tennessee 1.4] 1.19
Kentucky 2.15

10

and colleges declined between 1970 and
1977. Similarly, Kentucky’s rank relative
to benchmark states declined between
1970 and 1977.

Although a detailed analysis of the rea-
sons for Kentucky’s relatively poor show-
ing in research and development support
will be the subject of a subsequent re-
port, certain conclusions can be drawn
from the data presented here. A close
look at the states at the high end of the
spectrum of benchmark states, for exam-
ple, suggests that certain specific factors
are largely responsible for the difference
between the “haves” and the “have
nots.”” New Mexico has the highest rank-
ing among states similar to Kentucky and
is the home of the Los Alamos Scientific
Laboratories. This, together with the
spin-off that that operation confers on the
colleges and universities in New Mexico
and the low population of the state, ac-
counts somewhat for the high standing of
New Mexico. Similarly, Tennessee is the
home of at least 2 major federal enter-
prises that generate spin-off activity and
that garner a considerable fraction of the
federal research and development bud-
get, the Tennessee Valley Authority and
the Cak Ridge National Laboratory. Ala-
bama which ranks third among the
benchmark states has several NASA in-
stallations. It thus seems that at least 1
major factor responsible for the differ-
ences between Kentucky and states that
are otherwise similar is the presence of
national laboratories or special installa-
tions supported by federal research and
development funds.

All benchmark states considered to-
gether received an average of about |
percent of the federal research and de-
velopment budget each, and make Ken-
tucky’s 0.2 percent appear very poor by
comparison. On the other hand, if the top
3 states are removed, the average for the
remaining states is 0.325 percent of the
federal research and development bud-
get causing Kentucky's 0.2 percent to ap-
pear much less worse by comparison.
There is little comfort in this, however,
since it may well be said that all states
similar to Kentucky do poorly in terms of

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 41(1-2)

federal research and development sup-
port.

In summary, in Fiscal 1977, Kentucky
ranked 36th among the states in total fed-
eral research and development obliga-
tions. While it ranked 23rd in population,
it ranked only 47th in federal research
and development obligations per capita.
It ranked 25th in federal taxes paid in
1976, but ranked 40th in federal research
and development obligations adjusted for
tax dollars. The Commonwealth ranked
24th in personal income, but could only
achieve 38th place in federal research
and development obligations per dollar
of personal income in 1976. Although
these data are somewhat dated, we have
no reason to believe that there has been
any significant change in Kentucky status
in the past 2 to 3 years.

The next in this series of reports will
deal with the features and characteristics
of institutions in states highly successful
in capturing federal research and devel-
opment dollars. There will also be a re-
port to deal with the economic impact of
the relatively low level of federal support
for research and development activities
in the Commonwealth of Kentucky.

LITERATURE CITED

CBS News. 1978. CBS News Almanac 1978. Ham-
mond Almanac, Inc., Maplewood, N.J.

COURIER-JOURNAL, THE. 1978. Estimates of the
population of states, July 1, 1977. Sunday, 15
January 1978. P. A-20.

KUPCHELLA, C. E., R. Sims, M. L. COLLINS, AND K.
WALKER. 1979. Federal funding for research
and development in Kentucky: I. Background.
Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci. 40(3-4):149-153.

LLoyp, W. G. 1974. Federal R&D funding in Ken-
tucky: A report on a study conducted by the
Task Force on Public Science and Technology.
Tech. Rept., Ogden School of Science and
Technology, Western Kentucky Univ., Bowling
Green, Ky. 15 May.

NATIONAL SCIENCE FOUNDATION. 1977a. Federal
funds for research, development, and other sci-
entific activities, Fiscal Years 1976, 1977, and
1978. NSF 77-317, Surveys of Science Re-

sources Series. Washington, D.C.

. 1977b. Federal support to universities,
colleges, and selected nonprofit institutions,
Fiscal Year 1976 and transition quarter. NSF
77-325, Surveys of Science Resources Series.
Washington, D.C.

. 1978a. Expenditures for scientific activ-

RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT FUNDING IN KENTUCKY—Kupchella et al. 11

ities of universities and colleges, Fiscal Year
1977. NSF 78-311, Surveys of Science Re-
sources Series. Washington, D.C.

————.. 1978b. Federal funds for research and
development, Fiscal Years 1977, 1978, and
1979. NSF 78-312, Surveys of Science Re-
sources Series. Washington, D.C.

1978c. National patterns of R&D re-
sources, funds and personnel in the United
States, 1953-1978/79. NSF 78-313, Surveys of
Science Resources Series. Washington, D.C.

————.. 1978d. An analysis of federal R&D fund-
ing by function. NSF 78-320, Surveys of Sci-
ence Resources Series. Washington, D.C.

U.S. BUREAU OF THE CENSUS. 1976. Statistical ab-
stract of the United States. U.S. Dept. Com-
merce, Washington, D.C.

. 1978. Estimates of the population of
states, July 1, 1977. Series P-25, No. 790. U.S.
Dept. Commerce, Washington, D.C.

APPENDIX

Senate Resolution 33 Advisory
Committee

Charles E. Kupchella, Ph.D. (chairman)
Murray State University

Gary Boggess, Ph.D.
Murray State University

John W. Brown, Ph.D.
University of Louisville

Frank Butler, Ph.D.
Northern Kentucky University

Fletcher Gabbard, Ph.D.

University of Kentucky

Marshall Gordon, Ph.D.

Murray State University

Robert D. Hoyt, Ph.D.
Western Kentucky University

Louis A. Krumholz, Ph.D.
University of Louisville

William Lloyd, Ph.D.
Kentucky Center for Energy Research

Charles Payne, Ph.D.
Morehead State University

Howard Powell, Ph.D.
Eastern Kentucky University

Victor Ramey, Ph.D.
Morehead State University

Wimberly C. Royster, Ph.D.
University of Kentucky

Marvin A. Russell, Ph.D.
Western Kentucky University

Evans D. Tracy
Eastern Kentucky University

Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 41(1-2), 1980, 12-14

The Use of Artificial Nest Structures to
Study Red-tailed Hawk Young

MARK E. BENNETT! AND WARD J. RUDERSDORF

Department of Biological Sciences, Eastern Kentucky University, Richmond, Kentucky 40475

ABSTRACT

An artificial nest structure was developed and used to obtain information concerning red-tailed
hawk Buteo jamaicensis food and nesting studies on the Central Kentucky Wildlife Management
Area in Madison County, Kentucky. The nest was suspended in a tree (approximately 20 m above
ground) by a pulley and rope and lowered every 2 days to examine the pellets for the food
ingested by the young. At the same time, the young were weighed and measured. The advantages
of using artificial nests as opposed to other methods of checking young raptors at nest sites are

discussed.

The tethering of young raptors to facil-

itate research on food habits has been-

widely practiced (Errington 1932, Ham-
erstrom and Hamerstrom 1951, Luttich et
al. 1971, Rusch and Doerr 1972, Rusch et
al. 1972). Generally, tethering involves
the tying of 3-4-week-old young to the
base of the nest tree or to a nearby tree.
The site is then visited at predetermined
intervals to collect and identify regurgi-
tated pellets and remains of prey. The
young are released when they manifest
a gradual but continual decline in body
weight. Gates (1972) recorded informa-
tion by climbing nest trees, and Wiley
(1973) placed mirrors above nests to ob-
serve and determine egg laying and
hatching dates without having to climb
the tree.

While the practice of tethering reduces
human disturbance time in the nesting
territory, it also imposes certain dangers
upon the young. The young raptors are
vulnerable to ground predators such as
foxes and racoons, and are more vulner-
able to aerial predators, in particular
great horned owls Bubo virginianus.
Another danger is the initial weight loss
that accompanies the change, coupled
with the adverse weather conditions of
rain and chilling. McInvaille and Keith
(1974) decreased mortality in tethered
red-tailed hawk Buteo jamaicensis young
by suspending 3-ft? (0.29-m?) sheets of

1 Present address: 5875 Berean Rd., Martinsville,
Indiana 46151.

12

polyethylene 2 feet (0.6 m) above the
tethering site. The sheets were left there
during the initial stages of tethering
when the young were most vulnerable to
adverse weather conditions.

The present study involved the use of
an artificial nest structure suspended in
the nest tree by a pulley. Hamerstrom
and Hamerstrom (1951) fastened a shal-
low basket 18 inches (46 cm) in diameter
to a rope that passed through a pulley in
the nest tree. The basket was suspended
10 feet (3.3 m) below the original nest site,
the young transterred into the basket, and
the nest removed from the tree. The
“basket nest’ was accepted immediately
by the adult birds. English (1934) con-
structed a “false nest” from unpainted
lumber 3 feet (0.9 m) square by 2 feet (0.6
m) deep with a solid bottom, to a small
tree 10 feet (3.3 m) from the nest tree and
9 feet (2.9 m) above the ground. He hand
fed the young for the first 3 days until the
parents took over regular feeding duties.
To facilitate photography of a nest of
western tanagers, Porter (1972) clamped
a wooden bridle to the nest limb, cut the
nest branch and lowered it to the ground
a few feet at a time as the parents adjust-
ed to the new locations.

A red-tailed hawk nest was located 3
April 1978 on the Central Kentucky Wild-
life Refuge in Madison County, Ken-
tucky. The female was flushed from the
nest, but the nest tree was not climbed to
minimize disturbance in the nesting ter-
ritory. The artificial nest (Fig. 1) was

NEST STRUCTURES FOR RED-TAILED HAawkKs—Bennett and Rudersdorf 13

erected on 28 April 1978. The female was
flushed from the nest upon arrival, but
remained in the nest area. She was ob-
served screaming either from an over-
head circling position, or from nearby
perches for the 2 hours of “nest construc-
tom. |

Three young were present in the nest.
The artificial nest was suspended as near-
ly as possible to the original nest site (ap-
proximately 20 m above ground) and the
nest removed from the tree and placed in
the artificial structure. The young were
then placed in the nest structure. The fol-
lowing day the nest was checked for sta-
bility. The female was flushed from the
nest as the researchers approached with-
in 50 m of the nest tree. The nest was not
lowered at that time, but on the following
day (2 days following construction) the
nest was lowered to the ground. A
plucked quail, shrew, fur from a chip-
munk, and 4 fresh evergreen sprigs were
present in the nest. The nest was visited
thereafter at 2-day intervals. It was low-
ered and checked for prey remains, pel-
lets, and sprigs, and the young were mea-
sured and weighed. It took 2 workers
approximately 20 min to complete the
procedures. On | June, the young were
observed for the first time to be out of the
nest and flying about in nearby trees. On
subsequent dates, the young were seen
in the nest area, having fledged success-
fully.

The use of artificial nests suspended in
the nest tree by pullies has certain ad-
vantages over other methods for visiting
nest sites; it enables the researcher easy
access to the young in acquiring weights,
measurements, and information concern-
ing food habits. It also removes the dan-
ger of tree climbing and decreases dis-
turbance time in the nest area. Artificial
nests suspended in the nest tree are
readily accepted by the adult birds, and
decrease such dangers to the young as
rain, chilled weather conditions, and cer-
tain predators, all common to tethered
birds. Finally, the nest can be construct-
ed to offer better protection for the young
than even the original nest affords. Aust-
ing (1964) mentioned a common mortal-

eohene TO PULLEY

SUPPORT
ROPES
FRAME SIZE

ENG OWX SIA VGIM
BASKET OF
HARDWARE done

30.5 CM DEEP i
an

ROPE

Fic. 1. Artificial nest structure used to study red-
tailed hawk young and their food habits.

ity factor in young raptors, i.e., falling
over the edge of the nest. By increasing
the size of the nest, and forming a deeper
depression with higher sides in the arti-
ficial nest than in natural nests, such mor-
tality may be avoided.

Further research is needed concerning
this aspect of raptor research. This meth-
od may be beneficial in obtaining infor-
mation concerning young raptors and
nesting behaviors, as well as increasing
numbers of fledged young per nest site.
While providing easy access to the nest
and the young, it reduces both distur-
bance time in the nest area, and danger
to the young more so than some of the
previous methods employed.

The authors thank Tom Edwards and
Mike Henshaw for aiding in field work
and construction and placement of the
nest structure, and Stuart Anderson for
providing the illustration.

LITERATURE CITED

AUSTING, G. R. 1964. The world of the red-tailed

hawk. J. B. Lippincott Co., New York, N.Y. 128
pp.

ENGLISH, P. F. 1934. Some observations on a pair
of red-tailed hawks. Wilson Bull. 46:228-235

ERRINGTON, P. L. 1932. Technique of raptor food
habits study. Condor 34:75-S6.

Gates, J. M. 1972. Red-tailed hawk populations
and ecology in east-central Wisconsin. Wilson
Bull. 84:421-433.

HAMERSTROM, F. N., JR., AND F. HAMERSTROM.

14 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 41(1-2)

1951. Food of young raptors on the Edwin S.
George reserve. Wilson Bull. 63:12-15.

LuttTicu, S. D., L. B. KEITH, AND J. D. STEPHEN-
SON. 1971. Population dynamics of the red-
tailed hawk (Buteo jamaicensis) at Rochester,
Alberta. Auk 88:75-87.

MCINVAILLE, W. B., JR., AND L. B. KEITH. 1974.
Predator-prey relations and breeding biology of
the great horned owl and red-tailed hawk in
Central Alberta. Can. Field Nat. 88:1-20.

PoRTER, E. 1972. Birds of North America. E. P.
Dutton and Co., Inc., New York, N.Y. 144 pp.

RuscuH, D. H., AND P. D. DOERR. 1972. Broad-
winged hawk nesting and food habits. Auk
89:139-145.

———.,, E. C. MESLow, L. B. KEITH, AND P. D.

DoERR. 1972. Response of great horned owl
populations to changing prey densities. J.
Wildl. Manage. 32(2):282-296.

WILEY, J. W. 1973. The nesting and reproduction
success of red-tailed hawks and red-shouldered
hawks in Orange County. Calif. Condor
77:133-135.

Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 41(1-2), 1980, 15-26

Effects of Tracked Vehicle Activity on Terrestrial
Mammals and Birds at Fort Knox, Kentucky

W. D. SEVERINGHAUS, R. E. RIGGINS, AND W. D. GORAN
Environmental Division, USA-CERL, Box 4005, Champaign, Illinois 61820

ABSTRACT

A field study was conducted at Fort Knox, Kentucky, to investigate the effects of Army tracked
vehicle training on terrestrial birds and mammals. Intensive studies were conducted at 3 sites
representative of a long-term training area, a short-term training area, and a control area. This
report describes the survey procedures used and provides preliminary indications of ecological
differences between Army tracked vehicle training areas and areas representing pretraining (no
training) conditions. Principal changes were caused by clearing and compacting the soil, vege-
tational disturbance, and resultant erosion in the training areas.

INTRODUCTION

Recent trends in environmental impact
analysis require quantification of impact
estimates. This paper presents the results
of research conducted to establish cause/
effect relationships between Army activ-
ities and their impacts on ecosystems and
describes initial results of the first phase
of the basic research effort. Further sig-
nificant research is focusing on quantifi-
cation of impacts on soil, water, and other
attributes.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The authors thank Steve Apfelbaum of
the University of Illinois and Alan Haney
of Warren Wilson College for obtaining
vegetation and soil information and Mary
Severinghaus for assistance on bird data
gathering. We wish to thank the U.S.
Army Construction Engineering Re-
search Laboratory ILIR program for sup-
port and Joe Chaudoin, Karl Kifer, Duane
Nelson, Rick Hoke, and Randy Blodgett
of the Fort Knox Environment and En-
ergy Office for their assistance and for
coordination of our activities.

METHODS

Fort Knox lies in the Muldraughs Hill
section of north-central Kentucky (Whar-
ton and Barbour 1973), an area in which
there is a variety of topographic and
edaphic sites, that range from mesophytic
deep depressions and sheltered slopes to
dry uplands over shallow soils. Vegeta-

15

tionally, the area is within the western
mesophytic forest region of the Decidu-
ous Forest Formation of eastern North
America (Wharton and Barbour 1973).
Mixed mesophytic communities with
sugar maple, tulip poplar, and a rich as-
sortment of associated species occupy the
depressions and sheltered slopes, while
mixed oak and oak-hickory communities
dominate the drier slopes and ridges.

Three study sites were selected in the
Otter Creek watershed west of the can-
tonment (Fig. 1) in Meade County, Ken-
tucky, for the bird and small mammal sur-
veys. The northernmost site, northwest of
Carlson Lake, is an area of 4.4 ha that has
been used heavily since 1942, and nearly
all arborescent vegetation has been de-
stroyed or removed. Erosion has been so
severe in the past that some chert beds
were exposed. Baxter silt loam surround-
ed most of that area. The bulk of the ex-
posed soil was classified as gullied land,
and the original soil profile had been de-
stroyed. In locating the mammal and bird
erids in that area, an effort was made to
exclude sinkholes and to maintain a buff
er zone between the grids and the sur-
rounding area which had undergone lit-
tle or no noticeable usage. That long-
term impact grid was being used both
day and night on a continuous basis for
training maneuvers.

A second impact area of 12.1 ha was
southwest of Snow Mountain and east of
Pinwheel Road. It has been used for

16 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 41(1-2)

\ MC CRACKEN
SPRING

Fic. 1.

Ft. Knox. :

Study Sites

Locations of the 3 study areas at Fort Knox, Kentucky. L = long-term, S = short-term, and C =

control areas. Inset shows locations of Fort Knox and cantonment in Kentucky.

tracked vehicle maneuvers since early
spring 1978 and is part of a large tract of
land that had been opened recently for
tracked vehicle training purposes. To de-
velop required training conditions, all
vegetation under 3 inches (76 mm) in di-
ameter was cleared for 1,600 ft (480 m)
east and west of Pinwheel Road. As a
mitigation procedure, all the vegetation
cleared was bulldozed into gullies, sink-
holes, and other topographical locations
of significance to reduce erosion.

Although herbaceous vegetation had
not been disturbed intentionally, most of
the ground cover was disrupted during
site preparation. The whole area was
then reseeded with rye and fescue grass-
es that were only beginning to germinate
at the time of the study. It should be not-
ed that trees considerably larger than 3
inches (76 mm) in diameter were re-
moved and that some erosion was already
evident. Baxter cherty silt loams and
Crinder silt loam occupied this area. That

EFFECTS OF TRACKED VEHICLE ACTIVITY—Severinghaus et al.

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18

short-term study site was set up, as was
the long-term site, by avoiding sinkholes
and maintaining the buffer zone between
the grids and unimpacted areas. Training
was observed frequently during the
study.

The control site of 4.2 ha was west of
Tobacco Leaf Lake. More than the dis-
turbed sites, it was a mosaic of different
aged communities having varied histo-
ries and a variety of edaphic and slope
conditions. This site was bordered on the
northwest by recently cleared areas con-
tiguous with the short-term site. Evi-
dence suggested that this area was used
periodically for training, although it did
not get heavy use by tracked vehicles.
Especially evident were several over-
grown tracked vehicle trails that tra-
versed the site. One community in the
control area, however, had not been pen-
etrated by vehicles and apparently never
had been cleared.

The mammal and bird studies were
conducted during April and May 1978
with additional data obtained during late
June and early July.

A l-hectare grid was located within
each of the long-term, short-term, and
control areas. Standard capture—-recap-
ture methods were used in which the an-
imals were toeclipped for marking pur-
poses. The grids were run for 19 to 21
consecutive nights to obtain sufficient
data for estimating the populations with
the Schnabel method (Smith 1974). The
live traps were baited with a mixture of
rolled oats, peanut butter, and cracked
corn. Cotton was supplied for nest ma-
terial and insulation. Additional data
were obtained by trapping small mam-
mals both around the sinkholes on the
control and long-term grids and in the
brush piles on the control and short-term
grids.

The grids used in the bird study were
of variable size. There was a problem
finding areas of apparent original equiv-
alency while still maintaining buffer
zones between areas that were different
naturally and/or in terms of human use
patterns. All 3 grids were observed 15
times from 17 April to 11 May and from

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 41(1-2)

29 June to 2 July. Observation periods
varied among early morning, late morn-
ing, or early afternoon and were rotated
daily to equalize the number of hours per
interval spent on each grid for a total of
45 hours apiece.

RESULTS

The data from the mammal grid (Table
1) were analyzed using the Schnabel
method where possible. Because of the
inability to capture, mark, release, and
recapture some species, that method did
not produce consistently effective re-
sults, but will be discussed where appli-
cable. A Student’s t-test of means was
used to compare the daily observations of
each species on the control grid and the
long- and short-term grids (Table 1). A
second measure of comparison between
the populations of the 3 areas is a capture
index, defined as the number of individ-
uals of each species captured divided by
the number of trapnights multiplied by
1,000.

The short-tailed shrew Blarina brevi-
cauda does not survive well in a livetrap
situation; therefore, the capture-recap-
ture data were of little use. The t-test in-
dicated a significant difference in the
number of shrews (P = 0.021) between
the 2 impact areas and the control site.
The index value indicated that approxi-
mately 90 percent of the population was
lost initially when the sites are prepared
for training, and the remainder was lost
as training progressed. Loss of cover, ero-
sion, and soil compaction probably are
the most significant factors that affect that
species.

The eastern chipmunk Tamias striatus
that prefers deciduous woods with brushy
areas, showed a 69 percent loss to short-
term activities and a 100 percent loss in
the heavy, continuous use area. Obser-
vations on the grids indicated a signifi-
cant difference between populations in
the control area and in the long- and
short-term areas (P = 0.001 and P =
0.004, respectively). No recaptures of
marked animals were recorded for the
short-term grid so comparison is not
possible. The lower population in the

EFFECTS OF TRACKED VEHICLE ACTIVITY—Severinghaus et al. 19

short-term area probably was caused by
a combination of the change in habitat
(concentration of brush to reduce ero-
sion), the chipmunk’s innate intolerance
of other individuals of the same species,
and its preference for staying on or below
the surface and not climbing vertically in
the brush piles.

Data on the southern flying squirrel
Glaucomys volans were insufficient for
analysis. Only one was captured and re-
leased on the short-term grid. It can rea-
sonably be assumed that that species in-
habits the control area, but the lack of
trees and most other vegetation pre-
cludes its existence within the long-term
area.

The white-footed mouse Peromyscus
leucopus was the most common small
mammal observed. Relatively high pop-
ulations were found in the short- and
long-term areas in comparison to the con-
trol area (Table 1). The Schnabel method
indicated a ratio of 0:11:8 mice per hect-
are for the control, short-term, and long-
term sites. The t-test on observations in-
dicated a significant difference (P =
0.001 and P = 0.010) between the control
site and the short- and long-term sites.
The index value showed 31-fold and 17-
fold increases, respectively, for the short-
and long-term sites over the control. The
reason for the increase is complex. It
appears that the white-footed mouse has
replaced the eastern chipmunk in the
short-term areas because the mouse is
more tolerant of conspecifics and because
its movements are vertically, as well as
horizontally, inclined. The presence of
the white-footed mouse in the long-term
study area was unusual. At the beginning
of the study, none were taken on the grid.
Toward the middle of the study scrotal
males were being captured along the ero-
sion gullies in the long-term area. When
released, those animals would enter the
gullies immediately and leave the grid
area. The increase in the number of mice
on the long-term grid coincided with a
noticeable increase in the number of
scrotal males in the short-term grid. It is
entirely possible that the increase in the
white-footed mouse population on the

long-term grid was due to the increased
wandering of reproductive males.

Data on the prairie vole Microtus och-
rogaster are minimal; only 3 were taken
on the grids, 1 from the control area and
2 from the long-term area, with a total of
only 6 observations. That species’ habitat
preference should have excluded them
from all grids, since they prefer open,
grassy fields. The individuals captured
on the control grid were taken along an
overgrown road with some grass and
small saplings. The individuals captured
on the long-term grid were taken at a
point on the grid’s periphery where a
large tree had been pushed over. The
tree was dead and was large enough that
it protected a small area adjacent to the
grid from vehicular activity and erosion.
The species could not be expected in the
short-term area, since no ground cover
was left after the area had been cleared.

A fairly substantial population of pine
voles Microtus pinetorum was found at
the control site. This was expected, since
they prefer a forest floor with a layer of
decaying organic material. The t-test on
the observations indicated a significant
difference between the control and the
short- (P = 0.002) and long- (P = 0.001)
term areas. The index value showed an
88 percent loss of pine voles at the short-
term site and a 100 percent loss at the
long-term site. The reason for that differ-
ence is the lack of vegetation and the
presence of erosion in the long-term and
the scraping of the soil in the short-term
area during clearing operations.

The house mouse Mus musculus was
observed only in the short-term area. The
difference between the control and short-
term areas was significant (P = 0.042).
The lack of that species in the long-term
area probably is due to the lack of suffi-
cient vegetation for cover and food.

The presence of other mammals in the
study area was evidenced by sight and/or
sign. Raccoon, opossum, and deer were
observed in all 3 areas. Fox tracks were
seen in the short-term area, and signs of
dogs and gray squirrels were seen in the
control area.

The information on small mammals

100-—

Short-—Tailed Shrew
Eastern Chipmunk
Southern Flying Squirrel
White-Footed Mouse
Prairie Vole
Pine Vole
900 House Mouse

Total

800

700

600

500

Weight, grams

400

300

200

100

Control Short Term Long Term

FiG. 2. Biomass of mammals in long-term, short-term, and control areas, Fort Knox, Kentucky.

that inhabit the sinkhole areas indicated refurbished, there would appear to be
that those areas provide local refuge for ample opportunity for reinvasion of those
chipmunks and white-footed mice. If areas by small mammals.

training were terminated and/or the area With 1 exception, all mammals cap-

EFFECTS OF TRACKED VEHICLE ACTIVITY—Severinghaus et al. Zi

—

TABLE 2.—BIOMASS (G) OF SMALL MAMMALS IN EACH OF 3 STUDY AREAS OF FORT KNOX, KENTUCKY,
ALONG WITH PERCENTAGE CHANGES IN BIOMASS BETWEEN STUDY AREAS. +% INDICATES PERCENTAGE
LOSS, X INDICATES INCREASE (3X = 3-FOLD INCREASE)

Change from Change from

Species Control Short-term Long-term ooo Bey
Short-tailed shrew 58.2-116.4! 5.4-10.8 0) 90.7% 100.1%
Eastern chipmunk 349.38-608.88 107.3-187.05 0 69.3% 100.0%
Southern flying

squirrel 0 25.2-35.28 0 — =
White-footed mouse 9.35-16.5 288.83-509.7 154.53-272.7 30.9x 16.5
Prairie vole 30.71-39.84 0 43.88-59.52 100.0% 1.4x-1.5x
Pine vole 128.26-227.37 15.84-28.05 0 87.7% 100.0%
House mouse 0) 26.1-43.5 0) = —
Totals 575.8-1,008.99 468.67-814.41 198.41-332.22 18.6-19.3% 65.5-67.1%

1 Based on Index value and weight range (g) from Barbour and Davis (1974).

tured on the short-term grid were taken
in the brush piles placed in gullies to re-
duce erosion; the southern flying squirrel
was taken at the base of a tree away from
the brush piles. All mammals taken on
the long-term grid were captured within
2 m of the gullies except for the prairie
voles that were taken in the downed tree
area.

The last measure used to examine
small mammal populations in the 3 study
areas was biomass.

The impact on small mammal popula-
tions was generally negative (Fig. 2),
since there was an 18 to 20 percent re-
duction in biomass from the control area
to the short-term area and a 65 to 68 per-
cent reduction from the control area to
the long-term area (Table 2). It appears
that the clearing of hardwood forests to
simulate western European conditions
will result in an immediate loss of ap-
proximately 20 percent of the area’s ca-
pacity to sustain small mammal life. In
addition, extensive and long-term use of
such areas can result in a biomass loss
that approaches 65 percent. This infor-
mation does not consider the desirability
of the various species but can approxi-
mate the area’s abilities to sustain small
mammal populations and will have ad-
ditional significance when considering
the area’s trophic structure.

Shrews, voles, and chipmunks all lost
large amounts of biomass. Shrews and
voles are exclusively surface dwellers

that inhabit nests or dens either on the
surface or below ground close to the sur-
face. Chipmunks are somewhat similar;
they prefer to stay on the ground, al-
though they will climb occasionally. All
3 groups would have suffered some loss
of food resources with loss to the voles
being most severe. On the other hand,
mice showed a distinct increase, since
their preference for climbing and seeds
(as compared to grass eaters) allowed
them to replace the voles and chipmunks.
Fifty-four species of birds were seen at
the study sites during the 15-day survey.
They were divided into 3 groups in the
manner of Vogl (1973): “resident” (pres-
ent throughout the study period), “tran-
sient” (departed from or arrived in the
study area during the study period), and
“occasional” (birds sighted 5 times or
less) (Tables 3, 4, 5). The adjusted figures
in the second column under each grid
heading take into account the area sur-
veyed and the number of hours of obser-
vation accumulated for each area.
Nineteen species were considered
“yesidents” during the time of the survey
(Table 3). Eight of those species showed
a significant difference at the P = 0.05
level when comparing control and short-
term areas, while 11 were significantly
different when comparing the long-term
and control areas. Seventeen of the 19
species were observed more frequently
in the control area than in the short-term
area as well as in the long-term area.

22 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 41(1-2)

TABLE 3..—_NUMBERS OF RESIDENT BIRDS RECORDED IN THE 3 STUDY AREAS AT FORT KNOX, KENTUCKY.
THE ADJUSTED FIGURES TAKE INTO ACCOUNT THE AREA SURVEYED AND THE TIME SPENT IN OBSERVATION.
FIGURES MARKED WITH AN ASTERISK (*) ARE SIGNIFICANTLY (0.05 LEVEL) DIFFERENT THAN THE CONTROL

AREA
Control Short-term Long-term
Species Observed Adjusted Observed Adjusted Observed Adjusted
Mourning dove 6 6.2 4 14 0 O*
Common flicker 4 38 5 17 0 0
Downy woodpecker 3 29 3 10 0) 0
Eastern kingbird 3 29 3 10 5 47
Blue jay 64 614 34 116* 6 56*
Common crow 8 Ta 9 30 0 O*
Carolina chickadee 12 115 3 10* 0 O*
Tufted titmouse 8 Fil 1 3* 0 0*
Gray catbird 6 58 6 20 0 0
American robin 14 134 0 0* ) O*
Wood thrush 17 163 1 3* 0 O*
Red-eyed vireo 43 413 11 Sie 0 O*
Prothonotary warbler 8 77 0 O* 0 0*
Prairie warbler 16 154 0 O* 0 O*
Red-winged blackbird 1 10 8 OT 1 9
Scarlet tanager 6 58 2) ra 0 0*
Cardinal 5 48 7 24 ) 0
Indigo bunting 0 0 6 20 0 0
Rufous-sided towhee 4 38 15 dl 0 0
228 2,194 118 399 12 112

Five species were considered “‘tran-
sient’ during the time of the survey
(Table 4). Three species showed a sig-
nificant difference when control and
short-term areas were compared; 5
showed a significant difference between
the control area and the long-term area.
All 5 species were observed more fre-
quently on the control site than in either
the short-term or long-term areas.

Twenty-five of the species observed
were considered “occasionals”’ (Table 5).

The number of individuals of each
species observed did not allow for statis-
tical analysis, but it should be noted that
19 of the 25 were seen more frequently
in the control area than in either the
short- or long-term areas; 7 were ob-
served more frequently in the short-term
area; | was observed more frequently in
the control than in the long-term area.
Some of these results can be explained
by examining the habitat preferences of
the “resident” species that did not show

TABLE 4.—NUMBERS OF “TRANSIENT” BIRDS RECORDED IN THE 3 STUDY AREAS OF FORT KNOX, KEN-
TUCKY. THE ADJUSTED FIGURES TAKE INTO ACCOUNT THE AREA SURVEYED AND THE TIME SPENT IN

OBSERVATION. FIGURES MARKED WITH AN ASTERISK (*

) INDICATE POPULATIONS THAT ARE SIGNIFICANTLY

DIFFERENT (P < 0.005) THAN CONTROL

Control Short-term Long-term
Species Observed Adjusted Observed Adjusted Observed Adjusted
Yellow-bellied sapsucker 11 96 0 0* 0 O*
Ruby-crowned kinglet 36 346 6 20* 1 9
Black-and-white warbler u 67 @) O* 0 O*
Yellow-rumped warbler 9 87 5 17 0 O*
White-throated sparrow 4] 394 103 350 0) O*
103 980 110 373 1 9

EFFECTS OF TRACKED VEHICLE ACTIVITY—Severinghaus et al.

23

TABLE 5.—NUMBERS OF “OCCASIONAL” BIRDS RECORDED IN 3 STUDY AREAS AT FORT KNOX, KENTUCKY.
THE ADJUSTED FIGURES TAKE INTO ACCOUNT THE AREA SURVEYED AND THE TIME SPENT IN OBSERVATION

Control Short-term Long-term
Species Observed Adjusted Observed Adjusted Observed Adjusted

American woodcock 2 19 0 0 0 0
Common nighthawk 2 19 0) 0 0 0
Belted kingfisher 3 29 0 0 (0) 0
Pileated woodpecker 0) 0) 1 3 0) 0
Hairy woodpecker 0 0 5 17 0 0
Great crested flycatcher 2 19 0) 0 (0) 0
Eastern wood pewee 1 10 0 0 0 0
Rough-winged swallow 1 10 1 3 0 0
Purple martin 0 0 1 3 0 0
White-breasted nuthatch 0 0 1 3 0 0
Red-breasted nuthatch 2 19 2 a 0 0
Brown thrasher 2 19 1 3 0 0
Veery 1 10 0 0 0 0
Black-throated green warbler 4 38 0 (0) 0 0
Palm warbler 2 19 2 i 0 0
Kentucky warbler 2 19 1 3 0 0
Canada warbler 0 0 2 U 0 0
Northern oriole 2 19 0 0 0 0
Common grackle 1 10 0 0 0 0
Brown-headed cowbird 2 19 1 3 (0) 0
Summer tanager 2 19 0 0 0) 0
Rose-breasted grosbeak 5 48 0 0 0 0
American goldfinch 4 38 0 0 0 0
Dark-eyed junco 0 0 1 3 0 0
Song sparrow 1 10 0 0) 0 0

4] 393 19 62 0 0

significant differences or were not ob-
served more frequently at the control
site. The eastern kingbird Tyrannus ty-
rannus prefers open, widely spaced trees
and mature woodlands. The control area
is not an open woodland. The short-term
area is an open woodland but does not
contain suitable understory for insect
proliferation. The long-term area had an
unusually high population of kingbirds
who would leave the woods to feed in the
open areas. The red-winged blackbird
Agelaius phoeniceus prefers open coun-
try, ponds, marshes, and meadows, char-
acteristics that more closely depict the
short-term area. The indigo bunting Pas-
serina cyanea will feed in any area from
fields to deep woods but nests in brushy,
weedy areas like the short-term site. The
rufous-sided towhee Pipilo erythro-
phthalmus prefers brushy fields and
open woodlands.

The red-tailed hawk Buteo jamaicen-
sis and the turkey vulture Cathartes aura

were observed in the study areas, but
none of the areas incorporated enough
acreage to include 5 or more individual
territories; therefore, those data are not
being considered in this analysis. Rock
doves Columba livia were seen flying
over the short-term area. Their presence
could be attributed to the existence of an
abandoned cluster of buildings on Snow
Mountain approximately 1,000 m from
the area. Several bobwhites Colinus vir-
ginianus were seen at the control area.
Fort Knox has an active wildlife manage-
ment program, and it was assumed that
these animals were part of a group that
had been pen raised and recently re-
leased, since researchers could approach
within 1 m of them before they would
seek cover.

To determine the impact of tracked ve-
hicle training on bird populations in gen-
eral, the data were converted to biomass
per species (Table 6). Species weights
were then determined (Poole 1938, Bald-

24 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 41(1-2)

TABLE 6.—ESTIMATED BIOMASS OF EACH SPECIES OF BIRD RECORDED IN EACH OF 3 STUDY AREAS AT
FORT KNOX, KENTUCKY, ALONG WITH THE ESTIMATED TOTAL BIOMASS AND PERCENTAGE COMPUTED
BY EACH AREA. ALL WEIGHTS ARE IN GRAMS

Short- Long-

Species Control term term
Red-tailed hawk — — 19,462.11
Turkey vulture — 69,360.00 47,430.00
Bobwhite 12,206.0 — —_
American woodcock 3,811.0 — pat
Rock dove — 17,423.232 =
Mourning dove 8,545.68 2,533.0272 ==
Common nighthawk 1,742.016 — =
Belted kingfisher 3,841.92 = nese
Common flicker 5,151.744 3,101.7792 =
Pileated woodpecker = 2,272.696 ==
Yellow-bellied sapsucker 4,896.0 — =
Hairy woodpecker — 1,513.6664 =
Downy woodpecker 775.296 373.4342 —
Eastern kingbird 1,070.496 515.6222 2,938.2885
Great crested flycatcher 722.88 — =
Eastern wood pewee 132.672 — =
Rough-winged swallow 151.2 72.828 —
Purple martin — 198.832 —
Blue jay 51,240.96 13,111.8144 7,911.34
Common crow 37,747.2 20,454.264 —
Carolina chickadee 1,036.8 124.848 =
Tufted titmouse 1,691.136 101.8205 —
White-breasted nuthatch — 97.0578 —
Red-breasted nuthatch 307.008 147.8755 —
Gray catbird 2,058.048 991.2931 —
Brown thrasher 1,334.016 321.2755 —
American robin 10,477.824 — —
Wood thrush 8,486.4 240.448 —
Veery 314.4 — —
Ruby-crowned kinglet 2,325.888 186.7171 106.4013
Red-eyed vireo 7,422.144 914.5347 —
Black-and-white warbler 710.304 — —
Prothonotary warbler 1,013.76 — —
Yellow-rumped warbler 84.768 163.3197 —
Myrtle warbler 1,117.44 67.2792 —
Black-throated green warbler 364.8 — —
Prairie warbler 1,113.6 — —
Palm warbler 158.4 76.296 —
Kentucky warbler 272.216 65.7995 —
Canada warbler — 40.46 —
Red-winged blackbird 672.0 2,589.44 1,106.7
Northern oriole 1,344.0 — po
Common grackle 1,174.08 ae Atte
Brown-headed cowbird 806.4 194.208 —
Scarlet tanager 1,854.72 297.7856 ES
Summer tanager 806.4 = eke
Cardinal 2,028.0 1,367.548 =
Rose-breasted grosbeak 2,294.4 fe sie)
Indigo bunting ens 360.672 eu
American goldfinch 514.944 aes we
Rufous-sided towhee 1,588.608 2.,869.4232 be

Dark-eyed junco
White-throated sparrow
Song sparrow

10,839.744
199.104

96.7803
13,116.5309

Total
Percent

196,447.824

155,362.6082

20.914

78,954.8238
59.8088

EFFECTS OF TRACKED VEHICLE ACTIVITY—Severinghaus et al. 25

win and Kendeigh 1938, Norris and John-
ston 1958, and Graber and Graber 1962).
As expected, the overall impact of
short- and long-term areas was negative.
There was a 20 percent reduction in bio-
mass at the short-term area and a 60 per-
cent reduction at the long-term area.

DISCUSSION

The results of this study indicated that
there is generally a modest impact on
small mammals when areas are prepared
for tracked vehicle training and a severe
impact when these areas are used exten-
sively and over a long time. There was
also ample indication that mammals that
spend their entire lives on or below, but
near, the surface, are severely impacted
by such training activities in comparison
to those that climb in brush and trees dur-
ing at least part of their existence. The
major cause-effect relationships appear
to be disturbance of the soil surface by
the compacting and scraping activities of
clearing, and the soil compaction, vege-
tational disturbance, and resulting ero-
sion caused by training. The primary pa-
rameters affected are the reduction of
food resources and the removal of or
damage to the nesting and cover.

Study results showed that the methods
and results of preparation for tracked ve-
hicle training cause a moderate (20%) re-
duction in bird populations. This infor-
mation in itself indicates a total reduction
in biotic productivity, but detailed ex-
amination of each “resident” species is
necessary to understand the causes of the
reduction. Data show that populations of
woodland species are severely reduced
(wood thrush Hylocichla mustelina, tuft-
ed titmouse Parus bicolor, red-eyed
vireo Vireo olivaceus, and Carolina
chickadee Parus carolinensis), while
populations of species that prefer an
open woodland or forest edge habitats
are moderately reduced (cardinal Cardi-
nalis cardinalis, common flicker Co-
laptes auratus, common crow Corvus
brachyrhynchos, gray catbird Dumetella
carolinensis, and mourning dove Zenai-
da macroura). Populations of species that

prefer open, bushy habitats were actually
impacted positively (rufous-sided to-
whee and red-winged blackbird). It also
appears that insectivorous species such
as the vireos and warblers are reduced
much more severely than seed eating
species such as the cardinal. The main
disturbance parameters appear to be re-
duction of understory, disruption of vege-
tational stratification, and disturbance of
soil surface.

The virtual 100 percent reduction in
most “resident” species in the long-term
area is indicative of the severely eroded
and denuded terrain. The species found
most frequently in the long-term impact
area were the red-tailed hawk, turkey
vulture, and eastern kingbird, and it is
probably easier for these species to cap-
ture prey, locate carrion, and glean in-
sects, respectively, in the open area.

CONCLUSIONS

The major cause-effect relationships of
tracked vehicle training activities appear
to be disturbance of the soil surface by
the compacting and scraping activities of
clearing and the compaction, vegetation-
al disturbance, and resultant erosion
caused by training. With mammals, it ap-
pears as though clearing is not as severe
as the actual training and that dens, nest-
ing sites, cover, and food resources suffer
somewhat equal losses. The main distur-
bance parameters that affect birds appear
to be reduction of understory, disruption
of vegetational stratification, and distur-
bance of soil surface.

LITERATURE CITED

BALDWIN, S. P., AND S. C. KENDEIGH. 1938. Vari-
ations in the weight of birds. Auk 55:416—467.

BARBOUR, R. W., AND W. H. Davis. 1974. Mam-
mals of Kentucky. University Press of Ken-
tucky, Lexington, Ky. 322 pp.

GRABER, R. R., AND J. W. GRABER. 1962. Weight
characteristics of birds killed in nocturnal mi-
gration. Wilson Bull. 74(1):74-88.

NoRRIS, R. A., AND D. W. JOHNSTON. 1938.
Weights and weight variations in summer birds
from Georgia and South Carolina. Wilson Bull.

70(2): 114-129.

26 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 41(1-2)

POOLE, E. L. 1938. Weights and wing areas in
North America birds. Auk 55:513-518.

SmiTH, R. L. 1974. Ecology and field biology. Har-
per and Row Publ., Inc., New York, N.Y. 718

pp.
VOGL, RICHARD J. 1973. Effects of fire on the

plants and animals of a Florida wetland. Amer.
Midl. Nat. 89(2):337-347.

WHARTON, M. E., AND R. W. BARBOUR. 1973.
Trees and shrubs of Kentucky. Univ. Press of
Kentucky, Lexington, Ky. 582 pp.

Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 41(1-2), 1980, 27-34

A Preliminary Checklist of the Flowering Plants of
Backusburg Hill, Calloway County, Kentucky!

MARIAN J. FULLER

Department of Biological Sciences, Murray State University, Murray, Kentucky 42071

ABSTRACT
A survey of the flowering plants of Backusburg Hill, Calloway County, Kentucky, was made
from 17 March to 29 October 1972. Representatives of 65 families, 148 genera, and 216 species
were collected and catalogued according to the 4 distinctive habitats in which they were found.

INTRODUCTION

The purpose of this study was to in-
ventory the flowering plants of a highly
productive and relatively undisturbed
area before extensive logging should oc-
cur. Collections were made approximate-
ly every other week from 17 March to 29
October 1972 for a total of 22 collections.
Those collections included representa-
tives of 65 families, 148 genera, 216
species, and 12 varieties. For the most
part, trees were not included, since a
comprehensive distributional study of
them is the basis of a future project. With
very few exceptions, the arrangement of
the taxa and the nomenclature followed
that of Fernald (1950). Each of the 216
species and 12 varieties has been cata-
logued according to the habitats in which
it was found (Table 1). Voucher speci-
mens have been deposited in the herbar-
ium of Murray State University.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I wish to thank Dr. Robert G. Johnson
for his identification and annotation of
the Liliaceae and other species, Mr. John
Hyneman for this aid in collecting spec-
imens, and Miss Linda Turley for her aid
in preparation of specimens. Travel ex-
penses were defrayed in part by CISR
Grant 235 from the Murray State Univer-
sity Foundation.

THE STUDY AREA

Backusburg Hill, an old Indian burial
site, consists of approximately 7 ha in the

1 Contribution No. 4 from Murray State Univer-
sity Herbarium.

.)

b

northwestern corner of Calloway County,
Kentucky (80°27'30’W, 30°42’30’N). Its
boundaries are Clark’s River to the west
and southwest, a small tributary to the
south, farmland to the east, and State
Highway 464 to the north.

Though the area surveyed consists of
only 7 ha, it has 4 distinctive habitats. In
the northwestern corner is a seep of
about 0.8 ha, elevated at least 3 m above
the floodplain of the river. The floodplain
is extremely narrow at the most northern
point, but gradually widens to 30 m at the
most southern point. The river enters
from the east then turns northward. The
flood plain covers nearly 1.8 ha. The 3.2-
ha hilltop is about 16 m above the flood-
plain and runs from northeast to south-
west. The remaining area consists of a
sharp southern incline and a very sharp
western incline with numerous ravines
that produce mainly north- and southfac-
ing slopes.

RESULTS

The seep, with standing water through-
out the year, contained 34 species of
flowering plants (Table 1). Saururus cer-
nuus L. upon which Cuscuta cuspidata
Engelm. was often growing, was the most
obvious species and was very abundant.
Other seep indicators were Glyceria
striata (Lam.) Hitche., Juncus effusus L.,
Mimulus alatus Ait., Lobelia cardinalis
L., and Aster lateriflorus (L.) Britt.

The floodplain contained 66 species of
flowering plants of which 15 were also
found in the seep. In the spring, the
southern portion was almost blanketed
by Claytonia virginica L., while during

ey
(

28 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 41(1-2)
TABLE 1.—DISTRIBUTION OF FLOWERING PLANTS ON BACKUSBURG HILL, CALLOWAY COUNTY, KEN-
TUCKY. THE COLUMNS REPRESENT THE 4 DIFFERENT HABITATS INCLUDED IN THE STUDY AREA: SEEP, |;
FLOODPLAIN, 2; HILLTOP, 3; SLOPES, 4. WHENEVER THE SLOPE EXPOSURE WAS CONSIDERED SIGNIFICANT,
IT WAS DENOTED AS (S) SOUTH OR (W) WEST
Habitat
Plant 1 2 4
Typhaceae
Typha latifolia L. x
Gramineae
Arundinaria gigantea (Walt.) Chapm. x |
Festuca obtusa Biehler x Xx |
Glyceria striata (Lam.) Hitche. x x |
Poa sylvestris Gray x x
Uniola latifolia Michx. x X
Elymus virginicus L. |
var. glabriflorus (Vasey) Bush x |
Cinna arundinacea L. x |
Digitaria sanguinalis (L.) Scop. |
Panicum dichotomiflorum Michx. x |
P. laxiflorum Lam. X |
P. nitidum Lam. x
P. polyanthes Schultes x i
P. boscii Poir. x
Cyperaceae
Cyperus lancastriensis Port. S |
Scirpus polyphyllus Vahl. Xx I
S. rubricosus Fern. x |
S. atrovirens Willd. x
Carex convoluta Mack. Xx
C. amphibola Steud. Xx x
C. lurida Wahl. Xx
Araceae
Arisaema dracontium (L.) Schott. Xx
Commelinaceae |
Commelina communis L.
var. ludens (Miquel) C. B. Clarke x Xx
C. virginica L. x
Tradescantia subaspera Ker. WwW
Juncaceae
Juncus effusus L.
var. solutus Fern. and Wieg. x
Luzula multiflora (Retz.) Lejeune x xX
Liliaceae
Uvularia grandiflora Sm. S
Erythronium americanum Ker. x
E. albidum Nutt. Xx
Ornithogalum umbellatum L. x |
Smilacina racemosa (L.) Desf. x
Polygonatum canaliculatum (Muhl.) Pursh x
Trillium cuneatum Raf. S
T. recurvatum Beck Ss
Smilax herbacea L. x Xx
S. rotundifolia L. x x
S. bona-nox L. x

Dioscoreaceae

Dioscorea villosa 1.

FLOWERS OF BACKUSBURG HILL, KENTUCKY—Fuller

TABLE |1.—CONTINUED.

Plant

Habitat

bo
a

Iridaceae

Sisyrinchium angustifolium Mill.

Iris cristata Ait.

Orchidaceae
Tipularia discolor (Pursh) Nutt.

Saururaceae
Saururus cernuus L.

Cannabinaceae

Cannabis sativa L.
Urticaceae

Laportea canadensis (L.) Wedd.

Pilea pumila (L.) Gray

Boehmeria cylindrica (L.) Sw.
Aristolochiaceae

Asarum canadense L.
Polygonaceae

Rumex pulcher L.

R. orbiculatus Gray

R. crispus L.

Polygonum pensylvanicum L.

P. persicaria L.

P. punctatum Ell.

P. sagittatum L.

P. virginianum L.
Chenopodiaceae

Chenopodium album L.
Amaranthaceae

Amaranthus spinosus L.
Phytolaccaceae

Phytolacca americana L.
Portulacaceae

Claytonia virginica L.
Caryophyllaceae

Stellaria media (L.) Cyrillo

S. pubera Michx.

Silene virginica L.
Ranunculaceae

Ranunculus allegheniensis Britt.
R. abortivus L.
R. recurvatus Poir.

Anemonella thalictroides (L.) Spach

Anemone virginiana L.
Berberidaceae

Podophyllum peltatum L.
Magnoliaceae

Liriodendron tulipifera L.
Annonaceae

Asimina triloba (L.) Dunal

“~ Bw

30 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 41(1-2)

TABLE |1.—CONTINUED.

Plant

Lauraceae

Lindera benzoin (L.) Blume
Papaveraceae

Sanguinaria canadensis L.

Dicentra cucullaria (L.) Bernh.
Cruciferae

Dentaria lacinata Muhl.

Cardamine bulbosa (Schreb.) BSP.

C. hirsuta L.

Arabis missouriensis Greene
Crassulaceae

Sedum ternatum Michx.
Saxifragaceae

Hydrangea arborescens L.
Rosaceae

Gillenia stipulata (Muhl.) Baill.
Geum canadense Jacq.

var. camporum (Rydb.) Fern. and Weath.

G. laciniatum Murr.

var. trichocarpum Fern.
Agrimonia rostellata Wally.
Prunus serotina Ehrh.

Leguminosae

Cassia marilandica L.
C. fasciculata Michx.
C. nictitans L.
Cercis canadensis L.
Tephrosia virginiana (L.) Pers.
Desmodium nudiflorum (L.) DC.
D. sessilifolium (Torr.) T. and G.
D. paniculatum (L.) DC.
Lespedeza repens (L.) Bart.
L. violacea (L.) Pers.
L. nuttallii Darl.
L. intermedia (Wats.) Britt.
L. hirta (L.) Hornem.
Clitoria mariana L.
Amphicarpa bracteata (L.) Fern.
Oxalidaceae
Oxalis violacea L.
O. dillenii Jacq.
O. stricta L.
Euphorbiaceae
Acalypha virginica L.
Euphorbia corollata L.
E. maculata L.
Anacardiaceae
Rhus glabra L.
R. radicans L.
Aquifoliaceae

Ilex verticillata (L.) Gray

Habitat
1 3 4
xX
S-W
xX
x
xX
xX
», ¢
xX
xX », «
Xx
xX
xX
», «
xX
xX
xX
xX
xX
xX
xX
xX
xX
X
>, «
D, ¢
», «
xX
xX
xX
»,«
xX
», «
XxX xX

FLOWERS OF BACKUSBURG HILL, KENTUCKY—Fuller

TABLE |1.—CONTINUED.

31

Plant

Habitat

bo

Celastraceae
Euonymus americanus L.

Hippocastanaceae
Aesculus pavia L.

Balsaminaceae
Impatiens capensis Meerb.

Vitaceae
Vitis aestivalis Michx.

Guttiferae
Ascyrum hypericoides L.

Violaceae

Viola papilionacea Pursh

V. sororia Willd.

V. triloba Schwein.

var. dilatata (Ell.) Brainerd

V. striata Ait.

V. rafinesquii (Greene) Fern.
Onagraceae

Ludwigia alternifolia L.

Oenothera biennis L.
Umbelliferae

Sanicula gregaria Bickn.

S. canadensis L.

Osmorhiza claytoni (Michx.) Clarke

Erigenia bulbosa (Michx.) Nutt.

Cryptotaenia canadensis (L.) DC.

Thaspium trifoliatum (L.) Gray

T. barbinode (Michx.) Nutt.
Cornaceae

Cornus florida L.

Pyrolaceae
Monotropa uniflora L.

Ericaceae

Vaccinium vacillans Torr.

var. missouriense Ashe

Primulaceae

Lysimachia lanceolata Walt.
Loganiaceae

Spigelia marilandica L.
Apocynaceae

Amsonia tabernaemontana Walt.
Asclepiadaceae

Asclepias variegata L.
Convolvulaceae

Ipomoea lacunosa L.
Cuscuta cuspidata Engelm.

W

Dal Salar bat Dae iba, 8a

W

32 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 41(1-2)

TABLE 1.—CONTINUED.

Plant

Habitat

Polemoniaceae
Phlox subulata L.
P. bifida Beck
P. divaricata L.
P. paniculata L.

Boraginaceae
Cynoglossum virginianum L.
Myosotis macrosperma Engelm.
Mertensia virginica (L.) Pers.
Verbenaceae
Verbena urticifolia L.
Labiatae
Trichostema dichotomum L.
Scutellaria ovata Hill
S. elliptica Muhl.
Prunella vulgaris L.
Stachys tenuifolia Willd.
Salvia lyrata L.
Hedeoma pulegioides (L.) Pers.

Pycnanthemum montanum Michx.

Lycopus virginicus L.

L. americanus Muhl.

Perilla frutescens (L.) Britt.
Scrophulariaceae

Mimulus alatus Ait.

Gerardia flava L.

Pedicularia canadensis L.
Orobanchaceae

Epifagus virginiana (L.) Bart.

Acanthaceae

Ruellia caroliniensis (Walt.) Steud.

Phrymaceae

Phryma leptostachya L.
Plantaginaceae

Plantago rugelii Dene.
Rubiaceae

Galium aparine L.

G. triflorum Michx.
G. pilosum Ait.

G. circaezans Michx.
G. lanceolatum Torr.
Diodia teres Walt.
Mitchella repens L.
Houstonia caerulea L.
H. purpurea L.

Caprifoliaceae

Lonicera japonica Thunb.
Valerianaceae

Valerianella radiata (L.) Dufr.

a

FLOWERS OF BACKUSBURG HILL, KENTUCKY—Fuller

TABLE |.—CONTINUED.

Habitat

Plant 1

bo
w

Campanulaceae
Specularia perfoliata (L.) A. DC. x
S. biflora (R. and P.) Fisch. and Mey. x
Campanula americana L.
Lobelia cardinalis L. x *
L. inflata L. x

Compositae

Elephantopus carolinianus Willd.
Eupatorium perfoliatum L. x
E. rugosum Houtt.

var. rugosum x
E. rugosum Houtt.

var. tomentellum (Robins.) Blake x
Solidago caesia L.
S. erecta Pursh x
S. rugosa Ait. x
Boltonia asteroides (L.) L’ Her. x
Aster divaricatus L. x
A. azureus Lindl. x
A. patens Ait. x
A. dumosus L.

var. strictior T. and G. x
A. lateriflorus (L.) Britt. x
Erigeron philadelphicus L. x
E. annuus (L.) Pers. x
E. canadensis L. x
Pluchea camphorata (L.) DC. x
Antennaria plantaginifolia (L.) Hook. x
Gnaphalium purpureum L. x
Ambrosia trifida L. x
A. artemisiifolia L.
Eclipta alba (L.) Hassk. x x
Rudbeckia laciniata L. x
R. triloba L. x
Helianthus microcephalus T. and G.
Actinomeris alternifolia (L.j DC.
Bidens aristosa (Michx.) Britt.
B. bipinnata L.
Helenium flexosum Raf.
Achillea millefolium L.
Erechtites hieracifolia (L.) Raf. x
Senecio glabellus Poir. x x
Serinia oppositifolia (Raf.) Ktze. x
Krigia biflora (Walt.) Blake x
Lactuca floridana (L.) Gaertn.

var. floridana
L. floridana (L.) Gaertn.

var. villosa (Jacq.) Cronq. x
Hieracium gronovii L. x

pt a a

Total species 34 66 89

the summer and fall, Laportea canaden-
sis (L.) Wedd. and Pilea pumila (L.) Gray
were very abundant. That portion also
had a dense stand of Arundinaria gigan-
tea (Walt.) Chapm. The grasses Elymus
virginicus var. glabriflorus (Vasey) Bush,
Panicum laxiflorum Lam., P. polyanthes
Schultes and Uniola latifolia Michx., and
the sedge Cyperus lancastriensis Porter
grew along the sandy river bank.

The hilltop supported 89 species of
flowering plants. Along the eastern edge
near the farmland, Rumex crispus L., R.
pulcher L., Chenopodium album L.,
Amaranthus spinosus L., Lonicera ja-
ponica Thunb., and Achillea millefolium
L. were found, all of which are indicators
of disturbed areas. Only 1 very small but
mature specimen of Cannabis sativa L.
was found in a dry open area. Subsequent
visits did not yield any more specimens.
Luzula multiflora (Retz.) Lejeune and
Smilax rotundifolia L., which can toler-
ate a wide variety of habitats, were found
on ine hilltop, along the edge of the
floodplain, and in their greatest abun-
dance on the slopes.

Of the 80 species of flowering plants
on the various slopes, 2, Trillium cunea-
tum Raf. and Phlox bifida Beck, were at
the extreme edges of their ranges. The
dense population of Sanguinaria cana-
densis L. and Trillium recurvatum Beck
were limited primarily to 1 south-facing
slope on the western incline. On a rocky,

34 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 41(1—2)

well-drained, west-facing slope a small
population of Pedicularis canadensis L.
was sharply delimited. Only 1 small
group of 5 specimens of Monotropa uni-
flora L. was found on the southern in-
cline. The boundaries between the
slopes and the other 3 habitat types were
not distinct, therefore, the slopes had 15
species in common with the hilltop, 17 in
common with the floodplain, and 5 in
common with the seep.

In summary, of the 216 species and 12
varieties none was found in all 4 habitats
and only 3 were collected from 3 of the
4 habitats. The seep and the hilltop had
no species in common, while the seep
and the floodplain had 15 and the seep
and the slopes had 5. The floodplain and
the hilltop had only 2 species in common,
while the floodplain and the slopes had
17. The hilltop and the slopes had 15
species in common. Thirteen species
were restricted to the seep, 35 to the
floodplain and river bank, 74 to the hill-
top, and 44 to the slopes. A southern ex-
posure apparently was significant for 11
species and a western exposure for 5
species. One species apparently pre-
ferred either southern or western expo-
sures.

LITERATURE CITED

FERNALD, M. L. 1950. Gray’s manual of botany.
8th ed. American Book Co., New York, N.Y.
1632 pp.

Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 41(1-2), 1980, 35-44

Temporal and Spatial Abundance and Diversity of
Fishes in a Kentucky Stream

DAVID E. BELL! AND ROBERT D. Hoyt
Department of Biology, Western Kentucky University, Bowling Green, Kentucky 42101

ABSTRACT

The community structure of fishes was evaluated in 3 reaches of the Middle Fork of Drake’s
Creek, Kentucky, from January 1972 to January 1973. A total of 7,485 fish representing 49 species,
25 genera, and 11 families was collected. The number of species per month was greatest at all
stations during September. Contrary to the theory of longitudinal succession, the total number
of species and individuals increased progressively toward the upstream areas, from an Order V
to an Order IV stream section. Eleven of the 49 species taken provided 92 percent of the total
number of individuals. The family Cyprinidae represented the majority (69%) of individuals.

Twenty-one species were common to all stations. The downstream station had the greatest
percentage of permanent resident species while the midstream station had the lowest.

Diversity values were most stable at the midstream station and fluctuated at the other 2 stations.
The upstream station had both the highest and lowest values in the study. Diversity values were
lowest at all stations in the fall. Stoneroller minnows represented the greatest component of total

diversity at all stations.

Movement of fishes was estimated by mark and recapture. Sixteen of 146 marked fish (11%)
were recaptured. The home range concept of some stream fishes was generally supported. How-
ever, Drake’s Creek was considered an open system that did not lend itself readily to mark-and-

recapture study.

INTRODUCTION

As stream pollution abatement regula-
tions become more strict and lakes and
reservoirs receive increasing usage,
stream fisheries will be exposed to in-
creased fishing pressure. It is reasonable
to foresee comprehensive management
plans being applied to many of our more
productive streams. Already, put-and-
take trout fisheries have been established
in many of the cooler, less polluted
streams in the Southeast, and the red-
breast sunfish Lepomis auritus is being
evaluated for possible stocking in some
Kentucky streams degraded by acid
waters. Information is needed concern-
ing the present state of stream fish
populations, community structure, in-
teractions, seasonal changes, relative

abundance, and movement patterns of

fishes.

Species diversity indexes have recent-
ly been used to summarize large amounts
of information about numbers and kinds

1 Present address: Kentucky Department of Fish
and Wildlife Resources, 592 East Main Street,
Frankfort, Kentucky 40601.

39

of organisms. Previous studies concern-
ing diversity in stream fish assemblages
have generally involved comparisons of
stream order (Whiteside and McNatt
1972, Harrel et al. 1967) or longitudinal
succession (Sheldon 1968). Smith and
Powell (1971) used diversity indexes to
describe the summer fish communities of
a stream in Oklahoma, while Harima and
Mundy (1974) used them to describe the
numerical and biomass structures of fish-
es in a small Alabama stream. Except for
the latter study, the studies were all less
than 12 months in duration. The study of
Harima and Mundy (1974), although on
an annual basis, involved a single, local-
ized area, and due to frequent sampling
and removal of all fishes collected, may
have been affected by decimation of the
natural populations.

The present study is an evaluation of
the community structure of the fishes in
3 areas of the lower Middle Fork of
Drake’s Creek, Kentucky, on an annual
basis. It included studies of the relative
abundance of species and individuals
throughout the year, seasonal fluctua-
tions in populations, diversity indexes,

36 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 41(1-2)

|

BOWLING GREEN

-

SS
Cates
oe 9
e? i
we Ss
> g
Ls 2
KILOMETERS
0 8 16
Fic. 1. Locations of collecting stations on the Mid-

dle Fork of Drake’s Creek, Kentucky.

the component each species represented
of overall diversity, and movement of
fishes.

STUDY AREA

The Middle Fork of Drake’s Creek
originates in Sumner County in north-
central Tennessee and flows 39 km
through portions of Allen, Simpson, and
Warren counties, Kentucky. The conver-
gence of the Middle Fork, West Fork,
and Trammel Fork forms Drake’s Creek
which courses through southeastern War-
ren County, Kentucky, and empties into
the Barren River approximately 6.4 km
east of Bowling Green, Kentucky (Fig. 1).

The Middle Fork is typical of streams
in the karst topography of south-central
Kentucky with a bedrock or coarse rubble
substrate with alternating pool and riffle
areas. It is canopied in most areas by a
riparian forest of varying depth, com-
posed chiefly of sycamore, beech, oak,
and hickory species. Nonforested areas
along the stream are used for agriculture,
both cropland and pasture.

The creek descends from an elevation

of 186 m (msl) at the Kentucky—Tennes-
see boundary in Allen County to 146 m
at its mouth, with an average gradient of
1.0 m/km.

The study area consisted of 3 collecting
stations along the lower half of the Mid-
dle Fork (Fig. 1). Station I, the most
downstream station, was 3.6 km upstream
from the mouth of the Middle Fork. It
included a series of shallow riffles and
pools bordered on one bank by a steep
mud and clay wall with overhanging
trees and on the other by limestone out-
croppings. That station was approximate-
ly 125 m long with a mean gradient of 1.2
m/km.

Station II was 5.8 km upstream from
Station I. It represented the greatest di-
versity in habitat type and consisted of a
long pool with a narrow chute at its
downstream end, a riffle area, and
another deeper pool. It also contained
submerged trees and brush on both sides
of the riffle area, unlike either of the oth-
er stations. Station II was the shortest sta-
tion, approximately 105 m long with a
mean gradient of 2.5 m/km. One bank
was steep and eroded, exposing clay and
gravel, while the other was gently sloped
and heavily vegetated with willows and
other woody plants.

Station III was 10 km upstream from
Station II. It was similar to Station I in
being composed of a series of riffles and
pools. Station III was approximately 125
m long with a mean gradient of 4.9 m/km.

Stations I and II were on an Order V
stretch of stream while Station III, the
upstream station, was on an Order IV
reach.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Fish were collected from the 3 stations
from January 1972 to January 1973.
Monthly collections were made at each
station, except at Stations II and III dur-
ing January 1972, and at Stations I and II
during November and December 1973,
when high water made collecting impos-
sible.

Fish were collected using standard
electroshocking and seining techniques.
Stunned fish were retrieved with long-

ABUNDANCE AND DIVERSITY IN A KENTUCKY STREAM—Bell and Hoyt Bi

handled dipnets and placed in live tanks.
Ice was added to the holding tanks in
summer to enhance fish survival. All fish
were held in the holding tanks until the
collection at a station was completed.

Sampling time at each station varied
according to stream conditions but gen-
erally approximated 1 hour. Fish were
identified to species, measured to total
length, and returned to the stream as
quickly as possible. Fish that could not
be identified in the field, or which died
during collecting and/or holding, were
fixed in 10 percent formalin and returned
to the laboratory. Those fish, in addition
to 1 or 2 specimens of each species col-
lected, were used to develop a reference
collection.

Total numbers of individuals (N), num-
ber of individuals per species (n,), and
number of species present (s) were used
to calculate average diversity (D) accord-
ing to the following equation (as various-
ly used by Pielou 1966, McIntosh 1967,
Wilhm and Dorris 1968, Cairns et al.
1971, and Whiteside and McNatt 1972):

DS >) ni/N logsni/N

Computations were performed on a
PDP-8 data processing machine. Individ-
ual species diversity or informational
units were used to evaluate the relative
contribution individual species made to
overall community diversity. Those val-
ues were expressed as percentages of the
total community diversity.

Based upon frequency of occurrence at
each station, fish were categorized as per-
manent residents, seasonal residents, or
transients. The criteria for permanent
resident classification was presence in 8
or more collections at a station, seasonal
residents were collected 3 to 7 times at
a station, transients 2 or fewer times. Ten
collections were made at Station II and
11 at Stations I and III.

Mark-and-recapture techniques were
used to detect fish movements. Fast
Turquoise KS Liquid (Allied Chemical
Corporation, National Aniline Division,
Cincinnati, Ohio) was injected subcuta-
neously in several species. Areas of the

body marked included the lower jaw,
caudal peduncle, base of the dorsal fin,
and anal fin. Differing body marks were
used to distinguish specific stations and
dates of marking.

Common and scientific names of fishes
follow Bailey et al. 1970, except for the
southern redbelly dace, for which we
prefer the generic name Chrosomus.

RESULTS

Spatial Distribution.—A total of 7,485
fish, representing 49 species, 25 genera,
and 11 families, were collected during
the study (Table 1). Station I provided 28
species totaling 1,964 specimens; Station
II, 34 species and 2,318 individuals; and
Station III 39 species and 3,203 speci-
mens (Table 1). The number of species
per collection averaged 15.1 at Station I,
14.8 at Station II, and 17.8 at Station III.
At all stations, the number of species per
collection was greatest in September,
with marked decreases in the following
months (Table 2).

Twenty-one species were common to
all stations at some time during the sam-
pling period (Table 1). Three species
were unique to Station I, but were not
abundant. Six species were collected
only at Station II, of which only 1 oc-
curred in more than 1 monthly collection.
Nine species were taken only at Station
III, 5 of which were represented by sin-
gle specimens.

Several species occurred at combina-
tions of 2 stations but not all 3. The brook
silverside Labidesthes sicculus was tak-
en only at Stations I and II. Six species,
the southern redbelly dace Chrosomus
erythrogaster, the northern studfish Fun-
dulus catenatus, the blackstripe topmin-
now Fundulus notatus, the smallmouth
bass Micropterus dolomieui, the log-
perch Percina caprodes, and the johnny
darter Etheostoma nigrum, were collect-
ed only at Stations II and III. Three
species, the carp Cyprinus carpio, the
bigeye chub Hybopsis amblops, and the
green sunfish Lepomis cyanellus, were
taken at Stations I and II.

The minnows (Cyprinidae), represent-
ed by a total of 5,157 specimens, were

38 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 41(1-2)

TABLE 1.—NUMBERS OF SPECIMENS OF EACH SPECIES COLLECTED AT 3 STATIONS ON THE MIDDLE FORK
OF DRAKE’S CREEK, KENTUCKY, JANUARY 1972 THROUGH JANUARY 1973. AN ASTERISK (*) IDENTIFIES
SPECIES COLLECTED AT ALL STATIONS

Species I

Lampetra aepyptera
Lepisosteus osseus

Campostoma anomalum* 1,025

Cyprinus carpio 3

Hybopsis amblops 1

Nocomis micropogon

Notemigonus crysoleucas 1

Notropis ardens* 88

Notropis boops

Notropis cornutus* 53

Notropis photogenis

Notropis rubellus* 2

Notropis spilopterus* 11

Notropis stramineus* 4

Notropis venustus

Chrosomus erythrogaster

Pimephales notatus* 56

Semotilus atromaculatus* 15

Catostomus commersoni

Hypentelium nigricans* 64

Minytrema melanops

Moxostoma duquesnei

Moxostoma erythrurum* 8

Ictalurus melas 1

Ictalurus natalis

Ictalurus nebulosus

Pylodictis olivaris 2

Fundulus catenatus

Fundulus notatus

Fundulus olivaceus

Gambusia affinis

Labidesthes sicculus

Ambloplites rupestris* TU

Lepomis cyanellus 3

Lepomis macrochirus* 4

Lepomis megalotis* 78

Micropterus dolomieui

Micropterus punctulatus* 24

Etheostoma bellum* 42

Etheostoma blennioides* 79

Etheostoma caeruleum* 203

Etheostoma flabellare* 8

Etheostoma nigrum

Etheostoma (Ulocentra) Spas 31

Etheostoma zonale* 3

Percina caprodes

Percina maculata

Percina sp. (melanoptera)

Cottus carolinae* 78
Total 1,964

Station

II III Total
6 6
3 3
760 1,007 2,792
1 4
1 2
1 1
1
259 468 815
2 2
248 238 539
3 3
5 3 10
15 15 4]
32 5 41
1 1
1 1 2
373 435 864
4 38 47
1 1
145 80 289
1 1
3 3
22 53 83
1
1 1
1 1
2;
2D, 19 4]
8 2 10
2 2
1 1
13 13
36 74 187
5 8
8 21 33
109 348 535
4 8 2,
25 42 91
23 28 93
ii 25 131
60 140 403
5 2, 15
1 8 9
13 56 100
9 4 16
3 3 6
2} 2
1 1
78 64 220
2,318 3,203 7,485

predominant and were followed in order
by the sunfishes (Centrarchidae) (866),
perches (Percidae) (766), suckers (Catas-

tomidae) (377), and sculpins (Cottidae)

(220). The remaining 6 families repre-
sented had a combined total of only 73
specimens. Eleven of the 49 species col-
lected had totals of 100 or more individ-

ABUNDANCE AND DIVERSITY IN A KENTUCKY STREAM—Bell and Hoyt

39

TABLE 2.—NUMBERS OF SPECIES, INDIVIDUALS, AND DIVERSITIES BY MONTH AT 3 STATIONS ON THE
MIDDLE FORK OF DRAKE’S CREEK, KENTUCKY, JANUARY 1972 THROUGH JANUARY 1973

Jan Feb Mar Apr

Station I

Total species 11 15 16 11

Total individuals 42 136 118 108

Diversity 3.04 3.31 3.17 2.61
Station II

Total species TO WS

Total individuals 34 75 69

Diversity 2.98 3.12 3.21
Station III

Total species 18 17 16

Total individuals 84 335 157

Diversity 3.46 2.83 3.27

uals, included 6,867 specimens, and 92
percent of the total (Table 1).

Diversity.—Species diversity (D values)
at Station I ranged from a high of 3.31 in
February to a low of 1.88 in October, with
a monthly average of 2.67 (Table 2). Sta-
tion II had diversity values that ranged
from 3.21 in April to 2.34 in January 1973,
with an average of 2.90. Station III pro-
vided the highest and lowest values, 3.46
in February and 1.39 in January 1973.
The average monthly diversity for Station
III was 2.75.

Station II showed the most stable di-
versity pattern of the 3 stations (Table 2).

1972 1973

May June July Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec Jan
12 14 19 19 19 16 14
74 182 162 239 496 336 71
3.02 2.47 2.88 2.46 1.91 1.88 3.03
11 14 21 22 25 13 8
61 214 318 475 645 395 oo
Prxots) Pyforll PALS) eBisIlish) BY PA0) PA Sho) 2.34

22 18 =.20 We BAB) 18 10 17 15
461 557 154 402 381 63 110 310
2.45 2.83 2:56 3.37 2.68 1.76 3.04 1.39

The pattern at Station III was erratic,
with intermittent highs and lows. Station
I also exhibited an unstable pattern, but
with a generally decreasing trend from
February to October. The January 1972
and 1973 collections at Station I were
very similar, 3.04 and 3.03, respectively.

Species considered permanent resi-
dents and their occurrence at each station
are listed in Table 3. Station I had the
greatest proportion of permanent resi-
dents with 12 of 28 species (43%) in that
category. Station II, with 34 species, had
only 8 (24%) permanent residents. Thir-
teen of 39 species (33%) at Station III
were considered permanent.

TABLE 3.—LIST OF SPECIES CONSIDERED PERMANENT RESIDENTS AT 3 STATIONS ON THE MIDDLE FORK

OF DRAKE’S CREEK, KENTUCKY, AND THEIR AVERAGE PERCENTAGE CONTRIBUTION

TO COMMUNITY DI-

VERSITY (D)

Station II Station III

Species Station I
Campostoma anomalum 15.9%
Notropis ardens 6.0%
Notropis cornutus 5.1%
Pimephales notatus 4.2%
Hypentelium nigricans 5.2%
Moxostoma erythrurum Seasonal
Ambloplites rupestris 7.6%
Lepomis megalotis 8.0%
Micropterus punctulatus Seasonal
Etheostoma bellum 5.0%
Etheostoma blennioides 7.6%
Etheostoma caeruleum 12.6%
Unidentified darters 3.4%
Cottus carolinae 8.1%

13.3% 12.9%
Seasonal 10.8%
12.6% 9.2%
3.5% 3.7%
9.6% 4.2%
Seasonal 3.1%
3.5% 3.7%
8.2% 10.9%
Seasonal 2.4%
Seasonal Seasonal
Seasonal 1.5%
T.2% 6.5%
Seasonal 3.0%
8.0% 4.6%

AO
3
2 .
1
Station |
oS
_—
a
a
Wd
>
ra)
Station Il
Station ill
JIrnF MAMIJ SAS ON D Jr
Fic. 2. Diversity values for permanent and com-

bined seasonal and transient species at 3 stations

on the Middle Fork of Drake’s Creek, Kentucky.

Solid line represents total diversity, broken line

diversity of permanent resident species. Area be-

tween the lines represents that component of total

diversity provided by combined seasonal and tran-
sient species.

Station I, while having the fewest total
species, had a large number of perma-
nent residents, each of which provided a
significant part of that station’s total di-
versity (Table 3). Station III had the
greatest number of permanent as well as
total species and included many that pro-
vided very low seasonal diversity contri-
butions. Station II had the fewest per-
manent residents, but was influenced by
the annual presence of sufficient num-
bers of seasonal and transient species to
give that station the highest average di-
versity index of the 3 stations. That com-
position of total diversity of permanent
versus seasonal-transient species is shown
in Fig. 2.

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 41(1—2)

Permanent resident species at Station
I that contributed most to total monthly
diversity were the stoneroller Camposto-
ma anomalum, rainbow darter Etheo-
stoma caeruleum, banded sculpin Cottus
carolinae, longear sunfish Lepomis meg-
alotis, and rock bass Ambloplites rupes-
tris, in decreasing order (Table 3). The
stoneroller also represented the greatest
diversity component at Stations II and
III, followed in order by the common
shiner Notropis cornutus, bluntnose
minnow Pimephales notatus, northern
hog sucker Hypentelium nigricans, and
longear sunfish at Station II, and blunt-
nose minnow, longear sunfish, rosefin
shiner Notropis ardens, and common
shiner at Station III.

Eight species, northern hog sucker,
stoneroller, rosefin shiner, common shin-
er, bluntnose minnow, longear sunfish,
rainbow darter, and banded sculpin were
unique in that they each represented one
of the 10 highest diversity component av-
erages at all stations. Community diver-
sity trends included decreasing diversity
values from downstream to upstream sta-
tions for the stoneroller, the orangefin
darter Etheostoma bellum, greenside
darter Etheostoma blennioides, rainbow
darter, and banded sculpin. The opposite
condition of increasing diversity compo-
nents from downstream to upstream was
observed for the golden redhorse Moxo-
stoma erythrurum, rosefin shiner, blunt-
nose minnow, and longear sunfish. The
rock bass and spotted bass Micropterus
punctulatus showed little difference
from downstream to upstream stations.

Station I diversity was greatest in win-
ter (3.14) and progressively decreased to
a minimum in fall (1.88) (values were av-
eraged from monthly data in Table 2).
Like Station I, both Stations II and III
had minimum diversities in fall (2.35 and
2.49, respectively), but the Station II
maximum (3.12) occurred in summer
while Station III had its maximum in
spring (3.01).

Seasonal trends in informational units,
or species contribution to total diversity,
were evident among several permanent
residents. The northern hog sucker made

ABUNDANCE AND DIVERSITY IN A KENTUCKY STREAM—Bell and Hoyt 4]

its greatest diversity contribution during
fall and winter at Stations I and II. Stone-
rollers were most dominant during
summer at all stations. Rosefin shiners
progressively changed in diversity con-
tribution, being most prominent during
late spring and summer at Station I, in
summer at Station II, and fall-—winter at
Station III. Common shiners had their
greatest diversity levels at Station I dur-
ing late winter through summer. Al-
though no seasonal trends for common
shiners were observed at the other sta-
tions, Station III values decreased in the
spring as they increased at Station I. Rock
bass had their highest percentage com-
position of total diversity in the spring at
all stations. Longear sunfish had lowest
values at Station I throughout the study,
highest at Station II during late winter—
spring and at Station III during mid-
spring and summer. Orangefin darter di-
versity contributions were greatest in
winter-early spring at Station I, while
those of the rainbow darter were highest
during the winter-spring at all stations.
Unidentified darters had peak values
during the summer at Station II, while
banded sculpin values were greatest in
winter, decreasing to a minimum in sum-
mer at Station II.

Movement.—Fish were marked on 4 oc-
casions: 13 March 1972 at all stations; 24
June 1972 at Stations II and III; 13 July
1972 at Station II; and 15 September
1972 at Station II. Sixteen of 146 marked
fish were recaptured, a return of 11 per-
cent.

Of the 16 recaptures, 15 were captured
at the same station they were released.
The one exception was a rock bass
marked 13 March 1972 at Station III, and
recaptured 20 April at Station I, a dis-
tance of 15.8 km from its point of release.
That fish was again recaptured on July 14
at its original point of release. Another
rock bass was marked at Station II on 24
June and recaptured at that station on 13
July, 15 September, and 18 October. A
northern hog sucker marked 24 June was
recaptured at the same station 29 August
and 18 October. The longest time be-

tween marking and recapture was ap-
proximately 4 months.

DISCUSSION

The theory of longitudinal succession
of stream fishes, as variously reported by
Whiteside and McNatt (1972), Smith and
Powell (1971), Sheldon (1968), Harrel et
al. (1967), Kuehne (1962), and Minckley
(1963), was not supported by this study.
Those workers found increasing numbers
of species as they progressed from the
headwater sections to the more down-
stream areas. The opposite was observed
in this study as there was a greater num-
ber of species at the most upstream sta-
tion, an Order IV reach of stream, than
downstream on an Order V stretch of
stream.

That difference might be explained by
(1) with the exception of the studies of
Whiteside and McNatt (1972) and Minck-
ley (1963), the above studies were con-
ducted from June to September, the time
when maximum number of species are
characteristically at downstream stations,
(2) year-long studies might have yielded
different results for the above studies,
particularly in view of the wide fluctua-
tions in water levels encountered in
stream systems and seasonal variations
and migrations known to exist in some
stream populations (Hall 1972, Gunning
and Berra 1969, Funk 1957, Berra and
Gunning 1970, Larimore et al. 1959), (3)
only the downstream 20 km of a 39-km
stream, including Order IV and V seg-
ments, were sampled in this study, and
(4) no unique physicochemical or physi-
cal barriers were present in the Middle
Fork of Drake’s Creek to foster zonation
as described by Minckley (1963).

The distribution and diversity of
stream fishes has been reported to be a
function of structural features of the hab-
itat and depth (Sheldon 1968), gradient,
temperature, and marl (Minckley 1963),
and available resources in the general
environment (Smith and Powell 1971).
Typically, lotic systems pass through a
series of predictable physicochemical
transformations within the first 20 to 40
km of stream flow, the conditions of

42 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 41(1-2)

which dictate in large measure the extent
of the fish fauna found there. Normally,
such stream stages pass from the more
restrictive conditions of steep gradient,
lower temperature, and less variable
physical habitat in headwater areas to a
more favorable combination of features
further downstream. Longitudinal zona-
tion, therefore, would be most obvious in
headwater areas or in short streams
where habitats are limiting or very spe-
cific. However, as one proceeds further
downstream, less restrictive habitat be-
comes more abundant and the more spe-
cialized less common.

This is not to imply that longitudinal
succession may not be a viable theory in
characterizing overall stream systems, or
in describing physically unique systems
such as spring streams and cold tailwa-
ters. However, it does appear to relate to
the stream systems involved, the stream
sections studied, to be seasonally influ-
enced, and may be less obvious when an-
nual sampling is applied.

While the number of species per col-
lection was consistently highest and most
stable at the most upstream station, in-
creases in the number of species down-
stream occurred from June to September.
Those downstream increases were due
primarily to influxes of transient species,
perhaps because of lowered water levels
in the headwater areas during that peri-
od. Harima and Mundy (1974) found sim-
ilar increases to occur earlier, May
through mid-July, in a stream in Ala-
bama. The number of species per collec-
tion decreased during late fall and winter
at all stations, possibly as a result of in-
creased water levels and subsequent
reinvasion of headwater areas. In that re-
gard, Smith and Powell (1971) stated that
stream fishes must frequently redistrib-
ute themselves due to drying of upstream
areas and periodic flooding of lower
reaches.

The presence of 21 species common to
all stations indicated the availability of
suitable habitat for a large number of
species throughout the lowermost half of
the stream, both Order IV and V reaches.
Increasing numbers of species unique to

each station from downstream to up-
stream (3 species found only at Station I,
6 at II, and 9 at III), implied the presence
of habitat types restricted to certain
species, more numerous in the upper
study area (Order IV) than the down-
stream study area (Order V).

Monthly diversity values at all stations
were erratic, but seasonal trends were
observed. Fluctuating monthly diversity
patterns have been reported by other
workers (Smith and Powell 1971, Dahl-
berg and Odum 1970, Harima and Mun-
dy 1974). The decreasing trend in diver-
sity values at Station I from winter to fall
was the result of unequal distribution or
“equitability’ among species, due pri-
marily to increasing numbers of stone-
rollers. Smith and Powell (1971) noted
similar results in Oklahoma due to in-
creases in numbers of bigeye shiners at
one station and threadfin shad at another.
The relative stability and high mean di-
versity values at Station II were due
largely to the greater availability of hab-
itats at that station. Although all stations
were selected for their riffle—pool struc-
ture, Station II had submerged trees and
brush at both ends of the riffle area. Dur-
ing this study, such areas were generally
second in number of different species
only to riffle areas. Station III, with only
a slightly lower diversity than Station II,
also contained submerged vegetation but
to a lesser extent. Station I contained lit-
tle submerged vegetation and supported
the least diverse population; however, as
stated earlier, this may be attributed to a
dominant population of stonerollers. The
exposed root structure of a sycamore tree
near the confluence of the riffle and pool
areas generally harbored the most di-
verse ichthyofauna at Station I. Harrel et
al. (1967) attributed increases in diversity
with increases in stream order to an in-
crease in available habitat and decrease
in environmental fluctuations. Sheldon
(1968) also found slight but observable
increases in species diversity when cov-
er, such as roots and logs, were present.

The stoneroller provided the greatest
contribution to total diversity at all sta-
tions. It was normally found in fast flow-

ABUNDANCE AND DIVERSITY IN A KENTUCKY STREAM—Bell and Hoyt 43

ing riffles or gravelly shoal areas. The
longear sunfish, rock bass, and common
shiner were prominent species that
showed a preference for pool areas. Of
those, the longear sunfish and rock bass
usually were associated with cover,
while the common shiner was not. The
northern hog sucker and rosefin shiner
were found frequently in both pool and
the deeper riffle areas, indicating an
adaptability to either habitat.

Decreased species diversities toward
the headwater areas observed in some
dominant species, e.g., stoneroller, rain-
bow darter, banded sculpin, greenside
darter, and orangefin darter, probably
were due to a combination of decreasing
numbers of those species toward the up-
stream areas and increasing numbers and
kinds of other species. The reverse trend
observed among golden redhorse, rosefin
shiners, and longear sunfish seemed to
be a result of optimum habitat availabil-
ity for those species in the upstream
areas. The buffering effect of increasing
numbers and kinds of other species was
overridden by prominent increases in
numbers of those species, which contrib-
uted to increased species information
values.

The location of Station II, in what was
considered to be a typical midstream
area, was felt to be responsible for the
high incidence of seasonal and transient
species at that station. Both upstream and
downstream movement of fishes was evi-
denced and thus rare or uncommon
species were detectable at such a station.

Seasonal and transient species, collec-
tively, contributed heavily to diversity,
but were not responsible for the monthly
fluctuations observed in diversity values.
Movement of transient species, particu-
larly into the larger areas of the stream
was most pronounced during June-Sep-
tember.

The mark-and-recapture study support-
ed the home range concept of some
stream fishes as proposed by Gerking
(1953) in that the marked species re-
mained in the areas where they were
marked and released and showed high
rates of return. The longear sunfish, rock

bass, northern hog sucker, and spotted
bass illustrated this characteristic. Gerk-
ing (1953) reported those same species to
exhibit limited movement and normally
occupy a home range of less than 130 m.
The low return of marked specimens of
other species was expected as streams are
open systems that do not lend themselves
readily to marking studies.

LITERATURE CITED

BERRA, T. M., AND G. E. GUNNING. 1970. Repop-
ulation of experimentally decimated sections of
streams by longear sunfish, Lepomis megalotis.
Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc. 99:776-782.

CAIRNS, J., JR., J. S. CROSMAN, K. L. DICKSON, AND
E. E. HERRICKS. 1971. The recovery of dam-
aged streams. Ass. Southeast. Biol. 18:79-106.

DAHLBERG, M. D., AND E. P. ODUM. 1970. Annual
cycles of species occurrence, abundance, and
diversity in Georgia estuarine fish populations.
Amer. Midl. Nat. 83:382-392.

FUNK, J. L. 1957. Movements of stream fishes in
Missouri. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc. 85:39-57.
GERKING, S. D. 1953. Evidence for the concept of
home range and territory in stream fishes. Ecol-

ogy 34:347-365.

GUNNING, G. E., AND T. M. BERRA. 1969. Fish re-
population of experimentally decimated seg-
ments in the headwaters of two streams. Trans.
Amer. Fish. Soc. 98:305-308.

HALL, C. A. S. 1972. Migration and metabolism in
a temperate stream ecosystem. Ecology 53:585-
604.

HaARIMA, H., AND P. R. Munpby. 1974. Diversity
indices applied to the fish biofacies of a small
stream. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc. 103:457-461.

HARREL, R. C., B. J. DAvis, AND T. C. DORRIS.
1967. Stream order and species diversity of
fishes in an intermittent Oklahoma stream.
Amer. Midl. Nat. 78:428—-435.

KUEHNE, R. A. 1962. A classification of streams,
illustrated by fish distribution in an eastern
Kentucky creek. Ecology 43:608-614.

LARIMORE, R. W., W. F. CHILDERS, AND C. HECk-
ROTTE. 1959. Destruction and _ re-establish-
ment of stream fish and invertebrates affected
by drought. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc. 88:261-
285.

McINTosH, R. P. 1967. An index of diversity and
the relation of certain concepts to diversity.
Ecology 48:392—-404.

MINCKLEY, W. L. 1963. The ecology of a spring
stream Doe Run, Meade County, Kentucky.
Wildl. Monogr. 11:1—124.

PIELOU, E. C. 1966. The measurement of diversity
in different types of biological collections. J.
Theor. Biol. 13: 131-144.

SHELDON, A. L. 1968. Species diversity and lon-
gitudinal succession in stream fishes. Ecology

49:193-198.

44 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 41(1-2)

SMITH, C. L., AND C. R. POWELL. 1971. The sum-
mer fish communities of Brier Creek, Marshall
County, Oklahoma. Amer. Mus. Novit. 2458: 1—
30.

WHITESIDE, B. G., AND R. M. MCNatTT. 1972. Fish
species diversity in relation to stream order and

physiochemical conditions in the Plum Creek
drainage basin. Amer. Midl. Nat. 88:90-101.

WILHM, J. L., AND T. C. Dorris. 1968. Biological
parameters for water quality criteria. Bio-
Science 18:477-481.

Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 41(1-2), 1980, 45

First Record of the Freshwater Mussel
Lasmigona subviridis in Kentucky

MICHAEL A. ZETO!

Department of Biological Science, Marshall University, Huntington, West Virginia 25701

ABSTRACT
A specimen of Lasmigona subviridis was collected from Tygarts Creek, Greenup County,
Kentucky, in September 1978. This species is previously unrecorded in the state and represents
a range extension of this typically Atlantic drainage species.

A collection of the mussels of Tygarts
Creek, Kentucky, was conducted from
May through November 1978. In that col-
lection, a specimen of Lasmigona sub-
viridis (Conrad, 1835) was obtained from
Aeesite mat oo-o0 50°N latitude and
82°55'38"W longitude near Bennet’s Mill
Covered Bridge, near the intersection of
State Route 7 and County Route 1215 in
Greenup County.

That specimen represents a range ex-
tension, since it is typically an eastern
species found in the Atlantic drainage
from South Carolina to New York. Oc-
currence of the species in the nearest vi-
cinity of Tygarts Creek is in the New Riv-
er, Virginia, and Greenbrier River, West
Virginia (Burch 1975). Specimens have
also been recorded from the Potomac,
Rappahannock, and James river systems
in Virginia (Clarke pers. comm.). Stans-
bery (pers. comm.) has recorded collec-
tions from the mountain drainages of the
Tennessee River, Tennessee. Other re-
cordings of L. subviridis have been made
by Clarke and Berg (1959) and Harman

1 Present address: Department of Natural Re-
sources, Water Resources Division, 1304 Goose Run
Road, Fairmont, West Virginia 26554.

(1970) from New York. Blood and Rid-
dick (1974) have also reported the
species from Virginia.

Lasmigona subviridis is previously un-
recorded from Kentucky and represents
the only known report of the species from
the Ohio River drainage below the mouth
of the Kanawha River in West Virginia
(Stansbery pers. comm.).

The specimen has been recorded as
No. 1280-2 in the Marshall University
Malacological Collection and has been
accessioned to The Ohio State University
Museum of Zoology as a voucher speci-
men. Confirmation of identification was
made by Dr. David H. Stansbery, The
Ohio State University.

LITERATURE CITED

BLOoD, F. B., AND M. B. Rippick. 1974. Unionidae
of the Pamunkey River System, Virginia. Nau-
tilus 88(2):65.

Burcu, J. B. 1975. Freshwater unionacean clams
(Mollusca: Peleeypoda) of North America. Mal-
acological Publications, Hamburg, Mich. 204
pp.

CLARKE, A. H., AND C. O. BERG. 1959. The fresh-
water mussels of central New York. Memoir
367 Cornell Exp. Sta., Ithaca, N.Y. 79 pp.

HARMAN, W. N. 1970. New distribution records
and ecological notes on central New York
Unionacea. Amer. Midl. Nat. 84(1):46-58.

Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 41(1-2), 1980, 46-47

First Records of Sorex dispar and
Microsorex thompsoni in Kentucky with
Distributional Notes on Associated Species

RONALD S. CALDWELL
Kentucky Nature Preserves Commission, Frankfort, Kentucky 40601

ABSTRACT
Microsorex thompsoni (Thompson’s pigmy shrew) and: Sorex dispar (long-tailed shrew) are
reported for the first time from Kentucky. Distributional notes are given on Sorex cinereus,
Clethrionomys gapperi, Peromyscus maniculatus nubiterrae, and Napaeozapus insignis.

A survey of the natural areas of the
Eastern Coal Field of Kentucky was ini-
tiated in 1978 by the Kentucky Nature
Preserves Commission (KNPC). During
that survey, the first specimens of Sorex
dispar (long-tailed shrew) and Microso-
rex thompsoni (Thompson’s pigmy shrew)
were collected in the state. Additionally,
3 other small mammals are reported for
the first time from Pine Mountain.

Range maps for S. dispar (Burt and
Grossenheider 1976, Hall and Kelson
1959) show its occurrence in several
states adjacent to Kentucky, including
West Virginia, Virginia, and Tennessee.
In those states, S. dispar occurs in the
Appalachian Plateau, Ridge and Valley,
and Blue Ridge physiographic provinces.
It appears to favor mesic habitats associ-
ated with rocky substrates (Richmond
and Grimm 1950). Mesic, cool, talus-
strewn slopes or wet rockfaces appear to
be excellent situations in which to trap.
The known range proximity of S. dispar,
and ample habitat in the mountainous
section of eastern Kentucky, made the
species’ occurrence highly probable. Bar-
bour and Davis (1974) stated that perhaps
the species occurred in “isolated spots on
the higher mountains of southeastern
Kentucky.”

The range of Microsorex thompsoni is
shown by Long (1974) as including east-
ern Kentucky. Barbour and Davis (1974)
considered the occurrence of Microsorex
thompsoni in Kentucky very likely. Bar-
bour (1956) reported the existence of a
specimen in the mammal collection at
the University of Kentucky. Unfortu-

nately, no specific locality was given on
the specimen tag. Dr. Arthur M. Miller
was the collector, and recorded only
“Ky., Dec. 30, 1904. S. hoyi? Miller.”
Guilday et al. (1971) reported finding 2
right mandibles, 1 anterior half of skull,
and 1 maxilla fragment of Microsorex
hoyi (=thompsoni) in Welsh Cave,
Woodford County, Kentucky. Habitats in
which Microsorex thompsoni have been
taken were summarized by Long (1972).
Apparently, it occurs in a variety of hab-
itats, but usually close to water.

On 30 May 1979, 100 snap traps were
set along a wet rockface at Bad Branch,
Letcher County, Kentucky (37°4'40"N,
86°46'17"W). The elevation was approxi-
mately 610 m. Downslope from the rock-
face is a steep gradient stream strewn
with large boulders and fracture blocks.
Across the creek from the rockface, 6 No.
10 dry can traps were set approximately
5 m from the creek. The substrate was
very moist humus and angular rocks.
Cans were set beside moss covered logs.
Several large fracture blocks were in the
immediate vicinity. The surrounding for-
est included Rhododendron maximum
L., Tsuga canadensis (L.) Carr., Betula
lutea Michx., and Liriodendron tulipi-
fera L. Other forest constituents included
more northerly distributed plants such as
Juglans cinerea L. and Acer pensylvani-
cum L.

The trapline yielded 1 S. dispar and 3
S. fumeus on 31 May 1979. One Blarina
brevicauda was taken on 1 June 1979.
This is the first report of S. dispar for
Kentucky. The specimen (KNPC 436)

46

FIRST RECORDS OF TWO SHREWS IN KENTUCKY—Caldwell AT

was an adult female with the following
standard measurements 127, 57, 15, and
7 mm, and 6.4 g.

Bad Branch was revisited on 2 July
1979. The can traps contained 2 Micro-
sorex thompsoni (KNPC 460a and KNPC
460b), 2 S. dispar (KNPC 46la and
KNPC 461b), 1 S. fumeus (KNPC 462),
and 3 Napaeozapus insignis (KNPC
463a, KNPC 463b, and KNPC 4638c).
Identification of the Microsorex was
made possible on the basis of the pres-
ence of the minute third and fifth unicus-
pids. Sorex dispar and S. fumeus can be
separated by utilizing tail lengths and
placement of the infraorbital foramen
(Whitaker 1970). At that time, all cans had
filled to capacity with water and this no
doubt enabled the capture of S. dispar
and Napaeozapus insignis in the cans.

Several authors listed mammalian as-
sociates of Sorex dispar or Microsorex
thompsoni (Pagels and Tate 1976, Rich-
mond and Grimm 1950, and Wharton
1968). Those associates included Sorex
cinereus, S. fumeus, Blarina brevicauda,
Peromyscus maniculatus nubiterrae, Na-
paeozapus insignis, and Clethrionomys
gapperi. Additional trapping of Bad
Branch has yielded S. cinereus and P. m.
nubiterrae; only C. gapperi has not been
taken there. However, C. gapperi (KNPC
472) has been taken along a wet rockface
10 km east of Bad Branch at an elevation
of approximately 756 m (W. C. Houtcoop-
er, R. S. Caldwell, and C. K. Smith, pers.
data). An additional specimen of Sorex
dispar was collected there also.

To date, S. dispar and M. thompsoni
have only been found in cool mesic rav-
ines of the eastern slope of Pine Moun-
tain. All mammalian associates of S. dis-
par and M. thompsoni are found on the

more easterly Cumberland Mountain.
Due to the existence of similar habitats,
it is expected that S. dispar and M.
thompsoni will also be encountered on
Cumberland Mountain.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I wish to thank Dan VanNorman, Deb-
bie Driggs, and Chuck Smith for field as-
sistance. Rick Phillippe and Richard
Hannan provided floristic information.
Donald F. Harker, Jr., Director, Ken-
tucky Nature Preserves Commission,
made the current project possible.

LITERATURE CITED

BARBOUR, R. W. 1956. Two new mammal records
from Kentucky. J. Mammal. 37:110-111.

, AND W. H. Davis. 1974. Mammals of
Kentucky. Univ. Press Kentucky, Lexington,
Ky. 322 pp.

Burt, W. H., AND R. P. GROSSENHEIDER. 1976. A
field guide to the mammals. Houghton Mifflin
Co., Boston, Mass. 322 pp.

GUILDAY, J. E., H. W. HAMILTON, AND A. D.
McCrapy. 1971. The Welsh Cave peccaries
(Platygonus) and associated fauna, Kentucky
Pleistocene. Ann. Carnegie Mus. 43:249-320.

HALL, E. R., AND K. R. KELSON. 1959. The mam-
mals of North America. Ronald Press, New
York, N.Y. 2 vols. 1083 pp.

Lone, C. A. 1972. Notes on habitat preference and
reproduction in pigmy shrews, Microsorex.
Can. Field Nat. 86:155—-160.

1974. Microsorex hoyi and Microsorex
thompsoni. Mammal. Species 33:14.

PAGELS, J. F., AND C. M. TATE. 1976. Shrews (In-
sectivora: Soricidae) of the Paddy Knob-Little
Back Creek area of western Virginia. Va. J. Sci.
27:202-203.

Richmond, N. D., and W. C. Grimm. 1950. Ecology
and distribution of the shrew Sorex dispar in
Pennsylvania. Ecology 31:279-282.

WHARTON, C. H. 1968. First records of Microsorex
hoyi and Sorex cinereus from Georgia. J. Mam-
mal. 49:158.

WHITAKER, J. O. 1970. Keys to the vertebrates of
the eastern United States excluding birds. Bur-
gess Publ. Co., Minneapolis, Minn. 256 pp.

Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 41(1-2), 1980, 48-54

A Reassessment of the Distributional Status of
Five Kentucky Cyprinids

Brooks M. BuRR, MICHAEL E. RETZER, AND RICHARD L. MAYDEN
Department of Zoology, Southern Illinois University, Carbondale, Illinois 62901

ABSTRACT

Significant new distributional information that clarifies the ranges of 5 cyprinids in Kentucky
is presented in the form of spot distribution maps. Three species, Hybognathus hayi, Notropis
lutrensis, and N. fumeus, were previously so poorly known that their status was considered
indeterminate. Two other species, Ericymba buccata and Notropis stramineus, are widely dis-
tributed in eastern Kentucky and heretofore have not been reported west of Doe Run, Meade
County. E. buccata is now known to be common in the lower Green and Tradewater rivers and
N. stramineus occurs as a relict in Mayfield Creek in extreme western Kentucky.

INTRODUCTION

Since the publication of “Fishes of
Kentucky” (Clay 1975), there has been an
increased interest and awareness in the
species of fishes that inhabit Kentucky.
Continued field and museum studies
have resulted in the discovery of several
species of fishes previously not reported
from Kentucky, as well as the accumula-
tion of significant new distributional rec-
ords for a number of Kentucky fishes
(Bauer and Branson 1979, Burr and May-
den 1979, Miller 1978, Webb and Sisk
1975).

The purposes of this paper are (1) to
present a substantial amount of new dis-
tributional data to clarify the Kentucky
ranges of 5 cyprinids, 3 of which were
previously so poorly known that they
were considered to be of indeterminate
status in the state (Babcock 1977), and (2)
to permit recipients of this paper an op-
portunity to update the distributional
statements in “Fishes of Kentucky,” and
thereby maintain the usefulness of that
book over the succeeding years.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

M. E. Braasch, P. A. Burr, K. Fitzpat-
rick, S. D. Ogle, L. M. Page, and P. W.
Smith assisted in the collection and iden-
tification of many of the fish records re-
ported here. We are indebted to the fol-
lowing individuals and institutions for
allowing one of us (BMB) to examine
their records of Kentucky fishes: R.
Schoknecht, Cornell University; L. M.

Page and P. W. Smith, Illinois Natural
History Survey; R. Cicerello, Kentucky
Fish and Wildlife Resources Agency; D.
W. Johnson, Murray State University; N.
H. Douglas, Northeast Louisiana Univer-
sity; R. D. Suttkus, Tulane University; W.
D. Pearson, University of Louisville; and
R. M. Bailey, University of Michigan Mu-
seum of Zoology. K. Schmitt assisted in
the preparation of the figures.

ACCOUNTS OF SPECIES

Distributional records are based on
collections made by the authors that are
deposited in the fish collection of South-
ern Illinois University at Carbondale,
and collections deposited in the institu-
tions cited in ACKNOWLEDGMENTS. Com-
plete collection data may be obtained
upon request from the first author. Some
additional distributional information has
been gleaned from several river surveys
completed by Kentucky Fish and Wild-
life personnel (e.g., Kentucky River,
Jones 1973; Licking River, Jones 1970;
Big Sandy River, Evenhuis 1973). River
survey records were used for species that
are easily identified, or for apparently
good records based upon other collec-
tions from the same area. Species are
treated in alphabetical order by genus;
within a genus by species.

Ericymba buccata Cope
Silverjaw minnow

The silverjaw minnow occurs from
Doe Run, Meade County, eastward in all

48

DISTRIBUTION OF FIVE KENTUCKY CYPRINIDS—Burr et al. 49

Silverjaw minnow
Ericymba buccata

q WW
9 NS
G

sey
77*
0, —~ fi

q a iS sy
SS Al
\) Kn GO SUITE

Fic. 1.

Distribution of E. buccata in Kentucky. Blackened area on inset map represents total range of

species.

major drainages of Kentucky, and is also
found in the upper reaches of the Cum-
berland River (Fig. 1). Somewhat iso-
lated populations of the species were re-
cently (1978-1979) discovered at 19
different sites in the lower Green and
Tradewater rivers in Ohio, Daviess,
McLean, Hopkins, Henderson, and Web-
ster counties. More than 50 individuals
were collected at several of the sites. Ex-
tensive collecting in the Pond River in-
dicated that habitat was mostly unsuita-
ble for silverjaw minnows and it is
unlikely that the species occurs in the
drainage. Specimens were captured from
small (3-7 m wide), sandy or gravelly
streams lacking vegetation with negligi-
ble to moderate flow. The species was
commonly associated with the steelcolor
shiner Notropis whipplei, redfin shiner
N. umbratilis, bluntnose minnow Pime-
phales notatus, suckermouth minnow
Phenacobius mirabilis, and creek chub
Semotilus atromaculatus.

Ericymba buccata has shown rather
clear-cut evidence of recent range expan-
sion in Ohio (Trautman 1957), Pennsyl-
vania (Denoncourt et al. 1975), and IIli-
nois (Smith 1979), and in 1978 it was
captured for the first time from the Mo-
bile River basin above the Fall Line
(Bryant et al. 1979). Perhaps the isolated

populations of this species in west-cen-
tral Kentucky represent a recent range
expansion from nearby populations in
southern Indiana (Gerking 1945). Eri-
cymba buccata may have recently ex-
tended its range in Kentucky, in response
to the man-made changes (e.g., channel-
ization) taking place on the lower Green
River which have created more suitable
habitat for it. It is equally possible that
those populations have existed for a long
time since the lower portions of the
Green and Tradewater rivers have until
recently been inadequately sampled for
fishes.

Wallace (1973) suggested that the
north-south disjuncture in the total range
of E. buccata (Fig. 1: insert map) was the
result of failure “of this species to be-
come established in the Green, lower
Cumberland and Tennessee drainages.”
The discovery of E. buccata in the lower
Green River does not necessarily make
Wallace’s hypothesis untenable, espe-
cially if its presence is a result of recent
range expansion. We have collected E.
buccata from the main channel of the
Green River indicating that this moder-
ately large river probably is a direct dis-
persal route to smaller nearby streams.
Perhaps the present north-south disjunc-
ture in the range of E. buccata is the re-

50 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 41(1-2)

Cypress minnow

Hybognathus hayi

[Key Dh

Distribution of H. hayi in Kentucky. Blackened area on inset map represents total range of

species.

sult of recent extinction of intervening
populations of a formerly widespread
species as Wallace (1973) also suggested.

Hybognathus hayi Jordan
Cypress minnow

The cypress minnow was considered
by Babcock (1977) to be a species of in-
determinate status in Kentucky. That is
“apparently threatened, but insufficient
data currently available on which to base
a reliable assessment of status.” Clay
(1975) and Babcock (1977) included rec-
ords of the cypress minnow only from
Obion Creek, Hickman County, and Bab-
cock further stated that Kentucky was the
northern limit of the species’ range.
Smith and Sisk (1969) reported H. hayi
from 3 localities in Obion Creek, Hick-
man County, and Webb and Sisk (1975)
listed 4 localities in Bayou du Chien,
Fulton County, for the species. In both
drainages, those authors considered H.
hayi to be uncommon and/or rare. We
have reexamined the collections of H.
hayi made by the late Morgan E. Sisk and
his students at Murray State University
and those records are plotted in Fig. 2.

We have found that H. hayi also occurs
in Mayfield Creek and some of the oxbow
lakes that border the Ohio River (Fig. 2).

Although somewhat sporadic in occur-
rence, it has been captured in moderate
numbers (as many as 13 from a single lo-
cality in Ballard County) in muddy bot-
tomed, slow-moving creeks, sloughs, and
lakes, rarely associated with vegetation.
In Kentucky, it is rarely collected with
the related silvery minnow Hybognathus
nuchalis (Smith and Sisk 1969, Webb and
Sisk 1975, our observations), although in
other parts of its range the two species
occasionally may be taken together (Fin-
german and Suttkus 1961).

The species is considered extirpated in
Missouri (Pflieger 1975) and Illinois
(Smith 1979) although it was collected at
several localities from both states during
the late 1930's and early 1940's (speci-
mens at University of Michigan Museum
of Zoology). Because several projects are
planned for the modification of some of
the streams in which H. hayi occurs the
species should probably be placed on the

endangered/threatened list of Kentucky
fishes.

Notropis fumeus Evermann
Ribbon shiner

The ribbon shiner is one of the most
abundant species of Notropis in the
Coastal Plain province of Kentucky and

DISTRIBUTION OF FIVE KENTUCKY CYPRINIDS—Burr et al. Syl

Ribbon shiner
Notropis fumeus

Fic. 3. Distribution of N. fumeus in Kentucky. Blackened area on inset map represents total range of
species.

occurs in large numbers in the Trade-
water River and portions of the lower
Green River drainage (Fig. 3). Webb and
Sisk (1975) found N. fumeus to be the
most numerous shiner in the Bayou du
Chien drainage. The listing of a collec-
tion of that species from the Kentucky
River at Jackson, Breathitt County (Clay
1975, Babcock 1977) is apparently a mis-
identification, probably of the related
rosefin shiner, N. ardens.

The ribbon shiner occurs syntopically
with the redfin shiner N. umbratilis at
almost all localities where it is found, ex-
cept that N. umbratilis is rarely found in

Bayou du Chien or Obion Creek where
N. fumeus is common (Smith and Sisk
1969, Webb and Sisk 1975). At nearly all
collecting sites from Clarks River to the
Green River, both species were taken in
the same seine hauls. At most of those
localities, N. umbratilis was the more
abundant (Table 1). Usually, Notropis fu-
meus is captured in quiet pools of small
to medium sized streams over a sand,
mud, or silt bottom.

On the basis of the | collection known
at the time, Snelson (1973) suggested that
the record of N. fumeus from Rough Riv-
er probably was the result of a bait intro-

TABLE 1.—NUMBERS OF Notropis umbratilis AND N. fumeus PRESENT IN 1] COLLECTIONS FROM KEN-
TUCKY

Date of

Location collection N. umbratilis N. fumeus

N. Br. S. Fk. Panther Cr., Hancock Co. 6 Jun 1979 129 31
Twomile Cr., Daviess Co. 7 Jun 1979 2 ]
S. Fk. Panther Cr., Daviess Co. 5 Jun 1979 3 2
S. Fk. Panther Cr., Ohio Co. 6 Jun 1979 167 10
S. Fk. Panther Cr., Ohio Co. 6 Jun 1979 58 9
Long Falls Cr., McLean Co. 7 Jun 1979 13 3
Long Falls Cr., McLean Co. 7 Jun 1979 62 19
East Fork, Webster—Hopkins Co. 8 Oct 1978 14] 7]
E. Fk. Clarks R., Calloway Co. 17 May 1979 105 22
W. Fk. Clarks R., Calloway Co. 9 Mar 1979 29 15

22 Mar 1978 7 13

Trib., E. Fk. Clarks R., Calloway Co.

Ol
Ne)

Red shiner
Notropis lutrensis

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 41(1-2)

Fic. 4. Distribution of N. lutrensis in Kentucky. Blackened area on inset map represents total range of
species.

duction. However, our more recent col-
lections from surrounding areas indicate
that N. fumeus is native to the area east
of the Coastal Plain in Kentucky. Perhaps
N. fumeus has recently been extending
its range and/or has become more abun-
dant in the Green River in response to
man-made ecological disturbances, es-
pecially increased siltation and turbidity.
Babcock (1977) considered the species to
be of indeterminate status in Kentucky,
but clearly N. fumeus is common and
widespread enough to be removed from
the indeterminate category.

Notropis lutrensis (Baird and Girard)
Red shiner

The red shiner has 2 distinct centers of
distribution in Kentucky: one is the
Coastal Plain province where it occurs in
tributaries to the Mississippi and Ohio
rivers and the other is in tributaries to the
lower Tradewater River (Fig. 4). We have
taken this species on several occasions
from the main channel of both the Ohio
and Mississippi rivers. Notropis lutren-
sis was taken at 2 stations in Obion Creek
(Smith and Sisk 1969) and also at 2 sta-
tions in Bayou du Chien (Webb and Sisk
1975) where it was occasionally found in
fairly large numbers (Webb and Sisk

1975). Its absence from Clarks River (Sisk
1969) probably is due to competitive ex-
clusion by the closely related N. whip-
plei and/or the spotfin shiner N. spilop-
terus. Clay’s (1975) record for N. lutrensis
from South Fork Little Barren River
probably is based on a misidentification
of a superficially similar species (e.g., N.
spilopterus or N. whipplei) both of which
are very common in the Green River
drainage.

The red shiner is found over a variety
of bottom types but is most frequently
taken over a sand or gravel bottom in
small streams. Again, the species is com-
mon to abundant in the streams in which
it is found even though Babcock (1977)
listed the species as of indeterminate sta-
tus in Kentucky. Red shiners are tolerant
of considerable turbidity and are very ag-
gressive dispersers. The species proba-
bly is spreading its range in Kentucky as
it has in very recent years in Illinois
(Page and Smith 1970, Smith 1979).

Notropis stramineus (Cope)
Sand shiner

Notropis stramineus is a reasonably
common inhabitant of the Appalachian
Plateau province in eastern Kentucky,
occurring from Doe Run, Meade County,

DISTRIBUTION OF FIVE KENTUCKY CYPRINIDS—Burr et al. 53

Sand shiner

Notropis stramineus

Fic. 5. Distribution of N. stramineus in Kentucky. Blackened area on inset map represents total range
of species.

to the Big Sandy Basin. It has not been
collected from the upper Cumberland
drainage in Kentucky, although it occurs
in that drainage to the south in adjacent
Tennessee. A closely related form of N.
stramineus or the swallowtail shiner N.
procne does occur in the Little South
Fork of the Cumberland but it has not
been formally described (Robert E. Jen-
kins pers. comm.). Except for Woolman’s
(1892) record of N. deliciosus (=N. stra-
mineus? or N. volucellus?) from the
Tradewater River at Dawson (=Dawson
Springs), the sand shiner has not been
previously reported in western Kentucky
where it is common in Mayfield Creek in
Graves and Carlisle counties (Fig. 5).

In Mayfield Creek, the sand shiner is
found most commonly in pools (some-
times in riffles) without vegetation where
it is often associated with Phenacobius
mirabilis, N. lutrensis, and the orange-
throat darter Etheostoma spectabile. No-
tropis stramineus has not been taken in

adjacent small creeks (e.g., portions of

Obion or Shawnee creeks) where suit-
able habitat is available, despite the col-
lecting efforts of several workers to ob-
tain specimens. There does not appear to
be any significant morphological differ-
ences between Mayfield Creek speci-

mens and those in eastern Kentucky.
Another small, isolated population of this
species also occurs in western Tennessee
(David A. Etnier unpubl. data).

LITERATURE CITED

BABCOCK, J. 1977. Endangered plants and animals
of Kentucky. Inst. Mining Minerals Res., Univ.
Ky., Lexington, Ky. 128 pp.

BAUER, B. H., AND B. A. BRANSON. 1979. Distri-
butional records for and additions to the ich-
thyofauna of Kentucky. Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci.
40(1-2):53-55.

BRYANT, R. T., B. H. BAUER, M. G. RYON, AND W.
C. STARNES. 1979. Distributional notes on
fishes from northern Georgia with comments on
the status of rare species. Southeast. Fishes
Council Proc. 2(4):{1-4].

Burr, B. M., AND R. L. MAYDEN. 1979. Records of
fishes in western Kentucky with additions to
the known fauna. Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci. 40(1-
2):58-67.

Ciay, W. M. 1975. The fishes of Kentucky. Ky.
Dept. Fish Wildl. Res., Frankfort, Ky. 416 pp.

DENONCOURT, R. F., C. H. Hocutt, AND J. R.
STAUFFER, JR. 1975. Extensions of the known
ranges of Ericymba buccata Cope and Etheo-
stoma zonale (Cope) in the Susquehanna River
drainage. Proc. Penn. Acad. Sci. 49:45—46.

EVENHUIS, B. L. 1973. Inventory and classification
of streams in the Big Sandy River drainage. Ky.
Dept. Fish Wildl. Res. Fish. Bull. 57. 42 pp.

FINGERMAN, S. W., AND R. D. SuTtTkus. 1961.
Comparison of Hybognathus hayi Jordan and
Hybognathus nuchalis Agassiz. Copeia
196 1(4):462-467.

Zh
=z

Ct

GERKING, S. D. 1945. The distribution of the fishes
of Indiana. Invest. Indiana Lakes Streams
3(1): 1-137.

Jones, A. R. 1970. Inventory and classification of
streams in the Licking River drainage. Ky.
Dept. Fish Wildl. Res. Fish. Bull. 53. 62 pp.

1973. Inventory and classification of
streams in the Kentucky River drainage. Ky.
Dept. Fish Wildl. Res. Fish. Bull. 56. 108 pp.

MILLER, L. G. 1978. New distributional records
for the rosyside dace in Kentucky. Trans. Ky.
Acad. Sci. 39(3-4): 142-144.

PAGE, L. M., AND R. L. SMITH. 1970. Recent range
adjustments and hybridization of Notropis lu-
trensis and Notropis spilopterus in Illinois.
Trans. Ill. St. Acad. Sci. 63(3):264-272.

PFLIEGER, W. L. 1975. The fishes of Missouri. Mo.
Dept. Cons., Jefferson City, Mo. 343 pp.

Sisk, M. E. 1969. The fishes of west Kentucky. I.
Fishes of Clark’s River. Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci.
30(3-4):54-59.

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 41(1-2)

SMITH, P. L., AND M. E. Sisk. 1969. The fishes of
west Kentucky. II. The fishes of Obion Creek.
Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci. 30(3—4):60-68.

SMITH, P. W. 1979. The fishes of Ilinois. Univ. Il.
Press, Urbana, II]. 314 pp.

SNELSON, F. F., JR. 1973. Systematics and distri-
bution of the ribbon shiner, Notropis fumeus
(Cyprinidae), from the central United States.
Amer. Mid]. Nat. 89(1):166-191.

TRAUTMAN, M. B. 1957. The fishes of Ohio. Ohio
St. Univ. Press, Columbus, Ohio. 683 pp.
WALLACE, D. C. 1973. The distribution and dis-
persal of the silverjaw minnow, Ericymba buc-

cata Cope. Amer. Midl. Nat. 89(1):145-155.

WEBB, D. H., AND M. E. Sisk. 1975. The fishes of
west Kentucky. III. The fishes of Bayou de
Chien. Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci. 36(3-4):63-70.

WoOOLMAN, A. J. 1892. Report of an examination of
the rivers of Kentucky, with lists of the fishes
obtained. Bull. U.S. Fish. Comm. 10:249-288.

Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 41(1-2), 1980, 55-56

A Survey of the Mussels of the Red River
(Wild River Segment) in Eastern Kentucky

RONALD E,. Houp
Division of Water Quality, Frankfort, Kentucky 40601

ABSTRACT
Recent collections of freshwater mussels in the Wild River Segment of the Red River in
Eastern Kentucky yielded 15 species of unionian clams. Of those, Alasmidonta marginata was
the most abundant and widely distributed. The Asiatic clam Corbicula maniliensis was not

collected in that segment of the river.

INTRODUCTION

The mussel fauna of Kentucky is fairly
well known for most of the larger rivers
and their tributaries through previous
publications from earlier naturalists such
as Wilson and Clark (1914), Ortmann
(1918, 1925, 1926), and Neel and Allen
(1964). Later faunal surveys by Bates
(1962), Stansbery (1969), and Williams
(1969) noted changes in composition of
mussel beds after impoundment. Blan-
kenship (1971), and Blankenship and
Crockett (1972) observed the changes in
the mussel fauna in the Rockcastle River
(Cumberland system) at Livingston,
which was first sampled in 1905. How-
ever, little is known of the mussel fauna
of the Red River (a major tributary to the
Kentucky River system) in east-central
Kentucky. Within its environs are some
of the most scenic and pristine waters of
the Commonwealth. It has long been an
area of controversy between conserva-
tionists and proponents of dam construc-
tion.

The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers
(1967) recommended construction of a
reservoir on the river as part of a compre-
hensive flood control plan. A public cam-
paign to save the area (which includes
the famed Red River Gorge) from inun-
dation was successful. Since that time,
the Wild Rivers Act of 1972 enabled a
9.1-mile (14.7-km) segment above the
gorge to become part of the Kentucky
Wild River system.

That segment of the stream is ad-
dressed in this report. Since the water
quality and habitat requirement for mus-

55

sels in the Wild River segment are rep-
resentative of the entire river, this survey
serves a dual purpose, to document the
existing mussel fauna, and to use the data
as part of the ambient water quality mon-
itoring for the drainage.

The published data available for the
Red River is limited to a fish survey by
Branson and Batch (1974), that included
water quality data and information on the
geology of the drainage.

Williams (1974) surveyed the mussel
fauna of the Kentucky River, main stem,
North, Middle, and South forks and doc-
umented the presence of 33 species. Of
those, 24 were in the main stem, with 3
species of commercial value.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The author wishes to thank Drs. Don-
ald L. Batch and J. C. Williams for con-
firmation of identifications, also a special
thanks to the Biological Monitoring Sec-
tion for critical review of the manuscript
and to Billie Jo Miller for typing the
manuscript.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Collections for the survey began in
September 1978 and continued irregular-
ly throughout the spring and summer of
1979. The mussels were collected by
hand, turning over rocks, probing the
substrate with the fingers, locating si-
phons (a square piece of plexiglass
placed on the surface of the water helped
reduce glare), and displaced individuals.

No fixed stations were established. In-
stead, the entire Wild River segment was

56 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 41(1-2)

traversed, and the various mussel habi-
tats, such as shingle bars, riffles, between
and under large flat rocks, sand pockets,
and gravel accumulations within various
pool eddies were explored.

Live specimens were returned to the
laboratory in plastic jugs and later trans-
ferred to aquaria. Identification was
based upon shell morphology in conjunc-
tion with soft anatomy. Specimens not
used for identification were returned to
the substrate.

Representative shells of all species
were cleaned and accessioned to the Di-
vision of Water Quality Malacological
Collection (Numbers DWQMC 150-165).

RESULTS

The species collected as live speci-
mens and numbers collected were:
Alasmidonta marginata (91), Strophitus
undulatus (73), Elliptio dilatata (67), Las-
migona costata (55), Fusconaia flava
(47), Lampsilis radiata siliquoidea (37),
Ptychobranchus fasciolare (34), Lamp-
silis ovata (27), Alasmidonta calceolus
(18), Tritogonia verrucosa (17), Lampsi-
lis fasciola (16), Actinonaias carinata
(13), Obovaria subrotunda (9), Amblema
costata (9), Ligumia recta (A).

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

Fifteen species were collected in the
Wild River segment. Of those, 12 are na-
tive to smaller headwater habitats. The
mussel fauna for the Wild River segment
was fairly diverse and did not exhibit
classical signs of degradation due to
water quality. Alasmidonta marginata
was the most widely distributed and
abundant mussel collected in this survey.
Strophitis undulatus and Elliptio dilatata
were also common in occurrence and dis-
tribution. The Asiatic clam Corbicula

maniliensis was not collected in the Wild
River segment. No live or relic speci-
mens were found; however, it has been
reported from the headwaters of the Ken-
tucky River (Williams 1974).

LITERATURE CITED

BATES, J. M. 1962. The impact of impoundment on
the Mussel Fauna of Kentucky Reservoir, Ten-
nessee River. Amer. Midl. Nat. 68(1):232-236.

BLANKENSHIP, S. 1971. Notes on Alasmidonta fa-
bula (Lea) in Kentucky (Unionidae). Nautilus
85(2):60-61.

, AND D. R. CROCKETT. 1972. Changes in
the freshwater mussel fauna of the Rockcastle
River at Livingston, Kentucky. Trans. Ky. Acad.
Sci. 33(1-2):37-39.

BRANSON, B. A., AND D. L. BATCH. 1974. Fishes
of the Red River Drainage. Univ. Press Ken-
tucky. Lexington, Ky. 67 pp.

NEEL, J. K., AND W. R. ALLEN. 1964. The mussel
fauna of the Upper Cumberland basin before
its impoundment. Malacologia 1(3):427-459.

ORTMANN, A. FE. 1918. The Naiades (freshwater
mussels) of the Upper Tennessee drainage with
notes on synonymy and distribution. Proc.
Amer. Phil. Soc. 57(6):521-626.

. 1925. The naiad fauna of the Tennessee
River system below Walden Gorge. Amer.
Midl. Nat. 9:321-371.

1926. The naiades of the Green River
drainage in Kentucky. Ann. Carnegie Mus.
17:169-188.

STANSBERY, D. H. 1969. Changes in the naiad fau-
na of the Cumberland River at Cumberland
Falls in Eastern Kentucky. Ann. Repts. A.M.U.
1969: 16-17.

U.S. ARMY CORPS OF ENGINEERS, U.S. ARMY EN-
GINEER DISTRICT, LOUISVILLE, KENTUCKY. 16
August 1967. Red River Reservoir, Kentucky
Land Acquisition Procedure. (Not paginated.)

WILLIAMS, J. C. 1969. Mussel Fishery Investiga-
tions, Tennessee, Ohio, and Green Rivers in
Kentucky. Final Report. Murray State Univer-
sity Press, Murray, Ky. 107 pp.

1974. Commercial Fishery Investiga-
tions of the Kentucky River. Eastern Kentucky
University, Richmond, Kentucky. 64 pp.

WILSON, D. B., AND H. W. CLARK. 1914. The mus-
sels of the Cumberland River and its tributar-
ies. U.S. Bur. Fish. Doc. 781:1-63.

Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 41(1-2), 1980, 57-59

The Fishes of Marrowbone Creek, Pike County, Kentucky,
with Notes on the Effects of Coal Mining

JEFFREY M. ROBINSON AND BRANLEY A. BRANSON

Department of Biological Sciences, Eastern Kentucky University, Richmond, Kentucky 40475

ABSTRACT

During September 1978, the fishes of Marrowbone Creek, Pike County, Kentucky, were sur-
veyed for the purpose of comparing the results with those obtained by Evenhius in 1972. The
survey disclosed the presence of 13 species, 11 families, as compared with 7 species and 6
families in 1972. The differences is attributed to abatement in surface and deep mining during

the intervening 6 years.

INTRODUCTION

Marrowbone Creek is an Order III
stream, 7.56 km long, that drains relative-
ly rugged uplands in the eastern coal-
fields of Pike County, Kentucky. The
stream was sampled from its mouth at
Russell Fork of the Big Sandy River, ap-
proximately 12.9 km north of Elkhorn
City to its headwaters 14.5 km upstream.
Several physicochemical parameters ex-
hibit a considerable range: temperature
2O2stor24.8 CC) pH 6.4 to 8:7; alkalinity
51.4 to 130.1 ppm, dissolved oxygen 10
to 13 ppm. Over the years, various types
of coal mining in the drainage area have
affected the stream. For example, in 1977
there were still 37 mines in operation in
the drainage, that accounted for the re-
moval of 609,883 tons of coal. The effects
of surface mining, of course, are of more
interest than the other types, and the ef-
fects of that process are discussed in
more detail below.

SAMPLING STATIONS

Six sampling stations were located on
U.S. Geological Survey topographic maps
in such a manner that they were equally
spaced and included as many habitats as
possible. The stations were: (1) 14.4 km
above the mouth; mostly riffles with
some pools; about 1.2 m wide and 10 cm
deep; bottom of silt, rubble, and rocks;
clear; (2) at Hellier, Kentucky, 11.3 km
above mouth; mostly riffles and a few
pools; 1.8 m wide and 15 cm deep; bot-
tom of silt, sand, rubble, and coal cinders;
clear; bank with bare sections bearing

Ol

x

much coal cinders; (3) at Lookout, Ken-
tucky, about 8.0 km above mouth; mostly
riffles and some large pools; 4.6 m wide
and 20 cm deep; bottom of silt, sand,
rocks, and rubble; mostly clear; (4) at Dry
Fork, Kentucky, 4.8 km above mouth
(near Evenhuis’s [1972] collecting site);
some deep pools and long riffles; 6.1 m
wide and 20 cm deep; bottom of silt, sand
and rubble; water murky; the creek had
been recently channelized at that point;
(5) at Wolfpit, Kentucky, 1.6 km above
mouth; mostly pools with some large rif-
fles; 6.1 m wide and 38 cm deep; bottom
of deep silt, rubble, and rocks; murky; (6)
at mouth of Marrowbone Creek on Rus-
sell Fork of the Big Sandy River; 7.6 m
wide and 61 cm deep; bottom of silt, rub-
ble, rocks, and fine gravel; murky be-
cause of serious bank erosion.

DISCUSSION

The silverjaw minnow Ericymba buc-
cata contributed 33.3 percent of the total
population, and Semotilus atromacula-
tus made up 31.5 percent. The fact that
the remaining 11 species comprised the
other 35.2 percent is a relatively good in-
dex to their scarcity. Only Semotilus was
found at all stations. Approximately 45
percent of all fishes caught were taken at
Station 4, a site that can be compared
with Evenhuis’s (1972) results. None of
the stations (Table 1) yielded represen-
tatives of all 13 species, although Station
6 did produce 10 species.

Evenhuis (1972) sampled the fish fauna
of Marrowbone Creek using chemicals

S3dA1 T1V €39NGOY¥d 1V09 430 3NVLNIIY3d

TONS (IN THOUSANDS) BY SURFACE MINES

1974 1975 1976 1977

YEAR

197) 1972 1973

Fic. 1. Tons of coal produced by surface mines in

Marrowbone Creek drainage contrasted with per-

centage produced by all types of mines. A, per-

centage produced by all mines; B, coal produced
by surface mines.

near our Station 4. Table 2 compares the
results of the 2 studies and reveals some
important differences. Some important
changes in the area involve water chem-
istry. In 1972, the pH values hovered
around 6.0, whereas during the present
study it was about 8.7. Evenhuis (1972)
collected Notropis cornutus, Etheo-
stoma variatum, and Etheostoma caeru-
leum, each of which requires relatively
clean bottoms. The increase in siltation
caused by recent dredging and the resid-
ual effects of coal mining at this location
probably was responsible for the elimi-
nation of those 3 species. A marked dif-
ference in the percentage of Camposto-

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 41(1-2)

TABLE 2.—COMPARISON OF NUMBERS OF EACH
SPECIES OF FISHES TAKEN IN 1972 (EVENHIUS 1973)
AND AT PRESENT STATION 4, 3 SEPTEMBER 1978

Species 1972 1978
Semotilus atromaculatus 37 16
Campostoma anomalum 150 4
Ericymba buccata 34 27
Notropis cornutus 1 0
Phenacobius mirabilis 3 1
Rhinichthys atratulus 0 1
Micropterus punctulatus 0 1
Etheostoma variatum 1 0
Etheostoma caeruleum 1 0

Dissolved oxygen

9.4 ppm 11.0 ppm
pH 8.7

6.2

ma anomalum collected during the 2
studies was also probably in response to
the silt since the stoneroller is a bottom
feeder.

Two species that were collected during
the present study but not by Evenhuis in
1972 were Rhinichthys atratulus and
Micropterus punctulatus. Both of those
fishes are inhabitants of clear waters and
their presence seems to indicate better
water quality at the present time. The
chemical analysis at the station demon-
strated pH values on the alkaline end of
the spectrum and relatively high concen-
trations of dissolved oxygen. In any area
where mining is underway, the acidity of

TABLE 1.—NUMBER OF FISH SPECIES CAPTURED AT 6 SITES ON MARROWBONE CREEK, KENTUCKY IN
1978

Collecting stations

Species 1 2 3 4 5 6 Total % total
Semotilus atromaculatus 3 vie 4 16 3 DD 35 31.5
Campostoma anomalum 0 3 0 4 0 3 10 9.0
Rhinichthys atratulus 0 4 1 1 1 0 7 6.3
Micropterus punctulatus 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0.9
Micropterus dolomieui 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0.9
Ericymba buccata 0 0 0) 27 2 8 37 33.3
Phenacobius mirabilis 0 0 0 1 0 1 2 1.8
Notropis cornutus 0) 0) 0 0 2 1 3 2.7
Notropis rubellus 0 0 0 0 0 2 2 1.8
Ictalurus natalis 0 0 0 0 2) 0 2 1.8
Catostomus commersoni 0) 0) 0) 0 4 1 5 4.5
Hypentilium nigricans 0 0) 0 0 0) 2 9 1.8
Pimephales notatus 0 0) 0 @ 0) 4 4 3.6
% Totals PATE MOG 45 45.0 12.6 22.5 111 100

FISHES OF MARROWBONE CREEK, KENTUCKY—Robinson and Branson

MINES
NUMBER OF STRIP AND AUGER

1971 1972 1973 1974 1978 1976 1977

YEAR

Fic. 2. Number of strip and auger mines operating
per year in Marrowbone Creek drainage.

the water is more often than not an im-
portant factor in determining the kinds of
fishes present.

In recent years, surface mining in the
Marrowbone Creek drainage has never
produced more than approximately one-
third the total amount of coal mined each
year (Kirkpatrick 1971, 1972, 1973, 1974,
1975, 1976, 1977) (Figs. 1, 2), but those
procedures probably are more detrimen-
tal to the environment than the other
types of mining. Fig. 2 shows the number
of surface mines during consecutive
years beginning in 1971. There were 5
more mines in 1972 than in 1977 and, al-
though the figures for 1978 were not
available to us at this writing, it is certain
that the number of mines at the present
time is considerably less than in 1972.
During the past 3 years, there has been
a continuous decrease in the number of
mines, and this, along with the new sur-
face mining regulations, will hopefully
benefit all streams in the area.

The amount of coal removed by surface
mining is doubtless correlated with the
changing quality of a stream. Some of
those relationships are shown in Fig. 1,
which also shows a trend in decreasing

59

surface mining but also reveals that in
1977 there was still more coal produced
in 1971 and 1972.

In observing the various types of
graphic indicators, one must keep in
mind that many more factors are involved
in the determination of water quality
than simple surface disturbance, and it is
often not possible to draw clear-cut con-
clusions from the data presented. Many
mines are abandoned each year, and it is
nearly impossible to determine the effect
of those areas on water quality. The num-
ber of other types of mines in the area
doubtless play an important role also, as
does the amount of construction and
housing developments. All of those fac-
tors need to be studied in concert.

LITERATURE CITED

EVENHUIS, B. L. 1973. Inventory and Classifica-
tion of streams in the Big Sandy River Drain-
age. Kentucky Dept. Fish. Wildl. Res. Bull.
57:33-34.

KIRKPATRICK, H. N. 1971. Annual Report of the
Department of Mines and Minerals. Common-
wealth of Kentucky, Frankfort, Ky.

1972. Annual Report of the Department
of Mines and Minerals. Commonwealth of Ken-
tucky, Frankfort, Ky.

1973. Annual Report of the Department
of Mines and Minerals. Commonwealth of Ken-
tucky, Frankfort, Ky.

1974. Annual Report of the Department
of Mines and Minerals. Commonwealth of Ken-
tucky, Frankfort, Ky.

1975. Annual Report of the Department
of Mines and Minerals. Commonwealth of Ken-
tucky, Frankfort, Ky.

1976. Annual Report of the Department
of Mines and Minerals. Commonwealth of Ken-
tucky, Frankfort, Ky.

1977. Annual Report of the Department
of Mines and Minerals. Commonwealth of Ken-
tucky, Frankfort, Ky.

Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 41(1-2), 1980, 60-69

Analysis of the Periphyton of Sloan’s Crossing Pond,
Mammoth Cave National Park, Kentucky

JUDITH A. ORSER!' AND GARY E. DILLARD

Department of Biology, Western Kentucky University, Bowling Green, Kentucky 42101

ABSTRACT

Periodic collections were obtained from Sloan’s Crossing Pond, Mammoth Cave National Park,
Kentucky, for 1 year to analyze, qualitatively and quantitatively, the periphyton community and
to determine patterns of periodicity. Productivity was lowest during the winter and highest
between July and September. Peaks for dry and ash-free dry weights were obtained in August
with readings of 243 and 92 mg/m2/day. Diversity was poorest in the winter and summer months
and richest in April. The Chlorophyta and Chrysophyta appeared in their greatest numbers
during the spring and fall. During the summer and December, the Cyanophyta dominated the
flora, while the Euglenophyta were highest in frequency in January and November and lowest
during the summer. The pond was designated as mesotrophic because the productivity levels
were lower than those reported for eutrophic systems.

INTRODUCTION

Periphyton was defined by Young
(1945) as being “that assemblage of or-
ganisms growing upon free surfaces of
submerged objects in water, and cover-
ing them with a slimy coat.” Periphyton
is important to aquatic systems because
of its constant occurrence, especially dur-
ing the summer, the sizeable amount pro-
duced, its seasonal successions, and its
contribution of organic and particulate
matter to the water (Young 1945). This
organic matter is used by plankton, ben-
thos, and higher aquatic life, and the pe-
riphyton itself is often the major source
of food for invertebrates (Young 1945,
McMahon et al. 1975).

In an aquatic system, each periphytic
species has its own niche based on its
physiological requirements in relation to
the variation in all factors within the hab-
itat (Wetzel 1975). It would be expected
that a unispecific equilibrium would ex-
ist because the different species in an as-
semblage are competing for the same re-
sources with only slight differences.
However, usually 1 to a few species oc-
cur in greater abundance than others, and
there always are a number of rarer
species among the dominant or subdom-

‘Current address: Department of Botany, North
Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina
27650.

60

inant organisms (McIntire and Overton
1971, Wetzel 1975). This results in a mul-
tispecific equilibrium among what ap-
pears to be physically uniform conditions
(Wetzel 1975). Varying environmental
conditions result in the replacement of
one form by another (Gause 1935, Hutch-
inson 1944, 1967), and when a commu-
nity is disturbed by rapid changes, the
rate at which the species composition
changes is increased (Wetzel 1975).

In small lakes, there usually is a com-
plex succession of maxima and minima
throughout the year (Hutchinson 1944),
Generally speaking, species diversity
usually is greater in summer than in win-
ter due to the harsh environmental con-
ditions in winter (Hutchinson 1967,
McIntire and Overton 1971, Wetzel
1975). The predominance of 1 to 2
species results in a low diversity value,
while high diversity occurs when the
populations of several species each form
moderate proportions of the entire com-
munity (Wetzel 1975). If the system is not
disturbed, e.g:, by pollution, the species
composition will fluctuate in a regular
manner from 1 year to the next (Wetzel
1975).

Productivity may be defined as the
amount of organic matter the water is ca-
pable of producing (Newcombe 1949). In
large lakes, the algal productivity is often
the ultimate source of energy that drives

PERIPHYTON OF SLOAN’S CROSSING POND, KENTUCKY—Orser and Dillard 61

the system (Wetzel 1975). Primary pro-
ductivity can be estimated from the
changes in biomass that occur with time.
Usually, it is an average of instantaneous
rates that occur over a period of time be-
cause there are so many factors in natural
environments that often cause rapid and
irregular changes in the instantaneous
rates, such as quality and intensity of
light (Wetzel 1975).

On a seasonal basis, the amount of bio-
mass usually increases greatly in the
spring, builds up to a maximum that is
often short lived. This is frequently fol-
lowed by a period of low numbers and
biomass that may persist through the
summer. There is a second peak in fall
that usually is not as great as that in
spring, and winter is characterized by
greatly reduced growth (Wetzel 1975).

This study was undertaken to analyze,
quantitatively and qualitatively, the pe-
riphyton community of Sloan’s Crossing
Pond, Mammoth Cave National Park, and
to determine patterns of seasonal period-
icity. Productivity measurements includ-
ed dry weight, ash-free dry weight, and
chlorophyll a analysis.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

We extend our gratitude to Western
Kentucky University for providing sup-
porting funds through the Faculty Re-
search Committee and to the National
Park Service for allowing us to conduct
this study at Mammoth Cave National
Park. Our thanks also go to Drs. F. R. To-
man and R. D. Farina for their aid in the
pigment analysis procedures.

STUDY AREA

Sloan’s Crossing Pond is in Mammoth
Cave National Park, Kentucky, 8 km west
of Park City on Highway 70. The pond is
approximately 193 m long and 66 m wide.
The bottom consists of a bed of slate
overlain by unconsolidated sediment of
varying depth.

Sloan’s Crossing Pond is in an ad-
vanced successional stage. Most of its
surface is covered by a dense growth of
water shield Brasenia schreberi Gmelin.
The marginal aquatic vascular plant flora

is dominated by three-way sedge Duli-
chium arundinaceum (L.) Britton, com-
mon cat-tail Typha latifolia L., and but-
ton bush Cephalanthus occidentalis L.

The pond is shallow, between 1 and 2
m in depth in most areas.

Chemicophysical Factors

The mean monthly air temperature
ranged from —2 to 24.3 C, with the low
occurring in December and the high in
May. The mean water temperature fol-
lowed the same basic pattern as the air
temperature except that the changes
were slower. The low water temperature
of 1 C was recorded during January and
February, while a high of 24 C occurred
in July. Apparent color ranged from 0 to
208 units with higher values from June
through September. Alkalinity and pH
were low during the entire year with al-
kalinity never more than 20 mg/l and pH
with a range of 5.0-6.7. Nitrate nitrogen
was found in high concentrations during
January and February with values greater
than 7.5 mg/l, but remained below 0.5
mg/l the rest of the year. Orthophosphate
concentrations also generally remained
less than 0.5 mg/l except for December,
when it reached a value of 1.05 mg/l. Ni-
trite nitrogen was generally detected
only during the cooler months and then
in low amounts, usually less than 0.003
mg/l. Values for silica ranged from 1.2 to
3.2 mg/l with higher values being ob-
tained from January through March and
August through October.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Collections were made on a periodic
basis from January 1977 through January
1978. Samples were collected once a
week from April through October and
once every 2 weeks, weather permitting,
from November through March. With few
exceptions, the samples were collected
between 0630 and L000.

A triangular redwood float attached to
styrofoam blocks was anchored in the
centrally located open area of the pond.
Two types of artificial substrates were
used: Plexiglass strips 3.0 x 12.0 cm and
glass microslides 25 x 75 mm. For each

62

sampling period, 8 Plexiglass strips and
4 microslides were suspended vertically
from the float by a piece of plastic-coated
wire such that their top edges were ap-
proximately 28 cm below the surface. of
the water. The Plexiglass strips were
used for quantitative analysis while the
glass microslides were used for taxonom-
ic studies. After an appropriate immer-
sion period, the material from each of 4
Plexiglass strips was scraped with a razor
blade into separate jars, and the strip and
razor blade were then rinsed inside the
jar with distilled water. The material
from the remaining 4 Plexiglass strips
was scraped into a jar and labeled. Each
of the 4 microslides was placed in sepa-
rate containers filled with water.
Productivity was measured by 3 param-
eters: dry weight, ash-free dry weight,
and chlorophyll a. To determine dry
weight, the contents of the first 4 jars
were placed in weighed and marked cru-
cibles and heated at 105 C for 24 hours.
At the end of the 24 hours, the crucibles
were placed in a desiccator, allowed to
come to equilibrium, and weighed on an
analytical balance. In times of low pro-
ductivity, the material from 2 or 4 strips
was placed in the same crucible to im-
prove the accuracy of the results.
Ash-free dry weight was measured by
placing the crucibles in a muffle furnace
at 500-550 C for 1 hour. After equilibra-
tion in a desiccator, they were weighed.
The contents from the other 4 strips
were used for chlorophyll a analysis. The
method used was that described by Lor-
enzen (1967). All results of productivity
were expressed as mg/m?/day.
Taxonomic studies were made by
scraping and drying 1 side of the glass
microslides, then observing the other
side directly through the microscope. Ap-
proximately 300 individuals were count-
ed from each collection, that number hav-
ing been determined as giving reasonably
accurate results (Castenholz 1960). Ap-
proximately 100 individuals were count-
ed from each of 3 slides with the fourth
being utilized in cases of low productiv-
ity. In some instances, productivity was
so low that it was impossible to count 300

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 41(1-2)

individuals, in which case as many as
possible were enumerated. During pe-
riods of low productivity, 200 magnifi-
cation usually was used; however, in pe-
riods of high productivity, 400x became
necessary. Care was taken to ensure that
the entire surface of the slide was sur-
veyed equally. An ocular with a square
etched on it was used, and all the periph-
yton inside the square was enumerated.
Upon completion of the taxonomic stud-
ies each week, the dominant organisms
were determined by calculating their rel-
ative abundance by percentage based on
the total number of individuals. Prescott
(1962) was used to key the periphytic al-
gae to genus and species when possible.

Several physicochemical factors were
measured: air and water temperatures,
apparent color, nitrate nitrogen, nitrite
nitrogen, orthophosphate, silica, alkalin-
ity, and pH. Air and water temperatures
were taken and recorded in the field. A
water sample was collected and brought
back to the laboratory so that the remain-
ing factors could be determined. The
tests were run immediately upon return
to the laboratory using a Hach Kit (Model
DR-EL/2).

RESULTS

On a seasonal basis (Fig. 1), productiv-
ity was lowest during the winter months
and highest between July and Septem-
ber. Due to an apparent malfunction of
the analytical balance from January
through March the dry and ash-free dry
weight determinations for those months
were inaccurate; however, the data were
included to indicate the trends present.

Beginning with dry weight, the lowest
reading was approximately 3.0 mg/m?/day
in January with values remaining below
21.0 until Mav, when it increased to 56.0
mg/m?/day. A decrease in June to 41.0
mg/m?/day preceded a large rise during
July to reach the peak of 243.0 mg/m?/day
in August. Subsequently, there was a
steady decline to reach a second low of
7.0 mg/m?/day in December.

Values for ash-free dry weight re-
mained between 0 and 5 mg/m?/day from
January through May, after which there

PERIPHYTON OF SLOAN’S CROSSING POND, KENTUCKY—Orser and Dillard 63

was a steady increase to reach the year’s
high of 92.0 in August. A slight decrease
occurred in September, preceding a
greater decline until values remained be-
tween 4.0 and 5.0 mg/m?/day from No-
vember through January.

The values for chlorophyll a exhibited
basically the same trends as those for dry
weight, except that the peak was attained
in July instead of August. The pond’s
lowest reading was measured in January
at approximately 1.0 mg/m2?/day. Values
remained relatively low during the next
few months until May, when there was
a small peak of 67.0 mg/m?/day. A slight
drop in June preceded a large surge in
July to reach the annual peak of 584.0 mg/
m?/day. Values for August and September
remained between 270 and 260, before a
steady decline occurred to 6.0 mg/m2/day
in December. There was a small increase
in January to 16.0 mg/m?/day.

Taxa

When available material permitted, a
total of at least 300 individuals was count-
ed for each sampling period. However,
for certain sampling dates it was impos-
sible due to an insufficient population of
algae. There were 6 occasions when less
than the desired number of organisms
was counted (data not shown): January
1977, both sample dates in March, the
second week of April, the first week of
July, and the third week of October. At
all other times at least 300 individuals
were noted and recorded.

The mean values in each month of the
percentage abundance for the 5 divisions
for which representatives were encoun-
tered during the taxonomic studies are
summarized in Fig. 2. Beginning with
the Chlorophyta, it can be seen that those
organisms were most abundant on a per-
centage basis during the milder parts of
the year, February through May and Sep-
tember through November, and became
less abundant during the summer and
winter. Chlorophytes were most numer-
ous in April at 46 percent and least fre-
quent during January at 3 percent.

With the exception of being approxi-
mately 10 percent lower, the curve for

| et

3990-
| \
| \. ~— — - — Chlorophyll "a"
1 F —-—-—-—Ory weight
| |
250-4 Ash weight
Nuelt
o | 1 |
Q ] | '\ |
"e ! i
2004 ! \ \
gy Nar ae?
' | y \ |
z 1 H \
te} 4 | ! 2
FE 150 H v
fs | :
=) | J ‘i
Toa) ! ne
° |
a ] | | \|
a ' \e
1oo4 rw il
4 - i}
Da each
jy ey
| So t
504 IN| 7A / \ xt
4 Me SA / \\
. \\
4 VA EN
Be ee ee
Gf OS il y See
ae
na Ea Mae AG nears ry AS ON nr
MONTHS 1977-78
Fic. 1. Mean values of dry and ash-free dry

weights and chlorophyll a content, January 1977—
January 1978.

the Chrysophyta followed that of the
Chlorophyta closely until August, when
they exceeded the green algae, and
reached approximately 28 percent. Dur-
ing the remainder of the year, their rela-
tive abundance remained below 20 per-
cent.

The Cyanophyta were dominant from
June through September with values of
81 and 43 percent, respectively, and in
December at 76 percent. During the rest
of the study they comprised less than 30
percent of the population.

Members of the Euglenophyta began
the year with their highest value of 95
percent, but then dropped steadily until
reaching a low of 3 percent in June. They
reached a second peak in November at
55 percent, then remained low during
December and January.

The Pyrrhophyta appeared only during
May, December, and January, and at all
times comprised less than 10 percent of
the population.

The dominant taxa of each sampling
date are illustrated in Fig. 3. The upper

64 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 41(1-2)
100-7
|-Chlorophyta
2-Chrysophyta
3-Cyanophyta
7 4-Euglenophyta
a 5-Pyrrophyta
8
!
Li
O
7, | 8) 9)
<q
QO
=
=)
mM
aq

MONTHS

portion of the figure represents those in-
dividuals that appeared sporadically
throughout the year, while the lower por-
tion represents those that were relatively
abundant for at least 2 consecutive sam-
pling periods. Means were not calculated
for the data as averages would overshad-
ow the diversity in organisms that ap-
peared from week to week.

On a seasonal basis the richest diver-
sity appeared in the spring and fall
months, especially in April. Clear domi-
nants were most obvious during the sum-
mer and winter months when the weath-
er was relatively stable for a longer
period of time. However, the species
composition of Sloan’s Crossing Pond re-
mained diverse and complex throughout
a large portion of the year.

During January and February, the
main dominant was Euglena sp., with
values of 86 and 37 percent, respectively.
Members of the Chlorococcales (29%)
and naviculoid diatoms (21%) also ap-
peared in relatively large numbers.
Naviculoid taxa consisted primarily of
Navicula spp., but also included Frus-
tulia rhomboides Ehrenberg and Stau-
roneis anceps Ehrenberg.

Si Gs

Fic. 2. Mean values of the 5 divisions represented, January 1977-January 1978.

From March through May, there was a
large array of organisms, many appearing
in approximately the same relative fre-
quency such that no clear dominants
could be determined. Rarely did any one
organism have a relative frequency great-
er than 30 percent. Those species con-
sisted of Euglena sp., Chlorococcales,
Mougeotia sp., naviculoid diatoms, Syn-
edra ulna, Oscillatoria subbrevis Schmi-
dle, Oscillatoria sp., Rhipidodendron
sp., Ellipsoidion dispar Pascher, Cos-
marium sp., Dinobryon sp., unidentified
chrysophyte loricas, Volvocales, Ophio-
cytium sp., and Cryptomonas sp.

Beginning near the end of May and
lasting until the end of July, O. subbrevis
and Oscillatoria sp. were the two main
dominants with ranges of 20-66 and 24—
57 percent, respectively. Chlorococca-
lean forms appeared 3 times in July, hav-
ing values between 12 and 15 percent.

With the exception of the first week in
August, O. subbrevis continued to be the
major dominant form until the fourth col-
lection of September, when it decreased
markedly in frequency. During those 2
months, its relative abundance ranged
from 21 to 76 percent. Naviculoid dia-

PERIPHYTON OF SLOAN’S CROSSING POND, KENTUCKY—Orser and Dillard 65

ABUNDANCE - (%)

MONTHS

I977-78

Fic. 3. Species composition for each sample period, January 1977—January 1978. Key: 1. Euglena sp.; 2.

Chlorococcales; 3. Mougeotia sp.; 4. Naviculoid diatoms; 5. Synedra ulna; 6. Oscillatoria subbrevis; 7.

Oscillatoria sp.; 8. Oscillatoria tenuis; 9. Chlamydomonas sp.; 10. Trachelomonas volvocina; 11. Chlo-

rella vulgaris; 12. Rhipidodendron sp.; 13. Ellipsoidion dispar; 14. Cosmarium sp.; 15. Dinobryon sp.;

16. Unidentified chrysophyte loricas; 17. Unidentified Volvocales; 18. Ophiocytium sp.; 19. Cryptomonas
sp.; 20. Synura sp.; 21. Gleoetaenium loitelsbergerianum; 22. Eunotia sp.; 23. Tetraedon sp.

toms were dominant the first week in Au-
gust at 31 percent and remained relative-
ly abundant through August, with values
ranging from 10 to 32 percent. Other
forms frequently observed during this
period were Oscillatoria tenuis C. A.
Agardh (10-11%), Chlamydomonas sp.
(5-10%), Chlorococcales (16%), and
Trachelomonas volvocina Ehrenberg
(22%).

Chlorella vulgaris Beyerinck and T.
volvocina were the 2 dominants in the
last 2 collections of September, with val-
ues of 33-41 and 30-33 percent, respec-
tively.

T. volvocina remained abundant dur-

ing the first 2 weeks in October, with
chlorococcalean forms, Euglena sp., and
Synura sp. comprising the remainder of
frequently observed organisms. During
the third week in October, there was a
drastic cold spell and subsequently, only
25 individuals were counted. These in-
cluded Rhipidodendron sp., Mougeotia
sp., Euglena sp., T. volvocina, Cosmar-
ium sp., and Chlorococcales. By the next
week, the population had increased, and
Mougeotia sp. was most frequent at 40
percent, Chlorococcales, T. volvocina,
and Rhipidodendron sp. comprised be-
tween 13 and 8 percent of the total.

T. volvocina was dominant in early No-

66 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 41(1-2)

vember at 90 percent, then essentially
disappeared. In the second collection,
Gloeotaenuim loitelsbergerianum Hans-
girg comprised 33 percent of the popu-
lation, Chlamydomonas sp., 15 percent,
Euglena sp., 12 percent, and Synura sp.,
Rhipidodendron sp., Euonotia sp., and
Chlorococcales each had values between
7 and 5 percent.

Oscillatoria sp. were prominent
throughout December with values of ap-
proximately 75 percent but dropped to 18
percent in January. Euglena sp. com-
prised greater than one-third of the total
in January and Synura sp., Mougeotia
sp., and Tetraedon sp. had values be-
tween 15 and 7 percent.

DISCUSSION
Productivity

As measured by dry weight, productiv-
ity was lowest in January as would be
expected due to cold temperatures and
low light intensities that limited growth.
The low values recorded through April
might be explained by the rapid changes
in the environment resulting in low num-
bers in the population and, subsequently,
low production. The small peak in May
probably was the culmination of the
spring pulse and was followed by a re-
duction in biomass often found in lake
systems during the summer (Castenholz
1960, Dor 1970, Wetzel 1975). However,
unlike other studies where the popula-
tion remained low until reaching a small-
er peak in the fall, the dry weight in-
creased sharply to reach a peak in August
that was over 3 times as great in magni-
tude as the spring pulse. This might be
explained by the marked increase in the
nitrate concentration in July, or possibly
the chemicophysical factors reached the
optimum level for the population. The
subsequent reduction was most likely
due to declining temperatures and light
intensities.

During the first half of the study, the
ash-free dry weight did not reflect the
same fluctuations in productivity as did
the dry weight. The discrepancies prob-
ably were due to 2 factors: the malfunc-

tioning of the balance during the first few
months, and the fact that the actual
amount of periphyton weighed was so lit-
tle that it affected the accuracy of the
readings.

The data obtained for chlorophyll a
closely followed the pattern of productiv-
ity in the dry weight except that the an-
nual peak occurred in July instead of Au-
gust. The most plausible explanation for
that difference is the fact that during July,
bluegreen algae were the dominants,
while in August, diatoms became sub-
dominant. In blue-green algae, chloro-
phyll a is one of the dominant pigments,
but in diatoms the xanthophylls play a
more important role. Therefore, although
the biomass was greater in August, the
amount of chlorophyll a was reduced
from the previous month.

Comparing the productivity of Sloan’s
Crossing Pond to that from other studies,
Castenholz (1960) obtained maximum
values ranging from 150 to 800 mg/m?/day
ash-free dry weight from several lakes in
Washington, and Dor (1970) obtained a
maximum of 2,580 mg/m?/day in Lake
Tiberias. Those values are much higher
than those obtained from Sloan’s Cross-
ing Pond, indicating, on this basis, that it
is not eutrophic.

Taxa

Generally speaking, the reason 300 in-
dividuals could not be counted on certain
occasions was because either severe tem-
peratures limited algal growth (January)
or because rapid temperature changes re-
duced the population (March, October).
The low numbers in the second week of
April probably were due to the fact that
that was the first sample of the year taken
in 7 days instead of 14. It is not known
why the collection in July obtained so
few numbers; the water temperature had
changed only 1 C from the previous
week. However, from most of those sam-
ples it appears that temperature was a
major factor in regulating the size of the
population.

Most of the algal divisions showed
marked seasonality (Fig. 2). The Chloro-
phyta were most abundant in the spring

PERIPHYTON OF SLOAN’S CROSSING POND, KENTUCKY—Orser and Dillard 67

and fall, which agrees with the report of
Smith (1950). Volvocales and Chlorococ-
cales, the majority of the green algae in
Sloan’s Crossing Pond, are often found in
ponds in organic matter and nitrogenous
compounds, as was the case here.

The Chrysophyta showed 2 major
peaks in the spring and late summer.
Members of the Class Chrysophyceae
usually are found in the spring or autumn
when the water is cool (Smith 1950), and
they accounted for part of the early spring
peak. Members of the Class Bacillario-
phyceae were also responsible for part of
the spring peak and the summer peak,
probably due to the fact that they are ex-
tremely widespread and have an extend-
ed temperature range.

The blue-green algae were found
largely in the summer, with another peak
of short duration in December. It has
been found that they usually grow better
during the warmer months of the year
when the nutrient level is low (Hutch-
inson 1944, 1967, Smith 1950, Wetzel
1975), which would account for the sum-
mer peak, but there are also species
adapted to grow in the winter (Smith
1950), thereby explaining the December
peak.

Euglenophyta are often abundant in
small ponds rich in nitrogenous com-
pounds and organic matter (Smith 1950,
Hutchinson 1967). Their relative abun-
dance followed the curve for nitrate rel-
atively closely, i.e., when nitrate concen-
trations were high, euglenoids were
more frequently observed and vice versa.
Since they reached their peaks during
colder weather, either those forms were
adapted to grow in colder water, or the
nitrate concentration played a more im-
portant role in determining their abun-
dance than did temperature.

The Pyrrhophyta appeared only in
May, December, and January, and then
only in small numbers. The dominant
form in May was a member of the Class

Cryptophyceae. Some of the members of

that class are adapted to grow in water
rich in organic matter and nitrogenous
compounds (Smith 1950), apparently the
case here. The form found in the winter

was a member of the Class Dinophyceae,
which are usually most frequent in pools,
ditches, and small lakes that contain
much vegetation (Smith 1950). Although
Sloan’s Crossing Pond contains numer-
ous vascular plants in the summer, it is
not known why that organism appeared
in the winter unless it was unable to com-
pete with the other algae during the sum-
mer.

Generally speaking, the diversity of or-
ganisms was richest during the times
when environmental conditions were
changing rapidly, e.g., from March
through May, and during parts of Sep-
tember, October, and November. When
the environment was fairly stable for
longer periods of time, i.e., January, Feb-
ruary, and June through August, relative-
ly few species comprised the entire pop-
ulation. Although many studies have
shown that the greatest diversity occurs
in the summer (McIntire and Overton
1971, Meyer and McCormick 1971, Wetz-
el 1975), that was not the case in Sloan’s
Crossing Pond. It is believed that during
the summer our study was conducted, the
water temperature was so high that only
species adapted to grow at high temper-
atures could proliferate, thereby reduc-
ing diversity.

In most cases, the appearance of an or-
ganism as a dominant or subdominant
form agreed with previous data on the
organism's preferred habitat. For exam-
ple, many of the species found in abun-
dance were ones that have been found to
occur in waters rich in organic matter.
These included Euglena sp., Chlorococ-
cales, Oscillatoria sp., Oscillatoria ten-
uis, Chlamydomonas sp., Cryptomonas
sp., Navicula sp., Synedra sp., Trache-
lomonas volvocina and Chlorella vulgar-
is (Smith 1950, Prescott 1962, Hutchin-
son 1967, Palmer 1976). Members
representing the Class Chrysophyceae,
Ellipsoidion dispar, Dinobryon sp., Syn-
ura sp., and unidentified chrysophyte lor-
icas, appeared in the spring and fall when
the water was cooler. Blue-green algae,
Oscillatoria sp., O. subbrevis, and O.
tenuis, appeared in the summer when
nutrients were low, yet Oscillatoria sp.

68 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 41(1-2)

also appeared in the winter, obviously
adapted to grow in cold weather.

In classifying the trophic level of
Sloan’s Crossing Pond, different factors
were taken into account. Although the
nutrient levels were low, they were ap-
proximately equal to those found in other
lakes that were concluded to be eutro-
phic (Tressler et al. 1940). A large num-
ber of the organisms that occurred either
as dominants or subdominants were
among those listed by Palmer (1976) as
genera tolerant to pollution and could be
used to calculate an index to indicate or-
ganic pollution or eutrophy if several of
those genera appeared together at the
same time. However, in Sloan’s Crossing
Pond, those genera usually appeared at
different times of the year with rarely
more than 3 or 4 occurring at the same
time. As noted earlier, the production
rates obtained were far lower than those
from other studies (Castenholz 1960, Dor
1970). Therefore, on the basis of all those
factors, it was concluded that Sloan’s
Crossing Pond is mesotrophic, and it is
believed that the severe temperatures in
the winter and summer probably were
the most important limiting factor.

SUMMARY

Periodic collections were obtained
from Sloan’s Crossing Pond for 1 year to
analyze, quantitatively and qualitatively,
the periphyton community and to deter-
mine patterns of periodicity. Productivity
was measured by dry and ash-free dry
weights and chlorophyll a content.

Productivity was lowest during winter
and highest between July and Septem-
ber. Dry weight showed a range of 3.0-
243.0 mg/m?/day, the peak occurring in
August. The pattern for ash-free dry
weight did not follow that of dry weight
during the first 6 months of the study,
possibly due to problems with the ana-
lytical balance or inaccuracies in the val-
ue obtained for ash-free dry weight due
to the small amount of periphyton mea-
sured. During the second portion of the
study, the ash-free dry weight followed
the pattern of dry weight, and the peak

was also reached in August at 92 mg/m2?/
day. Chlorophyll a followed the pattern
of dry weight except its peak was ob-
tained in July at 584 mg/m?/day. That dif-
ference was attributed to the fact that in
July blue-green algae were dominant
while in August, diatoms became sub-
dominant. Therefore, biomass was higher
in August, but chlorophyll a content was
lowered. Low productivity in the winter
was due to low light and temperatures
causing reduced growth.

Diversity was lower during January
and February due to low productivity,
and higher in April. During the summer
when nutrient levels were low and the
temperature was high, variety again
reached a minimum. In the fall, it rose
again and then dropped during the win-
ter. The Chlorophyta, represented by
Chlorococcales, Mougeotia sp., Chlorel-
la vulgaris, and Chlamydomonas sp., ap-
peared in their greatest relative abun-
dance during the spring and fall. The
chrysophytes showed basically the same
pattern as Chlorophyta, except that their
relative abundance was generally ap-
proximately 10 percent lower. Navicu-
loid diatoms and Synedra ulna were the
most abundant members of the chryso-
phytes. Cyanophyta, especially Oscilla-
toria sp., O. subbrevis, and O. tenuis,
dominated the summer flora and also ap-
peared in great abundance in December.
Euglenophyta, especially Euglena sp.,
and Trachelomonas volvocina, were
highest in frequency in January and No-
vember and lowest during the summer.
Temperature appeared to play an impor-
tant role in determining the relative
abundance of the 5 divisions at various
times of the year, e.g., the Chrysophyta
appeared in greatest numbers when the
water was cool, and the Cyanophyta were
often most important during periods
when temperatures were too extreme for
other forms to grow well.

Sloan’s Crossing Pond was designated
as mesotrophic because although most of
the dominant species found usually were
types commonly found in waters rich in
organic and nitrogenous compounds, the

PERIPHYTON OF SLOAN’S CROSSING POND, KENTUCKY—Orser and Dillard 69

productivity levels were lower than those
reported for other aquatic systems deter-
mined to be eutrophic.

LITERATURE CITED

CASTENHOLZ, R. W. 1960. Seasonal changes in the
attached algae of freshwater and saline lakes in
the Lower Grand Coulee, Washington. Limnol.
Oceanogr. 5:1—-28.

Dor, I. 1970. Production rate of the periphyton in
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method. Israel J. Bot. 19:1-15.

GAUSE, G. F. 1935. Verifications experimentales
de la theorie mathematique de la lutte pour la
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HUTCHINSON, G. E. 1944. Limnological studies in
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LORENZEN, C. J. 1967. Determination of chloro-
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MCINTIRE, C. D., AND W. S. OVERTON. 1971. Dis-
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McMAHoN, R. F., R. D. HUNTER, AND W. D. Rus-
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MEYER, F. A., AND J. F. MCCORMICK. 1971. Sea-
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NEWCOMBE, C. L. 1949. Attachment materials in
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PALMER, C. M. 1976. A composite rating of algae
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PRESCOTT, G. W. 1962. Algae of the Western Great
Lakes Area. Wm. C. Brown Co. Publ., Du-
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United States. McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc.,
New York, N.Y. 719 pp.

TRESSLER, W. L., L. H. TIFFANY, AND W. P. SPEN-
CER. 1940. Limnological studies of Buckeye
Lake, Ohio. Ohio J. Sci. 40:261-290.

WETZEL, R. G. 1975. Limnology. W. B. Saunders
Company, Philadelphia, Pa. 743 pp.

YOUNG, O. W. 1945. A limnological investigation
of periphyton in Douglas Lake, Michigan.
Trans. Amer. Microsc. Soc. 1:1—20.

Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 41(1-2), 1980, 70-82

ACADEMY AFFAIRS

THE SIXTY-FIFTH ANNUAL BUSINESS MEETING
OF THE KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

NORTHERN KENTUCKY UNIVERSITY, HIGHLAND HEIGHTS, KENTUCKY
2 and 3 November 1979

Hosts: Drs. Debra Pearce and Larry Giesmann

MINUTES OF THE ANNUAL BUSINESS MEETING

The meeting was called to order by President
Jones at 0805, 3 November, in the Theater, Uni-
versity Center, with approximately 45 members in
attendance.

After a motion by Secretary Creek and a second
from the floor, the minutes of the 1978 Annual Busi-
ness Meeting at Eastern Kentucky University, as
recorded in the Transactions Vol. 40(1-2), were ap-
proved.

The Treasurer's report was made by Dr. Taylor.
A motion was made by Dr. Winstead and seconded
from the floor to amend the report to show that the
Botany Foundation has a total of $10,000. The mo-
tion passed. The report was audited by Ronald Mar-
ionneaux, Perry Wigley, and John Davidson and
found to be in order.

Treasurers Report to the Audit Committee
Kentucky Academy of Science
5 November 1978-30 October 1979

Cash in Madison National Bank,
Richmond, Kentucky,

5 November 1979 __- $ 4,000.00
Receipts:
Membership dues ____ $ 3,268.54
Annual meeting 370.00
Subscriptions
to Transactions ______ 147.00
Commonwealth
of Kentucky __________ 6,000.00
Transfer from George-
town account ________ 42.04
Page charges ____________ 1,905.00
Institutional affiliations 850.00
$12,582.58 12,582.58
$16,582.58
Disbursements:
Annual meeting ________ $ 245.90
AAAS Research grants __ 128.00
Operating expenses—
Annual report,
incorporation fee,
membership certificates,
postage, etc: -____ 505.47

Publication
of Transactions ______ 7,830.65
Junior Academy ________ 500.00
$ 9,210.02 9,210.02
Balanee? 22 G5 0020 usa ee $ 7,372.56

Cash in Madison National Bank,
Richmond, Kentucky,
30 October 1979 _________---__---_- $ 7,372.56

Savings account, Lexington

Federal Savings and Loan _____________- 1,492.22

Savings account (Botany Foundation),
Farmer’s National Bank,
Georgetown

1,115.76

Savings account (Floristic Grant),
Citizens National Bank,

Bowling Green 2,620.25

Savings Account (Botany Foundation),
First National Bank,
Georgetown

Certificates of Deposit (Botany
Foundation) Citizens National

Bank, Bowling Green 2,585.34

Certificate of Deposit (Botany
Foundation) First National

Bank, Georgetown 1,235.37

President Jones presented the following report
on his tenure as President of the Academy.

During this present decade, the Kentucky Acad-
emy of Science has had an active role in the study
of the level of federal funding of research and de-
velopment in Kentucky. The initial impetus for that
study began with the “Lloyd Report” in 1974, spon-
sored by the Kentucky Science and Technology
Commission and the Kentucky Academy of Science.
More recently, through the effort of Dr. Charles
Kupchella, Past President of the Academy, and in
conjunction with the Legislative Research Com-
mission and the Council on Higher Education, a
more thorough and comprehensive study of federal
funding of research and development was complet-
ed. The substance of that study has been compiled
in Research Report No. 156 “Federal Research and
Development Funding in Kentucky.”

That completed study of federal research and de-
velopment funding in Kentucky charts the way for

70

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ACADEMY AFFAIRS

new approaches to improving the status of science
in the Commonwealth and especially at the col-
leges and universities. Some of the recommenda-
tions of the report will need to be given careful
consideration as to further involvement of the Acad-
emy in the encouragement of scientific research.
One direct result of the culmination of the report
has been a greater visibility of the Academy.

Another area of continuing interest of the Acad-
emy in promotion of science in the Commonwealth
has been the quality of science education available
at the precollege level. The interest of the Academy
in science taught at the secondary and middle
school levels goes back to a study initiated in 1947.
In implementing the new study, communications
were established with the Superintendent of Public
Instruction, Dr. James B. Graham, to secure coop-
eration from the State Department of Education.
That correspondence resulted in the assignment of
Mr. Frank Howard, Science Consultant, to act as
the Bureau of Instruction’s liaison with the Acade-
my.

To implement the study on science education at
the precollege level, the following ad hoc commit-
tee was appointed: Rudolph Prins, Chairman, Ste-
phen A. Henderson, Arvin Crafton, Daniel Ochs,
and Frank S. Butler.

After a preliminary study and acquisition of a na-
tional survey of science education at the precollege
level, the ad hoc committee met twice at Western
Kentucky University during the winter and early
spring. The primary result of those meetings was
the modification of a questionnaire that had been
used in a 1977 National Survey of Science, Math-
ematics, and Social Studies Education, conducted
by the Research Triangle Institute under contract
to the National Science Foundation. That rather ex-
tensive questionnaire was modified to obtain the
best data perceived to represent Kentucky’s
schools. The questionnaire is now being scruti-
nized for best arrangement for computer process-
ing. Some thought has been given to obtaining a
grant to help defray the cost of administration and
the analysis of the completed questionnaire. We
believe that the study will produce important in-
formation that will be useful in developing new
directions in science education at the precollege
level.

The primary financial support of the Academy is
derived from the membership’s annual dues. This
year, members of the Academy were contacted for
the purpose of substantiation of membership status
as to the payment of dues. That action resulted in
payment of dues in arrears by a substantial number
of members. Our treasurer, Dr. Morris Taylor, has
established the current status of the membership’s
payment of dues and the Executive Committee has
approved 1 January of each calendar year as the due
date for payment of annual dues to the Academy.

The effort to obtain institutional affiliates of the
Academy was continued. A special invoice was de-
signed and mailed to all previous affiliates, and that
effort resulted in payment by the following:

TL

Alice Lloyd College
Bellarmine College

Eastern Kentucky University
Morehead State University
Western Kentucky University

Letters were sent to all other institutions in the state
that had not previously joined the Academy as af-
filiates. That appeal was not successful.

Overall, the financial affairs stand at about the
same level as last year. If the request for funds to
the Executive Branch of State Government is suc-
cessful, our financial position will be much more
secure.

The role of the Academy in the promotion of sci-
ence, if it is to involve a greater responsibility, will
require the services of either a part-time or full-time
Executive Director. How to arrange financial sup-
port for such a greater outreach has not been real-
ized. One approach might be for the Board of Di-
rectors to direct their effort to seeking the financial
means to support a part-time Executive Director.

Members of the Academy who have not obtained
a Certificate of Membership should request one
from Dr. Rudolph Prins at Western Kentucky Uni-
versity. The certificate is very attractive and quite
appropriate for display.

The Executive Committee has accepted the in-
vitation to hold the 1980 Annual Meeting at Tran-
sylvania University as part of that university's Bi-
centennial Celebration. The 1981 Annual Meeting
is scheduled for Murray State University.

President Jones then called for reports of the fol-
lowing committees:

1. Membership Committee. Dr. Paul Freytag pre-
sented the following written report.

The Membership Committee sent letters to mem-
bers of the Academy to ask their assistance in ob-
taining new members. Each member of the Com-
mittee was responsible for corresponding with a
different section of the Academy.

In order to help in that endeavor, the Academy
extended to all new members free registration at
the annual meeting. The number of new members
who joined this year will be given in the next news-
letter. The Committee wishes to thank all members
who helped in this year’s membership drive.

2. Committee on Publications. Dr. Krumholz sent
the following report.

Volume 40(1-2) consisted of 84 printed pages that
included 10 papers, the Distinguished Scientist
Award, Academy Affairs, and News and Comment.
Volume 40(3-4) consisted of 72 printed pages that
included 10 papers and the Index for the entire vol-
ume. The cost for printing Volume 40(1—2) was
$4,108.84 and that for Volume 40(3—4) was $3,721.81
for an annual total of $7,830.65. Thus, the cost per
page for printing Volume 40, including all blank
pages and covers (a total of 164 pages), was $47.75,
an increase of $4.04 per page (9.2%) over that of

Volume 39.

The subjects of the 20 papers in Volume 40 were
distributed among only 4 disciplines as follows:
Zoology and Entomology, 14 papers (89 pages);
Botany and Microbiology, 3 papers (19 pages); Ge-
ography, 1 paper (9 pages); Geology, 1 paper (6
pages); and General, 1 paper (5 pages). Thus, pa-
pers from only 4 of the 10 sections that participated
in the meetings of 3-4 November 1978 at Eastern
Kentucky University (a total of 152 presentations
were made) were published in the Transactions in
1979. We sincerely hope that papers from the other
sections, along with more from the above-men-
tioned ones, will be submitted in the future. The
Transactions is now becoming established as a
first-rate outlet for publication of the results of sci-
entific research and we look forward to it becoming
even stronger in the future.

It should be pointed out that the paper listed as
General is the result of the special study on federal
funding of research and development.

Page charges are continuing to be paid by the
authors or their sponsors. So far, only 1 paper has
been published since the initiation of the policy for
which page charges have not been paid. Payment
of those charges is being pursued.

3. State Government Science Advisory Commit-
tee. Dr. Kupchella reported that the Committee had
completed its study and the results have been pub-
lished as Research Report No. 156 entitled “Fed-
eral Research and Development Funding in Ken-
tucky.” Results of that study will be published in
the Transactions. The first part of the report was
published in Volume 40(3-4), other parts will ap-
pear in future issues.

4. Distribution of Research Funds.

Botany Foundation Fund. Dr. Winstead pre-
sented the report.

Two awards have been made in 1979 by the
Foundation for Botanical Research in Kentucky.
The projects and the financial support are:

“A leaf architectural and cuticular analysis of fos-
sil and living Annonaceae.” John L. Roth, Jr., De-
partment of Botany, Indiana University, Blooming-
ton, Indiana. $375.00.

“Quantitative analysis of the plant communities
at Murpheys Pond.” Robert Oddo and Greg Houser,
Department of Biological Sciences, Murray State
University, Murray, Kentucky. $300.00.

In December 1978, the final installment on the
original agreement to establish an endowment of
$10,000 was made by the donor. The full endow-
ment is deposited in certificates of deposit in var-
ious banks of the Commonwealth, and a separate
savings account receives quarterly dividends. Un-
der the terms of the Foundation, 10 percent of the
annual interest or dividends is retained to be added
to the original principal of $10,000 which provides
for perpetual growth of the fund. Donations in any
amount may be made to the fund by interested in-
dividuals at any time, and such donations are wel-
come. Such donations may be sent to the Treasurer

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 41(1—2)

of the Academy marked for “KAS Foundation for
Botanical Research.”

In 1979, the availability of funds to support bo-
tanical research in the Commonwealth was adver-
tised widely. A full-page announcement appeared
in the Association of Southeastern Biologists Bul-
letin Vol. 26 (April) and an announcement also ap-
peared in the Plant Science Bulletin Vol. 25
(March) which is a publication sent to all members
of the Botanical Society of America.

Floristic Grant Fund. Dr. Fuller gave the report.
As of 1 November 1978, the Committee had
awarded 3 grants as follows:

1. Patrick Applegarth, Northern Kentucky Uni-
versity, who is working on the floristics of Kenton
County, Kentucky. Mr. Applegarth is working un-
der the supervision of Dr. John W. Thieret. The
grant was awarded for the 2-year term, 1976-1977.
We have not received a final report.

2. Raymond Cranfill, University of Kentucky,
who is working on the floristics of Hardin County,
Kentucky. Mr. Cranfill is working under the super-
vision of Dr. Willem Meijer. The grant was awarded
for the 2-year term 1977-1978. The final report is
due next year.

3. George Johnson, Western Kentucky Univer-
sity, who is working on the floristics of Barren
County, Kentucky. Mr. Johnson is working under
the supervision of Dr. Kenneth A. Nicely. The grant
was awarded for the 2-year term, 1978-1979.

The Committee has received no request so far
this year for funding of the 2-year term, 1979-1980.
Applications received prior to 31 December 1978
will be considered for that period. Applications for
funding during the 1980-1981 term will be accept-
ed any time prior to 15 November 1979.

5. Science Education Advisory Committee. Dr.
George gave the report.

A. Renewal of student weighting factors. A pro-
posal will be presented at the next meeting of the
Legislature directing the Department of Education
to develop and implement a pilot program to de-
termine the actual cost per pupil of programs fund-
ed in the public schools (K through 12) through the
Foundation Program. If put into effect, the program
would determine weighting factors by which school
districts would be reimbursed from state funds ac-
cording to the cost of the programs actually taught.
This was proposed several years ago but we op-
posed it because we felt that the cost of teaching
science was not fairly represented while some other
programs were weighted too heavily. We propose
to watch the new proposal carefully.

B. New methods of certifying science teachers.
For several years, we have been working with the
State Department of Education in an attempt to re-
vise the certification guidelines for teachers of sci-
ence. Finally, this fall, new certification guidelines
for science have been issued. They are as follows:

An area of concentration in science shall require
a minimum of 48 semester hours credit which in-

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ACADEMY AFFAIRS 733

cludes the core requirements. The core courses
must be those which normally count toward a
minor in the respective disciplines listed. Also
included must be a minor(s) of 21 semester hours
in at least one of the disciplines listed in the core.
The core requirements shall include: biology,
two courses; chemistry, two courses; earth sci-
ence, two courses; and physics, two courses. Lab-
oratory experience must be afforded in at least
one course each of biology, chemistry, earth sci-
ence, and physics. A course is defined to afford
at least three semester hours. A teacher with such
preparation would be certified to teach only in
the major (30 semester hours) or minor (21 se-
mester hours) disciplines and all general inter-
disciplinary science courses taught at the second-
ary classification level. A major or additional
minors may be taken within the area.

Effective with entering freshmen students for the
1979-1980 school term, teaching minors in the
natural sciences may be taken only as a part of
the area of concentration in science.

The State Department of Education is presently
preparing a set of interpretations that will be more
specific. At present, we are not sure what those in-
terpretations will be, but we wanted to give you our
understanding of what the new guidelines mean,
subject to revision in light of the State Department's
interpretations.

The major emphasis of this change is that future
science teachers should be more broadly based in
science. Most science teachers have to teach more
science than their own major field, certainly in Gen-
eral Science. Many new teachers enter the teaching
profession in middle school or junior high. There,
they will teach Life Science, Earth Science, and
General Science. To attain this goal of a more
broadly based science teacher, most prospective
science teachers (starting with freshmen in 1979)
should be certified by means of the science area
described above. The core subjects should ensure
a broad base in science and should enable the
teacher to teach Life Science, Earth Science, and
General Science with some assurance of the subject
matter. The required minor of 21 hours in biology,
chemistry, physics, or earth science ensures a min-
imal depth in at least one discipline. A minor of 21
hours has been the minimum necessary to teach
these subjects for many years. Additional majors or
minors may be taken if desired. Hours taken in the
core may be applied to a major or minor.

It is intended that this be the sole method of cer-
tifving science teachers for the reasons listed above.
However, we interpret that a student teacher with
a single major in biology, chemistry, earth science,
or physics may teach those disciplines at the sec-
ondary level. A student teacher with a major in a
field other than the four sciences cannot be certified
in one of the four sciences by a minor unless the
student meets the area requirement.

Please note that these are state minima and may
be increased by the individual colleges and uni-
versities. If you have any questions, you may call

Ted M. George at (606) 622-3831 or write him at
the Department of Physics and Astronomy, Moore
351, Eastern Kentucky University, Richmond, Ken-
tucky 40475.

C. Changes in requirements for teacher educa-
tion. Changes are being considered in teaching
certification that will most certainly infringe on all
fields in teacher education and, especially, in sci-
ence education. Presently, a minimum of 17 hours
in education courses are required for each prospec-
tive secondary teacher to satisfy their professional
education requirements. There is now a proposal
before the Kentucky Council on Teacher Education
and Certification to increase that minimum require-
ment of the state to 36 semester hours. That would
require an increase of the required minimum by 19
hours.

While many universities and colleges require
more hours in professional education than the min-
imum of 17, the new requirement would be a sig-
nificant increase. If that component is increased,
where would the additional hours come from? Most
teacher programs are already filled with education
courses, general education requirements, and dis-
cipline requirements. With the new proposal, the
curriculum would look somewhat as follows:

36 hours
45 hours
30 hours
21 hours

132 hours

Professional Education
General Education
Major discipline
Minor discipline

This total is four hours more than the required total
of 128 hours!

Most teacher programs across the state require in
the neighborhood of 24-27 semester hours of
professional education at present. That makes the
basic curriculum of 120-123 hours and leaves only
5-8 hours for electives. Much of the subject matter
in the proposal is already being taught in much few-
er hours.

To sum up, most of what is being proposed is
already being taught in teacher education programs.
The additional suggested hours must surely come
at the expense of training in the disciplines. It ap-
pears that we would lose more than we gain. It
would be well if you consider the issues involved
and decide how you stand.

6. The Junior Academy of Science. Dr. Leopold
gave the report.

The Kentucky Junior Academy of Science com-
pleted a successful year’s activities with its Annual
Symposium at Eastern Kentucky University on 25
April 1979. Its success was due largely to the co-
operative efforts of Drs. Steve Henderson and J.
Truman Stevens, who provided generous amounts
of organized help for judging papers and other com-
petitive events.

Changes in the Board include Dr. Arvin Crafton,
Murray State University who replaced Ms. Peggy
Hyland, and the appointment of Ms. Jane Mills of
the Meade County Messenger to advise us on and
help in directing our public relations activities.

74 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 41(1-2)

At our Fall Delegate Assembly at Elizabethtown
Junior College on 6 October, our speaker was Mr.
Byron Himmelheber who spoke on “Man and Nu-
clear Energy.” Other business included changes in
procedures that pertain to research proposals and
grants, and inviting section winners at the Sympo-
sium to read papers at the fall meeting of the Acad-
emy in November. :

A grant proposal for $500 was submitted to the
AAAS and $150 was approved and funded. Other
efforts are being made to secure funds.

Divisions of responsibility have been created for
ongoing activities. Each major area will be the re-
sponsibility of a single board member and his or
her committee. The divisions are: Symposium and
papers, Laboratory skills competition, Science
bowl, and Public relations.

The Treasurer's report of 28 April 1979:

Balance on hand, 6 October 1978 _________- $819.75
Disbursements
Research grants ______----__---- $506.45
Printing,
conference expenses _____- 28.15
Spring conference awards,
Lexington Trophy Co. ___ 300.62
Deposits SE
(Glubydwes ie eee $243.00
Balance on hand, 28 April 1979 _____-_____- $227.53

7. Board of Directors. Chairman William Wagner
gave the report.

The Board selected Dr. Ellis V. Brown, Depart-
ment of Chemistry, University of Kentucky, retired,
to receive the “Distinguished Scientist Award.”
The Board requests that all members submit nom-
inations for the award as soon as possible. Nomi-
nations should be sent to Dr. Debra Pearce, Chair-
person, Board of Directors, Department of Biology,
Northern Kentucky University, Highland Heights,
Kentucky 41076.

8. Research Committee. Dr. Winstead presented
the following proposal concerning the development
of an Academy Research Grants Program. The Ex-
ecutive Committee will act on the proposal next
year.

The proposal:

To support research by members of the Academy
and/or their students, the Kentucky Academy of Sci-
ence shall provide for grants in multiples of $500
each year.

The grants, to be administered from funds other
than those research grants, foundations, and awards
already established, are to be financed from the re-
sources of the Academy, donations by members and
patrons of the Academy, and from earnings of an
endowment fund.

I. Funding shall be provided from the following
sources:

1. An amount up to $500 shall be budgeted
from the treasury of the Academy to sup-

port such proposals for research projects as
deemed worthy by an appropriate com-
mittee of the Academy.

Donations from the membership, business
and industry, state government, and the
citizens of the Commonwealth to be solic-
ited to build a permanent endowment
fund. Earnings from that fund will be ap-
plied toward the amounts of each grant. As
the endowment grows, it would be antici-
pated that the budgeted amount from the
treasury of the Academy would decrease
until earnings from the endowment be-
come sufficient to equal the amounts of the
grants.

bo

II. Administration and handling of funds in the
Academy Research Grants Program:

1. A separate savings or investment account
will be established to hold monies re-
ceived as donations to the endowment.

2. A committee of three persons will be ap-
pointed by the President of the Kentucky
Academy of Science to develop guidelines
for the administration of the program and
to develop requirements concerning any
such awards.

Resolutions Committee. Dr. Charles V. Covell,

. offered the following:

1. Whereas,

wo

Northern Kentucky University has graciously
served as the Host Institution for the Sixty-
fifth Annual Meeting of the Kentucky Acade-
my of Science, and
Whereas,
Drs. Debra Pearce and Larry Giesemann and
others at Northern Kentucky University have
worked diligently and effectively to make this
such a successful and enjoyable meeting,
Therefore be it resolved:
that The Kentucky Academy of Science ex-
presses its gratitude to President Dr. A. D.
Albright, Drs. Pearce and Giesemann, and
their colleagues, and that the Secretary of the
Society be instructed to so inform them.

Whereas,
Dr. Charles E. Kupchella, Chairman, and the
other members of the State Government Sci-
ence Advisory Committee have labored long
and effectively in preparing the excellent re-
port presented at this meeting,

Therefore be it resolved:
that the Academy extend its appreciation to
Dr. Kupchella and the rest of the committee
for their devoted and productive labor on this
project.

Whereas,
the Kentucky Academy of Science is the Ken-
tucky affiliate of the American Association for
the Advancement of Science, and

Whereas,
the objectives of the Kentucky Academy of
Science are: (1) to encourage scientific re-

ACADEMY AFFAIRS

search, (2) to promote the diffusion of scien-
tific knowledge, and (3) to unify the scientific
interests of the Commonwealth of Kentucky.
Whereas,
as a consequence of these objectives the Ken-
tucky Academy of Science is deeply con-
cerned about the teaching of science in the
Commonwealth and
Whereas,
we note with some concern a proposal now
before the Kentucky Council on Teacher Ed-
ucation and Certification that would raise the
minimum requirements in professional edu-
cation courses from 17 to 36 semester hours.
And Whereas,
there is presently a shortage of science teach-
ers and we fear that this action may make it
even more difficult to obtain enough new sci-
ence teachers.
Therefore,
we request that the Kentucky Council on
Teacher Education and Certification allow the
Science Advisory committee of the Kentucky
Academy of Science to appear before it and
express our concerns regarding this propos-
al.

10. Nominating Committee. Dr. Karl Hussung of-
fered the following nominations and moved their
acceptance.

President Elect: John Philley, Morehead State
University

Vice President: Ted M. George, Eastern Ken-
tucky University

Secretary: Robert Creek, Eastern Kentucky
University

Treasurer: Morris Taylor, Eastern Kentucky
University

Board of Directors: Gary Boggess, Murray State
University; Debra Pearce, Northern Ken-
tucky University

The motion was seconded from the floor and passed
unanimously, there having been no further nomi-
nations.
President Jones then presented President Elect
Rudolph Prins who addressed the Academy.
Following his remarks, the meeting adjourned at
0930.

Robert Creek, Secretary
Kentucky Academy of Science

PROGRAM
Friday, 2 November 1979

1200-1600 REGISTRATION, Second floor, Sci-
ence Building

1200-1700 SCIENTIFIC EXHIBITS, Second floor,
Science Building

1300-1500 SECTIONAL MEETINGS (see follow-
ing pages)

1500-1530 COFFEE BREAK, Second floor, Sci-

ence Building

li
1530-1700 PLENARY SESSION “Federal funding
of research and development activities
in Kentucky,” University Theater, Uni-
versity Center
1530 Background—Charles E. Kup-
chella, Chairman, Study Advisory
Committee
Analysis of federal funding of re-
search and development in Ken-
tucky in 1977 and the analysis of
factors responsible for Kentucky's
low standing—Ken Walker, Assis-
tant Director for Analytical Stud-
ies
Economic impact—Richard Sims,
Legislative Analyst
Conclusions and recommenda-
tions—Charles E. Kupchella,
Chairman, Study Advisory Com-
mittee

1630 Open Discussion—Panel
1710-1900 HOSPITALITY HOUR, Reception
Center
ANNUAL BANQUET (Buffet style),
Ball Room, University Center, “Future
of Scientific Endeavor,” Dr. Philip
Handler, President, National Academy
of Science

1540

1915

Saturday, 3 November 1979

0800-0915 ANNUAL BUSINESS MEETING,
University Theater

0800-1000 REGISTRATION, Second floor, Sci-
ence Building

0800-1200 SCIENTIFIC EXHIBITS, Second floor,

Science Building

COFFEE BREAK, Second floor, Sci-

ence Building

SECTIONAL MEETINGS (see follow-

ing pages)

LUNCH

SECTIONAL MEETINGS (as needed)

0915-0930
0930-1200

1200-1300
1300-

SECTIONAL PROGRAMS
BOTANY AND MICROBIOLOGY

William Bryant, Chairman, Presiding
Stuart Lassetter, Secretary

Room S-500
Friday, 2 November

1300 Flora of Barren County, Progress report.
George Johnson and Kenneth Nicely, De-
partment of Biology, Western Kentucky Uni-
versity.

Antibiotic resistance in Streptococcus py-
ogenes isolated in Kentucky. Cathy Christo-
pher and James Stuart, Department of Bio-
logical Sciences, Murray State University.
Direct and indirect turgor pressure measure-
ments in Ecballium elaterium. Debby
Dempsey and Debra K. Pearce, Department
of Biological Sciences, Northern Kentucky
University.

1315

1330

76

1345

1400

1415

1430

1445

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 41(1-2)

Natural areas inventory of eastern Kentucky.
Loy R. Phillippe, Richard R. Hannan, and
Ronald Caldwell, Kentucky Nature Preserves
Commission.

Flora and vegetation of the river bars of the
Big South Fork. Max E. Medley and Donald
F. Harker, Kentucky Nature Preserves Com-
mission.

Vegetation history of the Inner Bluegrass. Ju-
lian Campbell and Willem Meijer, Thomas
Hunt Morgan School of Biological Sciences,
University of Kentucky.

Vegetation of an upland hardwood swamp fo-
est in Rockcastle County, Kentucky. Richard
R. Hannan, Department of Biological Sci-
ences, Eastern Kentucky University and Ken-
tucky Nature Preserves Commission.

New and interesting plants in Kentucky. Max
E. Medley, Nature Preserves Commission,
and Ray Cranfill, Department of Botany, Uni-
versity of Michigan.

Saturday, 3 November

0930

0945

1000

1015

1030

1045

1100

1115

1130

1145
1200

Vascular flora of Lilley Cornett Woods State
Preserve, Letcher County. Jeff Sole and
Stuart Lassetter, Department of Biological
Sciences, Eastern Kentucky University.
Endomycorrhyzae in plants populating or-
phan strip mines. Jennifer Kiernan, James W.
Hendrix, and Dale Maronek, Department of
Botany, University of Kentucky.

The Kentucky River Palisades Project: A proj-
ect of the Kentucky Chapter of the Nature
Conservancy. William H. Martin, Depart-
ment of Biological Sciences and Division of
Natural Areas, Eastern Kentucky University;
Johnnie Varner, Stuart Lassetter, William
Bryant.

The Kentucky River Palisades Project: The
setting. William H. Martin; Johnnie Varner,
Department of Biology, Georgetown College;
Stuart Lassetter, William Bryant.

The Kentucky River Palisades Project: The
flora and its affinities. William H. Martin;
Johnnie Varner; Stuart Lassetter, Department
of Biological Sciences, Eastern Kentucky
University; William Bryant.

The Kentucky River Palisades Project: The
vegetation and its relationship to the eastern
deciduous forest. William H. Martin; Johnnie
Varner; Stuart Lassetter; William Bryant,
Thomas More College.

Flavinoid patterns in the genus Liquidambar.
Diana Henry and Joe E. Winstead, Depart-
ment of Biology, Western Kentucky Univer-
sity.
Terpene production in Liquidambar styra-
ciflua L. Joe E. Winstead, Department of Bi-
ology, Western Kentucky University.

The Orchidaceae of Kentucky. Marian J. Full-
er, Department of Biological Sciences, Mur-
ray State University.

Election of officers for 1979-1980.

Lunch.

1300

1315

1330

1345

1400

1415

1430

1445

1500

1515

1530

Note:

Physicochemical survey of the Licking River.
Victoria H. Nichols, Covington Catholic High
School; Judith K. Novak and V. Jean Wain-
scott, Department of Biological Sciences,
Northern Kentucky University.
Bacteriological survey of the Licking River.
Beverly L. Williams, Nancy S. Kappas, Ste-
phanie O’Donnell Baker, Sandy M. Voet, and
V. Jean Wainscott, Department of Biological
Sciences, Northern Kentucky University.
Diatom survey of the Licking River. Miriam
Steinitz Kannan, George R. Moore, and V.
Jean Wainscott, Department of Biological
Sciences, Northern Kentucky University.
Survey of the microscopic fungi along the
Licking River. Debbie A. Broomall, Mary K.
Kuchle, William L. Pelle, and V. Jean Wain-
scott, Department of Biological Sciences,
Northern Kentucky University.

Correlation of surveys and future plans for the
Licking River Project. V. Jean Wainscott, De-
partment of Biological Sciences, Northern
Kentucky University.

Cubby Cove, an example of the Big Clifty
sandstone flora. Ronald R. Van Stockum, De-
partment of Biology, University of Louisville,
and Max E. Medley, Kentucky Nature Pre-
serves Commission.

Effects of trampling on bryophytes. I. Survey
of two trails in the Jefferson National Forest,
Mountain Lake, Virginia. Susan Moyle Stud-
lar, Kathy Moore, Claude Stephens, and
Laura Williams, Department of Biology,
Centre College.

Effects of trampling on bryophytes. II. Ex-
periments using Polytrichum, Ditrichum,
and Sphagnum. Susan Moyle Studlar, Kathy
Moore, Claude Stephens, and Laura Wil-
liams, Department of Biology, Centre Col-
lege.

Thuja occidentalis L., eastern white cedar, in
Kentucky. A. T. Hotchkiss, Department of
Biology, University of Louisville, and Max E.
Medley, Kentucky Nature Preserves Com-
mission.

Alteration of drought resistance in pinto bean
plants through use of plant growth regulators.
Madonna Lee Kohne, Notre Dame Academy
(1979 KJAS Symposium Section). Sponsored
by H. A. Leopold.

Effects of ecological variables on toxicity of
1,4-naphthoquinone to Selenastrum capri-
cornutum. Karla Vetter, Department of Bio-
logical Sciences, Eastern Kentucky Univer-
sity.

CHEMISTRY

Gordon Wilson, Jr., Chairman
James L. Weeks, Secretary

Room S-229

Chemistry will have concurrent sessions Sat-
urday.

ACADEMY AFFAIRS

Friday, 2 November

1300

1315

1330

1345

1400

1415

1430

Photoelectron spectra and CDNO ealcula-
tions of thiocarbonyls. T. J. Melton, A. Wahl-
borg, and J. L. Meeks, Murray State Univer-
sity.

Kinetics and mechanism of catalytic homo-
geneous hydrogenation of olefins by triden-
tate complexes of rhodium (I). D. W. Meek,
Ohio State University, and J. H. Niewahner,
Northern Kentucky University.

Metal complexes anchored to functionalized
polydimethysiloxanes. Lawrence J. Boucher,
Western Kentucky University.

Kinetics of some sugar reactions with conca-
navalin-A. R. D. Farina, Western Kentucky
University.

Quantitative removal of protein from animal
blood using chemical coagulants. H. W. Bur-
nett, A. L. Raterman, and V. Vandegrift, Mur-
ray State University.

The development of a bioassay procedure to
evaluate toxicants in foodstuff. M. B. Lyles,
Murray State University.

Characterization of surface effect and diffu-
sional parameters of a Rh (1) polymer sup-
ported catalysts. H. Base and Norman Holy,
Western Kentucky University.

James L. Meeks, Presiding
Session 1A Room S-229

Saturday, 3 November

0930

0945

1000

1015

1030

1045

1100
1115

1130

1145

Potential anticancer drugs: platinum (IIO)
complexes of steroidal amines. L. J. Boucher
and Y. Ortiz, Western Kentucky University.
The chemistry of colon cancer. H. C. Hedge-
cock, Jr., Morehead State University, and C.
R. Sachatello, A. B. Chandler Medical Cen-
ter.

Analysis of nicotine in tobacco by nonaque-
ous titration. L. M. Cannon and L. W. Shank,
Western Kentucky University.

The forensic identification of various isoen-
zymes in dried bloodstains using electropho-
resis. D. J. Rickard and L. W. Shank, Western
Kentucky University.

The use of NMR in the forensic identification
of drugs and drug mixtures. L. W. Shank, R.
C. Briner, and B. Oleson, Western Kentucky
University.

Determination of arsenic in infant formula. G.
R. Williams, J. E. O'Reilly, and F. J. Holler,
University of Kentucky.

Coffee break.

Maximizing methane production by increas-
ing surface area. H. R. Vaughn, Paducah
Tilghman High School. N. Freeman, sponsor.
Meisenheimer reactions of several naphthy-

ridine N-oxides. E. V. Brown, University of

Kentucky.
The mechanism of the photochemical reac-
tion of methyl] 4,4,4-triphenyl-2-butyonate. J.

G. Eldred and J. W. Wilson, University of

Kentucky.

1200

0915

0930

0945

1000

1015

1030

1045

1100

1115

1130

1145

1200

1215

1230

1245

Tl

Electrocyclic reactions of 2-azadienes. A new
hetracyclic aneurysm reaction. C. K. Govin-
dan and K. G. Taylor, University of Louis-
ville.

COAL CHEMISTRY SYMPOSIUM
Gordon Wilson, Jr., Presiding
Session 1B Room S-427

Isothermal plastometry of bituminous coals.
W. G. Lloyd and H. E. Francis, Institute of
Mining and Mineral Research.

Thermal characterization of some coking
coals. K. C. More, H. E. Francis, and J. P.
Elder, Institute of Mining and Mineral Re-
search.

On the estimation of the ash content of coals
from silicon determinations. D. G. Hicks, J.
E. O'Reilly, and D. W. Koppenaal, University
of Kentucky and Institute of Mining and Min-
eral Research.

Use of metallophthalocyanines in the upgrad-
ing of coal-derived liquids. Laurence J.
Boucher, N. L. Holy, and G. Robe, Western
Kentucky University.

Removal of nitrogen from coal liquids. Bobby
Cobb and N. Holy, Western Kentucky Uni-
versity.

Some studies of solubility parameters of
coals. J. Sandy and J. Reeder, Eastern Ken-
tucky University and Institute of Mining and
Mineral Research.

14 MeV INAA determination of oxygen in
coal-derived liquids. F. R. Khalil, D. W. Kop-
penaal, and W. D. Ehmann, Institute of Min-
ing and Mineral Research and University of
Kentucky.

Coal liquefaction, catalyst poisons present in
coal. S. M. Kovach and Linda Castle, Ashland
Oil, Inc.

Design of a computer controlled optical emis-
sion spectrometer system for the determina-
tion of trace metals in coal. B. E. McClellan,
Kin C. Ng, and B. Heady, Murray State Uni-
versity.

Simulated distillation of H-coal liquids. R. A.
Culp, T. S. Kittle, K. A. Mellenger, and P. J.
Ostrowski, Ashland Petroleum Company.
Characterization of coal liquefaction products
by liquid column fractionation. N. Craig and
D. L. Wooton, Ashland Petroleum Company.
Elemental nitrogen analysis of coal liquefac-
tion production. B. E. Wenzel and C. T. Clay,
Ashland Petroleum Company.

The suppression of acid formation from py-
ritic materials in minespoils with phosphate.
H. R. Clark and D. R. Jolly, Murray State Uni-
versity.

Studies in the extraction and nature of organic
sulfur compounds in strip minespoils. H. R.
Clark and D. R. Jolly, Murray State Univer-
sity.

C-13 NMR studies of H-coal liquids. J. T. Jo-

seth and J. L. Wong, University of Louisville.

78 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 41(1-2)

1300 Gel-permentation chromatography of H-coal
liquids. M. Kahn and J. L. Wong, University
of Louisville.

1315 Characterization of zirconia by TEM and
physical adsorption. P. Ganesan and Burt Da-
vis, Institute of Mining and Mineral Re-
search.

GEOGRAPHY

R. L. Marionneaux, Chairman, Presiding
Macel Wheeler, Secretary

Note: Geography will have concurrent sessions Fri-
day

Friday, 2 November
Session 1A Room S-315

1300 A historical perspective on the distribution of
physicians in Kentucky. Gary Shannon, Uni-
versity of Kentucky.

1315 Kentucky’s transportation nodes and corri-
dors: flows of people and goods. William A.
Withington, University of Kentucky.

1330 A geographic analysis of recent population
changes in eastern Kentucky. Gary C. Cox,
Morehead State University.

1345 Stepwise migration reappraised. Justin Frei-
berg, University of Kentucky.

1400 Spatial perception of a Louisville neighbor-
hood. Dennis Spetz, University of Louisville.

1415 Centuryman drill sergeant: a sociological pro-
file and attitudinal analysis. Mark Lowry,
Western Kentucky University.

Session 1B Room S-316

1300 Use of habitat evaluation procedures at water
resource projects in the Louisville District.
Andrew Miller, U.S. Army Corps of Engi-
neers.

1315 Geomycology: a progress report. Milos Sebor
and Patrick McHassie, Eastern Kentucky
University.

1330 Occurrence of tornadoes in Kentucky. Marvin
W. Russell, Western Kentucky University.

1345 Attitudes toward countywide planning: a
Madison County experience. T. J. Kubiak and
Dennis E. Quillen, Western Kentucky Uni-
versity.

1400 Carpooling in a small town: a planner’s di-
lemma. Wayne Hoffman and James Davis,
Western Kentucky University.

1430 Sectional business meeting, election of offi-
cers for 1980-1981.

GEOLOGY
Perry Wigley, Chairman
Frank Ettensohn, Secretary
Note: Geology will have concurrent sessions Fri-
day.

Friday, 2 November

Perry Wigley, Presiding
Concurrent Session A Room S-319

1300 Occurrence of red algae in the Strodes Creek
member of the Limestone, Central Kentucky.
Lance S. Barron and William C. MacQuown,
University of Kentucky. Sponsored by Frank
R. Ettensohn.

1320 Two new paleozoic genera of agglutinated

Foraminifera and their Significance. James E.

Conkin, Barbara M. Conkin, and Elizabeth E.

Thurman, University of Louisville and Jef-

ferson Community College. Sponsored by

Frank R. Ettensohn.

Paleoecology and petrology of the Otter

Creek coral bed. Vernon Lynn Bell and Perry

B. Wigley, Eastern Kentucky University.

1400 Petrology and paleoecology of a portion of the
Bull Fork Formation in northeastern Ken-
tucky. Truman E. Duncan and Perry B. Wig-
ley, Eastern Kentucky University.

1420 Paleontology and paleoecology of a black
shale in the Carbondale Formation, Webster
County, Kentucky. Allan Stodghill, Kentucky
Geological Survey. Sponsored by Allen D.
Williamson.

1440 Palynology of the Princess Coal District, a
preliminary report. Charles T. Helfrich, East-
ern Kentucky University.

David K. Hylbert, Presiding
Concurrent Session B Room S-424

1300 Relationships between the acidity of precip-
itation and the weathering of marble. K. Lal
Gauri, University of Louisville. Sponsored by
Frank R. Ettensohn.

1320 A new method of satellite imagery analysis.
David K. Hylbert and Thomas F. Mc-
Loughlin, Morehead State University. Spon-
sored by John C. Philley.

1340 Delineation of selected structural elements in
eastern Kentucky using satellite imagery.
Thomas F. McLoughlin and David K. Hyl-
bert, Morehead State University. Sponsored
by John C. Philley.

1400 Potentiometric surface of part of the Missis-
sippian Plateau in west-central Kentucky. T.
William Lambert and David C. Bayha, U.S.
Geological Survey and Kentucky Geological
Survey. Sponsored by Donald C. Haney.

1420 Delineating the maximum depths of fresh
water in Kentucky. Steven Cordiviola, Kevin
Brumfield, Joe Crawford, Tom Dugan, and
Baylus Morgan, Kentucky Geological Survey.
Sponsored by Allen D. Williamson.

1440 Oil shale yields from selected Devonian-—
Mississippian black shale sites in Lewis
County, Kentucky. Joseph H. Gilbert, More-
head State University and Lewis County
School System. Sponsored by John C. Phil-
ley.

ACADEMY AFFAIRS 79

1500 Geology and deformation across the boundary
of the Inner Piedmont and Sauratown Moun-
tain antictinorium in northwestern North Car-
olina. Sharon E. Lewis, Eastern Kentucky
University. Sponsored by Charles T. Hel-
frich.

Perry B. Wigley, Presiding
Room S-319

Saturday, 3 November

0930 Key stratigraphic markers within the Devo-

nian black shale sequence of Kentucky and

Tennessee. James FE. Conkin and Barbara M.

Conkin, University of Louisville and Jeffer-

son Community College. Sponsored by Frank

R. Ettensohn.

Floristic changes near the Mississippian—

Pennsylvanian boundary. James R. Jennings,

Eastern Kentucky University.

1010 Plants associated with the Jellico coal of east-
ern Kentucky. Paul Spurgion and James R.
Jennings, Eastern Kentucky University.

1050 Sectional business meeting.

0950

PHYSICS

Frank O. Clark, Chairman, Presiding
Manuel Schwartz, Secretary

Room S-231

Friday, 2 November

1300 KAPT business meeting. Frank O. Clark,
President, Presiding.

1330 Report on AAPT actions. Frank Six, Western

Kentucky University.

Microcomputer applications: an audible volt-

meter and an audible clock. William S. Wag-

ner, Northern Kentucky University.

1350 A simple geometric derivation of the equation
for the rigid rotator. Geraldine Grubs, North-
ern Kentucky University.

1400 The effect of a surrounding dielectric on mi-
crowave resonances of INSb spheres. Thom-
as J. Morthorst and Joseph R. Dixon, Thomas
More College.

1410 Laser interferometry for velocity calibration
of Mossbauer data. P. J. Oldiges and D. J.
Boyle, Thomas More College.

1420 User interactive computer analysis of exper-

imental data. D. J. Wagenaar, Eastern Ken-

tucky University, and R. J. Johnson, Thomas

More College.

New measurements of the magnetic anistropy

of biophenyl: a comparison. T. M. Motz and

J. E. Lang, Thomas More College.

1440 The use of microcomputers in the study of
traffic noise near Thomas More College. D.
J. Groh and D. J. Boyle, Thomas More Col-
lege.

1340

1430

Saturday, 3 November

0930 Retrograde rotation in an interstellar cloud,
magnetic effects. F. O. Clark, University of
Kentucky.

0940 Noninertial situations. Don D. Duncan, Mur-
ray State University.

0950 Comparison of optical model and lane model

analyses of subcoulomb protons on %, “Zn.

D. S. Flynn, R. Schrils, R. L. Hershberger,

and F. Gabbard, University of Kentucky.

Comparison of lane model and conventional

optical model analyses of low energy (p, n)

and (p, p) cross-section measurements in the

mass 100 region. R. L. Hershberger, D. S.

Flynn, R. Schrils, and F. Gabbard, University

of Kentucky.

1010 Magnetohydrodynamic effects on galaxy for-
mation in early universe. A. L. Fennelly,
Western Kentucky University.

1020 Quasar surveys. T. Bohuski, Western Ken-

tucky University.

Limits on frequency variation for Planck’s

constant. R. Hobart, Western Kentucky Uni-

versity.

Lattice vibration effects in cadmium metal on

positron annihilation. L. D. Burton, Jefferson

Community College, and W. F. Huang, Uni-

versity of Louisville.

Structure of Mo-104. B. D. Kern, University

of Kentucky.

1100 Permanent effects of temperature, ozone, and
ultraviolet radiation on solar cell output.
Christine Hackman, Notre Dame Academy.
Sponsored by H. Leopold.

1000

1030

1040

1050

PHYSIOLOGY, BIOPHYSICS, AND
PHARMACOLOGY

William Farrar, Chairman, Presiding
Raymond Richmond, Secretary

Room S-109
Friday, 2 November

1300 Reciprocal inhibition in the respiratory net-
work. Stephen Muza and D. T. Frazier, De-
partment of Physiology, University of Ken-
tucky.

1315 Effect of expiratory resistive loading on the
firing characteristics of slowly adapting pul-
monary stretch receptors. Paul W. Davenport,
Donald T. Frazier, and Fred W. Zechman,
Department of Physiology, University of
Kentucky.

1330 Patterned microtubules in appendages de-
tached from heliozoan cells. P. Mervine, J. R.
McCurry, and E. J. Hoffman, Department of
Biology and Biophysics Program, Western
Kentucky University.

1345 Effects of ionophore A23187 on the mouse
blastocyst. Charles Mauer and David Ma-
grain, Morehead State University.

1400 Effects of Danavol, a steroid inhibitor, on
plasma and urine ionic concentrations. Frank
Miklaveic and David Magrain, Morehead
State University.

1415 Prenatal protein malnutrition effects on post-

natal adrenal axis. David Magrain, Morehead
State University.

80 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 41(1-2)

Saturday, 3 November

0930 Histochemical evaluation of the glycosami-
noglycans in six behavioral variants of Morris
hepatoma. Hugh Jenkins and Charles E. Kup-
chella, Department of Biological Sciences,
Murray State University.

0945 Glycosaminoglycans and antidiuresis. Mar-
gret Fisher and Charles E. Kupchella, De-
partment of Biological Sciences, Murray State
University.

1000 Lectin and toxin activity in osage orange Ma-
clura pomifera. Jim Blanks and Raymond E.
Richmond, Department of Biological Sci-
ences, Northern Kentucky University.

1015 Quantitative studies on acrocentric satellite
association in normal individuals and a moth-
er of children affected with G,-trisomy syn-
drome. John Travis Burch II, Bowling Green,
Kentucky.

1030 Hyperbaric oxygen and chemotherapy treat-
ment of mice bearing B-16 melanoma. Ray-
mond E. Richmond, Department of Biologi-
cal Sciences, Northern Kentucky University.

1045 Election of officers for 1979-1980.

PSYCHOLOGY

Jack G. Thompson, Chairman, Presiding
Larry Smith, Secretary

Room S-421
Friday, 2 November

1300 Current research issues and findings on ho-
mosexuality. Paul D. Bishop, Northern Ken-
tucky University.

1320 The effect of adult conflict, dominance of
command giver, and sex of command giver on
oppositional behavior in children. James H.
Thomas, Randal J. Horn, and Arthur L. Mil-
ler, Northern Kentucky University.

1340 Autonomy, moral judgment, and coping or
despair under stress. Sally Smock and Donald
H. Brown, Centre College.

1400. The role of the father in the family: a descrip-
tive study. James H. Thomas, Donald R. Wel-
ti, Steven Mulloy, and Cynthia Groh, North-
ern Kentucky University.

1420 Facilitation of pigeons’ standard oddity learn-
ing produced by increasing the number of in-
correct alternatives. David E. Hogan, North-
ern Kentucky University, and Charles A.
Edwards and Thomas R. Zentall, University
of Kentucky.

1440 Correlation and experimental studies of
weight discrimination and emotional reactiv-
ity to tickle stimuli. Donald H. Brown and
Charlotte Buchanan, Centre College.

Saturday, 3 November

0930 The use of tonic immobility to differentiate
pharmacological effects of antiserotonergic.
Charles W. Hennig, Centre College.

0950 The effects of arousal, neuroticism, extrover-

sion, field dependence and diffuse process-
ing on reactions to tickle stimuli. Donald H.
Brown and Phil Little, Centre College.

1010 The effects of concurrent note taking, mode
of presentation, and extroversion on the rec-
ognition memory of classroom materials. Sal-
ly L. Kuhlenschmidt, Jack G. Thompson, and
Donald H. Brown, Centre College.

1030 Social influence on binocular rivalry. Beverly
A. May and Jill M. Strobel, Morehead State
University. Sponsored by Alan W. Childs.

1050 The effect of masculine-feminine sex role
orientation on gross body control and coor-
dination. C. Glenn Robbins, Morehead State
University. Sponsored by Alan W. Childs.

1110 The application of multivariate procedures to
the evaluation of outcome research in psy-
chotherapy. Don Beal, Miami University,
Ohio. Sponsored by Vince Schulte, Northern
Kentucky University.

1130 The EMG-biofeedback and relaxation train-
ing on the prevention of academic undera-
chievement. Mary G. Griebstein, Jack G.
Thompson, and Sally L. Kuhlenschmidt,
Centre College.

1150 Recess.

1300 Perceptual illusion in a monocular distorted
room as a function of locus of control and re-
ligious beliefs. Kim McClanahan, Morehead
State University. Sponsored by Alan W.
Childs.

1320 Correlates of student preferences for lecture
or discussion methods. Sandy Howard and
Donald H. Brown, Centre College.

1340 Environmental expectancy and cognitive in-
congruency in the elderly: an explanation of
disengagement theory. Rodger Brown, More-
head State University. Sponsored by Alan W.
Childs.

1400 The EMG correlates of emotional imagery.
Julie Colbert and Jack G. Thompson, Centre
College.

1420 The determinants of vulnerability in prey.

Stephen Hirsch, Thomas More College.

Some temporal factors affecting sidman

avoidance. Howard Chandler and Francis H.

Osborne, Morehead State University.

1440

SCIENCE EDUCATION

Ron Gardella, Chairman
Dan Ochs, Secretary, Presiding

Saturday, 3 November

0930 A microcomputer program to aid instruction

in infrared spectrum analysis. John Meisen-

heimer, Department of Chemistry, Eastern

Kentucky University.

Experimental confirmation of the gas laws

using a ruler and a graphics computer termi-

nal. Victor I. Bendall, Department of Chem-

istry, Eastern Kentucky University.

1000 Correlation of piagetian tasks with verbal
ability of elementary students. R. H. Barker,
Eastern Kentucky University.

0945

1015

1030
1045

1100

1115

1215

ACADEMY AFFAIRS

The effect of varying concentrations of heavy
metal salt pollutants on the hatch rate of Ar-
temia salina. Kevin Wright, 1979 KJAS Win-
ner, Animal Biology Division. Sponsored by
H. Leopold.

Coffee break.

Role of science in mainstreaming the EMH
child. Muhammed Hanif, Department of EI-
ementary Education, University of Louis-
ville.

Integrated science/mathematics education
project evaluation results. Gary Boggess,
Dean of Environmental Sciences, Murray
State University.

Forum: New state education guidelines in
science.

Election of officers.

ZOOLOGY AND ENTOMOLOGY

Robert D. Hoyt, Chairman, Presiding
Gerrit Kloek, Secretary

Note: Zoology and Entomology will have concur-

rent sessions Friday.

Friday, 2 November

1300

Session 1A Room S-525

The effect of searching area on predation of
Sericothrips variabilis (Beach) by Orius in-
sidiosus (Say). David J. Isenhour, Depart-
ment of Entomology, University of Kentucky.

1315 Feeding activity of Neoscona arabesca

1330

1345

1400

1415

1430

(Walckenaer) (Araneae: Araneidae) and Tet-
ragnatha laboriosa Hentz (Araneae: Tetrag-
nathidae) in soybean fields. J. D. Culin and
K. V. Yeargan, Department of Entomology,
University of Kentucky.

L-canavanine effects on larval Manduca sexta
hemolymph solutes and osmotic pressure.
Jeffrey V. Racioppi and Douglas L. Dahlman,
Department of Entomology, University of
Kentucky.

Glycogen content in Heliothis virescens par-
asitized by Microplitis croceipes. D. L. Dahl-
man, Department of Entomology, University
of Kentucky.

Oviposition and feeding behavior and food
utilization of the rice weevil Sitophilus ory-
zae (L.) and indian meal moth Plodia inter-
punctella (Hubner) on some maize geno-
types. L. A. Gomez, L. Tate, D. S. Blake, and
J. G. Rodriguez, Department of Entomology,
University of Kentucky.

Ecological magnification of insecticides in
model ecosystems. Stephen Noe, 1979 KJAS
symposium section winner from Russellville
High School.

Butterfly and moth records from Big Black
Mountain, Harlan County, Kentucky: report
of field studies supported by grants from the
Kentucky Academy of Science. Charles V.
Covell, Jr., Department of Biology, Univer-
sity of Louisville.

1300

1315

1330

1345

1400

1415

1430

81

Session 1B Room S-524

Effects of tobacco smoke exposure on cardi-
ovascular regulation. C. H. Bennett, Depart-
ment of Biology, Kentucky State University,
and D. R. Richardson, Department of Physi-
ology and Biophysics, University of Ken-
tucky.

Oxygen levels and survivorship of Drosophila
in modified atmospheres. Gerrit Kloek, De-
partment of Biology, Kentucky State Univer-
sity.

Survivorship and reproduction of Drosophila
in hypobaric atmospheres. Linda Winkle and
Gerrit Kloek, Department of Biology, Ken-
tucky State University.

Ethanol and acetylsalicylic acid effects on
phenylalanine incorporation in rat spleen
cells. David Barnett, Department of Biology,
Kentucky State University. Sponsored by G.
C. Ridgel.

The active role of cells of the midbrain of the
chick embryo in negotiating physiological
changes in osmotic pressure and viscosity via
selective secretion of macromolecules. Willie
W. Houston, Jr., Department of Biology, Ken-
tucky State University.

Ecology of Ohio valley shore flies (Diptera:
Ephydridae). D. L. Deonier, Department of
Biology, Miami University.

Scanning electron microscopy of ultraviolet
reflective surfaces on species of Ochthera
(Diptera: Ephydridae). B. A. Steinly, Depart-
ment of Biology, Miami University.

Saturday, 3 November

0930

0945

1000

1015

1030

1045

L100

Room S-525

The function of female song in the black-
headed grosbeak. Gary Ritchison, Depart-
ment of Biological Sciences, Eastern Ken-
tucky University.

Invertebrate fauna of an inland saltwater
cave, San Salvador Island, Bahamas. Jerry H.
Carpenter, Department of Biological Sci-
ences, Northern Kentucky University.
Benthic macroinvertebrate monitoring in An-
derson Creek Embayment of Kentucky Lake.
James B. Sickel, Department of Biological
Sciences, Murray State University.
Distribution, density, and commercial poten-
tial of Corbicula manilensis in the lower
Tennessee and Cumberland rivers. Michael
W. Heyn and James B. Sickel, Department of
Biological Sciences, Murray State University.
Heavy metal concentrations in the scales of
three stream fishes in south-central Kentucky.
Thomas E. Dahl and Robert D. Hoyt, De-
partment of Biology, Western Kentucky Uni-
versity.

Ecology and life history of a northern Ken-
tucky carnivore Mustela frenata. Richard
DeVan, Department of Biological Sciences,
University of Cincinnati.

The effect of photoperiodic-thermoperiodic

82 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 41(1-2)

interactions on fat stores and testicular
growth in the green anole Anolis carolinen-
sis. Blaine R. Ferrell, Department of Biology,
Western Kentucky University.

1115 Observations on the gross anatomy of the ol-
factory organ and eyes in five genera of Amer-
ican barbeled minnows (Pisces: Cyprinidae).
Branley A. Branson, Department of Biologi-
cal Sciences, Eastern Kentucky University.

1130 Sectional business meeting.

EXHIBITORS

The following companies displayed their prod-
ucts at the 65th Annual Meeting of the Kentucky
Academy of Science.

Alpha Cine

American Optical
J. T. Baker Chemical Co.

Beckman Instruments

CBM (Texas Instruments)
Fisher Scientific Co.

Gilford Instrument Laboratories
Hewlett-Packard

Kurt J. Lesker Co.

ICN Nutritional Biochemicals
Kew Scientific

Narco Bio-Systems

Parco Scientific

Observatory Optics Supply
Sargent Welch Scientific
Tektronix, Inc.

VWR

At 0900, 3 November, a seminar on liquid scin-
tillation counting, theory and techniques, was pre-
sented by Mr. Mark Muncey, Beckman Instru-
ments, in Room 231 Science Building. A question
and answer period followed the presentation.

Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 41(1-2), 1980, 83-87

NEWS AND COMMENT

Have you ever wondered
what the Kentucky Acade-
my of Science does for you
as an individual member, and wondered
why you pay dues to the organization? I
wondered about this—out loud to many
of you several years ago. One realizes the
value of getting together with colleagues
annually, of receiving the Transactions,
and, intellectually, it is satisfying to know
that we are supporting science in Ken-
tucky. You have heard all this before.

Frankly, although I have always appre-
ciated those things, and I am sure you
have also, I had to become Secretary of
the Academy to discover and really get
excited about what was going on and to
appreciate the overall role of the Acade-
my. Perhaps it was the astute leadership
that opened my eyes to the bigger pic-
ture. One of those leaders is Louis Krum-
holz to whom I dedicate these comments.

What became especially clear about
our success in recent times was that each
president, and other temporary officers as
well, had to have a very limited number
of goals, preferably one, and that suc-
ceeding presidents had to be willing to
push those goals forward to completion.
Such continuity has been our real
strength, and you should be aware of it
because this we must keep!

Over the years I have observed with
interest the Teacher Certification Com-
mittee, under the conscientious and un-
tiring leadership of Ted George, ham-
mering away at bureaucracy. I also
became more sensitive to what my own
children were going through in the ele-
mentary and secondary schools. I was
and am somewhat dismayed. A Public
Science Education Committee (which
absorbed the Teacher Certification Com-
mittee and broadened the role of the
Committee) was made a Standing Com-
mittee in 1977 because of the importance
we felt of that area of purview of the
Academy. That was a good decision!

I was delighted that Sanford Jones also
was interested in what was going on in
our precollege institutions. When he be-

President’s
Remarks

came President, he appointed an ad hoc
committee including KAPS members to
formally begin to look at the broad ques-
tion of science education in Kentucky
(see this issue, elsewhere, for the mem-
bers of that committee). I have served
as chairman of the committee. We now
have a questionnaire and are ready to
study ways and means to implement a
state-wide survey of grades 7-12. This
will be done over the next year and will
be my major objective as president. I be-
lieve a plenary session next year at Tran-
sylvania University relating to science
education would be timely, especially on
a campus that will be celebrating 200
years in the business of education.

Our Academy is deeply involved in
analyzing aspects of research in Ken-
tucky, in taking stands on teacher certi-
fication, and, now, we are going to delve
into the quality of the teaching situation
and supporting materials, quite a com-
prehensive purview.

We have other activities that are note-
worthy. Leadership with the interest to
grab hold of some of these objectives and
to follow through would contribute sig-
nificantly to the long-term well-being of
the Academy. One of these is a desire
by many to find the means to develop a
position of an executive secretary who
could greatly aid in our efficiency in im-
plementing our long-term goals and im-
proving communication of Academy af-
fairs and members. We are having
difficulty in getting a handle on this mat-
ter. Another activity is seeking a more
satisfactory and permanent solution to
our financial status, a long-standing strug-
gle. Some see the solution in Frankfort in
the form of a large, one-shot endowment.
With the right connections, perhaps this
would be a good possibility. With a new
administration in Frankfort, the timing
might be right. A large endowment might
finance an executive secretary and, pos-
sibly, even a fullblown four numbers a
year of our Transactions of which we are

justly proud.

Still another activity relates to the re-

Ss

search grants administered by the Acad-
emy. This has tremendous potential,
thanks to efforts of persons like Joe Win-
stead, in laying down much of the
groundwork. I believe we have a sleeper
here. We should really appreciate the
nest eggs that we have, thanks to the
good wishes of gracious donors who have
pride in the Academy and have visions of
greatness for us. Such nest eggs, and
more of them however small, if nurtured,
may well provide major Academy grant
monies down the road.

I get excited about our possibilities. I
got excited when I saw how our investi-
gation into federal research monies com-
ing to Kentucky got the attention of the
Council on Higher Education, the Leg-
islature, and the Legislative Research
Commission. We are involved in follow-
ups of that activity with new vigor as Dr.
Kupchella reported. I get excited when
I observe the Director of the Junior Acad-
emy extending the collective heart of that
group to the youth of our state; when I
hear people in the Southeast compliment
us on the quality of our Transactions;
when I read the testimonials of our Dis-
tinguished Scientist awardees; when we
hold a strong coal chemistry symposium
at our meetings, a first for Kentucky and
perhaps the first of many at our meetings;
all those things have caught my interest
and I hope yours as well.

I feel honored to be here today. I know
now that we are making an impact. In
1976, then President Fred Brown per-
ceived that our Academy was moving out
of a self-serving, second-rate role. He was
correct because it is now evident that we
have become an outgoing, forward look-
ing organization developing consider-
able confidence in our prestige and influ-
ence. We must continue to promote our
strengths! So, your support is justified
and needed as is your leadership if you
are willing to share some of it. We hope
you will be at Transylvania University
next year on its two hundredth anni-
versary and our Sixty-sixth Annual Meet-
ing. Congratulations for the momentum
we now have; please help to sustain it,
and have a great year.

Rudolph Prins

84 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 40(1-2)

Dr. Philip Handler, Pres-
ident, National Academy
of Science, who ad-
dressed the membership at the annual
banquet, was presented with a framed
Lifetime Certificate of Membership in
the Kentucky Academy of Science. The
subject of Dr. Handler’s talk was the
“Future of Scientific Endeavor.”

Honorary
Membership

* * * * *

Thirteenth This is a follow-up on
International the announcement that
Botanical appeared in the March
Congress 1979 issue of the Trans-

actions in which it was
stated that the Australian Academy of Sci-
ence will sponsor the Congress to be
held at Sidney, Australia, 21-28 August
1981. The Congress will provide an op-
portunity for discussion of all branches of
plant science, and particularly interdis-
ciplinary subjects and aspects of wider
significance. The program will include
the following 12 sections: Molecular Bot-
any, Metabolic Botany, Cellular and
Structural Botany, Developmental Bota-
ny, Environmental Botany, Community
Botany, Genetic Botany, Systematic and
Evolutionary Botany, Bryology Pro-
gramme, Fungal Botany, Marine and
Freshwater Botany, Historical Botany,
and Applied Botany.

Full membership of the Congress is
open to any person interested in plant
sciences, and will entitle a member to
attend all general sessions and receptions
and to receive Congress publications.
The first circular was sent out in August
1979. A second circular will be sent later
this year to those who requested it. All
correspondence should be addressed to
Dr. W. J. Cram, Executive Secretary,
Thirteenth International Botanical Con-
gress, University of Sidney, Sidney, New
South Wales 2006, Australia.

* * * * *

Membership Just a reminder that all
Certificate members of the Kentucky

Academy of Science who
have not received a Certificate of Mem-

a
\\"
!

in

bership should request one from Ru-
dolph Prins, Department of Biology,
| Western Kentucky University, Bowling
' Green, Kentucky 42101, or from Dr. Rob-
| ert Creek, Department of Biological Sci-
' ences, Eastern Kentucky University,
Richmond, Kentucky 40475. The certifi-
cate is of high quality parchment, 8.5 x
11 inches, and suitable for framing. Get
one and advertise your membership in
_ the Academy by hanging it on your office
wall.

The chairpersons of the
following committees
actively solicit your as-
sistance in providing the names of per-
sons you may think eligible as nominees
or applicants for the awards or grants
available to members of the Academy.

Committee
Chairpersons

Distinguished Scientist Award

Dr. Debra Pearce, Chairperson, Board

of Directors

Department of Biology

Northern Kentucky University

Highland Heights, Kentucky 41076
Botanical Research Grant

Dr. Joe E. Winstead

Department of Biology

Western Kentucky University

Bowling Green, Kentucky 42101
Floristic Grant

Mr. John B. Varner

Floristic Grant Fund

Harrison County High School

Cynthiana, Kentucky 41031
Officers and Committee Assignments for

the Academy

Dr. Charles Payne, Committee on

Nominations

Department of Chemistry

Morehead State University

Morehead, Kentucky 40351

* * * * *

Science The following persons have
Edueation been asked to serve on the
Committee Science Education Com-

mittee during 1980. Presi-
dent Prins takes this opportunity to thank

NEWS AND COMMENT 85

Dr. George for his extraordinary efforts in
behalf of the Academy for the past sev-
eral years.

Dr. Ted George (Chairman 1980, Vice
President of the Academy)

Department of Physics

Eastern Kentucky University

Richmond, Kentucky 40475

Ms. Anna S. Neal, Science Coordinator
(1982)

Fayette County Public Schools

701 East Main Street

Lexington, Kentucky 40502

J. Truman Stevens (1981)

Department of Curriculum and In-
struction

210 Taylor Education Building

University of Kentucky

Lexington, Kentucky 40506

Mike McCoy (1982)

Warren East High School

Route 1

Bowling Green, Kentucky 42101

Ann M. Hoffelder (1982)
Department of Chemistry
Cumberland College
Williamsburg, Kentucky 40769

State The following persons
Government have been asked to serve
Science on the State Government
Advisory Science Advisory Com-
Committee mittee for 1980. President

Prins takes this opportu-
nity to express his thanks to Dr. Kup-
chella for his diligent work on the com-
mittee and for arranging the many
meetings that the committee held the past
two years.

Charles E. Kupchella (1982)
Department of Biological Sciences
Murray State University

Murray, Kentucky 4207]

Robert E. Daniel (1982)
Department of Biological Sciences
Murray State University

Murray, Kentucky 42071

fea)
(©)

Marvin Russell (1982)

Dean, College of Science and Tech-
nology

Western Kentucky University

Bowling Green, Kentucky 42101

William Lloyd

Kentucky Center for Energy and Re-
search Laboratory

P.O. Box 13015

Lexington, Kentucky 40511

Gary E. Boggess (representing the Board
of Directors)

Dean, College of Environmental Sci-
ences

Murray State University

Murray, Kentucky 42071

Ex Officio

Rudolph Prins, President of the Acad-
emy

Department of Biology

Western Kentucky University

Bowling Green, Kentucky 42101

John Philley, President Elect of the
Academy

Department of Physical Sciences

Morehead State University

Morehead, Kentucky 40351

Sanford L. Jones, Past President of the
Academy

Department of Biological Sciences

Eastern Kentucky University

Richmond, Kentucky 40475

ean iskime tet skh hak

Science An ad hoc Committee on
Education the Status of Science Edu-
at the cation at the Precollege
Precollege Level, established by Past
Level President Jones in 1978,

has met several times the
past year. The principal thrust of the
Committee is to determine the extent and
quality of science education in grades 7
through 12 throughout the Common-
wealth.

Rudolph Prins, Chairman
Department of Biology

Western Kentucky University
Bowling Green, Kentucky 42101

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 40(1-2)

Stephen A. Henderson
Model Laboratory School
Eastern Kentucky University
Richmond, Kentucky 40475

Arvin Crafton

College of Human Development and
Learning

Murray State University

Murray, Kentucky 42071

Daniel Ochs

Department of Secondary Education
University of Louisville

Louisville, Kentucky 40208

Robert L. Stevenson

College of Education

Western Kentucky University
Bowling Green, Kentucky 42101

Sanford L. Jones

Department of Biological Sciences
Eastern Kentucky University
Richmond, Kentucky 40475

Frank Howard (Consultant)
State Science Consultant
Department of Education
1817 Capital Plaza Tower
Frankfort, Kentucky 40601

Committee The Committee on En-
on dangered Species has
Endangered _ been reactivated by Pres-
Species ident Prins in an effort to

bring up to date and pre-
pare a list of threatened and endangered
species of plants and animals of Ken-
tucky. Each of the members of the Com-
mittee has been actively interested in
such organisms.

Branley A. Branson, Chairman
Department of Biological Sciences
Eastern Kentucky University
Richmond, Kentucky 40475

Jerry M. Baskin

School of Biological Sciences

University of Kentucky
Lexington, Kentucky 40506

NEWS AND COMMENT 87

Donald L. Batch versity as a part of their Bicentennial Cel-
Department of Biological Sciences ebration. The meeting will be Friday and
Eastern Kentucky University Saturday, 7-8 November 1980.

Richmond, Kentucky 40475

Wayne H. Davis
School of Biological Sciences

* * * *

University of Kentucky New Zip’ As of 20 February 1980, the
Lexington, Kentucky 40506 Code for zip code for the Editor of
Editor the Transactions has been

Bere ut eet ee changed. All correspondence

regarding manuscripts or editorial ser-

Sixty-sixth The Sixty-sixth Annual vices should be sent to Louis A. Krum-

Annual Meeting of the Kentucky _ holz, Office of Academic Affairs, Univer-

Meeting Academy of Science will be © sity of Louisville, Louisville, Kentucky
held at Transylvania Uni- 40292.

Instructions for Contributors

Original papers based on research in any field of science will be considered for pub-
lication in the Transactions. Also, as the official publication of the Academy, news and
announcements of interest to the membership will be included as received.

Manuscripts may be submitted at any time to the Editor. Each manuscript will be
reviewed by one or more persons prior to its acceptance for publication, and, once ac-
cepted, an attempt will be made to publish papers in the order of their acceptance. Manu-
scripts should be typed, double spaced throughout, on good quality white paper 8% x 11
inches (216 x 279 mm). The original and one copy should be sent to the Editor and the
author should retain a copy for his own use in correcting proof. Metric and Celsius units
are to be used for all measurements instead of, or in addition to, English and Fahrenheit
units. Format and style may vary somewhat depending on the scientific discipline, but the
basic pattern of presentation will be consistent for all manuscripts. The Style Manual of
the Council of Biological Editors (CBE Style Manual), the Handbook for Authors of papers
in the Journals of the American Chemical Society, the Handbook for Authors of the Amer-
ican Institute of Physics, Webster's Third New International Dictionary, and A Manual of
Style (Chicago University Press) are most useful guides in matters of style, form, and
spelling. Only those words intended to be italicized in the final publication should be
underlined.

The sequence of material in the manuscript should be: title page, abstract, body of
the manuscript, literature cited, tables with table headings, and figure legends and figures.

1. The title page should include the title of the paper, the author's name and address,
and any footnote material concerning credits, changes of address, and so forth.

2. The abstract should be concise and descriptive of the information contained in the
paper. It should be complete in itself without reference to the body of the paper.

3. The body of the manuscript should include the following sections: Introduction, Ac-
knowledgments (if applicable), Materials and Methods, Results, Discussion, Summary,
and Literature Cited. In manuscripts of only a few pages, there is no need to break it up
into sections, except for the Literature Cited. All tables and figures, as well as all literature
cited must be referred to in the text.

4. Allreferences in the Literature Cited must be typewritten, double spaced, and should
provide complete information on the material referred to, as in the following examples:

Article:
JoHNSON, A. E., AND E. V. HARRELL. 1962. An analysis of factors governing density
patterns in desert plants. J. Bot. 44(3):419-432.

Book:
DARLINGTON, P. J., JR. 1965. Biogeography of the southern end of the world. Harvard
Univ. Press, Cambridge, Mass. 236 pp.

5. Each table, together with its heading, must be double spaced, numbered in arabic
numerals, and set on a separate page. The heading of the table should be informative of
its contents.

Each figure should be reproduced as a glossy print either 5 x 7 or 8 x 10 inches. Line
drawings in India ink on white paper are acceptable, but should be no larger than 8% x 11
inches. Photographs should have good contrast so they can be reproduced satisfactorily.
All figures should be numbered in arabic numerals and should be accompanied by an
appropriate legend. It is strongly suggested that all contributors follow the guidelines of
Allen’s (1977) “Steps Toward Better Scientific Illustrations” published by the Allen Press,
Inc., Lawrence, Kansas 66044.

The author is responsible for correcting galley proofs. He is also responsible for check-
ing all literature cited to make certain that each article or book is cited correctly. Extensive
alterations on the galley proofs are expensive and such costs are to be borne by the author.
Reprints are to be ordered when the galley proofs are returned to the Editor.

CONTENTS

Federal Funding for Research and Development in Kentucky: II.
Kentucky in Comparison with Other States. Charles E. Kup-
chella, Kenneth Walker, Richard Sims, and Mary Lynn Collins -

The Use of Artificial Nest Structures to Study Red-tailed Hawk Young.
Mark E. Bennett and Ward J. Rudersdorf

Effects of Tracked Vehicle Activity on Terrestrial Mammals and Birds
at Fort Knox, Kentucky. W. D. Severinghaus, R. E. Riggins, and
WD Goran 22 Ne a

A Preliminary Checklist of the Flowering Plants of Backusburg Hill,
Calloway County, Kentucky, \ Marion J. Fuller <2 ene me

Temporal and Spatial Abundance and Diversity of Fishes in a Kentucky
Stream. David E. Bell and Robert DeHoy tessa eerie

First Record of the Freshwater Mussel Lasmigona subviridis in Ken-
tuckys\. Michael AwsZebo. oh: ia) Se ae

First Records of Sorex dispar and Microsorex thompsoni in Kentucky
with Distributional Notes on Associated Species. Ronald S.
Caldupell igen) ie ok AS ORE eR ORIG SUR aoe ca ee

A Reassessment of the Distributional Status of Five Kentucky Cypri-
nids. Brooks M. Burr, Michael E. Retzer, and Richard L. May-

COT Ne ME RI apt SS OE RRO a SSRI, nc

_ A Survey of the Mussels of the Red River (Wild River Segment) in
Hastern Kentucky. “Ronald ’h.\Howps See ae ek er es ee

The Fishes of Marrowbone Creek, Pike County, Kentucky, with Notes
on the Effects of Coal Mining. Jeffrey M. Robinson and Bran-
leypA? Branson oP koi) ce UU) AS ile Be CN ANS lon, (Ee ee

Analysis of the Periphyton of Sloan’s Crossing Pond, Mammoth Cave
National Park, Kentucky. Judith A. Orser and Gary E. Dillard

INCaCetany ATTAITS cw. Naa so eM nS ll olds UI EEN AR eat

New svand: Comnientt ee Pe 20M Te ee iy. ee Oe

57

60

ANSACTIONS

ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.

Official Publication of the Academy

oma 4]
Numbers 3-4
September 1980

The Kentucky Academy of Science
Founded 8 May 1914

OFFICERS FOR 1980

President: Rudolph Prins, Western Kentucky University, Bowling Green 42101
President Elect: John Philley, Morehead State University, Morehead 40351
Past President: Sanford L. Jones, Eastern Kentucky University, Richmond 40475
Vice President: Ted M. George, Eastern Kentucky University, Richmond 40475
Secretary: Robert Creek, Eastern Kentucky University, Richmond 40475
Treasurer: Morris Taylor, Eastern Kentucky University, Richmond 40475
Director of the Junior Academy: Herbert Leopold, Western Kentucky
University, Bowling Green 42101

Representatives to AAAS Council: Branley A. Granson, Eastern Kentucky
University, Richmond 40475

BOARD OF DIRECTORS

Gertrude Ridgel 1980 Jerry C. Davis 1982
Ivan Potter 1980 Daniel Knopf 1982
Donald C. Haney 1981 Gary Boggess 1983
William F. Wagner 1981 Debra Pearce, Chairperson 1983

EDITORIAL BOARD
Editor: Louis A. Krumholz, Office of Academic Affairs, University of Louisville,
Louisville 40292
Associate Editor; Branley A. Branson, Department of Biological Sciences, Eastern
Kentucky University, Richmond 40475
Editorial Board: John C. Philley, School of Science and Mathematics, Morehead
State University, Morehead 40351
Dennis E. Spetz, Department of Geography, University of
Louisville, Louisville 40292
William F. Wagner, Department of Chemistry, University of
Kentucky, Lexington 40506

All manuscripts and correspondence concerning manuscripts should be addressed to the
Editor. Authors must be members of the Academy.

The TRANSACTIONS are indexed in the Science Citation Index. Coden TKASAT.

Membership in the Academy is open to interested persons upon nomination, payment of
dues, and election. Application forms for membership may be obtained from the Secretary. The
TRANSACTIONS are sent free to all members in good standing. Annual dues are $10.00 for
Active Members; $7.00 for Student Members.

Subscription rates for nonmembers are: domestic, $12.00; foreign, $14.00; back issues are
$12.00 per volume.

The TRANSACTIONS are issued semiannually in March and September. Four numbers
comprise a volume.

Correspondence concerning memberships or subscriptions should be addressed to the Sec-
retary. Exchanges and correspondence relating to exchanges should be addressed to the Librar-
ian, University of Louisville, Louisville, Kentucky 40292, the exchange agent for the Academy.

TRANSACTIONS of the

KENTUCKY

ACADEMY of SCIENCE

Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 41(3-4), 1980, 89-98

September 1980

VOLUME 41
NUMBERS 3-4

Morphology of the Genus Blapstinus
(Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae) with
Emphasis on Characters of Taxonomic Significance!

JERRY C. DAVIS
Alice Lloyd College, Pippa Passes, Kentucky 41844

ABSTRACT

The second of a series dealing with the genus Blapstinus Sturm, this paper presents the
general morphology of the group and offers some new taxonomic characters based on examination
of more than 20,000 specimens. Most members of the genus are consistent in their morphology.
The most useful taxonomic characters at the species level are size and separation of the eyes,
shape and punctation of the pronotum, punctation of striae and intervals of the elytra, and shape

of the male genitalia.

INTRODUCTION

This is the second in a series of papers
that deals with a revision of the genus
Blapstinus in America north of Mexico.
In a previous paper (Davis 1976), the
general review of the literature, author-
ship, generic identification, and distri-
bution of the genus were given. The pur-
pose of this paper is to describe the
morphology of the group with special
emphasis on characters of taxonomic sig-
nificance. Future papers will deal with
the systematics and bionomics of the

group.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

More than 20,000 specimens were ex-
amined during the course of this study.

1 Much of the research upon which the paper is
based was conducted at the Ohio State University.
This research was supported in part by an Ohio State
University Dissertation Fellowship and a Grant-in-
Aid of Research from the Sigma Xi Research Foun-
dation, New Haven, Connecticut 06511.

89

A dissecting microscope with 45x was
used to observe taxonomic characters.
Taxonomic characters that required dis-
section were prepared in the following
manner. Metathoracic wings: specimens
were relaxed in hot water or potassium
hydroxide. Elytra were separated and the
metathoracic wings unfolded, (if full
length) removed, and mounted on plain
glass microscope slides for detailed ob-
servation. Genitalia: specimens were re-
laxed in a similar manner. Connective tis-
sue and muscles were dissected away
from the terminal body segments. Geni-
talia were then removed and placed in
glycerin for examination. Multiple dis-
sections were made to observe variations.

MORPHOLOGY

Most members of the genus Blapstinus
are quite consistent in their general mor-
phology. This makes generic recognition
relatively easy (Davis 1976), but does lit-
tle to simplify the taxonomy of the group.

90

Fic. 1.

Blapstinus fuscus, dorsal aspect.

General Appearance

Most species are 5-6 mm in total
length; a few species such as B. metal-
licus are consistently less than 4 mm,
whereas several such as B. dilatatus usu-
ally are longer than 6 mm. Females are
often more robust than the males.

Body shape is almost always oblong-
oval. A good example is B. fuscus (Fig.
1). Blapstinus alutaceus and B. auripilis
are broadly oval, B. longulus is very elon-
gate in shape, and B. debilis is somewhat
aciculate.

Color is quite variable, both within and
among species. At one extreme is B. in-
termixtus, usually reddish-brown. At the
other extreme are species like B. praten-
sis, B. moestus, and B. pulverulentus that
usually are black with the ventral surface
and legs sometimes lighter. The most
common color is a very dark reddish
brown, best represented by species such
as B. histricus. Often, the head and

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 41(3-4)

Fic. 2. Head and prothorax of Blapstinus dispar,
dorsal aspect.

pronotum are darker than the elytra. Ven-
tral surfaces, legs, and antennae are often
lighter than the head, pronotum, or ely-
tra. The anterior margin of the pronotum
is reddish in many species. A rare color
combination occurs in a form of B. pul-
verulentus in which the head, pronotum,
ventral surface, and legs are bright or-
ange, while the elytra are almost black.
Other forms of B. pulverulentus have the
legs bright orange with the remainder of
the body much darker.

Integument usually is shining. A few
species, such as B. metallicus, B. pulver-
ulentus, and B. longulus, are often
aeneous or very strongly shining. Blap-
stinus alutaceus and B. dispar (Fig. 2)
are very dull.

Pubescence is highly variable in some
species while in others it may be used as
a primary taxonomic character. In species
such as B. intermixtus and B. auripilis,
the vestiture is consistently heteroge-
neous, while in a species such as B. his-
tricus it may be either heterogeneous or
homogeneous. The color of the pubes-
cence is of considerable importance in
recognizing species such as B. vestitus,
B. barri, and B. pubescens which have a
conspicuous cinereous pubescence. Ves-
titure usually is very thin but may be very
coarse as in B. sulcatus (Fig. 3).

Head

The head usually is moderately con-
vex. The angles of the face or anterior

MORPHOLOGY OF BLAPSTINUS—Davis 91

Fic. 3. Head and prothorax of Blapstinus sulca-

tus, dorsal aspect.

portion of the head usually are evenly
rounded, but in B. sulcatus (Fig. 3) the
anterior angles of the head are very prom-
inent, giving the head a hexagonal ap-
pearance. A clypeal suture is often visi-
ble on the epistoma in species in which
the head is not black.

Epistomal sinuation can sometimes be
used at the lower taxon level. In B. alu-
taceus, B. dispar (Fig. 2), B. dilatatus,
and B. fortis, the sinuation usually is
deep and often narrow; whereas in
species such as B. sulcatus (Fig. 3) and
B. substriatus the sinuation usually is
very feeble and broad.

Considerable use is made of the rela-
tive size of the compound eyes which are
completely divided into dorsal and ven-
tral portions. Most species fall into either
of 2 groups based on the size of the eye
lobes. One group, including such species
as B. dilatatus, B. validus, and B. histri-
cus (Figs. 4, 5) can be described as hav-
ing “large” eyes, the upper lobes usually
separated with approximately 3 times
their maximum diameter and the lower
lobes usually separated by distinctly less
than 3 times their maximum diameter.
Another group that includes such species
as B. pulverulentus and B. substriatus
(Figs. 6, 7) can be described as having
“small” eyes, with the upper lobes usu-
ally separated by much more than 3 times
(usually 4 or 5) their maximum diameter
and the lower lobes usually separated by

Fic. 4. Head and prothorax of Blapstinus histri-
cus, dorsal aspect.

more than 3 times their maximum diam-
eter. Most species with large eyes have
fully developed metathoracic wings.

Punctation of the head is subject to
considerable variation. Punctures usually
are very coarse and dense, often larger
between the eyes and smaller and crowd-
ed along the epistoma. The punctures in
a few species are very fine and are of
some taxonomic value. Examples of
species with usually fine punctation are
B. dispar, B. aciculus, and B. dibilis.

Fic. 5. Head and prothorax of Blapstinus histri-
cus, ventral aspect.

92 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 41(3-4)

Fic. 6. Head and prothorax of Blapstinus sub-
striatus, dorsal aspect.

Antennae are 11 segmented and usu-
ally enlarge gradually from base to apex.
Variation in several segments provides
some good taxonomic characters. The
second segment usually is very short
while the third usually is longer than
segment 4 and less than segments 4 and
5 combined. Variation in the third seg-
ment is useful in recognizing a few
species. The general condition is for the
third segment to be cylindrical, but in B.
sulcatus (Fig. 3) the third segment is dis-
tinctly clavate and much longer than seg-
ments 4 and 5 combined. Segment 3 is
somewhat longer than usual and equal to
the lengths of segments 4 and 5 com-
bined.

Mouth parts are of the typical chewing
type and are not of taxonomic signifi-
cance, but are worth being described.

The labrum is a broad flap with the api-
cal margin feebly sinuate and lined with
setae. A mandible is heavily sclerotized
and well adapted for chewing. The most
obvious features of a mandible are the
apical teeth and the articulatory condyle.
A maxilla consists of several sclerites and
a 4-segmented maxillary palp. The la-
bium consists of a submentum which has
become part of the head capsule, the
mentum, prementum, and 3-segmented

Picuie:

Head and prothorax of Blapstinus sub-
striatus, ventral aspect.

labial palps. The mentum in Blapstinus
is somewhat heart shaped. The premen-
tum is reduced to a medial sclerite and
2 lateral palpigers which support a 3-seg-
mented labial palp. The ligula is thinly
sclerotized and consists of the fused glos-
sae and paraglossae from which several
groups of setae protrude from the ventral
and apical portion.

Pronotum

Taxonomic characters of the pronotum
are numerous and include variation in
convexity, general shape, angles, and
punctation.

The pronotum in nearly all species is
to some degree convex; however, in B.
sulcatus (Fig. 3), the lateral margins of
the pronotum are flat. Though in the ma-
jority of species the convexity of the
pronotum is quite variable, it does reach
extremes. At one extreme is B. vandykei,
B. barri, and B. vestitus in which the
pronotum is very strongly convex and a
very useful character. At the other ex-
treme is B. brevicollis, in which the
pronotum is feebly convex and difficult
to use as a taxonomic character. The pro-
notal convexity in most species lies vari-
ably in between those extremes.

MORPHOLOGY OF BLAPSTINUS—Davis 93

Three major variations occur in the rel-
ative shape of the pronotum and are re-
ferred to in this paper as being “‘trans-
verse, “rectangular,” or “‘quadrate.”’
Very few species have a pronotum that
could be described as being “‘trans-
verse, or about twice as wide as long.
Blapstinus brevicollis (Fig. 8A) provides
the best example of that condition of the
pronotum. Most species, such as B. his-
tricus (Fig. 8B), have the pronotum “‘rect-
angular’ or “subrectangular,”’ usually
much less than twice as wide as long. A
few species such as B. longulus (Fig. 8D)
have a pronotum almost equal-sided or
“quadrate.” The shape of the pronotum
is usually one of the more stable charac-
ters that may be used taxonomically.

The apical and basal angles of the
pronotum provide taxonomic characters
that are among the easiest to recognize.
The apical angles are very prominent in
several species, such as B. metallicus
(Fig. 8C) and B. fortis.

Basal angles are sometimes quite
prominent, for example in B. pratensis
(Fig. 8E), B. vestitus, and B. moestus.

Apical curvature of the pronotum pro-
vides some taxonomic help. The apex is
almost truncate in species such as B. van-
dykei, but species with prominent apical
angles usually have a very strongly emar-
ginate apical curvature.

Basal curvation usually is of no help
taxonomically, but is quite distinct in B.
auripilis and B. brevicollis (Fig. 8A) be-
cause of the unusually prominent basal
lobe. That bisinuate basal curvature is
important in generic recognition.

Considerable taxonomic use has been
made of the lateral curvature of the
pronotum, especially in the species with
large eyes. The curvature is very feeble
in B. histricus (Fig. 4) and becomes
straight in the basal half, but in species
such as B. validus it is quite even from
base to apex.

Pronotal punctation varies consider-
ably throughout the genus but is useful
in recognizing some species, especially
as a secondary character. The punctures
are coarse in most species, but in a few
species such as B. alutaceus they usually

ae

S &

Fic. 8. Pronota, dorsal aspects. A. Blapstinus
brevicollis, B. B. histricus, C. B. metallicus, D. B.
longulus, E. B. pratensis.

are fine. Another character of the punc-
tation that is difficult to describe but eas-
ier to recognize is the tendency in some
species for the punctures to coalesce lon-
gitudinally and usually are very strongly
longitudinally confluent in species such
as B. substriatus and B. dilatatus.

Elytra

The elytra usually are broadly rounded
apically and widest in the apical third.
They are subconnate in a few species, but
that character has not been used taxonom-
ically.

Characters that involve the elytral in-
tervals are numerous. The relative width
varies considerably. At one extreme is B.
alutaceus in which the intervals are very
wide, being equal to 7 or 8 times the di-
ameter of a strial puncture. At the oppo-
site extreme is B. longulus in which the
intervals are very narrow, being equal to
less than twice the diameter of a strial
puncture. Extremes are also found in the
texture of the intervals. Intervals are alu-
taceous or smooth and dull in B. aluta-
ceus, whereas the intervals are aeneous

94 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 41(3-4)

Fic. 9. Metathoracic wing (full length) of Blap-
stinus pulverulentus, dorsal aspect with left elytron
removed.

or very strongly shining in a form of B.
metallicus. The intervals are sometimes
granulate; for example, B. pimalis. Inter-
val punctation is also significant in the
lower taxons but varies considerably.
The punctures are very fine or minute in
B. alutaceus, whereas in B. substriatus
and B. pulverulentus, the punctures are
very coarse or large and often become
confusedly intermingled with the strial
punctures. Relative convexity of the in-
tervals is apparent in some species and
may be used as a secondary character.
Elytral strial characters are also of con-
siderable taxonomic importance. Ex-
tremes are found in the depth of the
striae. At one extreme is B. pimalis and
B. alutaceus, in which the striae are very
shallow or not impressed. At the other
extreme is B. sulcatus (Fig. 3) and B. lon-

Fic. 10. Metathoracic wing (reduced) of Blapsti-
nus pulverulentus, dorsal aspect with left elytron
removed.

gulus, in which the striae are very deeply
impressed. The majority of species fall in
between the extremes. Size of strial
punctures is subject to extreme variation
both within and among species. Strial
punctures are very fine in B. pimalis, B.
vestitus, and others, whereas in B. sul-
catus the strial punctures are very deep.
Spacing of strial punctures is subject to
considerable variation in most species
but can be used taxonomically in a few.
Sets of punctures are often missing in B.
metallicus. Strial punctures usually be-
come more widely spaced laterally in B.
fuscus (Fig. 1). They are very closely
spaced in B. longulus and B. dispar, but
are very widely spaced in B. alutaceus.

Metathoracic Wings

Considerable variation exists in wing
length within and among the many
species of Blapstinus. The misuse of that
variable character is responsible for
many synonymies that will be proposed
in a later paper. However, the wing

MORPHOLOGY OF BLAPSTINUS—Davis 95

C+Sc+R

2A, 2A,

Fic. 11. Metathoracic wing (diagrammatic). Abbr:
C—costa, Sc—subcosta, R—radius, Rs—recurrent
radius, M—media, Cu—cubitus, 1A—first anal,
2a,—anterior branch of second anal, 2A,—posterior
branch of second anal, 3A—third anal, 4A—fourth
anal, r—radial cross vein, r-m—radiomedial cross
vein, m-cu—mediocubital cross vein, cu-a—cubi-
toanal cross vein, la-2a,—first anal cross vein, 2a—
second anal cross vein, 2a-3a—third anal cross vein,
W—wed¢ge cell.

length is relatively consistent in a few
species. The following phrases describe
the various consistent wing lengths:
“wings fully developed, fully as long as
abdomen” (Fig. 9), “wings reduced, dis-
tinctly longer than half the abdominal
length” (Fig. 10), and “wings rudimen-
tary, distinctly less than half the abdom-
inal length.” Some species, especially B.
pulverulentus, show considerable varia-
tion in wing length and many gradients
may be found within a population. Char-
acters such as wing length have been
avoided as primary characters because of
the possibility of variation not observed.

Venation is not a particularly good
character in species with fully developed
wings, but the development of the wedge
cell serves to separate B. auripilis from
B. brevicollis. The terminology used is
mostly that of Doyen (1966), who used a
combination of Forbes (1922) and Hun-
dertmark (1935) terminologies. A fully la-
beled wing is provided for reference
(Fig. 11). Other variation occurs, such as
the spur of the recurrent radius often pro-
jecting posteriorly past the radial cross
vein and an extra cross vein in the wedge
cell.

Abdomen

Few variations in abdominal characters
are of taxonomic use. Punctation has rare-

A B

Fic. 12. Subgenital sternites, ventral aspect. A.
Blapstinus dilatatus, B. B. histricus.

ly been used as a secondary character.
The most significant character concerns
the presence or absence of the basal ab-
dominal impression often used in deter-
mining the sex of an individual. A narrow
or broad impression on the basal 2 or 3
segments is present in most males. That
impression is completely lacking in B.
brevicollis and B. auripilis but well de-
veloped in species such as B. substria-
tus. A basal abdominal impression is nev-
er present in a female.

An impression near the apex of the fifth
visible abdominal segment is present in
most species, but that impression is not
peculiar to either sex.

The sixth visible sternite (subgenital)
is of taxonomic use in a few species. That
sternite is feebly or not at all emarginate
in most species; for example, B. histricus
(Fig. 12B). It is very strongly emarginate
as in B. dilatatus (Fig. 12A).

Legs

Leg characters are significant at the ge-
neric level, but frequently are not useful
at the specific level. Profemora are often
strongly swollen apically.

Tarsal characters have been used as
secondary characters rather sparingly.
The dilation of the anterior tarsi (males)
is more useful in determining the sex of
an individual than determining the
species. Phrases such as “strongly dilat-
ed, the segments subequal in width to
the protibial apex” versus “feebly dilat-
ed, the segments much narrower in width
than the protibial apex’ adequately de-
scribe extremes of anterior tarsal dilation.
Unfortunately, most species such as B.
brevicollis are not at all dilated. Sex de-
termination is very difficult in such
species since the basal abdominal

96 TRANS.

gonostylus vulva

pleated
membrane

_-walvifer 2~___

protiger-~___

Zi _baculus

connecting
membrane

a B

Fic. 13. Ovipositor (extended) of Blapstinus (sem-
idiagrammatic). A. ventral aspect, B. dorsal aspect.

impression is also not evident. The an-
terior tarsal dilation is quite distinct in
many species; for example, B. substria-
tus (Figs. 6, 7).

Genitalia

Preliminary studies were made on the
genitalia of both male and female speci-
mens of several different species. Those
studies indicated that male genitalia of-
fered good characters usable at the spe-
cific level, but female genitalia did not
provide taxonomic characters. Many
workers have attempted to standardize
and clarify the terminology applied to the
various parts of the genitalia of both
sexes, but little agreement has been
reached. The terminology of the genitalia
used here is that of Doyen (1966), in
which all previous work was evaluated.
Doyen accepted the terminology of Lin-
droth (1957) for the male and that of Tan-
ner (1927) for the female.

For illustrative purposes, semidi-
agrammatic drawings have been made of
the female genitalia (Fig. 13) and male
genitalia (Fig. 14). Frequent reference to
those figures will aid in understanding
the following discussion.

Female (Figs. 13A, B).—The ovipositor is
attached to the last abdominal segment
by a long connecting membrane that al-

KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 41(3-4)

: spicule
spicule plate

basal piece

gonopore

lateral
penis rod

duct

Fic. 14. Genitalia of Blapstinus (semidiagram-

matic). A. tegmen and apparatus, lateral aspect; B.

aedeagus, ventral aspect; C. penis (removed), ven-
tral aspect.

lows for telescoping. Sclerites of the ovi-
positor may be divided into an anterior
pair of first valvifers and a posterior pair
of second valvifers. The baculus is a
thickened area that apparently provides
an articulation surface for the 2 valvifers.
A dorsal sclerite called the proctiger, sit-
uated mostly between the first valvifers,
may represent the tenth tergite. The pos-
terior pair of sclerites, the second valvi-
fers, are well sclerotized. Toward the
apex, each second valvifer bears a gono-
stylus that bears several setae. A pleated
membrane forms the dorsal and ventral
walls of the vagina. The opening of the
vagina is the vulva.

Male (Figs. 14A, B, C).—Some good taxo-
nomic characters are provided by the
male genitalia. Some species may be rec-
ognized by their genitalia alone. Poste-

MORPHOLOGY OF BLAPSTINUS—Davis 97

Fic. 15. Aedeagus of Blapstinus alutaceus, ven-
tral aspect.

rior to the last abdominal segment is a
pair of ventrolateral sclerites, the spicule
plates. Long anterior arms, the spicules,
extend anteriorly (Fig. 14A). Those struc-
tures are believed to represent the ninth

Fic. 16. Aedeagus of Blapstinus dilatatus, ventral
aspect.

Fic. 17. Aedeagus of Blapstinus dilatatus, lateral
aspect.

sternite and apparently provide for mus-
cle attachment; they have not been used
taxonomically. The aedeagus (Fig. 14B)
is composed of 2 pairs of sclerites. The
anterior sclerites may be subdivided into
the proximal basal pieces, fused dorsally
and ventrally to form a sclerotized ring
through which the penis apparently
moves. The basal piece and parameres
constitute the tegmen. The penis (Fig.
14C) is a tube ensheathed by the tegmen
at rest. The sclerites of the penis are
called lateral penis rods and appear to be
fused proximally and extend to the gono-
pore.

The chief taxonomic characters con-
cern the relative shape and length of the
parameres. The parameres are triangular
in most species in ventral view (Fig.
14B), but may be enlarged apically in B.

Fic. 18. Aedeagus of Blapstinus alutaceus, lateral

aspect.

98

alutaceus (Fig. 15) or nipple-shaped in B.
dilatatus (Fig. 16). The length of the par-
ameres is subject to considerable varia-
tion, from very elongate as in B. sulcatus
and B. pubescens to unusually short as in
B. pratensis. The parameres in most
species are moderate in length, being
somewhere between the 2 extremes cit-
ed. Other characters express some vari-
ation in the shape of the parameres in
ventral or lateral view; for example, the
parameres are strongly bent downward at
the apex in B. brevicollis. Laterally, the
parameres usually are straight (Fig. 17)
except in species such as B. alutaceus
(Fig. 18) in which they are curved up-
ward apically. In B. brevicollis, they are
curved downward apically.

Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 41(3—4), 1980, 98

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 41(3-4)

LITERATURE CITED

Davis, J. C. 1976. A review of the genus Blapsti-
nus (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae). Trans. Ky.
Acad. Sci. 37(1-2):35—40.

DoyEN, J. T. 1966. The skeletal anatomy of Te-
nebrio molitor (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae).
Misc. Publ. Entomol. Soc. Amer. 5(3):103-149.

ForBES, W. T. 1922. The wing venation of Co-
leoptera. Ann. Entomol. Soc. Amer. 15(2):328-
352.

HUNDERTMARK, A. 1935. Die Entwicklung der
Fligel des Mehlkafers Tenebrio molitor, mit
besonderer Berticksichtigung der Hautungs-
vorgange. Z. Morphol. Okol. 30:506-543.

LINDROTH, C. H. 1957. The principle terms used
for male and female genitalia in Coleoptera.
Opusc. Entomol. 22:241-256.

TANNER, V. M. 1927. A preliminary study of the
genitalia of the female Coleoptera. Trans. Ento-
mol. Soc. Amer. 53:2-50.

NEWS AND COMMENT

Annual The Annual Meeting of the
Meeting Kentucky Academy of Science

will be held at Transylvania
University on 7-8 November 1980 as part
of the University’s Bicentennial Celebra-
tion. Be sure to make your reservations
early and plan to attend the Annual Ban-
quet on Friday 7 November.

Pep aye gly

Change in Dr. Louis A. Krumholz, Ed-
Editors itor of the Transactions of

the Kentucky Academy of
Science for the past seven years, has asked
to be relieved of his editorial duties for
medical reasons and Dr. Branley A. Bran-
son has agreed to assume the editorship
when Dr. Krumholz retires. Thus, there
will be an indefinite period of transition
during which Dr. Krumholz will remain
as Editor and Dr. Branson will continue as
Associate Editor. Those men have been
working together very closely for the past
several months so that the transition will
be smooth and there will be no break in

publication. To assist in that transition, we
ask that all manuscripts submitted from
now on for publication in the Transac-
tions be sent directly to Dr. Branley A.
Branson, Department of Biological Sci-
ences, Eastern Kentucky University,
Richmond, Kentucky 40475.

Manuscripts intended for publication
should reach Dr. Branson at least 6
months prior to the anticipated date of
publication. For example, manuscripts in-
tended for publication in March 1981
should be in his hands no later than
early September 1980 and those intended
for publication in September 1981 should
be in his hands no later than early March
1981. Such a schedule will allow time for
review and, if necessary, revision. Our
policy will continue to be to send finished
manuscripts to the printer early in De-
cember 1980 for the March 1981 issue and
early in June 1981 for the September
1981 issue.

We hope this transition will be carried
out smoothly, and we ask your coop-
eration.

Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 41(3-4), 1980, 99-104

The Aquatic Insects, Exclusive of Diptera, of
Hays Branch, Rowan County, Kentucky

ESTEBAN D. PICAZO AND GERALD L. DEMOss
Department of Biological Sciences, Morehead State University, Morehead, Kentucky 40351

ABSTRACT

Few baseline aquatic insect surveys are available for eastern Kentucky. Collected insects
represent 36 genera, including species from 26 families, and 7 orders from Hays Branch, Rowan
County, Kentucky, exclusive of the order Diptera. Of those, 28 species were identified, and all
are widely distributed in the east-central United States. This compilation, is representative of
the forms that live in relatively unpolluted eastern Kentucky streams. Some trichopteran and
ephemeropteran species collected are pollution sensitive and can become valid water quality

indicators.

INTRODUCTION

As industrial expansion accelerates and
attracts the interest of commercial, envi-
ronmental, and governmental agencies,
baseline biological data will become in-
creasingly significant. Insect faunal sur-
veys of Kentucky streams are scarce;
however, both specific and general sur-
veys are needed to serve as valid bases
for regional environmental impact eval-
uations. Because Hays Branch is near a
growing population center and is rela-
tively pollution free, it is a potential ref-
erence point for water quality indicator
species and future comparative studies of
nearby watersheds. This study includes
a listing of aquatic insect species, exclu-
sive of the order Diptera, collected from
Hays Branch, a tributary to Triplett
Creek in eastern Rowan County, Ken-
tucky.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Hays Branch is a small stream with an
average width of about 10 m and a depth
of about 20 cm. It flows southwest from
the eastern border of Rowan County for
4 km to where it empties into Triplett
Creek, a tributary to the Licking River,
about 11 km northeast of Morehead. It
has a variety of typical eastern Kentucky
habitats, yet is free from industrial and
mining pollution. The sampling area in-
cluded Hays Branch and the lower por-
tions of its tributaries (Fig. 1).

Collections were made from February

99

through October 1977 at about monthly
intervals. Both active and passive sam-
pling techniques yielded adult, nymphal,
and larval specimens. Some early instar
nymphs and larvae that lacked sufficient
key character development were not de-
termined beyond the generic level; also,
adequate keys for species determination
of some immature insects are not yet
available (Needham et al. 1935, Ross
1944, Resh 1975, Edmunds et al. 1976,
Wiggins 1977, Merritt and Cummins
1978).

Determinations of biomass were not
attempted, and quantitative data regard-
ing developmental stages of the number
of specimens at a given station were not
applicable because of the sampling tech-
niques employed.

Fifteen stations were selected for sam-
pling (Fig. 1) and each contained land-
mark features and habitats that ranged
from flat rock bottoms to mud-bottomed
backwater pools; rocky pools and riffles
were dominant (Table 1). Periodic flood-
ing from heavy rains changed many fea-
tures drastically, especially in the still
water habitats. Specimens were collected
randomly from each station with a
square-foot (0.09-m?) sampler, fine mesh
dip net, or aerial insect net as applicable.
Adult, nymphal, and larval insects were
netted from bank vegetation, pool bot-
toms, submerged stones, and in slow and
rapid riffles. In addition, incandescent
lighting was used to attract nightflying

SEN og
iS
Sy
\ ea
RS S
o A
8 (
8 f
z ae
cy ~.
> /
o/o
o:O
z\o
Se
Location In S| a
aS
Kentucky \
eff
BS
Na
(e) Des
SIN Ss +
14
S
i Hays CHESAPEAKE
gil Ce Haldeman
el’ [Le AF iplett Cr. \
UL
S>
10) | Km
[eee Se
SCALE
Fic. 1. Locations of sampling stations in Hays

Branch, Rowan County, Kentucky.

adults. All specimens were placed im-
mediately in 70 percent ethanol; the fluid
was replaced before final disposition in
the Entomological Collection of More-
head State University.

RESULTS

Collections yielded a total of 138
aquatic insects, exclusive of Diptera, that
could be identified. The orders repre-
sented were: Ephemeroptera, 11 genera,
46 specimens; Trichoptera, 5 genera, 25
specimens; Coleoptera, 6 genera, 18
specimens; Odonata, 6 genera, 18 speci-
mens; Hemiptera, 4 genera, 16 speci-
mens; Plecoptera, 3 genera, 14 speci-
mens; and Megaloptera, 1 genus, 1
specimen. All Plecoptera were collected
in late February through mid-April dur-
ing the spring thaw. The other orders
were collected from March through Sep-
tember with the highest yield during late
June.

Relative abundance is shown in Table
2, using the arbitrary criteria that species
collected at more than | station or more
than 4 individuals of a species were con-

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 41(3-4)

TABLE |1.—MAJOR TOPOGRAPHICAL FEATURES OF
THE SAMPLING STATIONS ON HAYS BRANCH, ROW-
AN COUNTY, KENTUCKY

Station Description

1 Sand-bottomed pools with areas of flat
rock bottom; medium flow.

2 Broken flat rock with no standing
pools; medium flow.

3 Small rock-bottomed and sand-
bottomed pools; riffles; medium
flow.

4 Rocky with gravel bottom, few
standing pools; riffles; medium flow.

5 Gravel with flat rock underlay; slow
flow.

6 Gravel and sand-bottomed pools in
series; riffles; medium flow.

tt Gravel and mud-bottomed large pool;
riffles; medium flow.

8 Rock-bottomed pools, some stagnant;
medium flow.

9 Gravel and rock-bottomed pools; slow
flow.

10 Flat rock bottom; slow flow.

ll Gravel and sand-bottomed pools;
riffles; medium flow.

12 Broken flat rock bottom; medium flow.

13 Broken flat rock, rock-bottomed pools
in series, use of auto body bank rip-
rap noted; medium flow.

14 Small gravel-bottomed pools; slow
flow.

15 Rocky, no standing pools; medium
flow.

sidered “common;” 2 to 4 specimens of
a species at 1 station were considered
“occasional;” and a single specimen of a
species was considered “rare.” This does
not imply that rarity is indicative of area
population since the survey methods
were not designed to represent a statis-
tically valid population cross section.

DISCUSSION
Hays Branch is characterized by rocky
pools separated by intermittent riffles.
During the course of this study, the
stream was subjected to frequent flood-
ing and sustained periods of drought.
Periodic flooding resulted from the

AQUATIC INSECTS OF HAYS BRANCH—Picazo and DeMoss 101

TABLE 2.—KINDS, FREQUENCY OF OCCURRENCE, AND DEVELOPMENTAL STAGES OF AQUATIC INSECTS,
EXCLUSIVE OF DIPTERA, COLLECTED FROM HAYS BRANCH, ROWAN COUNTY, KENTUCKY (C = COMMON,
O = OCCASIONAL, R = RARE, A = ADULT, I = IMMATURE)

Relative

Number Stage abundance Station
Ephemeroptera
Siphlonuridae
Ameletus lineatus 3 I O 6
Ameletus sp. 1 I R 6
Baetidae
Centroptilum sp. 1 I R 0
Cloeon sp. 1 I R i
Caenidae
Caenis sp. 1 I R 1
Leptophlebiidae
Choroterpes sp. 1 I R 1
Paraleptophlebia gluttata 4 I C 6
Unidentifiable genus 1 A R 6
Ephemerellidae
Ephemerella funeralis 15 I C 6
Heptageniidae
Cinygma sp. 2) I O 9
Stenonema pudicum 1 I R 3
Stenonema tripunctatum 14 I C 3,5, 7, 14
Stenacron sp. 1 I R ih
Odonata
Calopterygidae
Calopteryx maculatum 7 A C 4,6, 7, 10
Coenagrionidae
Argia sedula 2 A O 14
Argia sp. 2 A O 8
Aeshnidae
Boyeria vinosa 2 I O 9
Libellulidae
Celithemis elisa 1 A R 6
Libellula pulchella 2 A O 6
Plathemis lydia 2 A O 6
Plecoptera
Capniidae
Allocapnia ohioensis 3 A O 6
Allocapnia rickeri 9 A C 6
Nemouridae
Nemoura sp. 1 I R 3
Taeniopterygidae
Brachyptera sp. 1 A R 6
Hemiptera
Corixidae
Arctocorixa signata 1 A R ih
Gerridae
Gerris marginatus 2; A C 9, 12
Gerris remigis 1/9 I/A C 1, 3, 7, 10, 12
Veliidae

Microvelia americana 2 A C He,

102 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 41(3-4)
TABLE 2.—CONTINUED
Relative
Number Stage abundance Station
Nepidae
Ranatra fusca 1 A R 6
Coleoptera
Gyrinidae
Dineutus discolor 2 A O 4
Dineutus hornii 5 A C Be
Dytiscidae
Bidessus affinis 1 A R 8
Bidessus flavicollis 1 A R Ul
Laccophilus sp. 1 A R 8
Hydrophilidae
Tropisternus glaber 2 A O 5
Psephenidae
Psephenus herricki 5 I C i
Elmidae
Stenelmis quadrimaculata 1 A R 6
Megaloptera
Corydalidae
Corydalus cornutus 1 I R ri
Trichoptera
Philopotamidae
Chimarra sp. 1 A C Wea
Hydropsychidae
Cheumatopsyche spp. 17 I C 7,8
Limnephilidae
Caborius punctatissimus 1 A O 6
Pycnopsyche scabripennis 2 I O 6
Rhyacophilidae
Glossosoma sp. 2 I C 6,9

spring thaw and heavy spring rains.
Flooding exceeded seasonal normals be-
cause of the heavy snowfall of 1977 and
the subsequent late thaw. Several re-
searchers (Minshall 1954, Grizzell 1976,
Siegfreid and Knight 1977) have reported
a significant reduction in the invertebrate
fauna of small streams following flood
periods. Invertebrate recovery is report-
edly rapid, but consistent flooding de-
layed the reestablishment of such com-
munities, and probably contributed to
reduced numbers of organisms during
the spring sampling period.
Additionally, during July and August,
Hays Branch was reduced to isolated
pools with subterranean flow. Riffles that

have a uniform flow characteristically
have a high faunal density, but when rif-
fles are reduced so that flow is restricted
to the area beneath the surface, sampling
is interrupted and density cannot be de-
termined. These data probably were
biased by sampling techniques designed
primarily for continual stream flow.

Data collected included 36 genera and
28 species of aquatic insects. Sampling
was far from exhaustive, but the general
insect diversity suggests Hays Branch is
free of pollution. Reduced macroinver-
tebrate, benthic diversity may be consid-
ered a sensitive indicator of pollution.
Traditionally, macroinvertebrates are
suitable indicators due to their size, sim-

AQUATIC INSECTS OF HAYS BRANCH—Picazo and DeMoss

plified sampling techniques, and ease of
identification.

Few aquatic researchers agree on the
manner of analysis for benthic data. Di-
versity indexes have little, if any, de-
scriptive value for the stream and are
highly subjective. Most of those prob-
lems stem from the lack of adequate
quantitative sampling techniques. Usin-
ger (1968) discussed the use of square-
foot samplers and pointed out that escape
prevents accurate quantitative sampling
and that existing collecting methods are
inadequate for reliable analysis. Diver-
sity calculations of the Hays Branch data
have very little meaning, because the
Diptera and other invertebrate taxa were
excluded from the study.

Ephemeropterans were by far the dom-
inant group of benthic forms collected in
Hays Branch. Data included at least 6
families and 10 genera of mayflies (Table
2), that are principally categorized as col-
lectors. Two species of Stenonema and
a single species of Ephemerella were
dominant among mayflies collected.
Those forms vary in their foraging habits,
but, representatives of both genera are
generally active in the decomposition of
fine particulate organic matter, which
classifies them as detritivores (gatherers).
The data suggest normal trophic relation-
ships and reflect the general feeding
mechanisms for small stream communi-
ties.

Hydropsychid caddisflies were abun-
dant in Hays Branch. The Cheumato-
psyche, also categorized as collectors,
were the most abundant trichopterans
(Table 2). Those forms are typically in-
volved in organic decomposition, but em-
ploy filtering techniques in acquiring
their food. Cheumatopsyche larvae could
not be classified beyond the generic
level, because larval characters have not
been defined sufficiently to permit
species determination.

Two trichopterans, Pycnopsyche scab-
ripennis and Caborius punctatissimus,
were not cited by Resh (1975) in his re-
port on caddisfly distribution in Ken-
tucky. Other trichopterans included in
our data had feeding habits different from

103

the hydropsychids. These included
scrapers (Glossosoma) and shredders
(Caborius and Pycnopsyche).

The winter stoneflies, Allocapnia,
were the dominant taxa of Plecoptera
(Table 2). The nymphs of the 2 species
collected, generally described as shred-
ders, feed actively on leaf detritus and
other vascular plant tissues. Minshall
(1954) reported such allochthonous ma-
terial as the most important food to the
macroinvertebrate community in his
study. Other plecopterans, particularly
Perlidae, were noticeably absent. De-
creased seasonal stream flow in Hays
Branch may not favor the typical 2-year
life cycle of large predaceous perlids.

Genera of the remaining orders of
aquatic insects were not as abundant as
some of the Ephemeroptera, Plecoptera,
or Trichoptera. Considerable variation of
forms existed within Coleoptera, Odo-
nata, and Hemiptera (Table 2). The ma-
jority of those aquatic insects have pre-
daceous habits and were not expected to
have high densities. Additionally, most of
those insects were taken randomly, with
aerial nets and dip nets, as terrestrial
adults, and many may have immigrated
from neighboring streams or ponds. Two
species of collected coleopterans, Pse-
phenus herricki and Stenelmis quadri-
maculata, are categorized as scrapers
based on their feeding mechanism. Rese-
ner (1970), in her checklist of Kentucky
Odonata, had no Rowan County entries,
nor had Celithemis elisa and Boyeria vi-
nosa been reported from contiguous
counties.

A single larval specimen of Megalop-
tera was taken during the survey. Coryd-
alids are characteristically more numer-
ous in eastern Kentucky streams, and
were expected to be more abundant in
Hays Branch. Those forms are sensitive
to various changes in their habitats, but
observed changes did not suggest such a
factor in Hays Branch. Corydalids, like
the perlids, have long life cycles and may
not favor the physical aspects of this
stream. The absence of perlids and the
presence of a single corydalid may offer
evidence of existing stream stress. Fur-

104 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 41(3-4)

ther investigations will be necessary to
determine what variables are involved.

Various factors, primarily weather and
time, influenced the data and the resul-
tant interpretation of this study. A longer
sampling period would have produced a
more accurate picture of the aquatic in-
sect community, and would have provid-
ed a better understanding of Hays Branch
insects. Improved quantitative sampling
techniques would yield biomass and di-
versity data sufficient to employ statisti-
cal evaluations and produce meaningful
and valid indexes. Macroinvertebrate
taxa excluded from this study should be
included if such analyses were to be
made.

The lack of published data on aquatic
insects from Rowan County does not in-
dicate a scarcity of aquatic insects, but a
paucity of field investigations. This re-
port reflects preliminary data from one
stream; similar regional field investiga-
tions would add greatly to our knowledge
of eastern Kentucky insects.

LITERATURE CITED

EDMUNDS, G. F., JR., S. L. JENSEN, AND L. BER-
NER. 1976. The mayflies of North and Central

Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 41(3-4), 1980, 104

America. Univ. Minn. Press, Minneapolis,
Minn.

GRIZZEL, R. A. 1976. Flood effects on stream eco-
systems. J. Soil Water Cons. 31: 283-285.
MERRITT, R. W., AND K. W. CUMMINS (EDS.).
1978. An introduction to the aquatic insects of
North America. Kendall/Hunt Publ. Co., Du-

buque, Ia.

MINSHALL, G. W. 1954. Community dynamics of
the benthic fauna of a woodland springbrook.
Hydrobiologia. 32:305-339.

NEEDHAM, J. G., J. R. GRAVER, AND Y. C. HSuv.
1935. The biology of mayflies with a systematic
account of North American species. E. W. Clas-
sey, Ltd., Hampton, Eng.

PARRISH, F’. K. 1975. 2nd ed. Keys to water quality
indicative organisms of the southeastern United
States. U.S. Environ. Prot. Agency, Cincinnati,
Ohio.

RESENER, P. L. 1970. An annotated check list of
the dragonflies and damselflies (Odonata) of
Kentucky. Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci. 31(1-2):32-44.

ReEsH, V. H. 1975. A distributional study of the cad-
disflies of Kentucky. Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci. 36(1-
2):6-16.

Ross, H. H. 1944. The caddisflies, or Trichoptera,
of Illinois. Ill. Nat. Hist. Surv. Bull. 23:1-326.

SIEGFREID, C. A., AND A. W. KNIGHT. 1977. The
effect of washout in a Sierra Foothill stream.
Amer. Mid]. Nat. 98(1):200-207.

USINGER, R. L. 1968. Aquatic insects of California.
Univ. Cal. Press, Berkeley, Cal.

WIGGINS, G. B. 1977. Larvae of the North Ameri-
can caddisfly genera. Univ. Toronto Press, To-
ronto, Ont.

NEWS AND COMMENT

In During the time since our

Memoriam last annual meeting, the fol-
lowing members of the Ken-

tucky Academy of Science have died:

Dr. Ernest O. Beal, Head of the Biology
Department at Western Kentucky
University, 1968-1978.

Dr. Thomas B. Calhoon, Professor and
Chairman, Department of Physiology
and Biophysics, University of Louis-
ville, School of Medicine. Dr. Cal-
hoon was a member of the Board of
Directors of the Academy from 1972
through 1979.

Dr. Henry Howell, Professor of Biol-
ogy, Asbury College.

Dr. L. Y. Lancaster, Professor of Biol-
ogy, Western Kentucky University,
for 34 years until his retirement in
1960. Dr. Lancaster was Vice Pres-
ident of the Academy in 1937-1938
and served as President in 1938-
1939.

Dr. Louis B. Lockwood, Adjunct Pro-
fessor of Biology, Western Kentucky
University, 1971-1979.

The Kentucky Academy of Science ex-
tends its sincere sympathy to their fam-
ilies. Their presence at the Academy will
be missed.

Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 41(3-4), 1980, 105-115
The Larval Life History of the Crappies (Pomoxis) spp.

GARY J. OVERMANN, ROBERT D. HOYT, AND GREG A. KINDSCHI
Department of Biology, Western Kentucky University, Bowling Green, Kentucky 42101

ABSTRACT

Crappies spawned in Rough River Lake from 29 April to 9 July 1978. Larvae were first collected
on 3 May when the lake temperature reached 17 C. A total of 7,369 crappies was taken from 3
May to 1 August. Developmental patterns were described for specimens 4.75 to 29 mm total
length. Meristic characteristics averaged 10.8 for preanal myomeres, 21.1 for postanal myomeres,
31.9 for total myomeres, and 0.62 for ratio of preanal to postanal length. Densities of larvae were
low early in the spawning period and reached a maximum of 185/100 m? on 6 June, but decreased
to 10/100 m? thereafter. Larvae less than 20 mm total length were taken mostly near the surface
while larger specimens preferred deeper water. Growth averaged 3.1 mm per week for the 14-
week study, 1.43 mm per week for the first 8 weeks, and 4.5 mm for the last 6 weeks. Major food
items of early postlarvae were rotifers, copepod nauplii, and the cladoceran Diaphanosoma sp.
Late postlarvae ingested larger food items including the cladocerans Diaphanosoma sp. and
Simocephalus sp. and larval dipterans of the subfamily Chaoborinae. Juvenile food habits were
similar to late postlarvae except for the addition of large numbers of Bosmina sp. Early postlarvae
fed mostly during the night while late postlarvae and juveniles fed mostly during the day.
Juvenile white crappies fed more near the bottom while juvenile black crappies fed mostly near
the surface.

and juvenile crappies in Rough River
Lake, Kentucky.

INTRODUCTION

The study of larval fishes has become
widespread in recent years and is being
viewed and accepted as a viable required
component of the biology of all species.
Information from such studies provides
the basis for the development of taxo-
nomic keys limited to larval and juvenile
stages of the life cycle and to a reassess-
ment of existing policies regarding water
usage for energy production and _ plan-
ning, and maintaining regimens of lake
and reservoir water levels. As part of the
increased emphasis on early life histo-
ries, this paper details the early biology
of the white crappie Pomoxis annularis
and the black crappie Pomoxis nigromac-
ulatus.

Specifically, the objectives of this
study were to determine the time of oc-
currence, development after hatching,
meristic complement, density, distribu-
tion, growth rate, and food habits of larval

STUDY AREA

Rough River Lake is a small impound-
ment in the Green River watershed in
west-central Kentucky. The lake was im-
pounded in 1961 with the construction of
an earthfill dam at River Kilometer 143.7.
The lake impounds 62.8 km of the Rough
River at seasonal pool with a surface area
of 2,344.2 ha and a total volume of 140
million m’. The lake has a drainage area
of 1,180 km? in Breckinridge, Grayson,
and Hardin counties.

One permanent collecting station was
established on the South Fork of the lake,
200 m upstream from the mouth of Peter
Cave Creek (Fig. 1). That station was ap-
proximately 200 m in length and was di-
vided into 7 tow zones: | along each
shoreline, 1 each a third of the width of
the lake from each bank, 1 on each side
of the river bed along the floodplain bot-
tom, approximately 6 m in depth, and 1
along the bottom of the river channel, ap-
proximately 10 m in depth.

Additional surface and bottom samples

‘This study was supported by PL88-309, Grant
No. 2-303-R from the National Oceanic and Atmo-
spheric Administration, National Marine Fisheries

Service, and the Kentucky Department of Fish and
Wildlife Resources.

were taken weekly from the upper reach-
es of the lake in Peter Cave Creek and

105

106 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 41(3-4)

Rough River Lake
North
Fork
<7 sS
Dam —_
eC
pe
South Fork
Fic. 1.

weekly surface samples were taken alter-
nately from lake areas upstream and
downstream from the main collecting sta-
tion.

METHODS AND MATERIALS

Larvae and juveniles were sampled
from 29 March through 31 August 1978,
with conical plankton nets 3 m long with
a l-m diameter circular mouth. Net mesh
size was 0.8 mm. The net bridle consist-
ed of a ring of 9.5-mm diameter stainless
steel rod tied outside the net mouth with
3 1.3-m lengths of nylon rope tied equi-
distantly around the net mouth and con-
nected together in front of the net. A
7.62-cm diameter, 35.6-cm long polyvi-
nyl chloride collecting bottle was at-
tached to the cod end of the net. A digital

D2 -

Cat nae eumieTs km

Santa

}—~coltecting Station

\

Peter Cave Creek

ene

r=

Rough River Lake, Kentucky, showing locations of the collecting stations.

flowmeter suspended in the center of the
net mouth determined the volume of
water filtered. Nets were towed at ap-
proximately 0.5 m/sec for 7 min and fil-
tered approximately 250 m? of water.

Collections were made twice weekly
from 29 March through 26 May 1978. One
collection was made during daylight and
1 at night. A day and night collection was
taken once weekly from 30 May through
31 August 1978. Surface tows were made
by attaching a styrofoam block to the bri-
dle ring, while bottom tows were made
with the aid of a 15-kg depressor. Speci-
mens were washed from the net bottle
into sampling jars and fixed in a 5 percent
formalin solution.

Larvae were sorted using a dissecting
microscope and identified with keys by

LARVAL LIFE HISTORY OF CRAPPIES—Overmann et all.

WAX sssss>

ie) 3mm

Fic. 2. Developmental stages of Pomoxis sp., 4.75
and 6.0 mm total length from Rough River Lake,
Kentucky.

May and Gasaway (1967), Nelson and
Cole (1975), and Hogue et al. (1976).
White crappies were separated from
black crappies on the basis of dorsal
spine counts. Crappies less than 20 mm
were clumped into a single category due
to the absence of obvious species specific
characteristics.

Developmental stages used in the
study were patterned after the descrip-
tion of May and Gasaway (1967). Growth
was determined by recording total lengths
to the nearest 0.5 mm. Up to 15 individuals
were measured from each tow from each
collection with a maximum of 75 measure-
ments per sample. Growth statistics, in-
cluding standard deviation, standard error
of the mean, range, and median, were cal-
culated on a PDP-8 processing machine.

Food studies were made by excising
stomachs only and counting and identi-
fying all organisms therein.

RESULTS

A total of 7,369 crappies was collected
in Rough River Lake from 3 May to 1 Au-
gust 1978. Of that total, 658 were juvenile
white crappies and 160 juvenile black
crappies. No prolarval specimens were
taken in the study. Early postlarvae were
collected on 3 May at a surface temper-
ature of 17 C and continued until 11 July.

107

A. 7.5 mm

BEY

D.
[PRO a aT ae ales
te) Smm
Fic. 3. Developmental stages of Pomoxis sp., 7.5

to 14 mm total length from Rough River Lake, Ken-
tucky.

Late postlarvae were taken from 30 May
to 11 July. Juveniles were first collected
on 13 June, 2 weeks following the first
late postlarva. The last juvenile was tak-
en on | August.

Development

The smallest specimen, a 4.75-mm ear-
ly postlarva, was collected on 3 May. At
that stage, the gut tube was complete and
only a medial fin fold was present that
extended from the gas bladder dorsad to
the middle of the gut ventrad (Fig. 2A).
The pectoral fin fold was present but no
rays were observed. The gas bladder was
slightly pigmented dorsally.

6 mm.—The median fin fold became no-
ticeably shallower both dorsally and ven-

108

'7 mm

A. Pomoxis spp.,

O 5 1O mm

Fic. 4. Developmental stages of Pomoxis sp., 17

mm total length, white crappies 21 mm total length

and black crappies 22 mm total length from Rough
River Lake, Kentucky.

trally and the gas bladder elongated (Fig.
2B).

7.5. mm—The median fin fold became
markedly constricted in the region of the
caudal peduncle and outlined the future
caudal fin (Fig. 3A). Fin rays began form-
ing in the ventral caudal fin. The gas
bladder began to enlarge posteriorly and
elongated anteriorly reaching the poste-
rior margin of the head. Bone develop-
ment of the head and jaws continued and

gave the mouth a shape similar to young
adults.

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 41(3-4)

9.5 mm.—The median fin fold had sepa-
rated into 3 presumptive fin bodies. Fin
ray development continued in the caudal
fin and fin rays were observed forming in
the dorsal, anal, and pectoral fins (Fig.
3B). The posterior vertebral column grew
dorsally to form the hypural plate.

11 mm.—Soft ray development in the
dorsal, anal, pelvic, and pectoral fins was
complete and, with those developments,
the specimen was considered a late post-
larva. The anterior gut became less dis-
tinct and the gas bladder elongated to a
point posterior to the gut (Fig. 3C).

14 mm.—tThe posteriormost vertebrae
became totally obscured by musculature
and dorsal and anal spines appeared.

17 mm.—Spinous ray development con-
tinued and the body shape became more
like that of the adult (Fig. 4A).

21 mm.—Spinous dorsal and anal ray de-
velopment was completed and speci-
mens at that stage of development were
considered juveniles (Fig. 4B). Pigment
cells were seen on the head and ventral
caudal peduncle. Scales were first seen
forming along the midlateral septum of
the caudal peduncle.

22 mm.—The spinous dorsal fin was com-
plete in both black and white crappie
specimens and could be used to distin-
guish the species.

29 mm.—Squamation was completed ex-
cept for a small area on the nape, just pos-
terior to the dorsal surface of the head.

Meristics

The mean preanal myomere count for
all larval crappies studied was 10.85,
while that for juvenile black and white
crappies was 10.66 and 10.64, respective-
ly. The mean postanal number for all lar-
vae was 21.11, with 21.19 and 21.20 for
black and white crappie juveniles, re-
spectively. The average total myomere
count of all larvae was 31.93. Juvenile
black and white crappies had total counts
of 31.74 and 31.78, respectively. The
mode was 32 with a range of 30 to 34.

The mean ratio of preanal length to

LARVAL LIFE HISTORY OF CRAPPIES—Overmann et al.

LE . 25/100m>

Juvenile White Crappie

oo

Juvenile Black Crapple

Day

109

Pomoxis spp.

Juvenile White Crappie

Juvenile Black Crappie

Night

Fic. 5. Densities, in number of fish per 100 m? of water, of larval crappies taken in day and night samples
from Rough River Lake, Kentucky, April through August 1978.

postanal length of all larvae was 0.62 with
a range of 0.40 to 0.89. The average ratio
for juveniles was 0.59 for each species.

Density

Larval densities were low initially, av-
eraged 4/100 m? from 3 May to 21 May,
but rose sharply from 28 May to 18 June,
and reached a peak of 185/100 m? on 6
June. That density pattern indicated the
maximum spawning period from 28 May
to 30 June in 1978. Following the 6 June
peak, densities dropped to an average of
10/100 m# for the remainder of the study.

Average larval densities at the start of
the study, 3 May to 21 May, were slightly
greater for day than night samples, 4/100
m? versus 2/100 m?, respectively. Densi-
ties increased in both sampling periods
from 28 May to 18 June, and reached a
maximum average of 185/100 m? on 6
June for both time periods (Fig. 5). For

the latter part of the study, 13 June to 1
August, daytime densities decreased to
an average of 10/100 m? while nighttime
densities averaged 20/100 m°.

Juvenile white crappies appeared in
equal density in day and night samples
early in the study (15/100 m%), but de-
creased to 5/100 m? during the day but
remained at 15/100 m® at night later in
the study (Fig. 5). Juvenile black crap-
pies were in low density in all samples,
5/100 m3, throughout the study.

From 5 to 23 May, all larvae were taken
in surface samples, 4/100 m? (Fig. 6). Sur-
face densities increased to 60/100 m? on
30 May while specimens first appeared
in bottom samples on that date. Peak den-
sities of 215/100 m® on the surface and
147/100 m® on the bottom occurred on 6
June. One week later, 13 June, surface
densities decreased to 65/100 m® and
those at the bottom to 5/100 m3. For the

110 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 41(3-4)

= 25/100m>

Juvenile White Crappie

Juvenile Black Crapple

Surface

Juvenile White Crappie

Juvenile Black Crapple

S0Uat, 4 21 28 4 Il 18 2 2 S162 523530
April May June July
Bottom

Fic. 6. Densities, in number of fish per 100 m? of water, of larval crappies taken in surface and bottom
samples from Rough River Lake, Kentucky, April through August 1978.

remainder of the study, surface densities
averaged 5/100 m° while at the bottom
they increased to 15/100 m°.

Juvenile members of both species oc-
curred in greater densities in bottom
samples throughout the study.

Distribution

Larval distribution in Rough River
Lake appeared to be a function of total
body length. From 3 to 30 May, 1,119 of
1,123 larvae were taken in surface sam-
ples, and larvae averaged 6.7 mm total
length; 46 percent were taken in open-
water surface samples while 54 percent
were taken along the shorelines.

From 6 to 13 June, when larvae aver-
aged 12.2 mm long, 40 percent (2,050)
were in bottom samples and 60 percent
at the surface. Those larvae taken at the
surface were evenly distributed between
open-water (50.3%) and shoreline areas

(49.7%).

Juveniles, that averaged 35 mm total
length, were mostly bottom dwellers
with 98 percent being taken in bottom
samples from 20 June to 1 August.

Growth

The average growth of crappie larvae
was 3.1 mm per week for the 14-week
study (Fig. 7). During the first 8 weeks,
growth averaged 1.43 mm per week, and
increased to 4.5 mm/week for the last 6
weeks. Juvenile growth during the last 6
weeks averaged 4.3 mm/week for the
black crappies and 4.6 mm/week for
white crappies.

Food Habits

Ten different taxa of food organisms
(Fig. 8) were identified in 334 stomachs
examined. Larvae ingested progressively
more taxa (Figs. 8, 9) and individual food
organisms as size increased.

Early postlarvae showed different

LARVAL LIFE HISTORY OF CRAPPIES—Overmann et all.

70

White & Black

Crappie

Length, Millimeters

Total

April May

111

June July Auqust

Fic. 7. Weekly growth data of larval crappies from Rough River Lake, Kentucky, April through August
1978. Horizontal line is the mean, vertical line the range, open box | standard deviation, and the darkened
box 1 standard error of the mean.

feeding patterns from later larval stages
in feeding more during the night than
day (Fig. 8). Early postlarvae contained
mainly rotifers, copepod nauplii, and the
cladoceran, Diaphanosoma sp. Cladoc-
erans were observed mostly in stomachs
of fish from night samples.

Rotifers and nauplii were not observed
in late postlarvae and juveniles. Calanoid
copepods, the cladocerans, Diapha-
nosoma sp. and Simocephalus sp., and,
at night, larval dipterans of the Chaobor-
inae were the most frequently observed
food items. More organisms were ob-
served in late postlarvae taken in day
than night samples. The cladoceran Di-
aphanosoma sp. was the predominant or-
ganism observed.

No noticeable differences in food hab-
its were observed between juvenile
white and black crappies (Fig. 8). Pri-
mary taxa observed were calanoid and

cyclopoid copepods, the cladocerans
Bosmina sp., Diaphanosoma sp., and
Simocephalus sp., and members of the
Chaoborinae. Diaphanosoma sp. and
Simocephalus sp. were observed mainly
in day samples while members of the
Chaoborinae were found predominantly
at night. Bosmina sp., while common in
day samples, was not observed in any
night stomach samples. Greater numbers
of organisms per stomach were observed
in fish collected during the day than
night.

While, in general, postlarval speci-
mens fed more on the bottom than the
surface, no markedly different patterns
were observed (Fig. 9). However, juve-
nile members of both species exhibited
different feeding tendencies, white crap-
pies fed mostly on the bottom and black
crappies fed on the surface (Fig. 9).

m2 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 41(3-4)

Crappie, Early Postlarvae Late Postlarvae
a vu s |
Rotifera . Bo ONS Rotifera RS O i
COPEPODA Night(NY No 7 TCOPERODA Ne 13
Noauplii a Nouplii i
Calanoida & Calanoida
io)
Cyclopoda M4 Cyclopoda ,
CLADOCERA CLADOCERA F
Bosmina a Bosmina
Diaphanosoma y Diaphanosoma
(0)
Leptodora . Leptodora Re
Simocephalus 4 Simocephalus °
EPHEMEROPTERA EPHEME ROPTERA
Stenonema 4 Stenonema eo
DIPTERA OIPTERA
Chaoborinae 0 Chaoborinae :
N
© 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 © 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 10
Juvenile White Crappie Juvenile Black Crappie
D*28 : DO 15
Rotifera 4 ie Rotifera : ena
COPEPODA at COPEPODA
Nauplil c Nauplil 2
Calanoida 5 Calanoida oe
D
Cyclopoda Cyclopodo me
CLADOCERA CLADOCERA o zi
Bosmina Bosmina Ale
: D D
Diaphanosoma y, Diaphanosoma Sx —
io) o
Leptodora | Leptodora Nm
Dicea >}
Simocephalus — Simocephalus y
EPHEMEROPTERA EPHEMEROPTERA
Stenonema . Stenonema a
DIPTERA L DIPTERA A
Chaoborinae e Chaoborinae ,,
© 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 8) 90 100 © 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
PERCENT FREQUENCY OF OCCURRENCE

Fic. 8. Percentage frequency of larval crappie stomachs that contained food from day and night samples
from Rough River Lake, Kentucky, April through August 1978.

DISCUSSION Wisconsin and South Dakota for the

The spawning period determined for black crappie and white crappie, respec-
crappies in this study, 29 April to 9 July, tively (Pearse 1918, Siefert 1969a). No
was similar to that reported for the white distinction could be made in this study
crappie in Ohio (Morgan 1954), but as between the exact spawning time of the
much as 3 weeks earlier than reported for white or black crappie. Hansen (1951) re-

LARVAL LIFE HISTORY OF CRAPPIES—Overmann et all. 13
Early Postlarvae ([_] = Surface (S) N= 39 Lete Postlarvae So 16
GBs = Bottom (8) N2#I5 Be 14
s s
Rotifera 4g Rotifera :)
COPEPODA 3 COPEPODA
Nauplii 8 Nauplii :
s s
Calanoida g Calanoida ,
s s
Cyclopoda gs Cyclopoda 5
CLADOCERA CLADOCERA
i s s
Bosmina g Bosmina 5
Diaphanosoma § Diaphanosoma®
s s
Leptodora B Leptodora B
Simocephalus . Simocephalus s
EPHE ME ROPTE RA é EPHEMEROPTERA
Stenonema B Stenonema B
DIPTERA DIPTERA
Chaoborinae 5 Chaoborinae “
© 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 © 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 WO
Juvenile White Crapple Juvenile Black Crappie
s = s
Rotifera 4 Pe Rotifera $+ 2
COPE PODA B= 42 COPE PODA Be 29
s
Nauplii B Nauplii 3
Calanoida 5 Calanoida x
s s
Cyclopoda 8 Cyclopoda 8
CLADOCERA A CLADOCERA
Bosmina B Bosmina :
5 Ss : Ss
Diophanosoma,, Diaphanosoma ,,
s s
Leptodora B Leptodora B
, s Ss
Simocephalus, Simocephalus ,
E PHE MEROPTERA

EPHEME ROPTERA A
Stenonema ,

DIPTERA
; s
Chaoborinae B

Oo 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90

PERCENT

DIPTERA

FREQUENCY

s
Stenonema ,

Chaoborinae :
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

OF OCCURRENCE

Fic. 9. Percentage frequency of larval crappie stomachs that contained food from surface and bottom
samples from Rough River Lake, Kentucky, April through August 1978.

ported the 2 species to spawn at about
the same time. Siefert (1968) observed |
instance, for a limited number of individ-
uals, in which spawning time was less
than a month. Peak spawning for the
white crappie was reported to be from
mid to late June (Siefert 1969a).

The first specimens taken in this study
ranged in length from 4.75 to 11 mm total
length. Newly hatched crappies range
from 1.2 to 2.0 mm (Morgan 1954) and
require 2 to 4 days to reach a length of
4.1 to 4.6 mm (Nelson et al. 1967). Based
on those data, the earliest larvae taken in

114 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 41(3-4)

this study were from 2 to 4 days old and
had passed through the prolarval devel-
opmental stage to early postlarvae.

The maximum number of early postlar-
vae observed in this study (30 May to 20
June), was 2 weeks earlier than reported
by Siefert (1969a) in South Dakota. This
would be expected, however, on the ba-
sis of the temperature differences be-
tween the geographic areas.

Developmental stages observed in this
study were similar in most instances but
differed in some respects from those re-
ported by Siefert (1969b) and Morgan
(1954). Both of the above authors report-
ed no yolk present in the 5-mm stage,
similar to that in this study. No fin rays
were present in 5-mm fish in this study,
while Morgan (1954) noted that dorsal
and anal fin rays began to appear at that
length. The retarded developmental rate
of Rough River Lake specimens might
have been the result of different water
temperatures in the respective studies.
Morgan’s (1954) fish were reared in lab-
oratory tanks at 20-23 C, whereas those
in this study came from lake water of 17-
19 C.

Nelson and Cole (1975) reported the
gas bladder to elongate to a point poste-
rior to the gut by 8 mm while that feature
was. not observed in this study until 11
mm.

Dorsal and anal spines were first ob-
served in a 14-mm specimen in this study
while Siefert (1968) reported them in the
black crappie at 11.5 mm and white crap-
pie at 13.5 mm. The complete dorsal
spine complement was first observed in
specimens 20 mm total length in this
study, at which time the black and white
crappies were separable to species.
Hogue et al. (1976) reported species dis-
tinction by this characteristic to occur as
early as 16 mm.

Siefert (1965) observed scale develop-
ment as early as 16-19 mm in white crap-
pie while scales were first noticed in this
study at 21 mm. The appearance of the
earliest scales along the lateral caudal
peduncle was similar between the above
studies and while Siefert (1965) reported

squamation to be completed by 27 mm,
29 mm was observed in this study.

Siefert (1969b) reported larval species
distinction on the basis of total myomere
counts, of or near 30 for white crappies
and of or near 32 for black crappies. That
taxonomic character did not operate in
this study as no differences in total myo-
mere counts between juvenile white and
black crappies were observed.

Postlarval densities in Rough River
Lake indicated the peak spawning period
to be from 28 May to 13 June. Following
June 13, with no further spawn recruit-
ment, the density stabilized at 10 fish/100
m’, possibly representing the standing
crop level the habitat of Rough River
Lake would support.

Maximum densities observed in this
study, 215/100 m?, were much greater
than the 13/100 m? reported by Walker et
al. (1974) for Nickajack Reservoir, Ten-
nessee. That difference possibly was the
function of the difference in lake size,
2,344 ha versus 4,360 for Nickajack, or
the result of different stages in the cy-
cling of crappie populations in the 2
water bodies. Specimen sizes were not
provided in the Walker study.

Greater numbers of crappies being tak-
en in night collections in the latter stages
of this study conformed to the finding of
Pearse (1918) and Morgan (1954) who
suggested that greater feeding activity of
the species in the early evening was re-
sponsible for the increased concentra-
tions.

Surface versus bottom densities and
distribution was attributed to fish size,
being mainly surface inhabitants up to
about 20 mm and moving to deeper water
thereafter. Nelson et al. (1967) reported
white crappies to move from shallow to
deeper areas as size increased. That
deeper movement was most likely relat-
ed to the seeking out of a variety of more
readily available habitats and the acces-
sibility of a greater variety of food
sources.

Very little information regarding growth
of larval fishes is available in current lit-
erature. Siefert (1969a) suggested the cal-

LARVAL LIFE HISTORY OF CRAPPIES—Overmann et al.

culation of growth rates of larval crappies
in Lewis and Clark Lake to be impossible
due to multimodal length frequency dis-
tribution, variations of spawning times in
different areas, movements of fish be-
tween habitats, and gear avoidance. Sie-
fert, however, did give total lengths for
larvae taken from 2 different areas of
Lewis and Clark Lake, which, when com-
pared with lengths of larvae taken on
similar dates in July in this study, aver-
aged 12.6 mm shorter than Rough River
Lake fish. That difference may well have
been the result of spawning differences
in Lewis and Clark Lake as cited above
since Siefert reported 15-16 mm TL lar-
vae as late as 14 August, 3 weeks later
than in this study.

The food habits of Rough River Lake
early postlarvae, with the exception of
large numbers of rotifers, were similar to
those reported for the black crappie by
Barwick (1978) in consisting chiefly of
copepods and the cladoceran Diapha-
nosoma sp. Siefert (1968, 1969a), how-
ever, reported copepod nauplii, Cyclops
sp. and Daphnia sp. as the most frequent
food items in Lewis and Clark postlarvae.
Greater numbers of food organisms pres-
ent in late afternoon and early evening
samples were expected since early eve-
ning was reported to be a peak feeding
time by Pearse (1918) and Morgan (1954).

The shift in the diet of the early to late
postlarvae from smaller to larger organ-
isms was also reported by Siefert (1968,
1969a). Silvells (1949) also reported the
change to larger organisms for the black
crappie.

No differences in food habits between
juvenile crappie were observed in this
study. Pearse (1918) also reported similar
patterns for adult crappies. The utiliza-
tion of a greater variety and number of
prey organisms was related to the greater
mobility and voracity of the larger larvae.
The change from night to day, or late

115

afternoon feeding was related to in-
creased size.

LITERATURE CITED

BARWICK, D. H. 1980. Food of larval black crap-
pies in relation to electrical power generation,
Keowee Reservoir, South Carolina. Proc. Annu.
Conf. Southeast. Ass. Fish Wildl. Agen. 32:485—
489.

HANSEN, D. F. 1951. Biology of the white crappie
in Illinois. Bull. Ill. Nat. Hist. Surv. 25:211-
264.

HOGUuE, J. J.. R. WALLUS, AND L. K. Kay. 1976.
Larval fishes in the Tennessee River. Tenn.
Valley Auth. Tech. Note B19. 67 pp.

May, E. B., AND C. R. GASAwaAy. 1967. A prelim-
inary key to the identification of larval fishes of
Oklahoma, with particular reference to Canton
Reservoir, including a selected bibliography.
Okla. Fish. Res. Lab. Contr. No. 164. 42 pp.

MorGAan, G. D. 1954. The life history of the white
crappie (Pomoxis annularis) of Buckeye Lake.
Ohio J. Sci. 43:113-144.

NELSON, D. D., AND R. A. COLE. 1975. The distri-
bution and abundance of larval fishes along the
western shore of Lake Erie at Monroe, Michi-
gan. Dept. Fish. Wildl., Inst. Water Res., Mich.
St. Univ. Tech. Rept. No. 32.4. 66 pp.

NELSON, W. R., R. E. SIEFERT, AND D. V. SWED-
BERG. 1967. Studies of the early life history of
reservoir fishes. Pp. 374-385. In Reservoir
Fishery Resources Symposium. Amer. Fish.
Soc., Washington, D.C.

PEARSE, A. S. 1918. Habits of the black crappie in
inland lakes of Wisconsin. U.S. Comm. Fish.
Rep. 1918 (App. 3). Bur. Fish. Contr. 867. 16

pp.

SIEFERT, R. E. 1965. Early scale development in
the white crappie. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc.
94(2):186.

. 1968. Reproductive behavior, incubation
and mortality of eggs, and postlarval food se-
lection in the white crappie. Trans. Amer. Fish.
Soc. 97(3):252-259.

. 1969a. Biology of the white crappie in
Lewis and Clark Lake. Tech. Pap. Bur. Sport
Fish. Wild]. 22:1-16.

. 1969b. Characteristics for separation of
white and black crappie larvae. Trans. Amer.
Fish. Soc. 98(2):326-328.

SILVELLS, H. C. 1949. Food studies of black crap-
pie fry. Texas J. Sci. 1(1949):38-40.

WALKER, R. B., C. P. GOODYEAR, AND R. D.
Estes. 1974. Larval fishes of Nickajack Res-
ervoir, Tennessee. Unpublished manuscript,
Tennessee Technological University, Cooke-
ville, Tennessee. 21 pp.

Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 41(3-4), 1980, 116-121

Diurnal Variations in Ichthyoplankton Densities at

Ohio River Mile 571!

AARON L. CLARK? AND WILLIAM D. PEARSON

Water Resources Laboratory, University of Louisville, Louisville, Kentucky 40292

ABSTRACT

Replicate surface and bottom tows were taken every other hour on 30 and 31 May 1977 at
Ohio River Mile 571 to determine diurnal variations in densities of fish eggs and larvae. Fish
eggs and 14 taxa of fish larvae were collected. Most fish eggs were found in daylight (afternoon)
samples while significantly more fish larvae were present in the night samples.

INTRODUCTION

With increased energy requirements,
a concomitant increase in the demand for
cooling water from our rivers is inevita-
ble. Much attention has recently been fo-
cused on identifying and minimizing the
deleterious effects of cooling water with-
drawals on aquatic life and assuring the
integrity of aquatic ecosystems (Saila
1975, Merriman and Thorpe 1976, Van
Winkle 1977, Jensen 1976).

Merriman and Thorpe (1976) conclud-
ed, after a prodigious, 8-year study of the
effect of the Connecticut Yankee nuclear
plant on the biota of the lower Connect-
icut River, that the plant entrained and
killed about 4 percent of the larval fishes
that passed by the plant and that without
further knowledge about natural mortal-
ity rates and carrying capacity of the riv-
er, it was impossible to assess the impact
of the plant on adult fish populations.
However, their overall conclusion was
that the plant appears to have little harm-
ful effect on fish relative to its “ubiqui-
tous benefits.” Water from the Ohio River
is currently used for cooling purposes by
approximately 35 electric power gener-
ating stations. Approximately 21 addi-
tional nuclear or coal-fired electric gen-
erating plants are anticipated in the next
decade. The cumulative effects of such

' This study was supported by a grant from the
Kentucky Institute for Mining and Minerals Re-
search.

> Present address: Woodward-Clyde Consultants,
3489 Kurtz Street, San Diego, California 92110,
USA.

cooling water withdrawals on fish popu-
lations in the Ohio River remains un-
known. However, recent fishery investi-
gations in the McAlpine Pool of the river
above Louisville by the Water Resources
Laboratory at the University of Louis-
ville, reports of successful bass fishing
tournaments on the river between West
Virginia and Ohio, and a series of dem-
onstration reports made by the electric
utilities in compliance with sections 316a
and 316b of Public Law 92-500 (1972
Amendments to the Federal Water Pol-
lution Control Act) have led us to con-
clude that the fish community of the Ohio
River remains a substantial, reproducing,
and valuable resource. Any assessment of
future development on the Ohio River
Basin should consider that resource, and,
as Merriman and Thorpe have pointed
out, adequate impact analysis will re-
quire a better understanding of the dis-
tribution of larval fishes in time and
space, and the relationships between lar-
val fish deaths due to cooling water with-
drawals, natural mortalities, and adult
fish populations.

Although the overall effects of entrain-
ment have not been assessed adequately,
some technology exists for reducing the
entrainment of larval fishes in cooling
water withdrawals. The successful appli-
cation of such technology depends on the
existence of some knowledge of the tem-
poral and spatial distribution of larval
fishes in the vicinity of intake structures.
Chezar (1976) described a multifarious
power plant water intake structure that
could withdraw water at those levels and

116

ICHTHYOPLANKTON IN THE OHIO RIVER—Clark and Pearson

locations where larval fish densities were
lowest. In this report, we describe the
diurnal distribution of ichthyoplankton
along the shoreline of the Ohio River at
Mile 571.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The authors thank Drs. Randall G.
Farmer of AMOCO Chemical Company
and B. Douglas Steele of the West Vir-
ginia Department of Natural Resources
for their assistance in the field and Wood-
ward-Clyde Consultants for aid in defray-
ing production costs of the manuscript.
The study was supported by a grant from
the Kentucky Institute for Mining and
Minerals Research.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The study site was in the upper end of
the McAlpine Pool (Ohio River Mile 571)
between Cincinnati, Ohio, and Louis-
ville, Kentucky, near Bedford, Kentucky
(Fig. 1). The sampling area was 5-15 m
from the Indiana shore and was chosen
because in previous sampling along a
transect across the river at that location
the greatest abundance and species di-
versity of larval fishes was found on the
Indiana side (Clark 1979, unpublished
master’s thesis, University of Louisville,
Louisville, Kentucky). Substrate at the
Indiana shoreline sampling station ranged
from large boulders to large rubble and
cobble, with some interstitial silt and
clay.

Sampling gear consisted of 0.5-m di-
ameter cone-shaped plankton nets con-
structed of 361-4 nylon mesh. A General
Oceanics digital flow meter was mounted
in the mouth of each net. Meter readings
were recorded prior to and immediately
after each tow and the volume of water
filtered through each plankton net was
calculated. The volume of water filtered
varied from 11.5 to 17 m® (mean = 13.3
m’). Samples were preserved in the field
with 10 percent formalin and transported
to the laboratory for analysis.

Sampling began at 0900 hours (EDT)
on 30 May and was terminated after the
0700-hour samples were collected on 31
May 1977. Replicate surface and bottom

LG!

SS 7A

INDIANA KENTUCKY

SAMPLING River Mile 571
SITE

Fic. 1. Location of sampling site at Ohio River

Mile 571.

samples were taken every hour (bihour-
ly). Each sample consisted of a 5-min up-
stream tow from a 5.5-m boat powered by
a 10-hp outboard motor. Towed samples
were taken to reduce net avoidance by
postlarval fishes. The nets were towed
approximately 30 m behind the boat to
minimize the effects of propeller back-
wash. Bottom tows were made 0.5 m
above the bottom with the aid of a 9-kg
weight to prevent the accumulation of
bottom sediments.

RESULTS

Water temperature on 30 and 31 May
1977 was 23.5 C. River discharge in the
McAlpine Pool of the Ohio River on 30
May was 790 m/sec and steady (pers.
comm. Tim Hill, U.S. Geological Survey,
Louisville, Kentucky). The sun set at
2059 hours on 30 May 1977 and rose at
0622 hours on 31 May 1977. Air temper-
ature during the sampling period ranged
from 21 to 33 C. The sky was generally
clear to partly cloudy and no precipita-
tion occurred in the study area. There

118

TABLE 1.—MEAN SURFACE AND BOTTOM DENSITIES

OF FISH EGGS AND DIFFERENT KINDS OF LARVAE

COLLECTED DURING DIURNAL SAMPLING ON 30 AND

31 MAy 1977. EACH VALUE REPRESENTS A MEAN
OF 2 REPLICATE TOWS

Time (hours) Surface Bottom
0900
Fish eggs 116.0 88.5
Clupeidae 21.0 4.0
Cyprinus carpio 11.5 3.0
Aplodinotus grunniens 0 4.0
Centrarchidae 0 3.0
1100
Fish eggs 433.0 89.5
Clupeidae 0) 17.0
Cyprinus carpio 0 8.5
Aplodinotus grunniens 9.0 8.0
1300
Fish eggs 1,667.0 201.0
Clupeidae @) 58.0
Cyprinus carpio 41.5 0
1500
Fish eggs 750.0 1,753.0
Clupeidae 52.0 243.0
1700
Fish eggs 403.5 1,013.0
Cyprinus carpio 8.5 0
Lepomis spp. 7.0 0
1900
Fish eggs 407.5 834.0
Clupeidae 0 101.0
Cyprinus carpio 0 14.5
2100
Fish eggs 674.0 472.0
Clupeidae 0 863.0
Cyprinus carpio 15.0 8.0
Notropis spp. 16.5 0)
Centrarchidae 0 8.0
Micropterus dolomieui 242.5 0
Lepomis spp. 0) 8
Aplodinotus grunniens 0 8
2300
Fish eggs 154.0 453.5
Clupeidae 26.5 1,251.5
Cyprinus carpio 6.5 34.5
Cyprinidae 0) 7.0
Notropis spp. 0 103.5
Aplodinotus grunniens 28.5 90.0
0100
Fish eggs 131.5 187.5
Clupeidae 274.5 903.5
Cyprinus carpio 61.0 13.0
Pimephales spp. 0 18.0
Notropis atherinoides 0 26.0
Lepomis spp. 0 6.5
Etheostoma spp. 0 6.5
Aplodinotus grunniens 126.0 162.5

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 41(3-4)

TABLE 1.—CONTINUED.

Time (hours) Surface Bottom
0300
Fish eggs 198.5 107.0
Clupeidae 408.5 220.0
Ictiobus—Carpiodes Group 33.5 0)
Cyprinidae 13.0 0
Notropis spp. 65.5 40.5
Pimephales spp. 0 17.5
Fundulus spp. 0 1.0
Lepomis spp. 13.0 6.0
Aplodinotus grunniens 67.0 56.5
0500
Fish eggs 209.5 83.0
Clupeidae 533.0 73.0
Cyprinus carpio 19.5 5.5
Notropis spp. 78.0 0
Notropis atherinoides 39.0 0
Stizostedion spp. 0) 5.5
Aplodinotus grunniens 68.5 0
0700
Fish eggs 235.0 72.0
Clupeidae 89.5 97.5
Cyprinus carpio 0 5.0

was a full moon, which rose at 1837 hours
on 30 May and set at 0526 hours on 31
May.

Eggs

Mean surface and bottom densities of
fish eggs collected in each diurnal sam-
ple are shown in Table 1. All samples
contained some fish eggs. For statistical
comparisons, samples that contained fish
eggs and larvae were divided into day
(0700-1900 hours) and night (2100-0500
hours) tows.

Surface densities of fish eggs were low-
er, but not significantly different (P >
0.05), from bottom densities during the
24-hour sampling period according to a
Student’s t-test. The bottom densities ap-
peared to track the surface densities
closely with a 2-hour lag. The maximum
mean diurnal density of fish eggs was in
the 1500-hour bottom tows (1,753 eggs/
100 m*, Fig. 2). No significant difference
(P > 0.05) was found between day and
night densities. However, afternoon and
evening (1100-2100 hours) densities
were significantly higher (P < 0.05) than
during the night and morning (2300-0900

ICHTHYOPLANKTON IN THE OHIO RIVER—Clark and Pearson

1500;
o
a
oO
oO
_
~ 1000—
”
dD)
dD)
LL
[><
5001-
SB
ro} eocoooo 8oeg 8 2
ge3883833e3s
=
Se a Alo 0100
Fic. 2. Variation in mean surface (S) and bottom

(B) densities of fish eggs collected during diurnal
sampling on 30 and 31 May 1977 at Ohio River Mile
571.

hours). There were no significant differ-
ences between day-surface and day-bot-
tom or night-surface and night-bottom
densities of fish eggs (P > 0.05).

Fish Larvae

Relative percentages of the 14 taxa of
larval fishes collected during diurnal
sampling on 20 and 31 May are shown in
Table 2. Each value represents a mean of
2 replicate tows.

Significant differences (P > 0.05) did
not occur between surface and bottom
tow densities for all larval fishes com-
bined. Night densities for all larvae com-
bined were significantly higher (P <
0.05) than day densities according to a
t-test (Fig. 3). Maximum day larval den-
sity (mean of all surface and bottom sam-
ples for each sampling period combined)
occurred at 1500 hours (147.5 larvae/100
m?) while the maximum night density oc-
curred at 0100 hours (798/100 m?°).

Larvae of the family Clupeidae com-

1500;-
Ly
as
ee
a r
HOS
a 4
SE f %
° : \
fe) i ‘
~~ 1000}— i \
we a
< A 4
z : 4
< H 1
=; ’ ry
° i ‘
2 i :
Ix H
500+ i}
a
| a
a
a
a
:
A, a
on ~\ !
of . eo
peer 0”
0300 1100 1300 1500 1700 19004 2100 2300 0100 0300 ate eid
sunrise sunset
Fic. 3. Diurnal variations in mean surface (—) and

bottom (---) densities of all larval fish taxa com-
bined.

prised 75.5 percent of the total diurnal
larval fish catch. Larval clupeids were
collected in each sampling period except
1700 hours (Table 1). Most clupeids
(90%) collected were early postlarvae.
Night densities of larval clupeids were
significantly higher than day densities at
the 0.01 confidence level. A maximum
day density of 243 clupeid larvae/100 m3
occurred at 1500 hours (bottom tows)
while the maximum night density
(1,251.5/100 m*) occurred at 2300 hours
(bottom tows). Although no significant
differences were noted between surface
and bottom clupeid densities, bottom

TABLE 2.—RELATIVE PERCENTAGE OF THE TOTAL

CATCH FOR EACH TAXON OF FISH LARVAE COL-

LECTED DURING DIURNAL SAMPLING ON 30 AND 31
May 1977 AT OHIO RIVER MILE 571

Percentage

Taxa of total catch
Clupeidae 75.5
Ictiobus—Carpiodes Group >1.0
Cyprinidae >1.0
Cyprinus carpio 3.7
Notropis spp. 4.4
Notropis atherinoides 1.0
Pimephales spp. >1.0
Fundulus spp. >1.0
Centrarchidae >1.0
Micropterus dolomieui BUD
Lepomis spp. >1.0
Percidae >1.0
Stizostedion spp. >1.0
Etheostoma spp. >1.0
Sciaenidae 9.0
Aplodinotus grunniens 9.0

120

densities were higher than surface den-
sities in most sampling periods. Mean
night surface density of clupeid larvae
was 27.1 larvae/100 m*, while the mean
night bottom density was 86.8/100 m?.

Larval freshwater drum (Aplodinotus
grunniens) were collected at 0900, 1100,
2100, 2300, 0100, 0300, and 0500 hours
and were the second most abundant lar-
val fish collected, and comprised 9 per-
cent of the total catch (Table 2). Night
densities of drum larvae were signifi-
cantly higher (P < 0.05) than day densi-
ties with peak densities in the 0100-hour
bottom and surface tows (162.5 and 126
larval drum/100 m3, respectively). No sig-
nificant difference (P > 0.05) was found
between surface and bottom densities of
drum larvae. Most drum collected were
early postlarvae.

Larval shiners (Notropis spp.) were
collected exclusively in night tows (Ta-
ble 1). Prolarval Notropis spp. were the
third most abundant larvae collected and
comprised 4.4 percent of the total larval
catch (Table 2). No significant difference
(P > 0.05) occurred between surface and
bottom densities of larval shiners. A max-
imum surface density of 78 shiner larvae/
100 m? occurred at 0500 hours while a
maximum bottom density of 103.5/100 m3
occurred at 2300 hours.

Carp larvae (Cyprinus carpio) were
collected in each bihourly sample except
at 1500 and 0300 hours and comprised 3.7
percent of the total larval fish catch. Peak
abundance of carp larvae occurred in the
0100-hour surface samples (61/100 mm‘).

A single collection of prolarval small-
mouth bass (Micropterus dolomieui) oc-
curred in the 2100-hour surface tows
(242.5 larvae/100 m?), and probably rep-
resent a tow through a school of larvae
that had recently risen from the nest.

DISCUSSION

Variations in densities of fish eggs in-
dicated that most spawning of pelagic
eggs occurred during the afternoon with
peak densities being collected at 1300
and 1500 hours. Densities decreased
steadily from 1700 to 0100 hours, and
were lowest during tows between 0100

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 41(3-4)

and 0900 hours. The density of eggs on
the bottom seemed to lag one sampling
period behind the surface density, per-
haps indicating that some species were
spawning near the surface and their eggs
may have settled slowly toward the bot-
tom.

Wrenn (1976) reported that 90 percent
of all fish larvae entrained by the Colbert
Steam Plant on the Tennessee River
were entrained at night. Clark (unpub-
lished thesis) found that 85 percent of the
fish larvae collected in afternoon and
night samples at Ohio River Mile 571
were collected at night. A remarkably
similar percentage (83%) of the fish lar-
vae entrained at the Beaver Valley Power
Station (Ohio River Mile 34.5) were en-
trained at night (Duquesne Light Com-
pany 1977). The authors suggested that
artificial, bright lights at the entrance to
the intake bays and working lights at the
plant may have attracted the larvae. Sim-
ilar diurnal variations have been ob-
served by Clifford (1972), Potter (1978,
unpublished master’s thesis, Virginia
Polytechnic Institute and State Univer-
sity, Blacksburg, Virginia), Geen et al.
(1966), Knutson (1974), Priegel (1970),
Gale and Mohr (1978), Marcy (1976), and
King (1978). A few other workers have
reported no diurnal variation in larval
fish densities (Cole 1978, Gammon 1977).

Several factors probably influence the
diurnal distribution of fish larvae in the
Ohio River. The effectiveness of our sam-
pling gear probably increased at night
due to reduced net avoidance behavior
by free-swimming larvae. Fore and Bax-
ter (1972) reported net avoidance by lar-
val menhaden as the cause of decreased
daylight catches. Gammon (1977) sug-
gested that the lack of diel variation in
larval fish densities from the Wabash Riv-
er probably was due to the high turbidity,
that presumably reduced the net avoid-
ance response during daylight hours.
Most fish larvae feed initially on zoo-
plankton (Siefert 1972) or other larval
fishes (Clark and Pearson 1979, 1980;
Pearson et al. 1979) and, are, therefore,
sight hunters. Hence, increased night
catches of fish larvae probably were not

ICHTHYOPLANKTON IN THE OHIO RIVER—Clark and Pearson

the results of increased feeding activity,
as occurs in some adult fishes. Increased
nocturnal activity in fish larvae could,
however, be a strategy for reducing pres-
sure from predators, as suggested by Gale
and Mohr (1978). We are currently con-
ducting studies to assess diurnal varia-
tions in predation rates on larval fish to
test that hypothesis.

Our results, taken together with those
of Clark (unpublished thesis), indicate
that a single intake structure at Mile 571,
or at similar sites on the Ohio River,
would entrain the minimum number of
fish eggs and larvae if it were located as
far from the shore as practical, and if
withdrawals of cooling water were made
during daylight (particularly morning)
hours. A multifarious intake structure
probably could be programmed to mini-
mize the entrainment of selected species
if more extensive knowledge of their
temporal and spatial distributions were
obtained over the entire reproductive
season.

LITERATURE CITED

CHEZAR, B. 1976. Multifarious power plant water
intake structure (MWIS). NYSERDA-76/06,
Natl. Tech. Info. Ser. Springfield, Va.

CLARK, A. L., AND W. D. PEARSON. 1979. Early
piscivory in larvae of the freshwater drum,
Aplodinotus grunniens. Pp. 31-60. In R. Wal-
lus and C. W. Voigtlander (Eds.). Proc. of a
Workshop on Freshwater Larval Fish. TVA,
Norris Tenn. 21-22 Feb. 1978.

, AND 1980. Early piscivory in
postlarvae of the white bass. Proc. Annu. Conf.
Southeast. Ass. Fish Wildl. Agen. 32:409-414.

CLIFFORD, H. F. 1972. Downstream movements
of white sucker, Catostomus commersoni, fry
in a brown-water stream of Alberta. J. Fish. Res.
Bd. Can. 29(7):1091-1093.

COLE, R. A. 1978. Larval fish distribution in south-
western Lake Erie near the Monroe power
plant. U.S. EPA, Environ. Res. Lab., Duluth,
Minn. EPA-600/3-78-069.

DUQUESNE LIGHT COMPANY. 1977. Beaver Valley
Power Station Unit No. 1 NPDES Permit No.
PA 0025615. Report of impingement/entrain-
ment monitoring program from 1976.

Fore, P. L., AND K. N. BAXTER. 1972. Diel fluc-
tuations in the catch of larval Gulf menhaden,
Brevoortia patronus, at Galveston Entrance,
Texas. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc. 101(4):729-732.

GALE, W. F., AND H. W. Mour, JR. 1978. Larval
fish drift in a large river with a comparison of

121

sampling methods. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc.
107(1):46-55.

GAMMON, J. R. 1977. Measurement of entrainment
and predictions of impact on the Wabash and
Ohio Rivers. Pp. 159-176. In L. D. Jensen
(Ed.). Third National Workshop on Entrain-
ment and Impingement. Ecological Analysts,
Inc. Melville, New York.

GEEN, G. H., T. G. NORTHCOTE, G. F. HARTMAN,
AND C. C. LINDSEY. 1966. Life histories of two
species of catostomid fishes in Sixteenmile
Lake, British Columbia, with particular refer-
ence to inlet spawning. J. Fish. Res. Bd. Can.
23(11):1761-1788.

JENSEN, L. D. (EbD.). 1976. Third national work-
shop on entrainment and impingement, Section
316(b)—research and compliance. Ecological
Analysts Inc., Melville, New York.

KING, R. G. 1978. Entrainment of Missouri River
fish larvae through Fort Calhoun Station. Pp.
45-46. In L. D. Jensen (Ed.). Fourth National
Workshop on Entrainment and Impingement.
Ecological Analysts, Inc. Melville, New York.

KNUTSON, K. M. 1974. Pumped entrainment of
small fish at the Monticello nuclear generating
plant on the Mississippi River 1973-74. Pp.
209-233. In N.S.P. Annual Rept. on Ecological
Monitoring at the Monticello Nuclear Gener-
ating Installation at Monticello, Minn.

Marcy, B. C. 1976. Planktonic fish eggs and larvae
of the lower Connecticut River and the effects
of the Connecticut Yankee plant including en-
trainment. Pp. 115-139. In D. Merriman and L.
M. Thorpe (Eds.). The Connecticut River Eco-
logical Study. The impact of a nuclear power
plant. Amer. Fish. Soc. Monogr. No. 1:1-252.

MERRIMAN, D., AND L. M. THORPE (EDS.). 1976.
The Connecticut River Ecological Study. The
impact of a nuclear power plant. Amer. Fish.
Soc. Monogr. No. 1:1—252.

PEARSON, W. D., G. A. THOMAS, AND A. L.
CLARK. 1979. Early piscivory and timing of the
critical period in postlarvae of the longnose gar
at Mile 571 of the Ohio River. Trans. Ky. Acad.
Sci. 40(3-4): 122-128.

PRIEGEL, G. R. 1970. Food of the white bass, Roc-
cus chrysops, in Lake Winnebago, Wisconsin.
Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc. 99(2):440-443.

SAILA, S. B. (ED.). 1975. Fisheries and Energy Pro-
duction: a Symposium. D. C. Heath and Co.,
Lexington, Mass.

SIEFERT, R. E. 1972. First food of larval yellow
perch, white sucker, bluegill, emerald shiner,
and rainbow smelt. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc.
101(2):219-225.

VAN WINKLE, W. (ED.). 1977. Conference on as-
sessing the effects of power-plant-induced mor-
tality on fish populations. CONF-770501, Per-
gamon Press, Elmsford, N.Y.

WRENN, W. D. 1976. Preliminary assessment of
larval fish entrainment, Colbert Steam Plant,
Tennessee River. Thermal Ecology I], ERDS
Symposium Series 40.

Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 41(3-4), 1980, 122

Occurrence of Bothriocephalus texomensis Self, 1954
(Pseudophyllidea) in Goldeye of Kentucky

RICHARD L. BUCKNER

Division of Natural Sciences and Mathematics, Livingston University,
Livingston, Alabama 35470

ABSTRACT
Bothriocephalus texomensis Self, 1954 was recovered from Hiodon alosoides taken from the
Ohio River near Henderson, Kentucky. This is the first report of B. texomensis outside Oklahoma
and the first report of parasites of H. alosoides from Kentucky.

The goldeye Hiodon alosoides can be
found in large bodies of water throughout
the Mississippi River drainage and into
the Hudson Bay drainage of Canada. In
Kentucky, it occurs in the Ohio River and
its larger tributaries (Clay 1975). In spite
of the widespread distribution of H. alo-
soides, there are only a few scattered re-
ports of its parasites (Cooper 1917, 1918;
Wardle 1932; Self 1954; Margolis 1964;
Sutherland and Holloway 1979). The
present report provides additional infor-
mation on the distribution of parasites of
H. alosoides.

During June 1977, 2 goldeyes were
collected by hook and line from the Ohio
River near Henderson, Henderson Coun-
ty, Kentucky. Those fish were made
available to the author for parasitological
examination. The fish had been held on
ice for at least 24 hours prior to exami-
nation. Necropsy revealed cestodes in
the intestines of both fish, 2 in the first
and 7 in the second. Because of the span
of time before removal of worms, accu-
rate determination of their sites of attach-
ment was not possible. No other hel-
minths were recovered. The worms were
relaxed in tapwater overnight then fixed
in hot AFA and stained with Delafield’s
hematoxylin. Specimens were identified
as Bothriocephalus texomensis and were
in close morphometric agreement with
the original description (Self 1954). Sev-
eral specimens possessed gravid proglot-

tids. However, because of fragmentation,
the reproductive maturity of some spec-
imens could not be ascertained. This is
the first report of B. texomensis outside
Oklahoma and the first report of parasites
of H. alosoides from the Ohio River, Ken-
tucky. Specimens have been deposited in
the University of Nebraska State Mu-
seum HWML No. 20996.

The author gratefully acknowledges
the assistance of Dr. Daniel R. Brooks,
Office of Animal Pathology, National
Zoological Park, Smithsonian Institution,
who identified the cestodes.

LITERATURE CITED

CLay, W. M. 1975. The fishes of Kentucky. Ky.
Dept. Fish Wildl. Res., Frankfort, Ky. 416 pp.

Cooper, A. R. 1917. A morphological study of
bothriocephalid cestodes from fishes. J. Para-
sitol. 4:33-39.

. 1918. North American pseudophyllidean
cestodes from fishes. Ill. Biol. Monogr. No. 4:1-
243,

MARGOLIS, L. 1964. Paurorhynchus hiodontis
Dickerman, 1954 (Trematoda: Bucephalidae):
a second record involving a new host and lo-
cality in Canada. Can. J. Zool. 42:716.

SELF, J. T. 1954. Parasites of the goldeye, Hiodon
alosoides (Raf.) in Lake Texoma. J. Parasitol.
40:386-389.

SUTHERLAND, D. R., AND H. L. HOLLOWAY, JR.
1979. Parasites of fish from the Missouri,
James, Cheyenne, and Wild Rice rivers in
North Dakota. Proc. Helminthol. Soc. Wash.
46: 128-134.

WARDLE, R. A. 1932. The cestodes of Canadian
fishes. I. The Hudson Bay drainage system.
Contrib. Can. Biol. Fish. n.s. 7:379-403.

122

Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 41(3-4), 1980, 123-125

The Occurrence of the Banded Pygmy Sunfish in the
Green River Drainage of Kentucky

MELVIN L. WARREN, JR.
Kentucky Nature Preserves Commission, Frankfort, Kentucky 40601

ABSTRACT
The discovery of an apparent relict population of the banded pygmy sunfish Elassoma zonatum
is reported from the Cypress Creek drainage, Muhlenberg County, Kentucky (Green River Sys-
tem). This constitutes a range extension of approximately 160 km east in Kentucky. A description
of the area demonstrates the close association of the banded pigmy sunfish with cypress swamps.

INTRODUCTION

In conjunction with the preparation of
an environmental statement pertaining to
a channel modification project in the Cy-
press Creek watershed (Green River
drainage) of Muhlenberg County, Ken-
tucky, several collections of fishes re-
vealed an apparent relict population of
the banded pygmy sunfish Elassoma
zonatum. The synoptic geographic range
of this species extends from the Atlantic
Coastal Plain of North Carolina south to
Florida, across the Gulf Coastal Plain to
eastern Texas and northward to southern
Illinois (Clay 1975, Pflieger 1975, Eddy
and Underhill 1978, Smith 1979). The
species has long been known from south-
ern Illinois (Jordan and Evermann 1896)
with extirpated populations in the Lower
Wabash River valley representing the
northern limits of distribution (Smith
1979). At present, the species is unknown
from adjacent drainages in southwestern
Indiana, although Gerking (1945) regard-
ed its occurrence in that area as probable.
In Kentucky, this diminutive sunfish has
been reported from the extreme western
portions of the state in the Gulf Coastal
Plain Province (Sisk 1969, Smith and Sisk
1969, Clay 1975, Webb and Sisk 1975).

A detailed study of the life history and
habitat preference of the species in a
Louisiana bayou was presented by Bar-
ney and Anson (1920). They reported that
the species was generally associated with
dense beds of submerged aquatic vege-
tation and a thick surface mat of Lemna
sp., Wolffia sp., or Spirodela sp. in bayou
areas with little or no flow. Gunning and

Lewis (1955) reported similar observa-
tions on a population of banded pygmy
sunfish in a southern Illinois spring-fed
swamp.

Due to the proposed rechanneling of
extended segments of the Cypress Creek
watershed and the extensive areawide
surface mining activities with concomi-
tant impacts to surrounding wetlands, the
documentation of this apparent relict
population of Elassoma zonatum is
deemed appropriate along with a brief
description of the study area, species as-
sociates, and notes on habitat.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Appreciation is extended to David Bell
and Ray Smith of the Kentucky Depart-
ment of Fish and Wildlife Resources and
the staff of Kentucky Nature Preserves
Commission for their assistance in the
field and identification of plants. In ad-
dition, I gratefully acknowledge the en-
couragement of Donald F. Harker, Jr.,
Director of the Kentucky Nature Pre-
serves Commission, and of Drs. Robert
Kuehne and Branley Branson to publish
the data.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The fieldwork for this study was per-
formed on 6-8 November 1978. The col-
lections were made with a 1.8 x 3.0-m
0.032-m-square mesh nylon seine. One
collection was made utilizing sodium cy-
anide as outlined by Tatum (1968). Rep-
resentatives of all species were fixed in
10 percent formalin and later preserved
in 35-40 percent isopropanol. The no-

123

124

menclature used conforms to that of Bai-
ley et al. (1970). Voucher specimens were
deposited at the Kentucky Nature Pre-
serves Commission in Frankfort, Ken-
tucky, and Eastern Kentucky University,
Richmond, Kentucky.

THE STUDY AREA

Cypress Creek originates approximate-
ly 6.7 km northwest of Greenville, Muhl-
enberg County, Kentucky, and flows in a
northerly direction for 52 km before join-
ing the Pond River 1.7 km south of the
confluence of the Pond and Green rivers.
The only major tributary in the wa-
tershed is Little Cypress Creek which
originates 6.7 km north of Greenville,
Kentucky, and flows 15 km in a northerly
direction before joining Big Cypress
Creek 5 km northwest of Central City,
Kentucky. Approximately 35 percent of
Cypress Creek and 44 percent of Little
Cypress Creek had been channelized
previously. According to local residents,
the original channelization project was
conducted about 1920. During the pres-
ent study, the stream banks were densely
vegetated and in several areas the adja-
cent floodplain retained characteristics of
the original wetland community. Addi-
tional impacts on the watershed included
a waste water disposal plant on Little
Cypress Creek and extensive surface
mining activity in the headwaters of Cy-
press Creek. The area studied included
stream segments from west of Central
City to immediately south of the Mc-
Lean—Muhlenberg County line.

Station 1

Station 1 was in a cattail marsh 4.2 km
northwest of Central City, off Clarks
Road. The main channel of Little Cy-
press Creek lies immediately south of the
marsh. The area is characterized by
dense stands of cattails Typha sp., spike
rush Eleocharis spp., and cutgrass Leer-
sia oryzoides (L.) Sw. interspersed among
open water areas that support floating
mats of duckweed Lemna sp. and Chara
sp. beds. The substrate was generally

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 41(3-4)

composed of silt and muck covered with
thick layers of decaying plant matter,
logs, and stumps. The depth varied from
0.15 m in the larger open areas to 1.3 m
in smaller pockets and narrow channels
scattered within the marsh. Flow was
negligible in all areas.

Collecting efforts at Station 1 yielded
2 specimens of Elassoma zonatum. They
were taken from the edge of a deep (1.3-
m) pool near dense stands of Typha sp.
and floating mats of duckweed. Other
species associated with the deeper pools
and channels were the grass pickerel
Esox americanus vermiculatus, bowfin
Amia calva, lake chubsucker Erimyzon
sucetta, warmouth Lepomis gulosus,
bluegill L. macrochirus, and mosquito-
fish Gambusia affinis. The mosquitofish
was particularly abundant, especially in
open, shallow water areas.

Station 2

Station 2 was 6.7 km west-northwest of
Central City, immediately south of the
state Highway 81 bridge. The collection
was taken from the old channelized
mainstem of Cypress Creek. Numerous
breaks in the spoil banks allow consid-
erable exchange of water between Cy-
press Creek and the adjacent swamp
areas. Beaver dams, log jams, and accu-
mulations of leaf litter and other plant
matter in the channel have created a se-
ries of pools that range from 0.45 to 2 m
in depth. The channel width is a rela-
tively uniform 8 m. Little aquatic vege-
tation was established in the main chan-
nel although overhanging riparian
vegetation and roots of trees provided
cover at the edge of the stream.

This site was sampled utilizing sodium
cyanide; thus close association of one
species with another was difficult to as-
certain. One specimen of Elassoma zo-
natum was taken along with individuals
of ribbon shiner Notropis fumeus, slough
darter Etheostoma gracile, warmouth,
longear sunfish Lepomis megalotis, blue-
gill, and black crappie Pomoxis nigro-
maculatus. Juvenile sunfishes were the
most abundant group at that station.

BANDED PIGMY SUNFISH IN KENTUCKY—Warren

Station 3

Station 3 was 0.5 km south of the state
Highway 81 bridge in a small unnamed
tributary that drains a cypress swamp and
enters Cypress Creek from the east. Sev-
eral small, low beaver dams created a se-
ries of pools, and associated vegetation
included bald cypress Taxodium disti-
chum (L.) Richard, Chara sp., Potamo-
geton sp., burreed Sparganium sp., cat-
tail, spike rush, and dense mats of
duckweed. The substrate in the pools
consisted of muck (to 0.45 m) covered
with thick layers of decaying plant ma-
terial. Numerous sticks and logs were
also present. The pools were approxi-
mately 0.6 m deep and 3 m wide with
minimal flow and represented the only
significant open water within the cypress
swamp. Although the surrounding areas
were extremely wet, there were few
pools of a size or depth capable of sup-
porting fish.

Seining yielded 2 specimens of Elas-
soma zonatum from the pools and other
associates were the grass pickerel, mos-
quitofish, warmouth, green sunfish L. cy-
anellus, lake chubsucker, and pirate
perch Aphredoderus sayanus. The mos-
quitofish and the grass pickerel were no-
ticeably abundant. The low water con-
dition facilitated seining conditions by
concentrating fishes in the small pools.

The occurrence of Elassoma zonatum
in the Cypress Creek drainage consti-
tutes a new record for the Green River
system and extends the reported range of
the species in Kentucky approximately
160 km east. Its presence in this remnant
swampy area is not surprising in light of
its reported habitat preference. It is of in-
terest to note that Braun (1943) reported
the bald cypress in river swamps and
sloughs as far east in Kentucky as the Cy-
press Creek area. The distribution of
Elassoma zonatum closely parallels that
of bald cypress, especially at the periph-
ery of the range of the latter. This sug-
gests that appropriate habitats for Elas-
soma zonatum were once present over
the western third of Kentucky. The ap-

125

parent absence of the species in the
Tradewater and Cumberland river drain-
ages to the immediate west may in part
reflect a dearth of systematic surveys in
those drainages. An alternate explanation
for its absence may be the drainage of
wetlands in recent times. It is felt that
further collections in similar habitats in
the western third of the state may reveal
new populations of Elassoma zonatum as
well as other species currently associated
with the Gulf Coastal Plain Province.

LITERATURE CITED

BAILEY, R. M., J. E. FIrcH, E. S. HERALD, E. A.
LACHNER, C. C. LINDSEY, C. R. ROBINS, AND
W. B. Scotr. 1970. A list of common and sci-
entific names of fishes from the United States
and Canada. 3rd ed. Amer. Fish. Soc. Spec.
Publ. No. 6.

BARNEY, R. L., AND B. J. ANSON. 1920. Life history
and ecology of the pygmy sunfish, Elassoma
zonatum. Ecology 1(4):241-256.

BRAUN, E. L. 1943. An annotated catalog of sper-
matophytes of Kentucky. Jonathan Swift Co.,
Cincinnati, O.

Ciay, W. M. 1975. The fishes of Kentucky. Ky.
Dept. Fish Wildl. Res., Frankfort, Ky.

Eppy, S. E., AND J. C. UNDERHILL. 1978. How to
know the freshwater fishes. 3rd ed. Wm. C.
Brown Co., Dubuque, Ia.

GERKING, S. D. 1945. Distribution of the fishes of
Indiana. Invest. Indiana Lakes Streams 3(1):1-
MB

GUNNING, G. E., AND W. M. Lewis. 1955. The fish
population of a spring-fed swamp in the Mis-
sissippi bottoms of southern Illinois. Ecology
36(4):552-558.

JORDAN, D. S., AND B. W. EVERMANN. 1896. The
fishes of North and Middle America. U.S. Natl.
Mus. Bull. 47(1):1-1240.

PFLIEGER, W. L. 1975. The fishes of Missouri. Mo.
Dept. Cons., Jefferson City, Mo.

Sisk, M. E. 1969. The fishes of west Kentucky. I.
Fishes of Clark’s River. Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci.
30(3-4):54-59.

SMITH, P. L., AND M. E. Sisk. 1969. The fishes of
west Kentucky. II. The fishes of Obion Creek.
Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci. 30(3-4):60-68.

SMITH, P. W. 1979. The fishes of Illinois. Univ. III.
Press; Urbana, III.

Tatum, W. R. 1968. Field observations on the use
of sodium cyanide in stream surveys. 22nd
Annu. Meet. Sou. Div. Amer. Fish. Soc., Bal-
timore, Md.

WEBB, D. H., AND M. E. Sisk. 1975. The fishes of
west Kentucky. III. The fishes of Bayou de
Chien. Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci. 36(3-4):63-70.

Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 41(3-4), 1980, 126-131

Freshwater Chlorophycean Genera of the Southeastern
United States. I. Introduction and Volvocales
(Polyblepharidaceae)'

GaRY E. DILLARD

Department of Biology, Western Kentucky University, Bowling Green, Kentucky 42101

ABSTRACT

This is the first in a series of papers intended to constitute a synopsis of the genera of freshwater
Chlorophyceae known to occur in the southeastern United States. Included are keys, descrip-
tions, figure citations, and distributional data, by state, for 10 genera of volvocalean algae of the
Polyblepharidaceae: Pedinomonas Korshikov, Polyblepharides Dangeard, Heteromastix Kor-
shikov, Mesostigma Lauterborn, Scourfieldia G. West, Dunaliella Teodoresco, Spermatozopsis
Korshikov, Pyramimonas Schmarda, Collodictyon Carter, and Polytomella Aragao.

INTRODUCTION

Our knowledge of the freshwater algal
flora of the Southeast, herein considered
as being comprised of the states of Ala-
bama (AL), Florida (FL), Georgia (GA),
Kentucky (KY), Louisiana (LA), Missis-
sippi (MS), North Carolina (NC), South
Carolina (SC), Tennessee (TN), Virginia
(VA), and West Virginia (WV), is rather
extensive though the information is
widely scattered in the literature and has
never been organized systematically.
Since Silva’s (1948) review of phycolog-
ical research in the Southeast, a great
deal of additional work has been pub-
lished (Dillard 1976).

In addition to providing keys, figure
citations, descriptions, and distributional
data by state, I have included “support-
ive’ literature citations for each genus.
The latter are by no means considered
complete; rather, they are intended to
provide a lead for those interested in a
more complete survey of the literature
pertinent to each genus. In regard to dis-
tributional data, individual papers are cit-
ed in the text except for reports in papers
previously catalogued for North Carolina
by Whitford and Schumacher (1969,
1973) and for Tennessee by Forest
(1954a). In addition, some Kentucky re-

' Supported, in part, by grants from the Faculty
Research Committee, Western Kentucky Universi-
ty.

1

ports herein cited as “Dillard 1974,” ap-
peared originally in unpublished theses
and dissertations catalogued and com-
pletely cited in “An Annotated Catalog of
Kentucky Algae” (Dillard 1974).

ALGAL CLASSIFICATION

It must be recognized that the assem-
blage of organisms classically referred to
collectively as “algae” is, in fact, a phy-
logenetically heterogeneous group. Re-
vised systems of classification for those
organisms appear frequently. It is not my
objective to present detailed discussion
of the bases for definition of the major
algal groups. The most inclusive nomen-
clatural unit employed herein is the
class. The number of classes recognized
has changed considerably in recent years
(Table 1). The supposed interrelation-
ships among the various classes are not
reflected in the use of phyletic terms
such as “Chlorophyta” or “Xanthophyta”’
in the present treatment.

THE CLASS CHLOROPHYCEAE

The concept of the class Chlorophy-
ceae (Table 1) has changed in recent
years with the recognition of an addition-
al class, the Prasinophyceae (Chadefaud
1960), distinguished primarily by the
presence of minute scales on the flagellar
surface. For a more detailed characteriza-
tion of the prasinophytes, refer to Peterfi
and Manton (1968), Boney (1970), and
Round (1971). An additional segregate,

6

ALGAE OF SOUTHEASTERN UNITED STATES—Dillard

127

TABLE 1.—COMPARATIVE SYSTEMS FOR CLASSES OF ALGAE

Smith 1950! Christensen 1962 Current composite
1. Cyanophyceae 1. Cyanophyceae 1. Cyanophyceae
(Myxophyceae)
2. Chlorophyceae ............... Fen eans 2. Chlorophyceae ......... Aan 2. Chlorophyceae
3. Loxophyceae? i
AMPS mophyceaee 3. Prasinophyceae
3. Charophyceae 4, Charophyceae
4. Euglenophyceae 5. Euglenophyceae 5. Euglenophyceae
5. Chrysophyceae ............... Posetads 6. Chrysophyceae 6. Chrysophyceae
7. Haptophyceae‘® 7. Prymnesiophyceae®
6. Bacillariophyceae 8. Bacillariophyceae 8. Bacillariophyceae
7. Xanthophyceae 9. Xanthophyceae ......... aati e 9. Xanthophyceae
10. Eustigmatophyceae®
8. Rhodophyceae 10. Rhodophyceae 11. Rhodophyceae
9. Cryptophyceae 11. Cryptophyceae 12. Cryptophyceae
10. Dinophyceae 12. Dinophyceae 13. Dinophyceae
11. Phaeophyceae 13. Phaeophyceae 14. Phaeophyceae
12. Chloromonadales 14. Raphidophyceae‘ 15. Raphidophyceae
(Chloromonadophyceae) 15. Craspedophyceae® 16. Craspedophyceae

1 Based largely on Pascher 1931; 3° Christensen 1962; » Chadefaud 1950, 1960; “ Hibberd 1976; * Hibberd and Leedale 1970, 1972;

f Chadefaud 1960; * Choanoflagellates of some authors.

the Loxophyceae, was proposed by
Christensen (1962) but, because the taxo-
nomic position of those uniflagellated
forms is presently unclear, they are most
frequently included in the Prasinophy-
ceae (as in Parke and Dixon 1968).

An additional proposal to alter the tra-
ditional concept of the Class Chlorophy-
ceae was that of Round (1963, 1971).
Round, in a system not widely adopted,
proposed the classes Zygnemaphyceae
(Zygnematales/Conjugales), Oedogonio-
phyceae (Oedogoniales), Bryopsidophy-
ceae (Siphonales, Sphaeropleales, and
Cladophorales), and Chlorophyceae (Vol-
vocales, Tetrasporales, Microsporales,
Cylindrocapsales, Ulotrichales, Chae-
tophorales, Chlorococcales, and Ulvales).

The system of classification used in the
present treatment is essentially that of
Prescott (1962). Although Prescott’s sys-
tem, based largely on Pascher (1931) and
subsequently employed by Smith (1950),
has been changed in light of phycological
research during the past decade, it has
been retained primarily due to wide-
spread familiarity with it. Alternative sys-
tems include those of Chadefaud (1960),
Christensen (1962), Bourrelly (1966,
1968, 1970) and Fott (1971).

Order Volwvocales

Representatives of this order are char-
acterized by having motile vegetative as
well as reproductive cells. The flagella,
with the exception of 1 uniflagellated ge-
nus (Pedinomonas), vary in number from
2 to 8 per cell. Most cells have a conspic-
uous eyespot and | or 2 contractile vac-
uoles. The chloroplast usually is cup-
shaped and parietal in position with one
or more pyrenoids. Asexual reproduction
is accomplished by vegetative cell divi-
sion and zoospore formation. Sexual re-
production ranges from isogamy to oog-
amy among the more advanced colonial
forms.

Key to the Families of Volvocales
1. Plant unicellular, lacking a cell

Wialllivieiacoiss POLYBLEPHARIDACEAE
1. Plant unicellular or colonial, cell

sveulllsta eS eta ae ee se ee ee eC 2
2. Plant-colonialieeet sa ena 3
Qe Plantiunicelillare 8 eer eee 4
3. Cells in hollow colonies or flat

plates; mucilage sheath present __-
i REN Het er ene meme ole oe VOLVOCACEAE

3. Cells closely arranged in tiers of 4;
mucilage sheath absent
Ae a i Pewee SPONDYLOMORACEAE

128

4. Cell wall 2-parted; cells enclosed

insael Onical bean: PHACOTACEAE
4. Cell wall not 2-parted; cells not
enclosedsincatloncae a = eens 5

5. Protoplast obviously separated
from cell wall to which it is con-
nected by radiating cytoplasmic
Strands maie steal HAEMATOCOCCACEAE

5. Protoplast not as above

CHLAMYDOMONADACEAE

Family POLYBLEPHARIDACEAE

The genera assigned to the Poly-
blepharidaceae are unicellular and lack
cellulose cell walls; however, the periph-
eral portion of the protoplast is sufficient-
ly rigid to provide a characteristic shape.
The number of flagella per cell ranges
from | (Pedinomonas) up to 8 (Polybleph-
arides). The chloroplast, lacking in col-
orless forms, usually is cup-shaped and
has a single pyrenoid. An eyespot and 1
or more contractile vacuoles usually are
present.

Ten genera are known for the South-
east; an additional genus that may be ex-
pected is the halophile, Asteromonas
Artari em. Peterfi & Manton (? =
Stephanoptera Dangeard; see Peterfi and
Manton 1968). For descriptions of Aster-
omonds and additional genera, see Smith
(1950), Huber-Pestalozzi (1961) and
Bourrelly (1966).

Key To The Genera of
POLYBLEPHARIDACEAE
1. Cell with 1 flagellum___ Pedinomonas
aCellawath) 2.torS tlacel lars skeen 2)
2. Cell with 8 (rarely 5-6) flagella ___
Be nee 0, EUR | Polyblepharides

2erCellewith2tor4 fagelllawss sae, 3
Sen Celliwaith)2 flagellar. sane te 4
on Gelliswithe4lacellaws es ie fl
4. Flagella unequal in length
Li a em __._ Heteromastix
4. Blagelilaequal in lensth 2... 2a 5
5. Flagella laterally inserted _______
ip ke Shel Oho 1 Mesostigma
d. Flagella apically inserted ____....___ 6
6. Cell compressed - _Scourfieldia
6. Cell not compressed _____ Dunaliella
7. Cell with chlorophyll ibaa Be 8
7. Cell without chlorophyll... so)

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 41(3-4)

8. Cell curved, spindle-shaped _____
eee ess PY ee eh an ae Spermatozopsis

8. Cell not curved, anterior end with
4 rounded lobes Pyramimonas

9. Posterior end of cell forked
ese Tak ts eee I Collodictyon

9. Posterior end of cell not forked ____
SIV toe aT ea Polytomella

Pedinomonas Korshikov, 1923, Arch.
Russes Protist., 2.

Cell uniformly or asymmetrically ovoid
in broad side view, with 1 flagellum, 1
contractile vacuole, and eyespot; chloro-
plast cup-shaped, with a pyrenoid. Fig-
ure: Smith 1950, Fig. 11. Literature:
Manton and Parke 1960; Ett] and Manton
1964; Ett] 1966, 1967. Distribution: FL—
Lackey and Lackey 1967; TN—Lackey
1942, 1958; Forest 1954a.

Polyblepharides Dangeard, 1888, Ann.
Sci Native

Cell ovoid to cylindrical, with 8 (rarely
5-6) flagella, 2-4 contractile vacuoles, an
eyespot; chloroplast cup-shaped, usually
with a pyrenoid. Figure: Smith 1950, Fig.
18. Literature: Gerloff 1962. Distribu-
tion: NC—Whitford and Schumacher
1969, 1973.

Heteromastix Korshikov, 1923, Arch.
Russes Protist., 2.

Cell compressed, with 2 flagella, 1 con-
tractile vacuole, with or without an eye-
spot; chloroplast cup-shaped, with a py-
renoid. Figure: Smith 1950, Fig. 14.
Literature: Manton et al. 1965. Distribu-
tion: FL—Lackey and Lackey 1967; KY—
Brinley and Katzin 1942; TN—Lackey
1942, 1958; Forest 1954a; VA—Forest
1954b.

Mesostigma Lauterborn, 1894, Biol. Cen-
tralbl., 14.

Cell markedly compressed, with 2 fla-
gella; 2-several contractile vacuoles,
with or without an eyespot; chloroplast
cup-shaped, with or without a pyrenoid.
Figure: Smith 1950, Fig. 23. Literature:
Manton and Ettl 1965. Distribution:
FL—Lackey and Lackey 1967; KY—Brin-
ley and Katzin 1942; TN—Lackey 1958;
Wilde et al. 1977.

ALGAE OF SOUTHEASTERN UNITED STATES—Dillard

Scourfieldia G. West, 1912, J. Bot., 50.
(=Cardiomonas Korshikov, 1916, J. Mi-
crobiol., Petrograd, 3; non Cardiomonas
Schiller, 1954, Arch. f. Protist., 100).

Cell compressed, ellipsoid, cordiform,
narrowly pyriform, or rectangular, with 2
flagella, 2 contractile vacuoles, with or
without an eyespot; chloroplast cup-
shaped, with an inconspicuous pyrenoid.
Figure: Bourelly 1966, Pl. 2, Fig. 6. Lit-
erature: Belcher and Swale 1963; Peterfi
and Manton 1968; Manton 1975. Distri-
bution: FL—Lackey and Lackey 1967;
GA, SC—Patrick et al. 1966; LA—Bam-
forth 1963.

Dunaliella Teodoresco, 1905, Beih. Bot.
Centralbl., 18.

Cell ovoid to narrowly pyriform, with
2 flagella, 2 contractile vacuoles, with or
without an eyespot; chloroplast variable,
more or less cup-shaped, with or without
a pyrenoid. Figure: Smith 1950, Fig. 13.
Literature: Ett] 1958; Peterfi and Manton
1968; Dillard and Tindall 1973; Eyden
1975. Distribution: FL—Lackey and
Lackey 1967.

Spermatozopsis Korshikov, 1913, Ber.
Deutsch. Bot. Gesell., 31.

Cell spindle-shaped, with 4 flagella, 2
contractile vacuoles, an eyespot; chloro-
plast laminate and parietal, without a py-
renoid. Figure: Smith 1950, Fig. 16. Lit-
erature: Manton 1965; Peterfi and Manton
1968. Distribution: FL—Lackey and
Lackey 1967; KY—Brinley and Katzin
1942; TN—Lackey 1958.

Pyramimonas Schmarda, 1850, Denskchr.
Akad. Wiss., Wien, 1. (=““Pyramidomon-
AS),

Cell obovoid, anterior end 4-lobed,
with 4 flagella, 2 contractile vacuoles,
with or without an eyespot; chloroplast
cup-shaped with 4 anterior lobes, with a
pyrenoid. Figure: Smith 1950, Fig. 15.
Literature: Manton et al. 1963; Swale and
Belcher 1968. Distribution: FL—Lackey
and Lackey 1967; LA—Bamforth 1963;
NC—Whitford and Schumacher 1973;
TN—Lackey 1942, 1958; Forest 1954a.

Collodictyon Carter, 1865, Ann. Mag.
Nat. Hist., III, 15.

129

Cell more or less ovoid, occasionally
pseudopodial, posterior end usually 2-3-
lobed, with 4 flagella, 2-3 contractile vac-
uoles, without an eyespot; chloroplast
lacking. Figure: Bourrelly 1966, Pl. 1,
Fig. 5. Literature: Smith 1950. Distribu-
tion: FL—Lackey and Lackey 1967;
LA—Bamforth 1963; TN—Lackey 1942,
1958; Forest 1954a.

Polytomella Aragao, 1910, Mem. Inst.
Oswaldo Cruz (Rio de Janeiro), 2.

Cell pyriform to ovoid, somewhat met-
abolic, with 4 flagella, 2 contractile vac-
uoles, with or without an eyespot; chlo-
roplast lacking. Figure: Smith 1950, Fig.
17. Literature: Pringsheim 1955; Moore
et al. 1970; Lewis et al. 1974. Distribu-
tion: GA, SC—Patrick 1961.

LITERATURE CITED

BAMFORTH, S. S. 1963. Limnetic protozoa of south-
eastern Louisiana. Proc. La. Acad. Sci. 26:120—
134.

BELCHER, J. H., AND E. M. F. SWALE. 1963. Some
new and uncommon British Volvocales, II. Br.
Phycol. Bull. 2:210-218.

Boney, A. D. 1970. Scale-bearing phytoflagellates:
an interim review. Oceanogr. Mar. Biol. Ann.
Rev. 8:251-305.

BOURRELLY, P. 1966. Les Algues D’eau Douce,
Tome I: Les Algues Vertes. Ed. N. Boubee &
Cie, Paris, France.

——. 1968. Les Algues D’eau Douce, Tome II:
Les Algues Jaunes et Brunes. Ed. N. Boubee
& Cie, Paris, France.

. 1970. Les Algues D’eau Douce, Tome
III: Les Algues Bleues et Rouges. Ed. N. Bou-
bee & Cie, Paris, France.

BRINLEY, F. J., AND L. J. KATZIN. 1942. Distribu-
tion of stream plankton in the Ohio River Sys-
tem. Amer. Midl. Nat. 27:177-182.

CHADEFAUD, M. 1950. Les cellules nageuses des
Algues dans l’embranchement des Chlorophy-
cees. C. R. Acad. Sci. Paris 231:988-990.

1960. Les vegetaux non vascularies
(Cryptogamie). In M. Chadefaud and L. Em-
berger, Traite de Botanique Systematique,
Tome I. Maisson, Paris, France.

CHRISTENSEN, T. 1962. Alger. In T. Bocher, M.
Lange, and T. Sorensen, Botanik. Systematisk
Botanik 2:1-178.

DILLARD, G. E. 1974. An annotated catalog of Ken-
tucky Algae. Ogden College, W. Ky. Univ.,
Bowling Green, Ky.

. 1976. A bibliography of freshwater phy-
cological research in the southeastern United
States. In B. C. Parker and M. K. Roane (Eds.).
The Distributional History of the Biota of the

130 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 41(3-4)

Southern Appalachians, Part IV: Algae and
Fungi. Univ. Press Va., Charlottesville, Va.

, AND D. R. TINDALL. 1973. Notes on the
algal flora of Illinois, III. Additions to the Chlo-
rophyceae. Ohio J. Sci. 73:229-233.

Ertr.L, H. 1958. Zur Kenntnis der Klasse Volvo-
phyceae. In Komarek, J. and H. Ettl, Algolo-
gische Studien. Nakl. Ceskosl. Akad. Ved, Pra-
ha.

1966. Pedinomonadineae, eine Gruppe
kleiner asymmetrischer Flagellaten der Chlo-
rophyceen. Ost. Bot. Z. 113:511-528.

. 1967. Die Gattung Pedinomonas Kor-
schikoff. Arch. Protistenk. 110:1-11.

, AND I. MANTON. 1964. Die feinere Struk-
tur von Pedinomonas minor Korschikoff. Nova
Hedwigia 8:421-451.

EYDEN, B. P. 1975. Light and electron microscope
study of Dunaliella primolecta Butcher (Vol-
vocida). J. Protozool. 22:336-344.

Forest, H. S. 1954a. Handbook of Algae. Univ.
Tenn. Press, Knoxville, Tenn.

—.. 1954b. Checklist of algae in the vicinity
of Mountain Lake Biological Station, Virginia.
Castanea 19:88-104.

Fott, B. 1971. Algenkunde. Fischer, Jena, Ger.

GERLOFF, J. 1962. Beitrag zur Kenntnis einiger
Volvocales II. Nova Hedwigia 4: 1-20.

HIBBERD, D. 1976. The ultrastructure and taxon-
omy of the Chrysophyceae and Prymnesiophy-
ceae (Haptophyceae): a survey with some new
observations on the ultrastructure of the Chrys-
ophyceae. J. Linn. Soc., Bot. 72:55-80.

, AND G. LEEDALE. 1970. Eustigmatophy-
ceae—a new algal class with unique organiza-
tion of the motile cell. Nature, London
224:758-760.

, AND ————-.. 1972. Observations on the
cytology and ultrastructure of the new algal
class, Eustigmatophyceae. Ann. Bot. 36:49-71.

HUBER-PESTALOZZI, G. 1961. Die Binnengewas-
ser. Das Phytoplankton des Susswassers, Band
XVI, Teil 5. Schweizerbartsche, Stuttgart, Ger.

LACKEY, J. B. 1942. The plankton algae and pro-
tozoa of two Tennessee rivers. Amer. Midl. Nat.
27:191-202.

. 1958. The suspended microbiota of the
Clinch River and adjacent waters in relation to
radioactivity in the summer of 1956. Engr. Pro-
gress, Univ. Fla., Gainesville, Fla. 12:1—26.

, AND E. W. LACKEY. 1967. A partial
checklist of Florida freshwater algae and pro-
tozoa with reference to McCloud and Cue
Lakes. Engr. Progress, Univ. Fla., Gainesville,
Fla. 21:1-28.

LEwIs, E., G. MUNGER, R. WATSON, AND D.
WIsE. 1974. Life cycle of Polytomella caeca
(Phytomonadida, Polyblepharidae). J. Proto-
zool. 21:647-649.

MANTON, I. 1965. Some phyletic implications of
flagellar structure in plants. Adv. Bot. Res. 2:1—
34.

. 1975. Observations on the microanatomy
of Scourfieldia marina Throndsen and S. caeca

(Korsh.) Belcher et Swale. Arch. Protistenk.
117:358-368.

, AND H. ETTL. 1965. Observations on the
fine structure of Mesostigma viride Lauterborn.
J. Linn. Soc., Bot. 59:175-184.

, AND M. PARKE. 1960. Further observa-
tions on small green flagellates with special ref-
erence to possible relatives of Chromulina pu-
silla Butcher. J. Mar. Biol. Ass., U.K. 39:275-
298.

———., K. OATES, AND M. PARKE. 1963. Obser-

vations on the fine structure of the Pyramimon-
as-stage of Halosphaera and preliminary ob-
servations on three species of Pyramimonas. J.
Mar. Biol. Ass., U.K. 43:225-238.

, D. RAyns, H. ETTL, AND M. PARKE.
1965. Further observations on green flagellates
with scaly flagella: the genus Heteromastix
Korshikov. J. Mar. Biol. Ass., U.K. 45:241-255.

Moore, J., M. CANTOR, P. SHEELER, AND W.
KAHN. 1970. The ultrastructure of Polytomella
agilis. J. Protozool. 17:671-676.

PARKE, M., AND P. D1xon. 1968. Check-list of Brit-
ish marine algae—second revision. J. Mar. Biol.
Ass., U.K. 48:783-832.

PASCHER, A. 1931. Systematische Ubersicht uber
die mit Flagellaten in Zusammenhang stehen-
den Algenreihen und Versuch einen Einrei-
hung dieser Algenstamme in die Stamme des
Pflanzenreiches. Beih. Bot. Centralbl. 48:317-
Boze

PATRICK, R. 1961. A study of the numbers and
kinds of species found in rivers in Eastern
United States. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila.
113:215-258.

, J. CAIRNS, JR., AND S. S. ROBACK. An
ecosystematic study of the fauna and flora of
the Savannah River. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila.
118:109-407.

PETERFI, L., AND I. MANTON. 1968. Observations
with the electron microscope on Asteromonas
gracilis Artari emend (Stephanoptera gracilis
(Artari) Wisl.) with some comparative observa-
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440.

PRESCOTT, G. W. 1962. Algae of the Western Great
Lakes area. Wm. C. Brown Co., Dubuque, Ia.

PRINGSHEIM, E. 1955. The genus Polytomella. J.
Protozool. 2:137-145.

ROUND, F. 1963. The taxonomy of the Chlorophy-
ta. Br. Phycol. Bull. 2:224-235.

. 1971. The taxonomy of the Chlorophyta,
II. Br. Phycol. Bull. 6:235-264.

SILvA, H. 1948. A review of freshwater phycolog-
ical research in southeastern United States.
Castanea 4:133-141.

SMITH, G. M. 1950. Freshwater algae of the United
States, 2nd Ed. McGraw-Hill Book Co., New
York, N.Y.

SWALE, E. M. F., AND J. H. BELCHER. 1968. The
external morphology of the type species of
Pyramimonas (P. tetrarhynchus Schmarda) by
electron microscopy. Proc. Linn. Soc. Lond.
179:77-81.

WHITFORD, L. A., AND G. J. SCHUMACHER. 1969.

ALGAE OF SOUTHEASTERN UNITED STATES—Dillard 131

1977. Some observations concerning the ef-
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phytoplankton dynamics. J. Tenn. Acad. Sci.
52:10-14.

A manual of the freshwater algae in North Car-
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, AND . 1973. A manual of fresh-
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Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 41(3-4), 1980, 132-137

Ecotypic Differentiation of Broom Sedge in
Relation to Strip Mine Spoil Banks

VALINA K. HURT! AND JOE E. WINSTEAD

Department of Biology, Western Kentucky University, Bowling Green, Kentucky 42101

ABSTRACT

Reciprocal plantings of populations of broom

an abandoned farm plot in south-central Kentuc

sedge from an abandoned strip mine and from
ky on strip mine and abandoned field soil man-

ifested different patterns of growth. Clonal plantings of populations from strip mine habitats and

old field development appeared equal in heigh

t and biomass when grown on old field soils in

both field trials and growth chamber studies. Populations from strip mine habitats showed greater

growth and biomass compared to old field popu
trials and controlled growth experiments. Later

lations when planted in strip mine soils in field
flowering in strip mine populations may be an

indication of a key factor in survival strategy on the harsh microclimates of spoil banks. Broom
sedge may prove to be an important and economically sound species in reclamation programs

for abandoned surface mines, a striking departu

INTRODUCTION

The concept of ecotypic differentiation
proposed by Turesson (1922) presented
a tool for examining the range of genetic
variation in species with varied geo-
graphic and habitat distribution. Only a
few species of plants in the world have
been examined for ecotypic differentia-
tion according to Hiesey and Milner
(1965). Studies of Andropogon (Bragg
and McMillan 1966; Chapman and Jones
1975; Golley and Gentry 1966; Hanks
1971; Keever 1950; McMillan 1956, 1959,
1964, 1965, 1969; Quarterman 1957; Rice
1972; Voigt 1953, 1959) have confirmed
differences within that taxon in a variety
of habitats in North America. Since An-
dropogon virginicus L. is noted for being
an early colonizer of strip mines as well
as old fields, it is a prime species for in-
vestigations concerning patterns of ad-
aptation to disturbed habitats. Until the
variation is known for many specific pop-
ulations that colonize such habitats, prop-
er restorative management of such areas
cannot be applied. Knowledge of ecotyp-
ic differences in Andropogon virginicus
could be of tremendous importance in
assessing costs and maintenance of re-
claimed strip mines.

‘Permanent mailing address: Route 3, Box 283,
Scottsville, Kentucky 42164.

13

re from its current status.

Andropogon virginicus ranges north to
Massachusetts, New York, Ohio, Indiana,
Illinois; west to Missouri, Kansas, Okla-
homa; east to the coastal states; and south
to Florida, Texas, and Mexico. The
species has been referred to as a most se-
rious pasture weed in the south especial-
ly on marginal lands. Common names in-
clude beard-grass, sedge-grass, broom
grass, Virginia beard-grass, and broom
sedge.

Fernald (1950) listed 5 varieties of An-
dropogon virginicus: (1) glaucus Hack.,
(2) tetrastachyus (Ell.) Hack., (3) glau-
copsis (Ell.) Hitche., (4) hirsutior (Hack.)
Hitche., and (5) abbreviatus (Hack.)
Fern. and Grisc. Two of those varieties
are found in Kentucky, tetrastachyus on
dry sandy or rocky areas; and hirsutior in
swamps, marshes, or savannas. The pop-
ulations used in this study are tetrastach-
yus.

Little work has been done on the pat-
terns of adaptation of plant species that
invade spoil banks. While the functional
status of Andropogon virginicus in old
field succession has been demonstrated
by Rice (1972) and others, we are un-
aware of any populational studies of
broom sedge on strip mined soils. This
study focused upon the response of 2 dif-
ferent populations of broom sedge to
field conditions and laboratory controlled
experiments. Four replicates were grown

3)

“_

BROOM SEDGE ON SPOIL BANKS—Hurt and Winstead

using growth chambers, a greenhouse, an
old field plot, and a strip mine plot.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Clones of Andropogon virginicus were
obtained during the fall of 1977 from 2
areas in south-central Kentucky. The col-
lection sites represent 2 distinct habitats
approximately 40 km apart. The more
northern site was an abandoned strip
mine at Morgantown, Butler County,
37°14'N, and the southern site was a field
abandoned approximately 15 years near
Bowling Green, Warren County, 36°52’N.

Clumps of the grass were removed
from their respective habitats and stored
in plastic bags at 4 C. The roots were
cleaned, stem tops cut, and clones that
ranged in weight from 4.2 to 29.6 g were
planted for the various tests. For field test
plots, the strip mine in Butler County
was used and for old field plantings an
abandoned field in Allen County approx-
imately 40 km southeast of Bowling
Green was chosen to avoid disturbance
by man and domesticated animals. On 15
May 1978, 60 plants were planted in each
test plot, 30 from the strip mine habitat
and 30 from the old field site, and were
arranged in a completely random design
using the Random Digit Table (Steel and
Torrie 1960). The strip mine plot was
vandalized by motorized trail bikes and
data gathering from those sites terminat-
ed 1 October 1978.

Eighty plants were planted in individ-
ual 1.4-] plastic pots in the greenhouse
on 3 November 1977. Twenty plants from
each population were potted in auto-
claved soil from the strip mine site and
20 plants of each population were potted
in autoclaved soil taken from the old field
in Warren County. Greenhouse growth
conditions were under the natural pho-
toperiod of Bowling Green and the tem-
perature ranged from 12.2 to 24.4 C.

On 2 February 1978, 40 plants were
moved from the greenhouse into 2
growth chambers (Environator Corp.
Model #2448). Each chamber was pro-
grammed for 12 hours of day temperature
at 29.4 C and 12 hours at 18.3 C at night.
Light periods in both chambers were

133

maintained at 16 hours with incandes-
cent and fluorescent lighting. The cooler
“night” temperature thus was in effect
for the first 2 hours and the last 2 hours
of each light period. Combined light in-
tensity at plant tops ranged from 6,460 to
8,600 lux. The 40 plants in the growth
chambers consisted of 10 strip mine
plants on strip mine soil, 10 strip mine
plants on old field soil, 10 old field plants
on old field soil, and 10 old field plants
on strip mine soil; they were evenly di-
vided between each of the growth cham-
bers, and were arranged in a completely
random design of the Random Digit Ta-
ble (Steel and Torrie 1960).

The remaining 40 plants in the green-
house represented plantings reciprocal to
those in the growth chambers and were
also arranged in a random design.

Heights of all plants were measured at
the beginning of the test and at weekly
intervals thereafter. Each plant in all
tests was checked regularly for the date
of anthesis. At the end of the program,
each plant was clipped at the pot top and
weighed after drying 48 hours at 80 C.

A LaMotte Combination Soil Testing
Outfit (Model STH-14) was used to test
soil samples for pH, phosphorus, potas-
sium, and nitrogen. The hydrometer
method (Bouyoucos 1936) was used to
determine the soil texture of the soil sam-
ples (old field dig, old field test plot, and
the strip mine test plot).

Weekly maximum and minimum tem-
peratures at the soil level were recorded
at each field plot and in the greenhouse
using self registering thermometers.

Statistical analysis of all data used the
analysis of variance procedure and the
Duncan’s Multiple Range Test as out-
lined by Steel and Torrie (1960).

RESULTS

Two populations of Andropogon vir-
ginicus manifested differentiation with
regard to height of plant, biomass pro-
duction, and time of flowering.

Weekly temperatures at the strip mine
plot were higher and had a greater range
than at the old field plot and the green-
house (Table 1).

134

TABLE 1.—AVERAGE MAXIMUM AND MINIMUM TEM-
PERATURES (C) OF STRIP MINE, OLD FIELD, AND
GREENHOUSE FROM 27 JUNE TO 17 OCTOBER 1978.
TEMPERATURES RECORDED EACH WEEK WITH MAX-
IMUM—MINIMUM THERMOMETERS

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 41(3-4)

TABLE 3.—TEXTURES OF SOILS (%) FROM STRIP
MINE AND OLD FIELD HABITATS USED IN GROWING
2 POPULATIONS OF BROOM SEDGE. ANALYSIS OF
TEXTURE FOLLOWS STANDARDS SET BY BOUYOU-

High Low
average average Difference

Strip mine habitat

Thermometer 1 47.1 16.6 30.5

Thermometer 2 46.6 16.7 29.9
Old field habitat

Thermometer 1 36.5 152) 21.3

Thermometer 2 39.2 17.1 22.1
Greenhouse

Thermometer 1 32.9 18.4 14.5

By 12 September 1978, all old field
plants in the Allen County test planting
had flowered, but it was not until 10 Oc-
tober 1978, that anthesis occurred in the
strip mine plants.

The strip mine soil in Butler County
had a pH of 4.2, whereas both the old
field soils in Warren County and Allen
County had a pH of 6.6 (Table 2). Soil
used in the test from Warren County had
a greater amount of nitrogen than the old
field in Allen County and the strip mine
soil which were low. Phosphorus content
was very high in all soils. Potassium was
in moderate amounts in both old fields,
but very deficient in the strip mine soil.

The old field soil from Warren County
was designated as silty clay loam (Table
3). The old field soil in Allen County was
loam and the strip mine soil was silty
clay.

TABLE 2.—LEVELS OF PH, NITROGEN (N), PHOS-

PHORUS (P), AND POTASSIUM (K) IN SOILS FROM

STRIP MINE AND OLD FIELD HABITATS USED IN

GROWING 2 POPULATIONS OF BROOM SEDGE.

LEVELS OF ELEMENTAL NUTRIENTS ARE IN KILO-
GRAMS PER HECTARE

Warren Allen
Strip County County
mine soil old field old field
pH 4,2 6.6 6.6
N 1] 45 11
P 168 22.4 224
K << 19, 168 190

cos (1936)
Warren Allen
Strip County County
mine soil old field old field
Silt 44.2 63.5 33.3
Sand 9.3 5.8 48.8
Clay 46.5 30.7 17.9
Designation Silty Silty Loam
clay clay loam

The growth responses of broom sedge
on reciprocal soil plantings in the green-
house and in growth chambers are shown
in Tables 4, 5, and 6. The difference be-
tween the growth of old field plants on
strip mine soil and on old field soil is
highly significant (P < 0.01), while the
difference between the growth of strip
mine plants on the 2 soils is not signifi-
cant (P > 0.05). During the first 4 months,
the strip mine plants showed more rapid
growth in height than the old field plants,
but during the last 4 months, the old field
plants on the old field soil grew faster. In
all cases, the old field plants on the strip
mine soil had the least total growth.

The biomass of reciprocal soil plant-
ings under controlled conditions was
highly significantly less by old field

TABLE 4.—AVERAGE HEIGHTS (CM) OF 17-20
PLANTS OF EACH PLANTING UNDER GREENHOUSE
CONDITIONS AT DIFFERENT TIMES DURING THE
STUDY. PLANTING CODES INDICATE THE FOLLOW-
ING: SM/OF, STRIP MINE PLANTS IN OLD FIELD
SOIL; SM/SM, STRIP MINE PLANTS IN STRIP MINE
SOIL; OF/OF, OLD FIELD PLANTS IN OLD FIELD
SOIL; OF/SM, OLD FIELD PLANTS IN STRIP MINE

SOIL

SM/OF SM/SM OF/OF OF/SM
Feb 2.9 2.3 iii 2.3
Mar 4.0 3.7 4.2 3.0
Apr 6.4 3.8 6.1 4.1
May 8.2 Sad 7.6 elk
Jun 24.1 10.5 24.6 8.8
Jul 48.1 25.0 50.9 24.5
Aug 54.3 31.5 59.9 30.1
Sep ited 56.5 90.7 49.1

BROOM SEDGE ON SPOIL BANKS—Hurt and Winstead

TABLE 5.—AVERAGE HEIGHTS (CM) OF 17-20
PLANTS OF EACH PLANTING UNDER CONTROLLED
GROWTH CHAMBER CONDITIONS AT DIFFERENT
TIMES DURING THE STUDY. PLANTING CODES ARE

135

TABLE 7.—STEM AND LEAF DRY WEIGHTS OF ALL
PLANTS THAT FLOWERED AFTER 210 DAYS OF
GROWTH IN GREENHOUSE AND GROWTH CHAMBER
TESTS. PLANTING CODES THE SAME AS THOSE IN

THE SAME AS THOSE IN TABLE 4 TABLE 4
SM/OF SM/SM OF/OF OF/SM SM/OF SM/SM OF/OF OF/SM
Feb 4.9 4.4 4.3 4.7 Greenhouse conditions

Mar 8.6 6.8 8.1 5.9 4A] 1.23 3.96 0.90
Apr 17.2 11.8 16.7 8.1 3.28 2.00 4.83 1.16
May 23.5 16.1 23.4 13.8 Gy 4) as 5.05 135
Jun 31.1 20.1 33.3 16:9 5.62 1.87 6.25 1.34
Jul 38.0 20.1 45.1 22.8 5.30 2.73 4.90 1.19
Aug 42.7 32.9 50.2 29.9 3.59 1.16

Sep 50.2 37.0 55.7 34.5 5.34 ,
Avg. 4.43 1.80 4.75 1.18

: Growth chamber conditions
plants than the strip mine plants (P < 3.04 1.87 4.30 1.98
0.01) when strip mine plants on strip 3.05 0.39 4.31 0.58
mine soil and old field plants on strip 4.64 1.57 4.33 0.77
mine soil were compared (Tables 7, 8). 4.01 1.80 4.72 1.97
‘ E : 4.88 1.69 3.45 1.14
Survival of plants on the strip mine was 1.92 71 5.47
h lant he ol ,

lower than those planted on the old field mae alee ia hoe “Poy

(Table 9). Strip mine plants showed
greater average height when growing on
the strip mine soil when compared to the
old field plants at that habitat.

During the field trials of this study,
weather records indicated possible
drought conditions on the strip mine site
in September. The plants growing on the
strip mine site were exposed to much less
rainfall in August and September (Table
10) than at other sites. Less rainfall com-
bined with the temperature extremes
made the strip mine area a much harsher
environment. Even with equal rainfall,
strip mine habitats are noted to exhibit

TABLE 6.—COMPARISON OF AVERAGE HEIGHTS
(CM) OF 17-20 PLANTS OF THE 2 POPULATIONS AF-
TER 8 MONTHS OF RECIPROCAL PLANTINGS UNDER
GREENHOUSE AND GROWTH CHAMBER CONDITIONS.
FIGURES MARKED WITH AN ASTERISK (*) ARE SIG-
NIFICANTLY DIFFERENT AT THE 0.01 LEVEL

more water loss due to runoff and ero-
sion.

DISCUSSION AND SUMMARY

The data outline phenological re-
sponses of 2 populations of Andropogon
virginicus from south-central Kentucky
exposed to controlled test and uniform
conditions on abandoned farmland and
strip mine soil. The 2 populations exhib-
ited differences in height, biomass, and
in time of flowering that may suggest a

TABLE 8.—PERCENTAGE LOSS IN AVERAGE DRY
WEIGHT OF POPULATIONS GROWN ON RECIPROCAL
PLANTINGS UNDER GREENHOUSE AND GROWTH
CHAMBER CONDITIONS. DATA TAKEN FROM TABLE
7 DENOTE AVERAGE WEIGHT (G). FIGURES FOL-
LOWED BY AN ASTERISK (*) SIGNIFICANTLY DIFFER-
ENT AT THE 0.01 LEVEL FROM AVERAGE WEIGHT
OF SM/SM PLANTING

SM/OF SM/SM OF/OF OF/SM SM/OF SM/SM OF/OF OF/SM
Greenhouse conditions Greenhouse conditions
77.5 56.6 90.7 49.1* 4.43 1.80 4.75 1.18*
% Drop: 27.1 % Drop: 45.9 % Drop: 59.4 % Drop: 75.2
Growth chamber conditions Growth chamber conditions
50.3 37.0 55.7 34.5* 3.59 151 4.43 1.29*

% Drop: 26.4 % Drop: 38.1

% Drop: 57.9 % Drop: 70.9

136

TABLE 9.—AVERAGE HEIGHTS (CM) OF POPULA-
TIONS IN RECIPROCAL PLANTINGS IN FIELD TEST
PLOTS. FIGURES IN PARENTHESES ARE THE NUM-
BERS OF PLANTS MEASURED. SM AND OF REPRE-
SENT PLANTS FROM STRIP MINE AND OLD FIELD
POPULATIONS, RESPECTIVELY

Old field Strip mine

SM OF SM OF
Jun 4.5 (12) 3.9 (13) — —
Jul 14.0 (12) 11.8 (13) — —
Aug 30.5 (14) 24.8 (17) 7.4 (6) 7.4 (4)
Sep 41.2 (20) 43.6 (20) 13.7 (6) 6.3 (4)
Oct 53.9 (20) — 57.7 (20)
Nov _ 57.5 (20) 61.3 (20)
Dec 57.5 (20) — 61.3 (20)

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 41(3—-4)

TABLE 10.—TOTAL RAINFALL (CM) RECORDED AT

WEATHER STATIONS CLOSEST TO FIEL TEST PLOTS

DURING COURSE OF STUDY. DATA FROM THE Na-

TIONAL OCEANIC AND ATMOSPHERIC ADMINISTRA-
TION, ASHEVILLE, NORTH CAROLINA

Strip Old

mine plot field plot

Months (1978) (Butler Co.) (Allen Co.)
May 16.5 13.56
Jun 10.76 2,
Jul 11.34 17.78
Aug 6.83 20.90
Sep 1.04 4.14
Total 45.98 68.98
Avg. for 5 months 9.20 13.90

survival mechanism for adaptation to the
harsh microclimate of the spoil banks.
Temperature extremes, lack of soil nu-
trients, and late summer drought are fac-
tors that produced a harsher environment
in strip mine areas than in old field hab-
itats.

Nitrogen, when present, usually occurs
at very low concentrations on spoil
banks. Also, most spoil banks are often
deficient in potassium and/or phosphorus
(Plass 1975, Barnhisel and Massey 1969).
Chapman and Jones (1975) concluded
that stress was less severe in an old field
than on granitic outcrops that supported
populations of broom sedge ecotypically
different from old field populations.
Their data indicated greater uptake of
phosphorus by the plants growing on
granitic outcrops of the Piedmont Pla-
teau.

The later flowering time of the strip
mine plants in this study may indicate
slower growth and a lower metabolic rate
that might be protective in a harsh envi-
ronment. Parsons (1968) showed that
grasses of an infertile soil grew more
slowly than grasses of fertile soil. Studies
by Bradshaw et al. (1964) also showed
similar patterns. Slow growing individu-
als might be at a selective advantage on
infertile soils as they would not outstrip
the available nutrient supply. There is
also a positive correlation between soil
fertility and drought susceptibility.

This study showed that the differences
in the average heights between old field
plants growing on strip mine soil and
clonal material growing on old field soil
was significant. The average heights of
strip mine plants growing on strip mine
soil was not statistically different from
that population’s growth on old field soil.
Biomass also showed that strip mine
plants were more productive than old
field plants growing on strip mine soil.
Our data suggest that the strip mine
plants are better suited to a harsher en-
vironment than the old field plants of the
same species. The comparative growth of
those populations under the tests con-
ducted indicate ecotypical differentiation
and selection of genotypes for the strip
mine habitat.

Investigation of the evolutionary pro-
cesses involved in secondary succession
of species that invade strip mines may
provide valuable lessons in the continu-
ing development of procedures for rec-
lamation of land disturbed by surface
mining. Selection of ecotypes of native
species adapted to the strip mine habitats
for artificial planting and cultivation
might result in a faster and more com-
plete cover. Andropogon virginicus might
prove to be valuable for initial planting
on such landscapes.

LITERATURE CITED

BARNHISEL, R. I., AND H. F. MASSEY. 1969. Chem-
ical mineralogical and physical properties of

BROOM SEDGE ON SPOIL BANKS—Hurt and Winstead

eastern Kentucky acid-forming coal spoil
banks. Soil Sci. 108:367-372.

Bouyoucos, G. J. 1936. Directions for making
mechanical analysis of soils by the hydrometer
method. Soil Sci. 42:225-229.

BRADSHAW, A. D., M. J. CHADWICK, D. JOWETT,
AND R. D. SNAYDON. 1964. Experimental in-
vestigations into the mineral nutrition of sev-
eral grass species, IV. J. Ecology 52:665-676.

BRAGG, L. H., AND C. MCMILLAN. 1966. Ecotypic
variation within four North American prairie
grasses. III. Chromatographic variation. Amer.
J. Bot. 53:893-901.

CHAPMAN, R. H., AND S. B. JONES, JR. 1975. Eco-
typic differentiation in Andropogon virginicus.
Bull. Torr. Bot. Club 102:166-171.

FERNALD, M. L. 1950. Gray’s manual of botany.
8th ed. American Book Co., New York, N.Y.
GOLLEY, F. B., AND J. B. GENTRY. 1966. A com-
parison of variety and standing crop of vegeta-
tion on a one year and twelve year abandoned

field. Oikos 15:185-199.

HANKS, J. P. 1971. Secondary succession and soils
on the inner coastal plain of New Jersey. Bull.
Torr. Bot. Club 98:315-321.

HIESEy, W. M., AND H. W. MILNER. 1965. Physi-
ology of ecological races and species. A. Rev.
Pl. Physiol. 16:203-216.

KEEVER, C. 1950. Causes of succession on old
fields on the Piedmont, North Carolina. Ecol.
Monogr. 20:229-250.

MCMILLAN, C. 1956. Nature of the plant commu-
nity. I. Uniform garden and light period studies
of five grass taxa in Nebraska. Ecology 37:330-
340.

1959. The role of ecotypic variation in

137

the distribution of the central grassland of
North America. Ecol. Monogr. 29:285-308.

1964. Ecotypic differentiation within
four North American prairie grasses. I. Mor-
phological variations within transplanted com-
munity fractions. Amer. J. Bot. 52:1119-1128.

1965. Ecotypic differentiation within
four North American prairie grasses. II. Behav-
ior variation within transplanted community
fractions. Amer. J. Bot. 52:55-65.

1969. Survival patterns in four prairie
grasses transplanted to central Texas. Amer. J.
Bot. 56:108-115.

PARSONS, R. F. 1968. The significance of growth-
rate comparisons for plant ecology. Amer. Nat.
102:595-597.

PLAss, W. T. 1975. Reclamation of surface-mined
land. Ohio J. Sci. 75:298-304.

QUARTERMAN, E.. 1957. Early plant succession on
abandoned cropland in the Central Basin in
Tennessee. Ecology 38:300-309.

Rice, E. L. 1972. Allelopathic effects of Andro-
pogon virginicus and its persistence in old
fields. Amer. J. Bot. 59:752-755.

STEEL, R. G. D., AND J. H. TORRIE. 1960. Princi-
ples and procedures of statistics. McGraw-Hill
Book Co., New York, N.Y.

TURESSON, G. 1922. The genotypical response of
the plant species to the habitat. Hereditas
3:211-350.

VoicT, J. W. 1953. Yields and consumptions in a
southern Illinois bluegrass-broomsedge pas-
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Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 41(3-4), 1980, 138-140

Analysis of the Distribution of Southeastern Taxa in
Seeps of Calloway County, Kentucky’

VickI A. FUNK
Department of Botany, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio 43210

AND

MARIAN J. FULLER

Department of Biological Sciences, Murray State University, Murray, Kentucky 42071

ABSTRACT

Analysis of the taxa found in the seeps of Calloway County, Kentucky, shows an east-west
decrease in the number of southeastern taxa. The Tennessee River with its northeasterly flow
through the intercoastal plain region is an avenue for the movement of southeastern taxa into
the study area. The northeasterly flow of the streams provides no means for the east-west move-
ment of those plants within the study area. The differences among the 3 geologic base layers of
the seeps (Fort Payne Chert, Porters Creek Clay, and the Wilcox-Claiborne Formation) are
instrumental in determining whether or not the plants are able to become established.

INTRODUCTION

From August 1973 to November 1974,
the vascular plants of 6 seeps in Calloway
County, Kentucky were collected and
analyzed systematically (Funk and Fuller
1978). Seeps were chosen as study areas
because they are located near rivers and
streams, and because they represent a
distinct element of the flora of the region.
A seep is a marshy area at the base of a
hill or rise, between the hill and the flood
plain of a river or stream (Funk 1975, un-
published master’s thesis, Murray State
University, Murray, Kentucky). In gen-
eral, the nomenclature used followed
that of Gray’s Manual of Botany, 8th edi-
tion (Fernald 1950).

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Travel expenses were defrayed in part
by CISR Grant 235 to the junior author
from the Murray State University Foun-
dation.

GEOLOGY OF THE STUDY AREA

Calloway County, Kentucky, is part of
the Jackson Purchase Area that occupies
the northern tip of the Gulf Embayment

' Contribution No. 5 from the Murray State Uni-
versity Herbarium.

and which during Cretaceous and Early
Tertiary was covered by an extension of
the Gulf of Mexico (McFarland 1942).
The materials deposited during that pe-
riod were unconsolidated clays, sands,
and gravels typical of coastal plain areas
(Roberts and Gildersleeve 1945).

The underlying geologic base layers in
Calloway County are: Fort Payne Chert,
Porters Creek Clay, and the Wilcox-Clai-
borne Formation (Blade 1963, Wilshire
1963 and 1964, and Wolfe 1963). Three
seeps collected and analyzed are on Fort
Payne Chert, 2 on Porters Creek Clay,
and 1 on the Wilcox-Claiborne Formation
(Funk and Fuller 1978).

Fort Payne Chert is of Mississippian
Age and is calcareous and siliceous with
some of the silica as chert. In Calloway
County, it attains a maximum thickness
of 130 m and underlies the area along the
western border of the Tennessee River
(Kentucky Lake) (Roberts and Gilder-
sleeve 1945).

Porters Creek Clay is of Paleocene Age
and is mainly a clay interbedded with
layers of fine sand. A characteristic fea-
ture is a system of sandstone dikes that
intrude into the clay (Miller 1919). The
maximum thickness of the unit in Callo-
way County is 12 m (Roberts and Gild-
ersleeve 1945), and it is exposed as a belt

138

TAXA IN SEEPS OF CALLOWAY COUNTY—Funk and Fuller

139

TABLE |1.—NUMBERS AND PERCENTAGES OF THE TOTAL OF 262 TAXA, COMPARED WITH THE NUMBERS
AND PERCENTAGES OF 43 SOUTHEASTERN TAXA AND 2] EXTRANEOUS SOUTHEASTERN TAXA, COLLECTED
FROM SEEPS IN 3 GEOLOGIC FORMATIONS IN CALLOWAY COUNTY, KENTUCKY

Extraneous

Total taxa Southeastern taxa southeastern taxa

Geologic formation No. % No. % No. %

Fort Payne Chert 188 2, 31 72 16 76

Porters Creek Clay 111 42 17 40 5 24

Wilcox-Claibourne 109 42 12 28 3 14
Total 262 43 21

immediately west of the East Fork of
Clarks River (Miller 1919).

The Wilcox-Claiborne Formation is of
Eocene Epoch and consists of sand, clay,
and lignite. The sand contains clay lenses
less than a meter thick (Wilshire 1963).
Iron leaching through the loess acts as a
cement forming a thick basal conglom-
erate. In Calloway County, the combined
thickness of those formations varies from
15 to 60 m (Wilshire 1963). Exposures,
which are rare, are found along the east
side of the West Fork of Clarks River
(Roberts and Gildersleeve 1945).

Because the physical and chemical na-
ture of the soil is generally determined

or at least influenced by the bedrock ma-
terial, an apparent correlation exists be-
tween the flora of the region and the geo-
logic material underlying it (McInteer
1941). The soil type of the seeps on the
Porters Creek Clay area is Hymon loam,
while the soil type of the seeps on the
Fort Payne Chert and the Wilcox-Clai-
borne areas is Waverly silt loam (Leighty
et al. 1945). A difference in the Waverly
silt loam of those areas is the presence of
the cherty limestone in the Fort Payne
Chert area which helps to produce the
most fertile soils in the county (Leighty
et al. 1945).

TABLE 2.—THE EXTRANEOUS SOUTHEASTERN TAXA AND THEIR OCCURRENCE IN THE 3 GEOLOGIC BASE
LAYERS IN CALLOWAY COUNTY, KENTUKY. SYMBOLS: FPC = ForT PAYNE CHERT, PCC = PORTER
CREEK CLAY, W-C = WILCOX-CLAIBORNE FORMATION

Taxa

Aronia arbutifolia (L.) Ell.

Asclepias perennis Walt.

Aster vimineus Lam.

Bartonia paniculata (Michx.) Muhl.
Carex flaccosperma Dew.

Eryngium prostratum Nutt.
Eupatorium capillifolium (Lam.) Small
Hypericum densiflorum Pursh

Itea virginica L.

Lobelia puberula Michx.

Polygonum arifolium L.

Polygonum opelousanum Riddell
Quercus falcata Michx.

Quercus falcata var. pagodaefolia El.
Rhynchospora corniculata (Lam.) Gray
Sagittaria engelmanniana J. G. Sm.
Spigelia marilandica L.

Trisetum pensylvanicum (L.) Beauv.
Uniola laxa (L.) BSP.

Viburnum nudum L.

Woodwardia areolata (L.) Moore

FPC PCC W-C
x
xX
xX
x
xX
x
x
xX
X
x
x
x X
x Xx
x
xX
x
x
x
X
Xx Xx
x

140

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Of the 262 taxa collected in the seeps
of Calloway County, 188 were found in
the seeps on the Fort Payne Chert, 111
were in the seeps on the Porters Creek
Clay, and 109 were in the seep on the
Wilcox-Clairborne Formation (Table 1).
The 43 taxa with southeastern distribu-
tion represented 16 percent of all the taxa
collected. Of the southeastern taxa, 31
(72%) were found on Fort Payne Chert,
17 (40%) were on Porters Creek Clay, and
12 (28%) were on the Wilcox-Claiborne
Formation.

Extraneous southeastern taxa made up
8 percent of the total taxa collected. The
percentage of those taxa in relation to the
number collected on each geologic unit
decreased from. 8 percent on the Fort
Payne Chert, to 5 percent on the Porters
Creek Clay, to 3 percent on the Wilcox-
Claiborne Formation. Of the 21 extra-
neous southeastern taxa (Table 2), 16
(76%) were found on Fort Payne Chert,
5 (24%) were on Porters Creek Clay, and
3 (14%) were on Wilcox-Claiborne For-
mation.

CONCLUSIONS

The results of the floristic survey of the
seeps of Calloway County, Kentucky
show a definite decrease in the east-west
distribution of southeastern and extra-
neous southeastern taxa. The northwes-
terly flow of the Tennessee River through
the intercoastal plains of southeastern
United States is an avenue for the move-
ment of those taxa into the study area.
The high fertility of the soils in the area
adjacent to the Tennessee River is instru-
mental in the establishment of the rela-

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 41(3-4)

tively high percentage of southeastern
plants. The east-west movement of those
plants is limited in the study area, since
the streams flow in the northeasterly in-
stead of a westerly direction. Whether or
not the southeastern taxa that do enter
the region become established is influ-
enced by the soil and geologic base layer
present.

LITERATURE CITED

BLADE, L. V. 1963. Geology of the Hazel quadran-
gle, Kentucky (GQ-203). U.S. Geol. Surv.,
Washington, D.C.

FERNALD, M. L. 1950. Gray’s Manual of Botany.
8th ed. American Book Co., New York, N.Y.
FUNK, V. A., AND M. J. FULLER. 1978. A floristic
survey of the seeps of Calloway County, Ken-

tucky. Castanea 43:162-172.

LEIGHTY, W. J., H. W. HIGBEE, W. S. REED, AND C.
E. WyaTT. 1945. Soil survey of Calloway
County, Kentucky. U.S. Dept. Agric., Series
1937, No. 15. Washington, D.C.

MCFARLAND, F. T. 1942. A catalogue of vascular
plants of Kentucky. Castanea 7:77-108.

MCINTEER, B. B. 1941. Distribution of the woody
plants of Kentucky in relation to geologic re-
gions. Ky. Dept. Mines Minerals, Geol. Div.,
Series VIII, Bull. 6. Frankfort, Ky.

MILLER, A. M. 1919. The geology of Kentucky. Ky.
Dept. Geol. For., Series 5, Bull. 2. Frankfort,
Ky.

ROBERTS, J. K., AND B. GILDERSLEEVE. 1945. Ge-
ology and mineral resources of the Jackson Pur-
chase Region. Ky. Dept. Mines Minerals, Geol.
Div., Frankfort, Ky.

WILSHIRE, H. G. 1963. Geology of the Kirksey
quadrangle, Kentucky (GQ-246). U.S. Geol.
Surv., Washington, D.C.

1964. Geology of the New Concord
quadrangle and part of the Buchanan quadran-
gle, Kentucky (GQ-313). U.S. Geol. Surv.,
Washington, D.C.

WoLFE, E. F. 1963. Geology of the Hazel quad-
rangle in Kentucky (GQ-244). U.S. Geol. Surv.,
Washington, D.C.

Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 41(3-4), 1980, 141-143

Algal Flora of a Relict Cypress Swamp (Murphy’s Pond)
in Western Kentucky

JOE M. KING AND ROBERT ODDO

Department of Biological Sciences and Hancock Biological Station,
Murray State University, Murray, Kentucky 42071

ABSTRACT

Seventy-nine species of algae were identified from Murphy’s Pond, a relict cypress swamp in
northeastern Hickman County, Kentucky. Eighteen species and 1 genus were previously unre-

ported from Kentucky.

INTRODUCTION

To date, 1,005 species, forms, and va-
rieties that represent 219 genera of algae
have been reported from Kentucky (Dil-
lard 1974, Dillard et al. 1976). However,
floristic investigations of Kentucky algae
have been conducted in only 52 of the
120 counties in the state and the majority
of those investigations concentrated on
the algal taxa of Fayette, Hart, Jefferson,
and Meade counties (Dillard 1974). The
algal flora of a substantial portion of the
state is thus unknown, and additional
studies are necessary to provide in-depth
knowledge of algal distribution in Ken-
tucky.

In an effort to contribute to our knowl-
edge of Kentucky algae, the senior author
in November 1978 initiated a study of the
algal flora of Murphy’s Pond. That aquat-
ic system is one of the few remaining cy-
press swamps in western Kentucky. The
only investigations of algae in that county
were those of McInteer (1930; 1933, un-
published doctoral dissertation, The
Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio)
in which he identified 9 species of algae.
The present report lists 79 species of al-
gae from Murphy’s Pond. Eighteen
species and 1 genus had not been re-
ported previously from Kentucky.

COLLECTION SITES
Murphy’s Pond is a relict cypress
swamp in northeastern Hickman County.
It can be reached by traveling west from
Mayfield on Highway 80 to the intersec-
tion with Highway 307, then traveling

south on 307 3 miles (4.8 km) to the
Obion Creek bridges. A 600-m walk to
the east brings one to the edge of the
swamp.

Murphy’s Pond is not an open expanse
of water, but is divided into 4 major pool
areas by dense vegetation. A small boat
was utilized to collect algae from each of
the pools. Collections were made at
monthly intervals from November 1978
to December 1979. Phytoplankton was
collected by use of a plankton net, and
attached algae were removed from sub-
merged portions of logs, stumps, and tree
branches. On 1 occasion, algae were
scraped from the carapace of a turtle
(Chrysemys scripta elegans) captured in
one of the pools. Samples were placed in
glass or plastic jars that contained pond
water without added preservatives. Iden-
tifications were made within a week from
the time of collection.

CHECKLIST

Nomenclature follows that of Prescott
(1962), West and West (1904-1912), and
West et al. (1923) and is consistent with
that of Dillard (1974) and Dillard et al.
(1976). Entries preceded by a single as-
terisk represent reports of new species,
while the entry preceded by a double as-
terisk represents a report of a new genus.

CYANOPHYCEAE
Chroococcales
Coccochloris stagnina Sprengel

Anacystis cyanea (Kuetzing) Drouet and
Daily

141

142

Oscillatoriales
Spirulina subsalsa Oersted
*Qscillatoria acuminata Gomont
O. amphibia Agardh
O. chalybea Mertens
O. formosa Bory
O. limosa (Roth) Agardh
O. spendida Greville
O. tenuis Agardh
Phormidium ambiguum Gomont
P. autumnale (Agardh) Gomont
Lyngbya major Meneghini
Anabaena affinis Lemmermann
Cylindrospermum catenatum Ralfs

CHLOROPHYCEAE
Volvocales
*Chlamydomonas orbicularis Prings-

heim
*C. intermedia Chodat
Eudorina elegans Ehrenberg

Ulotrichales

Chlorhormidium klebsii (Smith) Fott
Ulothrix variabilis Kuetzing

Chaetophorales

Aphanochaete repens Braun
Chaetophora incrassata (Hudson) Hazen

Oedogoniales
Oedogonium suecicum Wittrock

Cladophorales
Basicladia crassa Hoffman and Tilden

Chlorococcales

Dimorphococcus lunatus Braun

Ankistrodesmus falcatus (Corda) Ralfs

Pediastrum boryanum (Turp.) Mene-
ghini

*P, gladuliferum Bennett

P. tetras (Ehrenberg) Ralfs

Scenedesmus bijuga (Turp.) Lagerheim

S. dimorphus (Turp.) Kuetzing

Zygnematales
Spirogyra occidentalis (Transeau)
Czurda
Zygnema cylindricum Transeau
*Mougeotia ovalis (Hass.) Nordstedt

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 41(3-4)

Closterium abruptum West

C. ehrenbergii Meneghini

C. juncidum Ralfs

C. juncidum var. brevior Roy

C. kuetzingii Brebisson

C. littorale Gay

C. moniliferum (Bory) Ehrenberg

*C, pusillum Hantzsch

Cosmarium granatum Brebisson

C. margaritatum (Lundell) Roy and Bis-
sett

C. turpinii Brebisson

Micrasterias laticeps Nordstedt

M. radiata Hassall

*Staurastrum cingulum var. floridense
Scott and Gronblad

*§. echinatum Brebisson

*§. limneticum var. cornutum Smith

S. paradoxum var. parvum West

*§. pentacerum (Wolle) Smith

Euastrum ansatum Ralfs

Pleurotaenium trabeculum (Ehrenberg)
Naegeli

Xanthidium antilopaeum var. polyma-
zum Nordstedt

Hyalotheca dissiliens (Smith) Brebisson

*Spondylosium pulchrum (Bailey)
Archer

**S pirotaenia condensata Brebisson

EUGLENOPHYCEAE
Euglenales

Euglena acus Ehrenberg

E. proxima Dangeard

*E. spiroides var. annulata Gojdics

E. viridis Ehrenberg

Phacus acuminatus Stokes

*P. curvicauda Swirenko

P. longicauda (Ehren.) Dujardin

P. orbicularis Huebner

P. pleuronectes (Muell.) Dujardin

Trachelomonas armata (Ehrenberg) Stein

*T. armata var. longispina (Playfair) De-
flandre

*T. charkowiensis Swirenko

T. hispida (Perty) Stein

T. hispida var. coronata Deflandre

*T. lacustris Drezepolski

T. superba (Swir.) Deflandre

*T. superba var. swirenkiana Deflandre

T. volvocina Ehrenberg

ALGAE OF A CYPRESS SWAMP—King and Oddo

CHRYSOPHYCEAE
Chrysomonadales
Mallomonas caudata Iwanoff

Chrysocapsales
Tetrasporopsis perforata (Whitford)
Bourrelly
DINOPHYCEAE
Gymnodiniales
Gynodinium palustre Schilling

143

LITERATURE CITED

DILLARD, G. 1974. An annotated catalog of Ken-
tucky algae. Ogden College, Western Kentucky
University, Bowling Green, Ky. 135 pp.

, 5. P. MOORE, AND L. S. GARRETT. 1976.
Kentucky Algae, II. Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci. 37:20-
25.

MCINTEER, B. B. 1930. Preliminary report of the
Kentucky algae. Ohio J. Sci. 30:131-142.

PRESCOTT, G. 1962. Algae of the Western Great
Lakes Area. Wm. C. Brown Co., Dubuque, Ia.
977 pp.

WEST, W., AND G. S. WEST. 1904-1912. A Mono-
graph of the British Desmidiaceae. The Ray
Society, London, Eng. Vols. I-IV.

, ——, AND N. CARTER. 1923. A
Monograph of the British Desmidiaceae. The
Ray Society, London, Eng. Vol. V.

Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 41(3-4), 1980, 144-146

Chlorophyll Levels as Ecotypic Characters in
Box Elder Seedlings

ANTHONY M. GRECO,! JOE E. WINSTEAD, AND FRANK R. TOMAN

Department of Biology, Western Kentucky University, Bowling Green, Kentucky 42101

ABSTRACT
Box elder seedlings from populations in widely separated habitats showed higher levels of
chlorophyll in progeny from habitats with shorter growing seasons. Under controlled growth
conditions, higher levels of chlorophyll were maintained in a more northern population over a
2-year period when compared to a southern population.

INTRODUCTION

Previous work by Williams and Win-
stead (1972a, 1972b) on seed germination
and seed size of box elder Acer negundo
L. provided further information of popu-
lational differences in addition to the ear-
ly demonstration of photoperiodic eco-
types found by Vaartaja (1959). Patterns
of decreasing cell length with decrease
in length of growing season of parental
trees have also been demonstrated as an
ecotypic character in this species (Win-
stead 1978). In the current study, chlo-
rophyll levels of different populations of
box elder were investigated to see if they
were similar to those reported in the
cocklebur Xanthium strumarium L. Ab-
dulrahman and Winstead (1977) reported
higher chlorophyll levels in populations
of more northerly latitudes.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Seeds of box elder, collected from pa-
rental trees of populations in Quebec,
New York, Ohio, Tennessee, Mississippi,
and Texas were germinated in the labo-
ratory, and seedlings were developed un-
der controlled conditions in growth
chambers (Environator Corp. Model E
3448). Seedlings were potted in 500-ml
plastic cups in a sandy loam soil mixture
and given Hoaglands solution periodi-
cally. The test was designed to compare
4 populations (Quebec, New York, Ten-
nessee, and Texas) during the first

' Present address: Materials Science Department,

University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pa.
19104.

season's growth for differences in chlo-
rophyll levels. Two populations
(Mississippi and Ohio) were compared
later for chlorophyll levels during first
season's growth and then maintained in
the laboratory for chlorophyll analysis as
the plants aged during the second season.

The comparison of 4 populations uti-
lized plants grown for 12 weeks under
12-hour photoperiods with a day-night
temperature of 29-18 C (each tempera-
ture regime of 12-hour duration). The
populations of Mississippi and Ohio
were grown for 15 weeks under 16-hour
photoperiods and a warmer temperature
program of 32-24 C (each temperature
regime of 12-hour duration) before sam-
pling during their first season’s growth.
A dormancy period of 12-hour photope-
riods and equal day-night temperature
regimes of 18-10 C was maintained for
those plants for a 10-week period before
the second season’s growth was initiated
by readjusting the growth chamber to a
16-hour photoperiod and thermoperiod
regimes of 29-18 C (each temperature of
12-hour duration). All plants, regardless
of the length of growing periods, were
exposed to light intensities of about 7,000
lux, and all plants were kept apart in the
growth chamber to avoid any shading ef-
fect.

Calculations of amounts of chlorophyll
(mg/g dry weight) followed that of the
Official Methods of Analysis of the As-
sociation of Official Agricultural Chem-
ists (1955). Five g of fresh leaf material
selected randomly from 3 individual
plants of each population were used for

144

CHLOROPHYLL LEVELS IN BOX ELDER SEEDLINGS—Greco et al.

TABLE 1.—COMPARISON OF CHLOROPHYLL LEVELS

(MG/G DRY WEIGHT) IN 12-WEEK OLD SEEDLINGS OF

BOX ELDER GROWN UNDER CONTROLLED CONDI-
TIONS

Population Avg

and latitude frost-free days Chlorophyll
Quebec 46°75’ 120-160 12.98
New York 43° 0' 120-160 10.99
Tennessee 36°11’ 180-200 8.34
Texas 31°36' 200-300 9.52

the determination of chlorophyll levels.
Leaf tissue was cut into small sections
and ground in metal cups of a Sorvall
electric blender in 150 ml of 85 percent
acetone at 16,000 rpm for approximately
4 min. The ground mixture was filtered
in a darkened room and the residue
washed with 85 percent acetone. Fifty ml
of the filtrate added to a separatory funnel
was diluted with 50 ml of ethyl ether and
scrubbed with 100 ml of distilled water.
The ether layer that contained the chlo-
rophyll was transferred to a 100-ml vol-
umetric flask and brought to volume with
ethyl ether. Optical densities of the so-
lutions were determined with a Bausch
& Lomb Precision spectrophotometer at
wavelengths of 642.5 and 660 nm.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Box elder seedlings from different pop-
ulations grown under controlled condi-
tions contained different levels of chlo-
rophyll during their first year’s growth.
Also, seedlings from parent trees from
shorter growing seasons (more northerly
latitudes) contained greater amounts of
chlorophyll through the second year of
growth. The leaves of seedlings of paren-
tal stock from Quebec and New York con-
tained an average of 3.06 mg/g dry weight

TABLE 2.—COMPARISON OF CHLOROPHYLL LEVELS
(MG/G DRY WEIGHT) IN 15-WEEK OLD SEEDLINGS OF
BOX ELDER GROWN UNDER CONTROLLED CONDI-

TIONS
Population Avg.
and latitude frost-free days | Chlorophyll
Ohio 39°20’ 150-180 14.24
Mississippi 33°25’ 220-240 125

145

TABLE 3.—CHLOROPHYLL LEVELS (MG/G DRY
WEIGHT) IN SECOND YEAR SEEDLINGS OF BOX EL-
DER GROWN UNDER CONTROLLED CONDITIONS.
LEAF AGE IN WEEKS FROM LEAF EMERGENCE REP-
RESENTS AN AVERAGE VALUE FROM 3 RANDOMLY
SELECTED PLANTS OF EACH POPULATION

Leaf age
Population (weeks) Chlorophyll
Ohio 6.4 9.50
Mississippi 9.0 2.16
Ohio 10.0 9.39
Mississippi 12.6 3.08
Ohio 17.6 12.82
Mississippi 20.2 5.08

more chlorophyll than the leaves of seed-
lings from Tennessee and Texas (Table
1). A similar difference in amounts of
chlorophyll was evident between Ohio
and Mississippi populations grown for a
15-week period under different condi-
tions (Table 2). When growth was reini-
tiated after the controlled dormancy pe-
riod, the Mississippi population showed
earlier bud-burst by almost 3 weeks.
Thus, it was not possible to sample
leaves of the same age from each popu-
lation at the same time. That problem
was circumvented somewhat by sam-
pling the plants as the leaves developed
and aged over a period of 14 weeks. Ta-
ble 3 shows that chlorophyll levels tend
to increase as the leaves become older
but that the difference is greater in sec-
ond year seedlings than in the first season
of growth.

In natural habitats of shorter growing
seasons it may be necessary for plant
populations to develop mechanisms of
higher productivity to compensate for the
length of the growing season. This study
supports such a suggestion and parallels
findings of Abdulrahman and Winstead
(1977) in their study on different popu-
lations of cocklebur.

LITERATURE CITED

ABDULRAHMAN, F. S., AND J. E. WINSTEAD. 1977.
Chlorophyll levels and leaf ultrastructure as
ecotypic characters in Xanthium strumarium
L. Amer. J. Bot. 64:1177-1181.

ASSOCIATION OF OFFICIAL AGRICULTURAL CHEM-
ists. 1955. Official methods of analysis. 8th ed.

146 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 41(3-4)

VAARTAJA, O. 1959. Evidence of photoperiodic
ecotypes in trees. Ecol. Monogr. 29:91-109.
WILLIAMS, R. D., AND J. E. WINSTEAD. 1972a. Pop-
ulational variation in weights and analysis of
caloric content in fruit of Acer negundo L. Cas-

tanea 37:125-130.
, AND ————. 1972b. Populational vari-

ation in seed germination and stratification of
Acer negundo L. Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci. 33:43-
48.

WINSTEAD, J. E. 1978. Tracheid length as an eco-
typic character in Acer negundo L. Amer. J.
Bot. 65:811-812.

Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 41(3-4), 1980, 147-149

Selective Extraction of Mercury (II) and Evaluation of
Triphenylphosphoniumcyclopentadienylide as a
Phase Transfer Catalyst

RICHARD D. DILLMAN, JR., HOWARD P. VAIL, TIMOTHY E.. HOLY, AND
NORMAN L. HOLY

Department of Chemistry, Western Kentucky University, Bowling Green, Kentucky 42101

ABSTRACT

Triphenylphosphoniumcyclopentadienylide was evaluated as a possible reagent to selectively
coordinate mercury(II). From aqueous solutions containing Fe**+, Co*+, Ni?+, Cu?+, and Hg?* it
was readily possible to extract only mercury. The ylide was less effective in extracting cadmium
or lead. Evaluation of triphenylphosphoniumcyclopentadienylide as a possible phase transfer
catalyst established that it does not effect catalysis.

INTRODUCTION

Mercury is a serious pollutant and
methods are being sought to remove it
from the environment (Theim et al. 1976,
Roh et al. 1975). Another particularly
valuable achievement would be the dis-
covery of a reagent that could selectively
remove mercury without also coordinat-
ing ions that are physiologically impor-
tant (Rajabale 1974). Such a reagent
might ultimately prove useful in the
treatment of mercury poisoning. A mer-
cury(II) complex of triphenylphospho-
niumcyclopentadienylide(I) was pre-
pared in our laboratories (Holy et al.
1976, Baenziger et al. 1978), and it was
of interest to determine whether the
ylide(II) might be rather selective in its
coordination with metal ions.

Sent
PPh,

I

Selectivity was suggested by the obser-
vation that the ylide would not combine
with Fe?+, Ni2+, Co2+, or Cu?*, at least in
a preparative sense.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

The authors wish to thank the Faculty
Research Committee at Western Ken-
tucky University for financial support.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

All samples were analyzed by atomic
absorption spectrophotometry with a Per-

kin-Elmer model 303, using standard
flame procedures. The water bath shaker
was manufactured by Eberbach Corp.
and the samples were shaken at the
“High” setting.

Extraction of Mercury(II) from
Aqueous Solution

A solution of 1.00 x 104 ppm Hg was
prepared from HgCl, and nitric acid (pH
5-6), from which all standards and ex-
traction solutions were prepared. A 50-ml
aliquot of a solution 500 ppm Hg was
added to each of 4 bottles, the first 2 con-
tained 50 ml of a 0.1 M ylide solution (in
chloroform) and the last 2 contained 50
ml of pure chloroform. The bottles were
sealed with paraffin and shaken for 24
hours at 20.5 C after which they were fil-
tered and the aqueous phase saved for
analysis. Standards were prepared to cov-
er the concentration range. The concen-
tration of mercury varied from 497 ppm
Hg to <10 ppm (out of linear range).

Procedure for Extraction of Metal Ions
with Triphenylphosphonium-
cyclopentadienylide

Commercial (Harleco) standard solu-
tions (50 ppm Fe, 1,000 ppm Cu, 100
ppm Zn, and 100 ppm Mn) were used to
prepare all solutions and standards. A
specific example of the general proce-
dure is given.

A 50-ml aliquot of a solution of 500
ppm Hg, 50 ppm Fe, 40 ppm Cu, 4 ppm
Zn, and 10 ppm Mn was added to each

147

148

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 41(3-4)

TABLE 1.—EXTRACTION OF HG?2+ IN THE PRESENCE OF FE?*, MN?t, Cu?*, AND ZN?* IN PARTS PER MILLION

Sample (Hg?*] [Fe2*] {Cu**] [Mn?*] (Zn?*]
Before treatment 492 43.2 39.7 10.0 4.00
After extraction <10 43.0 39.1 10.0 4.00
% Metal extracted >98 0.4 1.5 0.0 0.0

of 4 bottles of which 2 contained 50 ml
of the ylide solution (0.1 M in chloro-
form), and 2 others contained 50 ml of
pure chloroform. The bottles were sealed
and shaken overnight at 20.4 C after
which they were filtered and the aqueous
phase analyzed.

Phase Transfer Catalysis Studies

A general procedure follows: A 400-ml
solution containing 2,000-2,500 ppm
mercuric chloride in deionized water was
prepared. Triphenylphosphoniumcyclo-
pentadienylide, 0.1000 g (0.306 mmol),

TABLE 2.—RESULTS OF YLIDE EXTRACTIONS ON
Ca**+, FE?*, AND HG?+ SOLUTIONS IN PARTS PER

MILLION
pH [Ca] [Fe®*] [He]
3 Before treatment 48.7 49.2 457
After extraction 48.5 48.7 <10
% Metal extracted 0.4 10 >98
4 48.4 48.3 464
48.0 47.5 <10
0.8 1.7 >98
5 48.9 47.4 472
48.3 47.0 <10
1.2 0.8 >98
6 48.7 46.9 446
482 466 <10
1.0 0.6 >98
vii 48.1 O 458
47.5 x <10
1.3 3 >98
8 AG ome 465
45.6 <10
NOK er +98
9 Paley oe -
46.1 : E
SEO A
10 ZI OA os IS t
47.0 J x
DS) Fe?t T
6
N

was dissolved in 10 ml chloroform solu-
tion. To 190 ml of the organic solvent was
added 1.00 ml of benzenethiol (9.8
mmol); this was thoroughly stirred, then
divided in half. To one portion of the so-
lution, 5 ml of the ylide solution was
added. To the other portion, 5 ml of chlo-
roform was added. For the blanks, 5 ml
of ylide solution was added to one 95-ml
portion of solvent, and 5 ml of chloroform
was added to a 95-ml portion of solvent.
Then 100 ml of the mercury solution (2.5
mmol) was added to each bottle and the
mixtures were placed in a shaker for 30-
200 sec. Periodically, the shaking was in-
terrupted and a 10-ml aliquot of the
aqueous layer was removed. Its mercury
content was determined by atomic ab-
sorption.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

From the results listed in Table 1, it is
apparent that the ylide is highly selective
in its ability to extract mercury ions from
first-row transition metal ions. This is
somewhat surprising since it is an ylide
analog of the cyclopentadieny] anion and
would conceptually be able to combine
with first-row transition metal ions to
form metallocenes. Because Ca?+, Fe2+
and Hg?+ have similar atomic radii, we
have investigated the extraction of those
ions more completely. From the data in
Table 2, it is apparent that only Hg?* is
extracted in a pH range 3-10. The ability
of the ylide to extract cadmium and lead
was also investigated; Table 3 summariz-

TABLE 3.—EXTRACTION OF Cpb?2+ AND PB?+ FROM
AQUEOUS SOLUTION IN PARTS PER MILLION

Sample [Gd25] [Pb?*]
Before treatment 9.85 48.6
After extraction 9.08 48.5
% Metal extracted 7.8 0.2

SELECTIVE EXTRACTION OF MERCURY (II)—Dillman et al.

es the results and it is seen that the ylide
is not especially effective in the extrac-
tions.

We also evaluated the ylide as a poten-
tial phase transfer catalyst. Phase transfer
catalysts are used extensively to transfer
anions across a phase boundary (Starks
and Liotta 1978, Weber and Gokel 1977),
but the only report (Armstrong and Godat
1979) of cation phase transfer catalysis to
date was more recently disputed (Snipes
and Herriott 1979). Metal ion transport,
however, is well known in biochemistry
(Ovchinnikov et al. 1974).

The reaction chosen to study that con-
cept is
2 HCl 1)

2 PhSH + HgCl (PhS) jg +

We considered that the ylide might, by
being polar, migrate to the phase bound-
ary, abstract mercury from the aqueous
layer, move to the organic layer, and lose
the mercury to benzenethiol, an excel-
lent ligand for mercury. Using the sol-
vents chloroform, methylene chloride,
carbon tetrachloride, and nitrobenzene,
however, there was no enhancement in
the transfer of mercury. Thus, discovery
of a phase transfer catalyst for cations re-
mains.

SUMMARY
The utility of the ylide lies in its ability
to selectively remove mercury from so-
lutions also containing first-row transi-

149

tion metal ions. This would suggest that
the compound might be attractive in ap-
plications to living systems. Such studies
are now in progress.

LITERATURE CITED

ARMSTRONG, D. W., AND M. GopAT. 1979. A novel
phase transfer catalyst capable of facilitating
acid-catalyzed and/or electrophilic reactions. J.
Amer. Chem. Soc. 101:2489-2491.

BAENZIGER, N. C., R. M. FLYNN, D. C. SWENSON,
AND N. L. HOty. 1978. Transdi-u-diiobobis
(triphenylphosphoniumcyclopentadienylide)di-
mercury(II). Acta Cryst. B34:2300-2301.

Ho y, N. L., N. C. BAENZIGER, R. M. FLYNN, AND
D. C. SWENSON. 1976. The synthesis and
structure of mercuric halide complexes of tri-
phenylphosphoniumcyclopentadienylide. The
first x-ray structure of a mercury cyclopenta-
dienyl. J. Amer. Chem. Soc. 98:7823-7824.

OVCHINNIKOV, Y. A., V. T. IVANOV, AND A. M.
SHKROB. 1974. Membrane active complex-
ones. Elsevier, Amsterdam, Neth.

RAJABALE, F. J. 1974. Chelates of divalent copper,
nickel, zinc, lead, mercury, cobalt, and man-
ganese with nitrilotriacetic acid. J. Inorg. Nuc.
Chem. 36(3):557-564.

ROH, J. K., R. L. BRADLEY, T. RICHARDSON, AND K.
G. WECKEL. 1975. Distribution and removal of
added mercury in milk. J. Dairy Sci.
58(12):1782-1788.

SNIPES, S., AND A. W. HERRIOTT. 1979. On the use
of tetraphenylborate as a phase transfer agent
for acid catalysis. J. Amer. Chem. Soc. 101:6441.

STARKS, C. M., AND C. LIOTTA. 1978. Phase trans-
fer catalysis, principles and techniques. Aca-
demic Press, New York, N.Y.

THEIM, L., D. BADOREK, AND J. T. O'CONNOR.
1976. Removal of mercury from drinking-water
using activated carbon. J. Amer. Water Works
Ass. 68(8):447-451.

WEBER, W. P., AND G. W. GOKEL. 1977. Phase
transfer catalysis in organic synthesis. Springer-
Verlag, Berlin, Ger.

Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 41(3-4), 1980, 150-156

Federal Funding for Research and Development
in Kentucky: III. Characteristics of
Colleges and Universities with High

Levels of Support

CHARLES E. KUPCHELLA,! RICHARD SIMS,? MARY LYNN COLLINS,?
AND KENNETH WALKER?

ABSTRACT

In 1978, a study of federal funding of research and development in Kentucky was undertaken
jointly by the Legislative Research Commission, the Council on Higher Education, and the
Kentucky Academy of Science. One objective of the study was to identify the factors that con-
tribute to the then suspected relatively low level of federal research and development dollars
coming to the Commonwealth, particularly to its colleges and universities.

A questionnaire was sent to 570 institutions of higher education in Kentucky, 23 other states,
and the District of Columbia. This produced 171 usable, completed questionnaires with answers
to questions about institutional features and approaches to research and development. Analysis
of the questionnaires confirmed that in addition to the proximate lack of federal and private
research installations in Kentucky, few Kentucky colleges and universities had the characteristics
associated with schools successful in capturing federal research dollars. Having a college of
medicine and/or a college of engineering, having unspecified teaching loads, having doctoral
programs, and having a basic research focus were all found to be characteristics associated with
the most successful colleges and universities. The results suggest that as research and devel-
opment performers, Kentucky's school of medicine and one of its 2 schools of engineering may
be underdeveloped. The results also suggest that Kentucky may have relatively too few schools

with substantive missions in basic research.

INTRODUCTION

This is the third in a series of articles
that describes a study of Federal Funding
for Research and Development in Ken-
tucky conducted by the Kentucky Council
on Higher Education and the Kentucky
Legislative Research Commission in co-
operation with the Kentucky Academy of
Science. The first report (Kupchella et al.
1979) outlined the events that led up to
the study, the purpose of the study, and
the approaches used in the study. The sec-

' Chairman, Advisory Committee to the Council
on Higher Education and the Legislative Research
Commission on the 1979 study of the federal re-
search and development funding in Kentucky de-
scribed in this report; Department of Biological Sci-
ences, Murray State University, Murray, Kentucky
42071.

* Legislative Analyst, Legislative Research Com-
mission, Frankfort, Kentucky 40601.

* Legislative Research Commission Intern,

Frankfort, Kentucky 40601.

* Assistant Director for Analytical Studies, Coun-
cil on Higher Education, Frankfort, Kentucky
40601.

ond report (Kupchella et al. 1980) re-
viewed federal funding for research and
development in Kentucky in comparison
with other states. Funding statistics for
1976 and 1977 were evaluated according
to individual federal agencies and accord-
ing to 8 categories of research and devel-
opment performers including industrial
firms, universities and colleges, state and
local government, and federal (intramu-
ral) installations. Specific comparisons
were made between (1) Kentucky and all
other states, (2) Kentucky and its 7 con-
tiguous states, (3) Kentucky and a group
of 10 demographically and socioeconom-
ically similar (benchmark) states, and (4)
Kentucky and the group of 6 states most
successful in attracting federal support for
research and development activities.
The portion of the overall study re-
ported here was an attempt to identify
some of the characteristics of institutions
successful in capturing federal dollars for
research and development activities. A
second purpose was to determine if Ken-

150

RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT FUNDING IN KENTUCKY—Kupchella et al. 151

tucky’s colleges and universities fell short
of “parity” across the board or if some
categories of institutions did better than
others.

METHOD

It was decided by staff and members
of the advisory committee that in addi-
tion to published indicators such as per
capita spending for education, the factors
given in Table 1 are potential determi-
nants of institutional success in garnering
federal support for research and develop-
ment. Most of those factors were incorpo-
rated into a 4-page, 19-question instru-
ment sent to 570 institutions in Kentucky,
10 “similar” states, Kentucky’s contigu-
ous states, and the top 6 states (Kupchella
etal. 1980). The questionnaire was mailed
to the presidents of all graduate and first
professional degree granting institutions,
with the exception of theological semi-
naries and proprietary schools in those
states. A covering letter from the Execu-
tive Director of the Council on Higher
Education explained the purpose of the
survey and offered to make the results
available. Success in capturing federal re-
search and development dollars was com-
pared overall for schools with and without
certain individual features and character-
istics. Kentucky schools were then com-
pared with their counterparts in other
states. It must be noted here that data on
funding were provided by the institutions
themselves.

RESULTS

Completed questionnaires were re-
ceived from 238 of the 570 (41%) insti-
tutions solicited. Of the 238 respondants,
171 had submitted at least 1 research and/
or development grant proposal to a fed-
eral agency between 1 July 1977 and 30
June 1978. Those 171 questionnaires
served as the basis of comparison. Com-
parisons were drawn between institu-
tions in Kentucky and those in other
states. A number of correlations were
found.

A summary is given in Table 2. Specif-
ic observations and conclusions are:

TABLE 1.—FACTORS JUDGED TO BE POSSIBLY IM-

PORTANT DETERMINANTS OF INSTITUTIONAL SUC-

CESS IN CAPTURING FEDERAL FUNDS FOR RE-
SEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT

Land-grant designation!

Has a college of medicine/engineering

Offers doctorates?

Number of grant applications submitted

Has an office for the coordination of research and
development activity

Rank of the “Coordinator of Research and Devel-
opment Activities”

Has legislatively mandated minimum teaching
load’

Magnitude of teaching load

Release time for research

Existence of “Research Faculty” as well as “Reg-
ular Faculty”

Proximity of cooperating organizations

Proximity of federal installations

Proximity of state/local agencies

! Land-grant institutions would be eligible for certain kinds of re-
stricted funding.

2 It was assumed that schools that offer doctorates would attract a
greater proportion of competitive, research oriented faculty.

3 Tt was assumed that where minimum teaching loads are mandat-
ed, the loads are higher than otherwise and research is emphasized
less.

College of Medicine

Kentucky has two universities with col-
leges of medicine. Together they average
$8.6 million in federal support annually.
This compares to an average of $24 mil-
lion for 32 similar institutions in other
States.

Six Kentucky schools without colleges
of medicine receive an average of $1.7
million vs $3.0 million for 131 such
schools in other states.

Conclusion.—Kentucky’s universities
with colleges of medicine do far less well
by comparison (with similar schools in
other states) than Kentucky schools with-
out colleges of medicine. This suggests
that the capabilities of Kentucky medical
schools are underdeveloped.

Colleges of Engineering

Kentucky has 2 universities with col-
leges of engineering. The University of
Kentucky captures $15 million in federal
funds annually and the University of
Louisville captures $2.2 million. Six oth-
er Kentucky schools average $1.7 million
in federally supported research and de-

152

TABLE 2.—F EDERAL RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT FUNDS (DOLLARS IN THOUSANDS) DISTRIBUTED BY

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 41(3-4)

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE REPORTING INSTITUTIONS FISCAL YEAR 1978

Institutional characteristics

College of medicine
Yes
No
Total

College of engineering
Yes
No
Total

Land grant institution
Yes
No
Total
Highest degree awarded
Doctoral
Beyond master’s but less than doctoral
First professional
Master's

Total

Research and development coordinating officer

Yes
No

Total

Title of coordinating officer
Vice President
Dean
Director
Other and no response

Total

Institution specific teaching load
(excluding no response)
Yes
No

Total

Basic research as a percentage of total
research and development funds
(excluding no response)

81-100%
11-80%
0-10%

Total

Percentage Number of Percentage
Federal funds of total institutions of total
$ 789,177 66.4 34 19.9
399,120 33.6 137 80.1
1,188,297 100.0 171 100.0
1,031,059 86.8 66 38.6
157,238 13.2 105 61.4
1,188,297 100.0 171 100.0
611,085 51.4 32 18.7
577,212 48.6 139 81.3
1,188,297 100.0 171 100.0
1,121,035 94.3 83 48.5
27,276 Des} 23 13.4
3,770 3 5 2.9
36,216 3.0 60 35.1
1,188,297 100.0 171 100.0
1,102,277 92.8 144 84.2
86,020 ied} 2th 15.8
1,188,297 100.0 171 100.0
386,655 35.1 37 Doi
221,844 20.1 44 30.6
307,250 27.9 44 30.6
186,528 16.9 19 13.2
1,102,277 100.0 144 100.0
201,511 18.6 106 63.5
880,239 81.4 61 36.5
1,081,750 100.0 167 100.0
240,768 25.2 26 23.8
697,922 73.1 64 58.7
16,183 key 19 17.4
954,873 100.0 109 100.0

velopment annually as compared to $1.5
million average for 99 schools not having
colleges of engineering in other states.

Conclusion.—These figures compared to
an average of $15.6 million for 64 uni-
versities with engineering schools in
other states suggests that University of

Louisville capabilities are underdevel-
oped relative to other universities having
colleges of engineering.

Specification of Teaching Load

Of 106 schools that claimed to specify
teaching loads, the average level support

|

RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT FUNDING IN KENTUCKY—Kupchella et al.

in fiscal year 1978 was $1.9 million. For
61 that claimed not to specify teaching

| loads, the average was $14.4 million. For

Kentucky schools the numbers were $2.0

| vs $5.8 million, respectively.

Conclusion.—Schools that do not specify
teaching loads do very well in terms of
federal funding. That parallel is much
weaker in Kentucky than overall. No par-
ticular relationship to Kentucky’s prob-
lem is indicated.

Land Grant Status

The principal land-grant institution in
Kentucky received federal support near
the average for 30 such institutions in
other states ($15 million vs an average of
$20 million).

Kentucky’s 6, public nonland-grant in-
stitutions received an average of $1.9 mil-
lion in fiscal year 1978 compared to $4.2
million average for 133 such institutions
in other states.

Conclusion.—Land-grant schools do very
well as a group, no doubt to some degree
due to formula funding. A large share of
the Kentucky “problem” exists with its
nonland-grant institutions.

Rank of Chief Research and
Development Officer

Two Kentucky schools in which Vice
Presidents are research and development
coordinating officers received an average
of $336,000 vs an $11 million average for
35 such schools elsewhere ($10.5 million
is the overall average). The University of
Kentucky at which a “Dean” is the chief
coordinating officer for research and de-
velopment received $15 million vs a $4.8
million for 43 other such institutions
($5.0 million is the overall average).
Three Kentucky schools in which “Di-
rectors” head up research and develop-
ment coordinating efforts received an av-
erage of $1.6 million vs an average of $7.4
million for 41 such institutions in other
states ($7.0 million is the overall aver-
age).

Conclusion.—Schools in which vice
presidents are placed in charge of re-
search and development are also those

153

100

80

60

40

20

PERCENTAGE OF COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES
WITHIN INDICATED RANGE OR LOWER

0 1-100 101-200 201-300 301-400 >400
NUMBER OF FEDERALLY FUNDED PROPOSALS
FY1978

Fic. 1. Cumulative frequency distribution of the
number of grant applications funded in 8 Kentucky
universities (@) and 163 schools (O) in other states.

schools that do best in terms of federal
funding. Whether or not that is a cause
and effect relationship, it is not a signif-
icant part of Kentucky’s problem.

Existence of a Research and
Development Office

One hundred forty-four schools with
research and development coordinating
offices received an average of $7.6 mil-
lion vs an average of $3.2 million for 27
schools without such an office.

Kentucky schools with coordinating
offices received an average of $3.4 mil-
lion vs $7.8 million for such schools in
other states.

Conclusion.—Whether or not any cause
and effect relationship exists, having or
not having a coordinating office is not a
major factor with regard to Kentucky's
low standing.

Research and Development Focus

Kentucky schools (3) claiming that 81-
100 percent of their federal research and
development funds went for basic re-
search received an average of $5.8 mil-
lion vs a $9.7 million average for 23 such
institutions in other states.

Sixty-four schools in other states that

154

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 41(3-4)

TABLE 3.—-PERCENTAGES OF 7 KENTUCKY SCHOOLS THAT RECEIVED FEWER THAN 100 FEDERAL GRANTS
COMPARED WITH PERCENTAGES OF 35 COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES THAT RECEIVED MORE THAN 100
SUCH GRANTS

7 Kentucky 35 Other colleges 3
colleges and universities Characteristic
14 51 Have a college of medicine
14 80 Have a college of engineering
14 49 Have a land grant status
14 100 Confer doctoral degrees
71 26 Specify full-time teaching loads for faculty
30 90 Do predominantly (>80%) basic/applied
research with research and development funds

71 9 Do predominantly (>80%) development work

with research and development funds

claimed that 11-80 percent of their fed-
eral funds went for basic research, aver-
aged $10.9 million. Kentucky HAD NO
SUCH SCHOOLS!

Five Kentucky schools that claimed
that less than 10 percent of their federal
dollars went to basic research averaged
$2 million compared to an average of
$428,000 for 14 schools in other states
making such a claim.

Conclusion.—A disproportionately large
number of Kentucky schools focus on de-
velopment. Another way of stating this is
that Kentucky has a few institutions that
focus on basic research, a larger number
of schools that focus on “development,”
and has none in between. It also seems
legitimate to conclude that the fact rela-
tively few Kentucky schools place em-
phasis on basic research may be an im-
portant reason for Kentucky’s overall low
standing.

Confer Doctoral Degrees

Kentucky schools that confer doc-
torates garner an average of $8.6 million
in federal research and development
money annually compared to $13.6 mil-
lion for 81 such institutions in other
states. Among schools granting master’s
degrees and beyond but short of the doc-
torate, 6 Kentucky schools do as well or
better than their counterparts in other
states. It should be noted that 2 of 8 (25%)
of Kentucky schools grant doctorates
while half the responding schools in oth-
er states do so.

Conclusion.—Overall, these results sug-
gest both that our doctoral granting insti-
tutions do not compete well as a “group.”
Another possible hypothetical explana-
tion of the data is that Kentucky has pro-
portionately few “doctoral degree grant-
ing type” institutions. A cumulative
frequency distribution of the numbers of
grant applications funded in 8 Kentucky
schools and 156 schools in other states is
given in Fig. 1. All but 1 Kentucky school
received fewer than 100 grants in 1978.
While the pattern illustrated in Fig. 1
suggests that our institutions may be
smaller on the average (a plausible ex-
planation since New York and California
are included among the “other” states)
than schools in other states, it also sug-
gest that the “middle” is missing. Al-
though it is not shown here, a cumulative
frequency distribution for total dollars re-
ceived by individual institutions reveals
the same pattern.

Grant Awards

No attempt was made here to evaluate
grant/contract capture ratios (success
rate) or absolute numbers of applications
submitted. The questionnaire did ask
about relative numbers of grant awards,
however.

One of 8 (13%) Kentucky institutions
received more than 100 federal grants
compared to 35 of 163 (21%) in other
states. This suggests that Kentucky has
proportionately fewer colleges and uni-
versities in big-time competition for fed-

)

Se ore

RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT FUNDING IN KENTUCKY—Kupchella et al.

eral research and development re-
sources.

In Table 3, the group of 35 institutions
that received more than 100 federal
grants is compared to the group of 7 Ken-
tucky schools that received fewer than
100.

OVERALL CONCLUSIONS
Recommendations

Legislative Research Commission Re-
port No. 156 (Collins et al. 1979) cited a
number of “readily apparent’ factors that
correlate with success of individual states
in capturing federal research and devel-
opment dollars. They include (1) number
of corporate headquarters, (2) adult edu-
cational attainment, (3) presence of sci-
entifically oriented industry, (4) general
economy, and (5) the existence of nonac-
ademic scientific research institutes. Re-
port No. 156 concludes that “establish-
ment of a scientific research institute

.. would contribute significantly to the
state’s ability to attract federal R & D
funds.” The report acknowledges that al-
though the Commonwealth has “experi-
mented” with a now defunct nonacadem-
ic research institute, the state might be
well advised to reconsider its past expe-
riences and “work again to establish a
scientific research institute ....”

With regard to colleges and universi-
ties specifically, Report No. 156 con-
cludes that having a college of medicine,
and/or a college of engineering, having
unspecified teaching loads, conferring
doctorates, and having a basic research
focus are all marks of the “most” suc-
cessful schools. Kentucky has just 2
schools with all those features.

Among the suggestions and specific
recommendations made in Report No.
156 relative to improvement in the ability
of Kentucky’s institutions of higher edu-
cation to attract federal research and de-
velopment dollars are the following:

—‘“There should be an increase in
“active support” of research and de-
velopment from federal and state leg-
islators and state and university
administrators;

155

—There should be an increase in the
number of federal grant proposals writ-
ten;

—Universities should develop a “focal
point’—an area of interest—in re-
search and development;

—State funds should be appropriated to
the state-supported universities for
“start-up” or matching funds for fed-
eral R & D projects; and

—A statewide R & D council should be
established.” (Collins et al. 1979:2).

Following a visit to the Governor's of-
fice in Frankfort by members of the Ken-
tucky Academy of Science State Govern-
ment/Science Committee, a letter was
sent to Governor John Y. Brown in re-
sponse to the suggestion by his chief ad-
ministrative aide that the governor be
sent a list of things the governor might
do about “the problem.” The suggestions
made in that letter were:

(1) Appoint a science advisor with a sci-
ence background.
(2) Appoint a commission, or charge an
existing commission with making
recommendations for improving the
health of science in Kentucky.
Encourage the Council on Higher
Education to set up a research and
development council to look into so-
lutions to the problem and to be
charged with looking after university
research and development on an on-
going basis.
Encourage the Council on Higher
Education to establish a fund to be
used to establish centers of research
and development excellence in one
or more specific scientific areas at
each of the state’s institutions of
higher education.
(5) Work toward the establishment of a
federal laboratory in Kentucky, on
the order of Oak Ridge in Tennessee.
Encourage state university presi-
dents to develop latent research and
development potential that exists in
their respective institutions.

The next (and last) in this series of
reports will summarize the economic im-

156 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 41(3-4)

pact of Kentucky’s relatively low stand-
ing in capturing research and develop-
ment dollars.

LITERATURE CITED

COLLINS, M. L., R. SIMS, AND J. K. WALKER.
1979. Federal Research and Development
Funding in Kentucky, Research Report No.
156, Legislative Research Commission, Frank-
fort, Ky.

KUPCHELLA, C. E., R. Sims, M. L. COLLINS, AND K.
WALKER. 1979. Federal funding for research
and development in Kentucky: I. Background.
Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci. 40(3-4):149-153.

, K. WALKER, R. SIMS, AND M. L. COL-
LINS. 1980. Federal funding for research and
development in Kentucky: II. Kentucky in
Comparison with Other States. Trans. Ky. Acad.
Sci. 41(1-2):1-11.

Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 41(3-4), 1980, 157-159

Investigation of Chiropteran Use of the Salt River,
Spencer and Anderson Counties,

Kentucky, July 1978

ANDREW MILLER! AND JOHN KESSLER?

U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Louisville, Kentucky 40201

ABSTRACT

From 14 to 27 July 1978, riparian sections of the Salt River, Spencer and Anderson counties,
Kentucky, site of the proposed Taylorsville Lake project, were sampled for bats. A total of 32
l-inch mist nets was utilized during 8 trap nights. Seventy bats were collected, including the
little brown bat Myotis lucifugus (50 individuals), the red bat Lasiurus borealis (16 individuals),

and 4 eastern pipistrelles Pipistrellus subflavus.

INTRODUCTION

The purpose of this study was to look
for the Indiana bat Myotis sodalis listed
as endangered by the U.S. Department of
the Interior. The areas sampled will be af-
fected by Taylorsville Lake, a U.S. Army
Corps of Engineers project and sched-
uled for completion in the early 1980s.
That lake, to be located about 100 km (60
miles) upstream from the mouth of the
Salt River, will provide flood control,
general and fish and wildlife recreation,
and water quality control. Minimum pool
will be at elevation 522 msl (surface area
1,625 acres, 658 ha), and flood pool (max-
imum) will be at elevation 592 msl (sur-
face area 6,350 acres, 2,570 ha). Nursery
colonies of M. sodalis have been found
along medium-sized streams in Indiana
similar to the Salt River by Cope et al.
(1974, 1978) and Humphrey et al. (1977).

The Salt River is 240 km (150 miles)
long, originates in Boyle County, Ken-
tucky, and terminates at Mile 630 on the
Ohio River. In the study area, about 37
percent of the land is cropped, 24 percent
is devoted to pasture, 35 percent to
woods, and 4 percent is in homesites or
other uses. This section of the Salt River
consists mainly of pool-riffle habitat in-
terspersed with large beds of water wil-

' Mailing Address: Rt. 3, Box 177-C, Vicksburg,
Mississippi 39180.

» Mailing Address: RR 3, Taylorsville, Kentucky
40071.

low Dianthera americana L. Along the
river, banks are steep and lined with sil-
ver maple Acer saccharinum L., and
smaller numbers of cottonwood Populus
deltoides Marsh., black willow Salix ni-
gra Marsh., sycamore Platanus occiden-
talis L., and bur oak Quercus macrocar-
pa Michx., giant ragweed Ambrosia
trifida L., wood nettle Laportea cana-
densis (L.) Wedd., and moming glory
Iopomoea spp.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

One-inch mist nets were used for this
study; as appropriate 9-, 12.8-, or 18-m
lengths (2 m wide) were stretched across
the river, either at water level or stacked
in tiers. Six sections in the Taylorsville
Lake project area were examined for bats
during July 1978. Four sites were on the
Salt River and 2 were at the mouths of
tributary streams (Fig. 1). Nets were
tended from dusk until midnight (EDT).
All trapped bats were retrieved from the
nets by hand, identified and sexed, and
their approximate age (adult or imma-
ture) was determined. Nets were set in
areas that provided the most favorable
conditions for bats. Factors considered
were: (1) dense riparian growth and a
closed or nearly closed canopy above the
river; (2) areas favorable for emergent in-
sects, i.e., close to a riffle, a moist area, or
a dense growth of Dianthera americana;
and (3) the presence of a large dead or
dying tree or trees with peeling bark
which could be potential nursery habitat.

157

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 41(3-4)

158

bs

EET =/e)
MOTTIM S$

"SL6T Apnf “Ayony
“Udy ‘soUunood uOSsIOpUuy pure Jaoueds ‘soleynqiy pue IDATY YES 94} uo $}yeq 10j pa[dures SvIIY

OO Y3ON3dS

‘T ‘og

BATS OF THE SALT RIVER, KENTUCKY—Miller and Kessler

It was noted that braided sections of the
river usually provided excellent bat hab-
itat.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Although Myotis sodalis was not found
during this survey of the Salt River, 70
bats were collected. The most common
was the little brown bat M. lucifugus (50
individuals), followed by the red bat Las-
iurus borealis (16 individuals). Only 4
eastern pipistrelles Pipistrellus subfla-
vus were netted during this study, al-
though from 2 to 42 eastern pipistrelles
were observed roosting intermittently in
a barn in the study area during the spring
and early summer of 1978. The majority
of the M. lucifugus (84%) and L. borealis
(69%) were female. Thirty of the M. lu-
cifugus and 9 of the L. borealis collected
were judged to be immature. All of the P.
subflavus netted were females, one of
which was immature. The M. lucifigus
netted during this study probably were
roosting in barns, attics, or deserted
houses by day (Barbour and Davis 1974),
although it occasionally roosts in trees
(Seerley et al. 1978). The eastern pipis-
trelle has been described as a forest edge
species that rarely takes up residence in
buildings (Barbour and Davis 1974). The
barn where the eastern pipistrelles were
observed was within 100 m of the river
and about 5 km from the site where they
were collected (Site 4a). The red bat in-
habits deciduous trees during the day,
usually clinging to the underside of large
leaves.

The overall bat fauna of the Salt River
area, in comparison with published in-
formation on comparable rivers in In-
diana, is abundant. Although this survey
yielded only 3 species, an average of 8.8
bats per night were collected. In 192
nights of netting over streams in Indiana,
Cope et al. (1978) have taken 965 bats or
approximately 5 bats per night. In their
recent study of the Big Blue River, 7
species, a total of 145 individuals, were
taken in 15 nights (9.7 bats per night).
The bat fauna of the Salt River area dur-

159

ing the sampling period was not as di-
verse as that reported along Big Blue Riv-
er, Indiana. That may be the result of the
short period of this sampling effort; if
sampling were done earlier and later in
the season a greater variety of species
might have been taken.

Present knowledge of this species is
too incomplete to fully explain the ap-
parent absence of M. sodalis along this
or any similar stream. Certainly the food,
dense vegetation, riffles, and a closed
canopy, all apparently significant to the
maintenance of this species, are present
along the Salt River. It is possible that the
Salt River area may be used early or late in
the season by migrating Indiana bats. This
area lies between two major hibernacula
for M. sodalis. Mammoth Cave is about
112 km (70 miles) to the southwest and
Carter Cave lies approximately 176 km
(110 miles) to the northeast. Since Indiana
bats move primarily north in the spring,
it is unlikely that any Indiana bats from
Carter Cave move through the Salt River
area. Indiana bats from Mammoth Cave
have been caught in the Louisville vicin-
ity (Barbour and Davis 1969) and could
potentially utilize the Salt River, at least
during migration.

LITERATURE CITED

BARBOUR, R. W., AND W. H. Davis. 1969. Bats of
America. University Press of Kentucky, Lexing-
ton, Ky.

, AND ————. 1974. Mammals of Ken-
tucky. The University Press of Kentucky, Lex-
ington, Ky.

Cope, J. B., A. R. RICHTER, AND R. S. MILLS.
1974. A summer concentration of the Indiana
Bat, Myotis sodalis in Wayne County, Indiana.
Proc. Ind. Acad. Sc. 83:482-484.

5 , AND D. A. SEERLEY. 1978. A
survey of bats in the Big Blue Lake Project
Area in Indiana. Final Report Submitted to
Army Corps of Engineers, 16 October 1978. Jo-
seph Moore Museum, Earlham College, Rich-
mond, Indiana.

HUMPHREY, S. R., A. R. RICHTER, AND J. B. COPE.
1977. Summer habitat and ecology of the en-
dangered Indiana Bat, Myotis sodalis. J. Mam-
mal. 58:334-346.

SEERLEY, D., J. MILLS, AND A. RICHTER. Personal
Communication. Earlham College. Big Blue
River Study, July 1978.

CONSTITUTION OF
THE KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

As Adopted 8 May 1914 and subsequently amended
Revised 26 November 1951
Revised 14 November 1970
Revised 3 November 1979

BYLAWS

Revised 3 November 1979 |

160

BYLAWS 161

ARTICLE I.

Section 1. This organization shall be known as the Kentucky Academy of Science.
Section 2. The objectives of the Academy shall be to encourage scientific research,
i to promote the diffusion of scientific knowledge, and to unify the scientific interests
of the Commonwealth of Kentucky.

ARTICLE II.

_ Section 1. The membership of the Academy shall consist of Active Members, Student

Members, Life Members, Honorary Members, Emeritus Members, Sustaining

Members, and Institutional Affiliates.

Section 2. Active Members shall be individuals who are interested in science and

| the objectives of the Academy. Each Active Member shall pay to the Academy

| annual dues as prescribed in the Bylaws. Life Members shall be Active Members
who have paid at one time a suitable sum, as prescribed in the Bylaws, and are
therefore relieved from further payment of dues.

Section 3. Student Members shall be full-time undergraduate, or part-time or full-
time graduate students at a recognized institution of higher learning. Each Student
Member shall pay to the Academy annual dues as prescribed in the Bylaws. Stu-
dent Members shall have all the rights and privileges of Active Members but may
not hold office. No individual shall be allowed to be a Student Member more than
five years.

Section 4. Honorary Members shall be persons who have acquired national or inter-
national renown in science. They shall enjoy all the privileges of active member-
ship except holding office and shall be free from all dues. The number of Honorary
Members shall not exceed twenty at any time.

Section 5. Emeritus Members shall be members who have retired from active service,
and who petition the Executive Committee for a change in classification. They
shall enjoy all the privileges of active membership except holding office, and shall
be released from payment of dues.

Section 6. Sustaining Members shall be educational or industrial institutions or de-
partments of such institutions, or individuals interested in the promotion and ad-
vancement of science, and who are in sympathy with the objectives of the Acad-
emy. Annual dues shall be paid as prescribed in the Bylaws.

Section 7. Institutional Affiliates shall be business, industrial, or academic institu-
tions, departments of such institutions, or individuals who through support have
indicated their sympathy and accord with the aims and purposes of the Academy.
Annual dues shall be paid as prescribed in the Bylaws.

Section 8. For election to any class of membership, the candidate must be nominated
by an Active Member, must have paid the first year’s dues, must be approved by
the Membership Committee, and must receive a three-fourths vote of the members
of the Academy present at any session or unanimous vote of the members of the
Executive Committee present or voting by letter.

ARTICLE III.

Section 1. The officers of the Academy shall consist of a President, a President Elect,
a Vice President, a Secretary, a Treasurer, and Representatives to the Association
of Academies of Science of the American Association for the Advancement of Sci-
ence.

Section 2. The officers, except the President and Representatives to the Association
of Academies of Science of the American Association for the Advancement of Sci-
ence, shall be elected annually at the fall meeting. The Representatives to the
Association of Academies of Science of the American Association for the Advance-

162 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 41(3-4)

ment of Science shall be elected triennially and must be Fellows of the American
Association for the Advancement of Science.

Section 3. The President Elect shall succeed the retiring President. In case he is
unable to assume office, a President shall be elected at the fall meeting. The Vice
President shall succeed the President Elect when he becomes President, and a
new Vice President shall be elected. The President Elect shall be an ex-officio
member of the Board of Directors.

Section 4. The elected officers shall take office at the close of the fall meeting and
shall hold office until their successors have been elected.

ARTICLE IV.

Section 1. The President shall discharge the usual duties of a presiding officer at all
general meetings of the Academy, the Executive Committee, and the Council. He
shall keep himself constantly informed on the affairs of the Academy and on its
acts and those of its officers, and he shall cause the provisions of the Constitution
and Bylaws to be faithfully carried into effect. He shall be a member of the Board
of Directors.

Section 2. The Vice President shall assume the duties of the President in the event
of his absence (or disability) from the general meetings of the Academy or the
Executive Committee.

Section 3. The Secretary shall keep the records of the proceedings of the Academy
and the Executive Committee. He shall maintain a complete list of members of the
Academy with the dates of their election to the different classes of membership
and their separation from the Academy. He shall keep copies of the Constitution
for distribution to new officers, and to any member on request. He shall cooperate
with the President in attending to the ordinary affairs of the Academy, and shall
have charge of the preparation, printing, and mailing of circulars, blanks, and an-
nouncements of meetings.

Section 4. The Treasurer shall have custody of all funds of the Academy. He may, at
his discretion, deposit the funds in a bank that is a member of the Federal Deposit
Insurance Corporation, but he shall not invest them without authority of the Ex-
ecutive Committee and Board of Directors. He shall keep an account of receipts
and disbursements in detail, and those accounts shall be audited as hereinafter
provided in the Bylaws.

ARTICLE V.

Section 1. The Executive Committee shall consist of the President, the President
Elect, the Vice President, the Secretary, the Treasurer, the immediate Past Presi-
dent, the Editor of the Transactions, the Representatives to the Association of
Academies of Science of the American Association for the Advancement of Science,
the Chairman of the Junior Academy, and the Chairman of the Board of Directors.

Section 2. The Executive Committee shall execute and administer the affairs of the
Academy during intervals between the various sessions of the organization, except
those duties assigned to the Council, and shall fill vacancies.

Section 3. The first meeting of the new Executive Committee shall be held within
three months after the adjournment of the fall meeting of the Academy.

ARTICLE VI.
Section I. Sections of the Academy shall be organized to represent the various fields
of science.
Section 2. Any scientific organization in the Commonwealth of Kentucky in a field

of science recognized by the American Association for the Advancement of Science
may affiliate with the Academy.

BYLAWS 163

Section 3. The establishment of sections shall be approved by the Executive Com-
mittee and by a three-fourths vote of the members voting at a regular meeting of
the Academy.

Section 4. Each section shall elect annually a Chairman and a Secretary to take office
concurrent with the officers of the Academy.

ARTICLE VII.

Section 1. The Council shall consist of the Executive Committee and the Chairman
of each section of the Academy.

Section 2. Members of the Council shall serve as the Program Committee for the
meetings of the Academy and shall otherwise promote its welfare subject to the
call of the President.

ARTICLE VIII.

Section 1. The President shall appoint a Nominating Committee of at least three
members to serve for the year. The Committee shall present nominations for all
officers to be elected for the following year. Nominations may also be made from
the floor. The candidate who receives the majority of votes cast shall be declared
elected. It shall be the further responsibility of the Committee to poll the mem-
bership in order to provide for the President and the Executive Committee a list
of members interested in serving on the Standing Committees.

Section 2. There shall be four Standing Committees, namely:

1. A Committee on Membership that consists of at least three members appointed
by the President.

2. A Committee on Publications that consists of the President, three members
appointed by the President, and the Editor of the Transactions.

3. A Committee on Legislation that consists of three members appointed by the
President. The Committee shall be responsible for the consideration of legis-
lation that affects the scientific interests of the Commonwealth of Kentucky and
the Academy. It shall recommend to the Executive Committee of the Academy
on action to be taken.

4. A Committee on Distribution of Research Funds that consists of three members
appointed by the President.

Section 3. Members of the Standing Committees shall be appointed by the President
upon the recommendation of the Nominating Committee and the Executive Com-
mittee. Members will serve for a term of three years on a rotational basis.

Section 4. The President shall designate the Chairman of each committee at the time
his committee appointees are announced.

ARTICLE IX.

Section 1. The Kentucky Academy of Science shall hold annually a fall meeting. In
addition, spring or other special sessions may be called by the Executive Com-
mittee or by the Secretary of the Academy upon the written request of twenty
active members of the Academy.

ARTICLE X.

Section 1. The Academy shall publish the Transactions of the Kentucky Academy
of Science and other publications with the approval of the Executive Committee.

Section 2. Each member in good standing and each club in the Junior Academy shall
receive a copy of the Transactions gratis.

Section 3. The President shall appoint the Editor of the Transactions subject to the
approval of the Executive Committee. The Editor shall appoint appropriate Asso-
ciate Editors. The Editor and Associate Editors shall be members of the Academy.

164 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 41(3-4)

ARTICLE XI.

Section 1. There shall be a Board of Directors that consists of eight elected members,
the President, the President Elect, and the immediate Past President, the last two
as ex-officio members.

Section 2. Two members shall be elected at each fall meeting for a four-year term.

Section 3. A record of the activities of the Board of Directors shall be submitted to
the Academy at each fall meeting or whenever called for by the President of the
Academy.

Section 4. The Board of Directors shall have the responsibility for the overall direc-
tion of the affairs of the Academy. In said Board shall be vested and by said Board
shall be exercised all the ordinary and appropriate powers and functions of the
Academy. Said Board shall meet annually to choose from their members a Chair-
man and a Secretary to act as such, respectively, until their successors are elected.

Section 5. A quorum shall consist of a majority of the voting members of the Board.

ARTICLE XII.

Section 1. The Kentucky Junior Academy of Science shall be a division of the Ken-
tucky Academy of Science.

Section 2. The President of the Academy shall appoint three Active Members of the
Kentucky Academy of Science to the Governing Committee of the Junior Academy.
He shall designate one of them as Chairman.

Section 3. The Chairman of the Governing Committee shall be the director of the
affairs of the Junior Academy.

Section 4. The Governing Committee shall designate one of its members as Treasurer
of the Junior Academy. All dues paid to and contributions made to the Junior
Academy shall be deposited with him.

Section 5. No bill against the Junior Academy shall be paid unless it has been signed
by the Chairman of the Governing Committee or its payment has been authorized
by the Governing Committee as a whole.

Section 6. The accounts of the Treasurer of the Junior Academy shall be audited
annually by a committee of two members, one to be appointed by the President of
the Kentucky Academy of Science and one to be appointed by the Chairman of the
Governing Committee.

Section 7. The Chairman of the Governing Committee shall make an annual report
to the Kentucky Academy of Science. That report shall include a report on the
finances of the Junior Academy as prepared by its Treasurer.

Section 8. The Junior Academy shall operate under a Constitution approved by the
Kentucky Academy of Science. All revisions of the Constitution of the Junior Acad-
emy el be referred to the fall meeting of the Kentucky Academy of Science for
approval.

ARTICLE XIII.

Section I. The Constitution of the Kentucky Academy of Science may be amended
at any regular meeting by a three-fourths vote of all members present, provided a
notice of said amendment has been sent to all members thirty days in advance of
the meeting.

I.

II.

III.

BYLAWS 165

BYLAWS

The following shall be the order of business:
1. Call to order.
2. Reports of officers.
3. Report of the Executive Committee.
4. Reports of Standing Committees.
5. Election of members.
6. Reports of special committees.
7. Appointment of special committees.
8. Unfinished business.
9. New business.

10. Election of officers and directors.

11. Program.

12. Adjournment.

Twenty members shall constitute a quorum of the Academy for the transaction

of business. Five members shall constitute a quorum of the Executive Com-

mittee.

Annual dues of Active Members shall be ten dollars per year. Student Members

shall pay seven dollars per year. Sustaining Members shall pay twenty-five

dollars per year. Life Membership shall be one hundred dollars paid in a single

sum. Institutional Affiliates shall pay fifty dollars or multiples thereof per year.

. Members who shall allow their dues to lapse for a year, having been notified

of their arrearage by the Treasurer, shall have their names stricken from the
roll.

. The President shall appoint annually an Auditing Committee of three who

shall examine and report in writing the financial records of the Treasurer.

. The Secretary and the Treasurer shall be free from all dues during their terms

of office.

. All papers or abstracts of same, intended for presentation on any program of

the Academy, must be submitted to the Secretary previous to the meeting.

. These Bylaws may be amended or suspended by a two-thirds vote of the mem-

bers present at any meeting.

. To establish a proper rotational basis for Standing Committees, the first year,

one member will be appointed for a three-year term, one for a two-year term,
and one for a one-year term.

. The President shall appoint one representative to each section of the American

Association for the Advancement of Science in which the Academy is enrolled.
The term of appointment shall be for three years.

Academy Affairs, 70
Acalypha virginica, 30
Acanthaceae, 32
Acer negundo, 144
A. pensylvanicum, 46
A. saccharinum, 156
Achillea millefolium, 33
Actinomeris alternifolia, 33
Actinonaias carinata, 56
Aesculus pavia, 31
Aeshnidae, 101
Agelaius phoenicus, 23
Agrimonia rostellata, 30
Alasmidonta calceolus, 56
A. marginata, 56
Algal flora, 141
Allocapnia, 103
A. ohioensis, 101
A. rickeri, 101
Amaranthaceae, 29
Amaranthus spinosus, 29, 34
Amblema costata, 56
Ambloplites rupestris, 38, 40
Ambrosia artemisiifolia, 33
A. trifida, 33, 156
Ameletus lineatus, 101
Ameletus sp., 101
Amia calva, 124
Amphicarpa bracteata, 30
Amsonia tabernaemontana, 31
Anabaena affinis, 142
Anacardiaceae, 30
Anacystis cyanea, 141
Anderson County, 156, 157
Andropogon, 132-137
A. virginicus, 132, 133, 136

var. abbreviatus, 132

var. glaucopsis, 132

var. glaucus, 132

var. hirsutior, 132

var. tetrastachyus, 132
Anemone virginiana, 29
Anemonella thalictroides, 29
Ankistrodesmus falcatus, 142
Annonaceae, 29
Antennaria plantaginifolia, 33
Aphanochaete repens, 142
Aphredoderus sayanus, 125
Aplodinotus grunniens, 118-120
Apocynaceae, 31
Aquifoliaceae, 30
Arabis missouriensis, 30
Araceae, 28
Arctocorixa signata, 101
Argia sedula, 101

INDEX TO VOLUME 41

A. sp., 101
Arisaema dracontium, 28
Aristolochiaceae, 29
Aronia arbutifolia, 139
Arundinaria gigantea, 28, 34
Asarum canadense, 29
Asclepiadaceae, 31
Asclepias perennis, 139
A. variegata, 31
Ascyrum hypericoides, 31
Asimina triloba, 29
Aster azureus, 33
A. divaricatus, 33
A. dumosus, 33

var. strictior, 33
A. lateriflorus, 27, 33
A. patens, 33
A. vimineus, 139
Asteromonas, 128

Backusburg Hill, 27
Calloway County, 27
Bacillariophyceae, 127
Baetidae, 101
Balsaminaceae, 31
Bartonia paniculata, 139
Basicladia crassa, 142
Bass, rock, 40, 41, 43
smallmouth, 37
spotted, 40, 43
Bat, Indiana, 156, 158
little brown, 158
red, 156
BELL, DAVID E., 35
BENNETT, MARK E., 12
Berberidaceae, 29
Betula lutea, 46
Bidens aristosa, 33
B. bipinnata, 33
Bidessus affinis, 102
B. flavicollis, 102
Birds, effect of tracked vehicle
activity, 15
Blackbird, red-winged, 22-25
Blapstinus, 89-98
B. aciculus, 91
B. alutaceus, 90, 91, 93, 94, 97,
98
B. auripilis, 90, 93, 95
B. barri, 90, 92
B. brevicollis, 92, 93, 95, 98
B. debilis, 90, 91
B. dilatatus, 91, 95, 96, 98
B. dispar, 90, 91, 94
B. fortis, 91, 93

166

B. fuscus, 90, 94
B. histricus, 90, 91, 93, 95
B. intermixtus, 90
B. longulus, 90, 93, 94
B. metallicus, 90, 93, 94
B. moestus, 90, 93
B. pimalis, 94
B. pratensis, 90
B. pubescens, 90, 98
B. pulverulentus, 90, 91, 94, 95
B. substriatus, 91, 92, 95, 96
B. sulcatus, 90, 91, 92, 94, 98
B. validus, 91, 93
B. vandykei, 92, 93
B. vestitus, 90, 92-94
Blarina brevicauda, 18, 46, 47
Bluegill, 124
Bobwhite, 23, 24
Boltonia asteroides, 33
Bosmina sp., 111-113
Bothriocephalus texomensis , 122
Boyeria vinosa, 101, 103
Bubo virginianus, 12
Boehmeria cylindrica, 29
Boraginaceae, 32
Bowfin, 124
Box elder, 144
chlorophyll levels as ecotypic
characters in, 144
seedlings, 144
BRANSON, BRANLEY A., 57
Brachyptera sp., 101
Brasenia schreberi, 61
Bryopsidophyceae, 127
BUCKNER, RICHARD L., 122
Bunting, indigo, 22-24
BURR, BROOKS M., 48
Burreed, 125
Buteo jamaicensis, 23

Caborius, 103

C. punctissimus, 102, 103
Caddisflies, 103

Caenidae, 101

Caenis sp., 101

Calanoida, 112, 113
CALDWELL, RONALD S., 46
Calloway County, 27
Calopterygidae, 101
Calopteryx maculatum, 101
Campanula americana, 33
Campanulaceae, 33
Campostoma anomalum, 38, 40
Canabinaceae, 29

Cannabis sativa, 29, 34

a ae a ae

ES ee a

Capniidae, 101

Caprifoliaceae, 32

Cardamine bulbosa, 30

C. hirsuta, 30

Cardinal, 22, 24, 25

Cardinalis cardinalis, 25

Cardiomonas, 129

Carex amphibola, 28

C. convoluta, 28

C. flaccosperma, 139

C. lurida, 28

Carp, 37, 120

Carpiodes, 118, 119

Caryophyllaceae, 29

Cassia fasciculata, 30

C. marilandica, 30

C. nictitans, 30

Catastomidae, 38

Catbird, gray, 22, 24, 25

Cattails, 124, 125

Cathartes aura, 23

Catostomus commersoni, 38

Celastraceae, 31

Celithemis elisa, 101, 103

Centrarchidae, 38, 118, 119

Centroptilum sp., 101

Cephalanthus occidentalis, 61

Cercis canadensis, 30

Chaetophora incrassata, 142

Chaetophorales, 127, 142

Chaoborinae, 111-113

Chara sp., 124, 125

Charophyceae, 127

Chenopodiaceae, 29

Chenopodium album, 29, 34

Cheumatopsyche spp., 102, 103

Chickadee, Carolina, 22, 24, 25

Chimarra sp., 102

Chipmunk, eastern, 17, 21

Chiroptera, 156

Chlamydomonadaceae, 128

Chlamydomonas intermedia,
142

Chlamydomonas sp., 65-68

C. orbicularis, 142

Chlorella vulgaris, 65, 67, 68

Chlorhormidium klebsii, 142

Chlorococcales, 64-68, 127, 142

Chloromonadales, 127

Chloromonadophyceae, 127

Chlorophyceae, 126, 127, 142

Chlorophyta, 63, 64, 68, 126

Choroterpes sp., 101

Chroococcales, 141

Chrosomus erythrogaster, 37,38

Chrysemys scripta elegans, 141

Chrysocapsales, 143

Chrysomonadales, 143

INDEX TO VOLUME 41

Chrysophyceae, 67, 143
Chrysophyta, 63, 64, 67
Chub, bigeye, 37
creek, 49
Chubsucker, lake, 124, 125
Cinna arundinacea, 28
Cinygma sp., 101
Cladocera, 112, 113
Cladocerans, 111
Cladophorales, 127, 142
CLARK, AARON L., 116
Claytonia virginica, 27, 29
Clethrionomys gapperi, 47
Clitoria mariana, 30
Cloeon sp., 101
Closterium abruptum, 142
C. ehrenbergii, 142
C. juncidum, 142
var. brevior, 142
C. kuetzingii, 142
C. littorale, 142
C. moniliferum, 142
C. pusillum, 142
Clupeidae, 118, 119
Coccochloris stagnina, 141
Coenagrionidae, 101
Colaptes auratus, 25
Coleoptera, 89, 100, 102, 103
COLLINS, MARY LYNN, 1, 150
Collodictyon, 128, 129
Commelina communis, 28
var. ludens, 28
C. virginica, 28
Commelinaceae, 28
Compositae, 33
Conjugales, 127
Constitution of The Kentucky
Academy of Science, 159
Bylaws, 165
Convolvulaceae, 31
Copepoda, 112, 113
Corbicula maniliensis, 56
Corixidae, 101
Cornaceae, 31
Cornus florida, 31
Corvus brachyrhynchos, 25
Corydalidae, 102
Corydalus cornutus, 102
Cosmarium granatum, 142
C. margaritatum, 142
C. sp., 64, 65
C. turpinii, 142
Cottidae, 38
Cottonwood, 156
Cottus carolinae, 38, 40
Cowbird, brown-headed, 23, 24
Crappie, black, 124
Crappies, 105

167

Craspedophyceae, 127

Crassulaceae, 30

Crow, common, 22, 24, 25

Cruciferae, 30

Cryptomonas sp., 64, 65, 67

Cryptophyceae, 67, 127

Cryptotaenia canadensis, 31

Cuscuta cuspidata, 27, 31

Cutgrass, 124

Cyanophyceae, 127

Cyanophyta, 63, 64, 68

Cyclopoda, 112, 113

Cylindrocapsales, 127

Cylindrospermum catenatum,
142

Cynoglossum virginianum, 32

Cyperaceae, 28

Cyperus lancastriensis, 28, 34

Cypress, bald, 125

Cypress Creek, 124, 125

Cyprinidae, 37, 118, 119

Cyprinids, 48

distributional status in Ken-

tucky, 48

Cyprinus carpio, 37, 38, 118-120

Dace, southern redbelly, 37
Darter, greenside, 40, 43
johnny, 37
orangefin, 40, 41, 43
orange throat, 53
rainbow, 40, 41, 43
slough, 124
Darters, unidentified, 39, 41
DAVIS, JERRY C., 89
DEMOSS, GERALD L., 99
Dentaria lacinata, 30
Desmodium nudiflorum, 30
D. paniculatum, 30
D. sessilifolium, 30
Dianthera americana, 156
Diaphanosoma sp., 111-113
Diatoms, naviculoid, 64, 65
Dicentra cucullaria, 30
Digitaria sanguinalis, 28
DILLARD, GARY E., 60, 126
DILLMAN, RICHARD D., JR.,
147
Dimorphococcus lunatus, 142
Dineutus discolor, 102
D. hornii, 102
Dinobryon sp., 64, 65, 67
Dinophyceae, 67, 127, 143
Diodia teres, 32
Dioscorea villosa, 28
Dioscoreaceae, 28
Diptera, 99, 112, 113

168 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 41(3-4)

Dove, mourning, 22, 24, 25
rock, 23, 24

Duckweed, 124, 125

Dulichium arundinaceum, 61

Dumetella carolinensis, 25

Dunaliella, 128, 129

Dytiscidae, 102

Eclipta alba, 33
Elassoma zonatum, 123-125
Eleocharis spp., 124
Elephantopus carolinianus, 33
Ellipsoidion dispar, 64, 65, 67
Elliptio dilatata, 56
Elmidae, 102
Elymus virginicus, 28

var. glabriflorus, 28
Ephemerella, 103
E. funeralis, 101
Ephemerellidae, 101
Ephemeroptera, 100, 101, 103,

112, 113
Epifagus virginiana, 32
Erechtites hieracifolia, 33
Ericaceae, 31
Ericymba buccata, 48, 49, 57, 58
Erigenia bulbosa, 31
Erigeron annuus, 33
E. canadensis, 33
E. philadelphicus, 33
Erimyzon sucetta, 124
Eryginum prostratum, 139
Erythronium albidum, 28
E. americanum, 28
Esox americanus vermiculatus,
124

Etheostoma bellum, 38-40
. blennioides, 38-40
. caeruleum, 38-40, 58
. flabellare, 38
. gracile, 124
. nigrum, 37, 38
. spectabile, 53
. spp., 118, 119
. (Ulocentra) sp., 38
. variatum, 58
. zonale, 38
Euastrum ansatum, 142
Eudorina elegans, 142
Euglena acus, 142
E. proxima, 142
E. sp., 64-68
E. spiroides, 142

var. Annulata, 142
E. viridis, 142
Euglenales, 142
Euglenophyceae, 127
Euglenophyta, 63, 64

CoCo MCOMCoMICoM CoM Co MICO CoC]

Eunotia sp., 65, 66
Euonymus americanus, 31
Eupatorium capillifolium, 139
E. perfoliatum, 33
E. rugosum, 33

var. Rugosum, 33

var. Tomentellum, 33
Euphorbia corollata, 30
E. maculata, 30
Euphorbiaceae, 30
Eustigmatophyceae, 127

Festuca obtusa, 28
Fishes, in a Kentucky stream,
35

of Marrowbone Creek, 57
Flicker, common, 22, 24, 25
Flycatcher, great crested, 23, 24
Fort Knox, Kentucky, 15
Frustulia rhomboides, 64
FULLER, MARIAN J., 138
Fundulus catenatus, 37, 38
Fundulus sp., 118, 119
F. notatus, 37, 38
F. olivaceus, 38
FUNK, VICKI A., 138
Fusconaia flava, 56

Gallium aparine, 32
G. circaezans, 32
G. lanceolatum, 32
G. pilosum, 32
G. triflorum, 32
Gambusia affinis, 38
Gerardia flava, 32

var. camporum, 30
G. laciniatum, 30

var. trichocarpum, 30
Gerridae, 101
Gerris marginatus, 101
G. remigis, 101
Gillenia stipulata, 30
Glaucomys volans, 19
Gleoetaenium loitelsbergeri-

anum, 65, 66

Glossosoma sp., 102, 103
Glyceria striata, 27, 28
Gnaphalium purpureum, 33
Goldeye, 122
Goldfinch, American, 23, 24
GORAN, W. D., 15
Grackle, common, 23, 24
Gramineae, 28
GRECO, ANTHONY M., 144
Green River, 123

drainage, 123
Grosbeak, rose-breasted, 23, 24
Guttiferae, 31

Gymnodiniales, 143
Gymnodinium palustre, 143
Gyrinidae, 102

Haematococcaceae, 128
Haptophyceae, 127
Hawk, red-tailed, 12, 23, 24
use of artificial nest structures,
12
Hays Branch, 99
Hedeoma pulegioides, 32
Helenium flexosum, 33
Helianthus microcephalus, 33
Hemiptera, 100, 101, 103
Heptageniidae, 101
Heteromastix, 128
Hickman County, 141
Hieracium gronovii, 33
Hiodon alosoides, 122
Hippocastanaceae, 31
HOLY, NORMAN L., 147
HOLY, TIMOTHY E., 147
HOUP, RONALD E., 55
Houstonia caerulea, 32
H. purpurea, 32
HOYT, ROBERT D., 35
HURT, VALINA K., 132
Hyalotheca dissiliens, 142
Hybognathus hayi, 50
H. nuchalis, 50
Hybopsis amblops, 37, 38
Hydrangea arborescens, 30
Hydrophilidae, 102
Hydropsychidae, 102
Hylocichla mustelina, 25
Hypentelium nigricans, 38-40
Hypericum densiflorum, 139

Ichthyoplankton, diurmal varia-
tions in density, 116

Ictalurus melas, 38

I. natalis, 38, 58

I. nebulosus, 38

Ictiobus, 118, 119

Ilex verticillata, 30

Impatiens capensis, 31

Insects, aquatic, 99

Ipomoea lacunosa, 31

Ipomoea spp., 156

Iridaceae, 29

Iris cristata, 29

Itea virginica, 139

Jay,. blue, 22, 24
Juglans cinerea, 46
Juncaceae, 28

Junco, dark-eyed, 23, 24

Juncus effusus, 27, 28
var. solutus, 28

KESSLER, JOHN, 156
KINDSCHI, GREG A., 105
KING, JOE M., 141
Kingbird, eastern, 22, 24
Kingfisher, belted, 23, 24
Kinglet, ruby-crowned, 22, 24
Krigia biflora, 33
KUPCHELLA, CHARLES E., 1,
150

Labiatae, 32
Labidesthes sicculus, 37, 38
Laccophilus sp., 102
Lactuca floridana, 33

var. floridana, 33

var. villosa, 33
Lampetra aepyptera, 38
Lampsilis fasciola, 56
L. ovata, 56
L. radiata siliquoidea, 56
Laportea canadensis, 29, 34, 156
Lasmigona costata, 56
L. subviridis, 45
Lasiurus borealis, 156, 158
Lauraceae, 30
Leersia oryzoides, 124
Leguminosae, 30
Lemna sp., 123
Lepisosteus osseus, 38
Lepomis auritus, 35
L. cyanellus, 37, 38, 125
L. gulosus, 124
L. macrochirus, 38, 124
L. megalotus, 38-40, 124
L. spp., 118
Leptodora, 112, 113
Leptophlebiidae, 101
Lespedeza hirta, 30
L. intermedia, 30
L. nuttallii, 30
L. repens, 30
L. violacea, 30
Libellula pulchella, 101
Libellulidae, 101
Ligumia recta, 56
Liliaceae, 28
Limnephilidae, 102
Lindera benzoin, 30
Liriodendron tulipifera, 29, 46
Little Cypress Creek, 124
Lobelia cardinalis, 33
L. inflata, 33
L. puberula, 139
Loganiaceae, 31
Logperch, 37

INDEX TO VOLUME 41

Lonicera japonica, 32
Loxophyceae, 125, 127
Ludwigia alternifolia, 31
Luzula multiflora, 28, 34
Lycopus americanus, 32
L. virginicus, 32

Lyngbya major, 142
Lysimachia lanceolata, 31

Magnoliaceae, 29
Mallomonas caudata, 143
Mammals, effect of tracked ve-
hicle activity, 15
Mammoth Cave National Park,
60
Maple, silver, 156
Marrowbone Creek, 48
Martin, purple, 23, 24
Mayflies, 103
Megaloptera, 100, 102
Mercury, selective extraction of,
147
Mertensia virginica, 32
Mesostigma, 128
Micrasterias laticeps, 142
M. radiata, 142
Micropterus dolomieui, 37, 38,
118-120
M. punctulatus, 38-40
Microsorex hoyi (=thompsoni),
46
Microsporales, 127
M. thompsoni, 46, 47
Microtus ochrogaster, 19
M. pinetorium, 19
Microvelia americana, 101
MILLER, ANDREW, 156
Mimulus alatus, 27, 32
Minnow, bluntnose, 40
cypress, 50
silverjaw, 48
silvery, 50
suckermouth, 49
Minytrema melanops, 38
Mitchella repens, 32
Monotropa uniflora, 31, 34
Morning glory, 156
Mosquitofish, 124, 125
Mougeotia ovalis, 142
Mougeotia sp., 64-67
Mouse, house, 17, 21
white-footed, 17, 21
Moxostoma duquesnei, 38
M. erythrurum, 38-40
Murphy’s Pond, 141
Mus musculus, 19
Mussel, freshwater, 45
Mussels, of the Red River, 55

169

Myosotis macrosperma, 32
Myotis lucifugus, 158

M. soladis, 156
Myxophyceae, 127

Napaeozapus insignis, 47

Nauplii, 112, 113

Navicula sp., 64, 67

Nemoura sp., 101

Nemouridae, 101

Nepidae, 102

Nettle, wood, 156

Nighthawk, common, 23, 24

Nocomis micropogon, 38

Notemigonus crysoleucas, 38

Notropis ardens, 38-40

Notropis spp., 118, 120

N. atherinoides, 118, 119

N. boops, 38

N. cornutus, 38-40, 58

N. deliciosus, 53

N. fumeus, 50, 51, 124

. lutrenis, 52, 53

. photogenis, 38

. procne, 53

. rubellus, 38, 58

. spilopterus, 38, 52

. stramineus, 38, 52, 53

. umbratilis, 49, 51

. venustus, 38

. volucellus, 53

N. whipplei, 49, 52

Nuthatch, red-breasted, 23, 24
white-breasted, 23, 24

Se Se a Se

Oak, bur, 156

Obovaria subrotunda, 56
ODDO, ROBERT, 141
Odonata, 100, 101, 103
Oedogoniales, 127, 142
Oedogoniophyceae, 127
Oedogonium suecicum, 142
Oenothera biennis, 31
Ohio River, 116
Onagraceae, 31
Ophiocytium sp., 64, 65
Orbanchaceae, 32
Orchidaceae, 29

Oriole, northern, 23, 24
Ornithogalum umbellatum, 28
ORSER, JUDITH A., 60
Oscillatoria acuminata, 142
Oscillatoria sp., 64-68

. amphibia, 142

. chalybea, 142

. formosa, 142

. limosa, 142

. splendida, 142

SHO) CS ©

170 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 41(3-4)

O. subbrevis, 64, 65, 67, 68
O. tenuis, 65, 67, 68, 142
Oscillatoriales, 142
Osmorhiza claytoni, 31
OVERMANN, GARY J., 105
Owl, great horned, 12
Oxalidaceae, 30

Oxalis dillenii, 30

O. stricta, 30

O. violacea, 30

Panicum boscii, 28
P. dichotomiflorum, 28
P. laxiflorum, 28
P. nitidum, 28
P. polyanthes, 28
Papaveraceae, 30
Paraleptophlebia gluttata, 101
Parus bicolor, 25
P. carolinensis, 25
PEARSON, WILLIAM D., 116
Pediastrum boryanum, 142
P. gladuliferum, 142
P. tetras, 142
Pedicularis canadensis, 32, 34
Pedinomonas, 128
Perch, pirate, 125
Percidae, 38
Percina caprodes, 37, 38
P. maculata, 38
P. sp. (melanoptera), 38
Perilla frutescens, 32
Periphyton, 60

of Sloan’s Crossing Pond, 60
Peromyscus leucopus, 19
P. maniculatus nubiterrae, 47
Pewee, eastern wood, 23, 24
Phacotaceae, 128
Phacus acuminatus, 142
P. curvicauda, 142
P. longicauda, 142
P. orbicularis, 142
P. pleuronectes, 142
Phaeophyceae, 127
Phenacobius mirabilis, 49, 53,58
Philopotamidae, 102
Phlox bifida, 32
P. divaricata, 32
P. paniculata, 32
P. subulata, 32
Phormidium ambiguum, 142
P. autumnale, 142
Phryma leptostachya, 32
Phrymaceae, 32
Phytolacca americana, 29
Phytolaccaceae, 29
PICAZO, ESTEBAN D., 99
Pickerel, grass, 124, 125

Pike County, 57

Pilea pumila, 29, 34

Pimephales notatus, 38-40, 49,
58

Pimephales spp., 118, 119

Pipilo erythrophthalmus, 23

Pipistrelles, eastern, 158

Pipistrellus subflavus, 156, 158

Plantaginaceae, 32

Plantago rugelii, 32

Platanus occidentalis, 156

Plathemis lydia, 101

Plecoptera, 100, 101, 103

Pleurotaenium trabeculum, 142

Pluchea camphorata, 33

Poa sylvestris, 28

Podophyllum peltatum, 29

Polemoniaceae, 32

Polyblepharidaceae, 126

Polyblepharides, 128

Polygonaceae, 29

Polygonatum canaliculatum, 28

Polygonum arifolium, 139

P. opelousanum, 139

P. pensylvanicum, 29

P. persicaria, 29

P. punctatum, 29

P. sagittatum, 29

P. virginianum, 29

Polytomella, 128, 129

Pomoxis, 105-115

P. annularis, 105

P. nigromaculatus, 105, 124

Populus deltoides, 156

Portulacaceae, 29

Potomogeton sp., 125

Prasinophyceae, 126, 127

Primulaceae, 31

Prunella vulgaris, 32

Prunus serotina, 30

Prymnesiophyceae, 127

Psephenidae, 102

Psephenus herricki, 102, 103

Pseudophyllidea, 122

Ptychobranchus fasciolare, 56

Pycnanthemum montanum, 32

P. scabripennis, 102, 103

Pycnopsychae, 103

Pylodictis olivaris, 38

Pyrolaceae, 31

Pyrrhophyta, 63, 64, 67

Quercus falcata, 139
var. pagodaefolia, 139
Q. macrocarpa, 156

Ragweed, giant, 156
Ranatra fusca, 102

Ranunculaceae, 29

Ranunculus abortivus, 29

R. allegheniensis, 29

R. recurvatus, 29

Raphidophyceae, 127

Redhorse, golden, 40, 43

Research and Development,
Federal Funding in Ken-
tucky, 1, 150

RETZER, MICHAEL E., 48

Rhinichthys atratulus, 58

Rhipidodendron sp., 64-66

Rhododendron maximum, 46

Rhodophyceae, 127

Rhus glabra, 30

R. radicans, 30

Rhyacophilidae, 102

Rhynchospora corniculata, 139

RIGGINS, R. E., 15

Robin, American, 22, 24

ROBINSON, JEFFREY M., 57

Rosaceae, 30

Rotifera, 111, 113

Rowan County, 99

Rubiaceae, 32

Rudbeckia laciniata, 33

R. triloba, 33

RUDERSDORF, WARD J., 12

Ruellia caroliniensis, 32

Rumex crispus, 29, 34

R. orbiculatus, 29

R. pulcher, 29

Rush, spike, 124, 125

Sagittaria engelmanniana, 139

Salix nigra, 156

Salvia lyrata, 32

Sanguinaria canadensis, 30, 34

Sanicula canadensis, 31

S. gregaria, 31

Sapsucker, yellow-bellied, 22, 24

Saururaceae, 29

Saururus cernuus, 27, 29

Saxifragaceae, 30

Scenedesmus bijuga, 142

S. dimorphus, 142

Scirpus atrovirens, 28

S. polyphyllus, 28

S. rubricosus, 28

Scourfieldia, 128, 129

Scrophulariaceae, 32

Sculpin, banded, 40, 41, 43

Scutellaria elliptica, 32

S. ovata, 32

Sedge, broom, 132

Sedum ternatum, 30

Semotilis atromaculatus, 38, 49,
57, 58

Senecia glabellus, 33
Serinia oppositifolia, 33
SEVERINGHAUS, W. D., 15
Shad, threadfin, 42
bigeye, 42
Shiner, common, 40, 41, 43
red, 52
redfin, 49
ribbon, 50
rosefin, 40, 41, 43
sand, 52
steelcolor, 49
swallowtail, 53
Shrew, longtailed, 46
short-tailed, 17, 21
Thompson’s pigmy, 46
Silene virginica, 29
Silverside, brook, 37
Simocephalus sp., 111-113
SIMS, RICHARD, 1, 150
Siphlonuridae, 101
Siphonales, 127
Sisyrinchium angustifolium, 29
Sloan’s Crossing Pond, 60
Smilacina racemosa, 28
Smilax bona-nox, 28
S. herbacea, 28
S. rotundifolia, 28, 34
Solidago caesia, 33
S. erecta, 33
S. rugosa, 33
Sorex dispar, 46, 47
S. fumeus, 47
S. hoyi, 46
Southeastern United States, 126
Sparganium sp., 125
Sparrow, song, 23, 24
white-throated, 22, 24
Specularia biflora, 33
S. perfoliata, 33
Spencer County, 156, 157
Spermatozopsis, 128, 129
Sphaeropleales, 127
Spigelia marilandica, 31
Spirodela sp., 123
Spirogyra occidentalis, 142
Spirotaenia condensata, 142
Spirulina subsalsa, 142
Spondylomoraceae, 127
Spondylosium pulchrum, 142
Squirrel, southern flying, 17, 21
Stachys tenuifolia, 32
Staurastrum cingulum, 142
var. floridense, 142
S. echinatum, 142
S. limneticum, 142
var. cornutum, 142

INDEX TO VOLUME 41

S. paradoxum, 142
var. parvum, 142
S. pentacerum, 142
Stauroneis anceps, 64
Stellaria media, 29
S. pubera, 29
Stenacron sp., 101
Stenelmis quadrimaculata, 102,
103
Stenonema, 103, 112, 113
S. pudicum, 101
S. tripunctatum, 101
Stephanoptera, 128
Stizostedion spp., 118, 119
Stoneroller, 40, 42, 43
Strip Mine Spoil Banks, 132
Strophitus undulatus, 56
Studfish, northern, 37
Sucker, northern hog, 40, 41, 43
Sunfish, banded pigmy, 123
green, 37, 125
longear, 40, 43, 124
Swallow, rough-winged, 23, 24
Sycamore, 156
Synedra ulna, 64, 65, 67, 68
Synura sp., 65-67

Taeniopterygidae, 101
Tamias striatus, 18
Tanager, scarlet, 22, 24
summer, 23, 24
Taxodium distichum, 125
Tenebrionidae, 89
Tephrosia virginiana, 30
Tetraedron sp., 65, 66
Tetrasporales, 127
Tetrasporopsis perforata, 143
Thaspium barbinode, 31
T. trifoliatum, 31
Thrasher, brown, 23, 24
Thrush, wood, 22, 24, 25
Tipularia discolor, 29
Titmouse, tufted, 22, 24, 25
TOMAN, FRANK R., 144
Topminnow, blackstripe, 37
Towhee, rufous-sided, 22-25
Trachelomonas armata, 142
var. longispina, 142
T. charkowiensis, 142
T. hispida, 142
var. coronata, 142
T. lacustris, 142
T. superba, 142
var. swirenkiana, 142
T. volvocina, 65, 67, 68, 142
Tradescantia subaspera, 28
Trichoptera, 100, 102, 103
Trichostema dichotomum, 32

Agvall

Trillium cuneatum, 28, 34

T. recurvatum, 28, 34

Triphenylphosphoniumcyclo-
pentadienylide, evaluation
as a phase transfer catalyst,
147

Trisetium pensylvanicum, 139

Tritogonia verrucosa, 56

Tropisternus glaber, 102

Tsuga canadensis, 46

Tygarts Creek, 45

Typha latifolia, 28

T. sp., 123

Typhaceae, 28

Tyrannus tyrannus, 23

Ulotrichales, 127, 142
Ulothrix variabilis, 142
Ulvales, 127
Umbelliferae, 31

Uniola latifolia, 28

U. laxa, 139

Urticaceae, 29

Uvularia grandiflora, 28

Vaccinium vacillans, 31
var. missouriense, 31
VAIL, HOWARD P., 147

Valerianaceae, 32
Valerianella radiata, 32
Veery, 23, 24
Veliidae, 101
Verbena urticifolia, 32
Verbenaceae, 32
Viburnum nudum, 139
Viola papilionacea, 31
. rafinesquii, 31
. sororia, 31
. striata, 31
. triloba, 31
var. dilatata, 31
Vireo, red-eyed, 22, 24, 25
Vitis aestivalis, 31
Vole, pine, 17, 21

prairie, 17, 21
Volvocaceae, 127
Volvocales, 64, 65, 126-129, 142
Vulture, turkey, 23, 24

SS] SSS)

WALKER, KENNETH, 1, 150
Warbler, black-and-white, 22, 24
black-throated green, 23, 24

Canada, 23, 24
Kentucky, 23, 24
myrtle, 24

palm, 23, 24
prairie, 22, 24

2 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 41(3-4)

prothonotary, 22, 24 Woodpecker, downy, 22, 24 Xanthophyceae, 127
yellow-rumped, 22, 24 hairy, 23, 24 Xanthophyta, 126
Warmouth, 124, 125 Pileated, 23, 24
WARREN, MELVIN L., JR., 123 Woodwardia areolata, 139 Zenaida macroura, 25

Willow, black, 156 ZETO, MICHAEL A., 45
water, 156 Zygnema cylindricum, 142
WINSTEAD, JOE E., 132, 144 Xanthidium antilopaeum, 142 Zygnemaphyceae, 127
Wolffia sp., 123 var. polymazum, 142 Zygnemataceae, 127
Woodcock, American, 23, 24 Xanthium strumarium, 144 Zygnematales, 142

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CONTENTS

Morphology of the Genus Blapstinus (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae) with
Emphasis on Characters of Taxonomic Significance. Jerry C.

PD GUS a Ere SR SU eee ees ee 89
The Aquatic Insects, Exclusive of Diptera, of Hays Branch, Rowan

County, Kentucky. Esteban D. Picazo and Gerald L. DeMoss_._ _ 99
The Larval Life History of the Crappies (Pomoxis) spp. Gary J.

Overmann, Robert D. Hoyt, and Greg A. Kindsei See es 105
Diurnal Variations in Ichthyoplankton Densities at Ohio River Mile

571.8 Aaron i. Clark and William D.Reagson, 222 Se 116
Occurrence of Bothriocephalus texomensis Self, 1954 (Pseudophylli-

dea) in Goldeye of Kentucky. Richard L. Buckner ie a 122
The Occurrence of the Banded Pygmy Sunfish in the Green River

Drainage of Kentucky. Melvin L. Warren, Jn. = = ee 128

Freshwater Chlorophycean Genera of the Southeastern United States.
I. Introduction and Volvocales (Polyblepharidaceae). Gary E.

13 Ch ao i ean a ome eee aL ee ye 126
Ecotypic Differentiation of Broom Sedge in Relation to Strip Mine
Spoil Banks. Valina K. Hurt and Joe E. Winstead __________________. 132
Analysis of the Distribution of Southeastern Taxa in Seeps of Calloway
County, Kentucky. Vicki A. Funk and Marian J. Fuller _______ 138
Algal Flora of a Relict Cypress Swamp (Murphy's Pond) in Western
Kentucky. Joe M. King and Rober, Odd@ (22a ee 141
Chlorophyll Levels as Ecotypic Characters in Box Elder Seedlings.
Anthony M. Greco, Joe E. Winstead, and Frank R. Toman 144

Selective Extraction of Mercury (II) and Evaluation of Triphenylphos-
phoniumcyclopentadienylide as a Phase Transfer Catalyst. Rich-
ard D. Dillman, Jr., Howard P. Vail, Timothy E. Holy, and Norman
Po Fol 828 eA ee ET 2 DO ee 147

Federal Funding for Research and Development in Kentucky: III.
Characteristics of Colleges and Universities with High Levels of
Support. Charles E. Kupchella, Richard Sims, Mary Lynn Col-

linss and KennethWalker 0.20: 2a. {0 Cs Gs ee ere 150
Investigation of Chiropteran Use of the Salt River, Spencer and Ander-

son Counties, Kentucky, July 1978. Andrew Miller and John

Wes ster 20 AIRES fel SU Ea I TEs eS ec 157
Constitution of the Kentucky Academy of Science —_....--- 160
Sheil Ae Se mais Clee, ame IN SG Po Ne 165
INewsrand: Comment 2: he 00 iE ai a ee 98, 104

SACTIONS
HE
KENTUCKY

ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

Official Publication of the Academy

Volume 42
Numbers 1-2
March 1981

The Kentucky Academy of Science
Founded 8 May 1914

OFFICERS FOR 1981

President: John C. Philley, Morehead State University, Morehead 40351

President Elect: Ted George, Eastern Kentucky University, Richmond 40475

Past President: Rudolph Prins, Western Kentucky University, Bowling Green 42101
Vice President: J. G. Rodriguez, University of Kentucky, Lexington 40506
Secretary: Robert Creek, Eastern Kentucky University, Richmond 40475
Treasurer: Morris Taylor, Eastern Kentucky University, Richmond 40475

Director of the Junior Academy: Herbert Leopold, Western Kentucky
University, Bowling Green 42101

Representative to AAAS Council: Branley A. Branson, Eastern Kentucky
University, Richmond 40475

BOARD OF DIRECTORS

Donald C. Haney 1981 Gary Boggess 1983
William F. Wagner 1981 Debra Pearce, Chair 1983
Jerry C. Davis 1982 Mary McGlasson 1984
Daniel Knopf 1982 Joe Winstead 1984

EDITORIAL BOARD

Editor: Branley A. Branson, Department of Biological Sciences, Eastern
Kentucky University, Richmond 40475

Index Editor: Varley E. Wiedeman, Department of Biology, University
of Louisville, Louisville 40208

Editorial Board: John C. Philley, School of Science and Mathematics, Morehead
State University, Morehead 40351

Dennis E. Spetz, Department of Geography, University of
Louisville, Louisville 40292

William F. Wagner, Department of Chemistry, University of
Kentucky, Lexington 40506

Joseph P. Cangemi, Psychology Department, Western Kentucky
University, Bowling Green 42101

Louis A. Krumholz, Office of Academic Affairs, University of
Louisville, Louisville 40292

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TRANSACTIONS of the

KENTUCKY

ACADEMY of SCIENCE

March 1981

VOLUME 42
NUMBERS 1-2

Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 42(1-2), 1981, 1-15

Observations on Changes in the Fish Population of the
Ohio River from Rafinesque to 1980

Louis A. KRUMHOLZ, Distinguished Professor Emeritus!
University of Louisville, Louisville, Kentucky 40292

ABSTRACT

Fish samples from upper, middle and lower sections of the Ohio River revealed 50 species in
the upper section during 1957-1959 and 1969-1979. The black bullhead predominated during
the first sampling period but in 1969-1979 no bullheads were present, having been replaced by

the emerald shiner as the dominant fish.

In the middle section, 48 fish species were collected in 1957-1959 and 1969-1979. During
the first sampling period the emerald shiner consituted about 50% of the population and the
gizzard shad 30%, whereas in 1969-1979 the drum dominated (40%) followed by the emerald

shiner (24%).

In the lower section, the gizzard shad constituted one-third of the total numbers collected
followed by the threadfin shad (22%) and the freshwater drum (18%).

Comparison of the species composition from the three sections disclosed that the fish fauna
of the Upper Ohio River is quite different from that of the middle section, which in turn differs
greatly from the lower section. Only 25 species are common to all three sections. These differ-
ences reflect differences in gradient, the effects of impoundment, and in stream size.

The effects of the introduction of exotic fish species are discussed, as is the history of ich-

thyologic research in the Ohio River.

INTRODUCTION

There is little doubt that the fishes of
the Ohio River have been studied more
extensively than those of any other major
waterway in the United States. Even dur-
ing the eighteenth century, in the early
days of exploration of the Ohio River as
a major travel route to the center of the
continent, there were many reports of the
high quality of the water, the excellence
of angling, and the highly prized flesh of
the fishes (Banta 1949, Cutler 1787, Hil-
dreth 1848, Hulbert and Schwarze 1910,
Michaux 1805, Showalter 1932, and a
great many others). Among the presently

1 Deceased.

recognized species of fishes (Bailey et al.
1970) mentioned in those writings were
the sturgeons Acipenser fulvescens and
Scavhirhynchus platorhynchus, the pad-
dlefish Polyodon spathula, the American
eel Anguilla rostrata, the skipjack her-
ring Alosa chrysochloris, the muskel-
lunge Esox masquinongy, the blue suck-
er Cycleptus elongatus, the buffalos
Ictiobus spp. and carpsuckers Carpiodes
spp., the catfishes Ictalurus furcatus, I.
punctatus, Pylodictis olivaris, and sev-
eral species of bullheads, the sauger
Stizostedion canadense and walleye S.
vitreum vitreum, and the freshwater
drum Aplodinotus grunniens. The gars,
Lepisosteus spp., and the bowfin (Amia

2 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 42(1-2)

calva) were mentioned, but they were
not considered desirable as food. Most
writers mentioned an abundance of min-
nows (Cyprinidae), but among the fishes
largely omitted were the sunfishes (Cen-
trarchidae) although it is most unlikely
that they were not present.

Early in the nineteenth century there
was a dramatic change in the study of ich-
thyology of the Ohio River. Two men,
Constantine Samuel Rafinesque (1754-
1842) and, to a lesser extent, Charles Al-
exandre Le Sueur (1778-1846), under-
took to describe many of the various
kinds of fishes in the Ohio River and its
tributaries in order to provide some sci-
entific basis for the ichthyology of the
area. In the words of G. S. Myers
(1964:40), “Between them, these two
men, mostly in the then-primitive fron-
tier along the Wabash and Ohio rivers,
started North American ichthyology on
its way.” Myers went on to say that “Ra-
finesque ... was an erratic genius with
much peasant cunning but little system
to his enormous memory and active, vo-
racious mind.” He also said that “Le
Sueur was a polished Frenchman from
LeHavre, an artist, explorer, and gentle-
TAIN eas

Here, it seems appropriate to spend
some time with Rafinesque since he had
such a tremendous impact on the study
of ichthyology of the Ohio River. Rafi-
nesque arrived in the United States for
the second and last time in November
1815 following an almost disastrous voy-
age across the Atlantic Ocean. After re-
newing his acquaintance with Samuel
Latham Mitchill (1764-1831), he spent
his leisure time making field trips
through New York, New Jersey, Ver-
mont, Pennsylvania, and elsewhere
studying the flora, mollusks, fossils, and
minerals. In May 1818, he set out for the
west, crossed the Appalachian Mountains
on foot, and for the first time saw the
Ohio River at Pittsburgh. He floated
down the river in a flatboat and wrote to
Mitchill that his discoveries in conchol-
ogy and ichthyology were nearly all new.
In that letter, he listed 21 species of fish-
es that are recognized today (Evermann

1818). Rafinesque returned to Philadel-
phia, again on foot, and later returned to
Lexington, Kentucky, where he began a
course of lectures on natural history at
Transylvania University as Professor of
Botany and Natural History. He offered
his last course there in the winter of
1825-1826.

In 1820 (Call 1899), based on his stud-
ies of the fishes of the Ohio River in
1818-1820, Rafinesque published pri-
vately his “Ichthyologia Ohiensis,” a
book that has caused much consternation
among later workers. In that book, dedi-
cated to Le Sueur and Mitchill, he de-
scribed 111 species of fishes of which 62
are recognized today. Of those 62, 33 are
assigned to Rafinesque, 10 are assigned
to Le Sueur, and 7 are assigned to Mitch-
ill. Thus, it is quite apparent that those
three men made a most remarkable con-
tribution to the early studies of ichthy-
oloy of the Ohio River.

Still, there have been noted ichthyol-
ogists who have decried the efforts of Ra-
finesque; others have praised him highly.

According to Jordan and Evermann
(1896-1900), Evermann (1918), and Jor-
dan et al. (1930), Rafinesque described
many species of fishes more than once
under different names. For example, they
reported that the smallmouth bass Mi-
cropterus dolomieui was described as a
new species at least seven times under
three different genera, but they made no
mention of his having described the spot-
ted bass Micropterus punctulatus even
though that name is credited to Rafines-
que by Bailey et al. (1970). They also re-
ported that the channel catfish and the
flathead catfish were each described sev-
eral times under at least two different
genera. So far as Jordan and his cowork-
ers were concerned, nearly every species
described by Rafinesque was described
more than once, but they did not even
record some species credited to him. It
is obvious that they held Rafinesque in
rather low regard. It seems incomprehen-
sible to me that those noted ichthyolo-
gists could have arrived at such decisions
because they saw none of the fishes de-
scribed by Rafinesque; he had not pre-

FISH POPULATION OF OHIO RIVER—Krumholz 3

served any specimens. All the reviewers
had to go on was what Jordan (1922: 142)
reported to be “hastily, carelessly, and
enthusiastically” prepared descriptions
of the fishes collected and described by
Rafinesque.

Farther on in his autobiography, Jor-
dan (1922:143) stated “It is, nevertheless,
true that while as Agassiz said, Rafines-
que “‘was a better man than he ap-
peared,” and while he undoubtedly had
great insight and greater energy, his work
does not deserve a high place in the rec-
ords of science. His failure seems due to
two things: first his lack of attention to
details, a defect which vitiated all his
writings; and second, his versatility
which led him to invade every available
field of learning.” That is not very high
praise, and seems an unnecessary con-
demnation of Rafinesque. It should be
noted here, that so far as I can determine,
Jordan, although he spent many years at
Butler University and Indiana Universi-
ty, never collected fishes from the Ohio
River even though he crossed it many
times in his travels to Alabama and other
southern states on collecting trips. Per-
haps it is not inappropriate to mention
here that a great many of the genera and
species of freshwater fishes erected by
Jordan have fallen by the wayside.

In his depiction of the life of Rafines-
que, Fitzpatrick (1911) noted that the
gifted ichthyologist George Brown Goode
commented on Rafinesque in 1888: “Per-
haps the day has not yet come when full
justice can be done to the memory of
Constantine Rafinesque, but his name
seems yearly to grow more prominent in
the history of American zodlogy. He was
in many respects the most gifted man
who ever stood in our ranks. When in his
prime he far surpassed his American con-
temporaries in versatility and compre-
hensiveness of grasp.” I stand with Dr.
Goode as one who has a great deal of re-
spect for Rafinesque. I know of no one
who is without imperfection.

In a series of articles on the fishes of
Lake Erie, the Ohio River, and their trib-
utaries, Dr. Jared P. Kirtland (1838,
1840a, 1840b, 1840c, 1842a, 1842b,

1842c, 1845a, 1845b, 1845c), described
many species that did not occur in the
Ohio River, but redescribed 35 species
that had appeared in Rafinesque’s
“Ichthyologia Ohiensis’” along with
another 12 species described previously
by Le Sueur and Mitchill. Among those
redescribed from the work of Rafinesque
was the sauger (Kirtland 1842b, Plate IX,
Fig. 2) that Jordan et al. (1930) had mis-
identified as the walleye.

Among the species described by Kirt-
land that are likely to have been present
in the Ohio River or its principal tribu-
taries prior to 1957-1959 and assigned to
Kirtland by Bailey et al. (1970) are the
redside dace Clinostomus elongatus, the
streamline chub Hybopsis dissimilis, the
silver chub H. storeriana, the hornyhead
chub Nocomis biguttatus, the spotted
darter Etheostoma maculatum, and the
variegated darter E. varieatum. Of those,
only the silver chub is common in the
deep waters of the Ohio River. So far as
I can determine, Kirtland made no col-
lections from the mainstem of the Ohio
River.

Call (1896) listed 57 species of fishes
referable to 38 genera from the Falls of
the Ohio River to indicate the work done
by the pioneer zoologists who had visited
the area. He was particularly impressed
by the contributions of Rafinesque, and
assigned 29 of the 57 species to him. Of
the 57 species listed by Call, Jordan et al.
(1930) recognized 53 as valid, expanded
the number of genera to 49, and assigned
28 of the 53 species to Rafinesque.
Among the currently recognized species
(Bailey et al. 1970), 26 of the 53 species
recognized by Jordan et al. (1930) were
assigned to Rafinesque, but the 49 genera
recognized by Jordan et al. (1930) were
reduced to 36 in Bailey et al. (1970).
Thus, there seems to have been relative-
ly little change in the kinds of fishes re-
ported by Call (1896) but the names by
which we recognize them are remarkably
different.

An excellent review of the changing
fish fauna of the upper Ohio River basin
was given by Lachner (1956) in which he
covered the origins of the fauna, the fac-

4 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 42(1-2)

tors that affected the distributions of fish-
es such as dams, pollution, siltation, and
temperature, and the effects of stocking
such extraneous species as the carp Cy-
prinus carpio and the goldfish Carassius
auratus. His remarks were confined
largely to the area upstream from the
mouth of the Kanawha River at Point
Pleasant, West Virginia, or the uppermost
265 miles (327 km), slightly more than
one-fourth of the total length of the Ohio
River. Lachner noted changes from the
days of Rafinesque and Le Sueur,
through those of Kirtland and Jordan and
his many coworkers. Unfortunately,
Lachner’s paper was published before
the beginning of the comprehensive
study of the fish population sponsored by
the Ohio River Valley Water Sanitation
Commission (1962). Lachner noted that
18 species reported as common or abun-
dant before 1900 had not been reported
in recent years. Among those were the
paddlefish, the sturgeons, the American
eel, the blue sucker, the freshwater
drum, the sauger, the bowfin, the goldeye
Hiodon alosoides, and the gizzard shad
Dorosoma cepedianum, along with some
of the suckers and minnows. Lachner
traced most of the changes in the fauna
to changes in the environment caused by
man.

There is no doubt that the environmen-
tal conditions in the Ohio River have
changed markedly over the past 160
years. The sparkling waters of Rafines-
ques time no longer exist. Instead, there
are, in many areas, industrial and domes-
tic effluents that lower the water quality
and limit the environmental suitability
for fishes. In late July, 1958, we launched
our boat near the confluence of the Mo-
nongahela and Allegheny rivers so that
we could sample the fishes at Emsworth,
Dashields, and Montgomery Island Locks
and Dams. The stretch of the river be-
tween Pittsburgh and Emsworth Dam
was filthy; there was a film of what ap-
peared to be used oil along with soot and
other materials that made a sticky film
and made working conditions very diffi-
cult and unpleasant. The walls of the lock
chamber at Emsworth Dam were covered

with a thick layer of oil and dirt that
seemed to be an accumulation of the film
on the water. Between Emsworth and
Dashields dams, the conditions im-
proved and improved even more be-
tween Dashields and Montgomery Island
dams. When we finished sampling the
lock chambers at Emsworth and Dash-
ields dams, we had to scrub the boat with
a stiff brush and scouring powder to re-
move the encrusted film. It was on those
bases that we chose to limit our sampling
to the lock chamber at Montgomery Is-
land Dam instead of trying to sample the
other two chambers further. Such condi-
tions do not exist today, but it is manda-
tory that we keep a watchful eye so that
those conditions do not recur.

The fortuitous sampling of the lock
chamber at Montgomery Island on 27
June and 26 July 1959, early and late in
the shutdown of the steel industry
(Krumholz and Minckley 1964) demon-
strated how the environmental condi-
tions of a major river may be enhanced
by the abatement of harmful effluents
from a single major industry. Those en-
hanced conditions were reflected in the
changes in the species composition and
abundance of fishes in the upper Ohio
River within such a short time span as
a month. Only 9 species of fishes and 480
individuals were collected on 27 June,
and 7 of those 9 and 14 other species (21
species) and 2,587 individuals were col-
lected on 26 July. The 14 additional
species resulted from a reinvasion of the
main channel of the river from nearby
unpolluted waters.

In 1957, the Ohio River Valley Water
Sanitation Commission (1962) arranged
for the University of Louisville and the
Kentucky Department of Fish and Wild-
life Resources to undertake and exten-
sive study of the fish population and oth-
er aquatic life of the entire Ohio River.
That study commenced in the spring of
1957 and extended into 1960. Although
the broad objective of the project was an
appraisal of the suitability of the Ohio
River to support and maintain aquatic
life, the major effort centered on deter-
mining the species composition, relative

FISH POPULATION OF OHIO RIVER—Krumholz 5)

abundance of the different species, and
the distribution of fishes throughout the
system (Krumholz et al. 1962). All togeth-
er, there were 341 collections made over
the length of the river. Those collections
yielded 130 kinds of fishes that ranged
from the very small minnows and darters
(Percidae) to the large catfishes, carp, and
suckers (Catostomidae). The total num-
ber of fish collected was 741,438 that had
a total weight of 32,679 pounds (14,828
kg).

More recently, the U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency (Preston and White
1978) made a series of 56 collections of
fishes from mainstream lock chambers
from 1968 through 1976 to provide a
baseline of data to describe the kinds of
fishes and their relative abundance in the
Ohio River. All those collections were
made in September and October. In ad-
dition, they made 22 collections in 1967-
1968 and 23 collections in 1977-1979.
The total number and total weight of the
fishes taken in those 101 collections was
491,944 individuals that weighed 48,484
pounds (21,992 kg). The data from the
collections in 1967-1968 are not includ-
ed in our assessment, but we have been
given permission to include the data from
1977, 1978, and 1979 in this presentation.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Fishes were sampled throughout the
length of the Ohio River and the lower
reaches of the Allegheny and Mononga-
hela rivers at all seasons of the year. Sam-
ples were taken by treating with emul-
sifiable rotenone chambers at each of the
various locks and dams, stream mouths,
backwaters, and other areas that seemed
suitable for such treatment. Samples
were also collected by seining, by netting
with hoopnets, gill nets, and trammel
nets, by electroshocking, and by otter
trawls where conditions permitted. The
crew from the University of Louisville
worked the entire length of the river, but
the crew from the Kentucky Department
of Fish and Wildlife Resources confined
its efforts to the area that bordered Ken-
tucky.

For each of the 341 collections made

by both crews and by all methods during
the entire study, all fishes were sorted to
species, counted, and weighed. In some
instances, representative samples were
fixed in formalin and later preserved in
alcohol, catalogued, and placed in the
collections of the Department of Biology
at the University of Louisville (Krumholz
et al. 1962).

Of the 341 collections, 225 were taken
with emulsifiable rotenone as follows:
124 in mainstream lock chambers, 78 in
the mouths of tributaries to the main-
stream, 12 in lock chambers in some prin-
cipal tributaries, 8 in backwaters of the
mainstream, and 3 in the mouths of trib-
utaries to the principal tributaries. The
remaining collections were taken by the
methods described earlier and will not
be discussed further.

Our consideration of the fish popula-
tion of the Ohio River in this presentation
will be confined to those collections from
the mainstream lock chambers because
we believe treatment with emulsifiable
rotenone is the least selective of the sam-
pling methods used. All fishes in the
Ohio River are subject to the effects of
rotenone although some species are more
susceptible to the effects than others.
Furthermore, the sizes of the lock cham-
bers are fixed and the sizes of the areas
sampled are known.

The rotenone was diluted with river
water and dispersed over the surface of
the lock chamber through a K-B boat bail-
er in the wake of an outboard motor in a
crisscross pattern to cover the entire sur-
face area of the chamber. Prior to the ap-
plication of rotenone, the level of water
in the chamber was lowered to that of the
river downstream from the chamber so
that the volume of water treated would
be minimal. In all instances, an attempt
was made to secure a concentration of ro-
tenone of at least 1 part per million. As
soon as the fishes began to rise to the sur-
face they were picked up with fine-
meshed dipnets, placed in tubs in the
boat, and taken to shore for processing.
Every effort was made to capture all fish-
es, even the smallest minnows, in the
areas sampled. Pickup of fishes contin-

6 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 42(1-2)

ued as long as possible, and usually was
terminated by approaching barge traffic.
Preston and White (1978) used much
the same techniques, but with minor
modifications.
The common and scientific names re-
ferred to here follow Bailey et al. (1970).

THE FISH POPULATION

It has become well established that
there are marked differences in the
species composition of fish populations
from the upper to the lower reaches of a
stream system (Huet 1959, Hankinson
1913, Kuehne 1962, Minckley 1963, Shel-
ford 1911, Thompson and Hunt 1930, and
others). The same is true for the main-
stem of the Ohio River today.

Using the data from Krumholz et al.
(1962), Preston and White (1978), and the
data collected by the U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency in 1977, 1978, and
1979, we selected samples from three
areas of the Ohio River to demonstrate
those differences; we used the samples
from the uppermost three locks and
dams, Emsworth, Dashields, and Mont-
gomery Island, all in the uppermost 32
miles (42 km) as representative of the
kinds of fishes in the upper section of the
river. Because we had such an abun-
dance of data at hand, we chose the sam-
ples from McAlpine Locks and Dam (for-
merly Locks and Dam No. 41) at Ohio
River Mile 607 as representative of the
middle section. The lower section was
represented by samples from Smithland
Locks and Dam and Locks and Dam Nos.
52 and 53; the samples from those cham-
bers extend from Ohio River Miles 919
to 962 and are believed to be represen-
tative of the lower river even though the
river extends to Mile 981 at its conflu-
ence with the Mississippi River. There
are no locks and dams downstream from
No. 53.

There were 16 collections from the
three chambers in the upper river, 33
from the middle river, and 10 from the
lower river (Table 1). Because we do not
know which lock chambers were sam-
pled at McAlpine Locks and Dam and
those in the lower portion of the river by

TABLE 1.—NUMBERS OF COLLECTIONS MADE WITH
EMULSIFIABLE ROTENONE FROM EACH OF THE
THREE LOCK CHAMBERS IN THE UPPER OHIO RIVER,
FROM MCALPINE LOCKS AND DAM IN THE MIDDLE
RIVER, AND THE THREE LOCK CHAMBERS IN THE
LOWER OHIO RIVER IN 1957-1959 AND 1979,
ALONG WITH THE TOTALS FOR EACH GROUP.

1957— 1969-

1959 1979 Total

Upper river
Emsworth Locks and Dam 1 = 1
Dashields Locks and Dam
Montgomery Island Locks
and Dam 4 2 6

Middle river
McAlpine Locks and Dam 29 4 33

Lower river

=
ie)
co

Smithland Locks and Dam — 2 2
Locks and Dam No. 52 3 2 5
Locks and Dam No. 53 3 —= 3

Total 4] 18 59

all crews at all times, it would be most
speculative to try to estimate the biomass
of fishes in each section. We do, however,
have the total weights of fishes taken in
all samples and will use them when ap-
propriate. Thus, all remarks and compar-
isons must be qualitative based solely on
the species composition and relative
abundance of each species in those col-
lections.

All together, 50 species of fishes were
represented in the samples from the up-
per section of the river (Table 2). Of
those, 30 species were represented in the
1957-1959 collections and 35 species
were represented in the 1969-1979 col-
lections. A total of 47,912 individuals that
weighed 662.7 kg were taken in all sam-
ples, 4,533 (82.4 kg) in 1957-1959 and
43,379 (580.3 kg) in 1969-1979. In the
1957-1959 collections, the black bull-
head Ictalurus melas, which made up
nearly half the total catch, was followed
in order by the sand shiner Notropis stra-
mineus (17%), the mimic shiner N. vol-
ucellus (14%), the emerald shiner N. ath-
erinoides (16%) and the carp (4%). In
1969-1979, no black bullheads were tak-
en, and the most abundant species were
the emerald shiner, making up more than
80% of the total number, the bluntnose

FIsH POPULATION OF OHIO RIVER—Krumholz qf

TABLES 2.—NUMBERS OF EACH SPECIES OF FISH

TAKEN WITH EMULSIFIABLE ROTENONE IN 16 COL-

LECTIONS FROM THREE UPPER OHIO RIVER LOCK

CHAMBERS DURING 1957-1959 AND 1969-1979,

ALONG WITH THE TOTAL NUMBERS TAKEN DURING
BOTH PERIODS.

1957-1959 1969-1979 Total

Anguilla rostrata — 4 4
Alosa chrysochloris — 1 1
Dorosoma cepedianum 61 549 610
Esox masquinongy — 1 1
Campostoma anomalum 2 — 2
Carassius auratus 6 3 9
Cyprinus carpio 186 2,410 2,596
Hybopsis amblops 24 — 24
Hybopsis storeriana 8 — 8
Notemigonus

crysoleucas 2 1 3
Notropis atherinoides 298 34,839 35,137
Notropis blennius 1 — 1
Notropis boops — 15 15
Notropis buchanani 2; — 2
Notropis cornutus 9 — 9
Notropus rubellus 24 — 24
Notropis spilopterus — 64 64
Notropis stramineus 762 182 944
Notropis volucellus 624 258 882
Pimephales notatus 121 2,658 2,779
Semotilus

atromaculatus 2 — 2
Carpiodes cyprinus — 1 1
Catostomus commersoni 99 1 100
Moxostoma duquesnei — 1 1
Ictalurus catus — 142 142
Ictalurus melas 2,259 OID)
Ictalurus natalis 1 224 225
Ictalurus nebulosus — 853 853
Ictalurus punctatus 1 1,044 1,045
Pylodictis olivaris = 2 2
Percopsis

omiscomaycus — 3 3
Fundulus diaphanus 2 — 2
Morone chrysops 1 3 4
Ambloplites rupestris — 5 5
Lepomis cyanellus 8 13 21
Lepomis humilis = 1 1
Lepomis gibbosus 5 37 42
Lepomis gulosus 1 — 1
Lepomis macrochirus 13 Sil) 50
Lepomis microlophus — 4 4
Micropterus

punctulatus = 2 2

TABLE 2. —CONTINUED

minnow Pimephales notatus (6%), the
carp (5.8%), the channel catfish (2%), and
the brown bullhead Ictalurus nebulosus
(less than 2%). In 1957-1959, the num-
bers of species in the samples ranged
from 9 to 21; that largest sample was tak-
en on 26 July 1959 following an extended

1957-1959 1969-1979 Total

Micropterus salmoides 2 4 6
Pomoxis annularis 5 8 13
Pomoxis

nigromaculatus 1 4 5
Etheostoma nigrum — 1 1
Perca flavescens 3 22 25
Percina caprodes — 6 6
Stizostedion

canadense — 1 1
Stizostedion

vitreum vitreum —_ 2 2
Aplodinotus grunniens _— 4 4

Total 4,533 43,410 47,943

shutdown in the steel industry (Krum-
holz and Minckley 1964). The numbers
of species in the 1969-1979 samples
ranged from 11 to 19.

In the middle section, 48 species of
fishes were represented in the 33 collec-
tions (Table 3). Of those, 45 were in the
1957-1959 collections and 32 were in the
1969-1979 collections. A total of 81,013
individuals that weighed 2,409.8 kg were
taken in all samples with 77,144 (1,742.3
kg) in 1957-1959 and 3,867 (667.5 kg) in
1969-1979. Those differences are trace-
able to the difference in the numbers of
collections, 29 by the University of
Louisville and 4 by the U.S. Environ-
mental Protection Agency. In the 1957-
1959 collections, the emerald shiner con-
tributed almost half the total number of
individuals, followed in order by the giz-
zard shad (30%), the freshwater drum
(8%), and the silver chub Hybopsis sto-
reriana and the skipjack herring (each
about 2%). In the 1969-1979 samples, the
most abundant species was the freshwa-
ter drum (40%), followed by the emerald
shiner (24%), the gizzard shad, the chan-
nel catfish, and the skipjack herring (each
less than 10%). In 1957-1959, the num-
bers of species in a single collection
ranged from 7 to 20, whereas in 1969-
1979 the range was from 13 to 22.

In the lower section, 49 species were
represented in the 10 samples (Table 4).
Of those, 37 were present in the 1957-—
1959 collections and 39 were present in
the samples from 1969-1979. A total of

8 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 42(1-2)

TABLE 3.—NUMBERS OF EACH SPECIES OF FISH

TAKEN WITH EMULSIFIABLE ROTENONE IN 33 COL-

LECTIONS FROM MCALPINE LOCKS AND DAM LOCK

CHAMBERS DURING 1957-1959 AND 1969-1979,

ALONG WITH THE TOTAL NUMBERS TAKEN DURING
BOTH PERIODS.

1957- 1969-

1959 1979 Total
Polyodon spathula 2 36 38
Lepisosteus osseus 8 Hl 35
Lepisosteus

platostomus 1 —- 1

Anguilla rostrata 1 18 19
Alosa chrysochloris 1,622 251 1,873
Dorosoma cepedianum 24,407 285 24,692
Dorosoma petenense 21 38 59
Hiodon alosoides 43 26 69
Hiodon tergisus t = ef
Campostoma anomalum 1 — 1
Carassius auratus — 2, 2
Cyprinus carpio 339 69 408
Hybopsis storeriana 1,680 69 1,749
Notropis atherinoides 40,158 921 41,079
Notropis blennius lll — 111

Notropis cornutus 5 _ 5

Notropis spilopterus il — 1
Notropis volucellus 751 — 751
Pimephales notatus 34 35
Carpiodes carpio 34 18 52
Carpiodes cyprinus 5 — 5
Catostomus commersoni 1 — 1
Ictiobus bubalus 59 23 82
Ictiobus cyprinellus — 8 8
Minytrema melanops 2 1 3
Ictalurus furcatus 101 i 102
Ictalurus melas 22 2 24
Ictalurus natalis 2 —_— 2,
Ictalurus nebulosus 8 — 8
Ictalurus punctatus 969 280 1,249
Noturus gyrinus 1 — 1
Pylodictis olivaris 90 3 93
Morone chrysops 2 7 9
Ambloplites rupestris 2 1 3
Lepomis cyanellus 78 1 79
Lepomis gulosus 1 — 1
Lepomis humilis ol — 51
Lepomis macrochirus 54 32 86
Lepomis megalotis 15 16 31
Lepomis microlophus — 5 5
Micropterus dolomieui 1 3 f
Micropterus

punctulatus i 2 3
Micropterus salmoides 1 — it
Pomoxis annularis 6 152 158
Pomoxis

nigromaculatus 22 3 25
Etheostoma kennicotti ] — 1
Stizostedion

canadense 5 35 40
Aplodinotus grunniens 6,418 1,533 7,951

Total 77,144 3,869 81,013

36,288 individuals that weighed 3,314.8
kg were collected, 12,688 (448.0 kg) in
1957-1959, and 23,620 (2,866.8 kg) in
1969-1979. In the 1957-1959 samples,
the gizzard shad made up about a third
of the total numbers, followed in order
by the threadfin shad Dorosoma pete-
nense (22%), the freshwater drum (18%),
the silverband shiner Notropis shumar-
di, and the silvery minnow Hybognathus
nuchalis (each about 4%). In 1957-1959,
the numbers of species in a single collec-
tion ranged from 13 to 28, whereas in
1969-1979, the range was from 16 to 31
species.

From the data discussed above, it is
obvious that there were marked differ-
ences in collections from the same loca-
tions at different times. The discrepan-
cies in species composition within each
section indicates that the fishes in each
sample represent no more than the kinds
of fishes present in that sample. How-
ever, repeated sampling of the same area,
even though the species composition of
each sample is not the same as the others,
indicates that the fishes do move about,
the same kinds may not always be in the
same places at all times, and the more
samples taken the greater will be the
number of species.

Also, from those data it is obvious that
the species composition of the subpopu-
lation in the upper Ohio River was quite
different from that of the middle section,
which in turn was quite different from
that in the lower river. Those differences
are especially manifest when it is pointed
out that although there were no more
than 50 species collected in any single
section, a total of 75 species were repre-
sented in the three sections combined
(Table 5). In examining that table in de-
tail, it is noted that only 25 species were
common to all sections. Among the 50
species represented in collections from
the upper sections, 17 were not in the
middle section, and 15 of the 48 species
collected from the middle section were
not taken in the upper section. Further-
more, 9 species taken in the middle sec-
tion were not taken in the lower section

FisH POPULATION OF OHIO RIVER—Krumholz 9

TABLE 4.—NUMBERS OF EACH SPECIES OF FISH

TAKEN WITH EMULSIFIABLE ROTENONE IN 10 COL-

LECTIONS FROM LOCK CHAMBERS AT THREE LOCKS

AND DAMS IN THE LOWER OHIO RIVER DURING

1957-1959, ALONG WITH THE TOTAL NUMBERS
DURING BOTH PERIODS.

1957- 1969-—
1959 1979 Total

Polyodon spathula 2 61 63
Lepisosteus oculatus 1 1 2}
Lepisosteus osseus 2 16 18
Lepisosteus

platostomus 25 1 26
Amia calva —_ 1 1
Anguilla rostrata 2 1 3
Alosa chrysochloris 111 134 245
Dorosoma cepedianum 4,252 18,634 22,886
Dorosoma petenense 2,782 830 =—3,612
Hiodon alosoides 15 40 55
Hiodon tergisus 10 17 oT
Esox americanus

americanus — 2 2
Cyprinus carpio 215 190 405
Hybognathus nuchalis 491 = 49]
Hybopsis storeriana 197 12 209
Notemigonus

chrysoleucas — 1 1
Notropis atherinoides 43 81 124
Notropis blennius 189 = 189
Notropis boops 8 _ 8
Notropis shumardi 495 — 495
Notropis volucellus 341 — 341
Pimephales notatus 2 — 2
Carpiodes carpio 17 18 35
Cycleptus elongatus 1 — 1
Ictiobus bubalus 32 27, 59
Ictiobus cyprinellus 1 62 63
Moxostoma erythrurum — 1 1
Ictalurus furcatus 490 199 689
Ictalurus melas — 3 3
Ictalurus natalis — 1 1
Ictalurus punctatus 453 426 879
Noturus gyrinus 3 — 3
Pylodictis olivaris 162 88 250
Aphredoderus sayanus 1 — 1
Morone chrysops 24 14 38

and 11 species taken in the lower section
were not taken in the middle section.
Thirty-two species were common to both
the upper and middle sections and 36
were common to the middle and lower
sections. To our surprise, two species of
minnows, Notemigonus chrysoleucas
and Notropis boops were taken in the
upper and lower sections but not in the
middle. That does not mean that those
species were not present in the middle

TABLE 4.—CONTINUED

1957- 1969—

1959 1979 Total

Morone

mMississippiensis 6 25 31
Ambloplites rupestris — 1 1
Lepomis cyanellus — 25 25
Lepomis gulosus — 22 22
Lepomis humilis — 3 3
Lepomis macrochirus 14 231 245
Lepomis megalotis 6 67 73
Micropterus

punctulatus 1 4 5
Micropterus salmoides — Wy 117/
Pomoxis annularis 11 493 504
Pomoxis

nigromaculatus 4 91 95
Percina sciera 3 — 3
Stizostedion

canadense 17 18 35
Aplodinotus grunniens 2,239 1,762 4,001

Total 12,668 23,620 36,288

section, but that sampling there was not
extensive enough or at the right time to
have caught them. On other occasions,
we have taken both species in the Ohio
River near the mouths of streams in the
area.

DISCUSSION

Although the early writers had no op-
portunity to discuss the longitudinal dis-
tribution of fishes in the Ohio River,
there was much discussion of the fishes
at the Falls of the Ohio (Call 1896 and
others) and of the marked changes that
had occurred from the upper end of the
river to the mouth of the Kanawha River
(Lachner 1956). Also, Jordan (1922) wrote
that he and Copeland were going to re-
study Rafinesque’s list of species from
the Falls of the Ohio, but I have been
unable to find any publication concern-
ing that matter.

The first study of the distribution and
relative abundance of fishes throughout
the length of the river was that sponsored
by the Ohio River Valley Water Sanita-
tion Commission (1962). In that study,
Krumholz et al. (1962) spent more than
three years and made 341 collections in
an attempt to assess the fish population

10 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 42(1-2)

TABLE 5.—DISTRIBUTION OF 75 SPECIES OF FISHES
IN THE UPPER, MIDDLE, AND LOWER PORTIONS OF
THE OHIO RIVER BASED ON COLLECTIONS WITH
EMULSIFIABLE ROTENONE IN LOCK CHAMBERS

1957-1979.

Up- Mid- Low-

per dle er
Polyodon spathula Xi EX
Lepisosteus oculatus xX
Lepisosteus osseus xX XxX
Lepisosteus platostomus XxX xX
Amia calva xX
Anguilla rostrata Xu XG ex
Alosa chrysochloris Xe UNG ae oN
Dorosoma cepedianum Xe XO
Dorosoma petenense XxX XxX
Hiodon alosoides Xo eX
Hiodon tergisus Nei yX
Esox americanus americanus x
Esox masquinongy Xx
Campostoma anomalum XxX XxX
Carassius auratus xX x
Cyprinus carpio xX xX XxX
Hybognathus nuchalis xX
Hybopsis amblops xX
Hybopsis storeriana xX XxX xX
Notemigonus chrysoleucas xX xX
Notropis atherinoides PFS PIE NS
Notropis blennius EXE eX) RX
Notropis boops xX Xx
Notropis buchanani X
Notropis cornutus XTX
Notropis rubellus xX

Notropis shumardi xX
Notropis spilopterus
Notropis stramineus
Notropis volucellus
Pimephales notatus
Semotilus atromaculatus
Carpiodes carpio
Carpiodes cyprinus
Catostomus commersoni
Cycleptus elongatus
Ictiobus bubalus
Ictiobus cyprinellus
Minytrema melanops
Moxostoma duquesnei
Moxostoma erythrurum
Ictalurus catus
Ictalurus furcatus
Ictalurus melas
Ictalurus natalis
Ictalurus nebulosus
Ictalurus punctatus
Noturus gyrinus
Pylodictis olivaris
Aphredoderus sayanus
Percopsis omiscomaycus
Fundulus diaphanus
Morone chrysops
Morone mississippiensis
Ambloplites rupestris

wn

ww
ww

AK KM
w~

A
KKM MMM
AKA

~

A MMM KM KM
KAKA KAKA A
ZARA KKM XK

AKA

TABLE 5.—CONTINUED

Lepomis cyanellus
Lepomis gibbosus
Lepomis gulosus
Lepomis humilis
Lepomis macrochirus
Lepomis megalotis
Lepomis microlophus
Micropterus dolomieui
Micropterus punctulatus
Micropterus salmoides
Pomoxis annularis
Pomoxis nigromaculatus
Etheostoma nigrum
Etheostoma kennicotti
Perca flavescens

Percina caprodes
Percina sciera
Stizostedion canadense
Stizostedion vitreum vitreum
Aplodinotus grunniens

Total

A KM MK

KAAKAK MM MK KM MK MR KKM

ws
~ KK

OU
j=)

48 49

in all sections of the river using a variety
of methods. Some ten years later, the U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency re-
peated parts of that study using emulsi-
fiable rotenone in selected lock chambers
(Preston and White 1978) and continued
their efforts through 1979, for a total of
101 collections.

Rather than reanalyzing all those data,
samples of collections from upper, mid-
dle, and lower sections of the river were
selected to illustrate the remarkable dif-
ferences in species composition and dis-
tribution of the fish population through-
out the length of the stream. Thus, 59
collections made with emulsifiable rote-
none in mainstream lock chambers in
1957-1959 and 1969-1979 were used in
the comparison (Tables 1-6).

Perhaps the most striking differences
revealed by an analysis of those collec-
tions were that although 75 species of
fishes were taken, no more than 50
species were represented in any single
section, and only 25 species were com-
mon to all sections. Those differences
largely reflect differences in such envi-
ronmental conditions as gradient, the ef-
fects of impoundment, and the actual size

FISH POPULATION OF OHIO RIVER—Krumholz IL

TABLE 6.—NUMBERS AND WEIGHTS (KG) OF THE SIX MOST ABUNDANT FISHES TAKEN IN 59 COLLECTIONS
FROM THE UPPER, MIDDLE, AND LOWER SECTIONS OF THE OHIO RIVER, 1957-1959 AND 1969-1979. SEE
TEXT FOR EXPLANATION.

1957-1959 1969-1979 Total
No. Wt. No. Wt. No. Wt.
Notropis atherinoides 40,499 64.1 35,841 37.5 76,340 101.6
Dorosoma cepedianum 28,720 1,139.9 19,468 2,463.3 48,188 3,602.2
Aplodinotus grunniens 8,657 262.0 3,299 323.9 11,956 585.9
Ictalurus punctatus 2,076 89.8 1,750 102.3 3,826 192.1
Dorosoma petenense 2,803 27.8 868 17.8 3,671 45.6
Cyprinus carpio 740 ees} 2,669 828.5 3,409 999.8
Total 83,495 1,754.9 63,895 3,773.3 147,390 5,027.2

of the river. The average gradient for the
Ohio River from Pittsburgh, Pennsylva-
nia, to Montgomery Island Locks and
Dam is about 1 foot/mile (0.19 m/km)
with an average annual discharge of
36,300 cubic feet per second (cfs) (61,673
m?/min). Just upstream from the dam, the
river is about 1,000 feet (305 m) wide. For
the middle 200 miles (322 km), the av-
erage gradient is about 0.4 foot/mile (0.7
m/km, including the 37-foot (11.3-m) de-
clivity at the Falls of the Ohio, with an
average annual discharge of 115,400 cfs
(196,065 m?/min). The width of the river
at the intake of the Louisville Water
Company, a few miles upstream from the
dam is about 4,000 feet (1,220 km). The
average gradient from the outlet of Smith-
land Locks and Dam to that of Lock
and Dam No. 53 probably is less than
0.3 foot/mile (0.06 m/km) with an aver-
age annual discharge of 269,200 cfs
(457,371 m*/min). Just upstream from
Dam No. 53, the river is about 1.6 miles
(2.4 km) wide. In some years, 1980 for
example, the wickets at Dam No. 53 are
never raised and the river is open from
Lock and Dam No. 52 to the Mississippi
River. In that area, the river responds to
a large extent to fluctuations in the level
of the Mississippi River and the gradient
is difficult to define.

Thus, there are marked differences in
the physical characteristics over the
length of the river from a fairly narrow,
rapidly flowing body of water at the up-
per end to a very wide, rather gently
flowing but voluminous river at the lower

end, and all species of fishes are well
adapted to the areas in which they live.
They reproduce there, they maintain
their populations there, and each species
occupies its appropriate niche in the
community. Thus, it is quite obvious that
the environmental requirements of the
different species cover a broad range of
tolerances.

When I first became interested in fish-
eries work as a profession, it was im-
pressed on me by Dr. David H. Thomp-
son of the Illinois Natural History Survey
that fishes had specific environmental
needs and tolerances outside of which
they could not maintain successful pop-
ulations. Based on the early studies of
Forbes and Richardson (1920), Hankin-
son (1913), Okkelberg (1921), Reighard
(1910), Ricker (1934), Shelford (1910),
Thompson and Hunt (1930), and others it
was apparent that all fishes were not
evenly distributed over the lengths of
streams in which they lived. They re-
sponded to differences in the physical,
chemical, and geomorphic makeup of the
stream conditions over its entire length.
Much more recently, Vannote et al.
(1980) have offered the “River Contin-
uum Concept” in which they “hypoth-
esize that the structural and functional
characteristics of stream communities are
adapted to conform to the most probable
position or mean state of physical sys-
tem.” In their hypothesis, they neglect-
ed to include the chemical character-
istics of the stream that I believe are
just as important and the physical char-

i TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 42(1-2)

acteristics. They have endeavored to so-
phisticate the “concept” to include the
processing of energy through resource
partitioning, but the general idea is that
plants and animals occur in parts of the
stream that are most suitable to their wel-
fare. Vannote et al. (1980) are to be com-
mended on their endeavor to simplify the
“concept.” No river is a continuum be-
cause there is a constant change from
source to mouth in all streams. The only
aspect that may be considered a contin-
uum is the water since it is unidirectional
in flow; still, its chemical composition
changes constantly.

Even though more than 1.2 million in-
dividual fish were collected in the 1957-
1959 and 1969-1979 studies with a vari-
ety of methods, it must be pointed out
that all species, and certainly not all in-
dividuals, at each collection site probably
were not caught. Such methods as sein-
ing, trammelnetting, hoopnetting, gill-
netting, and electroshocking in stream
mouths, sand bars, backwaters, etc., are
very selective, mostly on the basis of the
gear used. In studies with rotenone, the
least selective method used, there is a
marked tendency of the workers to con-
centrate on picking up the larger, more
spectacular individuals, and to overlook
the small species such as the minnows,
darters, and others simply because they
are not so exciting to catch (Krumholz
1948, 1950). Also, and unknown number
of stricken individuals rise to the surface
only for a moment or two and then sink
into the deeper waters where they re-
main until they disintegrate or bloat and
rise again to the surface. The time restric-
tion in picking up fish in lock chambers
of the Ohio River virtually assures that
perhaps no more than half the fish killed
can be collected. In many instances, the
time for picking up was curtailed to no
more than two hours by approaching
barge traffic. Still, Preston and White
(1978) collected representatives of eight
species of fishes in 1969-1976 that were
not collected by Krumholz et al. (1962),
an indication that some introductions of
exotic species may have survived. Those
eight species were the alewife Alosa

pseudoharengus, the northern pike Esox
lucius, the bigeye shiner Notropis boops,
the pugnose shiner N. emiliae, the white
catfish Ictalurus catus, the striped bass
Morone saxatilis, and the channel darter
Percina copelandi. In all likelihood, the
bigeye shiner, the pugnose minnow, and
the channel darter were present 10 years
earlier, but were not taken in the collec-
tions; the white catfish and the striped
bass were introduced (Clay 1975).

On those bases, the most that can be
said is that there are extreme differences
in the species composition of the fish
communities in the different parts of the
Ohio River. In all likelihood, some
species are missing from the overall list
of 130 species reported by Krumholz et
al. (1962), especially since the Ohio River
is much “cleaner” now than it was in
1957-1959 as shown by the studies of
Preston and White (1978), in which more
individuals of a wider variety of species
were taken from lock chambers by essen-
tially the same methods.

Here, it must be emphasized that when
Krumholz et al. (1962) were making their
study; there were 43 locks and dams be-
tween Pittsburgh and the Mississippi
River, only 5 of which were permanent
concrete structures. Since then, more
than half the old wicket type dams have
been replaced by 18 permanent concrete
structures as an aid to increased naviga-
tional needs. In all likelihood, Locks and
Dam Nos. 52 and 53 will remain func-
tional for the foreseeable future, and
Smithland Locks and Dam will be the
most downstream permanent structure.
Eventually, anew dam, Mound City, may
be built near the mouth of the Ohio Riv-
er. If all permanent locks and dams are
completed, there will be 19 permanent
structures over the length of the river, an
average of one dam every 52 miles (84
km).

Many of the lock chambers sampled by
Krumholz et al. (1962) could not have
been sampled by Preston and White
(1978) simply because they were no long-
er in existence. The only sites that could
have been sampled by both groups were
Emsworth, Dashields, Montgomery Is-

FISH POPULATION OF OHIO RIVER—Krumholz 13

land, and McAlpine Locks and Dams and
those sites are used in the present com-
parison. Most of the collections made by
the U.S. Environmental Protection Agen-
cy were from new lock chambers. The
Ohio River is much cleaner now than it
was in 1959, largely because of the pas-
sage of Public Law 92-500, the Federal
Water Pollution Control Acts Amend-
ments of 1972. Thus, in the interim be-
tween 1959 and 1979, the abatement of
much pollution resulted in a better en-
vironment for aquatic life and the in-
creased size and depth of the impound-
ments have created more living space for
those fishes that prefer that type of hab-
itat.

The introduction of exotic species into
the Ohio River has had a marked effect
on the species composition and relative
abundance of the fish community since
the days of Rafinesque. The earliest and
most noticeable introduction to date was
that of the carp in the late 1800s. In ad-
dition to the introduction of the carp and
the goldfish as pointed out by Lachner
(1956), other species as the striped bass,
the white catfish, the alewife, and many
others have become established in the
Ohio River. On the basis of our studies,
the carp now occupies 15-20 percent of
the total biomass of the fish population,
and according to Preston and White
(1978), the white catfish is common in the
upper river. Other native species seem to
have suffered over the past years; the
blue sucker, a desirable commercial
species is becoming rarer in the com-
mercial catch and Preston and White
(1978) failed to catch any.

Perhaps the most serious introduction,
not only for the Ohio River but for the
entire country as well, was that of the
grass carp or white amur Ctenopharyn-
godon idella by personnel of Auburn
University and the U.S. Fish and Wildlife
Service in the early 1960s. Those fish
matured and spawned successfully in
ponds in 1966. Since then, they have
been introduced throughout the United
States (Guillory and Gasaway 1978), and
are relatively common in the catches of
commercial fishermen in the Mississippi,

Missouri (Pflieger 1975), and Illinois
(Smith 1979) rivers. We have reliable re-
ports that they are caught by commercial
fishermen in the lower Ohio River. The
predictions of Stanley (1976) and Stanley
et al. (1978) that the species would repro-
duce successfully in the larger rivers has
come true. Larvae of the grass carp have
been reported from the Mississippi River
as far north as Missouri and southern I]-
linois. In all likelihood, they are present
in the Ohio River as well since the en-
vironmental requirements are suitable
for successful reproduction. It is only a
matter of time until the grass carp be-
comes established in all major waterways
in the United States to which it can gain
access. We can only wait and see whether
the effects will be broadly beneficial or
harmful. The effects will not be on the
fishes alone but will also apply to the
many waterfowl marshes and maybe
even those occupied by muskrats and
other valuable aquatic mammals.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The data gathered in 1957-1959 could
not have occurred without the sponsor-
ship of the Ohio River Valley Water San-
itation Commission and the excellent co-
operation of the U.S. Army Corps of
Engineers. To the many persons, too nu-
merous to list individually, who assisted
in making the collections, particularly
the contemporary faculty members and
students at the University of Louisville,
who spent many hours on the river,
sometimes in the most inclement weath-
er, and personnel of the Kentucky De-
partment of Fish and Wildlife Resources,
I offer my sincere thanks.

I am particularly indebted to Dr. Wil-
liam D. Pearson of the Water Resources
Laboratory, University of Louisville, for
his assistance and understanding in se-
curing library materials, many through
interlibrary loan, and for criticizing the
manuscript. Dr. Pearson and I are grate-
ful to the Oak Ridge National Laboratory
for providing funds for assessing the cur-
rent status of the fish population of the
Ohio River, based on all information
available frem all environment impact

14

assessments concerned with the con-
struction of locks and dams, electric pow-
er plants, and other structures over the
entire length of the river. The U.S. En-
vironmental Protection Agency was most
helpful in providing access to some of
those reports.

LITERATURE CITED

BAILEY, R. M., J. E. Fircu, E. S. HERALD, E. A.
LACHNER, C. C. LINDSEY, C. R. ROBINS, AND
W. B. Scorr. 1970. A list of common and sci-
entific names of fishes from the United States
and Canada. 3rd ed. Spec. Publ. No. 6, Ameri-
can Fisheries Society, Washington, D.C.

BANTA, R. E. 1949. The Ohio: rivers of America.
Reinhart and Co., New York, N.Y.

CALL, R. E. 1896. Fishes and shells of the Falls of
the Ohio. Pp. 9-20. In J. S. Johnson (Ed.). Me-
morial history of Louisville from its first settle-
ment to the year 1896. Amer. Biogr. Publ. Co.,
H. C. Cooper, Jr., & Co., Chicago, Ill.

1899. Ichthyologia Ohiensis or natural
history of fishes inhabiting the Ohio River and
its tributary streams, by C. S. Rafinesque. A
verbatim et literatim reprint of the original,
with a sketch of the life, the ichthyologic work,
and the ichthyologic bibiliography of Rafines-
que. The Burrows Brothers Co., Cleveland,
Ohio.

CLay, W. M. 1975. The fishes of Kentucky. Ky.
Dept. Fish Wildl. Resour., Frankfort, Ky.

CuTLER, M. 1787. Description of Ohio. Old South
Leaflet 2(40): 1-12.

EVERMANN, B. W. 1918. The fishes of Kentucky

and Tennessee: a distributional catalogue of
the known species. Bull. U.S. Bur. Fish.
35(1915-1916). Doc. No. 858.

FITZPATRICK, T. J. 1911. Rafinesque, a sketch of
his life with bibliography. Historical Dept.
Iowa, Des Moines, Ia.

FORBES, S. A., AND R. E. RICHARDSON. 1920. The
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Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 42(1-2), 1981, 16-28

A Survey of Scirpus in Kentucky with Problem
Species—Complex Analyses

SALLY CURB ARNOLD! AND E. O. BEAL

Department of Biology, Western Kentucky University, Bowling Green, Kentucky 42101

ABSTRACT

The genus Scirpus was analyzed according to species occurrence and physiographic distri-
bution by county in Kentucky. The morphologies of three problem taxonomic complexes, Scirpus
atrovirens-georgianus, Scirpus validus-acutus, and Scirpus cyperinus-eriophorum-pelius, were
evaluated to determine whether or not their components are distinct among Kentucky specimens.
Proper taxonomic application of the name S. pendulus Muhl. to specimens formerly labelled S.
lineatus Michx. has been observed. Remaining taxa were likewise evaluated and identified. A
key to Scirpus, including an additional species expected to occur in the State, and a taxonomic

treatment are presented.

INTRODUCTION

The world-wide genus Scirpus con-
sists of many diverse species, several of
which present taxonomic difficulties. Ex-
amination of specimens of Scirpus from
Kentucky revealed the presence of three
problem complexes in the State. These
are: S. atrovirens-georgianus, S. validus-
acutus, and S. cyperinus-eriophorum-pe-
lius.2 The remaining taxa presented no
problems in identification. Scirpus tor-
reyi is reported from the State, although
no specimens were examined in confir-
mation of this report; the species is in-
cluded on the basis that its distribution
pattern includes Kentucky. Another
species, S. lineatus, has been included to
help clarify the nomenclatural confusion
of that taxon with S. pendulus in most
manuals.

Schuyler (1967) presented a treatment
of some North American species of Scir-
pus, and Koyama (1962) treated Scirpus
on a world-wide basis. This study was
conducted within the more restricted
boundaries of Kentucky in order to de-
termine the taxa of Scirpus presented in
the State and their distribution in phys-
iographic regions and counties. Kentucky

' Present address: 1812 E. Belleview Place, Apt.
3, Milwaukee, Wisconsin 53211.

? Author citations for taxa are covered in full in
the taxonomic treatment.

16

data on species-complexes traditionally
presenting classification problems are
subjected to various analyses to deter-
mine the appropriate categories for their
components. The key to the taxa and the
taxonomic treatment included herein are
derived from data on Kentucky speci-
mens examined except for those species
not confirmed as being a part of the State
flora.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Three hundred eight specimens of
Kentucky Scirpus were obtained on loan
from the following herbaria: DHL, KY,
MUR, SIU, KNK (Holmgren and Keuken,
1974), Morehead State University, Mem-
phis State University, Eastern Kentucky
University, and Western Kentucky Uni-
versity.

Keys used in identification were Beal
(1977), Clapham et al. (1962), Correll and
Correll (1972), Gleason and Cronquest
(1963), Fassett (1957), Fernald (1950),
Polunin (1969), Radford et al. (1968), and
Schuyler (1963, 1967). Deviations from
published data and concurring data were
noted.

Using a dissecting microscope, stan-
dard measurements of scale, achene, and
spikelet lengths were taken from each of
the problem groups according to recom-
mendations by Schuyler (1964). Scale
length representing an individual speci-
men is the mean length of five scales

ScIRPUS IN KENTUCKY—Arnold and Beal

from the middle area of the spikelet.
Achene length is the mean length of five
mature achenes. Spikelet length and
width are the mean values of five mature
spikelet measurements.

In addition to standard measurements,
the presence or absence of bristles, the
presence or absence of bristle barbs, bris-
tle lengths (relative to achene), nature of
the style, and number of leaves per plant
were observed and noted. These mea-
surements and features are critical in the
identification of various taxa.

Achene length and scale length are dis-
tinguishing features in the S. atrovirens-
georgianus complex (Schuyler 1967).
These data from Kentucky specimens
were plotted on an ordinate-abcissa
graph in an attempt to demonstrate any
correlations of these features with the
taxa involved. Scale length (mm) was
charted against bristle length (relative
to achene). Two bristle-length categories
were defined (according to Schuyler
1967) as (1) much shorter than the ach-
ene, including absence of bristles, and
(2) bristles shorter than to slightly ex-
ceeding the achene. These plots provid-
ed an estimate of morphological variabil-
ity based upon features traditionally used
in delineation of these taxa.

Dabbs (1971) stressed the significance
of primary, secondary, and tertiary ray
elongation, as well as spikelet length, for
the separation of S. validus and S. acutus
among populations in Saskatchewan,
Canada. Ray elongation patterns and
mean spikelet length were plotted to dis-
cover any correlation between these two
features. Additionally, 10 morphological
features characteristic of S. acutus were
phenotypically rated with 10 correspond-
ing features of S. validus according to the
double-index method of Klekowski and
Beal (1965).

Smith (1969) proposed two culm inter-
nal air space features useful in distin-
guishing S. acutus from S. validus in the
North-Central United States. Kentucky
specimens were not sacrificed to test the
usefulness of these two features in our
area. However, comments will be made
in the discussion section of this paper

17

concerning a very limited analysis of
Smith’s new features as applied to spec-
imens from the junior author's private
collection.

The S. cyperinus-eriophorum-pelius
complex presented a problem in that ap-
parently red-brown or blackish color of
involucels and bases in involucral bracts,
and the number of pedicelled spikelets
are the only morphological features used
to separate the taxa (Schuyler 1963).
These two features, together with the ap-
pearance of the bristles and standard
measurements, were utilized in an at-
tempt to discriminate among the named
taxa in this group. Specimens were ex-
amined, grouped according to their ap-
parent morphology, and plotted geo-
graphically.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Based on the literature, 15 species
were expected, but only 13 of these were
confirmed as being a part of the Kentucky
flora. Seven specimens were identified as
S. americanus, 85 as being in the S. atro-
virens-georgianus complex, 51 as being
in the S. cyperinus-eriophorum-pelius
complex, 18 as S. koilolepis, 43 as S. pen-
dulus, 26 as S. polyphyllus, and 64 as
being in the S. validus-acutus complex.
Two individuals of S. fluviatilis were
identified. Scirpus expansus, S. hetero-
chaetus, S. holoschoenus, S. purshianus,
and S. smithii were represented by sin-
gle specimens each. After close exami-
nation, a total of 7 specimens was found
to be too immature for positive identifi-
cation.

Scirpus atrovirens-georgianus Complex

Standard measurements taken on ma-
ture plants in the S. atrovirens-georgi-
anus complex are presented in Table 1.
These standard measurements, along
with the description of bristles, compare
favorably with those of Schuyler (1967).

Attempts to delineate the S. atrovi-
rens-georgianus complex into two taxa
failed to show a clear distinction between
the two except that in “georgianus” the
bristles tend to be absent or reduced in
number and length. This feature seems

18 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 42(1-2)

TABLE 1—COMPARATIVE MORPHOLOGICAL FEATURES WITHIN THE Scirpus atrovirens-georgianus COM-
PLEX IN KENTUCKY. STANDARD MEASUREMENTS ARE BASED UPON THE MEAN VALUE OF 5 MEASUREMENTS OF
EACH FEATURE FROM EACH MATURE SPECIMEN.

Feature

Standard measurements
Achene length (mm)
Scale length (mm)
Spikelet length (mm)
Spikelet width (mm)

Additional features

Bristle number
Bristle length (relative to achene)

ca. achene length

Taxon
“atrovirens” “georgianus”
1.0-1.3 0.7-1.1
1.3-2.0 11.7
2.54.0 1.7-3.9
1.2-1.8 0.9-1.9
4-6 Usually 0-3

Usually much shorter

to be expressed as a continuum, however,
and, without correlation to other features,
is hardly suitable as the basis for recog-
nizing the two taxa at the species level.
These two taxa also are supposedly dis-
tinguishable on the basis of scale length,
achene length, and bristle length (Schuy-
ler, 1967). When comparing scale and
achene lengths, a continuous transition

1.8 fo)
& fo)
oO
: Oo oO
@ fo)
°
@ ° “ATROVIRENS”
00 00 °
= SE 9
iS
= e
= ® °o@o °
1.5 @ ° fe)
= @
=
o ss ° °
= © e eeee
— e} ee
ee e
ee CJ
= e 08 «6
a v e °
o e AG
2 @©e@ ee
e
“GEORGIANUS” °°

0.6 1.0 1.3
ACHENE LENGTH (mm)
Fic. 1. Scatter diagram of scale length (MM) ver-

sus achene length (mm) of mature specimens within
the Scirpus atrovirens-georgianus complex in Ken-
tucky. Filled circles represent var. georgianus and
empty circles var. atrovirens. Enlarged filled circle
represents two specimens of var. georgianus falling
at the same point. Enlarged circle with enclosed
dot represents both var. atrovirens and var. geor-
gianus falling at the same point.

between the two morphological extremes
is demonstrable (Fig. 1). Plotting spikelet
length-width ratios against scale length
also reveals morphological extremes, but
overlap is again considerable (Fig. 2). An
attempt to correlate scale length to bristle
length (relative to achene) also shows
much overlap (Fig. 3). The most evident
distinction between “atrovirens” and
“georgianus’ in Kentucky is seen by
comparing achene length to bristle
length (relative to achene) (Fig. 4). There
is considerable overlap but to a lesser ex-
tent than in the previously discussed
analyses.

Some authors (Beal 1977; Correll and

2.8 ° fe}
(eo) oO {o)
=
= @ “ATROVIRENS”
= 7285} @ fe)
= e e
=
2 ® fo) fo) fo)
w ® fo) @ 008 oe Oo fe)
ee C) fo) @0
=
2280 ©@ e0 C6@O0 Oo
2 ees ls 3
a 00
r) r) e e

“GEORGIANUS”

1-5 @
1.1 1S 2.0
SCALE LENGTH (mm)
Fic. 2. Scatter diagram showing spikelet length/

width versus scale length of specimens with fully

mature spikelets within the Scirpus atrovirens-

georgianus complex in Kentucky. Filled circles rep-

resent var. georgianus complex in Kentucky. Filled

circles represent var. georgianus and open circles
var. atrovirens.

ScIRPUS IN KENTUCKY—Arnold and Beal

—_— —-

Bristles slightly shorter than achene to longer

SO

Bristles much shorter than achene or absent

1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 Le, 1.8
SCALE LENGTH (mm)

Fic. 3. Graphic representation of the relationship
between scale length and bristle length (relative to
achene) within the Scirpus atrovirens-georgianus
complex in Kentucky. Lowest bar represents the to-
tal range of scale length for that bristle-type cate-
gory, the second bar represents the median two-
thirds of variability, the third bar represents the
median one third of variability, and the top dash
represents the median. Upper graph involves a total
of 26 specimens and the lower one 59.

Correll 1972; Schuyler 1967) recognize
the two taxa of the S. atrovirens-georgi-
anus complex as species while others
(Gleason and Cronquist 1963; Godfrey
and Wooten 1979; Fernald, 1950; Rad-
ford et al. 1968) do so at the varietal level.
On the basis of data portrayed in Fig. 4
we prefer to recognize these two taxa as
S. atrovirens var atrovirens and S. atro-
virens var georgianus.

Scirpus acutus-validus Complex

Standard measurements taken on ma-
ture plants in the Scirpus validus-acutus
complex revealed an achene length of
(1.2) 1.6-2.5 mm, scale length of 2.2-3.8
mm, and a spikelet length of 3.7-11.2
mm. Two specimens had achene lengths
of 1.2 mm, considerably below the pub-
lished achene length for this complex
(Correll and Correll 1972; Radford et al.
1968).

Spikelet color varied with each speci-
men from brown-red brown to brown-
grey brown. Spikelet scales also exhibit-
ed mucronate and awned midribs that
included a spectrum of intermediates be-
tween these two extremes among the
Kentucky specimens.

Correll and Correll (1972) considered
the degree of scale margin laceration to
be diagnostic in discriminating S. vali-
dus and S. acutus in the southwestern

Lg

—_—

than achene to longer

Bristles slightly shorter

Bristles much shorter than achene or absent

0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3
ACHENE LENGTH (mm)

Fic. 4. Graphic representation of the relationship
between achene length and bristle length (relative
to achene) within the Scirpus atrovirens-georgi-
anus complex in Kentucky. Lowest bar represents
the total range of achene length for that bristle-type
category, the second bar represents the median two-
thirds of variability, the third bar represents the
median one-third of variability, and the top dash
represents the median. Upper graph represents 29
specimens and the lower one 47.

United States. This characteristic was
highly variable in Kentucky species.
Thirty-three specimens were decidely
ciliate, 13 were lacerate, and 14 were
either intermediates or showed both
features on the same plant. Thus, the
character appears of little discriminatory
diagnostic value within the S. validus-
acutus complex in Kentucky.

Resinous scale glands, often consid-
ered reliable features in distinguishing
between S. acutus and S. validus, also
provided no consistent basis for classifi-
cation in this complex in Kentucky, an
observation agreeing with a study by
Dabbs (1971) among populations of this
species complex in Saskatchewan, Can-
ada. Resinous scale glands changed in
abundance with each specimen and were
totally absent in 11 specimens. They
were occasionally absent from some
scales but present on others of the same
spikelet. They were usually brick-red in
color but white glands were also ob-
served. They occurred frequently, but
not always, along the midrib.

In addition to primary and secondary
ray elongation, 15 “validus-acutus”’ plants
showed tertiary ray elongation, a feature
Dabbs (1971) used to recognize S. vali-
dus in Saskatchewan. Three showed pri-
mary ray elongation only, a characteristic
Dabbs (loc. cit.) ascribed to S. acutus.

RAY
ELONGATION

S. validus

3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
SPIKELET LENGTH (mm)

Fic. 5. Correlation of spikelet length with degree
of inflorescence ray elongation within the Scirpus
validus-acutus complex in Kentucky. Each dot in-
dicates a specimen falling at that level. Spikelet
length ranges for each taxon, as reported in various
manuals, are indicated. Each ray elongation cate-
gory is inclusive of the preceding category (ies).

The remaining specimens exhibited both
primary and secondary ray elongation.
Thus, the degree of ray elongation is an
example of continuity rather than discon-
tinuity within the complex among Ken-
tucky specimens. A comparison of spike-
let length and ray elongation showed
extensive overlap between the diagnostic
extremes of S. validus and S. acutus (Fig.
5) among Kentucky specimens and
proved to be unsuited for the discrimi-
nation of the two species in Kentucky.
Rating the Kentucky specimens phe-
notypically (double index method of Kle-
kowski and Beal 1965), using 10 morpho-
logical features, revealed a skew of
Kentucky specimens toward the S. vali-
dus phenotype (Fig. 6). Two specimens
exhibited primary ray elongation only
and fell on the equational line, indicating
that the S. validus and S. acutus scores
are equal in magnitude. No specimen fell
beyond the equational line into the S.
acutus phenotype area, demonstrating
that all specimens examined possessed a
number of S. validus characters that in
no instance was exceeded by the number
of S. acutus characters. Instead, the spec-
imens exhibited a tendency toward the
morphology of S. validus and interme-
diates rather than toward S. acutus.
Despite the apparent absence of “good”
S. acutus in Kentucky, the continuity of
intermediates within the complex implies
that nearly any combination of charac-
ters from both extremes may be found.
Several specimens from the Western Coal

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 42(1-2)

% eae eli cee

-acutus phenotypic rating

n 3

Fic. 6. Comparative phenotypic ratings of Ken-
tucky specimens of the Scirpus validus-acutus
complex from Kentucky sufficiently complete and
mature enough for analysis. Numbers along the
margins represent the number of morphological
features of each phenotype possessed by a partic-
ular number of specimens scoring a particular rat-
ing. Based on the literature the following morpho-
logical features were observed:

Morphological Feature S. validus _ S. acutus

1. Achene length 1.8-2.3 mm 2.1-2.4 mm
2. Scale length 24mm 2.1-2.4 mm
3. Spikelet length 5-10 mm 6-15 mm
4. Spikelet shape short, ovoid long, acutish
5. Spikelet color reddish- gray, gray-
brown brown
6. Scale midrib ex- awned mucronate
tension
7. Degree of scale glabrous pubescent
pubescence
8. Appearance of spreading close
inflorescence
8. Ray elongation 1°, 2° and/_ 1°, some 2°
or 3° (4°)
10. Appearance of ciliate lacerate

scale margins

Field and 2 from Fulton County fell near
the equational line, and it appears that
plants most closely resembling the S.
acutus phenotype are in this western
area.

Smith (1969), working with field pop-
ulations of S. acutus and S. validus in the
north-central United States, proposed
two stem characters, previously unrec-
ognized, considered useful in distin-
guishing the two species. These are the

ScirPUS IN KENTUCKY—Arnold and Beal SA

TABLE 2.—SEVEN OF THE “... MOST RELIABLE CHARACTERISTICS .. .’ OF Scirpus acutus AND S. validus
POPULATIONS STUDIED BY SMITH (1969).

Taxon

Feature S. acutus S. validus
1. Avg. air space width (mm) 0.3-0.5 1.0-2.5
2. No. of air spaces per stem dia. 9-14 2-4
3. Spikelet clustering Bez Solitary or 2-3
4, Spikelet scale color Dull gray-brown Bright orange-brown
5. Spikelet scale spotting Prominent Obscure
6. Awn shape Crooked Nearly straight
7. Awn length Exceeding scale Exceeding scale by

by one-half of
awn length

less than one-half
of awn length

number of air spaces in a cross-sectional
diameter of the upper one-third of the
culm and the average air space width
(= number of spaces along a diameter
divided by the diameter of the stem, in
mm). Smith (loc. cit.) presents several
features as “... reliable within the study
area’ and, among these, specifies the
new stem features, along with a few oth-
ers, as “The most reliable characteristics
... The two new stem features and five
of Smith’s “most reliable characteristics”
are listed in Table 2.

Specimens from Kentucky were not
sacrificed in an effort to determine
whether Smith’s (1969) stem anatomy
features apply to Kentucky plants. How-
ever, 6 plants in the junior author's per-
sonal collection, 4 from eastern North
Carolina and 2 from Itasca State Park,
northern Minnesota, were sacrificed to
test, on a very limited basis, the useful-
ness of Smith’s new stem features in
terms of their correlation with each other
and with 4 of his other “most reliable
characteristics’ as well as among all fea-
tures.

Among the 4 specimens from North
Carolina, Smith’s (1969) two stem fea-
tures exhibited a 50% correlation. The
same degree of correlation was evident
between the 2 specimens from Minne-
sota. Overall correlations among all pos-
sible feature-pairs are presented in Fig.
7. The disparity in degree of correlation
among most of these “reliable” features
is noted. A similar lack of correlation
among most feature-pairs was noted by

Miller and Beal (1972) among living pop-
ulations in the Itasca State Park area of
Minnesota. The present analysis is not
significant due to the small sample size,
but the results concur with other analyses
in showing an absence of distinctness of
these taxa.

Smith (1969) noted that of the 19 local-
ities where S. acutus and S. validus grew
together 14 contained apparent hybrids.
He indicated that hybrid sterility oper-
ates as a partial isolating mechanism [but
that] at many localities ... the hybrids
appear to be fertile enough for the pro-
duction of abundant back-cross and F,
plants.” Smith (loc. cit.) further noted
that, “As herbarium specimens from parts
of Western North America are often in-
termediate between S. acutus and S. val-

idus ... further studies may disclose that
2 3 4 5 6 7

1. Avg. air space width 50; 50! 33/50/67 | 67
2. No. of air spaces/dia. 67 |50/100| 67 | 67
— 5 |

3. Spikelet clustering 50| 67! 67 | 67
aot |

4. Spikelet scale color 67/50); 50

5. Spikelet scale spotting 67 | 67

6. Awn shape 83

7. Awn length

Fic. 7. Correlations (as %) among the seven fea-
tures utilized by Smith (1969, see Table 2) in dis-
tinguishing between Scirpus acutus and S. validus
as demonstrated by a very limited comparison of
four plants from eastern North Carolina and two
from northern Minnesota.

oe TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 42(1-2)

these two species cannot be separated in
some parts of their ranges.”

In addition to extensive morphological
and fertility data, Smith (1969) also pre-
sented two sets of morphological corre-
lations with environmental data “
from a Scirpus acutus X validus popula-
tion at Salt Alkali Lake, Kidder County,
North Dakota, showing correlation be-
tween electrical conductance of the
water and morphological variation of the
plants.” One set compared the hybrid in-
dex (as defined by Smith) to the number
of plants sampled from a given category
of electrical conductance. The other set
compared the number of pedicelled
spikelets per specimen and the number
of air spaces in the stem with categories
of electrical conductance. The correla-
tion is striking, with increasing specific
conductance being associated with an in-
creasing tendency toward the S. acutus
phenotype. It should be noted that the
so-called “hybrid index” is actually a
measure of morphological variability, not
a measure of hybridization between
species, as properly stated by Smith.
Also, Smith’s data show the number of air
spaces in the stem as a continuum with
no clustering toward either phenotype.
Moreover, the degree of ray elongation
data presented herein (Smith's pedi-
celled spikelets = 2° or 3° ray elongation)
also show that feature to be expressed as
a continuum.

It appears that the S. acutus-validus
complex exhibits a high degree of vari-
ability in its morphological features
(either directly influenced by the envi-
ronment or genetically based) with the
particular assemblage of features in a giv-
en locality being more a function of the
local environmental factors within the
area under study (probably effective in
the selection of genotypes) than due to
basic genetic differences at the species
level. Correll and Correll (1972) main-
tained nomenclatural distinctness at the
species level within this complex for
specimens in Texas. It is evident, how-
ever, that their descriptions overlap. Fur-
thermore, they note that intermediates
occur. Comparison of their descriptions

with Kentucky data also reveals that fea-
tures treated by Correll and Correll as
diagnostic (for example, lacerate scale
margins) are, in fact, of doubtful value
and only confuse the issue among Ken-
tucky specimens. Beal and Monson
(1954) concluded that Iowa specimens of
S. acutus, S. validus, and their interme-
diates were morphological expressions of
one species, S. validus. Miller and Beal
(1972), working with living specimens in
northern Minnesota, corroborated those
findings on an analytical basis. In a
worldwide evaluation, Koyama (1962)
considered S. acutus and S. validus to be
within his concept of the European S. la-
custris, the first being recognized as sub-
species glaucus and the second as sub-
species validus.

In view of extensive geographical di-
vergence in the usefulness of diagnostic
features, the evident abundance of “‘in-
termediates,” and the high fertility level
of at least some of those intermediates it
seems appropriate to consider the two
taxa as conspecific. Whether they should
be submerged totally into S. validus, the
older legitimate name, or retained at the
subspecies level within S. lacustris, as
treated by Koyama (1962), is open to
question. Lacking familiarity with S. la-
custris, however, we prefer the former in
reference to specimens from Kentucky.
We feel that studies involving correla-
tions of environmental factors to the mor-
phological variability expressed in this
species-complex, along the lines of
Smith’s (1969) study involving electrical
conductance, will be more valuable in
clarifying the taxonomy of the group than
will additional studies limited to mor-
phological analyses.

Scirpus cyperinus-eriophorum-pelius
Complex

Three phenotypes are apparent in the
S. cyperinus-eriophorum-pelius complex
in Kentucky. Another closely related tax-
on, S. pedicellatus (also sometimes treat-
ed as a variety of S. cyperinus) does not
occur in Kentucky. These three taxa seem
to be separable only by the degree of
spikelet pedicellation and color of invo-

Scirpus IN KENTUCKY—Arnold and Beal 23

TABLE 3.—COMPARATIVE MORPHOLOGICAL FEATURES OF THE Scirpus cyperinus-eriophorum-pelius COM-
PLEX IN KENTUCKY. STANDARD MEASUREMENTS ARE BASED UPON THE MEAN VALUE OF 5 MEASUREMENTS
OF EACH FEATURE FROM EACH MATURE SPECIMEN.

Taxon

“eriophorum”™ “nelius”

Feature “cyperinus”
Standard measurements
achene length (mm) 0.6-0.9
Scale length (mm) (1.4) 1.6-2.0
Spikelet length (mm) 2.2-4.0

Additional features
Color of involucral bracts
Spikelet clustering
but some
solitary

lucrals. The categories include spikelets
mostly in glomerules (“cyperinus” and
“nelius,” the latter having blackish in-
volucrals), and spikelets in glomerules or
sessile with lateral spikelets pedicellate
(“eriophorum ’’).

Standard measurements taken on ma-
-ture plants in this complex provided the
data presented in Table 3. In this table,
the standard measurements of “cyperi-
nus’ are represented by 13 specimens,
“eriophorum’ by 22 specimens, and “‘pe-
lius” by only 2 specimens. The addition-
al features, where maturity of the speci-
men is less significant, are based upon
16, 32, and 2 specimens, respectively.
Both of the specimens exhibiting brown-
ish-black involucels were collected in
mountainous areas (Rowan and Mont-
gomery counties) and fit the description
of S. cyperinus var. pelius.

In view of the degree of morphological

Reddish-brown
Mostly clustered

0.6-1.0 0.8-1.0
1.6-2.0 1.4-1.6
2.6-5.3 ca. 3.0

Reddish-brown Brownish black

Clustered Mostly clustered
or sessile, but some
lateral solitary
spikelets
pedicellate

similarity and overlap demonstrated by
standard measurements and other ob-
served features, only color of involucral
bracts distinguishes “pelius” and only
the degree of pedicellation separates “cy-
perinus” from “eriophorum” in Ken-
tucky. Paired with other factors these
may be valid. However, there seem to be
no other distinguishing features. Physio-
graphic distribution indicates no regional
isolation of any of the phenotypes except
perhaps the occurrence of “pelius” in the
mountains, but other groups occur there
also. In fact, they appear to grow sym-
patrically and mature concurrently. Al-
though Schuyler (1963) originally recog-
nized three taxa within this complex, he
later (1967) combined them as synony-
mous with S. cyperinus, recognizing no
varieties. The latter position is taken
herein.

TAXONOMIC TREATMENT

a. Inflorescence subtended by 1-2 bracts, one of which may appear as a contin-

uation of the culm; culm not leafy.

b. The inflorescence subtended by 2 bracts; mature spikelets 2-3 mm in

length

1. S. holoschoenus

b. The inflorescence subtended by 1 bract that appears as a continuation of
the culm; mature spikelets 3 mm or more in length.
c. Plant tufted, annual, without rhizomes.
d. Achene strongly trigonous; culms up to 1.8 dm in height Ne Ss

koilolepis

d. Achene plano-convex; culms up to 7 dm in height.

24 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 42(1-2)

e. Culm sharply triangular in cross-section, up to 7 dm tall; bris-
tles firm, longer than the achene body —.____ 3. S. purshianus

e. Culm terete to slightly angled in cross-section, up to 4 dm tall;
bristles absent, rudimentary very delicate and slender__ 4. S.
smithii

c. Plant a perennial with elongate rhizomes.
f. Culms sharply triangular in cross-section.
g. Achene distinctly trigonous; bristles longer than the achene

TO Cy; resi ena kt) oe eee thes Ot ag 5. S. S. torreyi
g. Achene plano-convex to obscurely trigonous; bristles shorter
thamithe aeheme: body, i. su soe maces 6. S. americanus

f. Culms terete.

h. Inflorescence loose and spreading; spikelets solitary at the tips
of rays; style 3-cleft; bristles mostly 2-4, usually shorter than |
the achene; scale conspicuously exceeding the achene _7. S. |
heterochaetus

h. Inflorescence close or spreading; spikelets mostly in clusters
at the tips of rays; style mostly 2-cleft; bristles 4-6; scale scarce-
lyexceeding theiachene 2255208. ea 8. S. validus

a. Inflorescence subtended by several foliaceous bracts; culm leafy.
i. Culm sharply triangular in cross-section; achene sharply, trigonous; bris-
tleseOustut, robust retrorsely barbed) was es ele Aad 9. S. fluviatilis
i. Culm terete to obscurely triangular; achene bluntly trigonous or plano-
convex; bristles 0-6, delicate, smooth or retrorsely barbed. |
j. Bristles straight, shorter than to slightly exceeding the achene, or ab- |

sent.
k. Leaf sheaths red-tinged; bristles retrorsely barbed to base; scales
broadly oval, the midvein broad and green 10. S. expansus

k. Leaf sheaths green; bristles, if present, smooth or retrorsely barbed
in distal portion; scales broadly elliptic or obovate, the midvein
slightly green only when immature.
Bristles 4-6, more-or-less equaling the achene, distal one-third
to entire length retrorsely barbed; achene 1.0-1.3 mm long ____- lla.
S. atrovirens var. atrovirens
1. Bristles absent, vestigial or about one half as long as the ach-
ene, only distal portion retrorsely barbed; achene 0.8—1.1 mm
lone Ra ee eee MERE llb. S. atrovirens var. georgianus
j. Bristles long and contorted, at least distally, conspicuously exceeding
the achene.
m. Bristles smooth, conspicuously exceeding the spikelet scales at |
maturity giving the spikelet a wooly appearance _._ 12. S. cyperinus |
m. Bristles smooth or retrorsely barbed, exceeding the achene at ma- |
turity but remaining within the spikelet scales.
n. The bristles retrorsely barbed ____.... 13. S. polyphyllus |
n. The bristles smooth. |
o. Mature culm lax and reclining, with 2 or 3 lateral inflores-
cences in addition to the terminal inflorescence; rays with
axillary bulblets; bristles 6, mostly 2-4 mm long when ex- |
teride Gi AE WR esl Ae VI ORES iy ARE UERY, 14. S. lineatus
o. Mature culm rigid and upright, usually with only a terminal
inflorescence; rays without bulblets; bristles variable but
mostly more than 5 mm long when extended 15. S. pendulus

ScirPUS IN KENTUCKY—Arnold and Beal

ANNOTATED LIST

. Scirpus holoschoenus L. Fig. 8, Map
De

Rare on ore piles of Marshall County,
Kentucky. An introduction from Eu-
rope. [Holoschoenus vulgaris Link]

. Scirpus koilolepis (Steud.) Gleason
Fig. 8, Map 3.

Low areas, fields, and limestone
bluffs. Rare outside the Mississippi
Embayment of the Gulf Coastal Plain
in the western portion of Kentucky.
[S. carinatus (Hook and Arn.) Gray]
. Scirpus purshianus Fern. Fig. 8,
Map 3.

Rare on slough banks in Ballard
County, Kentucky. This species ex-
tends from Mississippi and Georgia
northward into Michigan and Maine.
It should occur more abundantly in
Kentucky and should also be present
in the eastern part of the State.

. Scirpus smithii Gray Fig. 8, Map 2.
Rare in wet areas of Rowan County,
Kentucky.

. Scirpus torreyi Olney.

Reported to occur in Kentucky by
Fernald (1950) and Muenscher (1944)
but those reports need confirmation.
This species occurs in the northeast-
ern quadrant of the United States and
possibly occurs also in Kentucky,
probably in the northeastern part of
the State.

. Scirpus americanus Pers. Fig. 8,
Map 2.

Infrequent along shorelines and in
shallow water along the Pottsville
Escarpment and the Tennessee and
Cumberland rivers.

. Scirpus heterochaetus Chase Fig. 8,
Map 4.

Rare along shorelines of Crittenden
County, Kentucky.

. Scirpus validus Vahl Fig. 8, Map 5.
Shorelines and very wet ground.
Abundant along the Ohio River and
its tributaries as well as the Pottsville
Escarpment. Infrequent in the Blue
Grass Region and Western Coal
Field of Kentucky. [S. acutus Muhl.,
S. lacustris subsp. validus (Vahl) T.

10.

ae

1:

13.

25

Koyama, S. lacustris subsp. glaucus
(Smith) Hartman]

. Scirpus fluviatilis (Torr.) Gray Fig.

8, Map 4.

Swampy and wet areas of Henderson

County.

Scirpus expansus Fern. Fig. 8,

Map 4.

Rare in wet fields of Rowan County.

[Scirpus sylvaticus L.]

Scirpus atrovirens Willd. Fig. 8, Map

6.

Frequent along shorelines, road-

sides, low areas, and marshes. Abun-

dant throughout the State from the

Pottsville Escarpment to the Ohio

River.

a. var. atrovirens
Chiefly within the Blue Grass Re-
gion and occasionally in western
portions of the State. [Scirpus
atrovirens Willd.]

b. var. georgianus (Harp.) Fern.
Chiefly outside the Blue Grass
Region and west to the Ohio and
Mississippi rivers. [Scirpus geor-
gianus Harp.]

Scirpus cyperinus (1.) Kunth Fig. 8,

Map 7.

Common in low ground, disturbed

areas, ditches, and on stream banks.

Especially frequent within the Mis-

sissippi Embayment of the Gulf

Coastal Plain, the Western Coal

Field, and the Cumberland Plateau

of Kentucky. Specimens resembling

the “pelius” grouped do not extend
beyond the mountain area. [Eriopho-
rum cyperinum L., Scirpus eriopho-

rum Michx., S. rubricosus Fern., S.

cyperinus var. cyperinus, S. cyperi-

nus var. rubricosus (Fern.) Gilly, S.

cyperinus var. eriophorum (Michx.)

Kuntze, S. cyperinus var. pelius
Fern.]
Scirpus polyphyllus Vahl Fig. 8,
Map 8.

Frequent in low moist areas and
along creek banks and shorelines.
Occurs in the Mississippian and
Cumberland plateaus of Kentucky as
well as within the Mississippi Em-

26 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 42(1-2)

Map 1. Physiographic Regions of Kentucky
= Cumberland Plateau
= Mississippi

12C

22 an Plateau
3=Blue Gra

4=Western Coal Field
5= Mississippi Embayment

Map 8
S. polyphyllus

Fic. 8. Physiographic Regions of Kentucky (Map 1) and distributions of Scirpus species known to occur
in Kentucky (Maps 2-9). Traditionally recognized varieties of S. cyperinus are presented even though
they are not given formal recognition herein.

SciRPUS IN KENTUCKY—Arnold and Beal D7

bayment of the Gulf Coastal Plain.
Infrequent in the Blue Grass Region
of Kentucky. [Schoenus cymosus
Willd., Scirpus brunneus Muhl.]

14. Scirpus lineatus Michx.
Not known to occur in Kentucky but
due to the misapplication of the
name to plants that are actually S.
pendulus by most American authors,
various reports (e.g., Braun, 1943;
Gunn, 1968) and numerous herbar-
ium labels are in error. True S. lin-
eatus occurs in the Coastal Plain
from Virginia to Louisiana. [S. fonti-
nalis Harp.]

15. Scirpus pendulus Muhl. Fig. 8,
Map 9.
Frequent along shorelines, in low
areas, and in ditches. Common from
the Cumberland Plateau and Blue
Grass Region across the State to the
Western Coal Field and Ohio River.
The name Scirpus lineatus has been
misapplied to S. pendulus by most
American authors. Schuyler (1966)
clarified the nomenclature in these
taxa.

CONCLUSIONS

Examination of 308 specimens of Scir-
pus disclosed 13 species in Kentucky.
Three taxonomically difficult complexes
were defined. On the basis of Kentucky
data, S. atrovirens-georgianus is treated
at the varietal level as S. atrovirens var.
atrovirens and S. atrovirens var. geor-
gianus. Scirpus acutus is submerged in
S. validus. Of the four phenotypic forms
of the S. cyperinus-eriophorum-pelius-
pedicellatus complex, the last was not
found in Kentucky. The other three were
found to be indistinct and continuous,
and are submerged into S. cyperinus
without formal recognition. Physiograph-
ic distributions among the components of
each of the three problem complexes
show overlap in occurrence of extremes
and intermediates within each of the
complexes. The remaining taxa appear to
be morphologically distinct.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The senior author wishes to thank the
Kentucky Academy of Science Founda-

tion for Botanical Research and Western
Kentucky University (Research Grant 10-
5-372-02) for financial support.

LITERATURE CITED

BEAL, E. O. 1977. A manual of Marsh and Aquatic
Vascular Plants of North Carolina with Habitat
Data. North Carolina Agricultural Experiment
Station, Raleigh, North Carolina. Bull. 247:298
pp.

, AND P. H. Monson. 1954. Marsh and
aquatic angiosperms of Iowa. State Univ. of
Iowa Studies in Nat. Hist. Study Series No. 429.
19:1-95.

BRAUN, E. L. 1943. An annotated Catalog of
Spermatophytes of Kentucky. John S. Swift and
Co., Inc., Cincinnati.

CLAPHAM, A. R., T. G. TUTIN, AND E. F. WARBURG.
1962. Flora of the British Isles. University
Press at Cambridge.

CORRELL, D. S., AND D. B. CORRELL. 1972. Aquat-
ic and Wetland Plants of Southwestern United
States. Environmental Protection Agency, U.S.
Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C.

Daspss, D. L. 1971. A study of Scirpus acutus and
Scirpus validus in the Saskatchewan River del-
ta. Canadian J. Bot. 49:143-153.

FAssETT, N. C. 1957. A Manual of Aquatic Plants
(with revision appendix by E. C. Ogden). Univ.
Wisconsin Press, Madison.

FERNALD, M. L. 1950. Gray's Manual of Botany.
8th ed. American Book Company, New York.

GLEASON, H. A., AND A. CRONQUIST. 1963. Manual
of Vascular Plants of Northeastern United
States and Adjacent Canada. D. Van Nostrand
Co., Inc. New York.

GODFREY, R. K., AND J. W. WOOTEN. 1979. Aquatic
and Wetland Plants of Southeastern United
States. Univ. Georgia Press, Athens.

Gunn, C. R. 1968. The Flora of Jefferson and Sev-
en Adjacent Counties, Kentucky. Ann. Ken-
tucky Soc. Nat. Hist. 2:322.

HOLMGREN, P. K., AND W. KEUKEN. 1974. Index
Herbariorum, Ed. 6. Utrecht, Netherlands.
KLEKOWSKI, E. J., AND E. O. BEAL. 1965. A study
of variation in the Potamogeton capillaceus-
diversifolius complex (Potamogetonaceae).

Brittonia 17:175-181.

KoyAMA, T. 1962. The genus Scirpus Linn. Some
North American aphylloid species. Canadian J.
Bot. 40:912-—937.

MILLER, M., AND E. O. BEAL. 1972. Scirpus vali-
dus and S. acutus—a question of distinctness.
Minnesota Acad. Sci. 39:21-23.

MUENSCHER, W. C. 1944. Aquatic Plants of the
United States. Comstock Publ. Co., Ithaca, N.Y.

POLUNIN, O. 1969. Flowers of Europe. Oxford
Univ. Press, London, England.

RADFORD, A. E., H. E. AHLES, AND C. R. BELL.
1968. Manual of the Vascular Flora of the Car-
olinas. Univ. North Carolina Press, Chapel
Hill, North Carolina.

SCHUYLER, A. E. 1963. A biosystematic study of

28

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 42(1-2)

the Scirpus cyperinus complex. Proc. Acad.
Nat. Sci., Phila. 115:283-311.

. 1964. Notes on five species of Scirpus in
eastern North America. Bartonia, 33: 1-6.

. 1966. The taxonomic delineation of Scir-
pus lineatus and Scirpus pendulus. Not. Nat.
390:1-3.

1967. A taxonomic revision of North

American leafy species of Scirpus. Proc. Acad.
Nat. Sci., Phila. 119:295-323.

SMITH, S. G. 1969. Natural hybridization in the
Scirpus lacustris complex in North Central
United States (pp. 175-200); in, Current Topics
in Plant Science. James E. Gunckel, ed. Aca-
demic Press, New York, N.Y.

Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 42(1-2), 1981, 29-32

Federal Funding for Research and Development in
Kentucky: IV. The Economic Impact of Federal
Research and Development Funding in Kentucky

CHARLES E. KUPCHELLA,! W. FRANK EDWARDS,” RICHARD SIMS,? MARY
LYNN COLLINS,* AND KEN WALKER®

ABSTRACT

In 1978, a study of federal funding for research and development in Kentucky was undertaken
jointly by the Legislative Research Commission, The Council on Higher Education, and the
Kentucky Academy of Science. One of the objectives of the study was to assess the economic
impact of present levels of federal dollars coming to the commonwealth to support research and
development activity and to assess the potential economic impact of moving the state toward
“parity” with other similar states. Using National Science Foundation figures and an estimated
economic multiplier of 1.2 to 1.3, it was determined that current federal support for research and
development augments Kentucky’s personal incomes by $56.2 to 70.25 million annually, an
equivalent of 3,500-4,300 jobs. If Kentucky were elevated to the average level of support re-
ceived by 10 socioeconomically similar (benchmark) states, personal incomes would rise by

$155.3 to 194.2 million, an equivalent of 9,800-—12,000 jobs.

INTRODUCTION

This is the fourth and last in a series of
articles based on a study of Federal
Funding for Research and Development
in Kentucky conducted by the Council on
Higher Education and the Legislative
Research Commission in cooperation
with the Kentucky Academy of Science
(see Collins et al. 1979; Kupchella et al.
1979, 1980a, 1980b). The portion of the
overall study reported here was an at-
tempt to assess the economic impact of
current levels of federal research and de-
velopment dollars and the potential eco-
nomic impact of moving the common-
wealth to where it “ought to be.” An

1 Chairman, Advisory Committee to the Council
on Higher Education and the Legislative Research
Commission on the 1979 study of the federal re-
search and development funding in Kentucky de-
scribed in this report; Department of Biological Sci-
ences, Murray State University, Murray, Kentucky
42071.

2 Chairman, Department of Economics, Murray
State University, Murray, Kentucky 42071.

3 Legislative Analyst, Legislative Research Com-
mission, Frankfort, Kentucky 40601.

4 Committee Aide, Legislative Research Commis-
sion, Frankfort, Kentucky 40601.

> Assistant Director for Analytical Studies, Coun-
cil on Higher Education, Frankfort, Kentucky
40601.

earlier report (Kupchella et al. 1980a)
showed that Kentucky ranked 47th in to-
tal federal research and development ob-
ligations per capita and ranked 40th
among the states in the amount of re-
search and development receipts for each
tax dollar paid.

METHODS
The Economic Multiplier

It is generally recognized that when
dollars are injected into the economy of
a region an expansion of the region's net
product® is effected by some multiple of
the original injection. As incomes in the
region rise from the original injection,
citizens in the region increase their con-
sumption spending, causing another
round of increases in incomes, which in
turn cause another round of increases in
consumption expenditures, and so on as
the economy gradually converges toward
a higher equilibrium level of economic
activity. As this process continues, in-

6 A region’s net product is the dollar value of the
production of new goods and services during the
period in question. When the production of new
goods and services equals the demand for new
goods and services, the region’s economy is said to
be in equilibrium.

30 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 42(1-2)

vestment? also tends to rise as businesses
respond to the increased demand for
goods and services. In economic termi-
nology, this phenomenon is called the
“multiplier effect,’ and in most geo-
graphic regions the magnitude of this
multiplier effect ranges from as low as 1.0
to as high as 2.0 or 2.5, depending on the
unique economic characteristics of the
region. A regional multiplier depends
upon the unique economic characteris-
tics of the region, which in turn establish
the shape of the region’s aggregate de-
mand function (see Appendix). There has
been little empirical research done in
Kentucky to estimate the state’s multi-
plier, but the a priori judgement of an
economist for the Kentucky Council of
Economic Advisors® is that Kentucky’s
multiplier is probably between 1.2 and

1:

WHERE SHOULD WE BEP

It is one thing to observe from the fig-
ures given in previous reports that there
may be a deficiency in Kentucky’s ability
to attract federal research and develop-
ment funds, but it is quite another to
specify how much federal research and
development funds Kentucky should be
getting.

Measures such as “federal research
and development dollars per capita” or
“federal research and development dol-
lars per tax dollar” to assess Kentucky’s
ability to attract federal research and de-
velopment funds are limited in the ab-
solute sense because they do not recog-
nize unique characteristics of the state
and how those characteristics relate to
national priorities for research and de-
velopment. However, much of what is
supported in the way of research and de-
velopment has no geographic relation-
ship, e.g., no relationship to natural re-
source distributions. As an_ initial

7 Investment is defined as expenditures for new
plant and equipment, new residential construction,
and increases in business inventories.

8 From a telephone conversation with Dr. Charles
G. Renfro, Acting Executive Director of the Ken-
tucky Council of Economic Advisors, April 1980.

approximation, we might assume that re-
search and development activities ought
to be fairly closely related to factors such
as population, per capita incomes, tax
dollars contributed and the like. Since it
was those indicators that were used to
establish Kentucky’s benchmark states, it
seems fair to assume that Kentucky
should be at least average with respect to
its benchmark states (see Kupchella et al.
1980a for the basis of benchmark desig-
nation).

RESULTS

If a multiplier of 1.2 to 1.5 were used
to estimate a range for the economic im-
pact of the 56.29 million dollars which the
Federal Government obligated for re-
search and development in Kentucky in
1977, the net product of the state is cur-
rently augmented by some 67.4 to 84.3
million dollars. Furthermore, since the
state’s net product is approximately 1.2 to
1.3 times total personal income,'® this im-
plies that the personal income of Ken-
tuckians was increased by some 56.2 to
70.25 million dollars by the Federal re-
search and development expenditure
level of 1977. Even at the 1979 average
annual manufacturing wage of $15,863,!!
the federal research and development
dollars at the 1977 level represent be-
tween 3,500 and 4,300 jobs.

The Cost of Deficiency

If Kentucky were able to achieve parity
with its benchmark states in the obtain-
ing of federal research and development
funds, what would it mean to the state’s

® Although not all of this sum is spent in Kentucky
(perhaps as much as 30% leaves the state to pur-
chase equipment and supplies), the subsequent dis-
cussion assumes that all of this amount is spent in
Kentucky. This was done partly because the exact
percentage is unknown and partly because this is
offset to some unknown degree by the dollars that
make their way into Kentucky from research and
development activity in other states.

© Kentucky Council of Economic Advisors An-
nual Rept., 1972, p. 22-23.

'' Calculated from data contained in Kentucky
Economy, Review and Perspective, March 1980,
Vol. 4, No. 1.

RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT FUNDING IN KENTUCKY—Kupchella et al. 31

economy in terms of net product, person-
al incomes, and jobs? Parity with similar
states would mean an infusion of 155.3
million dollars to the state’s economy, an
increase of 186.4 to 233.0 million dollars
in net product, an increase of 155.3 to
194.2 million dollars in personal in-
comes, and 9,800 to 12,000 jobs. Utilizing
figures of the Kentucky Council of Eco-
nomic Advisors for 1979 and 1980, un-
employment in the state might then fall
from 6.3 percent to between 5.6 percent
and 5.7 percent in 1980.

CONCLUSIONS

Two avenues of further investigation
are suggested. First, a valid standard for
measuring Kentucky's research and de-
velopment deficiency is needed. Such a
standard should take into account Ken-
tucky’s unique characteristics at a more
refined level than that implied by the
“benchmark approach.” This would ob-
viously be of great importance in the de-
velopment of any strategy designed to
improve the position of the common-
wealth. Second, there is need to derive
Kentucky's economic multiplier more ac-
curately. This could be done through
simulations with the State Econometric
Model or via primary economic research,
but since there is a state econometric
model currently operational, this would
be a logical application. In any case,
there is both room and incentive for im-
provement in Kentucky’s ability to attract
federal dollars for research and develop-
ment.

LITERATURE CITED

COoLLins, M. L., R. SIMS, AND J. K. WALKER. 1979.
Federal research and development funding in
Kentucky. Res. Rept. No. 156. Legislative Re-
search Commission, Frankfort, Ky.

KUPCHELLA, C. E., R. Srus, M. L. COLLINS, AND K.
WALKER. 1979. Federal funding for research
and development in Kentucky: I. Background.
Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci. 40(3-4):149-153.

, K. WALKER, R. SIMS, AND M. L. COLLINS.
1980a. Federal funding for research and de-
velopment in Kentucky: II. Kentucky in com-
parison with other states. Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci.
41(1-2):1-11.

, R. Stus, M. L. COLLINS, AND K. WALKER.
1980b. Federal funding for research and de-

velopment in Kentucky: III. Characteristics of
colleges and universities with high levels of
support. Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci. 41(3-4):150-155.

APPENDIX

A region’s aggregate demand for new goods and
services consists of consumption expenditures, in-
vestment expenditures, government purchases of
goods and services, and net exports (the region’s
exports minus imports). Three of these, consump-
tion, investment, and imports, are thought to be
closely related to the region’s net product. That is,
as they increase, net product increases, and vice
versa. Exports and government spending are
thought to be exogenous to the region, that is, they
are determined by forces outside the region. Ex-
ports, in particular, would be closely related to the
net products and incomes of other regions. These
concepts are presented graphically in Fig. 1. Curve
X represents that portion of aggregate demand com-
posed of government spending and exports, which,

:
Uv
Cc
oO
E
oO
Q T!
oO
a
oO
®
1°)
Le)
¢
2)
{=
fe)
o
o
a x
Region's Net Product ($)
Fic. 1. Regional Net Product and Aggregate De-
mand.
De T+ AT
& SS oe
Cc A
oO /
5 — We ||
P je Via I at Mei
© | (Ge eras
o | /
Ey YZ
<s Tt
0 eae |
Cc J
fe) A |
a J |
c We |
| |
|
/ |
/ | |
|
|\A5 |

!
NP1 NP

Region's Net Product

Regional Equilibrium Net Product and
Aggregate Demand.

32 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 42(]-2)

as explained earlier, is thought to be independent
of the region’s net product. Curve T’ is that part of
aggregate demand composed of consumption, in-
vestment, and imports, which as explained earlier,
is thought to vary directly with the region’s net
product. Curve T, then, is the sum of X and T’, and
represents the region’s total aggregate demand for
goods and services.

Shifts in curve T may of course arise from shifts
in any of the underlying curves that comprise T.

For example, if the government were to increase its
research and development expenditures in the state
by a certain amount, say AT, then the aggregate de-
mand function, T, would shift up by the amount AT,
as shown in Fig. 2. This in turn would cause the
region's net product to move up toward NP,. Note,
however, that the increase in NP is much greater
than AT. If the change in NP, NP, — NP,, were
divided by AT, the result would be the magnitude
of the region’s economic multiplier.

Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 42(1-2), 1981, 33-34

Cryptogams New to Kentucky

R. CRANFILL AND W. MEIJER!

Division of Biological Sciences, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109

ABSTRACT

Recent investigations into the Kentucky bryophyte flora revealed nine species of mosses

and one species of hepatic new to the state.

A detailed survey of Kentucky’s flora
has not been undertaken in nearly 150
years. Cryptogamic taxa have generally
received much less attention. Crum
(1954) noted over 25 years ago that col-
lections of bryophytes from Kentucky
were extremely scarce; they remain so
today. Fulford and Shaklette (1942) and
Fulford (1934) listed a total of 163 species
of mosses and 83 species of hepatics,
based on fewer than 1,100 collections.

This paper reports 9 species of mosses
and 1 species of hepatic, all additions to
the state’s known cryptogamic flora,
which resulted from collections made by
the first bryology class taught at the Uni-
versity of Kentucky in many years. No-
menclature follows Crum (1976). Vouch-
er specimens for these taxa are deposited
at the universities of Kentucky and Mich-
igan.

Anomodon rugelli (C. Muell.) Keissl.

HARLAN CO. Forming mats over
dripping shale ledges along Kentucky
Highway 160, near the summit of Black
Mountain 1159 m, Cranfill and Meijer
s.n. This species is largely northeastern
in distribution but extends south in the
mountains to Tennessee and Georgia. Its
occurrence in Kentucky was expected.

Fissidens exilis Hedw.

POWELL CO. Wet clay banks of an
intermittent stream on the west side of
KY 82, a few m from its junction with the
Mountain Parkway, Cranfill and Meijer

1 Thomas Hunt Morgan School of Biological Sci-
ences, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Ken-
- tucky, 40506.

s.n. A seemingly rare and local species,
F.. exilis is modest in appearance and is
probably much overlooked.

Campylostelium saxicola (Web. & Mor.)
Bry.

HARLAN CO. Forming mats over
moist sandstone ledges along KY 160,
near the summit of Black Mountain,
1,159 m, Cranfill and Meijer s.n. A rare
moss reported from only a few scattered
localities in the Appalachain region of
North America.

Herzogiella striatella (Brid.) Iwats.

HARLAN CO. Forming extensive
mats on dripping shale ledges along KY
160, near the summit of Black Mountain,
1,159 m, Cranfill and Meijer s.n.

Hypnum pallescens (Hedw.) Bry.

HARLAN CO. Abundant on tree bas-
es and rotting logs along the crest of
Black Mountain, near the Harlan-Letcher
County line, 1,280 m, Cranfill s.n. This
species is abundant on the crest of the
mountain and is especially characteristic
of rotting logs in drier areas. It may oc-
casionally be found on siliceous boul-
ders.

Mnium longirostrum Brid.

HARLAN CO. Abundant on rotting
logs in wet draws or stream heads, crest
of Black Mountain near the Harlan—-
Letcher County line, 1,280 m, Cranfill
Sem

Plagiothecium cavifolium (Brid.) Iwats.
HARLAN CO. Local on exposed

sandstone ledges, just southeast of KY

160, along crest of Black Mountain near

33

34 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 42(1-2)

the Kentucky-Virginia line, 1,220 m,
Cranfill and Meijer s.n.

Pleurozium schreberi (Brid.) Mitt.

HARLAN CO. Scattered in moist
acidic depressions in open situations on
the top of Black Mountain, about 0.6 km
west of the Letcher—Harlan county line,
1,220 m, Cranfill and Medley s.n.

Rhabdoweisia denticulata (Brid.) Bry.

HARLAN CO. Infrequent on dry
sandstone ledges and boulders, crest of
Black Mountain, a few hundred m west
of the Kentucky-Virginia state line, Cran-
fill and Meijer s.n. This is another north-
ern species that extends south in the
mountains.

Sphaerocarpus texanus Aust.
BALLARD CO. Moist, sandy corn field

in the Ballard County Wildlife Manage-
ment Area, Cranfill s.n. A very frequent
yet ephemeral species in surrounding
states which may be more common in
Kentucky than this record indicates.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

We wish to thank Dr. Howard Crum for
his determination of Fissidens exilis and
for confirmation of several of our deter-
minations.

LITERATURE CITED

Crum, H. 1954. Additions to the moss flora of Ken-
tucky. Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci. 15:24-25.

—— .. 1976. Mosses of the Great Lakes Forest.

Contr. Univ. Mich. Herbarium 10:404 pp.
FULFORD, M. 1934. List of hepaticae of Kentucky.
The Bryologist 37:22-28.
FULFORD, M., AND H. SHAKLETTE. 1942. A list of
Kentucky mosses. The Bryologist 45:125-134.

Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 42(1-2), 1981, 35-36

Etheostoma (Boleosoma) longimanum and E. (Catonotus)
obeyense, Two More Darters Confirmed as Egg-clusterers

LAWRENCE M. PAGE, W. LAWRENCE KELLER, AND LYNN E. CORDES

Illinois Natural History Survey, Urbana, Illinois 61801

ABSTRACT

Egg-clustering and guarding by males are reported for the first time in the longfin darter,
Etheostoma longimanum, and the barcheek darter, E. obeyense.

Darters either bury their eggs in the
substrate and abandon them, or they at-
tach them to an object, usually a rock or
plant, above the substrate. Some species
attach their eggs singly or in small groups
and then abandon them; others arrange
the eggs in a cluster on the underside of
a stone or log and the male guards them
until hatching.

Egg-clustering, which includes paren-
tal care, is the most complex form of
breeding behavior in darters and has
evolved in at least three unrelated sub-
genera (i.e., nonsister-groups) of Etheo-
stoma: Boleosoma, Nothonotus, and Ca-
tonotus. It appears to be characteristic of
all species of the subgenera Catonotus
and Boleosoma, and of one or more (but
not all) species of Nothonotus. Among
Boleosoma, egg-clustering is known in
E. olmstedi (Seal 1892), E. nigrum (Han-
kinson 1919), E. perlongum (D. G. Lind-
quist, J. R. Shute and P. W. Shute, pers.
comm.), and E. longimanum (noted be-
low). The only other species in the sub-
genus, E. podostemone, is a sibling of E.
longimanum and almost certainly exhib-
its egg-clustering.

In Catonotus, egg-clustering has been
documented for E. flabellare (Hankinson
1932), E. squamiceps (Page 1974), E.
kennicotti (Page 1975), E. smithi (Page
and Burr 1976), E. neopterum (Page and
Mayden 1979), E. striatulum (Page
1980), E. olivaceum (Page 1980), E. vir-
gatum (L. E. Kornman, pers. comm.), and
E. obeyense (noted below). The only oth-
er taxonomically described species of
Catonotus is E. barbouri.

Among Nothonotus, E. maculatum is

an egg-clusterer (Raney and Lachner
1939); E. tippecanoe, E. camurum, and
E. rufilineatum are egg-buriers (Traut-
man 1957, Mount 1959, Stiles 1972).
Breeding habits of the other nine species
of Nothonotus are unknown but E.
aquali and E. microlepidum, close rela-
tives of E. maculatum, are probably egg-
clusterers.

Nests of the longfin darter, E. longi-
manum, were sought in Craig Creek,
both above and below New Castle, Craig
County, Virginia, on 23 May 1980. Only
one nest of eggs was found, although sev-
eral large males in breeding coloration
were captured and most females cap-
tured appeared to have spawned already.
The nest, guarded by an almost totally
black, 56-mm male, was found on the un-
derside of a stone in moderately swift
water at 17.5°C and a depth of about 50
cm. The nest contained about 600 eggs in
a single-layer custer and averaging 1.5
mm in diameter. Raney and Lachner
(1943) studied the life history of E. lon-
gimanum but did not comment on the
site of egg deposition.

Nests of the barcheek darter, E. obey-
ense, were sought in Smith Creek at the
Route 696 bridge, 3 km SE Albany, Clin-
ton County, Kentucky, on 21 May 1980.
Most individuals of E. obeyense captured
were ripe females indicating the 1980
spawning period had not peaked. Two
large breeding males were captured un-
der slab stones. The first male apparently
had established a breeding territory un-
der the stone, but no eggs were present
on the stone. The second male was
guarding a nest of about 100 eggs on the

35

36 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 42(1-2)

underside of a stone at a depth of 40 cm
in slow-flowing water at 18°C. The eggs
were about 2 mm in diameter and many
contained advanced (eyed) embryos. The
guarding male was 64 mm SL.

Clustering and guarding eggs involves
complex, derived behavior and the dis-
tribution of this behavior among darters
is valuable information on their phylo-
genetic relationships. That egg-cluster-
ing has evolved in at least three subgen-
era of Etheostoma attests to its
contribution to reproductive success
among darters.

LITERATURE CITED

HANKINSON, T. L. 1919. Notes of life-histories of
Illinois fish. Trans. Il]. State Acad. Sci. 12:132-
150.

. 1932. Observations on the breeding be-
havior and habitats of fishes in southern Mich-
igan. Pap. Mich. Acad. Sci. Arts Lett.
15(1931):41]-425.

Mount, D. I. 1959. Spawning behavior of the
bluebreast darter, Etheostoma camurum (Cope).
Copeia 1959:240-243.

PAGE, L. M. 1974. The life history of the spottail
darter, Etheostoma squamiceps, in Big Creek,
Illinois, and Ferguson Creek, Kentucky. III.
Nat. Hist. Surv. Biol. Notes 89. 20 p.

1975. The life history of the stripetail
darter, Etheostoma kennicotti, in Big Creek,
Illinois. I]. Nat. Hist. Surv. Biol. Notes 93. 15 p.

1980. The life histories of Etheostoma
olivaceum and Etheostoma striatulum, two
species of darters in central Tennessee. III]. Nat.
Hist. Surv. Biol. Notes 113. 14 p.

——, AND B. M. Burr. 1976. The life history

of the slabrock darter, Etheostoma smithi, in
Ferguson Creek, Kentucky. II]. Nat. Hist. Surv.
Biol. Notes 99. 12 p.

, AND R. L. MAYDEN. 1979. Nesting site of
the lollypop darter Etheostoma neopterum.
Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci. 40:56-57.

RANEY, E. C., AND E. A. LACHNER. 1939. Obser-
vations on the life history of the spotted darter,
Poecilichthys maculatus (Kirtland). Copeia
1939: 157-165.

, AND . 1943. Age and growth of
johnny darters, Boleosoma nigrum olmstedi
(Storer) and Boleosoma longimanum (Jordan).
Am. Midl. Nat. 29:229-238.

SEAL, W. P. 1892. Observations on the aquaria of
the U. S. Fish Commission at Central Station,
Washington, D.C. Bull. U.S. Fish Comm.
10(1890): 1-12.

STILES, R. A. 1972. The comparative ecology of
three species of Nothonotus (Percidae-Etheo-
stoma) in Tennessee’s Little River. Ph.D. Diss.
Univ. Tennessee. 97 p.

TRAUTMAN, M. B. 1957. The fishes of Ohio. Ohio
State University Press, Columbus.

Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 42(1-2), 1981, 37

New Distributional Record for Etheostoma sagitta in Ken-
tucky

LARRY A. GREENBERG AND SUSAN STEIGERWALD

Ecology and Systematics, Langmuir Laboratory Cornell University, Ithaca, New York 14850

ABSTRACT

A recent collection of Etheostoma sagitta from a tributary of the Red River, part of the Ken-
tucky River drainage, represents the first record for the species in this portion of the system.

Branson and Batch (1974) in their book,
Fishes of the Red River Drainage, East-
ern Kentucky, stated that the Red River
is “unusual in that it appears to have re-
tained a large part of the original Ken-
tucky River fish fauna (although it con-
spicuously lacks Hybopsis aestivalis,
Etheostoma sagitta, E. camurum, E. tip-
pecanoe, and some others). As a result
of a recent collection, Etheostoma sag-
itta is included as a member of the Red
River fish fauna.

On 30 May 1980, we seined a 62 mm
SL specimen of Etheostoma sagitta, the
arrow darter (CU 64949), from just below
a small waterfall on Rockbridge Fork, ap-
proximately 200 m above the stream’s en-
try into Swift Camp Creek, Wolfe county,
Kentucky, at an elevation of 274 m.

Unfortunately, we cannot adequately
evaluate the abundance of the arrow dart-
er, a species which is restricted to head-
water streams, because most of our col-
lections in the Red River were from
higher order streams. However, the lack
of E. sagitta in Branson’s and Batch’s
(1974) collections and the single speci-
men reported here from an 0.8 km stretch
of Rockbridge Fork suggest that the ar-
row darter is uncommon.

Etheostoma sagitta is divided into two
subspecies, E. sagitta sagitta and E. sag-
itta spilotum, restricted to the upper
Cumberland and upper Kentucky River
drainages, respectively. Our specimen
has 58 midlateral scales (14 without
pores) and 20 caudal peduncle scale
rows, all characters of E. s. spilotum
(Kuehne and Bailey 1961).

We thank Branley A. Branson for veri-
fying our identification, and we acknowI-
edge research support from the Cornell
University and national chapters of Sigma
Xi, from Dr. Edward Brother's USDA-
Hatch project 183409, and from the sec-
tion of Ecology and Systematics at Cor-
nell University.

LITERATURE CITED

BRANSON, BRANLEY A., AND DONALD L. BATCH.
1974. Fishes of the Red River Drainage, East-
ern Kentucky. The University Press of Ken-
tucky, Lexington, KY.

CLAY, WILLIAM M. 1975. The Fishes of Kentucky.
Kentucky Dept. Fish Wild. Res., Frankfort, KY.

KUEHNE, ROBERT A., AND REEVE M. BAILEY. 1961.
Stream capture and distribution of the percid
fish Etheostoma sagitta with geologic and taxo-
nomic consideration. Copeia 1961:1-8.

37

Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 42(1-2), 1981, 38-40

A Survey for the Indiana Bat Myotis sodalis on Knob
Creek, Bullitt County, Kentucky

JOHN S. KESSLER,! WM. MICHAEL TURNER,” AND LINDA MORGAN?
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Louisville, Kentucky 40201

ABSTRACT
Two locations on Knob Creek, Bullitt County, Kentucky, were mist netted for chiropterans.
One site produced negative results; the other yielded 2 female Indiana bats, both pregnant.
There are indications that a maternity colony may be located near the productive site. Based on
2 maternity sites in Indiana, use of a maternity site would be repetitive.

INTRODUCTION

Knob Creek, in northwestern Bullitt
County, Kentucky, is a tributary of Pond
Creek which empties into the Salt River
near its confluence with the Ohio River
(Fig. 1). Although this stream is very
close to metropolitan Louisville, the set-
ting is rural and agricultural. Substrate
varies from a silty bottom in the lower
reaches to a cherty gravel and cobble
substrate upstream. Stream width in the
area reported on does not exceed 11 m.

Woody streambank vegetation in-
cludes box elder Acer negundo L., silver
maple Acer saccharinum L., hackberry
Celtis occidentalis L., sycamore Plata-
nus occidentalis L. with smaller numbers
of cottonwood Populus deltoides Bartr.
ex. Marsh. and black willow Salix nigra
Marsh. Adjacent woodlands include
shagbark hickory Carya ovata (Mill) K.
Koch, black walnut Juglans nigra L., pin
oak Quercus palustris Muenchh., sassa-
fras Sassafras albidum (Nutt.) Nees, and
papaw Asimina triloba (L.) Dunal. Giant
ragweed Ambrosia trifida L., wood net-
tle Laportea canadensis (L.) Wedd., and
poison ivy Rhus radicans L. are common
herbs. The sites investigated are within
an authorized recreational lake that may
be constructed as a part of the Corps of

‘Mailing Address: RR3, Taylorsville, Kentucky
40071.

2 Mailing Address: 2906 Edmonia Avenue, Louis-
ville, Kentucky 40220.

3 Mailing Address: Rt. 259B, Douglas, Wyoming
82633.

Engineers Southwest Jefferson County
Flood Control project.

On 17 May 1979, as a result of an in-
quiry, the Louisville District Corps of
Engineers was advised by the U.S. Fish
and Wildlife Service that the Indiana Bat
Myotis sodalis, an endangered species,
was potentially present on the project
site. The project area was examined sub-
sequently for indications of the Indiana
bat and, based on previous experience
with this species, only Knob Creek was
determined to have apparent potential as
summer habitat; specifically, there ap-
peared to be some possibility that a ma-
ternity colony could be present.

This work was performed during the
week of 25 June 1979 under authority of
Federal Permit PRT 2-2249 and a Com-
monwealth of Kentucky collection per-
mit.

SITE SELECTION AND DESCRIPTION

Two sites (Fig. 1) appeared to contain
the best potential for maternity habitat
and were selected for sampling.

Site 1 was adjacent to the Knob Creek
Gun Club. The stream was about 9 m
wide with a silt and sand bottom and con-
tained a small riffle area. The riparian
zone was lined predominantly with silver
maple and sycamore on both banks. On
the right bank (facing downstream) this
zone was about 30 m deep and bounded
by State Road 44; on the left bank it was
about 10 m deep and bordered by an old
field community. A dead American elm
Ulmus americana L. with exfoliating

38

INDIANA BAT IN KENTUCKY—Kessler, Turner and Morgan

39

Fic. 1.

bark was nearby. Both banks were steep
and 3 to 6 m high.

Site 2 was about 1,280 m by stream
above Site | or a straight-line distance of
914 m east. The character of the stream
there was markedly different: the sub-
strate was rocky (mainly chert) and com-
posed about equally of gravel and cob-
ble-sized fragments. Larger fragments
were also present. The reach subjected
to sampling began at a riffle, extended
downstream through a shallow (0.5 m)
pool, and terminated at the downstream
end of another riffle. Upstream was a pool
about 400 m long, the depth of which was
not ascertained; however, it contained a
locally popular “swimming hole.” That
site and its nearby environs were bor-
dered predominantly by box elder, hack-
berry, sycamore, and black walnut. The
riparian zone of the left bank was well
developed and varied from 5 to 35 m in
width. The riparian zone along the right
bank was narrower as the stream was
near the toe of a wooded hill and agri-
cultural encroachment was greater. Corn-
fields were nearby on each side of the
stream. Stream width was about 11 m.

MATERIALS AND METHOD

Each site was subjected to mist netting
as described by Cope et al. (1978) and

Areas sampled for Myotis sodalis on Knob Creek, Bullitt County, Kentucky, July, 1979.

Miller and Kessler (1980), augmented by
use of 2 ultrasonic detectors (Son-Tector
model 110 produced by Techsonics, E]
Prado, New Mexico). High and low nets
were used simultaneously in order to in-
crease probability of capture. Nets were
tended from dusk until midnight and the
detector was also used to provide a qual-
itative indication of chiropteran echolo-
cational activity.

RESULTS

Site 1 and its immediate environs pro-
duced one echolocation during the initial
trap night. As no bats were caught, the
site was abandoned in favor of Site 2.
During the first trap night at Site 2, a
pregnant female was captured and iden-
tified as M. sodalis (Barbour and Davis
1968). Prior to release, that female abort-
ed and the fetus was subsequently for-
warded to the National Fish and Wildlife
Laboratory, Washington, D.C. There is
was identified as Myotis, but no species
epithet was provided (Robert Fisher, per-
sonal communication).

The following day a search was made
up and downstream from the site to de-
termine the presence of nursery trees.
The results were negative; however,
trees that possessed such potential were
found within an 0.8 km radius of this site.

40 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 42(1-2)

Netting was continued through another
night and 2 detectors were utilized to de-
termine direction of approach to the net.
Another M. sodalis female was captured,
also pregnant. It was determined by use
of the detectors that a number of myotine
bats were flying (and probably foraging)
about 135 m upstream of the net. As both
specimens were pregnant, and in view of
the abortion of the first specimen, netting
was discontinued. A subsequent attempt
to resume netting during early August
was thwarted by high waters and onsite
theft of needed equipment.

DISCUSSION

In view of the disparate activity be-
tween Sites | and 2, it is felt that the de-
cision to terminate netting at Site 1 was
correct. While that site did present minor
potential for nursery habitat, indications
are that it is not used.

Apparently Site 2 is at the downstream
end of a foraging area. Assuming that a
maternity tree or trees had been selected
by the females prior to this survey, it
could be inferred that such a tree is lo-
cated not more than about 0.86 km from
the site (Cope et al. 1978). As previously
indicated, there are trees within that
range which have potential as maternity
sites. Whether this area is a permanent
locus for a maternity colony is open for
conjecture; however, both the Webster
(Cope et al. 1974) and Big Blue (Cope
and Seerely 1977), Indiana colonies were
observed to have been used repeatedly.

CONCLUSION

It is concluded that a maternity colony
of the Indiana bat used a reach of Knob
Creek during the summer of 1979. Based
on study of 2 colonies in Indiana, it is
likely that such use will be repeated an-
nually.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Dr. Andrew Miller assisted with the
initial reconnaissance of Knob Creek,
Don Walker and Fred Chapman provid-
ed valuable assistance with the field-
work, Dr. Louis Krumholz and Ray
Haynes reviewed the manuscript.

LITERATURE CITED

BARBOUR, ROGER W., AND WAYNE Davis. 1969.
Bats of America. University Press of Kentucky,
Lexington, Kentucky.

COPE, JAMES B., ANDREAS R. RICHTER, AND DON
A. SEERELY. 1978. A Survey of the Bats of the
Big Blue Project Area in Indiana. Corps of En-
gineers, Louisville, Kentucky.

CopE, J. B., A. R. RICHTER, AND R. S. MILLS. 1974.
A Summer Concentration of the Indiana Bat,
Myotis sodalis, in Wayne County, Indiana.
Proc. Indiana Acad. Sci. 83:482-484.

CopPE, J. B., AND D. A. SEERELY. 1977. A Survey
of Bats in the Big Blue River Area at Knights-
town, Indiana. Rept. to the Soil Conservation
Service, Indianapolis, Indiana.

MILLER, ANDREW, AND JOHN KESSLER. 1980. In-
vestigation of chiropteran use of the Salt Riv-
er, Spencer and Anderson Counties, Kentucky.
July 1978. Kentucky Acad. Sci. 41(3—4):157-
159.

Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 42(1-2), 1981, 41-45

Oak-hickory Forests of the Eden Shale Belt:
A Preliminary Report

WILLIAM S. BRYANT
Thomas More College, Ft. Mitchell, Kentucky 41017

ABSTRACT

Old-growth forests of the Eden Shale Belt of Kentucky are dominated by oaks and hickories
which collectively account for over two-thirds of the total Importance Value. Quercus alba is
the leading dominant in all old-growth stands with the major canopy associates being Q. rubra,
Q. velutina, Carya ovata, C. glabra, and C. cordiformis. The subcanopy dominant is Acer
saccharum. Those old-growth forests have a high similarity coefficient, >63%, whereas disturbed
forests and those of adjacent subregions of the Bluegrass Region are structurally less similar to
them. The lack of accurate data and analysis on the forested ecosystems of Kentucky results in
speculation on the nature and successional status of the systems of this central region of the

state.

INTRODUCTION

This is the first report in an ongoing
investigation of vegetation of the Eden
Shale Belt of Kentucky (a.k.a. Hills of the
Bluegrass). Braun (1950) conducted the
only quantitative study of the vegetation
of the Eden Shale Belt and referred to it
as oak land or an oak-hickory belt. She
combined earlier sketchy reports into her
conclusions. In an effort to further char-
acterize the forests as to structure and
composition a number of old-growth
stands were located and sampled. For
comparison purposes a number of selec-
tively logged forests were also sampled.
This paper gives the results of that study.

THE ENVIRONMENT

A number of publications (Braun 1916,
Davis 1927, McFarlan 1943, Palmquist
and Hall 1961, Hendrickson and Kreiger
1964) have given some details on the en-
vironment of the Eden Shale Belt, a nar-
row band, ranging from 10-30 miles (16-
48 kms) wide in the north and 5-10 miles
(8-16 kms) on the eastern and western
sides, that separates the Inner Bluegrass
and the Outer Bluegrass. Narrow outliers
of the Belt, such as Beech Ridge in Fay-
ette County, are known to occur (Mc-
Farlan 1943). Portions of 35 counties
(McFarlan 1943) are included in the
Eden Shale Belt (Fig. 1). This is a hilly
zone with sharp, irregular ridges and nar-
row V-shaped valleys.

The bedrock is of Upper Ordovician
age and includes the Eden, Maysville,
and Cynthiana formations. It consists of
interbedded thin layers of limestone, sil-
icaceous mudstones, arenaceous layers,
and, to the south, patches of Garrard
Sandstone. Runoff is rapid and there are
few perennial streams. The Eden Shale
is impervious, nevertheless has little ef-
fect on the water table.

A total of 58 soil types are known to
occur in the Belt (Bailey and Winsor
1964). Three soil types are confined to
the Belt, of which the most extensive and
characteristic is the Eden soil. The Eden
is a residual droughty soil with a clayey
subsoil (Weisenberger et al. 1973). It is
slowly permeable and slightly acid to
neutral throughout.

Large portions of the Eden Shale Belt
have deteriorated badly since the slopes
have been greatly modified by erosion
and removal of soil. The Belt was origi-
nally thought to be good tobacco land
(Braun 1950) and large areas were
cleared early in settlement. Many of
those areas are reverting to forest as they
pass out of agricultural use. Logging was
undoubtedly extensive in the past and is
still occurring today. Most forests have
experienced moderate to heavy grazing.

The climate of the Bluegrass Region,
in which the Eden Shale Belt lies, is of
the humid continental type. The mean

41

Fic. 1.

showing the Eden Shale Belt, Inner Bluegrass (IBG),

and Outer Bluegrass (OBG) subregions. The loca-

tions of forests visited during this study are indi-
cated with a solid dot.

A map of the Bluegrass Region of Kentucky

annual temperature is about 12.8 C, and
the mean annual precipitation is 109 cm
(Palmquist and Hall 1961).

METHODS

An active effort was made to locate and
sample as many old-growth forests in the
Eden Shale Belt as possible. Forest
stands in 21 counties were visited and 12
stands were selected for quantitative
study. Nine forests had not been recently
disturbed and received the most atten-
tion; however, 3 forests, known to have
been selectively logged prior to 1960,
were sampled for comparison. The for-
ests were sampled by the point-center
quarter method (Cottam and Curtis 1956)
and where time permitted, by 0.04 hect-
are circular plots. Only trees 10-cm and
greater at diamter-breast-height (dbh)
were measured. Data were analyzed to
relative frequency, relative density, and
relative dominance. Those values were
then summed to produce an importance
value (IV). Basal area (m2/ha) was also
determined. Field notes were taken on
all strata of the forest to accurately char-
acterize a particular forest. On occasion,
field observations and roadside counts of
trees were made, especially for disturbed

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 42(1-2)

sites and others too small to allow ran-
dom sampling.

The similarity coefficient (C) as used
by Bray and Curtis (1957) was applied for
determining vegetational similarities
among stands. It is expressed as C = (2w)/
(a+ b), where a=the sum of impor-
tance values of all tree species in one
stand, b = a similar sum for a second
stand, and w = the sum of the lesser val-
ues for only those species which are in
common to the two stands.

RESULTS

A total of 25 tree species was recorded
from the plots and quarter-points in the
least disturbed forests. Five other species
listed by Braun (1950) could be added.
(I did not cite the Lloyd Wildlife Pre-
serve forest (Braun 1950) because it is not
typical of the Eden Shale Belt. Another
paper to discuss the structure and com-
position of that forest is in preparation.)
Three other species of oaks, Quercus
stellata, Q. marilandica, and Q. coccin-
ea, were also recorded from stands too
small for quantitative analysis.

In all stands recognized as old-growth
with no evidence of recent logging, QO.
alba (white oak) was the dominant tree.
The combined IVs for Quercus-Carya in
all those stands exceeded 200 and aver-
aged 209.1 (Table 1). At least 10 tree
species including 3 species of oaks and
3 species of hickories were present in
most stands although their importance
varied from stand to stand. Acer saccha-
rum (sugar maple) ranked second in IV but
in general was the dominant subcanopy
tree. Where logging had occurred in re-
cent times, sugar maple, white ash, and
the hickories assumed greater impor-
tance as canopy members (Table 1). Al-
though never abundant, Fagus grandi-
folia (beech) and Sassafras albidum
(sassafras) were present in most forests.
Beech was normally found on the lower
slopes or in depressions on the ridges.

The average basal area for the old-
growth stands was ~37 m?/ha while none
of the selectively logged stands exceeded
23.5 m*/ha. This difference was the result
of many of the larger trees being selec-

OAK-HICKORY FORESTS OF EDEN SHALE—Bryant

TABLE 1.—AVERAGE IMPORTANCE VALUES (IV) FOR

OLD-GROWTH OAK-HICKORY FORESTS AND SELEC-

TIVELY LOGGED FORESTS OF THE EDEN SHALE
BELT OF KENTUCKY.

Selectively

Species Old-growth logged
Quercus alba 106.59 24.49
Quercus rubra 45.06 4.06
Carya ovata 31.68 49.34
Carya glabra 16.10 20.79
Carya cordiformis 6.09 13.01
Quercus velutina 3.58 1.65
Quercus muehlenbergii 2.30

Subtotal 209.10 115.64
Acer saccharum 48.54 95.82
Fraxinus americana 17.17 36.12
Sassafras albidum 7.31
Fagus grandifolia 3.58 3.56
Others 14.30 48.86

Subtotal 90.90 184.36

Total 300.00 300.00

tively removed by logging which in turn
set up the release of species which were
occupying the subcanopy. The similarity
coefficients for the old-growth stands ex-
ceeded 63% in all cases and was gener-
ally about 66%. That reflects the domi-
nance of oak-hickory, especially oak, in
the canopy and sugar maple in the sub-
canopy. When the similarity coefficients
for old-growth stands and selectively
logged stands were compared, the range
was from 43 to 61%.

Preliminary observations seemed to in-
dicate that sugar maple was reproducing
well, but seedlings of the oaks and hick-
ories were scarce. Several stands were
almost devoid of seedlings and saplings
of any species, perhaps the results of live-
stock grazing. The shrub layer varied
from forest to forest, but included Lin-
dera benzoin, Symphoricarpos orbicula-
tus, Viburnum prunifolium, and V. ru-
fidulum. Viburnum acerifolium was a
common shrub in one stand. The herba-
ceous flora of the lower slopes was gen-
erally rich while that of the upper slopes
and ridge tops was less diverse.

DISCUSSION

The characterization of the Eden Shale
Belt as an oak or an oak-hickory belt

43

(Braun 1950) was supported by the find-
ings in this study. Braun (1916) noted that
the Eden Shale and the Maysville affect
the character of the vegetation. Thus the
forests there are unlike those of the Inner
Bluegrass and the Outer Bluegrass on
either side of the Eden Shale Belt. This
is supported by similarity coefficients be-
tween the Eden Shale Belt forests and
slope forests of the Inner Bluegrass (Mar-
tin et al. 1979) which ranged from 26 to
45% and the slope forests of the Outer
Bluegrass (Held and Winstead 1976,
Bryant 1978) which ranged from 43 to
45%. Generally, the disturbed forests of
the Eden Shale Belt showed closer sim-
ilarities to the old-growth stands there
than did the slope forests of adjoining
subregions.

In all old-growth forests, white oak was
the leading dominant. This agrees with
Braun (1950) that white oak is always
abundant, ranging from 25 to 80% of the
canopy, in the oak forests of ridges, ta-
blelands, and middleslopes in the Eden
Shale Belt. She found beech and sugar
maple mingled with the oaks on the low-
er slopes. The higher similarity coeffi-
cient, >63%, reflects the canopy domi-
nance of oak-hickory and the subcanopy
dominance of sugar maple. Those simi-
larities may be better understood when
one considers the remark of Oosting
(1956) for the oak-hickory forest that,
“Quercus alba, Q. rubra, Q. velutina, Q.
stellata, O. marilandica, Carya cordifor-
mis, C. ovata, C. tomentosa, and C. la-
ciniosa are species that may be found in
the climax anywhere.” With the excep-
tion of those latter two hickories, which
are here replaced by C. glabra, all other
oaks and hickories were found in the
Eden Shale Belt forests. Quercus stellata
and Q. marilandica are of little impor-
tance, yet are of interest because Little
(1971) does not show either to be in
Campbell and Pendleton counties where
they were located while Wharton and
Barbour (1973) did not report Q. mari-
landica for the Bluegrass Region.

In Indiana, Lindsey and Schmelz
(1970) found an oak-hickory species
group comparable to the one reported

a

here as characterizing rather xeric sites.
The Eden Shale environment, including
the hilly terrain and droughty soil, may
serve to favor such an association. All of
the oaks and hickories reported have
been found as members of other forest
associations on poor, dry soils in hilly
portions of Kentucky (Wharton and Bar-
bour 1973). Locally, the forests showed
some variations in composition, especial-
ly regarding those tree species in subsid-
iary positions. It is of interest to note that
Sassafras albidum, often as a large tree,
was a minor yet consistent member of the
Eden Shale Belt forests. Other investi-
gators (Ebinger and Parker 1970, Schmelz
and Hodde 1971, Martin 1978) have also
found sassafras to be a minor component
of other eastern deciduous forests where
white oak is a leading dominant.

The similarities between climax oak-
hickory forests (Oosting 1956) were re-
ferred to earlier. Caution should be ex-
ercised before classifying the oak-hickory
of the Eden Shale Belt to be climax.
There is a distinct lack of information on
reproduction of oaks, but poor replace-
ment appears to be the case in the old-
growth stands. Studies in other states,
Peet and Loucks (1977) for Wisconsin
and Anderson and Adams (1978) for IIli-
nois suggest that white oak, red oak and
black oak are successional species occu-
pying different portions of the moisture
gradient. Where extensive clearing of
slope forests in the Eden Shale Belt had
occurred in the past, the oaks were re-
turning indicating that they may be
successional. The shade intolerant species
(the oaks) have their greatest importance
in the larger size classes (Peet and
Loucks 1977). Findings here are in agree-
ment with that since 53.5% of the oaks
exceeded 30 cm dbh and those canopy
oaks accounted for over 60% of the total
basal area for the Eden Shale Belt forests.
Approximately 20% of the hickories were
in the canopy which is similar to Keever’s
(1973) findings in Pennsylvania. In the
old-growth forests, sugar maple was pri-
marily a subcanopy tree. However, in
those forests where the oaks had been
selectively logged, sugar maple experi-

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 42(1-2)

enced release and assumed dominance.
The hickories showed a smiliar reaction.
Curtis (1959) found that sugar maple and
shagbark hickory benefit from gaps in the
forest canopy. The removal of the large
oaks create such gaps.

A key to maintaining the oak-hickory
forests undoubtedly lies in the rocky,
thin and droughty soils, much as was re-
ported by Keever (1973) for southeastern
Pennsylvania. There she found white oak
to be maintaining itself on rocky, thin
soils where the forest cover was less
dense than the usual forests of that area.
The absence of fire could also be a factor.
Fires could eliminate sugar maple and
open the understory for oak replacement.

More work is needed to adequately de-
termine the ecological relations of the
Eden Shale Belt forests as well as others
in Kentucky. Forest stands that have ex-
perienced little disturbance are the ex-
ception rather than the rule thus accurate
ecological interpretations based on data
from disturbed stands are subject to many
difficulties. There is a desperate need to
identify and sample the remaining stands
of old-growth forests in Kentucky before
they have been eliminated. The disap-
pearance of old-growth forests means the
loss of ecological information.

LITERATURE CITED

ANDERSON, R. C., AND D. E. ADAMS. 1978. Species
replacement patterns in central Illinois white
oak forests. pp. 184-302. In P. E. Pope (ed.)
Central Hardwood Forest Conference II Pro-
ceedings, Purdue University, West Lafayette,
Indiana.

BAILEY, H. H., AND J. H. Winsor. 1964. Kentucky
Soils. Univ. Ky. Agric. Exp. Sta. Misc. 308. 174

pp.

BRAUuN, E. L. 1916. The physiographic ecology of
the Cincinnati region. Ohio Biol. Surv. 2:115-
211.

1950. Deciduous Forests of Eastern
North America. The Blakiston Co. Philadel-
phia, Pa.

Bray, J. R., AND J. T. Curtis. 1957. Ordination of
the upland forest communities of southern Wis-
consin. Ecol. Monogr. 27:325-349.

BRYANT, W. S. 1978. Vegetation of the Boone
County Cliffs Nature Preserve, a forest on a
Kansan outwash deposit in northern Kentucky.
Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci. 39 (1-2):12-22.

CoTTaM, G., AND J. T. Curtis. 1956. The use of

OAK-HICKORY FORESTS OF EDEN SHALE—Bryant

distance measures in phytosociological sam-
pling. Ecology 37:451460.

Davis, D. H. 1927. The geography of the Blue
Grass region of Kentucky. Ky. Geol. Surv., Ser.
6. Vol. 23.

EBINGER, J. E., AND H. M. PARKER. 1970. Vege-
tation survey of an oak-hickory maple forest in
Clark County, Illinois. Trans. Ill. Acad. Sci.
63:379-387.

HELD, M. E., AND J. E. WINSTEAD. 1976. Structure
and composition of a climax forest system in
Boone County, Kentucky. Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci.
37(3-4):57-67.

HENDRICKSON, G. E., AND R. A. KREIGER. 1964.
Geochemistry of natural waters of the Blue
Grass Region, Kentucky. Geol. Surv. Water-
Supply Paper 1700. U.S. Govt. Print. Off. Wash-
ington, D.C.

KEEVER, C. 1973. Distribution of major forest
species in southeastern Pennsylvania. Ecol.
Monogr. 43:303-327.

LINDSEY, A. A., AND D. V. SCHMELZ. 1970. The
forest types of Indiana and a new method of
classifying midwestern hardwood forests. Proc.
Ind. Acad. Sci. 79: 198-204.

LITTLE, E. L., JR. 1971. Atlas of the United States
Trees, Vol. 1, Conifers and Important Hard-
woods, U.S.D.A. Forest Service Misc. Pub.
1146.

MCFARLAN, A. C. 1943. Geology of Kentucky.
Univ. Ky. Press. Lexington, Ky.

MARTIN, W. H. 1978. White oak forests in the

45

Great Valley of east Tennessee—a vegetation
climax. pp. 39-60. In P. E. Pope (ed.) Central
Hardwood Forest Conference II Proceedings,
Purdue University, West Lafayette, Ind.

, W. S. BRYANT, J. S. LASSATTER, AND J. B.
VARNER. 1979. The Kentucky River Palisades:
Flora and Vegetation. The Nature Conservan-
cy. Arlington, Va.

OosTING, H. J. 1956. The Study of Plant Com-
munities. W. H. Freeman Co. San Francisco,
Calif.

PALMQUIST, W. N., JR., AND F. R. HALL. 1961. Re-
connaissance of ground-water resources in the
Blue Grass Region Kentucky. Geol. Surv.
Water-Supply Paper 1533. U.S. Govt. Print. Off.
Washington, D.C.

PEET, R. K., AND O. L. Loucks. 1977. A gradient
analysis of southern Wisconsin forests. Ecology
58:485-499.

SCHMELZ, D. V., AND D. L. HODDE. 1971. The
James Bird Woods: An old-growth oak-hickory
remnant in Harrison County, Indiana. Proc.
Ind. Acad. Sci. 80:215-219.

WEISENBERGER, B. C., E. W. DOWELL, T. R.
LEATHERS, H. B. ODER, AND A. J. RICHARD-
SON. 1973. Soil survey of Boone, Campbell,
and Kenton counties, Kentucky. U.S.D.A. Soil
Cons. Serv. Govt. Print. Off. Washington, D.C.

WHARTON, M. E., AND R. W. BARBOUR. 1973.
Trees and Shrubs of Kentucky. Univ. Press of
Ky. Lexington, Ky.

Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 42(1-2), 1981, 46-53

Partition of Elements Between Fly Ash and Bottom Ash
in Kentucky Power Plants

W. H. DENNEN AND COLIN R. WARD!

Department of Geology, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky 40506

ABSTRACT

Spectrochemical analysis combined with chemical data from other sources of fly ash, bottom
ash and boiler slag produced during 1978 at 18 coal-fired Kentucky power plants shows signif-
icant partition of some elements between the products. Fly ash is produced in amounts approx-
imately 3.6 that of bottom ash plus boiler slag and is markedly enriched in Na,O, K,O, Al,Oz,
MgO, TiO,, SiO,, B, Be, Pb, Cu and Co. Bottom ash and boiler slag preferentially concentrate
Fe,O;, S, Ga, Zr, P, Ba, Mo and Mn. No preference is shown by CaO, Cr, Ni, Rb, V and Sr.
Recalculated original average ash composition shows it to be different from that of a composite

by thickness of Appalachian Paleozoic shales.

INTRODUCTION

Burning of coal yields a non-combus-
tible ash, mainly derived from crystalline
mineral particles deposited by detrital or
diagenetic processes in the original peat
accumulation. Other components of the
ash, however, may represent residues of
salts dissolved in the pore waters of the
coal, or the remnants of inorganic com-
ponents in the hydrocarbon compounds
that make up the coal substance itself.

Coal-fired power plants in Kentucky
use feedstocks that produce around 15%
of such non-combustible residues. In
1978, 18 plants in the commonwealth
generated a total of 4.2 million tons of fly
ash, bottom ash and boiler slag from the
combustion of 28.5 million tons of coal
(i.e., 14.7% ash) in the process of produc-
ing 11,500 MW of electric power (Rose et
al. 1979).

Figure | shows the relative amounts of
fly ash and bottom ash plus boiler slag to
be essentially constant, regardless of the
size of the plant and whether it is contin-
uously on-line or only used for genera-
tion of peak loads. The median propor-
tion of fly ash produced is 3.6 times that
of the combined output of bottom ash
plus boiler slag. Small amounts of fine fly
ash, as well as inorganic materials in a

' Present address: Department of Applied Geol-
ogy, The New South Wales Institute of Technology,
Broadway, NSW, Australia.

gaseous state, may also escape into the
atmosphere, but these have not been
evaluated for the present study.

Power plant ash may be utilized in a
number of ways, including use as fill,
road base, land plaster and a cement ad-
ditive. It may be stored dry or mixed with
water and sluiced to settling/disposal
ponds. Emplacement of this ash repre-
sents the introduction of a significant
amount of material into the environment.
It is therefore important to have a good
knowledge of its physical and chemical
properties to ensure that it does not have
an adverse impact in any of these situa-
tions.

Users of coal ash are aware of and con-
cerned with its properties (National Ash
Association 1978), and the data reported
here represent a further contribution to
the understanding of its chemical make-
up. In particular, details of the trace ele-
ments in the various fractions provide the
basis for extension of previous studies in
coals (Gluskoter et al. 1977), coal mine
wastes (Wewerka et al., 1976) and power
plant stack emissions (Klein and Russell
1973, Natusch et al. 1974) to cover the
residues collected from a wide range of
currently operating facilities.

ASH COMPOSITION

Fly ash and bottom ash plus boiler slag
samples collected in 1977 by Rose et al.
(1979) were further analyzed by direct

46

FLY AND BOTTOM ASH IN KENTUCKY POWER PLANTS—Dennen and Ward 47

1io*

Fly ash production ve.
Bottom ash production ~

layne easel alia [ase

Data for 1978 uncorrected tor
feedstock BTU or ash content

3.6

fC
Pay
SS
o
2 10? en e@ ®
& We
mo) A e |
&
Vv e C)
S =|
5 Ve
ae) e% al
i @
3 me
2 ®
@ Fly ash rey
& Bottom ash or boiler slag an
Sy)
le hcl [i saa ti
10? lor 1io> 1o®
Tons of ash produced / yr.
ASH PRODUCED BY KENTUCKY PLANTS IN 1978 AS A
FUNCTION OF DEVELOPED POWER
Fic. 1. Ash produced by Kentucky power plants in 1978 as a function of developed power.

current arc emission spectrography to de-
termine the concentration of various
trace elements present. The average con-
centration and range of values for the 18
trace elements studied, together with
similar data from Rose et al. (1979) on the
major element oxides are given in Table
1. Using the average values in this table,
combined with the fly ash:bottom ash ra-
tio of 3.6 from Figure 1, the average com-
position of the non-combustible residues
derived from power plant feedstock used

in Kentucky at that time was also calcu-
lated, and is given separately in Table 2.

Also shown in Table 2 is the analysis
of a composite sample (by thickness) of
Palaeozoic shale from the Appalachian
region. This shale was ignited in a muffle
furnace at 600 C prior to analysis to put
the data on a comparable basis to that
from the coal-ash materials. The coal ash
is markedly enriched in Al,O;, Fe,O; and
TiO, compared with the shale, but is de-
ficient in SiO, and the alkali and alkaline

48

TABLE 1.—RANGE AND AVERAGE CONCENTRATION
OF VARIOUS OXIDES AND ELEMENTS IN COAL ASH
FROM KENTUCKY POWER PLANTS.

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 42(1-2)

TABLE 2.—AVERAGE COMPOSITION OF ASH IN KEN-
TUCKY POWER PLANT COALS, 1978, AND COMPOSITE
SAMPLE OF APPALACHIAN SHALE (APSC).

Oxide*/ Bottom ash and
element Fly ash boiler slag
Percent
SiO, 38.59(48.56)54.89 31.47(45.26)54.06
TiO, 0.87(1.16)1.61 0.69(1.01)1.51
Al,Oz 14.84(23.57)30.15 15.22(20.85)27.64
Fe,O, 7.28(18.76)32.27 14.25(25.93)45.58
CaO 0.94(2.69)8.81 0.88(3.06) 12.59
MgO 0.52(1.00)1.37 0.64(0.84)1.24
K,O 1.62(2.54)3.28 1.37(2.03)2.38
Na,O 0.22(0.42)0.97 0.19(0.33)0.53
S 0.06(0.36)0.99 0.11(1.06)3.80
Parts per million
B 9(227)770 35(98)302
Ba 246(608) 1,224 319(956)2,689
Be 6(13)21 5(10)24
Co 16(52)146 20(41)130
Gi 82(153)229 61(169)258
Cu 40(74)113 44(66)126
Ga 21(59)99 51(94)155
Mn 2,300(5,494)10,650 4 BIB, 272)20,400
Mo 13(52)160 30(63)114
Ni 20(96) 184 70(158)428
P 218(1,350)2,270 1 mee hee 444
Pb 9(37)67 10(23)67
Rb 27(63)140 28(76)188
Sr 113(213)310 133(206)353
Th** 5(18)26
Ute 6(12)20
V 41(98) 177 68(100) 136
Zr 77(140)223 158(249)414

* Oxide and sulfur data from Rose and others, 1979.
** Data from W. H. Blackburn (pers. comm.).

earth components. This may be ex-
plained by an increased abundance of
kaolinite (Al,Si,0;(OH),), pyrite (FeS,)
and possibly siderite (FeCO,;) in the
feedstock coals, compared with the as-
sociated non-coal lutites (O'Gorman and
Walker 1971, Ward 1977).

The average total sulfur content of the
feedstock coal is 2.5% (Rose et al., 1979).
If all of this sulfur were present as an iron
disulfide, it would correspond to a total
pyrite content in the coal of 4.7%. The
total iron content in such a coal would
therefore be 2.3%. If this coal gave an ash
yield of 14.7% (see above) the ash would
contain 21.2% Fe,O,, a figure close to the
amount actually detected.

However, studies of Kentucky coals

Ash APSC Ash APSC
Percent

SiO, 47.8 54.4
TiO, 1.13 0.76 Co 50 30
Al,O; 23.0 14.4 Cr 156 145
Fe,O, 20.3 7.5 Cu 72 46
CaO DTT eo Ga 66 36
MgO 0.97 2.6 Mn 5,880 7,500
K,O 2.43 3.6 Mo 54 18
Na,O 40 6 Ni 109 Sl
S 51 = P 1,436 1,004
Pb 34 16
Rb 66 140

Parts per million

B 199 70 Sr 211 242
Ba 683 431 Vv 98 68
Be 12 2, Zr 164 184

(Gluskoter 1977) show that the amount of
sulfur in pyritic form is seldom more than
60% of the total, and that most of the re-
maining sulfur is incorporated in organic
compounds. It is therefore quite likely
that at least some of the iron in the ash is
derived from the carbonate (siderite) or
from any iron-bearing clay minerals, such
as chlorite, that might be present.

If all of the Al,O, in the ash is assumed
to occur as metakaolin (Al,O,:2SiO,),
produced by the thermal decomposition
of kaolinite, the amount of such material
present would require an SiO, content of
approximately 27%. This would leave
around 21% of excess silica in the ash,
presumably occurring mainly as free
quartz. However, if other aluminum-
bearing silicates, such as feldspar, or il-
lite and other clay minerals were found
in the coals, not all of the Al,O;, would be
present in this Al-rich form. More of the
silica would be incorporated into these
components and the quartz content of the
ash would be somewhat less.

Some of the trace elements studied,
namely B, Be, Mo, Ni and Pb are more
than twice as abundant in the coal ash
than they are in the calcined shale. In-
deed, only Mn, Rb, Sr and Zr are at all
more abundant in the non-coal argilla-
ceous material. Some of these elements,

FLY AND BOTTOM ASH IN KENTUCKY POWER PLANTS—Dennen and Ward 49

particularly boron and beryllium, have
been shown by Gluskoter et al. (1977) to
occur in preferential association with the
organic components of eastern U.S. coals.
Others, such as Pb, may be found, at least
in part, in an inorganic association, pos-
sibly occurring as small amounts of dis-
crete sulfide or other mineral particles.

The fact that nearly all of the trace ele-
ments studied are more abundant in the
coal ash than in the calcined shale rep-
resents, in part, the higher absorptive ca-
pacity of the humic compounds in the
original coal compared to inorganic ma-
terials such as clay minerals. It is partic-
ularly noteworthy that the elements with
the highest enrichment factor in the coal
ash (boron and beryllium) are those for
which an organic affinity has most clearly
been demonstrated by Gluskoter et al.
(1977).

The effect that the occurrence of these
elements in coal ash may have upon the
environment depends on the way in
which the elements are incorporated into
the ash. Some of them may be leached
out on weathering or by groundwater
percolation where the ash is used in ap-
plications such as land fill, and pass into
the adjacent hydrosphere regime. On the
other hand, if these elements are tightly
bonded into more stable chemical com-
pounds, such release to the environment
is unlikely to occur. Studies such as those
of Klein and Russell (1973) and Natusch
et al. (1974) suggest that the much finer
ash particles and vapor-phase compo-
nents that escape with power plant stack
gases have a greater potential for unfa-
vorable impact on the surrounding envi-
ronment than would the use of ash ac-
tually retained. A separate study on the
mobility of the ash components on
weathering may nevertheless be war-
ranted.

PARTITION

Graphic plots of the relative concentra-
tion in fly ash and bottom ash for some of
the elements or oxide studied are given
in Figure 2. These clearly show that
some components, such as sulfur, iron,
gallium and zirconium tend to occur pref-

erentially in the bottom ash and boiler
slag, while others, such as potash, soda,
boron and beryllium have a greater affin-
ity for the fly ash.

These trends are summarized in Fig-
ure 3. This shows the frequency of en-
richment in fly ash (as opposed to bottom
ash and boiler slag) for the samples and
elements studied in relation to the ratio
of the average concentration of each com-
ponent in the two types of ash material.
From this diagram, the following associ-
ations can be seen:

i) Elements or oxides preferentially
concentrated in fly ash: Na,O, K,O,
Al,O;, MgO, TiO:, SiO:, B, Be, Pb,
Cu, Co

ii) Elements or oxides preferentially
concentrated in bottom ash and boil-
er slag: Fe,O;, S, Ga, Zr, P, Ba, Mo,
Mn

iii) Elements with approximately even
preference for occurrence in either
fraction: CaO, Cr, Ni, Rb, V, Sr.

To a certain extent, the partition be-
tween fly ash and bottom ash is compa-
rable to that shown by magmatic differ-
entiation in igneous rocks. The major
oxides are generally distributed in accor-
dance with a more mafic bottom ash and
a more salic fly ash, although MgO and
possibly TiO, are anomalous in this re-
gard. However, many of the trace ele-
ments diverge from the behavior antici-
pated for such a model, with the
depletion of Rb, Ga and Mo in the fly ash
being particularly marked. Moreover, a
number of elemental pairs that are typi-
cally covariant in geological processes,
such as Fe-Cr, Fe-V, Co-Ni, and K-Rb
show less coherence in their behavior
than would be expected in these circum-
stances.

The results of the present study are
partly consistent with data obtained by
Natusch et al. (1974) on the composition
of fly ash in relation to its particle size.
That study showed a tendency for many
elements, particularly lead, zine and ar-
senic, to be concentrated in the finer frac-
tions of the fly ash produced in eight U.S.
power plants. This was explained by ad-

50 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 42(1-2)

Relative concentration
in
fly ash
is) ow
> AC
SS '
v
3
BIN
o Se
CE
ayy &
SO
ke)
NS

\ 2 3 4
Relative concentration

in
bottom ash

lime

sulfur

ee al ee @
0° 0 8
8 bee e
wA .
°
Jf
Ye
LA silica titania
e
re °ee
wee eas
fe
Oras .*
e
alumina phosphorus
e e
e sities
eee e °° Ly
5 O
e
e
Z magnesia potash

Fic. 2.

sorption of elements with lower boiling
point (such as Pb, Ba, Sr and Rb) on the
large surface area of the finer particles
during their passage through the furnace
atmosphere. High-boiling elements, such
as Fe, Cu and Ga were thought not to
take part in this process and thus became
more abundant in the coarser compo-
nents of the ash.

This explanation is not, however, fully
borne out by the present investigation.

Relative concentration of selected elements in fly ash and bottom ash.

Some low-boiling elements (e.g., Ba) are
preferentially concentrated in the bottom
ash and boiler slag, while others (e.g., Sr,
Rb) show a less well-defined partition
than might be expected. The form which
the elements take in the furnace, includ-
ing the abundance of adsorbed ions in
relation to the amount of each element
incorporated into various chemical com-
pounds, must clearly be taken into ac-
count. Some of these anomalies may be

FLY AND BOTTOM ASH IN KENTUCKY POWER PLANTS—Dennen and Ward

<10 ppm
Vi

e
e lead

e 4 e
e e°
e %e es .
® ° e
%’ . "
Sache
molybdenum 5 gallium

rubidium

lithium

barium strontium

FIG. 2.

resolved by study of the bottom ash and
boiler slag deposits separately since each
of these is formed under different con-
ditions during furnace operation.

MECHANICAL COLLECTION AND
ELECTROSTATIC PRECIPITATION

Several of the power plants sampled
for the present study are equipped with
both electrostatic precipitators and me-
chanical means of fly-ash collection. The

ol
o” wa
° 8 ye

chromium

e
of e ee
Wa manganese vanadium

wae

e
eee

e %

@e ee
e ee
eo
e

Z boron Zirconium

nickel

one

beryllium

CONTINUED.

contrasts in composition of the ash cap-
tured by each type of collection can be
assessed from the ratio between the
abundance of each element or oxide in
the fly ash taken from electrostatic pre-
cipitators and that in the ash taken from
the mechanical equipment (Table 3).
Only iron (Fe,O3) is more abundant in
the mechanically-collected fly ash. How-
ever, most other rock-forming oxides

(SiO., Al,Os, (GRO). MgO, K,O) are ap-

52 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 42(1-2)

too

50

enriched in the fly ash

Percent of samples with element

0) 0

Concentration

K20 @ Na20

@ MgO

Al703 @ @® Be
ine ® Tio
5102 co) oo 2
oe @® Co

Fly Ash

Bottom Ash or Boiler Slag

Fic. 3.

proximately equally distributed. The
trace elements characteristically more
abundant in fly ash than in bottom ash
and boiler slag (B, Be, Pb, Cu, Co, Sr)
also tend to be more abundant in the
electrostatically precipitated materials.
However, some elements having an as-
sociation with bottom ash and boiler slag
(e.g., Mo, S) are also more abundant in
these precipitated fly ash fractions.

Such contrasts may reflect differences
in particle size for the ash collected by
each type of equipment. The preferential

TABLE 3.—AVERAGE RATIO OF ELEMENT CONCEN-
TRATIONS IN PRECIPITATED (PPT) AND MECHANI-
CALLY (MECH) COLLECTED FLY ASH.

Ppt/Mech Element

0.5-1.0 Fe,O,

1.0-1.5 SiO, TiO, Al,O, CaO MgO k,O
Ba Cr Ga Li Mn Ni Rb Zr

1.5-2.0 Na,O Be Cu P Sr

2.0-2.5 B Co Mo

2.5-3.0 S Pb

Elements enriched in fly ash vs. partition between fly ash and bottom ash or boiler slag.

occurrence of sulfur in electrostatically
precipitated fly ash, as well as in bottom
ash and boiler slag (see above), may in-
dicate an occurrence mainly as boiler
slag, rather than the bottom ash fraction.
The sulfur that does become incorporat-
ed in fly ash appears to be much more
effectively trapped by electrostatic pre-
cipitation than by mechanical means.
Still, more sulfur in vapor form (SO,), un-
doubtedly forms part of the stack gas in
the various plants, and may only be cap-
tured in subsequent “scrubbing” opera-
tions.

LITERATURE CITED

GLUSKOTER, H. J., R. R. RUCH, W. G. MILLER, R.
A. CAHILL, G. B. DREHER, AND J. K. KUHN.
1977. Trace elements in coal: occurrence and
distribution. Illinois State Geol. Surv. Cire.
499:1-154.

KLEIN, D. H., AND RUSSELL, P. 1973. Heavy met-
als: fallout around a power plant. Environ-
mental Sci. and Technol. 7(4):357-358.

NATIONAL ASH ASSOCIATION. 1978. Ash at Work.
Nat. Assoc. 10(4):1-76.

NATUSCH, F. F. S., J. R. WALLACE, AND C. A. Ev-
ANS. 1974. Toxic trace elements: preferential

FLY AND BOTTOM ASH IN KENTUCKY POWER PLANTS—Dennen and Ward 53

concentration in respirable particles. Science WARD, C. R. 1977. Mineral matter in the Spring-

183:202-204. field-Harrisburg Coal Member of the Illinois
O’GoRMAN, J. V., AND P. L. WALKER, JR. 1971. Basin. Illinois State Geol. Surv. Circ. 498: 1-35.
Mineral matter characteristics of some Ameri- WEWERKA, E. M., WILLIAMS, J. M., WANEK, P. L..,
can coals. Fuel (Lond.) 50:135-151. AND OLSEN, J. D. 1976. Environmental con-
RosE, J. G., LOWE, J. A., AND FLoypD, R. K. 1979. tamination from trace elements in coal prepa-
Composition and properties of Kentucky power ration wastes. Inter-agency Energy-Environ-
plant ash. 5th Int. Ash Utilization Symp., Atlan- ment Res. & Dev. Program Report, ERDA LA-

ta. 6600-MS, EPA-600/7-76-007: 1-61.

Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 42(1-2), 1981, 54-61

The Gastropods and Sphaeriacean Clams of the
Dix River System, Kentucky’

BRANLEY ALLAN BRANSON AND DONALD L. BATCH?

Department of Biological Sciences, Eastern Kentucky University, Richmond, Kentucky 40475

ABSTRACT

Distributional data for 5 sphaeracean species and 7 genera and 10 species of aquatic snails in
5 families are presented for the Dix River. Water chemistry and habitat conditions are delineated

for 45 collecting stations.

INTRODUCTION
Even when the rather extensive rec-

ords of Calvin Goodrich (1934, 1938,
1940, and elsewhere) for the Pleuroceri-
dae are considered, the aquatic gastropod
fauna of Kentucky is poorly known (Bick-
el 1967, Branson 1972 and the literature
cited therein). Moreover, practically no
molluscan data have been published that
includes water chemistry and other eco-
logical parameters. Several whole rivers
are very poorly represented in the liter-
ature regarding their molluscan faunas,
particularly in the Kentucky River basin.
Most of the records reported here from
the Dix River system are new records.

The Dix River is a major tributary of
the Kentucky River, principally in Mer-
cer, Boyle, Garrard, Lincoln and Rock-
castle counties, draining approximately
450 square miles. The river is impound-
ed approximately 3 km above its mouth
to produce 650-hectare Lake Herrington.
Normal stream levels range from a few
cm in the headwaters to | to 1.5 m above
the lake. There are two main complexly
branched portions, Dix River proper and
the Hanging Fork system, which become
confluent above Lake Herrington. We es-
tablished 45 collecting stations, equally
distributed through the system, for the
purpose of sampling fishes, mollusks and
other invertebrates.

' Supported by Eastern Kentucky University fac-
ulty grants.

2 Dean, College of Natural and Mathematical Sci-
ences, Eastern Kentucky University.

54

COLLECTING STATIONS

The collecting stations (Fig. 1) aver-
aged approximately 0.3 km in length and
were selected to insure as broad a spec-
trum of ecological conditions as possible.
Physical and chemical characteristics ob-
served at each station are presented in
Table 1. Stream order designations are
those of Horton (1945).

Station 1. Order IT (Little Negro Creek,
Rockcastle County, 3-6 m wide with rif-
fles 15-20 cm deep and pools to 0.8 m
deep; bottom of gravel and limestone
bedrock; banks mostly margined by_ag-
ricultural fields; 20 October 1967.

Station 2. Order III (Negro Creek),
Rockcastle County, 4.5-10 m wide with
riffles 15-20 cm deep and pools 0.8-1.2
m deep; bottom of gravel and limestone
bedrock; riparian vegetation sweetgum,
false ironwood, willow, sugar maple, syc-
amore; 20 October 1967.

Station 3. Order II (Bowman Branch
and Boone Fork), Rockcastle County, 3-
5.5 m wide with riffles 7-13 cm deep and
pools 15-20 cm deep; bottom of lime-
stone and sandstone rocks and shale; fil-
amentous algae in water; riparian vege-
tation sycamore, sugar maple, shagbark
hickory, willow, black walnut, elm, oaks,
pine and red cedar; 20 October 1967.

Station 4. Order III (Dix River), Rock-
castle County, 11-14 m wide with riffles
15-31 cm deep and pools 45-76 cm deep;
bottom of limestone rocks, cobbles and
gravel; riparian vegetation sycamore,
oaks, sugar maple; 28 October 1967.

Station 5. Order II (Long Branch),
Rockcastle County, 3-3.7 m wide with
riffles 7.5-10 cm deep and pools 45-50

GASTROPODS AND FINGERNAIL CLAMS OF KENTUCKY—Branson and Batch 55

Fic. lL.

cm deep; bottom of limestone bedrock
with small quantities of gravel and rub-
ble; riparian vegetation sycamore, elm,
sumac, white oak, sugar maple, pine, red
cedar; 28 October 1967.

Station 6. Order III (Copper Creek),
Rockcastle County, 3-7.6 m wide with
riffles 10-31 cm deep and pools 30 cm to
1.2 m deep; bottom of shale, medium to
small rocks and gravel; riparian vegeta-
tion birch, beech, alder, willow, syca-
more, red maple, basswood, elm, hicko-
ries, black walnut, dogwood, oaks; 6
October 1967.

Station 7. Order II (Fall Lick Creek),
Lincoln County, 1.8-3.7 m wide with rif-
fles 5-10 cm deep and pools 1-1.2 m
deep; bottom of gravel and small rocks;
riparian vegetation sycamore, cherry, ma-
ples and some pastures; 21 December
1968.

Station 8. Order II (Fall Lick Creek),

Map of the Dix River system showing distribution of collecting stations.

Lincoln County, 4.5—7.6 m wide with rif-
fles 15 cm—0.6 m deep and pools 1.2—1.5
m deep; bottom of organic debris in
pools, gravel, sand and Dianthera on
riffles; 16 December 1967.

Station 9. Order I (Indian Branch), Gar-
rard County, 0.3-1.2 m wide with riffles
15-30 cm deep; bottom of silty gravel;
riparian vegetation sycamore, buckeye
and blackberry; 21 December 1968.

Station 10. Order IV (Dix River), Lin-
coln County, 10.6-15 m wide with a
channel 0.5-1.7 m deep; bottom of mud-
sand, bedrock and gravel; aquatic vege-
tation extensive, mostly Dianthera, Naias,
Polygonum; riparian vegetation maples,
sycamore, box elder, ash, willow; 8 June
1968.

Station 11. Order II (Hammons Lick
Creek), Garrard-Lincoln counties, 1.2—3
m wide with riffles 7.6-15 cm deep, pools
15-46 cm deep; bottom mostly bedrock;

56 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 42(1-2) !
TABLE |1.—PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF DIX RIVER AND TRIBUTARY STREAMS. ALL
MEASUREMENTS IN PARTS PER MILLION UNLESS OTHERWISE NOTED; TEMPERATURES IN CENTIGRADE.

Total Calcium !

Station Oxygen hardness hardness pH Free CO, HCO,_ Temperature Turbidity |
1 12.0 120.2 117.0 7.3 0.5 136.0 13.3 1.8
2 12.6 59.5 51.0 7.3 0.4 61.0 13.2 2.9
3 12.9 159.5 140.0 7.3 0.1 177.0 13.3 1.8
4 15.4 109.5 91.0 Holl 4.0 113.0 9.8 4.0
5 14.2 104.7 86.0 7.0 3.0 110.0 10.3 3.8
6 5.8 85.7 66.0 7.1 3.7 37.0 19.8 8.7
W 15.2 99.0 74.0 7.0 2.0 28.0 0.2 1.6
8 13.1 64.0 37.0 7.0 1.5 28.0 4.0 18.5

9 14.3 160.0 103.0 7.0 0 101.0 2.0 20.2 |

10 12.1 77.0 72.0 6.0 3.0 45.0 15 2.5 |
11 12.3 253.0 159.0 7.0 6.0 160.0 2), 9) 5)
12 SES 277.0 155.0 7.8 0 222.0 9.8 5.5

13 = _ — = me — — =

14 11.4 105.0 75.0 LD 0.8 76.0 8.2 36.5
15 12.5 245.0 130.0 7.1 0) 384.0 Mp2 2.0
16 5.2 142.0 94.0 7.3 0.7 240.0 22.3 27.0
LZ 6.8 288.0 177.0 7.5 15.0 229.0 13.2 11.0
18 11.9 80.0 76.0 CH 0) 82.8 33.8 2.3
19 10.7 327.0 184.0 7.5 15.0 298.0 13.2 33.0
20 7.4 149.0 104.0 7.4 He 129.0 25.0 By
2] 5.5 202.0 201.0 5) 10.0 225.0 13.2 60.0
22, 5.8 137.0 112.0 7.3 4.8 209.0 23.0 15.4
23 8.7 165.0 148.0 eS Del, 302.0 24.5 6.8
24 11.7 247.0 245.0 eo 5.5 220.0 30.2 4.4
25 6.6 147.0 135.0 7.0 7.5 129.0 30.2 13.9
26 10.0 230.0 225.0 7.0 15.5 194.0 13.8 ed)
Dili 12.0 236.0 216.0 Ud 7.0 197.0 9.5 4.6
28 10.4 232.0 195.0 7.0 3.0 22.1.0 21.5 11.5
29 5.2 228.0 219.0 C2 10.0 209.0 18.7 4.0
30 8.9 169.0 157.0 7.5 0 133.0 24.0 4.6
31 8.9 246.0 243.0 7.5 15.0 215.0 19.2 4.6
32 14.3 210.0 202.0 7.8 0) 147.0 30.0 7.5
33 8.8 22.4.0 187.0 7.8 10.0 201.0 30.2 13.9
34 7.6 96.0 79.0 7.0 4.5 136.0 28.3 8.9
35 10.7 152.0 110.0 ee, 0.5 222.0 33.0 2.1
36 4.8 164.0 115.0 7.3 3.5 137.0 23.5 36.0
37 7.4 137.0 130.0 UP 1.5 137.0 24.0 36.0
38 8.1 200.0 145.0 Coe 4.3 180.0 Dee 6.8
39 14.1 218.0 140.0 7.1 (0) 322.0 17.0 2.0
40 11.2 171.0 99.0 7.9 0.1 222.0 9.5 10.1
4] 5.7 134.0 94.0 — — — 28.3 11.6
42 11.2 81.0 58.0 7.0 1.6 44.0 8.7 10.5
43 12.5 70.0 51.0 Tall 0.6 54.0 6.7 8.6
44 9.5 114.2 82.0 He 1.0 106.0 20.0 1.0
45 12.4 61.9 46.6 7.1 1.0 32.0 9.8 2.9

riparian vegetation sycamore; 7 Decem-
ber 1968.
Station 12. Order III (Hammons Lick

black walnut, buckeye, willow; 22 No-
vember 1967.
Station 13. Order III (East Fork of

Creek near mouth), Lincoln County, 7.6—
15 m wide with riffles 7.6-30 cm deep
and pools 75-80 cm deep; bottom of bed-
rock with some sand and gravel; riparian
vegetation locust, osage orange, oaks,
Kentucky coffee tree, sycamore, cherry,

Drakes Creek), Garrard County, 10.6-15
m wide with riffles 0.5-1.0 m deep and
pools 0.5-1.0 m deep; bottom of bedrock
and rubble; riparian vegetation willows,
hackberry, sycamore, box elder, pastures;
7 December 1968.

GASTROPODS AND FINGERNAIL CLAMS OF KENTUCKY—Branson and Batch 57

Station 14. Order IV (Dix River), Lin-
coln County, 18-25 m wide with riffles
45 cm deep and pools 0.8-1.5 m deep;
bottom of gravel, large rocks and silt; ri-
parian vegetation willows, hackberry,
willows, box elder; 25 November 1967.

Station 15. Order IV (Walnut Flat
Creek), Lincoln County, 1.8-6 m wide
with riffles 45-cm deep; bottom of bed-
rock, gravel and silt; riparian vegetation
black walnut, elm, osage orange, syca-
more, willow, red cedar; aquatic vegeta-
tion algae; 9 March 1968.

Station 16. Order IV (Dix River), Lin-
coln County, 7.6-15 m wide with riffles
25-46 cm deep and pools 1.2 m deep;
bottom of limestone rocks, mud, sand and
bedrock; aquatic vegetation Dianthera;
riparian vegetation sycamore, box elder,
maple, elm, locust, willow, hackberry,
ash, false ironwood, redbud; 15 June
1968.

Station 17. Order III (Gilberts Creek),
Garrard County, 1.2-6 m wide with rif-
fles 5.1-30 cm deep; bottom of rubble
and flat stones; aquatic vegegation algae;
riparian vegetation elm, black walnut,
hackberry, red cedar, coralberry, pas-
tures; 16 November 1968.

Station 18. Order III (Gilberts Creek),
Lincoln County, 6.0-14 m wide with rif-
fles 5-20 cm deep and pools 1.0-1.2 m
deep; bottom of bedrock and small
stones; riparian vegetation box elder, ma-
ple, sycamore, willow, pastures; 15 June
1968.

Station 19. Order III (Turkey Creek),
Garrard County, 3.0-6.0 m wide with rif-
fles 15 cm-0.9 m deep and pools 1.0-1.2
m deep; bottom of bedrock, rubble and
gravel; riparian vegetation osage orange,
oaks, locust, red cedar, hackberry, wil-
low, cane, coralberry; 28 November
1968.

Station 20. Order V (Dix River), Lin-
coln County, 18-31 m wide with riffles
5-30 cm deep and main channel 1.0-1.4
m deep; bottom of bedrock, cobbles,
gravel and silt; aquatic vegetation
Dianthera and algae; riparian vegetation
box elder, buckeye, ash, willow, maple,
sycamore, hackberry; 13 July 1968.

Station 21. Order II (White Oak Creek),

Garrard County, 2.5-4.6 m wide with rif-
fles 7.6-31 cm deep; bottom of rubble
and gravel and heavy black sludge (heavy
sewage pollution from Lancaster); ripar-
ian vegetation osage orange, sycamore,
oaks, locust; 16 November 1968.

Station 22. Order V (Dix River), Lin-
coln County, 22-25 m wide with riffles 8
cm deep and main channel 1.0 m deep;
bottom of sand, gravel, mud and rubble;
aquatic vegetation Dianthera; riparian
vegetation buckeye, willow, sycamore,
elm ash, boxelder, black walnut, maples,
oak; 12 August 1968.

Station 23. Order IV (Hanging Fork
Creek), Lincoln County, 3.0-9.0 m wide
with riffles 15-31 cm deep and pools 1.5-
1.8 m deep; bottom of bedrock, sand and
gravel; aquatic vegetation Dianthera; ri-
parian vegetation wild cherry, willow,
boxelder, sycamore, maple; 12 August
1968.

Station 24. Order III (Boone Creek),
Garrard County, 1.5—6.0 m wide with rif-
fles 15-30 cm deep and pools 1.8 m deep;
bottom of bedrock and terraced falls, rub-
ble, silty sand; riparian vegetation oak,
boxelder, sycamore, red cedar, false iron-
wood; 30 November 1968.

Station 25. Order VI (Dix River),
Boyle-Garrard counties, 9.0-18 m wide
with channel 15 cm to 1.8 m deep; bot-
tom of terraced bedrock, cobbles, rubble;
riparian vegetation elm, boxelder, syca-
more, cherry, buckeye, black walnut,
hickory, oak, maple, hackberry; 24 Au-
gust 1968.

Station 26. Order II (McKenie Creek),
Garrard County, 1.5-4.5 m wide with rif
fles 7.6-46 cm deep and pools 0.76—-0.9 m
deep; bottom of bedrock, limestone rub-
ble, silt; riparian vegetation sycamore
and osage orange; 30 November 1968.

Station 27. Order II (Tanyard Creek),
Garrard County, 0.9-9.0 m wide with rif-
fles 7.5-23 cm deep and pools 30-60 cm
deep; bottom of terraced bedrock (part of
stream flows underground); riparian
vegetation oak, maple, sycamore, locusts,
ash, red cedar, black walnut, boxelder; 30
November 1968.

Station 28. Order VI (Dix River), Mer-
cer County (below dam), 9.0-15 m wide

58 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 42(1-2)

with channel 25 cm to over 1.5 m deep;
bottom of bedrock covered with silt, deep
mud, sand, fine gravel; riparian vegeta-
tion boxelder, black walnut, hackberry,
willow, sycamore; 20 August 1968.

Station 29. Order II (Cane Creek), Mer-
cer County, 3.0-4.5 m wide with channel
7.5-46 cm deep; bottom of bedrock cov-
ered with silt, mud, sand, gravel riparian
vegetation hackberry, black walnut, box-
elder, willow, sycamore; 20 August 1968.

Station 30. Order II (Mock Branch
Creek), Boyle County, 4.5-7.6 m wide
with riffles 7.6 cm deep, pools 0.9-1.4 m
deep; bottom of terraced bedrock, small
rubble; riparian vegetation hackberry,
boxelder, cherry, dogwood, hickory, ash,
buckeye, elm, maple; 27 August 1968.

Station 31. Order II (Spears Creek),
Boyle County, 1.5—4.6 m wide with riffles
15-46 cm deep and pools 1.1 m deep;
bottom of bedrock, flat stones, rubble,
gravel; riparian vegetation elm, boxelder,
black walnut, buckeye, red cedar, syca-
more, maple, hackberry; 27 August 1968.

Station 32. Order III (Clarks Run
Creek), Boyle County, 7.6-14 m wide,
channel 15-61 cm deep; bottom of bed-
rock, rubble; riparian vegetation syca-
more, black walnut, hackberry, maple,
hickory, boxelder, red cedar, elm; 22 Au-
gust 1968.

Station 33. Order III (Balls Creek),
Boyle County, 4.5-7.6 m wide with riffles
15-20 cm deep, pools 15-46 cm deep;
bottom of bedrock and rubble; riparian
vegetation willow, sycamore, elm; 22 Au-
gust 1968.

Station 34. Order III (Oak Creek), Lin-
coln County, 7.0-13 m wide with riffles
21-45 cm deep and pools 0.9-1.1 m deep;
bottom of terraced bedrock, gravel, silt;
riparian vegetation oak, elm, ash, walnut,
willow, sycamore; 17 August 1968.

Station 35. Order I (Harris Creek), Lin-
coln County, 4.5-9.0 m wide with riffles
20-46 cm deep and pools 0.9-1.0 m deep;
bottom of bedrock, gravel and silt; ripar-
ian vegetation of oak, elm, ash, walnut,
willow, sycamore; 17 August 1968.

Station 36. Order IIT (Knoblick Creek),
Lincoln County, 9.0-17 m wide with rif-
fles 15-25 cm deep and pools 15-76 cm

deep; bottom of gravel and rubble; ripar-
ian vegetation sycamore, boxelder, wil-
low, elm, hackberry, pastures; 27 July
1968.

Station 37. Order II (Hanging Fork
Creek), Lincoln County, 6.1-12 m wide
with riffles 15-25 cm deep, pools 15 cm-—
0.76 m deep; bottom of gravel and rub-
ble; riparian vegetation sycamore, box-
elder, willow, elm, hackberry, pastures;
27 July 1968.

Station 38. Order III (Blue Lick
Creek), Lincoln County, 4.5-9.0 m wide
with riffles 8-20 cm deep and pools 0.8
m deep; bottom of large rocks, slate and
geodes; riparian vegetation maples, box-
elder, locust; 13 July 1968.

Station 39. Order IV (Logan Creek),
Lincoln County, 16.7-21 m wide with rif-
fles and channel 15-46 cm deep; pollu-
tion of oils, soap film, garbage; bottom of
rubble, gravel, silt; riparian vegetation
sycamore, maple, osage orange; 9 March
1968.

Station 40. Order IV (Cedar Creek),
Lincoln County, 4.5-6.0 m wide with
channel 15-45 cm deep; bottom of grav-
el, rubble, sand, bedrock; riparian vege-
tation hackberry, sycamore, willow, pas-
ture; 25 November 1967.

Station 41. Order II (Mudlick Creek),
Lincoln County, 2.5-6.7 m wide with rif-
fles 20 cm deep and pools 1.0-2.1 m
deep; bottom of sand and mud; aquatic
vegetation Dianthera, watercress, arrow-
head; riparian vegetation boxelder, syc-
amore, maple, willow, hackberry, alder,
cherry; 8 June 1968.

Station 42. Order II (Flax Creek), Lin-
coln County, 1.5-3.0 m wide with chan-
nel 7.6-50 cm deep; bottom of shale, bed-
rock, gravel, small rocks; riparian
vegetation osage orange, locust, syca-
more, pasture; 29 January 1968.

Station 43. Order IV (Copper Creek),
Lincoln County, 6.0-9.0 m wide with rif-
fles 7.6-48 cm deep and pools 0.6-1.8 m
deep; bottom of organic debris, gravel,
rocks, rubble; riparian vegetation birch,
hickory, sycamore, willow, elm, maple,
canes; 29 January 1968.

Station 44. Order IV (Dix River), Rock-
castle County, 6.0-12 m wide with riffles

GASTROPODS AND FINGERNAIL CLAMS OF KENTUCKY—Branson and Batch 59

10-31 cm deep and pools 0.3-1.5 m deep;
bottom of limestone bedrock, gravel,
shale, organic debris; aquatic vegetation
Dianthera; riparian vegetation sycamore,
oak, buckeye, willow, birch, beech, ma-
ple, dogwood, basswood, elm, black wal-
nut, hickory; 6 October 1967.

Station 45. Order II (Slaty Creek),
Rockcastle County, 4.5-6.1 m wide with
rifles 15-20 cm deep and pools 0.45-1.1
m deep; bottom of shale, gravel, bedrock;
riparian vegetation boxelder, sycamore,
maple, oak, hickory, pastures; 28 October
1967.

RESULTS

In the annotated list that follows, spec-
imens are referred to the sites from which
they were secured by station number.
The figures in parentheses represent the
numbers collected.

CORBICULIDAE
Corbicula manilensis (Philippi 1844)

Collecting sites: 28 (11).

This Asian exotic was very abundant
below the dam but no specimens were
observed above it. Thus far, the dam ap-
pears to be functioning as a dispersal bar-
rier. However, the clam has successfully
migrated into the upper branches of the
Kentucky River and it is extremely abun-
dant in the Little South Fork of the Cum-
berland River and elsewhere.

SPHAERIIDAE

The principal references for this family
were Burch (1975) and Herrington (1962).
Burch (loc. cit.) retains Sphaerium and
Musculium as distinct genera, whereas
Herrington (loc. cit.) submerges Muscu-
lium as a subgenus of Sphaerium, and we
follow the latter author’s rationale.

Sphaerium fabale Prime

Collecting sites: 10 (1), 14 (1), 16 (10),
2O1(2)231(3); 415Cl.5).

This species, common in Virginia,
West Virginia, Tennessee, Georgia, Ohio
and Illinois, has not been reported from
Kentucky since Price’s paper (1900).

Sphaerium rhomboideum (Say)

Collecting sites: 31 (1), 40 (1).

As far as we can tell, this rather large
glossy species has not been reported
from Kentucky waters. Characteristically,
it inhabits backwater situations in streams
and lakes. The species is not uncommon
in southern Ohio (Herrington 1962).

Sphaerium striatinum (Lamarck)
Collecting sites: 4 (8), 12 (1), 14 (4), 16
(22), 30 (1), 35 (1), 36 (4), 39 (1), 40 (3), 43
(S) PA 50)
This is the most commonly encoun-
tered and widespread fluviatile sphaeriid
in the eastern two-thirds of the state.

Sphaerium similis Say

Collecting sites: 39 (7), 40 (2), 41 (1),
43 (2), and 55 specimens from the main
Dix River 4.5 km southeast of Lancester,
Lincoln County, 9 September 1968.

All specimens are heavy-shelled with
long outlines and low, subcentral beaks
and a lustreless periostracum, and all
were from large streams just above the
mouth or from the main river. Heretofore
unreported from Kentucky.

PLEUROCERIDAE

This large family of snails is one of the
most difficult taxonomically, hence the
reason for the paucity of recent literature
on the Kentucky fauna. The principal ref-
erences are Goodrich (1934, 1938, 1940),
Bickel (1967) and Branson (1972). Spec-
imens of three genera and four species
were collected.

Goniobasis costifera (Haldeman)

Collecting sites: 1 (60), 40 (1).

The shell is strongly costate from just
below the apex to within one whorl of the
body whorl in both specimens. Not a
common species in the Kentucky River
system.

Goniobasis semicarinata (Say)
Collecting sites: Dix River 1.6 km
southeast of Lancaster, Lincoln County
(8) sul) a ou(33) 445 (68) ou iD) 528 (6) nal O
(7) el Gl) aA (Grip) sual a((i10) es NG (2s) a2 OR)

60 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 42(1-2)

2D) o = (55), 25 (56), 29 (33), 30 (24), 31
(26), 33 (15), 34 (6), 35 (449), 36 (47), 38
(38), 39 (2), 40 (9), 41 (20), 43 (13), 44 (15).
The most common pleurocerid in the
Kentucky River drainage, particularly in
medium-sized creeks and small rivers,
this species is most abundant in riffles
during spring through early fall but be-
comes much less abundant during win-
ter. It prefers a hard substratum but will
live in backwaters with mud bottoms.

Lithasia plicata Wetherby

Collecting sites: 28 (1).

The single specimen is of the smooth
form with short, squat whorls. The col-
lecting site lies below Herrington Lake
Dam in swift, cold water. Very few other
snails were collected at this site. Lithasia
plicata is uncommon and should be list-
ed as Special Concern in Kentucky.

Pleurocera acuta Rafinesque

Collecting sites: 3 (1).

At one time this species was very abun-
dant in the Licking and Kentucky river
systems (Goodrich 1940, Call 1900) but
recent extensive collecting indicates that
this large species is becoming scarce. It
probably should be listed as of Special
Concern in Kentucky waters.

VIVIPARIDAE

The distribution of viviparid snails is
very poorly understood in Kentucky
(Clench 1962 a, b), and there are no pre-
viously published records for any of the
species from Dix River. Two genera and
three species are reported.

Lioplax subcarinata occidentalis Pilsbry

Collecting sites: 10 (47), 28 (1).

This relatively small, strongly shoul-
dered and operculated, umbilicate snail
is often confused for immature members
of the next genus.

Campeloma integrum (Say)

Collecting sites: 10 (1), 14 (1).

This, and the next species, are proba-
bly more abundant than our collections
indicate, since the snails burrow rather
deeply into the mud at the base of aquatic
plants such as Dianthera (water willow).

Campeloma crassula Rafinesque
Collecting sites: 43 (2). |
Campeloma ponderosa (Say) is a syn-

onym of this species, although the name |

occasionally continues to appear in print. |

LYMNAEIDAE

In considering this group of snails we |
have followed the systematic treatment
of Hubendick (1951, 1978). The Ken-
tucky distribution of lymnaeids is ex- |
tremely poorly known.

Lymnaea humilis Say

Collecting sites: 28 (3).
All three specimens were secured from
debris in backwaters.

PHYSIDAE

No monographic treatment of this fam-
ily, other than Crandall’s (1901) work, has
ever been attempted. Most specific des-
ignations, including those presented
here, are tentative. Two species, based
upon differences in shell types, are re-
ported.

Physa heterostropha (Say)

Collecting sites: 12 (1), 15 (3), 17 1 ye
DAO) Qo 13)s 28124), 294) 30 (oO) aro
(2), 40 (1).

Physa integra Haldeman

Collecting sites: 1 (1), 4 (1), 12 (1), 19
(2), 27 (6), 28 (26), 33'(2), 35 (1); 39'(2)) 42
(1), 43 (1).

ANCYLOPLANORBIDAE

Hubendick (1978) has recently revised
the families Planorbidae and Ancylidae,
combining them under the single epi-
thet, Ancyloplanorbidae. He also com-
bined the genera Menetus and Prome-
netus with Planorbula, the latter having
priority, and Gyraulus and Armiger, Gy-
raulus being the proper designation. As
is the case in many other aquatic groups,
the distribution is poorly known in Ken-
tucky. Only one species is reported here.

GASTROPODS AND FINGERNAIL CLAMS OF KENTUCKY—Branson and Batch 61

Helisoma trivolvis (Say)

Collecting sites: Dix River, 1.6 km
southeast of Lancaster, Lincoln County
(@)28i(ll); 32 (1):

LITERATURE CITED

BAKER, F. C. 1945. The Molluscan Family Plan-
orbidae. U. Ill. Press, Urbana.

BICKEL, D. 1967. Preliminary checklist of Recent
and Pleistocene Mollusca of Kentucky. Ster-
kiana 28:7-20.

BRANSON, B. A. 1972. Checklist and distribution
of Kentucky aquatic gastropods. Ky. Fish. Bull.
54:1-20; 45 maps.

BuRCH, J. B. 1975. Freshwater sphaeriacean clams
(Mollusca:Pelecypoda) of North America.
Malacological Pub., Hamburg, Mich.

CLENCH, W. J. 1962a. New records for the genus
Lioplax. Occ. Pap. Mus. Comp. Zool. Harvard
2:288.

. 1962b. A catalogue of the Viviparidae of
North America with notes on the distribution
of Viviparus georgianus Lea. Occ. Pap. Mus.
Zool. Harvard 2:1-20.

CALL, R. E. 1900. A descriptive catalogue of the
Mollusca of Kentucky. Bull. Amer. Paleon.
41:165-183.

CRANDALL, O. A. 1901. The American Physae.
Nautilus 15:69-71.

GooprRIcH, C. 1940. The Pleuroceridae of the
Ohio River drainage system. Occ. Pap. Mus.
Zool. Univ. Mich. 417:1-21.

1938. Studies of the gastropod family
Pleuroceridae—VII. Occ. Pap. Mus. Zool.
Univ. Mich. 376:1-12.

1934. Studies of the gastropod family
Pleuroceridae—1. Occ. Pap. Mus. Zool. Univ.
Mich. 286:1-19.

HERRINGTON, H. B. 1962. A revision of the Sphae-
riidae of North America (Mollusca: Pelecypo-
da). Misc. Pub. Mus. Zool. Univ. Mich. 118:1-
7A,

Horton, R. E. 1945. Erosional development of
streams and their drainage basins, hydrophys-
ical approach to quantitative morphology. Bull.
Geol. Soc. Amer. 56:275-370.

HUBENDICK, B. 1978. Systematics of and compar-
ative morphology of the Basommatophora. In,
Pulmonates, ed. v. Fretter and J. Peake. Aca-
demic Press, New York.

. 1951. Recent Lymnaeidae. Kungl. Sven-
ska. Vetensk. Handl. 3:1-223.

PricE, S. F. 1900. Mollusca of southern Kentucky.

Nautilus 14:75-79.

Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 42(1-2), 1981, 62-75

ACADEMY AFFAIRS

THE SIXTY-SIXTH ANNUAL BUSINESS MEETING
OF THE KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

TRANSYLVANIA UNIVERSITY, LEXINGTON, KENTUCKY
7 and 8 November 1980
Hosts: Drs. Monroe Moosnick and J. Hill Hammond

MINUTES OF THE ANNUAL BUSINESS MEETING

The meeting was called to order by President
Prins at 0915, 8 November in Room 120 of the
Brown Science Building, with approximately 75
members in attendance.

After a motion by Secretary Creek and a second
from the floor, the minutes of the 1979 Annual Busi-
ness Meeting at Northern Kentucky University, as
recorded in the Transactions Vol. 41(1-2), were ap-
proved. Secretary Creek made a motion that all new
members be accepted by the Academy. Following
a second from the floor the motion passed. Secretary
Creek reported that the following members had
passed away during the year:

Dr. L. Y. Lancaster
Western Kentucky University

Dr. Thomas Calhoun
University of Louisville School of Medicine

Dr. Henry Howell
‘Asbury College

Dr. Lewis Lockwood
Western Kentucky University

Dr. Ernest Beal
Western Kentucky University

He requested a minute of silence in tribute to these
decreased members.

The Treasurer's report was made by Dr. Taylor.
Following a motion and a second from the floor the
report was approved. The report was audited by
Ronald Marionneaux, John Davidson, and John
Harley and found to be in order. Dr. Taylor com-
mented that dues and institutional affiliations were
coming in faster this year. He also announced plans
to move the certificates of deposits in order to ob-
tain a higher rate of interest. It was noted from the
floor that consideration should be given to the pen-
alty that would result by removing the C.D. prior
to the due date.

TREASURER ’S REPORT TO THE AUDIT COMMITTEE
Kentucky Academy of Science
7 November 1979-30 October 1980

Cash on hand ____ 7 November 1979 ____ $ 9,210.02

RECEIPTS:
Membership Dues ______- $2,753.01
Annual Meeting _________- 1,303.00
Transaction
Subscriptions _________- 1,611.00
Page Charges ___________- 1,875.00
Institutional
Affiliations) = tee 1,250.00
$8,792.01 8,792.01
$18,002.03
DISBURSEMENTS:
Annual Meeting _________- $
Operating Expenses ___. 377.00
Junior Academy _________- 1,000.00
Botany Grant _____________- 675.00
Presidential Project _____- 500.00
Transactions _____________- 4,461.35
7,013.35 7,013.35
Balance $10,988.68
Cash in Madison National Bank,
Richmond, KY
1 November 1980 = ____-_-__------------- $10,988.68
Savings Account, Lexington
Federal Savings and Loan _______--__- 1,576.65
Savings Account (Botany Foundation),
Farmer's National Bank,
Georgetown 2 ee ee eee 545.56
Savings Account,
Farmer's Bank & Trust
30 September 1980, Georgetown __ 1,682.01
Savings Account (Floristic Grant),
Citizen’s National Bank _________-_-_--___ 2,726.26
Botany Foundation,
(Certificates in Citizen’s National Bank,
Bowling Green, KY, and First National
Bank, Georgetown, KY) ______--------_- 10,000.00

President Prins presented the following report on
his tenure as President of the Academy.
My primary objective as President this year was

62

ACADEMY AFFAIRS

to complete the Precollege Needs Assessment Sur-
vey. (A preliminary report was presented at the Ple-
nary Session on Friday.) A report will be more for-
mally organized in the next few months. We hope
that this work will help our precollege counterparts
and provide an impetus for further involvement of
Academy members.

During the year, the Executive Committee began
to consider seriously the matter of financial solven-
cy of the Academy. Toward that end, a Kentucky
Academy of Science Foundation is being estab-
lished. More will be said later; however, we feel
that this Foundation will enable the Academy to
develop in an orderly fashion fundings for various
objectives we may have now and in the future.

The Executive Committee also established a
home for archival material of the K.A.S. Eastern
Kentucky University has asked to serve as the de-
pository. We encourage you to send anything you
think appropriate for our archives to the Secretary.

Early in my term as President, I learned of a need
to address the matter of Endangered Species in
Kentucky. Accordingly, I appointed a committee of
people who expressed interest in this. Branley
Branson of E.K.U. served as chairman of the com-
mittee and has made considerable progress in the
project. He will report on this later.

One other major undertaking this year was a pro-
posed reorganization of the Junior Academy. Direc-
tor of the Junior Academy, Herb Leopold, has ably
designed a system which, in effect, decentralizes
the leadership roles and promises to appreciably
increase the effectiveness of the Junior Academy
functions. The system will be tested over the next
year before any formal changes are made in the Ju-
nior Academy constitution.

Other activities of the year, specifically of com-
mittees, will be reported later in the agenda.

By in large, the Academy is in good shape. We
must continue to address the problem of financial
stability, especially in these times of austerity, and
are hopeful that leadership will emerge to help us
in our determination to work this out.

President Prins then called for reports of the fol-
lowing committees:

1. MEMBERSHIP COMMITTEE. Dr. Paul Frey-
tag presented the following report.

Two appeals for new members were made this
year, one through many section chairmen in the
spring, and another through the secretary of the
Academy to all members this fall. It is hoped that
these appeals brought in many new members to the
Academy.

A special appeal was made this fall to encourage
persons in Mathematics to join the Academy and
start a new section in this field of science. Other
sections should be added as the Academy grows in
membership until all fields of science are repre-
sented.

2. COMMITTEE ON PUBLICATIONS. Dr. Bran-
son presented the following report in the absence
of Dr. Krumholz.

63

Volume 41(1-2), March 1980, consisted of 87
pages that included 11 papers, Academic Affairs,
and News and Comment. Volume 41(3-4), issued
in September 1980, consisted of 83 pages that in-
cluded 14 papers, the Constitution and Bylaws of
the Academy revised through 1979, News and Com-
ment, and the Index for the entire volume. The cost
for printing Volume 41(1—2) was $4,461.35 and that
for Volume 41(3-4) was $4,696.70 for an annual total
of $9,158.05. Thus, the cost for printing Volume 41,
including all blank pages and covers, a total of 180
pages, was $9,158.05, an increase of $1,317.40
(16.8%) over the $7,830.65 for Volume 40.

The subjects of the 24 papers in Volume 41 were
distributed among only 4 disciplines as follows:
Zoology and Entomology, 15 papers (80 pages);
Botany and Microbiology, 7 papers (39 pages); Gen-
eral, 2 papers (18 pages); and Chemistry, 1 paper
(3 pages). Thus, papers from only 4 of the 10 sec-
tions that participated in the meeting of 2-3 No-
vember 1979 at Northern Kentucky State Univer-
sity, where more than 150 papers were presented,
were published in our Transactions in 1980.

It is hoped that a greater diversity of disciplines
will become represented in future issues of the
Transactions.

The actual increase in cost of printing per page
from 1979 to 1980 was from $47.75 in 1979 to $48.40
in 1980, an increase of only $0.65, but our output
in pages increased from 164 to 180 pages.

3. STATE GOVERNMENT ADVISORY COM-
MITTEE. Dr. Kupchella reported that results from
the study of Federal Funding for Research and De-
velopment in Kentucky, which was originally pub-
lished as Research Report No. 156, has been sum-
marized in four articles in the Transactions, three
of which have appeared with the fourth to appear
in the near future. It is hoped that the results of this
study will result in recommendations to increase
the level of federal research and developmental
dollars coming to the Commonwealth.

4. DISTRIBUTION OF RESEARCH FUNDS.
Botany Foundation Fund. Dr. Winstead presented
the report.

In 1979-80 two projects funded by the KAS
Foundation for Botanical Research continued in
progress. A total of $675.00 was granted to the ap-
plicants (John L. Roth, $375.00; Robert Oddo and
Greg Houser, $300.00) and their work is anticipated
to be completed during 1980-81.

The Foundation has decided to take completed
applications up to April of each year to allow better
planning and beginning of support prior to the sum-
mer months. It is felt that this will allow instructors
to generate more interest among students and will
more realistically support field type studies as well
as laboratory investigations prior to the annual fall
meeting of the Academy.

The Foundation will be able to fund up to
$800.00 in support of Botanical Research in 1980—
81.

64

Floristic Grant Fund. Mr. John Varner reported
that two grants were awarded this year as follows:

A. Wm. Patrick Turner, University of Louisville,
who is working on the floristics of Breckenridge
County, Kentucky. Mr. Turner is working under
the supervision of Dr. Arland T. Hotchkiss.

B. George F. Buddell II, Northern Kentucky Uni-
versity, who is working on the floristics of
Campbell County, Kentucky. Mr. Buddell is
working under the supervision of Dr. John Thei-
ret. Both grants were awarded for a two year
term.

5. SCIENCE EDUCATION ADVISORY COM-
MITTEE. Dr. George presented the report.

A. ADDITIONAL HOURS IN PROFESSIONAL
EDUCATION: The Kentucky Council on Teacher
Education and Certification has been considering
proposals to increase the hours in professional ed-
ucation required for the certification of all future
secondary teachers. It was originally proposed that
this component be raised from a present require-
ment of 17 hours to 36 hours. In addition, many
extra hours of classroom observation would be re-
quired. Last year, the Academy sent our objections
to this proposal to the Council. The Council, how-
ever, passed a modified version of this proposal
which would require 33 hours of professional ed-
ucation but this proposal was strongly opposed by
the Superintendent of Public Instruction, Raymond
Barber. The Council reconsidered and has amend-
ed its proposal to 30 hours. Mr. Barber has appoint-
eda committee of five to study the matter and report
to him and there is where the matter now stands.
It is the opinion of this committee that 27 hours
would be an acceptable compromise since that is
about the number of hours of professional education
required by most colleges of Education in the state.

B. NEW SCIENCE AREA: In September 1979,
freshmen entering teacher education programs
have the option of electing a new science area
which requires a core of courses in biology, chem-
istry, earth science and physics. The Academy sup-
ported this new area program and the Science Ed-
ucation Advisory Committee urges that members
support this program and help set up procedures
for recruiting new students into it. As was noted in
the plenary session, the production of new science
teachers is almost at a standstill and the situation
will become serious in the future. Certainly science
cannot prosper nor can our society prosper in this
technological age without an adequate supply of
good science teachers in the public schools. This
Committee urges every member to actively recruit
new science teachers for the classrooms of the fu-
ture.

C. SCIENTIFIC CREATIONISM: In the last
session of the legislature, H.B. 889 was introduced
which would have required that the theory of “Sci-
entific Creationism” would have to be discussed
whenever the theory of evolution was discussed. In
fact, H.B. 889 would have required that a textbook
could not be placed on the State Textbook Bid List

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 42(1-2)

if it refers to the theory of evolution and does not
give a treatment of scientific creationism. Present
Kentucky Statute KRS 158.177 states, “Teachers
may include as a portion of the instructional con-
tent, the Theory of Creation as presented in the
Bible and therefore afford the student a choice as
to which theory to accept.”

It is the opinion of the Science Education Advi-
sory Committee that the Kentucky Academy of Sci-
ence should consider its position with respect to a
change of the present statute and be prepared to
take a stand if the issue should again appear before
the legislature. Therefore, we recommend that an
Ad Hoc Committee be appointed to study the whole
issue carefully and, during the next year, give am-
ple chance for all members, who wish, to give their
opinions to the Committee. This Committee should
report to the Academy at the 1981 meeting its rec-
ommendations of what position, if any, the Acade-
my should take on this issue.

As recommended by the report a motion was
made and seconded to set up an Ad Hoc Committee
to study scientific creationism and all mandated
programs. During the discussion that followed a
motion was made and seconded to amend the orig-
inal motion so as to exclude specific reference to
scientific creationism and thus consider only the
general problem of government mandated pro-
grams. The motion failed. The original motion was
then passed.

6. THE JUNIOR ACADEMY OF SCIENCE. Dr.
Leopold presented the report.

Because of serious problems, the K.J.A.S. last
year requested specific guidance regarding its fu-
ture. This guidance was provided through joint ef-
forts by the Executive Committee of the Academy
and the K.J.A.S. Board.

A plan was adopted for regionalization of the Jr.
Academy, with local activities being substituted for
some of those previously mandated that required
unreasonable travel and expense. At the state level
three major activities remain unchanged: The an-
nual Symposium, Research Grants, and publishing
at least one issue of the Bulletin, supplemented by
occasional news letters on an as-needed basis.

In addition to our usual program of activities last
year, there is a special item of major importance to
report: The Major Appliance Group of the General
Electric Company responded to an appeal for funds
to support student research grants with the follow-
ing, which is excerpted from a letter by Mr. John C.
Truscott, Vice President and General Manager, Ap-
plied Research and Engineering Division.

“... We are pleased to support your program,
since we are in agreement with your objectives.
Enclosed is a check for $500. Please credit the
support to: Major Appliance Business Group,
General Electric Company. As stated in your let-
ter, we would expect you to re-apply on an annual
basis for possible additional support.

We wish you every success in encouraging

ACADEMY AFFAIRS

young people to pursue scientific and engineer-
ing careers.”

This is of particular importance to us in view of
the current economic situation.
The Treasurer's Report of 31 October 1980:

Balance on Hand, 25 April 1980 ____________ $ 68.82
Disbursements
Club Award (Science Skills)
St. Charles Junior High ____$ 25.00
TOTAL DISBURSEMENTS 25.00
Deposits
Club Dues (1979-80) _______- TUS
Club Dues (1980-81) ________ 30.00
General Electric Corp.
Contribution _________-_____- 500.00
TOTAL DEPOSITS _________- $602.75
Balance on Hand, 31 October 1980 _______- $646.57

The following clubs paid dues for the 1979-80
academic year:

Oldham County Owen County High

Middle School School
Reidland High School North Hardin High
Warren Central High School

School

Notre Dame Academy

Casey County High
School

St. Mary High School

Paducah Tilghman
High School

Warren East High
School

St. Charles Junior
High School

Atherton High School

Marion County High
School

Sacred Heart Academy

Harrison County
High School

7. BOARD OF DIRECTORS. Chairperson Debra
Pearce made the report. Dr. Pearce stated that the
Board of Directors would be involved in setting up
and developing the Kentucky Academy of Science
Foundation. The Board will begin by setting up the
by-laws which will govern the Foundation. She also
said they would develop a document that would be
used to explain the purpose of the Foundation. Dr.
Pearce said that as the Foundation grew it was
hoped that an executive secretary could eventually
be obtained to manage the Foundation.

8. SPECIAL COMMITTEES REPORT. Ad Hoc
Committee on Rare and Endangered Species. Dr.
Branson reported for this Committee.

Ever since the passage of the Rare and Endan-
gered Species Act, it has been a source of constant
embarrassment to the Commonwealth of Kentucky
that no official listing of threatened and endangered
species has been adopted by the state agencies most
intimately associated with the management and un-
derstanding of living organisms. Although several
additional states have also failed to publish such
lists, this fact should not be used as a precedent
for failing to address ourselves to the problem in
Kentucky. At the present time, the state legislature
and the Kentucky Fish and Wildlife Resources

65

Commission recognize as threatened or endangered
only those species which appear in the Federal
Register. That is a very dangerous attitude, for there
is no doubt that species which are relatively un-
troubled throughout most of their range may be in
serious trouble in some parts of it. All states, in-
cluding Kentucky, must be consistently concerned
about the status of the flora and fauna living within
their political confines in order to protect species
impacted by various human endeavors, including
species of no immediate economic or sports impor-
tance. In that regard, the first step is the recognition
and listing of species which are actually, or poten-
tially, experiencing environmental and population-
al difficulties. Logically, the next step would be the
mounting of detailed studies of the impacted
species populations in order to determine what can
be done to ameliorate or eliminate the threatening
forces. Out of this, hopefully, would come enabling
legislation dedicated to protecting all of Kentucky's
biota.

These things were patent in President Rudy
Prins’ mind when he established the Kentucky
Academy of Science Ad Hoc Committee on Rare
and Endangered Species. As originally structured,
that committee consisted of Branley A. Branson,
Eastern Kentucky University, concentrating on
fishes and terrestrial and aquatic gastropods, Don-
ald L. Batch, Eastern Kentucky University, con-
cerned with Crustacea and Pelecypoda, Wayne H.
Davis, University of Kentucky, working with mam-
mals and birds, and Jerry Baskin, University of Ken-
tucky, working with plants. It quickly became ob-
vious, however, that additional assistance would be
required. Thus, Dr. Paul Cupp, Eastern Kentucky
University, agreed to list the Amphibia and Rep-
tilia, and Donald Harker, Kentucky Nature Pre-
serves Commission, very kindly volunteered his
good offices for the task, specifically Max Medley,
who is working diligently with Wayne Davis on the
plants, Melvin L. Warren, who is working with the
fishes, and Don himself is working with Wayne
Davis on the birds. In addition, Roger Barbour,
University of Kentucky, and Burt Monroe, Univer-
sity of Louisville, are lending their considerable
expertise for the generation of the bird and mammal
listings.

The work is still progressing, hence we can give
only a preliminary report at this time, which follows
in a general way:

Gastropoda: 8 species listed as Special Concern (1
terrestrial, 7 aquatic).

Pelecypoda: 16 species Threatened, 16 species En-
dangered, 1 species Special Concern.

Crustacea: 1 species Threatened, 1 species Endan-
gered, 10 species Special Concern.

Fishes: 20 species Threatened, 12 species Endan-
gered, 42 species Special Concern, | species Un-
determined.

Amphibia: 9 species Special Concern.

Reptilia: 3 species Threatened, 2 species Endan-
gered, 13 species Special Concern.

Aves: list now being generated.

Plants: list now being generated.

66 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 42(1-2)

The fact that this list is so long is a disgrace; the
fact that to this point we have failed to take official
notice of the plight of the Commonwealth's flora
and fauna is a blotch on the integrity of the scien-
tific community and the official offices of the rep-
resentative government in Frankfort. This situation
is intolerable and must be rectified as soon as pos-
sible; threatened and endangered species are
weather vanes of the environment, and the envi-
ronment is certainly going to suffer more before the
conditions ameliorate. Coal mining, deforestation,
highway construction, waste elimination, housing
development, heavy industry, and oil-shale utili-
zation will increase their individual and collective
degradation of the environment of wild things, and
the human environment as well.

It is recommended that the Rare and Endangered
Species Committee be established as a standing
committee of the Kentucky Academy of Science and
that members of the Kentucky Nature Preserves
Commission be made a part of the committee since
it is that commission which is most intimately con-
cerned with monitoring most of the species of
plants and animals in Kentucky.

It is further recommended that the Kentucky
Academy of Science, in concert with the Kentucky
Nature Preserves Commission, undertake publica-
tion of an official list of the Rare and Endangered
species of Kentucky.

Ad Hoc Committee on Needs Assessment Survey
at Precollege Level. Dr. Prins reported that a pre-
liminary report had been given at the Plenary Ses-
sion and a complete report would be forthcoming.
He wished to thank the following members of the
committee, Steve Henderson, Arvin Crafton, Dan
Ochs, Robert Stevenson, Sanford Jones and Frank
Howard, for the fine job they did in developing this
report.

9. NEW BUSINESS. Dr. Prins discussed briefly the
Kentucky Academy of Science Foundation. He stat-
ed that the Foundation was a replacement for the
proposal made by Dr. Winstead at the 1979 meet-
ing. He discussed the Articles of Incorporation and
stated they would be signed in the near future. A
motion was made and seconded to accept the pro-
posed Foundation. The motion passed.

ARTICLES OF INCORPORATION
OF THE
KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
FOUNDATION
KNOW ALL MEN BY THESE PRESENTS:

That the undersigned do associate themselves to-
gether for the purpose of forming a Corporation un-
der the provisions of Chapter 273, Kentucky Re-
vised Statutes, with all the rights, privileges and
immunities of a corporation organized for education-
al and scientific purposes, without capital stock, and
from which no private pecuniary profit is to be de-
rived, and do adopt the following Articles of Incor-
poration.

ARTICLE I.

The name of the Corporation shall be the KEN- | @
TUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE FOUNDA- L
TION, INC. |

ARTICLE II.

The initial office and place of business shall be |
located at Morehead State University, Morehead, |
Rowan County, Kentucky, with the Corporation re-
taining the right to maintain offices in other places
within or without this State, and with the Corpo- |
ration retaining the further right to conduct meet- |
ings of the Board of Trustees at other places, as the
Board of Trustees may determine.

ARTICLE III.

The Corporation shall be a non-profit corporation,
with no capital stock and from which no private,
pecuniary profits shall be derived by any officer or
other person except such compensation as may be
allowed for services rendered. The income of the
Corporation shall be devoted exclusively to its ed-
ucational purposes.

ARTICLE IV.

The purpose of this Corporation shall be to do
and perform all things necessary for the conduct,
development, growth, expansion, progress, the ac-
complishment of educational objectives, and the
development and improvement of the Kentucky
Academy of Science.

ARTICLE V.

The Corporation shall have all general powers
granted it by Kentucky Revised Statutes 273.171 for
the purpose of carrying out its objectives.

ARTICLE VI.

The affairs and business of the Corporation shall
be conducted by a Board of Trustees, which shall
consist of the President, President Elect, Past Pres-
ident, Vice President, Secretary, and Treasurer; the
Board of Directors; and the Editor of the Transac-
tions; with the reserved power in said Board of
Trustees to increase the members, from time to
time, to a total of twenty (20). Any person appointed
to the Board of Trustees from time shall serve for
three (3) years. All vacancies that should occur dur-
ing a term of office shall be filled by the Board of
Trustees for the unexpired term. The Board of
Trustees shall adopt by-laws to provide for the in-
ternal control and government of the Corporation
and shall have the power to amend and repeal the
same by a vote of the majority of the Board. The
appointment of members of the Board of Trustees
shall be as provided for in the by-laws.

ARTICLE VII.

The President of the Kentucky Academy of Sci-
ence shall be the President of the Corporation. The
Board of Trustees shall, in the manner provided in
the by-laws, elect a Vice President from its mem-

ACADEMY AFFAIRS 67

bership. The Board of Trustees shall elect a Sec-
retary and a Treasurer, who need not be members
of the Board of Trustees. The office of secretary and
treasurer may be combined and held by one (1) per-
son. The terms and duties of all officers shall be as
provided in the by-laws. The Board of Trustees
may, in its discretion, from time to time, establish
and provide for other officers and employees and
prescribe their duties and compensation.

ARTICLE VIII.

The private property of the members of this Cor-
poration shall be exempt from liability for any and
all debts and liabilities of the Corporation.

ARTICLE IX.

The Articles of Incorporation may be altered or
amended by a vote of two-thirds (23) of the Board
of Trustees at any time that the Board, in its discre-
tion, may determine, by signing, executing, ac-
knowledging, and recording such amendments in
the manner required by law.

ARTICLE xX.

The highest amount of indebtedness and liability
which the Corporation may at any time incur shall
be One Hundred Thousand ($100,000.00) DOL-
LARS.

ARTICLE XI.

This Corporation shall begin business immedi-
ately upon the issuance of a Certificate of Incor-
poration by the Secretary of State of the Common-
wealth of Kentucky and the recording of these
Articles and Certificate of Incorporation in the of-
fice of the Rowan County Court Clerk, Morehead,
Rowan County, Kentucky: and its existence shall be
perpetual or until dissolved by virtue of a vote of
two-thirds (24) of the members of its Board of Trust-
ees authorizing such dissolution.

ARTICLE XII.

In the event of dissolution of the Kentucky
Academy of Science Foundation, all its property,
real, personal, and mixed, of whatever nature and
wheresoever located, shall be turned over to some
other foundation, educational institution, or non-
profit corporation organized for educational purpos-
es and exempt under Section 501(C)3, Internal Rev-
enue Code. Subject to all the limitations and uses
by which it is held by this Corporation, at the time
of its dissolution, none of the property of this Cor-
poration shall ever inure to the benefit of any officer
or member of the Corporation or any other individ-
ual.

ARTICLE XIII.

The registered process agent of the Corporation
shall be the President of the Kentucky Academy of
Science.

ARTICLE XIV.

The initial Board of Trustees will be the 1980-

1981 Board of Directors and Executive committee.

Dr. Prins reminded the membership that the
Academy had accepted Eastern Kentucky Univer-
sity’s offer to store the Academy's documents in
their archives. This will start next year and anyone
having materials that should go into the archives
can send them to Dr. Creek.

10. RESOLUTION COMMITTEE. Dr. Lloyd of-
fered the following:

Whereas,
Transylvania University, the pioneer western ed-
ucational institution has served the Common-
wealth of Kentucky for two centuries, and

Whereas,
it founded the first medical college west of the
Alleghenies, which over a six decade span grad-
uated over 6,000 physicians who ably served the
hardy people on the American frontier, and

Whereas,
Transylvania was the mother institution which
stimulated the formation of medical colleges in
Louisville and Cincinnati, and

Whereas,
this remarkable school also had a law school, and
a seminary which trained political and church
leaders who ably served the commonwealth, the
south, and the nation, and

Whereas,
this rich tradition in the arts and sciences contin-
ues today, and anticipates continued dedicated
service in its third Century,

Therefore,
The Kentucky Academy of Science recognizes
the long term contributions of Transylvania Uni-
versity, particularly in science, and honors it on
its Bicentennial.

11. NOMINATING COMMITTEE. Dr. Payne of-
fered the following nominations and moved their
acceptance.

Vice President
Secretary
Treasurer

Board of Directors
Board of Directors

Juan Rodriguez
Robert Creek
Morris Taylor
Mary McGlasson
Joe Winstead

The motion was seconded from the floor and
passed unanimously, there having been no further
nominations.

Dr. Prins announced the 1981 annual meeting
would be hosted by Murray State University.

President Prins then presented President Elect
John Philley who addressed the Academy.

Following his remarks, the meeting adjourned at
10:30.

Robert Creek, Secretary
Kentucky Academy of Science

68 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 42(1-2)

PROGRAM

Friday, 7 November

1200-1600 Registration—Foyer—Brown Science
Building
1200-1700 Scientific Exhibits—Brown Science
Building
1300-1500 Sectional Meetings—(See following
pages)
1500-1530 Coffee Break—Foyer—Brown Science
Building
1530-1700 Plenary Session: “The Teaching of Sci-
ence in the Public Schools of Ken-
tucky.”” Room 120—Brown Science
Building
1710-1845 Hospitality Hour—Graham Cottage
1900 KAS Annual Banquet—(Buffet Style)—
Forrer Hall
Speakers: Dr. Rudy Prins
Professor of Biology, Western
Kentucky University, Bowling
Green, KY
“Needs Assessment of Science
Teaching in Kentucky”
Mr. Frank Howard
Science Consultant for the Ken-
tucky Dept. of Education,
Frankfort, KY
“Perspective of a State Science
Consultant”
Mrs. Anna Neal
Science Coordinator for Fayette
County Schools, Lexington, KY
“Perspective of a School District
Science Coordinator”

ANNUAL BANQUET Dr. John A. Dil-
lon, Director, Systems Science Insti-
tute; Coordinator for Energy and En-
vironmental Affairs, SCIENCE
EDUCATION: AN EXERCISE IN
DEJA VU. Forrer Hall Banquet Room

1900

Saturday, 8 November

2000-2400 Scientific Exhibits—Brown Science
Building

0800-0900 Sectional Meetings—(See following
pages)

0915-1015 Annual Business Meeting—Room 120—
Brown Science Building

1015-1030 Coffee Break—Foyer—Brown Science

Building

1030-1200 Sectional Meetings—(See following
pages)

1300 Sectional Meetings—(As needed)

1900 ANNUAL BANQUET Dr. John A. Dil-

lon, Director, Systems Science Insti-
tute; Coordinator for Energy and En-
vironmental Affairs, SCIENCE
EDUCATION: AN EXERCISE IN
DEJA VU. Forrer Hall Banquet Room

BOTANY AND MICROBIOLOGY
SECTION

Marian Fuller, Chairman, Presiding
Stuart Lassetter, Secretary
Room 12—Haup Humanities Building

Friday, 7 November 1980

1300 The Effects of B-Nine and Cycocel on Certain
Growth Parameters of Tomato and Soybeans.
Frank R. Toman and Miguel Sandoval, De-
partment of Biology, Western Kentucky Uni-
versity.

1315 Influence of Blossom Set (Beta-Naphthoxy-
acetic Acid) upon Green Bell Peppers. Thom-
as L. Keefe, David Mardon, J. Stuart Lasset-
ter, and Robert Creek, Department of
Biological Sciences, Eastern Kentucky Uni-
versity.

1330 The Vegetation of an Old Growth Bottomland
Hardwood Forest in McLean County, Ken-
tucky. Richard Hannan and Loy R. Phillippe,
Kentucky Nature Preserves Commission.

1345 Aerophilic Diatom Communities from East-
ern Kentucky. Keith E. Camburn, Kentucky
Nature Preserves Commission.

1400 An Undescribed Cedar Glade in Warren
County, Kentucky. George P. Johnson, De-
partment of Biology, Western Kentucky Uni-
versity.

1415 Levels of Selected Microorganisms in the
Boonesboro State Park Area of the Kentucky
River during the Summer Recreational Sea-
son. John Lisle and David Mardon, Depart-
ment of Biological Sciences, Eastern Ken-
tucky University.

1430 Some Aspects of the Flora of the Sandy Bar-
rens of the North-Central Mississippian Pla-
teau in Kentucky. Ray Cranfill, Division of
Biological Sciences, University of Michigan.

1445 The Effects of Chicken Excreta Disposal and
Its Correlation to the Growth of Histoplasma
capsulatum in Soil. Paul Ross and Mike Fo-
ley, Sponsored by Ted Pass, Department of
Biology, Morehead State University.

1500 Coffee Break

1530 Plenary Session

Saturday, 8 November 1980

0800 Air Spores of West Kentucky, A Preliminary
Report. Harold E. Eversmeyer, Department
of Biological Sciences, Murray State Univer-
sity.

0815 The Control of Epichloe typhina in Fall Fes-
cue (Festuca arundinacea). Dan Varney,
Malcom Siegel, Robert Buckner, and Richard
Chapman, Eastern Kentucky University and
University of Kentucky.

0830 Establishment and Growth of Woody Plants
on Rock and Rock Debris in Eastern Ken-
tucky. Foster Levy and Archie Fugate, Pike-
ville College.

0845 Differential Nutrient Uptake as Adaptative
Strategy in Broomsedge on Coal Spoil Banks.

1115

1130

1145

1200

1300

1315

1330

1345

1400

1415

ACADEMY AFFAIRS

Joe E. Winstead, Department of Biology,
Western Kentucky University.

Annual Business Meeting

Coffee Break

White Pine (Pinus strobus) in Three Counties
of the Dripping Springs Escarpment in West-
ern Kentucky. Ronald R. Van Stockum, Jr.,
Max Medley, Arland T. Hotchkiss, and Harry
Woodward, Department of Biology, Univer-
sity of Louisville, and Kentucky Nature Pre-
serves Commission.

A Revision of the Genus Lysiloma (Legumi-
nosae). Ralph L. Thompson, Department of
Biology, Berea College.

Nursery Techniques for Production of Tree
Seedlings Infected with a Mycorrhizal Fun-
gus for use in Surface Mine Reclamation. D.
E. Crawley, D. M. Maronek, and J. W. Hen-
drix, Department of Horticulture and Land-
scape Architecture, University of Kentucky.
Mutualism or Pathogenicity, Depending on
Fertilizer Rate, of Stripmine Isolates of En-
domycorrhizal Fungi to Sweetguin Seedlings
Growing in Stripmine Soil. Jennifer Kiernan,
J. W. Hendrix, and D. M. Maronek, Depart-
ment of Plant Pathology, University of Ken-
tucky.

Red Cedar: An Edaphic Climax in the Ken-
tucky River Gorge Area. William S. Bryant,
Department of Biology, Thomas More Col-
lege.

Pathogenicity of the Endomycorrhizal Fun-
gus Glomus macrocarpus to Tobacco. Hak-
am Modjo and James W. Hendrix, Depart-
ment of Plant Pathology, University of
Kentucky.

Lunch

The Effect of the Aromatic Amino Acids on
the Growth of Callus Derived from the Scu-
tellum of Maize. William S. Rafaill, Depart-
ment of Biology, Berea College.

The Effect of L-asparagine on the Growth of
Callus Derived from the Scutellum of Maize.
William S. Rafaill, Department of Biology,
Berea College.

Contribution of Fertilizer to Microbial-cata-
lyzed Acid Production in Stripmire Soil.
Cathy D. Stevens, J. W. Hendrix, and D. M.
Maronek, Department of Plant Pathology,
University of Kentucky.

The Determination of Total Toxicity of Or-
ganics Extracted from Potable Water and
Aqueous Effluents. Sally J. Billingsly, Mark
B. Lyles, and Robert E. Daniel, Department
of Biological Sciences, Murray State Univer-
sity.

TRAMPLING EFFECTS ON SIX TRAIL
SPECIES OF MOSSES. I. Continuation of
Long-Term Experiments Begun in 1979. Su-
san Moyle Studlar, Thomas Morton, and Car-
olyn Brug, Division of Science and Mathe-
matics, Centre College.

TRAMPLING EFFECTS ON SIX TRAIL

1430

1445

1500

1515

1530

1545

69

SPECIES OF MOSSES. II. Trampling and
Revegetation Experiments Begun in 1980.
Susan Moyle Studlar, Thomas Morton, and
Carolyn Brug, Division of Science and Math-
ematics, Centre College.

Detecting Mutagins Using the Salmonella—
Mammalian—Microsome Mutagenicity Test.
Stacy Dyer, Paducah-Tilghman High School
(1980 KJAS Symposium Section). Sponsored
by H. A. Leopold.

Microbial Flora of the Canine Vagina. Bob
Farrell, Mike Callahan, Sandy Voet, and V.
Jean Wainscott, Department of Biology,
Northern Kentucky University.

Isolation of Enterobacteriaceae including
Salmonella from Licking River Water. V.
Jean Wainscott, Department of Biology,
Northern Kentucky University.

Stimulation of Chlamydospore Production in
Adenine and Methionine Mutants of C. al-
bicans. John P. Davies and David Mardon,
Department of Biological Sciences, Eastern
Kentucky University.

Sundews in Kentucky and Notes on the only
Existing Habitat in the State. Max E. Medley,
Ray Cranfill, Loy R. Phillippe, and Richard
Hannan, Kentucky Nature Preserves Com-
mission and Division of Biological Sciences,
University of Michigan.

Woody Vegetation and Floristic Affinities of
Mingo Swamp Wilderness Area, Missouri.
Ralph L. Thompson, Department of Biology,
Berea College.

°

CHEMISTRY SECTION

Session I-A.
James L. Meeks, Chairman, Presiding
Harry M. Smiley, Secretary
Room 108—Brown Science Building

Chemistry had Concurrent Sessions Friday After-

noon and Saturday Morning.

Friday, 7 November 1980

1300

1315

1330

1345

1400

1415

Molecular Energy Level Assignments of
Amino Nitriles by UPS and CNDO/s calcu-
lations. Karen Pfister and J. L. Meeks, Murray
State University.

Analytical Chemistry for Toxicological Re-
search. Eric Johnson and J. L. Meeks, Murray
State University.

Electron-Transfer Quenching of Carbanion
Excited States by Condensed Aromatics. R.
D. Merrick and L. J. Tolbert, University of
Kentucky.

The Use of A Cellulose Sulfonylcarbamate as
A Heavy Metal Remover for Industrial Waste-
water. W. D. Schulz and Robert A Fryman,
Eastern Kentucky University.

Asymmetric Induction Through Exciplex
Formation. M. B. Ali and L. M. Tolbert, Uni-
versity of Kentucky.

The Hammick Reaction in the y-Naphthyri-

70 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 42(1-2)

dine Acid Series. Ellis V. Brown, University
of Kentucky.

1430 An Infrared Spectral Characterization of Sty-
rene-Butadiene Latex Emulsions. H. B. Pow-
ell, Eastern Kentucky University and State
Department of Transportation.

1445 Trace Element Studies of Normal and Dis-
eased Human Brain by INAA. M. Alauddin,
W. E. Ehmann, W. R. Markesbery, D. T.
Goodin, and T. I. M. Hossain, University of
Kentucky.

1500 Coffee Break

1530 Plenary Session

Session I-B.
Harry M. Smiley, Presiding
Room 107—Brown Science Building

Friday, 7 November 1980

1300 INAA Determination of Trace Elements in
Devonian Shales of Kentucky. David G.
Johnson, William D. Ehmann, William H.
Blackburn, and Elizabeth M. Holland, Uni-
versity of Kentucky.

1315 Anodic Stripping Voltammetric Analysis of
Chromium. John E. Fugate and John T. Riley,
Western Kentucky University.

1330 Synthesis and Polymerization of Vinyl Sul-
fone Derivatives of Adenine and Thymine.
Nanda M. Brahme and Walter T. Smith, Jr.,
University of Kentucky.

1345 Synthesis, Structure and Toxicity of Maleic
Hydrazide B-D-Glucoside. Frank Wiseman,
Walter T. Smith, Jr., and John M. Patterson,
University of Kentucky.

1400 The Use of A. L. C. U. V. Detector in the G.
C. Analysis of Barbituates. Thomas H. Pritch-
ett, Arthur Karmen, Murray State University.

1415 Microcomputer-Controlled Instrument for
Rapid and Precise Measurement of Solution
Conductance. R. K. Calhoun and F-. J. Holler,
University of Kentucky.

1430 Comparison of Pore Volume and Pore Size
Distribution Obtained by Mercury Penetra-
tion and Nitrogen Adsorption. S. Russell, P.
Ganesan, and B. Davis, IMMR.

1445 Chemical Coagulation and The Quantitative
Removal of Protein from Industrial Whole
Animal Blood—Coagulant Combination Ef-
fects. Tom Jones and Vaugh Vandegrift, Mur-
ray State University.

1500 Coffee Break

1530 Plenary Session

Session II-A.
Harry M. Smiley, Presiding
Room 107—Brown Science Building

Saturday, 8 November 1980

0800 Regiochemical Control in The Photoarylation
of 1,3-Dephenylindenyl Anion. S. Siddiqui
and L. M. Tolbert, University of Kentucky.

0815 Determination of Gunshot Residue Using An-
odic Stripping Voltammetry. Dorothy K.

Wimsatt and Lowell W. Shank, Western Ken-
tucky University. |

0830 Hydrolysis of Representative 2-Fluoro-Nitro- |
gen Heterocycles in Hydrochloric Acid—A |
Kinetic Study. O. J. Muscio, Jr., H. R. Clark, |
L. D. Beth, R. M. Burton, D. L. Garrett, and
A. L. Miller, Murray State University. |

0845 The Photoarylation of Triphenylmethyl An- |
ion. D. Martone and L. M. Tolbert, Univer-
sity of Kentucky.

0900 The Direct and Residual Effect of Atrozine
and MH-30 on Zea mays and Glycine max.
Martin Wiglesworth, Harrison County High
School. Sponsored by Herbert Leopold.

0915 Annual Business Meeting

1015 Coffee Break

1030 Galvanic Effects in The Oral Cavity. Mary
Bosch, Notre Dame Academy. Sponsored by
Herbert Leopold.

1045 Spectral and Kinetic Properties of Ni(II)-4,4’,
4” 4’''’°-Tetrasulphophthalocyanine in
Aqueous and Mixed-Aqueous Solvents. Rob-
ert D. Farina, Western Kentucky University.

1100 Chemical Modification of Porphyrin Substi-
tuents. Terry Goolsby, Roger Rudinsky, and
James R. Kincaid, University of Kentucky.

1115 Characterization of A Computer Controlled
Sequential Inductively Coupled Plasma-Op-
tical Emission Spectrometer. Billy D. Heady
and B. E. McClellan, Murray State Univer-
sity.

1130 Digital Detection System for Flow Injection

Titrimetry Using a New Antimony Microe-

lectrode. S. F. Simpson and F. J. Holler, Uni-

versity of Kentucky.

Determination of Partition Coefficients for

Various Polynuclear Aromatic Hydrocarbons

in The Presence of Caffeine. Mark B. Lyles,

Howell R. Clark, and Robert E. Daniel, Mur-

ray State University.

Preparation and Characterization of Selec-

tively Modified Heme Proteins. Mansor Ah-

mad and James R. Kincaid, University of Ken-
tucky.

1215 Kinetic Study of Hydrolysis of 0,0,0-Triethy]
Phosphorothioate. H. L. Conley and M. W.
McClure, Murray State University.

1230 Synthesis and Characterization of Mixed-Li-
gand Polypyridyl Complexes of Ru(II). S. F.
McClanahan, J. R. Kincaid, and F. J. Holler,
University of Kentucky.

1245 Gel Permeation Chromatography of Porphy-
rins. Purification of Heme-oxo-dimers. B. K.
Friley, Jennifer Baker, and James R. Kincaid,
University of Kentucky.

1300 The Interesting Reaction of Ethylenedi-
aminetetraacetic Acid with Permanganate.
Darnell Salyer, Eastern Kentucky University.

1315 Automated Instrument for The Determina-
tion of Photochemical Quantum Yields. G. R.
Williams, L. M. Tolbert, and F. J. Holler,
University of Kentucky.

1330 A Method for Studying Particular Solutions to

1145

1200

|

ACADEMY AFFAIRS

The Three-Body Problem. M. L. Trover and
P. L. Corio, University of Kentucky.

1345 The Application of Pre Column Derivatiza-
tion to The Liquid Chromatographic Separa-
tion and Electrochemical Detection of Amino
Acids. Fred Senftleber and Sonia Stahr, Mur-
ray State University.

COAL CHEMISTRY SYMPOSIUM

Session II-B.
James L. Meeks, Presiding
Room 108—Brown Science Building

Saturday, 8 November 1980

0800 Thermal Gravimentry of Bituminous Coals
and Oil Shales. John Elder, IMMR.

The Effect of Blending on Coal Plasticity.
Linda P. Yates and William G. Lloyd, IMMR
and Western Kentucky University.
Utilization of Thermal Gravimetric Analysis
in The Coal Liquefaction Industry. W. T.
Welch and K. A. Mellenger, Ashland Petro-
leum Company.

Metallophthalocyanines as Catalysts for The
Hydrogenation of Coal Liquid Model Com-
pounds. Carolyn S. Carter and L. J. Boucher,
Western Kentucky University.

Distillation Tower Corrosion in Coal Lique-
faction Processes: An Overview. A. Sagiiés
and B. Davis, IMMR.

Annual Business Meeting

Coffee Break

Distillation Tower Corrosion in Coal Lique-
faction Processes: Analysis of SRC Process
Streams for Chloride. H. Francis and G.
Thomas, IMMR.

Distillation Tower Corrosion in Coal Lique-
faction Processes: Analysis of SRC Process
Streams for Acidic and Basic Materials. M.
Margolis, A. Fort, and T. Coburn, IMMR.
Distillation Tower Corrosion in Coal Lique-
faction Processes: Use of High Resolution
Chromatography to Analyze SRC Process
Streams Liquids. L. Yates and D. Taulbee,
IMMR.

Distillation Tower Corrosion in Coal Lique-
faction Processes: Synergistic Effects of
Chloride, Phenols, and Basic Compounds in
Metals Corrosion. D. Koehler, A. Sagués, and
B. Davis, IMMR.

Distillation Tower Corrosion in Coal Lique-
faction Processes: Chemical Interactions in
The Corrosion Reactions. B. Davis and A.
Sagues, IMMR.

Screening of Coal Liquefaction Feedstocks.
H.F. Moore and D. C. Boyer, Ashland Petro-
leum Company.

The Use of Oxidation as A Technique for The
Study of Coal Structure. Darrell Pierce and
John Reasoner, Western Kentucky Universi-
ty.

1215 Mineralogy and Trace Element Distribution

0815

0830

0845

0900

0915

1015
1030

1045

1100

1115

1130

1145

1200

tl

in Coals of The Illinois Basin. F. L. Fiene,
IMMR.

1230 Petrology of Coal in Bell County, Kentucky.
J. Hower, Z. Gong, and G. Wild, IMMR.

GEOGRAPHY SECTION
Session I-A.
Marcel Wheeler, Chairman
Mark Lowry II, Secretary, Presiding
Room 102—Haupt Humanities Building

Geography had Concurrent Sessions Friday After-
noon.

Friday, 7 November 1980

1300 The Cobhill Project—A Study of Eastern
Kentucky Karst. Gerry and Elizabeth Estes,
University of Kentucky.

1315 The Changing Landscape of Madison Coun-
ty, Kentucky. Ronald L. Marionneaux, East-
ern Kentucky University.

1330 The Scenario Method: Its Application to Nat-
ural Hazards Research. Kelley Crow and Jus-
tin Friberg, University of Kentucky.

1345 Report of Land Use Survey of Hardin County,
Kentucky 1980. Wade H. Whitley II, United
States Army. Sponsored by Mark Lowry II.

1400 Kentucky In Maps: Approaches to Kentucky’ s
Geographic Pattern in a Recent Atlas-Text.
William A. Withington, University of Ken-
tucky.

1415 Using a Geographic Information System in a
Problem Solving Context: Calloway County,
Kentucky. Bill L. Coker, Beth R. Hurter,
Thomas C. Kind, William F. Smith, Jr., Jane
L. Spahn, and Neil V. Weber, Murray State
University. Sponsored by Neil V. Weber.

1430 City at the Crosswoods: Newburgh, New
York. Mark Lowry II, Western Kentucky Uni-
versity.

1445 Coffee Break

1430 Plenary Session

Session I-B.
Marcel Wheeler, Presiding
Room 202—Haupt Humanities Building

Friday, 7 November 1980

1300 The Influence of a Regional Shopping Center
on a Small Town’s Market Area: A Case Study
of Morehead, Kentucky. Robert B. Gould,
Morehead State University.

1315 Unemployment in Kentucky Counties: Spa-
tial Aspects of the 1980 Recession. Tyrel G.
Moore, Western Kentucky University.

1330 Housing a New Generation of Coal Miners:
A Study of the Impact of Increased Mining
Activity on Housing in the Levisa Fork Basin.
Gary C. Cox, Morehead State University.

1345 An Example of Richard’s Central Place Func-
tion: The Alcoholic Beverage Hinterland.
Ron Spurrier and Dan Crunk, Eastern Ken-
tucky University.

1400 Industrial Commuting Patterns in Non-Met-

ropolitan Kentucky. Robert G. Cromley and
Roberta L. Haven, University of Kentucky.

1415 Urban Quality of Life and the Chamber of
Commerce. Dennis E. Quillan, Eastern Ken-
tucky University.

1430 Journey to Shop Analysis: Case Study of a
Small Regional Service Center. Wilma J.
Walker, Eastern Kentucky University.

1445 The Richmond Solar Energy Surveys. J. Allen
Singleton, Vance Weisenbaker, and Ronald
Dean, Eastern Kentucky University.

1500 Coffee Break

1530 Plenary Session

GEOLOGY SECTION

Frank Ettensohn, Chairman
Richard Sergeant, Secretary
William H. Dennen, Presiding
Room 101—Brown Science Building

Friday, 7 November 1980

1300 The Partition of Elements Between Fly Ash
and Bottom Ash in Kentucky Power Plants.
Dr. William H. Dennen, University of Ken-
tucky.

1320 Separation of Heavy Coal-Derived Liquid
Product by Pressure Fluid Extraction. James
K. Shou and Zhaoxiong Wang, University of
Kentucky. Sponsored by Perry B. Wigley.

1340 Dye tracing Studies in the Inner Bluegrass
Karst, Central Kentucky. Larry Spangler,
University of Kentucky. Sponsored by John
Trailkill.

1400 A Report on the Earthquake Sequence that
Occurred near Sharpsburg, Kentucky Begin-
ning July 27, 1980. W. Wonderly and R.
Street, University of Kentucky.

1420 Influence of Caliche on the Geometry of Ar-
royos in Southwestern Arizona. Roy Van Ars-
dale, Eastern Kentucky University. Spon-
sored by Gary Kuhnhenn.

1440 Depositional Environments of the Lower
Pennsylvanian of Eastern Kentucky. Norman
C. Hester, Kentucky Geological Survey.

1500 New fossil plants from the Leitchfield For-
mation of Western Kentucky. James R. Jen-
ning, Eastern Kentucky University.

GEOLOGY
John D. Kiefer, Presiding
Saturday, 8 November 1980

0800 Stratigraphic and Economic Significance of
Lithostrotion (Siphonodendron) genevieven-
sis Zone in the Ste. Genevieve Limestone.
Garland R. Dever, Jr., Preston McGrain, and
Jack R. Moody, Kentucky Geological Survey.

0820 Relationship of Coal Deposition to Fluvial

Systems in two Lower Tradewater Coals of

Western Kentucky. David A. Williams, Ken-

tucky Geological Survey. Sponsored by Allen

Williamson.

Paleoecology and Age of a Marl Deposit. Ar-

min L. Clark, Murray State University.

0915 Business Meeting

0840

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 42(1-2)

1015 Coffee Break

1030 Trends in the Industrial Minerals Industry in |
Kentucky. Preston McGrain, Kentucky Geo- |

logical Survey.

Uranium in the Devonian Black Shale of Ken-
tucky—A Regional and Stratigraphic Evalua-
tion. William H. Blackburn, R. Kelly Vance,

1050

and Martha B. Smith. Sponsored by William |

Dennen.

Fluorescent Calcite in Carbonate Concre-
tions in the Ohio Shale of Lewis County,
Kentucky. Joseph H. Gilbert, Lewis County
School System. Sponsored by John Philley.
Paleoecology and Paleoenvironments of the
Three-Lick Bed, A Prominent Green-shale
Horizon in the Upper Devonian Black Shales
of Eastern Kentucky. L. S. Barron and F. R.
Ettensohn, University of Kentucky.
Mississippian and Devonian Oil and Gas
Shales of Kentucky. John G. Beard, Kentucky
Geological Survey and Roy C. Kepferle, U.S.
Geological Survey. Sponsored by Norman
Hester.

1110

1130

1150

PHYSICS SECTION

Manuel Schwartz, Chairman, Presiding
Joseph E. Lang, Secretary
Room 4—Mitchell Fine Arts

Friday, 7 November 1980

1500 Coffee Break
1530 Plenary Session

Saturday, 8 November 1980

0800 An Example of the Significance of PD for a
Biological Membrane. M. Schwartz, Univer-
sity of Louisville.

Scattering of 4 MeV Neutrons from Sn Iso-
topes. J. L. Weil, R. Harper, and M. T. Mc-
Ellistrem, University of Kentucky.

Nuclear Structure of Isotopes of Zr and Mo as
Revealed by (p,y) Measurements. D. S.
Flynn, R. L. Hershberger, and F. Gabbard,
University of Kentucky.

0830 %°-%Zr (py) Cross Sections and Proton Strength
Functions. C. E. Laird, Eastern Kentucky
University, R. L. Hershberger, D. S. Flynn,
and F. Gabbard, University of Kentucky.

K- and L-Shell Fluorescent Yields of Yb from
the Decay of !Tm. Charles Coleman, Radia-
tion Control Branch, Department of Human
Resources and C. E. Laird, Eastern Kentucky
University.

Determination of the Acceleration of Gravity
by Free Fall. T. J. Morthorst and J. E. Lang,
Thomas More College.

Annual Business Meeting

Coffee Break

Experiment to Determine the Absorption
Coefficient of Gamma Rays with Energy. J.
Haskins and P. J. Ouseph, University of
Louisville.

Interaction of Electrons with Matter. M.
Wadsworth, S. Miller, S. Merriam, and P. J.
Ouseph, University of Louisville.

0810

0820

0840

0850

0915
1015
1040

1050

ACADEMY AFFAIRS

1100 A Comparison of Microturbulent and Large
Velocity Gradient Models of Brightness Tem-
perature in Interstellar Clouds. Stuart Fulk-
erson, University of Kentucky. (Sponsor by F.
O. Clark, University of Kentucky.)
Redistribution of Angular Momentum in In-
terstellar Clouds. F. O. Clark, University of
Kentucky.

The Permanent Effects of Simulated Space
Environments on the Electrical Output of Sil-
icon Solar Cells. Christine Hackman, Notre
Dame Academy. (Sponsor by H. Leopold,
Western Kentucky University.)

PHYSIOLOGY, BIOPHYSICS AND
BIOCHEMISTRY

Raymond Richmond, Chairman, Presiding
John Passmore, Secretary
Room 218—Brown Science Building

Friday, 7 November 1980

1320 Age-Related Changes in Glycosaminoglycan
Composition of Necrotic Liver Tissue in the
Rat. Lori Rae Adams and Charles E. Kup-
chella, Department of Biological Sciences,
Murray State University.

Histochemical Evaluation of the Glycosami-
noglycan Changes Associated with Ischemic
Necrosis in the Rat Liver. Yared Woldeyesus
and C. E. Kupchella, Department of Biolog-
ical Sciences, Murray State University.
Ultraviolet Radiation Effects on Cells from
Patients with Photosensitive Diseases.
Thomas P. Coohill, Rebecca Grider, and
Sharon P. Moore, Biophysics Program, West-
ern Kentucky University.

The Effect of Bile Duct Cannulation on the
Endocrine Pancreas of Rattus rattus. Amy
Boulden, Harrison County High.

Vitamin E and Selenium Content of Zoo
Feeds and Utilization by Herbivores. Barry
Dunn, Karen Weden, and Debra Pearce. De-
partment of Biological Sciences, Northern
Kentucky University.

Coffee Break

Plenary Session

1340

1400

1420

1440

1500
1530

John Passmore, Presiding
Saturday, 8 November 1980

1030 Effects of A-9-Tetrahydrocannabinol on
Growth Metabolism and Macromolecular
Synthesis in Tetrahymena pyriformis. Rob-
ert Billingsley and D. O. Abbott, Murray State
University.

The Wavelength Dependence of Ultraviolet
Radiation Activation of Latent Tumor Viruses
from Mammalian Cells. Sharon P. Moore,
University of Louisville and Thomas P. Coo-
hill, Western Kentucky University.
Contribution of Visceral Pleura to the Elastic
Recoil of Isolated Sheep Lungs. Joseph En-
gelberg and C. C. Tussey, University of Ken-
tucky Medical Center.

1130 Water Quality and Steelhead Trout (Salmo

1050

1110

73

gairdneri) Smoltification—Hydromineral
Balance Relationships with Digestive Tract
and Gill Nat/K*-ATPase Levels. Donald W.
Johnson and Kenneth W. Gasser, Murray
State University.

1150 Election of Sectional Officers

PSYCHOLOGY SECTION

Wm. H. Watkins, Secretary, Presiding
Room 3—Haupt Humanities Building

Friday, 7 November 1980

1300 Alpha Brain Wave Voltage and Personality
Trait Correlation Assessment. Dwight Ste-
vens and Virginia Falkenberg, Eastern Ken-
tucky University. Sponsored by Wm. H. Wat-
kins.

1315 The Effects of Paced Respiration and Self-
Verbalizations on Heart Rate Activity. Eric
Beck, Jack G. Thompson, and Mary Adams,
Centre College of Kentucky.

1330 A Comparison of Dominant Handedness,
Eyedness and Hemispheric Function of
Monozygotic Twins. Jane Riley, Eastern Ken-
tucky University. Sponsored by Wm. H. Wat-
kins.

1345 Verbal Aggression and Verbal Affection in In-
teracting Dyads. Richard J. Shuntich, Eastern
Kentucky University. Sponsored by Wm. H.
Watkins.

1400 The Effects of Distance, Need, and Sex on
Helping. Debbie Walker Oakley and Virgin-
ia Falkenberg, Eastern Kentucky University.
Sponsored by Wm. H. Watkins.

1415 The CBK Personality: Implications and Iden-
tification. Frank Kodman, Murray State Uni-
versity, and Albert A. Maisto, University of
North Carolina at Charlotte.

1430 Judgments Under Uncertainty: The Effect of
Causal Information. Daniel E. Boone, Bellar-
mine College. Sponsored by Steven P. Kirn
and Wm. H. Watkins.

1445 World Series Play, the Probabilities of Length
of Play, Outrageous Speculation, and a Poke
at David Hume. Barry S. Griffin, Eastern
Kentucky University. Sponsored by Wm. H.
Watkins.

1500 Coffee Break

1530 Plenary Session

Saturday, 8 November 1980

0830 Perception of the Ames Distorted Room as a
Function of Training and Response Mea-
sures. Francis H. Osborne, Antoinette B.
Dyer, and E. Brooks Applegate, Morehead
State University.

0845 Depth Perception and Illusory Contours. La-
nelle Edwards and Jack G. Thompson, Centre
College of Kentucky.

0915 Annual KAS Business Meeting

1015 Coffee Break

1030 The Role of Daydreaming Styles and Sex in
Spontaneous Emotional Imagery: Implica-
tions for Psychotherapy. Lisa K. Comingore

74 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 42(1-2)

and Jack G. Thompson, Centre College of
Kentucky.

Effects of Repeated Administration of Apo-
morphine on Spontaneous Activity Levels of
Rats. Howard Chander, Jr., Mark J. Brunelle,
and James E. Gotsick, Morehead State Uni-
versity. Sponsored by Francis H. Osborne.
Conformity, Innovation, and Psychosocial
Law. Sharon Wolf, Morehead State Univer-
sity and Bibb Latane, Ohio State University.
Sponsored by Francis H. Osborne.

1115 The Role of Psycho-logic in Deductive Self-
Inferences. Sally L. Kuhlenschmidt and Jack
G. Thompson, Centre College of Kentucky.
The Effects of Anxiety Management and
Study Skills Training in the Prevention of
Academic Underachievement. Pamela L.
Distler, Jack G. Thompson, and Donald H.
Brown, Centre College of Kentucky.

1145 The Effects of Personal Growth Groups, In-
terpersonal Communication Skills Training,
and Personality on Self Concept, Interper-
sonal Communication Skills, and Academic
Achievement in an Introductory Psychology
Section. Robert E. Simpson, Western Ken-
tucky University.

Election of Psychology Section Officers.

SCIENCE EDUCATION SECTION

Randy Falls, Chairman, Presiding
Ron Atwood, Secretary
Room 216—Brown Science Building

Saturday, 8 November 1980

0800 Western Kentucky University’s Preparatory
Course in Chemistry. Norman W. Hunter,
Western Kentucky University.

How to Trace the Genealogy of your Chem-
istry Department Faculty. Lowell Shank and
Timothy Hume, Western Kentucky Univer-
sity.

Developing Science Curriculum Improve-
ment Study Tests for Practitioners. Ron At-
wood, University of Kentucky.

End of Session I

0915 Annual Business Meeting

1015 Coffee Break

Secondary Science Teachers: The Supply and
Demand Picture in Kentucky. An open dis-
cussion led by Randy Falls, Morehead State
University and Frank Howard, State Depart-
ment of Education.

1115 Election of Officers

1130 Adjourn

SOCIOLOGY SECTION

James S. Wittman, Jr., Chairman
Craig Taylor, Secretary
Room 207—Brown Science Building

Friday, 7 November 1980

1300 Panel: TEACHING TECHNIQUES. John
Curra and Steve Savage, Eastern Kentucky
University. “Teaching Sociology with MAG-
IKOn%

1045

1100

1130

1200

0820

1400 Student projects and/or papers
1500 Coffee Break
1530 Plenary Session

Saturday, 8 November 1980

0800 Panel: Teaching Techniques (use of Journals,
pre and post testing etc.).

0915 Annual Business Meeting

1015 Coffee Break

1030 SUMMARY OF TEACHING TECHNIQUES
AND STUDENT PAPERS

1130 Selection of 1980-81 Chairman and Secretary

ZOOLOGY AND ENTOMOLOGY SECTION

Gerrit Klock, Chairman
Don Johnson, Secretary

Zoology and Entomology had Concurrent Sessions
Friday Afternoon.

Session I-A, Ichs and Herps.
Don Johnson, Presiding
Room 106—Mitchell Fine Arts

Friday, 7 November 1980

1300 Piscatorial Explorations in India. D. W. John-
son, Hancock Biological Station, Murray State
University.

1315 Fishes of Cumberland Gap. R. A. Kuehne,
Biological Sciences, University of Kentucky.

1330 New Distributional Records of Threatened
Kentucky Fishes. M. L. Warren, Jr., Kentucky
Nature Preserves Commission.

1345 Relative Abundance of Fishes in Barkeley
and Kentucky Lakes. G. T. Rice and D. W.
Johnson, Hancock Biological Station, Murray
State University.

1400 Kentucky Commercial Fishes—Management
Results and Considerations. D. W. Johnson
and C. Bronte, Hancock Biological Station,
Murray State University.

1415 An Evaluation of the Catch of Sportfish in
Commercial Gill Net Gear. T. D. Forsythe
and G. D. Jenkins, Land Between the Lakes,
Tennessee Valley Authority.

1430 Amphibians and Reptiles of Cumberland
Gap. R. W. Barbour, Biological Sciences,
University of Kentucky.

1445 The Significance of O, Depletion of a Trigger
for Hatching of the Marbled Salamander,
Ambystoma opacum. J. W. Petranka, Biolog-
ical Sciences, University of Kentucky.

1500 Coffee Break

1530 Plenary Session

Session I-B, Birds and Bees.
Gerrit Klock, Presiding
Room 205—Mitchell Fine Arts

Friday, 7 November 1980

1300 Resident Birds of Lexington Cemetary. G. C.
Shields, Biological Sciences, University of
Kentucky.

1315 Distraction Behavior in the Black-headed
Grosbeak, Pheucticus melanocephalus. G.

1330

1345

1400

1415

1430

1500
1530

ACADEMY AFFAIRS

Ritchison, Biological Sciences, Eastern Ken-
tucky University.

The Effect of a Thyroid Inhibitor on Photo-
periodism in the House Sparrow. E. Mc-
Cauley and B. R. Ferrell, Department of Bi-
ology, Western Kentucky University.
L-Canavanine Effects on Cyclic AMP and
GMP in Manduca sexta Midgut. J. V. Ra-
cioppi and D. L. Dahlman, Department of
Entomology, University of Kentucky.
Structure-Activity Relationships Associated
with Canavanine Amino Acid Mixture Tox-
icity. D. L. Dahlman, Department of Ento-
mology, University of Kentucky.

The Development of an Alfalfa Spider Com-
munity. J. D. Culin and K. V. Yeargan, De-
partment of Entomology, University of Ken-
tucky.

Entomological Adventures in Ecuador. C. V.
Covell, Jr., Department of Biology, Univer-
sity of Louisville.

Coffee Break

Plenary Session

Session II.
Gerrit Klock, Presiding
Room 106—Mitchell Fine Arts

Saturday, 8 November 1980

0800

Preliminary Studies on the Cavernicolous In-
vertebrates of Carter Caves. D. B. Conn and

0815

0830

0845

0915
1015
1030

1100

1115

>)

G. L. DeMoss, Department of Biological and
Environmental Sciences, Morehead State
University.

The Crayfishes of the Upper Cumberland
River Basin. S. M. Call, Kentucky Nature Pre-
serves Commission.

Rafinesque’s Mussels Revisited. J. B. Sickel,
Biology Department and Hancock Biological
Station, Murray State University.

Kentucky's Rare Unionid Molluscs. S. M.
Call, Kentucky Nature Preserves Commis-
sion.

Annual Academy Business Meeting

Coffee Break

Zoology and Entomology Section Business
Meeting

Techniques for Photographing Small, Living
Organisms—Illustrated with Colorful and
Unusual Kentucky Insects. P. E. Sloderbeck,
Department of Entomology, University of
Kentucky.

Population Dynamics of Western Corn Root-
worm Beetles in First Year and Continuous
Com Fields. Larry Godfrey, Department of
Entomology, University of Kentucky.

Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 42(1-2), 1981, 76

NEWS AND COMMENTS

Editor’s It has been both a pleasure and a privilege to work with Dr. Louis
Remarks Krumbholz, not only during the interim training period prior to my as-

suming the editorship of the Transactions, but also during the better
than 20 years I have known him as a friend, critic and colleague. The excellence
reflected in the Academy’s journal is to a very large extent the result of Lou’s dedi-
cation to high principles, both in health and during his long illness. The Academy
owes Lou Krumholz a heavy debt of gratitude. His is a hard act to follow.

However, in shouldering the responsibility for editing the journal I take great
pleasure in acknowledging Lou’s influence in shaping whatever talents I have for
the job. I also ask all members of the Academy for their support and assistance in this
matter. The assistance shall, hopefully, take the form of well-written and logical
scientific reports submitted for consideration by the editorial committee. I have high
hopes and best wishes for the continued growth and professional influence of the
Kentucky Academy of Science.

Branley A. Branson
Editor

* * * K *

Committee on The Committee on Endangered Species was reappointed by Pres-
Endangered ident Philley and charged with preparing an official list of the
Species threatened and endangered species of plants and animals of Ken-

tucky. The committee is cooperating with the Kentucky Nature Pre-
serves Commission in preparing the list.

Branley A. Branson, Chairman Donald L. Batch, Dean

Department of Biological Sciences College of Natural and Mathematical
Eastern Kentucky University Sciences

Richmond, Kentucky 40475 Eastern Kentucky University

lena Baskin Richmond, Kentucky 40475

School of Biological Sciences Wayne H. Davis

University of Kentucky School of Biological Sciences
Lexington, Kentucky 40506 University of Kentucky

Lexington, Kentucky 40506

* * * * *

Sixty Seventh The Sixty Seventh Annual Meeting of the Kentucky Academy of
Annual Meeting Science will be heid at Murray State University. The meeting will

be in early November but the exact dates have not been estab-
lished at this time. See the forthcoming news letter.

* * * * *

Membership These high-quality parchment documents are still available from Sec-
Certificates — retary Robert Creek, Department of Biological Sciences, Eastern Ken-
tucky University, Richmond, Kentucky 40475.

* * * * *

Joint Annual = The 1981 joint annual meeting of the Society for the Study of Am-
Meeting of phibians and Reptiles and the Herpetologists League will be held
Herpetologists 9-14 August 1981 at Memphis State University, Memphis Tennes-
see. Additional information may be obtained from James S. Jacob,
Department of Biology, Memphis State University, Memphis, Tennessee 38152.

76

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provide complete information on the material referred to, as in the following examples:

Article:
JOHNSON, A. E., AND E. V. HARRELL. 1962. An analysis of factors governing density
patterns in desert plants. J. Bot. 44(3):419-432.

Book:
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Univ. Press, Cambridge, Mass. 236 pp.

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CONTENTS

Observations on Changes in the Fish Population of the Ohio River from
Ratinesque to 1980... Louis A. Krumholz 3 aa ela

A Survey of Scirpus in Kentucky with Problem Species—Complex Anal-
Vsesl Sally ©. Arnold and E. OF Bed), Miu nie Citi Saitama elas

Federal Funding for Research and Development in Kentucky: IV. The
Economic Impact of Federal Research and Development Funding
im Kentucky... Charles Kupchella, et aly. ae

Cryptogams New to Kentucky. R. Cranfill and W. Meijer

Etheostoma (Boleosoma) longimanum and E. (Catonotus) obeyense,
Two More Darters Confirmed as Egg-clusterers. Lawrence M.
Pe BOE Gl yp ha DNL IE SUS UNEASE NRO SE erg NPN

New Distributional Record for Etheostoma sagitta in Kentucky.
j LarmypA Greenberg and Susan Steigerwald) | inane

A Survey for the Indiana Bat Myotis sodalis on Knob Creek, Bullitt
County: Kentucky?) « John S/iKessler: chialsy i) aaa enti, ean

Oak-Hickory Forests of the Eden Shale Belt: A Preliminary Report.
Wallram: S.Bary ante iso Pye 000 CIs AINE NASON SA Ase

Partition of Elements Between Fly Ash and Bottom Ash in Kentucky
Power Plants.) W. A. Dennen and GolimiR) Ward 22s as

The Gastropods and Sphaeriacean Clams of the Dix River System,

Kentucky. Branley A. Branson and Donald L. Batch ____.._-
Academy, Atta irs oa) cll Neh le a NE SST nee en ce
Program

News and Comments

Q

x \NSACTIONS
=
KENTUCKY

:

“ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

Official Publication of the Academy

Volume 42
Numbers 3-4
September 1981

The Kentucky Academy of Science
Founded 8 May 1914

OFFICERS FOR 1981

President: John C. Philley, Morehead State University, Morehead 40351
President Elect: Ted George, Eastern Kentucky University, Richmond 40475
Past President: Rudolph Prins, Western Kentucky University, Bowling Green 42101
Vice President: J. G. Rodriguez, University of Kentucky, Lexington 40506
Secretary: Robert Creek, Eastern Kentucky University, Richmond 40475
Treasurer: Morris Taylor, Eastern Kentucky University, Richmond 40475
Director of the Junior Academy: Herbert Leopold, Western Kentucky

University, Bowling Green 42101
Representative to AAAS Council: Branley A. Branson, Eastern Kentucky

University, Richmond 40475

BOARD OF DIRECTORS

Donald C. Haney 1981 Gary Boggess 1983
William F. Wagner 1981 Debra Pearce, Chair 1983
Jerry C. Davis 1982 Mary McGlasson 1984
Daniel Knopf 1982 Joe Winstead 1984

EDITORIAL BOARD
Editor: Branley A. Branson, Department of Biological Sciences, Eastern
Kentucky University, Richmond 40475

Index Editor: Varley E. Wiedeman, Department of Biology, University
of Louisville, Louisville 40208

Editorial Board: John C. Philley, School of Science and Mathematics, Morehead |
State University, Morehead 40351

Dennis E. Spetz, Department of Geography, University of
Louisville, Louisville 40292

William F. Wagner, Department of Chemistry, University of
Kentucky, Lexington 40506

Joseph P. Cangemi, Psychology Department, Western Kentucky
University, Bowling Green 42101

Louis A. Krumholz, Office of Academic Affairs, Uhibaeesns: of
Louisville, Louisville 40292

All manuscripts and correspondence concerning manuscripts should be addressed to the
Editor. All authors must be members of the Academy.

The TRANSACTIONS are indexed in the Science Citation Index. Coden TKASAT.

Membership in the Academy is open to interested persons upon nomination, payment of
dues, and election. Application forms for membership may be obtained from the Secretary. The

TRANSACTIONS are sent free to all members in good standing. Annual dues are $10.00 for
Active Members; $7.00 for Student Members.

Subscription rates for nonmembers are: domestic, $12.00; foreign, $14.00; back issues are
$12.00 per volume.

The TRANSACTIONS are issued semiannually in March and September. Four numbers
comprise a volume.

Correspondence concerning memberships or subscriptions should be addressed to the Sec-
retary. Exchanges and correspondence relating to exchanges should be addressed to the Librar-
ian, University of Louisville, Louisville, Kentucky 40292, the exchange agent for the Academy.

Se ge

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TRANSACTIONS of the

KENTUCKY

ACADEMY of SCIENCE

September 1981

VOLUME 42
NUMBERS 3-4

Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 42(3-4), 1981, 77-89

Endangered, Threatened, and Rare Animals and
Plants of Kentucky

BRANLEY A. BRANSON,’ DONALD F. HARKER, JR.,? JERRY M. BASKIN,?
MAx E. MEDLEY,” DONALD L. BATCH,! MELVIN L. WARREN, JR.,”
WAYNE H. DAvIs,? WAYNE C. HOUTCOOPER,? BURT MONROE, JR.,*

Loy R. PHILLIPPE,? AND PAUL CUPP!

ABSTRACT

The Endangered Species Committee of the Kentucky Academy of Science and the Kentucky
Nature Preserves Commission cooperated in the development of a rare animal and plant list.
The list includes 263 animal species (83 species of invertebrates, 180 species of vertebrates)
and 309 vascular plant species identified as Endangered, Threatened, Special Concern, or
of Undetermined status at the state or federal level. Categories for both state and federal
designations are defined. Several population descriptors (endemic, disjunct, peripheral, nesting)
are also used where appropriate. Each bird species listed is also given a monitoring strategy
to indicate the type of records necessary for evaluation of its current status.

INTRODUCTION

The increased concern for our total en-
vironment has led to a new awareness of
endangered, threatened, and rare species
of plants and animals. Since passage of
the Federal Endangered Species Act of
1973, national interest in the conserva-
tion and preservation of these species has
increased dramatically. Public awareness
and concern have stimulated cooperation

' Biology Department, Eastern Kentucky Univer-
sity, Richmond, Kentucky.

? Kentucky Nature Preserves Commission, 407
Broadway, Frankfort, Kentucky.

3 School of Biological Sciences, University of
Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky.

4 Biology Department, University of Louisville,
Louisville, Kentucky.

between a variety of organizations and
agencies in many states, resulting in the
formation of numerous programs de-
signed to identify species in need of pro-
tection.

Compiling this list is a fundamental
step necessary to effectuate the recovery
and preservation of our rich natural di-
versity. It is anticipated that publication
of this list will encourage individuals,
private organizations, and government
agencies to become involved in research,
preservation, management, and educa-
tional programs on behalf of these
species.

The list should also serve as an impor-
tant tool for developers and decision-
makers. The best decisions concerning
the most effective use of Kentucky’s nat-

78

ural resources can be made only after the
most vulnerable elements of our natural
diversity have been identified. Informed
planning can then avoid unnecessary de-
struction of our rare fauna and flora.

The development of this list of endan-
gered, threatened, and rare animals and
plants of Kentucky is a result of a coop-
erative effort between the Endangered
Species Committee of the Kentucky
Academy of Science and the Kentucky
Nature Preserves Commission. Devel-
opment of the bird list was accomplished
with the cooperation of the Academy and
the Kentucky Ornithological Society.

The list includes species currently
being monitored in Kentucky by the
Commission, and should be considered
a dynamic working document reflecting
the best available information. A list of
those species which have been delisted
from earlier versions is maintained at the
Commission.

The Commission maintains a comput-
erized and manual data base as part of the
Kentucky Natural Heritage Program.
This information has been summarized
and presented as the Kentucky Natural
Areas Plan (Harker et al. 1980).

We invite input from all knowledge-
able persons on species they feel should
be added or deleted from the list. Com-
ments on the nomenclature, occurrences
of these species, or any other relevant in-
formation will also be appreciated.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The authors wish to thank Richard
Hannan, Sam Call, Van F. Denton, Ron
Cicerello, Keith E. Cambum, Glen Fallo,
and Dan VanNorman of the Kentucky
Nature Preserves Commission staff; A.
Floyd Scott, Austin Peay State Univer-
sity; Roger Barbour and Robert Kuehne,
University of Kentucky; Ray Cranfill,
University of Michigan; Raymond Athey,
Paducah, Kentucky; John Thieret, North-
ern Kentucky University; David Stans-
bery, Ohio State University; James Sick-
el, Murray State University; Ralph Taylor,
Marshall University; Bainard Palmerball,
University of Louisville; and Brooks Burr,

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 42(3-4)

Southern Illinois University, for contri-
butions to the development of this list.

SPECIAL STATUS CODES

The intent in assigning a status to the
listed species in Kentucky is to (1) indi-
cate the degree of rarity of the species,
(2) indicate the degree of threat to the
continued survival of the species, and (3)
aid in establishing priorities for conser-
vation and/or preservation efforts. The
designations were established as a tool to
monitor the survival potential of the
species. Only those species which, to the
best of our knowledge, currently exist in
Kentucky are assigned a status.

STATUS CATEGORIES

Four major status categories have been
developed (Endangered, Threatened,
Special Concern, and Undetermined)
and are coded in capital letters and de-
fined as follows:

Endangered (E). A species which is in
danger of extirpation and/or extinction
throughout all or a significant portion of
its range in Kentucky, including those
species proposed or recognized as fed-
erally endangered that occur in Ken-
tucky.

Threatened (T). A species which is
likely to become endangered within the
foreseeable future throughout all or a sig-
nificant portion of its range in Kentucky,
including those species proposed or rec-
ognized as federally threatened that oc-
cur in Kentucky.

Special Concern (S). A species that
should be continually monitored because
(a) it exists in a limited geographic area,
(b) it may become threatened or endan-
gered due to modification or destruction
of habitat, (c) certain characteristics or re-
quirements make it especially vulnerable
to specific pressures, or (d) experienced
researchers have identified other factors.

Undetermined (U). A species that has
been suggested as threatened, endan-
gered, or extirpated, but insufficient in-
formation exists for assignment to Special
Concern, Threatened, or Endangered
status categories.

ENDANGERED PLANTS AND ANIMALS OF KENTUCKY—Branson et al.

DESCRIPTIVE CATEGORIES

Descriptive categories were devel-
oped, which may be used in conjunction
with the major status categories, to de-
scribe certain aspects of the geographical
distribution, population dynamics, or be-
havioral characteristics of a species with-
in Kentucky. These classifications (coded
in lower case letters and enclosed in pa-
rentheses) are defined as follows:

peripheral (p). A species whose occur-
rence in Kentucky represents the edge of
the natural range.

endemic (e). A species confined to or
with a significant portion of its range in
Kentucky.

disjunct (d). A species whose occur-
rence in Kentucky represents a separa-
tion from the primary contiguous popu-
lation or a discontinuous distribution.

nesting (n). A bird species which rarely
nests in Kentucky but may be common at
other times, especially during migration.
The Kentucky status, therefore, is based
upon the nesting dynamics of the species
and not the population dynamics. The
nesting sites of these species may be in-
dicative of rare or unique habitat worthy
of preservation.

FEDERAL DESIGNATION

The federal designations are enclosed
in brackets after the appropriate species
and are defined as follows:

Endangered (E). Those species in dan-
ger of extinction throughout all or a sig-
nificant portion of their range. Those pro-
posed endangered are designated as PE.

Threatened (T). Those species that are
likely to become endangered within the
foreseeable future throughout all ora sig-
nificant portion of their range. Those pro-
posed threatened are designated as PT.

Candidate for Listing (CL) This desig-
nation includes those species that are
currently under review for federal listing
(Federal Register 1980a).

BIRD MONITORING STRATEGIES

In an attempt to reflect the information
required to make an accurate assessment

vg

of the rare Kentucky avifauna, four mon-
itoring strategies have been designed.
These strategies will yield the maximum
amount of useful data concerning occur-
rences, population dynamics, and season-
al fluctuations in response to the behay-
ioral characteristics of individual species.
These data will help identify and ulti-
mately protect valuable habitat necessary
for the continued existence of each
species.

Monitoring Strategy I. Record and
map all past and present occurrences.
This includes nest records and valid
sightings at any time of the year. This
strategy is appropriate for our rarest birds
for which any information is important.

Monitoring Strategy II. Record infor-
mation concerning current population
dynamics including but not limited to:
Christmas counts, U.S. Fish and Wildlife
breeding bird counts, National Wildlife
Federation bird counts, or any species
specific counts yielding information on
distribution and abundance. These counts
will be used to identify local, regional,
and/or national trends of the desired
species. Occurrence information is not
mapped.

Monitoring Strategy III. Record and
map all past and present summer sight-
ings and summer nest sites observed
from June 1 through July 31. The occur-
rence of a singing male on territory dur-
ing the months of June and July should
be regarded as a legitimate record. This
strategy also pertains to those species
whose occurrence in Kentucky repre-
sents the peripheral margin of the breed-
ing range (p) and to those species that
have so declined in their breeding pop-
ulation levels (b) that monitoring is now
necessary.

Monitoring Strategy IV. Record and
map all past and present nesting sites.
This strategy is appropriate for those
species that are colonial (c) and for which
few breeding sites exist in the state and
for those species that utilize an important
ecological habitat (h) for breeding.

80 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 42(3-4)

INTRODUCTION TO THE ANIMAL LIST

The animal list represents a synthesis of information gathered from a variety of
local, regional, state, and federal sources. The list reflects an extensive literature
review and an examination of museum specimens. Several species are included
which have not been taxonomically described. The sources most commonly consult-
ed for common and scientific names are: Pelecypods, Stansbery (1980); gastropods,
Pilsbry (1939), Branson (1970); crustaceans, Federal Register (1980b), Hobbs (1976),
Holsinger (1976), Pennak (1978); fishes, Bailey et al. (1970), Robins et al. (1980);
amphibians and reptiles, Collins et al. (1978); birds, American Ornithologists’ Union
(1957, and supplements); mammals, Hall (1981). Common and scientific names of
species recently described reflect the available literature.

ANIMAL LIST

PELECYPODS STATUS STATUS
Alasmidonta atropurpurea E Villosa fabalis E
Cumberlandia monodonta E Villosa lienosa U
Cyprogenia stegaria Ar Villosa ortmanni E
Dromus dromas E [E] Villosa trabalis E [E]
Epioblasma arcaeformis E Villosa vanuxemi ale
Epioblasma biemarginata E

Epioblasma brevidens E CNeTROnonE

Epioblasma capsaeformis E

Epioblasma cincinnatiensis E Anculosa praerosa T [CL]
Epioblasma flexuosa E Antroselates spiralis S
Epioblasma florentina E [E] Helicodiscus fimbriatus S
Epioblasma haysiana E Helicodiscus notius specus S
Epioblasma lewisi E[E] Helicodiscus punctatellus S
Epioblasma obliquata E Lithasia armigera E [CL]
Epioblasma personata E Lithasia geniculata E [CL]
Epioblasma propinqua E Lithasia obovata S
Epioblasma rangiana E Lithasia salebrosa T [CL]
Epioblasma sampsoni E Lithasia verrucosa E [CL]
Epioblasma stewardsoni E Nitocris trilineata T
Epioblasma torulosa torulosa E [E] Pleurocera acuta S
Epioblasma triquetra S Pleurocera alveare S
Epioblasma walkeri E [E] Pleurocera curta S
Fusconaia maculata E Rhodacmea elaitor w
Hemistona lata E Vitrinizonites latissimus S
Lampsilis orbiculata E [EF]

Lasmigona compressa S(p) CRUSTACEANS

Lasmigona subviridis U Cambarellus shufeldtii U
Leptodea leptodon E Cambarus batchi T(e)
Obovaria retusa E Cambarus bouchardi E [CL]
Pegias fabula E Cambarus cornutus S
Plethobasus cicatricosus E [E] Cambarus ornatus S
Plethobasus cooperianus E [E] Cambarus parvoculus S
Plethobasus cyphyus 40 Eubranchipus neglectus U
Pleurobema clava E Gammarus bousfieldi E(e)
Pleurobema oviforme a Orconectes australis S
Pleurobema plenum E [E] Orconectes bisectus T(e)
Pleurobema rubrum E Orconectes inermis S
Potamilus capax E [E] Orconectes jeffersoni E(e) [CL]
Ptychobranchus subtentum T Orconectes kentuckiensis S(e)
Quadrula cylindrica E Orconectes lancifer S
QOuadrula fragosa U Orconectes pellucidus S
Quadrula sparsa E [E] Orconectes rafinesquei S(e)
Simpsonaias ambigua Ei Orconectes tricuspis S
Toxolasma lividus S Palaemonias ganteri E(e) [PE]

ENDANGERED PLANTS AND ANIMALS OF KENTUCKY—Branson et al.

FISHES

Acipenser fulvescens
Lake sturgeon
Alosa alabamae
Alabama shad
Amblyopsis spelaea
Northern cavefish
Ammocrypta asprella
Crystal darter
Ammocrypta clara
Western sand darter
Ammocrypta pellucida
Eastern sand darter
Ammocrypta vivax
Scaly sand darter
Chologaster agassizi
Spring cavefish
Clinostomus elongatus
Redside dace
Clinostomus funduloides
Rosyside dace
Cycleptus elongatus
Blue sucker
Elassoma zonatum
Banded pygmy sunfish
Erimyzon sucetta
Lake chubsucker
Esox masquinongy ohioensis
Ohio muskellunge
Esox niger
Chain pickerel
Etheostoma cinereum
Ashy darter
Etheostoma fusiforme
Swamp darter
Etheostoma histrio
Harlequin darter
Etheostoma microlepidum
Smallscale darter
Etheostoma microperca
Least darter
Etheostoma nigrum susanae
Johnny darter
Etheostoma parvipinne
Goldstripe darter
Etheostoma sagitta
Arrow darter
Etheostoma swaini
Gulf darter
Etheostoma tippecanoe
Tippecanoe darter
Fundulus chrysotus
Golden topminnow
Fundulus notti
Starhead minnow
Hemitremia flammea
Flame chub
Hybognathus hayi
Cypress minnow
Hybognathus placitus
Plains minnow
Hybopsis gelida
Sturgeon chub
Hybopsis gracilis
Flathead chub

STATUS
T

U

S

Hybopsis insignis
Blotched chub
Hybopsis meeki
Sticklefin chub
Hybopsis x-punctata
Gravel chub
Ichthyomyzon castaneus
Chestnut lamprey
Ichthyomyzon fossor
Northern brook lamprey
Ichthyomyzon gagei
Southern brook lamprey
Ichthyomyzon greeleyi
mountain brook lamprey
Ichthyomyzon unicuspis
Silver lamprey
Ictiobus niger
Black buffalo
Lampetra appendix
American brook lamprey
Lepisosteus oculatus
Spotted gar
Lepisosteus spatula
Alligator gar
Lepomis marginatus
Dollar sunfish
Lepomis punctatus
Spotted sunfish
Lepomis symmetricus
Bantam sunfish
Lota lota
Burbot
Moxostoma atripinne
Blackfin sucker
Nocomis biguttatus
Hornyhead chub
Notropis amnis
Pallid shiner
Notropis ariommus
Popeye shiner
Notropis camurus
Bluntface shiner
Notropis maculatus
Taillight shiner
Notropis shumardi
Silverband shiner
Notropis sp.
Palezone shiner (undescribed)
Notropis sp.
Sawfin shiner (undescribed)
Notropis venustus
Blacktail shiner
Noturus hildebrandi
Least madtom
Noturus phaeus
Brown madtom
Noturus stigmosus
Northern madtom
Perca flavescens
Yellow perch
Percina burtoni
Blotchside logperch
Percina copelandi
Channel darter

STATUS
S

U

81

82 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 42(3-4)

Percina evides
Gilt darter
Percina macrocephala
Longhead darter
Percina (Odontopholis) sp.
Blackfin darter (undescribed)
Percina ouachitae
Saddleback darter
Percina oxyrhyncha
Sharpnose darter
Percina phoxocephala
Slenderhead darter
Percina shumardi
River darter
Percina squamata
Olive darter
Percopsis omiscomaycus
Trout-perch
Phenacobius uranops
Stargazing minnow
Phoxinus cumberlandensis
Blackside dace
Polyodon spathula
Paddlefish
Scaphirhynchus platorynchus
Shovelnose sturgeon
Typhlichthys subterraneus
Southern cavefish
Umbra limi
Central mudminnow

AMPHIBIANS

Ambystoma talpoideum
Mole Salamander
Amphiuma tridactylum
Three-toed Amphiuma
Cryptobranchus alleganiensis
Hellbender
Hemidactylium scutatum
Four-toed Salamander
Hyla avivoca
Bird-voiced Treefrog
Hyla cinerea
Green Treefrog
Hyla gratiosa
Barking Treefrog
Plethodon cinereus
Redback Salamander
Rana areolata
Crawfish Frog
Siren intermedia
Lesser Siren

REPTILES

Cemophora coccinea
Scarlet Snake

Chrysemys concinna
River Cooter

Chrysemys floridana
Cooter

Clonophis kirtlandi
Kirtland’s Water Snake

STATUS

=a ta} S&S

U

U

Elaphe guttata
Corn Snake
Eumeces anthracinus
Coal Skink
Graptemys kohni
Mississippi Map Turtle
Graptemys pseudogeographica
False Map Turtle
Lampropeltis triangulum
elapsoides
Scarlet Kingsnake

Lampropeltis triangulum syspila

Red Milk Snake
Macroclemys temmincki
Alligator Snapping Turtle
Masticophis flagellum
Coachwhip
Nerodia cyclopion
Green Water Snake
Nerodia fasciata
Southern Water Snake
Ophisaurus attenuatus
Slender Glass Lizard
Pituophis melanoleucus
Pine Snake
Sistrurus miliarius
Pigmy Rattlesnake
Thamnophis proximus
Western Ribbon Snake

BIRDS
Accipiter cooperi
Cooper's Hawk
Accipter striatus
Sharp-shinned Hawk
Aimophila aestivalis
Backman’s Sparrow
Ammodramus henslowii
Henslow’s Sparrow
Ammodramus savannarum
Grasshopper Sparrow
Aquila chrysaetos
Golden Eagle
Archilochus colubris
Ruby-throated Hummingbird
Ardea herodias
Great Blue Heron
Bartramia longicauda
Upland Sandpiper
Botaurus lentiginosus
American Bittern
Buteo lineatus
Red-shouldered Hawk
Casmerodius albus
Great Egret
Catharus fuscescens
Veery
Chondestes grammacus
Lark Sparrow
Circus cyaneus
Marsh Hawk
Cistothorus platensis
Short-billed Marsh Wren

STATUS
S(d)

STRATEGY STATUS
II U

II

U
III(b) T
T
T

III(p) i
Il(b)
I S |
ll S

Il(p) S(n) }
IIIb) T
I U }

III(p) T(n)

ENDANGERED PLANTS AND ANIMALS OF KENTUCKY—Branson et al. 83

Corvus corax
Common Raven
Corvus ossifragus
Fish Crow
Dendroica fusca
Blackburnian Warbler
Dendroica kirtlandii
Kirtland’s Warbler
Empidonax minimus
Least Flycatcher
Falco peregrinus
Peregrine Falcon
Gallinula chloropus
Common Gallinule
Haliaeetus leucocephalus
Bald Eagle
Ictinia mississippiensis
Mississippi Kite
Iridoprocne bicolor
Tree Swallow
Ixobrychus exilis
Least Bittern
Junco hyemalis
Dark-eyed Junco
Lophodytes cucullatus
Hooded Merganser
Nyctanassa violacea
Yellow-crowned Night Heron
Nycticorax nycticorax
Black-crowned Night Heron
Oporornis philadelphia
Mourming Warbler
Pandion haliaetus
Osprey
Phalacrocorax auritus
Double-crested Cormorant
Pheucticus ludovicianus
Rose-breasted Grosbeak
Picoides borealis
Red-cockaded Woodpecker
Podilymbus podiceps
Pied-billed Grebe
Pooecetes gramineus
Vesper Sparrow
Rallus elegans
King Rail
Riparia riparia
Bank Swallow
Sterna albifrons
Least Tern
Thryomanes bewickii
Bewick’s Wren
Tyto alba
Barn Owl
Vermivora bachmanii
Bachman’s Warbler
Vermivora chrysoptera
Golden-winged Warbler
Vireo bellii
Bell’s Vireo

III(p)
II(p)

ITI(p)

III(p)

III(p)

STRATEGY STATUS

U

STRATEGY STATUS

Wilsonia canadensis
Canada Warbler

MAMMALS

Clethrionomys gapperi
Gapper’s Red-backed Vole
Felis concolor couguar
Eastern Cougar
Lasionycteris noctivagans
Silver-haired Bat
Lasiurus cinereus
Hoary Bat
Lontra canadensis
River Otter
Lynx rufus
Bobcat
Microsorex hoyi
Thompson’s Pygmy Shrew
Mustela rixosa
Least Weasel
Myotis austroriparius
Southeastern Myotis
Myotis grisescens
Gray Bat
Myotis keenii
Keen’s Bat
Myotis leibii
Small-footed Myotis
Myotis sodalis
Indiana Bat
Napaeozapus insignis
Woodland Jumping Mouse
Nycticeius humeralis
Evening Bat
Peromyscus maniculatus nubiterrae
Cloudland Deermouse
Plecotus rafinesquii
Rafinesque’s Big-eared Bat
Plecotus townsendii virginianus
Townsend’s Big-eared Bat
Sorex cinereus
Masked Shrew
Sorex dispar
Long-tailed Shrew
Sorex longirostris
Southeastern Shrew
Spilogale putorius
Eastern Spotted Skunk
Sylvilagus aquaticus
Swamp Rabbit
Sylvilagus transitionalis
New England Cottontail
Ursus americanus
Black Bear
Zapus hudsonius
Meadow Jumping Mouse

III(p)

E(n)

STATUS
T(p)
E [E]

U

Gi Ga dtek 4S) Esk oh tel desl
&

E [FE]

84 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 42(3-4)

VASCULAR PLANT ELEMENTS

The plant element list is composed primarily of native taxa which are known to
occur in three or fewer counties. A few taxa, however, are retained on the list even
though they are known from more than three counties because they are of national
concern or are known to be rare in Kentucky. Some taxa, recorded to date from only
a few counties, have not been listed when the best available botanical opinions

suggest that these species are more common than records indicate.

The preparation of this list is the result of an extensive literature review and an
examination of herbaria specimens. For consistency, the scientific nomenclature
utilized in this study is standardized to Kartesz and Kartesz (1980). One species
is included which has not been validly published.

PTERIDOPHYTES

Adiantum capillus-veneris
Venus Hair Fern
Botrychium matricariifolium
Matricary Grape Fern
Botrychium oneidense
Blunt-lobed Grape Fern
Cheilanthes alabamensis
Smooth Lip Fern
Cheilanthes feei
Slender Lip Fern
Cystopteris fragilis var. Mackayi
Mackay’s Bladder Fern
Dryopteris ludoviciana
Southern Wood Fern
Dryopteris spinulosa
Spinulose Wood Fern
Isoetes butleri
Butler's Quillwort
Isoetes melanopoda
Midland Quillwort
Lycopodium appressum
Southern Bog Clubmoss
Trichomanes boschianum
Filmy Fern
Woodsia scopulina
Mountain Cliff Fern

GYMNOSPERMS

Taxus canadensis
American Yew

Thuja occidentalis
Northern White Cedar

MONOCOTYLEDONS

Allium burdickii
Narrow-leaved Wild Leek

Amianthium muscaetoxicum
Fly Poison

Bouteloua curtipendula
Side-oats Grama

Calamagrostis canadensis
Blue Joint Grass

Calamagrostis cinnoides
Cinna-like Reed Grass

PLANT LIST

STATUS

U

U

Calamogrostis porteri
Porter's Reed Grass
Calopogon tuberosus
Grass Pink
Carex buxbaumii
Sedge
Carex crawei
Sedge
Carex hystricina
Sedge
Carex joorii
Sedge
Carex lanuginosa
Sedge
Carex leptalea
Sedge
Carex leptonervia
Sedge
Carex picta
Sedge
Carex socialis
Sedge
Carex stricta
Sedge
Carex tenera
Sedge
Cymophyllus fraseri
Fraser's Sedge
Cyperus diandrus
Umbrella Sedge
Cyperus retrorsus
Umbrella Sedge
Cypripedium candidum
White Ladyslipper
Cypripedium sp.
Lady’s slipper (undescribed)
Dichanthelium acuminatum
var. villosum
Panic Grass
Dichanthelium boreale
Panic Grass
Dichanthelium sabulorum
Panic Grass
Echinodorus rostratus
Burhead

STATUS

[CL]

er er StS ie) Crain Ses ey eS esl lest esl ae esl i tS

2s
=

S

ENDANGERED PLANTS AND ANIMALS OF KENTUCKY—Branson et al.

Fimbristylis puberula
Sedge
Glyceria melicaria
Manna Grass
Gymnopogon brevifolius
Beard Grass
Heteranthera dubia
Water Star Grass
Heteranthera limosa
Mud Plantain
Hierochloe odorata
Sweet Grass
Tris fulva
Copper Ivis
Juncus articulatus
Rush
Juncus elliottii
Rush
Juncus longistylis
Rush
Koeleria cristata
June Grass
Lilium philadelphicum
Wood Lily
Lilium superbum
Turk’s-cap Lily
Limnobium spongia
Frog’s Bit
Listera australis
Southern Twayblade
Listera smallii
Small’s Twayblade
Maianthemum canadense
Wild Lily of the Valley
Melanthium virginicum
Bunch Flower
Muhlenbergia bushii
Bush’s Satin Grass
Muhlenbergia cuspidata
Prairie Satin Grass
Muhlenbergia torreyana
Muhly
Orontium aquaticum
Golden Club
Oryzopsis racemosa
Black-seeded Rice Grass
Paspalum boscianum
Lens Grass
Paspalum distichum
Lens Grass
Paspalum setaceum
var. psammophilum
Lens Grass
Platanthera cristata
Crested Fringed Orchid
Platanthera integrilabia
White Fringeless Orchid
Platanthera psycodes
Purple Fringed Orchid
Poa languida
Weak Bluegrass
Pogonia ophioglossoides
Rose Pogonia

STATUS
E(p)

U

E(d)

Pontederia cordata
Pickerel Weed

Potamogeton praelongus
Pond Weed

Potamogeton spirillus
Pond Weed

Rhynchospora globularis
Grass Beak Rush

Sagittaria brevirostra
Arrowhead

Sagittaria graminea
Grass-leaved Arrowhead

Scleria ciliata
Nut Rush

Scirpus expansus
Bulrush

Scirpus fluviatilis
Bulrush

Scirpus heterochaetus
Bulrush

Scirpus purshianus
Bulrush

Smilacina stellata
Starry-flowered False

Solomon’s Seal

Sparganium eurycarpum
Common Burr Reed

Sphenopholis pensylvanica
Swamp Oats

Spiranthes lucida
Shining Ladies’ Tresses

Spiranthes magnicamporum
Ladies’ Tresses

Spiranthes odorata
Sweet Ladies’ Tresses

Sporobolus clandestinus
Rough Rush Grass

Sporobolus heterolepis
Prairie Dropseed

Streptopus roseus
Twisted Stalk

Torreyochloa pallida
Pale Manna Grass

Trillium nivale
Snow Trillium

Trillium pusillum var. ozarkanum

Ozark Wake Robin
Trillium undulatum
Painted Trillium
Vallisneria americana
Tape Grass
Veratrum parviflorum
False Hellebore
Veratrum viride
False Hellebore
Veratrum woodii
Wood's False Hellebore
Wolffia braziliensis
Water Meal
Xerophyllum asphodeloides
Turkey Beard
Zizania aquatica
Wild Rice

STATUS
S

U

U

SPS Ses SS iS Meal sical

E(p)

U

E(d)

T [CL]
S(p)

U

85

86 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 42(3-4)

Zizaniopsis miliacea
Southern Wild Rice

DICOTYLEDONS

Acer spicatum
Mountain Maple
Aconitum uncinatum
Monkshood
Adlumia fungosa
Allegheny Vine
Agalinis decemloba
Purple False Foxglove
Agalinis fasciculata
Purple False Foxglove
Agalinis obtusifolia
Purple False Foxglove
Agalinis skinneriana
Purple False Foxglove
Agrimonia gryposepala
Agrimony
Ampelopsis arborea
Pepper Vine
Angelica triquinata
Filmy Angelica
Apios priceana
Sadie Price’s Potato Bean
Arabis glabra
Tower Mustard
Arabis missouriensis
Missouri Rock Cress
Arabis perstellata var. perstellata
Rock Cress
Arenaria fontinalis
Water Stitchwort
Armoracia aquatica
Lake Cress
Aster concolor
Aster
Aster sericeus
Silky Aster
Aster texanus
Texas Aster
Aureolaria patula
False Foxglove
Baptisia leucophaea
Creme Wild Indigo
Baptisia tinctoria
Yellow Wild Indigo
Bartonia virginica
Screwstem
Berchemia scandens
Rattan Vine
Boykinia aconitifolia
Brook Saxifrage
Cabomba caroliniana
Fanwort
Calycanthus floridus
Sweet Shrub
Calylophus serrulatus
Evening Primrose
Carya ovata var. australis
Hickory

STATUS
T

Bi
=

less Neale Key lest. les} iS

Castanea pumila
Chinquapin
Castilleja coccinea
Indian Paintbrush
Cayaponia grandifolia
Cayaponia
Ceanothus herbaceus
Redroot
Chelone obliqua var. obliqua
Pink Turtlehead
Chelone obliqua var. speciosa
Pink Turtlehead
Chrysogonum virginianum
Green and Gold
Chrysosplenium americanum
Golden Saxifrage
Cicuta bulbifera
Bulblet-bearing Water Hemlock
Cimicifuga rubifolia
Bugbane
Circaea alpina
Small Enchanter’s Nightshade
Cladrastis kentukea
Yellow-wood
Clematis crispa
Leather Flower
Clematis glaucophylla
Leather Flower
Comptonia peregrina
Sweet Fern
Conradina verticillata
Cumberland Rosemary
Coreopsis pubescens
Downy Coreopsis
Corydalis sempervirens
Pale Corydalis
Cotinus obovatus
Smoke Tree
Crotonopsis linearis
Linear Rushfoil
Decodon verticillatus
Swamp Loosestrife
Delphinium carolinianum
Carolina Larkspur
Delphinium exaltatum
Tall Larkspur
Dentaria multifida
Much-divided Toothwort
Dicliptera brachiata
Dicliptera
Didiplis diandra
Water Purslane
Dioclea multiflora
Dioclea
Dodecatheon frenchii
French’s Shooting Star
Drosera brevifolia
Sundew
Drosera intermedia
Sundew
Erigeron pulchellus var. brauniae
Lucy Braun’s Robin Plantain

STATUS
E

ENDANGERED PLANTS AND ANIMALS OF KENTUCKY—Branson et al.

Eryngium aquaticum
Water Eryngo
Eupatorium luciae-brauniae
Lucy Braun’s White Snake Root
Eupatorium maculatum
Joe Pye Weed
Eupatorium rugosum var. roanensis
Roan Mountain White Snakeroot
Euphorbia mercurialina
Spurge
Floerkea proserpinacoides
False Mermaid
Forestiera ligustrina
Upland Privet
Gaylussacia brachycera
Box Huckleberry
Gentiana alba
Yellowish Gentian
Gentiana decora
Showy Gentian
Gentiana puberulenta
Prairie Gentian
Gratiola pilosa
Hedge Hyssop
Gratiola viscidula
Hedge Hyssop
Halesia carolina
Silverbell Tree
Hedeoma hispidum
Hairy Pennyroyal
Hedyotis uniflora
Oldenlandia
Helianthus atrorubens
Sunflower
Helianthus eggertii
Eggert’s Sunflower
Helianthus silphioides
Silphium-like Sunflower
Heracleum lanatum
Cow Parsnip
Heterotheca latifolia
Golden Aster
Hieracium longipilum
Long-haired Hawkweed
Hexastylis shuttleworthii
Shuttleworth’s Wild Ginger
Hydrastis canadensis
Golden Seal
Hydrolea ovata
Hydrolea
Hydrolea quadrivalvis
Hydrolea
Hydrophyllum virginianum
Virginia Waterleaf
Hypericum adpressum
St. Johns-wort
Lathyrus palustris
Marsh Pea
Leavenworthia exigua var. laciniata
Glade Cress
Leavenworthia torulosa
Glade Cress

STATUS
U

E(e) [CL]

Gi es. Mesh Sia ei esl es te) lees

Leavenworthia uniflora
Glade Cress
Leiophyllum buxifolium
Sand Myrtle
Lesquerella globosa
Bladder-pod
Leucothoe recurva
Fetterbush
Liatris pycnostachya
Prairie Blazing Star
Linum sulcatum
Grooved Yellow Flax
Lobelia nuttallii
Nuttall’s Lobelia
Ludwigia hirtella
False Loosestrife
Lysimachia fraseri
Fringed Loosestrife
Lysimachia radicans
Creeping Fringed Loosestrife
Lysimachia terrestris
Swamp Candles
Malus angustifolia
Crab Apple
Malus ioensis
Crab Apple
Marshallia grandiflora
Barbara’s Buttons
Matelea carolinensis
Carolina Anglepod
Mecardonia acuminata
Mecardonia
Melampyrum lineare
Cow Wheat
Minuartia glabra
Sandwort
Monarda punctata
Dotted Monarda
Monarda russeliana
Russel’s Horsemint
Monotropsis odorata
Sweet Pinesap
Myriophyllum heterophyllum
Water Milfoil
Najas gracillima
Slender Naiad
Najas guadalupensis
Southern Naiad
Nemophila aphylla
Nemophila
Oenothera linifolia
Sundrops
Oenothera perennis
Sundrops
Oenothera triloba
Sundrops
Onosmodium hispidissimum
Hairy False Gromwell
Onosmodium molle ssp. molle
Soft False Gromwell

Onosmodium molle ssp. occidentale

Western False Gromwell

STATUS
S

U(p)

T [CL]
E(p)
E(p)

U

T(p)

U

U

88 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 42(3-4)

Oxalis priceae
Price’s Yellow Wood Sorrel
Pachistima canbyi
Mountain Lover
Panax quinquefolius
Ginseng
Parnassia asarifolia
Ginger-leaved Grass-of-Parnassus
Parnassia grandifolia
Grass-of-Parnassus
Paronychia argyrocoma
Silver Whitlow-wort
Perideridia americana
Perideridia
Phacelia ranunculacea
Phacelia
Philadelphus hirsutus
Mock Orange
Phlox bifida ssp. stellaria
Cleft Phlox
Physostegia intermedia
False Dragonhead
Plantago cordata
Heart-leaved Plantain
Podostemon ceratophyllum
Riverweed
Polemonium reptans var. villosum
Hairy Jacob’s Ladder
Polygala cruciata
Cross Milkwort
Polygala nuttallii
Nuttall’s Milkwort
Polygala polygama
Purple Milkwort
Polymnia laevigata
Leaf Cup
Prenanthes alba
Lion’s Foot
Prenanthes aspera
Rough White Lettuce
Psoralea stipulata
Scurf Pea
Ptilimnium capillaceum
Hair-like Mock Bishop’s-weed
Ptilimnium nuttallii
Nuttall’s Mock Bishop’s-weed
Pycnanthemum albescens
Mountain Mint
Ranunculus allegheniensis
Allegheny Crowfoot
Rhododendron canescens
Honeysuckle Bush
Rhynchosia tomentosa
Erect Rhynchosia
Rubus whartoniae
Wharton’s Bramble
Rudbeckia subtomentosa
Sweet Coneflower
Sabatia campanulata
Rose Pink
Sabatia campestris
Rose Pink

STATUS
E

E(d) [CL]

T

3]

[CL]

esl ales) IS ie =e) eI — Ie)

Salix amygdaloides
Peachleaf Willow
Salvia urticifolia
Sage
Sambucus racemosa
Red-berried Elder
Sanguisorba canadensis
American Burnet
Saxifraga michauxii
Michaux’s Saxifrage
Saxifraga micranthidifolia
Brook Lettuce
Schwalbea americana
Chaffseed
Scutellaria leonardii
Small Sculleap
Sedum telephioides
Live Forever
Sida hermaphrodita
Virginia Mallow
Silene ovata
Catchfly
Silene regia
Royal Catchfly
Silphium laciniatum
Compass Plant
Silphium terebinthinaceum
var. Lucy-brauniae
Lucy Braun’s Prairie Dock
Solidago albopilosa
White-haired Goldenrod
Solidago buckleyi
Buckley's Goldenrod
Solidago curtisii
Curtis’ Goldenrod
Solidago missouriensis
Missouri Goldenrod
Solidago puberula
Puberulent Goldenrod
Solidago radula
Rough Goldenrod
Solidago rigida var. glabrata
Smooth Stiff Goldenrod
Solidago roanensis
Roan Mountain Goldenrod
Solidago rupestris
Goldenrod
Solidago shortii
Short’s Goldenrod
Solidago spathulata
Goldenrod
Solidago squarrosa
Squarrose Goldenrod
Spiraea alba
Meadow Sweet
Sporobolus clandestinus
Rough Rush Grass
Stachys eplingii
Nuttall’s Hedge-nettle
Stellaria longifolia
Stitchwort
Styrax grandifolia
Storax

STATUS
U

E

E(e) [CL]

le tS) See lel — I) Stl ee

E(e) [CL]

er Gp tele Gee les — lesa = 1

ENDANGERED PLANTS AND ANIMALS OF KENTUCKY—Branson et al. 89

Sullivantia sullivantii
Sullivant’s Sullivantia

Synandra hispidula
Synandra

Tephrosia spicata E
Goat Rue

Thalictrum mirabile U
Meadow Rue

Thaspium pinnatifidum U
Cutleaf Meadow Parsnip

Thermopsis mollis E(p)
Bush Pea

Trepocarpus aethusae E
Trepocarpus

Trichostema setaceum U
Blue Curls

Ulmus serotina U
September Elm

Utricularia gibba S
Humped Bladderwort

Utricularia vulgaris
Bladderwort

Vernonia fasciculata
Fascicled Ironweed

Vernonia noveboracensis
New York Ironweed

Viburnum lentago
Nannyberry

Viburnum nudum
Possum Haw

Viola egglestonii
Glade Violet

Viola lanceolata
Lance-leaved Violet

Viola pedatifida
Prairie Violet

Viola tripartita
Yellow Violet

Viola walteri
Walter’s Violet

el leks ey [esl eles

leah oles, |

LITERATURE CITED

AMERICAN ORNITHOLOGIST’S UNION. 1957.
Checklist of North American birds. 5th Ed.
(plus supplements). Nat. Mus. Nat. Hist., Wash-
ington, D.C.

BAILEY, R. M., J. E. FircH, E. S. HERALD, E. A.
LACHNER, C. C. LINDSEY, C. R. ROBINS, AND
W. B. ScortT. 1970. A list of common and sci-
entific names of fishes from the United States
and Canada. 3rd Ed. Am. Fish. Soc. Spec. Publ.
No. 6.

BRANSON, B. A. 1970. Checklist and distribution
of Kentucky aquatic gastropods. Ky. Fish and
Wildl. Res. Fish. Bull. 54, Frankfort, Ky. 20 pp.

COLLINS, J. T., J. E. HUHEEY, J. L. KNIGHT, AND
H. M. SmiITH. 1978. Standard common and
current scientific names for North American
amphibians and reptiles. Soc. for Study of Am-
phibians and Reptiles, Herpetol. Circ. No. 7.
36 pp.

FEDERAL REGISTER. 1980a. Part IV. Department
of the Interior. Fish and Wildlife Service. En-
dangered and threatened wildlife and plants:
review of plant taxa for listing as endangered
or threatened species. 45(242): 82480-82569.

FEDERAL REGISTER. 1980b. Part I]. Department
of the Interior. Fish and Wildlife Service. Re-
publication of lists of endangered and threat-
ened species and correction of technical errors
in final rules. 45(99): 33768-33779.

HALL, E. R. 1981. The mammals of North Ameri-
can. 2nd ed. Vol. I and II. John Wiley and
Sons, N.Y.

HARKER, D. F., JR., M. E. MEDLEY, W. C. Hout-
COOPER, AND A. PHILLIPPI. 1980. Kentucky
natural areas plan. Ky. Nat. Pres. Comm.,
Frankfort, Ky.

Hosss, H. H., JR. 1976. Crayfishes (Astacidae) of
North and Middle America. 18050 ELD05/72,
U.S. Environ. Protec. Agency, Cincinnati,
Ohio.

HOLSINGER, J.R. 1976. The freshwater amphipod
crustaceans (Gammaridae) of North America.
18050 ELD04/72, U.S. Environ. Protec. Agen-
cy, Cincinnati, Ohio.

KARTESZ, J. T., AND R. KARTESZ. 1980. A synon-
ymized checklist of the vascular flora of the
United States, Canada and Greenland. Univ. of
N.C. Press, Chapel Hill, N.C.

PENNAK, R. W. 1978. Fresh-water invertebrates
of the United States. 2nd Ed. John Wiley &
Sons, New York, N.Y.

Pitssry, H. A. 1939-1948. Land Mollusca of North
America (north of Mexico). Monogr. No. 3, Vol.
I, Parts 1 and 2; Vol. II, Parts 1 and 2, Acad.
Nat. Sci. Phil., Philadelphia, Pa.

ROBINS, C. R., R. M. BAILEY, C. E. BOND, J. R.
BROOKER, E. A. LACHNER, R. N. LEA, AND W.
B. Scotr. 1980. A list of common and scien-
tific names of fishes from the United States and
Canada. 4th Ed. Am. Fish. Soc. Spec. Publ. No.
12.

STANSBERY, D. H. 1980. A list of mussels from the
Ohio River System. Unpubl. list, September
1980, Columbus, Ohio.

Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 42(3-4), 1981, 90-94

A Contribution to the Biology of the Southern
Bog Lemming in Kentucky’

THANE S. ROBINSON

Department of Biology, University of Louisville,
Louisville, Kentucky 40292

ABSTRACT

Results of examination of 38 specimens of the bog lemming, Synaptomys cooperi, taken from
1964 to 1980 in Kentucky are reported. Breeding season extends throughout the year; sex ratio
is 50-50, and sexual dimorphism is lacking. Mortality of juveniles is high and sexual maturity is
reached at an early age. Adult females have larger adrenals than do juvenile females, or than do
males of both age groups. Geographic range of the species in Kentucky is extended southward
and westward to seven additional counties. Although one of the subspecies of bog lemming
occurring in Kentucky was originally described as being smaller than the other, the specimens
reported here are from the presumed geographic ranges of both subspecies yet show no statis-
tically significant differences regarding external measurements and weights, suggesting a more
extensive range for Synaptomys cooperi kentucki than originally described.

INTRODUCTION

Until 1956, published accounts of the
southern bog lemming, Synaptomys
cooperi, in Kentucky were almost un-
known. In that year, thanks to the efforts
of Roger W. Barbour (1956) of the Uni-
versity of Kentucky, the status of the bog
lemming in Kentucky was brought up to
date. He determined that two geographic
varieties were present in Kentucky, S. c.
kentucki from the Bluegrass area of
north-central Kentucky, and S. c. stonei
from the mountains of the eastern part of
the state. Almost 20 years later, Barbour
and Davis (1974) reported additional
specimens from Kentucky, thus extend-
ing the known geographic range of the
species westward along the Ohio River
almost to its confluence with the Missis-
sippi River. Even with these reports, lit-
tle is known about bog lemmings in Ken-
tucky. This paper is intended to add to
our meager knowledge of the species,
and also to encourage others to become
interested in investigating this secretive
animal.

‘ Contribution No. 197 (n.s.) from the Department
of Biology, University of Louisville, Louisville,
Kentucky.

90

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I am indebted to Barbara Lensing,
Ronald Van Stockum, Steve Randles and
John Muenz for their aid in field and lab-
oratory. Professor Herbert Shadowen of
Western Kentucky University has kindly
permitted me to include a previously un-
reported specimen from the collection of
Western Kentucky University. Field
work was supported in part by grants
from the Faculty Research Fund of the
College of Arts and Sciences of the Uni-
versity of Louisville in 1972, 1973 and
1974.

METHODS

Collection of specimens was by means
of snap traps baited with a mixture of pea-
nut butter and rolled oats. Traps were
placed in the field in late afternoon and
picked up the following morning. Speci-
mens were measured and weighed while
fresh, injected with and immersed in 10%
formalin and returned to the laboratory.
After three weeks in this preservative,
specimens were removed and autopsied;
permanent storage was in 5% formalin,
and the specimens were deposited in the
collections of the Department of Biology
at the University of Louisville (U. of L.).

A 16-year period (1964-1980) is repre-
sented by the specimens deposited in the

THE BOG LEMMING IN KENTUCKY—Robinson 9]

COMMONWEALTH OF KENTUCKY

ae
wavs

Fic. 1.

Localities for Synaptomys cooperi. Open circles are from Barbour and Davis (1974) and Fassler

(1974); solid circles are for U. of L. specimens; one specimen from the Edmonson-Barren Counties border
is from the collection of Western Kentucky University.

U. of L. collections; all specimens were
taken in winter and early spring months.
Specimens examined by me are as fol-
lows: Breathitt County, 23 (1.6 km E. of
Wilstacy); Fayette County, 4 (1.6 km N.,
3.2 km W. of Athens); Trimble County, 3
(Route 421 at crossing of Little Kentucky
River, and 10.2 km S. of Bedford); Mercer
County, 2 (Ebenezer Road, 3.3 km E. of
Route 127); Franklin County, 2 (3.2 km
E., 4.8 km S. of Graefenburg, and 0.3 km
W., 4.8 km N. of intersection of Routes 49
and I-64); Henry County, | (Route 573,
4.03 km W. of Route 22); Hardin County,
1 (1.6 km S., 1.6 km W. of Westpoint);
McCreary County, 1 (0.8 km W. of Hol-
lyhill); and Bullitt County, 1 (Bernheim
Forest). Two additional specimens were
taken in Pulaski County by Fassler (1974)
but were not examined by me, and one
heretofore unreported specimen from the
Edmonson-Barren Counties border on
Interstate Highway 65, in the collections
of Western Kentucky University, is in-
cluded here.

Statements regarding statistically sig-
nificant differences, or absence thereof,
are based on a probability level of 0.05.

RESULTS

Although my assistants and I have
trapped extensively at all times of the
year, we have taken bog lemmings only
in winter and early spring months. Twen-
ty-four of our specimens were taken in
December, 7 in March and 3 in February,
2 in May and | each in January and April.
Of the 9 counties in which we collected
bog lemmings, 6 had previously not been
included in the known geographic range
of the species in Kentucky (Fig. 1).

A summary of measurements of the
specimens is presented in Tables 1 and
2. Females were more numerous (58%)
than males in our collection. Of 14 ma-
ture females, 5 (36%) were pregnant.

The mean number of fetuses per preg-
nant female was 3.2 (range of 2 to 5); 11
of the fetuses were found in the right
uterine cornua and 5 in the left. Fifteen
specimens (7 males and 8 females) were
immature animals and 23 (9 males and 14
females) were mature.

DISCUSSION

Measurements of specimens examined
by me show no significant differences

92 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 42(3-4)
TABLE 1.—SUMMARY OF EXTERNAL MEASUREMENTS OF BOG LEMMINGS, IN MM. FIGURES IN PARENTHESES |
ARE TWO STANDARDS ERRORS OF THE MEAN
Number in
sample Range Mean
Total length?

Males 16 94-123 106.9 (4.4)
Adults 9 98-123 109.3 (5.7)
Subadults U 94-116 103.9 (6.6)

Females 22, 89-128 106.7 (4.4)
Adults 14 100-128 110.9 (4.9)
Subadults 8 89-116 99.4 (6.4)

Adults of both sexes 28 98-128 110.3 (3.6)

Length of tail?

Males 16 14-20 16.3 (0.8)
Adults 9 14-20 16.1 (1.2)
Subadults 15-19 16.4 (1.2)

Females 22 13-20 16.5 (0.8)
Adults 14 14-20 17.1 (0.8)
Subadults 8 14-20 15.3 (1.2)

Adults of both sexes 23 14-20 16.7 (0.8)

Length of hind foot®

Males 16 14-18 16.9 (0.6)
Adults 9 17-18 17.2 (0.2)
Subadults " 14-18 16.4 (1.0)

Females 22, 13-18 16.4 (0.6)
Adults 14 14-18 16.6 (0.6)
Subadults 8 13-18 16.0 (1.0)

Adults of both sexes 23 14-18 16.9 (0.4)

Length of ear?

Males 16 10-13 11.8 (0.4)
Adults 9 12-13 12.1 (0.2)
Subadults 10-12 11.4 (0.6)

Females 22 8-13 11.5 (0.4)
Adults 14 11-13 11.9 (0.4)
Subadults 8 8-12 10.8 (0.8)

Adults of both sexes 23 11-13 12.0 (0.2)

@ Tip of nose to tip of tail.

> Surface of rump to tip of tail.

© Proximal end of heel to tip of middle digit, excluding claw.

4 Greatest distance from bottom of notch in pinna to margin of pinna.

between sexes with respect to external
linear measurements and weight; bog
lemmings from Kentucky lack sexual di-
morphism. Further, there is no signifi- |
cant deviation (x? = 1.4) from a 50-50 sex |

TABLE 2.—WEIGHT, IN GRAMS, OF BOG LEMMINGS,

EXCLUSIVE OF PREGNANT FEMALES; FIGURES IN

PARENTHESES REPRESENT TWO STANDARD ERRORS
OF THE MEAN

Number i
in i y ratio.
sam ang ar . . .
a abt aw Specimens which I examined from the |
Males 16 17.0-43.0 oe (3.6) presumed range of S. c. stonei (Breathitt |
Subadult 7 17.0-38.7 29.2(5.8) and McCreary Counties) were not signif-
Adult 9 945-430 358136) - }
te: . icantly different in external linear mea- |
Females 17 14.5-43.7 28.2(3.8) surements from those from the presumed
Subadult 8 14.5-32.6 22.7 (4.0) : :
Naa 9 254-43.7 33.0(492) Tange (all other counties represented in,
Leek pele i f S.c. kentucki
Adults ofboth sexes 18 245-437 344(2.8) the U. of L. collection) of S. ¢ ie

(Table 3). In addition, the U. of L. spec-

THE BOG LEMMING IN KENTUCKY—Robinson

93

TABLE 3.—COMPARATIVE MEASUREMENTS OF ADULT BOG LEMMINGS FROM GEOGRAPHIC RANGES OF TWO
SUBSPECIES IN KENTUCKY; FIGURES IN PARENTHESES REPRESENT TWO STANDARD ERRORS OF THE MEAN

Total Length Length of
Number length? of tail? hind foot?
U. of L. specimens
S.c. stonei® 14 111.6 (5.0) MA PATE) 17.1 (0.4)
S. c. kentucki 9 108.1 (5.0) 16.0 (0.9) 16.6 (1.0)
Barbour 1956
S.c. stonei 128. 21.1 20.2
S.c. kentucki il? 18.9 18.8

4 See Table 1 for explanation of measurements.
> From Breathitt and McCreary Counties.

TABLE 4.—POSITION AND SIZE (GREATEST LENGTH X GREATEST WIDTH, IN MM) OF TESTES OF BOG
LEMMINGS; FIGURES IN PARENTHESES REPRESENT TWO STANDARD ERRORS OF THE MEAN

Position Number
Scrotal 9 4.
Inguinal or abdominal 7 2

Range Mean
-~9.6 x 2.5-5.1 5.8 (1.0) x 3.8 (0.6)
—6.0 x 1.5-5.0 4.0 (1.0) x 2.8 (1.0)

imens are collectively smaller in these
measurements than those reported by
Barbour (op. cit.). Inasmuch as one of the
diagnostic characteristics of S. c. ken-
tucki is its smaller size in relation to that
of S. c. stonei, it appears that the range
of S. c. kentucki may be much more ex-
tensive than originally reported.
Breeding for bog lemmings in Ken-
tucky seems to be mainly during the
warm months, although Barbour (1956)
reported taking a pregnant female as ear-
ly as February, and Fassler (1974) took a
pregnant female in Pulaski County as late
as November. Pregnant females were tak-
en by us in the months of December, Jan-
uary, February, March and April, indi-
cating year-round breeding for this
species in Kentucky. The mean number
of fetuses (3.2) found by me is similar to
that reported by Barbour and Davis
(1974). The seeming preference for the
right uterine cornua was not found to be
significantly different (y? = 2.3) from an
expected equal distribution of embryos
between both sides of the uterus. Com-
parison of the mean number of fetuses
per pregnant female (3.2) with the num-

ber of juvenile animals per adult female
(1.1) in winter and early spring indicates
high mortality of juveniles, short life ex-
pectancy, and attainment of sexual ma-
turity at an early age. Male bog lemmings
with scrotal testes were considered to be
adults; those with inguinal or abdominal
testes were considered to be subadults.
Size of testes was not significantly differ-
ent between these two age-classes (Table
4). No determination of spermiogenesis
was attempted, thus no assessment can

TABLE 5.—SIZE OF ADRENAL GLAND (GREATEST

DIAMETER, IN MM) OF BOG LEMMINGS; FIGURES IN

PARENTHESES REPRESENT TWO STANDARD ERRORS
OF THE MEAN

Number Range Mean
Males 16 2.04.3 3.2 (0.4)
Subadults U 2.04.3 3.4 (1.0)
Adult ) D25= 3-9 Sto!)
Females 21 Disie by | hoo)
Subadult i DA = AN 325106)
Adult 14 36 =5 pi 4.44 (Or)
Adults of both sexes 23 De syisy. | <Beoyi(O2))

94

be made regarding reproductive status as
it relates to position and size of testes.

Adrenal glands were excised and mea-
sured to assay, in a superficial way, rela-
tive stress to which individuals had been
exposed. As shown in Table 5, adult fe-
males had significantly larger adrenals
than subadult females, or than males in
general.

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 42(3-4)

LITERATURE CITED

BARBOUR, R. W.

1956. Synaptomys cooperi in |

Kentucky, with description of a new subspe- |

cies. J. Mammal. 37(3):413-416.
, AND W. H. DAVIS.
Kentucky. Univ. Press of Kentucky, Lexington,
KY.
FASSLER, D. J. 1974. Mammals of Pulaski County,
Kentucky. Trans. Kentucky Acad. of Sci. 35(1-
2):37-43.

1974. Mammals of |

|

|
|
|

|

Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 42(3-4), 1981, 95-97

Faunal Composition of Mosquitoes (Diptera: Culicidae)
in Bernheim Forest, Kentucky

C. H. KASTER

Department of Biology, University of Louisville, Louisville, Kentucky 40292

ABSTRACT

Mosquito studies were conducted during 1976-1978 in Bernheim Forest, Kentucky. Eight
species in 6 genera are reported. Anopheles punctipennis (Say) was the dominant species.

INTRODUCTION

Faunal studies of mosquitoes in Ken-
tucky are limited, especially outside of
the Louisville-Jefferson County area.
Quinby et al. (1944) published a checklist
of Kentucky mosquitoes, reporting 42
species from 54 Kentucky counties. Car-
penter (1952) reported 3 additional
species from Kentucky, and Covell (1968,
1971) and Covell and Brownell (1979)
added 3 more mosquito species, bring-
ing the total to 48.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The author gratefully acknowledges
the assistance of A. J. Brownell, L. E.
Canterbury and W. B. Early III in col-
lecting the mosquitoes. C. V. Covell, Jr.
verified identifications of certain species.
The research was supported in part by a
grant from the Isaac W. Bernheim Foun-
dation.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Bernheim Forest, located in Bullitt and
Nelson Counties, is a 5,500 ha privately
owned woodland tract in the knobs area
of Kentucky. Bernheim Forest is a mixed
mesophytic forest dominated by oaks and
hickories, but limited areas of beech-ma-
ple forest also can be found. The forest
easily can be subdivided into developed
and primitive areas. Within the park-like
developed portion (800 ha) of the forest
is an arboretum center, a nature center,
administration buildings and large ex-
panses of lawn. The vast majority of the
property is mixed forest and has not been
developed for public recreation. There
are numerous woodland ponds and
streams throughout the forest.

This study was conducted biweekly
from April through October 1976, 1977
and 1978. These dates approximate the
period that Bernheim Forest is open to
the public. Survey techniques utilized in
the collection of adult mosquitoes includ-
ed the following: New Jersey light trap,
blacklights, established lighting fixtures
in the developed area, sweeping of vege-
tation, and the use of humans as bait for
female mosquitoes. The aquatic environ-
ments sampled for mosquito larvae were
treeholes, intermittent streams, wood-
land ponds, ornamental pools, artificial
containers, lake borders and puddles.

RESULTS

During this study larval and adult mos-
quitoes in 8 species and 6 genera were
identified (Table 1). There were no new
state records, but there were 3 new
Bullitt County records.

Anopheles punctipennis (Say) was the
most commonly collected and abundant
species. Both adult and larval stages were
collected only in the more primitive re-
gions of the forest. Adults were gathered
by sweeping vegetation. The larvae were
found in woodland ponds, intermittent
streams and puddles along fire roads.

Culiseta inornata (Williston) and Man-
sonia perturbans (Walker) are included
in the survey based on single adult spec-
imens of each collected in April 1974,
housed in the University of Louisville in-
sect collection, probably from the devel-
oped area of Bernheim Forest.

Psorophora ciliata (Fabricius) adults
were collected at the lights of the admin-
istration buildings. Adults were abun-
dant at that time, although the species

95

96 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 42(3-4)

TABLE l.

LIST OF MOSQUITO SPECIES, RELATIVE ABUNDANCE, DISTRIBUTION AND COLLECTION DATES

IN BERNHEIM FOREST, KENTUCKY. “A” INDICATES ABUNDANT. RARE, LESS THAN 6 INDIVIDUALS, IS IN-

DICATED BY “R.”” COLLECTION DATES FOR THE SPECIES ARE THE EARLIEST AND LATEST SPECIMENS TAKEN

THROUGHOUT THE STUDY PERIOD AND DO NOT NECESSARILY INDICATE A COMPLETE SERIES. SINGLE
DATES INDICATE THOSE SPECIES WHICH WERE FOUND ONLY ONCE

Area

Species Developed Primitive Collection dates
Aedes canadensis (Theobald)! R April 27-July 12
Aedes vexans (Meigin) R July 12-July 27
Anopheles punctipennis (Say) A July 12-Oct. 15
Culex restuans Theobald A May 23-Aug. 19
Culex territans Walker! A July 2-Oct. 15
Culiseta inornata (Williston)? R April 19, 1974
Mansonia perturbans (Walker)? R April 19, 1974
Psorophora ciliata (Fabricius) A Sept. 8, 1978

' New Bullitt County record.
2 Single specimen UL collection.

was not seen again in the forest. Larvae
were never found.

Culex territans Walker was collected
in both adult and larval stages, the latter
being found in woodland ponds and pud-
dles along fire roads.

The remaining 3 species (Table 1)
were collected as larvae from puddles
along fire roads. The New Jersey light
trap, designed for the urban sampling of
adult mosquitoes, blacklighting and hu-
man bait failed in the sampling of adult
mosquitoes.

DISCUSSION

Covell and Resh (1971) reported on a
reversal in dominance between Culex
pipiens and Culex restuans in urban
Louisville, Kentucky. Culex restuans
was dominant in the spring and early
summer while C. pipiens dominated in
mid-summer through fall in waters where
both species breed. They suggested that
as the water temperature increases it be-
comes increasingly unfavorable for C.
restuans and favorable for C. pipiens. A
similar phenomenon possibly may occur
between C. restuans and C. territans in
Bernheim Forest. Culex territans, as C.
pipiens did in urban areas, dominated
and/or outcompeted C. restuans during
mid-summer through fall in the wood-
lands, the critical factor possibly being an

increase in the water temperature where
the immature stages develop.

The largest numbers of individuals,
and most of the representative species,
were collected from puddles. All species
collected in the larval stage, Aedes cana-
densis, A. vexans, An. punctipennis, C.
restuans and C. territans, were sampled
from these puddles. After periods of rain,
puddles developed in wheelruts along
the fire roads throughout the non-devel-
oped areas of the forest.

After a thorough survey of the forest,
the absence of the treehole mosquito,
Aedes triseriatus (Say), was surprising.
Aedes triseriatus is the most abundant
treehole-breeding mosquito in North
America (Carpenter and LaCasse 1955).
This species has been reported from Ken-
tucky by Quinby et al. (1944), Carpenter
(1952) and Covell (1968).

No control measures against mosqui-
toes have been used in Bernheim Forest
in the past 15-20 years (pers. comm.
Bernheim staff). Bernheim Forest does
not have a problem with mosquitoes, and
has no need for expensive control mea-
sures.

LITERATURE CITED

CARPENTER, S. J. 1952. Notes on mosquitoes in
North America. III. Collections at military in-

MOSQUITOES OF KENTUCKY—Kaster 97

stallations in Kentucky during 1944 and 1945. palpus in abandoned tires in Jefferson County,
Mosq. News 12:252-253. Kentucky. Mosq. News 39:142.
AND W. J. LACASSE. 1955. Mosquitoes in _————— AND V. H. RESH. 1971. Relative abun-
North America. Univ. California Press, Berke- dances of Culex pipiens and Culex restuans in
ley. catch basins in Jefferson County, Kentucky.
COVELL, C. V., JR. 1968. Mosquito control and sur- Mosq. News 31:73-76.
vey in Jefferson County, Kentucky. Mosq. QuinBy, G. E., R. E. SERFLING, AND J. K. NEEL.
News 28:526-529. 1944. Distribution and prevalence of the mos-
. 1971. The occurrence of Aedes stimulans quitoes of Kentucky. J. Econ. Entomol. 37:547—
(Walker) in Kentucky. Mosq. News 31:226. 550.

AND A. J. BROWNELL. 1979. Aedes atro-

Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 42(3-4), 1981, 98-100

Collections of Fishes from the Little Sandy River and
Tygarts Creek Drainages, Kentucky

BRANLEY A. BRANSON, DONALD L. BATCH, AND STEPHEN RICE!

Department of Biological Sciences, Eastern Kentucky University, Richmond, Kentucky 40475

ABSTRACT

Collections of fishes from 9 Little Sandy River sites and 2 from Tygarts Creek disclosed 42
species distributed in 9 families and 25 genera. Seven species previously unreported from the
streams are listed: Lampetra aepyptera, Ichthyomyzon bdellium, Moxostoma macrolepidotum,
Notropis spilopterus, Notropis stramineus, Hybopsis aestivalis, and Hybopsis storeriana.

INTRODUCTION

The Little Sandy River and Tygarts
Creek are among the highest-quality
streams in Kentucky. The Little Sandy
River basin lies in Boyd, Carter, Elliott,
Lawrence and Rowan Counties, draining
about 1,865 km?; the main stream is ap-
proximately 135 km in length. Tygarts
Creek rises in southwestern Carter Coun-
ty and flows approximately 177 km. Both
streams are direct tributaries of the Ohio
River. The only recent fish surveys of
these drainages are those of Brewer
(1969, 1980), dealing with the muskel-
lunge, Carter (1970), Evenhuis (1972),
and Harker (1979).

Thus, relatively meagre information is
available on the fish faunas of the 2
streams. Because there is an increasing
need for information on the distribution
of aquatic organisms for water-use plan-
ning and conservation measures, the fol-
lowing data are presented for fishes col-
lected from 9 sites on the Little Sandy
River and 2 on Tygarts Creek.

COLLECTING STATIONS

Station 1: Little Sandy River at State
Highway 32, near Sandy Hook, Elliott
Co. 8 May 1970.

Station 2: South Fork of Little Sandy
River (North Creek) at State Highway
506, Elliott Co. 9 May 1970.

Station 3: Wells Creek at State High-
way 705, Elliott Co. 8 May 1970.

1 Kentucky Department of Transportation.

98

Station 4: Little Creek at State High-
way 773, Carter Co. 9 May 1970.

Station 5: Little Sandy River at mouth
of Bellamy Branch, near Oldtown,
Greenup Co. 1 November 1979.

Station 6: Little Sandy River, near Ar-
gillite, Greenup Co. 9 October 1979.

Station 7: Little Sandy River at State
Highway 1, Greenup Co. 9 October 1979.

Station 8: Little Sandy River at Pacto-
lus, Carter Co. 1 July 1975.

Station 9: Little Sandy River, 1.0 km
below Grayson, Carter Co. 26 June 1975.

Station 10: Tygarts Creek at State
Highway 207, Carter Co. 10 May 1970.

Station 11: Tygarts Creek at U.S. High-
way 60, Carter Co. 14 May 1970.

RESULTS

Our collections from the 2 drainages
include 42 species distributed through 9
families and 25 genera (Table 1). Al-
though the largest percentage of those
species enjoy a relatively wide distribu-
tion in the commonwealth, others have
restricted ranges. Some of the species are
of interest because of conservation is-
sues, and others either represent first rec-
ords from the drainages in question or
confirmation of earlier records.

Etheostoma zonale. The only other
records for this handsome darter in the
Little Sandy system are from the East
Fork of the Little Sandy and from Big
Stinking Creek (Harker 1979).

Percina sciera. The occurence of this
large darter in the eastern third of Ken-
tucky is based upon scattered records. In

FISHES OF KENTUCKY—Branson, Batch and Rice 99

TABLE |.—DISTRIBUTION OF FISHES COLLECTED FROM LITTLE SANDY RIVER AND TYGARTS CREEK,
KENTUCKY

bo
wo

Species 1

Collecting stations

4 5 6 7 8 9 10 ll

Lampetra aepyptera

Ichthyomyzon bdellium
Lepisosteus osseus

Esox americana Xx
Campostoma anomalum
Rhinichthys atratulus

Semotilus atromaculatus
Clinostomus funduloides
Pimephales promelas

Pimephales notatus x X
Ericymba buccata x XxX Xx
Nocomis micropogon

Hybopsis storeriana

Hybopsis aestivalis

Notropis cornutus xX Xx
Notropis spilopterus
Notropis ardens
Notropis photogenis
Notropis atherinoides
Notropis stramineus
Hypentelium nigricans
Catostomus commersoni X
Moxostoma macrolepidotum x
Moxostoma erythrurum

Noturus miurus xX
Percopsis omiscomaycus

Micropterus punctulatus XxX
Micropterus dolomieui

Pomoxis annularis

Ambloplites rupestris

Lepomis megalotis x xX
Lepomis macrochirus X
Lepomis cyanellus
Ammocrypta pellucida
Percina caprodes
Percina maculata
Percina sciera
Etheostoma nigrum
Etheostoma flabellare
Etheostoma zonale
Etheostoma caeruleum xX
Etheostoma blennioides

~ KM
xx

ms

KK x

nw

wx x
A

xX x Xx

~~

x xX

Kx

SA

~
nA A
KKM MM
Aw

> bd Dd
bd bd Dd Dt Dd De
baiadiod a a

Sie
Sadia Te.
Pas
bald ibd pd bide

bd bd Dd Od Od

the Little Sandy River and Tygarts
Creek, the only other records are those of
Harker (1979) from the East Fork of the
Little Sandy River and 1 site on Big
Stinking Creek.

Likewise, Harker’s (1979) records for
the longnose gar (Big Stinking Creek),
the black redhorse and fathead minnow
(both from Ruin Creek) are the only other

records for those species in the 2 drain-
ages.

Clinostomus funduloides, listed by the
Kentucky Nature Preserves Commission
as of special concern, is considerably
more abundant in the Tennessee River
Drainage of western Kentucky (Burr and
Mayden 1979). Harker (1979) reported a
few specimens from Ruin Creek and from

100

the Little South Fork of the Little Sandy
River. The 12 specimens reported here
(35.0-59.5 mm in standard length) in-
clude several breeding males. In the lat-
ter, virtually every scale bears nuptial tu-
bercles and there are lines of them on the
opercles and branchiostegals.

NEW RECORDS

The following species are reported
for the first time from these drainages:
Moxostoma macrolepidotum (Station 3),
Notropis stramineus (Stations 4 and 9),
Hybopsis aestivalis (Station 7), Hybopsis
storeriana (Station 7), Notropis spilop-
terus (Station 7), Lampetra aepyptera
(Stations 5, 7 and 9), and Ichthyomyzon
bdellium (Station 11).

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 42(3-4)

LITERATURE CITED

BREWER, D. L. 1969. Musky studies project pro-
gress report. Ky. Dept. Fish Wild. Res. F-31-R.
1980. A study of native muskellunge
populations in eastern Kentucky streams. Ky.
Dept. Fish Wildl. Res. Bull. 64:1-107.

Burr, B. M., AND R. L. MAYDEN. 1979. Records of
fishes in western Kentucky with additions to
the known fauna. Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci. 40:58-
67.

CARTER, J. P. 1970. Survey and classification of six
Kentucky streams. Ky. Dept. Fish. Wildl]. Res.
Spec. Rept. 35-2.

EVENHUIS, B. L. 1972. Inventory and classification
of streams in the Little Sandy River, Tygarts
Creek and Kinniconick Creek drainages. Ky.
Dept. Fish Wildl. Res. F-35-1-5.

HARKER, D. F. 1979. Aquatic biota and water qual-
ity survey of the Appalachian Province, eastern
Kentucky. Ky. Nat. Pres. Comm. Tech. Rept. 6.
208.

Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 42(3-4), 1981, 101-105

An Unreported Cedar Glade in
Warren County, Kentucky

GEORGE P. JOHNSON

Department of Biology, Western Kentucky University, Bowling Green, Kentucky 42101

ABSTRACT

Investigations in Warren County, Kentucky, revealed an unreported cedar glade occurring on
Mississippian limestone. A collection of vascular plants from this glade, and from a smaller glade-
like area nearby, yielded 91 species and 79 genera of 42 families, including the cedar glade
endemic, Leavenworthia torulosa (Brassicaceae). The smaller glade-like site was destroyed by

construction activities after this study began.

INTRODUCTION

Kentucky cedar glades have been de-
scribed from Bullitt (Baskin and Baskin
1975), Hart, Logan, Simpson and Warren
Counties (Baskin and Baskin 1978). This
paper reports the vascular flora of a ce-
dar glade and a small glade-like site in
Warren County, which were approxi-
mately 3,000 m? and 225 m? in size, re-
spectively. The smaller site was an open-
stone pavement habitat. The larger site
contained open-stone pavement and
brushy thicket habitats.

METHODS

Collections of vascular plants were
made biweekly from both sites from 17
April to 1 October, 1980. Site and habitat
data were recorded for each species col-
lected. Voucher specimens were depos-
ited in the Herbarium of Western Ken-
tucky University and in VDB (Holmgren
and Keuken 1974). Nomenclature and ar-
rangement of families follows Cranfill
(1980) for ferns and fern allies and Glea-
son and Cronquist (1963) for all other
taxa.

DESCRIPTION OF STUDY AREA

The study area was located just outside
of Bowling Green, Warren County
(86°29'30", 36°59'30”), approximately 2.1
km northwest of the intersection of U.S.
Highways 231 and 68. Both sites oc-

curred on Ste. Genevieve Limestone of

Mississippian age (Shawe 1963), at an el-
evation of 137 m.

The large cedar glade was located on
the south side of Jennings Creek, 75 m
south of Highway 231. The glade was
aligned in an east-west direction and was
approximately 150 m in length and 20 m
in width. The surface of the glade con-
sisted of a flat stone pavement dotted
with numerous shallow depressions, and
stone blocks dissected by cracks up to |
m in depth. These features are the result
of the dissolution of limestone by water
and are known as lapies-type karst
(McGrain 1979).

The small glade-like area was located
on the north side of Jennings Creek on
the side of a small knoll. This site was
also aligned in an east-west direction and
was approximately 35 m long and 3.5 m
wide. The surface of the site was a flat
stone pavement situated between rocky
terraces. The stone pavement was also
dotted by numerous shallow depressions.

DISCUSSION

A total of 91 species and 79 genera of
42 families of vascular plants was col-
lected from the cedar glade and from the
smaller glade-like area. The most signif
icant species found, Leavenworthia to-
rulosa, occurred on the larger site. Leav-
enworthia torulosa, a cedar glade
endemic, has been listed as threatened in
Kentucky (Ayensu and DeFilipps 1978).
Leavenworthia uniflora was found on
both sites.

Other collections of L. torulosa in Ken-
tucky have been made by Short in 1840

101

102

(Rollins 1963), and more recently by Bas-
kin and Baskin (1977) and Channell and
Rollins (Rollins 1963). Baskin and Baskin
(1977) were unable to locate Rollins’
Warren County population, but located
an additional Warren County population
as well as one in Logan County.

The significance of Leavenworthia to-
rulosa at this undescribed glade is the
population size. The 2 populations found
by the Baskins in Warren and Logan
Counties were located in areas of 8 m?
and 7.5 m?*, respectively. This unde-
scribed population covered 100 m? of the
glade; and the plants grew together in
dense mats. Rollins (1963) noted that L.
uniflora was adapted to drier habitat con-
ditions than the other species of the ge-
nus. This may account for the occurrence
of only L. uniflora on the small glade-like
area. The soil of this site was drier and
sandier. On the large glade, the 2 spe-
cies of Leavenworthia grew in differ-
ent locations; L. uniflora was located on
the drier portions of the glade.

The open-stone pavement of the large
glade supported herbaceous species in
the soil-filled depressions. Species com-
monly found there included Nothoscor-
dum bivalve, Draba verna, Sedum pul-
chellum, Leavenworthia torulosa, Croton
monanthogynus, Opuntia compressa,
Hypericum dolabriforme, Ruellia humi-
lis, Isanthus brachiatus and Leucospora
multifida. A small transient pool occu-
pying the center of the glade contained
Rumex crispus, Portulaca oleracea and
Panicum anceps.

The area of dissected stone blocks sup-
ported the brushy thicket habitat of the
large glade and contained bedrock cracks
with enough soil to support the following
woody vegetation: Juniperus virginiana,
Bumelia lycioides, Rhus aromatica, Ul-
mus alata, and Forestiera ligustrina. The
herbaceous species Sedum pulchellum,
Ophioglossum engelmannii, Woodsia ob-
tusa, Uniola latifolia, Arisaema dracon-
tium and Elephantopus carolinianus
were also common.

The soil-filled depressions of the small
glade-like area supported such herba-

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 42(3-4)

ceous species as Arenaria patula, Viola
rafinesquii, Cardamine hirsuta, Leaven-
worthia uniflora, Sedum pulchellum,
Trifolium procumbens, Croton monan-
thogynus, Hypericum dolabriforme, Is-
anthus brachiatus and Ruellia humilis.
The rock ledges bordering the stone
pavement supported both herbaceous ©
and woody species. Juniperus virginia-
na, Aquilegia canadensis, Celtis tenui-
folia, Rhus aromatica, Verbascum thap-
sus, Allium vineale, Bumelia lycioides
and Verbesina virginica were common in
this area. Also growing along the ledges
were Trillium viride and Silene virgini-
ca, which indicate the presence of a dif-
ferent habitat type adjacent to the ex-
posed limestone sometime in the past.

Of the species of plants found on Ken-
tucky cedar glades, some are considered
to be common species, others are consid-
ered to be characteristic of cedar glades.
Of the 15 species listed by Baskin and
Baskin (1975) as characteristic of cedar
glades, 7 were found on the large glade,
and 4 on the small glade-like area. As a
comparison, the glade found in southern
Warren County (Baskin and Baskin 1978)
supported 3 of these characteristic
species.

LIST OF SPECIES!
Ophioglossaceae

Ophioglossum engelmannii Prantl. (1334;
IT)

Aspleniaceae

Asplenium platyneuron (L.) Oakes (1247,
1292: 1T)

Woodsia obtusa (Spreng.) Torr. (1293,
LS7Gl RS S62 les)

Cupressaceae
Juniperus virginiana L. (1261; 1T, 2R)

' The first number in parentheses is the collection
number(s) of the species, the second is the location
of the collection: 1 = large glade, 2 = small glade-
like area; T = thicket, L = limestone pavement,
R = rock ledges.

CEDAR GLADE IN KENTUCKY—Johnson

Poaceae
Andropogon virginicus L. (1407; 1L)
Panicum anceps Michx. (1350; 1L)
Uniola latifolia Michx. (1349; 1T)

Araceae

Arisaema dracontium (L.) Schott. (1248;
1T)
Liliaceae
Allium vineale L. (1283, 1319; 2R)
Asparagus officinalis L. (1377; 1L)
Nothoscordum bivalve (L.) Britt. (1218;
JUL)
Smilax bona-nox L. (1324, 1346; 2R)
Trillium viride Beck (1335; 2R)

Amaryllidaceae
Agave virginica L. (1372; 1L)

Ulmaceae

Celtis laevigata Willd. (1363; 1T)

Celtis occidentalis L. (1245, 1331; 1T,
2R)

Celtis tenuifolia Nutt. (1244; 2R)

Ulmus alata Michx. (1243, 1250, 1251,
265: aly JR)

Ulmus rubra Muhl. (1267, 1272, 1329;
2R)

Moraceae
Morus rubra L. (1246, 1332; 1T, 2R)

Polygonaceae
Rumex crispus L. (1290; 1L)

Phytolaccaceae
Phytolacca americana L. (1362; 1L)

Portulacaceae
Portulaca oleracea L. (1358; 1L)

Caryophyllaceae
Arenaria patula Michx. var. patula
(1219, 1269; 2L)
Cerastium viscosum L. (1224; 2L)
Silene virginica L. (1266; 2R)

Ranunculaceae

Aquilegia canadensis L. (1262; 2R)
Clematis viorna L. (1394; 2R)

103

Brassicaceae
Cardamine hirsuta L. (1221; 2L)
Draba verna lay 22.0, 1225. lk, 218)
Leavenworthia torulosa Gray (1212; 1L)
Leavenworthia uniflora (Michx.) Britt.
CIPAUE, TANS UES SAT)

Crassulaceae

Sedum pulchellum Michx. (1216, 1222:
ly J Rs 241 Gy)

Platanaceae
Platanus occidentalis L. (1322; 2R)

Rosaceae
Potentilla simplex Michx. (1268; 2L)
Prunus serotina Ehrh. (1270; 2R)

Fabaceae
Cassia marilandica L. (1307; 2R)
Gleditsia triacanthos L. (1254; 1T)
Trifolium procumbens L. (1275, 1376,
IS WReys ol DE, PALL;

Oxalidaceae
Oxalis dillenii Jacq. (1354; 2L)

Geraniaceae
Geranium carolinianum L. (1255, 1282:
Wis PAG)

Euphorbiaceae
Croton monanthogynus Michx. (1351,
Ikstetoe JUL, PAG)
Euphorbia dentata Michx. (1399; 1L)
Euphorbia maculata L. (1382; 1L, 2L)
Euphorbia preslii Guss. (1388; 1L)

Anacardiaceae
Rhus aromatica Ait. (1252, 1295, 1326,
L352. le ZR)
Rhus copallinum L. (1310; 2R)

Vitaceae
Parthenocissus quinquefolia (L.) Planch.
(1330; 2R)
Hypericaceae
Hypericum dolabriforme Vent. (1297,
L298 MSS verlei4 Wine Ts)

104

Violaceae
Viola rafinesquii Greene (1215, 1223; 1L,
Qe)

Passifloraceae
Passiflora incarnata L. (1320; 2R)
Passiflora lutea L. (1395; 1T)

Cactaceae
Opuntia compressa (Salisb.) Macbr.
(Cele Tbs 241G))

Apiaceae
Chaerophyllum tainturieri Hook. (1271,
We bE PAG)
Daucus carota L. (1294, 1296; 1L, 2L)
Sanicula canadensis L. (1365; 1T)
Torilis japonica (Houtt.) DC. (1299; 2R)

Sapotaceae
Bumelia lycioides (L.) Pers. (1309, 1317,
1400-12)

Oleaceae
Forestiera ligustrina (Michx.) Poir. (1256,
I367,-1397- 11, 2R)
Ligustrum vulgare L. (1313, 1345; 2R)

Convolvulaceae
Ipomoea pandurata (L.) G. F. W. Meyer
(1360; 2R)
Hydrophyllaceae
Phacelia purshii Buckl. (1259; 2R)

Boraginaceae

Myosotis macrosperma Engelm. (1253;
1T)

Verbenaceae
Verbena simplex Lehm. (1287; 1L)

Lamiaceae
Tsanthus brachiatus (L.) BSP (1384, 1398,
1401, 1403; 1L, 2L)
Saloiatlyrata lu. (1264) 1278; 1L, 2h)
Scutellaria parvula Michx. (1241, 1263,
iSO le. 21)

Scrophulariaceae
Leucospora multifida (Michx.) Nutt.
(1385, 1405; 1L)

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 42(3-4)

Penstemon sp. (1344; 2R)
Verbascum thapsus L. (1305; 2R)

Acanthaceae

Ruellia humilis Nutt. (1347, 1375, 1381,
1392 WIE 21)

Plantaginaceae

Plantago aristata Michx. (1303; 2L)

Plantago lanceolata L. (1260, 1301, 1406;
Lies 218)

Plantago rugelii Decne. (1302; 2L)

Plantago virginica L. (1276; 1L)

Rubiaceae
Houstonia pusilla Schoepf. (1217; 1T)

Caprifoliaceae
Lonicera japonica Thunb. (1369; IT)
Sambucus canadensis L. (1288; 1T)

Asteraceae

Ambrosia artemisiifolia L. (1383; 2L)

Carduus nutans L. (1300, 1321, 1328; 2L)

Chrysanthemum leucanthemum L. (1249,
L273 see. 215)

Cichorium intybus L. (1380; 1L)

Elephantopus carolinianus Willd. (1391;
1T)

Erigeron annuus (L.) Pers. (1308, 1314;
PAG)

Erigeron strigosus Muhl. (1242, 1368;
The, OL)

Lactuca serriola L. (1357; 2L)

Pyrrhopappus carolinianus (Walt.) DC.
(1306; 2L)

Rudbeckia triloba L. (1404; 2R)

Tragopogon dubius Scop. (1312; 2R)

Verbesina virginica L. (1390; 2R)

Vernonia altissima Nutt. (1402; 1T)

CONCLUSION

A total of 91 species and 79 genera of
42 families of vascular plants were col-
lected from the 2 sites. Based on the
species present and the physical nature
of the sites it is indicated that both the
glade and the smaller glade-like area
have been disturbed in the past. Even
during the course of this study the small-
er site was destroyed by construction ac-
tivities. Because of the status of L. toru-

CEDAR GLADE IN KENTUCKY—TJohnson

losa, and the size of this population,
special attention should be given to pro-
tection of this cedar glade.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I extend my appreciation to Dr. Ken-
neth A. Nicely of Western Kentucky Uni-
versity for help in identification of certain
taxa, for verification of identifications and
for help in preparation of this manuscript.
I also wish to thank Terry Jureka for help
in preparation of the manuscript.

LITERATURE CITED

AYENSU, E. S., AND R. A. DEFILIPpPS. 1978. En-
dangered and threatened plants of the United
States. Smithsonian Institution and the World
Wildlife Fund, Inc., Washington, D.C.

BASKIN, C. C., AND J. M. BASKIN. 1975. The cedar
glade flora of Bullitt County, Kentucky. Casta-
nea 40:184-190.

BASKIN, J. M., AND C. C. BASKIN. 1977. Leaven-
worthia torulosa Gray: an endangered plant
species in Kentucky. Castanea 42:15-17.

105

1978. Plant ecology of cedar glades in
the Big Barren region of Kentucky. Rhodora
80:545-557.

CRANFILL, R. 1980. Ferns and fern allies of Ken-
tucky. Kentucky Nature Preserves Commis-
sion, Frankfort, Kentucky. Scientific and Tech-
nical Series, No. 1.

GLEASON, H. A., AND A. CRONQUIST. 1963. Manual
of vascular plants of Northeastern United States
and adjacent Canada. D. Van Nostrand Co.,
Princeton, New Jersey.

HOLMGREN, P. K., AND W. KEUKEN (COMPILERS).
1974. Index herbariorum. Part 1. The herbaria
of the world. 6th ed. Regnum Vegetabile 92.
Utrecht, Netherlands.

McGanral, P. 1979. Recognition of lapies-type fea-
tures in the Kentucky Karst—an example of ap-
plied geomorphology. Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci.
40:21-26.

ROLLINS, R. C. 1963. The evolution and system-
atics of Leavenworthia (Cruciferae). Cont.
Gray Herbarium. 192:3-98.

SHAWE, F. R. 1963. Geology of the Bowling Green
South Quadrangle, Kentucky-Warren County,
Map GQ-235. U.S. Geological Survey, Wash-
ington, D.C.

Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 42(3-4), 1981, 106-107

A Note on the Occurrence of Chologaster agassizt
(Amblyopsidae) in Kentucky

WILLIAM ALLEN ROBISON

East Central Reservoir Investigations, Federal Building,
Bowling Green, Kentucky 42101

ABSTRACT
A single spring cavefish Chologaster agassizi specimen was collected on 10 October 1980 in
the Barren River between Warren and Allen Counties, Kentucky. Data for five other previously
unreported spring cave fish specimens from Allen and Monroe Counties, Kentucky are also in-

cluded.

Clay (1975) reported the spring cave-
fish, Chologaster agassizi, from Cedar
Sinks in Edmonson County, a spring-fed
tributary of the Red River in Logan
County, and from temporary springs near
Rich Pond in Warren County. McDonald
and Pflieger (1979) reported this species
from southeastern Missouri and Burr
(1980) reported a specimen from a small
stream of the Pond River drainage in
Muhlenburg County, Kentucky.

Hill (1966, 1968) made an extensive
study of the Rich Pond area and others
reported on the biology of this species
(Woods and Inger 1957, Poulson 1963).
Most observations of this fish occur in
close proximity to underground springs
that flow to the surface.

On 10 October 1980, 1 spring cave-
fish (ECRI #87) was collected while
electrofishing in the Barren River ap-
proximately 0.8 km upstream from the
Highway 101 bridge near the west bank
(Warren County). The fish was 35 mm
long and weighed about 0.5 gram.

Although the spring cavefish is not un-
common in this area of Kentucky, it pre-
viously has not been reported from the
Barren River. The west bank of the Bar-
ren River is steep and rocky in this area
with apparently one or two small springs
occasionally emptying into the river.
Most likely this lone specimen found its
way to the surface via the springs. De-
spite 6 previous electrofishing samples
(April-September) taken in this same
area in 1980 and one sample taken in Jan-

uary, 1981, no other spring cavefish were
observed.

Bonny Laflin (pers. comm.), Kentucky
Department of Fish and Wildlife, has col-
lected 5 spring cavefish specimens
from Allen and Monroe Counties, Ken-
tucky. Two of these were taken from Lit-
tle Trammel Creek off Highway 31-E on
5 August 1975 in Allen County, Ken-
tucky. Two additional specimens were
also collected in Allen County on 21 June
1976 from Rough Creek below the mouth
of Flagg Lick Creek. The specimen from
Monroe County was found in Peter
Creek north of Lamb, Kentucky off High-
way 249 on 19 July 1976.

It is uncertain if any of these collec-
tions indicate established populations in
these areas. Additional sampling during
months of heavy rainfall may help to de-
termine if this is the case.

Acknowledgment is made to Mr. Ken
Jacobs, Mr. Bill Swink, and to East Cen-
tral Reservoir Investigations for assis-
tance with fieldwork and review of the
manuscript. I also thank Mr. Bonny Laf-
lin for providing access to his collecting
records.

LITERATURE CITED

Burr, B. M. 1980. A distributional checklist of the
fishes of Kentucky. Brimleyana 3:53-84.

CiLay, W. M. 1975. The fishes of Kentucky. Ky.
Dept. Fish. Wildl. Res., Frankfort, Ky.

Hii, L. G. 1966. Studies on the biology of the
spring cavefish Chologaster agassizi (Putnam).
Ph.D. dissertation (unpubl.) Univ. Louisville,
Louisville, Ky.

106

SPRING CAVEFISH IN KENTUCKY—Robison 107

1968. Oxygen preference in the spring
cavefish Chologaster agassizi. Trans. Am. Fish.
Soc. 97:448-454.

MCDONALD, E. F., AND W. L. PFLIEGER. 1979.
The spring cavefish Chologaster agassizi
(Pisces: Amblyopsidae) in southeastern Mis-
souri. Amer. Midl. Nat. 102:194-196.

POULSON, T. L. 1963. Cave adaptation in amblyop-
sid fishes. Amer. Midl. Nat. 70:257-290.

Woops, L. P., AND R. F. INGER. 1957. The cave,
spring, and swamp fishes of the family Am-
blyopsidae of central and eastern Unites States.
Amer. Midl. Nat. 58:232-256.

Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 42(3-4), 1981, 108-109

First Report of Tridens strictus (Nuttall)
Nash (Poaceae) from Kentucky

EDWARD W. CHESTER AND A. FLOYD SCOTT

Department of Biology, Austin Peay State University,
Clarksville, Tennessee 37040

ABSTRACT

The occurence of Tridens strictus (Nuttall) Nash (Poaceae) in Todd County, Kentucky is
reported. This is the first record of the species in the state, representing a range extension from

contiguous states.

The genus Tridens Roemer and Schultz
(Triodia R. Brown) includes a group of
perennial grasses (Poaceae; Festuceae)
from America and Australia (Fernald
1950). Kentucky vascular flora checklists
by McFarland (1942) and Braun (1943),
as well as more recent manuals (Fernald
1950, Hitchcock 1950, Radford, Ahles,
and Bell 1968, Godfrey and Wooten
1979), record only one species, T. flavus
(L.) Hitchcock, from Kentucky. A second
species, T. strictus (Nuttall) Nash, is re-
ported here as an addition to the known
Kentucky flora.

Tridens strictus is a cespitose peren-
nial with stout, erect culms up to 1.5 m
high. The panicles are dense, contracted,
and spike-like, 1-3 dm long and 1-2 cm
thick. As noted by Mohlenbrock (1973),
except for the purplish spikelets and
characters of the lemmas, this species in
no way resembles the more common T.
flavus. The habitat, as described in re-
gional manuals, is usually moist, open
woods and pine savannahs eastward and
moist to wet prairies and fields or open
woodlands westward.

The distribution of T. strictus is gen-
erally reported to be from Virginia south-
ward to Florida, westward to Texas, and
northward to Illinois. Its apparent infre-
quency in many areas is noted by Sharp
et al. (1956) for Tennessee, Radford,
Ahles, and Bell (1968) for the Carolinas,
Mohlenbrock (1973) for Illinois, and Cor-
rell and Correll (1975) for Texas and

Oklahoma. However, Steyermark (1963)
indicated a rather general distribution in
southern Missouri.

In the summer and fall of 1980, T.
strictus was found in abundance around
ponded cinder areas of the Louisville and
Nashville Railroad switching yards and
in vacant lots within the city limits of
Guthrie, Todd County. In wet, recently
cleared fields just east of Guthrie, T.
strictus occurred in dense stands, fre-
quently overtopping such common asso-
ciates as Erechtites hieracifolia, Hibis-
cus moscheutos, Leersia oryzoides,
Pluchea camphorata, Rhynchospora cor-
niculata, and Verbena hastata. A few
plants were also observed in less recently
disturbed areas along fencerows and rail-
road rights-of-way. It is assumed that
these plants provided the seed source for
the recently cleared areas. While it is ob-
vious that recent disturbance and clear-
ing provided a suitable habitat for estab-
lishment of the large and dense stands
observed, it is unknown whether or not
the Kentucky populations are the result
of recent invasions. In any event, T. stric-
tus is well established in southern Ken-
tucky and should be considered a part of
the state’s flora.

Voucher specimens are on deposit in
the herbarium of Austin Peay State Uni-
versity (APSU) with the following data:
Todd County, Kentucky; 10 Sept., 1980,
L. and N. Railroad switching yard, south
Guthrie, Scott and Chester, 4497; 10

108

TRIDENS STRICTUS IN KENTUCKY—Chester and Scott

Sept., 1980, wet, recently cleared sec-
tions of Guthrie Swamp, Scott and Ches-
ter, 4499.

LITERATURE CITED

BRAUN, E. Lucy. 1943. An annotated catalog of the
spermatophytes of Kentucky. John S. Swift Co.,
Inc., Cincinnati.

CORRELL, D. S., AND H. B. CORRELL. 1975. Aquat-
ic and wetland plants of the Southwestern
United States. Stanford Univ. Press, Stanford,
Ca.

FERNALD, M. L. 1950. Gray’s manual of botany,
Ed. 8. American Book Co., New York.

GODFREY, R. K., AND J. W. WOOTEN. 1979. Aquatic
and wetland plants of Southeastern United
States, Monocotyledons. Univ. Georgia Press,
Athens.

109

HircHcock, A. S. 1950. Manual of the grasses of
the United States, Ed. 2, revised by A. Chase.
U.S.D.A. Misc. Publ. 200.

MCFARLAND, F. T. 1942. A catalogue of the vas-
cular plants of Kentucky. Castanea 7:77-108.

MOHLENBROCK, R. H. 1973. The illustrated flora
of Illinois, grasses, Panicum to Danthonia.
Southern Illinois Univ. Press, Carbondale.

RADFORD, A. E., H. E. AHLES, AND C. R. BELL.
1968. Manual of the vascular flora of the Car-
olinas. Univ. North Carolina Press, Chapel
Hill.

SHARP, A. J., R. E. SHANKS, J. K. UNDERWOOD, AND
E. MCGILLARD. 1956. A preliminary checklist
of monocots in Tennessee. Manuscript. Univ.
Tennessee, Knoxville.

STEYERMARK, J. A. 1963. Flora of Missouri. Iowa
State Univ. Press, Ames.

Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 42(3-4), 1981, 110-115

Establishment and Growth of Woody Plants on Rock and
Rock Debris in Eastern Kentucky

FOSTER LEVY
Pikeville College, Box 535, Pikeville, Kentucky 41501

ABSTRACT

Ten sites on roadcuts in Floyd and Pike Counties in eastern Kentucky were sampled for woody
vegetation. For each individual plant, data were collected on height, age, and exposure of slope
and depth of rock debris where growth occurred. The most common and widespread species
were Acer negundo and Platanus occidentalis. Factors that appear to favor invasion and survival
include wind-blown seeds, the ability to germinate when covered, and rapid early growth. Some
species, such as Pinus spp., are restricted to areas with little debris accumulations. On roadcuts
in eastern Kentucky, establishment of tree species is favored over herbaceous ones.

INTRODUCTION

A striking feature of the landscape in
eastern Kentucky is the roadcuts through
the mountains constructed as a series of
benches approximately 10 feet in width
alternating with highwalls of variable
heights. There is no true soil on these
benches, and vegetation becomes estab-
lished on bare rock or gravelly rock de-
bris (talus) derived from fragmentation of
rock strata above and on the mini-talus
slopes formed at the base of each bench.

The study area of Floyd and Pike
Counties lies within the rugged eastern
area of the Alleghany-Cumberland phys-
iographic region (Fenneman 1938), and
thus within the Mixed Mesophytic Forest
Region as described by Braun (1950).
The bedrock, of Carboniferous age, con-
sists of horizontal layers of sedimentary
rocks, mainly sandstones and shales with
scattered coal seams and occasional lime-
stone outcrops. Exposure of the rocks as
highwalls, and subsequent weathering,
leads to the accumulation of rock frag-
ments on the benches. Rapid weathering
of shale produces soil-size particles (Vo-
gel 1973).

The establishment of natural vegeta-
tion on these roadcuts provides a natural
laboratory to study species that can be-
come established and grow on rock and
rock-derived substrates in which a top-
soil has never been present. In this study,
roadcuts in Floyd and Pike Counties,
Kentucky, were inventoried to assess the

establishment, survival, growth charac-
teristics, and successional relationships
of the woody species which colonize
those habitats.

METHODS

Benches of roadcuts of Route 23, be-
tween Robinson Creek and Prestons-
burg, Kentucky, were sampled for woody
vegetation from April to October, 1980.
A bench was deemed suitable for sam-
pling if it (1) was wide enough to permit
safe access on foot; (2) was long enough
to contain 100 arboreal woody plants; and
(3) contained no evidence of edge effects
in the sampling area. To avoid edge ef-
fects, no samples were taken close to the
lateral edge of a bench where species
may invade by runners or where soil
buildup may occur. Once an area was
designated as suitable for sampling, ar-
boreal species were inventoried along
that bench until data were gathered on
100 individuals. Thus, the first 100 trees
or shrubs encountered was our sampling
unit.

Each individual was measured for
height, aged by counting terminal bud
scars or annual growth rings, and the
depth of the accumulated rock debris it
was growing in was recorded. (No height
or diameter limits were placed on indi-
viduals.) Ages of benches in the study
areas ranged from 3 to 8 years. Ten
sites were inventoried, 5 sites had
northerly and 5 had southerly expo-

110

Woobpy PLANTS IN EASTERN KENTUCKY—Levy

TABLE |.—SPECIES ON ROADCUTS IN EASTERN
KENTUCKY, NUMBER OF INDIVIDUALS PER SPECIES,
AND NUMBER OF STUDY SITES PRESENT ON (MAX.

= i)

No. No.

Species indiv. sites

Acer negundo L. 304 10
A. rubrum L. 34 4
A. saccharinum L. 7 2
A. saccharum Marsh. 8 3
Ailanthus altissima Swingle 9 3
Albizia julibrissin Durazz. fe) 3
Betula lenta L. 20 1
B. nigra L. 4 1
Celtis occidentalis L. 3 1
Cercis canadensis L. 16 6
Cornus florida L. 4 2
Diospyros virginiana L. 16 4
Fraxinus americana L. 32 8
Juniperus virginiana L. 6 5)
Liquidambar styraciflua L. it 2
Ligustrum sp. 4 2
Liriodendron tulipifera L. 106 Zt
Oxydendrum arboreum DC. 3 2
Pinus spp. 60 7
Platanus occidentalis L. 267 10
Prunus serotina Ehrh. 14 3
Quercus velutina Lam. il 1
Robinia pseudo-acacia L. eS 1
Salix sericea Marsh. 25 5
Sassafras albidum Nees 1 1
Ulmus americana L. oy 8

sures. A total of 1,000 individual trees
and shrubs were included in the sam-
pling of the vegetation. In addition, soil-
debris samples were collected from 4
locations and analyzed by the University
of Kentucky for texture, water-holding
capacity, organic matter, soil water pH,
phosphorous, and potassium.

Voucher specimens have been depos-
ited in the Pikeville College Herbarium.
Nomenclature follows Gleason and Cron-
quist (1963).

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

A total of 26 species of shrubs and trees
was encountered in the sampling (Table
1). Eight species accounted for 86.5% of
the individuals. These species and their
relative abundances are: Acer negundo—
30.4%; Acer rubrum—3.4%; Fraxinus
americana—3.2%; Liriodendron tulipi-
fera—10.6%; Pinus spp. (mainly P. rigi-

SLI

da, but also some P. virginiana)—6.0%;
Platanus occidentalis—26.7%; Salix seri-
cea—2.5%; and Ulmus americana—3.7%.

Effects of Slope Exposure

Of the 8 dominant species, 2, Acer ne-
gundo and Platanus occidentalis were
present and abundant on all sites. Lirio-
dendron tulipifera exhibited a strong pref
erence of 4:1 by numbers, for north-fac-
ing exposures. Acer rubrum, Fraxinus
americana, and Pinus spp. were most
abundant on north-facing exposures while
Ulmus americana and Salix sericea
showed no preference for exposure. Salix
was only present in water drainage path-
ways. Two species, Ailanthus altissima
and Juniperus virginiana, showed a
marked preference for south-facing ex-
posures.

Establishment and Depth of Substrate

On the benches studied, mini-talus
slopes of rock-debris that had accumulat-
ed to depths of 120 cm, or more were
common. Some of them extended from
the highwall to the edge of the bench,
leaving no flat surface. If 100 cm of debris
accumulates over a period of 10 years, the
average accumulation per year is 10 cm.
This means that 2 year old plants on
many sites must grow to at least 20 cm in
height or they will be buried. Thus,
species that are incapable of rapid early
growth on these nutrient-poor sites will
be eliminated from some sections of the
benches due to talus accumulations.

Species establishing in substrate that
is 3 cm or less in depth are considered to
prefer shallow substrates (Table 2). This
is significant in regard to survival during
the early years of development. After 4
years of age, most species are tall enough
to prevent burial by additional debris
buildup.

On the study sites, pines of all ages
showed a strong preference for shallow
substrates (Table 2), and usually they
were found growing on bare rock or on
the outer edges of benches. The only oth-
er species of the 8 dominants with a
preference for shallow substrates was

112

TABLE 2.—PERCENTAGE OF INDIVIDUALS, BY AGE
GROUP, OF THE FOUR MAJOR SPECIES FOUND ON
SUBSTRATES WITH LESS THAN 3 CM DEBRIS

Lirio-
Acer dendron Pinus Platanus
Age negundo tulipifera spp. occidentalis
1 20% 44% —o 25%
2, 18 67 100 19
3 10 39 93 19
4 9 24 2, ye,
5 3 11 56 14
6 0 0 (e) 11
e 0 0) 100 5
8 0 — —_— @)

Liriodendron tulipifera in which 57% of
the seedlings under 4 years of age were
found on shallow substrates. However,
unlike Pinus, Liriodendron tolerates, and
perhaps requires, the accumulation of
deeper substrates after its fourth year, as
only 11% of the saplings over 5 years old
were found in shallow substrates. Possi-
ble causes for this shift in preference may
be a high mortality of seedlings on shal-
low substrates due to the lack of mois-
ture-holding capacity of these areas. On
these benches, Liriodendron exhibits a
slow growth rate during the first 2 years
as a seedling, thus, it cannot tolerate a
rapid rate of debris accumulation. After
its third year, rate of height growth per
year increases (Fig. 1), the possibility of
burial decreases, and the deeper sub-
strates provide sufficient moisture to sus-
tain Liriodendron on these sites.
Soil-size particles play a major role in
water-holding capacity and cation ex-
change with silt loams possessing the
greatest amount of available water for
plants (Foth 1978). The texture of strip-
mine spoils derived from rock fragmen-
tation and its relationship to water-hold-
ing capacity has previously been reported.
As Vogel (1973) stated when referring to
strip-mine spoils in Bell County, Ken-
tucky, “In these spoils the shales, silt-
stones, and some types of sandstones
weather rapidly to produce spoil mate-
rials that contain 15-45% soil-size parti-
cles (2 mm or less). In spoils derived from
shales, the soil size particles are clay

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 42(3-4)

200-4
a
1755
b
(2
150
1254
e
12)
» 1004
a
6D
4
Vv
no
75-4
d
504 m
25-4
1 + t \
0 1 2 3 4
Age (years)
Fic. 1. Height growth of the four major species

found on rock derived substrates on Eastern Ken-

tucky road cuts. a = Platanus occidentalis, b = Acer

negundo, c= Liriodendron tulipifera, d = Pinus
spp.

loams; in spoils derived from sandstone
they are mostly sandy loams.” Plass and
Vogel (1973) found an average of 37% of
the air-dry weight of the spoils in south-
ern West Virginia to be soil size particles
which is “... sufficient soil-size material
to retain adequate amounts of water dur-
ing normal weather conditions.” In east-
ern Kentucky, Barnhisel and Massey
(1969) found the textures of the soil-sized
fraction of spoil material to range from
loams to clays.

Four soil-debris samples were ana-
lyzed by the University of Kentucky.
Texture analyses of the soil-size fraction
(2.0' ami, om less). resultedsains 3. psillt

Woopy PLANTS IN EASTERN KENTUCKY—Levy

loams and one loam. Water-holding ca-
pacity ranged from 12.0-15.3%. Thus,
where a sufficient depth of rock debris
has accumulated on roadcut benches,
moisture is probably not limiting to
woody plant growth. Results of the other
soil analyses yielded a range in soil-water
pH from 7.4-8.4, organic matter content,
1:2-6.8%, potassium 137-202 kg/ha,
phosphorous 2.2-6.7 kg/ha. The organic
matter and phosphorus are both low in
comparison to agricultural or forest soils
in Pike County (Marvin Hensley, pers.
comm.).

Ninety six percent of the pines under
the age of 4 years were found on shal-
low substrates, indicating an inability to
survive even under the slightest buildup
of debris. Two factors may operate to re-
strict Pinus to the shallow bench edges:
(1) a slow growth rate of young seedlings,
causing burial; and (2) the inability of
Pinus seed to germinate when covered
by any degree of litter material. Both P.
rigida and P. virginiana grow slowly dur-
ing the early years of establishment. On
open, favorable sites, seedlings grow to
heights of only 5-18 cm per year and on
poor sites they grow even less (Fowells
1965). In the present study, seedlings of
Pinus averaged 2.5 cm in height growth
the first and 14.0 cm the second year. The
complete absence of Pinus seedlings
from debris over 5 cm in depth suggests
that the inability to germinate when cov-
ered may be more important than rate of
height growth in limiting their distribu-
tion to shallow substrates and bare rock.
Both P. rigida and P. virginiana fail to
germinate when covered (Fowells 1965).

In a study on the establishment of di-
rect seeded pine on mine spoils in Ken-
tucky, Plass (1974) analyzed the effects of
soil texture on establishment and recog-
nized three critical stages: emergence,
survival, and growth. Results indicated
that fine textured soils reduce emergence
of pine seedlings, and he concluded that,

sites with a coarse textured spoil
with a pH between 4.1 and 5.0 may offer
the best chance of success ....” The ac-
cumulation and breakdown of shale-de-
rived debris and the formation of fine tex-

113

tured soils on these roadcut benches may
have an adverse effect on pine establish-
ment.

In Liriodendron, germination does oc-
cur on the deep substrates as evidenced
by the presence of first year seedlings
growing on debris as deep as 100 cm.
However, survival of these seedlings is
low. Fifty-six percent of all one year old
Liriodendron seedlings were found in
deep substrates. This amount decreases
to 33% for 2 year old Liriodendron seed-
lings. Therefore, seedling burial or phys-
ical damage from falling debris is proba-
bly the major factor limiting Liriodendron
to shallow areas as a seedling. After es-
tablished, Liriodendron is less common
on shallow accumulations of debris, and
by age 5, only 11% of the individuals are
found on shallow areas. This reflects the
increasing moisture requirements of Lir-
iodendron which can only be met in the
deeper accumulations of debris.

Figure 1 shows the growth rates of the
4 most common trees during the first
four years of growth. Platanus occiden-
talis and Acer negundo exceed 20 cm in
height growth by the age of 2 years.
Growth to a height of 20 cm is necessary
to prevent burial on many sites. Platanus
occidentalis and Acer negundo were the
only 2 species present on all sites, and
they were also the 2 most common
species by numbers. Other similarities
between the 2 species include the ability
to develop on deep accumulations of de-
bris and a natural preference for moist,
open sites. Some characteristics of Plat-
anus are stated by Fowells (1965), “The
best seedbed for the germination of syc-
amore is one of moist to wet soils
Under favorable conditions they develop
a strong spreading root system and grow
rapidly, as much as 3 or 4 feet in height
the first year Sycamore sprouts
readily from the stump when young (sap-
ling or pole size) and reproduces itself by
this means as well as from seed.” Plata-
nus has also been cited for its rapid
growth rate, which, during its first 3
years, enables it to easily outpace the rate
of accumulation of rock debris on roadcut
benches. In addition, its sprouting habit

114

has resulted in an increase in its coverage
on the benches.

Acer negundo, the only other species
found on all study sites, also is “... con-
sidered to be a fast grower” (Bartlett
1962). Its seeds are not inhibited by a
ground cover, and the species is consid-
ered a weed on moist bottomland sites
(Bartlett 1962). Both Platanus occiden-
talis and Acer negundo are commonly
found on the deeper accumulations as
seedlings and during later growth. The
buildup of debris and the formation of silt
loams acts as a water storage reservoir
which can meet the water requirements
of these species. Removal of the upper
stone and gravel layer of the talus accu-
mulation reveals that the soil below is
usually moist, even after two weeks of
dry weather.

Seed Dispersal and Production

Most species arrive on these sites by
wind blown seeds. Of the 26 species
found in this study, 17 are primarily or
exclusively wind dispersed, seven are
utilized by birds, and only one, Quercus
velutina (represented by only one indi-
vidual) is mainly dependent upon mam-
mals or gravity for dispersal of its seeds.
However, when the 8 species that ac-
count for 86.5% of the individuals en-
countered in this study are considered,
all have seeds that are primarily wind
dispersed (Fowells 1965).

Acer negundo, Oxydendrum arbo-
reum, and Pinus rigida (age 6, 5, and 4
years, respectively) were observed bear-
ing fruit in the study sites. However, fruit
bearing individuals were few and their
seeds are probably not a major source for
populating the benches at this stage of
their vegetation development. The high
proportion of wind-blown seeds and the
scarcity of fruit bearing trees on the sites
imply wind dispersal from outside sources
as the most important method of seed
transport onto the benches.

Relation to Primary and Secondary
Succession

The successional process on these

benches is unlike that usually found in

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 42(3-4)

primary succession on rock outcrops or in
secondary succession on abandoned old-
fields. On a bare-rock outcrop the early
invaders would normally include lichens
and mosses, followed by the accumula-
tion of a thin soil in crevices and depres-
sions. Eventually herbs and woody
species invade the soil pockets, but the
process is slow and trees are usually
dwarfed or deformed on this type of site
(Oosting and Anderson 1939). In contrast,
secondary succession on an abandoned
old-field is much more rapid because top-
soil and a seedbank are already present.
Succession to the tree stage may be as
short as two to ten years (Levy 1978).

Due to the dynamic nature of the sub-
strate on the study sites, mosses and li-
chens do not survive. Instead, a type of
inverted succession occurs in which tree
species are the first plants to gain domi-
nance, and the stability and protection
they provide allows herbaceous species
subsequently to become established.
This is especially noticeable where
clumps of trees occur. Succession on the
study sites also differs from secondary
succession in that on the study sites little
organic matter is present in the substrate
and little leaf accumulation can occur on
the surface due to the ease with which it
is blown away by the wind.

The characteristics of a species ideally
suited to invade the roadcut habitats in
eastern Kentucky are: the seed must be
wind dispersed, germination must not be
inhibited by burial, the seeds must not
require an organic litter, early growth
must be rapid, especially during the first
two years, and seedlings must be able to
tolerate high light intensity.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Special thanks to Archie Fugate and
John Lamanca for assistance in the field,
and to Mary Anne Varney for typing the
manuscript.

LITERATURE CITED

BARNHISEL, R. I., AND H. F. MASSEY. 1969. Chem-
ical, mineralogical, and physical properties of
eastern Kentucky acid-forming coal spoil ma-
terials. Soil Science 108:367-372.

Woopby PLANTS IN EASTERN KENTUCKY—Levy

BARTLETT, JOHN W. 1962. Regional Silviculture
of the United States. John Wiley & Sons, New
York, N.Y.

BRAUN, E. Lucy. 1950. Deciduous Forests of East-
ern North America. Hafner Press, New York,
N.Y.

FENNEMAN, N. M. 1938. Physiography of Eastern
United States. McGraw-Hill, New York, N.Y.

Fotru, HENRY D. 1978. Fundamentals of Soil Sci-
ence. John Wiley & Sons, New York, N.Y.

FOWELLS, H. A. (COMPILER). 1965. Silvics of For-
est Trees of the United States. U.S.D.A. Hand-
book 271.

GLEASON, H. A., AND ARTHUR CRONQUIST. 1963.
Manual of Vascular Plants of Northeastern
United States and Adjacent Canada. D. Van
Nostrand, New York, N.Y.

Levy, F. 1978. Secondary Succession in Pelham

115

Bay Park, New York (Unpublished master’s
thesis).

OOSTING, H. J., AND L. E. ANDERSON. 1939. Plant
succession on granite rock in eastern North
Carolina. Bot. Gaz. 100:750-756.

PLASS, WILLIAM T. 1974. Factors affecting the es-
tablishment of direct-seeded pine on surface-
mine spoils. U.S. For. Ser. Res. Pap. NE-290:1-
By

, AND W. G. VOGEL. 1973. Chemical prop-
erties and particle-size distribution of 39 sur-
face-mine spoils in southern West Virginia.
U.S.D.A. For. Ser. Res. Pap. NE-276:1-8.

VOGEL, WILLIS G. 1973. The effect of herbaceous
vegetation on survival and growth of trees
planted on coal-mine spoils. In Research and
Applied Technology Symposium on Mined
Land Reclamation.

Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 42(3-4), 1981, 116-118

Nests, Eggs and Larvae of the Elegant Madtom
Notorus elegans from Barren River Drainage,
Kentucky (Pisces:Ictaluridae)

BROOKS M. BURR AND WALTER W. DIMMICK

Department of Zoology, Southern Illinois University,
Carbondale, Illinois 62901

ABSTRACT

Three nests of Noturus elegans with eggs or larvae were found 22 June 1980 in Fallen Timber
Creek, Barren County, Kentucky, at a water temperature of 20 C. A guardian parent (males in 2
cases) was present with the broods which were found under flat rocks above riffles. A clutch of
25 eggs removed from a nest and incubated at 20 C hatched in about 12 days. Eggs, hatchlings
and larvae are briefly described. N. elegans has on the average, smaller clutch sizes when com-

pared to most other species of Noturus.

INTRODUCTION

The elegant madtom, Noturus elegans,
occurs commonly at certain localities in
the Barren and upper Green River sys-
tems in Kentucky and was recently re-
ported from the extreme eastern part of
the state in Ruin Creek (Little Sandy Riv-
er system), Elliott County (Bauer and
Branson 1979, Burr 1980, Etnier and Jen-
kins 1980). Like most other species of
Noturus, the only available ecological in-
formation on N. elegans concerns habitat
occurrence and associated species (see
literature review in Mayden and Burr
1981, Menzel and Raney 1973, Taylor
1969). The purpose of this paper is to re-
port the discovery of nests of N. elegans
and present some information on devel-
opment and fecundity.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We are grateful to Dr. William D. Pear-
son, University of Louisville (UL), for
providing laboratory space and access to
the fish collection. Patti A. Burr assisted
with the fieldwork and Richard L. May-
den helped care for the eggs.

REPRODUCTIVE BIOLOGY
Nesting
On 22 June 1980, we discovered 3
nests of N. elegans at the type locality,

Fallen Timber Creek, 12.8 km SE Glas-
gow, Barren County, Kentucky. Fallen

Timber Creek was at low-water level,
varying in width from 2 to 5 m and in
depth from 12 to 40 cm. Bottom materials
at the site were mostly gravel inter-
spersed with slab-rock, but there were
large expanses of bedrock throughout the
stream.

Nests were located in the shade above
the first riffle on the north side of the
Highway 90 bridge. Water temperature
at 1200 hr was 20 C and current was
slight. The 3 nests were found under flat
rocks that varied in size from 10 to 14 cm
long and 12 to 24 cm wide in water about
12 cm deep. Each nest was attended by
a guardian parent that had presumably
excavated a slight depression in the sub-
strate of about 6 cm; larvae or eggs were
found in the depressions.

Upon exposure of the first nest, the
guardian parent left immediately and was
not captured. This nest contained a brood
of about 30 sac fry, 11 of which were col-
lected with the aid of a small-mesh aquar-
ium net. The 11 young ranged in size
from 10.6-11.5 mm TL (x = 10.9). Once
the nest was exposed and the parent had
left, fantail darters (Etheostoma flabel-
lare) moved into the nest site and con-
sumed some of the young.

The second nest contained about 20
young that were attended by a male, 61
mim SL, that remained close to the nest
site. The male and 6 larvae with absorbed

116

NOTORUS ELEGANS IN KENTUCKY—Burr and Dimmick

yolk sacs were preserved. Larvae ranged
in size from 14.0-15.3 mm TL (x = 14.7).
Menzel and Raney (1973) stated that
there is no evidence that “parent mad-
toms care for their broods after hatching.”
Observations on N. elegans and those
made on 3 other species of Noturus clear-
ly document that the male does attend his
brood for several days post-hatching
(Burr and Mayden MS, Mayden and Burr
1981, Mayden et al. 1980).

The third nest contained a clutch of 25
eggs and a guardian male, 53 mm SL, that
also remained in the nest area. The
clutch was removed and transported to
the laboratory for further observations.
The 2 guardian males captured had emp-
ty stomachs, which corroborates other ob-
servations that male Noturus do not feed
while guarding nests (Burr and Mayden
MS, Mayden and Burr 1981, Mayden et
al. 1980).

Fecundity

The number of mature oocytes in 8 fe-
male N. elegans collected from Long
Branch (Barren River drainage), Allen
County (UL 6155) and Green River,
Green County (SIUC uncat.), on 8 and 21
June, respectively, was (size of female is
in standard length): 44 mm (20 mature
oocytes), 48 mm (29), 49 mm (34), 51 mm
(27), 52 mm (19), 60 mm (42), 61 mm (35),
64 mm (40); x = 30.8.

Counts of ovarian eggs and the number
of eggs and larvae in nests indicate that
N. elegans lays fewer eggs than other
species of Noturus. For instance, clutch
sizes from 16 nests of N. exilis averaged
50 (Mayden and Burr 1981); in 1 nest of
N. albater, clutch size was 42 (Mayden
et al. 1980); in 6 nests of N. miurus,
clutch size averaged 66.2 (Burr and May-
den MS). The small adult size reached by
N. elegans (largest specimen examined
by Taylor (1969) was 64 mm SL) is prob-
ably directly related to their smaller
clutch sizes. Noturus leptacanthus ap-
parently has the smallest clutch size (av-
eraging 17.6 eggs) of the genus even
though it reaches nearly 80 mm SL (Clark
1978).

Fic. 1. Larva of Noturus elegans, 11.2 mm TL.

EGGS AND DEVELOPMENT

Eggs of N. elegans were lemon-yellow
in color, spherical and adhered to each
other in a mass. Diameters of 5 eggs
ranged in size from 4.1—4.4 mm (x = 4.2):
yolk diameters from 2.9-3.0 mm (x =
2.9). The clutch of 25 eggs was incubated
in a 111 mm diameter culture dish at 20
C (the temperature in the stream) and
aerated with an air stone. Many of the
eggs did not hatch because a power fail-
ure in the laboratory shut off the air sup-
ply to the culture dish. Movement of the
culture dish to another air supply may
have broken some chorions resulting in
an artificial early hatching at 286.5 hr
(about 12 days). The estimate of age is
based on developmental stages docu-
mented for N. exilis raised at 25 C (May-
den and Burr 1981).

Hatchlings averaged 7 mm TL and in
all respects were similar in external mor-
phology and appearance to other Notu-
rus and Ictalurus hatchlings (Armstrong
and Child 1962, Mayden and Burr 1981,
Mayden et al. 1980).

The sac fry from the first nest, averag-
ing 10.9 mm TL, had melanophores
densely concentrated on the head and
body, rays developed in the fins, and had
4 pairs of rudimentary barbels. The yolk
sac was about one-third the size at hatch-
ing and the cephalic lateral-line system
had formed (Fig. 1).

The 6 larvae from the second nest, av-
eraging 14.7 mm TL, had a body form,
opercular membrane and fin ray and
spine complement like that of an adult.
The cephalic lateral-line system was well
developed, the yolk sac absorbed, and
pigmentation well advanced. The barred
pigment pattern typical of the adult ap-
parently develops later.

118

LITERATURE CITED

ARMSTRONG, P. B., AND J. S. CHILD. 1962. Stages
in the development of Ictalurus nebulosus.
Syracuse Univ. Press, Syracuse, N.Y. 8 pp. +
XVI plates.

BAUER, B. H., AND B. A. BRANSON. 1979. Distri-
butional records for and additions to the ich-
thyofauna of Kentucky. Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci.
40:53-55.

Burr, B. M. 1980. A distributional checklist of the
fishes of Kentucky. Brimleyana 3:53-84.

CLARK, K. E. 1978. Ecology and life history of the
speckled madtom Noturus leptacanthus (Icta-
luridae). Unpub. M.S. Thesis, Southern Missis-
sippi Univ.

ETNIER, D. A., AND R. E. JENKINS. 1980. Noturus
stanauli, a new madtom catfish (Ictaluridae)
from the Clinch and Duck Rivers, Tennessee.
Bull. Ala. Mus. Nat. Hist. 5: 17-22.

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 42(3-4)

MAYDEN, R. L., AND B. M. BurRR. 1981. Life history
of the slender madtom, Noturus exilis, in
southern Illinois (Pisces:Ictaluridae). Univ.
Kans. Mus. Nat. Hist. Occ. Pap. 93.

——., B. M. BurRR, AND S. L. DEWEy. 1980.
Aspects of the life history of the Ozark madtom,
Noturus albater, in southeastern Missouri
(Pisces:Ictaluridae). Amer. Mid]. Nat. 104:335-
340.

MENZEL, B. W., AND E. C. RANEY. 1973. Hybrid
madtom catfish, Noturus gyrinus x Noturus
miurus, from Cayuga Lake, New York. Amer.
Midl. Nat. 90:165-176.

TAYLOR, W. R. 1969. A revision of the catfish genus
Noturus Rafinesque with an analysis of higher
groups in the Ictaluridae. Bull. U.S. Natl. Mus.
282:1-315.

Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 42(3-4), 1981, 119-131

Feeding Preferences of Postlarval Longnose Gar
(Lepisosteus osseus) of the Ohio River

SHERRI L. PAYNE AND WILLIAM D. PEARSON

Water Resources Laboratory, University of Louisville, Louisville, Kentucky 40292

ABSTRACT

The foods and food preferences of postlarval longnose gar from the Ohio River (Miles 579—
582) were determined from field collections and laboratory experiments. Two diumal series of
gar (n = 662; total length—18.5-47.6 mm) taken in June, 1979, contained primarily cladocerans
(especially Scapholeberis kingi), copepods, chironomids, culicids, and larval fishes. The most
abundant plankters in the river at the time were copepods and Bosminidae (Cladocera). Back-
calculation of time of capture of the larval fish indicated that feeding activity peaked during late
afternoon (1400-1800 hours), although some feeding occurred at all hours. Two cases of canni-
balism were noted. Gar between 20.0 and 33.5 mm TL showed a preference for larval fish (6.9—
11.0 mm TL) when presented simultaneously with larval fish and zooplankton in the laboratory.
Larval fish (5.0-9.0 mm TL) were digested sufficiently to pass from the stomach to the intestines

of the gar in 10 to 14 hours at 21°C.

INTRODUCTION

Forbes and Richardson (1920) empha-
sized the extent to which the longnose
gar (Lepisosteus osseus) feeds on other
fish and mentioned a laboratory situation
in which “young gars were reared” and
“maintained entirely on the larvae of
mosquitoes.” A study in Lake Texoma
(Echelle and Riggs 1972) suggested that
availability of food items affected the
kind of food eaten by several species of
gars. An earlier study (Echelle 1968) in
Lake Texoma indicated that feeding in
longnose gar of the size range 17-276 mm
“occurred at the surface to a considerable
degree, and occurred more actively at
night than during the day.” The study
also showed that fish were the predomi-
nant type of food eaten by all sizes of
longnose gar larger than 21 mm. A study
of afternoon collections from the Ohio
River (Pearson, Thomas, and Clark 1979)
described a difference, between two con-
secutive years, in the percent of gar ex-
amined that had consumed larval fish
versus the percent that had consumed
only cladocerans.

A study (Goodyear 1967) concerning
three species of gar included a section in
which four digestive stages were as-
signed to the stomach contents of long-
nose gar. That study included only gar

between 52 and 125 cm TL (total length)
and also assigned only one value to the
stomach contents of each gar regardless
of varying states within the same stom-
ach. Digestion in longnose gar averaging
291 mm in length has been described by
Netsch and Witt (1962) in terms of both
weight changes of food and visual obser-
vations. Netsch and Witt concluded that
complete digestion occurred within 24
hours in the stomach.

These previous studies raised several
questions concerning the feeding habits
or preferences of gars, especially in the
larval stages, which have been ignored
by many authors. Our specific objectives
were to: (1) determine the preference of
postlarval gar for zooplankton and larval
fish, (2) determine the rate of digestion of
larval fish consumed by postlarval gar, (3)
determine the diurnal periodicity of
feeding (if any) of postlarval gar in the
Ohio River, and (4) to compare the food
habits of gar in the lower end of the
McAlpine pool of the Ohio River with the
food habits described in other waters,
and in previous years at the same loca-
tion.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

All collections were made within the
McAlpine pool of the Ohio River be-

119

120

tween Ohio River Mile (ORM) 569.0 and
604.2.

Trips to the river to observe and collect
larval gar were made every | to 11 days
between 21 May and 31 August 1979.
Postlarval gar were observed from 1 to 16
June, from 28 June to 6 July, and on 2
August 1979.

The largest collections were two 24-
hour diurnal series taken on 5 and 10
June 1979, in the area of Westport, Ken-
tucky (ORM 578-582). These 24-hour
sampling series began on each date at
0600 hours. Gar were collected for an
hour, or until about 25 were caught,
every other hour. Some collections con-
tained less than 25, due to occasional
high winds (which discouraged the gar
from staying at the surface), poor choices
for collecting sites (i.e., those having bot-
toms too soft for efficient wading by the
collectors, or lacking adequate cover for
the gar), and reduced visibility after sun-
set. Twelve collections alternating be-
tween the Indiana and Kentucky shores
were made in each series. A total of 662
gar was collected and preserved during
the two diurnal series.

The moon rose at 1508 EDT on 5 June
and set at 0225 EDT on 6 June. The stage
of the moon during this series was mid-
way between the first quarter and a full
moon. For the 10 to 11 June collection
series, the moon was full, rising at 2117
EDT on 10 June and setting at 0641 EDT
on 11 June.

The gar appeared around willow roots,
floating beside small twigs, or over beds
of Potamogeton pectinatus. In the post-
larval stage they frequently rest and re-
main immediately below the surface of
the water and look like small twigs or
pieces of debris until they are observed
more closely, at which time they become
alarmed and dive below the surface. The
usual method of collection was to stalk
the gar while wading and capture them
one at a time with a long-handled dipnet.
During daylight hours, 2 to 3 peo-
ple, distributed by boat along approxi-
mately 100-200 m of shoreline, pro-
ceeded to hunt and capture gar. Different

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 42(3-4)

sites were used for each consecutive col-
lecting hour, although some especially
productive sites were sampled twice in
the same series. At night, one person
held a light while another dip-netted. At
night, the gar were usually much closer
(0.3 to 1.0 m) to the shore and closer to
the substrate than during daylight hours.

The identifications of larval fish found
in the guts of gar or used in laboratory
experiments were based primarily on the
larval fish key compiled by Hogue, Wal-
lus, and Kay (1976). The identifications
of invertebrates were based primarily on

keys found in Pennak (1978).

LABORATORY PROCEDURES

Food Preference and Digestion
Experiments

Most (=350) of the gar used in these
experiments were collected at ORM
580.6 in early June, although 50 were col-
lected at ORM 597-604 and another 50
at ORM 571.

During the experiments the gar were
kept in an aerated styrofoam cooler. The
larval fish used as food items for the pref-
erence experiments were collected at the
same sites as the larval gar at various
times during the testing period (the first
two weeks of June 1979). Based on ran-
dom identifications, the majority of the
larval fish fed to the gar were probably
Notropis and Ictiobus species with a few
other cyprinids and catostomids. Total
length of the food fishes ranged from 6.9
to 11.0 mm. The zooplankton, a mixture
of ostracods, copepods, and Daphnia,
were collected with a plankton net from
a pond in Jefferson County, Kentucky.

For the preference experiments, the
gar were captured and starved from 1 to
6 days prior to testing. For each run of
the experiment, 1,000 ml translucent
beakers were filled with aged and aerat-
ed tapwater from the same reservoir. The
water temperature on the testing days
ranged from 18.5 to 24.0°C. Food items
were placed in each beaker. One gar was
placed in each beaker, allowed to remain
there for 30 minutes, then removed and

FEEDING PREFERENCE IN POSTLARVAL GARS—Payne and Pearson

12]

TABLE 1.—THE TOTAL NUMBER OF FOOD ITEMS EATEN BY GAR FROM THE OHIO RIVER, FROM THE THREE
COMBINATIONS OF FOOD OFFERED TO 306 GAR ON 4 TO 15 JUNE 1979; AND THE PERCENTAGES OF GAR OF
EACH ITEMIZED SERIES THAT ATE EACH COMBINATION; NUMBERS IN PARENTHESES ARE PERCENTAGES

Number of food items eaten

Test condition and result 0) 2 3 4 5
Exposed to zooplankton (Z) only 55 13 12 9 ul 6
(n = 102) (53.9) (12.7) (11.8) (8.8) (6.9) (5.9)
Exposed to larval fish (L) only 29 23 15 23 9 3
(n = 102) (28.4) (22.5) (14.7) (22.5) (8.8) (2.9)
Exposed to Z & L simultaneously 79 4 9 0 0 0
Ate Z (n = 102) (77.5) (13.7) (8.8) 0) (0) (0)
Exposed to Z & L simultaneously 27 22 17 22 12 2
Ate L (n = 102) (26.5) (21.6) (16.7) (21.6) (11.8) (2.0)

the number and kinds of food items re-
maining were counted and recorded.

There were three series, each with four
testing beakers. One series had 5 zoo-
plankters, 1 series had 5 larval fish, and
1 series had both 5 zooplankters and 5
larval fish in each beaker. There was also
a series of 4 control beakers that con-
tained 5 zooplankters and 5 larval fish
each but no gar. No feeding by larval fish
on zooplankton occurred in the control
beakers, probably because the zooplank-
ters were previously selected large indi-
viduals which could be swallowed by gar
but not by the larval fishes. A total of 306
gar (i.e., 102 of each series of beakers)
were tested. The gar ranged in total
length from 20.0 to 33.5 mm, with a mean
length of 25.6 mm.

An experiment was also conducted to
determine the rate of digestion of larval
fish eaten by gar. Approximately 70 live
gar were exposed to an abundance of lar-
val fish for an hour. The larval fish, pre-
dominantly Notropis species, were col-
lected at ORM 580.6. After the hour of
exposure to food, the gar which showed
an obvious stomach bulge, indicative of
feeding, were removed to an aerated con-
tainer without food and held at approxi-
mately eG aliwoy to LOM gar were
preserved immediately and every
subsequent 2 hours, for a period of 24
hours. The resulting 54 gar, which were
later dissected, ranged in total length
from 21.6 to 30.3 mm, with a mean length
of 25.9 mm.

All gar (including the digestive refer-
ence series, the separate river collec-
tions, and the diurnal series) were dis-
sected under water in watch glasses with
miniature tools. The entire gut was
teased out. The gut was slit along its en-
tire length and the contents were then
removed, examined, and recorded by lo-
cation (i.e., found in either the stomach
or the intestines).

ZOOPLANKTON ANALYSIS

One plankton sample was taken during
each of the 2 diurnal series. This was ac-
complished by towing a 0.5-m-diameter
coneshaped plankton net (351 mw nylon
mesh) at the surface for 5 minutes. The
net was equipped with a flow meter and
the tow was made at approximately 3 to
5 km per hour. In the laboratory a Folsom
plankton splitter was used to obtain a
quarter of the original sample, and the
zooplankters in the one-fourth sample
were then identified and counted.

RESULTS
Food Preference Experiments

Table 1 lists the percentages of gar eat-
ing various combinations of food items
when presented with larval fish and zoo-
plankton both separately and simulta-
neously. Figure 1 shows the percentages
of gar that ate zooplankton and larval fish
when only one type of food at a time was
presented to each larval gar. It is appar-
ent that a larger percentage (53.9%) of the

Ae

si
©)
Ze
Ss SOE
<
ul
oc
© 25
4 4 mn

(0) = im Tb

0
No. foie SATIN

Fic. 1. Percentages of gar that ate zooplankton

(open bar) and larval fish (hatched bar) when food
items were presented separately.

gar chose not to eat when presented with
only zooplankton than when presented
with only larval fish (28.4%). More gar ate
more larval fish than zooplankton, except
for the group in which 5 organisms were
eaten. This seems reasonable since the
zooplankters were much smaller than the
larval fish and hence a gar’s appetite for
larval fish would diminish faster than its
appetite for zooplankton.

Figure 2 presents the percentages of
gar that ate larval fish and zooplankton
when offered both food items at the same
time. The percentages of larval fish eaten
are almost identical whether the zoo-
plankton are present or not, while the
percentages of zooplankton eaten de-
clines drastically when the gar also have
the opportunity to eat larval fish (Fig. 2
vs. Fig. 1). For example, no gar ate more
than 2 zooplankters when also offered

larval fish.

Digestion Experiments

A series of 8 digestive stages (Table 2)
were developed to describe the condi-
tion of the larval fish taken from gar stom-
achs at 2-hour intervals after ingestion.
The stages were somewhat arbitrary, but
there was a definite, gradual progression
of change. The larvae were generally rec-
ognizable by shape for the first 2-4 hours
in the stomach. The eyes retained their
integrity for 3-5 hours, after which the
pigment of the eyes was distributed
throughout the unrecognizable bolus,
giving it a salt-and-pepper appearance.

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 42(3-4)

75h
Oo
Zz
=
i} SOE
a
xt
Oo
= ae
O ma Ae
No. vPeuie Be
Fic. 2. Percentages of gar that ate zooplankton

(open bar) and larval fish (hatched bar) when food
items were presented simultaneously.

The larval fish bolus was usually passed
from the stomach in 13 hours (range =
10-23 hours at about 21°C).

Larval fish remains leaving the stom-
ach pass into the intestines as masses of
white and grey particles which are seen
scattered throughout the intestines.

Diurnal Periodicity

Twelve per cent of the 662 gar collect-
ed in the two diurnal series had empty
digestive tracts. The smallest percentage
of empty gar (0%) occurred at 2400 hours,
while the largest percentage (38.5%) oc-
curred at 0400 hours.

The percentage of gar for each 1 mm
size group with empty guts varied widely
from 18 to 21 mm after which it de-
creased steadily from 35.3% at 21 mm to
0% at 27 mm (Fig. 3). It remained at zero
through 48 mm, except for 30 mm, where
it was 6.7%, and 47 mm, where it was
50%. Several points in Figure 3 (18-20
mm and 34-48 mm) were based on
groups of less than 5 gar. Figure 3 also
shows the estimated per cent fullness of
the guts of gar of each size range, which
varies somewhat inversely to the per-
centage of empty guts.

Table 3 lists the total number of each
category of food item found in the 662 gar
taken in the combined 5 and 10 June
diurnal series. Cladocerans (4,885) were
the most abundant group, particularly
Scapholeberis kingi which numbered
2,916, followed by bosminids (376), and
copepods (351). A single ostracod was ob-

FEEDING PREFERENCE IN POSTLARVAL GARS—Payne and Pearson 123

TABLE 2.—DESCRIPTION OF LARVAL FISH REMAINS IN THE STOMACH AND INTESTINES OF GAR IN THE
DIGESTIVE REFERENCE SERIES PRESERVED 6 TO 7 JUNE 1979, AND LISTED BY DIGESTIVE STAGE NUMBER,
BY HOURS AFTER INGESTION THAT THEY WERE PRESERVED, AND BY THE MEAN HOURLY VALUE OF THAT

STAGE
Stage Hours x Larval fish in stomach
I 0-1 5 Fresh, stretched out,
looks like a fish
II 2-3 2.5 Twisted and/or folded,
flesh starting to fray
III 4-5 4.5 Partially digested,
becoming amorphous
IV 6-7 6.5 Becoming amorphous, eye
pigment spreading
V 8-9 8.5 Amorphous, salt-and-pepper
appearance with eye pigment
sprinkled throughout
VI 10-11 10.5 Large amount of lump present
(or stomach may be empty)
VII 12-13 12.5 Lump reduced in size and less
cohesive (or stomach may be
empty)
VIII 14-23 14+ Stomach empty or small

fragments may be present

Intestines

Empty
Trace amount, if any
Trace amount, if any

Trace amount, usually
black, if any

Small amount
stretched out

Small amount
stretched out

Small amount
stretched out

Ranges from large
amount to empty

served. Three orders of insects were
found, by far the most abundant being
various dipteran pupae and larvae (134 of
the 149 total insects). The larval fish to-
taled 348, comparable to the copepods in
number, but larval fish are, of course,
much larger and therefore represent a
more important source of energy. Larval
fish were identifiable with certainty only
in the stomach, due to the advanced stage
of digestion achieved before passing into
the intestines. Amorphous white, brown,
and black materials were found in the in-
testines, and it was presumed that much
of these were larval fish remains but no
fish were identifiable in the intestines.
The invertebrate food items listed all
possess a hard exoskeleton which per-
sists and renders them identifiable in
both the stomach and the intestines for at
least some period of time. Less than 5%
of the larval fish (presumably in the stom-
ach an hour or less) were identifiable to

family. They appeared to be a mixture of

cyprinids and catostomids, and about
one-quarter of them appeared to be of the
genus Notropis.

Mean numbers of each type of organ-
ism per gar per collection time for the
two diurnal series combined were also
calculated and examined for trends
through time.

Figure 4 shows mean numbers of 2 cla-
doceran groups found in the stomachs,
and of 1 cladoceran group as it was found
in the intestines, of the gar in the com-

PERCENT

TOTAL LENGTH (mm)

Fic. 3. Percentages of gar in l-mm size groups

with empty guts (circles), and the estimated per

cent fullness of the guts (squares), of gar in l-mm

size intervals (N = 662) collected during the com-

bined 5 and 10 June diurnal series. The arrows in-
dicate size groups containing no gar.

124 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 42(3-4)

TABLE 3.—TOTAL NUMBERS OF EACH CATEGORY OF FOOD ITEM FROM DIGESTIVE TRACT OF ALL GAR
(N = 662) IN THE COMBINED 5 AND 10 JUNE DIURNAL SERIES

Taxa

Number

Invertebrates (total)

Unidentified invertebrates
Rotifera
Crustacea (total)
Unidentified Crustacea
Cladocera (total)
Unidentified Cladocera
Chydoridae
Bosminidae
Daphnidae (total)
Unidentified Daphnidae
Unidentified Daphnidae with rostrum
Unidentified Daphnidae with ephippium

Daphnia
Scapholebris kingi
Ceriodaphnia
Copepoda
Ostracoda

Insecta (total)
Unidentified Insecta
Unidentified Insecta larvae
Homoptera (terrestrial)
Hemiptera (terrestrial adult)
Diptera (total)
Unidentified Diptera pupae
Unidentified aquatic Diptera pupae
Culicidae (total)
Unidentified Culicidae pupae
Culicinae larvae
Chaoborinae larvae
Chironomidae (total)
Chironomidae adult
Chironomidae larvae
Ceratopogonidae larvae

Larval fish

5,393
2

2
5,240
3
4,885
1,416

106

bined diurnal series. The numbers of
cladocerans (90% of the gut contents by
numbers) varied only from 0.2 to 10.2/
stomach, and there were no distinct
trends through time, although the num-
bers were highest at 0200 hours and low-
est at 0400 and 0600 hours (Fig. 6). Sca-
pholeberis kingi accounted for 58.5% of
the total number of cladocerans in the
stomachs only, and ranged from 0.1 to 7.3
organisms per gar. Scapholeberis kingi in
the intestines never exceeded 1.7 organ-
isms per gar and no obvious trends were
discernable. Each of the three groups
plotted in Figure 4 (particularly those of
stomach content) had mean values near

zero (0.1 to 0.4 units) at 0400 and 0600

hours with maxima occurring at 0200
hours.

Figure 5 shows the total insects
graphed as mean number per gar per col-
lection time for the combined 5 and 10
June diurnal series. The values ranged
from 0.1 to 1.5 organisms per gar, with
the highest value at 0200 hours. These
are relatively small values, but the larger
mass of the insects (compared with cla-
docerans) gives these values added im-
portance.

Figure 5 also shows the mean number
of larval fish (in the stomach only) per gar
per collection time for the combined
diurnal series. These are also relatively
small mean values (0.3 to 1.8) but the

FEEDING PREFERENCE IN POSTLARVAL GARS—Payne and Pearson 12

0)
=

yn

Zz

<

ro)

oa

oO

Ix

TIME

Fic. 4. Mean number of: total cladocerans in the

stomach only (open circles), Scapholeberis in the

stomach only (squares), and Scapholeberis in the

intestine only (halfopen circles), per gar per col-

lection time for the combined 5 and 10 June diurnal
series.

larger body size again increases their im-
portance. The highest value occurred at
2400 hours. Taken at face value, the lar-
val fish graph seems to show an increase
in feeding activity after approximately
1800 hours; however, this interpretation
does not take into account the length of
time the fish were in the stomach of the
gar. Therefore, we backcalculated the
original time of capture of the larval fish
in the stomachs using the results of the
digestion-rate experiments.

Each larval fish found in the gar was
assigned to one of the 8 digestive stages
(Table 2), counted and recorded (Table
4). It should be recalled that stage I is
assigned the average value of 0.5 hours
after ingestion; stage II the value of 2.5
hours; stage III 4.5 hours; stage IV 6.5
hours; stage V 8.5 hours; stage VI 10.5
hours; stage VII 12.5 hours; stage VIII
14+ hours. Each larval fish was then
moved back in time to the hour column
in which they were calculated to have
been caught, and the number of gar taken
in the original collection periods, includ-
ing those with zero larval fish at that
hour, were moved with them. This yield-
ed two columns of data, one for larval fish
and one for their respective pool of gar,
under each hour of capture. The data for
the 2 diurnal series were then pooled and
numbers of larval fish calculated to have
been caught in each 2-hour period were

Ul

AO
Tp)
Ss R
Wp) aN
z
<—
Oo
oc 1OF
(e)
m” ,
>< SL ee
o-- a ae alee
oe S
fo) | | l
(e) (e) [e) O
[e) fe) O O
We) (e) st 00
S © t 0
TIME
Fic. 5. Mean number of: total insects (circles)

in the digestive tract, and larval fish (squares) in the
stomach only, per gar per collection time for the
combined 5 and 10 June diurnal series.

divided by the total combined gar pool
contributing those larval fish. The calcu-
lated mean numbers of larval fish per gar
captured per 2 hours over a 24-hour pe-
riod are plotted in Figure 6. The means
ranged from 0.04 to 0.14 organisms per
gar for each 2-hour period, which indi-
cated that each gar consumed about one
larval fish per day.

The backcalculated times of capture of
larval fish by gar (Fig. 6) indicated that
gar feed more actively during the day
than at night, although some feeding oc-
curred at all hours of the day and night.
A peak in feeding activity occurred be-
tween 1400 and 1800 hours.

An interesting discovery during the
dissection of the diurnal series was a sin-
gle case of cannibalism. The prey ap-
peared to be in digestion stage II.
Another case of cannibalism was found in
one of the river collections (29 June 1979)
at ORM 580. This gar (45.8 mm TL) con-
tained one Lepisosteus osseus (=16.0
mm TL) in stage II of digestion and some
stage III remains that appeared to be a
second gar. The diurnal series cannibal-
istic gar was collected from the river
above Westport at 1000 hours on 10 June
1979. The predator was one of the larger
gar from the diurnal series (47.2 mm TL),
and the prey was estimated to have been
approximately 18 mm long. Backcalcula-
tions indicated that the 3 gar consumed
by the cannibals were captured at 0800,
1400, and 1600 hours.

126

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 42(3-4)

TABLE 4.—TOTAL NUMBER OF LARVAL FISH OF EACH DIGESTIVE STAGE, FOUND AT EACH COLLECTION
TIME OF THE 5 JUNE AND 10 JUNE DIURNAL SERIES LISTED SEPARATELY

Number
of gar (N) Time of collection
and
disstive
stage Date 0630 0830 1030 1230 1430 1630 1830 2030 2230 2430 0230 0430
N 6/5 33 36 52 30 37 30 34 39 17 8 af 9
6/10 41 39 45 29 4 47 29 31 15 21 25 4
I 6/5 1 4
6/10 1 2 1
II 6/5 2 6 3 1 i) 3 1 1
6/10 a 3 1 2 } 17 19 it
Ill 6/5 3 5 4 5 5 3 2;
6/10 : 1 2 1 8 14 9 2
IV 6/5 2 3 4 1 1 1 3 1
6/10 2 1 10 1 17 4
V 6/5 5 8 3 7 9 2 1 5 2 1 1 2,
6/10 2, 2 12 4 1 10 1 2
VI 6/5 4 0 2 2, 2 1
6/10 1 1 2 1 2) 1 2
VII 6/5 2 3 1 B 2 3 2, 1
6/10 1
VIII 6/5 19 18 35 18 26 18 23 30 13 4 3) iis
6/10 32 32 42 25 ») DN, 26 11 12 1 20 3

Cannibalism often occurs in piscivo-
rous fishes, including gar, that are con-
fined in a laboratory space, and it did oc-
cur in at least 2 of the gar (total lengths
41.6 and 45.3 mm) held in the styrofoam
cooler prior to use in the food preference
experiments. Cannibalism is thought to
be relatively rare in the field. Echelle
(1967) also listed J Lepisosteus specimen
as a food item in a young longnose gar
(47-56 mm TL) from Lake Texoma.

Plankton Analysis

The first plankton sample was taken on
5 June 1979 at ORM 581 and 36.14 m? of
water was filtered (Table 5). The second
sample, on 10 June 1979, filtered 41.72
m? of water. The estimated number of
each type of plankton was calculated for
100 m? of water (Table 5). Zooplankters
were much more abundant than ichthyo-
plankters. Copepods (3,475.0/100 mi)
were more abundant than cladocerans
(896.4/100 m?) on 5 June, but the 2 groups
were almost equally abundant (843.8 co-

pepods and 853.4 cladocerans/100 m?) on
10 June. Bosminids were the most abun-
dant cladocerans (531.2 to 556.1/100 m/?).
Scapholeberis kingi was not extremely
abundant, contrary to observations of gar
stomach contents. The densities of S.
kingi were just 44.3/100 m? on 5 June and
115.1/100 m? on 10 June. The larval fish

aE

vp)

OOF

=)

<

=

0:

esl]

op eel

Pas

hee u| | eri oe ee fh

ro) fe Oo oO io) fe)
fo) {o) 1S) @ S e)
e S) eres Nu 5

Fic. 6. Mean number of larval fish per gar cal-

culated to have been captured by gar at each 2-hour
interval for a 24-hour period, and based on data
from the combined 5 and 10 June diurnal series.

FEEDING PREFERENCE IN POSTLARVAL GARS—Payne and Pearson PAT

TABLE 5.—ESTIMATED NUMBER OF ORGANISMS PER 100 M? OF WATER FROM SAMPLES FROM THE OHIO
RIVER AT WESTPORT, KENTUCKY ON 5 AND 10 JUNE, 1979

Number/100 m#

Organisms 5 June 10 June
Invertebrates (total) 4,526.3 1,783.5
Crustacea (total) 4,371.4 1,697.2
Cladocera (total) 896.4 853.4
*(Unidentified ephippia) (22.1) (19.2)
Unidentified Cladocera 55.3 28.8
Sididae aed 95.9
Chydoridae 11.1 =
Bosminidae 531.2 556.1
Daphnidae (total) 221.3 172.6
Unidentified Daphnidae w/rostrum 22.1 —
Daphnia 132.8 28.8
Scapholeberis kingi 44.3 115.1
Ceriodaphnia 22.1 28.8
Copepoda (total) 3,475.0 843.8
Unidentified Copepoda 3,297.9 776.7
Suborder Calanoida NA eal 67.1
Insecta 154.9 86.3
Larval fish 154.9 191.8

* Not included in total Cladocera or total Invertebrate count.

densities ranged from 154.9/100 m? on 5
June to 191.8/100 m? on 10 June.

DISCUSSION

The digestion experiments of our re-
search provided a series of arbitrary
digestive stages which were useful in
backcalculating the time of capture of lar-
val fish found in gar collected from the
river. It appears that the passage of larval
fish foods from the stomach takes place
in gar in approximately 10 to 14 hours at
21°C. The experiments were performed
in the laboratory at 21°C which was very
near the temperatures of the river during
the same period (18 to 19°C). Digestion
may proceed at different rates in gar in
the river itself due to undefined effects
of capture, transport, and holding envi-
ronments on the physiology and behavior
of larval gar.

The food preference experiments may
have been affected by the variability in
the length of time gar used in the exper-
iment were starved. This probably did
not affect the gars’ appetite or subse-
quent digestion rate as much as it did

their stamina. Some gar became weak
and lethargic when starved 5 or 6 days.
Care was taken to avoid using gar that
were in obvious distress.

Some general observations about the
food preference and digestion experi-
ments include the following. The rela-
tively small size of the beakers may have
confused or partially disoriented some of
the gar, particularly those individuals
that were showing serious signs of star-
vation such as temporary loss of equilib-
rium. Also, the relatively small volume of
the beakers may have helped the gar in
capturing prey by restricting the evasive
actions of the prey, or it may have inter-
fered with the gar’s mobility relative to
that of the prey.

Various methods of capture by preda-
tors were observed. The gar often
seemed to grasp the larval fish across its
middle and then swallow it head first.
Only one gar was observed swallowing
a larval fish tail first.

Following participation in the food
preference experiment, the larval gar
were removed to a tray without food and

128

remained there until preserved. When
first placed in the tray, it often seemed
that those gar that had not eaten re-
mained at the bottom of the tray, while
those that had eaten tended to remain
near the top of the water. After two days
in the tray, two gar were observed to
seize slightly smaller gar by the caudal
fin, but no cannibalism was observed.
Nevertheless, dissection of the larger gar
in the original holding tank did result in
the discovery of at least two cases of can-
nibalism.

The food preference experiments
seemed to indicate that gar exposed to
equal numbers of zooplankton and larval
fish in closed containers seemed to prefer
larval fish. Perhaps there are other vari-
ables. In a small container the larval fish
may be easier to catch than the zooplank-
ton. It is possible that a zooplankter
which remains very close to the side of
the beaker may be either more difficult
to see or to seize than a zooplankter in
open water. Any similar advantage con-
ferred on a larval fish may be relatively
smaller. A mixture of Daphnia, ostracods,
and copepods were offered to gar in the
beakers. These organisms tended to be
distributed throughout the water column
and were rarely found directly beneath
the surface. Dissection of gar from the
river revealed an abundance of Scapho-
leberis kingi, which tend to remain at the
surface film. Plankton hauls made at the
surface and near the bottom of the Ohio
River (ORM 571) on June 1977 indicated
that Daphnia were more abundant near
the bottom (Pearson, Thomas, and Clark
1979). Therefore, gar may have been
biased against the zooplankters in the
beakers simply due to their location in
the water column. On the other hand, the
larval fish were not necessarily found at
the surface either. It is also noteworthy
that although gar from the river ate Sca-
pholeberis in large quantities, they oc-
casionally also ate Daphnia and ostra-
cods. In any case, a greater percentage
(74%) of gar in all the food preference
experiments ate larval fish than zooplank-
ton (23%) when simultaneously pre-
sented with both. It is possible that if we

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 42(3-4)

had offered gar S. kingi with the larval
fish the preference shown for larval fish
might have been reduced.

In the specimens from the diurnal se-
ries larval fish (348 individuals) were
identifiable only in the stomach, while
cladocerans (4,885), due to the durability
of their carapace, were found throughout
the digestive tract. Insects, such as Cu-
licinae (50) and Chironomidae (49) larvae,
were also fewer in number than the
cladocerans but the individuals were
larger in size.

Copepods were relatively abundant
(total number = 351), but never exceed-
ed 1.8 organisms per gar per collection
time. The total number of Daphnia in the
diurnal series was 44, much less than
Scapholeberis (2,916). This is interesting
because Daphnia and bosminids (376 in
the diurnal series) have been reported as
abundant in the Ohio River. Pearson,
Thomas, and Clark (1979) reported that
Daphnia was the most abundant genus
of cladocerans found near the bottom and
that Bosmina was the most abundant at
the surface at Mile 571 of the Ohio River
in June, 1977. We found only one pre-
vious mention of Scapholeberis in the
Ohio River (Westinghouse Environmen-
tal Systems 1975a). Several other Ohio
River studies included cladoceran genera
but did not list Scapholeberis (ORSAN-
CO 1962, Seilheimer 1963, Westing-
house Environmental Systems 1975b,
Wapora, Inc. 1976, U.S. Army Corps of
Engineers 1978, 1980).

The plankton analysis showed densi-
ties of 132.8 to 28.8 Daphnia/100 m?;
531.2 to 556.1 Bosminidae/100 m?; and
44.3 to 115.0 Scapholeberis/100 m°. Sca-
pholeberis might be particularly vulner-
able to larval gar because both tend to
remain near the surface of the water
(Kaestner 1970, Ruttner 1953). Scapho-
leberis swim only horizontally, while
Daphnia can orient the body in any
plane (Kaestner 1970). The tendency of
Scapholeberis to stay near the surface
film, although capable of swimming
down from the surface (Kaestner 1970),
may also cause them to be missed by
plankton nets towed below the surface.

|
|

FEEDING PREFERENCE IN POSTLARVAL GARS—Payne and Pearson

Our plankton tows were made near the
surface, but the upper lip of the net was
frequently 3 or 4 cm below the surface,
apparently deep enough to miss many of
the Scapholeberis. Echelle (1968) re-
ported Scapholeberis as an important
food item of longnose gar less than 50
mm TL in Lake Texoma on the Texas-
Oklahoma border.

One source of error in the diurnal se-
ries may have been the inconsistency in
sample sizes (ranging from 13 at 0400
hours to 97 at 1000 hours). This is unfor-
tunate, but a greater number of gar could
not be located during the night within
the alloted 1l-hour interval. This may
have been one factor in the appearance
of a peak at 0200 hours on the Scapho-
leberis graph (Fig. 4). Perhaps the few
gar (32) captured did not reflect the true
population feeding habits that a larger
sample would have shown.

The graph of the calculated time of
capture of larval fish (Fig. 6) implies that
the gar fed more during the day than at
night, although some feeding occurred at
all hours of the day and night. A peak in
feeding activity occurred during the late
afternoon hours (1400-1800).

The backcalculated mean numbers
(Fig. 6) present a few problems. The lar-
val fish in digestive stages V through VII
(and VIII) were identifiable only as one
mass, even though the mass might have
begun as two or more larval fish. This
would have decreased the total number
of larval fish counted, reducing the value
of the numerators and tending to flatten
out any peaks on the graph of feeding ac-
tivity. Therefore, in the plot of time ver-
sus number of larval fish eaten, the fact
that a noticeable peak still appeared at
1400-1800 hours makes that peak all the
more probable. It is natural to assume
that differences between the laboratory
environment and the river may have ex-
isted, resulting in a different rate of
digestion in gar found in the river than
the 10-14 hours for passage of food from
the stomach determined in the labora-
tory. It is also possible that the number
of fish (i.e., the size of the food mass pres-
ent and surface area of that mass avail-

129

able to be acted upon by digestive en-
zymes) consumed concurrently by the
gar may affect the rate of digestion.

Our results indicating daytime-feeding
of gar appear to be contradictory to the
report of Echelle (1967), who concluded
that “gar fed to a greater extent at night
than during the day.” Echelle’s study dif-
fered from ours in several ways: (1) the
size range of his gar (n = 104) was 65 to
200 mm TL; ours (n = 662) was 18.5 to
47.6 mm TL; (2) his collections num-
bered three (one 5 hour long day sample
and two night samples 2 and 3 hours
long); our collection series were every 2
hours for 24 hours; (3) his estimates for
time of feeding were based on per cent
of gar with empty stomachs (25% at night
and 41% during the day) and total volume
of food in the stomachs (11.82 ml at night
and 5.87 ml during the day); ours were
based on mean numbers of Scapholebe-
ris and backcalculated number of larval
fish per gar per time period; (4) Echelle
stated that the food items in the stomachs
were generally less digested in gar cap-
tured at night than in gar captured during
the daytime; our least digested larval fish
(n = 9 out of 348) were found at 0630,
0830, 2030, and 2230 hours, however,
backcalculation of time of capture of the
larval fish (n = 348) showed a peak in
feeding activity between 1400 and 1800
hours. Echelle did not attempt an hourly
backcalculation to determine time of cap-
ture, therefore our data are not directly
comparable to his. Goodyear (1967) did
utilize a method of backcalculation of
time of capture; however, his study (in
Mississippi) was concerned with gar (n =
168; length range = 52 to 125 cm;
mean = 89 cm) that were much larger
than ours. Goodyear assigned only one of
four digestive stages to an individual
stomach, while we assigned one of eight
digestive stages to each larval fish found
in each stomach. Goodyear (1967) found
that fresh food of condition number | was
found in 54% of the gar between 2400
and 0600 hours, and at the same time
only 2% of the gar were empty. He also
found that 47% of the gar between 1800
and 2400 hours contained food of condi-

130

tion number 1, while 47% of the gar were
empty. Goodyear found no gar containing
food of condition number | between
0600 and 1800 hours, and concluded that
the longnose gar “is an open water pis-
civorous predator feeding primarily at
night.”” However, as mentioned previ-
ously, Goodyear observed gar of a much
larger size than the gar in our studies and
his data and conclusions are not directly
comparable to those of our study.

Another study on postlarval gar in the
Ohio River has been conducted (Pearson,
Thomas, and Clark 1979). It was based
on afternoon collections (45 gar in May
1977 and 210 gar in June 1978). The gut
contents were expressed as percentage
frequency of occurrence for each year.
The estimated per cent fullness of the gar
was also graphed for the two years com-
bined. This analysis (Pearson, Thomas,
and Clark 1979) can be compared to the
same data for the combined diurnal se-
ries of June 1979) (Fig. 3).

The per cent frequencies of occurrence
of larval fish were: 13% in 1977, 84% in
1978, and 36% in 1979, while the per cent
frequencies of occurrence of cladocerans
were 98%, 27%, and 89% in the same
three years, respectively. In 1978 most of
the identifiable cladocerans were Bos-
mina longirostris while in 1979 most
were Scapholeberis kingi. Insect larvae
(principally dipterans) were found occa-
sionally in all 3 years, but only in 1977
were they particularly abundant. In 1977
the per cent frequency of occurrence of
Chironomidae larvae (16%) exceeded the
value (13%) for larval fish (Pearson,
Thomas, and Clark 1979). This seems to
indicate that larval gar have a wide range
of food items they will occasionally eat
(larval fish, entomostracans, and insects)
and while they may prefer certain food
items (such as larval fish) they may in
reality eat any suitable foods which are
readily available.

As mentioned previously, one problem
with counting the Scapholeberis, or any
cladoceran or copepod, is that the cara-
paces remain relatively undigested and
recognizable much longer than larval
fish. A means of estimating time of cap-

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 42(3-4)

ture of Scapholeberis might be to com-
pare the ratios of the number of Scapho-
leberis in the stomachs to the number of
Scapholeberis in the intestines at the dif-
ferent time periods. A rough version of
backcalculation was attempted without
yielding positive results toward estab-
lishing a feeding pattern. What seems to
be necessary is to feed the cladocerans to
the gar, then preserve the gar periodi-
cally and dissect them to determine a rate
of digestion for them and develop de-
scriptions of the carapaces at the different
stages of digestion.

One possible pattern suggested by the
data but not apparent is that the gar may
feed alternatively on cladocerans and on
larval fish depending on the availability
of each at different hours. Although gar
appear to feed at all hours, they seem to
feed more actively at certain hours. They
also may feed on larval fish when cladoc-
erans are absent and vice versa so that
if backcalculation of cladoceran capture
were possible it might result in a graph
similar but inverse to that of the backcal-
culation of the time of capture of larval

fish.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

We thank Gordon Stout, Hank Jarboe,
and Sylvan Payne for assistance with the

fieldwork.

LITERATURE CITED

ECHELLE, A. A. 1967. The food habits of young-of-
year gars (Lepisosteus) in Lake Texoma, with
notes on spawning and development. Master’s
Thesis, University of Oklahoma, Norman, Okla.

. 1968. Food habits of young-of-year long-
nose gar in Lake Texoma, Oklahoma. South-
west. Nat. 13(1):45-50.

, AND C. D. Riccs. 1972. Aspects of the
early life history of gars (Lepisosteus) in Lake
Texoma. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc. 101(1):106-
112.

FORBES, S. A., AND R. E. RICHARDSON. 1920. The
fishes of Illinois. 2nd ed. Ill. Dept. Regist.
Educ., Springfield, III.

GoopYEAR, C. P. 1967. Feeding habits of three
species of gars, Lepisosteus, along the Missis-
sippi gulf coast. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc.
96:297-300.

HOGUE, J. J., JR., R. WALLUS, AND L. K. Kay. 1976.
Preliminary guide to the identification of larval
fishes in the Tennessee River. Tech Note B-19,
TVA, Norris, Tenn.

FEEDING PREFERENCE IN POSTLARVAL GARS—Payne and Pearson

KAESTNER, A. 1970. Invertebrate Zoology, Vol. III.
Interscience, John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New
York.

NETSCH, N. F., AND A. WITT, JR. 1962. Contribu-
tions to the life history of the longnose gar
(Lepisosteus osseus) in Missouri. Trans. Amer.
Fish. Soc. 91(3):251-262.

ORSANCO. 1962. Aquatic-life Resources of the
Ohio River. Ohio River Valley Water Sanitation
Commission, Cincinnati, Ohio.

PEARSON, W. D., G. A. THOMAS, AND A. L. CLARK.
1979. Early piscivory and timing of the critical
period in postlarval longnose gar at mile 571 of
the Ohio River. Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci. 40(3-
4):122-128.

PENNAK, R. W. 1978. Fresh-water invertebrates of
the United States, 2nd Ed. Wiley-Interscience,
John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York.

RuTTNER, F. 1953. Fundamentals of Limnology.
University of Toronto Press, Canada

SEILHEIMER, J. A. 1963. The dynamics of pota-
moplankton populations in the Ohio River at
Louisville, Kentucky, 1960-1962. Ph.D. Dis-
sertation, University of Louisville, Louisville,
Ky.

U.S. ARMy CORPS OF ENGINEERS, PITTSBURGH

131

DistTrRIcT. 1978. Draft environmental state-
ment: commercial sand and gravel dredging
operations, Ohio River Pennsylvania to Ken-
tucky (Mile 0 to Mile 438.0). Pittsburgh, Pa. 123
pp., plus appendices.

, LOUISVILLE DisTRICT. 1980. Draft en-
vironmental impact statement: Rockport gen-
eration station. Louisville, Ky. 127 pp., plus ex-
hibits.

Wapora, INC. 1976. Effect of heated effluent on
the biota of the Ohio River in the vicinity of the
Miami Fort station, North Bend, Ohio; submit-
ted to: The Cincinnati Gas and Electric Co.
Wapora, Inc., Cincinnati, Ohio, Project No.
1-101. 58 pp.

WESTINGHOUSE ELECTRIC CORP., ENVIRONMEN-
TAL SYSTEMS Depr. 1975a. A report on the
biological survey at Toronto power plant No-
vember 1974: prepared for Ohio Edison Com-
pany, Akron, Ohio. Westinghouse Electric
Corp., Pittsburgh, Pa.

. 1975b. A report on the biological survey
at Burger power plant August 1974: prepared
for the Ohio Edison Company, Akron, Ohio.
Westinghouse Electric Corp., Pittsburgh, Pa.

Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 42(3-4), 1981, 132-133

A Note on the Shovelnose Sturgeon,
Scaphirhynchus platorynchus (Rafinesque),
in Kentucky

RONALD R. CICERELLO

Kentucky Nature Preserves Commission

ABSTRACT

A specimen of Scaphirhynchus platorynchus was collected from the Ohio River at mile 805.7,
Henderson County, Kentucky, on 29 August 1979. Notes on habitat, age, and commerical harvest

of the species in Kentucky are presented.

Although listed as threatened or en-
dangered by several authors (Miller
1972; Branson 1977; Harker et al. 1980),
the status of the shovelnose sturgeon,
Scaphirhynchus platorynchus, in Ken-
tucky is poorly known. Rafinesque (1818)
described S. platorynchus from the Ohio
River where subsequent collections were
made at the Falls of the Ohio River by
Call (1896), who characterized the species
as being abundant, and Evermann (1918).
Clark (1940) mentioned the previous
occurrence of the species in the Big
Sandy and Licking rivers. Gerking (1945)
reported two specimens from the Ohio
River, one of which refers to the collec-
tion by Rafinesque. Ten collecting sites
on the Ohio River were plotted by Traut-
man (1957), who indicated that the shov-
elnose sturgeon underwent a drastic de-
crease in abundance in the early 1900's.
Charles (1962) reported the harvest of 86
unidentified “sturgeon” from the Ohio
River in 1958 and 1959 between river
miles 317 and 981. Based upon the re-
ported mean weight, those specimens
were probably S. platorynchus. In 1965
and 1966, a total of approximately 19,000
pounds of unidentified “sturgeon” was
harvested from the Ohio, Mississippi,
Tennessee, Cumberland, Green, Ken-
tucky, and Licking rivers in Kentucky
(Renaker and Carter 1968). However, ap-
parently the only extant specimens of S.
platorynchus from Kentucky are an un-
catalogued individual collected by Krum-

holz et al. (1962) at the University of

Louisville, a specimen of unknown ori-
gin collected by Dr. Allen at the Univer-

sity of Kentucky (pers. comm., Dr. Roger
Barbour), and two catalogued specimens
in the Ohio State University Museum of
Zoology (pers. comm., Dr. Ted Caven-
der). The individual collected by Welter
(1938) has been lost.

A single specimen of S. platorynchus
(Kentucky Department of Fish and Wild-
life Resources Museum Number 1826)
was collected from the Ohio River at mile
805.7 on 29 August 1979 by means of an
experimental gill net (12.7-63.5 mm bar
mesh) over a firm mud bottom at the up-
stream end of Henderson Island, Hen-
derson County. The specimen, a gravid
female, measured 715, 617, and 581 mm
in total, fork, and standard length, re-
spectively, and weighed 1,256.5 g. Ac-
cording to data presented by Helms
(1974) for Mississippi River shovelnose
sturgeon, the specimen would be at least
four years old.

Recent electrofishing and gill netting
efforts in the Newburgh Pool of the Ohio
River produced four more specimens
ranging from 737 to 838 mm in length
(Axon 1980).

Discussions with commerical fisher-
men and previously cited catch data in-
dicate that S. platorynchus is harvested
with regularity from the lower Ohio Riv-
er (pers. comm., Ralph Jackson). Re-
search conducted in cooperation with
fishermen would yield important distri-
butional and population information
needed to adequately manage this com-
mercially valuable though poorly known
species.

I thank Ralph Jackson for sharing col-

132

SHOVELNOSE STURGEON IN KENTUCKY—Cicerello

lection information and reviewing the
draft. Drs. Barbour and Cavender kindly
provided information regarding speci-
mens at their respective universities. Dr.
B. A. Branson and M. L. Warren, Jr., re-
viewed the draft.

LITERATURE CITED

AXON, J. R. 1980. Monthly federal aid performance
report. July. Ky. Dept. Fish and Wildl. Res.,
Div. of Fish. 43 pp.

BRANSON, B. A. 1977. Threatened fishes of Daniel
Boone National Forest, Kentucky. Trans. Ky.
Acad. Sci. 38:69-73.

CALL, R. E. 1896. Fishes and shells of the Falls of
the Ohio. Memorial Hist. Louisville 1:9-20.
CHARLES, J. R. 1962. Commercial fishing activities
in the Kentucky waters of the Ohio River. Pp.
103 In Aquatic-life resources of the Ohio River.
Ohio River Valley Water Sanit. Comm., Cincin-

nati, Ohio. 218 pp.

CLARK, M. E. 1940. A list of fishes in northeastern
Kentucky. Ky. Dept. Fish and Wildl. Fish. Bull.
No. 1:1-11.

EVERMANN, B. W. 1918. The fishes of Kentucky
and Tennessee: a distributional catalogue of
the known species. Bur. Fish. Bull. 35:295-368.

GERKING, S. D. 1945. The distribution of the fishes

133

of Indiana. Invest. Ind. Lakes and Streams
3(1): 1-137.

HARKER, D. F., JR., M. E. MEDLEY, W. C. Hour-
COOPER, AND A. PHILLIPPI. 1980. Kentucky
natural areas plan. Appendix A. Ky. Nature
Pres. Comm.

HELMs, D. R. 1974. Age and growth of shovelnose
sturgeon, Scaphirhynchus platorynchus (Rafi-
nesque), in the Mississippi River. Proc. Iowa
Acad. Sci. 81:73-75.

KRUMHOLZ, L. A., J. R. CHARLES, AND W. L.
MINCKLEY. 1962. The fish population of the
Ohio River. Pp. 49 In Aquatic-life resources of
the Ohio River. Ohio River Valley Water Sanit.
Comm., Cincinnati, Ohio. 218 pp.

MILLER, R. R. 1972. Threatened freshwater fishes
of the United States. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc.
101:239-252.

RAFINESQUE, C. S. 1818. Discoveries in natural
history, made during a journey through the
western region of the United States. Amer.
Month. Mag. Crit. Rev. 3(5):354-356 (not seen).

RENAKER, R., AND B. T. CARTER. 1968. Final re-
port. The commercial fish harvest in Kentucky
during 1965 and 1966. Ky. Dept. Fish and
Wildl. Publ. 27 pp.

TRAUTMAN, M. B. 1957. The fishes of Ohio. Ohio
State University Press, Columbus, Ohio.

WELTER, W. A. 1938. A list of the fishes of the
Licking River drainage. Copeia 1938(2):64-68.

Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 42(3-4), 1981, 134

Planorbula armigera (Say) in Kentucky

BRANLEY A. BRANSON AND STEPHEN RICE!

Department of Biological Sciences, Eastern Kentucky University, Richmond, Kentucky 40475

ABSTRACT

The planorbid snail Planorbula armigera is reported from Fulton County, Kentucky.

The aquatic gastropod fauna of Ken-
tucky remains poorly understood, prin-
cipally because of inadequate collecting.
For example, the common family Pla-
norbidae (or, Ancyloplanorbidae, if Hu-
bendick 1978 is followed) is very sparse-
ly represented in the molluscan literature
that deals with the Kentucky fauna. Sev-
eral genera and species which ought to
be in Kentucky have not been reported.
Among them is Planorbula armigera
(Say). Neither Branson (1972) nor Bickel
(1967) listed the species from Kentucky.

On 8 November 1980, the junior author
made a general snail collection from a
swampine environment near Hickman,

‘Kentucky Department of Highways, Biological
Section.

Fulton County, Kentucky. Included in
the sample was one specimen of Plan-
orbula armigera (EKU 11809). This spec-
imen constitutes an addition to the
known molluscan fauna of Kentucky.
Such habitats should be thoroughly in-
vestigated for the presence of other pla-
norbids and for the minute sphaeriacean
clam Eupera.

LITERATURE CITED

BICKEL, D. 1967. Preliminary checklist of Recent
and Pleistocene Mollusca of Kentucky. Ster-
kiana 28:7-20.

BRANSON, B. A. 1972. Checklist and distribution
of Kentucky aquatic gastropods. Ky. Fish. Bull.
54: 1-20.

HUBENDICK, B. 1978. Systematics and comparative
morphology of the Basommatophora. pp. 1-47,
in, Pulmonates; ed. V. Fretter and J. Peake.
Academic Press, N.Y.

134

Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 42(3-4), 1981, 135-148

Biological and Chemical Evaluation of Aquatic
Environments I. Anderson Creek Embayment
on Kentucky Lake

BENJAMIN KINMAN,!' KERRY PRATHER,! MORGAN E. SISK,
DALE DOBROTH,! AND MARSHALL GORDON

Departments of Chemistry and Biological Sciences, Murray State University,
Murray, Kentucky 42071

ABSTRACT

This survey was designed to study some of the physical, chemical, and biological parameters
of Anderson Creek embayment. Infrequent sampling prevented demonstrating complex inter-
relationships between water quality, limnological conditions and planktonic organisms. Based
on an evaluation of these three parameters, Anderson Creek embayment is relatively free of
gross organic and industrial pollutants. This survey provides baseline physical, chemical, and
biological data which may be useful in detecting future changes in the environment before

deleterious effects are produced.

INTRODUCTION

The decision to examine the waters of
Kentucky Lake, largest lake in the Ten-
nessee Valley Authority system, was
prompted by a lack of information on its
water quality and biological entities.
Some biological and chemical data were
generated from a previous study by the
Tennessee Valley Authority (1974) below
Kentucky Dam. The main objective of
this research was to provide similar in-
formation from a large undeveloped em-
bayment (Anderson Creek) of Kentucky
Lake.

Kentucky Lake, constructed in 1944,
was developed for a variety of coordinat-
ed uses. It is the lowermost mainstream
lake in the system and has the capability
of controlling the flow of the Tennessee
River into the Ohio River. The Tennes-
see River flows mainly along the eastern
edge of unconsolidated Cretaceous de-
posits, but most of its valley is cut into
underlying Middle and Lower Mississip-
pian rock. That rock, predominately lime-
stone, contributes carbonates to the river
system (Tennessee Valley Authority
1974).

Anderson Creek, a third order stream

1 Present address: Kentucky Department of Fish
and Wildlife Resources, Frankfort, Kentucky 40601.

(Kuehne 1962), is a tributary of the Ten-
nessee River. The stream and all of its
headwater tributaries are in Calloway
County, Kentucky. The headwaters of
Anderson Creek lie at approximately 152
m above mean saa level (msl) and the
mouth is at 108 m. The area drained by
the creek consists of woodland and small
amounts of agricultural land. The stream
channel below the 108-m elevation has
been inundated by Kentucky Lake. An-
derson Creek is on the west shore of the
lake, 73 km upstream from the Ohio Riv-
er (TRM 45.4). The long axis of the bay
runs in an east-west direction perpendic-
ular to the main stream of the Tennessee
River.

Because the lake level is lowered in
winter for flood control, the water level
in Anderson Creek Embayment (Fig. 1)
varies seasonally. For that reason, pool
stages are designated winter pool and
summer pool, elevation 108 m and 109.4
m above sea level, respectively. The
maximum length of the embayment
ranges seasonally from 1.71 to 1.90 kn.
Maximum width ranges from 0.63 to 0.66
km. The cove has a shoreline length that
ranges from 3.93 to 5.18 km. Areal extent
is 0.71 km? at summer pool and 0.57 km?
at winter pool. Maximum depths and
mean depths are 7.1 to 8.6 m and 3.8 to
4.8 m, respectively. At summer pool, the

135

136

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 42(3-4)

ANDERSON CREEK EMBAYMENT

Fic. 1.

volume is 2,733,414 m? while at winter
pool, it is 1,752,789 mi.
Preimpoundment studies of the bottom
fauna of the Tennessee River include
those of Ortman (1924) on the upper east
portion of the Tennessee River Basin,
and Lyman (1943) on the Watts Bar area.
Wiebe (1938) on Norris reservoir and Sin-
clair and Ingram (1961) on Pickwick res-
ervoir performed postimpoundment
studies. Bates (1962) compared the
preimpoundment and postimpoundment
mussel fauna of Kentucky Lake. The
Tennessee Valley Authority Water Qual-
ity Branch (1974) reported the water
quality in the main channel of Kentucky
Lake as part of a series of special studies
of mainstream reservoirs; all sampling
was conducted within the main channel
of the river. Taylor (1971) included Ken-
tucky Lake in a report on 6 Tennessee
Valley Authority lakes in which phyto-
plankton productivity and nutrient avail-

109.4 - 103 m elevation above msl

1 - 12 sampling sites

Contour map of Anderson Creek Embayment and locations of sampling stations.

ability were studied in relation to certain
environmental factors.

Nationwide river monitoring programs
have included the Tennessee River but
there are no published reports on lim-
nological work on Kentucky Lake embay-
ments. Williams and Scott (1962) report-
ed on principal diatoms in major
waterways, including the Tennessee Riv-
er. Williams (1964) reported on dominant
planktonic rotifers in major waterways of
the United States. Weber (1971) pub-
lished a guide to the common diatoms
collated at Water Pollution Surveillance
System Stations that included the Ten-
nessee River. Silva (1951) developed a
systematic treatment of the algae of the
Tennessee Valley that serves as an ex-
cellent reference for the identification of
species. Effects of impoundment on
physical and chemical qualities of water
in the Tennessee Valley have been doc-
umented in several reports: Churchill

BIOLOGICAL AND CHEMICAL EVALUATION, KENTUCKY LAKE—Kinman et al. 137

J F M A M J J A s fo) N D

Fic. 2. Monthly variation in total phytoplankton
collected from Anderson Creek Embayment, Ken-
tucky Lake, 1975.

1958; Dendy 1946; Eschmeyer 1939,
1950; and Wiebe 1938, 1939, 1940.

RESEARCH PROCEDURES

Monthly sampling along Anderson
Creek was initiated in late July, 1974. All
stations were marked with floating buoys.
At each station, plankton and benthos
were collected and selected water-qual-
ity measurements were made. Stations in
the shallow portions of each cove, e.g., 4,
7, 8, 9, 10, 11, and 12 (Fig. 1) were sam-
pled for water quality at the surface only.
Stations 3, 5, and 6 were sampled at the
surface and | m from the bottom; stations
1 and 2 maintained sufficient depth
throughout the year to obtain samples
from the surface, midcolumn, and 1 m
from the bottom.

Plankton

Plankton were sampled with a Juday
plankton trap in the euphotic zone at all
stations. At deeper stations, bottom and
midcolumn samples were obtained. Usu-
ally, half the stations were sampled one
week and the other half the following
week so that the samples could be ex-
amined while still fresh. The Juday trap,
with an 80-um mesh _ bucket, was
used to obtain a 5-liter sample with min-
imal disturbance of the water. The sam-
ple was concentrated to 40 ml in the
field, and all samples were transported to

50 cells/liter

J F M A M J J A Ss ° N D

Fic. 3. Monthly variation in total zooplankton
cells collected from Anderson Creek Embayment,
Kentucky Lake, 1975.

Murray State University Biological Sta-
tion where they were counted immedi-
ately as total phytoplankters per liter. A
l-ml aliquot of the sample was counted
using a Sedgwick-Rafter slide under 200
magnification using a Whipple microm-
eter disc. Identification of the various
taxa was made following Prescott (1962)
for phytoplankton, and Pennak (1953)
and Ward and Whipple (1965) for zoo-
plankton. Total phytoplankters and zoo-
plankters per liter were recorded for each
taxon at each station.

Benthos

Benthic sampling was conducted at
every station. Qualitative and quantita-
tive samples of the substrate were col-
lected at each station with an Ekman
dredge with a known area at 524 cm? to
provide a quantitative estimate of the
macrobenthic population. Each sample
was passed through a U.S. Standard No.
30 mesh sieve while the sieve was rotat-
ed in the water and organisms and
coarser debris were removed from the
sieve and placed in widemouthed jars.
The samples were returned to the labo-
ratory and organisms were sorted while
still alive. Macroinvertebrates were re-
moved with forceps and in samples that
contained detritus, a sugar flotation meth-
od was used (Anderson 1959). Once sort-
ed, all macroinvertebrates were pre-
served in 35% isopropyl alcohol and
placed in vials containing the date and

138

TABLE |.—PERCENTAGE FREQUENCIES OF OCCURRENCE AT COLLECTING STATIONS OF ALL GENERA OF
PHYTOPLANKTERS FROM ANDERSON CREEK EMBAYMENT, KENTUCKY LAKE, AUGUST 1974—OCTOBER 1975

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 42(3-4)

1974
A S O N D J F

Chrysophyta

Asterionella By LI 685)

Achnanthes 5

Amphipleura

Cyclotella Se eS) OSM nO. arr Mmm,

Cymbella Sal Operas, 5 20 At

Cocconeis 5 5 5

Diatoma oie SASS

Diploneis 11

Eunotia 5)

Fragilaria 10 29) 685) 382, 387 S2aml6

Frustulia

Gomphonema 5 2 5 5) 5

Gyrosigma Oma led 16 358 47

Melosira 86 100 89 100 100 95 95

Navicula [AOC MOSM LOO me Oot OO) mn S

Nitzschia 10 «16 5 » 26° 26

Opephora 5

Pinnularia 5

Rhoicosphenia

Synedra 95 90 84 89 89 95 74

Surirella 1) sg} 16m) M6 3 26

Stephanodiscus 2926) eZ Oona Oo

Tabellaria 5 5

Dinobryon 5

Chrysococcus B)

Mallomonas 5 5 5

Ophiocytium 14

Synura 5
Chlorophyta

Chlamydomonas 19 oy 16 ose 26032

Like Bs 28)

Lobomonas 10

Carteria

Gonium 5 3)

Platydorina Sea eis lil

Pandorina 86 29 1) 5

Eudorina 5 5)

Pleodorina

Volvox 5 5

Gloeocystis 5 5 32

Tetraspora 5

Ulothrix on a0 5 5

Stichococcus

Cylindrocapsa 5

Microspora i} 16 5

Stigeoclonium

Oedogonium 10

Colenkinia 14) 38 5) Lt Tal

Characium 5

Pediastrum Ot ON ADS GD Olea Genelal

Coelastrum oS} KO) 5

Botryococcus

Dictyosphaerium 10 5 ll 16

M

32

16

1975
J J A S O
5 11
89 100 84 53 63

26 lo. 1 5
16 By Jk
5 Sine alll 5
21 5.6 (oll 32
21 5
LO, R20” 16 5
79 32 £16 16
84 100 100 95 100
63) 753) 1630 21 53
Bellen NG
84 95 81 79 63
Sie VG V1 6S: eo well
5
11
37
5
26) 26) 753) Ooi hg.
Ikea
AAS “tye 5
AVE TAS) AKG
89 89 81 16 5
53.21 5
5
16 5
5
5
5
2.6) 747 SO SL reat!
5 TA wee Dhlainralult
SOV 9bmt Gor FS
Al 160242) 5526 5
ll
BZ) En Oi MAD Ens 4

BIOLOGICAL AND CHEMICAL EVALUATION, KENTUCKY LAKE—Kinman et al. 139

TABLE 1.—CONTINUED

1974 1975
A S O N D | F M A M J J A S O

Chlorella DOS S6D SGP Sle 191A 253 953" 168 I Be ete} AUG

Treubaria 94 29 ee | ba

Oocystis 5 5 5 Sieeeelel

Lagerheimia 5 14 21 5 dll 5 5 5

Franceia 11 5

Ankistrodesmus 5 il. BB BR GS TOO) | at Ry BAIL eh EIS a ila 38}

Tribonema 5 5

Vaucheria 5

Meridion 5
Pyrrhophyta

Glenodinium Sl 43) lel ell 3) A216 168 95) 168) 279) 6

Peridinium 10 5 11

Ceratium 10 =10 79 89 57 57
Euglenophyta

Trachelomonas 38 24 5 I 26neee 2 Ooms noon au/o = OOn w42aemon

Phacus Swiss BG ANS ol Sas llia Die 49 Bi Aas al

Euglena 10 «14 YO Ay ay GB ey I I Be BS Gl
Cyanophyta

Chroococcus 62) 933m 1420 11 5 5 Se 9> = 47 89 eSiiealG 5

Aphanocapsa 10 «11 11 5 ll eee 5

Microcystis 33 33 16 11 11 11 5 at OS Osta coum,

Merismopedia 24 29 11 84 58 57 5 )

Aphanothece 10 5 5 16 IS PAS ILL NG

Spirulina 24 10 5 5 i) Din 68a 263 5

Oscillatoria 5s 680) OR eOr 2K By Sl BS) BI

Lyngbya 81 71 2 Gon 42) Bp) IG es} OB) Toh ET Gs}

Anabaena 90 38 IIl 5 16 Se AO 9 5n alOOFy lel a2

Nostoc 24

Gleocapsa 5

Unidentified

Procaryotic

Filament 14 5 37

Schroederia Som Ome el 5 57 74

Closteriopsis 14 5 5 5

Chodatella 5

Selenastrum 5

Tetrastrum 5 5 11 D

Tetraedron 29 4 S20 26) 2! 5 5 Gea olO 2268 260422 368i 26 5

Scenedesmus 86 86 47 42 Se 5S. eell6) 53) 126 489) 95 195: Sol Aaa oo

Actinastrum 19 90 47 5 26 By BP 74 89 95 Av “Si

Crucigenia 5 By ALI Key PAIL ih» All

Micractinium 5 Wk Bik a a ass) by XG). PAG} ial

Cosmarium 10 5 IG SR) Be aw 5

Euastrum 19 5 16 63h 6 aa6

Staurastrum 14 14 Sieeelul: 5 Be) io} PAG} 5

Micrasterias 38 5 5 ol AT a6

Closterium 5 5 ll 5 5 5 my NG LG ll

Mougeotia By | 8) BY ll 37 AME SB) XS} ALA

Spirogyra 5 aelele ero Do: Ly aeliltS2

Gloeothece 5 5

Marssoniella 330) Oe 5 5 37 68 21 5

Kirchneriella 21

Polyedriopsis 5

140 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 42(3-4)

TABLE 2.—PERCENTAGE FREQUENCIES OF OCCURRENCE AT COLLECTING STATIONS OF ALL GENERA OF
ZOOPLANKTERS COLLECTED FROM ANDERSON CREEK EMBAYMENT, KENTUCKY LAKE, AUGUST 1974-—
OCTOBER 1975

1974 1975

A Ss O N D J F M A M J J A S O
Protozoa
Sarcodina
Actinosphaerium Ae 26 26.26) le re eto
Acanthocystis 5 5 37
Actinophrys 5 5 5
Difflugia Oe 1A Os UG: 3) 77 77 100
Ciliata 10 24 10 By) eh repay 1 1KO) Oe! MOM a Sin Aer, 5 53
Codonella 16 10 PAS (rea PAI AGA XG bats) Bie Scr ALG
Vorticella 68 16 10 ol 5 Sue
Strombidium 5
Staurophyra 5
Spriostomum 5
Podophyra 11
Rotifera unidentified A Bay WO wert 2al By Ae LOD MUG MSS CoN anor 37 5 16
Trichocera 48 29 16 5 5 10 80 84 74 By ye
Ploesoma 48 19 16 O22 38) Sea demalnl
Asplanchia 29 5 610 AT IG: f52. 380) 84. 32 685 42
Branchionus 625) 95 84 100 ASO SO MGs 47 68. 842 O53) eter a lole wale
Cephalodella 10 5
Synchaeta Bye 7 ING) By Be her BY AMly GHB}! ese als 1 al) AG) AU
Pompholyx 5
Polyartha Oo) 4) 2690 26 26" "800 532 (26. 2526S aor S406 Cle Aa 9
Colletheca 5
Euchlanis 10
Notommata 5 5 5
Keratella 16 26 26 16) G52 749 18968) ) 408 Oe 6
Monstyla 5 5
Gastropus 5
Killicotia 6332 5 610
Conochilius 11 5 11
Aelosoma 5
Sinantherina 5 5 5
Filinia 16 Py ALL
Hexartha ZO S ea 5
Platyias 47 16 5
Limnias 5
Gastrochia ll
Nematoda 5 10 5 5
Hydra 5
Tardigrada 10 5 5 5 5
Oligochaeta
Chaetogaster 16
Copepoda (nauplius) Ma 88. (2126 co8) 95, ue 53)) 58) Oana 74 eS OmOOR IGS Ao
Cyclopoida 10 10 165) 16 8252 PAW 5S 47 6S, Aus 442 rd OMe
Cladocera 14. 10 5 ye 9S) Ai 32
Diaphanosoma 74 5

Bosmina 74 63 #416

BIOLOGICAL AND CHEMICAL EVALUATION, KENTUCKY LAKE—Kinman et al. 141

150!

1000

nn
S

Numbers /M?

J F M A M J J A s oO N Oo

Fic. 4. Mean monthly variation in total macroin-
vertebrates collected with the Ekman dredge in
Anderson Creek Embayment, Kentucky Lake, 1975.

station number. At a later date, the con-
tents of each sample were separated un-
der a dissecting scope and organisms
were sorted and respective taxa counted.
The organisms were identified to genus
when possible (Pennak 1953) and ex-
pressed as numbers per square meter.

Numbers/M™

Fic. 6. Mean monthly variation of dominant
dipterous families collected in Anderson Creek
Embayment, Kentucky Lake, 1975.

900:
800
700:
60
Diptera
50
S
o
340
ao
€
=]
z
300:
--
20 Ephemeroptera
100
--@
ye \ Mligochaeta
poda
——

J F MM A Mw J J A s o N Do

Fic. 5. Mean monthly variation of dominant
macroinvertebrate Taxa collected in Anderson
Creek Embayment, Kentucky Lake, 1975.

Water Quality

Measurements of turbidity, water tem-
perature, specific conductance, total dis-
solved solids, dissolved oxygen, and Sec-
chi disc readings were obtained at each
station using standard methods. Temper-

Centigrade
fo)

wn

go le SIM Ay IM uh) Al ish) oO) Nee oO

Fic. 7. Monthly range and mean for water tem-
perature in Anderson Creek Embayment, Kentucky
Lake, 1975.

142

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 42(3-4)

TABLE 3.—NUMBER OF BENTHIC MACROINVERTEBRATES COLLECTED PER METER SQUARE FROM ANDER-
SON CREEK EMBAYMENT, KENTUCKY LAKE, 1975

J F

Bryoza
*

Pectinatella magnifica (E)*

Turbellaria
Tricladidia (E)

Annelida

Oligochaeta
Tubificidae
Branchiura (E)
Unidentified
Oligochaetes (E)
(D)

Hirudinea

Helobdella (E)

Mollusca
Pelecypoda
Sphaeriidae
Musculium (E)
Sphaerium (E)
Unionidae
Quadrula quadrula (E)
Gastropoda
Physidae
Physa (E)
Physa (D)

Crustacea
Copepoda
Cyclops (E)
(D)
Crustacea
Amphipoda
Hyalella azteca (E)
Eydracarina (E)
(D)
Insecta
Collembola
Tsotoma (E)
Ephemeroptera
Ephemeridae
Hexagenia (E)
(E)
(D)

Oreianthus

Heptageniidae

Stenonema(E)
(D)
Odonata
Anisoptera
Lanthus (E)
Zygoptera
Enallagama (E)
(D)
Argia (D)
Unidentified (E)

Megaloptera

Sialidae
Sialis (D)

19 19

40 40

1.6

1.6

9.6

23.4 23.4

146 146

1.6

5.6

M A
19 19
1.4
40 40
26.1 26.1
eee weilee7:
49.3 42.3
1.5
2.9
23.4 23.4
1.4
146 146
38.6 38.6

M

40

146

9.2

J

19

40

1.6

23.4

J A S O N D

1.6

19 19

40 40 40 40 40 40
26.1

11.7
49-3 ) 42:3) 49.3) 4230 49°39 749083
1.5
9.6
23.4 23:4 1 2364 23.4
1.6
146 146 146 146 146 146
9.2
5.6

1.6

Boo
8.3
3.3

1.6

5.0

BIOLOGICAL AND CHEMICAL EVALUATION, KENTUCKY LAKE—Kinman et al. 143

TABLE 3.—CONTINUED

M J J A S O N D

Tricoptera
Psychomyia (E) 1.6
Polycentropus (E) 3.2
(D)
Tricoptera
Unidentified 1.6

Coleoptera

Elmidae (E) 1.6 1.6

Hydrophilidae
Berosus (E)

Diptera
Chironomidae
Chironomus (E) 28.6 28.6
Pentaneura (E) 17 17 17
Unidentified
chironomids (E) 278
(D) 108.4

278

Ceratopogonidae
Probezzia (E)
(D)

128.6 128.6 128.6

12.4

Culicidae

Chaoborus (E) 99 99 99 99
Dixidae

Dixa (E) 1.6
Tipulidae

Tipula (E) 1.6

Hexatoma (E) 1.6
Tabanidae

Chrysops (E)

Tabanus (E)

28.6

108.4

128.6

1.6

28.6 28.6
17 17 7

bo
~~
oo

278
108.4

128.6 128.6 128.6

12.4

128.6 128.6 128.6 128.6 128.6

99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99

1.6

4.8 4.8
1.6

* E—Ekman Dredge method of collection.
** D—Hester-Dendy sampler method of collection.

ature readings were taken with a Yellow
Springs Telethermometer, Model 43TD.
Specific conductance measurements were
made with a Beckman, Model RA-2A
conductivity meter. Dissolved oxygen
measurements were made with a Hach
meter, Model 1962. Other tests were
made by collection of water samples us-
ing a 1,200-ml Kemmerer water sampler
and a Hach kit.

Chemical tests included free carbon
dioxide, total alkalinity, and pH using the
Hach kit and a Hellige meter. Nitrates
and phosphates were determined in the
laboratories using procedures outlined in
Standard Methods.

Volatile Organic Compounds

Sampling for organic materials was
performed by taking “grab” samples (ap-
proximately 0.9 liter in glass jars with
Teflon lined caps) at each station. Typi-
cally, samples were sparged for | hour at
room temperature or up to 70 C with or-
ganic free helium and the volatile organ-
ics collected onto Tenax (a polymer of
2,,6-diphenyl-p-phenyleneoxide). Heli-
um gas was passed through a molecular
sieve trap cooled by liquid nitrogen to
remove organics. The sparging gas en-
tered the bottom of the apparatus through
a medium porosity glass fritted wafer. At

Fic. 8. Monthly range and mean for dissolved
oxygen in Anderson Creek Embayment, Kentucky
Lake, 1975.

the top of the apparatus, a condenser with
19/22 standard taper joints was placed to
prevent water vapors from getting into
the Tenax trap. Glass tubes (typically
3 x 110 mm) that contained approximate-
ly 50 mg of conditioned Tenax were
placed in holes of Teflon plug positioned
at the top of the condenser. Because of
sample size and concentration of organ-
ics, it sometimes was necessary to use
more than one tube in sequence and to
mix the contents of more concentrated

ppm

Fic. 9. Monthly range and mean for pH and free
carbon dioxide in Anderson Creek Embayment,
Kentucky Lake, 1975.

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 42(3-4)

Fic. 10. Monthly range and mean for total al-
kalinity in Anderson Creek Embayment, Kentucky
Lake, 1975.

tubes with conditioned Tenax to obtain
desirable concentrations.

Separation and identification of organ-
ics from the water samples was achieved
by GC/MS/COM techniques using a
Hewlett-Packard Model 5984 GC/Mass
Spectrometry/Computer System equip-
ped with glass capillary columns.

After the sparging process, the glass
tubes containing Tenax with absorbed
organics were placed directly into the
GC injector port for subsequent GC anal-
ysis. When using the Tenax tubes, a typ-
ical GC procedure was as follows: The
oven was cooled to approximately 0 C
(depending on liquid phase used in glass
capillary), and the desorbed organics
(from the heat of the injector port) col-
lected in a “loop” made in the glass cap-
illary which was immersed in liquid ni-

120
10
8
E
a 6
4
2
J FM AM veg Ay iS, Oy NGS
Fic. 11. Mean monthly variation of total dis-

solved solids in Anderson Creek Embayment, Ken-
tucky Lake, 1975.

Seer

BIOLOGICAL AND CHEMICAL EVALUATION, KENTUCKY LAKE—Kinman et al. 145

(in sea level)

--Turbidity

Surface elevation of Kentucky Lake

Fic. 12. Mean monthly variation of turbidity

and Secchi-disc transparency in Anderson Creek

Embayment and surface elevation fluctuations of
Kentucky Lake during the study period.

trogen. Approximately 15 minutes were
required for desorption and on-column
trapping. Temperature programming of
the oven produces the normal GC profile.
By spiking the water sample with known
compounds and with prior knowledge of
the sparging efficiency, one can gain
quantitative information using the elec-
tronic integrator.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Plankton

The phytoplankton of Anderson Creek
embayment consisted of 98 genera rep-
resenting 5 phyla: Chlorophyta (49 gen-
era), Chrysophyta (30), Pyrrhophyta (3),
Euglenophyta (3), and Cyanophyta (12).
Although the largest number of genera
belonged to the Chlorophyta, members
of the Chrysophyta were quantitatively
more abundant throughout the study.

mg/l

J FM AM J J aA S ON D

Fic. 13. Monthly range and mean for nitrate ni-
trogen concentrations in Anderson Creek Embay-
ment, Kentucky Lake, 1975.

Diatoms dominated the flora for the en-
tire study period except August in which
the embayment approached stagnant
conditions and blue-green algae (Cyano-
phyta) then became most abundant.
Since only a total count of phytoplank-
tonic cells was recorded and no individ-
ual phylum counts made, all comments
in reference to numbers of individual
phyla are based on personal observa-
tions.

The genera of phytoplankters and the
percentage frequencies of occurrence at
collecting stations each month for the en-
tire study are listed in Table 1. Percent-
age frequencies were calculated by de-
termining the number of samples in
which each genus was found and ex-
pressing that as a percentage of all sam-
ples collected that month. Annual per-
centage frequencies were calculated by
determining the occurrence of each ge-
nus throughout the year and expressing
them as percentages of the total number
of samples.

146
0.4
0.3
S02
0.1
JE My VA UM Ji) Ae SO VND
Fic. 14. Mean monthly values for phosphate con-

centrations in Anderson Creek Embayment, Ken-
tucky Lake, 1975.

Marked seasonal fluctuations were
seen in the total phytoplankton standing
crop (Fig. 2).

The general features of monthly fre-
quency of occurrence and relative abun-
dance of zooplankton are shown in Table
2 and Figure 3, respectively. Zooplank-
ton numbers were treated in the same
manner as phytoplankton. Each taxa
identified was recorded as a percent fre-
quency of occurrence at the collecting
stations by month and by an annual per-
centage.

Benthos

The benthic fauna collected from An-
derson Creek Embayment consisted of
34 taxa in 15 orders (Table 3). The aver-
age monthly numbers per m? are in-
cluded in Table 3. Seasonal variation
in total numbers of all benthic organisms
is shown in Figure 4.

The dominant macroinvertebrates col-

all

Fic. 15.

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 42(3-4)

lected included representatives of the
Oligochaeta, Pelecypoda, Ephemerop-
tera, and Diptera. Quantitatively, 95% of
all organisms per m? were represented by
those taxa, and they were collected
throughout the year. Monthly differences
between those groups are illustrated in
Figure 5. Many oligochaetes were of the
genus Branchiura (Tibificidae).

The class Pelecypoda made up 6% of
the benthic organisms collected and was
dominated by Sphaeriidae. Musculium
and Sphaerium had monthly averages of
140 and 507 individuals per m?, respec-
tively. Only one unionid, Quadrula
quadrula, was collected. As a class, Pe-
lecypoda, comprised 6% of the total num-
bers of benthic organisms collected.

The order Diptera consisted mainly of
members of the Chironomidae (52%),
Ceratopogonidae (27%), and Culididae
(20%); collectively they formed 64% of
the total macroinvertebrate numbers
(Fig. 6). Other dipteran families, uncom-
mon in the embayment, belonged to the
Dixidae, Tipulidae, and Tabanidae.

The following genera of mayflies were
collected in Ekman dredge samples:
Hexagenia, Oreianthus, and Stenonema.
The mayfly fauna was divided into 2 com-
ponents, the mud-burrowing forms
(Ephemeridae) and aufwuchs forms
(Heptageniidae). The mayfly fauna
formed 19% of the total number of mac-
roinvertebrates collected.

High Resolution GC Profile of Anderson Creek Organics, January 1976.

BIOLOGICAL AND CHEMICAL EVALUATION, KENTUCKY LAKE—Kinman et al. 147

TABLE 4.—PEAK IDENTIFICATIONS IN FIGURE 15

Peak number Organic compound

1 methylene chloride
2 ethylindene chloride
3 vinyl chloride
4 ethylindene chloride
5 chloroform
6 bromoform
7 ethylene chloride
8 benzene
9 styrene
10 toluene
1l ethylbenzene
12 indene
13 naphthalene
14 1-methylindene
15 2-methylindene
16 ?methylnaphthalene
17 ?-methylnaphthalene
18 l-ethylnaphthalene
19 1,2,4-trichlorobenzene
20 diphenylacetylene
21 diethylphthalate
22 di-n-butyl phthalate
23 di-n-octylphthalate

Members of the insect orders Collem-
bola, Odonata, and Coleoptera were also
collected in small numbers. All insects
collected were either larvae or pupae.

On single occasions, representatives of
Nematoda, Turbellaria, Hirudinea, Co-
pepoda, and Trichoptera were collected.

Representatives of the Amphipoda and
Hydracarina were uncommon. The am-
phipod Hyalella azteca was collected in
3 of the 12 months and averaged 9.5 or-
ganisms per m?. Hydracarinids were col-
lected in 9 of the 12 months, but were not
identified to genus. Statablasts of Pectin-
atella magnifica were frequently ob-
served in benthic samples.

Water Quality

Water quality was measured each
month to augment the biological studies.
Monthly averages and ranges of physical
and chemical parameters for the entire
collecting year are shown in Figures 7-10
for water temperature, dissolved oxygen,
carbon dioxide, and alkalinity in Ander-
son Creek embayment, respectively. Av-
erage values for specific conductance
(Fig. 11) ranged from 55 pwmho per

TABLE 5.—MONTH VARIABLE OF TOTAL ORGANIC

CONTENT VIA GAS CHROMATOGRAPHY (HP 5840)

FOR ANDERSON CREEK EMBAYMENT, KENTUCKY
LAKE, 1974-1975

Total organic

Month content (ppm)
October 14.90
November 11.10
December 5.20
January 1.04
February 1.50
March 0.10
April 0.35
May 3.00
June 6.50
July 17.10
August 38.20
September 15.00
October 16.80
November 12.00
December 7.80
January 1.78
February 2.01
March 0.32
April 7s)
May 5.40

cm to 175 wmho per cm, which rep-
resented approximate average dissolved
solid concentrations of 64 ppm to 131
ppm, respectively. Turbidity values fol-
low the general pattern of Secchi disc
readings (Fig. 12).

Nitrogen can exist in several forms, in-
cluding ammonia, nitrites, and nitrates.
Values for nitrite nitrogen were negligi-
ble since nitrogen in this form is in the
transition between ammonia and nitrate.
Monthly values for nitrate nitrogen are
shown in Figure 13. Average phosphate
values are shown in Figure 14.

Figure 15 depicts a typical GC run us-
ing a glass capillary column (approxi-
mately 100 m x 0.3 mm). The sample tak-
en from Anderson Creek was sparged
onto Tenax and desorbed to give the GC
profile shown. Table 4 lists compound
identities in Figure 15. Compounds were
identified using the GC/Mass Spectrom-
etry/Computer System.

During the entire study period, at least
1 sample was taken each month for each
embayment. An attempt was made to ob-
tain relative monthly quantitative com-

148

parisons of organic content in the embay-
ment by adding known amounts of
internal standards to the samples. Using
a Hewlett-Packard Model 5840 GC with
accompanying data system, total organic
content for each sample was made by
comparing total integrated area of the GC
run to the area of the standards. Table 5
gives monthly total organic content val-
ues for Anderson Creek.

From this study it appears that the
greatest concentrations of organics are
present during late summer, perhaps due
to an increasing amount of boating and
other uses of the lake coupled with a de-
cline in biotic organisms. It is of interest
to note that at periods when maximum
oxidation of the organics occurred, the
pH level was lowest. Further, water tur-
bidity was inversely related to total or-
ganic content.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Support of this project by the Office of
Water Research and Technology, De-
partment of the Interior, under the pro-
visions of Public Law 88-379, as Project
Number A-057-KY, is gratefully acknowl-
edged.

The report is dedicated to the memory
of our colleague Dr. Morgan E. Sisk,
coinvestigator and friend, whose initial
leadership and endeavors were instru-
mental in the success of the study. His
untimely accidental death during the
course of the investigation resulted in a
great loss to the study and the entire sci-
entific community.

LITERATURE CITED

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nique for sorting bottom fauna samples. Lim-
nol. Oceanogr. 4(1):223-225.

BATES, J. M. 1962. The impact of impoundment on
the mussel fauna of Kentucky reservoir, Ten-
nessee River. Am. Midl. Nat. 68(1):232-236.

CHURCHILL, M. A. 1958. Effects of storage im-
poundments on water quality. Trans. Am. Soc.
Civ. Engr. 123:419-464.

DENDY, J. S. 1946. Food of several species of fish,

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 42(3-4)

Norris Reservoir, Tennessee. J. Tenn. Acad.
Sci. 21(1):105-127.

ESCHMEYER, R. W. 1939. Growth of fishes in Nor-
ris Lake, Tennessee. J. Tenn. Acad. Sci.
15(3):329-341.

. 1950. Fish and fishing in TVA impound-
ments. Tenn. Dept. Conserv. pp. 1-28.

KUEHNE, R. A. 1962. A classification of streams il-
lustrated by fish distribution in an eastern Ken-
tucky creek. Ecology 43(1):608-614.

LYMAN, F. E. 1943. A pre-impoundment bottom
fauna study of Watts Bar reservoir area (Ten-
nessee). Trans. Am. Fish. Soc. 72(1942):52-62.

ORTMAN, A. E. 1924. Mussel Shoals. Science
60(1564):565-566.

PENNAK, R. S. 1953. Freshwater invertebrates of
the United States. The Ronald Press Co., New
York. p. 769.

PRESCOTT, G. W. 1962. Algae of the Western Great
Lakes area. Revised Edition. Wm. C. Brown
Co., Dubuque, Iowa. p. 975.

StLvA, H. 1951. Algae of the Tennessee Valley
Region. A manual for identification. Ph.D. The-
sis. Univ. of Mich. 684 p. Univ. Microfilms. Ann
Arbor, Mich.

SINCLAIR, R. M., AND W. M. INGRAM. 1961. A new
record for the Asiatic clam in the U.S., the Ten-
nessee River. Nautilus 74(3):114-118.

TayLor, M. P. 1971. Phytoplankton productivity
response to nutrients correlated with certain
environmental factors in six T.V.A. reservoirs.
In Gordon E. Hall (ed.) Reservoir Fisheries
and Limnology, American Fisheries Society,
Washington, D.C., pp. 209-217.

TENNESSEE VALLEY AUTHORITY DIVISION OF EN-
VIRONMENTAL PLANNING. 1974. Quality of
water in Kentucky reservoir. E-WQ-74-3. p. 86.

WARD, H. B., AND G. C. WHIPPLE. 1965. Fresh-
water biology. 2nd edition edited by W. T. Ed-
monson. John Wiley & Sons, New York. p.
1248.

WEBER, C. I. 1971. A guide to the common diatoms
at water pollution surveillance system stations.
USDI. FWPCA. Cincinnati. p. 100.

WIEBE, A. H. 1938. Limnological observations on
Norris reservoir with special references to dis-
solved oxygen and temperature. 3rd North Am.
Wildl. Conf., pp. 440-457.

. 1939. Density currents in Norris reser-
voir. Ecology 20(3):446-459.

. 1940. The effect of density currents upon
the vertical distribution of temperature and dis-
solved oxygen in Norris reservoir. J. Tenn.
Acad. Sci. 15(3):301-308.

WiuuiaMs, L. G. 1964. Dominant planktonic roti-
fers of major waterways of the U.S. Limnol.
Oceanog. 11:83-91.

, AND C. ScoTT. 1962. Principal diatoms of
major waterways of the U.S. Limnol. Oceanog.
7:365-379.

Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 42(3-4), 1981, 149-157

Analysis of Volatile Organic Compounds
in a Textile Finishing Plant Effluent

ANNETTE W. GORDON AND MARSHALL GORDON

Department of Chemistry, Murray State University, Murray, Kentucky 42071

ABSTRACT

This project had two objectives: to evaluate the effectiveness of waste treatment at a typical
textile finishing plant in the southeastern United States, and to develop and apply analytical
techniques necessary to make such evaluations. Effectiveness of treatment was measured in
terms of specific organic compound removal and transformation.

A cooperating plant that primarily finished polyester fabrics furnished effluent samples from
various locations within its treatment process for analysis. The treatment process consisted of
biological oxidation followed by chlorination plus a multimedia filtration and carbon adsorption.
Effluent samples were analyzed primarily for volatile (purgeable) and semi-volatile organic con-
tent using gas chromatograph/mass spectrometer/computer techniques. Once the general organic
content of the waste samples was ascertained, methods were developed for routinely analyzing
waste samples from textile plants.

More than 80 organic compounds were present in the raw influent (to the treatment process)
from the textile finishing plant: approximately 11 dye carriers, 14 dyes, 27 solvents, 3 detergents,
4 plasticizers, and 22 miscellaneous compounds. The treatment process reduced the level of
organic content (TOC) in the final effluent by 50 to 60 per cent. The raw influent contained
approximately 25 per cent volatile organic compounds, most of which were removed or trans-
formed during the treatment process. Most of the organic content of the final effluent is believed
to be water-soluble, non-volatile compounds. Evidence for transformation of known organic
substances present in the raw influent during varying stages of treatment, e.g. chlorination, to
toxic substance is lacking. A few relatively toxic organics, e.g., benzene (132 ppb in the final
effluent) and tetrachloroethylene (45 ppb), however, appeared to escape significant oxidation

and removal during treatment.

INTRODUCTION

The textile industry often significantly
affects the environment. Comparatively
little study has been made on the effect
of textile plant effluents on aquatic en-
vironments (Garrison and Hill 1972,
Craft and Eichholz 1973, Keith 1976).
This is due, in part, to the very complex
nature of textile plant effluents which re-
sult from the very wide range of organic,
inorganic, volatile, non-volatile, soluble,
non-soluble, degradable, and non-de-
gradable chemicals used by the industry.
Thus, it is obvious that a complex chem-
ical matrix can be present in the waste
streams from textile plants.

Little is known about the types of or-
ganic chemicals present in textile plant
effluents following various kinds of treat-
ment processes. Included in the group of
chemicals used by this industry are dyes,
dye carriers, sizing compounds, finishing

resins and polymers, detergents, and or-
ganic solvents. Many of these compounds
are complex, high molecular-weight or-
ganics that present major pollution prob-
lems. The chemistry of these compounds
in aquatic environments is relatively un-
known. Moreover, products arising from
their degradation by micro-organisms,
sunlight, and hydrolytic processes are,
except in a few instances, unknown.
Much research is needed to determine
which compounds discharged by partic-
ular plants find their way into streams
and which contribute most to pollution
problems. Also, study is needed to iden-
tify degradation products of certain or-
ganic compounds used by the textile in-
dustry. Knowledge of the chemicals
present after treatment procedures and
their effect on water quality may provide
necessary data for engineering changes
in textile waste treatment facilities.

149

150

The limited knowledge of kinds, types
and concentrations of chemicals present
in effluents from textile plants after waste
treatment stimulated the need for this
study. A finishing and dyeing plant lo-
cated in North Carolina furnished ef-
fluent samples for the study. The plant
primarily used synthetic fibers, princi-
pally to make tricot warp knit fabrics.

The purpose of this study was to de-
termine the amounts of specific organic
chemicals in the waste stream prior to,
and at key intervals within, the waste
treatment process in an effort to measure
treatment effectiveness. The waste treat-
ment process consisted of two phases,
biological oxidation and chlorination and
multimedia filtration and carbon adsorp-
tion. This study primarily focuses on vol-
atile organics in the effluent samples.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The primary method used for the anal-
ysis of volatile organic compounds in the
textile plant waste treatment samples was
a modified Bellar technique (Bellar and
Lichtenberg 1974b, Lichtenberg 1975)
which employs an inert gas to purge the
volatiles from the aqueous solution with
subsequent trapping on an adsorbent ma-
terial. Tenax, the adsorbent used, is a
polymer bead of 2,6-diphenyl-p-pheny]-
eneoxide (Van Wijk 1970). The volatiles
trapped were subsequently analyzed by
gas chromatography-mass spectrometry
using either a Hewlett-Packard Model
5984A or 5985A GC/MS/COM system
equipped with glass capillary columns.
The capillary columns were prepared in
the laboratory using a Shimadzu GDM-1
glass drawing machine and a Shimadzu
MCT-1A dynamic coating machine. The
glass columns varied from 25 meters to
120 meters in length, depending on the
separation requirements. The column di-
ameters were 0.45 to 0.55 mm inside di-
ameter (id) and 0.8 and 0.9 mm outside
diameter (od). All of the gc columns were
coated using one of the following: OV-1,
OV-101, or SE-30 silicone rubber-type
polymers. The columns were used in
both ge and gce-ms and were interchanged

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 42(3-4)

from instrument to instrument depend-
ing on the analysis required. The total
organic carbon content was measured be-
fore and after various stages of sparging
or extraction using a Beckman Model
915A Total Organic Analyzer. The instru-
ment was standardized to 1 ppm prior to
each analysis using the procedure out-
lined in the Operation Manual furnished
by Beckman Instruments.

Some samples were obtained directly
from the waste treatment system, where-
as others were collected by plant person-
nel and shipped to our laboratory. The
following samples were collected:

1. influent—raw waste prior to waste
treatment;

2. clarifier effluent—after primary treat-
ment-biological oxidation;

3. chlorinated effluent—after treatment
with chlorine;

4. final effluent—finished effluent after
multimedia filtration and carbon ab-
sorption prior to discharge into creek.

Samples were obtained by plant per-
sonnel, frozen, and shipped air freight to
the Murray State University laboratory
for analysis of organic content using pri-
marily gas chromatography/mass spec-
trometry/computer techniques (GC/MS/
COM). The samples were immediately
frozen to preserve their integrity until
analysis. For analysis, the frozen samples
were thawed over a 12-hour period in an
organic-free atmosphere. Each liquid
sample was slightly mixed to obtain a ho-
mogeneous solution and three l-m]l sam-
ples were sealed in glass ampoules for
total organic carbon (TOC) analysis, per-
formed the same day. A second portion
(500 ml) was taken and sparged at am-
bient temperature and 70°C to remove
volatile compounds which were trapped
on Tenax adsorbent.

The tubes used for trapping the organic
compounds were constructed from Pyrex
glass and cleaned using a lab-built tube
cleaner. The tubes were placed in an alu-
minum holder of the cleaner, using Tef-
lon gaskets to seal each tube, and heated
at 215°C for 4 hours. During this period,

TEXTILE PLANT EFFLUENTS IN UNITED STATES—Gordon and Gordon

liquid nitrogen trapped helium was
passed through the tubes to remove any
organic vapors. Two pre-cleaned Tenax
tubes were fitted to a Teflon holder and
mounted in parallel with the helium gas
flow to obtain two sample tubes for anal-
ysis. The holder had been machined to
fit a 14/20 tapered joint in a water con-
denser. The sparge container with the
500 ml sample was purged with liquid
nitrogen trapped helium for 30 to 45 min-
utes to remove volatile organics. The he-
lium flow rate was 25 ml/min. Following
sparging, the collecting tubes were re-
moved and placed in pre-cleaned (by
heat) culture tubes sealed with Teflon
lined caps. Most trapped organics stud-
ied remained adsorbed in Tenax for sev-
eral days. For analysis, each collecting
tube was placed on the injector port and
it was immediately capped. Heat from
the injection port heater (approximately
215°C for ten minutes) was used to desorb
the organics from the Tenax tube. A small
“U” or loop of the GC capillary column
was immersed in liquid nitrogen to trap
the volatile organics. After the 10-minute
period, the liquid nitrogen trap was re-
moved and the GC/MS analysis was ini-
tiated by programming the temperature
of the GC oven in a manner to give the
optimum separation. During the trapping
sequence, “break through” of organics
was monitored by MS.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Description of Waste Treatment
Process

The finishing and dyeing plant studied
was selected by EPA officials at the Ath-
ens Environmental Research Laboratory
because of the cooperative nature of su-
pervisory personnel at the plant and their
apparent sincere desire to upgrade the
plant’s waste treatment efficiency. Prior
to the initiation of this study, EPA and
the cooperating company entered into a
cost-sharing arrangement to finance con-
struction of new waste treatment facili-
ties at the plant site. It was believed that,
upon completion of the new treatment

151

facility, this particular plant could serve
as a model for many other plants in need
of better waste treatment facilities if the
new process facility was indeed effective
in the removal and/or transformation of
toxic substances in the waste stream.

The system consists of a biological ox-
idation unit, with chlorination, coupled
with a multimedia filtration component.

Within the oxidation unit, the raw in-
fluent flows into an equilibration cham-
ber and is allowed to mix or equilibrate
for 8 to 13 hours depending on the rate
of flow of waste through the system. Fol-
lowing equilibration, thorough aeration,
the heart of the biological oxidation pro-
cess, occurs. Retention time in this unit
is much longer and the efficiency is de-
pendent on the organic concentration in
the waste and oxygen supply for the or-
ganisms. The oxidized effluent then
makes its way to the settling and clarify-
ing tanks. The clarified effluent flows to
the chlorinator tank where it is treated
with 15 ppm chlorine for 15 to 30 min-
utes. The effluent then moves to the mul-
timedia filtration unit where chemical
treatment and multimedia filtration and
carbon adsorption are used as a final
treatment process. The raw waste is gen-
erally highly colored (gray to black) and
the finished effluent is light amber.

Results from Analyses of
Raw Influent

At the outset of the study, since there
were few reported results on the nature
of textile plant effluents, it was necessary
to determine the best method for sepa-
rating and identifying organic com-
pounds in the waste stream. Table 1 sum-
marizes individual organic compounds
identified in the raw effluent from data
collected on four different sampling
dates. The composition of the influent
and finished effluent did not change sig-
nificantly at different time periods at the
plant due to an apparent standardization
of the plant process. The influent consists
of volatile and relatively non-volatile
compounds with little in between (Table
18),

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 42(3-4)

TABLE 1.—ORGANIC COMPOUNDS IN RAW INFLUENT TO WASTE TREATMENT SYSTEM

Solvents

acetone
acetophenone
benzene

n-butanol
t-butylbenzene
chloroform
o-chlorotoluene
cymene
diethylbenzene
dodecane
ethylbenzene
ethylene dichloride
isopropylbenzene
methyleyclohexene

Detergents

p-nonylphenol
p-t-butylphenol

Plasticizers
di-n-butylphthalate
diethylphthalate

Dyes

Disperse Yellow 86
Disperse Yellow 54
Disperse Yellow 3
Disperse Blue 3
Disperse Blue 7
Disperse Blue 56
Disperse Blue 60
Dye carriers
methylbenzoate
biphenyl
chlorobenzene
_p-dichlorobenzene
dipheny] ether
1-methylnaphthalene

Miscellaneous compounds

acenaphthalene
2-amino-2-ethyl-1,3-propanediol
2-amino-2-methyl-1-propanol
benzophenone
bromodichloromethane
n-butanol
4-chloro-2-phenylphenol
cyclohexanone
1,3-dibromobutane
2,3-dibromobutane
dibromochloromethane

methylene chloride
methylisomylketone
methylethylbenzenes
naphthalene
n-propylbenzene
propylene dichloride
tetrachloroethylene
trichloroethylene
tetrahydrofuran
toluene

tridecane
1,3,5-trimethylbenzene
xylenes

2,6,-di-t-butyl-4-methylphenol

dioctylphthalate
dimethylphthalate

Disperse Blue 81
Vat Blue 43

Basic Blue 3

Basic Green 4
Disperse Red 60
Disperse Black KNS
Disperse Black HP

2-methylnaphthalene
methyl salicylate
o-phenylphenol
tetrachloroethylene
1,2,4-trichlorobenzene

4-dimethylaminophenol
N,N-dimethylolamide
difluorotrichloroethane
2-ethylhexanol
2-heptanone
3-heptanone

methyl isoamy! ketone
2-methylpyrolidone
pyrene

styrene
vinylchloroprene

Volatile organics were removed using
a modified Bellar technique (Bellar and
Lichtenberg 1974b). Organic-free helium
was used as a sparge gas to purge vola-
tiles from the samples at room tempera-
ture and at 70°C. Sparging at the elevated
temperature was particularly effective for

compounds like biphenyl, methylnaph-
thalenes, and trichlorobenzenes. Meth-
ane was less effective as a sparge gas
than helium due to the deactivation of
the sites on the Tenax sorbent material.

Analysis of neutral, acid, and base ex-
tractions by GC/MS was not especially

TEXTILE PLANT EFFLUENTS IN UNITED STATES—Gordon and Gordon

153

TABLE 2.—VOLATILE ORGANICS IN INFLUENT SAMPLE 18A (12/03/76)

Retention
time

Approximate
concentration

Peak no. (adj. RT) Compound (ppb)
1 4.59 MW 96 (81) 16
g) 5.39 acetone 9.9
3 5.83 unidentified 108
4 6.48 benzene 119
5 8.39 tetrachloroethylene 131
6 9.19 C,-benzene 105
¢ 9.39 C,-benzene 106
8 9.79 C,-benzene 88
9 10.36 2,3-dibromobutane 6.0

10 10.97 n-propylbenzene 8.6
11 11.17 C,-benzene 39
12 11.36 C,-benzene 15
13 11.55 C,-benzene 12
14 11.92 C,-benzene 40
15 16.50 1,2,4-trichlorobenzene A
16 19.53 1- or 2-methylnaphthalene 10
17 19.94 1- or 2-methylnaphthalene 7.3
18 21.67 biphenyl] 26

productive. In essence, most of the vol-
atiles were removed by sparging leaving
little material behind for extraction.
Some non-volatile material, notably dis-
perse dyes, was partially extracted using
methylene chloride; however, analysis
by GC of this material did not prove sat-
isfactory. Rather, the extracts were ex-
amined by liquid and thin-layer chro-
matography.

All dyes listed in Table 1 were identi-
fied by comparison of TLC Rf values with
those of known compounds and by mass
spectrometry with the use of the direct
insertion probe (DIP). During the later
stages of this work, it became apparent
that high pressure liquid chromatography
would be the best way to isolate and sep-
arate non-volatiles from the effluent.
Concentration of water-soluble non-vol-
atile compounds can be accomplished by
HPLC using C,g reverse phase columns.
Subsequent elution and analysis by MS
using the direct insertion probe appears
to be the procedure of choice. This pro-

cedure has been used successfully in our

laboratory for separation and identifica-
tion of polynuclear aromatic hydrocar-
bons containing 5 or more rings found in
cigarette smoke condensate.

Results from Analyses of
Effluent at Various States
in Waste Treatment Process

After the composition of the raw waste
influent had been surveyed and a suit-
able methodology developed for volatile
organic compound removal from waste
samples, attention was directed towards
a step-by-step analysis of the effluent as
it moved through the treatment process.
With the knowledge of retention times in
various units of the treatment process, it
would be possible to sample accordingly
in an attempt to detect changes and/or
transformations of specific organic com-
pounds. Because of the ease of analyses
and consistency of the volatile organics
method, it was determined that the vol-
atile group would be easiest to monitor
through the entire treatment process.
Considerable difficulty had been en-
countered in the earlier stages of the
work in attempting to get consistent data
from non-volatile portions of samples.

A complete set of data from sequential
samples taken during the waste treat-
ment process is given in Tables 2, 3, 4,
and 5. High resolution chromatograms
obtained using glass capillary columns
for influent, clarifier, after chlorination,
and final effluent samples, respectively,

154 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 42(3-4)
TABLE 3.—VOLATILE ORGANICS IN CLARIFIER SAMPLE 5-B (12/03/76)
Retention Approximate
time concentration
Peak no. (adj. RT) Compound (ppb)
1 4.0 MW 96 32
2 4.31 aliphatic methylester (MW 142) 10
3 5.0 2-methylpyrolidone 12
4 5.20 methylene chloride 45
5 6.0 benzene 50
6 6.0 vinyl chloroprene 70
fi 6.76 toluene 9.9
8 7.34 tetrachloroethylene 67
9 eho silicone 10
10 8.38 C,-benzene 5
11 9.83 1,3-dibromobutane 10
12 11.68 2,,3-dibromobutane 31
13 12.66 C,-benzene 7

demonstrated changes in number of
peaks and their relative intensities as the
effluent sample collection point changed
indicating change in composition of the
waste stream. Using an electronic inte-
grator and with the aid of external stan-
dards, semi-quantitative data were ob-
tained and shown in each respective
table. The gas chromatograms indicated
an increase in concentration in the final
effluent over the after chlorination sam-
ple. This interesting observation was lat-
er confirmed by TOC analysis. Further,
analysis of a second set of samples also
confirmed that the concentration of or-
ganics increased slightly from the post-
chlorination to final effluent sample.
Tables 2, 3, 4, and 5 give correspond-
ing compound identities obtained by GC/
MS/COM along with peak number reten-
tion times, and approximate concentra-
tions. The Hewlett-Packard, Model
5985A, instrument was used to obtain the
data shown in these tables. Total ion cur-

rent chromatograms obtained using the
capillary columns indicated a sample
transfer problem at the GC/MS interface.
Subsequent GC/MS/COM analyses were
run on an HP, Model 5985A, system
equipped with a direct capillary inlet de-
vice which gives enhanced GC resolu-
tion and MS sensitivity.

Major volatile components in the raw
influent sample are benzene, tetrachlo-
roethylene, C,-benzenes, and _ trichloro-
benzene. These compounds are used pri-
marily as dye carriers for disperse dyes.
Compounds of interest were 1,3- and 2,3-
dibromobutane, the source of which is
unknown. Significant quantities of tetra-
chloroethylene and benzene, 45 and 132
ppb, respectively, were present in the fi-
nal effluent sample.

Table 6 gives a summary analysis of a
similar set of samples taken approximate-
ly one year later to demonstrate that the
results were not significantly changed
from the data shown in Tables 2-5. The

TABLE 4.—VOLATILE ORGANICS CHLORINATED EFFLUENT SAMPLE 22A (12/03/76)

Retention Approximate
time concentration
Peak no. (adj. RT) Compound (ppb)
1 5.56 acetone 4]
2 5.91 vinyl chloroprene (isomer) 70
3 6.32 ketone 88
4 6.50 benzene 91
5 6.74 vinyl chloroprene (isomer) 106
6 10.46 2,3-dibromobutane 10

TEXTILE PLANT EFFLUENTS IN UNITES STATES—Gordon and Gordon

155

TABLE 5.—VOLATILE ORGANICS IN FINAL EFFLUENT SAMPLE 11A (12/03/76)

Retention Approximate

time concentration
Peak no. (adj. RT) Compound (ppb)

1 7.34 CO,

2 7.83 unidentified 10
3 8.06 ketone 12
4 9.05 unidentified 26
5 9.77 benzene 132
6 10.85 toluene 10
7 12.28 tetrachloroethylene 45
8 14.05 silicone 20
) 16.06 2,3-dibromobutane 15
10 18.45 C,-benzene 18

data in Table 6 were obtained using the
HP, Model 5985A, instrument which per-
mitted better MS data to be obtained as
is evidenced in Figure 1, total ion current
chromatogram from an after-chlorination
sample. Also listed in Table 6 is the data
from a “grab” effluent sample taken on
the spot during the time of a sample pro-
curement trip. No noticeable difference
was ascertained when compared with the
composite final effluent sample.

Total Organic Carbon Analyses Data

TOC analyses were run on each sam-
ple in an effort to evaluate our organics

separation and removal procedures. Ta-
ble 7 gives results for influent, clarifier,
chlorinated effluent, and final effluent.
Examination of the TOC results for the
influent sample showed the expected de-
crease in organic content following room
temperature sparge, 70°C sparge, and ex-
traction with methylene chloride. Table
8 summarizes the total organic reduction
and reduction at each stage, i.e. 59% re-
duction at clarifier stage, 60% reduction
after chlorination, and 54% reduction at
final effluent stage. Interestingly, the vol-
atile organic content is higher after final
treatment than at the clarifier stage. The

TABLE 6.—A COMPARISON OF VOLATILE ORGANIC COMPOUNDS IN TWO SAMPLES (10/17/77)

Final

Post Final efHuent
Compound Influent Clarifier chlorination effluent grab
methylene chloride xX XxX xX xX
acetone xX Xx Xx
chloroform xX XxX xX
benzene xX Xx X xX xX
trichloroethylene X
bromodichloromethane XxX X xX
toluene xX XxX xX Xx xX
tetrachloroethylene xX XxX xX XxX xX
C,-benzene xX Xx XxX xX xX
C,-benzene (isomer) xX xX x xX xX
O-chlorotoluene xX
1,3-dibromobutane xX xX ox
C,-benzene xX xX X X
C,-benzene (isomer) X xX xX
X xX X xX
C,-benzene xX xX
C,-benzene (isomer) X xX
1,3,5-trichlorebenzene xX xX X X
methyInaphthalene xX
acenaphthene XxX
biphenyl X
2,6-di-t-butylphenol X

156

TOTAL 10N RESPONSE

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 42(3-4)

T a
2h 26 27 28 ep

T T
21 __e2 ar 24

Fic. 1.

TOC results were confirmed by high res-
olution gas chromatography (copies of
chromatograms can be made available
upon request). Discussion of this finding
led to a re-engineering of the waste treat-
ment system.

CONCLUSIONS

This study confirmed expectations that
the chemical complexity of waste streams
from textile plants has contributed to the
lack of published information on the sub-
ject. More than 80 organic compounds,
including dyes, dye carriers, solvents, de-
tergents, plasticizers, and miscellaneous

Total ion current chromatogram of volatiles and after chlorination.

compounds were found to be present in
the raw waste stream prior to treatment.
Most of the compounds identified are
volatile and do not represent the total
number present.

Total Organic Carbon (TOC) analysis
studies indicated that the level of organic
content in the waste stream is reduced by
50 to 60% by treatment. This figure is
conservative; Biochemical Oxygen De-
mand (BOD) studies performed by the
cooperating plant indicate the treatment
is more effective. The raw waste (in-
fluent) contained approximately 25% vol-
atile organics as determined by TOC.

TABLE 7.—TOTAL ORGANIC CARBON ANALYSES OF TEXTILE EFFLUENT SAMPLES

Total Inorganic Organic
Sample carbon (ppm)* carbon (ppm)** carbon (ppm)
Distilled water 11 3 8
Distilled water w/methylene chloride (sat.) 144 1 143
Influent 211 25 186
after sparging R.T.*** 203 23 180
after sparging 70°C 179 20 159
after extraction w/MeCL, 282 2 280
Clarifier 102 26 76
after sparging R.T.*** 104 31 73
after sparging 70°C 90 24 66
after extraction w/MeCL, 235 2 233
Chlorinated effluent 98 23 75
after sparging R.T.*** 101 29 (2
after sparging 70°C 92 22, 70
after extraction w/MeCL, 160 2 158
Final effluent 114 28 86
after sparging R.T.*** 93 26 67
after sparging 70°C 90 23 67
after extraction w/MeCL, 271 4 267
* Inorganic carbon included carbonates, bicarbonates, and dissolved carbon dioxide.

** Total carbon includes organic carbon and inorganic carbon.
*** Room temperature.

TEXTILE PLANT EFFLUENTS IN UNITED STATES—Gordon and Gordon

157

TABLE 8.—TOTAL ORGANIC CARBON ANALYSIS SUMMARY

As rec’d
Influent 186
Clarifier 76
Chlorinated effluent 75
Final effluent 86

* Corrected for presence of methylene chloride.
** Room temperature.

From TOC and high resolution gas chro-
matography data, 55 to 65% of these vol-
atile organics are removed during treat-
ment. Volatile organics of interest that
remain in the final effluent are benzene
(132 ppb), tetrachloroethylene (45 ppb),
and 2,3-dibromobutane (15 ppb). The
majority of organic content remaining in
the waste stream after full treatment is
believed to be non-volatile water-soluble
compounds; these serve to emulsify oth-
er organics that would be extractable un-
der “normal” circumstances.

Based on the results of this preliminary
study, it is concluded that the effective-
ness of the treatment process being used
by the finishing and dyeing plant exam-
ined is only marginal. As more stringent
guidelines on effluent discharges come
into effect, it will not be possible for the
system to function within acceptable lim-
its.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Murray State University gratefully ac-
knowledges the support of the U.S. En-
vironmental Protection Agency for this
study through Grant No. R-802964-01.
We are indebted to Dr. Arthur W. Garri-

Organic removal procedure

After extraction

R.T. sparge** 70°C sparge of CH,CL,*
180 159 137
73 66 90
72 70 15
67 67

son, Project Officer, Athens Environmen-
tal Research Laboratory, for his many
valuable suggestions and comments made
during the course of this investigation.

LITERATURE CITED

BELLAR, T. A., AND J. J. LICHTENBERG. 1974a. The
Occurrence of Organohalides in Chlorinated
Drinking Waters. J. Amer. Water Works Assoc.
66:703.

, AND . 1974b. Determining Vol-
atile Organics at Micro-per-Litre Levels by Gas
Chromatography. J. Amer. Water Works Assoc.
66:739.

CRAFT, T. F., AND G. G. EICHHOLZ. 1973. Dye-
stuff Color Removal by Ionizing Radiation and
Chemical Oxidation, EPA Report R2-73-048.

GARRISON, A. W., AND D. W. HILL. 1972. Organic
Pollutants from Mill Persist in Downstream
Waters. American Dyestuffs Reporter 61(2):21,
24-25.

KeiTH, L. H. 1976. Identification and Analysis of
Organic Pollutants in Water. Ann Arbor Sci-
ence Publications.

LICHTENBERG, J. J. 1975. IEEE Trans. Nucl. Sci.
Methods for the determination of Specific Or-
ganic Pollutants in Water and Wastewater NS-
22 2:874.

VAN Wyk, R. 1970. J. Chromatog. Sci. The Use
of Poly-Para-2, 6-Diphenyl-Phenylene Oxide
as a Porous Polymer in Gas Chromatography.

8:418.

Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 42(3-4), 1981, 158-160

NEWS AND COMMENTS

Junior Academy of The following persons have been asked to serve on the Junior |
Science Governing Academy of Science Governing Committee during 1981. Pres- )

Committee ident Philley takes this opportunity to thank Dr. Herbert Leo-
pold for his long and diligent work with the Junior Academy. |
Dr. Herbert Leopold, Chairman Dr. J. Truman Stevens, Editor of KJAS |
Department of Health and Safety Bulletin |
Western Kentucky University College of Education
Bowling Green, Kentucky 42101 Department of Curriculum and

Instruction
210 Taylor Education Building
University of Kentucky i
Lexington, Kentucky 40506

Dr. Arvin Grafton
College of Human Development and
Learning

Murray State University

Murray, Kentucky 42071 Dr. Stephen A. Henderson, Treasurer
Model Laboratory School
Eastern Kentucky University
Richmond, Kentucky 40475

* * * ** *

Science Education The following persons have been asked to serve on the Science
Committee Education Committee during 1981. President Philley takes

this opportunity to thank the committee members for their con-
tinuing efforts in this extremely important area.

Dr. Anna S. Neal (1982), Chairman Dr. Ann M. Hoffelder (1982)
Fayette County Public Schools Department of Chemistry
701 East Main Street Cumberland College
Lexington, Kentucky 40502 Williamsburg, Kentucky 40769
Dr. J. Truman Stevens (1981) Dr. J. G. Rodriguez
Department of Curriculum and Department of Entomology
Instruction University of Kentucky
University of Kentucky Lexington, Kentucky 40502

Lexington, Kentucky 40506

Mr. Mike McCoy (1982)

Warren East High School

Route One

Bowling Green, Kentucky 42101

* * * * *

Committee on Legislation: The following persons have been asked to serve on
State Government Science the State Government Science Advisory Committee

Advisory Committee for 1981-1982. President Philley wishes to thank Dr.
Kupchella for his continuing efforts.
Dr. Charles E. Kupchella, Chairman Dr. Robert E. Daniel
Department of Biological Sciences Department of Biological Sciences
Murray State University Murray State University
Murray, Kentucky 42071 Murray, Kentucky 42071

158

NEWS AND COMMENTS 159

Dr. Ted M. George, President Elect
KAS

Department of Physics and Astronomy

Eastern Kentucky University

Richmond, Kentucky 40475

Dr. Rudolph Prins, Past President KAS
Department of Biology

Western Kentucky University
Bowling Green, Kentucky 42101

Dr. Marvin Russell

Department of Physics and Astronomy
Western Kentucky University

Bowling Green, Kentucky 42101

Ex Officio

Dr. John C. Philley, President KAS
Department of Physical Sciences
Morehead State University
Morehead, Kentucky 40351

pea Me see unis | ale

The chairpersons of the Committee for the Distribution of Re-
search Funds, and the next committee, solicit your assistance in
providing the names of persons who are eligible as nominees for
the awards or grants available to members of the academy. The following persons
have been asked to serve on the Botany Foundation Fund Committee.

Distribution of
Research Funds

Dr. Joe Winstead (1983), Chairman
Department of Biology

Western Kentucky University
Bowling Green, Kentucky 42101

Dr. William S. Bryant (1983)
Thomas More College

Box 85

Ft. Mitchell, Kentucky 41017

* *

Dr. Larry Geismann (1981)
Department of Biology

Northern Kentucky University
Highland Heights, Kentucky 41076

* * *

The following persons have been asked by President Philley to serve on the Flo-

ristic Grant Fund Committee.

Dr. John B. Varner (1981), Chairman
Harrison County High School
Cynthiana, Kentucky 41031

Dr. Stuart Lassetter (1981)
Department of Biological Sciences
Eastern Kentucky University
Richmond, Kentucky 40475

* * *

Dr. John Thieret (1983)
Department of Biological Sciences
Northern Kentucky University
Highland Heights, Kentucky 41076

Membership President Philley has asked the following persons to serve on the

Committee

Dr. Paul H. Freytag, Chairman
Department of Entomology
University of Kentucky
Lexington, Kentucky 40506

Dr. Debra Pearce

Department of Biology

Northern Kentucky University
Highland Heights, Kentucky 41076

Membership Committee for 1981.

Dr. Thomas Seay
Department of Biology
Georgetown College
Georgetown, Kentucky 40324

160 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 42(3-4)

Legislatively The following individuals have been asked to serve on this important |
Mandated ad hoc committee for 1981, to study legislatively mandated educa- |
Education tional programs. President Philley wishes to thank these four indi- |

k

*

*

* *

viduals for agreeing to shoulder this difficult and delicate task.

Dr. Wallace Dixon, Chairman

College of Natural and Mathematical

Sciences
Eastern Kentucky University
Richmond, Kentucky 40475

Dr. William H. Dennen
Geology Department
University of Kentucky
Lexington, Kentucky 40506

Science Education This ad hoc committee on the Status of Science Education at |
at the Precollege — the Precollege Level, originally established by President San-

*

*

*

Ms. Anna S. Neal

Fayette County Public Schools
701 East Main Street
Lexington, Kentucky 40502

Dr. William F. Wagner
Chemistry Department
University of Kentucky
Lexington, Kentucky 40506

* Ox

Level ford Jones in 1978, has been asked to continue to serve during
1981. President Philley extends his thanks for unanimous acceptance of the respon-

sibility.

Dr. Rudy Prins, Chairman
Department of Biology

Western Kentucky University
Bowling Green, Kentucky 42101

Dr. Stephen A. Henderson
Model Laboratory School
Eastern Kentucky University
Richmond, Kentucky 40475

Dr. Arvin Crafton

College of Human Development
and Learning

Room 311, Mason Hall

Murray State University

Murray, Kentucky 42071

*

*

*

Dr. Dan Ochs

Department of Secondary Education
University of Louisville

Louisville, Kentucky 40208

Dr. Robert L. Stevenson
Elementary Program Coordinator
College of Education

Western Kentucky University
Bowling Green, Kentucky 42101

Dr. Sanford L. Jones

Department of Biological Sciences
Eastern Kentucky University
Richmond, Kentucky 40475

Mr. Frank Howard

State Science Consultant
Department of Education
1817 Capital Plaza Tower
Frankfort, Kentucky 40601

* *

Sixty-Seventh The Sixty Seventh Annual Meeting of the Kentucky Academy of
Annual Science will be held at Murray State University, Murray, Kentucky.
Meeting The meeting will be Friday and Saturday, 13 and 14 November 1981.

{
|
{

Academy Affairs, 62

Acanthaceae, 104

A. cooperii, 82

Acanthocystis, 140

Accipiter striatus, 82

Acenaphthalene, 152, 155

Acer negundo, 38, 110-114

A. rubrum, 111

A. saccharinum, 38, 111

A. saccharum, 41, 43, 111

A. spicatum, 86

Acetone, 152-155

Acetophenone, 152

Achnanthes, 138

Acipenser fulvescens, 1, 80

Aconitum uncinatum, 86

Actinastrum, 139

Actinophrys, 140

Actinosphaerium, 140

Adiantum capillus-veneris, 84

Adlumia fungosa, 86

Aedes canadensis, 96

A. triseriatus, 96

A. vexans, 96

Aelosoma, 140

Agalinis decemloba, 86

A. fasciculata, 86

A. obtusifolia, 86

A. skinneriana, 86

Agave virginica, 103

Agrimonia gryposepala, 86

Agrimony, 86

Ailanthus altissima, 111

Aimophila aestivalis, 82

Alasmidonta atropurpurea, 80

Albizia julibrissin, 111

Alder, 55, 58

Aliphatic methylester, 154

Allegheny-vine, 86

Allen County, 106

Allium burdickii, 84

A. vineale, 102, 103

Alosa alabamae, 80

A. chrysochloris, 1, 7-10

Amaryllidaceae, 103

Ambloplites rupestris, 7, 8-10,
99

A. spelaea, 81

Amblyopsidae, 106

Ambrosia artemisiifolia, 104

A. trifida, 38

Ambystoma talpoideum, 82

Amia calva, 1, 2, 9, 10

Amianthium muscaetoxicum, 84

2-amino-2-ethyl-1,3,propanediol,

152
2-amino-2-methyl-1-propanol,
152

Ammocrypta asprella, 81
A. clara, 81
A. pellucida, 81, 99
A. vivax, 81
Ammodramus henslowii, 82
A. savannarum, 82
Ampelopsis arborea, 86
Amphibians, 82
Amphipleura, 138
Amphipoda, 142, 147
Amphiuma, three-toed, 82
Amphiuma tridactylum, 82
Anabaena, 139
Anacardiaceae, 103
Anculosa praerosa, 80
Ancyloplanorbidae, 60, 134
Anderson Creek Embayment,
135
biological and chemical eval-
uation of, 135

on Kentucky Lake, 135
Andropogon virginicus, 103
Angelica, filmy, 86
Angelica triquinata, 86
Anglepod, Carolina, 87
Anguilla rostrata, 1, 7-10
Animals

endangered, 77-80

rare, 77-80

threatened, 77-80
Anisoptera, 142
Ankistrodesmus, 139
Annelida, 142
Anomodon rugelli, 33
Anopheles punctipennis, 95, 96
Antroselates spiralis, 80
Aphanocapsa, 139
Aphanothece, 139
Aphredoderus sayanus, 9, 10
Apiaceae, 104
Apios priceana, 86
Aplodinotus grunniens, 1, 7-11
Apple, crab, 87
Aquila chrysaetos, 82
Aquilegia canadensis, 102, 103
Arabis glabra, 86
A. missouriensis, 86
A. perstellata

var. perstellata, 86
Araceae, 103
Archilochus colubris, 82
Ardea herodias, 82
Arenaria fontinalis, 86
A. patula, 102

var. patula, 103
Argillite, 98
Argra, 142
Arisaema dracontium, 102, 103

161

INDEX TO VOLUME 42

Armiger, 60
Armoracia aquatica, 86
ARNOLD, SALLY CURB, 16
Arrowhead, 58, 85

grass-leaved, 85
Ash, bottom, 46

fly, 46

white, 42
Asimina triloba, 38
Asparagus officinalis, 103
Asplanchia, 140
Aspleniaceae, 102
Asplenium platyneuron, 102
Aster, 86

golden, 87

silky, 86

Texas, 86
Aster concolor, 86
A. sericeus, 86
A. texanus, 86
Asteraceae, 104
Asterionella, 138
Aureolaria patula, 86

Balls Creek, 58
Baptisia leucophaea, 86
B. tinctoria, 86
Barbara’s buttons, 87
Barren County, 116
Barren River, 106, 116
Bartonia virginica, 86
Bartramia longicauda, 82
Basic Blue 3, 152
Basic Green 4, 152
BASKIN, JERRY M., 77
Bass, smallmouth, 2
spotted, 2
Basswood, 55, 59
Bat, evening, 83
gray, 83
hoary, 83
Indiana, 38, 83
Keen’s, 83
Rafinesque’s big-eared, 83
silver-haired, 83
Townsend's big-eared, 83
BATCH, DONALD L., 54, 77,
98
BEAL, E. O., 16
Bear, black, 83
Beech, 42, 55, 59
Bellamy Branch, 98
Benzene, 147, 149, 152-155
Benzophenone, 152
Berchemia scandens, 86
Bernheim Forest, 95, 96
Berosus, 143

162

Betula lenta, 111
B. nigra, 111
Big Stinking Creek, 98, 99
Biphenyl, 152, 153, 155
Birch, 55, 58, 59
Bishop’s-weed, hair-like mock,
88
Nuttall’s mock, 88
Bitte, American, 82
least, 83
Blackberry, 55
Bladder-pod, 87
Bladderwort, 89
humped, 89
Blazing star, prairie, 87
Blue curls, 89
Blue Lick Creek, 58
Bobcat, 83
Boleosoma, 35
Boone Creek, 57
Boone Fork, 54
Boraginaceae, 104
Bosmina, 128, 140
B. longirostris, 130
Bosminidae, 119, 122, 124, 127
Botaurus lentiginosus, 82
Botrychium matricariifolium,
84
B. oneidense, 84
Botryococcus, 138
Bouteloua curtipendula, 84
Bowfin, 1, 4
Bowling Green, 101
Bowman Branch, 54
Box elder, 38, 55-59
Boykinia aconitifolia, 86
Boyle County, 54, 57, 58
Bramble, Wharton’s, 88
Branchionus, 140
Branchiura, 142, 146
BRANSON, BRANLEY AL-
LAN, 54, 77, 98, 134
Brassicaceae, 103
Bromodichloromethane, 152,
155
Bromoform, 147
BRYANT, WILLIAM S., 41, 159
Bryozoa, 142
Buckeye, 55, 56-59
Buffalo, 1
black, 81
Bugbane, 86
Bullhead, black, 1, 6
Bullitt County, 38, 101
Bulrush, 85
Bumelia lycioides, 102, 104
Bunch flower, 85
Burbot, 81
Burhead, 85
Burnet, American, 88
BURR, BROOKS M., 116
Bush-Pea, 89
n-butanol, 152

Buteo lineatus, 82
t-butylbenzene, 152
p-t-butylphenol, 152

C,-benzene, 153-155

C,-benzene, 153-155

C,-benzene, 155

Cabomba caroliniana, 86

Cactaceae, 104

Calamagrostis canadensis, 84

C. cinnoides, 84

C. porteri, 84

Calanoida, 127

Calopogon tuberosus, 84

Calycanthus floridus, 86

Calylophus serrulatus, 86

Cambarellus shufeldtii, 80

Cambarus batchi, 80

C. bouchardi, 80

C. cornutus, 80

C. ornatus, 80

C. parvoculus, 80

Campeloma crassula, 60

C. integrum, 60

C. ponderosa, 60

Campostoma anomalum, 7, 8,
10, 99

Campylostelium saxicola, 33

Cane, 57

Cane Creek, 58

Caprifoliaceae, 104

Carassius auratus, 4, 7, 8, 10

Carbon dioxide, 155

Cardamine hirsuta, 102, 103

Carduus nutans, 104

Carex buxbaumii, 84

C. crawei, 84

C. hystricina, 84

C. joorii, 84

. lasiocarpa, 84

. leptalea, 84

. leptonerva, 84

. picta, 84

. socialis, 84

. Stricta, 85

. tenera, 85

Carpiodes, 1

C. carpio, 8-10

C. cyprinus, 7, 8, 10

Carp, 4-6

Carpsucker, |

Carter County, 98

Carteria, 138

Carya cordiformis, 41, 43

C. laciniosa, 43

C. ovata, 38, 41, 43

var. australis, 86

C. tomentosa, 43

Caryophyllaceae, 103

Casmerodius albus, 82

Cassia marilandica, 103

Castanea pumila, 86

Castilleja coccinea, 86

SIDiG i Oi@ Gee

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 42(3-4)

Catchfly, 88

royal, 88
Catfish, 1, 5
Catharus fuscescens, 82
Catonotus, 35
Catostomidae, 5, 120

Catostomus commersoni, 7, 8, \

10, 99
Cavefish, northern, 81
southern, 82
spring, 81
Cayaponia, 86
Cayaponia grandifolia, 86
Ceanothus herbaceus, 86
Cedar, northern white, 84
red, 54, 55, 57, 58
Cedar Creek, 58
Cedar glade, 101
in Warren County, 101
Cedar Sinks, 106
Celtis laevigata, 103
C. occidentalis, 38, 111
C. tenuifolia, 103
Cemophora coccinea, 82
Centrarchidae, 2
Cephalodella, 140
Cerastium viscosum, 103
Ceratium, 139
Ceratopoginidae, 124, 143, 146
Cercis canadensis, 111
Ceriodaphnia, 124, 127
Chaerophyllum tainturieri, 104
Chaetogaster, 140
Chaffseed, 88
Chaoborinae, 124
Chaoborus, 143
Characium, 138
Cheilanthes alabamensis, 84
C. feei, 84
Chelone obliqua
var. obliqua, 86
var. speciosa, 86
Cherry, 55-58
CHESTER, EDWARD W., 108
Chinquapin, 86
Chironomidae, 124, 128, 130,
143, 146
Chironomus, 143
Chlamydomonas, 138
Chlorella, 139
Chlorobenzene, 152
Chloroform, 147, 152, 155
4-chloro-2-phenylphenol, 152
Chlorophyta, 138, 145
o-chlorotoluene, 152, 155
Chodatella, 139
Chologaster agassizi, 81, 106
in Kentucky, 106
Chondestes grammacus, 82
Chroococcus, 139
Chrysanthemum leucanthe-
mum, 104
Chrysemys concinna, 82
C. floridana, 82

| Chrysococcus, 138
| Chrysogonum virginianum, 86
| Chrysophyta, 138, 145
| Chrysops, 143
| Chrysosplenium americanum,
i
| Chub, blotched, 81
chain, 81
flathead, 81
gravel, 81
hornyhead, 3, 81
silver, 3
sticklefin, 81
streamline, 3
sturgeon, 81
Chubsucker, lake, 81
Chydoridae, 124, 127
CICERELLO, RONALD R.,
132
Cichorium intybus, 104
Cicuta bulbifera, 86
Ciliata, 140
Cimicifuga rubifolia, 86
Circaea alpina, 86
Circus cyaneus, 82
Cistothorus platensis, 82
Cladocera, 119, 122-124, 127
Cladrastis kentukea, 86
Clams, Sphaeriacean, 54-61,
134
Clematis crispa, 86
C. glaucophylla, 86
C. viorna, 103
Clethrionomys gapperi, 83
Clinostomus elongatus, 3, 9, 81
C. funduloides, 81, 99
Clonophis kirtlandi, 82
Closteriopsis, 139
Closterium, 139
Clubmoss, southern bog, 84
Coachwhip, 82
Cocconeis, 138
Codonella, 140
Coelastrum, 138
Coleoptera, 147
Collembola, 142, 147
Colletheca, 140
COLLINS, LYNN, 29
Compass plant, 88
Comptonia peregrina, 86
Coneflower, sweet, 88
Conradina verticillata, 86
Conochilius, 140
Convolvulaceae, 104
Cooter, 82
river, 82
Copepoda, 120, 122, 124, 126-
128, 140, 142, 147
Copper Creek, 55, 58
Copper-Iris, 85
Coralberry, 57
Corbicula manilensis, 59
Corbiculidae, 59
CORDES, LYNN E., 35

INDEX TO VOLUME 42

Coreopsis, downy, 86

pale, 86
Coreopsis pubescens, 86
Cormorant, double-crested, 83
Cornus florida, 111
Corvus corax, 83
C. ossifragus, 83
Corydalis sempervirens, 86
Cosmarium, 139
Cotinus obovatus, 86
Cottontail, New England, 83
Cottonwood, 38
Cougar, eastern, 83
Crab apple, 87
CRANFILL, R., 33
Crassulaceae, 103
Cress, glade, 87

lake, 86
Croton monanthogynus, 102,

103
Crotonopsis linearis, 87
Crow, fish, 83
Crowfoot, Allegheny, 88
Crucigenia, 139
Crustacea, 80, 124, 127, 142
Cryptobranchus alleganiensis,
82

Cryptogams, 33

new to Kentucky, 33
Culex pipiens, 96
C. restuans, 96
C. territans, 96
Culicidae, 124, 143, 146
Culicinae, 128
Culiseta inornata, 95, 96
CULP, PAUL, 77
Cumberlandia monodonta, 80
Cumberland River

Little South Fork of, 59
Cyanophyta, 139, 145
Cycleptus elongatus, 1, 10, 81
Cyclohexanone, 152
Cyclopoida, 140
Cyclops, 142
Cyclotella, 138
Cylindrocapsa, 138
Cymbella, 138
Cymene, 152
Cymophyllus fraseri, 85
Cyperus diandrus, 85
C. retrorsus, 85
Cyprinidae, 2, 120
Cyprinus carpio, 4, 7-11
Cyprogenia stegaria, 80
Cypripedium candidum, 85
C. daultonii, 85
Cystopteris fragilis

var. MacKayi, 84

Dace, blackside, 81
redside, 3, 81
rosyside, 81
DANIEL, ROBERT E., 158
Daphnia, 120, 124, 127, 128

163

Daphnidae, 124, 127
Darter, 5

arrow, 81

ashy, 81

blackfin, 82

blackside, 82

channel, 81

crystal, 81

eastern sand, 81

fantail, 116

gilt, 81

goldstripe, 81

gulf, 81

harlequin, 81

johnny, 81

least, 81

longhead, 81

olive, 82

river, 82

scaly sand, 81

sharpnose, 82

slenderhead, 82

smallscale, 81

spotted, 3

swamp, 81

tippecanoe, 81

variegated, 3

western sand, 81

yellowhead, 82
Dashields Locks and Dam, 6
Daucus carota, 104
DAVIS, WAYNE H., 77
Decodon verticillatus, 87
Deermouse, cloudland, 83
Delphinium carolinianum, 87
D. exaltatum, 87
Dendroica fusca, 83
D. kirtlandii, 83
DENNEN, W. H., 46, 160
Dentaria multifida, 87
Detergents, 152
Dianthera, 55, 57-60
Diaphanosoma, 140
Diatoma, 138
Diatoms, 145
1,3-dibromobutane, 152, 155
2,,3-dibromobutane, 152-155
Dibromochloromethane, 152
Dichanthelium acuminatum

var. villosum, 85
D. boreale, 85
D. sabulorum, 85
p-dichlorobenzene, 152
Dicliptera, 87
Dicliptera brachiata, 87
Dictyosphaerium, 139
Didiplis diandra, 87
Diethylbenzene, 152
Diethylphthalate, 147, 152
Diffugia, 140
Diflurotrichloroethane, 152
4-dimethylaminophenol, 152
Dimethylphthalate, 152
DIMMICK, WALTER W., 116

164 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 42(3-4)

Di-n-butylphthalate, 147, 152
Dinobryon, 138
Di-n-octylphthalate, 147
Dioclea, 87
Dioclea multiflora, 87
Dioctylphthalate, 152
Diospyros virginiana, 111
Dipheny] ether, 152
2,6-diphenyl-p-phenyleneox-
ide, 150
Diphenylacetylene, 147
Diploneis, 138
Diptera, 124, 143, 146
Disperse Black HP, 152
Disperse Black KNS, 152
Disperse Blue 3, 152
Disperse Blue 7, 152
Disperse Blue 56, 152
Disperse Blue 60, 152
Disperse Blue 81, 152
Disperse Red 60, 152
Disperse Yellow 3, 152
Disperse Yellow 54, 152
Disperse Yellow 86, 152
2,6-di-t-butyl-4-methylphenol,
152
2,6-di-t-butylphenol, 155
Dix River, 54, 55, 57, 59, 61
Dixa, 143
Dixidae, 143, 146
DIXON, WALLACE, 160
DOBROTH, DALE, 135
Dock, Lucy Braun’s prairie, 88
Dodecane, 152
Dodecatheon frenchii, 87
Dogwood, 55, 58, 59
Dorosoma cepedianum, 4, 7-11
D. petenense, 8-11
Draba verna, 102, 103
Dragonhead, false, 88
Drakes Creek
East Fork of, 56
Dromus dromas, 80
Dropseed, prairie, 85
Drosera brevifolia, 87
D. intermedia, 87
Drum, |
freshwater, 1, 4, 8
Dryopteris ludoviciana, 84
D. spinulosa, 84
Dye carriers, 152
Dyes, 152

Eagle, bald, 83

golden, 82
East Fork, 98, 99
Echinodorus rostratus, 85
Eden shale belt, 41
Edmonson County, 106
EDWARDS, W. FRANCK, 29
Eel, American, 1, 4
Egret, great, 82
Elaphe guttata, 82
Elassoma zonatum, 81

Elder, red-berried, 88
Elements, partition of, 46-53
between fly ash and bottom
ash, 46-53
Elephantopus carolinianus, 102,
104
Elliott County, 98, 116
Elm, 54, 55, 57-59
September, 89
Elmidae, 143
Empidonax minimus, 83
Emsworth Locks and Dam, 6
Enallagama, 142
Ephemeridae, 142, 146
Ephemeroptera, 142, 146
Epioblasma arcaeformis, 80
E. bimarginata, 80
. brevidens, 80
. capsaeformis, 80
. cincinnatiensis, 80
. flexuosa, 80
. florentina, 80
. haysiana, 80
lewisi, 80
. obliquata, 80
. personata, 80
. propinqua, 80
. rangiana, 80
. sampsoni, 80
. stewardsonsi, 80
. torulosa torulosa, 80
. walkeri, 80
Erechtites hieracifolia, 108
Ericymba buccata, 99
Erigeron annuus, 104
E. pulchellus
var. brauniae, 87
E. strigosis, 104
Erimyzon sucetta, 81
Eriophorum cyperinum, 25
Eryngium aquaticum, 87
Eryngo, water, 87
Esox americana, 99
Esox americanus americanus, 9,
10
E. masquinongy, 1, 7, 10
E. m. ohioensis, 81
E. niger, 81
Etheostoma, 35, 36
E. aquali, 35
E. barbouri, 35

E. blennoides, 99

E. caeruleum, 99

E. camurum, 35, 37
E. cinereum, 81

E. flabellare, 35, 116
E. fusiforme, 81

E. histrio, 81

E. kennicotti, 8, 10
E. longimanum, 35
E. maculatum, 3, 35
E. microlepidum, 35, 81
E. microperca, 81

E. neopterum, 35

. nigrum, 7, 10, 35, 99
.n. susanae, 81
. obeyense, 35
olivaceum, 35
. olmstedi, 35
parvipinne, 81
perlongum, 35
podostemone, 35
. rufilineatum, 35
sagitta, 37, 81
s. spilotum, 37
. smithi, 35
. squamiceps, 35
. striatulum, 35
. swaini, 81
. tippecanoe, 35, 37, 81
. varieatum, 3
. virgatum, 35
. zonale, 98, 99
Ethylbenzene, 147, 152
Ethylene chloride, 147
Ethylene dichloride, 152
Ethylene oxide, 147
2-ethylhexanol, 152
Ethylidene chloride, 147
l-ethylnaphthalene, 147
Euastrum, 139
Eubranchipus neglectus, 80
Euchlanis, 140
Eudorina, 138
Euglena, 139
Euglenophyta, 139, 145
Eumeces anthracinus, 82
Eunotia, 138
Eupatorium luciae-brauniae, 87 |
E. maculatum, 87 |
E. rugosum

var. roanensis, 87
Eupera, 134
Euphorbia dentata, 103
E. maculata, 103
E. mercurialina, 87
E. preslii, 103
Euphorbiaceae, 103
Evening primrose, 86
Eydracarina, 142

PREP PPS

Fabaceae, 103
Fagus grandifolia, 42, 43
Falco peregrinus, 83
Falcon, peregrine, 83
Fall Lick Creek, 55
Fallen Timber Creek, 116
Fanwort, 86
Federal funding, 29
economic impact of, 29
in Kentucky, 29
for research and develop-
ment, 29
Felis concolor couguar, 83
Fern, blunt-lobed grape, 84
filmy, 84
MacKay’s bladder, 84
Matricary grape, 84

mountain cliff, 84
slender lip, 84
smooth lip, 84
southern wood, 84
spinulose wood, 84
sweet, 86
venus hair, 84
Festuceae, 108
Fetter-bush, 87
Filinia, 140
Fimbristylis puberula, 85

| Fishes, 80

from Little Sandy River, 98
from Tygarts Creek, 98
Fissidens exilis, 33, 34
Flagg Lick Creek, 106
Flax Creek, 58
Flax, grooved yellow, 87
Floerkea proserpinacoides, 87
Floyd County, 110
Flycatcher, least, 83
Fly poison, 84
Forestiera ligustrina, 87, 102,
104
Forests, oak-hickory, 41
Foxglove, false, 86
purple false, 86
Fragilaria, 138
Franceia, 139
Fraxinus americana, 43, 111
FREYTAG, PAUL H., 159
Frog, crawfish, 82
Frogs bit, 85
Frustulia, 138
Fulton County, 134
Fundulus chrysotus, 81
F. diaphanus, 7, 10
F. notti, 81
Fusconaia maculata maculata,
80

Gallinula chloropus, 83
Gallinule, common, 83
Gammarus bousfieldi, 80
Gar, 1

alligator, 81

longnose, 99, 119-131

feeding preferences of, 119

spotted, 81
Garrard County, 54-57
Gastrochia, 140
Gastropoda, 54-61, 80, 142
Gastropus, 140
Gaylussacia brachycera, 87
GEISMANN, LARRY, 159
Gentian, prairie, 87

showy, 87

yellowish, 87
Gentiana alba, 87
G. decora, 87
G. puberulenta, 87
GEORGE, TED M., 159
Geraniaceae, 103
Geranium carolinianum, 103

INDEX TO VOLUME 42

Gilberts Creek, 57
Ginger, Shuttleworth’s wild, 87
Ginseng, 88
Glasgow, 116
Gleditsia triacanthos, 103
Glenodinium, 139
Gleocapsa, 139
Gloeocystis, 138
Gloeothece, 139
Glyceria melicaria, 85
Goat rue, 89
Goldenrod, 89
Buckley’s, 88
Curtis’, 88
Missouri, 88
puberulent, 88
Roan Mountain, 89
rough, 88
Short’s, 89
smooth stiff, 89
squarose, 89
white-haired, 88
Golden seal, 87
Goldeye, 4
Goldfish, 4
Golenkinia, 138
Gomphonema, 138
Goniobasis costifera, 59
G. semicarinata, 59
Gonium, 138
GORDON, ANNETTE W., 149
GORDON, MARSHALL, 135,
149
GRAFTON, ARVIN, 158, 160
Grama, side-oats, 84
Graptemys kohni, 82
G. pseudogeographica, 82
Grass, beard, 85
black-seeded rice, 85
blue joint, 84
Bush’s satin, 85
cinna-like reed, 84
June, 85
lens, 85
manna, 85
pale manna, 86
panic, 85
Porter’s reed, 84
prairie satin, 85
rough rush, 85, 89
sweet, 85
tape, 86
water star, 85
Grass-of-Parnassus, 88
ginger-leaved, 88
Gratiola pilosa, 87
G. viscidula, 87
Grayson, 98
Grebe, pied-billed, 83
Green River, 116
GREENBERG, LARRY A., 37
Greenup County, 98
Green and gold, 86
Gromwell, hairy false, 88

165

soft false, 88

western false, 88
Grosbeak, rose-breasted, 83
Gymnopogon brevifolius, 85
Gyraulus, 60
Gyrosigma, 138

Hackberry, 38, 56-58
Halesia carolina, 87
Haliaeetus leucocephalus, 83
Hammons Lick, 55
Creek, 56
Hanging Fork Creek, 57, 58
system, 54
HARKER, DONALD F., JR., 77
Harris Creek, 58
Hart County, 101
Haw, possum, 89
Hawk, Cooper’s, 82
marsh, 82
red-shouldered, 82
sharp-shinned, 82
Hawkweed, long-haired, 87
Hedeoma hispidum, 87
Hedge-nettle, Nuttall’s, 89
Hedyotis uniflora, 87
Helianthus atrorubens, 87
H. eggertii, 87
H. silphioides, 87
Helicodiscus fimbriatus, 80
H. notius specus, 80
H. punctatellus, 80
Helisoma trivolvis, 61
Hellbender, 82
Hellebore, false, 86
woods false, 86
Helobdella, 142
Hemidactylium scutatum, 82
Hemiptera, 124
Hemistena lata, 80
Hemitremia flammea, 81
Hemlock, bulblet bearing water,
86
HENDERSON, STEPHEN A.,
158, 160
Heptageniidae, 142, 146
2-heptanone, 152
3-heptanone, 152
Heracleum lanatum, 87
Heron, black-crowned night, 83
great blue, 82
yellow-crowned night, 83
Herring, skipjack, 1
Herzogiella striatella, 33
Heteranthera dubia, 85
H. limosa, 85
Heterotheca latifolia, 87
Hexagenia, 142, 146
Hexartha, 140
Hexastylis shuttleworthii, 87
Hexatoma, 143
Hibiscus moscheutos, 108
Hickory, 42, 55-59, 86
shagbark, 38, 54

166 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 42(3-4)

Hieracium longipilum, 87

Hierochloe odorata, 85

Hiodon alosoides, 4, 8-10

H. tergisus, 8-10

Hirudinea, 147

HOFFELDER, ANN M., 158

Holoschoenus vulgaris, 25

Homoptera, 124

Honeysuckle bush, 88

Houstonia pusilla, 104

HOUTCOOPER, WAYNE C.,
Ta

HOWARD, FRANK, 160

Huckleberry, box, 87

Humming bird, ruby-throated,
82

Hyalella azteca, 142, 147

Hybognathus hayi, 81

H. nuchalis, 8, 9, 10

H. placitus, 81

Hybopsis aestivalis, 99, 100

. amblops, 7, 10

. dissimilis, 3

. gelida, 81

. gracilis, 81

. insignis, 81

. meeki, 81

. storeriana, 3, 7-10, 99, 100

. x-punctata, 81

Hydra, 140

Hydracarina, 147

Hydrastis canadensis, 87

Hydrolea, 87

Hydrolea ovata, 87

H. quadrivalvis, 87

Hydrophilidae, 143

Hydrophyllaceae, 104

Hydrophyllum virginianum, 87

Hyla avivoca, 82

H. cinerea, 82

H. gratiosa, 82

Hypentelium nigricans, 99

Hypericaceae, 103

Hypericum adpressum, 87

H. dolabriforme, 102, 103

Hypnum pallescens, 33

Hyssop, hedge, 87

TInt rTTTIos

Ichthyomyzon bdellium, 99, 100
I. castaneus, 81

I. fossor, 81

I. gagei, 81

I. greeleyi, 81

I. unicuspis, 81
Ictaluridae, 116

Ictalurus, 117

I. catus, 7, 10

I. furcatus, 1, 8-10

I. melas, 6-10

I. natalis, 7-10

I. nebulosus, 7, 8, 10

I. punctatus, 1, 7-11
Ictinia mississippiensis, 83
Ictiobus, 1, 120

I. bubalus, 8-10

I. cyprinellus, 8-10

I. niger, 81

Indene, 147

Indian Branch, 55

Indian paintbrush, 86

Indigo, creme wild, 86
yellow wild, 86

Insecta, 124, 127, 142

Ipomoea pandurata, 104

Iridoprocne bicolor, 83

Tris fulva, 85

Ironweed, fascicled, 89
New York, 89

Ironwood, false, 54, 57

Isanthus brachiatus, 102, 104

Isoetes butleri, 84

I. melanopoda, 84

Isopropylbenzene, 152

Isotoma, 142

Ivy, poison, 38

Ixobrychus exilis, 83

Jennings Creek, 101
JOHNSON, GEORGE P., 101
Jacob’s ladder, hairy, 89

Joe pye weed, 87

JONES, SANFORD L., 160
Juglans nigra, 38

Junco, dark-eyed, 83

Junco hyemalis, 83

Juncus articulatus, 85

J. elliottii, 85

J. longistylis, 85

Juniperus virginiana, 102, 111

KASTER, C. H., 95

Kentucky coffee tree, 56

Kentucky Lake, 135-148

KELLER, W. LAWRENCE, 35

Keratella, 140

KESSLER, JOHN S., 38

Ketone, 155

Killicatia, 140

Kingsnake, scarlet, 82

KINMAN, BENJAMIN, 135

Kirchneriella, 139

Kite, Mississippi, 83

Knob Creek, 38

Knoblick Creek, 58

Koeleria cristata, 85

KRUMHOLZ, LOUIS A., 1

KUPCHELLA, CHARLES E.,
29, 158

Lactuca perriola, 104

Ladies’ tresses, 85

shining, 85
sweet, 85

Lady-slipper, white, 85

Lady’s-slipper, 85

Lagerheimia, 139

Lake Herrington, 54

Lamiaceae, 104

Lampetra aepyptera, 99, 100

L. appendix, 81
Lamprey, Allegheny brook, 81
American brook, 81
chestnut, 81
northern brook, 81
silver, 81
southern brook, 81
Lampropeltis triangulum, 82
L. t. syspila, 82
Lampsilis orbiculata, 80
Lancaster, 59, 61
Lanthus, 142
Laportea canadensis, 38
Larkspur, Carolina, 87
tall, 87
Lasionycteris noctivagans, 83
Lasiurus cinereus, 83
Lasmigona compressa, 80
L. subviridis, 80
LASSETTER, STUART, 159
Lathyrus palustris, 87
Leaf cup, 88
Leather flower, 86

Leavenworthia exigua
var. laciniata, 87
Leek, narrow-leaved wild, 84
Leersia oryzoides, 108
Leiophyllum buxifolium, 87
Lemming, southern bog, 90-94 |;
in Kentucky, 90-94 |
LEOPOLD, HERBERT, 158
Lepisosteus, 1
L. oculatus, 9, 10, 81
L. osseus, 8-10, 99, 125, 126
L. platostomus, 8-10
L. spatula, 81
Lepomis cyanellus, 7-10, 99
L. gibbosus, 7, 10
. gulosus, 7-10
. humilis, 7-10
. macrochirus, 7-10, 99
. marginatus, 81
. megalotis, 8-10, 99
. microlophus, 7, 8, 10
. punctatus, 81
. symmetricus, 81
. torulosa, 87, 101-105
. uniflora, 87, 101-103
Leptodea leptodon, 80
Lesquerrella globosa, 87
LeSueur, Charles Alexandre, 2
Lettuce, brook, 88
rough white, 88
Leucospora multifida, 102, 104
Leucothea recurva, 87
LEVY, FOSTER, 110
Liatris pycnostachya, 87
Ligustrum sp., 111
L. vulgare, 104
Liliaceae, 103
Lilium philadelphicum, 85
L. superbum, 85

Teall wall coll al al al ll al al

| Lily, Turk’s-cap, 85
wood, 85
' Lily of the Valley, wild, 85
Limnias, 140
Limnobium spongia, 85
- Lincoln County, 54-59, 61
Lindera benzoin, 43
Linum sulcatum, 87
Lion’s foot, 88
Lioplax subcarinata occidental-
is, 59
Liquidambar styraciflua, 111
Liriodendron tulipifera, 111-
113
Listera australis, 85
L. smallii, 85
Lithasia armigera, 80
. geniculata, 80
. obovata, 80
. plicata, 60
. salebrosa, 80
L. verrucosa, 80
Little Creek, 98
Little Negro Creek, 54
Little Sandy River, 98
Little Trammel Creek, 106
Live forever, 88
Lizard, slender glass, 82
Lobelia, Nuttall’s, 87
Lobelia nuttallii, 87
Lobomonas, 138
Locks and Dam No. 52, 6
No. 53, 6
Long Branch, 54
Locust, 56-58
Logan County, 101
Logan Creek, 58
Logperch, blotchside, 82
Lonicera japonica, 104
Loosestrife, creeping fringed,
87
false, 87
fringed, 87
Lophodytes cucullatus, 83
Lota lota, 81
Ludwigia hirtella, 87
Lutra canadensis, 83
Lycopodium appressum, 84
Lymnaea humilis, 60
Lymnaeidae, 60
Lyngbya, 139
Lynx rufus, 83
Lysimachia fraseri, 87
L. radicans, 87
L. terrestris, 87

Poon

Macroclemys temmincki, 82
Madtom, brown, 81
elegant, 116-118
nest, eggs, and larvae of,
116
least, 81
northern, 81

INDEX TO VOLUME 42

Maianthemum canadense, 85
Mallomonas, 138
Mallow, Virginia, 88
Malus angustifolia, 87
M. ioensis, 87
Mansonia perturbans, 95, 96
Maple, 55, 57-59

mountain, 86

red, 55

silver, 38

sugar, 42, 54, 55
Marshallia grandiflora, 87
Marsh pea, 87
Marssoniella, 139
Masticophis flagellum, 82
Matelea carolinensis, 87
McAlpine Locks and Dam, 6
McAlpine Pool, 119
of Ohio River, 119
McCOY, MIKE, 158
McKenie Creek, 57
Meadow rue, 89
Meadow sweet, 89
Mecardonia, 87
Mecardonia acuminata, 87
MEDLEY, MAX E., 77
Megaloptera, 142
MEIJER, W., 33
Melampyrum lineare, 87
Melanthium virginicum, 85
Melosira, 138
Menetus, 60
Mercer County, 57, 58
Merganser, hooded, 83
Meridion, 139
Merismopedia, 139
Mermaid, false, 87
Methylbenzoate, 152
Methylcyclohexene, 152
Methylene chloride, 147, 152,

154, 155

Methylethylbenzene, 152
1-methylindene, 147
2-methylindene, 147
Methylisoamylketone, 152
Methylnaphthalene, 155
1l-methylnaphthalene, 152, 153
2-methylnaphthalene, 152, 153
2-methylpyrolidone, 152, 154
Methy] salicylate, 152
Micractinium, 139
Micrasterias, 139
Microcystis, 139

Micropterus dolomieui, 2, 8, 10,

99

M. punctulatus, 2, 7-10, 99
M. salmoides, 7-10
Microsorex thompsoni, 83
Microspora, 138
Milfoil, water, 88
Milkwort, cross, 88

Nuttall’s, 88

purple, 88

Minnow, 2, 4, 5

bluntnose, 6, 7

cypress, 81

plains, 81

silvery, 8

stargazing, 82

starhead, 81
Mint, mountain, 88
Minuartia glabra, 87
Minytrema melanops, 8, 10
Mitchill, Samuel Latham, 2
Mnium longirostrum, 33
Mock Branch Creek, 58
Mock orange, 88
Molluska, 142
Monarda, dotted, 87
Monarda punctata, 87
M. russeliana, 88
Monkshood, 86
Monstyla, 140
Monotropsis odorata, 88
MONROE, BURT, JR., 77
Monroe County, 106
Montgomery Island Locks and

Dam, 6
Moraceae, 103
MORGAN, LINDA, 38
Morone chrysops, 7-10
M. mississippiensis, 9, 10
Morus rubra, 103
Mosquitoes, in Bernheim For-
est, 95-97

faunal composition of, 95-97
Mougeotia, 139
Mountain lover, 88
Mountain mint, 88
Mouse, meadow jumping, 83

woodland jumping, 83
Moxostoma atripinne, 81
M. duquesnei, 7, 10
M. erythrurum, 9, 10, 99
M. macrolepidotum, 99, 100
Mudlick Creek, 58
Mudminnow, central, 81
Muhlenbergia bushii, 85
M. cuspidata, 85
M. torreyana, 85
Muhlenburg County, 106
Muhly, 85
Musculium, 59, 142, 146
Muskellunge, 1

Ohio, 81
Mustard, tower, 86
Mustela rixosa, 83
MW 96, 153
Myers, G. S., 2
Myosotis macrosperma, 104
Myotis, small-footed, 83

southeastern, 83
Myotis austroriparius, 83
M. grisescens, 83
M. keenii, 83
M. leibii, 83

M. sodalis, 38-40, 83

168

Myriophyllum heterophyllum,
88

Naiad, slender, 88
southern, 88
Naias, 55
Najas gracillima, 88
N. guadalupensis, 88
Nannyberry, 89
Napaeozapus insignis, 83
Naphthalene, 147, 152
Navicula, 138
n-butanol, 152
NEAL, ANNA S., 158, 160
Nematoda, 140, 147
Nemophila, 88
Nemophila aphylla, 88
Nerodia cyclopion, 82
N. fasciata, 82
Nettle, wood, 38
NEWS AND COMMENTS, 76,
158
Nightshade, small enchanter’s,
86
Nitocris trilineata, 80
Nitzschia, 138
N,N-dimethylolamide, 152
Nocomis biguttatus, 3, 81
N. micropogon, 99
p-nonylphenol, 152
North Creek, 98
Notemigonus crysoleucas, 7, 9,
10
Nothonotus, 35
Nothoscordum bivalve, 102, 103
Notommata, 140
Notropis sp., 81, 120
.amnis, 81
N. ardens, 99
. ariommus, 81
. atherinoides, 6-11, 99
. blennius, 7-10
boops, 7, 9, 10
buchanani, 7, 10
. camurus, 81
cornutus, 7, 8, 10, 99
. maculatus, 81
photogenis, 99
rubellus, 7, 10
. shumardi, 8-10, 81
. spilopterus, 7, 8, 10, 99, 100
. stramineus, 6, 7, 10, 99, 100
. venustus, 81
. volucellus, 6-10
Noturus albater, 117
N. elegans, 116-118
nest, eggs, and larvae of, 116-
118
. exilis, 117
. gyrinus, 8-10
. hildebrandi, 81
. leptacanthus, 117
. miurus, 99
. phaeus, 81

2

22222222222 2222

222222

N. stigmosus, 81
n-propylbenzene, 152, 153
Nyctanassa violacea, 83
Nycticeius humeralis, 83
Nycticorax nycticorax, 83

Oak, 43, 54-57, 59

pin, 38

white, 42, 55
Oak Creek, 58
Oats, swamp, 85
Obovaria retusa, 80
o-chlorotoluene, 152, 155
OCHS, DAN, 160
Odonata, 142, 147
Odontopholis, 82
Oedogonium, 138
Oenothera linifolia, 88
O. perennis, 88
O. triloba, 88
Ohio River, 1, 119, 132
Old Town, 98
Oldenlandia, 87
Oleaceae, 104
Oligochaeta, 140, 142, 146
Onosmodium hispidissimum, 88
O. molle

ssp. molle, 88

ssp. occidentale, 88
Oocystis, 139
Opephora, 138
o-phenylphenol, 152
Ophiocytium, 138
Ophioglossaceae, 102
Ophioglossum engelmannii, 102
Ophisaurus attenuatus, 82
Oporonis philadelphia, 83
Opuntia compressa, 102, 104
Orchid, crested fringed, 85

purple fringed, 85

white fringeless, 85
Orconectes australis, 80
O. bisectus, 80
O. inermis, 80
O. jeffersoni, 80
O. kentuckiensis, 80
O. lancifer, 80
O. pellucidus, 80
O. rafinesquei, 80
O. tricuspis, 80
Oreianthus, 142, 146
Organic compounds, volatile,

149
in a textile finishing plant ef-
fluent, 149

Orontium aquaticum, 85
Oryzopsis racemosa, 85
Osage orange, 56-58
Oscillatoria, 139
Osprey, 83
Ostracoda, 120, 122, 124
Otter, river, 83
Owl, barn, 83
Oxalidaceae, 103

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 42(3-4)

Oxalis dillenii, 103
O. priceae, 88
Oxydendron arboreum, 111, 114

Pachistima canbyi, 88

Pactolus, 98

Paddlefish, 4, 82

PAGE, LAWRENCE M., 35

Palaemonias ganteri, 80

Panax quinquefolius, 88

Pandion haliaetus, 83

Pandorina, 138

Panicum anceps, 102, 103

Papaw, 38

Parnassia asarifolia, 88

P. grandifolia, 88

Paronychia argrocoma, 88

Parsnip, cutleaf meadow, 89
low, 87

Parthenocissus quinquefolia, }:

103
Paspalum boscianum, 85
P. distichum, 85
P. setaceum
var. psammophilum, 85
Passiflora incarnata, 104
P. lutea, 104
Passifloraceae, 104
PAYNE, SHERRI L., 119
p-dichlorobenzene, 152
Pea, marsh, 87
scurf, 88
PEARCE, DEBRA, 159
PEARSON, WILLIAM D., 119
Pectinatella magnifica, 142, 147
Pegias fabula, 80
Pelecypoda, 80, 142, 146
Pennyroyal, hairy, 87
Penstemon sp. 104
Pentaneura, 143
Pepper vine, 86
Perca flavescens, 7, 10, 81
Perch, yellow, 81
Percidae, 5
Percina sp., 82
. burtoni, 81
. caprodes, 7, 10, 99
copelandi, 81
. evides, 81
. macrocephala, 81
maculata, 99
ouachitae, 82
oxyrhyncha, 82
. phoxocephala, 82
. sciera, 9, 10, 98, 99
. shumardi, 82
. squamata, 82
Percopsis omiscomaycus, 7, 10,
82, 99
Perideridia, 88
Perideridia americana, 88
Peridinium, 139
Peromyscus maniculatus nubi-
terrae, 83

aa ala Ma- BeBe Ba Na- MaMa Ba)

=a

SS a or — rt

| Peter Creek, 106
| Phacelia, 88
| Phacelia purshii, 104
| P. ranunculacea, 88
| Phacus, 139
| Phalacrocorax auritus, 83
| Phenacobius uranops, 82
| o-phenylphenol, 152
| Pheucticus ludovicianus, 83
Philadelphus hirsutus, 88
| PHILLEY, JOHN C., 159
| PHILLIPPE, LOY R., 77
_ Phlox, cleft, 88
| Phlox bifida
ssp. stellaria, 88
| Phoxinus cumberlandensis, 82
| Physa, 142
_ P. heterostropha, 60
| P. integra, 60
| Physidae, 60, 142
| Physostegia intermedia, 88
| Phytolacca americana, 103
| Phytolaccaceae, 103
Pickerel, chain, 81
| Picoides borealis, 83
Pike County, 110
Pimephales notatus, 7-10, 99
_ P. promelas, 99
Pine, 54, 55
Pink, grass, 84
rose, 88
Pinus rigida, 111, 112, 114
P. virginiana, 111, 112
Pisces, 116
Pituophis melanoleucus, 82
Plagiothecium cavifolium, 33
Planorbidae, 134
Planorbula, 60
P. armigera, 134
in Kentucky, 134
Plantaginaceae, 104
Plantago aristata, 104
P. cordata, 88
P. lanceolata, 104
P. rugelii, 104
P. virginica, 104
Plantain, heart-leaved, 88
mud, 85
Plants
endangered, 77-89
rare, 77-89
threatened, 77-89
Plasticizers, 152
Platanaceae, 103
Platanthera cristata, 85
P. integrilabia, 85
P. psycodes, 85
Platanus occidentalis, 38, 103,
110-112, 114
Platydorina, 138
Platyias, 140
Plecotus rafinesquei, 83
P. townsendii virginianus, 83
Pleodorina, 138

INDEX TO VOLUME 42

Plethobasus cicatricosus, 80
P. cyphyus, 80
P. striatus, 80
Plethodon cinereus, 82
Pleurobema clava, 80
P. plenum, 80
P. rubrum, 80
Pleurocera acuta, 60, 80
P. alveare, 80
P. curta, 80
Pleuroceridae, 60
Pleurozium schreberi, 34
Ploesoma, 140
Pluchea camphorata, 108
p-nonylphenol, 152
Poa languida, 85
Poaceae, 103, 108
Podilymbus podiceps, 83
Podophyra, 140
Podostemon ceratophyllum, 88
Pogonia, rose, 85
Pogonia ophioglossoides, 85
Poison ivy, 38
Polemonium reptans

var. villosum, 88
Polyartha, 140
Polycentropus, 143
Polyedriopsis, 139
Polygala cruciata, 88
P. nuttallii, 88
P. polygama, 88
Polygonaceae, 103
Polygonum, 55
Polymnia laevigata, 88
Polyodon spathula, 1, 8-10, 82
Pomoxis annularis, 7-10, 99
P. nigromaculatus, 7-10
Pompholyx, 140
Pond River, 106
Pontederia cordata, 85
Pooecetes gramineus, 83
Population, fish, 1
Populus deltoides, 38
Portulaca oleracea, 102, 103
Portulacaceae, 103
Potamogeton pectinatus, 120
P. praelongus, 85
P. spirillus, 85
Potato bean, Sadie Price’s, 86
Potentilla simplex, 103
Potomilus capax, 80
Power plants, 46

in Kentucky, 46
Prairie dock, Lucy Braun’s, 88
Prairie dropseed, 85
PRATHER, KERRY, 135
Prenanthes alba, 88
P. aspera, 88
Primrose, evening, 86
PRINS, RUDOLPH, 159, 160
Privet, upland, 87
Probezzia, 143
Promenetus, 60
n-propylbenzene, 152

169

Propylene dichloride, 152
Protozoa, 140

Prunus serotina, 103, 111
Psorophora ciliata, 95
Psoralea stipulata, 88
Psychomyia, 143
p-t-butylphenol, 152
Ptilmnium capillaceum, 88

P. nuttalli, 88

Ptychobranchus subtenium, 80
Purslane, water, 87
Pycnanthemum albescens, 88
Pylodictis olivaris, 1, 7-10
Pyrene, 152

Pyrrhopappus carolinianus, 104
Pyrrhophyta, 139, 145

Quadrula cylindrica, 80

Q. quadrula, 142, 146

Q. sparsa, 80

Quercus alba, 41-43

. coccinea, 42

. marilandica, 42, 43

. muehlenbergii, 43

. palustris, 38

. rubra, 41, 43

. stellata, 42, 43

. velutina, 41, 43, 111, 114

Quillwort, Butler’s, 84
midland, 84

Rabbit, swamp, 83
Rafinesque, Constantine Samu-
el, 2

Ragweed, giant, 38
Rail, king, 83
Rallus elegans, 83
Rana areolata, 82
Ranunculaceae, 103
Ranunculus allegheniensis, 88
Rattan vine, 86
Rattlesnake, pigmy, 82
Raven, common, 83
Redbud, 57
Redhorse, black, 99
Redroot, 86
Reed, common bur, 85
Rhabdoweisia denticulata, 34
Rhinichthys atratulus, 99
Rhodacmea elaitor, 80
Rhododendron canescens, 88
Rhoicsphenia, 138
Rhus aromatica, 102, 103
R. copallinum, 103
R. radicans, 38
Rhynchosia, erect, 88
Rhynchosia tomentosa, 88
Rhynchospora corniculata, 108
R. globularis, 85
RICE, STEPHEN, 98, 134
Rice, wild, 86

southern wild, 86
Rich Pond, 106
Riparia riparia, 83
Riverweed, 88

OOOOODD

170

Robin plantain, Lucy Braun’s,
87
Robinia pseudo-acacia, 111
Robinson Creek, 110
ROBINSON, THANE S., 90
ROBISON, WILLIAM ALLEN,
106

Rockcastle County, 54, 55, 58
Rock cress, 86

Missouri, 86
RODRIGUEZ, J. G., 158
Rosaceae, 103
Rosemary, Cumberland, 86
Rose pink, 88
Rotifera, 124, 140
Rough Creek, 106
Rubiaceae, 104
Rubus whartoniae, 88
Rudbeckia subtomentosa, 88
R. triloba, 104
Rue, goat, 89

meadow, 89
Ruellia humilis, 102, 104
Ruin Creek, 99, 116
Rumex crispus, 102, 103
Rush, 85

grass beak, 85
Rushfoil, linear, 87
RUSSELL, MARVIN, 159

Sabatia campanulata, 88
S. campestris, 88
Sage, 88
St. Johnswort, 87
Sagittaria brevirostra, 85
S. graminea, 85
Salamander, four-toed, 82
mole, 82
red-backed, 82
Salix amygdaloides, 88
S. nigra, 38
S. sericea, 111
Salvia lyrata, 104
S. urticifolia, 88
Sambucus canadensis, 104
S. racemosa, 88
Sand-myrtle, 87
Sandpiper, upland, 82
Sandwort, 87
Sandy Hook, 98
Sanguisorba canadensis, 88
Sanicula canadensis, 104
Sarcodina, 140
Sassafras, 38, 42
Sassafras albidum, 38, 42-44
Sauger, 1, 4
Saxifraga michauxii, 88
S. micranthidifolia, 88
Saxifrage, brook, 86
golden, 86
Michaux’s, 88
Scaphirhynchus platorhynchus,
TSO Q eS 220133
in Kentucky, 132

Scapholeberis kingi, 119, 122,
124-130
Scenedesmus, 139
Schoenus cymosus, 27
Schroederia, 139
Schwalbea americana, 88
Scirpus, 16-28
in Kentucky, 16
“cyperinus, 23
“eriophorum,” 23
“nelius,” 23
acutus, 17, 19-22, 25, 27
acutus X validus, 22
americanus, 17, 24-26
atrovirens, 25, 26
var. atrovirens, 25-27
var. georgianus, 25-27
S. atrovirens-georgianus, 16-19,
27
var. atrovirens, 18, 24
var. georgianus, 18, 24
S. brunneus, 27
S. carinatus, 25
S. cyperinus, 22-27
“cyperinus, 26
“eriophorum, 26
“nelius,’ 25, 26
var. cyperinus, 25
var. eriophorum, 25
var. pelius, 23, 25
var. rubricosus, 25
S. cyperinus-eriophorum-pe-
lius, 16, 17, 22, 23, 27
S. cyperinus-eriophorum-pe-
lius-pedicellatus, 27

Ann

S. eriophorum, 25
S. expansus, 17, 24-26, 85
S. fluviatilis, 17, 24-26, 85
S. heterochaetus, 17, 25, 26, 85
S. holoschoenus, 17, 23, 25, 26
S. koilolepis, 17, 23, 25, 26
S. lacustris, 22, 25
subsp. glaucus, 25
subsp. validus, 25
S. lineatus, 16, 24, 27
S. pedicellatus, 22
S. pendulus, 16, 17, 24, 26, 27
S. polyphyllus, 17, 24-26
S. purshianus, 17, 24-26, 85
S. rubricosus, 25
S. smithii, 17, 24-26
S. sylvaticus, 25
S. torreyi, 24, 25
S. validus, 17, 19-22, 24-26
S. validus-acutus, 16, 17, 19, 20

Scleria ciliata, 85
SCOTT, A. FLOYD, 108
Screwstem, 86

Scullcap, small, 88
Scurf pea, 88

Scutellaria leonardii, 88
Scutellaria parvula, 104
SEAY, THOMAS, 159
Sedge, 84, 85

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 42(3-4)

Fraser’s, 85

umbrella, 85
Sedum pulchellum, 102, 103
S. telephioides, 88
Selenastrum, 139

Semotilus atromaculatus, 7, 10, |!

99
Shad, Alabama, 80
gizzard, 1, 4
threadfin, 1, 8
Shiner, blacktail, 81
bluntnose, 81
emerald, 1, 6
mimic, 6
palezone, 81
pallid, 81
popeye, 81
sand, 6
sawfish, 81
silverband, 8, 81
taillight, 81
Shooting star, French’s, 87
Shrew, Thompson’s pygmy, 83
Sialidae, 142
Sialis, 142
Sida hermaphrodita, 88
Sididae, 127
Silene ovata, 88
S. regia, 88
S. virginica, 102, 103
Silicone, 154, 155
Silphium laciniatum, 88
S. terebinthinaceum
var. Lucy-Brauniae, 88
Silverbell tree, 87
Simpson County, 101
Simpsonaias ambigua, 80
SIMS, RICHARD, 29
Sinantherina, 140
Siren intermedia, 82
Siren, lesser, 82
SISK, MORGAN E., 135
Sistrurus miliarius, 82
Skunk, eastern spotted, 83
Slaty Creek, 59
Smilacina stellata, 85
Smilax bona-nox, 103
Smithland Locks and Dam, 6
Smoke tree, 86
Snails, aquatic, 54-61
planorbid, 134
Snake, coal, 82
cor, 82
green water, 82
Kirtland’s water, 82
pine, 82
red milk, 82
scarlet, 82
southern water, 82
western water, 82
Snake root, Lucy Braun’s, 87
Roan Mountain white, 87
Solidago albopilosa, 88
S. buckleyi, 88

A

curtisii, 88
missouriensis, 88
puberula, 88

_ radula, 88

rigida

var. glabrata, 89
. roanensis, 89

_ rupestris, 89

. shortii, 89

NM—NANANANM

spathulata, 89
squarrosa, 89
olomon’s seal, starry-flowered
false, 85
Solvents, 152
Sorex cinereus, 83
S. dispar, 83
S. longirostris, 83
Sorrel, Price’s yellow wood, 88
Sparganium eurycarpum, 85
Sparrow, Bachman’s, 82
grasshopper, 82
Henslow’s, 82
lark, 82
vesper, 83
Spears Creek, 58
Sphaeriidae, 59, 142, 146
Sphaerium, 59, 142, 146
S. fabale, 59
S. rhomboideum, 59
S. similis, 59
S. striatum, 59
Sphaerocarpus texanus, 34
Sphenopholis pensylvanica, 85
Spilogale putorius, 83
Spiranthes lucida, 85
S. magnicamporum, 85
S. odorata, 85
Spirea alba, 89
Spirogyra, 139
Spirostomum, 140
Spirulina, 139
Sporobolus clandestinus, 85, 89
S. heterolepis, 85
Spurge, 87
Stachys eplingii, 89
Staurastrum, 139
Staurophyra, 140
STEIGERWALD, SUSAN, 37
Stellaria longifolia, 89
Stenonema, 142, 146
Stephanodiscus, 138
Sterna albifrons, 83
STEVENS, J. TRUMAN, 158
STEVENSON, ROBERT L.,
160
Stichococcus, 138
Stigeoclonium, 138
Stitchwort, 89
water, 86
Stizostedion canadense, 1, 7-10
S. vitreum vitreum, 1, 7, 10
Storax, 89
Streptopus roseus, 86
Strombidium, 140

S
S
S
S
S
S

INDEX TO VOLUME 42

Sturgeon, 4

lake, 80

shovelnose, 82, 132, 133

in Kentucky, 132

Styrax grandifolia, 89
Styrene, 147, 152
Sucker, 4, 5

blackfin, 81

blue, 1, 4, 81
Sullivantia, Sullivant’s, 89
Sullivantia sullivantii, 89
Sumac, 55
Sundew, 87
Sundrops, 88
Sunfish, banded pigmy, 81

bantum, 81

dollar, 81

spotted, 81
Sunflower, 87

Eggert’s, 87

silphium-like, 87
Surirella, 138
Swallow, bank, 83

tree, 83
Swamp candles, 87
Sweetgum, 54
Sweet shrub, 86
Sycamore, 38, 54-59
Sylvilagus aquaticus, 83
S. transitionalis, 83
Symphoricarpos orbiculatus, 43
Synandra, 89
Synandra hispidula, 89
Synaptomys cooperi, 90-94
S.c. kentucki, 90, 92
S. c. stonei, 90, 92
Synchaeta, 140
Synedra, 138
Synura, 138

Tabanidae, 143, 146
Tabanus, 143
Tabellaria, 138
Tanyard Creek, 57
Tardigrada, 140
Taxus canadensis, 84
t-butylbenzene, 152
Tephrosia spicata, 89
Tern, least, 83
Tetrachloroethylene, 149, 152-
155
Tetraedron, 139
Tetrahydrofuran, 152
Tetraspora, 138
Tetrastrum, 139
Thalictrum mirabile, 89
Thamnophis proximus, 82
Thaspium pinnatifidum, 89
Thermopsis mollis, 89
THIERET, JOHN, 159
Thryomanes bewickii, 83
Thuja occidentalis, 84
Tibificidae, 146
Tipula, 143

le 7all

Tipulidae, 143, 146
Toluene, 147, 152, 154, 155
Topminnow, golden, 81
Torilis japonica, 104
Torreyochloa pallida, 86
Toxolasma lividus, 80
Trachelomonas, 139
Tragopogon dubius, 104
Treefrog, barking, 82

bird-voiced, 82

green, 82
Trepocarpus, 89
Trepocarpus aethusae, 89
Treubaria, 139
Tribonema, 139
1,2,4-trichlorobenzene, 147, 152,

153

1,3,5-trichlorobenzene, 155
Trichloroethylene, 152, 155
Trichocera, 140
Trichomanes boschianum, 84
Trichoptera, 143, 147
Trichostema setaceum, 89
Tricladidia, 142
Tridecane, 152
Tridens flavus, 108
T. strictus, 108

from Kentucky, 108
Trifolium procumbens, 102, 103
Trillium, painted, 86

snow, 86
Trillium nivale, 86
T. pusillum

var. ozarkanum, 86
T. undulatum, 86
1,3,5-trimethylbenzene, 152
Triodia, 108
Trout-perch, 82
Tubificidae, 142
Turbellaria, 142, 147
Turkey Bend, 86
Turkey Creek, 57
TURNER, WM. MICHAEL, 38
Turtle, alligator snapping, 82

false map, 82

Mississippi map, 82
Turtlehead, pink, 86
Twayblade, net, 85

Small’s, 85

southern, 85
Twisted stalk, 86
Tygarts Creek, 98
Typhlichthys subterraneus, 82
Tyto alba, 83

Ulmaceae, 103

Ulmus alata, 103

U. americana, 111

U. rubra, 103

U. serotina, 89

Ulothrix, 138

Umbra limi, 82

Uniola latifolia, 102, 103
Unionidae, 142

2 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 42(3-4)

Ursus americanus, 83
Utricularia gibba, 89
U. vulgaris, 89

Vallisneria americana, 86
VARNER, JOHN B., 159
Vaucheria, 139

Verbena simplex, 104
Verbenaceae, 104

Veery, 82

Veratrum parviflorum, 86
V. woodii, 86

Verbascum thapsus, 102, 104
Verbena hastata, 108
Verbesina virginica, 102, 104
Vermivora bachmanii, 83
V. chrysoptera, 83
Vernonia altissima, 104
V. fasciculata, 89

V. noveboracensis, 89
Viburnum acerifolium, 43
V. lentago, 89

V. nudum, 89

V. prunifolium, 43

V. rufidulum, 43

Villosa fabalis, 80

V. ortmanni, 80

V. trabalis, 80

Vinyl chloride, 147
Vinylchloroprene, 152, 154
Viola egglestonii, 89

V. lanceolata, 89

V. pedatifida, 89

V. rafinesquei, 102, 104
V. tripartita, 89

V. walteri, 89

Violaceae, 104
Violet, glade, 89
lance-leaved, 89
prairie, 89
Walter’s, 89
yellow, 89
Vireo bellii, 83
Vireo, Bell’s, 83
Vitaceae, 103
Vitrinizonites latissimus, 80
Viviparidae, 60
Vole, Gapper’s red-backed, 83
Volvox, 138
Vorticella, 140

WAGNER, WILLIAM F., 160
Wake robin, Ozark, 86
WALKER, KEN, 29
Walleye, 1
Walnut, black, 38, 54-59
Walnut Flat Creek, 57
Warbler, Blackburnian, 83
Canadian, 83
golden-winged, 83
Kirtland’s, 83
mourning, 83
WARD, COLIN R., 46
Warren County, 101, 106
WARREN, MELVIN L., JR., 77
Watercress, 58
Waterleaf, Virginia, 87
Water meal, 86
Water hemlock, bulblet bearing,
86
Weasel, least, 83

Weed, pickerel, 85

pond, 85
Wells Creek, 98
Westport, 119
Wheat, cow, 87
White Oak Creek, 57
Whitlow-wort, silver, 88
Wild rice, 86

southern, 86
Willow, 54-59

black, 38

peachleaf, 88

water, 60
Wilsonia canadensis, 83
WINSTEAD, JOE, 159
Woodpecker, red cockaded
Woodsia obtusa, 102
W. scopulina, 84
Woody plants, 110

establishment and growth of ||
on rock and rock debris, ||

110
in eastern Kentucky, 110
Wolffia braziliensis, 86
Wren, Bewick’s, 83
short-billed marsh, 82

Xerophyllum asphodeloides, 86

Yellow-wood, 86
Yew, American, 84

Zapus hudsonius, 83
Zizania aquatica, 86
Zizaniopsis miliacea, 86
Zygoptera, 142

|
i}

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CONTENTS

Endangered, Threatened, and Rare Animals and Plants of Kentucky.
Branley A. Branson, Donald F. Harker, Jr., Jerry M. Baskin, Max E.
Medley, Donald L. Batch, Melvin L. Warren, Jr., Wayne H. Davis,
Wayne C. Houtcooper, Burt Monroe, Jr., Loy R. Phillippe, and
PAULO a ee RY PAT NONE UNE Ups NG SAAT Men es a

A Contribution to the Biology of the Southern Bog Lemming in Ken-
tucky. Phame:S: Robinsome2: 22 eas 1 ay a eae ome

Faunal Composition of Mosquitoes (Diptera: Culicidae) in Bernheim
Forest, Kentucky. GC He Raster se ae ee Nona a as eaeael

Collections of Fishes from the Little Sandy River and Tygarts Creek
Drainages, Kentucky. Branley A. Branson, Donald L. Batch,
INL SEC CTU IRICE cA CUT RAS NOC) Sn 7S U0

An Unreported Cedar Glade in Warren County, Kentucky. George
OWES OMS | oie 2 1 Te A Ta EN ea

A Note on the Occurrence of Chologaster agassizi (Amblyopsidae) in
Kentucky. William Ac sRODIUSO NM 25 Nis SU lie Mien nN Ace aD Sea

First Report of Tridens strictus (Nuttall) Nash (Poaceae) from Kentucky.
Eymeard Wis Chester and-A, Floyd ‘Scott 2 ay Vane ae ne a

Establishment and Growth of Woody Plants on Rock and Rock Debris
in Eastern Kentucky. Foster Teg kh Mit aN Oa SE Tat Ta dene

Nests, Eggs and Larvae of the Elegant Madtom Noturus elegans from
Barren River Drainage, Kentucky (Pisces: Ictaluridae). Brooks
MaBurriand: Walter W.. Dimniniek Wis Giiean iin gy va ca eel ieee s amount naa cona

- Feeding Preferences of Postlarval Longnose Gar (Lepisosteus osseus)
of the Ohio River. Sherri L. Payne and William D. Pearson __-

A Note on the Shovelnose Sturgeon, Scaphirhynchus platorynchus
(Rafinesque), in Kentucky. Ronald: R: Cicerelloy Gey ano os,

Planorbula armigera (Say) in Kentucky. Branley A. Branson and
SECPEW RICE) GROAN UN NOTE GERI 0 SODA Ne a WN ean

Biological and Chemical Evaluation of Aquatic Environments I. An-
derson Creek Embayment on Kentucky Lake. Benjamin Kin-
man, Kerry Prather, Morgan E. Sisk, Dale Dobroth, and Marshall
Gordon

Analysis of Volatile Organic Compounds in a Textile Finishing Plant
Effluent. Annette W. Gordon and Marshall Gordon

DREN SHATIC COMMING ES i200 Ree La ad ODO ETE oe eden Oot 1 Ia

Index

7,

90

95

98

101

106

108

110

116

,@)

| SACTIONS

Or 1HE

KENTUCKY

ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

Official Publication of the Academy

Sn PS SS ee Oat ee en ES ce a eee

ee

Volume 43

Numbers 1-2
March 1982 |

The Kentucky Academy of Science
Founded 8 May 1914

OFFICERS FOR 1982

President: Ted George, Eastern Kentucky University, Richmond 40475
President Elect: J. G. Rodriguez, University of Kentucky, Lexington 40506
Past President: John C. Philley, Morehead State University, Morehead 40351
Vice President: Gary Boggess, Murray State University, Murray 42071
Secretary: Robert Creek, Eastern Kentucky University, Richmond 40475
Treasurer: Morris Taylor, Eastern Kentucky University, Richmond 40475

Director of the Junior Academy: Herbert Leopold, Western Kentucky
University, Bowling Green 42101

Representative to AAAS Council: Allen L. Lake, Morehead State University,
Morehead 40351

BOARD OF DIRECTORS

Jerry C. Davis 1982 Mary McGlasson 1984
Daniel Knopf 1982 Joe Winstead 1984
Gary Boggess 1983 Paul Freytag 1985
Debra Pearce, Chair. 1983 William Baker 1985 ~

EDITORIAL BOARD
Editor: Branley A. Branson, Department of Biological Sciences, Eastern
Kentucky University, Richmond 40475
Index Editor: Varley E. Wiedeman, Department of Biology, University
of Louisville, Louisville 40292

Abstract Editor: John W. Thieret, Department of Biological Sciences, Northern
Kentucky University, Highland Heights 41076

Editorial Board: John C. Philley, School of Science and Mathematics, Morehead
State University, Morehead 40351

Dennis E. Spetz, Department of Geography, University of
Louisville, Louisville 40292

William F. Wagner, Department of Chemistry, University of
Kentucky, Lexington 40506

Joseph P. Cangemi, Psychology Department, Western Kentucky
University, Bowling Green 42101

AJl manuscripts and correspondence concerning manuscripts should be addressed to the Editor.
Authors must be members of the Academy.

The TRANSACTIONS are indexed in the Science Citation Index. Coden TKASAT.

Membership in the Academy is open to interested persons upon nomination, payment of dues,
and election. Application forms for membership may be obtained from the Secretary. The TRANS-
ACTIONS are sent free to all members in good standing. Annual dues are $10.00 for Active
Members; $7.00 for Student Members.

Subscription rates for nonmembers are: domestic, $12.00: foreign, $14.00; back issues are $12.00
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The TRANSACTIONS are issued semiannually in March and September. Four numbers com-
prise a volume.

Correspondence concerning memberships or subscriptions should be addressed to the Secretary.
Exchanges and correspondence relating to exchanges should be addressed to the Librarian, Uni-
versity of Louisville, Louisville, Kentucky 40292, the exchange agent for the Academy.

KENTUCKY

ACADEMY of SCIENCE

TRANSACTIONS of the

March 1982

VOLUME 43
NUMBERS 1-2

Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 43(1-2), 1982, 1-3

LOUIS A. KRUMHOLZ (1909-1981)

Louis Krumholz at Doe Run, Meade County, Ken-
tucky in 1978.

Louis Augustus Krumholz, Distin-
guished Professor Emeritus of Biology
and Water Resources at the University of
Louisville and long-time Editor of the
Transactions of the Kentucky Academy
of Science, died on January 23, 1981. He
was 71 years old.

Professor Krumholz was born on De-
cember 1, 1909 in Harrington, Washing-
ton, and was raised in Fairmont, Minne-

sota. He attended St. Mary’s College,
Winona, Minnesota, and graduated from
the College of St. Thomas in St. Paul,
Minnesota in 1932. That autumn he en-
tered Marquette University Medical
School, but after completing two years,
financial problems forced him to abandon
his plans for a career in medicine. He
then taught high school science for one
year in Minnesota and in 1935 began
graduate studies at the University of Min-
nesota, majoring in German and modern
languages. His interests in biological sci-
ences and considerable graphic talents
resulted in part-time employment as an
illustrator for Tilden’s Minnesota Algae
book.

In 1937, he entered the University of
Illinois as a graduate student in Zoology.
Concurrently, he was an Assistant Zool-
ogist and Draftsman for the Illinois Nat-
ural History Survey in Urbana. His M.S.
thesis, “A Morphological Study of Web-
berian Ossicles in Fishes,’ was complet-
ed in 1941. While at Illinois he also be-
gan research on the biology of the
mosquitofish, Gambusia affinis, a subject
that remained a lifelong interest. In 1939,
he was awarded the first Stoye Prize by
the American Society of Ichthyologists
and Herpetologists for the best student
paper in Ichthyology.

Krumholz’s graduate studies were con-
tinued at the University of Michigan
while he was concurrently employed as
an aquatic biologist with the Institute for
Fisheries Research. In addition to being

2 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 43( 1-2)

in charge of all creel census and fish pop-
ulation studies at the Institute, he carried
out detailed studies on the distribution of
the malaria mosquito Anopheles quadri-
maculatus in anticipation of potential
malarial outbreaks following the return of
World War II veterans to Michigan from
the South Pacific Theater. In 1945 he re-
ceived his Ph.D. degree from the Uni-
versity of Michigan. His dissertation, and
the subsequent 1948 Ecological Mono-
graph on the reproduction of Gambusia
affinis and its use in mosquito control,
have been considered as the definitive
study of this economically important fish
species. His dissertation director was
Carl Hubbs, the noted ichthyologist who
also died recently.

In 1945, he accepted a position as In-
structor of Zoology at Indiana University.
In addition to his teaching responsibili-
ties, Krumholz and the noted fisheries
biologist William E. Ricker together com-
prised the Indiana Lakes and Stream Sur-
vey. Like his work on mosquitofish, the
research of Krumholz and Ricker on the
construction and management of farm
ponds has remained the classic studies
on this subject. Krumholz retained an in-
terest in pond management and at the
time of his death he was revising the
1971 version of The Management of
Lakes and Ponds by his long-time friend,
the late George W. Bennett of the Illinois
Natural History Survey.

Krumholz left Indiana University in
1949 to accept a position as an aquatic
biologist with the Tennessee Valley Au-
thority at the Oak Ridge National Labo-
ratory. At Oak Ridge, his research dealt
with radionuclide accumulation in living
systems. His studies on this subject in
White Oak Creek merited an award from
the Wildlife Society for the outstanding
fisheries paper in 1957.

In 1954, he accepted the position of
Director of the Lerner Marine Laboratory
of the American Museum of Natural His-
tory at Bimini in the Bahamas. His re-
search there dealt with life history as-
pects of marine fishes, including the
bluefin tuna, marlin, various sharks, and
the yellow stingray, and a native frogfish.

In Bimini, he also carried out studies on |

populations of a local species of mosqui-
tofish.

Krumholz accepted a position at the
University of Louisville in 1957 and
served there until his retirement in 1979.
In addition to being a professor of biol-
ogy, Krumholz was the Director of the
Water Resources Laboratory at the Uni-
versity, a post he held from 1967 until |:
1976 when he was awarded the title of j.
Distinguished Professor of Biology and |
Water Resources. From 1977-1979 he
served as Assistant Vice-President for Ac-
ademic Affairs of the University.

In a speech presented as Distin-
guished Faculty Lecturer at the Univer-
sity in April 1976, Krumholz commented
on his feeling about leaving Bimini and
accepting the position at the University
of Louisville: “In a way, it was like re-
turning home because of my work in II-
linois and Indiana and my long-time in-
terest in freshwater fish populations.”
His first research effort in Kentucky was
an extended fish survey of the Ohio River
that extended over three years and con-
sisted of 341 collections that yielded
nearly three-quarters of a million fish
weighing more than 16 tons, a series of
collections that is perhaps the most com-
prehensive for any major river in North
America.

Krumholz began his research on Doe
Run in 1960, a spring-fed stream in
Meade County, Kentucky. The goal of
this long-term study was to assess
changes that might occur in plants and
animals living in a stream in the event
they were exposed to large amounts of
radioactivity such as might result from an
accident in a nuclear power reactor. The
intent was to make a thorough study of
the stream ecosystem, then inoculate the
stream source with known amounts of
short-lived isotopes that simulated fission
products in order to determine their fate
in various plants and animals. Research
at Doe Run supported over 40 students
and supplied information for 8 doctoral
dissertations and 10 master’s theses.

Extensive research under Krumholz’s
direction was conducted on the Salt

ll

|
| River from 1968-1975. In this research
site, located southeast of Louisville, an
attempt was made to document the socio-
economic as well as the biological status
_ of the Salt River basin prior to, during,
and following the impoundment of the
three main watercourses of that river.
Krumholz also directed detailed stud-
ies on Paint and Blaine creeks in eastern
Kentucky, Hite and Beargrass creeks in
Louisville and Jefferson County, and the
Ohio River. In his career, he published
over 80 scientific articles; the last one,

|

“Observations on changes in the fish
population of the Ohio River from Rafi-
nesque to 1980,” appeared in the Trans-
actions of the Kentucky Academy of Sci-
ence (1981, 42:1-15) shortly after his
death.

Krumholz was very active as an editor
of scientific journals. From 1973 to 1980
he served as Editor of the Transactions
of the Kentucky Academy of Science. He
was Editor of Wildlife Monographs for 22
years. He was still actively involved with
the publication of both of these journals
at the time of his death. Additional edi-
torial duties included Associate Editor-
ship of the Journal of the Fisheries Re-
search Board of Canada and The Journal
of Wildlife Management and as Ichthyo-
logical Editor and Managing Editor of
Copeia.

Krumholz was also active as a consul-
tant for national and international orga-
nizations. He was a member of the Na-
tional Academy of Sciences Committee
on the Effects of Atomic Radiation on
Oceanography and Fisheries (1955-1966).
He served as a consultant to the World
Health Organization on Public Health
Aspects of Radioactive Waste Disposal
(1959), the Presidential Science Advisory
Committee on preparation of the docu-
ment “Restoring the Quality of Our En-
vironment’ (1964), The Atomic Energy
Commission on the proposed interocean-
ic canal across the Isthmus of Panama
(1967), the National Commission on
Water Quality on the environmental ef-
fects of point source effluent abatement
(1975), and the U.S. Army Corps of En-

gineers on many issues, including the sil-

Louis A. KRUMHOLZ, OBITUARY—Resh and Neff

3

tation problems in Fishtrap Lake, Ken-
tucky (1974).

Teaching was an important part of
Krumholz’s life. In his 1976 speech, he
emphasized that freshmen and graduate
students had been his favorite groups to
teach. For several years he taught a sur-
vey course in ecology for non-majors that
was very popular. As a teacher of gradu-
ate students he was without equal. In to-
tal, he directed 15 doctoral dissertations
and 21 master’s theses at the University
of Louisville.

In 1976, Krumholz received the Distin-
guished Scientist Award of the Kentucky
Academy of Science. In his acceptance
speech he told the members of the Acad-
emy that this award was the highest hon-
or of his entire career. That same year he
was awarded Honorary Membership in
the Wildlife Society (1976), and posthu-
mously he received the 1981 Aldo Leo-
pold Award, the highest honor given by
the Wildlife Society.

Krumholz is survived by his wife, Lor-
ene Langhoff Krumholz, whom he de-
scribed in his 1976 speech as “a trusted,
faithful, and most tolerant helpmate
throughout.” In addition to assisting him
with field and laboratory help, she also
served as a most caring surrogate parent
for a generation of graduate students. Our
sincerest sympathies are extended to her.

It is obvious from the above biograph-
ical information that Louis Krumholz had
a successful and outstanding career as a
scientist, scholar, and teacher. However,
this information does not convey his
sense of life, his enjoyment of flippant
repartee with colleagues and students,
his bowtie trademark, his enjoyment of
good scotch whiskey, and his endless sto-
ries of the ecologists of previous genera-
tions. These aspects make up our mem-
ories of Lou Krumholz even more than
his papers, awards, and achievements.
He will be missed by all who knew him.

Vincent H. Resh and Stuart E. Neff
Water Resources Laboratory
University of Louisville

Louisville, Kentucky 40292

Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 43(1-2), 1982, 4-9

Hematological Values of Blue and Channel
Catfish from Two Kentucky Lakes

JAMES D. BRADER AND THOMAS MICHAEL FREEZE

Arkansas Game and Fish Commission, Joe Hogan State Fish Hatchery,
Lonoke, Arkansas 72081

AND

ROBERT C. GOETZ

Murray State University, Biology Department, Blackburn Science Building,
Murray, Kentucky 42071

ABSTRACT

Hemoglobin, pH, hematocrit, clotting time, erythrocyte numbers, leukocytes, cell types, and
percentage composition of leukocytes were determined from blood samples taken from blue
catfish (Ictalurus furcatus) and channel catfish (I. punctatus) captured from Lake Barkley and
Kentucky Lake during August and September of 1977. Gill nets of 3.81-cm bar mesh were used
to capture the catfish and all fish were removed from the nets at 30-min intervals. A comparison
of the hematological properties of the two species in both lakes with those from other studies
strongly suggest that the populations of blue and channel catfish in Kentucky Lake were stressed,
whereas both species in Lake Barkley appeared close to normal.

INTRODUCTION

Kentucky Lake and Lake Barkley lie in
the southwestern portion of Kentucky
and were created when the Tennessee
Valley Authority (TVA) dammed the Ten-
nessee River and the U.S. Army Corps of
Engineers dammed the Cumberland Riv-
er a short distance upstream of their con-
fluence with the Ohio River. The two
lakes are joined by a navigation channel
above the dam sites. Kentucky Lake was
impounded in 1944 and Lake Barkley
was impounded in 1964; the canal was
dug in 1965. Both lakes contain native
populations of blue catfish (Ictalurus fur-
catus) and channel catfish (I. punctatus),
which now support a commerical fishery.
Hancock (1968) and Matthai (1972) indi-
cated that growth rates of first-year catfish
in Kentucky Lake have declined steadily
since 1959, and deformed fish have ap-
peared in the commercial catches. Al-
though various aspects of the natural
history of these catfish have been
investigated, the hematological values
that may serve as indicators of stress (Le
Tendre 1968) and disease (Hesser 1960)

have been largely ignored.

The purpose of the present study was
to obtain quantitative data relative to
these hematological factors. Catfish in
Lake Barkley served as a control popu-
lation for this investigation since the
growth and condition of those catfish
have been shown to be similar to the
“normal” catfish studied by Carroll and
Hall (1964), Freeze and Tatum (1977),
Hancock (1968), and Hargis (1966). Lake
Barkley is much younger than Kentucky
Lake but exhibits similar morphometric
and hydrographic features.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Catfish were collected during the early
morning hours with unhobbled gill nets
of 3.8-cm mesh during August and Sep-
tember 1977. Fish were removed from
the nets at 30-min intervals to reduce the
physiological effects of capture. Although
this limited the sample size, we believed
that reducing stress was of greater im-
portance than a large sample size, espe-
cially if environmental stress was a factor
before capture.

Blood was taken at the site of specimen
collection by cardiac puncture and by

(

| severing the caudal peduncle. Blood pH
was measured in heparinized 5 ml sy-
| ringes immediately following withdrawal
_ by cardiac puncture.

Using a digital mini-pH meter, pH was
determined electrometrically by insert-
ing the pH electrode into the top of a
- blood-filled 5-ml syringe after the plung-
er had been removed. The null meter
was checked against the pH 7 buffer be-
tween readings. An American Optical
Corporation Hb-Meter hemoglobinome-
ter was used to determine the hemoglo-
bin content at the same time in the field.

Clotting times were determined by us-
ing both non-heparinized capillary tubes
and a drop of fresh blood on a clean mi-
croscope slide. The clotting time was
considered to be the interval ending
when strands of fibrin appeared. No no-
ticeable differences were found between
these 2 methods of analysis.

Syringes were stored on ice for trans-
port to the laboratory for hemoglobin de-
termination, erythrocyte counts, and leu-
kocyte counts. These analyses were
conducted within 3 h of sample collec-
tion.

In the laboratory, a Spencer Bright-
Line Hemocytometer was used to make
the erythrocyte counts, with Hayem’s so-
lution as the diluent (Smith et al. 1952,
Weinberg et al. 1972). Leucocyte counts
were made, with Shaw’s counting fluid
(Hesser 1960), but differentiation be-
tween leukocytes, erythrocytes and leu-
kocytes were made from differential
smears with Wright's stain and the Hu-
mason technique (1967).

The hematocrit was determined by the
microhematocrit technique of Larsen and
Sneiszko (1961). Blood was collected in
the field in commercially prepared hep-
arinized capillary tubes. Later, in the lab-
oratory, it was centrifuged at 3,500 rpm
for 15 min and examined to determine
the volume of packed red blood cells.

Hematological values were deter-
mined for 2 blue catfish and 9 channel
catfish from Barkley Lake and for 10 blue
catfish and 10 channel catfish from Ken-
tucky Lake. These values were used in
computing the means, standard devia-

HEMATOLOGY OF KENTUCKY CATFISH—Brader et al. 5

tions, and ranges of the pH’s, hemoglobin
concentrations, hematocrits, clotting
times, and erythrocyte numbers for the
2 species of catfish from each lake.

All tests of significance were conduct-
ed by using a 2 sample t-test (Snedecor
and Cochran 1967). The level of signifi-
cance is accepted as being P < 0.05 (un-
less otherwise indicated).

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

No significance in length or weight in
each species was observed between the
lakes. Blue catfish from Kentucky Lake
averaged 355 mm and 325 g and those
from Lake Barkley averaged 328 mm and
293 g; channel catfish from Kentucky
Lake averaged 416 mm and 548 g and
those from Lake Barkley averaged 428
mm and 621 g (Table 1).

Blue catfish from Kentucky Lake had
significantly lower mean values for pH,
hemoglobin, hematocrit, and erythrocyte
count than those from Lake Barkley (Ta-
ble 1). The lower values for Kentucky
Lake indicate the stressed condition of its
blue catfish population as compared with
that of Lake Barkley (Higginbotham and
Meyer 1948, Le Tendre 1968). The great-
er percentage of leukocytes in the blood
of blue catfish from Kentucky Lake com-
pared with that of the blue catfish of
Lake Barkley (2.2 vs. 2.0%) is further evi-
dence of a stressed population (Hoar and
Randall 1969).

Mean hemoglobin values, expressed in
grams per cell to remove differences in
body weights, indicate that Kentucky
Lake and Lake Barkley blue catfish had
similar cellular Hb levels, 4.5 x 107"!
and 4.2 x 10°" g/cell, respectively. No
previous studies on the hematological
properties of blue catfish were found in
the literature reviewed.

Channel catfish from Kentucky Lake
had significantly lower mean values for
hemoglobin, hematocrit, clotting time,
and erythrocyte count than those from
Lake Barkley (Table 1). The range values
for pH were not significantly different.
The lower hemoglobin, hematocrit, and
erythrocyte count values of channel cat-
fish from Kentucky Lake as compared

6

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 43(1-2)

TABLE 1.—COMPARISON OF MEAN BLOOD VALUES OF CHANNEL AND BLUE CATFISH FROM LAKE BARKLEY
AND KENTUCKY LAKE

Ictalurus furcatus

Ictalurus punctatus

Value Barkley Lake Kentucky Lake Barkley Lake Kentucky Lake

Sample size 2 10 9 10
pH range 7.1-7.5 6.7-7.3 6.7-7.8 6.8-7.6
Hemoglobin (g/100 ml) 6.85 5.70 8.40 7.70
S.D. zi) Lx) +1.1 +0.4 219
Mean cell Hb! .0000424 .0000453 .0000499 .0000496
Hematocrit (%) 31.0 26.8 39.3 28.0
S.D. +5.6 +4.7 +6.5 +5.3
Clotting time (sec.) 36 39 64 56
SD: ste) aay +20 +38
Erythrocyte count (no. of cells/mm?) 1,615,000 1,256,000 1,685,000 1,554,000
S.D. + 1,217,000 +70,000 +30,000 + 126,000
Mean length of fish (mm) 328 355 428 416
Mean weight of fish (g) 293 324 621 548

1 Mean cell hemoglobin given as 10(g Hb/100 ml)/RBC millions.

with those from Lake Barkley are further
indications of a stressed population (Hig-
ginbotham and Meyer 1948). As in the
blue catfish, the larger percentage of leu-
kocytes found in the blood of channel cat-
fish from Kentucky Lake compared with
that for those in Lake Barkley (2.1 vs.
1.7%) indicates the stressed condition of
the Kentucky Lake channel catfish re-
ported by Hoar and Randall (1969).

The pH ranges of channel catfish from
both lakes were below the values docu-
mented for unexercised channel catfish
(Table 3) by Haws and Goodnight (1962),
Caillouet (1968), and Le Tendre (1968).
The effects of captivity on the pH values
of fish in these other studies were not
known. Blood pH of Kentucky Lake and
Lake Barkley fish captured by gill netting
was close to the 7.1 value that Le Tendre
(1968) obtained for exercised channel
catfish.

The hemoglobin values of channel cat-
fish from both lakes were greater than
values reported by Higginbotham and
Meyer (1948) and Haws and Goodnight
(1962). An increase in the hemoglobin
value has been correlated with an in-
crease in physiological condition (Hig-
ginbotham and Meyer 1948). Thus, if
only hemoglobin values were consid-
ered, the channel catfish of both lakes
would appear to be in excellent condition

in comparison with data from fish raised
in captivity.

The mean hematocrit value of channel
catfish from Kentucky Lake did not ex-
ceed the values of Haws and Goodnight
(1962) or Grizzle and Rogers (1976), in-
dicating the stressed condition of the
Kentucky Lake channel catfish (Higgin-
botham and Meyer 1948). Hematocrits of
Lake Barkley channel catfish exceeded
those reported by Haws and Goodnight
(1962) and closely approximated those of
Grizzle and Rogers (1976). The high he-
matocrit value of Lake Barkley channel
catfish indicates their good physiological
condition.

Channel catfish erythrocyte counts
documented by Higginbotham and Mey-
er (1948), Haws and Goodnight (1962),
Dodgen and Sullivan (1969), and Grizzle
and Rogers (1976) exceeded the values
for channel catfish from both Kentucky
and Barkley lakes. The difference be-
tween values from the present study and
values from previous studies on captive
channel catfish were quite interesting,
since an increase in erythrocyte numbers
has been correlated with an increase in
physiological condition (Higginbotham
and Meyer 1948). Apparently, the lower
erythrocyte counts of channel catfish
from the present study as compared to
previous studies have been compensated

{

HEMATOLOGY OF KENTUCKY CATFISH—Brader et al.

for by much higher hemoglobin values.
Hemoglobin values are expressed in
grams per cell, the value for channel cat-

+ fish from Kentucky Lake is 4.9 x 107"
and for those from Lake Barkley is

AOD alOm vA value of 3.2.x 10°! was re=-
ported by Higginbotham and Meyer
(1948) and a value of 3.0 x 1071! was re-
ported by Haws and Goodnight (1962).

In Kentucky Lake, the channel catfish
had significantly higher values for pH,
hemoglobin, hematocrit, clotting time,
and erythrocyte count than the blue cat-
fish (Table 1). These significant differ-
ences may be the result of factors inher-
ent in the two species or they may be due
to differences in mean weights (Haws
and Goodnight 1962).

The channel catfish from Kentucky
Lake also had higher percentages of
erythrocytes, neutrophils, and hemo-
blasts in their blood than the blue catfish,
whereas the blue catfish had greater per-
centages of thrombocytes and lympho-
cytes (Table 2). In the blood of neither
species were any eosinophils or macro-
phages found and both species had 2.1%
leukocytes. Typically in fish under short-
term stress an initial decrease in leuko-
cytes is followed by a substantial in-
crease within 2-4 h (Hoar and Randall
1969).

The channel catfish in Lake Barkley
had significantly greater mean values for
hemoglobin, hematocrit, and clotting
time than the blue catfish. Values for pH
and erythrocyte counts were not signifi-
cantly different for the two species. The
similar pH values were not surprising
since, according to Haws and Goodnight
(1962), one would not expect a great dif-
ference between closely related species.

The blue catfish in Lake Barkley had
a greater percentage of thrombocytes and
neutrophils than the channel catfish, but
percentages of hemoblasts and lympho-
cytes were greater for the channel catfish
(Table 2). No eosinophils or macrophages
were found in differential smears from
either species. In blood of the blue cat-
fish, the percentage of leukocytes was
slightly greater than in that of the chan-
nel catfish (2.0 vs. 1.9%).

CELL TYPES AND PERCENT COMPOSITION OF BLOOD OF BLUE AND CHANNEL CATFISH FROM LAKE BARKLEY AND KENTUCKY LAKE

TABLE 2.

Kentucky Lake

Lake Barkley

I. punctatus

I. furcatus

I. punctatus

I. furcatus

Mean S.D.

Range

D.

Mean Ss

Mean S.D. Range Mean S.D. Range

Range

Cell types

-

0-2.4

0-0.7

3

VRerere ~

0.8-17.5

=

_

bocytes
1ocytes
yphils

a> =>)

0Q-2.4
0-2.5
0-.8

—

>)
r
(

or

Lym

blasts

~

0

0

—~

— WO)" ies

~S -

Neu

Hen

8 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 43(1-2)

TABLE 3.—MEAN BLOOD VALUES OF CHANNEL CATFISH FROM OTHER STUDIES (STANDARD DEVIATIONS
GIVEN IN PARENTHESIS)

Erythrocyte
pH Hemoglobin’ Hematocrit count

Haws and Goodnight (1962) 7.55 6.6 (0.3) 29.4 (4.9) 2,162,500
Higginbotham and Meyer (1948) Totes) 2,175,000
Le Tendre (1968) EDO
Caillouet (1968) 7.80
Grizzle and Rogers (1976) 40.0 2,230,000
Dodgens and Sullivan (1969) 2,230,000

' Hemoglobin values given as g/100 ml.

SUMMARY

A species difference was observed as
the values for hemoglobin, hematocrit,
clotting time, and erythrocyte count were
significantly higher in channel catfish
from both lakes than those for blue cat-
fish, but pH values for the two species
did not differ significantly. Blood of chan-
nel catfish from both lakes also had a
higher percentage of erythrocytes and a
lower percentage of thrombocytes than
that of blue catfish.

The hematological data from blue and
channel catfish from Lake Barkley and
Kentucky Lake indicates that the popu-
lation in Kentucky Lake was stressed.
Their stressed condition may make Ken-
tucky Lake catfish more susceptable to
disease and parasitism (Hesser 1960)
than catfish from Lake Barkley. This
stressed condition may be responsible for
the decreased first year growth and the
deformed condition of catfish reported by
the commercial fisherman on Kentucky
Lake (Miller et al. 1976). Used in con-
junction with age and growth studies,
blood analyses can strengthen results and
conclusions in population or environ-
mental investigations.

LITERATURE CITED

CAILLOUET, C. W., JR. 1968. Lactic acidosis in
channel catfish. J. Fish. Res. Board Canada
Zo) N5=23%

CARROLL, B. B., AND G. G. HALL. 1964. Growth of
catfishes in Norris Reservoir, Tennessee. J.
Tennessee Acad. Sci. 39(3):86-91.

DODGEN, C. L., AND S. SULLIVAN. 1969. Hemato-
logical effects of apholate on channel catfish,
Ictalurus punctatus. Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. Med.
131:124-126.

FREEZE, T. M., AND B. TATUM. 1977. A compara-
tive age, growth, and condition study of chan-
nel catfish from Dardanelle Reservoir, Arkan-
sas. Trans. Kentucky Acad. Sci. 38(3-4):123-129.

GRIZZLE, J. M., AND W. A. ROGERS. 1976. Anatomy
and histology of the channel catfish. Auburn,
Alabama. Auburn Printing, Inc.

HANCOCK, H. M. 1968. Catfish fishery investiga-
tions Kentucky portion of Kentucky Reservoir.
Rep. Kentucky Fish Wildlife Resour., Proj.
4-27-R. Reproduced by Research Foundation,
Murray State University, Murray, Ky.

Harcis, H. L. 1966. Development of improved
fishing methods for use in the southeastern and
south-central reservoirs. Tennessee Game Fish
Comm. Dingell-Johnson Job completion Rep.,
4-5-R-1.

Haws, T. G., AND C. J. GOODNIGHT. 1962. Some
aspects of the hematology of two species of cat-
fish in relation to their habitats. Physiol. Zool.
35-36:8-17.

HESSER, E. F. 1960. Methods for routine fish he-
matology. Prog. Fish-Cult. 22(4):164-171.
HIGGINBOTHAM, A. C., AND K. D. MEYER. 1948.
Determination of the physical condition of fish.
I. Some blood analyses of the southern channel

catfish. Q. J. Florida Acad. Sci. 11:119-124.

Hoar, W. S., AND D. J. RANDALL. 1969. Fish Phys-
iology. Vol. 2. Academic Press. New York.

HuMason, G. L. 1967. Animal tissue techniques
(second edition). W. H. Freeman and Compa-
ny. San Francisco.

LARSEN, H. N., AND S. F. SNIESZKO. 1961. Modi-
fication of the microhematocrit technique with
trout blood. Trans. Am. Fish. Soc. 90(2): 139-142.

LE TENDRE, G. C. 1968. Blood pH of channel cat-
fish. Iowa State J. Sci. 43(2):223-228.

MATTHAI, P. J. 1972. Kentucky Lake commercial
catfish catch analysis. Rep. Ky. Fish Wildl. Re-
sour., Proj. 4-70-R. Reproduced by Research
Foundation, Murray State University, Murray,
Ky.

MILLER, L. G., W. L. DAVIS, AND T. M. FREEZE.
1976. Catfish investigation at Kentucky and
Barkley lakes. Rep. Kentucky Fish Wildl. Re-
sour., Proj. 4-277-R-1. Reproduced by Research
Foundation, Murray State University, Murray,
Ky.

HEMATOLOGY OF KENTUCKY CATFISH—Brader et all. 9

SMITH, C. G., W. M. LEWIS, AND H. M. KAPLAN. WEINBERG, S. R., C. D. SIEGEL, R. F. NIGRELLE,

1952. Comparative morphologic and _ physio- AND A. S. GORDON. 1972. The hematological
logic study of fish blood. Prog. Fish-Cult. parameters and blood cell morphology of the
14(4): 169-172. brown bullhead catfish, Ictalurus nebulosus

SNEDECOR, G. W., AND W. G. COCHRAN. 1967. Sta- (Le Sueur). Zoologica, New York, Summer:
tistical methods. Iowa State University Press, 71-78.

Ames, lowa.

Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 43(1-2), 1982, 10-20

The Diatoms (Bacillariophyceae) of Kentucky:
A Checklist of Previously Reported Taxa

KEITH E. CAMBURN
Kentucky Nature Preserves Commission, Frankfort, Kentucky 40601

ABSTRACT
During the past 128 years, 514 diatom taxa representing 50 genera have been reported from
Kentucky in 37 publications. Presented is a brief discussion of the history of diatom research in
Kentucky in addition to a checklist of previously reported taxa. This checklist presents each
taxon as originally published and denotes in which publication(s) it appeared. Currently accepted
synonyms and proper authority citations are also provided.

INTRODUCTION

The diatom flora of Kentucky has been
the subject of few intensive investiga-
tions in the past. Recent aquatic surveys
conducted by the Kentucky Nature Pre-
serves Commission have revealed a spe-
ciose flora from a variety of aquatic hab-
itats (Harker et al. 1979, 1980a, 1980b).
The purpose of this checklist is to present
the diatom taxa previously reported from
Kentucky as originally published and to
provide currently accepted synonyms
and proper authority citations.

In the first apparent reference to Ken-
tucky algae, Tellkampf (1845) sent draw-
ings of “animalculae” collected from a
subterranean river in Mammoth Cave to
Professor C. G. Ehrenberg of Berlin who
described the cryptophycean alga Chi-
lomonas emarginata from these draw-
ings. According to Packard (1889), the
original Tellkampf sketches were further
identified by Ehrenberg (1854-1856) to
contain Biddulphia (?), Gallionella (?),
and Synedra ulna. Later Kofoid (1899) in
his paper on the plankton of Echo River,
Mammoth Cave, reported several algal
taxa, including the diatom Nitzschia lin-
earis. In addition to this early speleolog-
ical research, diatoms were reported from
Crystal and Mammoth Caves by Nagy
(1965) and Van Landingham (1965, 1966,
1967). Within the same region, Orser and
Dillard (1980) investigated the periphy-
ton of Sloan’s Crossing Pond in Mam-
moth Cave National Park.

Within central Kentucky, several in-
vestigators have reported diatoms from

10

the vicinity of Doe Run in Meade Coun-
ty. Brohm (1963) studied the diatom flora
of Doe Run, and the water quality and
primary productivity of Doe Valley Lake
was investigated by Bacon (1973) and
Bacon and Neff (1974). Geiling and
Krumholz (1963) reported diatoms in a
limnological survey of sink-hole ponds
near Doe Run. Diatoms were reported
from Tom Wallace Lake in Jefferson
County by Cole (1957). Neel (1968) re-
ported diatoms from Boone Creek near
Lexington following a seasonal succes-
sion investigation of this limestone
stream. The only investigation conducted
exclusively in the Jackson Purchase was
a study of the algae of Bayou de Chien
(Johnson 1978).

The phytoplankton, including the dia-
toms, of several Kentucky reservoirs, in-
cluding Cumberland River, Dale Hol-
low, Herrington, Kentucky, and Barren
River was investigated by Taylor et al.
(1977). Since specific localities were not
reported, only those taxa from reservoirs
located entirely within the state are in-
cluded here (i.e., Cumberland River,
Herrington, and Barren River). Hill
(1971) investigated the phytoplankton
periodicity in Shanty Hollow Lake in
Warren County.

Diatoms have been reported from the
Ohio River at Louisville by Eichelberger
(1963), Greeson (1967), Nall (1965), and
Seilheimer (1963). The phytoplankton of
the McAlpine pool of the Ohio River was
studied by Riley (1969). Weber (1970) in
the description of a new centric diatom

DIATOMS IN KENTUCKY—Camburn ll

TABLE 1.—ALPHABETICAL LIST OF AUTHORS WHO

HAVE REPORTED DIATOMS FROM KENTUCKY, IN-

CLUDING A PUBLICATION CODE AND THE NUMBER
OF TAXA REPORTED IN EACH PUBLICATION

TABLE 2.—ALPHABETICAL LIST OF THE DIATOM
TAXA PREVIOUSLY REPORTED FROM KENTUCKY
WITH PUBLICATION CODE(S), CURRENTLY ACCEPT-
ED SYNONYMS, AND PROPER AUTHORITY CITATIONS

Publication No. of taxa

Authors code reported

Bacon 1973 32 22
Bacon and Neff 1974 28 22
Brinley and Katzin 1942 3 5
Brohm 1963 5 46
Camburn 1982 33 8
Camburn in prep. SY) 106
Cole 1957 4 3
Ehrenberg 1854-1856

(fide Packard 1889) 1 1
Eichelberger 1963 6 28
Geiling and Krumholz 1963 8 3
Greeson 1967 31 2
Harker et al. 1979 18 306
Harker et al. 1980a 19 301
Harker et al. 1980b 21 219
Hill 1971 15 2
Johnson 1978 36 52
Kofoid 1899 2 1
Nagy 1965 9 1
Nall 1965 10 47
Neel 1968 29 24
ORSANCO 1962 27 5
Orser and Dillard 1980 20 3
Patrick and Reimer 1966 12 13
Patrick and Reimer 1975 16 2
Purdy 1923 37 4
Riley 1969 30 1
Seilheimer 1963 Ml 39
Taylor et al. 1977 17 13
Van Landingham 1965 ll 9
Van Landingham 1966 13 8
Van Landingham 1967 14 1
Weber 1970 34 1
Weber 1971 35 19
Williams 1962 25 6
Williams 1964 24 t
Williams 1972 26 2
Williams and Scott 1962 23 6

genus reported specimens from several
Kentucky localities in the Ohio River. A
stream plankton survey of the Ohio River
system reported diatoms from the Big
Sandy, Cumberland, Green, Kentucky,
Licking, Little Sandy, and Ohio rivers
(Brinley and Katzin 1942). Diatoms were
reported in a study of the pollution and
natural purification of the Ohio River
from several Kentucky localities includ-
ing the mouths of the Licking, Cumber-
land, and Tennessee rivers (Purdy 1923).
Several other investigations dealing in
part with plankton diatoms from Ken-

Achnanthes affinis Grun. (18)
. austriaca Hust. (18)
. chlidanos Hohn & Hellerm. (18, 19, 22)
. clevei Grun. (18, 19, 21)
clevei var. rostrata Hust. (19)
. deflexa Reim. (19, 22)
. detha Hohn & Hellerm. (18, 19)
. exigua Grun. (21)
. exigua var. heterovalva Krasske (18, 19, 21, 22)
. flexella (Kutz.) Brun (12)
. harveyi Reim. (19)
. hungarica (Grun.) Grun. (21)
. inflata (36)
A. inflata (Kutz.) Grun.
. lanceolata (6, 17)
A. lanceolata (Breb.) Grun.
. lanceolata Breb. (5, 29)
A. lanceolata (Breb.) Grun.
. lanceolata (Breb.) Grun. (18, 19, 21, 22)
. lanceolata var. dubia Grun. (18, 19, 21)
. lanceolata var. rostrata Hust. (5)
A. lanceolata var. dubia Grun.
. lapponica var. ninckei (Guerm. & Mang.) Reim.
(18, 19, 21, 22)
. linearis W. Sm. (5)
A. linearis (W. Sm.) Grun.
. linearis (W. Sm.) Grun. (18, 19)
. linearis f. curta H. L. Sm. (18, 19)
. linearis var. pusilla Grun. (19, 22)
. marginulata Grun. (19, 22)
. microcephala (Kutz.) Grun. (11)
. minutissima (6)
A. minutissima Kutz.
. minutissima Kutz. (18, 19, 21, 22, 23)
. minutissima (Kutz.) Cl. (7, 10)
A. minutissima Kutz.
. minutissima var. cryptocephala Grun. (19)
. nollii Bock (12, 18)
. pinnata Hust. (18, 21)
. pseudolinearis Hust. (18)
Specimens reinterpreted as A. deflexa Reim.
. reimeri Camburn (18, 19, 22)
. stewartii Patr. (18, 19)
. sublaevis var. crassa Reim. (18, 19)
. subrostrata var. appalachiana Camburn & Lowe
(19, 22)

Amphipleura pellucida Kutz. (5, 18, 19, 21)
A. pellucida (Kutz.) Kutz.

Serer Se SSeS SESE SF SF SSS SF SF PEPE ereeeesesee

See eS

Amphiprora ornata J. W. Bail. (10)
Entomoneis ornata (J. W. Bail.) Reim.

Amphora birugula Hohn (19)
A. fontinalis Hust. (18)
A. ovalis (Kutz.) (18, 19)
A. ovalis (Kutz.) Kutz.
A. ovalis var. affinis (Kutz.) V. H. ex DeT. (18, 19,
21)
A. perpusilla (Grun.) Grun. (18, 19, 21)
A. submontana Hust. (18, 19, 21)

12 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 43( 1-2)

TABLE 2.—CONTINUED

Anomoeoneis serians var. brachysira (Breb. ex
Kutz.) Hust. (18, 19, 22, 33)
A. sphaerophora (Ehr.) Pfitz. (12)
A. sphaerophora (Kutz.) Cl. (36)
A. sphaerophora (Ehr.) Pfitz.
A. vitrea (Grun.) Ross (18, 19, 21, 22)

Asterionella formosa (3, 15, 17, 25, 27, 30, 31, 35)
A. formosa Hass.

A. formosa Hass. (4, 7, 10, 18, 28, 32, 36)

A. gracillima Heib. (36)
A. formosa var. gracillima (Hantz.) Grun.

Aulacosira distans var. alpigena (Grun.) Simonsen
(21)

A. granulata (Ehr.) Simonsen (21)

A. granulata var. angustissima (O. Mull.) Simonsen

(21)

Bacillaria paradoxa (27, 35)
B. paxillifer (O. F. Mull.) Hendey
B. paradoxa Gmel. (10, 18, 25)
B. paxillifer (O. F. Mull.) Hendey
B. paxillifer (O. F. Mull.) Hendey (19, 21)

Biddulphia laevis Ehr. (18)

Caloneis bacillum (Grun.) Cl. (18, 19, 21)
C. hyalina Hust. (19, 21)

C. lewisii var. inflata (Schultze) Patr. (21)
C. limosa (Kutz.) Patr. (21)

C. ventricosa (Ehr.) Meist. (19)

Campylodiscus hibernicus Ehr. (5)
C. noricus var. hibernica (Ehr.) Grun.

Capartogramma crucicula (Grun. ex Cl.) Ross (18,
21)

Cocconeis diminuta Pant. (36)
C. pediculus (6)
C. pediculus Ehr.
C. pediculus Ehr. (5, 7, 10, 18, 19, 21, 29)
C. placentula (6)
C. placentula Ehr.
C. piacentula Ehr. (5, 7, 10, 28, 32)
C. placentula var. euglypta (Ehr.) Cl. (12, 18, 19,

C. placentula var. lineata (Ehr.) V. H. (18, 19, 21)
C. scutellum Ehr. (36)

Coscinodiscus subtilis Ehr. (10)
C. rothii (Ehr.) Grun.

Cyclotella atomus (17, 35)
C. atomus Hust.
. atomus Hust. (25)
. bodanica Eulenst. (7, 10)
. glomerata Bachm. (36)
. meneghiniana (17, 24, 35)
C. meneghiniana Kutz.
C. meneghiniana Kutz. (7, 10, 18, 19, 21, 23, 25, 28,
32, 36)
C. pseudostelligera Hust. (21)
C. stelligera (17)
C. stelligera Cl. & Grun.
C. stelligera (Cl. & Grun.) V. H. (18, 19, 21)
C. stelligera Cl. & Grun.

QIiGiQi®

TABLE 2.—CONTINUED

Cylindrotheca gracilis (Breb.) Grun. (7)
C. gracilis (Breb. ex Kutz.) Grun.

Cumatopleura solea (Breb.) W. Sm. (orthographic
error?) (29)
Cymatopleura librile (Ehr.) Pant.
Cymatopleura elliptica (Breb.) W. Sm. (18)
C. librile (Ehr.) Pant. (21)
C. solea (6, 35)
C. librile (Ehr.) Pant.
C. solea (Breb.) W. Sm. (5, 7, 10, 18, 19, 25)
C. librile (Ehr.) Pant.
C. soles (Breb.) W. Sm. (orthographic error?) (36)
C. librile (Ehr.) Pant.

Cymbella affinis (35)

C. affinis Kutz.

. affinis Kutz. (18, 19, 22, 25)
. amphicephala (17)

C. amphicephala Naeg. ex Kutz.
C. aspera (Ehr.) H. Perag. (18, 19, 21, 22)
C. cesatii (Rabh.) Grun. ex A. S. (19)

C. cistula (Ehr.) Kirchn. (18, 19, 21)

C. clausii VanLand. (13)

C. cuspidata Kutz. (18, 19, 22)

C. cymbiformis Ag. (18, 19)

C. delicatula Kutz. (18, 19, 21, 22)

C. gerloffti VanLand. (13)

C. hauckii V. H. (19, 22)

C. hohnii VanLand. (13)
G
C
C
G
¢
C
G;
G

GQ

. hustedtii Krasske (18, 19)
. inaequalis (Ehr.) Rabh. (16)
. javanica Hust. (18)
. lanceolata (Ehr.) V. H. (28, 32)
C. lanceolata (Ag.) Ag.
. lunata W. Sm. (18, 19, 21, 22)
. microcephala Grun. (18, 19, 21, 22)
. minuta Hilse ex Rabh. (18, 19, 21)
. minuta var. pseudogracilis (Choln.) Reim. (18,
19, 21, 22, 33)
C. minuta var. silesiaca (Bleisch ex Rabh.) Reim.
(18, 19, 21)
C. naviculiformis Auersw. ex Heib. (18, 19, 21)
C. norvegica Grun. (18)
C. perpusilla A. Cl. (19, 22, 33)
C. prostrata (Berk.) Cl. (5, 7, 10, 11, 18, 19, 21, 22,
29)
C. prostrata var. auerswaldii (Rabh.) Reim. (18, 19)
C. pusilla Grun. (18)
C. ruttneri var. obtusa Hust. (18, 19)
C. sinuata Greg. (18, 19, 21)
C. triangulum (Ehr.) Cl. (18, 19, 21)
C. tumida (6)
C. tumida (Breb. ex Kutz.) V. H.
. tumida (Breb.) V. H. (5, 7, 28, 29, 32)
C. tumida (Breb. ex Kutz.) V. H.
. tumida (Breb. ex Kutz.) V. H. (18, 19, 21, 22)
. turgida (Greg.) Cl. (28, 32)
C. turgida Greg.
. turgidula (6)
C. turgidula Grun.
C. turgidula Grun. (5, 18, 19, 21, 22)

DIATOMS IN KENTUCKY—Camburn 1s

TABLE 2.—CONTINUED

TABLE 2.—CONTINUED

Diatoma elongatum Ag. (7, 10)
D. tenue var. elongatum Lyngb.

D. elongatum (Lyngb.) Ag. (36)

D. tenue var. elongatum Lyngb.
. tenue var. elongatum Lyngb. (21)
. vulgare (6, 24, 35)

D. vulgare Bory
. vulgare Bory (7, 10, 11, 18, 19, 25, 28, 32, 36)
. vulgare var. brevis Grun. (orthographic error?)
(5)

D. vulgare var. breve Grun.
D. vulgare var. linearis V. H. (19)
D. vulgare var. producta Grun. (5)

Diatomella balfouriana Grev. (22, 33, 36)

Diploneis elliptica (Kutz.) Cl. (18, 19, 21)

. marginestriata Hust. (18, 19, 21, 22)

. oblongella (Naeg. ex Kutz.) Ross (18, 19, 21)
. ovalis (Hilse) Cl. (21)

. pseudovalis Hust. (12)

. puella (Schum.) Cl. (18, 19)

. smithii var. dilatata (M. Perag.) Boyer (22)
. subovalis Cl. (18, 19, 21)

Entomoneis ornata (J. W. Bail.) Reim. (18, 19, 21)
E. paludosa (W. Sm.) Reim. (18, 21)

Epithemia intermedia Fricke (18)
E. turgida (Ehr.) Kutz. (18, 19)

Eunotia bigibba var. pumila Grun. (22)
E. cristagalli Cl. (22)
E. curvata (Kutz.) Lagerst. (18, 19, 21, 22)
E. curvata var. subarcuata (Naeg.) Woodhead &
Tweed (19)
E. diodon Ehr. (21)
. elegans Ostr. (22)
. exigua (Breb. ex Kutz.) Rabh. (18, 19, 21, 22)
. fallax A. Cl. (22)
. fallax var. gracillima Krasske (22)
. flexuosa Breb. ex Kutz. (18, 19)
. formica Ehr. (18, 19)
. incisa W. Sm. ex Greg. (18, 19)
. maior (W. Sm.) Rabh. (18, 19, 21, 22)
. meisteri Hust. (18, 19, 22)
. naegelii Migula (21)
. pectinalis (Kutz.) Rabh. (36)
E. pectinalis (O. F. Mull.) Rabh.
. pectinalis (O. F. Mull.) Rabh. (19)
. pectinalis var. minor (Kutz.) Rabh. (18, 19, 21,
22)
. pectinalis var. undulata (Ralfs) Rabh. (21)
. perpusilla Grun. (18, 19, 22)
. praerupta Ehr. (19)
. praerupta var. bidens (Ehr.) Grun. (21, 22)
. rhomboidea Hust. (19, 22)
. septentrionalis Ostr. (18, 19, 22)
. serra var. diadema (Ehr.) Patr. (18, 19)
. sudetica O. Mull. (19, 22)
. tenella (Grun.) Cl. (19, 21)
E. tenella (Grun.) Hust.
. tenella (Grun.) Hust. (22)
. trinacria var. undulata Hust. (22)

SS oS

SISISIS SSS)

Se Bees SS SSB eoaas

E. vanheurckii var. intermedia (Krasske ex Hust.)
Patr. (19)

Fragilaria arcus (36)
Hannaea arcus (Ehr.) Patr.
F. capucina (6)
F. capucina Desm.
F. capucina Desm. (7, 10, 29)
F. capucinna Desm. (orthographic error?) (36)
F. capucina Desm.
F. construens (Ehr.) Grun. (7, 10)
F. crotonensis (6, 17, 35)
F. crotonensis Kitton
F. crotonensis Grun. (8)
F. crotonensis Kitton
F. crotonensis Kitton (7, 10, 18, 25, 28, 32, 36)
F. inflata (36)
F. brevistriata var. inflata (Pant.) Hust.
F.. vaucheriae (Kutz.) Peters. (18, 19, 21, 22)
F. vaucheriae var. capitellata (Grun.) Patr. (18, 19)
F. virescens (Linn.) Ralfs (10)
F. virescens Ralfs
F. virescens Ralfs (19, 22)
F. virescens var. capitata Ostr. (19)

Frustulia rhomboides Ehr. (20)
F. rhomboides (Ehr.) DeT.
F. rhomboides (Ehr.) DeT. (18, 19, 22)
F. rhomboides var. amphipleuroides Grun. (5, 28,
32)
F. rhomboides var. amphipleuroides (Grun.)
Cl.
F. rhomboides var. amphipleuroides (Grun.) Cl.
(18, 19, 21)
F. rhomboides var. capitata (A. Mayer) Patr. (18,
19)
F. rhomboides var. saxonica f. capitata (A.
Mayer) Hust.
F. rhomboides var. crassinervia (Breb. ex W. Sm.)
Ross (18, 19)
F. rhomboides var. saxonica (Rabh.) DeT. (12, 18,
IS PAL 9))
F. rhomboides var. saxonica f. capitata (A. Mayer)
Hust. (21)

F. vulgaris (Thw.) DeT. (5, 18, 19, 21, 22)
F. weinholdii Hust. (18, 19, 21, 22)

Gomphoneis olivaceum (Hornemann) P. Dawson
ex Ross & Sims (21)

Gomphonema accuminatum (orthographic error?)
(6)
G. acuminatum Ehr.
G. acuminatum Ehr. (18, 19, 21, 22, 28, 32)
G. acuminatum var. clavus (Breb.) Grun. (21)
G. acuminatum var. cornata (Ehr.) Rabh. (ortho-
graphic error?) (5)
G. acuminatum Ehr.
G. acuminatum var. elongatum (W. Sm.) Carr. (18,
19)
G. acuminatum var. pusillum Grun. (19)
G. acuminatum var. turris (Ehr.) Cl. (29)
G. turris Ehr.

14 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 43(1-2)

TABLE 2.—CONTINUED

. affine Kutz. (18, 19, 21)
. affine var. insigne (Greg.) Andrews (18, 21)
. angustatum (Kutz.) Grun. (7, 10)
G. angustatum (Kutz.) Rabh.
. angustatum (Kutz.) Rabh. (18, 19, 36)
angustatum var. intermedia Grun. (18, 19)
. angustatum var. productum Grun. (18, 21)
. angustatum var. sarcophagus (Greg.) Grun. (21)
. angur Ehr. (36)
. brasiliense Grun. (18, 19, 21)
clevei Fricke (18, 19)
constrictum (6)
G. truncatum Ehr.
constrictum Ehr. (5, 36)
G. truncatum Ehr.
. dichotomum Kutz. (18,19)
. gibba Wallace (18, 19)
. gracile Ehr. emend. V. H. (18, 19, 21, 22)
. grunowii Patr. (18, 19)
. hotchkissii VanLand. (14)
G. intricatum var. pulvinatum (Braun) Grun. (18,
19, 21)
G. intricatum var. pumila Grun. (18)

ANTIea: 8 BAVeoaaa aaq

G. lanceolatum var. insignis (Greg.) Ci. (29)
G. affine var. insigne (Greg.) Andrews
G. lanceolatum (Ehr.) var. insignis (Greg.) Cl. (11)
G. affine var. insigne (Greg.) Andrews
G. longiceps Ehr. (29)
G. manubrium Fricke (18,19)
G. mehleri Camburn (18, 19, 22)
G. montanum (6)
G. montanum Schum.
G. montanum var. subclavatum Grun. (5)
G. subclavatum (Grun.) Grun.
G. olivaceoides var. hutchinsoniana Patr. (18, 19)
G. olivaceum (Lyngb.) Kutz. (7, 10, 18, 19, 36)

Gomphoneis olivaceum (Hornemann) P. Daw-
son ex Ross & Sims
G. parvulum (35)
G. parvulum (Kutz.) Kutz.
G. parvulum Kutz. (7, 18, 19, 21, 22, 25)
G. parvulum (Kutz.) Kutz.
G. parvulum var. micropus (Kutz.) Cl. (29)
G. parvulum (Kutz.) Kutz.
G. puiggarianum var. aequatorialis Cl. (18, 19, 21,
PP)
. rhombicum Fricke (18, 19)
. sparsistriatum f. maculatum Camburn (19)
. sphaerophorum Ehr. (5, 18, 19, 21)
. subclavatum (Grun.) Grun. (18, 19)
. subclavatum var. mexicanum (Grun.) Patr. (18)
. subtile var. sagitta (Schum.) Cl. (18)
. subventricosum Hust. (18, 19, 21)
. tenellum Kutz. (18, 19)
. truncatum Ehr. (18, 19, 21)
. truncatum var. capitatum (Ehr.) Patr. (18, 19)
. truncatum var. cuneatum (Fricke) Camburn (18,
19, 22)

Gyrosigma accuminatus (orthographic error?) (6)
G. acuminatum (Kutz.) Rabh.
G. acuminatum (Kutz.) Rabh. (18, 19, 21)

AANANDAAAAAAND

TABLE 2.—CONTINUED

. attenuatum (Kutz.) Cl. (7, 10)
G. attenuatum (Kutz.) Rabh.
. attenuatum (Kutz.) Rabh. (19)
. exilis (Grun.) Reim. (orthographic error?) (12)
G. exile (Grun.) Reim.
. kutzingii (35)
G. spencerii (Quek.) Griff. & Henfr.
. kutzingii (Grun.) Cl. (25)
G. spencerii (Quek.) Griff. & Henfr.
. nodiferum (Grun.) Reim. (18)
. obscurum (W. Sm.) Griff. & Henfr. (21)
. obtusatum (Sulliv. & Wormley) Boyer (12)
. scalproides (Rabh.) Cl. (5, 18, 19, 21, 28, 32)
. sciotense (Sulliv. & Wormley) Cl. (19)
. spencerii (6)
G. spencerii (Quek.) Griff. & Henfr.
. spencerii (Quek.) Griff. & Henfr. (18, 19, 21)
. spencerii var. nodifera Grun. (5)
G. nodiferum (Grun.) Reim.
Hantzschia amphioxys (Ehr.) Grun. (5, 18, 19, 21,
22)
H. amphioxys f. capitata O. Mull. (18, 21)
H. amphioxys var. vivax Grun. (18)

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Homeocladia sigmoides (Nitz.) (4)
Nitzschia sigmoidea (Nitz.) W. Sm.

Krasskella kriegerana (Krasske) Ross & Sims (22,
33)

Mastogloia smithii var. lacustris Grun. (21)

Melosira ambigua (24, 26, 35)
Aulacosira ambigua (Grun.) Simonsen
M. ambigua (Grun.) O. Mull. (7, 10, 23, 25)
A. ambigua (Grun.) Simonsen
M. distans (17)
A. distans (Ehr.) Simonsen
M. distans Ag. (36)
A. distans (Ehr.) Simonsen
M. distans (Ehr.) Kutz. (10)
A. distans (Ehr.) Simonsen
M. distans var. alpigena (35)
A. distans var. alpigena (Grun.) Simonsen
M. distans (Ehr.) Kutz. var. alpigena Grun. (25)
A. distans var. alpigena (Grun.) Simonsen
M. granulata (24, 35)
A. granulata (Ehr.) Simonsen
M. granulata (Ehr.) Ralfs (7, 10, 18, 23, 25, 28, 32,
36)
A. granulata (Ehr.) Simonsen
M. granulata var. angustissima O. Mull. (10, 29)
A. granulata var. angustissima (O. Mull.) Si-
monsen
M. granulata (Ehr.) Ralfs var. angustissima Mull.
(11)
A. granulata var. angustissima (O. Mull.) Si-
monsen
M. granulata var. procera (Ehr.) Grun. (10)
A. granulata (Ehr.) Simonsen
M. herzogii Grun. (36)
A. herzogii (Lemmerm.) Simonsen
M. italica (Ehr.) Kutz. (7, 10, 18)
A. italica (Ehr.) Simonsen

DIATOMS IN KENTUCKY—Camburn 15

TABLE 2.—CONTINUED

M. roeseana Rabh. (22)
M. varians (17, 35)
M. varians Ag.
M. varians Ag. (5, 7, 10, 11, 15, 18, 19, 21, 22, 25,
28, 29, 32, 36)

Meridion circulare (6)
M. circulare (Grev.) Ag.
M. circulare (Grev.) Ag. (5, 7, 10, 11, 18, 19, 21, 22,
28, 32, 36)
M. circulare var. constrictum (Ralfs) V. H. (18, 19,
21, 22)

Microsiphona potamos Weber (34)
Skeletonema potamos (Weber) Hasle

Navicula accomoda Hust. (18, 19)
. anglica Ralfs (29)
_ anglica var. subsalsa (17)
N. anglica var. subsalsa (Grun.) Cl.
. angusta Grun. (18, 19, 22)
_ arvensis Hust. (18, 19, 21)
. auriculata Hust. (18, 21)
. bacillum Ebr. (18, 19, 22)
bicephala Hust. (18, 19, 21)
. capitata Ehr. (18, 19, 21)
caroliniana Patr. (19)
clementis Grun. (18)
cocconeiformis Greg. ex Grev. (18, 19)
. confervacea (Kutz.) Grun. (21)
. contenta Grun. (21, 22)
contenta var. biceps (Am.) V. H. (18, 19)
N. contenta Grun.
cryptocephala Kutz. (7, 10, 18, 19, 21, 22)
. cryptocephala var. exilis (Kutz.) Grun. (12)
. cryptocephala var. veneta (Kutz.) Rabh. (18, 19)
. cuspidata (Kutz.) Kutz. (18, 19, 21)
cuspidata var. ambigus (Ehr.) Cl. (orthographic
error?) (36)
N. cuspidata (Kutz.) Kutz.
decussis Ostr. (18, 19, 21, 22)
. elginensis (Greg.) Ralfs (18, 19)
elginensis var. neglecta (Krasske) Patr. (18, 21)
exigus (Greg.) O. Mull. (orthographic error?) (36)
N. exigua Greg. ex Grun.
farta Hust. (18)
festiva Krasske (22)
. fluminitica Camburn (18, 19)
fracta Hust. (18, 19)
gottlandica Grun. (18)
. gracilis (6)
N. tripunctata (O. F. Mull.) Bory
gracilis Ehr. (5, 28, 29, 32)
N. tripunctata (O. F. Mull.) Bory
graciloides A. Mayer (19)
gregaria Donk. (18, 19, 21)
grimmei Krasske (19)
gysingensis Foged (21)
. halophila f. tenuirostris Hust. (21)
hassiaca Krasske (22)
. hasta Pant. (19)
_ heufleri var. leptocephala (Breb. ex Grun.) Patr.
(18, 19)

SA ee eb be

EBay bia bh A babe Be Bebe me

TABLE 2.—CONTINUED

N. hungarica (6, 36)

N. capitata var. hungarica (Grun.) Ross
N. hungarica var. capitata (36)
N. capitata var. hungarica (Grun.) Ross
N. hustedtii Krasske (18, 19, 21)
N. keeleyi Patr. (22)
N. krasskei Hust. (19, 22
N. lacustris Greg. (18)
N. laevissima Kutz. (18, 19, 21)
N. lanceolata (Ag.) Kutz. (18, 19, 21, 29)
N. litos Hohn & Hellerm. (18, 19, 21)
. mediocris Krasske (18)
. menisculus var. upsaliensis (Grun.) Grun. (18,
19)
N. minima Grun. (18)
N. mutica Kutz. (5, 18, 19, 21, 22)
N. mutica var. binodis Hust. (5)
N. mutica f. lanceolata (Freng.) Hust. (18, 19)
N. mutica f. lanceolata Freng.
N. mutica Kutz. var. nivalis Kutz. (9)
N. mutica var. nivalis (Ehr.) Hust.
N. notha Wallace (18, 19, 21, 22)
N. oblonga Kutz. (7, 10)
N. oblonga (Kutz.) Kutz.
N. paratunkae Peters. (18, 19, 21)
N. pelliculosa (Breb. ex Kutz.) Hilse (18)
N. placenta Ehr. (19, 22)
N. placentula (Ehr.) Kutz. (18, 19)
N. placentula f. rostrata A. Mayer (19)
N. pupula (6)
N. pupula Kutz.
N. pupula Kutz. (18, 19, 21, 22, 36)
N. pupula var. capitata Skv. & Meyer (18, 19)
. pupula var. elliptica Hust. (19)
. pupula var. rectangularis (Greg.) Grun. (18, 19)
. pupula f. rostrata Hust. (18, 19)
. pygmaea Kutz. (18, 21)
. radiosa Kutz. (5, 18, 19, 21, 28, 32)
N. radiosa var. parva Wallace (18, 19)
N. radiosa var. tenella (Breb. ex Kutz.) Grun. (18,
19, 21)
N. rhyncocephala (orthographic error?) (6)
N. rhynchocephala Kutz.
N. rhynchocephala Kutz. (18, 19, 21)
N. rhyncocephala Kutz. (orthographic error?) (5, 28,
32)
N. rhynchocephala Kutz.
N. rhynchocephala var. germainii (Wallace) Patr.
(18, 19, 21)
N. salinarium var. intermedia (orthographic error?)
(17)
N. salinarum var. intermedia (Grun.) Cl.
N. salinarum var. intermedia (Grun.) Cl. (18, 19,
21)
N. sanctaecrucis Ostr. (12)
N. savannahiana Paty. (12)
_ schroeteri var. escambia Patr. (18, 19, 21)
. secreta var. apiculata Patr. (19, 21)
. secura Patr. (19)
.seminulum Grun. (18)
~seminulum var. hustedtii Patr. (21)

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Fd Pet PA,

N
N

. simplex Krasske (21)

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TABLE 2.—CONTINUED

. splendicula VanLand. (21)
. subhamulata Grun. (18, 19)
. subtilissima Cl. (18, 19, 22)
symmetrica Patr. (18, 19, 21)
. tantula Hust. (18, 19, 21)
. tridentula Krasske (18, 19)
. tripunctata (17)
N. tripunctata (O. F. Mull.) Bory
. tripunctata (O. F. Mull.) Bory (18, 19, 21)
. tripunctata var. schizonemoides (V. H.) Patr. (18)
. tuscula Ehr. (10)
. tuscula (Ehr.) Grun. (7, 29)
N. tuscula Ehr.
. viridula (6)
N. viridula (Kutz.) Ehr.
. viridula var. avenacea (Breb. ex Grun.) V. H. (18,
)
viridula var. linearis Hust. (18, 19, 21)
viridula var. rostellata (Kutz.) Cl. (18, 19, 21, 22)
wallacei Reim. (19)
yorkensis Camburn (21)
zanoni Hust. (18, 19)

eidium affine (Ehr.) Pfitz. (18, 19, 21)

affine var. amphirhynchus (Ehr.) Cl. (18, 21)
affine var. ceylonicum (Skv.) Reim. (18)

affine var. longiceps (Greg.) Cl. (18, 19, 21)
affine var. tenuirostris A. Mayer (21)
apiculatum Reim. (18)

binode (Ehr.) Hust. (18, 21)

bisulcatum (Lagerst.) Cl. (21)

. bisulcatum var. subundulatum (Grun.) Reim.
(22)

. dubium (Ehr.) Hust. (18)

N. dubium (Ehr.) Cl.

. dubium f. constrictum Hust. (19)

. hercynicum A. Mayer (18)

. hercynicum f. subrostratum Wallace (12)

. hitchcockii (Ehr.) Cl. (18)

. iridis (Ehr.) Cl. (5)

. iridis var. ampliatum (Ehr.) Cl. (18, 19, 21)

. ladogense var. densestriatum (Ostr.) Foged (19)
. productum (W. Sm.) Cl. (19)

itzschia abridia Camburn (18, 19)
. acicularis W. Sm. (18, 19)
N. acicularis (Kutz.) W. Sm.
. acula Hantz. (18, 19, 21)
. amphibia Grun. (10, 18, 19, 21, 22, 29)
. amplectens Hust. (18, 19, 21)
angustata (W. Sm.) Grun. (18, 19)
. angustata var. acuta Grun. (19)
. apiculata (Greg.) Grun. (18)
N. constricta (Kutz.) Ralfs
apiculate (W. Sm.) Grun. (orthographic error?)
(36)
N. constricta (Kutz.) Ralfs
. biacrula Hohn & Hellerm. (18, 21)
. brevissima (Grun.) Kalinsky (19, 21)

—
Ke)

N. brevissima (Lewis) Grun. (18)

N

N. brevissima (Grun.) Kalinsky
. calida Grun. (21)

N

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TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 43(1-2)

TABLE 2.—CONTINUED

capitellata Hust. (29)
N. intermedia Hantz. ex Cl. & Grun.
clausii Hantz. (5, 18, 19, 21, 22)
coarctata Grun. (19, 21)
constricta (Kutz.) Ralfs (19, 21)
constricta var. subconstricta Grun. (18)
Specimens reinterpreted as N. coarctata Grun.
debilis (Arn.) Grun. (18, 21, 22)
N. debilis Arn. ex Grun.
denticula Grun. (18, 19, 21)
dissipata (6)
N. dissipata (Kutz.) Grun.
dissipata (Kutz.) Grun. (5, 10, 18, 19, 21, 22)
dissipata var. media (Hantz.) Grun. (18, 19)
N. dissipata (Kutz.) Grun.
dissipata f. undulata Sov. (18, 19)
dubia W. Sm. (18)
elegantula Grun. (18)

. filiformis (W. Sm.) Hust. (18, 21)

N. filiformis (W. Sm.) Schutt

. filliformis (W. Sm.) Schutt (19)
. fonticola Grun. (19)
. frustulum (Kutz.) Grun. (18, 19, 21)

gandersheimiensis Krasske (18, 19, 21)
gracilis Hantz. (18, 19, 21)
hantzschiana Rabh. (18)

heufleriana Grun. (19)

. hungarica Grun. (5, 7, 10, 21)

ignorata Krasske (18, 19, 21)
intermedia Hantz. ex Cl. & Grun. (18, 19, 21)
lacunarum Hust. (36)

. levidensis (W. Sm.) Grun. (19, 21)
. linearis Sm. (2)

N. linearis (Ag. ex W. Sm.) W. Sm.

. linearis W. Sm. (18)

N. linearis (Ag. ex W. Sm.) W. Sm.

. linearis (Ag.) W. Sm. (5, 10, 28, 32)

)
N. linearis (Ag. ex W. Sm.) W. Sm.

. linearis (Ag. ex W. Sm.) W. Sm. (19, 21)
. lorenziana var. subtilis Grun. (18, 19, 21)
. lorinziana var. subtilis Grun. (orthographic

error?) (5)
N. lorenziana var. subtilis Grun.

. minuta Bleisch (18)

montanestris Camburn (18, 19, 21)

. obtusa var. nana Grun. (18, 19, 21)
. palea (6)

N. palea (Kutz.) W. Sm.

. palea (Kutz.) W. Sm. (5, 18, 19, 21, 28, 32)
. paleacea Grun. (18, 19, 21)
. paradoxa (36)

Bacillaria paxillifer (O. F. Mull.) Hendey

. perminuta Grun. (22)

. perspicillata Cambum (21)

. pumila Hust. (18, 19)

. pusilla (Kutz.) Grun. emend. Lange-Bertalot (18,

19)

. rautenbachiae Choln. (21)
. recta Hantz. (18, 19, 29)

. reversa W. Sm. (18, 21)

. romana Grun. (18, 19)

. rostellata Hust. (18, 19, 21)

DIATOMS IN KENTUCKY—Camburn Ly

TABLE 2.—CONTINUED

TABLE 2.—CONTINUED

_ scalaris (Ehr.) W. Sm. (21)

. sigma (Kutz.) W. Sm. (18, 21, 36)
. sigmaformis Hust. (18, 21)

. sigmoidea (6, 37)

N. sigmoidea (Nitz.) W. Sm.
sigmoidea (Ehr.) W. Sm. (5, 10, 18)

N. sigmoidea (Nitz.) W. Sm.

. sigmoidea (Nitz.) W. Sm. (7, 19)
sigmoides (orthorgraphic error?) (27)

N. sigmoidea (Nitz.) W. Sm.
sinuata var. tabellaria Grun. (18, 19)

N. sinuata var. tabellaria (Grun.) Grun.
sinuata var. tabellaria (Grun.) Grun. (21)
sociabilis Hust. (18, 19, 21)
tenuis W. Sm. (18, 19, 21)
thermalis Kutz. (21)
tropica Hust. (19)

. tryblionella Hantz. (10, 19)

. tryblionella var. levidensis (W. Sm.) Grun. (18)
N. levidensis (W. Sm.) Grun.

. tryblionella var. victoriae Grun. (18, 19, 21)
valdestriata Aleem & Hust. (19)

. vermicularis (Kutz.) Grun. (18, 29)

BE eae ae ees ea re

Opephora martyi Herib. (36)

Pinnularia abaujensis var. rostrata (Patr.) Patr. (19,

21)
P. acrosphaeria W. Sm. (21)
P. acrosphaeria var. turgidula Grun. ex Cl. (21)
P. biceps Greg. (18, 19, 21, 22)
P. borealis Ehr. (18, 19, 22)
P. borealis var. reotancularis Carlson (19)
P. braunii (Grun.) Cl. (22)
P. brebissonii var. diminuta (Grun.) Cl. (21)
P. brevicostata Cl. (19)
P. burkii Patr. (18, 19)
P. caudata (Boyer) Patr. (19)
P. divergens W. Sm. (18, 19)
P. divergens var. parallela (Brun) Patr. (19)
P. formica (Ehr.) Patr. (21)
P. gibba Ehr. (36)
P. hilseana Jan. (18)
P. interrupta W. Sm. (5)
P. lata var. amplissima Mang. (22)
P. legumen (Ehr.) Ehr. (21)
P. maior (Kutz.) Rabh. (18)
P. maior var. transversa (A. S.) Cl. (18, 19)
P. mesogonglya Ehr. (18, 19, 21)
P. mesolepta (Ehr.) W. Sm. (18, 19, 21, 36)
P. microstauron (Ehr.) Cl. (21)
P. nobilis Ehr. (7, 8)
P. nobilis (Ehr.) Ehr.
P. obscura Krasske (18, 19)
P. stomatophora (Grun.) Cl. (22)
P. subcapitata Greg. (22)
P
P.

. subcapitata var. paucistriata (Grun.) Cl. (18, 19,

21)
termitina (Ehr.) Patr. (18, 19, 21, 22)
P. viridis (Nitz.) Ehr. (18, 22)
P. viridis (Nitz.) Hust. (36)
P. viridis (Nitz.) Ehr.

Plagiotropis lepidoptera var. proboscidea (Cl.)
Reim. (16, 18, 21)

Pleurosigma delicatulum W. Sm. (21)

Rhoicosphenia curvata (6)
R. curvata (Kutz.) Grun. ex Rabh.
R. curvata (Kutz.) Grun. (5, 7, 10, 29)
R. curvata (Kutz.) Grun. ex Rabh.
R. curvata (Kutz.) Grun. ex Rabh. (18, 19, 21)

Rhopalodia gibba (Ehr.) O. Mull. (18, 19, 21)

R. gibberula var. vanheurckii O. Mull. (18, 19, 21,
22)

R. musculus (Kutz.) O. Mull. (18)

Stauroneis anceps Cl. (36)
S. anceps Ehr.
. anceps Ehr. (18, 20, 21)
. anceps f. gracilis Rabh. (18, 19, 21)
. anceps var. hyalina Brun & M. Perag. (18, 19)
anceps f. linearis (Ehr.) Hust. (18, 21)
. dilatata Ehr. (19)
. kriegeri Patr. (21)
. livingstonii Reim. (18, 19)
. nobilis f£. alabamae (Heid.) Cl.-Eul. (18)
. phoenicenteron Hust. (36)
S. phoenicenteron (Nitz.) Ehr.
. phoenicenteron (Nitz.) Ehr. (21)
. phonenicenteron (Nitz.) Ehr.
error?) (8)
S. phoenicenteron (Nitz.) Ehr.
S. phoenicenteron f. gracilis (Ehr.) Hust. (18, 19,
2 22))
S. smithii Grun. (5, 18, 19, 21)
S. smithii var. incisa Pant. (18, 19, 21)

Stenopterobia intermedia Lewis (18, 19, 22)
S. intermedia f. subacuta Fricke (22)

nn

(orthographic

Stephanodiscus astrea (Ehr.) Grun. (orthographic
error?) (10)
S. rotula (Kutz.) Hendey
S. hantzschia (orthographic error?) (35)
S. hantzschii Grun.
S. hantzschii (24, 26)
S. hantzschii Grun.
S. hantzschii Grun. (7, 10, 23, 25)
S. niagarae Ehr. (7)

Surirella agmatilis Camburn (18)

S. angusta Kutz. (5, 18, 19, 21, 22)

S. biseriata Breb. (19)

S. brightwellii (36)
S. brightwellii W. Sm.

S. carolinicola Camburn (19)

S. delicatissima Lewis (18, 19, 22)

S. elegans Ehr. (7, 10, 18)

S. guatimalensis Ehr. (orthographic error?) (18, 19)
S. guatemalensis Ehr.

S. guatamalensis Ehr. (orthorgraphic error?) (21)
S. guatemalensis Ehr.

S. linearis W. Sm. (18, 19, 21)

S. linearis var. helvetica (Brun) Meist. (18, 19, 29)

S. moelleriana Grun. (18, 21)

18 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 43(1-2)

TABLE 2.—CONTINUED

TABLE 2.—CONTINUED

. ovalis Breb. (18, 21, 36)

. ovata (6, 35)
S. ovata Kutz.

. ovata Breb. (authority/orthographic error?) (29)
Possibly S. ovalis Breb. or S. ovata Kutz.

ovata Kutz. (5, 7, 18, 19; 21, 25; 28) 32, 36)

. ovata var. africana Choln. (18)

. ovata var. pinnata W. Sm. (18, 19, 21, 22)

. ovata var. salina W. Sm. (18, 19, 21)

. patella Ehr. (36)

. robusta Ehr. (4)

. robusta var. splendida (Ehr.) V. H. (18, 19)

. robusta var. splendida f. punctata Hust. (18, 19)

. stalagma Hohn & Hellerm. (18, 19, 21, 22)

. suecica Grun. (18, 19, 21)

. striatula Turp. (36)

. tenera Greg. (5, 10, 18)

. tenera var. nervosa A. S. (18, 19, 21, 22)

NN

WN

NNNNNNNHNNHANUHAUHnHN

Synedra actinastroides (36)
S. actinastroides Lemmerm.
S. acus (3, 24, 35, 36)
S. acus Kutz.
S. acus Kutz. (7, 10, 18, 19, 21, 23, 25)
S. acus var. radians Kutz. (10)
S. radians Kutz.
S. biceps (3, 37)
S. ulna var. longissima (W. Sm.) Brun
S. delicatissima (17, 37)
S. delicatissima W. Sm.
. delicatissima W. Sm. (21)
. famelica Kutz. (18, 19, 22)
. fasciculata (Ag.) Kutz. (21)
. filiformis var. exilis Cl.-Eul. (18, 19)
. goulardi Breb. (19)
. minuscula Grun. (18)
“nana (35)
S. nana Meist.
. nana Meist. (25, 36)
. parasitica (W. Sm.) Hust. (19)
. parasitica var. subconstricta (Grun.) Hust. (19,
21)
. pulchella Hust. (36)
S. pulchella Ralfs ex Kutz.
. pulchella Ralfs ex Kutz. (18, 21)
. pulchella var. lacerata Hust. (18, 19)
. radians (3)
S. radians Kutz.
. radians Kutz. (18)
. rumpens Kutz. (11)
. rumpens var. familiaris (Kutz.) Hust. (18, 19, 21,
22)
S. rumpens var. fragilarioides Grun. (12, 18, 19)
S. rumpens var. meneghiniana Grun. (18)
S
S

ANNNNAHNN

NNN WN NNN

NNN

. rumpens var. scotica Grun. (19)
. tabulata (Ag.) Kutz. (36)
S. fasciculata (Ag.) Kutz.
SHH nan (promos 20. 240 957.°35 035)
S. ulna (Nitz.) Ehr.

S. ulna (Nitz.) Ehr. (5, 7, 10, 18, 19, 21, 23, 25, 28,

32, 36)

WN

.ulna var. aequalis (Kutz.) Hust. (5)
S. ulna var. obtusa V. H.
. ulna var. amphirhynchus (Ehr.) Grun. (18)
. ulna var. contracta Ostr. (18)
ulna var. danica (Kutz.) V. H. (18, 19, 21, 22, 33)
_ ulna var. oxyrhynchus (Kutz.) V. H. (5, 18, 19)
_ ulna (Nitz.) Ehr. var. oxyrhynchus (Kutz.) V. H.
(11)
S. ulna var. oxyrhynchus (Kutz.) V. H.
S. ulna var. oxyrhynchus f. mediocontracta (Fonti)
Hust. (18)
S. ulna var. ramesi (Herib.) Hust. (18, 19)

Tabellaria fenestrata (27, 31)
T. fenestrata (Lyngb.) Kutz.
T. fenestra (Lyngb.) Kutz. (orthographic error?) (28,
32)
T. fenestrata (Lyngb.) Kutz.
T. fenestrata (Lyngb.) Kutz. (7, 10, 18, 19, 22)
T. flocculosa (Roth) Kutz. (7, 10, 18, 19, 22, 33)

Thalassiosira weissflogii (Grun.) G. Fryxell & Ha-
sle (18, 21)

NANNWNN

tucky waters have also reported taxa from
the Ohio River (ORSANCO 1962; Wil-
liams 1962, 1964, 1972; and Williams and
Scott 1962). Weber (1971), in a guide to
common diatoms at water pollution sur-
veillance system stations, listed numer-
ous taxa from Kentucky stations on the
Ohio River. As was the case with Taylor
et al. (1977), taxa are reported in this
checklist only from those rivers (i.e., Ken-
tucky, Green, Little Sandy, and Licking)
which lie entirely within the state or from
those investigations which cited specific
collection localities.

The recent work of Dillard (1974) sum-
marized the history of algal investiga-
tions in Kentucky and presented an an-
notated catalog of 948 taxa which had
been reported from the state. This catalog
included 28 genera and 97 species of dia-
toms. Aquatic surveys of the Appalachian
Province of eastern Kentucky, the upper
Cumberland River basin, and the west-
ern Kentucky coal field have contributed
significantly to the knowledge of Ken-
tucky diatoms (Harker et al. 1979, 1980a,
1980b) as has an investigation of the dia-
tom communities of 8 sandstone cliffs
in eastern Kentucky (Camburn in prep.).
Patrick and Reimer (1966, 1975), in their

DIATOMS IN KENTUCKY—Camburn 19

monograph of North American diatoms,
noted the occurrence of and illustrated
specimens collected from Kentucky. The
occurrence of two diatom genera previ-

ously unreported from Kentucky was dis-
cussed by Camburn (1982).

MATERIALS AND METHODS

An alphabetical list of the authors of
the 37 publications reviewed, a publica-
tion code, and the number of taxa report-
ed by each are presented in Table 1. The
diatom taxa as originally published are
presented in Table 2 and the code(s) list-
ed after each taxon refers to the source(s)
as listed in Table 1. Apparent orthograph-
ic errors are also indicated and currently
accepted synonyms appear indented im-
mediately below the taxon as originally
published. Numerous reported taxa did
not have authorities cited or cited them
incorrectly, and in these cases a corrected
citation has been provided. Taxa not
identified to a specific level (e.g., Cym-
bella cf. brehmii Hust. of Van Land-
ingham 1965) or identifications of ques-
tionable validity (e.g., Achnanthes
microcephala ? of Taylor et al. 1977) are
not included. As with any checklist,
errors undoubtedly exist and sources of
information on Kentucky diatoms may
have been overlooked. It is hoped that
these omissions will be brought to the
attention of the author.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

This work was made possible by the
Kentucky Nature Preserves Commission
under the direction of D. F. Harker, Jr.
Reviews of the manuscript were gra-
ciously made by M. L. Warren, Jr. and
Dr. W. C. Houtcooper of the Kentucky
Nature Preserves Commission and Dr. G.
E. Dillard of Western Kentucky Univer-
sity. Special appreciation is extended to
Dr. R. J. Stevenson of the University of
Louisville for his review of the checklist.

LITERATURE CITED

BACON, E. J., JR. 1973. Primary productivity, water
quality, and bottom fauna in Doe Valley Lake,
Meade County, Kentucky. Ph.D. Diss., Univ.
of Louisville, Louisville, Ky. 164 pp.

, AND S. E. NEFF. 1974. Seasonal changes
in water quality and primary productivity in
Doe Valley Lake. Research Report No. 72,
Univ. of Ky. Water Resour. Res. Instit., Lexing-
ton, Ky. 107 pp.

BRINLEY, F. J., AND L. J. KATZIN. 1942. Distribu-
tion of stream plankton in the Ohio River sys-
tem. Amer. Midl. Nat. 27:177-182.

BROHM, C. M. 1963. The diatoms of Doe Run,
Meade County, Kentucky. M.S. Thesis, Univ.
of Louisville, Louisville, Ky. 44 pp.

CAMBURN, K. E. 1982. The occurrence of thirteen
algal genera previously unreported from Ken-
tucky. Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci. 43:74-79.

. (in prep.). Subaerial diatom communi-
ties from eastern Kentucky.

COLE, G. A. 1957. Studies on a Kentucky Knobs
lake, III. Some qualitative aspects of the net
plankton. Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci. 18:88-101.

DILLARD, G. E. 1974. An annotated catalog of Ken-
tucky algae. Ogden College, W. Ky. Univ.,
Bowling Green, Ky. 135 pp.

EHRENBERG, C. G. 1854-1856. Zur Mikrogeologie,
das Erden und Felsen schaffende Wirken des
unsichtbar kleinen selbstandigen Lebens auf
der Erde. Leopold Voss, Leipzig, Ger. Texte,
374 pp. (1854); Atlas, 40 pls. (1854); Fortsetz.,
88 pp. (1856).

EICHELBERGER, H. H. 1963. Ecological investiga-
tion of the periphyton (Aufwuchs) community
in the Ohio River at Louisville, Kentucky. M.S.
Thesis, Univ. of Louisville, Louisville, Ky. 94

pp.

GEILING, W. T., AND L. A. KRUMHOLZ. 1963. A lim-
nological survey of sink-hole ponds in the vi-
cinity of Doe Run, Meade County, Kentucky.
Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci. 24:37-80.

GREESON, P. E. 1967. Relative roles of the two
major sources of dissolved oxygen in the Ohio
River at Louisville, Kentucky. Ph.D. Diss.,
Univ. of Louisville, Louisville, Ky. 258 pp.

HARKER, D. F., JR., S. M. CALL, M. L. WARREN,
Jr., K. E. CAMBURN, AND P. WIGLEY. 1979.
Aquatic biota and water quality survey of the
Appalachian Province, eastern Kentucky.
Technical Report, Ky. Nat. Pres. Comm.,
Frankfort, Ky. 1,152 pp.

, M. L. WARREN, JR., K. E. CAMBURN, S.
M. CALL, G. J. FALLO, AND P. WIGLEY. 1980a.
Aquatic biota and water quality survey of the
upper Cumberland River Basin. Technical Re-
port, Ky. Nat. Pres. Comm., Frankfort, Ky. 679
pp.

, R. R. HANNAN, M. L. WARREN, JR., L. R.
PHILLIPPE, K. E. CAMBURN, R. S. CALDWELL,
S. M. CALL, G. J. FALLO, AND D. VANNORMAN.
1980b. Western Kentucky Coal Field: Prelim-
inary investigations of natural features and cul-
tural resources. Vol. I, Parts I and II, Introduc-
tion and ecology and ecological features of the
western Kentucky coal field. Technical Report,
Ky. Nat. Pres. Comm., Frankfort, Ky. 584 pp.

Hitt, D. R. 1971. Phytoplankton periodicity in
Shanty Hollow Lake, Warren County, Ken-

20 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 43(1-2)

tucky. M.S. Thesis, W. Ky. Univ., Bowling
Green, Ky. 55 pp.

JOHNSON, E. L. 1978. The phytoplankton of the
Bayou du Chien stream. M.S. Thesis, Murray
State Univ., Murray, Ky. 87 pp.

KoForp, C. A. 1899. The plankton of Echo River,
Mammoth Cave, Kentucky. Trans. Am. Mi-
crose. Soc. 21:113-126.

Nacy, J. P. 1965. Preliminary report on the algae
of Crystal Cave, Kentucky. Inter. J. Speol.
1:479-490.

NALL, R. 1965. Some factors affecting phytoplank-
ton pulses in the Ohio River at Louisville, Ken-
tucky. Ph.D. Diss., Univ. of Louisville, Louis-
ville, Ky. 138 pp.

NEEL, J. K. 1968. Seasonal succession of benthic
algae and their macroinvertebrate residents in
a head-water limestone stream. J. Water Pollut.
Control Fed. 40:R10-R30.

ORSANCO. 1962. Aquatic-life resources of the
Ohio River. Ohio River Valley Water Sanitation
Commission (ORSANCO), Cincinnati, Ohio.
218 pp.

ORSER, J. A., AND G. E. DILLARD. 1980. Analysis
of the periphyton of Sloan’s Crossing Pond,
Mammoth Cave National Park, Kentucky.
Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci. 41:60-69.

PACKARD, A. S. 1889. The cave fauna of North
America with remarks on the anatomy of the
brain and origin of the blind species. Mem. Nat.
Acad. Sci. 4:1-56.

PATRICK, R., AND C. W. REIMER. 1966. The diatoms
of the United States. Vol. 1, Monogr. No. 13.
Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., Phila., Penn.

, AND . 1975. The diatoms of the
United States. Vol. 2, Part 1, Monogr. No. 13.
Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., Phila, Penn.

Purpy, W. C. 1923. A study of the pollution and
natural purification of the Ohio River, I. The
plankton and related organisms. Public Health
Service Bull. 131, U.S. Public Health Service,
Washington, D.C. 77 pp.

RiLEy, M. A. B. 1969. Some observations of the
phytoplankton of the McAlpine pool of the
Ohio River. M.S. Thesis, Univ. of Louisville,
Louisville, Ky. 125 pp.

SEILHEIMER, J. A. 1963. The dynamics of potamo-
plankton populations in the Ohio River at
Louisville, Kentucky, 1960-1962. Ph.D. Diss.,
Univ. of Louisville, Louisville, Ky. 290 pp.

TAYLOR, W. D., F. A. HIATT, S. C. HERN, J. W.
HILGERT, V. W. LAMBOU, F. A. MORRIS, R. W.
THOMAS, M. K. MORRIS, AND L. R. WILLIAMS.
1977. Distribution of phytoplankton in Ken-
tucky. Working Paper No. 683. Natl. Eutrophi-
cation Surv., U.S. EPA, Corvallis Environ. Res.
Lab., Corvallis, Ore., and the Environ. Moni-
toring and Support Lab., Las Vegas, Nev. 31
pp.

TELLKAMPF, T. A. 1845. Memoirs on the blind fish-
es and some other animals living in Mammoth
Cave in Kentucky. N.Y. J. Med. July 1845:84-93.

VAN LANDINGHAM, S. L. 1965. Diatoms from Mam-
moth Cave, Kentucky. Inter. J. Speol. 1:517-539.

. 1966. Three new species of Cymbella
from Mammoth Cave, Kentucky. Inter. J. Speol.
2:133-136.

. 1967. A new species of Gomphonema
from Mammoth Cave, Kentucky. Inter. J. Speol.
2:405-406.

WEBER, C. I. 1970. A new freshwater centric dia-
tom Microsiphona potamos gen. et sp. nov. J.
Phycol. 6:149-153.

. 1971. A guide to the common diatoms at
water pollution surveillance system stations.
Natl. Environ. Res. Center, U.S. EPA, Cincin-
nati, Ohio. 98 pp.

WILLIAMS, L. G. 1962. Plankton populations dy-
namics. Natl. Water Quality Network-Suppl. 2,
Public Health Service Publ. 663, U.S. HEW,
Washington, D.C. 90 pp.

1964. Possible relationships between
plankton-diatom species numbers and water-
quality estimates. Ecology 45:809-823.

. 1972. Plankton diatom species biomasses
and the quality of American rivers and the
Great Lakes. Ecology 53:1038-1050.

, AND C. ScoTT. 1962. Principal diatoms
of major waterways of the United States. Lim-
nol. Oceanogr. 7:365-379.

Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 43(1-2), 1982, 21-26

Rediscovery of Etheostoma histrio and Percina ouachitae
in Green River, Kentucky, with Distribution
and Habitat Notes

MELVIN L. WARREN, JR.
Kentucky Nature Preserves Commission, Frankfort, Kentucky 40601

ABSTRACT

The darters Percina ouachitae and Etheostoma histrio are extremely rare north of the Fall
Line in the Ohio River Valley, and neither has been reported from the Green River of Kentucky
in 91 years. Recent surveys within the lower Green River drainage indicate E. histrio persists
in one locality in the Rough River, and both species occur in the lower Mud River and a 32 km
segment of the Green River main channel between U.S. Lock and Dams No. 4 and 5. The darters
were obtained in greatest numbers in shallow, gravel riffles with slow to moderate current in
the Mud River. A frequent direct associate was P. phoxocephala. Populations of both P. owachitae
and E. histrio are threatened in the Green River drainage by mining pollution.

INTRODUCTION

The darters Percina ouachitae (Jordan
and Gilbert) and Etheostoma histrio Jor-
dan and Gilbert are extremely rare in the
Ohio River Valley north of the Fall Line
and are absent in the upper Mississippi
River Valley (Tsai 1968, Hocutt 1980,
Thompson and Cashner 1980). Both
species are known from the Wabash Riv-
er system of Indiana and Illinois which
represents the northernmost recorded lo-
calities (Jordan 1890, Tsai 1968, Smith
1979, R. C. Cashner, pers. comm.). Per-
cina ouachitae is reportedly extirpated
from the Wabash River (Thompson and
Cashner 1980), and E. histrio is rare or
extirpated in a 32 km stretch of the Em-
barras River, a Wabash River tributary in
Illinois (Smith 1979, B. M. Burr, pers.
comm.).

In Kentucky, P. owachitae and E. his-
trio are known from the Gulf Coastal
Plain Province (below the Fall Line),
where the former is regarded as common
and the latter as sporadic and uncommon
in several direct Mississippi River tribu-
taries (Burr 1980). The only previous rec-
ords of either species above the Fall Line
in southern tributaries to the Ohio River
were cited by Woolman (1892) who took
both species from the Rough River
(Green River drainage) at Hartford, Ohio
County, Kentucky. Woolman’s speci-
mens of P. ouachitae and E. histrio have

y)

recently been located and verified (Wil-
liams and Etnier 1977, B. M. Burr, pers.
comm.).

Since Woolman’s collection, an exten-
sive sport fishery survey of the Rough
River (Laflin 1980) and a systematic sur-
vey of the lower Green River (Retzer
1980) failed to reveal either species. The
apparent absence of these darters led
Thompson and Cashner (1980) to con-
clude that P. ouachitae was extirpated
from the Green River system and Burr
(1980) to note the former occurrence of
both species in the drainage.

In the course of a regional ichthyofaun-
al survey conducted by the Kentucky Na-
ture Preserves Commission, new popu-
lations of E. histrio and P. ouachitae
were discovered in the lower Green Riv-
er drainage. The species are treated to-
gether because of similar overall distri-
bution, frequent syntopic occurrence,
similar associates, apparent plasticity in
habitat characteristics, and the dearth of
information available on Green River
populations. The following description
and discussion of collecting stations, hab-
itat characteristics, species associates,
and distribution are presented for the
purpose of further understanding these
darters.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

This study was made possible by the

Kentucky Nature Preserves Commission

1

De, TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 43(1-2)

under the direction of Donald F. Harker,
Jr. Gratitude is expressed to the staff for
their field and office support, especially
Glen Fallo, Sam Call, and Robert Di-
Stefano. Special thanks to Brooks M.
Burr, Keith E. Camburn, and Ronald Ci-
cerello for review of the manuscript.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Collections were made between 26 Au-
gust and 2 October 1980 using ichthy-
ocides, minnow seines, and hand nets.
The study area encompassed the lower
Green River and major tributaries (Mud,
Rough, and Pond rivers) from the mouth
upstream to U.S. Lock and Dam No. 5
near Glenmore, Kentucky. Voucher spec-
imens are presently housed at the Ken-
tucky Nature Preserves Commission,
Frankfort, Kentucky. Scientific names
follow Robins et al. (1980). Standard
lengths (SL) of specimens are reported to
the nearest millimeter (mm). Dissolved
oxygen, turbidity, and temperature were
determined in the field utilizing portable
meters and a mercury field thermometer.
Currents were categorized subjectively
as slow, moderate, fast, or combinations
thereof.

RESULTS

The 6 collecting stations for E. histrio
and P. ouachitae are described below
and selected habitat characteristics and
the numbers of each species are sum-
marized in Table 1. The known Green
River distribution of both species is pre-
sented in Fig. 1. On 26 August 1980, 4
specimens of E. histrio (29-48 mm SL)
were collected from the Rough River ap-
proximately 12 km above the confluence
with the Green River at U.S. Lock and
Dam No. 1, Ohio County, Kentucky. The
south side of the dilapidated dam, adja-
cent to a concrete lock wall, is partially
washed out to form a 15 m wide, 15-45
cm deep riffle with boulders and timbers
forming the substrate. The area was re-
sampled on 29 August 1980 in an effort
to obtain additional specimens and re-
cord habitat characteristics.

Etheostoma histrio was obtained in the
riffle area in moderate to fast current. The

two samples yielded 4 other darters, in-
cluding Percina caprodes, P. maculata,
P. phoxocephala, and P. sciera; however,
E. histrio was not taken in the latter sam-
ple.

Mud River was sampled on 27 August
and 22 September 1980 at the KY 949
bridge near Gus, (Table 1, Station 1) Ken-
tucky (Butler-Muhlenberg county line).
A 7 m wide riffle approximately 15 cm
deep and underlain with coarse gravel
and sparsely scattered boulders was pres-
ent with the remaining river consisting
primarily of long pools with no percep-
tible flow. This riffle yielded a large se-
ries of E. histrio (14 specimens, 28-48
mm SL) and P. ouachitae (24 specimens,
31-53 mm SL). On the initial visit P.
phoxocephala was directly associated
with both species. Other direct percid
associates were E. asprigene and E. blen-
nioides. Repeated seining above and be-
low the riffle in areas of hard clay to fine
gravel substrates yielded P. caprodes, P.
sciera, and Etheostoma nigrum but not
E. histrio or P. ouachitae.

An additional Mud River collection
was made on 22 August 1980 approxi-
mately 9 km ENE of Dunmor, Kentucky
(Muhlenberg-Butler county line) and
12.4 km upstream of the first site (Table
1, Station 2). This site yielded 22 P.
ouachitae (43-54 mm SL) and 9 E. histrio
(36-51 mm SL). Both species were taken
from a long, 8 m wide, coarse gravel and
clay riffle of moderate current and depths
of 15-20 cm. Other percids taken in the
same area were E. asprigene, E. blen-
nioides, E. nigrum, E. squamiceps, P.
caprodes, P. maculata, and P. sciera.

Three stations on the mainstem of the
Green River were sampled between 30
September and 2 October 1980 as fol-
lows: Station A, U.S. Lock and Dam No.
4, Woodbury, Butler County, Kentucky,
0.9 km downstream of the confluence
with the Barren River; Station B, 200 m
downstream of the KY 185 crossing and
2.6 km W of Glenmore, Warren County,
Kentucky, Butler-Warren county line;
and Station C, U.S. Lock and Dam No. 5,
0.6 km W of Glenmore, Butler-Warren
county line.

YELLOW AND HARLEQUIN DARTERS IN KENTUCKY—Warren 23

The U.S. Lock and Dam No. 4, an 1839
stone-filled timber crib structure,
breached in May 1965 lowering the pool
level between it and upstream U.S. Lock
and Dam No. 5 by approximately 3 m
(United States Army Corps of Engineers
1975). The decreased water level re-
turned a 32 km segment of the Green Riv-
er to the original channel and uncovered
large shoal areas below U.S. Lock and
Dam No. 5, the KY 185 crossing, and at
the breached dam.

Collections at U.S. Lock and Dam No.
4 (Table 1, Station A) yielded 2 speci-
mens of E. histrio (40 and 47 mm SL) in
an area 15-75 cm deep with swift current
underlain with boulders. Direct associa-
tion of one species with another was dif-
ficult to ascertain in the rugged substrate
and swift current, but other percids taken
in the shoal were P. caprodes, P. cope-
landi, and P. phoxocephala.

The Green River station below the KY
185 crossing (Table 1, Station B) yielded
1 adult specimen of P. ouachitae (49 mm
SL) over loose gravel in fast current at a
depth of approximately 60 cm. Direct as-
sociates included P. copelandi, P. evides,
P. phoxocephala, and Noturus eleuther-
us. Repeated efforts failed to produce ad-
ditional P. ouachitae, but other darters
taken were Etheostoma bellum, E. blen-
nioides, E. nigrum, E. zonale, and P.
sciera. This latter group of darters was
not generally taken in the same micro-
habitat as P. ouachitae.

The area below U.S. Lock and Dam
No. 5 (Table 1, Station C) yielded 2 spec-
imens of P. ouachitae (53 and 54 mm SL)
which were obtained from moderate to
fast current over coarse gravel in depths
of 60-100 cm. Percina evides was taken
with P. owachitae; other darters from the
area included E. blennioides, P. cap-
rodes, and P. copelandi.

DISCUSSION

The discovery of new populations of P.
ouachitae and E. histrio in the Green
River drainage of Kentucky represents
the first collection of either species from
the drainage in 91 years and extends their
range upstream approximately 42 km

Fig. 1. Collection localities of Etheostoma histrio

and Percina ouachitae in the lower Green River,

Kentucky. (squares = P. ouachitae, solid circles =

E. histrio, starred circles = both species, open cir-
cle = Woolman’s 1892 collection site.)

from the Rough River site of Woolman
(1892). In the Ohio River Valley above
the Fall Line, the Green River drainage
apparently harbors the only extant pop-
ulation of P. ouachitae and one of two
extant populations of E. histrio. Within
the Green River drainage, E. histrio per-
sists in 1 locality in the Rough River, and
both species occur in the lower Mud Riv-
er and a 32 km segment of the Green Riv-
er main channel between U.S. Lock and
Dams No. 4 and 5. (Fig. 1).

The apparent absence of P. ouachitae
and E. histrio in more upstream reaches
of the Green River and several major trib-
utaries is puzzling. The Pond River is se-
verely polluted by mining operations
and, in some areas, is devoid of fishes
(pers. obs., Retzer 1980). The absence of
these darters in the upper reaches of the
Mud and Rough rivers may reflect inad-
equate habitat or sampling; however, the
fauna of the upper Green River (includ-
ing the Barren River) is well-known (Burr
1980).

An examination of United States Geo-
logical Survey Geologic Quandrangle
Maps for the Pond, Mud, Rough, and

24 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 43(1-2)

Green rivers reveals a dramatic constric-
tion of the floodplain and general de-
crease in alluvial deposits near or up-
stream of the known collection localities
of E. histrio and P. ouachitae. The
change in floodplain morphology coin-
cides closely with the contact zone of up-
stream Mississippian age strata and
downstream Pennsylvanian age strata.
Results of personal and other fish collec-
tions (Burr 1980, Lee et al. 1980) in the
Green river drainage indicate the most
downstream occurrence of P. copelandi,
P. evides, E. bellum, and E. maculatum
also coincides closely with the change in
Sj floodplain morphology. The success of
these upland darter species upstream of
the change in floodplain morphology and
the apparent restriction of P. ouachitae
and E. histrio to areas downstream of this
same feature suggests that gradient and/
or lack of essential lowland habitat con-
ditions has prevented further upstream
dispersal of the two darters in the Green
River and its tributaries.

As noted by others (Hocutt 1980, Sisk
and Webb 1976, Hubbs and Pigg 1972,
Tsai 1968), E. histrio has been collected
from a variety of substrate types and cur-
rent regimes ranging from sluggish
streams with soft mud bottoms and ac-
cumulation of detritus to swift riffles with
shaly rocks. Data presented here indi-
cates E. histrio also occupies boulder
areas in fast currents (Table 1). This may
© || not reflect the preferred habitat, how-
ever, for in both instances the only avail-
able flowing water was over boulders. At
other localities the species was taken in
gravel riffles with slow to moderate cur-
rent and no noticeable accumulations of
detritus. Specimens were not taken in
pools or areas without discernible flow.
Etheostoma histrio is apparently adapt-
able to a variety of stream conditions as
evidenced by previous reports and data
presented in Table 1.

In more southerly portions of its range,
P. ouachitae is reportedly abundant to
common in sand and gravel riffles and
runs of larger streams (Thompson and 4
Cashner 1980). In the Green River drain-
age, the species preferred gravel sub- |

30
0.60-1.0

91
Moderate-fast

53-54

Green R. Sta. C
Coarse gravel

75

75
0.45-0.75
Fast
Gravel
10.1
10

19

0

1

49

Green R. Sta. B

Green R. Sta. A
Fast
Boulder
40-47

0.15-0.75

0.15-0.20
Moderate
36-51
43-54

Mud R. Sta. 2
Coarse gravel

2
0.15
3.9
18
24
14

Slow
Coarse gravel

2848
2
31-53

Mud R. Sta. 1

THE GREEN RIVER DRAINAGE, KENTUCKY

50
1
5
6
2,
29-48

Boulder

0.15-0.45

Rough R.
Moderate-—fast

Stations
depth (range/m)

Etheostoma histrio

Range SL (mm)

Percina ouachitae

TABLE |.—HABITAT CHARACTERISTICS, NUMBERS, AND RANGE OF STANDARD LENGTHS OF Etheostoma histrio AND Percina ouachitae FROM
Range SL (mm)

Stream width (m)

Riffle width (m)
Dissolved oxygen (mg/l)
Turbidity (NTU)

Water temperature (°C)
Numbers of:

Current
Substrate

YELLOW AND HARLEQUIN DARTERS IN KENTUCKY—Warren

strates and flowing waters and was more
abundant in the smaller Mud River rather
than the main channel of the Green Riv-
er. Other than the preference for gravel
and current, P. ouachitae, like E. histrio,
was taken from a relatively wide range of
conditions (Table 1). Within the darter
subgenus Imostoma, Williams and Et-
nier (1977) interpreted P. ouachitae as a
generalized species capable of adapta-
tion to a variety of stream conditions. Ob-
servations of the Green River popula-
tions presented here support their
interpretation.

A high degree of association was ob-
served for E. histrio, P. ouachitae, and/or
P. phoxocephala in the Green River col-
lections. Woolman (1892) reported all
three species from his Rough River sta-
tion, and Hubbs and Pigg (1972) noted P.
phoxocephala in the same microhabitat
as E. histrio in Texas. In western Ken-
tucky, E. histrio and P. ouachitae have
been observed in the same collections by
several workers (Clay 1975, Webb and
Sisk 1975, B. M. Burr, pers. comm.), an
association also noted in the Mud River
of this study. The association of these
three darters in the Green River drainage
reflects similarity in habitat preferences
and also indicates the plasticity of each
species in adapting to stream conditions.

Percina ouachitae and E. histrio have
the major portions of their ranges within
the Gulf Coastal Plain (Thompson and
Cashner 1980). In the Green River sys-
tem each species was taken in the great-
est numbers in the lower Mud River
(Table 1) suggesting this area closely
approximates the Gulf Coastal Plain hab-
itat. The historical extent of these species
in the lower Green River drainage is dif-
ficult to surmise; however, it seems prob-
able that both species occupied flowing
waters of the lower Green River and its
tributaries upstream to the previously
discussed change in floodplain morphol-
ogy.

Presently, P. ouachitae is of undeter-
mined status in Kentucky and E. histrio
is considered threatened in the state
(Branson et al. 1981). The discovery of
new populations of these darters in the

25

Green River system does not warrant a
change in status in light of the historical
and present mining pollution in the low-
er Green River and tributaries. Few if
any additional populations are likely to
persist within the drainage.

LITERATURE CITED

BRANSON, B. A., D. F. HARKER, JR., J. M. BASKIN,
M. E. MEDLEY, D. L. BATCH, M. L. WARREN,
Jr., W. H. Davis, W. C. HOouTcoopPErR, B.
MONROE, JR., L. R. PHILLIPPE, AND P. CUPP.
1981. Endangered, threatened, and rare ani-
mals and plants of Kentucky. Trans. Ky. Acad.
Sci. 42:77-89.

Burr, B. M. 1980. A distributional checklist of the
fishes of Kentucky. Brimleyana No. 3:53-84.

Ciay, W. M. 1975. The fishes of Kentucky. Ky.
Dep. Fish Wildl. Resour., Frankfort.

Hocutt, C. H. 1980. Etheostoma histrio Jordan
and Gilbert, Harlequin darter. Pp. 653. In D.
S. Lee etal. Atlas of North American freshwater
fishes. N.C. State Mus. Nat. Hist. Raleigh.

HuBBS, C., AND J. PicG. 1972. Habitat preferences
of the harlequin darter Etheostoma histrio, in
Texas and Oklahoma. Copeia 1972:193-194.

JORDAN, D. S. 1890. Report of explorations made
during the summer and autumn of 1888, in the
Allegheny region of Virginia, North Carolina,
and Tennessee, and in western Indiana, with
an account of the fishes found in each of the
river basins of those regions. Bull. U.S. Fish
Comm. 8:97-173.

LAFLIN, B. D. 1980. Inventory and classification of
streams in the Rough and Nolin River drain-
ages. Ky. Dep. Fish Wildl. Resour. Fish. Bull.
No. 65. 90 pp.

LEEDS. 1@y RY CreBERIEs © Eh O CUla Geer:
JENKINS, D. E. MCALLISTER, AND J. R. STAUF-
FER, JR. 1980 et seq. Atlas of North American
freshwater fishes. N.C. State Mus. Nat. Hist.
Raleigh.

RETZER, M. E. 1980. Fishes of the lower Green
River drainage, Kentucky. M.S. Thesis, South-
ern Illinois Univ., Carbondale. 73 pp.

ROBINS, C. R., R. M. BAILEY, C. E. BOND, J. R.
BROOKER, E. A. LACHNER, R. N. LEA, AND W.
B. ScotT. 1980. A list of common and scientific
names of fishes from the United States and
Canada. 4th ed. Am. Fish. Soc. Spec. Publ. No.
12. 174 pp.

Sisk, M. E., AND D. H. WEBB. 1976. Distribution
and habitat preference of Etheostoma histrio
in Kentucky. Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci. 37:33-34.

SMITH, P. W. 1979. The fishes of Illinois. Univer-
sity of Illinois Press, Urbana.

THOMPSON, B. A., AND R. C. CASHNER. 1980. Per-
cina ouachitae (Jordan and Gilbert), Yellow
darter. Pp. 732. In D.S. Lee etal. Atlas of North
American freshwater fishes. N.C. State Mus.
Nat. Hist. Raleigh.

Tsal, CHu-FA. 1968. Distribution of the harlequin

26 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 43(1-2)

darter, Etheostoma histrio. Copeia 1968:
178-180.

UNITED STATES ARMY CORPS OF ENGINEERS.
1975. Draft environmental impact statement for
continued operation and maintenance of a nav-
igation project-Green and Barren Rivers, Ken-
tucky. U.S. Army Eng. District, Louisville,
Kentucky. 257 pp.

Wess, D. H., AND M. E. Sisk. 1975. The fishes of

west Kentucky. III. The fishes of Bayou de
Chien. Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci. 36:63-70.
WILLIAMS, J. D., AND D. A. ETNIER. 1977. Percina
(Imostoma) antesella, a new percid fish from
the Coosa River system in Tennessee and
Georgia. Proc. Biol. Soc. Wash. 90:6-18.
WooLMAN, A. J. 1892. Report of an examination of
the rivers of Kentucky, with lists of the fishes
obtained. Bull. U.S. Fish Comm. 10:249-288.

Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 43(1-2), 1982, 27-42

Biological and Chemical Evaluation of Aquatic
Environments II. Vickers Creek
Embayment, Kentucky Lake

KERRY PRATHER, BENJAMIN KINMAN, MORGAN E. SISK,
DALE DOBROTH AND MARSHALL GORDON

Departments of Chemistry and Biological Sciences, Murray State University,
Murray, Kentucky 42071

ABSTRACT

No major pollution problem was present in the embayment. Levels of phosphates, nitrates,
and organics were in low to moderate concentrations. The concentrations of dissolved oxygen
are adequate to support aquatic life. The hydrogen ion concentration was between 5.0 and 9.0,
and alkalinity was within the normal range for surface waters. Specific conductance was less
than 100 micromhos. The total dissolved solid concentration derived from specific conductance
(100 to 200 ppm) was within the range for most open-basin lakes. Average monthly total phy-
toplankton counts indicated low to moderate levels of enrichment. The presence of clean-water
phytoplankton genera indicated no gross pollution, since those genera have narrow ranges of
tolerance. The composition and distribution of macroinvertebrates provides an adequate food
supply for higher organisms. The benthic fauna was characterized by pollution-tolerate, facul-
tative, and intolerant organisms, again indicating the lack of major pollution problems in the
embayment. Infrequent sampling prevented demonstration of complex interrelationships be-
tween limnological conditions and planktonic species. This survey provides established physical,
chemical, and biological data which may be useful in detecting future changes in the environ-

ment before deleterious effects are produced.

INTRODUCTION

The Vickers Creek embayment was se-
lected for study because it lies on the op-
posite side of the lake from Anderson
Creek and because its drainage basin
provides a different environment, i.e.,
Land Between the Lakes (little or no de-
velopments, industrialization, or farm-
ing), allowing the embayment to serve as
a point of reference for an earlier study
(Kinman et al. 1981).

Vickers Creek (Fig. 1) is at Tennessee
River Mile 40 in Trigg County, Kentucky.
The creek is oriented almost east to west,
the mouth of the embayment opening al-
most directly toward the west. Prevailing
winds, plus an inswing of the main lake
channel toward the mouth of the cove,
affect the embayment by wave actions
and currents that disturb the strata and
bottom sediments, causing a constant
mixing of the existing biota and chemical
constituents. The embayment is approx-
imately 2.01 km long and 0.40 km wide,
with an area of about 64.75 hectares.

9)

a

G

Maximum depths range from 7.01 to 8.53
m with a mean depth of 4.14 m and a
volume of about 3.5 m® at summer pool.
The shoreline of the embayment is char-
acteristic of the area and is composed of
chert gravel. The bottom type varies with
depth, with the creek channel having
thick clay mud and the shallow areas hav-
ing sand, fine gravel, or, as in the extreme
upper, shallow section, large coarse al-
lochthonous materials such as leaves,
twigs, and bark. On the whole, total al-
lochthonous material in the embayment
is minimal in that the short inflowing
creeks have insignificant flow. It is unlike
Anderson Creek embayment (Kinman et
al. 1981) which has a significant feeder
stream and rich bottom sediments.

RESEARCH PROCEDURES
Twelve study stations with varying
depths were established on Vickers
Creek embayment (Fig. 1), in which
there were 22 sampling sites during sum-
mer pool, and 21 at winter pool. At each

28 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 43(1—2)

AWOnNnILNAY

J3yNV1

VICKERS
Fic. 1.

rR
>
Zz
10)
4
yD oO
= m
a 4H
9) =
m
m
(@) Zz
©)
a4
x a
< m
r
>
x
m
no

BAY

Contour map of Vickers Bay and sampling station locations. 1-12 sampling sites; A. surface

sample; B. mid-column sample; C. sample 1 m from bottom.

station, a benthic sample was taken, with
plankton and water chemistry samples
taken at surface, midcolumn, and 1 m
from the bottom, depending upon the
depth of the station.

Research procedures used for plank-
ton, benthos, water quality, and organic
compound determinations were de-
scribed by Kinman et al. (1981).

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Phytoplankton

Phytoplankton collected from Vickers
Bay are shown in Table 1. Increases in
phytoplankton numbers were noticed in
April due to initial warm temperatures
and an influx of nutrients due to rains.
The largest increase in the population
was noticed in June, probably due to con-
stant warm temperatures and a prolonged
influx of nutrients. After June, the num-
bers dropped drastically, with a slight in-
crease in August. Months of considerably
lower populations were December
through March, then May and July, and
September to December. The organisms
of most abundance in April were the

Chrysophyta (diatoms). In June, the
Chlorophyta were most abundant, with
the Cyanophyta having their highest
numbers that month. In August, the
Chlorophyta reached a peak in abun-
dance.

The Chlorophyta usually were the
most abundant throughout the study, and
are not representative of poor-water con-
ditions. The Chrysophyta were most
abundant during the cooler months with
a peak in April and a minimum in August.
The Cyanophyta, indicative of undesir-
able water conditions, were never domi-
nant or present in great numbers. Char-
acteristic genera of the phytoplankton
were Melosira, Pediastrum, Cyclotella,
Cymbella, Synedra, Gyrosigma, Navicu-
la, Diatoma, Surirella, Trachelomonas,
and Glenodinium. Seasonal fluctuations
in the total phytoplankton standing crop
are shown in Figure 2. Monthly varia-
tions of Cyanophyta, Chlorophyta, and
Chrysophyta are shown in Figure 3.

Zooplankton

Monthly frequency of occurrence and
relative abundance of zooplankton are

EVALUATION OF AQUATIC ENVIRONMENTS IN KENTUCKY—Prather et al.

29

TABLE 1.—PERCENTAGE FREQUENCY OF OCCURRENCE BY COLLECTING STATIONS OF ALL PHYTOPLANK-

TONS COLLECTED FROM VICKERS BAY

CHLOROPHYTA
Chlorophyceae
Volvocales

Chlamydomonas
Carteria

Volvox
Pleodorina
Eudorina
Pandorina
Gonium
Platydorina
Pteromonas

Tetrasporales

Gloeocystis
Sphaerocystis
Tetraspora

Ulotrichales
Ulothrix

Microsporales
Microspora
Chaetophorales

Stigeoclonium
Chaetophora
Chaetosphaeridium

Oedogonales
Oedogonium

Chlorococcales

Golenkinia
Characium
Pediastrum
Coelastrum
Botryococcus
Tetraedron
Treubaria
Chlorella
Eremosphaera
Trochiscia
Echinosphaerella
Franceia
Lagerheimia
Kirchneriella
Ankistrodesmus
Cerasterias
Chodatella
Shroederia
Closteriopsis
Dictyosphaerium
Dimorphococcus
Selenastrum
Polyedriopsis
Scenedesmus
Tetradesmus
Micractinium

1974
D J F M A M
62 50 100 32
5 30 14
10
96
10 «82
5 35 43 100
5 fe)
14
IIL 91
LO 5
10
5
5
10 +14 5
9
38 43 14 60 14 100
5 5
18
Do, Lo
32
5
9
5
14 33 33
5
5
19 )
5
5
19 33 14 100

1975
J J A S
48 100 96 68
10 55 91 9
33 9 14
24 86 91
100 100 100 68
i) 5 614
86 86 100 23
32 eS) ad
9
14
27
tp) 5
10 59 41 £46
One Oil i 9
100 100 100 100
Ol 96m olan
5 5
29) S07 1182) 30
QO OO OS a
5
5
5
33 Oi ls 5
982
96 S82 aeh
100 64
33), 264) 3
10 91 68
5
SS
100 100 100 100
5 5
IAT 235 e232

O

9
100

96

10

67

D

95

29
14

10

76

10
52

14

10

Total

6

30
TABLE 1.—CONTINUED
1974 1975
D J F M A M J J
Tetrastrum By 1 JO) 14
Crucigenia 5 5 614
Actinastrum 48 43 19 71 100 100 100
Tetrallantos 5 14
Siphonales
Vaucheria 5
Zygnematales
Spirogyra 19 48 5 24 23
Mougeotia 5 14 10 41
Cylindrocystis 19 73
Closterium 10 +14 is) 14 18
Staurastrum 23) 8a 628
Euastrum > b9 159
Cosmarium 5 On Ase 27,
Xanthidium 5
Desmidium
EUGLENOPHYTA
Euglenophyceae
Euglenales
Trachelomonas 91 81 65 91 100 67 + 96
Phacus 14 19
Euglena 5 388 10 20 14 Oi oo
Lepocinclis 48 14 14
CHLOROMONADOPHYTA
Chloromonadineae
Gonyostomum
PYRRHOPHYTA
Dinophyceae
Peridiniales
Glenodinium 100 65 62 86 100 100
Peridinium 5
Ceratium 5 36.71 64
CYANOPHYTA
Myxophyceae
Chroococcales
Chroococcus 10 19 +86
Marsoniella SoU8 Aho
Dactylococcopsis 14
Gloeocapsa
Merismopedia 62 73
Coelosphaerium 5 5
Aphanocapsa 10
Microcystis 5) 14 36
Aphanothece 23 poo) ) lA
Chamaesiphonales
Chamaesiphon 5 5
Hormogonales
Phormidium 5
Lyngbya BO 5 tye) lis}
Spirulina
Arthrospira 5 18
Oscillatoria 5 By Jus) Duels

86

23

100

14

27

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 43(1-2)

50

96

77

14

50

18

96

100

32

32

4]

24

43

95

19

10
10

14

48

10

86

71

24

14

Total

12
9
69

EVALUATION OF AQUATIC ENVIRONMENTS IN KENTUCKY—Prather et al. 31

TABLE 1.—CONTINUED

1974 1975
D J F M A M ] J A S fe) N D Total
Anabaena 5 5 9 32) 1O0lmESG 19 100 28
Nostoc 5 AeA
Stigonema 5 —]
Calothrix 5 —]
Gloeotrichia 9 aT
CHRYSOPHYTA
Xanthophyceae
Heterococcales
Ophiocytium 5 5 =i]
Chrysophyceae
Chrysomonadales
Mallomonas 9 ae
Synura 19 1
Dinobryon 5 14 Be AL) 5 4
Uroglenopsis Sy AD) 1
Chrysococcus 81 95 15 68 38 96 100 Be Sh)
Bacillariophyceae
Centrales
Melosira 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100° 100
Cyclotella OS SO! 62's og Go. 2 COM LOOR OOF OO ue Olihe Oils tan lero
Stephanodiscus 71 40 (14 9 10
Rhizosolenia 18 1
Pennales
Tabellaria 58 5 5 4
Meridion 10 10 19 14 5 610 5
Diatoma 19.100) > 95) =80' 100) 64 95) 100) 9.96) “SI F967 s31) 100 86
Asterionella 5 62 100 95 100 82 5 19 100 43
Fragilaria 5 608 167 7 4b 4 LORS
Synedra AQ, A8 Olu 75 95: * 100). 100) 100) 100 296455 86; Oa St
Cocconeis 19 5 5 9
Gyrosigma G62) 86 43° S07 489 46.0 24 A 4a 2 322) rl Oe
Pinnularia 10 5 5 1
Navicula S695. 865 60m 16. 3) 962). 9Oen D9 2, OSes Olly S48 aerial
Gomphoneis 5 —]
Gomphonema Sa OO 5 9 9 oe: Ss Oe C0) U
Cymbella 93 a Ol e383) gn 4 wAGe Fol ea ORS S82 Ele 4S ens)
Rhopalodia 5 —]
Nitzschia BS N95 124240) 2229 ts) 5 5e 186296) 495 5 §640
Cymatopleura 10 5 5 10 2
Surirella 10 24 Ae TOM 38h wien ale) OL mmoTe 46min Ale 2336 Or mos
Centronella 5 =I
Hydrosera 5 100 8
RHODOPHYTA
Rhodophyceae
Bangiales
Porphyridium 5 rl

shown in Table 2 and Figure 4, respec- amounts of nutrients were the stimulants
tively. Highest numbers were recorded for the spring and summer abundance.
in April and August, with lower numbers Characteristic organisms were Difflugia,
in early fall throughout the winter and Codonella, Keratella, Brachionus, and
early spring. Warm water and greater Polyarthra.

32

= 10,000 cells/liter

sciailie:, —

D J F M A M J J A Ss oO N D

Fic. 2. Monthly variation in total phytoplankton

cell per liter in Vickers Bay.

Benthos

Seasonal variation in total numbers of
all benthic organisms is shown in Figure
5. Benthic numbers fluctuated consider-

100 -

of Genera
on =
= on

Percent

Feb

HiGa3.

Mar

Jan

Apr.

May

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 43(1—2)

ably, mainly due to recruitment of young
and cyclic emergences of the dipterans
and ephemeropterans. Peaks in numbers
were observed in January, May, August,
and December. The Diptera, mainly con-
sisting of 3 families, were codominant
with the Ephemeroptera. The oligo-
chaetes and mollusks were of lesser im-
portance. However, the percentage of
oligochaetes did increase considerably in
August due to poor water conditions.
Characteristic organisms were Hexage-
nia, chironomids, and the pelecypod
Sphaerium.

Water Quality

Water-level fluctuations and turbidity
values for the study period are shown in
Figure 6. High readings in spring and fall
were attributed to rainfall and wind agi-
tation, whereas high readings in June
were attributed to the plankton bloom.
Temperatures of the water ranged from
lows in December and January to a high
in August (Fig. 7). Dissolved oxygen con-

le cial Cyanophyta

Chlorophyta

oH

ae

Chrysophyta

Jun. Jul. Aug. Sep. Oct.

Major phytoplankton taxa in Vickers Bay, 1974-75.

EVALUATION OF AQUATIC ENVIRONMENTS IN KENTUCKY—Prather et al.

33

TABLE 2.—PERCENTAGE FREQUENCY OF OCCURRENCE BY COLLECTING STATIONS OF ALL ZOOPLANKTONS
COLLECTED FROM VICKERS BAY

1974

M

O

D

PROTOZOA
Sarcodina
Difflugia
Actinospaerium
Amoeba
Ciliata
Codonella
Vorticella
Podophrya
Staurophrya
Sphaerophrya
GASTROTRICHA
Chaetonotus
DIPTERA
Chaoborus
Unidentifiable
larva
ANNELIDA
Oligochaeta

COPEPODA
Nauplius larva
Cyclopoida
Calanoida

HYDRACARINA
NEMATODA
TARDIGRADA

CLADOCERA
Daphnia
Bosmina
Leptodora
Diaphanosoma

RORATORIA

Keratella
Brachionus
Synchaete
Polyarthra
Trichocera
Colurella
Kellicotia
Epiphanes
Philodina
Tetramastix
Enteroplea
Asplanchna

Rotaria neptunia

Ploesoma
Chromogaster
Asplanchnopus
Filinia
Notommata
Platyias
Euchlanis
Cephalodella
Lecane

24

10

10

71

48
95

40

15

10

76
86

100
100

91

96

91

95
62

100

81

14

100
82
5

96

100

96

86
5
100

91

36

100

100

100

bo
ee)

14

4]

68

64

Ot Ul

81

38

ol

Ol Ol

52
10

Total

x OL

Dp -. w/w Ue

34 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 43(1-2)

= 100 cells/liter

scale:

Fic. 4. Monthly variation in total zooplankton cell
per liter in Vickers Bay, 1974-75.

centrations were acceptable at all depths
throughout the sampling period, having
a low of 6 ppm at deep stations in June
and August, and a high of 15 ppm at a
surface station (1A) in December (Fig. 8).
Free carbon dioxide levels fluctuated
with highs of 12 ppm in October, Feb-
ruary and August, and lows in June
through August. pH values varied little,
usually remaining near 8. A low of 6.9
was recorded in December 1975 and a
high of 8.8 was recorded in June (Fig. 9).
Total alkalinity was at a satisfactory level
throughout the sampling period with
highs in the warmer months of 70 ppm
and a low in April of 10 ppm (Fig. 10).
Total dissolved solids (Fig. 11) fluc-
tuated greatly with highs in January and
July, plus a tremendous increase in April.
The highs were attributed to increased
amounts of materials washed in by rains
and a large plankton population. Nitrate
concentrations expressed as monthly
ranges and mean variations are plotted in
Figure 12. Nitrates were highest in
March (1.02 ppm) and virtually undetect-
able in June and July. Phosphate concen-
trations, expressed as monthly ranges and
mean variations are plotted in Figure 13.
Phosphates were highest in May (0.35
ppm) and lowest in March (0 ppm). Read-
ings were higher in the warmer months,
probably due to wastes from increased

800

Numbers /M

200

Fic. 5.

Monthly mean variation in total macroin-
vertebrates collected in Vickers Bay, 1974-75.

human activity both on the lake itself and
throughout the watershed.

ORGANIC RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

Organic analyses were performed on
each sample using procedures described
earlier (Kinman et al. 1981). Monthly
fluctuations in the level of organics in the
embayment (Table 3) were similar to
those observed in the Anderson Creek
embayment, i.e., the greatest concentra-
tion of organics was present during the
summer months when levels of biotic
components were low and when boating
activities were highest. The organic
levels were lower each month in Vickers
embayment when compared with Ander-
son Creek, apparently due to a watershed
effect. The Vickers watershed lies in the
more pristine Land Between the Lakes
environment.

CONCLUSIONS

Only small differences in measured bi-
ological and chemical parameters were
recorded between surface and subsurface
waters. The small differences in temper-
ature between surface and subsurface
waters prevented thermal or chemical
stratification. Continuous mixing of the
waters by wind and current produced a
rather constant environment throughout
the water column. Without stratification
there was no unusual horizontal or ver-
tical distribution of the flora and fauna of
the embayment. For that reason, all data
were combined rather than treating each

EVALUATION OF AQUATIC ENVIRONMENTS IN KENTUCKY—Prather et al. 35

:
v
5 ae
5 361 -
r) ( \

3604 / \
i) | |
Q 359 ai etd uous eae z| aie i: Le -summer pool —
(] | \ | s
: 358 | \
) NS
fe rok | xX
a | aN
2 356 oe B
3 \,

a IN \ \ | ve x
0 Ren No te
& 354 winter pool sAihy pe AN
5
W 353

|

100 BD

a | 45

N | / 40

\ /

P / | fi 35
eee / 30,
be 4 -
eB 90 ‘ ‘Secchi Disc ON ce

\
\

\ 7 20

: 15

20 Turbidity 10

10 5

O N D J F M A M J J A S O N D

Fic. 6. Monthly mean variation of turbidity and secchi-disc transparency in Vickers Bay and surface
elevation fluctuation of Kentucky Lake during the study period, 1974-75.

station separately. Several of the param- of phytoplankton could change the phys-
eters measured relate to quantitative and ical and chemical characteristics of the
qualitative changes in the phytoplankton. embayment.

Also changes in the quality and quantity Inorganic phosphate concentrations re-

36 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 43(1-2)

Fic. 7. Monthly range and mean variation of water
temperature in Vickers Bay, 1974-75.

mained relatively stable throughout the
collecting periods. The average monthly
concentrations never exceeded 0.13 ppm
(yearly range 0.04—-0.13 ppm). Nitrate ni-
trogen values increased in the winter
months, possibly because of a buildup
during the period of low standing crops
of phytoplankton. A decrease in nitrate
could have been the result of utilization
of that nutrient with increased phyto-
productivity. However, values increased
in June and July when there was a defi-
nite bloom. With infrequent sampling
there is no way to determine whether in-
creased runoff due to spring rains in-
creased nitrate concentrations or whether
more nitrate was utilized. The Tennessee
Valley Authority Water Quality Branch
(1974) sampled 4.83 kilometers down riv-
er from Anderson Creek in the main
channel and obtained phosphate values
in the 0.11 and 0.39 ppm range. Taylor
(1971) reported that Kentucky Lake
yielded a mean nitrate value of 0.30 mg/l
and a mean phosphate value of 0.27 mg/1.

IGS:

Monthly range and mean variation of dis-
solved oxygen in Vickers Bay, 1974-75.

o N Oo J

-F mM A MM J J A s o N i=}

Fic. 9. Monthly range and mean variation of pH
and free carbon dioxide in Vickers Bay, 1974-75.

In his study, Kentucky Lake had a higher
concentration of total phosphates than
any other reservoir sampled. Phosphate
concentrations decreased steadily from
the Duck River embayment downstream
and then levels stabilized. The higher
phosphate values apparently resulted
from waste discharges into Duck River
from the second largest phosphate min-
ing complex in the United States. Appar-
ently, Anderson Creek embayment is not
affected by waste discharges that far from
the point source. Nitrate concentrations
in the embayment (0.014-0.31 ppm) are
comparable to concentrations obtained in
the main channel.

There was no correlation between vari-
ations of phytoplankton numbers and
changes in chemical factors (nitrates,
phosphates, and organics) as derived
from the formula for correlation for raw
data
Sr

N>XY — SXZY
[N>X? — (>X)2][NZY? — (NY)? — (LY)?]

(Ferguson 1971). Tucker (1957) reported
that Prescott found a positive correlation
between phosphorus content and pro-
ductivity of plankton in Iowa lakes.
Hutchinson (1944) and Prescott (1939)
found that nitrates have a controlling in-
fluence on phytoplankton productivity.
Patrick (1948) believed that the nitrogen-
phosphorus ratio was the significant fac-
tor in the growth of freshwater diatoms.

oe cae

ahem

EVALUATION OF AQUATIC ENVIRONMENTS IN KENTUCKY—Prather et al.

Oo N i=} J -F M a uM J J A Ss Oo N D

Fic. 10. Monthly range and mean variation of total
alkalinity in Vickers Bay, 1974-75.

Prescott (1962) stated there was a neg-
ative correlation of relatively high con-
centrations of nitrogen and phosphorus
with periods of phytoplankton minima.
When nitrates and phosphorus are low,
the phytoplankton population is high,
those nutrients being consumed and
stored in the organisms. When phyto-
plankton decreased through an acceler-
ated death rate and disintegration oc-
curred, the elements were released and
their percentages in the lake increased.
That condition mainly applies to large
lakes with a closed ecosystem and sum-
mer stratification. Pennak (1946) found
that in shallow bodies of water, with es-
sentially complete circulation throughout
the year, there was no appreciable accu-
mulation of plant nutrients. He postulat-
ed that mineralization and reutilization
would occur more regularly and constant-
ly and there would not be pronounced
variation in nutrients. Kentucky Lake,
more specifically Anderson Creek and

micromhos per centimeter

Fic. 11.

Monthly mean variation of total dissolved
solids in Vickers Bay, 1974-75.

37

Fic. 12.

Monthly range and mean variation of ni-
trate nitrogen concentrations in Vickers Bay,
1974-75.

Vickers Creek embayments, is an open
ecosystem and the recipient of allochtho-
nous material. Thus, generalizations on
the chemical characteristics and the phy-
toplankton density are difficult to make.
Several qualitative changes in the phy-
toplankton were observed throughout the
year. The most drastic was the increase
of blue-greens during late summer. Pear-
sall (1932) contended that blue-green
blooms developed in late summer when
inorganic nutrients were practically ex-
hausted. Chemical determinations of the
embayment did not reveal any significant
nutrient depletion by the phytoplankton
standing crop. Hutchinson (1944) stated
that, in analyzing known properties of
planktonic algae, clear-cut correlations be-
tween chemical conditions and the qual-
itative composition of the phytoplankton
are not to be expected and that the phys-
iological condition of a population and its
relation to populations of other species
are likely to explain many of the apparent
inconsistencies. The increase in blue-
green algae was attributed to the higher

Pres 3s

Monthly mean variation of phosphate
concentrations in Vickers Bay, 1974-75.

38 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 43(1-2)

TABLE 3.—MONTHLY VARIATION OF TOTAL OR-
GANIC CONTENT FOR VICKERS BAy, 1974-75-76

Month Total organic content
October eS
November 9.20
December 5.35
January 2.01
February 1.50
March 0.46
April 0.40
May 1.82
June 4.05
July 6.00
August 8.70
September 10.1
October 8.40
November 4.30
December 3.55
January 2.05
February 1.76
March 0.68
April sae
May 4.79

water temperatures during the late sum-
mer.

Beginning in June and continuing
through July, a decrease in numbers of
diatoms was observed which has been
correlated with silicates. Diatoms utilize
this substance more rapidly than it is re-
cycled, thus producing declines in dia-
tom populations, (Hutchinson 1944). The
increase of diatoms which was dominat-
ed by Melosira, beginning in August can,
in turn, be related to the replenishment
of sitica and not to the resuspension of
filaments. Lund (1954) attributed autum-
nal rises in populations of Melosira to the
resuspension of filaments that had fallen
to the bottom in the spring and had sur-
vived the summer in a resting condition
at the surface of the mud. Silica concen-
tration should be examined in future
studies.

Water temperature was a controlling
factor in phytoplankton density. The high
count in June was attributed to the yearly
high in water temperature of approxi-
mately 30 C. Theoretically, the yearly
low count should have been observed in
the winter, yet it occurred in May. That
condition probably was met since the
next lowest total phytoplankton count oc-

curred in December when water temper-
ature approached 7 C.

In October, a definite increase in phy-
toplankton numbers was observed that
could not be correlated with existing
data. Possibly the difference in sampling
times for water quality and plankton
failed to reflect the local conditions at the
time of the plankton sampling. Also some
unmeasured parameter (wave, wind, etc.)
may be related to that increase. There
was a rapid drop in water temperature in
October coupled with a decrease in light
penetration. The October increase in
numbers possibly reflected a “semi’’-fall
pulse generally associated with thermal-
ly stratified lakes (Reid 1961). Since no
thermal stratification was observed a
complete turnover was impossible, there-
fore, the pulse was drastically reduced.
Following the October increase, the phy-
toplankton standing crop stabilized dur-
ing the winter months. The low numbers
were attributed to declining water tem-
peratures. An increase in water temper-
ature occurred in April and a slight in-
crease in light penetration in early April
allowed for more favorable growth con-
ditions, thus contributing to the in-
creased phytoplankton density at that
time.

As might be expected, there were only
slight differences in dissolved oxygen at
all collecting sites except during the sum-
mer months. Those differences probably
are related to the temperature/pressure-
dissolved gas relationship. Cold water
has a greater capacity for gas than does
warm water (Hutchinson 1957). These
yearly high and low values of dissolved
oxygen in ppm were both near 100 per
cent saturation when compared on a
nomogram for determining oxygen satu-
ration values. Water temperatures and
dissolved gases are subject to daily fluc-
tuations due to changes in the air tem-
perature, atmospheric pressure, and oth-
er environmental factors.

As mentioned, the data collected in
August exhibited the greatest vertical
profile in temperature. During that
month, the greatest range in free carbon
was recorded. Concentrations as high as

EVALUATION OF AQUATIC ENVIRONMENTS IN KENTUCKY—Prather et al. 39

12 ppm were recorded, probably due to
the decreased amount of photosynthetic
activity at the lower level collecting lo-
cations. The fact that samples were taken
during daylight hours when photosynthe-
sis was occurring may account for the
variation in free carbon dioxide. Free car-
bon dioxide average values and ranges
remained relatively stable during the
colder months due to decreased phyto-
productivity.

Changes in the free carbon dioxide
during March through April, May through
July, and again in September through
October produced corresponding changes
in the pH. This was possible related to
increased growth of phytoplankton dur-
ing those times. Large populations of al-
gae increase the pH of the water by re-
moving carbon dioxide from the water
during photosynthesis. As carbon dioxide
dissolves in water, it enters a buffering
system, fluctuating from the acidic car-
bonic acid through bicarbonate to the ba-
sic carbonate (Reid 1961). The remaining
average values could not be correlated
with free carbon dioxide values, perhaps
again due to only one sample being ob-
tained monthly and daily differences.

Two parameters related to the optic
properties of water are turbidity and light
penetration. Turbidity is a measure of the
suspended particulate matter due to al-
lochthonous and autochthonous material.
Such suspended material has a direct re-
lationship with the transmission of light,
which is a factor in productivity (Corfitz-
en 1939). Secchi disc reading is a mea-
sure of the transparency of water. Gen-
erally, higher turbidities result in less
light penetration. The highest Jackson
turbidity value was recorded in March
(83 JTU) and at the same time the least
amount of light penetration occurred ac-
cording to secchi disc readings. Light
penetration steadily increased following
the yearly low in March and simulta-
neously the phytoplankton standing crop
increased in peak numbers in the sum-
mer. Maximum light penetration oc-
curred in September, following the de-
cline in phytoplankton counts.
Corresponding low turbidity readings

were recorded during the peak numbers
of phytoplankton, thus allowing maxi-
mum light penetration. More frequent
sampling of those 2 parameters is needed
to evaluate their correlation with phyto-
plankton numbers.

Two other variables possibly related to
the productivity in a reservoir environ-
ment are water level fluctuations and
water retention time. Water level fluctua-
tions were recorded and some correlation
was noted with respect to light penetra-
tion. As mentioned, the yearly high in
Jackson turbidity value and the yearly
low in secchi disc transparency were re-
corded in March. At the same time, sum-
mer pool conditions were first being ap-
proached resulting in increased lake
elevations. Turbidity was increased by
spring rains that transported allochtho-
nous material into the Tennessee River
and tributary streams; that material was
retained in the reservoir. The maximum
light penetration in September was as-
sociated with a decrease in the phyto-
plankton standing crop.

Perhaps one of the obscure limiting
factors in the phytoproductivity is the
short water retention time in Kentucky
Lake. Kentucky Lake has the shortest
water exchange rate (21 days) of the
mainstream reservoirs in the Tennessee
River. The rate for other storage im-
poundments in the system ranges from
106 to 286 days. Long water retention
time of storage impoundments provides
more time for phytoplankton growth and
it is believed that “old” water stimulates
growth (Taylor 1971). The same phenom-
enon may be true in embayments also,
since the embayment is exposed to con-
siderable mixing of water from the res-
ervoir proper.

Except for the summer months, there
was no correlation between the magni-
tude of algal and zooplankton popula-
tions. In ponds and lakes in temperate
North America, phytoplankton volume
exceeds that of zooplankton by 2-6 times
(Reid 1961). The relationship between
phytoplankton and zooplankton pulses is
not clear. Reid further stated that al-
though it has been suggested that sud-

40

den, conspicuous increases in population
density of zooplankton follow phyto-
plankton blooms, a number of studies
have shown a lack of significant correla-
tions between those events. Reid (1961)
indicated that at least in some lakes, food
(phytoplankton) does not appear to con-
stitute an important limiting factor with
respect to the overall zooplankton popu-
lation.

The only relationship detected be-
tween zooplankton and phytoplankton
was in May. The pulse of Bosmina sp. in
May was attributed to the low numbers
of phytoplankton.

Pennak (1946) reported in Colorado
lakes, food of zooplankters consisted
mainly of detritus, rather than algae. Pen-
nak found very little evidence that the
grazing of zooplankton had an important
effect on the control of phytoplankton
populations under natural conditions.

The importance of macroinvertebrates
in relation to the food chain link between
phytoplankton and higher animals cannot
be overemphasized. Also, the presence of
macroinvertebrates and sometimes their
absence reflects some of the chemical
characteristics of the body of water. Many
macroinvertebrates have been catego-
rized as to degree of pollution tolerance
(Weber 1973). Jonasson (1970) pointed
out that competition between groups or
species of bottom fauna seem to be con-
firmed mainly to oxygen requirements.
Oxygen concentrations above limiting
levels as established by the Federal
Water Pollution Control Administration
(1968) provided suitable habitat for most
invertebrate life throughout the embay-
ment.

Considerable seasonal variation was
noted in the total numbers of all benthic
organisms. That variation was due pri-
marily to the seasonal variation of the in-
sect populations, more specifically the
dipterous larva population. Also the num-
ber of Ephemeroptera showed a particu-
lar pattern, a maximum in the winter and
a minimum in the summer. The emer-
gence of mayflies began in late June and
continued through the summer. The
same type phenomenon was seen by

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 43(1-2)

Swanson (1967) in a Missouri River res-
ervoir. Fremling (1960) found that shal-
low bodies of water provide excellent
habitat for burrowing mayflies. The
greatest decline in total numbers was
noted in August and was due to the low
numbers of dipteran larvae and mayfly
nymphs at that time. The peak in total
numbers of benthic organisms appeared
in January and the same peak was seen
in the number of dipteran larvae and
mayfly nymphs. Generally, the 3 major
dipterous families followed the same
trend as the order Diptera did collective-
ly. However, the family Culicidae showed
a decrease in August and September,
while Ceratopogonidae and Chironomi-
dae increased. That difference is related
to the difference in the life cycle of the
organisms, since a large emergence of
Chaoborus sp. (Culicidae) was observed
in late August.

The increased numbers of macroinver-
tebrates in the winter and the scarcity in
the summer followed a definite seasonal
abundance observed by Ball and Hayne
(1952), Lindeman (1942), Eggleton (1931),
and Sisk and Tubb (unpublished). The
reduced numbers in spring and summer
months were due to emergence of the in-
sects and the peaks resulted from the
buildups of larvae during the nonemer-
gence periods. The peak in September
can be attributed to the buildup larval
populations of different generations.
There followed a decline in October
which may be the last period of emer-
gence prior to winter. Waters (1966) re-
ported several generations per year in the
life history of Baetis vagans. Macan
(1957) found the number of generations
per year to be determined by the envi-
ronment.

The decline in total numbers of mac-
roinvertebrates during the spring can be
attributed to fish predation since the
young of year are confined to the shallow-
er portions of the reservoir (Beckman and
Elrod 1971). Mathur and Robbins (1971)
found that chironmid larvae and pupae
were the dominant insects eaten through-
out the year by white crappie (Pomoxis
annularis) in a Pennsylvania reservoir

EVALUATION OF AQUATIC ENVIRONMENTS IN KENTUCKY—Prather et al. 41

and most were consumed during April
and May. Fish do exert a definite pres-
sure on benthic populations; Ball and
Hayne (1952) found that when fish were
removed, the standing crops of benthic
organisms increased.

The 2 methods of collecting macroin-
vertebrates revealed differences in the
taxa Ephemeroptera, Trichoptera, and
Megaloptera. One specimen of Sialis sp.
of the order Megaloptera was collected
with the artificial substrates. Specimens
of the mayfly genus Oreianthus and the
caddis fly genus Polycentropus were col-
lected in larger numbers with the Hester-
Dendy samplers. Only 1 specimen of Or-
eianthus was collected during the study
with the Ekman dredge. It is speculated
that those different organisms were
washed into the embayment from tribu-
tary streams and perhaps the artificial
substrates provided a suitable habitat in
the new environment.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Support of this project by the Office of
Water Research and Technology, De-
partment of the Interior, under the pro-
visions of Public Law 88-379, as Project
Number A-057-KY is gratefully acknowl-
edged.

The manuscript is dedicated to the
memory of our colleague, Dr. Morgan E.
Sisk, coinvestigator and friend, whose ini-
tial leadership and endeavors were in-
strumental in the success of this study.
His untimely accidental death during the
course of this investigation resulted in a
great loss to the study and the entire sci-
entific community.

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the removal of the fish population on the fish-
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42 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 43(1-2)

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{
|
i
|

Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 43(1-2), 1982, 43-49

The Vascular Flora of the Brodhead Swamp Forest,
Rockcastle County, Kentucky!

RICHARD R. HANNAN? AND J. STUART LASSETTER

Department of Biological Sciences, Eastern Kentucky University, Richmond, Kentucky 40475

ABSTRACT

The vascular flora of the Brodhead Swamp Forest, a remnant upland hardwood swamp forest
in Rockcastle County, Kentucky, contained 197 taxa representing 70 families and 136 genera.
Three species which are uncommon or rare in Kentucky were Dryopteris spinulosa, Habenaria
flava var. flava, and Isoetes engelmannii. Species with Coastal Plain affinities documented from
the area included: Commelina diffusa, Habenaria flava var. flava, Hypericum tubulosum, Hy-
pericum tubulosum var. walteri, Proserpinaca palustris, Ranunculus pusillus, and Rhynchos-
pora corniculata. Areas of increased micro-relief in the deep-water sections of the swamp, such
as stumps, fallen logs, and the bases of trees, were colonized by plant species not otherwise

found in more hydric areas.

INTRODUCTION

Botanical studies of swamp forests in
Kentucky are relatively few and include
Adams et al. (1968), Braun (1937, 1950),
Bryant (1978), Funk and Fuller (1978),
Harker et al. (1979, 1980), and Meijer et
al. (1981). The Brodhead Swamp Forest
is relatively undisturbed and apparently
representative of hardwood swamps oc-
cupying underdrained sinkholes in Ken-
tucky, and it has been recognized as a
potential National Natural Landmark
(Quarterman and Powell 1978). Meijer et
al. (1981) similarly concluded that this
site was perhaps the most undisturbed
upland swamp in the central Kentucky
region. This habitat type is becoming in-
creasingly rare or degraded due to clear-
ing and draining for agricultural purpos-
es, urbanization, and dam projects as
documented by Meijer et al. (1981).

The purpose of this paper, which is the
first documentation of the flora of an up-
land hardwood sinkhole swamp in Ken-
tucky, is to report the flora of the Brod-
head Swamp Forest. This study
represents a portion of a more compre-

' This represents a portion of the work submitted
by the senior author to the Graduate College of
Eastern Kentucky University in partial fulfillment
of the Master of Science degree.

* Kentucky Nature Preserves Commission, Frank-
fort, Kentucky 40601.

43

hensive study documenting the vegeta-
tion and species patterns of the area
(Hannan 1980).

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

We wish to thank Mr. Keith Rigsby,
owner of the Brodhead Swamp Forest,
for allowing us access to the property,
and William H. Martin and Donald L.
Batch for guidance and support during all
phases of this study. The late E. O. Beal
annotated specimens. We thank Keith E.
Camburn, Melvin L. Warren, Jr., and Loy
R. Phillippe for their criticism of this pa-
per. Special appreciation is extended to
Keith E. Camburn for his typing of the
manuscript.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Collections from the swamp forest
were made from 1 March to 1 October
1977. The swamp was traversed weekly
and collecting routes were changed fre-
quently to maximize collecting coverage.
Three specimens of each species were
collected for identification purposes and
voucher specimens if the population was
large enough. Voucher specimens are
housed in the Eastern Kentucky Univer-
sity Herbarium with duplicates in the
Western Kentucky University Herbar-
ium. Species were categorized according
to vegetation strata: the overstory, trees
=>12.7 cm dbh (diameter at breast height,

44 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 43(1-2)

1.5 m); the understory, woody stems 21.0
m in height and <12.7 cm dbh; and the
herbaceous-seedling strata, herbaceous
and woody species <1.0 m in height.

THE STUDY AREA

The Brodhead Swamp Forest is located
in Rockcastle County, Kentucky, approx-
imately 4.0 km northeast of Brodhead and
0.8 km northwest of KY 1508 at Union
Chapel (37°25'30’N, 84°23'00"W). The
20.2 ha study area lies in a shallow sink-
hole 372 m above sea level and 6.1 m
lower than the surrounding area.

The study area is within the Eastern
Highland Rim Subsection (Quarterman
and Powell 1978) of the Highland Rim
Section (Fenneman 1938) in the Interior
Low Plateaus Physiographic Province.
This region is characterized in part by a
karst topography. The area is underlain
by the St. Louis Limestone Member of
the Newman Limestone (Gualtieri 1967).
Ross (in press) identified two soil series
from the area, the Bonnie silt loam and
the Morehead silt loam. The present in-
vestigation identified the soil as an acid
loam.

Water enters the basin via surface run-
off and from three intermittent springs.
An intermittent stream emanating from
the basin’s southern end flows 915 m and
terminates in a swallow hole. The swamp
remains flooded during the winter and
spring but the surface water decreases
from the swamp’s periphery towards the
center during the summer. Surface water
was present in the swamp throughout the
study period except for approximately
one month during the summer. The max-
imum water depth recorded in the
swamp was 60.0 cm.

The forest was selectively logged in
1919 and was grazed during the study.
The surrounding area was utilized for
pastures and cropland.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The vascular flora of the Brodhead
Swamp Forest included representatives
of 70 families, 136 genera, and 197 spe-
cific and subspecific taxa (Table 1). The
overstory contained 24 species, the

understory 42 species, and 179 taxa were
documented from the herbaceous-seed-
ling layer.

Important members of the overstory in-
cluded the following 7 species: Acer
rubrum, Fraxinus pennsylvanica, Liq-
uidambar styraciflua, Nyssa sylvatica,
Platanus occidentalis, Quercus bicolor,
and Quercus palustris. The understory
stratum was composed primarily of sap-
lings of overstory species typically ac-
companied by Carpinus caroliniana,
Cornus amomum, and Lindera benzoin.
Locally important understory species in-
cluded Asimina triloba and Corylus
americana. Campsis radicans, Parthen-
ocissus quinquefolia, and Rhus radicans
were common woody vines throughout
the forest.

The distribution of herbaceous species
appeared to be related to the extent and
duration of flooding. For example, Pro-
serpinaca palustris was the only her-
baceous taxon present in areas where
flooding was most extreme. In other
deep-water areas not vegetated by P. pa-
lustris little invasion by other herba-
ceous species occurred when the water
receded. Where shallow standing water
remained for much of the growing sea-
son, Carex lupuliformis, C. normalis, C.
typhina, Fraxinus pennsylvanica, and
Acer rubrum were common in the her-
baceous-seedling strata. The richest areas
were those first exposed as standing
waters receded. A similar stratification of
herbaceous species along a hydroperiod
gradient in swamp communities in south-
ern Illinois has been documented by
Voigt and Mohlenbrock (1964).

Stumps, fallen logs, and the bases of
trees provided areas of increased micro-
relief which increased the habitat diver-
sity and species richness in the deep-
water sections of the swamp. Dennis and
Batson (1974) reported a similar situation
in a South Carolina swamp. Common
species of these elevated areas included
Acer rubrum, Bidens frondosa, Boeh-
meria cylindrica, Impatiens capensis,
Lycopus virginicus, and Pilea pumila.

The Brodhead Swamp Forest con-
tained seven taxa considered to have

SWAMP VEGETATION IN KENTUCKY—Hannan and Lassetter

TABLE 1.—VASCULAR FLORA BY VEGETATION
STRATA OF THE BRODHEAD SWAMP FOREST, ROCK-
CASTLE COUNTY, KENTUCKY. STRATUM DESIGNA-
TIONS ARE: OVERSTORY, OS; UNDERSTORY, US;
HERBACEOUS-SEEDLING, HS. NOMENCLATURE
FOLLOWS STRAUSBAUGH AND CORE (1978) UNLESS
OTHERWISE DESIGNATED: 'RADFORD, AHLES AND
BELL (1968); 7FERNALD (1950)

Taxa Strata

Lycopodiaceae

Lycopodium flabelliforme

Blanchard HS

Isoetaceae

Isoetes engelmannii A. Br. HS
Ophioglossaceae

Botrychium dissectum Spreng. HS

B. dissectum f. obliquum

(Muhl.) Fernald HS

B. virginianum (L.) Sw. HS
Osmundaceae

Osmunda regalis L. HS
Polypodiaceae

Asplenium platyneuron (L.)
Oakes HS
Dryopteris spinulosa (O. F.
Muell.) Watt. HS
Onoclea sensibilis L. HS
Polystichum acrostichoides
(Michx.) Schott HS
Thelypteris palustris Schott HS
Cupressaceae

Juniperus virginiana L. US, HS
Alismataceae

Alisma subcordatum Raf. HS
Gramineae

Agrostis alba L. HS

A. perennans (Walt.) Tuckerm. HS

Echinochloa colonum (L.)

Link! HS
Festuca elatior L. HS
Glyceria striata (Lam.) Hitche. | HS
Leersia oryzoides (L.) Sw. HS
L. virginica Willd. HS
Microstegium vimineum

(Trinius) A. Camus! HS
Panicum agrostoides Spreng. HS
P. dichotomiflorum Michx. HS
P. microcarpon Muhl. HS

Cyperaceae
Carex blanda Dewey HS
C. frankii Kunth HS
C. granularis Muhl. HS
C. lupuliformis Sartwell ex

Dewey! HS
C. normalis Mack. HS
C. rosea Schkuhr. HS

TABLE 1.—CONTINUED

45

Taxa Strata
C. swanii (Fernald) Mack. HS
C. typhina Michx. HS
C. vulpinoidea Michx. HS
Cyperus strigosus L. HS
Eleocharis obtusa (Willd.)

Schultes HS
Kyllinga pumila Michx. HS
Rhynchospora corniculata

(Lam.) Gray! HS
Scirpus atrovirens Muhl. HS
S. cyperinus (L.) Kunth HS

Araceae
Arisaema dracontium (L.)

Schott HS

A. triphyllum (L.) Schott HS
Commelinaceae

Commelina diffusa Burman f.' HS
Juncaceae

Juncus acuminatus Michx. HS

J. dudleyi Wieg. HS

J. effusus L. HS

J. tenuis Willd. HS
Liliaceae

Polygonatum biflorum (Walkt.)

Ell. HS

Smilax rotundifolia L. WISHES
Dioscoreaceae

Dioscorea villosa L. HS
Iridaceae

Sisyrinchium mucronatum

Michx. HS

Orchidaceae

Corallorhiza odontorhiza

(Willd.) Nutt. HS
Habenaria flava (L.) R. Br. var.

flava? HS

Salicaceae

Salix nigra Marsh. OS, US
Juglandaceae

Carya cordiformis (Wang.) K.

Koch OS
C. glabra (Mill.) Sweet OS
C. ovata (Mill.) K. Koch OS
C. tomentosa Nutt. OS
Juglans nigra L. OS

Corylaceae
Carpinus caroliniana Walt.
Corylus americana Walt.
Fagaceae
Fagus grandifolia Ehrh.
Quercus alba L.
QO. bicolor Willd.
Q. falcata Michx.

OS, US, HS
US, HS

OS, US; His
OS
OS, US, HS
OS

46 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 43(1-2)

TABLE |1.—CONTINUED

TABLE 1.—CONTINUED

Taxa

Penthorum sedoides L.

Hamamelidaceae
Liquidambar styraciflua L.

Platanus occidentalis L.

Agrimonia parviflora Ait.

Crataegus crus-galli L.

C. spp. (only vegetative
material seen)

Geum canadense Jacq.

G. vernum (Raf.) T. & G.

Potentilla simplex Michx.

Prunus serotina Ehrh.

P. spp. (only vegetative
material seen)

Rosa multiflora Thunb.

R. palustris Marsh.

R. setigera Michx.

Rubus argutus Link

Amphicarpa bracteata (L.)

Cercis canadensis L.
Desmodium laevigatum (Nutt.)

Gleditsia triacanthos L.

Oxalis stricta L.
O. violacea L.

Acalypha rhomboidea Raf.

Phyllanthus caroliniensis Walt.

Rhus radicans L.

Euonymus americanus L.

Acer rubrum L.

Impatiens capensis Meerb.

Rhamnus caroliniana Walt.

Parthenocissus quinquefolia
(L.) Planch.

Vitis vulpina L.

V. spp. (only vegetative
material seen)

Taxa Strata
QO. imbricaria Michx. OS Saxifragaceae
QO. palustris Muenchh. OS, US, HS
Q. velutina Lam. OS
Ulmaceae
Celtis occidentalis L. US, HS
Ulmus americana L. OS, US, HS Platanaceae
Moraceae
Morus rubra L. US, HS Rosaceae
Urticaceae
Boehmeria cylindrica (L.) Sw. HS
Pilea pumila (L.) Gray HS
Polygonaceae
Polygonum cespitosum Blume
var. longisetum (DeBruyn)
Stewart HS
P. hydropiperoides Michx. HS
P. punctatum Ell. HS
P. sagittatum L. HS
P. setaceum Baldwin ex Ell. HS
Tovara virginiana (L.) Raf. HS
Phytolaccaceae i
Phytolacca americana L. HS Ee cia
Portulacaceae Kernald
Claytonia virginica L. HS
Caryophyllaceae DC
Stellaria media (L.) Cyrillo HS :
S. pubera Michx. HS
Oxalidaceae
Ranunculaceae
Clematis virginiana L. HS
Ranunculus abortivus L. HS
R. pusillus Poir. HS Euphorbiaceae
R. recurvatus Poir. HS
R. septentrionalis Poir. HS
Berberidaceae Anacardiaceae
Podophyllum peltatum HS
Menispermaceae Celastraceae
Cocculus carolinus (L.) DC! HS
Menispermum canadense L. HS
Aceraceae
Magnoliaceae
Liriodendron tulipifera L. OS, US, HS :
Balsaminaceae
Annonaceae
Asimina triloba (L.) Dunal. US, HS
Rhamnaceae
Lauraceae
Lindera benzoin (L.) Blume US, HS Wane
Sassafras albidum (Nutt.) Nees US, HS maces,
Cruciferae
Cardamine bulbosa (Schreb.)
BSP. HS
C. hirsuta L. HS
Crassulaceae Guttiferae
Sedum ternatum Michx. HS

Hypericum mutilum L.

Strata

HS

OS, US, HS

OS, US, HS

OS, US, HS

HS

US, HS

US, HS
US, HS

US, HS

HS

SWAMP VEGETATION IN KENTUCKY—Hannan and Lassetter

TABLE |1.—CONTINUED

Taxa

H. punctatum Lam.
H. tubulosum Walt.
H. tubulosum Walt. var.
walteri (Gmel.) Lott?
Violaceae
Viola papilionacea Pursh
Nyssaceae
Nyssa sylvatica Marsh.
Onagraceae
Circaea quadrisulcata
(Maximowicz) Franchet and
Savatier var. canadensis (L.)
Hara
Epilobium coloratum Biehler
Ludwigia alternifolia L.
L. palustris (L.) EIl.
Haloragaceae
Proserpinaca palustris L.

Umbelliferae

Cryptotaenia canadensis (L.)

DC.

Sanicula canadensis L.
Cornaceae

Cornus amomum Mill.

C. florida L.
Clethraceae

Clethra acuminata Michx.

Pyrolaceae
Chimaphila maculata (L.)
Pursh
Ericaceae
Oxydendrum arboreum (L.)
DC.
Primulaceae

Lysimachia ciliata L.
L. lanceolata Walt.
Samolus parviflorus Raf.

Oleaceae

Fraxinus pennsylvanica Marsh.

Ligustrum sinense Lour.'
Asclepiadaceae

Asclepias incarnata L.
Labiatae

Lycopus virginicus L.

Mentha piperita L.

Prunella vulgaris L.

Scutellaria elliptica Muhl.

S. integrifolia L.

S. lateriflora L.

S. nervosa Pursh
Solanaceae

Solanum carolinense L.

TABLE 1.—CONTINUED

47

Strata

Strata Taxa
ae Scrophulariaceae
Chelone glabra L.
HS Gratiola neglecta Torr.
Mimulus alatus Ait.
Veronica serpyllifolia L.
HS Bignoniaceae
Campsis radicans (L.) Seeman
OS, US, HS Phrymaceae
Phryma leptostachya L.
Rubiaceae
Cephalanthus occidentalis L.
HS Galium aparine L.
HS G. tinctorium L.
HS Houstonia purpurea L.
HS Caprifoliaceae
Lonicera japonica Thunb.
HS Sambucus canadensis L.
Lobeliaceae
Lobelia cardinalis L.
HS L. inflata L.
HS Compositae
Ambrosia artemisiifolia L.
US. HS Arctium minus (Hill) Bernh.
US Aster lateriflorus (L.) Britton
A. ontarionis Wieg-
A. vimineus Lam.
US, HS Bidens bipinnata L.
B. comosa (Gray) Wieg.”
B. frondosa L.
Eclipta alba (L.) Hassk.
HS Elephantopus carolinianus
Willd.
Erechtites hieracifolia (L.) Raf.
OS Erigeron philadelphicus L.
Eupatorium coelestinum L.
E. fistulosum Barratt
HS E. perfoliatum L.
HS E. serotinum Michx.
HS Hieracium gronovii L.
Lactuca floridana (L.) Gaertn.
Pluchea camphorata (L.) DC.
OS, US, HS Senecio aureus L.
US, HS Taraxacum officinale Weber
Verbesina occidentalis (L.)
: Walt.
HS Vernonia altissima Nutt.
HS
HS ‘ he =
Coastal Plain affinities (Fernald 1950):
HS ; } :
HS Commelina diffusa, Habenaria flava var.
HS flava, Hypericum tubulosum, Hypericum
HS tubulosum var. walteri, Proserpinaca pa-
lal lustris, Ranunculus pusillus, and Rhyn-
chospora corniculata. The remaining 190
HS

taxa of the study area were within their

48

described ranges. Braun (1935) analyzed
the floristic affinities of the swamp forest
vegetation of the Illinoian Till Plain of
southwestern Ohio and found it to be
composed largely of intraneous species,
with minor assemblages with other geo-
graphic affinities represented. Braun
(1955) documented that an Appalachian
Plateau-Coastal Plain floristic relation-
ship existed and was best seen in areas
with low relief containing swampy flats
and depressions. She proposed that these
habitats, created by the extensive pene-
planation of Tertiary times, were invaded
by Coastal Plain plants. With dissection
these areas of peneplain were greatly re-
duced leaving small relict populations of
Coastal Plain vegetation where suitable
habitats persisted. Braun (1937) studied
a wet meadow and swamp forest on the
Cumberland Plateau in Laurel County,
Kentucky, and found Coastal Plain
species to be of considerable importance.
Although not within the Appalachian Pla-
teaus Physiographic Province, the Brod-
head Swamp Forest is located adjacent to
its western escarpment and could have
provided a refugium for Coastal Plain
species as did numerous similar habitats
on the plateau itself.

Three species found in the Brodhead
Swamp Forest are uncommon or rare in
Kentucky. Dryopteris spinulosa is known
in Kentucky from only three other coun-
ties (Cranfill 1980), and is listed by the
Kentucky Nature Preserves Commission
as being of Special Concern (Branson et
al. 1981). Habenaria flava var. flava was
cited as Platanthera flava in the Smith-
sonian’s proposed list of threatened
plants for the United States (Ayensu and
Defilipps 1978), although it has since
been deleted from consideration for En-
dangered or Threatened status in the
United States (Federal Register 1980).
Isoetes engelmannii is scattered sparing-
ly across the state and is known from five
other counties in Kentucky (Cranfill
1980).

The continued existence of swamp for-
ests in Kentucky is dubious. Logging,
grazing, clearing, drainage, urbanization,
channelization, and dam projects contin-

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 43(1-2)

ue at an alarming rate to destroy or seri-
ously degrade these wetlands. We are
still in the infancy of cataloging and un-
derstanding these wetlands although mil-
lions of acres have already been lost. This
study has documented the flora of the
Brodhead Swamp Forest which may rep-
resent the most intact upland hardwood
sinkhole swamp forest in Kentucky
which to date remains unprotected.

LITERATURE CITED

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BRANSON, B. A., D. F. HARKER, JR., J. M. BASKIN,
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BrAwuNn, E. L. 1935. Affinities of the flora of the II-
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. 1937. A remarkable colony of Coastal
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18:363-366.

. 1950. Deciduous forest of Eastern North
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—. 1955. The phytogeography of unglaciated

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CRANFILL, R. 1980. Fern and fern allies of Ken-
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DENNIS, W. M., AND W. T. BATSON. 1974. The
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—_——., R. R. HANNAN, M. L. WARREN, JR., L. R.
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49

tion and ecology and ecological features of the
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Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 43(1-2), 1982, 50-54

Comparative Germination Responses of the
Two Varieties of Arenaria patula

JERRY M. BASKIN AND CAROL C. BASKIN

School of Biological Sciences, University of Kentucky,
Lexington, Kentucky 40506

ABSTRACT

Germination responses of seeds of Arenaria patula Michx. var. patula Maguire and A. patula
var. robusta (Steyerm.) Maguire were tested at 3 daily thermoperiods in light and darkness
at monthly intervals from June through October. Although there were significant differences
(P < .05) in the germination percentages of the two varieties at some stages of afterripening
(dormancy break) under some temperature and light regimes, the patterns of afterripening of the
seeds of the two varieties were the same. Freshly matured seeds of APP and APR germinated
to 61 and 69%, respectively, at 20/10 C and to 18 and 33% at 30/15 C in light, but seeds of both
varieties germinated to less than 1% in darkness. As the seeds afterripened there was (1) a
widening of the temperature range for germination, (2) an increase in the rate and maximum
percentage of germination and (3) loss of the light requirement for germination in some of the
seeds. Seeds do not germinate in spring because temperatures of the habitat are above those
required for germination. During summer when soils dry quickly after showers, germination is
prevented because seeds germinate at a slow rate and to a low percentage at summer tempera-
tures. However, by autumn seeds can germinate to high rates and percentages at September and
October temperatures, and thus germination in the habitat occurs when soil moisture becomes
non-limiting. Although the two varieties can be distinguished morphologically, their ecological

life cycles and seed dormancy and germination characteristics are the same.

INTRODUCTION

Two varieties of Arenaria patula
Michx. were recognized by Maguire
(1951) in his treatment of the Arenarias
in America north of Mexico. According to
him, A. patula var. patula Maguire oc-
curs in “rocky soil, barrens, or meadows;
Minnesota and Indiana to Virginia, Ala-
bama, and Texas,” and A. patula var. ro-
busta (Steyerm.) Maguire occurs on
“limestone slopes; Edmonson and Rock-
castle Counties, Kentucky; Jefferson
County, Tennessee; and Howell and St.
Francois Counties, Missouri; probably
more widespread in limestone areas.”
Maguire (1951) used morphological char-
acteristics of the sepals to distinguish the
2 varieties. In variety patula they are
0.5-0.7 mm broad and have 5 nerves,
while in variety robusta they are 0.7-0.9
mm broad and have 3 nerves. Steyermark
(1963) recognized these 2 varieties and
stated the range for variety patula as
“,.. from Ohio and Indiana to Minneso-
ta, south to Virginia, Alabama, Arkansas,
Oklahoma, and Texas.” Variety robusta

“ranges from Kentucky, Tennessee, and
Missouri, south to Arkansas, Kansas, and
Texas.’ He distinguished the 2 vari-
eties on the basis of leaf and seed width
and number of nerves in the sepals. In
variety patula leaves are mostly 0.5-1.5
mm broad, seeds are 0.5-0.7 mm wide
and sepals have five nerves, and in vari-
ety robusta the leaves are mostly 2.0-3.2
mm wide, seeds are 0.7—0.9 mm wide and
sepals have 3 nerves. During the course
of botanical field work in the cedar
glades of Tennessee and Kentucky, we
found A. patula var. patula growing
in numerous cedar (limestone) glades
throughout the Central Basin of Tennes-
see and in one cedar glade in each of An-
derson, Bullitt and Simpson counties,
Kentucky. We have observed A. patula
var. robusta in one disturbed cedar
glade-like area in each of Jessamine,
Mercer (Fig. 1) and Warren counties,
Kentucky and on rocky ledges along the
Kentucky River in Mercer County, Ken-
tucky.

Observations made primarily in David-

50

GERMINATION IN ARENARIA—Baskin and Baskin ill

pe satan

Fic. 1.

ee

, SS 7 +)
ss Bae 5 OE Be

Plants of Arenaria patula var. robusta growing in a disturbed cedar glade-like area in Mercer

County, Kentucky. The photograph was taken on 30 May 1971.

son and Rutherford counties, Tennessee
on A. patula var. patula (APP) and in
Mercer County, Kentucky on A. patula
var. robusta (APR) reveal that both vari-
eties behave as winter annuals and that
the timing of phenological events is es-
sentially the same for both of them. Seeds
germinate in September and/or October
when soil moisture becomes nonlimiting
for germination. Plants form rosettes dur-
ing autumn, and they overwinter in this
stage. Flower bud initials are produced
in late February and early March and
have been observed as early as 27 Feb-
ruary for APP and 17 March for APR.
Flowering stems elongate in late March
and early April, and anthesis begins in
early to mid-April. The peak of flowering
is from early to mid-May, and seeds are
ripe in early to mid-June. The capsules
dehise at maturity, and the seeds lie at or
on the soil surface until conditions be-
come suitable for germination in autumn.

The effects of age and temperature on

the germination responses of APP have
been studied previously (Caudle and
Baskin 1968); however, since the germi-
nation tests were done at constant tem-
peratures and only in light the results
provide only limited information on the
germination ecology of this taxon. No
studies have been done on germination
ecology in APR. Thus, the purpose of the
present study was to compare the ger-
mination responses of seeds of the 2
varieties at different stages of afterripen-
ing and to extrapolate the results to the
field situation.

METHODS

Ripe seeds were collected from plants
of APP growing in a cedar glade in Ruth-
erford County, Tennessee on 6 June 1971
and from plants of APR growing in a bad-
ly disturbed cedar glade-like area in Mer-
cer County, Kentucky on 12 June 1971
(Fig. 1). On 15 June 1971 the seeds were
separated from the other plant parts, and

52 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 43(1-2)

I5 June

| July

GERMINATION (%)
30/15°C 20/10°C

35/20°C

© ~ I@r7 20 SO: ©

FIG. 2.

ey

10 20 30 0

| August | September | October

10 20 30 0

10 20 30 0 10 20 30

TIME (DAYS)

Germination percentages of Arenaria patula var. patula and Arenaria patula var. robusta seeds

incubated at a 14-h photoperiod. Seeds were stored in a closed bottle in the laboratory from 15 June 1971
(freshly matured seeds) until tests were started on various dates in 1971.

those that were not used immediately
were stored dry in a closed glass bottle
in an air-conditioned laboratory (25 + 2
C). Germination tests were started on 15
June (freshly-matured seeds), 1 July, 1
August, | September and | October 1971.
Seeds were incubated in temperature-
and light-controlled incubators at a 14-h
photoperiod and in continuous darkness
at (12/12 h) alternating temperature re-
gimes that approximate the mean daily
maximum and minimum monthly air
temperatures in central Tennessee
(USDC 1965) and north-central Kentucky
(NOAA 1976) during the seed dormancy
and germination stages of the life cycle:
June, 30/15 C; July and August, 35/20 C;
September, 30/15 C and October, 20/10
C. The light source was cool white flu-
orescent tubes, and light intensity at seed
level was 2.1 Klx. At the alternating tem-
peratures the light period extended from
1 h before the beginning of the daily high
temperature period to | h after it ended.

Seeds were placed in 9 cm Petri dishes
on two layers of Whatman No. | filter pa-
per moistened with distilled water, and

>

three replications of 50 seeds each were
used in each treatment. Dishes were
wrapped with plastic film, and those con-
taining seeds to be incubated in darkness
were wrapped with 2 layers of alumi-
num foil. All germination tests were ter-
minated after 30 days. Seeds incubated
in light were examined at 5-day intervals,
and during each examination germinated
seeds were counted and removed. Seeds
incubated in darkness were not exam-
ined until the 30th day. Protrusion of the
radicle was the criterion of germination.
Germination percentages were rounded
off to the nearest whole number. For
each test condition, final germination
percentages of the 2 varieties were
compared using the Student's t-test at a
5% level of significance.

RESULTS

Freshly matured seeds of APP and APR
incubated in light germinated to 69 and
61%, respectively, at 20/10 C and to 33
and 18% at 30/15 C (Fig. 2). In darkness
two seeds of APP germinated at 20/10 and
two of APR germinated at 30/15 C (Table

GERMINATION IN ARENARIA—Baskin and Baskin

53

TABLE 1.—GERMINATION PERCENTAGES OF SEEDS OF Arenaria patula VAR. patula AND A. patula VAR.
robusta AFTER 30 DAYS OF INCUBATION IN CONTINUOUS DARKNESS

Date germination test began

Temperature Taxon 15 June 1 July 1 Aug. 1 Sept 1 Oct.
20/10 C APP 0 9 9 25 30
APR 1 8 3 13 21
P > .05 P > .05 P > .05 P< .05 P05
30/15 C APP 1 25 NZ 9 —
APR 0) 4 11 15 —!
P > .05 P< 05 P > .05 B05
35/20 C APP 0 @) 6 21 D)
APR 0) 0 0 13 5
P< .05 P > .05 R205
a No data.

1). During dry storage the seeds of both
varieties afterripened (came out of dor-
mancy) as evidenced by changes in ger-
mination rates and percentages when
they were incubated at the various test
conditions. In the light germination rates
increased, and in both light and darkness
total percentages of germination as well
as the temperature range for germination
increased. By October seeds of both va-
rieties germinated in light to 89-100% at
20/10 and 30/15 C, and APP and APR ger-
minated to 39 and 71%, respectively, at
35/20 C. In darkness APP germinated to
30 and 5% at 20/10 and 35/20 C, respec-
tively, while APR germinated to 21 and
5%.

In the light, final germination percent-
ages of APR were higher than those of
APP at all temperature regimes (where
germination occurred) except at 20/10
and 30/15 C in June and at 30/15 C in
July. Germination percentages of APR
were significantly higher than those of
APP at 20/10 C in July and September,
30/15 C in August and September and 35/
20 C in July, August, September and Oc-
tober. In darkness, the final germination
percentages of APP were higher than
those of APR at all temperature regimes
(where germination occurred), except at
20/10 C in June and 30/15 C in Septem-
ber. Germination percentages of APP
were significantly higher than those of
APR at 20/10 C in September, 30/15 C in
July and 35/20 C in August.

DISCUSSION

During autumn, winter and early
spring, the shallow, rocky cedar glade
soils are often saturated with water, but
during summer they frequently are be-
low the permanent wilting percentages
(Freeman 1933, C. Baskin, J. Baskin and
Quarterman 1972). Phenologically, win-
ter annuals such as APP and APR are well
adapted to this type of habitat. They ger-
minate in autumn, overwinter in the
cold-tolerant rosette stage, set seed in
spring and pass the summer in the
drought- and heat-tolerant seed stage.

Comparative studies of the germina-
tion responses of APP and APR show that
although there are significant differences
in the germination percentages of the 2
varieties at some stages of afterripening
under some temperature and light re-
gimes, the pattern of afterripening is the
same for both. Although 60% or more of
the freshly-matured seeds of APP and
APR germinated when incubated in light
at 20/10 C (Fig. 2), seeds do not germi-
nate in the field when they are dispersed
in June because temperatures of the hab-
itat are above those required for germi-
nation. However, by August a low per-
centage of the seeds can germinate at
August temperatures, but germination of
these seeds in the habitat is prevented by
a combination of the slow rate of germi-
nation and rapid rate of soil drying fol-
lowing summer showers. By September
and October seeds germinate to high per-

54 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 43(1-2)

centages and to high rates at September
and October temperatures. Thus, germi-
nation occurs in September and/or Octo-
ber when the soil is moist for a few con-
secutive days.

Seeds incubated in darkness at simu-
lated monthly temperatures during June,
July and August, respectively, (Table 1)
gave little or no germination. This would
prevent germination of any buried seeds
that might stay imbibed for a-relatively
long period of time (as compared to seeds
on the soil surface) following summer
rains.

In APR freshly matured seeds collect-
ed from the same cedar glade in Mercer
County, Kentucky in 3 consecutive
years differed significantly in the per-
centage of seeds that would germinate at
various temperatures (J. Baskin and C.
Baskin 1975). An increase in dormancy
appeared to be correlated with an in-
crease in precipitation during the 30-day
maturation period prior to harvest. Seeds
of APP have not been tested during con-
secutive years to determine if there are
year-to-year variations in the germination
percentages of freshly matured seeds. In-
terestingly, the germination percentages
of freshly harvested APP and APR seeds
used in this study were significantly dif-
ferent when incubated in light at 20/10 C
but mnotato0/lS Ci(Bie!2).

APP and APR can be distinguished
morphologically, and the 2 varieties
are not sympatric on the cedar glades we

have studied in Tennessee and Ken-
tucky. On the other hand, they have al-
most identical ecological life cycles and
seed dormancy and germination charac-
teristics. A study of the competitive re-
lationships of the two varieties may be
very useful in further delineating the
ecology of these 2 varieties.

LITERATURE CITED

BASKIN, C. C., J. M. BASKIN, AND E. QUARTERMAN.
1972. Observations on the ecology of Astrag-
alus tennesseensis. Amer. Midl. Natur.
88:167-182.

BASKIN, J. M., AND C. C. BASKIN. 1975. Year-to-year
variation in the germination of freshly-harvest-
ed seeds of Arenaria patula var. robusta from
the same site. J. Tenn. Acad. Sci. 50: 106-108.

CAUDLE, C., AND J. M. BASKIN. 1968. The germi-
nation pattern of three winter annuals. Bull.
Torrey Bot. Club 95:331-335.

FREEMAN, C. P. 1933. Ecology of cedar glade vege-
tation near Nashville, Tennessee. J. Tenn.
Acad. Sci. 8: 143-228.

MAGuIRE, B. 1951. Studies in the Caryophylla-
ceae—V. Arenaria in America north of Mexico.
Amer. Midl. Natur. 46:493-511.

NATIONAL OCEANIC AND ATMOSPHERIC ADMINIS-
TRATION. 1976. Environmental Data Service.
Local Climatological Data. Annual summary
with comparative data. Lexington, Kentucky.
National Climatic Center, Asheville, North
Carolina.

STEYERMARK, J. A. 1963. Flora of Missouri. Iowa
State Univ. Press, Ames, Iowa.

UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE,
WEATHER BUREAU. 1965. Climatography of
the U.S., 86-35. Decennial Census of the U.S.
Climate. Climatic summary of the U.S.—Sup-
plement for 1951 through 1960. Washington,
D.C.

Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 43(1-2), 1982, 55-59

Diversity and Seasonal Abundance of Mosquitoes (Diptera:
Culicidae) in Calloway County, Kentucky

CHERYL C. COURTNEY AND BRUCE M. CHRISTENSEN

Department of Biological Sciences, Murray State University,
Murray, Kentucky 42071

ABSTRACT

Adult mosquitoes were collected with New Jersey light traps from 2 locations in Calloway
County in 1979 and 1980. Twenty-seven species in 8 genera were recovered from a total of 9,214
mosquitoes collected. Aedes vexans comprised nearly 50% of the total. Culex pipiens complex,
Anopheles punctipennis, and Psorophora confinnis were the second, third, and fourth most
abundant species collected, respectively. The relationship of mosquitoes collected to dog heart-
worm transmission and to arbovirus activity is discussed.

INTRODUCTION

Dyar (1922) gave locality records for 8
species of mosquitoes in Kentucky, and
Quinby et al. (1944) recorded 42 species
from the state, including county distri-
bution and species prevalence. Between
1944 and 1945, 24 species of mosquitoes
were collected from 6 military stations in
the state (Carpenter 1952). Aedes sollic-
itans and Culiseta moristans were found
in Hardin County in 1952 (Blakeslee
1953). An outbreak of St. Louis enceph-
alitis (SLE) occurred in Jefferson County
in 1956, prompting a survey of mosqui-
toes of that county during 1958-1967 as
part of an effort towards mosquito control
(Covell 1968). Covell (1971) recorded Ae.
stimulans from Kentucky, bringing the
list of species for the state to its present
total of 48.

Our study attempts to accurately delin-
eate the relative abundance and species
diversity of mosquitoes in Calloway
County. This is part of an overall effort to
determine the natural vector(s) of dog
heartworm, Dirofilaria immitis, in that
area.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Adult mosquitoes were collected by
means of two New Jersey light traps,
equipped with 25 watt bulbs, and oper-
ated from 1800-0700 hrs for 4 days each
week from the first week in June until the

first week in October 1979, and 7 days a
week from the second week in April until
the first week of November 1980. Two
collecting sites (Murray-Calloway Coun-
ty Park and Hancock Biological Station)
were used each year.

All mosquitoes were identified to
species, although in some instances the
physical condition of collected speci-
mens permitted generic diagnosis only.

Culex pipiens complex is used in this
study to refer to 4 very similar mosqui-
toes, Cx. p. pipiens, Cx. p. quinquefas-
ciatus, Cx. restuans, and Cx. salinarius.
Culex pipiens pipiens and Cx. p. quin-
quefasciatus females are identical mor-
phologically. Culex restuans and Cx. sal-
inarius were identified only from fully
scaled adults. Male terminalia were not
examined on any mosquito.

RESULTS

A total of 9,214 adult mosquitoes in 8
genera representing 27 species was col-
lected (Table 1). The only mosquito col-
lected in 1979 but not 1980 was Ae. ni-
gromaculis. None of the species in our
collections were new to Kentucky (Car-
penter and LaCasse 1955).

Total number of each sex of each
species collected at each site is listed in
Table 2. Substantially more mosquitoes
were collected in 1980 (6,412) than 1979
(2,802) because of the longer trapping

59

56

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 43(1-2)

TABLE 1.— SPECIES OF MOSQUITOES COLLECTED FROM NEW JERSEY LIGHT TRAPS IN CALLOWAY COUNTY,
1979-80

Species

1979

=
xe)
ie)
(=)

Ochlerotatus
Ochlerotatus

Aedes canadensis (Theobald, 1901)
Aedes dupreei (Coquillett, 1904)
Aedes (Ochlerotatus) nigromaculis (Ludlow, 1906)

(
Aedes (Ochlerotatus) sollicitans (Walker, 1856)
(
(
(

Wwe wa

Aedes (Ochlerotatus) sticticus (Meigen, 1838)
Aedes (Protomacleaya) triseriatus (Say, 1823)
Aedes (Ochlerotatus) trivittatus (Coquillett, 1902)
Aedes (Aedimorphus) vexans (Meigen, 1830)
Anopheles (Anopheles) barberi (Coquillett, 1903)
Anopheles (Anopheles) punctipennis (Say, 1823)

Anopheles (Anopheles) quadrimaculatus (Say, 1824)
Coquillettidia (Coquillettidia) perturbans (Walker, 1856)
Culex (Melanoconion) erraticus (Dyar and Knab, 1906)

Culex (Culex) pipiens (Linnaeus, 1758)

Culex (Culex) restuans (Theobald, 1901)

Culex (Culex) salinarius (Coquillett, 1904)
Culex (Culex) tarsalis (Coquillett, 1896)

Culex (Neoculex) territans (Walker, 1856)
Culiseta (Culiseta) inornata (Williston, 1893)
Culiseta (Culicella) morsitans (Theobald, 1901)
Orthopodomyia signifera (Coquillett, 1896)
Psorophora (Psorophora) ciliata (Fabricus, 1794)

Psorophora (Grabhamia) confinnis (Lynch Arribalzaga, 1891)
Psorophora (Janthinosoma) cyanescens (Coquillett, 1902)
Psorophora (Janthinosoma) ferox (Von Humbolt, 1819)
Psorophora (Psorophora) howardii (Coquillett, 1901)
Uranotaenia (Uranotaenia) sapphirina (Osten Sacken, 1868) xX

period in 1980. The Murray trapping site
provided the greatest number and diver-
sity of species both years.

Aedes vexans, Culex pipiens complex,
Anopheles punctipennis, and Psoropho-
ra confinnis were the most prevalent
species collected (Fig. 1). These 4
species comprised approximately 78% of
the total collected. Aedes vexans made
up nearly 50% of the total collected and
was the most common species collected
at either site.

Seasonal distribution of 1980 collec-
tions for the 3 most prevalent genera is
illustrated in Figure 2. Seasonal popula-
tion trends were typical for these genera
of mosquitoes. There were 2 major pop-
ulation peaks of Aedes, one in July and
the other during the first week of Octo-
ber. Culex and Anopheles populations
gradually increased to their highest
levels in late August and September.
Drought in western Kentucky in 1980
probably resulted in fewer population

mm rs
PS Ph PS PO Oh

peaks of flood-water mosquitoes (Aedes)
than normally occur in this area.

DISCUSSION

Aedes vexans is a major pest species
throughout most of the United States
(Carpenter and LaCasse 1955, Horsfall et
al. 1973), and is one of the dominant
species in the Tennessee Valley (Bree-
land et al. 1961). Although the public
health importance of this species is min-
imal, it has long been considered a po-
tential vector of dog heartworm (Hu
1931). Recently, workers have verified
Ae. vexans as the principal vector of D.
immitis in Minnesota (Hendrix et al.
1980, Bemrick and Sandholm 1966). Pre-
liminary data from our studies to deter-
mine the natural vector of D. immitis in
western Kentucky indicate Ae. vexans as
a major suspect.

In addition to Ae. vexans, the following
mosquitoes collected in our study have
been reported as potential vectors of dog

MOSQUITOES IN KENTUCKY—Courtney and Christensen

7

TABLE 2.—TOTAL MOSQUITOES COLLECTED BY SEX FROM NEW JERSEY LIGHT TRAPS IN TWO LOCATIONS
IN CALLOWAY Counrty, 1979-80

Murray, Kentucky

Hancock Biological Station

Females

Species Males Females Males Total

Ae. canadensis 1 2 0 0 3
Ae. dupreei 1 0 0 1
Ae. nigromaculus 2 0 0 0 2
Ae. sollicitans 23 0) 0) 0 23
Ae. sticticus 5 4 4 IL 14
Ae. triseriatus 37 43 10 8 98
Ae. trivittatus 1 0) 0) 0) 0)
Ae. vexans 1,962 690 1,490 303 4,445
An. barberi 0 0) 1 0) ]
An. punctipennis 490 91 59 0 640
An. quadrimaculatus D277 31 5 2 335
Cq. perturbans 22 1 60 0 83
Cx. erraticus 119 15 40 9 183
Cx. pipiens complex 624 681 349 243 1,897
Cx. restuans 89 37 87 46 259
Cx. salinarius 24 2 40 18 84
Cx. tarsalis 2 0) 14 9 25
Cx. territans 79 111 14 17 221
Cu. inornata 8 1 156 2 167
Cu. morsitans 2 9 0) 0) 4
O. signifera 2 4 1 0 7
Ps. ciliata 49 4 1 0) 54
Ps. confinnis 108 11 33 4 156
Ps. cyanescens 4 1 1 0 6
Ps. ferox 1 8 0 0 4
Ps. howardii 2 0 0) 0) 2
Ur. sapphirina 113 15 48 14 190
All other species* 170 55 75 9 309
9,214

* These mosquitoes were only identified to genus.

heartworm (Christensen and Andrews
1976, Ludlam et al. 1970): Ae. canaden-
sis, Ae. sollicitans, Ae. sticticus, Ae. tri-
seriatus, Ae. trivittatus, An. punctipen-
nis, An. quadrimaculatus, Coquillettidia
perturbans, Cx. pipiens, Cx. restuans,
Cx. salinarius, Cx. tarsalis, Cx. territans,
and Ps. ferox. Of these mosquitoes, only
Ae. canadensis and Ae. trivittatus have
been proven to function as natural vec-
tors of dog heartworm in any area of the
United States (Christensen 1977, Chris-
tensen and Andrews 1976, Bickley et al.
1977). Only 3 Ae. canadensis and 1
Ae. trivittatus were collected in the 2
year period in Calloway County; there-
fore, the contribution of these species to
the maintenance of D. immitis in this
area is probably minimal. The southern
house mosquito, Cx. p. quinquefasciatus,

has been found naturally infected with
D. immitis in Louisiana (Villavaso and
Steelman 1970), and the large number of
Cx. pipiens complex mosquitoes in our
collections suggested this mosquito may
be an important vector in our area. Like-
wise, the reports of Christensen and An-
drews (1976) and Buxton and Mullen
(1980) indicated that An. punctipennis
may play an important role in the natural
transmission of dog heartworm. The high
populations of An. punctipennis noted in
Calloway County suggested this species
as a probable natural vector in this area.

Culex pipiens complex mosquitoes
were extremely abundant in our collec-
tions and these mosquitoes are the pri-
mary vectors of SLE in the Mississippi
and Ohio River basins (Center for Dis-
ease Control 1976). Major epidemics of

58 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 43(1-2)

604
ai
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o
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Species Collected
Fic. 1. Percentage composition of important

species of mosquitoes collected in New Jersey light
traps in 1979 and 1980.

SLE have occurred in Kentucky in 1956
and 1975, with sporadic human cases
being reported as recently as 1977 (Cen-
ter for Disease Control 1976, HEW Pub-
lication 1979). The Culex populations
found in Calloway County suggest the
potential for outbreaks in the future. It
would be advantageous, from a public
health point of view, to continually mon-
itor Culex populations and correlate
these with SLE activity in an attempt to
develop data that could be used in a pre-
dictive manner.

Culex tarsalis populations only be-
came apparent in late summer and early
fall collections. This is primarily a west-
ern species, but it seems to be able to
establish itself in Calloway County each
year. This mosquito is the principal vec-
tor of western equine encephalomyelitis
(WEE), an arboviral disease of equines
and humans. Approximately 3 equine
cases of WEE occur from August to Oc-
tober in western Kentucky each year (Dr.
Wade Kadel, Director, Veterinary Diag-

Aedes

Culex

Anopheles

Number of mosquitoes collected per 2 week period (x10:)

2054 18

‘eS 29) 13s 7, 8 10 24 7
APR MAY JUN JUL

rue Bs ue) 2
AUG SEPT OcT NOV

Fic. 2. Seasonal distribution of the major genera
of mosquitoes collected in a New Jersey light trap
in 1980.

nostic Laboratory, Hopkinsville, KY,
pers. comm.). Whether the Cx. tarsalis
population is responsible for the main-
tenance of WEE in western Kentucky has
yet to be determined, but the correlation
of equine cases with the appearance of
Cx. tarsalis in our collections suggested
this might be true.

Aedes triseriatus populations are prob-
ably greater than our data indicate. They
blood feed in late afternoon and are not
readily attracted to light traps (Love and
Smith 1957). Because this mosquito is the
principal vector of LaCrosse virus and is
considered a potential vector of D. im-
mitis, the population of Ae. triseriatus in
Calloway County needs to be assessed by
different sampling techniques.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

This study was funded by grants 403
and 441 from the Committee on Institu-
tional Studies and Research, Murray

MOSQUITOES IN KENTUCKY—Courtney and Christensen 59

State University. We also thank Mary
Bourland, David Clark, and Karen Ramey
for their assistance in various aspects of
this study.

LITERATURE CITED

BEMRICK, W. J., AND H. A. SANDHOLM. 1966. Aedes
vexans and other potential vectors of Dirofilar-
ia immitis in Minnesota. J. Parasitol.
52:762-767.

BICKLEY, W. E., R. S. LAWRENCE, G. M. WARD,
AND R. S. SCHILLINGER. 1977. Dog-to-dog
transmission of heartworm by Aedes canaden-
sis. Mosquito News 37:137-138.

BLAKESLEE, L. E., AND G. S. PAYNE. 1953. Aedes
(O.) sollicitans (Walker) and Culiseta (C.) mor-
sitans (Theobald) in Kentucky. Mosquito News
13:210.

BREELAND, S. G., W. E. SNOW, AND EUGENE PICK-
ARD. 1961. Mosquitoes of the Tennessee Val-
ley. J. Tenn. Acad. Sci. 36:249-319.

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the development and transmission of Dirofi-
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vey in Jefferson County, Kentucky. Mosquito
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SCHLOTTHAUER. 1980. Natural Transmission
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LUDLAM, K. W., L. A. JACHOWSKI, AND G. F. OTTO.
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Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 43(1-2), 1982, 60-70

The Fishes of the Wild River Section of the Little South
Fork of the Cumberland River, Kentucky’

BRANLEY A. BRANSON AND GUENTER A. SCHUSTER

Department of Biological Sciences, Eastern Kentucky University,
Richmond, Kentucky 40475

ABSTRACT
The fish fauna of a 10.4-mile segment of the Little South Fork of the Cumberland River in
McCreary County, Kentucky is being considered for inclusion in the Wild Rivers System. The
diverse fish fauna includes nearly 60 species. Two of the species, the sawfin shiner and the
palezone shiner, are undescribed, and 8 species are listed as threatened, of special concern, or

endangered. Relative abundances are discussed.

INTRODUCTION

The fish fauna of the Little South Fork
of the Cumberland River has never been
thoroughly investigated from headwaters
to mouth, and some of the early ichthy-
ologists failed to sample the fauna entire-
ly. For example, Woolman (1892) did not
report fishes from the Little South Fork.
Kirsch (1893) made a few collections
from the stream, particularly near the
mouth of Kennedy Creek, reporting three
species which have not been collected
since. Evermann’s (1918) work simply re-
iterated the species listed by Kirsch
(1893). Carter and Jones (1969) secured
specimens from three Little South Fork
sites, all from stretches of the stream
lying outside the study area. The most
extensive survey of Little South Fork
fishes is that of Comiskey and Etnier
(1972), and a few additional sites were
visited by field parties of the Kentucky
Nature Preserves Commission (Harker et
al. 1979, 1980). Various workers (Branson
1971, Gilbert 1969, Lachner and Jenkins
1967, Zorach and Raney 1967) have in-
cluded scattered records from the stream,
mostly from easily accessible points off
main roadways.

METHODS

Fishes were collected at 9 McCreary
County sites (Table 1, Fig. 1) distributed

' Based on a study conducted for the Coastal Zone
Resources Division of Ocean Data Systems, Inc.

60

throughout the section of the stream
being considered for inclusion in the
Wild Rivers System (10.4 miles, extend-
ing from the Highway 92 bridge to the
mouth) during the last week of October
and the first week of November 1980. At
that time, the river was exceptionally
low, maintaining only minimal flow be-
tween nearly standing pools. At each lo-
cality, efforts were made to sample all
obvious habitat types, i.e., riffles, chutes,
pools, and backwaters, utilizing various
sizes of seines.

RESULTS

Our collections included 35 species, all
deposited in the museum at Eastern Ken-
tucky University. The results of the in-
ventory are summarized in Table 2. The
total number of each species collected is
listed for each station, and the total num-
ber of fishes collected at each station is
listed beneath each column with abun-
dance and diversity rankings. The abun-
dance ranking for each species is pre-
sented in the righthand column of the
table. Species reported in the literature
but not collected during the present sur-
vey are discussed below.

DOMINANT FISH SPECIES
Discussions of dominancy or lack
thereof are often misleading when fluvia-
tile populations are being considered.
Huge numbers of one species may con-
gregate in an optimum habitat from
which they are easily collected, whereas

FISHES OF CUMBERLAND RIVER—Branson and Schuster 61

TABLE 1.—SAMPLING STATIONS FOR FISHES

Station

number Location

1 Little South Fork at river mile 14.5, at
Highway 92 crossing.

2 Little South Fork at river mile 13.2.

3. Little South Fork at river mile 12.5, near
mouth of Corder Creek.

4 Little South Fork at river mile 11.2.

5 Little South Fork at river mile 10.6, near
Jones School Ford.

6 Little South Fork at river mile 9.1.

7 Little South Fork at river mile 7.9, near
Ritner Ford.

8 Little South Fork at river mile 6.1.

9 Little South Fork at river mile 5.4, near
Freedom Church Ford.

elsewhere the species may occur in small
numbers. This may skew numerical data
to such an extent that a species appears
to be dominant throughout a given
stream. For example, the undescribed
palezone shiner completely dominated
Station 6 by its numbers, whereas the
species was completely absent from the
two upstream sites (stations | and 2) and
was sparsely represented at stations 3, 4,
and 5 as well. Such considerations must
be borne in mind when interpreting the
data of Table 2.

However, certain trends of dominancy
are obvious. For example, the members
of the family Cyprinidae dominated the
sampled section of the Little South Fork,
both in number of species (15) and in to-
tal number of individuals collected. Per-
cids (darters) were of second-rank impor-
tance in number of species (10), and the
centrarchids were third (5). The suckers
(2 species), cyprinodonts (1 species),
sculpins (1 species), and silversides (1
species) ranked very low, of course.

The dominant species collected were
the telescope shiner (Notropis telesco-
pus) and the undescribed palezone shin-
er, both of which occurred in sluggish to
flowing pools. The riffles were dominat-
ed by darters, principally the speckled
darter (Etheostoma stigmaeum) and bar-
cheek darter (Etheostoma obeyense) over
sandy stretches and the rainbow darter
(Etheostoma caeruleum) over gravel and
rocks; the greenside darter (Etheostoma

blennioides) dominated the vegetated rif-
fles. Backwater pools were dominated by
the common shiner (Notropis cornutus)
and bluntnose minnow (Pimephales no-
tatus). Certain species, such as the creek
chub (Semotilus atromaculatus), which
often forms dominant populations in ex-
treme headwater streams, were present
in very low numbers; and other species
were absent entirely (e.g., headwater
species such as the southern redbelly
dace (Phoxinus erythrogaster) and big-
water species such as the largemouth
bass (Micropterus salmoides), crappie
(Pomoxis spp.), catfishes (Ictalurus spp.),
and most suckers).

SENSITIVE SPECIES

The Little South Fork, because of its
very high-quality water and clean habi-
tats, has been able to retain a rather di-
verse biota, including fishes. Although
some species found in other portions of
the Cumberland River drainage are lack-
ing, the Little South Fork fish fauna as a
total assemblage is relatively rich as com-
pared with the larger Rockcastle River,
and some species are more or less re-
stricted to it. No federally listed threat-
ened or endangered fishes are known to
occur; however, according to various
designations found in Branson et al.
(1981), 4 minnows and 4 darters de-
serve special attention: Notropis ariom-
mus (popeye shiner) has been extirpated
from Georgia and Alabama and is rare
throughout most of its range. The closely
related Notropis telescopus has been de-
listed in Kentucky. Notropis species
(sawfin shiner) is listed as an endangered
endemic by Branson et al. (1981), as
is the palezone shiner (Notropis sp.); Hy-
bopsis insignis (blotched chub) is listed
as of special concern, as is Etheostoma
maculatum (spotted darter); Etheostoma
cinereum (ashy darter) and Percina bur-
toni (blotchside logperch) are both en-
dangered, and Percina macrocephala
(longhead darter) is listed as threatened.

SYSTEMATIC DISCUSSION

In the following discussion, species re-
ported by other authors are indicated by

62 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 43(1-2)

Fic. 1.

an asterisk (*) to distinguish them from
the species collected during the present
survey.

PETROMYZONTIDAE—LAMPREYS

*Ichthyomyzon bdellium (Jordan)—Ohio
Lamprey

Comiskey and Etnier (1972) collected
1 specimen of this parasitic lamprey at
Ritner Ford (our Station 7). Lamprey
adults are not encountered in such situ-
ations outside the breeding season.

*Ichthyomyzon greeleyi Hubbs and
Trautman—Allegheny Brook Lamprey

The single specimen captured near
Mount Pisgah by Comiskey and Etnier
(1972) is the only record for this nonpar-
asitic lamprey from the Cumberland Riv-
er drainage. The life cycle of this species
is poorly understood.

Little South Fork of the Cumberland River collecting stations.

LEPISOSTEIDAE—GARS

*Lepisosteus osseus (Linnaeus)—Long-
nose Gar

The specimen collected by Carter and
Jones (1969) from the mouth of Kennedy
Creek and the one from the Parmleys-
ville bridge area are the only reports for
gars in the Little South Fork drainage.
The habitat at both these sites is out of
character for this predator which is nor-
mally found in deeper water in large
streams and lakes.

CYPRINIDAE—MINNOWS

As shown in Table 2, minnows domi-
nate the fish population of the Little
South Fork, both in number of species
and in biomass. Minnows comprise 74%
of the total number of individuals col-
lected and 43% of the species. Most of

FISHES OF CUMBERLAND RIVER—Branson and Schuster

63

TABLE 2.—ABUNDANCE, DIVERSITY, AND DISTRIBUTION OF FISH SPECIES BY STATION IN THE LITTLE
SOUTH FORK OF THE CUMBERLAND RIVER, KENTUCKY

Collecting stations Abun-
Total dance
Species 1 2 3 4 5 6 uf 8 9 collected rank
Campostoma anomalum 2 — 34 1 11 — 19 2 9 78 13
Notropis telescopus 64 = 298 20 136 29 170 100 183 1,000 1
Notropis galacturus —- — 5 — di 4 46 7 21 90 12
Notropis ariommus Bes 5 ] 2 == ae eet ie 13 20
Notropis ardens oe 64 2 43 6 2 1 3 PAe/ fs)
Notropis rubellus 26 1 30 86 75 50 22 a 5 302 4
Notropis cornutus 64 Ballas) 20 42 6 12 — 2} 286 5
Sawfin shiner —- — 43 — 16 54 24 = 6 143 7
Palezone shiner —_- — 5 10 GO), D340) 83 62 145 546 2
Notropis photogenis a _ eet 4 = ie me a A 27
Notropis volucellus 18 1 — — — —_ — ae — 19 17
Pimephales notatus 20 19 56 31 38 55 = 18 245 6
Hybopsis dissimilis —- — — — — 1 1 — 2 28
Hybopsis insignis —_- — 2 — 1 = = == 1 4 27
Semotilus atromaculatus ee 6 = = a= ane = oe 6 25
Hypentelium nigricans _— 1 1 1 1 4 = 2, 10 23
Catostomus commersoni —_—- — 2 — — — — — — 2 28
Fundulus catenatus Bo 1 1 1 = 2 = 1 fe) 24
Ambloplites rupestris 13 1 3 1 2 = = — = 20 16
Lepomis megalotis 93 12 10 1 6 23 3 2, 3 113 11
Lepomis macrochirus — 4 1 — _ — — — — 5 26
Micropterus dolomieui et 1 = = = 2 1 = 5 26
Micropterus punctulatum — — 2 = — — — 2 — 4 2
Labidesthes sicculus 1 = = = 2 45 4 2 6 60 15
Percina caprodes ec — = — — = = 1 29
Etheostoma blennioides i 12 6 6 10 19 4 6 64 14
Etheostoma zonale Se = — — — 1 4 — 5 26
Etheostoma maculatum A = 3 2 2 = 2 2 = 12, 21
Etheostoma camurum —_—- — 7 3 — — 2 1 2; 15 18
Etheostoma stigmaeum 20 3 18 18 12 29 23 = 10 133 8
Etheostoma caeruleum 4l 1 155 34 57 2 23 33 39 385 3
Etheostoma obeyense 34 2 24 5 4 Sil 4 — 8 112 10
Etheostoma flabellare —_- — 6 2 3 — — — — 11 22,
Etheostoma cinereum 1 — — — = — ] 29
Cottus carolinae aoe | eee 10 1 = — 2 1 — 14 19
Totals: SOA 989 sac46) ASO 578s VA 2326 4 (OP MtS S46
Station abundance rank 6 9 1 8 3 2 4 i 5

Total number of species 20 el) 28 20

Station diversity rank 4 8 1 4

the species are adapted for life in flowing
pools and backwaters, although the
stoneroller characteristically occupies rif-
fles. Minnows are the most important for-
age fishes in stream habitats.

Campostoma anomalum (Rafinesque)—
Stoneroller

Collecting sites: 1, 3, 4, 5, 7, 8, 9; 78
specimens. Rank: 13.

Stonerollers are widely distributed

throughout the Cumberland River sys-
tem except where pollution has extirpat-
ed them. They breed over riffles in spring
and migrate into pools for feeding and
overwintering. The eggs are deposited in
excavations just above pools. The fish is
a primary consumer and is very sensitive
to both acid and sediment pollution.

*Cyprinus carpio Linnaeus—Carp
The only Little South Fork record for

64 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 43(1-2)

this deepwater species is that of Carter
and Jones (1969). The carp is not nor-
mally encountered in the Upper Cum-
berland River drainage except in im-
poundments.

*Hybopsis amblops (Rafinesque)—Big-
eye Chub

The bigeye chub was collected by
Kirsch (1893) from the mouth of Kennedy
Creek and has not been reported from the
system since that time. In fact, the
species is nowhere common in the Big
South Fork system (Comiskey and Etnier
1972).

Hybopsis dissimilis (Kirtland)—Stream-
line Chub

Collecting sites: 6, 8; 2 specimens.
Rank: 28.

This interesting minnow, modified for
relatively swift currents, has often been
confused with the next species.

Hybopsis insignis Hubbs and Crowe—
Blotched Chub

Collecting sites: 3, 5, 9; 4 specimens.
Rank: 27.

The blotched chub typically inhabits
small and large rivers with moderate cur-
rent and gravel bottoms, where it breeds
in late spring and early summer. The
species is not common in the Little South
Fork (Comiskey and Etnier 1972). The
fish appears sporadically in Kentucky,
Green, Tennessee and Cumberland river
systems, and it is listed in the Special
Concern category.

*Nocomis effusus Lachner and Jenkins—
Redtail Chub

Inhabiting riffles and swift pools in
main rivers and larger creeks (Lachner
and Jenkins 1967) with rocky or gravel
bottoms, this fish feeds mostly upon in-
sects and small amounts of plant mate-
rials. The species is not common in the
Little South Fork (Lachner and Jenkins
1967) and apparently does not occur in
the Big South Fork (Comiskey and Etnier
1972). Lachner and Jenkins (1967) re-
ported a few specimens from the mouth
of Kennedy Creek and from the Little
South Fork at Parmleysville.

The redtail chub is often confused with
the river chub (Nocomis micropogon
Cope). Although Carter and Jones (1969)
reported specimens of the river chub
from the mouth of Kennedy Creek and
from Parmleysville, that species probably
does not occur in the Little South Fork
(Comiskey and Etnier 1972).

Notropis ardens (Cope)—Rosefin Shiner

Collecting sites: 1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9; 127
specimens. Rank: 9.

Widely distributed in the Cumberland
River system, where it is sometimes con-
fused with the emerald shiner (Notropis
atherinoides Rafinesque), a relatively
rare species in the Big South Fork system
(Comiskey and Etnier 1972).

Notropis ariommus (Cope)—Popeye
Shiner

Collecting sites: 1, 3, 4, 5; 13 speci-
mens. Rank: 20.

Listed as of Special Concern, this min-
now is uncommon to rare throughout its
range, having been extirpated or heavily
depleted by the effects of strip mining in
much of the Kentucky distribution. The
fish principally occupies pools over grav-
el bottoms.

*Notropis boops Gilbert—Bigeye Shiner

Since this minnow has not been col-
lected by other workers from this system,
the Carter and Jones (1969) record, based
upon a single specimen from Parmleys-

ville, should be verified.

Notropis cornutus (Mitchill)—Common
Shiner

Collecting sites: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 9; 286
specimens. Rank: 5.

The fifth most common species en-
countered in the study area, the common
shiner utilizes both pools and slower rif-
fles as habitat.

Notropis galacturus (Cope)—Whitetail
Shiner

Collecting sites: 3, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9; 90 spec-
imens. Rank: 12.

The whitetail shiner was more com-
mon at downstream sites in the Little
South Fork, principally in flowing pools
over rocks and gravel.

FISHES OF CUMBERLAND RIVER—Branson and Schuster 65

*Notropis leuciodus (Cope)—Tennessee
Shiner

The only record, which should be ver-
ified, is that of Comiskey and Etnier
(1972), who also reported the species
from Clear Fork. The Tennessee shiner
has stream requirements similar to those
of the rosyface shiner (Notropis rubellus)
and is often found swimming with that
species.

Notropis photogenis (Cope)—Silver
Shiner

Collecting sites: 5; 4 specimens. Rank:
ile

The silver shiner must be listed as rare
in the study area, and it is often scarce at
other Cumberland River tributaries. Typ-
ically, the fish inhabits large, clean
streams and rivers over gravel and rocky
bottoms. The biology of the species is
poorly known.

Notropis species cf Notropis spectrun-
culus Cope—Sawfin Shiner

Collecting sites: 3, 5, 6, 7, 9; 143 spec-
imens. Rank: 7.

This undescribed species, probably
most closely related to the mirror shiner
(Notropis spectrunculus), inhabits pools
with moderate current over gravel and
rocks. The biology is unknown but the
species is being considered by Dr. John
Ramsey of Auburn University. The
species was reported from the Little
South Fork by Comiskey and Etnier
(1972). Melvin A. Warren, Jr., Kentucky
Nature Preserves Commission, also has
definite records from Pitman and Rock
creeks outside the study area. The
species is listed as of Special Concern
(Branson et al. 1981).

Notropis species cf Notropis procne
Cope—Palezone Shiner

Collecting sites: 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9; 546
specimens. Rank: 2.

Ranking second only to the telescope
shiner in abundance during this inven-
tory, the palezone shiner (being consid-
ered by R. E. Jenkins, Roanoke College,
Virginia) is another undescribed species,
probably most closely related to the swal-
lowtail shiner (Notropis procne). The

species prefers pools with considerable
current but very little is known about the
biology of the fish. It is endemic to the
Little South Fork and is considered a rel-
ict (Comiskey and Etnier 1972). The
species is listed as endangered (Branson

et al. 1981).

Notropis rubellus (Agassiz)—Rosyface
Shiner

Collecting sites: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9:
302 specimens. Rank: 4.

This fish maintains its largest popula-
tions near the middle of the study area,
dropping off in numbers above and be-
low that area. Reported from Ritner Ford
by Harker et al. (1979).

*“Notropis atherinoides (Rafinesque)—
Emerald Shiner

Collected by Harker et al. (1979) at Rit-
ner Ford.

Notropis telescopus (Cope)—Telescope
Shiner

Collecting sites: 1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9;
1,000 specimens. Rank: 1.

Previously listed as of Special Con-
cern, the telescope shiner has been de-
listed (Branson et al. 1981) because of
the relatively large populations in var-
ious parts of the Cumberland River sys-
tem. It was the most abundant minnow
during the present inventory, being
found mostly in fairly swift water over
gravel and rocky bottoms.

Notropis volucellus (Cope)—Mimic
Shiner

Collecting sites: 1, 2;
Rank: 17.

This schooling species is mostly a
large-stream fish that is encountered in
smaller numbers in creeks and streams
the size of the Little South Fork.

19 specimens.

*Phenacobius mirabilis (Girard)—Suck-
ermouth Minnow

It is unfortunate that the single speci-
men reported by Carter and Jones (1969)
from the Little South Fork near the
mouth of Kennedy Creek was not pre-
served. The presence of this species in
the Upper Cumberland River seems
highly unlikely since it is mostly a low-

66 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 43(1-2)

land species (Clay 1975), and it is un-
known within the range of the stargazing
minnow (Phenacobius uranops Cope).

*Phoxinus erythrogaster (Rafinesque)—
Southern Redbelly Dace

This species is an extreme headwaters
and small-spring fish seldom encoun-
tered at downstream or main-channel
sites. It does live in a number of Little
South Fork headwater springs.

Pimephales notatus (Rafinesque)—
Bluntnose Minnow

Collecting sites: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 9; 245
specimens. Rank: 6.

One of the most widely distributed
fishes in Kentucky, the bluntnose min-
now sometimes produces prodigious
populations in pooled areas of streams
possessing vegetation and/or decaying
wood. It is an important forage fish.

*Pimephales promelas Rafinesque—Fat-
head Minnow

The single specimen reported from the
lower end of the Little South Fork by
Comiskey and Etnier (1972) was consid-
ered the result of bait introduction.

*Rhinichthys atratulus (Hermann)—
Blacknose Dace

This species is found only in extreme
headwater tributaries (Comiskey and Et-
nier 1972).

Semotilus atromaculatus (Mitchill)—
Creek Chub

Collecting sites: 3; 6 specimens. Rank:
By,

Normally a headwater fish, the creek
chub decreases in numbers downstream.
Our six specimens were collected from a
side spring.

CATOSTOMIDAE—SUCKERS

Even though suckers are difficult to
collect by seining, under the conditions
prevaling in the Little South Fork during
the inventory members of the genus
Moxostoma were not observed in the
shallow, very clear water. Redhorses are
seasonally abundant fishes, making
spawning runs upstream to riffles then
retiring to deeper waters during summer
and winter. Redhorses were not collected

by Comiskey and Etnier (1972) from the
Little South Fork, and it is doubted that
Moxostoma ever makes up a conspicuous
element in the stream’s fauna.

Catostomus commersoni (Lacépede)—
White Sucker

Collecting sites: 3; 2 specimens. Rank:
28.

White suckers are normal constituents
of headwater populations and are not
often collected far downstream. They are
more or less omnivorous, feeding mostly
from the bottom, hence siltation rapidly
decimates populations.

Hypentelium nigricans (Lesueur)—
Northern Hog Sucker

Collecting sites: 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 9; 10 spec-
imens. Rank: 23.

The hogsucker is a characteristic fish of
the Cumberland River system and else-
where, but it does not occur in large num-
bers at any given locality.

*Lagocheila lacera Jordan and Brayton—
Harelip Sucker

Kirsch (1893) collected this species
from the mouth of Canada (Kennedy)
Creek in 1891, but the species has not
been seen in North America since 1895
and is considered to be extinct.

*Moxostoma duquesnei (Lesueur)—Black
Redhorse

Although common in other parts of the
Cumberland River drainage, the black
redhorse and other species of Moxostoma
are considered rare in the Little South
Fork (Comiskey and Etnier 1972). The
only records for the species in the drain-
age are those of Carter and Jones (1969)
from Parmleysville and Harker et al.
(1979) from Ritner Ford.

*Moxostoma erythrurum (Lesueur)—
Golden Redhorse

The golden redhorse has been report-
ed from the mouth of Kennedy Creek
(Carter and Jones 1969).

ICTALURIDAE—FRESHWATER
CATFISHES

Catfishes are not abundant in either the
Big South Fork (Comiskey and Etnier
1972) or the Little South Fork. Only 3

FISHES OF CUMBERLAND RIVER—Branson and Schuster 67

species, based upon small samples, have
been reported thus far.

*Ictalurus natalis (Lesueur)—Yellow
Bullhead

Carter and Jones (1969) collected 1
specimen by means of chemicals at the
mouth of Kennedy Creek.

*Ictalurus punctatus (Rafinesque)—
Channel Catfish

Harker et al. (1979) reported the chan-
nel catfish from a Little South Fork lo-
cality outside the present study area, and
from Ritner Ford. There is minimal hab-
itat for the channel catfish throughout
much of the Little South Fork, the best
being just above the mouth.

*Noturus flavus Rafinesque—Stonecat

The only known Little South Fork rec-
ords are those of Carter and Jones (1969)
from Parmleysville and Harker et al.
(1980) from Kennedy Creek.

CYPRINODONTIDAE—KILLIFISH
Fundulus catenatus (Storer)—Northern

Studfish

Collecting sites: 1, 3, 4, 7, 9; 9 speci-
mens. Rank: 24.

The studfish is not a common inhabit-
ant of much of the Upper Cumberland
River system. Comiskey and Etnier
(1972), for example, found the species to
be restricted to the Little South Fork in
the Big South Fork system.

ATHERINIDAE—SILVERSIDES

Labidesthes sicculus (Cope)—Brook Sil-
verside

Collecting sites: 1, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9; 60 spec-
imens. Rank: 15.

Apparently uncommon in other Cum-
berland River tributaries, this nearly
transparent fish develops its largest pop-
ulations in backwaters and lakes or in
small, clear upland tributaries. The
species is susceptible to turbidity.

PERCICHTHYIDAE—TEMPERATE
BASSES

*Morone chrysops (Rafinesque)—White
Bass

The only published record for this
predator from the Little South Fork

drainage is that of Carter and Jones
(1969) from the mouth of Kennedy Creek.

CENTRARCHIDAE—SUNFISHES

Seven species of centrarchids are
known from the Little South Fork drain-
age; five of the seven were collected dur-
ing the present inventory.

Ambloplites rupestris (Rafinesque)—
Rockbass

Collecting sites: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5: 20 speci-
mens. Rank: 16.

Large populations of rockbass are not
maintained at any given site, probably
because of competitive exclusion.

Lepomis macrochirus (Rafinesque)—
Bluegill

Collecting sites: 2, 3; 5 specimens.
Rank: 26.

The bluegill is not characteristically a
member of upland streams, principally
living in backwaters, ponds and lakes.

Lepomis megalotis (Rafinesque)—Long-
ear Sunfish

Collecting-sites: 172) 34 .oN6N (134.9:
113 specimens. Rank: 11.

This is the most common and abundant
Lepomis in most of the tributaries of the
Cumberland River, including the Big
South Fork and Little South Fork.

Micropterus dolomieui Lacépede—
Smallmouth Bass

Collecting sites: 1, 3, 7,8; 5 specimens.
Rank: 26.

The smallmouth bass and the spotted
bass are the dominant predators in the
Little South Fork, but neither species
maintains large populations at given lo-
calities because of competitive exclusion.

Micropterus punctulatus (Rafinesque)—
Spotted Bass

Collecting sites: 3,
Rank: 27.

The spotted bass has habitat require-
ments and breeding habits similar to
those of the smallmouth bass although it
seems to prefer stream segments of lower
gradient. Breeding usually occurs when
water temperatures reach 50°F (Traut-
man 1957).

8; 4 specimens.

68 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 43(1-2)

*Micropterus salmoides (Lacépede)—
Largemouth Bass

The only record from the Little South
Fork is that of Harker et al. (1979). Little
South Fork provides only minimal ac-
ceptable habitat for this essentially low-
land species.

PERCIDAE—PERCHES

*Etheostoma atripinne (Jordan)—Cum-
berland Snubnose Darter

Kirsch (1893) collected a single speci-
men from the Little South Fork (verified
by David Etnier) (Comiskey and Etnier
1972). The species is uncommon in the
Big South Fork and elsewhere in Ken-
tucky, and it has not been collected from
the study area during the last 95 years.
The species is of Special Concern in Ken-
tucky (Branson et al. 1981).

Etheostoma blennioides Rafinesque—
Greenside Darter

Collecting sites: 1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9; 64
specimens. Rank: 14.

This large darter was principally col-
lected from the vegetated margins of
chutes and riffles.

Etheostoma caeruleum Storer—Rainbow
Darter

Collecting sites: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9;
385 specimens. Rank: 3.

The rainbow darter was the third most
abundant fish encountered during the
census and the most abundant darter in
the slow- to moderate-current riffles,
mostly in shallow water over rocks and
gravel.

Etheostoma camurum (Cope)—Blue-
breast Darter

Collecting sites: 3, 4, 7, 8, 9; 15 speci-
mens. Rank: 18.

This darter was collected primarily
from the deeper riffles over gravel and
rocks. The species seems to be experi-
encing a shrinking range in the Kentucky
River system and in parts of the Cum-
berland drainage.

Etheostoma cinereum Storer—Ashy
Darter

Collecting sites: 1; 1 specimen. Rank:
29.

This is one of the rarest darters in Ken-
tucky and is listed as endangered (Bran-
son et al. 1981). The habitat is in slug-
gish waters about 1.8 m deep over silty
gravel or muddy gravel along the margins
of riffles or in backwaters with some
vegetation. The biology is very poorly
understood.

Etheostoma flabellare Rafinesque—Fan-
tail Darter

Collecting sites: 3, 4, 5; 11 specimens.
Rank: 22.

In the Big South Fork drainage, the
fantail darter is apparently restricted to
the Little South Fork (Comiskey and Et-
nier 1972), mostly near the middle of the
stream’s length.

*Etheostoma kennicotti (Putnam)—
Stripetail Darter

The presence of this species is based
upon specimens collected from a site 1.4
km above Mt. Pisgah (Carter and Jones
1969). This may be the result of a mis-
identification of the barcheek darter
(Etheostoma obeyense), as Comiskey and
Etnier (1972) did not collect the species
and we have never taken it from any Big
South Fork tributary.

Etheostoma maculatum Kirtland—Spot-
ted Darter

Collecting sites: 1, 3, 4, 5, 7, 8; 12 spec-
imens. Rank: 21.

The spotted darter is relatively scarce
in Kentucky waters. Characteristically,
the habitat is in deep, swift riffles over
gravel, rocks and boulders. The fish is
very sensitive to turbidity, settleable sol-
ids, and acid. The Big South Fork sub-
species is Etheostoma maculatum san-
guifluum (Cope) (Zorach and Raney
1967), the young of which are easily mis-
identified as the Tippecanoe darter (E.
tippecanoe Jordan and Evermann), a rare
species which apparently does occur in
the Big South Fork (pers. comm., Melvin
L. Warren, Ichthyologist, KNPC).

Etheostoma obeyense Kirsch—Barcheek
Darter

Collecting sites: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 9; 112
specimens. Rank: 10.

The third most common darter collect-

FISHES OF CUMBERLAND RIVER—Branson and Schuster

ed from the study area, the barcheek dart-
er was taken principally from low-veloc-
ity riffles and flowing pools over small
gravel and sand. The species is relatively
widespread in various drainages of the
Cumberland River system, replacing the
striped darter (E. virgatum) in most of
the larger streams.

*Etheostoma spectabile (Agassiz)—Or-
angethroat Darter

Comiskey and Etnier (1972) reported
an isolated population of the orange-
throat in Kennedy Creek. There are few
records (Harker et al. 1979, 1980) for the
species in the entire Cumberland River
system and the individual sites are sep-
arated by wide hiatuses. The species,
particularly in the off-breeding season, is
easily confused with the rainbow darter,
with which hybridization sometimes oc-
curs.

Etheostoma stigmaeum (Jordan)—Speck-
led Darter

Collecting sites: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 9; 133
specimens. Rank: 8.

The speckled darter was the second
most abundant darter, occurring almost
entirely in slower riffles and pools over
small gravel and sand.

Etheostoma zonale (Cope)—Banded
Darter

Collecting sites: 7, 8; 5 specimens.
Rank: 26.

Although the sampling team sought the
undescribed emerald darter, a related
species found in various sections of the
Cumberland River system and in the
Kentucky River drainage, we were un-
successful. It has not been reported by
other investigators.

*Percina burtoni Fowler—Blotchside
Logperch

Long considered a subspecies of the
common logperch, this species has been
found living with the latter species in
various places (Comiskey and Etnier
1972). The only verified record of the
blotchside logperch from Kentucky is
based upon a single specimen collected
from the Little South Fork by Kirsch
(1893). The habitat is deep, swift riffles

69

over rocks and boulders. Very little is
known about the life cycle and other bi-
ological aspects of this large darter,
which is listed as endangered (Branson

et al. 1981).

Percina caprodes (Rafinesque)—Log-
perch

Collecting sites: 1; 1 specimen. Rank:
29.

The logperch is not abundant in the
Little South Fork. Kirsch (1893) also re-
ported the species from the stream, but
his single specimen was actually the
blotchside logperch (verified by R. E.
Jenkins, according to Comiskey and Et-
nier 1972).

*Percina macrocephala (Cope)—Long-
head Darter

Comiskey and Etnier (1972) collected
a single specimen from the Little South
Fork, the only record for the species in
the entire Big South Fork system. The
species is listed as threatened (Branson

et al. 1981).

COTTIDAE—SCULPINS

Cottus carolinae (Gill)—Banded Sculpin
Collecting sites: 3, 4, 7, 8; 14 speci-
mens. Rank: 19.

CONCLUDING REMARKS

The macroinvertebrate fauna of the
Little South Fork, as determined by the
co-author, is also quite diverse and inter-
esting. We secured specimens of 25 mus-
sels and 60 other macroinvertebrates.
The mussel fauna includes one species,
Villosa trabilis, on the federal endan-
gered species list and another, Pegias fa-
bula, proposed for the U.S. list, and Pty-
chobranchus subtenum is listed by
Branson et al. (1981) as endangered.
A number of other clean-water mussels
in the fauna are restricted to the Cum-
berland and Tennessee river systems, re-
flecting the high quality of the Little
South Fork. However, the quality of this
stream and the pollution-sensitive species
which inhabit it could be adversely af-
fected by human activities if these are not
monitored and controlled. Although
farming, timber cutting, and other activ-

70 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 43(1-2)

ities could have some effects, the 2 ac-
tivities most likely to adversely affect the
fauna of the stream are strip mining and
oil and gas well drilling. An extensive
strip mine is located along Lick Creek,
which enters the Little South Fork ap-
proximately 400 m above the Ritner Ford
sampling site. Harker et al. (1979) noted
that the site did not appear to be signifi-
cantly impacted in terms of siltation.
However, Dr. Art Bogan (pers. comm.)
noted deterioration at Ritner Ford in
1979, and our survey indicated that the
mussel and fish fauna at Ritner Ford was
suffering from silt and possibly other
mining pollution during October 1980.
Steps should be taken to reduce or pre-
vent further siltation of the stream.

At present, only minor pollution prob-
lems are attributable to the oil and gas
wells in the watershed. However, these
types of operations have caused serious
pollution problems in similar areas, and
activities in the oilfields of the region are
increasing; the potential for further con-
tamination is high (Harker et al. 1980).

LITERATURE CITED

BRANSON, B. A. 1971. Threatened fishes of Daniel
Boone National Forest, Kentucky. Trans. Ky.
Acad. Sci. 38:69-73.

———.,, D. F. HARKER, JR., J. M. BASKIN, M. E.
MEDLEY, D. E. BAtcu, M. L. WARREN, W. H.
Davis, W. C. HOUTCOOPER, B. MONROE, JR.,
L. R. PHILLIPPE, AND P. Cupp. 1981. En-
dangered, threatened, and rare animals and
plants of Kentucky. Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci. 42:
77-89.

CARTER, J. P., AND A. R. JONES. 1969. Inventory
and classification of streams in the Upper Cum-
berland River drainage. Ky. Fish Wildl. Res.,
Frankfort, Ky.

Ciay, W. M. 1975. The fishes of Kentucky. Ky.
Dept. Fish Wildl. Res., Frankfort, Ky.

COMISKEY, C. E., AND D. A. ETNIER. 1972. Fishes
of the Big South Fork of the Cumberland River.
J. Tenn. Acad. Sci. 47:140-145.

EVERMANN, B. W. 1918. The fishes of Kentucky and
Tennessee: a distributional catalogue of the
known species. Bull. Bur. Fish. 35:295-368.

GILBERT, C. R. 1969. Systematics and distribution
of the American cyprinid fishes Notropis
ariommus and Notropis telescopus. Copeia
1969:474-492.

HARKER, D. F., JR., S. M. CALL, M. L. WARREN,
JrR., K. E. CAMBURN, AND P. WIGLEY. 1979.
Aquatic biota and water quality survey of the
Appalachian Province, eastern Kentucky. Dept.
Nat. Res. Envir. Prot. Tech. Rept. Vol. 1.

, M. L. WARREN, JR., K. E. CAMBURN, S.
M. CALL, G. J. FALLO AND P. WIGLEY. 1980.
Aquatic biota and water quality survey of the
Upper Cumberland River Basin. Dept. Nat.
Res. Envir. Prot. Tech. Rept.

kirscuH, P. H. 1893. Notes on a collection of fishes
from the southern tributaries of the Cumber-
land River in Kentucky and Tennessee. Bull.
U.S. Fish. Comm. 11:257-268.

LACHNER, E. A., AND R. E. JENKINS. 1967. System-
atics, distribution, and evolution of the chub
genus Nocomis (Cyprinidae) in the southwest-
ern Ohio River basin, with description of a new
species. Copeia 1967:557-580.

TRAUTMAN, M. B. 1957. The fishes of Ohio. Ohio
State U. Press, Columbus.

WOOLMAN, A. J. 1892. Report of an examination of
the rivers of Kentucky with lists of the fishes
obtained. Bull. U.S. Fish. Comm. 10:249-288.

ZORACH, T., AND E. C. RANEY. 1967. Systematics
of the percid fish, Etheostoma maculatum and
related species of the subgenus Nothonotus.
Amer. Midl. Nat. 77:296-322.

Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 43(1-2), 1982, 71-73

Nest Box and Natural Cavity Use by
Peromyscus leucopus noveboracensis

WILLIAM C. MCCOMB

Department of Forestry, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky 40546

ABSTRACT
Seven male white-footed mice (Peromyscus leucopus noveboracensis) from Breathitt County,
Kentucky used nest boxes more frequently than natural cavities. Use of nest boxes in laboratory
and field studies of white-footed mice may be biased due to an apparent preference for nest

boxes.

INTRODUCTION

White-footed mice (Peromyscus leuco-
pus noveboracensis) are common, semi-
arboreal, cavity-using cricetids in the
eastern United States (Barbour and Davis
1974). Natural cavities formed by heart-
rot fungi and/or by primary cavity nesters
(Picidae, Paridae, etc.) are difficult for
humans to locate and inspect, and they
are decreasing in abundance due to in-
tensive forest management practices
(McComb and Noble 198 1a). As a result,
boxes have been used as artificial nest
sites in research and management of
many cavity-using species (Steuwer 1943,
Bellrose et al. 1964, Nixon and Donohoe
1979), and many ecological and behav-
ioral studies have been conducted with
white-footed mice using only nest boxes
(Nicholson 1941, Taylor and McClarey
1963, Stah 1980). The use of a cavity by
some species is influenced by the micro-
climate within, and the microhabitat sur-
rounding the cavity (McComb and Noble
198la, 198lb), and a few field studies
have compared cavity use, microclimates
or microhabitats between nest boxes and
natural cavities (Bellrose et al. 1964, Pin-
kowski 1976, McComb 1979), but these
comparisons have not been made for
white-footed mice under controlled situ-
ations. The purpose of this study was to
compare use of nest boxes for daily cover
with use of natural cavities by white-foot-
ed mice when microclimate and micro-
habitat were held constant.

METHODS AND MATERIALS

Two woodpecker cavities were collect-
ed by cutting trees 4 cm above and 4 cm

71

below the cavity. Cavity 1 (5.1 x 7.6 x 4.8
cm with a 5.1 cm diameter entrance) was
from a sweetgum (Liquidambar styraci-
flua), and cavity 2 (6.4 x 7.0 x 20.3 cm
with a 3.8 cm diameter entrance) was
from a white oak (Quercus alba). Neither
cavity showed any indication of prior ro-
dent use. Two nest boxes were construct-
ed of unfinished white oak, to duplicate
as nearly as possible, the entrance size,
entrance position, and internal dimen-
sions of the two cavities. Boxes differed
from cavities in shape (cubic vs. cylin-
drical), bark presence and fungal wood
rot presence. A 4.4 x 2.5 x 0.6 cm wood-
en treadle with a mercury switch was at-
tached to the entrance of each nest struc-
ture. Eight adult male white-footed mice
were live-trapped from a 4,000-ha mixed
mesophytic forest from March to Decem-
ber 1980, Breathitt County, Kentucky.
Mice were captured within two days of
testing. No artificial nest boxes were
present in the vicinity of the trapping
area. Animals were housed during testing
in a 30 X 30 X 60 cm vivarium with 2-4
cm of ground litter from the trapping area
placed on the floor. Entrances and exits
were recorded continuously on an Ester-
line-Angus Minigraph Event Recorder,
and internal cavity temperatures were re-
corded continuously with two Weather
Measure Model T601 thermographs. The
vivarium was maintained at 20.9 + 6 C
and received a 15L:10D photoperiod.
Nest structures were placed in the vi-
varium with entrances 10 cm apart and
facing each other and with entrances per-
pendicular to the light source. Internal
temperatures were recorded for 5 consec-

2, TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 43(1-2)

TABLE 1.—MEAN DAILY ENTRANCES AND EXITS AT

ARTIFICIAL NEST BOXES AND NATURAL CAVITIES BY

Permyscus leucopus (STANDARD DEVIATIONS INDI-
CATED PARENTHETICALLY)

Test Replicate Box (N = 7 days) Cavity (N = 7 days)
1 l Ue sen bons anSd
2 i RITB\e | 30-7 (15.5)e
3 67.0 (29.7)b 5.1 (2.3)e
2 159.4 (66.0)b 47.6 (29.9)c
3 136.9 (29.3)a «54.3 (15.9)be
4? 18.9 (15.8)d 8.1 (9.0)e
Average 78.6 (29.2) 28.4 (14.0)

' Means with different letters vary significantly at P < 0.05.
? Mean use per pair of mice.

utive days without mice present; then 4
tests were conducted, each with different
mice. Mice were released equidistant be-
tween the 2 entrances: Food and water,
supplied ad lib., were also placed equi-
distant between the two entrances. Four
tests were conducted:

1. Cavity 1 and box 1; one mouse; 7 con-
secutive days; 3 replications.

2. Cavity | and box 1; one mouse; 4 days,
position of nest structures reversed,
then 3 days.

3. Cavity 1 and box 1; two mice; 7 con-
secutive days.

4. Cavity 2 and box 2, two mice; 7 con-
secutive days.

Analysis of variance was used to test
for differences in daily activity and tem-
perature between boxes and cavities,
among tests, and over a cavity by test in-
teraction.

RESULTS

Internal temperature was not signifi-
cantly different (P > 0.05) between boxes
and cavities during any test (x =
20.9 C, SD = 1.78), but temperatures in
the box and cavity during Test 4 averaged
1.7 C lower than during the other tests
(P > 0.05). Daily use (entrance and exits)
was 38% to 240% higher in nest boxes
than in cavities (Table 1). Reversing the
positions of the cavity and the box (Test
2) did not significantly affect use
(P < 0.05). Cavity or nest box use varied
significantly among tests (P < 0.05). Mice
used in Tests 2 and 3 were more active

TABLE 2.—MEAN HOURLY ENTRANCES AND EXITS
AT BOXES AND CAVITIES BY Peromyscus leucopus

Box Cavity Box Cavity
Repli- (N = 98 (N = 98 (N = 70 (N = 70
Test cate hours) hours) hours) hours)
1 1 2..3b! 1.4c 0.7c 0.4d
2 3.0b 1.9be 0.7c 0.6d
3 3.6ab 0.4d 1.7be 0.1d
2 10.6a 3.3b l.le 0.2d
3 8.la 2.5b 3.3b 2.0be
4 1.3¢ 0.5d 0.1d 0.1d

2000-0900 hrs

0900-2000 hrs

' Means with different letters vary significantly at P < 0.05.

at the cavity and the box than the mice
used in Test 1 (replicates 1 and 2), which
were more active than the mice used in
Test 4. Activity from 2000 to 0900 hrs was
higher in boxes than in cavities in all
tests except one replicate of Test 1
(P < 0.05), but in 4 out of 5 cases, activity
from 0900 to 2000 hours was higher
(P < 0.05) in boxes than in cavities when
only 1 mouse was present (Table 2). Day-
time activity (0900-2000 hrs) was not dif-
ferent between boxes and cavities when
2 mice were present. Daily observations
revealed that mice spent all of their in-
active time in nest boxes when only one
mouse was present, and that 1 of the 2
mice used the nest box when 2 mice were
present.

DISCUSSION

Since temperature was not different
between boxes and cavities, it should not
have affected relative use of boxes or cav-
ities in this laboratory situation. Mice
were exposed only to natural cavities
prior to testing, so if they imprinted upon
a portion of their habitat, they should
have imprinted upon natural cavities
(Thorpe 1945, Wecker 1963). In a pre-
vious study, 2 species of amphibians, 4
species of reptiles, 3 species of birds and
3 species of mammals used nest boxes
more frequently than natural cavities in
the mid-South (McComb 1979). Hinde
(1959) suggested that nest boxes may act
as super-releasers for some cavity-nest-
ing birds by eliciting a stronger response
to enter and/or nest than would natural
cavities. My findings indicate that this

t

|
\

|

|
|

|
i

|

NEST BOX AND CAVITY USE IN Peromyscus—McComb

theory may also apply to white-footed
mice. Prior use of natural cavities by
birds or mammals may have influenced
cavity use by Peromyscus leucopus nov-
eboracencis due to residual odors of the
previous occupants. Nicholson (1941) re-
ported that white-footed mice use boxes
as frequently as natural nest sites; I found
that nest boxes were usually used more
frequently than natural cavities. Al-
though the sample size is small, the re-
sults of my study suggest that investi-
gators who choose to rely solely upon
nest boxes in ecological and behavioral
studies of white-footed mice should be
aware that their results may be biased
due to an apparent preference for boxes
by some mice, especially during periods
of peak activity. Nest boxes should not
be considered acceptable substitutes for
natural cavities in ecological and behav-
ioral research on white-footed mice with-
out further comparison between nest
structure use by mice. Since cavity or
nest box use varies significantly from one
individual to the next, a large sample of
individuals of one or both sexes may be
needed before such bias can be quanti-
fied. Smith (1957) found no differences
between sexes in next box use. My re-
sults indicate that studies of white-footed
mice in laboratory situations which sub-
stitute nest boxes for natural nest sites
may not be representative of natural sit-
uations. However, should increasing the
number of white-footed mice per unit
area be an objective, then my laboratory
results and results of field studies con-
ducted by Nicholson (1941) and Smith
(1975) suggest that nest boxes may be ef-
fective. Boxes placed 46-198 cm high
may be a more effective method of in-
creasing white-footed mice populations
than by increasing dead tree or fallen log
abundance, especially in young hard-
wood stands, or where food is not a lim-
iting factor (Smith 1975).
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I thank M. J. Immel for assistance with
statistical analyses. The investigation re-
ported in this paper (80-8-163) is in con-
nection with a project of the Kentucky

73

Agricultural Experiment Station and is
published with the approval of the Di-
rector. I thank B. A. Thielges, W. H. Da-
vis, R. W. Barbour, R. N. Muller, and S.
B. Carpenter for reviewing a draft of the
manuscript.

LITERATURE CITED

BARBOUR, R. W., AND W. H. Davis. 1974. Mammals
of Kentucky. University Press of Kentucky,
Lexington.

BELLROSE, F. C., K. L. JOHNSTON, AND T. U. MEy-
ERS. 1964. Relative use of natural cavities and
nest boxes for wood ducks. J. Wildl. Mgmt.
28:66 1-676.

HINDE, R. A. 1959. Behavior and speciation in birds
and lower vertebrates. Biol. Rev. 34:85-128.

McComs, W. C. 1979. Nest box and natural cavity
use by wildlife in mid-South hardwoods as re-
lated to physical and microclimate character-
istics. Unpubl. Ph.D. dissert., La. State Univ.,
Baton Rouge. 228 pp.

, AND R. E. NOBLE. 198la. Nest box and
natural cavity use in three mid-South forest
habitats. J. Wildl. Mgmt. 45:93-101.

, AND 198lb. Microclimates of
nest boxes and natural cavities in bottomland
hardwoods. J. Wildl. Mgmt. 45:284-289.

NICHOLSON, A. J. 1941. The homes and social hab-
its of the wood-mouse (Peromyscus leucopus
noveboracensis) in southern Michigan. Amer.
Midland Nat. 25:196-223.

NIxon, C. M., AND R. W. DONOHOE. 1979. Squirrel
nest boxes—are they effective in young hard-
wood stands? Wildl. Soc. Bull. 7:283-284.

PINKOWSKIL, B. C. 1976. Use of tree cavities by nest-
ing eastern bluebirds. J. Wildl. Mgmt. 40:
556-563.

SMITH, H. R. 1975. Management of Peromyscus
leucopus as part of an integrated program to
control the gypsy moth. Trans. Northeast. Fish
and Wildlife Conf. 32:111-129.

STAH, C. D. 1980. Vertical nesting distribution of
two species of Peromyscus under experimental
conditions. J. Mamm. 61:141-143.

STEUWER, F. W. 1943. Raccoons: their habits and
management in Michigan. Ecol. Monogr.
13:203-257.

TAYLOR, R. J.. AND M. MCCLAREY. 1963. Vertical
distribution of Peromyscus leucopus and Pero-
myscus gossypinus under experimental condi-
tions. Southwestern Nat. 8: 107-115.

THORPE, W. H. 1945. The evolutionary signifi-
cance of habitat selection. J. Anim. Ecol.
14:67-70.

WECKER, S. C. 1963. The role of early experience
in habitat selection by the prairie deer mouse,
Peromyscus maniculatus bairdii. Ecol. Mono-
gr. 33:307-325.

Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 43(1-2), 1982, 74-79

The Occurrence of Thirteen Algal Genera Previously
Unreported from Kentucky

KEITH E. CAMBURN
Kentucky Nature Preserves Commission, Frankfort, Kentucky 40601

ABSTRACT

Thirteen algal genera are reported from Kentucky for the first time: Schizochlamys, Gloeoac-
tinium, Zoochlorella, Binuclearia, Geminella, Roya, Centritractus, Diatomella, Krasskella,
Gloeodinium, Boldia, Compsopogon, and Thorea. Notes on the habitat, date, and collecting
locality, and a synopsis of United States distribution are presented for each taxon.

INTRODUCTION

The history of algal research in Ken-
tucky was reviewed by Dillard and Cri-
der (1970). Dillard (1974) expanded that
review and presented an annotated
checklist of taxa previously reported from
the state. Additions to that checklist were
presented by Dillard, Moore, and Garrett
(1976). Recent contributions to the
knowledge of the algal flora of Kentucky
were made by Dillard (1978) and King
and Oddo (1980).

The Kentucky Nature Preserves Com-
mission recently contributed to the
knowledge of the algal flora in previously
poorly investigated regions of Kentucky
(Harker et al. 1979, 1980a, 1980b). In
these three regional surveys and in an in-
vestigation of subaerial diatom commu-
nities from eastern Kentucky (Camburn,
in prep.), 13 algal genera previously un-
reported from the state were collected.
References are presented to establish the
previously known United States distri-
bution, although no attempt was made to
review all the literature pertaining to
each taxon. For a comprehensive discus-
sion of several of the sites sampled, in-
cluding water quality data and a charac-
terization of the aquatic biota present, the
reader should consult Harker et al. (1979,
1980a, 1980b).

ACCOUNTS OF GENERA
CHLOROPHYCEAE
TETRASPORALES

Schizochlamys gelatinosa A. Braun in
Kutz. Rock Creek, southwestern Mc-

Creary County, 19 September 1978, in an
epipelic collection (Harker et al. 1979).
Also from Bunches Creek, west-central
Whitley County, 22 August 1979, where
it formed an extensive colony on a bed-
rock riffle (Harker et al. 1980a).

Schizochlamys gelatinosa has been re-
ported from Alaska, California, Maine,
and Massachusetts (Collins 1909); Flori-
da (Lackey and Lackey 1967, Madsen
and Nielsen 1950); Kansas (Wujek and
Gretz 1977); Michigan and Wisconsin
(Prescott 1962); Montana (Prescott and
Dillard 1979); North Carolina (Silva
1949, Whitford and Schumacher 1973);
South Carolina (Jacobs 1971); and Virgin-
ia (Lewis et al. 1933).

CHLOROCOCCALES

Gloeoactinium limneticum G. M.
Smith. Land Branch in Caldwell County,
22 August 1980, in samples of Potamo-
geton squeezings (Harker et al. 1980b).

Smith (1926) described this alga from
the Lake Okoboji region of northwestern
Iowa and it has since been reported from
Louisiana (Lambou et al. 1978); Ohio
(Taft and Taft 1971); Tennessee (Lackey
1958); and Virginia (Forest 1954b).

Zoochlorella parasitica Brandt. This
unicellular, endozoic alga was found in
aquatic invertebrates collected in Col-
liers Branch, south-central Letcher
County, 12 October 1978, Rock Creek,
southwestern McCreary County, 19 Sep-
tember 1978, and Beaver Creek, northern
McCreary County, 18 September 1978
(Harker et al. 1979).

UNREPORTED ALGAE FROM KENTUCKY—Camburn

The genus Zoochlorella has been re-

| garded by some investigators to be con-
| generic with Chlorella from which it is

separated by its endozoic habit. Zoo-

_chlorella parasitica commonly inhabits

the colonial ciliate Ophrydium, the
freshwater sponge Spongilla, and Sten-
tor spp. (Prescott 1962). It has been re-

| ported from Florida (Crowson 1950, Niel-

sen and Madsen 1948); Massachusetts
(Collins 1909); Michigan and Wisconsin
(Prescott 1962); Montana (Prescott and
Dillard 1979); North Carolina (Whitford

and Schumacher 1973); Ohio (Taft and

Taft 1971); South Carolina (Jacobs 1968,
1971); Tennessee (Forest 1954a); and
Virginia (Eckblad and Woodson 1969,
Lewis et al. 1933).

ULOTRICALES

Binuclearia tectorum (Kutz.) Beger ex
Wichmann. South Fork of Dog Slaughter
Creek, a small, cool-water stream in
northwestern Whitley County, 18 Sep-
tember 1978, from a moist, exposed rock
located in the stream bed in association
with Monocilia viridis Gerneck, Mou-
geotia sp., Anabaina licheniformis Bory,
and Scytonema Hofmannii Ag. (Harker
et al. 1979, cited as B. tatrana Wittrock).

Binuclearia tectorum (primarily cited
as B. tatrana) has been reported from
Louisiana (Lambou et al. 1978); Michi-
gan and Wisconsin (Prescott 1962); North
Carolina (Silva 1949, Whitford and Schu-
macher 1973); Ohio (Taft and Taft 1971);
South Carolina (Goldstein and Manzi
1976, Jacobs 1971); and Tennessee (For-
est 1954a).

Geminella minor (Naeg.) Heering. Col-
lected on 25 October 1978, from Hatton
Branch, a small, low-gradient stream in
south-central Powell County from meta-
phyton associated with masses of Mou-
geotia, Spirogyra, and Zygnema (Harker
et al. 1979).

Geminella minor has been reported
from Florida (Lackey and Lackey 1967,
Smith and Ellis 1943); Louisiana (Pres-
cott 1942); Michigan and Wisconsin
(Prescott 1962); North Carolina (Whitford
and Schumacher 1973); Ohio (Taft and
Taft 1971); Tennessee (Forest 1954a);

79

and Virginia (Marshall 1976, Nemeth
1969).

ZYGNEMATALES

Roya obtusa (Breb.) West and West.
Rock Creek, from a rock surface colo-
nized by small tufts of aquatic bryophyte
in swift current, southwestern McCreary
County, 3 May 1978. Also occurred at Big
Sinking Creek, south-central Carter
County, 31 May 1978, from an epilithic
habitat (Harker et al. 1979); collected at
the same locality on 13 September 1978
in association with masses of Mougeotia
parvula Hassal growing in seepage water
on a sandstone cliff (Camburn, in prep.).

Prescott, Croasdale, and Vinyard (1972)
reported R. obtusa from California, Con-
necticut, Illinois, Iowa, Kansas, Maine,
New Hampshire, North Carolina, Okla-
homa, and Pennsylvania. Whitford and
Schumacher (1973) reported it from
North Carolina.

XANTHOPHYCEAE
MISCHOCOCCALES

Centritractus belanophorus Lemmer.
Four localities in the western Kentucky
coal field: Land Branch, Caldwell Coun-
ty; Long Pond, Hopkins County; and
Richland Slough and in an unnamed
slough along KY 136, Henderson County,
between 24 July and 9 September 1980,
primarily taken from samples of Lemna,
Potamogeton, and Ceratophyllum
squeezings (Harker et al. 1980b).

Smith (1950) stated that C. belanopho-
rus occurred in several states east of the
Mississippi River and it has been report-
ed from Alabama (Ratnasabapathy and
Deason 1977); Florida (Lackey and Lack-
ey 1967); Michigan and Wisconsin (Pres-
cott 1962); North Carolina (Whitford and
Schumacher 1973); Ohio (Hirsch and
Palmer 1958, Taft and Taft 1971); Ten-
nessee (Forest 1954a; Lackey 1942,
1958); and West Virginia (McNeill 1948).

BACILLARIOPHYCEAE
NAVICULALES
Diatomella balfouriana Grey. This
diatom was collected from a vertical,
south-facing sandstone cliffin Bad Branch
Gorge, southeastern Letcher County, |

76

June 1979. The algal growth on this cliff
consisted of a thin film of Mougeotia par-
vula filaments wetted by spray and drip-
page from an adjacent waterfall. Twenty-
nine additional diatom taxa occurred in
that collection; the most common were
Cymbella perpusilla A. Cl., Tabellaria
flocculosa (Roth) Kutz., and Anomoeo-
neis serians var. brachysira (Breb. ex
Kutz.) Hust. (Camburn, in prep.).

This genus is of rare occurrence
throughout the world (Smith 1950), and
is often found in mountainous areas
where it prefers cool water of low min-
eral content (Patrick and Reimer 1966).
It has previously been reported from Yel-
lowstone National Park (Boyer 1927), and
from two Montana localities, Rainbow
Lake (Parker 1968) and the East Gallatin
River (Bahls 1971). Koch (1976) reported
D. balfouriana from a seepage pool at
Ash Cave Cliff in Hocking County, Ohio.
The Kentucky collection appears to be
the second report of this diatom from the
eastern United States.

Krasskella kriegerana (Krasske) Ross
and Sims. From a near-vertical, south-fac-
ing sandstone cliff adjacent to Big Sink-
ing Creek, south-central Carter County,
13 September 1978, from masses of Mou-
geotia parvula filaments growing in a
small trickle of seepage water. Thirty-
five additional diatom taxa occurred in
this collection; those of common occur-
rence were Achnanthes minutissima
Kutz., Anomoeoneis serians var. brachy-
sira, Cymbella minuta var. pseudogracil-
is (Choln.) Reim., Synedra ulna var.
danica (Kutz.) V. H., and Tabellaria floc-
culosa (Camburn, in prep.)

This species, previously referred to as
Fragilaria kriegerana Krasske and Am-
phipleura kriegerana (Krasske) Hust.,
was recently transferred to the newly
erected genus Krasskella by Ross and
Sims (1978). In North America, K. krie-
gerana has been reported from the Great
Lakes by Stoermer and Kreis (1978, as A.
kriegeriana) and Kingston (1980).

DINOPHYCEAE
GYMNODINIALES

Gloeodinium montanum Klebs. From

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 43(1-2)

two sandstone cliffs in eastern Kentucky: i
Ruin Creek at an overhanging, north-fac- |)
ing cliff, southwestern Elliott County, 24 |

April 1979, primarily from masses of
Mougeotia sp. filaments, and from a

southeastern-facing cliff, Jackson Coun-
ty, 31 October 1979. Both cliff sites were ;

well-shaded and available moisture was

limited to seepage (Camburn, in prep.). |

In more recent collections made at the
Jackson County cliff (28 February 1980),
G. montanum occurred quite commonly
within a matrix of Anacystis montana
(Lightf.) Dr. and Daily.

Gloeodinium montanum has been re-
ported from Maryland, Ohio, and Wis-
consin (Smith 1950); Montana (Prescott

and Dillard 1979); and Ohio (Taft and |

Mare LVL).

RHODOPHYCEAE
BANGIALES

Boldia erythrosiphon Herndon emend.

Howard and Parker. First collected in |

Kentucky at Bark Camp Creek, a high-

quality stream in northwestern Whitley |

County, 23 August 1979 (Harker et al.
1980a). This population was limited to a
single rock in an area of swift current. An
additional collection was made from
Marsh Creek, east-central McCreary
County, 12 July 1980. Specimens of B.
erythrosiphon were also collected on 24
June 1980 at several localities in the Big
South Fork of the Cumberland River,
McCreary County (R. W. Holton and B.
W. Wofford, pers. comm.).

Boldia erythrosiphon was initially de-
scribed from Big Walker Creek in Giles
County, Virginia (Herndon 1964). Until
recently it was known only from Missouri
(Deason and Nichols 1970); North Caro-
lina (L. A. Whitford, pers. comm.); South
Carolina (Dillard 1967, Jacobs 1968); and
Tennessee (R. W. Holton and B. W. Wof-
ford, pers. comm.). This alga has been
extensively investigated by Howard and
Parker (1980). They reported that B. er-
ythrosiphon was associated with snails of
the family Pleuroceridae in 13 of the 15
previously known habitats. This alga is
common in the southern Appalachians
and in one stream in the Ozark Moun-

a

UNREPORTED ALGAE FROM KENTUCKY—Camburn

tains and it inhabits permanently flowing
streams with a pH of 7.0-8.5 and a satu-
rated dissolved oxygen (Howard and Par-
ker 1980). In addition to the states men-
tioned above, they also reported B.
erythrosiphon from Alabama, Georgia,
and West Virginia.

COMPSOPOGONALES

Compsopogon coeruleus (Balbis) Mon-
tagne. Muddy Creek, Butler County, |
October 1980, attached to submerged
limbs in an area of negligible current
(Harker et al. 1980b). Additional collec-
tions from Mud River, Butler County, 27
August and 22 September 1980, attached
to submerged limbs in areas of slow cur-
rent. Also observed at Mud River, epi-
zoic on the parasitic copepod Lernaea
from several fish species, and on 2 Oc-
tober 1980 from a concrete structure in
an area of swift current at U.S. Lock and
Dam #1, Barren River, Warren County.

Compsopogon coeruleus is widely dis-
tributed in the southern part of the
United States (Smith 1950). The genus is
distributed in tropical and subtropical
waters throughout the world and C. coe-
ruleus is essentially a tropical species
that occurs in some northern states and
was known from Alabama, Florida, Lou-
isiana, Massachusetts, Pennsylvania,
Texas, and Virginia (Krishnamurthy 1962).
Other investigators have reported C. coe-
ruleus from Alabama (Flint 1947, Nichols
1964); Florida (Flint 1947, Madsen and
Neilsen 1950, Nielsen and Madsen 1948,
Odum 1957, Thaxter 1900, Whitford
1956); Georgia (Flint 1947, Patrick 1961,
Patrick et al. 1967); Louisiana (Flint
1947, Prescott 1942); North Carolina
(Whitford and Schumacher 1973); South
Carolina (Jacobs 1968, Patrick 1961, Pat-
rick et al. 1967); Tennessee (Forest
1954a); and Virginia (Woodson 1959).

NEMALIONALES

Thorea ramosissima Bory. Mud River,
Butler County, 22 September 1980, at-

tached to submerged limbs in an area of

slow to swift current.
Smith (1950) stated that T. ramosissi-
ma had been found in four states. Whit-

77

ford and Schumacher (1973) reported this
alga from Lower Barton Creek, North
Carolina; however, Howard and Parker
(1979) reevaluated these populations as
Nemalionopsis shawii forma caroliniana
Howard and Parker. Bischoff (1965) dis-
cussed the taxonomy of Thorea and the
specimens of T. ramosissima from Ne-
braska originally investigated by
Hedgcock and Hunter (1899). This taxon
has also been reported from Florida

(Odum 1957, Whitford 1956).

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Dr. Gary E. Dillard of Western Ken-
tucky University graciously reviewed the
draft manuscript and provided many of
the literature citations from the south-
eastern United States. The taxonomic as-
sistance provided by Dr. Larry A. Whit-
ford of North Carolina State University
and Dr. Hannah Croasdale of Dartmouth
College is appreciated. The encourage-
ment and assistance of the entire staff and
the Director, Donald F. Harker, Jr., of the
Kentucky Nature Preserves Commission
is gratefully acknowledged. Special
thanks to M. L. Warren, Jr. and Dr. W. C.
Houtcooper for providing editorial com-
ments and to S. M. Call and B. DiStefano
for providing the sample of Boldia from
Marsh Creek.

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@

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Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 43(1-2), 1982, 80

A Range Extension for the Northern Coal Skink,
Eumeces anthracinus anthracinus,
in Kentucky

DOUGLAS E. STEPHENS! AND GREGORY A. SIEVERT

Department of Biological Sciences, Eastern Kentucky University,
Richmond, Kentucky 40475

ABSTRACT

A recent collection of Eumeces a. anthracinus from Madison county extends the verifiable

Kentucky records to 6 counties.

The Northern Coal Skink, Eumeces a.
anthracinus, is considered one of the rar-
est reptiles in Kentucky (Barbour 1971).
This lizard is listed as threatened in Ken-
tucky by Branson et al. (1981). Our recent
collection of 3 skinks from a site 4.43 km
ESE of Berea, Madison County, Ken-
tucky, adjacent to Highway 21, expands
the known verifiable Kentucky distribu-
tion to a total of 6 counties. The habitat
was similar to that described by Conant
(1975) for this species. The skinks were
found under large, flat pieces of shale on
an exposed hillside adjacent to a small
stream. A large female (62 mm, snout—vent
length) was collected on 19 October 1979
and 2 males (56 mm and 58 mm, snout-—
vent length) were obtained on 31 March
1980. Additional coal skinks have since
been observed in the area but not col-
lected. Ground skinks, Scincella later-
alis, five-lined skinks, Eumeces fascia-
tus, and northern fence lizards,
Sceloporus undulatus, have also been
collected in association with the coal
skinks.

These specimens extend the verifiable
distribution of the coal skink from Bell
and Harlan counties (Funkhouser 1925),

‘Present address: P.O. Box 243, Whitley City,
Kentucky 42653.

80

Breathitt County (Barbour 1956), Edmon-
son County (Hibbard 1936), and Boyle

County (Barbour and Ernst 1971) to Mad-

ison County. Since no specimens were

preserved, Funkhouser’s (1925) Knox i

County record can not be verified. The
Madison County specimens are presently
in the private collections of the authors.

We appreciate the assistance of John R.
MacGregor in verifying the identifica-
tion.

LITERATURE CITED

BARBOuR, R. W. 1956. Additional records of the
coal skink in Kentucky. Herpetologica 12(3):
230.

. 1971. Amphibians and reptiles of Ken-
tucky. University Press of Kentucky, Lexing-
ton.

AND C. H. ERNST. 1971. The distribu-
tion of Eumeces in Kentucky. Journ. Herp.
5(1-2):71-72.

BRANSON, B. A., D. F. HARKER, JR., J. M. BASKIN,
M. E. MEDLEY, D. L. BATCH, M. L. WARREN,
Jr., W. H. Davis, W. C. HOUTCOOPER, B. MON-
ROE, JR., L. R. PHILLIPPE, AND P. V. CUPP.
1981. Endangered, threatened, and rare ani-
mals and plants of Kentucky. Trans. Ky. Acad.
Sci. 42:77-89.

CONANT, R. 1975. A field guide to reptiles and am-
phibians of eastern and central North America.
Houghton-Mifflin Co., Boston.

FUNKHOUSER, W. D. 1925. Wildlife in Kentucky.
Kentucky Geol. Survey, Frankfort, Kentucky.

HIBBARD, C. W. 1936. The amphibians and reptiles
of Mammoth Cave National Park proposed.
Trans. Kansas Acad. Sci. 39:277-81.

Ni
4

by

| Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 43(1-2), 1982, 81-91

ACADEMY AFFAIRS

THE SIXTY-SEVENTH ANNUAL BUSINESS MEETING
OF THE KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

MURRAY STATE UNIVERSITY, MURRAY, KENTUCKY
13 and 14 November 1981

Host: Dr. Gary Boggess

MINUTES OF THE ANNUAL BUSINESS MEETING

The meeting was called to order by President
Philley at 0930, 14 November in the auditorium of
the University Student Center with approximately
90 members in attendance.

After a motion by Secretary Creek and a second
from the floor, the minutes of the 1980 annual busi-
ness meeting at Transylvania University, as record-
ed in the Transactions Vol. 42(1-2), were approved.
Secretary Creek made a motion that all new mem-
bers be accepted by the Academy. Following a sec-
ond from the floor the motion passed.

The Treasurer's report was made by Dr. Taylor.
Following a motion and a second from the floor the
report was approved. The report was audited by
John Davidson, John Harley and Gary Kuhnann
and found to be in order.

TREASURER S REPORT TO THE AUDIT COMMITTEE
Kentucky Academy of Science
30 October 1980-1 November 1981
Cash on hand ____ 7 November 1980 ____ $10,990.58
RECEIPTS:

Fall Meeting ________-_____ $ 2,466.37
Membership Dues _____- 2,477.00
Transactions

Subscriptions __________ 950.00
Page’Charges 2 |_ 1,688.55
Institutional

Affiliations ______________ 1,750.00
Transferrals (Botany

Foundation) _____-_____- 1,025.00

Lexington Savings
Sculls ant any 1,673.97
$12,030.89 12,030.89
$23,021.47
DISBURSEMENTS:

Annual Meeting __________ $ 1,540.59
Operating Expenses __ 1,150.26
Junior Academy __________ 500.00
Transactions

Wolsey cri 4k wean 4,696.70

Wola 45 ie = sr nn aie 4,750.62

Wolo StS east sud 5,824.69

$18,462.86 18,462.86

Balance $ 4,558.61

81

Cash in Madison National Bank, Richmond,

GY jeter 1 November 1980 ___-- $ 4,558.61
Botany Foundation (CD) _..-- 10,000.00
Operating Fund ______ 1,079.94

Accumulation Fund __ 721.14

Floristic Grant Fund* 2,914.83
Maria Athey Memorial Fund __ 15,000.00

President Philley called for the following reports:

1. BOARD OF DIRECTORS. Dr. Pearce pre-

sented the following report.

Dr. Pearce made a motion to change the first para-
graph of the Articles of Incorporation from “Know
All Men By These Present” to “Know AIl Persons
By These Present.” Following a second from the
floor the motion was passed.

Dr. Pearce moved that the By-laws for the Arti-
cles of Incorporation, which had been sent to all
members via the newsletter, be approved. She stat-
ed that approval of the By-laws would complete the
Articles of Incorporation. The motion was seconded
and passed. Dr. Philley stated that he would submit
the Articles of Incorporation to the State for incor-
poration soon.

Dr. Pearce briefly discussed the following goals
of the Board: (1) obtain an Executive Secretary-
Treasurer for the Foundation, (2) aid in increasing
membership and college affiliation with KAS, (3)
standardize the forms and procedures used for the
annual meeting, (4) look into the possibility of es-
tablishing an Engineering Section prior to the 1982
annual meeting.

2. MEMBERSHIP COMMITTEE. Dr. Paul Frey-

tag presented the following report.

The membership committee has been active in
2 areas this year. One, the membership was found
to be generally behind in dues payment. It has been
a major emphasis of the Academy to bring all dues
up to date. The membership list should then in-
clude only those who are paid up for the current
year.

It was recommended to the Board that members

* Owes General Fund: $1,490.00.

82

who are not paid up for the current year should be
dropped from the mailing list for the Transactions.

The second area was revision of the membership
application form. This was done and approved by
the Board. This form will be used in general mail-
ings so members can encourage others to join the
Academy.

3. COMMITTEE ON PUBLICATIONS. Dr. Bran-

son made the following report.

1. Volume 42(1-2), March 1981, consisted of 80
pages that included 10 papers, Academic Affairs,
Articles of Incorporation of the Kentucky Academy
of Science Foundation, Program, and News and
Comments. Volume 42(3-4), 100 pages, included 14
papers, including the report on rare and endan-
gered species, News and Comments, and the Index
for the entire volume. The cost for printing 42(1-2)
was $4,750.62 and that for 42(3-4) was $5,824.69 for
an annual total of $10,575.31, an increase of
$1,417.25 (15.48%) over the cost for volume 41. The
percentage increase was approximately 1.5% less
than that of the previous year. The actual increase
in cost of printing per page from 1980 to 1981 was
$9.85.

The subjects of the 24 papers in volume 42 were
distributed among 5 disciplines as follows: Zoology
and Entomology, 14 papers; Botany and Microbi-
ology, 6 papers; General, 2 papers; Chemistry, |
paper; and Geology, | paper. These papers repre-
sent only 5 of the 10 sections of the Academy.

2. During the year, the Executive Committee
(August 29, 1981) increased the authors’ page
charges from $15 to $20 per page, effective with
volume 43(3-4). The committee also recommended
the publication (prepaid $15) of the abstracts of pa-
pers presented orally at the annual meeting (not
mandatory). Dr. John W. Thieret, Northern Ken-
tucky University, has volunteered to act as Abstract
Editor. We recommend publishing guidelines for
the preparation of abstracts in volume 43(3-4) and
an indication of the guidelines’ presence on the
back cover thereafter.

President Philley suggested the possibility of so-
liciting a limited amount of advertising from busi-
ness firms to be published at the beginning and end
of the Transactions. Many journals do provide ad-
vertising space in order to defray the costs of print-
ing. If the Academy elects to publish advertise-
ment, we shall have to appoint an advertising agent
from the membership. Dr. Branson also stated that
it was costing $1,200.00 to print the indexes and the
program of the annual meeting in the Transactions.
He suggested this might be an area whereby the
publication costs could be reduced if necessary.

4. STATE GOVERNMENT ADVISORY COM-
MITTEE. Dr. Kupchella presented the following

report.

Since the last annual meeting, the fourth and final
article summarizing our study of Federal Research
and Development Funding in Kentucky was pub-
lished in the Transactions.

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 43(1-2)

Copies of all 4 articles were sent to each member

of our congressional delegation and to Governor |.

Brown during the year. Some of the members of our
congressional delegation responded—none ex-
pressed any notable concern or interest. The Gov-
ernor responded and acknowledged the problem of
the low level of federal research and development
support coming back to Kentucky—particularly to
its colleges and universities. He forwarded the re-
ports to Mr. Ed. Pritchard, Chairman of the Com-
mittee on Higher Education in Kentucky’s Future
(to whom we had already sent copies).

We have had several reports indicating that the
“Futures’’ Committee did indeed consider our re-
port in its deliberations. There is evidence from the
committee’s final report to the Council on Higher
Education that there was an appreciation of the im-
portance of the problem.

We propose that the Academy review the “Fu-

tures” Committee report and prepare a formal as- |

sessment of the degree to which its recommenda-

tions will or will not likely help correct what is |)

obviously a serious problem for both Higher Edu-
cation and Science in the Commonwealth of Ken-
tucky.

5. COMMITTEE ON DISTRIBUTION OF RE-
SEARCH FUNDS. Botany Foundation Fund. Dr.
Winstead presented the report.

Since November of 1980 the Foundation has
made an award in the amount of $250 to students
at Pikeville College under the direction of Mr.
Foster Levy, for research on ferns of the area.

Applications are currently being received and re-
viewed for awards prior to the April 1982 deadline.
We are in the possible position to make another
award in 1981 and still be able to consider appli-
cations for support prior to next summer.

The Foundation’s Endowment principal has
been invested to accrue the best possible return.

6. KENTUCKY JUNIOR ACADEMY OF SCI-
ENCE. Dr. Leopold made the following report.

Last year’s symposium was held at the University
of Kentucky with 30 papers being read. Also, a sci-
ence bowl and a lab skills competition were con-
ducted.

Eleven research grants were awarded from fund-
ing supplied by the Major Appliance Business
Group of the General Electric Company, Appliance
Park, Louisville, Kentucky. The average grant was
for $54.

Our major activity, since the symposium, has
been in working toward regionalization. The re-
gions of activity represented and those individuals
involved in organizing them are:

1. Murray, Dr. Arvin Crafton,

2. Bowling Green, Mr. Jeff Richardson,

3. Campbellsville, Dr. Tom Jefferies and Mrs. Car-
ol Nally,

4. Covington, Sister Ethel Parrott,

5. Williamsburg, Dr. Ann Hoffelder,

6. Lexington-Richmond, Dr. Truman Stevens.

) Tt is anticipated that by early 1982 most of the
| regions will be formally organized and functioning.
The Treasurers Report of 11 November 1981:

| Balance on Hand, 24 April 198] _________- $ 460.72
| Disbursements
Science Skills Competition Award ____ 25.00
Total Disbursements ________-_____________ 25.00
Receipts
GluibyDWwe'sp ek eee a ee 73.75
im SNS Contributions 22 500.00
ihotaluReceipts 573.75

Balance on Hand, 11 November 1981 ____ $1,009.47

7. FLORISTIC GRANT FUND. Dr. Thieret made
the following report.

The principal duty of the Floristic Survey Grant
Committee is to award, to qualified persons, Floris-
tic Survey Grants ($500.00 each), which are used to
defray expenses incurred in studies of the flora of
various Kentucky counties. A grant is made avail-
able annually through the generosity of an anony-
mous donor.

Since the inception of the award (1974), grant-
supported studies have been completed in the fol-
lowing counties by the persons indicated.

Barren County—George P. Johnson, Western Ken-
tucky University

Hardin County—Ray Cranfill, University of Ken-
tucky

Kenton County—Patrick C. Applegarth, Northern
Kentucky University.

Two county surveys are now in progress:

Breckenridge County—William M. Turner, Univer-
sity of Louisville

Cambell County—George F. Buddell, Northern
Kentucky University.

At the moment, the committee has no grant ap-
plications to consider. Information on the grant can
be obtained from any member of the committee.

Applications for surveys to start in 1982 should
be submitted to the chairman of the committee no
later than 15 January 1982.

8. SCIENCE EDUCATION ADVISORY COMMIT-
TEE. Mr. Howard presented the following report.

The committee was charged with developing a
brochure concerning careers in science which
could be distributed to high school counselors and
students. The committee has developed a proposed
draft and has presented it to the Executive Com-
mittee to decide upon the format of the brochure
and the number of copies and method of distribu-
tion.

9. RESOLUTION COMMITTEE. Dr. Hoffman of-
fered the following resolutions.

Resolution No. 1:

Whereas,

Murray State University has graciously served as

| ACADEMY AFFAIRS 83

the Host Institution for the Sixty-seventh Annual

Meeting of the Kentucky Academy of Science,

and whereas Dr. Gary Boggess and Ms. Molly

Ross, and others at Murray State University have

worked diligently to make the meeting a success

and,
Whereas,
Murray State University has made outstanding
contributions to scientific thought and leadership,
Therefore, be it resolved herewith:

a. That the Kentucky Academy of Science ex-
press its appreciation to Murray State Univer-
sity and the above individuals, and that the
Academy’s Secretary be instructed to so inform
them.

b. That the Kentucky Academy of Science con-
gratulate Murray State University for being an
outstanding institution of higher education in
Kentucky and the Nation and for promoting
science through instruction, research, and
public service.

Resolution No. 2:

Whereas,
Dr. Louis A. Krumholz provided unparalleled
service to the Academy during his tenure as an
elected officer, as a member of the Board of Di-
rectors, and as the editor of the Transactions,
Therefore,
The Academy takes special note of Dr. Krum-
holz’s untimely death and with sorrow regrets the
loss of this talented individual and friend of sci-
ence education in the Commonwealth of Ken-
tucky.

10. SPECIAL COMMITTEES REPORT. Ad Hoc
Committee on Status of Science Education at the
Pre-college Level. Dr. Prins reported for this com-
mittee,

Dr. Prins reported that the results of this study
had been tabulated and the report written up. A
copy of this report may be obtained from Dr. Rudy
Prins, Department of Biology, Western Kentucky
University, Bowling Green, Kentucky 42101.

Ad Hoc Committee on Rare and Endangered
Species. This report was presented by Dr. Branson.

In concert with the Kentucky Nature Preserves
Commission and certain other experts, credited in
the report, the Kentucky Academy of Science Com-
mittee on Endangered Species undertook prepara-
tion of a detailed list of the known threatened and
endangered species of plants and animals of Ken-
tucky. The official report appeared in the Trans-
actions of the Kentucky Academy of Science
42(3-4):77-89, and the publication is offered in the
stead of an oral presentation at this time.

Since such lists are bound to change with addi-
tional investigation and reassessments, we recom-
mend that the Committee on Endangered Species
be given standing-committee status with a mandate
to continue monitoring the Kentucky flora and fau-
na, to report any observed changes in the status of

84 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 43(1-2)

rare, threatened, or endangered species, and to as-
certain the status of species not at present included
on the list.

Ad Hoc Committee to Study Legislatively Man-
dated Educational Programs. Dr. Dixon presented
the report.

Dr. Dixon moved that the following statement,
previously sent out to all members, be accepted as
the Kentucky Academy of Science Policy Statement
on “Scientific Creationism.”

The Kentucky Academy of Science is opposed
to any attempt by legislative bodies to mandate
the specific content of science courses. The con-
tent of science courses should be determined by
the standards of the scientific community. Sci-
ence involves a continuing systematic inquiry
into the manifold aspects of the biological and
material world. It is based upon testable theories
which may change with new data; it cannot in-
clude interpretations based on faith or religious
dogma. As scientists we object to attempts to
equate “scientific creationism” and evolution as
scientific explanations of events. Teaching the so-
called “two model” approach would not only im-
ply that these views are equivalent alternatives
among scientists, it would also be misleading to
students. The two “models” are not equivalent.
There is overwhelming acceptance by scientists
of all disciplines that evolution (the descent of
moder species of animals and plants from dif-
ferent ancestors that lived millions of years ago)
is consistent with the weight of a vast amount of
evidence. The understanding of the processes
underlying evolution has provided the founda-
tion upon which many of the tremendous ad-

’ vances in agriculture and medicine and theoret-
ical biology have been built. Differences among
scientists over questions of how evolution was
accomplished do not obscure the basic agreement
that evolution has occurred.

Most people who subscribe to religious views
have developed belief systems that are compati-
ble with evolution. There is a widespread con-
sensus among theologians that biblical accounts
of creation are misunderstood if they are treated
as literal scientific explanations. We fully respect
the religious views of all persons but we object
to attempts to require any religious teachings as
science.

We join the National Academy of Sciences, the
American Association for the Advancement of
Science and the academies of science in many
other states in calling for the rejection of attempts
to require the teaching of “scientific creationism”’
as a scientific theory.

Following a second from the floor the motion was
open to discussion. Dr. Dixon stated the proposed
policy statement consisted of two components: (1)
a statement against legislatively mandated educa-
tional programs and (2) a statement against equating
“scientific creationism” as a science. He further re-

marked that the statement was not against teaching |-_
scientific creationism but it should not be mandated |
and the statement was not against religion. He also |
pointed out that this statement was similar to the
resolution passed by the National Academy of Sci-
ence. There was no further discussion and the mo-
tion passed.

11. NEW BUSINESS. Dr. Philley introduced Mr. |.
Hugh Archer, Director of the Kentucky Chapter of |
the Nature Conservancy. Mr. Archer provided the |
following remarks on the Nature Conservancy.

The Nature Conservancy is a national conserva-
tion organization, receiving its support from the |)
public, whose resources are devoted to the protec-
tion of natural areas and the diversity of life they
support. First priority is given to preserving those
areas which safeguard rare, endangered plants and
animals. The Kentucky Chapter has been active as
a volunteer organization for over 7 years under its
present charter. Projects in this state have included |
Murphy’s Pond, which is presently controlled by
Murray State University and Lilley Cornett Woods,
an appalachian ecological research station in Letch-
er County controlled by Eastern Kentucky Univer-
sity. To date, the Kentucky Chapter has been in-
volved in 6 other projects in the state, and activity
is anticipated to increase with the establishment of |
a full-time staff, and successful fundraising which
has created a Kentucky Land Preservation Fund.

The Conservancy works by identifying the land
which contains the best examples of all the com-
ponents of the natural world, finding out what is
rare and where it exists. Next, protecting these nat-
ural areas usually through acquisition by gift or pur-
chase; assisting or advising government or other
conservation organizations; and increasing aware-
ness of the need to safeguard natural areas. The
third area of activity is management or stewardship
of the natural areas. Use of these areas considered
compatible by researchers, students and the public
is encouraged. Nationally, the Nature Conservancy
has “preserved” 1,844,941 acres in 50 states, Can-
ada, Latin America and the Caribbean. The Nature
Conservancy is a membership organization with an
elected Board of Governors. Membership is open
to everyone upon payment of minimum dues, and
to date exceeds 115,000 individuals. In addition to
its volunteer members the Conservancy has a paid
professional staff with backgrounds ranging from
biology and forestry to real estate, business and law.
There are professionally staffed state offices in 27
states, and 35 volunteer chapters at work in 30
states. The Conservancy’s objectives and activities
are narrowly defined, carried out in a quiet non-
advocate manner, and very effective. Growing out
of an organization called the Ecologist’s Union
formed in 1946, the Nature Conservancy came into
existence in 1951 with its first project in 1953. To-
day the Conservancy is supported by over 330 cor-
porate associates and administers over $30,000,000
in revolving funds.

Please contact the Kentucky Chapter of The Na-

ee

}

|

it

| ACADEMY AFFAIRS

« ture Conservancy, P.O. Box 4207, Lexington, Ken-

1

tucky 40544 for further information about the Ken-
tucky Chapter’s activities.

| 12. NOMINATING COMMITTEE. Dr. Kupchella
| offered the following nominations and moved their
acceptance.

Vice President
Secretary
Treasurer

Board of Directors
Board of Directors

Gary Boggess
Robert Creek
Morris Taylor
Paul Freytag

William Baker

The motion was seconded from the floor and
passed unanimously, there having been no further

' nominations.

President Philley then presented President-elect
Dr. Ted George who addressed the Academy.
Following his remarks, the meeting adjourned at

| 1035.

Robert Creek, Secretary
Kentucky Academy of Science

PROGRAM

| Friday, 13 November 1981

1130-1300 Executive Committee Luncheon—
Commonwealth Dining Room

1200-1600 Registration—University Student Cen-
ter

1200-1700 Scientific Exhibits—University Student

Center

Sectional Meetings—(See following

pages)

1500-1530 Coffee Break—University Student Cen-

ter

Plenary Session—University Student

Center—Auditorium, “Genetic Engi-

neering”

Dr. Robert C. Dickson

Associate Professor of Biochemistry

University of Kentucky

Lexington, KY

“Genetic Engineering: Historical Roots

and Current Status”

Dr. Robert T. Garvin

Director of Operation of Genetic

Engineering Division of the

Canadian Development Corp.

1300-1500

1530-1700

Speakers:

“Genetic Engineering: Future Prospect
in Medicine and Agriculture”
1710-1845 Hospitality Hour—Pogue Library

1900- KAS Annual Banquet (Buffet Style)—
Pogue Library
Speaker: Dr. Robert T. Garvin

Director of Operation of Genetic

Engineering Division of the

Canadian Development Corp.

“Practical Uses of Genetic Engineer-
ing”

85

Saturday, 14 November 1981

2000-2400 Scientific Exhibits—University Student
Center—Main Level

0800-0900 Sectional Meeting—(See following
pages)
0900-0915 Coffee Break—University Student Cen-

ter—Upper Level
0915-1030 Annual Business Meeting—University
Student Center—Auditorium

1030-1200 Sectional Meeting—(See following
pages)
1300- Sectional Meetings (As needed)

BOTANY AND MICROBIOLOGY SECTION

Ohio River Room—Student Center
Marian Fuller, Chairman, Presiding
Harold E. Eversmeyer, Secretary

Saturday, 14 November 1981

0800 The Control of Epichloe typhina in Festuca
arundinacea Il. Dan R. Varney, Malcolm R.
Siegel, and Robert C. Buckner, Eastern Ken-
tucky University, University of Kentucky.
Comparison of Grouping Methods for Beta-
hemolytic Streptococci. Renee V. Smith and
Larry P. Elliott, Western Kentucky Universi-
ty.

Comparative Phytoplankton Productivity and
Chlorophyll Content in the Main Channel
and Anderson Bay Area of the Tennessee Riv-
er Portion of Kentucky Lake. Greg Houser
and Joe King, Murray State University.

The Effect of Acid Rain on Biomass and Chlo-
rophyll Levels in Xanthium strumarium.
Lisa Simpson and Joe Winstead, Western
Kentucky University.

Coffee Break

Annual Business Meeting

Biogeography of Montanoa, Cerv. (Astera-
ceae). V. A. Funk, Department of Botany,
Smithsonian.

0815

0830

0845

0900
0915
1030

1045 Cladistics, Montanoa, Cerv. V. A. Funk, De-
partment of Botany, Smithsonian.
1100 The Effects of Heavy Metals on Attached Al-

gal Communities in the East Fork Clark's
River (Calloway County, Ky). Stephen D. Por-
ter, Dept. of Natural Resources and Environ-
mental Protection, Division of Water.

Notes on Some Rare Kentucky Vascular
Plants, Including Three Additions to the State
Flora. Edward W. Chester, Austin Peay State
University, Clarksville, TN.
Savanna-Woodlands of the Outer Bluegrass of
Kentucky. William S$. Bryant, Thomas More
College.

Pterididphytes of Pike County, Kentucky.
Foster Levy, Veda King, Clara Ousley, Tom
Phillips, and David White, Pikeville College.
The Effect of Sawmill Drainage on the Chem-
ical Components of the Green River in Casey
County, Kentucky. Jennifer Snedden, Casey
County High School. (Sponsored by Herb

Leopold)

1115

1130

1145

1200

86

1215 Plants of the Red Center of Australia. Marian
J. Fuller, Murray State University.
1230 Election of Officers

CHEMISTRY

Mississippi River Room—Student Center
Harry Smiley, Chairman, Presiding
John Reasoner, Secretary

Friday, 13 November 1981

1300 Trace Analysis of Natural Capsaicinoids in
Animal Feed, Human Urine, and Wastewater
by High Pressure Liquid Chromatography.
Eric K. Johnson, Harold C. Thompson, Jr.,
Malcolm C. Bowman, and J. L. Meeks, De-
partment of Chemistry, Murray State Univer-
sity.

1315 Study of Polymerization Properties of Copper
(11)-4,4',4”,4"”-Tetra-sulphophthalocyanine in
Solution. Stephen W. Scholl and Robert D.
Farina, Department of Chemistry, Western
Kentucky University.

1330 Studies of Excited Oxygen Molecules Pro-
duced by Oxygen Atom Recombination on
the Space Shuttle “tile” Surfaces. Alan D.
Bradbury and David A. Owen, Department
of Chemistry, Murray State University.

1345 Chemical Coagulation of Industrial Whole
Animal Blood: Characterization and Dewa-
tering of Coagulant Protein Complexes. V.
Vandegrift, T. M. Jones, H. R. Clark, G. S.
Beale, and L. A. Abell, Department of Chem-
istry, Murray State University.

1400 Interfacing HPLC UV Detectors to Gas Chro-
matographs. Thomas H. Pritchett, A. Carmen,
and J. L. Meeks, Department of Chemistry,
Murray State University.

1415 Application of High Performance Liquid
Chromatography with Electrochemical De-
tection to the Analysis of Physiological Sam-
ples. F. Senftleber, D. Bowling, S. Stahr, and
S. Alton, Department of Chemistry, Murray
State University.

1430 Trimerization of 3-Methyl-1,2-Butadiene by
a Tungsten Catalyst. M. R. Clark and O. J.
Muscio, Jr., Department of Chemistry, Mur-
ray State University.

1445 Hammick Reaction with Naphthyridine-Car-
boxylic Acids. Ellis V. Brown, Department of
Chemistry, University of Kentucky.

1500 Coffee Break

1530 Plenary Session

Saturday, 14 November 1981

0800 Preparation and Structure of Iron and Ruthe-
nium Metallaceumulenes. John Selegue, De-
partment of Chemistry, University of Ken-
tucky.

0815 Ground State Energy Levels of the Amino
Acid, beta-Carboxyaspartic Acid. Judy Mott
and J. L. Meeks, Department of Chemistry,
Murray State University.

0830 Molecular Orbital Energy Levels of Glycine,
Aminoacetonitrile, and their Boron Ana-
logues. Lois Heuer and J. L. Meeks, Depart-
ment of Chemistry, Murray State University.

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 43(1-2)

0845 Synthetic Routes to Mixed Transition Metal |

Cluster. Peter N. Nickias, Department of
Chemistry, University of Kentucky.

Coffee Break

Annual Business Meeting

Hydrogenation of the Coal Liquid Model

0900
0915
1030

Compound, Quinoline, using Cobalt Phythal- |

ocyanine as a Catalyst. L. J. Boucher, De-
partment of Chemistry, Western Kentucky
University.

1045

Oliver, Robert J. Kempton, and Hubert A.
Conner, Physical Sciences Department,
Northern Kentucky University.

Investigation of Magnetohydrodynamic Heat
Transfer in Two-Phase Flow. Jahan Lohrasbi,
Hazard Community College.

The Use of Wood Oil to Solubilize Coal. Rita
K. Hessley, Department of Chemistry, West-
ern Kentucky University.

Coal Liquids in Distillation Tower Corrosion
Titration. Diane Riley, Alberto Sagues, and
Burton Davis, Institute for Mining and Min-
erals Research, University of Kentucky.

beta Keto Acids from the Oxidation of Hydro-
carbons. Donald D. Carlos, Ashland Research
and Development.

Election of Officers

1100

1115

1130

1145

1200

GEOGRAPHY SECTION

Session A—Room 111A—Student Center
Mark Lowery III, Chairman, Presiding
Gary C. Cox, Secretary

Friday, 13 November 1981

1300 Major Processes of Change Within Jefferson
County's Population: 1970-1980. John L. An-
derson, University of Louisville.

An Explanation for 1980 Population Increase:
A Case Study. Wilma J. Walker and Dan
Crunk, Eastern Kentucky University.

Aerial Photographic Interpretation in a Pre-
dictive Archeological Study. Jane L. Spahn,
Murray State University.

The Application of Photogrammertric Tech-
niques in Computer Cartography. Carson R.
Dayley, Murray State University.

Towards a Geography of Transporting Haz-
ardous Materials. Nicholas Lee, University of
Kentucky.

Community Change and Population Trends
in the Intermetropolitan Periphery of West-
ern Kentucky. Robert G. Cromley and Rob-
erts L. Haven, University of Kentucky.
Savage Cave: A Portrait in Maps. Edmund S.
McAlister, Murray State University.
Calculating Changes in Soil Loss as a Result
of Landcover Change Using Digital Lands of
Data: Calloway County, Kentucky, 1975-1981.
Lanesa Jones and Jane L. Spahn, Murray
State University.

The Pioneer Weapons Wildlife Management
Area: A Study of Resource Utilization. Roland
L. Burns, Morehead State University.

1312

1324

1336

1348

1400

1436

The Production of Sugars from Distillery Res- |
idues using Cellulase Enzyme. William R. ,

5

i
{

| 1312

1336

ACADEMY AFFAIRS

1448 Pick-ups and Gun Rocks: Mobility of Vio-

lence. Dennis Spetz, University of Louisville.

1500 Mobility Among Residents in Concentrated
and Dispersed Public Housing: A Survey of
Lexington, Kentucky. Charles Hite and Paul
Schonigu, University of Kentucky.

1512 Coffee Break

1530 Plenary Session

GEOGRAPHY SECTION

Session B—Room 111D, Student Center
Gary C. Cox, Presiding

| Friday, 13 November 1981

1300 Mapping Isolated Areas in the U.S. Stanley
D. Brunn, University of Kentucky.

Attitudes Toward County Consolidation: A
Case Study of Clark County, Kentucky. Steve
Botner, University of Kentucky.

A Tornado Scenario from Brandenburg, Ken-
tucky. Justin Friberg, University of Kentucky.
Optimization of Waste—Load Allocation—
Environmental Modelling in the Louisville
Region, Kentucky. Burl I. Naugle, Murray
State University.

The Perception and Delimination of Two
Covington Neighborhoods. Edwin T. Weiss,
Jr., Northern Kentucky University.

Mortons GAP Date Base: An Information Sys-
tem Designed for Use in Wildlife Habitat
Management. Dara L. Schneller, Murray
State University.

Kentucky's Urban and Population Trends in
the 1970's. William A. Withington, University
of Kentucky.

Patterns of Motorcycle Accidents: Lexington,
Kentucky, 1980. Joe Prenata, University of
Kentucky.

Lexington Elementary Schools. Socio-Eco-
nomic Indices vs. Basic Skill Scores. Tom
Field, University of Kentucky.

Using Remote Sensing to Study Fertilizer
Distribution in Selected Areas of the Jackson
Purchase Area of Kentucky. Joe D. Thomas
and John D. Mikulcik, Murray State Univer-
sity.

County Consolidation in Kentucky: An His-
torical Perspective. Jerry Webster, University
of Kentucky.

Coffee Break

Plenary Session

1324

1348

1400

1412
1424
1436

1448

1500

1512
1530

GEOLOGY SECTION
Room 251—Blackburn Science Building
Richard E. Sergeant, Chairman
Armin L. Clark, Secretary, Presiding
Friday, 13 November 1981

1330 Littoral Sands from the Hawaiian Islands, A
Preliminary Report. Armin L. Clark, Depart-
ment of Geosciences, Murray State Univer-

Sity.

1345 Good Grief! Another Three-Point Problem! I
Need Help! Peter Whaley, Department of
Geosciences, Murray State University.

87

1400 Coal Resources of Kentucky. Russell A. Brant.
Kentucky Geological Survey.

Karst Geology and Pleistocene History of the
Bahama Islands. John E. Mylroie, Depart-
ment of Geosciences, Murray State Univer-
sity.

The Mississippian-Pennsylvanian Systemic
Boundary in Western Kentucky. Allen Wil-
liamson, Kentucky Geological Survey.
Predictability of the Plasticity Index from Se-
lected Soil Parameters. Alan Smith, Depart-
ment of Geology, Eastern Kentucky Univer-
sity.

1500 Coffee Break

1530 Plenary Session

Saturday, 14 November 1981

0839 Statistical Significance of Trend Surfaces—
Determining the Best Fit. Alan Smith, De-
partment of Geology, Eastern Kentucky Uni-
versity.

0845 Rare and Unique Mineral Replacement of
Fossils from the Lower and Middle Part of
the Borden Formation of Northeastern Ken-
tucky. Joseph H. Gilbert and Charles Mason,
Lewis County School System.

0900 Coffee Break

0915 Annual Business Meeting

1045 Investigation of Late Tertiary to Recent
Movement along the Kentucky River Fault
System in Southern Clark County, Kentucky.
Ron TenHarmsel, Roy van Arsdale, and Jim
Wilson, Department of Geology, Eastern
Kentucky University.

1100 Gravity Study of Early and Middle Precam-
brian Rock Units of Southwestern Marathon
County, Central Wisconsin. Russ Henning
and Alan Smith, Department of Geology,
Eastern Kentucky University.

1115 Analysis of Selected Controls of Hydrocarbon
Occurrence in the Berea Sandstone, Law-
rence County, Kentucky. Alan Smith and
Baylus Morgan, Department of Geology,
Eastern Kentucky University.

1130 Fractures and Hydrocarbon Exploration and
Production. Graham Hunt, Sheldon Hunt,
and Jack Ganzer, University of Louisville.

1145 Election of Officers

PHYSICS SECTION
Barclay Lecture Room—Student Center
David Sousa, Chairman, Presiding
Raymond McNeil, Secretary
Friday, November 13, 1981

1500 Coffee Break
1530 Plenary Session

Saturday, 14 November 1981

0800 What to Say About Mysticism When the Phys-
ics Student Asks. Donald H. Esbenshade, Jr.,
St. Francis High School.

0815 H.E.L.P.—An Applied Study in Heat by High
School Students. Douglas Jenkins, Warren
Central High School.

0830 Audio-Visual Controller Synchronizes Mu-

1415

1430

1445

88
seum Display. William S. Wagner, Northern
Kentucky University.

0845 Energy Experiments for a Sophomore Physics
Laboratory. M. R. McPherson, Northern Ken-
tucky University.

0900 Coffee Break

0915 Annual Business Meeting

1030 Polarized Radiation from Circumstellar SiO
Masars. F. O. Clark, University of Kentucky.

1045 Magnetic Fields in the Interstellar Medium.
Thomas H. Troland, University of Kentucky.

1100 Performance of Silicon Solar Panels in the
Temperature Range 0°F to 150°F. Buford An-
derson, Murray State University.

1115 Modem Engineering Physics. Lynn Bridwell,
Murray State University.

1130 Study of Josephinites by X-ray Fluorescence
and Mossbauer Effect. K. Myneni and P. J.
Ouseph, University of Louisville.

1145 Beta Decay of '?Nb and Energy Levels of
103Mo. Bernard D. Kern, University of Ken-
tucky.

1200 EO Transitions in the Nucleus of AU 187.
Marvin Grimm, University of Louisville.

1215 Election of Officers

PHYSIOLOGY AND BIOPHYSICS SECTION

Commonwealth Meeting Room—Student Center
John C. Passmore, Chairman
Robert E. Daniel, Secretary, Presiding

Friday, 13 November 1981

1400 Quality and Cost Analysis of Ground Beef. D.
K. Pearce and Richard G. Oliver, Department
of Biological Sciences, Northern Kentucky
University.

1415 Histochemical and Structural Changes in the
Rat Kidney Papilla as a Result of Water De-
privation. Sammy K. Kelley and Charles E.
Kupchella, Department of Biological Sci-
ences, Murray State University.

1430 Growth and Metastatic Characteristics of
Eight Lines of Morris Hepatomas. Saeid
Baki-Hashemi and Charles E. Kupchella, De-
partment of Biological Sciences, Murray State
University.

1445 A Steady State Analog of Metabolic Pathways.
Sally J. Billingsley and R. E. Daniel, Depart-
ment of Biological Sciences, Murray State
University.

1500 Coffee Break

1530 Plenary Session

Saturday, 14 November 1981

0800 A Mammalian Induct Test for Putative Car-
cinogens. Sharon P. Moore and Thomas P.
Coohill, Department of Biology, Western
Kentucky University.

0815 An Altemative Method for Measuring Ultra-
violet Radiation Response in Mammalian
Cells. Thomas P. Coohill, Department of Bi-
ology, Western Kentucky University.

0830 Optimum Fertilizer Rates for Forage Produc-
tion. J. T. Long and J. E. Matocha, Depart-
ment of Agriculture, Murray State University.

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 43(1-2) a

0845 Age-Related Changes in Glycosaminoglycan
Composition of Necrotic Liver Tissue in the’
Rat: A Follow-up Report. Lori Rae Adams\
and Charles E. Kupchella, Murray State Uni-
versity. |

0900 Coffee Break ;

0915 Annual Business Meeting

1030 Glycogen and Glycosaminoglycan Levels in —

Three Lines of Morris Hepatomas. Sarah|
Aydt, Charles E. Kupchella, and Harold P.|.

Morris, Murray State University and Howard ¢

University.

1045 Glycosaminoglycan Changes in the Skin of
Patients with Acanthosis Nigricans. Charles |

E. Kupchella, Jacobo Wortsman, and Lois §
Matsuoka, Murray State University and),
Souther Illinois University School of Medi- |.
cine.

1100 A New Technique for Full-Pancreas Auto-
transplantation in Cavia porcellus. M. Evelyn |

ars

Montgomery, Puducah Tilghman High School. |.

(Sponsored by Herb Leopold)
1115 Some Common Fallacies in Regression Anal-

ysis. Walter Feibes, Department of Mathe- |.

matics and Computer Science, Western Ken-

tucky University. iy

1130 Election of Officers

SCIENCE EDUCATION SECTION

Room 311—Mason Hall
Arvin Crafton, Chairman, Presiding
Herb Simmons, Secretary

Saturday, 14 November 1981 )

0830 Effects of Ultrasound on the Electrodeposi-

tion of Copper. Julie Memering, Notre Dame |

Academy. (Sponsored by Herb Leopold)
0845 Summary of Evaluation of an Education Proj-
ect for Public School Teachers in Northeast-

ern Kentucky. John C. Philley, Department of |;

Physical Science, Morehead State University.
0900 Coffee Break
0915 Annual Business Meeting
1030 High School Factors Related to Women’s

Choices of Careers in Life Sciences and Let- |
ters. Patricia B. Pearson, Department of Bi- \

ology, Western Kentucky University.

1045 Correlation of Verbal Ability with Piagetian F

Tasks. R. H. Barker, Department of Curricu-
lum and Instruction, Eastern Kentucky Uni-
versity.

1100 Self Expressed In-service Training Needs of |

High School Science Teachers in Kentucky.
Robert L. Stevenson, Department of Teacher
Education, Western Kentucky University.

1115 Evaluating Science Textbooks: Introduction
of a New Textbook Evaluation Instrument.
Frank Howard, Science Consultant, Ken-
tucky Department of Education.

1130 Sectional Election of Officers

PSYCHOLOGY SECTION

)

i

ae

Room 135—Blackburn Science Building
William H. Watkins, Chairman, Presiding
Frank Kodman, Secretary

|
i

Friday, 13 November 1981

| 1300 Caffeine-Induced Taste Aversion in Rats. B.
C. White and F. D. Mason, Centre College of
Kentucky. (Sponsored by Jack G. Thompson)
1312 Dose-Response Relationships for Caffeine:
| Activity, Tolerance, Body Weight, and
Suppression of Amphetamine Response. B.
C. White and G. E. Keller, Centre College of
Kentucky. (Sponsored by Jack G. Thompson)
Applications of Infrared Photography in Psy-
chophysiological Research. J. G. Thompson
and Nora E. Meadows, Centre College of
Kentucky.

Lever Press Shock Escape Performance in
Rats Treated With Para-Chlorophenylalanine.
B. A. Mattingly, M. P. Graham, and E. B. Ap-
plegate, Morehead State University. (Spon-
sored by F. Osborne)

Lesions in the Superior Colliculus and Blind-
ness in Laboratory Rats. Brenda Estes and T.
Barrett, Murray State University.

The Facilitating and Enhancing Effects of
Alcohol on Mood. Cheryl L. Simmons and T.
Barrett, Murray State University.

Factors Involved in Distinguishing Between
Current and General Life Satisfaction Among
the Aged. Mary Vanderklok and T. Barrett,
Murray State University.

Binocular Viewing of the Monocular Ames’
Distorted Room. F. H. Osbome, E. B. Apple-
gate, and A. B. Dyer, Morehead State Uni-
versity.

The Role of “Give-Away” Cues in the Ames’
Distorted Room. F. H. Osborne, A. B. Dyer,
and C. E. Koch, Morehead State University.

Perceptual Learning in the Ames’ Distorted
Room as a Function of Binocular-Active
Training. F. H. Osborne, C. E. Koch, and A.
B. Dyer, Morehead State University.

The Effect of Arrow Angle on the Muller-
Lyer Illusion. J. Powell and S. D. Falkenberg,
Eastern Kentucky University.

Coffee Break

Plenary Session

1324

1336

1348
1400

1412

1436

1448

1500

1512
1530

Saturday, 14 November 1981

0800 Testing Theories of the Power Motive. D. H.
Brown and Jennifer Peaslack, Centre College
of Kentucky.

0812 The Effects of High, Average and Low Need
Achievement. D. H. Brown and L. Murphy,
Centre College of Kentucky.

0824 An Experimental Test of Self-Esteem and
Cognitive Accuracy Theories of Power Moti-
vation. D. Brown and Jennifer Peaslack,
Centre College of Kentucky.

0836 Sex Differences in Non-Benefiting Helping
Behavior. T. D. Robbins and W. H. Watkins,
Eastern Kentucky University.

0848 Tripling in Dormitory Rooms. S$. McKee and
S. D. Falkenberg, Eastern Kentucky Univer-

sity.

0900 Sexual Attitudes: Are They Changing? R.
Swain and Virginia Falkenberg, Eastern Ken-
tucky University.

ACADEMY AFFAIRS

0915
1030

1042

1054

1106

1118

1130

1348

1400

1412

1424

1436

1448

89

Annual Business Meeting

Development of Imaginal Processes in Intel-
lectually Gifted Elementary and Junior High
School Students. Jayne E. McClew, Vo (&
Thompson, and Gail M. Thompson, Centre
College of Kentucky.

Development of Imaginal Processes in Insti-
tutionalized Children and Adolescents. Amy
W. Hynden and J. G. Thompson, Centre Col-
lege of Kentucky.

A Comparison of Foreign and American Col-
lege Students’ Performance on a Verbal
Learning Task. Elsie Faye Tipton and Virgin-
ia Falkenberg, Eastern Kentucky University.
The Roles of Decay and Interference in Short
Term Memory Retention. Rhonda Morris and
S. D. Falkenberg, Eastern Kentucky Univer-
sity.

Effect of 5-Hydroxytryptophan on the Shock
Escape Performance of Rats with Septal Le-
sions. B. A. Mattingly, E. B. Applegate, J. E.
Gotsick, and M. P. Graham, Morehead State
University. (Sponsored by F. Osbome)
Locomotor Activity During an Aversive Con-
ditioned Stimulus in Rats Treated with Para-
Chlorophenylalanine. B. A. Mattingly, H.
Chandler, E. B. Applegate, and M. Brunelle,
Morehead State University. (Sponsored by F.
Osborne)

Differential Effects of Memory Distortion in
the Aged. Leanne Lott and T. Barrett, Murray
State University.

Lunch Break

An Experimental Analysis of Aging and Mem-
ory. T. R. Barrett, Murray State University.
Some Personality Traits of Gifted College
Students. F. Kodman, Murray State Univer-
sity.

Attrition in Anxiety Reduction Programs. An-
ita G. Green and J. G. Thompson, Centre Col-
lege of Kentucky.

Females’ Aesthetic Judgments of Erotic
Drawings: Erotic Art or Pornography? Linda
G. Gabbard and J. G. Thompson, Centre Col-
lege of Kentucky.

Limits to Confidentiality: Disclosure vs. Non-
Disclosure. Mary Browning and T. Muehl-
man, Murray State University. (Sponsored by
Frank Kodman)

Perceiver’s Ability to Detect Deception. Rod-
dy X. Monaghan and T. Barrett, Murray State
University.

Causes of Homosexuality. Donna L. McClure
and T. Barrett, Murray State University.

An Empirical Study of the Video Explosion.
Deborah S. Yates and T. Barrett, Murray State
University.

Individual Differences in Screening and
Non-Screening. Mike Thompson and T. Bar-
rett, Murray State University.

Election of Officers

SOCIOLOGY SECTION

Cumberland River Room—Student Center

John Curra, Chairman—Presiding
Steve Savage, Secretary

90

Friday, 13 November 1981

1300 Social Characteristics of Kentucky Legisla-
tors: 1972-1980 Sessions of the General As-
sembly. J. Allen Singleton, Eastern Kentucky
University.

The Anti-Abortion Movement: Another Sym-
bolic Crusade? John Willis. (Sponsored by
Steve Savage)

The 1980 Richmond Solar Energy Study. Ron
Dean, J. A. Singleton, and Vance Wisenbaker,
Eastern Kentucky University.

The Female Weightlifter as Double Deviant.
Steven Savage and John Curra, Eastern Ken-
tucky University.

Nutritional Anthropology: A ‘State of the Art’
Report. James Murray Walker, Eastern Ken-
tucky University.

1415 Election of Officers

1500 Coffee Break

1530 Plenary Session

ZOOLOGY AND ENTOMOLOGY SECTION

Room 228—Blackburn Science Building
Donald W. Johnson, Chairman
Bruce M. Christensen, Secretary
Session 1A—Donald W. Johnson, Presiding

Friday, 13 November 1981

1300 Effects of Pollution on Clarks River Fish
Communities. Laurie K. Curra and D. W.
Johnson, Hancock Biological Station, Murray
State University.

Age and Growth of the Paddlefish, Polyodon
spathula, in Kentucky and Lake Barkley.
Charles R. Bronte and Donald W. Johnson,
Hancock Biological Station, Murray State
University.

Response of a White Crappie Population in
a Subimpoundment to Flooding From a
Mainstream Reservoir. Gary D. Jenkins and
Thomas D. Forsythe, U.S. Tennessee Valley
Authority, Land-Between-the-Lakes.
Manipulation of Balance Between Predator-
Prey Fish Association Using the Minimum-
Size Limit Fishing Regulation. Thomas D.
Forsythe, U.S. Tennessee Valley Authority,
Land-Between-the-Lakes.

The Influence of Artificial Cover on the
Abundance of Fish Larvae in Kentucky and
Barkley Lakes. Elizabeth M. Choinski and D.
W. Johnson, Hancock Biological Station,
Murray State University.

Geographic Variation in the Mode of Repro-
duction and the Larval Characteristics of the
Small-Mouthed Salamander, Ambystoma tex-
anum, in the East-Central United States.
James W. Petranka, University of Kentucky.
The Identification and Geographic Distribu-
tion of Salamanders of the Genus Desmog-
nathus in Kentucky. John MacGregor, Ken-
tucky Department of Fish and Wildlife
Resources.

Kentucky's Commerical Net Fishery—An
Update and Some Questions Relevant to Re-

1315

1330

1345

1400

1315

1330

1400

1415

1430

1445

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 43(1-2)

source Research Funding in Kentucky. Don-
ald W. Johnson, Hancock Biological Station,
Murray State University.

1500 Coffee Break

1530 Plenary Session

Room 249—Blackburn Science Building
Session 1B—Bruce M. Christensen, Presiding

Friday, 13 November 1981

1300 Growth and Development of a Brood of Great |

Horned Owls (Bubo virginianus). Philip
Mastrangelo, Department of Biological Sci-
ences, Eastern Kentucky University.
Populations of Wintering Hawks in Madison
County, Kentucky (1980-1981). Nancy J. Sfer-
ra, Department of Biological Sciences, East-
ern Kentucky University.

Migratory Strategy of the Purple Finch, Car-
podacus purpureus. Lawrence H. Holmes, Jr.
and Blaine R. Ferrell, Department of Biology,
Western Kentucky University.

1315

1330

1345
nal Migrant, the White-throated Sparrow (Zo-
notrichia albicollis). James R. Pauly and
Blaine R. Ferrell, Department of Biology,
Western Kentucky University.

The Effects of Photoperiod-Temperature In-
teraction on Testicular Growth and Fattening
in the Green Anole, Anolis carolinensis.
Blaine R. Ferrell and Vemmon Card, Depart-
ment of Biology, Western Kentucky Univer-
sity.

Mammals of Robinson Forest, Breathitt and

1400

1415

Knott Counties, Kentucky: Additions and |.

Changes Since 1960. John J. Moriarity, Wil-
liam C. McComb, and Wayne H. Davis, De-
partment of Forestry, University of Kentucky.
Mosquito Populations and their Relationship
to the Transmission of Dirofilaria immitis in
Calloway County, Kentucky. Cheryl C.
Courtney and B. M. Christensen, Department
of Biological Sciences, Murray State Univer-
sity.

Lissorchis trematodes from the Spotted Suck-
er in Kentucky. Bruce M. Christensen, Han-
cock Biological Station, Murray State Univer-
sity.

1500 Coffee Break

1530 Plenary Session

Room 228—Blackbum Science Building
Session 2A—Bruce M. Christensen, Presiding

1430

1445

Saturday, 14 November 1981

0800 The Leafhopper of the Subfamily Gyponinae
in Kentucky. Paul H. Freytag, Department of
Entomology, University of Kentucky.

The Cicadelline Leafhoppers (Homoptera,
Cicadellidae) from Kentucky. Paul S. Cwikla
and Paul H. Freytag, Department of Ento-
mology, University of Kentucky.

A Preliminary Checklist of the Stoneflies
(Plecoptera) of Kentucky. Donald C. Tarter,
Dean A. Adkins, Kimberly B. Benson, De-

0815

0830

ee

Sunset as an Orientational Cue for a Noctur- |

ACADEMY AFFAIRS

partment of Biological Sciences, Marshall
University, and Charles V. Covell, Jr., De-
partment of Biology, University of Louisville.

0845 Recent Discoveries in the Lepidopterous
Fauna of the Jackson Purchase Area of Ken-
tucky. Charles V. Covell, Jr., Department of
Biology, University of Louisville.

0900 Development of the Potato Leafhopper on
Legumes. Alvin M. Simmons, Department of
Entomology, University of Kentucky.

Saturday, 14 November 1981

0915
1030

Annual Business Meeting

Effects of Insecticides and Host Plants on
Survival and Reproduction of Progeny of
Aphidius matricariae Hal. M. K. Giri, De-
partment of Entomology, University of Ken-
tucky.

Effects of Municipal Sewage Sludge and Fer-
tilizer on the Arthropod Component of Two
Experimental Grassland Ecosystems. John D.
Sedlacek, Department of Entomology, Uni-
versity of Kentucky.

The Effect of Microclimate Humidity on Co-
nidial Sporulation in Zoophthora sp. Infect-
ing Alfalfa Weevils. Jeffrey A. Millstein, De-
partment of Entomology, University of
Kentucky.

Analysis of Free Amino Acids in Larvae and
Adults of Hydropsychid Caddisflies. Kim H.
Haag, Department of Biology, University of
Louisville.

Evidence of a Chromocenter in the Salivary
Gland Chromosomes of Culex pipiens Com-
plex Mosquitoes. Brian D. Anderson and Wil-
liam S. Davis, Department of Biology, Uni-
versity of Louisville.

Effects of Defoliation of Oaks by Insect Pests
on Hard Mast Production. Paul L. Leberg,
Thomas D. Forsythe, and Marcus Cope, U.S.
Tennessee Valley Authority, Land-Between-
the-Lakes.

Election of Officers

1045

1100

1115

1130

1145

1200

Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 43(1-2), 1982, 91-96

91

Room 249—Blackburn Science Building
Session 2B—Donald W. Johnson, Presiding

Saturday, 14 November 1981

0800 Salinity Tolerances and Activity Rhythms of
a Marine Troglobitic Isopod. Melanie Ann
Riedinger, Department of Biological Sci-
ences, Northern Kentucky University.

The Freshwater Mussels (Bivalvia & Union-
idae) of Kentucky. Part I: The Margaritiferi-
nae and Anodontinae. Samuel M. Call, De-
partment for Natural Resources and
Environmental Protection, Division of Water.
Mussel Distribution and Abundance in Ken-
tucky Lake, Kentucky. Carol C. Chandler,
James B. Sickel, and Garry L. Pharris, Depart-
ment of Biological Sciences, Murray State
University.

New Distribution Record for Plectomerus
dombeyanus (Bivalvia: Unionidae). Garry L.
Pharris, Carol C. Chandler, and James B.
Sickel, Department of Biological Sciences,
Murray State University.

Annual Business Meeting

Scanning and Transmission Electron Micro-
scopic Examination of the Cuticle of the
Nematode Pelodera strongyloides. David M.
Garippa, Jr., Fred Whitaker, Robert Apkarian,
and Beverly Giammara, Department of Biol-
ogy, University of Louisville.

The Sexual Cycle of the Long-tailed Weasel
(Mustela frenata noveboracensis) in North-
ern Kentucky. Richard Devan, Department of
Biology, University of Cincinnati.

Election of Officers (Room 228—Blackbum
Science)

Poster Session Outside Room 228—Black-
burn Science Building. Scanning Electron
microscopy of Scolices of Some Cestodes
from Elasmobranchs. Fred Whittaker and
Robert Apkarian, Department of Biology,
University of Louisville.

0815

0830

0900

0915
1030

1045

1200

ABSTRACTS OF SOME PAPERS PRESENTED AT THE
ANNUAL MEETING

BOTANY AND MICROBIOLOGY

Notes on some rare Kentucky vascular plants, in-
cluding three additions to the state flora. EDWARD
W. CHESTER, Department of Biology, Austin Peay
State University, Clarksville, TN 37040.

Three vascular species not reported in Kentucky
botany literature are presented. Lesquerella lescu-
rii (Gray) S. Watson, usually considered endemic
to the Central Basin of Tennessee, and Prenanthes
barbata (T. & G.) Milstead, primarily an Ozarkian
species, are reported from Trigg County. Matricar-

ia matricarioides (Less.) Porter, native to western
United States and introduced eastward, was found
in Todd County. Considered rare in the state, Rud-
beckia subtomentosa Pursh and Silphium lacinia-
tum L. have been found in Christian County, ex-
panding their known Kentucky distribution. Voucher
specimens are on deposit in the Herbarium of Aus-
tin Peay State University.

Comparison of grouping methods for beta-he-
molytic streptococci. RENEE V. SMITH* and

92

LARRY P. ELLIOTT, Department of Biology,
Western Kentucky University, Bowling Green, KY
42101.

The Phadebact Streptococcus Test was compared
with conventional biochemical methods and the
precipitin test for the grouping of clinical isolates
of beta-hemolytic streptococci. These tests were
compared for accuracy, ease of performance, and
cost effectiveness. Of the 126 isolates examined,
104 (82.5%) were identified similarly by slide co-
agglutination and conventional methods. Only 55
isolates were identified by all 3 methods, and iden-
tical results were obtained. Our data indicate that
the Phadebact method is comparable with bio-
chemical tests for grouping beta-hemolytic strep-
tococci and saves 24 hours in identifying each iso-
late.

GEOGRAPHY

Processes of change within the population of Jef-
ferson County, Kentucky: 1970-80. JOHN L. AN-
DERSON, Department of Geography, University of
Louisville, Louisville, KY 40292.

Several dynamic processes have changed the
size, distribution, and composition of Jefferson
County's population during the 1970-80 decade.
The number of inner city residents has diminished,
the suburbs have expanded in area and size, and
several neighborhoods have experienced residen-
tial succession. The changes have taken place in
face of a county-wide population decline. Black in-
volvement in the inner city has declined, but in
suburban expansion it has been significant. All of
these changes will have an important impact on the
political, economic and social framework of the
county.

The perception and delimitation of two Coving-
ton, Kentucky, neighborhoods. EDWIN T. WEISS,
JR., Department of History and Geography, North-
ern Kentucky University, Highland Heights, KY
41076.

Maps drawn by residents of 2 areas of northern
Covington were analyzed to ascertain the factors
that shaped people’s perceptions of the location of
neighborhood boundaries and neighborhood cores.
The most important factors affecting the perception
of neighborhood boundaries were: physical bar-
riers, breaks in the land use patterns, changes in
the socio-economic character of the area, and major
commercial streets. Factors influencing the percep-
tion of neighborhood cores were: the presence of
visual symbols relating to the neighborhood, the
presence of “local gathering” places, and centrality.
The perceived boundaries corresponded reason-
ably well to Covington’s “official” neighborhood
boundaries.

Kentucky's population trends in the 1970's. WIL-
LIAM A. WITHINGTON, Department of Geog-
raphy, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY
40506.

Kentucky's population trends in the 1970's are

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 43(1—2)

analyzed by distinctiveness, spatial diversity, and |
continuity or change. The state’s growth by 13.7% }_
exceeded the national rate. County increases were |

highest in eastern coal fields and metropolitan pe-

ripheries. Urbanization rose to encompass 61% of }
Kentucky's counties. SMSAs increased in number, }”
counties included, and population. Large cities /
(10,000+) increased, but 8 older cities lost popula- #
tion. The most distinctive trend was the more rapid |
growth in two-thirds of the counties than in their |
largest communities, emphasizing diffusion rather
than agglomeration for Kentucky’s population in the |"

1970’s.

GEOLOGY

A gravity study of Early and Middle Precambrian |)

rock units, southwestern Marathon County, central
Wisconsin. RUSS J. HENNING* and ALAN D.

SMITH, Department of Geology, Eastern Kentucky §

University, Richmond, KY 40475.

Marathon County, Wisconsin, is situated near the
southern margin of the exposed Precambrian
shield. The bedrock is predominantly Precambrian
igneous and metamorphic rocks with a few scat-
tered outliers of Paleozoic sandstone unconform-
ably overlying the Precambrian rocks. A total of 738
samples was collected at approximately 100 sites,

with descriptions of hand specimen petrology on !

representative samples from each site. Line printer
maps and three-dimensional plots of contours, trend
surfaces, and residuals of free-air and bouguer grav-
ity, collected from 208 stations, were produced.
There appears to be an interpretative relationship
between gravity anomalies and major lithographic
units in the area.

Fractures and hydrocarbon exploration and pro-
duction. GRAHAM HUNT and JACK GANZER,
Department of Geology, and SHELDON HUNT,
Department of Civil Engineering, University of
Louisville, Louisville, KY 40208.

Much of the permeability-porosity of the poten-
tial pay zones of the Sunnybrook, Stones River, and
Knox formations of Paleozoic carbonates Cumber-
land County and vicinity, south-central Kentucky,
is directly related with fracturing and fracture po-
rosity. Studies of fracture traces of Landsat images
and aerial photos combined with ground truth are
conducted to complement subsurface methods of
hydrocarbon exploration. Predictable fracture pat-
tern of the gently folded Ordovician and Devonian
sedimentary rocks on the limbs of the Cincinnati
Arch have developed that may be consistent with
the apparent time of structural movements of the
area: (1) at the close of Knox time to Early Ordo-
vician, (2) pre-Chattanooga time, and (3) post-Chat-
tanooga time.

Karst geology and Pleistocene history of the Ba-
hama Islands. JOHN E. MYLROIE, Department of
Geosciences, Murray State University, Murray, KY
42071.

The Bahama Islands are part of a stable carbonate

i
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ABSTRACTS OF PAPERS PRESENTED IN 1981

platform. The sea level fluctuations caused by the
Pleistocene glacial events have left a detailed rec-
ord of carbonate deposition and karst denudation.
Amino acid racemization dates of shell material
yield the age of the limestones and the paleosols
developed on them. Solution conduits can be min-
imally dated based on Uranium/Thorium disequi-
librium measurements of stalagmites. Ablation scal-
lops on conduit walls reveal water flow velocity and
hence discharge, with implications for island water
budgets and paleoclimate. The data are still prelim-
inary but indicate a previously unrecorded high
sea-level stand approximately 50,000 years BP.

The predictability of the plasticity index from se-
lected soil parameters. ALAN D. SMITH, Depart-
ment of Geology, Eastern Kentucky University,
Richmond, KY 40475.

The Atterberg Limits consist of a simple set of
laboratory test procedures that are extremely useful
in design criteria for geotechnical engineering ap-
plications. A random sample of 36 sites from 358
bridge approaches in Ohio was selected, leaving a
sample of 153 for each variable researched. Eigh-
teen research hypotheses were tested to determine
if certain soil parameters could be used to predict
the plasticity index. The soil parameters per cent
clay and liquid limit account for a significant
amount of variance in predicting the plasticity in-
dex; per cent granular, per cent silt, and water con-
tent were not significant.

Statistical significance of trend surfaces: deter-
mining the best fit, ALAN D. SMITH, Department
of Geology, Eastern Kentucky University, Rich-
mond, KY 40475.

The uses of trend surface analyses are wide-
spread in many disciplines. However, there appears
little attempt on the part of many researchers in
statistically justifying their selection of the trend
that best fits the data of their study area. A computer
program that is written in APL and that completes
an ANOVA table for each trend surface is pre-
sented. The program completes model comparisons
to determine if the use of higher order surfaces pro-
duces statistically significant increases in the
amount of variance explained to warrant its use.

Analysis of selected controls of hydrocarbon oc-
currence in the Berea Sandstone, Lawrence Coun-
ty, Kentucky. ALAN D. SMITH* and BAYLUS K.
MORGAN, Department of Geology, Eastern Ken-
tucky University, Richmond, KY 40475.

Lawrence County has been in the forefront of oil
and gas exploration activity in Kentucky, with ap-
proximately 1,100 wells drilled and 17 million bar-
rels of oil produced since 1918. Information from
354 of those wells was used to test the statistical
significance of several parameters describing the
Berea Sandstone in order to determine their control
on or predictability of hydrocarbon occurrence and
production. Although significant, elevation of the
top of the Berea accounted for only 4.9 percent of
the common variance in oil production and 8.9 per-

93

cent in gas production. Hence other factors must
account for the majority of variance.

BEYSIES

What to say about mysticism when physics stu-
dents ask. DONALD H. ESBENSHADE, JR., Saint
Francis High School, 233 West Broadway, Louis-
ville, KY 40202.

There is an increased interest in mystical beliefs
today, and there are currently several books dis-
cussing apparent parallels between physics and
mysticism. Thus the physics instructor may need to
respond to questions about these parallels. The dis-
cussion considers what the parallels might be, prob-
lems with accepting the parallels, and why the par-
allels might be popular. The conclusion notes that
introductory physics education should point out
more often the human foibles always present in the
doing of physics.

PHYSIOLOGY, BIOPHYSICS, AND
PHARMACOLOGY

Quality and cost analysis of ground beef in North-
ern Kentucky. DEBRA kK. PEARCE and RICHARD
G. OLIVER*, Department of Biological Sciences,
Northern Kentucky University, Highland Heights,
KY 41076.

Proximate analyses measuring the percentage of
water, fat, ash, and protein were performed on
ground beef (average cost $1.36/lb), ground chuck
($1.75/lb.), and ground round ($1.97/lb.) from the
Thriftway, IGA, and Kroger stores in Northern Ken-
tucky. Statistical and cost analyses were run. IGA’s
meats collectively had more water and less fat than
Kroger’s or Thriftway’s meats. The best buys, re-
gardless of store, were: ground beef for a calorie
source ($.69/100 kcal), ground chuck for a protein
source ($.63/oz. protein), and ground round for a
low-fat source (10.4% fat).

Platelets, partial thromboplastin time, and fibri-
nolytic activity in atherosclerosis-susceptible and
super-susceptible pigeons. JANET M. ROYER*
and DAVID J. SAXON, Department of Biological
and Environmental Sciences, Morehead State Uni-
versity, Morehead, KY 40351.

Plasma samples from five atherosclerosis-suscep-
tible random-bred White Carneau pigeons (RBWC)
and five super-susceptible White Carneau type 2
pigeons (WC-2) were examined for platelet count,
partial thromboplastin time (PTT), and fibrinolytic
activity. Through analysis of variance, no signifi-
cant difference was found in the platelet count be-
tween the RBWC and the WC-2. The PTT indicated
a significantly shorter time of 38.9 seconds for the
WC-2 as compared to 66.2 seconds for the RBWC.
The clot lysis time was extended in both strains,
some more than 70 hours. These studies suggest
genetic factors involved in atherogenesis.

PSYCHOLOGY

Sex differences in non-benefiting helping behav-

ior. THOMAS D. ROBBINS* and WILLIAM H.

94

WATKINS, Department of Psychology, Eastern
Kentucky University, Richmond, KY 40475.
Stamped letters addressed to fictional females
and fictional males were “misplaced” under wind-
shield wipers of parked automobiles surreptitiously
observed to have been vacated by someone of ob-
vious sex. Data obtained on the basis of numbers of
placements under the 8 sex combinations and sub-
sequent postal deliveries revealed that the rate of
mailing (82%) was significantly higher by females
than by males (65% mailing rate). Neither sex dis-
criminated significantly on the basis of sex of the
“sender” or addressee. While contrary-outcome
studies do exist, our findings are consistent with
relatively high female tendencies toward altruistic
behavior reported by Schopler and Bateson (1965).

SCIENCE EDUCATION

High school factors related to women’s choices of
careers in life sciences and letters. PATRICIA B.
PEARSON, Department of Biology, Western Ken-
tucky University, Bowling Green, KY 42101.

A total of 706 graduate women enrolled at 14 uni-
versities responded to a mailed questionnaire con-
cerned with their personal histories. The women
were pursuing degrees in biological sciences or let-
ters (English, foreign languages, or literature). The
two groups were significantly different from each
other in mathematics and science preparations, par-
ticipation in high school extracurricular clubs and
activities, consultations with school counselors,
hobbies, and family support of their hobbies. There
were no significant differences in their study ef-
forts, reported high school ranks in graduating
classes, or attitudes toward grades.

Summary and evaluation of an energy-education
project for public-school teachers in northeastern
Kentucky. JOHN C. PHILLEY, Department of
Physical Sciences, Morehead State University,
Morehead, KY 40351.

One-day in-service energy-education workshops
were conducted for 780 teachers in eight county
school systems in northeastern Kentucky during
1980-81 with funds from the U.S. Department of
Energy. The workshops provided current energy
data and exposure to curriculum materials for class-
room use. An analysis of participant responses to
knowledge and attitudinal questions excerpted
from a national survey revealed a favorable com-
parison with the national norms except for ““better-
than-the-norm” responses to questions dealing with
coal. A pronounced majority of the participants
evaluated the workshops favorably, and the U.S.
Department of Energy concluded that such work-
shops are effective means of informing teachers
about energy.

SOCIOLOGY AND ANTHROPOLOGY

Nutritional anthropology: a “‘state of the art’ re-
port. JAMES MURRAY WALKER, Department of

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 43(1-2)

Anthropology, Sociology, and Social Work, Eastern |

Kentucky University, Richmond, KY 40475.

Nutritional anthropology is a fairly recent subsci- |
ence. It is largely ignored by anthropologists gen- —
erally, while non-anthropological nutritionists di- )
vide themselves into a number of strongly!)

opinionated rival camps, leaving nutritional anthro- |
pologists to react to conflicting claims. Neverthe- »
less, biosocial and intracultural diet-health studies |;
appear well covered, especially within particular |.
nutrition science interpretations, but cross-cultural
studies providing for new interpretations, as well |
as behavioral studies of nutrition professionals |:
themselves, still appear largely lacking. However, |:
an aggressive professional leadership, through the {1
Committee on Nutritional Anthropology, is chang- |
ing things as it vigorously promotes the new sub- |

discipline in every way conceivable.

ZOOLOGY AND ENTOMOLOGY

Naiades of the Lower Cumberland River, Ken-

tucky. MARK F. BOONE*, JAMES B. SICKEL, i
CAROL C. CHANDLER, AND GARRY L. PHABR- }
RIS, Department of Biological Sciences, Murray :

State University, Murray, KY 42071.

In fall 1981 a systematic survey of the mussel fau- ¢
na was conducted on the lower Cumberland River |
from Barkley Dam, river mile 30.6, to the Ohio Riv- |
er. Mussels were collected by brailing the entire |:

study area and by SCUBA diving over mussel beds.
A total of 21 species in 16 genera was collected
alive, and 7 species in 6 genera were collected as
relic shells. No live specimens were found that are

listed on the federal endangered species list, but |

relic shells of Lampsilis orbiculata and Pleth-
obasus cicatricosus were collected. The project was
funded by the Nashville District Army Corps of
Engineers.

Age and growth of the paddlefish, Polyodon
spathula, in Kentucky and Barkley lakes, Kentucky.
CHARLES R. BRONTE* and DONALD W. JOHN-
SON, Hancock Biological Station, Murray State
University, Murray, KY 42071.

Paddlefish from Barkley and Kentucky lakes were
studied to determine growth and ages at sexual ma-
turity and impact of a net fishery. Growth was rapid
the first 4 years, with fish attaining total lengths
greater than 300 mm the first year. Differential
growth rates between sexes occurred only in Lake
Barkley, where gravid females averaged 16.81 kg in
weight and 1.4 m in total length in 9-10 years.
Large females without mature oocytes suggest an-
nual spawning does not occur. Fast growth and late
maturation may lead to removal of immature fish,
and intensive fishing pressure may produce a neg-
ative impact on these populations.

Mussel distribution and abundance in Kentucky
Lake, Kentucky. CAROL C. CHANDLER*, JAMES
B. SICKEL, and GARRY L. PHARRIS, Department

ABSTRACTS OF PAPERS PRESENTED IN 1981

| of Biological Sciences, Murray State University,
| Murray, KY 42071.

A survey of unionid mussels in the Kentucky por-

| tion of Kentucky Lake was conducted under a joint

grant from the Kentucky Department of Fish and

Wildlife Resources and the National Marine Fish-

eries Service. Eighteen species were found within
the 88 sites sampled. Sample sites were divided

», into four major habitat types: embayments, over-

banks, old river levees, and shorelines. The embay-
ment, overbank, and shoreline sites each contained
12 species although the species composition dif-
fered slightly between the site types. With 14
species, the old river levees possessed the greatest

diversity.

The influence of artificial cover on the abundance
of fish larvae in Kentucky and Barkley lakes, Ken-
tucky. ELIZABETH M. CHOINSKI* and D. W.
JOHNSON, Hancock Biological Station, Murray
State University, Murray, KY 42071.

Fish larvae and eggs were sampled during spring
and summer 1981 in Kentucky and Barkley lakes to
determine if artificial cover (brush piles) influenced
larval fish density. Deep and shallow water areas
were sampled weekly with small-mesh push nets.
Clupeidae, Lepomis spp., Pomoxis spp., Cyprini-
dae, and other species were collected. Pomoxis spp.
and Lepomis spp. preferred shallow water areas,
especially near brush piles. No pattern became ap-
parent for other species. Lengths of larval Pomoxis
spp. were also taken to see if the brush piles influ-
enced growth.

Effects of pollution on fish communities in the
Clarks River, Kentucky. LAURIE D. CURRA* and
D. W. JOHNSON, Hancock Biological Station,
Murray State University, Murray, KY 42071.

Fishes and water quality were monitored on the
Clarks River following a December 1980 fish kill.
Distribution and community structure indicated a
decrease in species richness and diversity below
the Murray sewage plant and initially within the
kill area. Clean water fishes—bass, crappie, longear
sunfish, and many species of minnows—were col-
lected above Murray. Fishes resistant to organic
enrichment—green sunfish and carp—were most
abundant immediately below Murray. Water qual-
ity data were inconsistent, resulting from great vari-
ability in flow during late winter and spring. Fishes
were reestablished in the kill zone by July.

Effects of insecticides and host plants on survival
and reproduction of Aphidius matricariae Hal. M.
K. GIRI, Department of Entomology, University of
Kentucky, Lexington, KY 40546.

Sensitivity to insecticides has not been tested be-
fore in Aphidius matricariae developing within a
mummified aphid. Three selected insecticides—
malathion, acepthate (Orthene®), and dimethoate
(Cygon®)—were tested against three develop-
mental stages of A. matricariae. The results indi-
cate that, depending on the stage of development,

95

protected larvae can survive treatments of insecti-
cides. The effect of host plants on reproduction of
this parasite was also tested in six host plants (Ra-
phanus sativus, Brassica juncea, Brassica rapa,
Capsicum annum, Solanum tuberosum, and Nico-
tiana tabacum); the parasite produced more prog-
eny on Cruciferae than on Solanaceae.

Kentucky's commercial net fishery—an update
and some questions relevant to resource research
funding in Kentucky. DONALD W. JOHNSON*
and CHARLES R. BRONTE, Ecological Consor-
tium of Mid-America, Hancock Biological Station,
Murray State University, Murray, KY 42071.

In 1980-81 the net catch of 29 permittees (20 in
1979-80) in the 5-month season in Kentucky and
Barkley lakes was up 65% to 1.5 million pounds.
Target species—buffalo-fishes and carp—made up
56% and 18% of catch (54% and 1% of value). Cat-
fishes were more important in 1980-81 with 21% of
catch and 40% of value (13% and 24% in 1979-80).
Paddlefish catch declined 58%—a possible re-
sponse to restricting mesh size to 44%” maximum.
There was no evidence of negative impact on sport-
fishes. Catch monitoring must continue to assure
information essential to responsible management of
this important fishery.

Mammals of Robinson Forest, Breathitt and Knott
counties, Kentucky: additions and changes since
1960. JOHN J. MORIARTY*, WILLIAM C. Mc-
COMB, Department of Forestry, and WAYNE H.
DAVIS, School of Biological Sciences, University
of Kentucky, Lexington, KY 40546.

Intensive small-mammal trapping had not been
conducted at Robinson Forest since 1960. From
January 1980 to July 1981 snap traps and pitfalls
were set in 6 watersheds on a variety of sites. Fol-
lowing 14,000 trap-nights, 3 previously unrecorded
species were captured: Microsorex thompsoni, Na-
peozapus insignis, and Microtus ochrogaster. Mi-
crosorex thompsoni was captured solely in pitfall
traps but not in snap traps, so it may have been
present on the area during earlier investigations
using snap traps. The latter two species may be new
additions or population increases since 1960. Mar-
mota monax, previously reported from Breathitt
County but not from Robinson Forest, was collect-
ed.

Range extension for Plectomerus dombeyanus
(Bivalvia: Unionidae) into Kentucky. GARRY L.
PHARRIS*, CAROL C. CHANDLER, and JAMES
B. SICKEL, Department of Biological Sciences,
Murray State University, Murray, KY 42071.

On 10 August 1981 two Plectomerus dombeyanus
(Valenciennes 1827) were found at 36°44'20'N,
88°06'10"W, Tennessee River mile 44.5, Trigg
County, Kentucky, on the old river levee east of the
channel. Both specimens, one of which was gravid,
occurred on a silt-covered clay substrate at a depth
of 6 m with the lake elevation at 109.1 m. The dis-
tribution for P. dombeyanus as reported by Simpson

96

in 1914 was the Gulf drainage streams from the Al-
abama River to eastern Texas, northward in the
Mississippi system to northwestern Tennessee. The
present finding extends the range into the Tennes-
see River drainage.

Populations of wintering hawks in Madison
County, Kentucky (1980-81). NANCY J. SFERRA*,
Department of Biological Sciences, Eastern Ken-
tucky University, Richmond, KY 40475.

During winter 1980-81, populations of hawks
were estimated using an automobile strip census.

Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 43(1-2), 1982, 96

NEWS AND COMMENTS

The Nature Hugh Archer, a graduate
Conservaney of the University of Ken-

tucky and a member of
the Kentucky and Wisconsin Bar associ-
ations, has recently assumed the direc-
torship of the Kentucky Chapter of the
Nature Conservancy. His offices are lo-
cated at Box 4207, Lexington, Kentucky
40544. Telephone (606) 277-1214.

* * * * *

Abstract The Board of Directors of
Format and_ the Kentucky Academy of
Publication Science recently ruled

that abstracts of papers
presented orally, governed by the same
rules applied to papers submitted for
publication, at annual meetings shall be
published ($15 per abstract) at the discre-
tion of the speakers. John W. Thieret,
Biological Sciences, Northern Kentucky
University, has been appointed Abstract
Editor and all correspondence concern-

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 43(1-2) |

Seven species of hawks were found to winter in the |
county: the American kestrel (Falco sparverius), |”
red-tailed hawk (Buteo jamaicensis), rough-legged ||
hawk (B. lagopus), red-shouldered hawk (B. linea- |
tus), marsh hawk (Circus cyaneus), sharp-shinned
hawk (Accipiter striatus), and Cooper's hawk (A.
cooperii). Kestrel densities ranged from 1/326 ha to

1/899 ha, and red-tailed densities ranged from 1/675 i!

ha to 1/3,148 ha. All other hawks were present in |)

extremely low numbers. Pastureland had the high- |)
est frequency of use for the kestrel and the red- |7

tailed hawk.

ing abstracts should be directed to his

offices. Instructions for the preparation of ||
abstracts shall appear in volume 43(3-4) |

of the Transactions.

Sei wisi AK) bynes n eu sk

Association of The annual meeting of |

Southeastern this association will be
Biologists held at Eastern Kentucky
University on 14-16 April
1982. The meeting will include field trips
and a symposium on the Biota and En-
vironment of the Interior Low Plateau on
15-16 April in the Stratton Building’s Po-
sey Auditorium sponsored jointly by the
ASB and the Southeastern Chapter of the
Ecological Society of America. Plan to
attend this outstanding meeting. For ad-
ditional information, contact Dr. William
H. Martin, Division of Natural Areas,
Eastern Kentucky University, Richmond,
Kentucky 40475, Secretary, Southeastern
Chapter, Ecological Society of America.

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Instructions for Contributors

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lication in the Transactions. Also, as the official publication of the Academy, news and

announcements of interest to the membership will be included as received.

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CONTENTS q

Tonis A. Krumholz (1909-1981). Vincent H. Resh and Stuart E. Neff — 1 q | i
Hematological values of blue and channel catfish from two Kentucky F |
lakes. James D. Brader, Thomas Michael Freeze and Robert C. yi
COB UU foc Gc SS Uy SE Sa SS ce 4

The diatoms (Bacillariophyceae) of Kentucky: a checklist of previously i
reported taxa. Keith E. Camburn 10

Rediscovery of Etheostoma histrio and Percina ouachitae in Green
River, Kentucky, with distribution and habitat notes. Melvin L.

Weanreny Ji 0s kee I i aN es age een 21
Biological and chemical evaluation of aquatic environments II. Vickers 4 |
Creek Embayment, Kentucky Lake. Kerry Prather, Benjamin |
Kinman, Morgan E. Sisk, Dale Dobroth and Marshall Gordon __- 27. a |
The vascular flora of the Brodhead Swamp Forest, Rockcastle County, |
Kentucky. Richard R. Hannan and J. Stuart Lassetter 43 i]
Comparative germination responses of the two varieties of Arenaria ; i
patula. jerry M. and Carol C. Baskin) Ss css unis sea ae 50
Diversity and seasonal abundance of mosquitoes (Diptera: Culicidae) 3 |
in Calloway County, Kentucky. Cheryl C. Courtney and Bruce 4
M: Christensen (8 ses esis Vaan ea AAAS Uy Wee oo @
The fishes of the wild river section of the Little South Fork of the q
Cumberland River, Kentucky. Branley A. Branson and Guenter a
AUSchuster 00) 0) os SN UNE ea 60 |
Nest box and natural cavity use by AAD: leucopus noveboracen- i
sis: William C.. McComb) So NN 2 ONY aan Gas Soca Coe 71 |
The occurrence of thirteen algal genera previously unreported from |
Kentucky.) Ketth Ex Camb an Ne aoe eee 14

A range extension for the northern coal skink, Eumeces anthracinus if
anthracinus, in Kentucky. Douglas E. Stephens and Gregory |

Ae SCO CTE 6 CNet N LEE ON TTT EEO get Nv Ee a eg a 80 4
Aeademy (Aftairs: hie Se ice NV nai MECN. OCT IRC ee ciel is eGR 81 ;
Pr@perearn 008 0002 i Ut) SI SRS en a 85 : |
i

Abstracts of some papers presented at the annual meeting 91 a
News and Comments 3.200 OUIN OOS OG ieYLL ea ee e 96 {
i |

i

: \SACTIONS

K42x

st ea
an q°e
AOMALT

iSO NiZ NV

SER 2 4 982

LIBRARIES _~

Volume 43
Numbers 3-4
September 1982

The Kentucky Academy of Science
Founded 8 May 1914

OFFICERS FOR 1982

President: Ted George, Eastern Kentucky University, Richmond 40475
President Elect: J. G. Rodriguez, University of Kentucky, Lexington 40506
Past President: John C. Philley, Morehead State University, Morehead 40351
Vice President: Gary Boggess, Murray State University, Murray 42071
Secretary: Robert Creek, Eastern Kentucky University, Richmond 40475
Treasurer: Morris Taylor, Eastern Kentucky University, Richmond 40475

Director of the Junior Academy: Herbert Leopold, Western Kentucky
University, Bowling Green 42101

Representative to AAAS Council: Allen L. Lake, Morehead State University,
Morehead 40351

BOARD OF DIRECTORS

Jerry C. Davis 1982 Mary McGlasson 1984
Daniel Knopf 1982 Joe Winstead 1984
Gary Boggess 1983 Paul Freytag 1985
Debra Pearce, Chair. 1983 William Baker 1985

EDITORIAL BOARD

Editor: Branley A. Branson, Department of Biological Sciences, Eastern
Kentucky University, Richmond 40475

Index Editor: Varley E. Wiedeman, Department of Biology, University
of Louisville, Louisville 40292

Abstract Editor: John W. Thieret, Department of Biological Sciences, Northern
Kentucky University, Highland Heights 41076

Editorial Board: John C. Philley, School of Science and Mathematics, Morehead State
University, Morehead 40351

Dennis E. Spetz, Department of Geography, University of
Louisville, Louisville 40292

William F. Wagner, Department of Chemistry, University of
Kentucky, Lexington 40506

Jerry Baskin, Thomas Hunt Morgan, University of Kentucky,
Lexington 40506

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Authors must be members of the Academy.

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oN cn

Beye
a

KENTUCKY
ACADEMY of SCIENCE

i) Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 43(3-4), 1982, 97-102

INTRODUCTION

The family Zapodidae is represented
in Kentucky by 2 species, Zapus hudson-
ius, the meadow jumping mouse and
Napaeozapus insignis, the woodland
jumping mouse. Previously published
distributional data indicate a discontin-
uous range for the former species and few
scattered records in eastern Kentucky for
the latter (Barbour and Davis 1974). The
purpose of this paper is to present new
distributional data on these two species
and to further elucidate their status in
Kentucky.

METHODS

Sampling was conducted in conjunc-
tion with preliminary investigations by
the Kentucky Nature Preserves Commis-
sion (KNPC) of the Western Kentucky
Coal Field (Harker et al. 1980) and the
Oil Shale Knobs regions of the state

1 Present address: South Dakota Natural Heritage
Program, Dept. Game, Fish, Parks, Pierre, 5.D.
57501.

97

TRANSACTIONS of the

September 1982

VOLUME 43
NUMBERS 3-4

Current Distribution and Status of Jumping Mice
(Zapodidae) in Kentucky

WAYNE C. HOUTCOOPER

Kentucky Nature Preserves Commission Frankfort, Kentucky 40601!

ABSTRACT

Recent work, conducted primarily by the Kentucky Nature Preserves Commission, has in-
creased to 20 the number of known county occurrences of the meadow jumping mouse (Zapus
hudsonius) in Kentucky. Similarly, collections of the woodland jumping mouse (Napaeozapus
insignis) indicate a much wider range than previously known. The collections of N. insignis
from Madison County represent the first records of this species outside the Appalachian Plateau
in Kentucky. Distributional implications for both species are discussed and maps showing the
current known Kentucky distribution are presented.

(in prep.). Habitats judged suitable for
zapodids were sampled. Animals were
collected by use of pit-fall traps and stan-
dard snap-traps. Pit-falls, opportunistical-
ly placed, were set by placing No. 10
cans, ¥3 full of water, in the ground with
the open end flush with the surface to
prevent escape by jumping. Snap-traps,
baited with a mixture of peanut butter
and rolled oats, were set 1 m apart in a
trap-line. All specimens collected by
KNPC are currently maintained in the
KNPC vertebrate collection at Frankfort,
Kentucky.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Meadow Jumping Mouse
(Zapus hudsonius)

The meadow jumping mouse is widely
distributed throughout North America
from eastern Canada south to Alabama
and northwest across the Midwest and
southern Canada to southern Alaska. Its
preferred habitat is moist grassland but
it is found occasionally in dry fields or
grassy patches in woods and forests. Ex-

98

tensive accounts of its habits and life his-
tory were reported by Hamilton (1935),
Hamilton and Whitaker (1979), and Whit-
aker (1963, 1972).

Hamilton (1930) reported a sight re-
cord of a zapodid, assumed it to be Z.
hudsonius, near Jackson in Breathitt
County. Recent collecting efforts in
Breathitt County (W. Davis, pers. comm.)
yielded N. insignis from excellent Z.
hudsonius habitat while efforts to obtain
Z. hudsonius were unsuccessful. Without
a voucher specimen, the previously re-
ported record is suspect, and I have cho-
sen to exclude it from further consider-
ation. Subsequent work revealed Z.
hudsonius in the following counties:
Lyon (Krutzsch 1954); Daviess, Madison,
and Oldham (Wallace 1971); Pulaski
(Fassler 1974); Calloway, Franklin,
Graves, Livingston, and Trigg (Barbour
and Davis 1974); Ballard (L. Russell, un-
publ.); Marshall (J. Whitaker, Jr., un-
publ.); Warren (P. Shoster, unpubl.); and
Woodford (W. McComb, pers. comm.).

The present KNPC study documents
occurrences of Z. hudsonius in Bullitt,
Caldwell, Henderson, McLean, Ohio,
and Washington counties. Habitats yield-
ing specimens were generally moist to
wet lowlands with abundant cutgrass
(Leersia virginica), loosestrife (Lysi-
machia ciliata), meadow fescue (Festuca
elatior), knotweed (Polygonum sp.), or
touch-me-not (Impatiens sp.).

The site number, county, location, date
of collection, collector(s), number of speci-
mens, sex, and museum numbers for new
KNPC specimens of Z. hudsonius are
presented below: Site 1—Henderson
County, floodplain S of Cypress Slough
at the mouth of the Green River, 25-26
July 1978, A. F. Scott, 3 (1m, 2f), KNPC
uncat. Site 2—Ohio County, moist grassy
field adjacent to lowland swamp, approx-
imately 3.2 km NE of Hartford, 23-25
July 1980, W. C. Houtcooper, 2 (2m),
KNPC 554, 605. Site 3—Ohio County,
open woods near Muddy Creek Swamp,
3.2 km NNW of junction SR 273 and SR
231, 26 Sept. 1980, R. S. Caldwell and D.
VanNorman, | (lm), KNPC 717. Site 4—
McLean County, marsh, 1.3 km ESE of

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 43(3-4)

junction SR 1046 and Calhoun-Buck
Creek-Livermore Road, 31 July—1 Aug.
1980, R. S. Caldwell and D. VanNorman,
4 (3m, lf), KNPC 624, 625, 648, 649. Site
5—McLean County, open woods flood-
plain, 0.5 km ESE of junction SR 85 and
Pond River, 22 Aug. 1980, R. S. Caldwell
and D. VanNorman, | (lm), KNPC 691.
Site 6—Caldwell County, low area of
Dawson Spring Seep Swamp, S of junc-
tion US 62 and SR 672, 8 Oct. 1980, R. S.
Caldwell and D. VanNorman, 1 (1f),
KNPC 747. Site 7—Bullitt County, moist
meadow, 100 m NW of confluence of
Overalls Creek and Wilson Creek, Ber-
heim Forest, 4 June 1981, W. C. Hout-
cooper and R. R. Cicerello, 1 (1f), KNPC
797. Site 8—Washington County, moist
woods adjacent to Maud Swamp, 1.7 km
N of junction SR 55 and SR 529, 1 July
1981, W. C. Houtcooper and R. R. Cicer-
ello, 1 (1m), KNPC 834.

The current known distribution of Z.
hudsonius in Kentucky is shown in Fig.
1. Based upon geographic information
and data from few specimens, Krutzsch
(1954) and Hall (1981) assigned the larg-
er, paler western forms to Z. hudsonius
intermedius Krutzsch and considered the
smaller, brightly colored Z. h. america-
nus (Barton) to be in eastern Kentucky.
The new records suggest that the previ-
ously observed apparent geographic sep-
aration may be partially attributable to
insufficient collecting. Although the
adult forms collected by KNPC appear
indistinguishable in size and color, av-
erage total and tail lengths were slightly
larger than those collected in Madison
County by Wallace (1971). It is not clear
at present if the eastern and western Ken-
tucky specimens represent distinct mor-
phological forms or intergrades so that
separation into subspecies is dubious.
Additional data based upon further ex-
tensive sampling is needed to make a de-
finitive taxonomic judgement.

Based upon its apparent scarcity, Z.
hudsonius was designated worthy of
monitoring for protection purposes, and
its current Kentucky status was listed as
undetermined (Branson et al. 1981). The
scarcity of specimens is due, perhaps, to

JUMPING MICE IN KENTUCKY—H outcooper

ne ees

reyes

ntucky. (Stippled counties represent new

ly published records).

Current known distribution of Zapus hudsonius in Ke

Ie

FIG.

records, shaded counties represent previous

99

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 43(3-4)

100

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yussoidar sayunoo parddys) -Ayonjuey ur siusisur sndpzoandvyN Jo uoTNAIySIp uUMOUY JUaLIND “ZO

AYMOTIVO

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FINAWAY'T

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JUMPING MICE IN KENTUCKY—Houtcooper

naturally low population densities, the
species’ habit of hibernating during win-
ter, or an artifact of sampling. Data pre-
sented here indicate a much larger range
than previously known. Although proba-
bly not in serious jeopardy in Kentucky,
Z. hudsonius should be retained on the
list of monitored species since its pre-
ferred grassland habitat is subject to rap-
id agricultural development.

Woodland Jumping Mouse
(Napaeozapus insignis)

The woodland jumping mouse is found
throughout northeastern United States
and southeastern Canada. Its southern
distribution extends along the Appala-
chian Mountains south to northern Geor-
gia and northwestern South Carolina.
This species generally prefers cool, moist
forest habitats with abundant herbaceous
ground cover. Much of its life history has
been documented by Hamilton and
Whitaker (1979), Whitaker and Wrigley
(1972), and Wrigley (1972).

Barbour (1941) first reported N. insig-
nis in Kentucky from an open deciduous
woodland at 1,219 m elevation near the
summit of Big Black Mountain in Harlan
County and later (Barbour 1951) pub-
lished habitat notes for this species. Bar-
bour and Davis (1974) reported speci-
mens taken along woodland streams in
the lowlands of Elliott and Leslie coun-
ties, and subsequently Davis and Bar-
bour (1979) documented its occurrence
in Bell, Letcher, and McCreary counties.
Napaeozapus insignis has also been re-
cently collected from Robinson Forest in
Breathitt County (W. McComb, pers.
comm.), from the Red River Gorge in
Menifee and Wolfe counties (W. Davis,
pers. comm.), and from an unnamed trib-
utary of Tug Fork, Big Sandy River, north
of Warfield in Martin County (H. Bryan,
pers. comm.).

During the present study, N. insignis
was also taken in Harlan, Letcher, and
McCreary counties and newly discov-
ered in Madison and Whitley counties.
Habitat characteristically included a cool
moist ravine and a well-developed forest
canopy with a lush undergrowth of ferns
and touch-me-not.

101

The site number, county, location, date
of collection, collector(s), number of
specimens, sex, and museum numbers
for the new KNPC records of N. in-
signis are as follows: Site Q9—Whitley
County, forest near rocky stream in
Osborn Hollow, 9 May 1979, R. S.
Caldwell, 1 (lm), KNPC 414. Site 10—
Madison County, wet talus slope on the
southern end of Millstone Ridge, Berea
College Forest, 1.9 km NW of Morrill, 17
June 1981, W. C. Houtcooper and R. R.
Cicerello, 5 (2m, 3f), KNPC 804, 807, 884,
885, 886. Site 11—Madison County, boul-
der-strewn stream channel of Cowbell
Creek drainage, Berea College Forest,
2.4 km NW of Morrill, 19 June 1981, W.
C. Houtcooper and R. R. Cicerello, 1
(lm), KNPC 821.

The current known distribution of N.
insignis in Kentucky is shown in Fig. 2.
The collection of N. insignis from Madi-
son County represents a significant range
extension, approximately 67.5 km from
the closest previously known collection
site in McCreary County. The Madison
County sites lie within the Knobstone
Escarpment and Knobs Subsection of the
Blue Grass Section of the Interior Low
Plateaus physiographic province (Quar-
terman and Powell 1978). This demon-
strates that N. insignis is not, as previ-
ously thought, confined in Kentucky to
the Appalachian Plateau. The eastern
section of the Knobs region is adjacent to
and contiguous with the eastern Ken-
tucky mountains of the Appalachian Pla-
teau. Habitats similar to those found in
the mountains thus occur beyond the
western limits of the Appalachian Pla-
teau and may serve as dispersal routes to
the west. Further investigation of the
eastern Knobs region may yield addition-
al records of N. insignis and may further
support the idea that the Knobs are a dis-
persal route for animals with mountain or
northern affinities.

Napaeozapus insignis was listed as
rare by Barbour and Davis (1974) and was
considered a species of special concern
by Branson et al. (1981). Its apparent
scarcity may be, as discussed for Z. hud-
sonius, the result of unproductive trap-
ping techniques. Pit-fall traps yielded

102

nearly half the total number of specimens
reported here as new county records. Al-
though use of this technique may further
expand the known range of N. insignis in
Kentucky, this species should be contin-
ually monitored since its habitat coin-
cides with areas of timber and coal min-
ing interests.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I would like to thank R. Cicerello, R.
Caldwell, and D. VanNorman for field
assistance, and W. McComb, W. Davis,
and H. Bryan for use of unpublished data.
Thanks are also extended to K. Camburn,
M. Warren, Jr., W. Davis, J. Whitaker, Jr.,
and W. McComb for editorial comments,
and to B. Burke for typing the manu-
script. A special thanks goes to D. Har-
ker, Jr., former Director of the Kentucky
Nature Preserves Commission, for sup-
port throughout the study.

LITERATURE CITED

BARBOUR, R. W. 1941. Three new mammal records
from Kentucky. J. Mammal. 22:195-196.

—. 1951. The mammals of Big Black Moun-
tain, Harlan County, Kentucky. J. Mammal.
32:100-110.

————, AND W. H. Davis. 1974. Mammals of
Kentucky. Univ. Press Kentucky, Lexington,
Ky. 322 pp.

BRANSON, B. A., D. F. HARKER, JR., J. M. BASKIN,
M. E. MEDLEY, D. L. BATCH, M. L. WARREN,
Jr., W. H. Davis, W. C. HOUTCOOPER, B. MON-
ROE, JR., L. R. PHILLIPPE, AND P. Cupp. 1981.
Endangered, threatened, and rare animals and
plants of Kentucky. Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci. 42:77—
89.

Davis, W. H., AND R. W. BARBOUR. 1979. Distri-

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 43(3-4)

butional records of some Kentucky mammals.,

Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci. 40:111.
FASSLER, D. J. 1974. Mammals of Pulaski County,
Kentucky. Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci. 35:37-43.
HALL, E. R. 1981. The mammals of North America. |,
2nd. ed. John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York,»
N.Y. 2 Vols. 1,181 pp. i
HAMILTON, W. J., JR. 1930. Notes on the mammals |

of Breathitt County, Kentucky. J. Mammal.)

11:306-311.

1935. Habits of jumping mice. Amer. | |

Midl. Nat. 16:187-200.

, AND J. O. WHITAKER, JR. 1979. Mammals |
of the eastern United States. 2nd. ed. Cornell |.

Univ. Press, Ithaca, N.Y. 346 pp.
HARKER, D. F. JR., R. R. HANNAN, M. L. WARREN,

Jr., L. R. PHILLIPPE, K. E. CAMBURN, R. S. |.
CALDWELL, S. M. CALL, A. J. FALLO, AND D. |,
VANNORMAN. 1980. Western Kentucky Coal |.

Field: Preliminary investigations of natural fea-
tures and cultural resource. Volume I, Parts I

and II, Introduction and ecology and ecological |
features of the Western Kentucky Coal Field. |
Tech. Rept., Ky. Nat. Pres. Comm., Frankfort, |

Ky. 584 pp.

KruTzscH, P. H. 1954. North American jumping
mice (genus Zapus). Univ. Kansas Publ. Mus.
Nat. Hist. 7:349-472.

QUARTERMAN, E., AND R. L. POWELL. 1978. Po- ©

tential ecological/geological natural landmarks
on the Interior Low Plateaus. U.S. Dept. Int.,
Washington, D.C. 738 pp.

WALLACE, J. T. 1971. New records of Zapus hud-
sonius (Zimmerman) from Kentucky. Trans. Ky.
Acad. Sci. 32:65-69.

WHITAKER, J. O., JR. 1963. A study of the meadow {|

jumping mouse, Zapus hudsonius (Zimmer-
mann), in central New York. Ecol. Monogr.
33:215-254.

. 1972. Zapus hudsonius. Mammalian
Species No. 11:1-7.

, AND R. E. WRIGLEY. 1972. Napaeozapus
insignis. Mammalian Species No. 14:1-6.

WRIGLEY, R. E. 1972. Systematics and biology of |

the woodland jumping mouse, Napaeozapus
insignis. Ill. Biol. Monogr. 47:126 pp.

Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 43(3-4), 1982, 103-105

Canine Filariasis in Southcentral Kentucky

ROSEZELL G. WADDLE AND JOHN P. HARLEY

Department of Biological Sciences, Eastern Kentucky University,
Richmond, Kentucky 40475

ABSTRACT

Prevalence of Dirofilaria immitis and Dipetalonema reconditum in a sample of 235 dogs from
southcentral Kentucky was determined during 1979. Blood samples were taken and classified
according to the dogs’ hair length, age, sex and environment (house dogs, 50% house/50% yard
dogs, and yard dogs). There were no significant differences in prevalence of heartworm disease
correlated with sex and varying hair length. The major differences between infections were the
dogs’ environment and age. These and other data constitute the first epidemiological survey of

canine filariasis in Kentucky.

INTRODUCTION

Canine heartworm disease has been
endemic in the southeastern United
States for at least 50 years and has been
seen with increasing frequency in the
midwestern and Atlantic states during
the past decade (Otto 1978). For many
| years the presence of microfilariae in ca-
nine blood from North America was at-
tributed to Dirofilaria immitis (Leidy
1850) only; however, Newton and Wright
(1956) identified a second type of micro-
filaria, Dipetalonema reconditum (Grassi
1890). Subsequently, mosquitoes were
shown to serve as vectors for D. immitis
and fleas for D. reconditum. Although
both species are now known to have a

wide geographic range in North America,
their highest reported prevalence is in
the southeastern states. Yet, no canine fi-
lariasis data are evident in the literature
for Kentucky. This study was designed to
determine the prevalence of D. immitis
and D. reconditum in southcentral Ken-
tucky.

METHODS

Blood samples were collected from
dogs in humane societies, veterinary
clinics, dog pounds, and from dogs of per-
sonal friends during 1979. The study area
is illustrated in Figure 1. Samples were
taken from the cephalic vein of dogs not
being dosed with prophylaxes. Samples

Fic. 1.

Kentucky map illustrating the number of dogs sampled in each county.

103

104

TABLE 1.—PER CENT OF DOGS INFECTED WITH Dirofilaria immitis AND Dipetalonema reconditum WHEN,
CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO SEX AND HAIR LENGTH |

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 43(3-4) 1

Number positive Per cent positive

Number
Sex of dog Hair length examined D. immitis D. reconditum D. immitis' D. reconditum? \\.
Male 141 3 4 2.1 2.8
Female 94 3 3 Zell alk
Short 64 2 2 3.1 Sul
Medium 103 3 3 289 2.9
Long 68 1 2 1.5 2.9
'P > 0.05.
*>P > 0.05.

were classified according to individual
dog’s sex, age, hair length and environ-
ment. Dogs were classified according to
the amount of time exposed to the envi-
ronment (outside). House dogs were clas-
sified as having limited exposure, dogs
that were outside during the day but
were brought in at night were classified
as 50% house/50% yard, and those con-
tinually outside were classified as yard
dogs.

One ml blood samples were treated
with citrate or EDTA, refrigerated, and
examined within 2 days by the modified
Knott’s test using methylene blue stain.
Fresh blood also was examined for living
microfilariae. Differentiation of microfi-
lariae was based on the morphological
criteria discussed by Lindsey (1965).

For comparison of paired samples,
Newman-Keuls’ comparison of means
was used to test for statistical differences
between the dogs’ sex, hair length, en-
vironment, and filarial worm infections.
Differences were considered significant
at the 0.05 probability level.

RESULTS

Fifty dogs were examined from hu-
mane societies, 135 from veterinary clin-

ics, 21 from dog pounds, and 32 from per- |.
sonal friends. The sex ratio of male to|
female dogs with heartworm infection
did not differ significantly from 1:1 (Ta- \.

ble 1). This was true for both D. immitis
and D. reconditum. There was no signif-
icant difference between the dog groups

i
hi
\
u
|

classified according to hair length in}

either D. immitis or D. reconditum in-
fections (Table 1).

There was a significant difference in |
the number of positive cases between |

house dogs and ones exposed to the en-
vironment (Table 2). Combined positive
cases of D. immitis and D. reconditum

were used to compare the frequency of

filariasis between house dogs and dogs

exposed to the environment. Of the 176 |

dogs that had some exposure to the en-

vironment, 13 were positive but none of /

the 59 house dogs were infected. (We re-
alize that almost all house dogs have
some exposure to the environment, al-
though by comparison, this was usually
quite limited.)

In the age prevalence data (Table 3),
D. reconditum showed maximal filarial
infection in the 5-year-old dogs and then
decreased. D. immitis showed maximal
parasitemia in dogs 6 years or older. Al-

TABLE 2.—COMPARISON OF PER CENT OF MICROFILARIAL INFECTION TO THE DOGS’ ENVIRONMENT

Number positive Per cent positive Total
ike Number per cent
Environment examined D. immitis D. reconditum D. immitis D. reconditum positive
House! 59 0) 0) 0) 0) 0
50% house/50% yard 70 2 3 2.9 4,3 Call
Yard 106 4 4 3.8 3.8 7.5

' Difference between house and 50% house/50% yard plus yard is significant (P < 0.05).

| CANINE FILARIASIS IN KENTUCKY—Waddle and Harley

105

|TABLE 3.—AGE PREVALENCE DATA OF DOGS INFECTED WITH Dirofilaria immitis AND Dipetalonema
reconditum

-

{ Number positive

|
)
al
a
}
|

Per cent positive

| Dog age in years Number examined D. immitis D. reconditum D. immitis D. reconditum
al
in 69 0 0 0 0
2 52 0 0 0 0
13 35 1 1 2.9 2.9
14 36 0) 1 0 2.8
is 25 2 3 8.0% 12.0:
i 6 & over 18 3 2 16.7* 11.1*
|
|| * Significantly different (P < 0.05) from the one-, two-, three- and four-year-old dogs. Within this group (five- and six-year-olds), there is

| no difference (P > 0.05) in D. immitis and D. reconditum infections.

' though the age groups of 5 and 6 years
| and over showed a high percentage of in-
| fection, the average per cent of infection
for all ages was only 2.8. Nevertheless,
| this percentage was applicable for both
D. immitis and D. reconditum infections
in dogs in the 5- and 6-year age group
and is significantly different from the 1-,
| 2-, 3-, and 4-year olds.

DISCUSSION

All the above data are consistent with
that reported in the literature for other
states (Graham 1974), but this study rep-
resents the first compilation of data on
canine filariasis for Kentucky. From the
determined infection prevalence, D. im-
mitis and D. reconditum can be consid-
ered endemic in dogs from southcentral
Kentucky. Personal communications with
practicing veterinarians in this geograph-
ic area also has shown that canine filar-
iasis is very common.

Thus, in order to ascertain the long-
term epidemiology of this disease, con-
tinuing surveillance will be necessary.
Likewise, data on the natural mosquito
vectors of D. immitis also need to be de-
termined in order to monitor patterns of
infection in this geographic area.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

This study was supported in part by
Research Grant (02-050334) from Eastern
Kentucky University.

LITERATURE CITED

GRAHAM, J. M. 1974. Canine filariasis in north-
eastern Kansas. J. Parasit. 60:322-326.

LINDSEY, J. R. 1965. Identification of canine micro-
filariae. J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc. 146:1106-1114.

NEWTON, W. L., AND W. H. WRIGHT. 1956. The
occurrence of a dog filariid other than Dirofi-
laria immitis in the United States. J. Parasit.
42:246-258.

Otto, G. F. 1978. Inf. Bull. Am. Heartworm Soc.
Publ. 4, Univ. Maryland, College Park, Mary-
land.

NOTE ADDED IN PROOF

After submission of our manuscript,
Courtney and Christensen (1982) pre-
sented data indicating that the following
mosquitoes occur in Calloway County,
Kentucky, and may serve as vector(s) for
Dirofilaria immitis: Aedes vexans, Ae.
canadensis, Ae. trivittatus, Cx. p. quin-
quefasciatus, and An. punctipennis.

COURTNEY, C. C., AND B. M. CHRISTENSEN. 1982.
Diversity and Seasonal Abundance of Mos-
quitoes (Diptera: Culicidae) in Calloway County,
Kentucky. Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci. 43:55-59.

Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 43(3-4), 1982, 106-108

A Natural Hybrid Between Notropis boops and Notropis
chrysocephalus (Pisces: Cyprinidae)

MICHAEL E. RETZER! AND STEPHEN J. WALSH?

'Tlinois Natural History Survey, Champaign, Illinois 61820
2Department of Zoology, Southern Ilinois University at Carbondale,
Carbondale, Illinois 62901

ABSTRACT

A Notropis boops x Notropis chrysocephalus hybrid was collected from Pond River, Green
River drainage, Kentucky. This is the first report and description of a hybrid involving N. boops.

INTRODUCTION

Hybridization among certain North
American cyprinids is a frequent occur-
rence, and many crosses have been doc-
umented (Schwartz 1972). Notropis cor-
nutus (Mitchill) and N. chrysocephalus
(Rafinesque), two widely distributed and
closely related species, are known to hy-
bridize frequently with other species of
Notropis and with cyprinids of other gen-
era (Gilbert 1964, Schwartz 1972, Menzel
1978). These two species, as well as other
species involved with hybridization,
often breed simultaneously in close prox-
imity to other species, resulting in occa-
sional hybridization. However, hybrids
involving N. boops Gilbert are unre-
ported in the literature, which suggests
that N. boops rarely hybridizes with oth-
er fishes.

The description below of N. boops x N.
chrysocephalus from Pond River, Ken-
tucky, is the first report of a hybrid in-
volving N. boops.

METHODS AND MATERIALS

Counts and measurements were made
as described by Hubbs and Lagler (1964).
Characters examined that are shared by
one parent and hybrid or intermediate
between parents are numbers of anal fin
rays, lateral-line scales, pectoral fin rays,
scales above the lateral line, predorsal
scales, eye diameter/head length, anal fin
length/standard length, number of pha-
ryngeal teeth, pigmentation, and lateral-
line scales outlined by melanophores
(Table 1). Number of dorsal rays, number

of pelvic rays, and eye diameter/standard *
length were examined but were not sig- ,
nificantly different between parents and |
were insignificant in describing the hy- |
brid. E
Other species of minnows collected in !
Pond River with the hybrid and parental '
species were Campostoma anomalum, ({
N. umbratilus, Pimephales notatus, and
Semotilus atromaculatus. Notropis fu- .
meus, N. whipplei, and Phoxinus eryth- .
rogaster were collected from nearby sites |
on the upper Pond River (Green River
system, Kentucky). Syntopic minnows, |
other than N. boops and N. chrys- |
ocephalus, were excluded as possible j
parents of the hybrid because of the ab- |
sence of shared characteristics in the hy-
brid.
Specimens of the parental species used |
in the hybrid description are as follows:

N. boops Gilbert. Southern Illinois
University at Carbondale, SIUC uncat.,
East Fork Pond River (Green River
drainage), Christian-Muhlenberg
County line, Kentucky, 22 August 1979
(10 specimens). N. chrysocephalus (Ra-
finesque). Southern Illinois University
at Carbondale, SIUC uncat., Pond Riv-
er (Green River drainage), Christian
and Todd counties, Kentucky, 22 Au-
gust 1979 (10 specimens).

THE HYBRID

Notropis boops Gilbert x Notropis
chrysocephalus (Rafinesque). Southern
Illinois University at Carbondale, SIUC

106

HYBRIDIZATION IN Norropis Boops—Retzer and Walsh

107

TABLE 1—CHARACTERISTIC OF Notropis chrysocephalus, N. boops, AND N. boops x N. chrysocephalus
HYBRID FROM POND RIVER, KENTUCKY. MEANS AND MODES OF COUNTS AND MEASUREMENTS ARE GIVEN
ABOVE, RANGES BELOW

N. boops
Character (N = 10)
Anal fin rays 8
(8-9)
Lateral-line scales 36
(34-37)
| Pectoral fin rays 14
(13-15)
| Scales above lateral line i
(6-7)
- Pre-dorsal scales 12
(11-13)
| Standard length (mm) 42.5
(38.29-51.23)
Eye diameter 0.37
| Head length (0.34-0.42)
Anal fin length 0.18
Standard length (0.16—-0.20)
1,44, 1

Pharyngeal teeth

Dusky lateral band from tip of
snout to base of caudal fin

Very distinct

Lateral-line pores outlined by Present
melanophores

Unpigmented band above
dusky lateral band

Dusky pre-dorsal band

Upper sides with many dark
lines converging obliquely
on midline of back

Very distinct

Thin
Absent

Hybrid N. chrysocephalus
1 10)

(N = 1) (N =
8 9
(9-10)
40 38
(36-40)
14 15
(14-17)
8 7
(6-8)
17 14
(13-15)
49.7 59.0
(49.56-77.05)
0.37 0.31
(0.27-0.33)
0.20 0.17
(0.16-0.17)
1 ACA 2,44, 2

Moderately distinct
only from dorsal
insertion to base of

Moderately distinct

caudal fin
Present Absent
Moderately distinct Absent
Intermediate Broad
Absent Present

uncat., Pond River (Green River drain-

age), 3.2 km NE Allegre, Todd County,

Kentucky, 22 August 1979 (1 speci-

men).

The hybrid and parental species were
collected from upper Pond River, an un-
disturbed stream section having clear,
rocky pools, and riffles with some emer-
gent vegetation.

Characters shared by the hybrid and N.
boops were number of anal rays, eye di-
ameter/head length, pharyngeal teeth,
lateral-line pores outlined by melano-
phores, and the absence of parallel dark
lines converging obliquely on the mid-
line of the back. Characters similar be-
tween N. chrysocephalus and the hybrid

were number of lateral-line scales, and
scales above the lateral line. Characters
of the hybrid intermediate between the
parental species were the dusky band
from tip of snout to base of caudal fin,
unpigmented band above dusky lateral
band (Fig. 1), number of pectoral rays,
and a dusky pre-dorsal band.

Frequent hybridization involving N.
cornutus and N. chrysocephalus with
other species is closely related to their
breeding habits. They spawn over nests
of other minnows (e.g., Notropis, Nocom-
is, Exoglossum, Semotilus), construct
nests in gravel riffles, or spawn in gravel
riffles without constructing a nest (Raney
1940). These breeding habits frequently

108 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 43(3-4) |

Fic. 1. Lateral view of: A, Notropis boops, 41.3
mm SL; B, the hybrid, 49.7 mm SL; C, N. chryso-
cephalus, 61.8 mm SL.

result in the mixture of their gametes
with those of other species.

Infrequent hybridization of N. boops
with other minnows is probably related
to its poorly understood breeding habits
(Pfleiger 1975, Smith 1979). Lehtinen
and Echelle (1979) studied the species’

reproductive cycle and estimated the, _

breeding season in Oklahoma but provid-

ed no information concerning breeding

behavior. One can only speculate that N.|

boops may have different spawning hab-,
its than that of N. chrysocephalus. Addi- |

tional breeding information should ex- |
plain the rarity of N. boops hybrids.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

We wish to thank Drs. Brooks M. Burr |
and Lawrence M. Page for their advice _
and criticism of the manuscript and Mr. |

Richard L. Mayden for the photographs.

LITERATURE CITED

GILBERT, C. R. 1964. The American cyprinid fishes |
of the subgenus Luxilus (genus Notropis). Bull. |

Fla. State Mus. Biol. Sci. 8:95-194.

Huss, C. L., AND K. L. LAGLER. 1964. Fishes of 1

the Great Lakes region. University Michigan |.

Press, Ann Arbor. 213 pp.

LEHTINEN, S., AND A. A. ECHELLE. 1979. Repro- i
ductive cycle of Notropis boops (Pisces: Cy- f
prinidae) in Brier Creek, Marshall County, *

Oklahoma. Am. Midl. Nat. 102:237-243.
MENZEL, B. W. 1978. Three hybrid combinations

of minnows (Cyprinidae) involving members of |
the common shiner complex (genus Notropis, ,
subgenus Luxilus). Am. Midl. Nat. 99:249-256. |
PFLIEGER, W. L. 1975. The fishes of Missouri. Mis- !

souri Department Conservation, Jefferson City.
343 pp.

RANEY, E. C. 1940. The breeding behavior of the
common shiner, Notropis cornutus (Mitchill).
Zoologica 25:1-14.

SCHWARTZ, F. J. 1972. World literature to fish hy-
brids with an analysis by family, species, and
hybrid. Publ. Gulf Coast Res. Lab. Mus. 3:1-
328.

SMITH, P. W. 1979. The fishes of Illinois. Univer-
sity Illinois Press, Urbana. 314 pp.

ai

Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 43(3-4), 1982, 109-118

Composition and Density of Phytoplankton and
Zooplankton Communities in the Lower Green River,

Kentucky (1978-1979)!

MARK P. HELLER? AND HARVEY M. Katz?

Envirosphere Company, Two World Trade Center, New York, New York 10048

ABSTRACT

Classical successional patterns in total plankton abundances showed relatively high densities
during the spring and fall and lower densities during summer and winter. Diatoms were the
dominant phytoplankton group, whereas rotifers and copepods, depending on sampling date,
represented the most abundant group of zooplankters. Total phytoplankton densities were similar
to previously reported densities from other areas of the Green River. However, total zooplankton
densities were much higher than previously reported. No vertical stratification was evident in

the densities of the major zooplankton groups.

INTRODUCTION

The Green River Basin, located in
west-central Kentucky and north-central
Tennessee, has a total drainage area of
23,093 km/?. It is the largest basin in Ken-
tucky and the second largest southern
tributary to the Ohio River (U.S. Depart-
ment of Agriculture 1975). The Green
River flows 531 km in a northwesterly
direction to its confluence with the Ohio
River near Evansville, Indiana (Fig. 1).
During periods of normal flow the Green
River varies in width from a few meters
in the upstream areas to about 150 m near
its confluence. Channel depth, near the
confluence, varies from approximately 12
m in spring to 8 m in summer. River flow
is regulated by upstream reservoirs on
the Barren, Nolan, Rough and Green
rivers. The 1970 through 1976 mean and
minimum mean discharges measured at
Lock and Dam No. 2 at Calhoun, Ken-
tucky (River Mile 63.1), were 13,057 and
1,105 cfs, respectively (Hays, personal
communication 1978). The maximum
mean discharge for water years 1975 and

"Based on a study funded by W. R. Grace Com-
pany/U.S. Department of Energy (Contract No. ET-
77-C-01-2577).

* Present address: Univ. of Conn., Biol. Dept.,
Stamford, Connecticut 06903.

* Present address: BioServices, 49 Lyons Rd,
Basking Ridge, New Jersey 07920.

1976 was 26,297 cfs (U.S. Geological Sur-
vey 1976, 1977).

The Green River below Lock and Dam
No. 3 (mile point 108) is primarily de-
positional, characterized by slow cur-
rents and the settlement of suspended
solids (U.S. Corps of Engineers 1975).
This part of the river is extensively used
by barges for coal transport. The shore-
line near the confluence is used for barge
parking and welding facilities. These ac-
tivities increase the suspended solids
concentration within the water column
by resuspension and by causing bank
scour.

The Green River Basin has been the
subject of recent investigations because
of increased industrialization and de-
mand for water resources by manufactur-
ing and energy-related facilities (R. W.
Beck and Assoc. 1974, U.S. Department
of Agriculture 1975, U.S. Corps of Engi-
neers 1975, Geo-Marine, Inc. 1976). Most
of these studies have focused on the east-
ern portion of the basin. However, those
studies which attempted to characterize
the western segment of the river below
Lock and Dam No. 2 conclude that high
suspended solids, relatively fast river
flows, sedimentation, and pollutants from
various sources all account for low aquat-
ic productivity.

The present study was conducted in
the western part of the Green River (mile
point 2-3), near its confluence with the

109

110

Ohio River (Fig. 1). Samples were col-
lected in May, July, and September 1978
and in January 1979. The purpose of this
report is to describe the species occur-
rence and to examine the temporal and
spatial patterns of phytoplankton and
zooplankton of this segment of the Green
River. Such analyses have not previously
been reported for this section of the river
although planktonic organisms occurring
in other water bodies in Kentucky have
been studied (Dillard and Crider 1970;
Dillard, Moore and Garrett 1976; Cole
1953, 1957, 1959).

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Sampling locations were selected with-
in 4 designated zones. Zones 1, 2 and 3
were located at mile point 2, and zone 4
was located at mile point 3 (Fig. 1). Zones
1 and 3 were shore areas, and zones 2 and
4 were channel areas. Phytoplankton and
zooplankton were collected quarterly (26
May 1978, 11 July 1978, 12 September
1978, and 22 January 1979).

Phytoplankton

Whole water (one liter) samples were
collected from each zone using a Van
Dorn sampler. In May and July, subsur-
face (—15 cm) samples were taken at all
stations. During September and January
composite samples were made from sub-
surface, mid-water and near bottom (~15
cm fom substrate) depths. Samples were
preserved in Lugol's solution.

Subsamples, withdrawn with a wide
bore pipette, were placed in either a 25
or 50 ml settling chamber. This depend-
ed upon the concentration of suspended
solids and/or algal cells. Samples were
allowed to settle for at least 72 h. A min-
imum of two chamber diameters were
examined under an inverted microscope.
Additional chamber diameters were ex-
amined when necessary to enumerate at
least 100 cells of the most numerous
forms.

Zooplankton
Subsurface (—15 cm) samples were tak-
en during day and night from zones 1-4
during May, July and September. During

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 43(3-4)

the month of January, only day samples |
15 cm from_
substrate) samples were collected at
night in zones 2 and 3 during May, July |

were collected. Bottom (~

and September.

Two 2% hp gasoline engines were |
used to pump water samples. Incurrent |
hoses (3.1 cm I.D.) were lowered to the |
desired depth and excurrent hoses were \
placed in 0.5 m, 76 » mesh plankton nets. |

The nets were suspended from a boat in

the river so that the discharge from the |
hoses was buffered by the surrounding |
water. Prior to and after each sample col- |

lection the pumps were calibrated by

pumping a measured volume per unit |

time. The total volume per sample was
1,514 1. The sample was retrieved from

the cod-end bucket and preserved in 5 |

per cent formalin buffered with borax.

Samples were taken in triplicate at all sta-

tions during all sampling dates.
Zooplankton samples were subsam-

pled with a Folsom plankton splitter un- |
til the final split contained approximately |

300 organisms. These subsamples were
settled for at least 1 h and excess water
was carefully decanted. The organisms in
the concentrate were rinsed into a 10 ml
Ward counting wheel. Subsamples were
examined using a phase-contrast micro-
scope until at least 50 of the most fre-
quently encountered forms were count-
ed.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Phytoplankton

Table 1 presents a taxonomic listing of
the phytoplankton species collected dur-
ing the four sampling dates. Five phyla
and a cyanobacterium were recognized.
Seventy-three algal species were found
excluding the cyanobacteria which may
have been represented by more than one
specific type.

During the May sampling, the total
mean phytoplankton density was 451,250
cells/l of which 42 per cent was repre-
sented by the Bacillariophyceae (dia-
toms). The most abundant diatom species
were Melosira italica, Nitzschia sp., Syn-
edra radians and S. rumpens. The cyano-

[is

ae
a) ee

NEWBURGH
cs
WS

ry
rm
m
2
\

Ss

YJ
\ / eG
Y)
NK SSHIENDERSON
0

5

Bre.

bacterium was second in total mean den-
sity (110,000 cells/l) followed by the
cryptophytes and chlorophytes (63,750
and 60,000 cells/l, respectively). Cyano-
phytes (blue-greens) showed a relatively
low mean density (11,250 cells/I).

The mean phytoplankton density dur-
ing the July sampling showed a decrease
of more than 75 per cent of that observed
during the preceding sampling. Diatoms
were dominant (62,500 cells/l) with Me-
losira granulata, M. italica and Synedra
rumpens the most abundant species. The
mean abundance of blue-green algae
doubled over that seen during May with
Merismopedia sp. the dominant blue-
green alga, while the green algae showed
a five-fold decrease in mean density from
that observed during May. A decrease in
diatoms followed by an increase in blue-
greens from spring to summer follows the
classical successional patterns observed
in north-temperate, riverine plankton
communities (Blum 1956).

The September samples had a mean
total phytoplankton density of 160,625

PLANKTON COMMUNITIES IN KENTUCKY—Heller and Katz

be

Location of study area.

cells/] of which 66 per cent were diatoms.
Melosira granulata, M. italica and Syn-
edra rumpens were the most abundant
species. Green algae were second in
mean abundance (29,375 cells/l) while
the cryptophytes, which were absent in
summer, were third in total mean density
(14,375 cells/l). The blue-greens showed
a four-fold decrease below mean summer
densities.

The lowest mean total density (23,664
cells/l) was observed during the January
sampling. Diatoms dominated (15,776
cells/l) with Melosira the most abundant
genus; however, no diatom species was
clearly dominant. Cyanobacteria reap-
peared during this time and were the sec-
ond most abundant (2,711 cells/l) after
being absent during the two preceding
samplings. All other phyla ranged in
mean density from 739 to 1,972 cells/l.

The mean total phytoplankton densi-
ties ranged from a low of 23,664 cells/1
during January to a high of 451,250 cells/
| during May. The only other aquatic sur-
vey done on the Green River with similar

112 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 43(3—-4)

TABLE 1.—TAXONOMIC LIST OF PHYTOPLANKTON COLLECTED FROM THE GREEN RIVER

Sampling dates

5/26/78 7/11/78 9/12/78 1/22/79

Phylum Cyanophyta
Class Cyanophyceae
Order Chroococcales
Family Chroococcacaeae
Merismopedia sp.
Microcystis sp.
Order Hormogonales
Family Nostocaceae
Anabaena sp.
Aphanizomenon sp.
Aphanizomenon flos-aquae
Family Oscillatoriaceae
Lyngbya sp.
Phylum Chlorophyta
Class Chlorophyceae
Order Chlorococcales
Family Chlorococcaceae
Tetraedron lunula
Schroederia setigera
Family Oocystacea
Ankistrodesmus falcatus
Ankistrodesmus falcatus mirabilis
Ankistrodesmus spiralis
Closteriopsis sp.
Selenastrum sp.
Family Scenedesmaceae

Crucigenia finestrata

Scenedesmus acuminatus

Scenedesmus bernardi

Scenedesmus denticulatus

Scenedesmus opoliensis

Scenedesmus quadricauda
Order Volvocales

Family Chlamydomonadaceae
Carteria sp.

Family Volvocaceae
Pandorina sp.
Quandriqula sp.

Phylum Euglenophyta
Class Euglenophyceae
Order Euglenales

Family Euglenaceae

Euglena sp.
Phacus sp.
Trachelomonas spp.
Phylum Chrysophyta
Class Bacillariophyceae
Order Pennales

Family Achnanthaceae

Achnanthes sp.

nw xX

nw

AA

AA A

wx

nw A rw xX

aK KKM

~ Xs

wx

wx XK

PLANKTON COMMUNITIES IN KENTUCKY—Heller and Katz 113

TABLE 1.—CONTINUED

Sampling dates

5/26/78 7/11/78 9/12/78 1/22/79
Achnanthes lanceolata X X
Achnanthes minuta x

Family Cymbellaceae

Cymbella affinis XxX
Cymbella cistula
Cymbella cymbiformis
Cymbella ventricosa
Epithemia sorex

wrx

wn AK

Family Eunotiaceae
Eunotia sp. Xx

Family Fragilariaceae
Asterionella formosa X
Diatoma vulgare xX
Fragilaria sp. XxX
Fragilaria crotonensis
Fragilaria pinnata
Frustulia rhomboides
Synedra sp.
Synedra radians
Synedra rumpens
Synedra ulna

Aw A

A
A

Family Gomphonemaceae

~

Gomphonema parvulum

Family Naviculaceae
Gyrosigma sp.
Navicula sp.
Navicula bacillum
Navicula cryptocephala
Navicula elginensis
Navicula pupula
Navicula radiosa
Pinnularia appendiculata
Pinnularia biceps

A KAKA K MXM
AA
nA

KAKA MM MMM

Family Nitzschiaceae
Hantzschia sp.
Nitzschia sp.

~
A
wn

Family Surirellaceae

Surirella sp. Xx XxX
Surirella linearis X

Order Centrales
Family Coscinodiscaceae

Cyclotella sp.
Cyclotella meneghiniana
Cyclotella ocellata
Cyclotella stelligeria
Melosira crenulata
Melosira granulata
Melosira granulata angustissima
Melosira italica
Melosira varians
Stephanodiscus sp.

x K Ke
AKAMA MoM XK
AKAM MM

Family Rhizosoleniaceae
Attheya sp. xX

114

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 43(3-4)

TABLE 1.—CONTINUED

Sampling dates

Class Chrysophyceae
Order Chrysomonadales
Family Ochromonadaceae
Dinobryon divergens
Dinobryon bavaricum
Phylum Cryptophyta
Class Cryptophyceae
Order Cryptomondales
Cryptomonas sp.
Phylum Pyrrhophyta
Class Dinophyceae
Order Peridiniales
Family Peridiniaceae
Peridinium sp.
Unidentified Nannoplankton
Cyanobacterium

sampling effort (Geo-Marine, Inc. 1976)
showed a similar density range of 36,000
to 512,400 cells/l; however, maximum
density was observed during September.
The September density maximum re-
flected a large increase in the blue-
greens which was not evident in this
study. Also diatoms reach maximum den-
sities in July in the reference study
whereas in this study these forms were
most abundant during May. The domi-
nant species were also somewhat differ-
ent between studies; however, similarity
was evident at the generic level.

It is not uncommon to observe these
seasonal variations between studies since
the sampling efforts were separated by
time and space. The Geo-Marine work
was done in 1975 and at mile point 83.
However, it is important to note the sim-
ilarity in the density ranges as well as in
oe dominant types of organisms collect-
ed.

Zooplankton
Three phyla were represented in day
samples: Rotifera, Arthropoda and Pro-
tozoa (Table 2). Arthropods were repre-
sented by the subclasses Branchiopoda
(cladocerans), Copepoda and Ostracoda.

5/26/78 7/11/78 9/12/78 1/22/79
xX
X
X X X
X
Xx X

Ostracods and protozoans combined ac-
counted for less than 3 per cent of the
total mean density during any of the 4
sampling times. Of the total number of
species found, 19 have previously been
recorded from other Kentucky waters
(Cole 1953, 1957, 1959).

The May sampling showed the greatest
mean total zooplankton density (69 or-
ganisms/l), of which copepods and roti-
fers represented 52 and 34 per cent, re-
spectively. The dominant copepod form
was nauplii, while Polyarthra sp., Kera-
tella cochlearis and Syncheata sp. were
the most abundant rotifers. The mean to-
tal cladoceran density of 9 organisms/]
was the highest observed during any of
the sampling dates, with Bosmina longi-
rostris the most abundant species.

All zooplankton phyla showed density
decreases during July from that observed
in May. The total mean density during
July was 34 organisms/] of which the co-
pepods accounted for 83 per cent. Cla-
docerans showed the second highest total
mean density; however, only 2.8 organ-
isms/l were found.

The dominant copepod form was nau-
plii while the most abundant cladocerans
were B. longirostris and Diaphanosoma

——
= . ry

PLANKTON COMMUNITIES IN KENTUCKY—Heller and Katz

Sampling dates

i Phylum Rotifera

Class Monogononta (unidentified)

Order Ploima

Family Asplanchnidae
Asplanchna priodonta

Family Brachionidae
Brachionus angularis*
Brachionus bidentata
Brachionus calycifloris
Brachionus caudatus
Brachionus havanaensis
Brachionus quadridentata*
Euchlanis sp.
Euchlanis dilatata
Kellicottia bostoniensis*
Keratella sp.
Keratella cochlearis*
Keratella quandrata
Keratella serrulata
Keratella valga*
Platyias sp.
Platyias patulus
Platyias quadricornis

Family Lecaninae
Lecane sp.*
Monostyla sp.*

Family Ploesomatidae
Ploesoma truncatum

Family Synchaetidae
Polyarthra sp.*
Synchaeta sp.*

Family Trichocercidae
Trichocerca multicrinis
Trichocerca sp.*

Order Flosculariacea

Family Filiniidae
Filinia longiseta

Family Hexarthridae
Hexarthra mira

Family Testudinellidae
Testudinella patina

Phylum Arthropoda
Class Crustacea
Order Cladocera (juvenile)

Family Bosminidae
Bosmina longirostris*

Family Chydroidae
Alona costata*

Alona rectangula*
Chydorus sphaericus*

5/26/78 7/11/78
xX xX
xX
xX
Xx
xX
Xx
xX
Xx
Xx

Xx
xX xX
Xx xX
xX
Xx
Xx Xx
Xx xX
xX
X Xx
X xX
X
Xx
Xx
Xx xX
Xx xX
xX
Xx xX
X xX
Xx
Xx

9/12/78

Xx

ww

AX

Kn Aw

wos

X

115

TABLE 2.—TAXONOMIC LIST OF ZOOPLANKTON COLLECTED FROM THE GREEN RIVER (DAY COLLECTION)

1/22/78

xX

A KM Mh RM RK

ww

poet
=
oy)

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 43(3-4)

TABLE 2.—CONTINUED

Family Daphnidae
Ceriodaphnia lacustris*
Daphnia sp.*

Daphnia parvula
Scapholeberis kingi

Family Sididae

Diaphanosoma brachyurum*
Subclass Ostracoda (planktonic)
Subclass Copepoda

Order Eucopepoda

copepod nauplii

Family Calanoidae
calanoid copepodites
Diaptomus sp.

Family Cyclopoidae
cyclopoid copepodites
Cyclops bicuspidatus thomasi*
Cyclops scutifer
Cyclops varicans rubellus
Cyclops vernalis*
Ectocyclops sp.
Eucyclops prionophorus

Family Harpacticoidae
Tachidius sp.

Phylum Protozoa
Class Mastigophora
Order Phytomonadina
Family Volvocidae

Sampling dates

5/26/78 7/11/78 9/12/78 1/22/78
X
X X
X X
X
Xx Xx
Xx X X xX
X X X Xx
Xx X X X
X X X
X X X
X
Xx
X X X Xx
X Xx
X
Xx
X
X

X = Forms representing greater than 5% averaged over 3 replicates.

brackyurum. Rotifers showed greater
than a 13-fold decrease in total density
over that observed in May.

The total mean zooplankton density in-
creased 30 per cent in September over
that observed during July. Rotifers be-
came the dominant group with a total
density similar to that observed during
May. Ploesoma truncatum was the dom-
inant rotifer species. Copepods showed
greater than a 2-fold decrease from that
seen during July; however, nauplii con-
tinued to be the dominant growth form.
Cladoceran densities also increased to
almost 50 per cent above that found dur-
ing May with B. longirostris continuing
to be the most abundant species.

The January collection exhibited the

= Previously reported from Kentucky waters (Cole 1953, 1957, 1959).

lowest total mean density (5 organisms/1)
with copepods representing greater than
75 per cent of this total. Few species
were found with none being clearly dom-
inant.

Total mean zooplankton densities
ranged from a high of 68.5 organisms/I in
May to a low of 5.1 organisms/I in Janu-
ary. Rotifers exhibited the greatest tem-
poral variation with relatively high den-
sities during May and September and
much lower densities during July and
January. This bimodal distribution re-
flected, for the most part, large densities
of Keratella cochlearis, Polyarthra sp.
and Syncheata sp. during May and Ploe-

soma truncatum during September. Co-

pepods also exhibited seasonal variations

|

|
\

PLANKTON COMMUNITIES IN KENTUCKY—Heller and Katz

117

TABLE 3.—COMPARISON OF DIURNAL MEAN DENSITIES (NO./1) OF ZOOPLANKTON GROUPS COLLECTED
FROM THE GREEN RIVER (D = Day; N = NIGHT)

Sampling zones

bo

Surface

D N
May 26, 1978 Protozoa 0 1.5
Rotifera 19.3 7.6
Cladocera 13.7 17.0
Copepoda 26.3 43.2

Ostracoda 0 0
July 11, 1978 Protozoa 2.8 0.5
Rotifera 2.8 0.8
Cladocera 4.1 11.4
Copepoda 35.1 31.2

Sept 12, 1978 Protozoa 0 0
Rotifera 21.0 12.2
Cladocera 2.5 3.9
Copepoda 13.6 9.0
Ostracoda 0.1 1.0

3
Surface

Bottom Bottom

N D N N

ileal: 0 0 0)
8.3 34.8 nD} N37
Wes 8.6 TED 18.8
19.8 20.6 26.8 51.9
0) 0.4 0 0.1
1.4 0) 0.1 0.9
0.4 1.0 0.4 0.8
9.1 2.5 10.9 14.2
37.7 22h 22.0 31.2

0 0 0) 0)
8.7 14.2 16.5 ED,
2.9 3.3 3.3 220
8.7 10.3 10.5 tet

0.05 0) 0.1 0)

with highest mean densities during May,
thereafter decreasing each sampling date
to lowest abundance in January. The total
densities presented in this study show
much greater abundances than previ-
ously reported for other areas in the
Green River. Densities reported from
near the Green River Power Station (mile
point 82) ranged from 2 to 20.1 organ-
isms/l (Geo-Marine, Inc. 1976) and den-
sities found near the Reid Power Stations
(mile point 41) were 13.3 and 0.8 organ-
isms/l during July and October 1974 re-
spectively (U.S. Dept. Agriculture 1977).
These differences probably reflect the
effects of temporal and spatial separation
between the studies and differences in
collection techniques. The collection
technique used in the referenced studies
was the net tow. In the present study, a
combination of pump and net was em-
ployed.

In lentic systems, zooplankton popu-
lations exhibit diurnal vertical migrations
(DVN) (Schnidler and Noven 1971, Mak-
arewicz and Likens 1975, Haney and
Hall 1975). However, few studies have
examined vertical migration in riverine
environments and those that have show
either homogeneous or conflicting distri-
butions (Lauer et al. 1974, Massengill
1976).

In the present study, DVM was not sat-
isfactorily demonstrated. Table 3 com-
pares the mean densities of the major
zooplankton groups collected at surface
and bottom depths during the first three
sampling dates. No consistent vertical
stratification was observed in the mean
densities of the major groups nor were
there any differences in the spatial dis-
tribution of the dominant species. This is
not surprising since most planktonic or-
ganisms can maintain their position in
the water column only against flows of a
few millimeters per second (Hynes
1970). Flows of this low magnitude are
uncommon in the Green River and would
possibly occur only during the summer
under low-flow conditions. Those crus-
taceans which have been observed to
migrate vertically are generally adult
forms. Our study showed few adult co-
pepods and the dominant adult cladocer-
ans present (e.g., Bosmina) are not good
swimmers (Zaret and Kerfoot 1980). Ro-
tifers would not generally be able to mi-
grate vertically in riverine environments
due to their poor swimming abilities.

SUMMARY

Seasonality in total plankton abun-
dance was observed with relatively high
densities during the spring and fall and

118

low abundances during the summer and
winter. This follows the classical succes-
sional pattern frequently seen in many
aquatic systems (Blum 1956, Porter
1977). Generally, most river plankton is
considered to be allochthonous from trib-
utaries and backwaters. In this study,
highest densities were observed during
high water and runoff, during the month
of May.

Diatoms were always the dominant
phytoplankton group. Rotifers and cope-
pods, depending on the sampling time,
always represented the highest density
levels of the zooplankters. The observed
range of total phytoplankton densities
was within the normal range of 1 x 10* to
101 x 10° cells/l seen in rivers of the
United States (Palmer 1964). Total zoo-
plankton densities were found to be
higher than those previously reported for
the Green River. No vertical stratification
was evident in the densities of the major
zooplankton groups; these homogeneous
conditions probably were caused by
water level fluctuations and high river
flows.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The authors thank Lockheed Center
for Marine Research for analyzing the
plankton samples. In addition, the con-
tinued support of Envirosphere Compa-
ny in sponsoring this paper is gratefully
acknowledged; in particular the work of
Dr Glenn Piehler, Supervising Ecologist,
who assisted us in a review and editorial
capacity.

LITERATURE CITED

BLuM, J. L. 1956. The ecology of river algae. Bot.
Rev. 22:291-341.

COLE, G. A. 1953. Notes on the calanoid and cy-
clopoid Copepoda of the Louisville region.
Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci. 14:6-9.

. 1957. Studies on a Kentucky Knobs Lake
III. Some qualitative aspects of the net plank-
ton. Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci. 18:88-101.

. 1959. A summary of knowledge of Ken-
tucky crustaceans. Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci. 28:66—
79.

DILLARD, G., AND S. CRIDER. 1970. Kentucky al-
gae, I. Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci. 31:66—72.

, 5. P. MOORE, AND L. S. GARRETT. 1976.

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 43(3—4)

Kentucky algae, II. Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci. 37:20- |

25)

GEO-MARINE, INC. 1976. Selected physical and bi-
ological properties in the vicinity of Kentucky
Utilities Green River Electric Generating Sta-
tion. Prepared for Kentucky Utilities Company,
Lexington, Kentucky.

HANEY, J. F., AND D. J. HALL. 1975. Diel vertical |)

migration and filter-feeding activities of Daph-
nia. Arch. Hydrobiol. 75:413-441.

Hynes, H. B. N. 1970. The ecology of running |

waters. Univ. of Toronto Press, Toronto, Can-
ada.

LAUER, G. J., W. T. WALLER, D. W. BATH, W.
MEEKS, D. HEFFNER, T. GINN, L. ZUBARIK, P.

BIBKO, AND P. C. STORM. 1974. Pp. 37-82. In |

L. D. Jensen (Ed.). Entrainment and intake
screening. Electric Edison Research Institute,
Palo Alto, California.

MAKAREWICZ, J. C., AND G. E.. LIKENS. 1975. Niche
analysis of a zooplankton community. Science
190: 1000-1003.

MASSENGILL, R. R. 1976. Entrainment of zooplank-
ton at the Connecticut Yankee Plant. In D.
Merriman and L. M. Thorpe (Eds.). The Con-
necticut River ecological study. Am. Fish. Soc.
1:55-60.

PALMER, C. M. 1964. Algae in water supplies of the
United States. Pp. 239-261. In X. F. Jacjsib
(Ed.). Algae and Man. Plenum Press, New
York.

PorRTER, K. G. 1977. The plant-animal interface in
freshwater ecosystems. Am. Sci. 65:159-170.

R. W. BECK AND Assoc. 1974. Environmental anal-
ysis steam turbine generation for Big Rivers
Electric Corporation. Denver, Colorado. File
No. CC-3161-TG1-MX. 83 pp. plus appendices.

SCHNIDLER, D. W., AND B. NOVEN. 1971. Vertical
distribution and seasonal abundance of zoo-
plankton in two shallow lakes of the Experi-
mental Lakes Area, Northwest Ontario. J. Fish.
Res. Bd. Can. 28:245-256.

U.S. ARMy CoRPS OF ENGINEERS. 1975. Draft en-
vironmental impact statement for continued
operation and maintenance of a navigation proj-
ect—Green and Barren rivers, Kentucky. U.S.
Army Engineer District, Louisville, Kentucky.

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 1975. Green
River Basin report on water, land and related
resources. U.S.D.A. Field Advisory Committee,
Lexington, Kentucky.

. 1977. Final environmental impact state-
ment (supplement). Reid Power Plant addition.
Rural Electrification Administration Washing-
ton, D.C. File No. 75-4-F.

U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY. 1976. Water resources
data for Kentucky water year 1975. Water Re-
sources Division, Louisville, Kentucky.

. 1977. Water resources data for Kentucky
water year 1976. Water Resources Division,
Louisville, Kentucky.

ZARET, R. E., AND W. C. KERFOOT. 1980. The
shape and swimming technique of Bosmina
longirostris. Limnol. Oceanogr. 25:126-133.

Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 43(3—4), 1982, 119-126

The Predictability of the Plasticity Index from
Selected Soil Parameters

ALAN D. SMITH

Department of Geology, Eastern Kentucky University,
Richmond, Kentucky 40475

ABSTRACT

The Atterberg Limits consist of a simple set of laboratory test procedures that are extremely
useful in design criteria for geotechnical engineering applications. The plasticity index is prob-
ably the most important of these limits. Eighteen research hypotheses were tested to determine
if certain soil parameters could be used to predict the plasticity index. As expected, the soil
parameters per cent clay and liquid limit account for a significant amount of variance in pre-
dicting the plasticity index. The soil parameters per cent granular, per cent silt, and water content
did not account for a significant amount of variance in predicting the plasticity index.

INTRODUCTION

Background Information on the
Atterberg Limits

In 1911 Atterberg (Bowles 1978) pro-
posed several limits of soil consistency
based on water content. These limits are:

1. Cohesion Limit—moisture content at
which soil crumbs just stick together.

2. Sticky Limit~moisture content at
which soil just sticks to a metal sur-
face, such as a spatula blade.

3. Shrinkage Limit—moisture content
below which no further soil volume
reduction (or shrinkage) occurs.

4. Plastic Limit—moisture content be-
low which the soil is nonplastic.

5. Liquid Limit—moisture content be-
low which the soil behaves as a plastic
material. At this moisture content, the
soil is on the verge of becoming a vis-
cous fluid.

Terzaghi (1943) noted that the Atter-
berg Limits test results depend on the
same physical factors that determine re-
sistance and permeability of soils, i.e.,
shape of particles, effective size, uni-
formity, etc. Casagrande (1939) devel-
oped a standard device for the determi-
nation of the liquid limit, an apparatus
that has remained relatively unchanged
to the present. The techniques used for
the collection of liquid-limit and plastic-
limit data in this study were derived from
standard testing procedures, A.S.T.M.

423-66 for the liquid-limit determination
and D424-59 for the plastic-limit deter-
mination (Means and Parcher 1963).

Further studies on the Atterberg Lim-
its led to the Casagrande classification
system for identification of cohesive soils
in 1947. This system was eventually
adopted with minor modifications as part
of the Unified Soil Classification System.
Although both the liquid and plastic lim-
its are easily determined quantities, and
their qualitative correlations with soil
composition and physical properties
have been quite well established, fun-
damental physical interpretations of the
limits and quantitative relationships be-
tween their values and compositional fac-
tors are more complex (Mitchell 1976).

Of the two limits, the liquid is probably
the easier to interpret. Basically, the liq-
uid limit is analogous to a shear test. Ca-
sagrande in 1932 deduced that the liquid
limit corresponded roughly to a water
‘content at which a soil has a shear
strength of 2.5 kN/m? (presently 2.0 kN/
m°). The pore water tension at the liquid
limit is approximately 0.4 kN/m?; thus,
net interparticle attractive forces must ac-
count for the greatest proportion of
strength at the liquid limit.

The plasticity index is a measure of the
plastic range and is defined by the equa-
tion:

PI = W, — Wp = LL — PL

where: PI = plasticity index, W,, = water

IRS

120

content at the liquid limit, Wp = water
content at the plastic limit. The smaller
the flaky particles making up a plastic
soil, the easier the soil can be rolled into
a thin thread without crumbling. Because
the grain size helps determine the cap-
illary stress in the pore water, in general,
soils with a high plastic index are sub-
jected to high pressure when dried out.
A high plastic index coupled with a high
liquid limit is indicative of a soil that will
shrink a great deal when moisture is
evaporated, and is capable of swelling
against heavy loads when water is ap-
plied to the dry soil (Means and Parcher
1963).

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Selection of the Population and
Sample Selection

Dr. D. H. Timmerman, Associate Pro-
fessor of Civil Engineering, The Univer-
sity of Akron, collected, with the help of
the author and several graduate students,
geotechnical information from three sep-
arate bridge surveys which provided data
on 358 bridge approaches within the
state of Ohio. These were collected to
determine whether significant correla-
tions existed between bridge approach
performance in terms of differential set-
tlement criteria and design and construc-
tion parameters studied. Timmerman
(1976) found very poor correlations be-
tween his criterion variable and predic-
tion variables and concluded that it was
not possible to relate, with any reliabili-
ty, conditions which could be associated
with either generally satisfactory bridge
approach behavior. It was evident that a
maintenance program was necessary to
guarantee adequate bridge approach per-
formance, regardless of the design and
construction techniques employed (Tim-
merman 1976).

However, in this study, a wealth of im-
portant geotechnical information was col-
lected. The soil parameters critical to the
study at hand are: 1. Per cent granular
(per cent of the soil mass too coarse to
pass a 200-mesh screen or larger than
0.074 mm); 2. Per cent silt (per cent
of the soil mass finer than a 300-mesh

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 43(3-4)

screen or smaller than 0.074 mm, but,
larger than 0.002 mm); 3. Per cent)
clay (per cent of the soil mass with par-),
ticle size equal to or smaller than 0.002 |
mm); 4. Liquid limit; 5. Water content |
(ratio of weight of water to the weight of ;
solid soil matter expressed as a percent- ,
age); 6. Depth to soil layer, cumulative |
from the ground surface; 7. Plasticity in- ;
dex. |

In addition, each of the soil parameters |
above was recorded in relationship to or- |
igin of testing and bridge location. Each —
of the parameters was differentiated al- |
so as to whether it was to the right or |
left of the bridge; thus, two sets of data |
were collected for each of the 7 parame- ,
ters. |
These data form the basis of this study. {
A random sample of 36 bridge sites was |
selected for this study, which will leave .
a sample of 153 for each of the variables ,
researched. According to Pearson (1930), ;
a sample size of at least 150 is needed to ,
arrive at values of kurtosis and/or skew- |
ness in order to test for normality of sam-
ple distributions.

Selection of the Statistical Technique

The data for this study were statistical-
ly analyzed through the use of multiple
linear regression analysis. Multiple lin-
ear regression may be used entirely on
continuous predictor variables, as in the
usual multiple correlation methods, or
the analysis may be based entirely on dis-
crete variables. Whatever the nature of
the variables, multiple linear regression
indicates how well the criterion can be
predicted on the basis of all available in-
formation and computes the correlation
coefficients between each variable.

Multiple linear regression is related to
the analysis of variance techniques
which analyze estimates of the popula-
tion variance and yields a probability
statement indicating how likely it is that
observed differences between means are
due to sampling error. The F-test can be
developed in terms of R? by the equation:

SSp
SST

SSp/N _
SST/N

R=

PREDICTABILITY OF PLASTICITY INDEXx—Smith

where: R? = Proportion of variance or
sum of squares accounted for; SSp = Sum
of squares-population; SST = Sum of
squares-total.

Thus, R® is an expression of the pro-

_ portion of total sample criterion variance

accounted for by a particular set of pre-

| dictor information. The range of R? is
| from 0.00 to 1.00. The following formula

for the F-test can be used (McNeil, Kelly,
and McNeil 1975):

Ra?/dfn

F (dfn, dfd) = Rf

_ where: Ra? = The proportion of unique

observed variance due to knowledge of
group membership; Rw? = The propor-
tion of unique observed variance due to

unknown sources; dfn = The number of
_ group means free to vary once the grand
' mean was calculated; dfd = The number
_ of subjects whose criterion scores are free

to vary once each group mean has been
calculated.
The criterion variable selected and

_ analyzed was the plasticity index, due to

its multiple uses in engineering applica-
tions. Empirically, there has been a
strong correlation between plasticity in-

dex and per cent clay. A strong relation-
ship also exists between plasticity index
and liquid limit.

The predictor variables selected for the
study, due to their easy method of testing
and reliability, are: 1. per cent granular,
2. per cent silt, 3. per cent clay, 4. liquid
limit, 5. water content.

The general research and specific re-
search questions were generated to
achieve the purpose of this study. They
are as follows: 1. To what extent can plas-
ticity index be predicted from the select-
ed soil parameters? 2. To what degree
does each of the prediction variables ac-
count for the variance in each of the pre-
diction equations? 3. To what extent does
each of the predictor variables correlate
with the plasticity index?

Eighteen specific research hypotheses
were tested. The 0.05 level of signifi-
cance was considered sufficient to reject
the nondirectional, two-tailed hypothe-

121

ses. These specific research hypotheses
were tested:

H,: The soil parameters per cent granu-
lar, per cent silt, per cent clay, liquid
limit, and water content account for
a significant amount of variance in
predicting the plasticity index.

: The soil parameter per cent granular
accounts for a significant amount of
variance in predicting the plasticity
index over and above what can be
accounted for by per cent granular,
per cent clay, liquid limit, and water
content.
The soil parameter per cent silt ac-
counts for a significant amount of
variance in predicting the plasticity
index over and above what can be
accounted for by per cent granular,
per cent clay, liquid limit, and water
content.
The soil parameter per cent clay ac-
counts for a significant amount of
variance in predicting the plasticity
index over and above what can be
accounted for by per cent granular,
per cent silt, liquid limit and water
content.
: The soil parameter liquid limit ac-
counts for a significant amount of
variance in predicting the plasticity
index over and above what can be
accounted for by per cent granular,
per cent silt, per cent clay, and water
content.
The soil parameter water content
does not account for a significant
amount of variance in predicting the
plasticity index over and above what
can be accounted for by per cent
granular, per cent silt, per cent clay,
and liquid limit.

: The soil parameters per cent granu-
iar and per cent silt account for a sig-
nificant amount of variance in pre-
dicting the plasticity index over and
above what can be accounted for by
per cent clay, liquid limit, and water
content.

: The soil parameters per cent granu-
lar and per cent clay account for a
significant amount of variance in

H::

H;:

le:

122

Fis:

Hy:

Elin:

Hie:

Hua:

His:

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 43(3-4)

predicting the plasticity index over
and above what can be accounted for
by per cent silt, liquid limit, and
water content.

The soil parameters per cent granu-
lar and liquid limit account for a sig-
nificant amount of variance in pre-
dicting the plasticity index over and
above what can be accounted for by
per cent silt, per cent clay, and water
content.

The soil parameters per cent silt and
per cent clay account for a significant
amount of variance in predicting the
plasticity index over and above what
can be accounted for by per cent
granular, liquid limit, and water con-
tent.

The soil parameters per cent silt and
liquid limit account for a significant
amount of variance in predicting the
plasticity index over and above what
can be accounted for by per cent
granular, per cent clay, and water
content.

The soil parameters per cent clay
and liquid limit account for a signif-
icant amount of variance in predict-
ing the plasticity index over and
above what can be accounted for by
per cent granular, per cent silt, and
water content.

: The soil parameters per cent granu-

lar, per cent silt, and per cent clay
account for a significant amount of
variance in predicting the plasticitiy
index over and above what can be
accounted for by liquid limit and
water content.

The soil parameters per cent granu-
lar, per cent clay, and liquid limit
account for a significant amount of
variance in predicting the plasticity
index over and above what can be
accounted for by per cent silt and
water content.

The soil parameters per cent granu-
lar, per cent silt, and liquid limit ac-
count for a significant amount of vari-
ance in predicting the plasticity
index over and above what can be
accounted for by per cent clay and
water content.

H,,: The soil parameters per cent silt, per
cent clay, and liquid limit account

for a significant amount of variance ,
in predicting the plasticity index |

over and above what can be account-
ed for by per cent granular and water
content.

: The soil parameters per cent clay,

liquid limit, and water content ac- |
count for a significant amount of vari- |

ance in predicting the plasticity in-
dex over and above what can be

accounted for by per cent granular |

and per cent silt.

lar, per cent silt, per cent clay, and
liquid limit account for a significant

amount of variance over and above |

what can be accounted for by water
content in predicting the plasticity
index.

RESULTS

The use of multiple linear regression
for the multiple comparisons developed |

in the specific hypotheses selection re-
sulted in several significant regression
equations that may be used to predict the
criterion variable, plasticity index. The
hypotheses found to be significant are: 1,
5, 9, 11, 12 and 14 through 18, and are
summarized in Table 1.

By allowing all the selected predictor
variables to enter into a multiple linear
regression equation with the plasticity

index as the criterion, R? values are ob- |

tained. An R? value in linear regression
is the amount of percentage of the vari-
ance in the criterion variable which is
accounted for by the predictor variables;

another term describing this phenomenon |

is common variance. In this study, the R’
value indicates to what extent the select-
ed variables are collectively predictable
of the observed variance in plasticity in-
dex for the sample cited. Since all the
variables under study are continuous and
nondichotomous, the maximum value
that R? can reach is 1.0. Of the significant
relationships found in this study, the
highest R? is 0.76 for the full model. For
the restricted model, the R? term varies
from 0.75 to 0.00. If one subtracts the

: The soil parameters per cent granu- |

PREDICTABILITY OF PLASTICITY INDEX—Smith

123

TABLE 1.—SUMMARY OF F-RATIOS, PROBABILITY LEVELS, R? FOR BOTH THE FULL AND RESTRICTED

MODELS, DEGREES OF FREEDOM-NUMERATOR, DEGREES OF FREEDOM-DENOMINATOR, AND SIGNIFICANCE

FOR EACH RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS TESTING PREDICTIVE RELATIONSHIPS AMONG THE PLASTICITY INDEX
AND VARIOUS SOIL PARAMETERS!

Hypothesis

number R’, R’, F Probability Sign
1 0.76379 0.0 5/147 95.0674 .OOOO0O0 S
2; 0.76739 0.76379 1/147 0.0000 1.00000 NS
3 0.76379 0.76416 1/147 0.2262 1.00000 NS
4 0.76379 0.76279 1/147 0.6241 .43076 NS
5 0.76379 0.37739 1/147 240.4741 .O0000 S
6 0.76379 0.76167 1/147 1.3237 25179 NS
7 0.76379 0.76053 2/147 1.0162 .36443 NS
8 0.76379 0.75140 2/147 3.8557 02332 NS
9 0.76379 0.37739 2/147 120.2374 .OO000 S
10 0.76379 0.75191 2/147 3.6969 .02130 NS
11 0.76379 0.37783 2/147 120.0999 .OO000 S
12 0.76379 0.37226 2/147 121.8332 .OOO000 S
13 0.76379 0.74977 3/147 2.9102 .03656 NS
14 0.76379 0.36720 3/147 82.2717 .O0000 S
15 0.76379 0.20690 3/147 115.5254 .0OO000 S
16 0.76379 0.27791 3/147 100.7940 .OO000 S
17 0.76379 0.28048 3/147 100.2611 .OO000 S
18 0.76379 0.20492 2/147 173.9048 .OO000 S

‘An F-test was utilized to test for significance relationships between the plasticity index and various geotechnical soil parameters. The
assigned alpha level of 0.05 for a two-tailed nondirectional test was considered statistically significant. However, the employment of a correction
for multiple comparisons was necessary, using the Newman and Fry (1972) method. The corrected alpha level of 0.003 was used before the

specific research hypothesis was considered significant.

amount of common variance from both
the full and restricted models, a figure for
the percentage of the common variance
can be found for the predictor variables
not covaried or, in other words, account-
ed for in the model. The results then can
be ranked according to the greatest

TABLE 2.—RANK OF R? FOR THE SIGNIFICANT OR
APPROACHING SIGNIFICANCE HYPOTHESES

Hypothesis R’—Full R*—Restricted
number model model R?*-R’*,!

1 0.76379 0.00000 0.76379
18 0.76379 0.20492 0.55887
15 0.76379 0.20690 0.55689
16 0.76379 0.27791 0.48588
17 0.76379 0.28048 0.48331
14 0.76379 0.36720 0.39659
12 0.76379 0.37226 0.39153

5 0.76379 0.37739 0.38640

9 0.76379 0.37739 0.38640
11 0.76379 0.37783 0.38590
13 0.76379 0.74977 0.01402

8 0.76379 0.75140 0.01239
10 0.76379 0.75191 0.01188

"Denotes the restricted model substracted from the full model in
terms of R?.

amount of common variance accounted
for, as shown in Table 2. Hypotheses 11,
12, 14 and 18 account for the greatest
amount of common variance and are
more significant than the remaining hy-
potheses.

The data in Table 3 illustrate the rank
of regression weights for the predictor
variables per cent granular, per cent silt,
per cent clay, liquid limit, and water con-
tent. The variable per cent granular, as
expected, had no major importance in the
prediction of the plasticity index. In ad-
dition, the liquid limit was assigned the
greatest regression weight, also as ex-
pected. The sampling distributions of per
cent granular, per cent silt, and per cent

TABLE 3.—RANK OF REGRESSION WEIGHTS

Variable Regression weight
X;—Liquid limit 0.53948 122
X,—Per cent clay 0.04063486
X,—Water content —0.03874237
X;—Per cent silt —0.02516776
X,.—Per cent granular 0.0

124 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 43(3-4)
TABLE 4.—VARIABLE CORRELATIONS. ALL CORRELATIONS WERE SIGNIFICANT AT THE 0.05 LEVEL OF a
SIGNIFICANCE
Per cent Per cent Per cent Liquid Plasticity
Variable granular silt clay limit index
Per cent granular 1.0000
Per cent silt —0.7547 1.0000
Per cent clay —0.8383 0.2837 1.0000
Liquid limit —0.5131 0.2823 0.5239 1.0000
Water content —0.5091 0.4852 0.3526 0.5898 0.4527
Plasticity index —0.4630 0.1807 0.5366 0.8631 1.0000

clay appeared to have been derived from
approximately normal populations; while
the variables liquid limit, water content,
and plasticity index appeared to have not
been derived from normal populations.

The variable correlations are shown in
Table 4. All the correlations were found
to be significant, which meant that the
population correlations were found to be
statistically different from zero at the 0.05
level. As shown in Table 4, per cent gran-
ular was best correlated with per cent
clay; per cent silt was best correlated
with per cent granular; liquid limit was
best correlated with plasticity index; and,
surprisingly, water content was best cor-
related with per cent granular.

The criterion variable, plasticity index,
was best correlated with liquid limit and
least correlated with per cent silt. The
predictor variable water content was best
correlated with the plasticity index and
least with per cent silt. Per cent clay was
best correlated with per cent granular
and least with the predictor variable per
cent silt. Per cent silt was best correlated
with per cent clay and least with plastic-
ity index. Per cent granular was least cor-
related with plasticity index. All the cor-
relations derived in this study were
found to be significant. However, due to
multicolinearity, care must be taken
when interpreting the correlations and
the resulting regression weights.

The descriptive statistics for each of
the predictor variables per cent granular,
per cent silt, per cent clay, liquid limit,
water content, and the criterion variable
plasticity index are summarized in Table
5. At the 90 per cent confidence level for

an alpha equal to 0.05, the distributions of |

the predictor variables per cent granular,
per cent silt, and per cent clay appear to
approximate normality, while the vari-
ables liquid limit, water content, and
plasticity index do not statistically resem-
ble normal distributions. Thus, it can be
concluded that they were not derived
from normal populations.

DISCUSSION

Hypotheses 3 and 4, although found
not to be statistically significant, were
considered uninterpretable because their
F-ratios were significantly less than one.
Hypotheses 1, 5, 9, 11, 12 and 14 through
18 were found to be significant. As ex-
pected, the soil parameters per cent clay
and liquid limit did account for a signif-
icant amount of variance in predicting
the plasticity index. The soil parameter
water content did not account for a sig-
nificant amount of variance in predicting
plasticity index. The soil parameters per
cent silt and per cent granular were not
interpretable in their role in predicting
the plasticity index, because the regres-
sion weights calculated for both were un-
stable. It is, however, strongly recom-
mended for future studies dealing with
predictive relationships with the plastic-
ity index from these basic soil parameters
to emphasize the contributions due to per
cent granular and per cent silt, and ignore
the contributions of the soil parameters
per cent clay and liquid limit, since their
relationships are well established in the
literature.

It must be emphasized that the results
obtained in this study were predictive

PREDICTABILITY OF PLASTICITY INDEx—Smith

125

t| TABLE 5.—DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS OF THE SAMPLING DISTRIBUTIONS OF THE PREDICTOR AND CRITERION

\

|

"
{

H

only to the conditions of soils associated
with bridges in Ohio that were studied.
It must be further emphasized, due to the
ex post facto nature of the study, that
there can not be any cause and effect re-
lationship derived from this study’s re-
sults. Although violations of normality for
certain predictor variables and the cor-
relations between the variables studied
were significantly greater than zero, sug-
gesting dependence among the predictor
variables, the F-ratio values are still val-
id. An F-test is probably the most fre-
quently used test of significance. It is de-
fined as the mean square between groups
divided by the mean square within
groups; hence, the F-test can be used to
determine if there is a significant differ-
ence between two or more groups or
variables simultaneously. An F-test, like
a t-test, is very robust and relatively
insensitive to violations of the assump-
tions of random selection of subjects and
normal distribution of the variables. In
fact, according to McNeil et al. (1975),
many of the underlying assumptions for
these tests can be violated with very little
effect on their accuracy. This is especial-
ly true in dealing with equal sample size
in each of the variables studied, which
was the case for the present study.
Finally, as anticipated, the best predic-
tor variable was liquid limit, followed by
per cent clay. Surprisingly, water content
appeared to play a more dramatic role in

VARIABLES
Descriptive Per cent Per cent Per cent Liquid Water Plasticity
statistics granular clay silt limit content index
| Valid cases 153 153 153 153 153 153
Mean 30.22 37.76 32.07 28.63 PEP AT 10.59
Standard dev. 20.13 13.56 11.54 6.57 6.53 4.17
Variance 405.32 183.92 133.21 43.14 42.66 17.40
Skewness 0.609 0.294 0.556 1.605 0.312 1.200
Kurtosis —0.179 0.369 0.195 5.829 —0.863 4.427
+ Minimum 1.0 6.0 9.0 17.0 8.0 3.0
Maximum 82.0 73.0 67.0 65.0 35.0 32.0
. Range 81.0 67.0 58.0 48.0 27.0 29.0
Maximum Z-value RID 2.60 3.03 5.54 2.10 Salts
Chi-square 7.78 12.39 8.52 22.80 29.12 31.07
Probability 0.169 0.030 0.130 0.000 0.000 0.000

the prediction of plasticity index than did
per cent granular. Ideally, both would
have little or nothing to do with the pre-
diction of the plasticity index.

CONCLUSIONS

Review of the literature dealing with
the Atterberg Limits, especially the plas-
ticity index, has indicated that there is no
perfect relationship between the soil pa-
rameters studied. In general, the term
soil is used by the engineer and agricul-
turist alike to refer to a mixture of natural
materials consisting of assorted mineral
grains and organic matter, as well as
water and gas. The engineer is concerned
primarily with the use of soil as a medi-
um for construction such as the ability of
the soil for load bearing, frost heaving,
and shrinkage. The agriculturist, on the
other hand, is interested in those prop-
erties of soil that support life. The Atter-
berg Limits are used extensively by both,
as well as by other disciplines concerned
with this superficial covering of most of
the earth’s crust. Hence, the significant
findings of this research should be of in-
terest to many disciplines outside the en-
gineering fields. Research findings have
indicated that statistically significant re-
lationships do exist between some of the
soil parameters and some of the Atterberg
Limits. Since these factors are relatively
easy to collect and their ramifications es-
pecially important to those disciplines

126

dealing with distribution of people and
their requirements, they should provide
information needed by the geologist,
geographer, biologist, and engineer alike.

The following recommendations are
listed as suggested ideas for additional
research:

1. Since the state of Ohio has several
distinct physiographic regions, such as
the Appalachian Plateau and glaciated/
unglaciated regions, further study relat-
ing these specific regions to the data col-
lected on the soil parameters previously
discussed should provide useful and im-
portant information.

2. Other soil parameters not studied in
this research effort could be investigated
to determine their degree of relationship
and predictability with the plasticity in-
dex.

3. Water content is site specific, and
further differentiation between the soil
parameters studied and the geographic
region from which they were derived
may be necessary to discern the relation-
ship found in this study of water content
with the plasticity index.

4. A study of the residuals generated
from testing the 18 research hypotheses
with their corresponding geographic lo-
cation and associated soil conditions
should provide valuable information for
potential users of research generated by
this study.

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 43(3—-4)

5. Time between construction of
bridges, movement of soils, degree of
compaction, and other related variables
involved with the actual mechanics of
construction should be considered in fu-
ture studies.

LITERATURE CITED

BOWLES, J. E. 1978. Engineering properties of soils
and their measurement. 2nd ed., McGraw-Hill
Book Co., New York.

CASAGRANDE, A. 1939. Notes on soil mechanics,
first semester. Harvard University, Cambridge,
Mass.

MCNEIL, K. A., F. J. KELLY, AND J. T. MCNEIL.
1975. Testing research hypotheses using mul-
tiple linear regression. Southern Illinois Uni-
versity Press, Carbondale, III.

MEANS, R. E., AND J. V. PARCHER. 1963. Physical
properties of soils. Charles E. Merrill Books,
Inc., Columbus, Ohio.

MITCHELL, K. 1976. Fundamentals of soil behav-
ior. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York.

NEWMAN, I., AND J. A. Fry. 1972. Response to “A
note on multiple comparisons” and a comment
on shrinkage. Multiple Linear Regression
Viewpoints 3:71-77.

PEARSON, E. S. 1930. A further development of
tests of normality. Biometrika 22:239-249.
SMITH, G. N. 1968. Elements of soil mechanics for
civil and mining engineers. Gordon and

Breach, Science Publishers, New York.

TERZAGHI, K. 1943. Theoretical soil mechanics.
John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York.

TIMMERMAN, D. H. 1976. An evaluation of bridge
approach design and construction techniques.
The University of Akron, Ohio-Out-03-77, Ak-
ron, Ohio.

Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 43(3-4), 1982, 127-131

Isolation and Enumeration of Clostridium perfringens
from River Water and Sewage Effluent

MICHAEL V. HANSEN! AND LARRY P. ELLIOTT

Department of Biology, Western Kentucky University,
Bowling Green, Kentucky 42101

ABSTRACT

Clostridium perfringens was isolated and enumerated for a one-year period from 5 sampling
sites in the Barren River. When counts on the primary isolation medium, egg yolk-free tryptose-
sulfite-cycloserine agar, were compared for each site, the site into which sewage effluent flowed
was shown to have a significantly (P < 0.05) higher mean count (31 CFU/ml) than did the other
4 sites. The counts were highest during the summer. The B1 strain was dominant among the
aquatic isolates that were bacteriocin typed. The medium and confirmation tests used in this
study should be generally useful for enumerating this species in limnetic habitats. The use of

C. perfringens as an indicator organism for fecal pollution of water is discussed.

INTRODUCTION

Microbial examination of water is nec-
essary to disclose the presence of micro-
organisms that might constitute a health
hazard. Indicator organisms are used pri-
marily to quantify pollution levels. Bac-
terial populations are typically used as
monitors of fecal pollution in the aquatic
environment. Bacteria of the coliform
group are the most frequently used in-
dicator organisms (Carney et al. 1975).
Why other bacteria have not been used
as indicators is uncertain, but for some
indicators too little is known about their
normal densities, growth in nature, and
rates of decay and dispersion. Also, some
indicator organisms are too difficult to
enumerate and identify. Bonde (1977)
emphasized the value of using C. per-
fringens as an indicator of fecal pollution
of water. The purpose of the research re-
ported here was to use the best plating
medium and identification methods to
monitor the densities of this bacterium in
sewage effluent and river water and to
evaluate its usefulness as an indicator of
fecal pollution in aquatic environments.

MATERIALS AND METHODS
Study Sites

Five sampling stations, approximately
0.4 km apart, in the Barren River flowing

‘Department of Microbiology-Immunology, In-
diana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis,
Indiana 46202.

through Bowling Green, Kentucky were
studied. Station 1 was upstream from the
discharge pipe of the city’s sewage dis-
posal plant, Station 2 was the effluent
from the sewage disposal plant, and Sta-
tions 3, 4 and 5 were downstream from °
the discharge pipe.

Sample Collection

Sampling was done semi-monthly from
a boat at midstream during a period that
included March 1978 through February
1979. Samples were taken manually from
a depth of 0.5 m in sterile 99-ml screw-
cap dilution bottles, immediately placed
on ice, and transported to the laboratory
where they were processed within 1 to 2
hr after being obtained. The water tem-
perature was determined and recorded at
each sampling. Sixteen and 19 sediment
samples were obtained during the course
of the study from below the effluent dis-
charge pipe and near downstream Station
1, respectively. Sterile dilution bottles
were used to scoop samples approximate-
ly 0.3 m from the river bank.

Enumeration and Identification

After thorough agitation of each sam-
ple, 1.0 ml of water or 1.0 g of sediment
was transferred into a sterile 15 x 100
mm plastic petri plate or was decimally
diluted in 9 ml blanks containing 0.1 per
cent peptone-water. This diluent was
used because it prevents loss of viable
cells during dilution procedures (Haus-
child et al. 1967). One ml of each dilution

127

128

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 43(3-4)

TABLE 1.—MEANS AND RANGES OF BACTERIA ISOLATED (CFU/ML) FROM THE FIVE SAMPLING SITES!

Sampling sites

Bacteria Sample UPS

C. perfringens water 1.0
(0-10)

Sulfite-reducing” sediment nd?

EFF DS #1 DS #2 DS #3
31.4 4.6 2.6 2.0
(0-78) (0-24) (0-16) (0-27)

735 1,685 nd? nd?

(1.4+34) (3.8-61)

' Values given for both means and ranges (expressed as means/ranges) are those for over the entire sampling period in CFU/ml.

*nd = not done.

was then transferred into duplicate
petri dishes to which egg yolk-free
tryptose-sulfite-cycloserine (EYF-TSC)
agar was added (Hauschild and Hilshei-
mer 1974b). The plates were incubated
anaerobically in GasPak jars (BBL Micro-
biology Systems, Cockeysville, MD) at
either 37° or 45°C for 24 hr and the re-
sulting black colonies counted. The in-
cubation time was limited to 24 hr to
avoid excessive colony size that could in-
terfere with counting (Bisson and Cabelli
1979). A number of the resulting single
colonies (10 per cent of the colonies from
plates of a particular dilution) were se-
lected and gram-stained and identified as
C. perfringens, if they produced a typical
double zone of beta-hemolysis on tryti-
case soy sheep blood agar (BBL) plates,
appropriate reactions in supplemented
nitrate-motility medium (Hauschild and
Hilsheimer 1974a) and lactose-gelatin
medium (Hauschild et al. 1977), and a
positive reverse CAMP test (Hansen and
Elliott 1980). If equivocal reactions were
obtained in these media, fermentation
products were determined by gas-liquid
chromatography (Holdeman et al. 1977)
or additional characteristics were tested
with the BBL-Minitek system (Hauschild
and Hilsheimer 1974a).

Bacteriocin Typing
Randomly chosen C. perfringens iso-
lates from river water, sediment, and ef-
fluent were bacteriocin typed according
to the method of Mahony (1974) and Ma-

hony and Swantee (1978), except that the
plates were incubated anaerobically in

GasPak jars.

Statistical Analysis

The data were analyzed with a DEC-
10 system computer, using the STP-V4
program developed at Western Michigan
University for a variety of statistical pro-
cedures.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The actual counts of C. perfringens
were determined by taking selected
numbers of the black colonies from the
EYF-TSC agar plates, subjecting them to
the test procedures described, and sub-
sequently computing the percentage of
the total number of black colonies that
were C. perfringens based on the ratio of
C. perfringens to non-C. perfringens in
the biochemically tested population. The
mean of C. perfringens at the effluent
was significantly higher (P < 0.05) than
the other stations. Means and ranges are
presented in Table 1. These results are
in agreement with those of Matches et al.
(1974) who found C. perfringens in a riv-
er in the highest amounts (4.6 CFU/ml)
at points close to sewage discharge out-
falls rather than at sampling points some
distance from the discharge.

Although not graphed, during the sum-
mer-month samplings, there were higher
C. perfringens counts; however, no sta-
tistical correlation was detected between
water temperatures and bacterial counts
(P < 0.05). This agrees with Skinner et al.
(1974) who showed that counts of sulfite-
reducing organisms isolated from moun-
tain stream watershed (in concentrations
of approximately 10-20 CFU/ml and 10°-
10* CFU/ml in unpolluted and polluted

CLOSTRIDIUM IN KENTUCKY—Hansen and Elliott

water, respectively) did not correlate
with water temperatures.

The sediment samples showed a
higher number of sulfite-reducing organ-
isms than the water samples from both
the sewage effluent and downstream Sta-
tion 1. The mean colony count of sedi-
ment at downstream Station 1 was ap-
proximately twice that of the effluent. A
major problem was encountered in enu-
merating the colonies from sediment
samples in that excessive blackening of
the medium often covered the entire
plate and made difficult the picking of
colonies for identification. Therefore, the
usual procedure of picking colonies was
not always used, necessitating that the
results be expressed as numbers of sul-
fite-reducing organisms/ml. Incubation of
duplicate plates at 45°C decreased black-
ening, but did not alleviate the problem.
However, incubation at the higher tem-
perature made the enumeration proce-
dure more selective for C. perfringens.
During the last 6 sampling periods du-
plicate plates of all samples were incu-
bated at 37° and 45°C. Identification pro-
cedures demonstrated the percentage of
C. perfringens to be 81 in plates from ef-
fluent incubated at 45°C and 78 from all
other sites incubated at 45°C. From
plates incubated at 37°C, the values were
56 and 58, respectively. Marshall et al.
(1965) used 46°C incubation with tryp-
tose-sulfite-neomycin agar and found 14
of 15 strains of C. perfringens tested to
grow. They also found total inhibition of
the three strains of C. bifermentans
tested.

No detailed comparison was made be-
tween fecal coliform and C. perfringens
counts, since Bonde (1977) found no dis-
tinct and constant relationship between
the two indicator organisms and stressed
that correlation should not be expected.
Fecal coliform counts were determined
during 4 analyses of upstream water, ef-
fluent, and downstream water and no cor-
relation was found between the counts of
C. perfringens and fecal coliforms.

The results from bacteriocin typing of
selected C. perfringens isolates are pre-

129

TABLE 2.—TYPING PATTERNS OF C. perfringens
ISOLATED FROM RIVER WATER AND SEWAGE EF-

FLUENT
Bacteriocin
Source Date sampled type
Effluent 5- 5-78 E8
5-10-78 Al
Vea Bl
7-21-78 BL
10-20-78 G3
11-10-78 C3
11-29-78 Cl
1-10-79 Bl
2-23-79 Bl
2-23-79 C7
Downstream |
River water 1-10-79 B3
1-26-79 G3
Sediment 5-18-78 E13
10-20-78 Bl
1-10-79 B5
2- 9-79 Bl
Downstream 2
River water 3-23-78 Bl
6- 9-78 C3
12-15-78 Al
Downstream 3
River water 1-10-79 Bl
Upstream
River water 6- 9-78 Bl

sented in Table 2. Of 32 strains, 21
(65.5%) were sensitive to one or more of
the 10 bacteriocins. Nine (42.9%) of these
were type B1, the largest number of one
type. Mahony (1974) and Mahony and
Swantee (1978) found that the most com-
mon bacteriocin type of their C. perfrin-
gens tested was C3. In their study, many
of the food poisoning strains were of the
Group E pattern, although no clear rela-
tionship between these two parameters
has been established. Two strains, one
isolated from Downstream 2, typed E13
and one strain isolated from the effluent
typed E8 in this study. It appears that C.
perfringens isolated from effluent and
river water is heterogenous with regard
to bacteriocin sensitivity.

Bisson and Cabelli (1979) noted that
part of the problem with utilizing a C.
perfringens indicator system for fecal

130

pollution of water was the enumeration
of sulfite-reducing endosporulating an-
aerobes that were not C. perfringens. Al-
though the medium used in this study to
isolate and enumerate C. perfringens
was reported to be highly selective for C.
perfringens, it also supported the growth
of other sulfite-reducing organisms. Iden-
tification procedures of isolates from
plates incubated at 37°C showed the per-
centage of C. perfringens to be 64 at the
effluent and 53 at the other sites. The
originators of the medium also noted this
problem while using EYF-TSC for iso-
lating C. perfringens from foods and
feces (Hauschild and Hilsheimer 1974b).
They stressed the need for additional
confirmatory identification tests to be
done on selected colonies. This should
also be done when using EYF-TSC for
isolating C. perfringens from sewage and
water.

The confirmatory media and tests used
on a routine basis gave satisfactory iden-
tification of the organisms picked as
being either C. perfringens or not. The
tests were selected because of their abil-
ity to distinguish C. perfringens from
other clostridia, but were not designed to
identify other sulfite-reducing organisms.
The reverse CAMP test proved to be a
sensitive test, since 97 per cent of all C.
perfringens tested gave a positive reac-
tion. The gelatinase test in the lactose-
gelatin (LG) tubes posed a problem in
that gelatinase-negative or slowly hydro-
lyzing strains of C. perfringens were en-
countered sporadically. In those cases an
additional 24-hr incubation of the LG
tube or identification based on other tests
(particularly the BBL-Minitek system or
gas-liquid chromatography) was neces-
sary to identify properly these isolates.

It is not known how many clostridial
species were isolated from the river,
since this study was concerned with enu-
merating C. perfringens. However, some
of the other isolates identified were C.
beijerinckii, C. bifermentans, C. sordel-
lei, C. novyi, C. ramosum, and C. ter-
tium. Molongoski and Klug (1976) found
Clostridium to account for 71.8 per cent
of the total isolates from freshwater lake

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 43(3-4)

sediments. Greater than 50 per cent of ;

these strains were identified as C. bifer-

mentans and C. sporogenes. Carney etal. |
(1975) found C. botulinum to be present |

in 12 per cent of the samples tested in
Rhode River.

The data accumulated in this study
might be used in establishing a monitor-
ing system for river water, using C. per-

fringens counts on EYF-TSC agar as an |

indicator of fecal pollution. A baseline
(mean) value of 31 CFU/ml of C. perfrin-

gens was established for effluent water |

from the sewage treatment plant. It can
then be suggested that if counts of C. per-
fringens at river sites, i.e., inlets of trib-
utaries, discharge pipes, etc., exceed a
predetermined level, such as 31 CFU/ml
of C. perfringens suggested by this study,
the count might be indicative of fecal pol-
lution occurring at that site. However,
that minimum level would need to be
established for a particular habitat mon-
itored. Bonde (1977) suggested that more
than 100 CFU of C. perfringens per ml
of water or gram of sediment would sig-
nify pollution in natural waters.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

We thank Christopher H. Havrilek for
his technical assistance. This research
was supported by a grant from the Fac-
ulty Research Committee of Western
Kentucky University.

LITERATURE CITED

BISSON, J. W., AND V. J. CABELLI. 1979. Membrane
filter enumeration method for Clostridium per-
fringens. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 37:55-66.

BONDE, G. J. 1977. Bacterial indication of water
pollution. Pp. 273-364. In M. R. Froop and H.
W. jannasch (Eds.). Aquatic microbiology Vol.
1. Academic Press, New York.

CARNEY, J. F., C. E. CARTY, AND R. R. COLWELL.
1975. Seasonal occurrence and distribution of
microbial indicators and pathogens in the
Rhode River of Chesapeake Bay. Appl. Micro-
biol. 30:771-780.

HANSEN, M. V., AND L. P. ELuiotr. 1980. New
presumptive indentification test for Clostri-
dium perfringens: reverse CAMP test. J. Clin.
Microbiol. 12:617-619.

HAUSCHILD, A. H. W., I. E. ERDMAN, R. HILSHEI-
MER, AND F.. S. THATCHER. 1967. Variations in
recovery of Clostridium perfringens on com-
mercial sulfite-polymyxin-sulfadiazine (SPS)
agar. J. Food Sci. 32:469-473.

1
|
|
|

CLOSTRIDIUM IN KENTUCKY—Hansen and Elliott

, AND R. HILSHEIMER. 1974a. Evaluations
and modifications of media for enumeration of
Clostridium perfringens. Appl. Microbiol.
27:78-82.

, AND . 1974b. Enumeration of
food borne Clostridium perfringens in egg-
yolk-free tryptose-sulfite-cycloserine agar. Appl.
Microbiol. 27:521-526.

—_——., R. J. GILBERT, S. M. HARMON, M. F.

O'KEEFE, AND R. VAHLEFELD. 1977. ICMSF
methods studies. VIII. Comparative study for
the enumeration of Clostridium perfringens in
foods. Can. J. Microbiol. 23:884-892.

HoLDEMAN, L. V., E. P. CATO, AND W. E. C.
Moore. 1977. Anaerobe laboratory manual, 4th
ed. Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State
University, Blacksburg.

Manony, D. E. 1974. Bacteriocin susceptibility of
Clostridium perfringens: a provisional typing
scheme. Appl. Microbiol. 29:172-176.

, AND C. A. SWANTEE. 1978. Bacteriocin
typing of Clostridium perfringens in human
feces. J. Clin. Microbiol. 7:307-309.

Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 43(3-4), 1982, 131-136

131

MARSHALL, R. S., J. F. STEENBERGEN, AND L. S.
McCLUNG. 1965. Rapid technique for the enu-
meration of Clostridium perfringens. Appl.
Microbiol. 13:559-563.

MATCHES, J. R., J. LISTON, AND D. CURRAN. 1974.
Clostridium perfringens in the environment.
Appl. Microbiol. 28:655-660.

MOLONGOSKI, J. J., AND M. J. KLuG. 1976. Char-
acterization of anaerobic heterotrophic bacteria
isolated from freshwater lake sediments. Appl.
Environ. Microbiol. 31:83-90.

SKINNER, Q. D., J. C. ADAMS, P. A. RECHARD, AND
A. A. BEETLE. 1974. Enumeration of selected
bacterial populations in a high mountain wa-
tershed. Can. J. Microbiol. 20:1487-1491.

STARGEL, W. D., F. S. THOMPSON, S. E:. PHILLIPS,
G. L. LOMBARD, AND V. R. DOWELL, JR. 1976.
Modification of the minitek miniaturized differ-
entiation system for characterization of anaer-
obic bacteria. J. Clin. Microbiol. 30:29-30.

Distribution and Habitat of Etheostoma atripinne
in Kentucky

GLEN J. FALLO AND MELVIN L. WARREN, JR.
Kentucky Nature Preserves Commission, Frankfort, Kentucky 40601

ABSTRACT

Recent collecting efforts and examination of museum material resulted in a reassessment of
the distribution of Etheostoma atripinne in Kentucky and contributed to the understanding of
its habitat preferences. The range of E. atripinne as now defined is continuous from Fishing
Creek, Pulaski County, Kentucky, downstream in the Cumberland River of Tennessee to Little
River, Trigg County, Kentucky. Etheostoma atripinne was taken primarily from cobble-pebble
riffles in streams ranging from third to fifth order. Gradients ranged from 0.7-3.2 m/km with
velocities of 0.098—0.690 m/s. Water quality analyses indicated that E. atripinne inhabits well-
buffered, hardwater streams with little or no siltation.

INTRODUCTION

Present distributional data suggest that
Etheostoma atripinne is relatively un-
common in Kentucky. Burr (1980) noted
only 6 Kentucky localities, exclusive to
the Cumberland River basin, although E.
atripinne is widespread in the Cumber-
land River of Tennessee (Etnier 1980).

The biology of this darter was recently
studied by Page and Mayden (1981) (as
E. simoterum), and Dr. D. A. Etnier

(pers. comm.) is currently revising the
systematics of E. atripinne and the
closely related E. simoterum, both of
which belong to the subgenus Nanosto-
ma (Page 1981). Current evidence sug-
gests that E. atripinne is conspecific with
E. simoterum (Etnier 1980).

A recent aquatic biota and water-qual-
ity survey of the upper Cumberland Riv-
er basin of eastern Kentucky (Harker et
al. 1980) yielded new distributional and

132

habitat information concerning E. atri-
pinne in Kentucky. Subsequent searches
of the Kentucky Department of Fish and
Wildlife Resources ichthyological collec-
tion (KFW) revealed additional speci-
mens. The purpose of this paper is to
present these new findings in order to
develop a better understanding of the
distribution and habitat of E. atripinne in
Kentucky.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Field work was conducted between 13
June 1979 and 9 August 1980. Seven sites
were sampled for fishes using minnow
seines and/or sodium cyanide as outlined
by Tatum (1968). Quantitative fish sam-
ples were made at Fishing, Sulphur, and
Meshack creeks. These samples were ob-
tained using a 1.8 x 3.0 m, 3.2 mm
square-mesh seine. A stream section
composed of a representative riffle-pool
habitat was seined for 10 minutes by a
four-man team. At Meshack Creek 3 sim-
ilar riffle-pool habitats were quantitative-
ly sampled for fishes.

Specimens were fixed in 10% formalin
and subsequently preserved in 35-40%
isopropanol. The nomenclature used
conforms to that of Robins et al. (1980).
Voucher specimens are deposited at the
Kentucky Nature Preserves Commission
(KNP) in Frankfort, Kentucky; the Uni-
versity of Tennessee ichthyological col-
lections (UT), Knoxville, Tennessee;
Cornell University (CU), Ithaca, New
York; Southern Ilinois University (SIUC),
Carbondale, Illinois; and the University
of Michigan Museum of Zoology
(UMMZ), Ann Arbor, Michigan.

Meshack, Fishing, and Sulphur creeks
were sampled for water quality, substrate
size, macroinvertebrates, and other phys-
ical characteristics during the summer of
1979. Harker et al. (1980) provided de-
tailed information regarding the methods
utilized in obtaining this data. Per cent
relative abundance of fishes was calcu-
lated from the quantitative collections by
dividing the total number of individuals
per species by the total number of all in-
dividuals.

A list of field stations and examined

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 43(3-4)

museum collections is presented in the |

following section. The stream name, lo-
cality, date of collecting, and museum
number are followed in parentheses by
the number of specimens of E. atripinne.

All streams are within the Cumberland |

River drainage of Kentucky.

COLLECTING LOCALITIES

Fishing Creek, 1.9 km S confluence of |

Fishing Creek and Rock Lick Creek, Pu-
laski County, 31 July 1979, KNP-CO2PUL

(7), UT 91.200 (3). Otter Creek, directly |

above KY 200 bridge, Wayne County, 23
April 1980, KNP uncat. (1). Marrowbone
Creek (Station A), 0.9 km below the
mouth of Slate Creek, Metcalfe County,
13 June 1979, UT 91.657 (1). Marrow-
bone Creek (Station B), 100 m above the
mouth of Dutch Creek, Cumberland
County, 18 October 1979, UT 91.259 (1).
Marrowbone Creek, at Waterview on KY
100, Cumberland County, 25 September
1981, SIUC uncat. (4). Bear Creek, ap-
proximately 4.8 km SE of Burkesville on
KY 90, Cumberland County, 25 Septem-
ber 1981, SIUC uncat. (5). Sulphur
Creek, 1.4 km above mouth, Monroe
County, 28 August 1979 and 24 Septem-
ber 1981, KNP-CO2MON (2), UT 91.976
(1), SIUC uncat. (1). Meshack Creek, 1.9
km S of junction KY 100 and Meshack-
Center Point Rd., Monroe County, 11
July 1979, KNP-CO1MON (67), UT
91.975 (10). Meshack Creek, 3.2 km
NNW Center Point on KY 100, Monroe
County, 24 September 1981, SIUC uncat.
(15). McFarland Creek, 3.2 km SW of
Vernon, Monroe County, 24 September
1981, SIUC uncat. (1). Whippoorwill
Creek, at Gordonsville, Logan County,
16 March 1981, SIUC uncat. (3). Red Riv-
er, on state road E of Keysburg, Logan
County, date not recorded, UMMZ (B. M.
Burr, pers. comm.). West Fork Red River,
4.8 km NW of Trenton on US 41, Todd
County, 16 March 1981, SIUC uncat. (5).
North (West) Fork Red River, at US 41E
(US 41) about 12.9 km SW of Elkton,
Todd County, August 1960, CU (B. M.
Burr, pers. comm.). Donaldson Creek, at
lower Donaldson School, Trigg County,
8 August 1961, and 26 June 1967, KFW

—

i
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|
|

ETHEOSTOMA ATRIPINNE IN KENTUCKY—Fallo and Warren

133

Fic. l.

1460 (9), KFW 1702 (2). South Fork Little
River, 5.0 km above the mouth of Rock
Bridge Branch, Christian County, 9 Au-
gust 1980, UT 91.1032 (2). Sinking Fork
Little River, 3.2 km W of Caledonia,
Trigg County, 16 August 1961, KF'W 1492
(9). Casey Creek, lower 100 m of course,
Trigg County, 9 August 1961, KFW 1467.
Little River, riffle below bridge on Co.
Rd. 1253, Trigg County, 9 August 1961,
KFW 1479 (5).

RESULTS

The Cumberland snubnose darter is
presently considered a middle Cumber-
land River endemic (Etnier 1980). The
easternmost and most upstream record of
E. atripinne in the Cumberland River is
from Kennedy (=Canada) Creek, Wayne
County, Kentucky, a tributary to the Lit-
tle South Fork Cumberland River (Kirsch
1893). Recent efforts to collect specimens
from this locality have been unsuccessful
(Comiskey and Etnier 1972, Harker et al.
1980).

Data presented here greatly augment
the known distribution of E. atripinne in
Kentucky (Fig. 1). The easternmost and
most upstream viable population of E.
atripinne persists in Fishing Creek, Pu-
laski County. West of Fishing Creek the

The known distribution of Etheostoma atripinne in Kentucky. Solid circles represent new
records, solid squares represent previous modern records, and the open square represents the only record
prior to 1900. The shaded portion of the inset map represents the total range of E. atripinne.

species was discovered in several Cum-
berland River tributaries downstream to
McFarland Creek, Monroe County, near
the Tennessee-Kentucky state line.

Previously, the most downstream and
westernmost records for E. atripinne in
the entire Cumberland River system
were from the Red River system and di-
rectly below its mouth (Burr 1980 and
pers. comm., Etnier 1980). Our collec-
tions, and those of the KFW, revealed ad-
ditional western populations in the Little
River system of Trigg and Christian
counties. The western or downstream
edge of the range of E. atripinne is thus
extended approximately 118 km from the
Red River to the Little River in Trigg
County.

The habitat of E. atripinne has been
characterized as small to medium-size
streams in areas of gravel riffles and slab-
rock pools with current (Etnier 1980,
Page and Mayden 1981). Our investiga-
tion indicated that E. atripinne occurs in
streams no smaller than third order and
no larger than fifth order (Table 1). Spec-
imens were almost exclusively taken in
or very near riffle areas, although several
adults were observed in slower current
directly above riffles at Meshack Creek.
At all 7 sites the riffle areas ranged from

134

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 43(3-4)

TABLE 1.—PHYSICAL PARAMETERS OF SIX STREAMS FROM WHICH Etheostoma atripinne WAS COLLECTED

Marrowbone Creek

Fishing Otter Meshack Sulphur South Fork
Parameters Creek Creek Sta. A Sta. B Creek Creek Little River
Stream order V IV Ill Vv IV III IV
Width—range (m)
Pool 28-33 — 8-13 — 7-11 5-13 5-10
Riffle 12-20 — 47 — 5-8 4-10 3-8
Depth—range (m)
Pool 0.30-1.30 0.30-0.75 0.15-0.45 0.45-0.60 <1.00 0.30-1.30 0.15-0.45
Riffle 0.08-0.45 0.30-0.45 0.08-0.30 0.08-0.15 0.08-0.30 0.08-0.15 0.05—0.10
Approximate gradient (m/km)
At survey station 1.6 3.2 1.9 1.8 2.6 3.0 0.7
Headwaters to
survey station 14.6 10.2 10.8 3.4 8.3 10.6 2.6
Riffle velocity (m/s) 0.690 swift moderate moderate 0.098 0.533 negligible

0.05-0.45 m deep and 3-20 m wide. The
approximate gradients at these sites
ranged from 0.7-3.2 m/km with velocities
of 0.098-0.690 m/s.

Field estimates of grain sizes in riffles
harboring E. atripinne revealed that the
substrate at the 3 intensively sampled
sites consisted of at least 90% cobble and
pebble with cobble predominating at two
of these sites (Table 2). Similar results
were obtained from analysis of the pool
substrates at two of these sites. Obser-
vations at the four other sites indicated
that pebble and cobble generally repre-
sented the predominant substrate size
within the riffles. The most upstream
Marrowbone Creek site was exceptional
in that bedrock chutes with some slab
boulder and cobble represented the ma-
jor constituents of riffle substrate. Ethe-
ostoma atripinne was infrequently taken

TABLE 2.—FIELD ESTIMATES OF AREAL COVERAGE

in habitats which exhibited these condi-
tions.

Laboratory analyses of the fine fraction
of the riffle substrate (pebble and small-
er) indicated that pebble was the pre-
dominant substrate size (66% or more) at
the 3 intensively sampled sites. Sand,
silt, and clay were negligible at all sites
sampled.

Analysis of water quality of the 3 inten-
sively sampled sites (Table 3) indicated
that E. atripinne thrives in well-buffered,
hardwater streams that contain a relative-
ly high amount of dissolved constituents.
Each of these streams exhibited a pH of
approximately 8.0. Turbidity was low and
dissolved oxygen concentrations were
high. Other streams containing the Cum-
berland snubnose darter were also clear
and appeared to be of high quality. The
diverse macroinvertebrate fauna of Mes-

OF GRAIN SIZES IN THREE STREAMS FROM WHICH

Etheostoma atripinne WAS COLLECTED

Fishing Creek

Meshack Creek Sulphur Creek

Size term mae ee Pool % Riffle % Pool % Riffle % Pool % Riffle %
Boulder >256 1 <=] ND 0) 0) 0)
Cobble 64-256 5 40 ND 75 5 80
Pebble 5-63 WS 50 ND 20 70 15
Granule 2.14 5 5 ND <5 15 2
Sand 0.0625-2.0 15 5 ND <5 10 3
Silt and clay 0.0625 1 <l ND <1 <1 0)
Bedrock — 0 0 ND 0 0) 0)

ETHEOSTOMA ATRIPINNE IN KENTUCKY—Fallo and Warren

hack, Sulphur, and Fishing creeks was
represented by 7 to 10 orders with the
Ephemeroptera predominating (Harker
etal. 1980). This further substantiates the
high-quality stream habitat of E. atri-
pinne.

Direct percid associates of E. atripinne
included E. blennioides, E. caeruleum,
E. flabellare, E. rufilineatum, E. specta-
bile, E. squamiceps, E. (Nanostoma) sp.,
and Percina caprodes. Other fishes of fre-
quent occurrence were Campostoma an-
omalum, Hypentelium nigricans, Notu-
rus flavus, and Cottus carolinae. Of 2,484
individuals collected in 5 quantitative
samples, 81 specimens of E. atripinne
were obtained yielding a range in per
cent relative abundance of 0.3-8.9%.

DISCUSSION

The range of the Cumberland snub-
nose darter as presently known is contin-
uous from Fishing Creek, Pulaski Coun-
ty, Kentucky, downstream to and
including the Little River, Trigg County,
Kentucky (Fig. 1). Distributional evi-
dence presented here and by others
(Bouchard 1977, Etnier 1980) suggests
that competitive exclusion may exist be-
tween E. atripinne and other members of
the subgenus Nanostoma. East of Fish-
ing Creek an undescribed species of Na-
nostoma occupies the Rockcastle River,
Big South Fork Cumberland River (ex-
clusive of the Little South Fork), and the
upper Cumberland River (above the
falls). In Tennessee, E. atripinne is wide-
spread in the Cumberland River with the
exception of the upper Caney Fork River
which harbors another Nanostoma, E. et-
nieri. Etheostoma atripinne has been
taken with only one other member of the
subgenus, an undescribed form occupy-
ing portions of the western range of E.
atripinne (Etnier 1980). Examination of
our collections and material at KFW in-
dicates that although sympatric, one
species far outnumbers the other in areas
of syntopy. Further study of the ecology
and distribution of the subgenus is war-
ranted to clarify these relationships.

The Cumberland snubnose darter is
much more common in Kentucky than

135

TABLE 3.—WATER QUALITY CHARACTERISTICS OF
THREE STREAMS FROM WHICH Etheostoma atri-
pinne WAS COLLECTED

Fishing Meshack — Sulphur
Parameter Creek Creek Creek
Conductivity (umhos) 209 279 264
Total hardness
(mg/] CaCO;) 90 154 150
Total alkalinity
(mg/] CaCQOs) 96.6 139.6 154.6
Dissolved O, (mg/l) 11.5 10.4 8.7
Turbidity (NTU) 4.0 5.0 5.4
pH 8.3 8.1 8.2
SO, (mg/l) 13.7 17.9 12.0
NOs (mg/l) 0.4 0.4 1.1
Na (mg/I) 3.32 3.20 2.94
Cl (mg/l) 3.0 2.3 2.3
Mg (mg/l) 7.08 8.74 7.36
Ca (mg/l) Dale, 48.53 45.08

was previously known. Few additional
populations of E. atripinne are anticipat-
ed east of the Fishing Creek locality.
Rather extensive collecting for nearly 100
years in this region including the imme-
diate eastern Pitman and Buck creeks
have thus far revealed only the Kennedy
(=Canada) Creek population (Kirsch
1893; Comiskey and Etnier 1972; Harker
et al. 1979, 1980; R. R. Cicerello, pers.
comm.). Moreover, Comiskey and Etnier
(1972) suggested that this population may
have been the result of a relatively recent
faunal transfer from a more westerly
Cumberland River tributary. Although
the ichthyofauna of streams west of the
Little River are relatively well-known
(Burr 1980), further collecting in high-
quality streams of the area is needed to
ascertain if other populations of E. atri-
pinne exist.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The authors thank the director, D. F.
Harker, Jr., and the entire staff of the
Kentucky Nature Preserves Commission
for their assistance and support in the
laboratory and field. Our gratitude is also
expressed to KFW personnel for allowing
us access to their fish collection. Drs. D.
A. Etnier, University of Tennessee, and
B. M. Burr, Southern Illinois University
at Carbondale, kindly confirmed original
identifications and provided locality in-

136

formation. Special thanks to R. R. Cicer-
ello and K. E. Camburn for their review
of the manuscript.

LITERATURE CITED

BOUCHARD, R. W. 1977. Etheostoma etnieri, a new
percid fish from the Caney Fork (Cumberland)
River system, Tennessee, with a redescription
of the subgenus Ulocentra. Tulane Stud. Zool.
Bot. 19:105-130.

Burr, B. M. 1980. A distributional checklist of the
fishes of Kentucky. Brimleyana 3:53-84.

COMISKEY, C. E., AND D. A. ETNIER. 1972. Fishes
of the Big South Fork of the Cumberland River.
Tenn. Acad. Sci. 47(4): 140-145.

ETNIER, D. A. 1980. Etheostoma atripinne (Jor-
dan), Cumberland snubnose darter. P. 625. In
D. S. Lee et al. Atlas of North American Fresh-
water fishes. N.C. State Mus. Nat. Hist., Ra-
leigh, N.C.

HARKER, D. F., JR., S. M. CALL, M. L. WARREN,
Jr., K. E. CAMBURN, AND P. WIGLEY. 1979.
Aquatic biota and water quality survey of the
Appalachian Province, eastern Kentucky.
Technical Report, Ky. Nat. Pres. Comm.,
Frankfort, Ky.

Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 43(3-4), 1982, 136-137

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 43(3-4)

, M. L. WARREN, JR., K. E. CAMBURN, S. }:
M. CALL, G. J. FALLO, AND P. WIGLEY. 1980.
Aquatic biota and water quality survey of the
upper Cumberland River basin. Technical Re-

port, Ky. Nat. Pres. Comm., Frankfort, Ky.

Kirscu, P. H. 1893. Notes on a collection of fishes |
from the southern tributaries of the Cumber- |
land River in Kentucky and Tennessee. Bull. |

U.S. Fish Comm. 11:259-268.

PaGE, L. M. 1981. The genera and subgenera of |

darters (Percidae, Etheostomatini). Occ. Pap.
Mus. Nat. Hist., Univ. Kans. 90:1-69.
—., AND R. L. MAYDEN. 1981. The life history
of the Tennessee snubnose darter, Etheostoma
simoterum, in Brush Creek, Tennessee. II].
Nat. Hist. Surv. Biol. Notes 117. 11 pp.
ROBINS, C. R., R. M. BAILEY, C. E. BOND, J. R.
BROOKER, E. A. LACHNER, R. N. LEA, AND W.
B. ScotrT. 1980. A list of common and scientific

names of fishes from the United States and |

Canada. 4th ed. Am. Fish. Soc. Spec. Publ. 12.
174 pp.

Tatum, W. R. 1968. Field observations on the use
of sodium cyanide in stream surveys. 22nd
Annu. Meet. South. Div. Amer. Fish. Soc., Bal-
timore, Md. 7 pp.

Observations on an Active Maternity Site for the
Gray Bat in Jessamine County, Kentucky

JOHN R. MACGREGOR

KDFWR Nongame Wildlife Program, #1 Game Farm Road,
Frankfort, Kentucky 40601,

AND

ALBERT G. WESTERMAN

Department of Biological Sciences, University of Kentucky,
Lexington, Kentucky 40506

ABSTRACT
An active maternity site for the Federally-endangered gray bat, the first such site to be reported

from Kentucky in 20 years, is briefly described.

The reproductive status of the gray bat
(Myotis grisescens) in Kentucky has been
unknown during the past 2 decades. The
latest reports of active maternity sites
studied in central Kentucky in the late
1950's and early 1960’s were presented

by Hall and Wilson (1966). Barbour and
Davis (1969) revisited some of these sites
during the summers of 1963 and 1964 but
failed to find any gray bats. More recent-
ly, Rabinowitz and Tuttle (1980) sum-
marized the status of the Endangered

iy
}

|
I.

I,

——-

oe

gray bat in Kentucky and found no evi-
_ dence of reproduction at any of 20 sum-
veyed caves. Survey work for that
| study was performed by Rabinowitz in
_ August of 1979.

On 30 June 1981, the present authors
visited a remote Jessamine County cave
in search of evidence for gray bat repro-
duction. This cave, censused by Rabi-
- nowitz, contained what was then the larg-
| est known gray bat summer colony in
Kentucky. Ronald C. Wilson (pers. comm.)
of the Louisville Museum of History and
_ Science has since censused a cave in
| Clinton County which shelters a larger
- summer colony. The authors waited until
_ the evening bat exodus was completed
_ and entered the cave at about 10:15 p.m.
The central portion of the heavy ceiling
- stain nearest the cave entrance, just be-
yond the twilight zone, was covered with
a carpet of young gray bats. Most were
nearly of adult size, although at least 2
individuals were quite small and barely
furred. The young bats began to move as
soon as a light was shone in their direc-
tion, most of them retreating to the far
side of the ceiling stain where they re-
grouped in a cluster. Others scuttled
away from the observers to the sides of
the cave ceiling. Only 3 juveniles at-
tempted to fly, landing in a shallow
stream beneath the colony. These bats
climbed out of the water onto guano piles
and were retrived by the authors and re-
turned to the ceiling, where they quickly
joined the others.

Numerous dead and dying juvenile
gray bats were present in the immediate
vicinity of the nursery group. Thirty-two
badly decomposed young were counted
in the stream, several of which were
being torn apart and eaten by crayfish
(Cambarus laevis) as we watched. Seven
of the dead juveniles were removed from
the stream to provide voucher speci-
mens. An additional 4 dead juveniles
were found hanging on walls of the cave
just above the stream. A dozen living
young were scattered about the walls
near the entrance; these were removed
and returned to the nursery area.

|

THE GRAY BAT IN KENTUCKY—MacGregor and Westerman

137

We were unable to measure the cluster
of juvenile bats or to estimate their den-
sity because of the rapidity with which
they dispersed when approached. No di-
rect count was performed since the bats
were so easily disturbed. We estimated
the first cluster of young bats to consist
of approximately 400 M. grisescens. A
quick survey of additional summer roosts
farther back in the passage showed that
the cave ceiling was literally covered
with young bats. At least several thou-
sand were present. No estimate of the to-
tal juvenile population of the cave could
be made since we could not view all of
the heavy ceiling stains from our vantage
point. We exited the cave at about 10:25
p.m.

Our observations at this cave confirm
the continued presence of Myotis grises-
cens as a breeding species in Kentucky.
On a previous winter visit to the cave,
when no gray bats were present, one of
us (JRM) noted the extreme abundance
of the crayfish Cambarus laevis, raising
the question of how such a small cave
could support such a large crayfish pop-
ulation. Cambarus laevis is common in
Jessamine County streams and occurs in
low numbers in numerous springs and
wet caves in several Bluegrass counties
(JRM, personal observation). Summer
nutrient input, in the form of the decom-
posing juvenile gray bats and guano,
doubtless maintains the high crayfish
population in the cave. The feeding ac-
tivities of C. laevis on fallen young gray
bats provides a possible explanation as to
why Rabinowitz failed to find any evi-
dence (in the form of dead young bats) of
reproduction during the 1979 summer
census of M. grisescens at this cave.

LITERATURE CITED

BARBOUR, R. W., AND W. H. Davis. 1969. Bats of
America. University Press of Kentucky, Lexing-
ton.

HALL, J. S., AND N. WILSON. 1966. Seasonal pop-
ulations and movements of the gray bat in the
Kentucky area. Amer. Midl. Nat. 75:317-324.

RABINOWITZ, A., AND M. D. TUTTLE. 1980. Status
of summer colonies of the Endangered gray bat
in Kentucky. J. Wildl. Man. 44:955-960.

Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 43(3-4), 1982, 138-141

A Preliminary Checklist of the Stoneflies
(Plecoptera) of Kentucky

DONALD C. TARTER, DEAN A. ADKINS, AND KIMBERLY B. BENSON

Department of Biological Sciences, Marshall University,
Huntington, West Virginia 25701

AND

CHARLES V. COVELL, JR.

Department of Biology, University of Louisville,
Louisville, Kentucky 40292

ABSTRACT

Based on an examination of specimens and literature records, the first checklist of the stoneflies
of Kentucky includes 70 species in 28 genera. Eighteen species are added to the known plecop-
teran fauna of Kentucky. Included are important range extensions for the following stoneflies:
Alloperla chloris Frison, A. idei (Ricker), Isoperla richardsoni Frison, I. transmarina (Newman),
Malirekus hastatus (Banks), Remenus bilobatus (Needham and Claassen) and Sweltsa onkos

(Ricker).

INTRODUCTION

Little detailed work has been done on
the taxonomy of stoneflies in Kentucky.
Some investigators, including Harker et
al. (1979, 1980), Illies (1966), Picazo and
DeMoss (1980), Ricker and Ross (1968),
Stark and Stewart (1981), Ross and Ricker
(1964), Stark and Gaufin (1976a, b), Stark
and Baumann (1978), White (1974) and
Zwick (1973), have published stonefly
records for the state. This preliminary
checklist is the first comprehensive ref-
erence to the stoneflies of Kentucky,
which includes 70 species in 28 genera.
Eighteen species are added to the known
plecopteran fauna of the state, and west-
ern range extensions are noted for Allo-
perla chloris Frison (CT, NY, VA, WV),
A. idei (Ricker) (OH, VA), Malirekus has-
tatus (Banks) (GA, NC, NH, SC, TN, VA,
WV), Remenus bilobatus (Needham and
Claassen) (GA, NC, NY, PA, SC, VA,
WV), Sweltsa onkos (Ricker) (NC, OH,
PA, VA, WV), while Isoperla richardsoni
Frison (CT, IL, PA, WV) and I. trans-
marina (Newman) (DE, MN, NY, PA, WI,
WV) have a southern range extension.
The classification system of Illies (1966)
and Zwick (1973) is followed in this pa-
per.

Holotypes and allotypes of the follow-
ing species are recorded from Kentucky:
Acroneuria filicis Frison 1942 (Bell
County); Allocapnia smithi Ross and
Ricker 1971 (South Hill); Neoperla frey-
tagi Stark and Baumann 1978 (Larue
County); and N. stewarti Stark and Bau-
mann 1978 (Larue County).

The following number of species has
been reported from nearby states: In-
diana—61 species (Bednarik and Mc-
Cafferty 1977); West Virginia—106
species (Tarter and Kirchner 1980); Vir-
ginia—116 species (Kondratieff and
Voshell 1979); and Pennsylvania—90
species (Surdick and Kim 1976).

Material used in the present study was
borrowed from the University of Louis-
ville, Morehead State University and the
University of Kentucky.

PRELIMINARY CHECKLIST

In the list that follows, the counties in
which collections were secured follow
each species.

ORDER PLECOPTERA
SUBORDER ARCTOPERLARIA
GROUP EUHOLOGNATHA
SUPERFAMILY NEMOUROIDEA

138

ee ee

fi
{
I

PLECOPTERA IN KENTUCKY—Tarter, Adkins, Benson, and Covell

FAMILY LEUCTRIDAE
SUBFAMILY LEUCTRINAE

Leuctra ferruginea (Walker): Breathitt,
McCreary, Wolfe

L. sibleyi Claassen: Meade

*Paraleuctra sara (Claassen): Pike

Zealeuctra claasseni (Frison): Breathitt

Z. fraxina Ricker and Ross: Breckinridge

FAMILY TAENIOPTERYGIDAE
SUBFAMILY BRACHYPTERINAE

*Taenionema atlanticum Ricker and
Ross: no county record

Strophopteryx fasciata (Burmeister):
Breathitt, Esthill, Jackson, Jessamine,
Shelby, Spencer

SUBFAMILY TAENIOPTERYGINAE

Taeniopteryx burksi Ricker and Ross:
Allen, Boyd, Carter, Clinton, Hart,
Jackson, Oldham, Rockcastle, Shelby,
Spencer, Wayne, Whitley

T. lita Frison: Grayson

T. maura (Pictet): Allen, Barren, Frank-
lin, Grayson, Green, Jackson, Knott,
Larue, Monroe, Oldham, Todd, War-
ren, Wayne

T. metequi Ricker and Ross: Boyd, Boyle,
Grayson, Jackson, Madison, Pulaski,
Rockcastle, Whitley

T. parvula Banks: Jefferson, Oldham,
Spencer

FAMILY NEMOURIDAE
SUBFAMILY AMPHINEMURINAE

Amphinemura delosa (Ricker): Boyd,
Jessamine, Meade, Menifee

A. nigritta (Provancher): Anderson,
McCreary, Shelby, Spencer

A. varshava (Ricker): no county record

*A. wui (Claassen): McCreary

SUBFAMILY NEMOURINAE
*Prostoia similis (Hagen): Johnson, Law-
rence, Morgan
Soyedina vallicularia (Wu): Meade
FAMILY CAPNIIDAE

Allocapnia cunninghami Ross and Rick-
er: Cumberland

* State record.

139

A. curiosa Frison: no county record

A. forbesi Frison: Clark, Lee, Spencer

A. frisoni Ross and Ricker: no county
record

A. granulata (Claassen): no county rec-
ord

A. indianae Ricker: Rowan

A. mystica Frison: no county record

A. nivicola (Fitch): Carter

A. ohioensis Ross and Ricker: Rowan

A. pygmaea (Burmeister): no county rec-
ord

A. recta (Claassen): Powell

A. rickeri Frison: Bath, Boyd, Carter,
Clark, Meade, Oldham, Rowan

A. smithi Ross and Ricker: Butler, Cum-
berland, Edmonson, Grayson, Mar-
shall, Ohio

A. vivipara (Claassen): Anderson, Boyd,
Boyle, Carter, Clark, Jefferson, Mercer,
Oldham, Rowan, Shelby, Spencer

A. zola Ricker: no county record

GROUP SYSTELLOGNATHA
SUPERFAMILY PTERONARCYOIDEA
FAMILY PTERONARCYIDAE

Allonarcys proteus (Newman): Wolfe

FAMILY PELTOPERLIDAE
SUBFAMILY PELTOPERLINAE

Peltoperla arcuata Needham: Breathitt,
Menifee, McCreary, Wolfe

SUPERFAMILY PERLOIDEA
FAMILY PERLODIDAE
SUBFAMILY ISOPERLINAE

*Tsoperla bilineata (Say): Boyd

I. burski Frison: Anderson, Breathitt,
Menifee, Pike, Shelby, Spencer

I. clio (Newman): Anderson, Boyd,
Breathitt, Fayette, Jefferson, Jessa-
mine, Knott, Meade, Oldham, Pike,
Shelby, Spencer

*IT, marlynia Needham and Claassen:
Breathitt

*I. namata Frison: Breathitt, Pike, Wolfe

I. nana (Walsh): Anderson, Jessamine,
Mercer, Shelby, Spencer

*I. richardsoni Frison: Jackson

*I. similis (Hagen): Breathitt, McCreary,
Wolfe

*I. transmarina (Newman): Boyd, Meni-
fee, Rowan

140

SUBFAMILY PERLODINAE

Cultus decisus (Walker): Breathitt, Meade

Diploperla robusta Stark and Gaufin:
Boyd

Helopicus subvarians (Banks): Meade

*Malirekus hastatus (Banks): Breathitt,
McCreary

*Remenus bilobatus (Needham and
Claassen): McCreary

FAMILY CHLOROPERLIDAE
SUBFAMILY CHLOROPERLINAE

*Alloperla chloris Frison: Jackson

*A. idei (Ricker): Morgan

*A. imbecilla (Say): Jackson

Hastaperla brevis (Banks): Bath, Breath-
itt, McCreary, Morgan, Whitley, Wolfe

*Sweltsa onkos (Ricker): Knott

FAMILY PERLIDAE
SUBFAMILY ACRONEURIINAE

Acroneuria abnormis (Newman): Bath,
Fayette, Larue, McCreary, Menifee,
Mercer, Powell

A. carolinensis (Banks): Breathitt, Carter,
Jackson

A. evoluta Klapalek: Boyd, Breathitt, Car-
ter, Fayette, Jefferson, Jessamine, La-
rue, Mercer, Oldham, Scott, Spencer,
Warren

A. filicis Frison: Bell, Breathitt, Kenton,
Whitley

A. internata (Walker): Bell, Robertson

A. lycorias (Newman): Jessamine, Old-
ham

A. perplexa Frison: Bell, Fayette, Old-
ham

Eccoptera xanthenes (Newman): Breath-
itt, Whitley, Wolfe

Perlesta placida (Hagen): Anderson, Jef-
ferson, Meade, Mercer, Oldham, Shel-
by, Spencer

*P. frisoni Banks: Bath, Boyd, Jackson,
Madison, Rowan

*Perlinella ephyre (Newman): Boyd,
Christian

SUBFAMILY PERLINAE
Neoperla freytagi Stark and Baumann:
Anderson, Oldham, Shelby, Spencer
N. gaufini Stark and Baumann: Shelby,
Spencer ;

N. stewarti Stark and Baumann: Larue

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 43(3-4)

Paragnetina media (Walker): Meade

Phasganophora capitata (Pictet): Robert- ,

son

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

We express our appreciation to the fol- |

lowing persons who loaned specimens or

helped with identifications: Dr. Gerald q

DeMoss, Morehead State University; Dr.
Paul Freytag, University of Kentucky;

Mr. Ralph Kirchner, United States Army |

Corps of Engineers, Huntington District;
Mr. Bill Lucas, Ms. Janet Robinson, and
Mr. Mark Sheridan, Marshall University;
and Dr. Bill Stark, Mississippi College.
Special thanks to Vickie Crager for typing
the manuscript.

LITERATURE CITED

BEDNARIK, A. F., AND W. P. MCCAFFERTY. 1977.
A checklist of the stoneflies, or Plecoptera, of
Indiana. Great Lakes Entomol. 10:223-226.

HARKER, D. F., JR., S. M. CALL, M. L. WARREN,
Jr., K. E. CAMBURN, AND P. WIGLEY. 1979.
Aquatic biota and water quality survey of the
Appalachian Province. Tech. Rpt., 3 vols., Ky.
Nat. Pres. Comm.

, M. L. WARREN, JR., K. E. CAMBURN, S.
M. CALL, G. J. FALLO, AND P. WIGLEY. 1980.
Aquatic biota and water quality survey of the
Upper Cumberland River Basin. Tech. Rpt., 2
vols., Ky. Nat. Pres. Comm.

ILLIES, J. 1966. Katalog der rezenten Plecoptera.
Das Tierreich, 82. Walter de Gruyter and Co.,
Berlin.

KONDRATIEFF, B. C., AND J. R. VOSHELL, JR. 1979.
A checklist of the stoneflies (Plecoptera) of Vir-
ginia. Ent. News 90:241-246.

Picazo, E. P., AND G. L. DEMoss. 1980. The
aquatic insects, exclusive of Diptera, of Hays
Branch, Rowan County, Kentucky. Trans. Ky.
Acad. Sci. 41:99-104.

RICKER, W. E., AND H. H. Ross. 1968. North Amer-
ican species of Taeniopteryx (Plecoptera, In-
secta). J. Fish. Res. Bd. Can. 25:1423-1439.

Ross, H. H., AND W. E. RICKER. 1964. New species
of winter stoneflies, genus Allocapnia (Plecop-
tera, Capniidae). Trans. Ill. St. Acad. Sci.
57:88-93.

STARK, B. P., AND A. R. GAUFIN. 1976a. The nearc-
tic genera of Perlidae (Plecoptera). Misc. Pub.
Ent. Soc. Amer. 10:1-77.

, AND 1976b. The nearctic
species of Acroneuria (Plecoptera: Perlidae). J.
Kans. Ent. Soc. 49:221-253.

, AND R. W. BAUMANN. 1978. New species
of nearctic Neoperla (Plecoptera: Perlidae)
with notes on the genus. Great Basin Nat.
31:97-114.

, AND K. W. STEWART. 1981. The nearctic

PLECOPTERA IN KENTUCKY—Tarter, Adkins, Benson, and Covell

genera of Peltoperlidae (Plecoptera). J. Kans.
Ent. Soc. 54:285-311.

SURDICK, R. F., AND K. C. Kim. 1976. Stoneflies
(Plecoptera) of Pennsylvania. Penn. St. Agric.
Stat. Bull. 808:1-73.

TARTER, D. C., AND R. F. KIRCHNER. 1980. List of
stoneflies (Plecoptera) of West Virginia. Ent.
News 91:49-53.

Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 43(3-4), 1982, 141-146

141

WHITE, D. 1974. The distribution of stoneflies (In-
secta: Plecoptera) of the Salt River, Kentucky.
Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci. 35:17-23.

ZWICK, P. 1973. Insecta: Plecoptera. Phylogene-
tisches System and Katalog. Das Tierreich, 94.
Walter de Gruyter and Co., Berlin.

Influence of Carbon Dioxide on Morphogenesis of Candida

DaAvID N. MARDON
Department of Biological Sciences, Eastern Kentucky University, Richmond, Kentucky 40475

ABSTRACT

Carbon dioxide generated from bicarbonate stimulates the formation of pseudohyphae by typ-
ical Cadida albicans isolates and, to a slight degree, that of an atypical variant of C. albicans.
None of the other Candida species studied produced pseudohyphae with or without the addition
of bicarbonate. Stimulation of pseudohyphal growth of C. albicans by CO, was dependent upon
the availability of a suitable organic nitrogen source (amino acids or peptides) in the culture
medium. Radioactive “CO, generated from NaH™CO; was incorporated into cells of both pseu-
dohyphal and yeast-like cultures in comparably small amounts (less than 2.5% of total cell solids).
These results indicate that CO, acts primarily as a regulatory molecule rather than as a precursor
for the synthesis of new major pseudohyphal-specific structural components. This study supports
the premise that morphogenesis of Candida albicans is under catabolite control and that other
Candida species not readily forming pseudohyphae possess more stringent regulatory require-

ments.

INTRODUCTION

Dimorphism of several pathogenic fun-
gi can be initiated by COs,, resulting in
yeast-like growth in vitro (Bartnicki-Gar-
cia and Nickerson 1962, Brooks and
Northey 1963, Lones and Peacock 1960).
Conversely, the early investigations of
Drouhet and Couteau (1954) and Weld
(1952) seemed to indicate that, unlike
most other pathogenic fungi, a high CO,
tension might selectively promote pseu-
dohyphal (filamentous) growth rather
than yeast-like growth of virulent strains
of Candida albicans. The observations of
the latter authors was supported by Mar-
don et al. (1969) who showed that high
oxygen tension inhibited pseudohyphal
growth of a biochemical variant of C. al-
bicans while an appropriate CO,/O, ratio
enhanced pseudohyphal growth. The
present investigation compares the influ-

ence of CO, on dimorphism of typical vir-
ulent chlamydospore-producing strains
of C. albicans, a variant of C. albicans
that produces rare atypical chlamydo-
spores, and five non-chlamydospore-pro-
ducing Candida species.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Four typical isolates of Candida albi-
cans were used in this investigation. One
of these (C. albicans 10261) is considered
to be a classical type strain of C. albicans
by many investigators and has been used
extensively since its isolation by Mac-
Kinnon (1940). This microorganism is vir-
ulent for mice (Robinette and Mardon
1975), produces abundant chlamydo-
spores on zein agar and corn-meal agar,
displays typical sugar assimilation and
fermentation patterns (Lennette et al.
1980), and produces germ tubes in both

142

human serum and supplemented mini-
mal medium (Mardon et al. 1971). Can-
dida albicans isolate Y-5 was obtained
from a patient with acute lymphocytic
leukemia. Isolate AT is a test strain ob-
tained from the American Society of Clin-
ical Pathologists, and isolate 10231-Y was
obtained from a stock culture of C. albi-
cans ATCC 10231. All of these cultures
form smooth mucoid colonies on trypti-
case soy agar, are virulent for mice, and
exhibit the same typical physiological
and biochemical characteristics noted
above for C. albicans 10261 as outlined
by Lennette et al. (1980). Candida albi-
cans 10231-C is an atypical rough colo-
nial isolate obtained from a stock culture
of C. albicans 10231. Unlike the typical
cultures described above, this organism
ferments sucrose, does not produce typ-
ical chlamydospores and forms few germ
tubes in either serum or defined medium.
The 5 other Candida species used in this
study were originally supplied by Dr. L.
Kaufman of the Center for Disease Con-
trol in Atlanta, Georgia. Of these, Can-
dida tropicalis is about one-fifth as com-
mon as C. albicans in clinical infections
in humans while C. pseudotropicalis, C.
parapsilosis, C. krusei and C. guillier-
mondii, respectively, have only occasion-
ally been isolated from individuals with
clinical candidiasis. These microorgan-
isms all displayed determinative profiles
consistent with their identification as out-
lined by Lennette et al. (1980).

Stock cultures of all microorganisms
used in this study were maintained on
Sabouraud dextrose agar. Inocula were
grown in a liquid basal Glucose-Salts-
Biotin medium (GSB) (Mardon et al.
1969), and washed in distilled water 3
times by centrifugation at 3,000 x g for
10 min. All inocula were greater than
90% yeast-like at the initiation of each
experiment. The experimental culture
media consisted of basal GSB supple-
mented with one of the following: de-
hydrated Sabouraud dextrose medium
(0.025% w/v), vitamin free casamino
acids (0.008% w/v), yeast extract (0.025%
w/v), thioglycollate medium (0.025% w/v)
or a mixture of 24 amino acids (0.008% w/

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 43(3-4)

v) which when added to minimal GSB
resulted in 3.3 mg of each amino acid in
one liter of supplemented GSB culture
medium. The appropriate supplement
was added to basal GSB prior to steriliza-
tion by filtration through membrane fil-
ters (0.45 wm porosity; Millipore Corp.,
Bedford, Mass.). To each 25 ml Erlen-
meyer flask containing 9 ml of sterile
supplemented GSB was aseptically added
equal amounts of filter sterilized 0.5 N
HCl and 0.5 M KHCO, to give the desired
CO, concentration in each flask. This was
followed immediately by sufficient 0.5 M
KCl to give a total volume in each flask
of 9.9 ml. Then, approximately 3.0 x 10°
cells of washed inocula in 0.1 ml of fresh
basal GSB was immediately added to
each flask. All flasks were immersed in
ice throughout the above additions, then
sealed with a solid rubber stopper taped
in place. At pH 4.5 and below the disso-
ciation of bicarbonate results in greater
than 98% CO, expelled into the vapor
phase of a sealed vessel and less than 2%
aqueous bicarbonate derivatives other
than dissolved CO, (Altman and Dittmer
1964). These procedures facilitated a
controlled, predetermined initial atmo-
sphere of air plus CO, without altering
the initial culture pH (4.5). All cultures
were incubated on a rotary shaker (150
rpm) at 37° for 5 hr, then placed in ice for
10 min. The flasks were opened and the
cellular morphology of each culture was
determined by microscopic examination.
Control flasks without bicarbonate added
contained filter sterilized 0.5 M KCI (0.9
ml per 25 ml flask) instead of KCI, 0.5 N
HCl and 0.5 M KHCO,. After 5 hr of
growth the final pH in all cultures was
between 3.2 and 4.1.

To determine the rate of ''CO, uptake,
NaHCO, (New England Nuclear Corp.,
Boston, Mass.) was added to nonradioac-
tive KHCO, to give a molar ratio of 380
micromoles of nonradioactive KHCOs to
each micromole of NaH'™COs. For these
experiments, 50 ml Erlenmeyer flasks
containing 18 ml of supplemented GSB
plus 0.9 ml of 0.5 N HCl, 0.9 ml of the
radioactive bicarbonate mixture, and 0.2
ml of inoculum were used. Culture con-

ditions were as described above. At se-
| lected intervals during growth, flasks
' were removed from the incubator shaker,
placed in ice for 10 min then opened and
| cellular morphology determined. Ten ml
of culture was Millipore filtered (porosity
| 045 wm), washed with distilled water
| and the washed cells resuspended in dis-
tilled water and used for dry-weight de-
| terminations. The remaining 10 ml of cul-
| ture was passed through a Millipore filter
‘ (0.45 wm) and the cells washed on the
| filter with 25 ml of cold trichloroacetic
acid (6% w/v) followed by 25 ml of cold
| distilled water. Each filter containing
| washed cells was placed in a scintillation
| vial containing 15 ml of 4% liquifluor
(New England Nuclear Corp., Boston,
Mass.) in a toluene-ethanol mixture (1:1,
| v/v). Radioactivity in the cells was mea-
sured in a Beckman scintillation spec-
trometer.

RESULTS

| Dose response curves to increasing
concentrations of CO, of 2 typical isolates
of Candida albicans (10261 and 10231-
Y), the atypical variant (10231-C), and C.
tropicalis are shown in Figure 1. These
data indicate that pseudohyphal growth
(filaments) predominated in cultures of
the typical C. albicans isolates when be-
tween 5 and 25 mg of KHCOs was added
to 10 ml of culture. The atypical variant
(10231-C) showed only a slight increase
in pseudohyphae with bicarbonate addi-
tion which is consistent with its inability
to form a substantial number of germ
tubes in serum or minimal medium.
Likewise, cultures of C. tropicalis were
predominantly yeast-like with or without
the addition of bicarbonate. Results with
C. albicans Y-5, AT, and 5 other Candida
species are shown in Table 1. These data
indicate that CO, stimulates pseudohy-
phal growth of all 4 typical isolates of C.
albicans. The 5 other Candida species
used, as well as the atypical variant
(10231-C), produced predominantly yeast-
like cells even when bicarbonate was
added to the medium (Table 1).

Table 2 shows the influence of 4 un-
defined organic nitrogen sources and an

CARBON DIOXIDE INFLUENCE ON CANnDIDA—Mardon

143

We

% FILAMENTOUS CELLS

mg KHCO3 ADDED/IO ml CULTURE

Fic. 1. Effect of increasing CO, concentrations
on morphogenesis. All cultures were grown in
Sabouraud dextrose supplemented GSB for 5 hr
at 37°. Carbon dioxide was generated from
bicarbonate as described in Materials and Methods,
via the addition of equal amounts of 0.5 N HCl and
0.5 M KHCOs, followed by sufficient 0.5 M KCl to
give a volume of 9.9 ml in each flask prior to inoc-
ulation of the microorganism. O O Candida
albicans 10261, ®@--—-® Candida albicans 10231-Y,
@ @® Candida albicans variant 10231-C,
O---O Candida tropicalis 7347.

amino-acid mixture upon morphogenesis
of C. albicans 10261 and 10231-Y, the
variant 10231-C, and C. tropicalis. These
data indicate that when optimal CO, ten-
sion plus 1 of these organic-nitrogen
sources was present in GSB cultures con-
taining typical C. albicans isolates, more
than 70% pseudohyphae resulted. When
only ammonium ion was present in the
medium, less than half of the cells grew
in the pseudohyphal form, although sub-
stantial growth of yeast-like cells did oc-
cur. When the medium was devoid of any
nitrogen source no measurable growth
was observed. Slight pseudohyphal
growth of the atypical variant occurred
only when the medium was supplement-
ed with Sabouraud dextrose medium or
thioglycollate medium. Candida tropi-
calis did not form pseudohyphae in any
of these media and, although not entered
in Table 2, there was also no filamenta-
tion observed when comparable experi-

144

TABLE 1.—MORPHOLOGICAL RESPONSE OF SIX
Candida SPECIES TO CO,!'

Filamentation?

Organism +KHCO, —KHCO,

. albicans 10261

_ albicans Y-5

. albicans AT

. albicans 10231-Y

_ albicans 10231-C

. tropicalis 7347

. pseudotropicalis
. parapsilosis

. krusei

. guilliermondii

A) GvATETS) Oy |S} Gare)
SSS SS [Sy ee

Seooooc]r |] FWWU

1 Grown in GSB medium containing 0.025% Sabouraud dextrose
medium. Carbon dioxide was generated from bicarbonate in each 25
ml flask as outlined in Materials and Methods. In these experiments
0.45 ml of 0.5 N HCl and 0.45 ml of 0.5 M KHCO; was added to 9
ml of GSB.

2 Percentages of filamentous cells after 5 hr at 37°: 0 = 0-15%, 1 =
16-30%, 2 = 31-50%, 3 = 51-70%, 4 = 71-85%, 5 = 86-100%.

ments were conducted with C. pseudo-
tropicalis, C. parapsilosis, C. krusei, and
C. guilliermondii.

The data presented above show that
CO, can be instrumental in the stimula-
tion of pseudohyphal growth of C. albi-
cans. Thus, the next series of experi-
ments were designed to determine the
relative incorporation of radioactive CO,
into cultures undergoing pseudohyphal
growth (C. albicans 10261 and 10231-Y)
and those maintaining predominantly
yeast-like growth (variant 10231-C and C.
tropicalis). There does not appear to be
a direct correlation between the degree

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 43(3-4)

1073 CPM /mg DRY WEIGHT

CRUE 7 4 ye

8 15 16

—1.
fo} ! 2 3 4 5 6

HOURS

Fic. 2. Incorporation of Radioactive CO, into
pseudohyphal and yeast-like cells. All cultures
were grown in Sabouraud dextrose supplemented
GSB. Carbon dioxide was generated from bicar-
bonate in each flask as indicated in Materials and
Methods. O O Candida albicans 10261,
®--—-® Candida albicans 10231-Y, @ ® Can-
dida albicans variant 10231-C, O---O Candida
tropicalis 7347.

of pseudohyphal growth in these cultures
and the amount of carbon from CO, in-
corporated into total cell solids (Fig. 2).
The maximum incorporation into any of
these microorganisms was 2.4% of total
cell solids, occurring during yeast-like
growth of variant 10231-C. The least
amount of incorporation was in pseudo-
hyphal cells of C. albicans 10231-Y
(1.1%). Incorporation values for C. albi-

TABLE 2.—INFLUENCE OF ORGANIC NITROGEN SOURCES ON CO,! MEDIATED FILAMENTATION

Filamentation?
C. albicans C. albicans C. albicans C. tropicalis
Addition to GSB culture medium 10261 10231-Y 10231-C 7347
0.025% Sabouraud dextrose medium 5 4 1 0
0.025% Yeast extract 5 5 0) 0
0.025% Thioglycollate medium 5 5 2 0
0.008% Casamino acids 5 5 0 0
0.008% Amino mixture acid? 5 5 0) 0
None 2 ) 0) 0
None—Ammonium sulfate omitted @) 0 0 0

‘Carbon Dioxide was generated from bicarbonate in each 25 ml flask as outlined in Materials and Methods. In these experiments 0.45 ml

of 0.5 N HCl and 0.45 ml of 0.5 M KHCO, was added to 9 ml of GSB.

* Percentages of filamentous cells after 5 hr at 37°: 0 = 0-15%, 1 = 16-30%, 2 = 31-50%, 3 = 51-70%, 4 = 71-85%, 5 = 86-100%.

* The amino acids in the mixture were: L-alanine, DL-alpha-amino-n-butyric acid, L-arginine, L-aspartic acid, DL-asparagine, L-citrulline,
L-cysteine, L-cystine, L-glutamine, L-glutamic acid, glycine, L-histidine, L-homoserine, DL-isoleucine, L-leucine, L-lysine, L-ornithine,
L-phenylalanine, L-proline, L-serine, L-threonine, L-tryptophan, L-tyrosine, and DL-valine. There was 3.3 mg of each amino acid present

in | liter of supplemented GSB.

CARBON DIOXIDE INFLUENCE ON CAnpIDA—Mardon

cans 10261 pseudohyphal cells (1.3%)
and C. tropicalis yeast-like cells (1.6%)
fell within this small range of total cell
solids. These results indicate that only a
small fraction of new cellular growth in
these cultures was due to the incorpora-
tion of carbon from CO, into structural
cellular macromolecules.

DISCUSSION

Figure 1 and Table | show that in-
creased CO, tension can stimulate pre-
dominantly pseudohyphal growth of typ-
ical isolates of Candida albicans but this
effect does not occur with the atypical
variant or with other Candida species.
The role of CO; in morphogenesis of C.
albicans appears to be regulatory rather
than the direct incorporation of CO, into
critical structural macromolecules as
originally proposed by Bartnicki-Garcia
(1963). The regulatory nature of CO, in
the initiation of pseudohyphal growth of
this microorganism is supported by the
data in Figure 2, which shows that only
a small fraction of new cellular compo-
nents in both yeast-like and pseudohy-
phal cells were derived from CO,. The
literature (Gilardi 1965, MacKenzie 1962,
Chattaway et al. 1980) concerning other
environmental and nutritional require-
ments for morphogenesis of C. albicans
further strengthens the hypothesis that
CO, functions as a regulatory molecule in
this system.

This study is also consistent with the
idea that separate genetic programs for
yeast-like and pseudohyphal growth are
selected via environmental and/or nutri-
tional stress. Nickerson and Mankowski
(1953) were the first to suggest that mor-
phogenesis in fungi might be controlled
by the availability of glucose. In the pres-
ent study, glucose was present at the
same concentration in all media; how-
ever, this does not preclude the possibil-
ity that CO, affects glucose uptake or its
incorporation into new cellular compo-
nents. Carbon dioxide also might influ-
ence the metabolism or availability of
amino acids necessary for pseudohyphal
growth. That certain amino acids (or pro-
tease activity) are essential to pseudohy-

145

phal growth of C. albicans is apparent
from the data in Table 2. It is of particular
interest in this regard that in the absence
of any nitrogen source in the medium
(Table 2) morphogenesis did not occur.
The failure of C. albicans to form even
short germ tubes when no exogenous ni-
trogen source was present is likely due
to the growth of the inocula to stationary
phase in minimal GSB medium resulting
in an inoculum composed primarily of
nitrogen-starved cells. Furthermore, al-
though some pseudohyphal cells were
formed when ammonium sulfate was
added to the medium, far fewer were ob-
served than with organic nitrogen sup-
plementation. Thus, if proteases are par-
amount in providing amino acids for
pseudohyphal growth, the nitrogen source
acted upon could be either totally exog-
enous (as seems to be the case in this
study) or under some circumstances pri-
marily of endogenous origin, as in bac-
terial sporulation and germination. In ad-
dition to the evidence presented here,
studies linking cellular adenosine 3’:5'
cyclic monophosphate levels (Chattaway
et al. 1981), and alterations in polysac-
charide metabolism (Braun and Calde-
rone 1978) with morphological shifts in
C. albicans support the postulate that
regulation of morphogenesis in Candida
is under catabolite control.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

This investigation was supported in
part by an institutional grant from the
Research Committee of Eastern Ken-
tucky University.

LITERATURE CITED

ALTMAN, P. L., AND D. S. DITTMER. 1964. Biology
data book. Ist. Edition. Fed. Amer. Soc. Exper.
Biol. Washington, D.C.

BARTNICKI-GARCIA, S. 1963. Symposium on bio-
chemical bases of morphogenesis in fungi. III.
Mold-yeast dimorphism of Mucor. Bacteriol.
Rev. 27:293-304.

, AND W. J. NICKERSON. 1962. Induction of
yeast-like development in Mucor by carbon
dioxide. J. Bacteriol. 84:829-840.

BRAUN, P. C., AND R. R. CALDERONE. 1978. Chitin
synthesis in Candida albicans: comparison of
yeast and hyphal forms. J. Bacteriol. 133:1472-
1477.

146

BROOKS, L. D., AND W. T. NORTHEY. 1963. Studies
on Coccidioides immitis. II. Physiological
studies on in vitro spherulation. J. Bacteriol.
85:12-15.

CHATTAWAY, F. W., P. R. WHEELER, AND J.
O'REILLY. 1980. Purification and properties of
peptides which induce germination of blasto-
spores of Candida albicans. J. Gen. Microbiol.
120:43 1-437.

, ——_., AND —————.. b1981. Involve-
ment of Adenosine 3’:5'-cyclic monophosphate
in the germination of blastospores of Candida
albicans. J. Gen. Microbiol. 123:233-240.

DROUHET, E., AND M. CoUTEAU. 1954. Sur la de-
termination des Candida. Etude des ca-
racteres morphologiques et physiologiques de
souches isolées de prélevements patholo-
giques. Ann. Inst. Pasteur 86:602-617.

GILARDI, G. L. 1965. Nutrition of systemic and sub-
cutaneous pathogenic fungi. Bacteriol. Rev.
29:406-424.

LENNETTE, E. H., A. BALows, W. J. HAUSLER, JR.,
AND J. P. TRUANT. 1980. Manual of clinical
microbiology, 3rd Edition. Amer. Soc. Micro-
biol. Washington, D.C.

LONES, G. W., AND C. L. PEAcocK. 1960. Role of

Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 43(3-4), 1982, 146-149

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 43(3-4)

carbon dioxide in the dimorphism of Cocci-
dioides immitis. J. Bacteriol. 79:308-309.

MACKENzIE, D. W. R. 1962. Serum tube identifi-
cation of Candida albicans. J. Clin. Pathol.
15:563-565.

MACKINNON, J. E. 1940. Dissociation in Candida
albicans. J. Infect. Dis. 66:59-77.

MARDON, D. N., E. BALISH, AND A. W. PHILLIPS.
1969. Control of dimorphism in a biochemical
variant of Candida albicans. J. Bacteriol.
100:701-707.

—— ., S. K. Hurst, and E. Balish. 1971. Germ-
tube production by Candida albicans in mini-
mal liquid culture media. Can. J. Microbiol.
17:851-856.

NICKERSON, W. J., AND Z. MANKOWSKI. 1953. Role
of nutrition in the maintenance of yeast-shape
in Candida. Amer. J. Bot. 40:584-592.

ROBINETTE, E. H., JR., AND D. N. MARDON. 1975.
Delayed lethal response to Candida albicans
infection in mice bearing the Lewis Lung Car-
cinoma. J. Natl. Canc. Inst. U.S.A. 55:731-733.

WELD, J. T. 1952. Candida albicans. Rapid iden-
tification in pure cultures with carbon dioxide
on modified Eosin-Methylene-Blue medium.
A.M.A. Arch. Dermatol. Syph. 66:691-694.

Distributional Records and Observations of
Nigronia serricornis (Say) (Megaloptera:
Corydalidae) in Eastern Kentucky

SAMUEL M. CALL

Department for Natural Resources and Environmental Protection,
Division of Water, Frankfort, Kentucky 40601

ABSTRACT
The fishfly, Nigronia serricornis, was found in a variety of aquatic habitats and stream sizes
throughout most of eastern Kentucky. It was commonly taken in association with Corydalus
cornutus and apparently has a facultative tolerance to the perturbations of strip mining. Addi-

tional county records are presented.

INTRODUCTION

Water quality investigations conducted
during 1978 and 1979 revealed the pres-
ence of Nigronia serricornis (Say)
throughout most of eastern Kentucky.
This fishfly was observed in lotic envi-
ronments from Greenup to Monroe coun-
ties and in all major drainages except the
Big Sandy River.

Nigronia serricornis is widely distrib-
uted throughout eastern and central
North America (Evans 1978). It was first
reported in Kentucky by Tarter et al.
(1976) and later by Harker et al. (1979,
1980). Distributional studies have been
conducted for this fishfly in Minnesota
(Parfin 1952), West Virginia (Tarter and
Watkins 1974), Georgia (Caldwell 1976)

|

MEGALOPTERA IN KENTUCKY—Call

and Michigan (Knight and Siegfried
1977). Late instar larvae were described
by Cuyler (1956) and Neunzig (1966) and
Baker and Neunzig (1968) described the
eggs, egg masses, and first instar larvae.
The emergence patterns of N. serricornis
were discussed by Tarter et al. (1977).
Knight and Simmons (1975) studied the
factors that influence oxygen consump-
tion in the larvae.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The following is a list of additional
county records for N. serricornis in Ken-
tucky: Barren Co: Fallen Timber Cr., 27-
V111-75; Boyds Cr., 23-V-79; Bell Co:
Clear Fork, 4-V11-78; Clay Co: Goose
Cr., 6-V1-78; Clinton Co: Smith Cr., 13-
Vi-78; Greenup Co: White Oak Cr., 31-
V-78; Jackson Co: Horse Lick Cr., 24-
V11-79; Raccoon Cr., 24-V11-79; Middle
Fork Rockcastle River, 23-V111-79; La-
rue Co: Middle Cr., 22-1X-76; Laurel Co:
Adams Br., 11-X-79; Cane Cr., 26-V11-79;
Laurel River, 14-V1-78; Neds Br., 25-
V11-79; Letcher Co: Colliers Cr., 22-V1-
78; Poor Fork Cumberland River, 1-V1-
79; Lee Co: Sturgeon Cr., 3-V11-78;
McCreary Co: Beaver Cr., 4-V11-78;
Marsh Cr., 12-1X-79; Rock Cr., 19-1X-78;
Watts Br., 13-1X-79; Monroe Co: East
Fork Barren River, 12-V1-79; Meshaek
Cr., 11-V11-79; Sulphur Cr., 28-V111-79;
Owsley Co: Buck Cr., 19-X-78; Pulaski
Co: Pitman Cr., 4-X-79; Rowan Co: North
Fork Triplett Cr., 2-V1-78; Wayne Co:
Kennedy Cr., 14-V111-79; Little South
Fork Cumberland River, 8-V1-78; Whit-
ley Co: Bark Camp Cr., 23-V111-79;
Bunches Cr., 22-V111-79; South Fork Cr.,
6-V1-78; Youngs Cr., 2-X-79.

The 3 most commonly observed coryd-
alids found in eastern Kentucky streams
were Corydalus cornutus, Nigronia ser-
ricornis and N. fasciatus, respectively.
The most tolerant to land-use perturba-
tions was Corydalus cornutus. It was col-
lected from streams that were heavily im-
pacted by strip mining. The fishfly, N.
fasciatus, that usually inhabits small,
rocky, woodland streams (Cuyler 1965,
Tarter et al. 1975) and living under rocks
and logs (Tarter et al. 1975), was rarely

147

observed. Nigronia serricornis was a
common constituent of third and fourth
order streams under open canopies.

The statement by Chandler (1956) that
Nigronia was found in quiet or stagnant
waters is only partially correct. In eastern
Kentucky, N. serricornis was usually
found in moderate to high gradient sec-
ond to fifth order streams. It normally in-
habited riffles with rubble-gravel sub-
strata; however, it was observed in areas
with particle sizes that ranged from pre-
dominately boulders to fine gravel and
sand. In addition, N. serricornis was oc-
casionally taken from undercut banks
among submerged roots or in accumula-
tions of detritus. It has been reported
from similar habitats by Cuyler (1956),
Neunzig (1966), Knight and Siegfried
(1977), and Evans (1978).

Knight and Siegfried (1977) found that
N. serricornis and C. cornutus were rare-
ly sympatric in Michigan. Donald Tarter
(pers. comm.) has also observed this phe-
nomenon in West Virginia. Knight and
Seigfried (1977) felt that interspecific
competition between these corydalids
may have been responsible for the allo-
patry in Michigan; however, this is con-
trary to the distributional data from east-
ern Kentucky in which these two species
were commonly sympatric.

Nigronia serricornis was observed un-
der a variety of water-quality conditions.
These variations were due principally to
two factors, changing lithology and strip-
mining perturbations. Table 1 summariz-
es the ranges of water quality (Harker et
al. 1979, Caldwell 1976) in which this
corydalid was observed. These ranges
are not necessarily the maximum and
minimum concentrations for this fishfly.

Of the 13 characteristics listed by Cald-
well (1976), 8 correspond to tests con-
ducted by Harker et al. (1979). Caldwell’s
(1976) data for sulfates (SO,), specific
conductivity, chlorides (Cl), and iron
(Fe) fall within the ranges given by Har-
ker et al. (1979). However, Caldwell’s
(1976) ranges for alkalinity, dissolved
oxygen, pH, and phosphorus exceed
those given by Harker et al. (1979). Ni-
gronia serricornis apparently has a wide

148

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 43(3-4)

TABLE |1.—RANGES OF WATER QUALITY PARAMETERS ASSOCIATED WITH OCCURRENCES OF
Nigronia sericornis

Harker et al. (1979) Caldwell (1976)

Specific conductance (umho/cm)
DO (mg/l)

Total alkalinity (mg/l)
Cl (mg/l)

SO, (mg/l)

NO; (mg/1 of total No»)
Si (mg/l)

Hg (mg/l)

Zn (mg/l)

P (mg/l as total P)

Fe (mg/l)

Mn (mg/1)

Mg (mg/l)

Na (mg/1)

Al (mg/l)

Ca (mg/1)

K (mg/1)

Cr (mg/l)

Pb (mg/l)

Cd (mg/l)

As (mg/l)

18-720
3.1-11.0

2-245
2.1-11.0
<2.0-24.0

12.50-880
7.6-10.2
34-718
1.1-62.8
1.7-225.0
0.1-21.0
<0.01-4.46
<0.01-0.09
<0.01-4.27
<0.01-0.53
0.04-4.25
0.01-0.22
1.18-17.50
1.35-249.24
0.03-1.11
3.82-118.80
0.79-4.79
<0.01-2.11
<0.01-0.18
0.01-0.20
<0.01-0.83
<0.01-0.19
<0.01-0.40
0.02-0.72
5.6-8.7

<0.02-2.0
0.16-0.85

5.3-9.6

tolerance to many chemical features such
as pH, sulfates, conductivity, and chlo-
rides.

Surface mining is the most severe per-
turbation affecting many eastern Ken-
tucky streams. Nigronia serricornis was
commonly found inhabiting streams that
were considered moderately impacted by
strip mining (Harker et al. 1979). The or-
ganism apparently has a facultative tol-
erance to those chemical and physical
parameters typically associated with sur-
face mining in eastern Kentucky by Cur-
tis (1972, 1973, 1974) and Dyer and Cur-
tis (1977). Egg deposition on riparian
vegetation (Pennak 1978), the ability to
go for long periods of time without feed-
ing, as well as feeding on terrestrial and
aquatic invertebrates (Minshall 1967),
the apparent tolerance to siltation and
water-quality parameters associated with
strip mining are probably responsible for
the ability of N. serricornis to withstand
moderate surface-mining perturbations.

Within its range, N. serricornis emerges
between late March and late November,

with the period in Kentucky occurring
between mid-May and mid-June (Tarter
et al. 1977). In eastern Kentucky, the
adults were observed attached to the un-
derside of riparian vegetation or clinging
to the underside of bridges from mid-
May to mid-June.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I would like to express my appreciation
to Melvin Warren, Keith Camburn, Glen
Fallo and Dan Van Norman for aiding in
specimen acquisition; John MacGregor,
Steve Rice and Max Medley for provid-
ing additional specimens; Dr. Donald
Batch for critically reviewing this paper;
and Don Harker, Jr., Director of the Ken-
tucky Nature Preserves Commission, for
the encouragement to publish this data.

LITERATURE CITED

BAKER, J. R., AND H. H. NEUNZIG. 1968. The egg
masses, eggs, and first instar larvae of eastern
North American Corydalidae. Ann. Ent. Soc.
Am. 61:1181—-1187.

CALDWELL, B. A. 1976. The distribution of Ni-
gronia serricornis and Nigronia fasciatus in

MEGALOPTERA IN KENTUCKY—Call

Georgia and water quality parameters associ-
ated with the larvae (Megaloptera: Corydali-
dae). Bull. Ga. Acad. Sci. 34:24-31.

CHANDLER, H. P. 1956. Megaloptera. Pp. 229-233.
In R. L. Usinger (Ed.). Aquatic insects of Cal-
ifornia with keys to North American genera and
California species. Univ. Calif. Press, Berkeley,
CA.

CuRTIS, W. R. 1972. Chemical changes in stream
flow following surface mining in eastern Ken-
tucky. 4th Symposium on Coal Mine Drainage.
Mellon Inst., Pittsburgh, PA. pp. 19-31.

—_——.. 1973. Effects of strip mining on the hy-
drology of small mountain watersheds in Ap-
palachia. Pp. 145-157. In R. J. Hutnik and C.
Davis (Eds.). Ecology and reclamation of de-
vastated lands. Vol. I. Gordon and Breach, NY.

. 1974. Sediment yield from strip-mined
watersheds in eastern Kentucky. 2nd Applied
Technology Symposium on Mined-land Rec-
lamation. Louisville, KY. pp. 88-100.

CUYLER, R. D. 1956. Taxonomy and ecology of lar-
vae of sialoid Megaloptera of east-central North
Carolina with a key and descriptions of larvae
of genera known to occur in the United States.
M.S. Thesis. N. Carolina State Univ., Raleigh,
NC. 150 pp.

. 1965. The larvae of Nigronia fasciatus
Walker (Megaloptera: Corydalidae). Ent. News
76:192-195.

Dyer, K. L., AND W. R. Curtis. 1977. Effects of
strip mining on water quality in small streams
in eastern Kentucky, 1967-1975. USDA, For.
Ser. Res. Paper, N.E.-372. 13 pp.

Evans, E. D. 1978. Megaloptera and aquatic Neu-
roptera. Pp. 133-146. In R. W. Merritt and K.
W. Cummuns (Eds.). Introduction to the aquat-
ic insects of North America. Kendall Hunt Publ.
Co., Dubuque, IA.

HARKER, D. H., JR., S. M. CALL, M. L. WARREN,
JrR., K. E. CAMBURN, AND P. WIGLEY. 1979.
Aquatic biota and water quality survey of the
Appalachian Province, eastern Kentucky. Ky.
Nat. Pres. Comm., Tech. Rept. 1,152 pp.

149

, M. L. WARREN, JR., K. E. CAMBURN, S.
M. CALL, G. J. FALLO, AND P. WIGLEY. 1980.
Aquatic biota and water quality survey of the
upper Cumberland River basin. Ky. Nat. Pres.
Comm., Tech. Rept. 682 pp.

KNIGHT, A. W., AND C. A. SIEGFRIED. 1977. The
distribution of Corydalus cornutus (Linnaeus)
and Nigronia serricornis (Say) (Megaloptera:
Corydalidae) in Michigan. Great Lakes Ent.
10:39-46.

, AND M. A. SIMMONS. 1975. Factors influ-
encing the oxygen consumption of larval Ni-
gronia serricornis (Say) (Megaloptera: Coryd-
alidae). Comp. Biochem. Physiol. 51A:117-123.

MINSHALL, G. W. 1967. Role of allochthonous de-
tritus in the trophic structure of a woodland
spring brook community. Ecology 48:139-144.

NEUNZIG, H. H. 1966. Larvae of the genus Nigron-
ia Banks (Neuroptera: Corydalidae). Proc. Ent.
Soc. Wash. 68:11-16.

PARFIN, S. I. 1952. The Megaloptera and Neurop-
tera of Minnesota. Am. Midl. Nat. 47:421-434.

PENNAK, R. W. 1978. Fresh-water invertebrates of
the United States. John Wiley and Sons, New
York, NY. 803 pp.

TARTER, D. C., AND W. D. WATKINS. 1974. Distri-
bution of the fishfly genera Chauliodes La-
treille and Nigronia Banks in West Virginia
(Megaloptera: Corydalidae). Proc. W. Va. Acad.
Sci. 46: 146-150.

——, AND M. L. LITTLE. 1975. Life
hfisixersy of the fant Nigronia fasciatus (Meg-
aloptera: Corydalidae). Psyche 82:81-87.

, AND ————. 1976. Distribu-
tion, ‘including new state records, of fishflies in
Kentucky (Megaloptera: Corydalidae). Trans.
Ky. Acad. Sci. 37:26—28.

—_—_——_, , AND D. L. ASHLEY.
1977. Season! emergence patterns of the fish-
flies east of the Rocky Mountains (Megaloptera:
Corydalidae). Ent. News 88:69-76.

Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 43(3-4), 1982, 150-155

Small Mammals of the Ohio River Floodplain in
Western Kentucky and Adjacent Illinois

ROBERT K. ROSE
Department of Biological Sciences, Old Dominion University, Norfolk, Virginia 23508

AND

GREGORY L. SEEGERT
WAPORA, Inc., 5700 Hillside Avenue, Cincinnati, Ohio 45233

ABSTRACT

In July 1980, small mammals were studied at 13 locations in Ballard and McCracken counties,
Kentucky, and across the Ohio River in Massac and Pulaski counties, Illinois. Study plots were
placed near the River in floodplain, terrace, and upland forests, and in oldfields. Compared to
pitfall traps, snap traps yielded twice as many mammals, but the same number of species (8).
Two species were taken only in pitfall traps, 2 others only in snap traps, and 3 species taken
during this study had not been reported from these 4 counties by previous investigators.

INTRODUCTION

There is only scanty information on the
small mammal fauna of the section of
Ohio River floodplain between Paducah,
Kentucky and Cairo, Illinois. Barbour
and Davis (1974) reported Scalopus
aquaticus (eastern mole), Peromyscus
gossypinus (cotton mouse), P. manicu-
latus bairdii (prairie deermouse), Sig-
modon hispidus (hispid cotton rat), and
Microtus ochragaster (prairie vole) from
Ballard and/or McCracken counties, Ken-
tucky. Layne’s (1958) study of mammals
in 12 of the 16 southernmost Illinois
counties reported Blarina brevicauda
(now called B. carolinensis, southern
short-tailed shrew), Cryptotis parva
(least shrew), eastern mole, Sylvilagus
floridanus (eastern cottontail), S. aquaii-
cus (swamp rabbit), Sciurus niger (fox
squirrel), Glaucomys volans (southern
flying squirrel), prairie deermouse, Pero-
myscus leucopus (white-footed mouse),
Ochrotomys nuttalli (golden mouse),
Synaptomys cooperi (southern bog lem-
ming), prairie vole, and Mus musculus
(house mouse) from Pulaski and/or Mas-
sac counties. In the 3 southernmost coun-
ties, the majority of Layne’s collecting
stations were within a 5 km radius of Ol-
ive Branch, Alexander County.

The primary goal of this study was to

provide specific information about the
small mammals of non-farmland habitats
located below 107 m elevation and with-
in 0.8 km of the Ohio River. These hab-
itats included floodplain, terrace, and up-
land forests, and oldfields. A secondary
objective was to extend the work of Rose
and McKean (1980) from southwestern
Indiana into southern Illinois. Rose
(1980) reported that although Sorex lon-
girostris, the southeastern shrew, is be-
lieved to be rare throughout much of its
distribution and is considered to be
threatened in some states, it was locally
abundant in southwestern Indiana. His
study also provided information suggest-
ing that southeastern shrews, though
they occurred in forests, probably were
able to reach moderately high densities
only in oldfield habitats. This study
sought to examine whether similar trends
occurred in Ohio River habitats 80 km
west of the Wabash River.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Small mammal trapping grids, 7 in
Kentucky and 6 in Illinois, were placed
at 4 locations on each side of the River
(Fig. 1). Three grids were established in
the floodplain forest, 4 in the terrace for-
est, | in the upland forest, and 4 in up-
land and 1 in lowland oldfields. Swamp

150

!

SMALL MAMMALS IN WESTERN KENTUCKY AND ILLINOIS—Rose

forests also occur in the 4-county area and
although they are sometimes large, e.g.,
in the Ballard Wildlife Management
Area, only 1 small patch occurred below
107 m and less than 0.8 km from the Riv-
er. The patch, with 6 to 8 bald cypress
(Taxodium distichum) trees and numer-
ous buttonbushes (Cephalanthus occi-
dentalis), was incorporated into | of the
forest grids on the Illinois side. Similarly,
only 1 upland forest, also in Illinois, oc-
curred close to the River. In this 60 km
section of the Ohio River, the Illinois
side tends to rise sharply, making the
floodplain a narrow ribbon with almost
no sloughs and backwaters. By contrast,
terrace forests on the Kentucky side
sometimes extend 3 or more km from the
Rivers edge. Some creeks are strongly
influenced by water levels in the River,
and sloughs and oxbow lakes are com-
mon, especially in the lower half near the
Ballard Area. Largely because of these
elevational differences, a greater propor-
tion of land near the River is cultivated
in Illinois than in Kentucky.

Each 0.25 ha grid had 25 trapping sta-
tions, placed at 12.5 m intervals. Because
pitfall traps catch some small mammals
that are rarely taken with other trapping
methods, they were used concurrently
with snap traps. Each trapping station
had a pair of traps, one Museum Special
snap trap and one pitfall trap, the latter
a #10 tin can buried in the ground flush
with the soil surface. Where possible, the
holes were dug with an auger to reduce
the disturbance of the soil in the vicinity
of the pitfall trap. Each pitfall trap was
half-filled with water to drown any mam-
mal that fell into it. Pitfall traps were left
unbaited because Hudson and Solf
(1959) obtained similar results with un-
baited and baited pitfall traps. Snap traps
were baited with a mixture of peanut but-
ter and rolled oats.

Each grid was trapped from 4 to 6 days
in July 1980, for a total of 67 sampling
days. Because each grid contained 50
traps, the total number of trap-nights was
3,350, divided equally between the 2 trap
types.

151

ILLINOIS

| PULASKI COUNTY MASSAC COUNTY

1 Soe

MCCRACKEN

8 a BALLARD COUNTY
Y, COUNTY

KENTUCKY

SCALE IN MILES

°

Fic. 1. Map locations of 13 study plots in a 4-coun-

ty study area in western Kentucky and adjacent I-

linois. Plots were within 0.8 km of the Ohio River,

below 107 m elevation, and in floodplain, terrace,
and upland forests, and in oldfields.

RESULTS

A total of 94 small mammals was taken
during this study, of which 38 were col-
lected during 39 sampling days in Ken-
tucky (Table 1). Individuals of 7 species
were taken in Kentucky. Only twice were
3 mammals captured from a grid on a sin-
gle day, and on 15 of the 39 sampling
days (39.4%) no mammals were captured.
Mammals were caught in Kentucky at the
rate of 1.95 per 100 trap-nights.

On the Illinois side of the River, a total
of 56 small mammals of 9 species was
trapped in 28 sampling days (Table 1).
Here mammals were caught at the rate of
4.00 per 100 trap-nights, more than twice
the rate in Kentucky. In 10 of 28 in-
stances (36%), 3 or more mammals were
obtained from a grid during a single day,
compared to only 5 per cent of the time
in Kentucky. Only once did an Illinois
grid fail to yield at least 1 mammal.

Ten species of small mammals were
captured, including 3 shrews, 6 native ro-
dents, and the exotic house mouse (Table
1). The white-footed mouse and southern
short-tailed shrew accounted for 44.7 and
21.3 per cent of the captures, respective-
ly. Two other shrews, the southeastern
shrew and least shrew, were next in
abundance at 8.5 and 7.4 per cent, re-
spectively. The 3 species of shrews to-
gether comprised 37.2 per cent of the

152

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 43(3-4)

TABLE 1.—NUMBERS OF SMALL MAMMALS CAPTURED IN WESTERN KENTUCKY (KY) AND SOUTHERN IL- |
LINOIS (ILL) NEAR THE OHIO RIVER, AND THEIR GRID LOCATIONS, USING GRID NUMBERS GIVEN IN Fic. |
1. FOREST AND OLDFIELD HABITAT TYPES AND TYPE OF TRAP HAVE BEEN COMBINED

Species Grid no. KY ILL Total Per cent

Sorex longirostris I Se Wires ©) 4 4 8 8.5
Blarina carolinensis Te Oy TiO) TE ks} 2 18 20 21.3
Cryptotis parva DS Nii ¢ 0) 7 7.4
Oryzomys palustris LO 3 1 4 4.3
P. maniculatus bairdii 10, 11 0) 4 4 4.3
Peromyscus leucopus We 4 64 OW 2 alk3 18 24 42, 44.7
Microtus ochrogaster San 2 1 3 3.2
Synaptomys cooperi U0) 0 1 1 1.1
Mus musculus 11 0 1 1 1.1
Zapus hudsonius Lee 2 2, 2 4 4.3

Total individuals 38 56 94

Total species 7 9 10

No. of trap-nights 1,950 1,400 3,350

Trap success in per cent 1.95 4.00 2.81

number of individuals caught during this
study. For each of the remaining species,
1 to 4 individuals were captured. Table
1 also shows the locations of capture for
each species, using the grid numbers giv-
en on Fig. 1.

Combining data from both sides of the
River (Table 2), 36 mammals were ob-
tained from the 5 oldfield grids during
1,300 trap-nights (2.77 per 100 trap-
nights). On the 8 forest grids, 58 individ-
uals were captured in 2,050 trap-nights
(2.83 per 100 trap-nights). Thus, despite
the fact that capture rates in Illinois were
twice as great as in Kentucky (Table 1),
there was no difference in the capture
rate between oldfield grids and forest
grids when all the data are pooled.

Overall, snap traps yielded more indi-
viduals (68.1% of captures) than pitfall
traps (Table 3), but the same number of
species (8). However, in Kentucky more
species were taken by pitfall trapping (6)
than by snap trapping (4). In Illinois, 6
species were obtained by each method.
Two species, the southeastern shrew and
southern bog lemming, were taken only
in pitfall traps. Consequently, pitfall
traps provided valuable information that
would not have been obtained if only
snap traps had been used. This statement
is especially true for the southeastern
shrew, which rarely has been taken with
snap traps anywhere (Rose 1980).

In addition to the small mammals
caught by trapping, one Microtus pine-
torum, the woodland vole, was caught by
hand on a blacktop road in the village of
Oscar, Ballard County, Kentucky.

DISCUSSION

Of the 10 species trapped in this study,
3 (prairie deermouse, southern bog lem-
ming, and house mouse) were not col-
lected on the Kentucky side, and 1, the
least shrew, was not captured in Illinois.
Of these absences probably only the bog
lemming is significant. Barbour and Da-
vis (1974) reported that the prairie deer-
mouse was found in nearly all the coun-
ties in western Kentucky and that the
house mouse was abundant throughout
the state. However, bog lemmings are
very scarce in western Kentucky and may
not occur in the Purchase Area. The least
shrew, though seldom common, has a
wide distribution in oldfields throughout
the eastern U.S. (Layne 1958) and our
failure to capture it on the Illinois side is
probably due to chance.

Three species (southeastern shrew,
Oryzomys palustris, the rice rat, and Za-
pus hudsonius, the meadow jumping
mouse) collected during this study had
not been reported from the 4 counties by
previous investigators (Barbour and Da-
vis 1974, Layne 1958, Hoffmeister and
Mohr 1957, Hoffmeister 1977, Mohr

SMALL MAMMALS IN WESTERN KENTUCKY AND ILLINOIS—Rose

153

TABLE 2.—NUMBER AND PER CENT OF SMALL MAMMALS TAKEN IN 5 OLDFIELD AND 8 FOREST STUDY
PLOTS WITHIN 0.8 KM OF THE OHIO RIVER IN WESTERN KENTUCKY AND SOUTHERN ILLINOIS. NUMBERS
IN PARENTHESES ARE THE TOTAL NUMBER OF TRAP-NIGHTS IN THAT HABITAT

Oldfield habitat (1,300)

Forested habitat (2,050)

Total

Species number

Sorex longirostris 3
Blarina carolinensis 10
Cryptotis parva "f
Oryzomys palustris 4
P. maniculatus bairdii 4
Peromyscus leucopus 2
Microtus ochrogaster 3
Synaptomys cooperi ]
Mus musculus ]
Zapus hudsonius 1

36

10

Total individuals
Total species
Trap success in per cent

Per cent of Per cent of
captures within Total captures within
a species number a species
38 5 62
50 10 50
100 0 0)
100 0 0
100 0 0
05 40 95
100 0 0
100 0 0
100 0 0
25 3 75
38 58 62

4
2.82

1946, and Cockrum 1949). Their detec-
tion is probably not a highly significant
discovery in Kentucky because Barbour
and Davis (1974) reported 1 or more
specimens of all 3 species from adjacent
counties. Furthermore, Stephens and
Durell’s list of “Endangered and Rare
Species in Kentucky” (March 1979) in-
dicated a location within Ballard County
where southeastern shrews had been col-
lected. Consequently, the occurrence of

these 3 species in McCracken and Bal-
lard counties, Kentucky was not unex-
pected.

Layne (1958) reported 2 specimens of
Zapus hudsonius but none of Sorex lon-
girostris or Oryzomys palustris. The fail-
ure to catch southeastern shrews was pre-
dictable, for this shrew is believed to be
uncommon throughout its distribution in
the southeastern U.S. Most published ac-
counts (except French 1980) mention 1 or

TABLE 3.—COMPARISON OF TWO METHODS (PITFALL AND SNAP) FOR TRAPPING SMALL MAMMALS, PRE-
SENTED AS TOTAL NUMBER AND PERCENTAGE OF CAPTURES WITHIN A SPECIES, FOR COMBINED OLDFIELD
AND FORESTED STUDY PLOTS. THERE WERE 1,650 TRAP-NIGHTS FOR EACH TYPE OF TRAP

Pitfall trapping

Total

Species number

Sorex longirostris
Blarina carolinensis
Cryptotis parva
Oryzomys palustris

P. maniculatus bairdii
Peromyscus leucopus
Microtus ochrogaster
Synaptomys cooperi
Mus musculus

Zapus hudsonius

Total individuals
Total species
Trap success in per cent

_
Nw Oo CO

(oe)
Fos wOHrhor

Method of trapping used

Snap trapping

Per cent of Per cent of

captures within Total captures within
a species number a species

100 0 0
50 10 50
29 5 61
25 3 75
0 4 100
10 38 90
33 2 67
100 0 0
0 1 100
75 1 25

64

8
32 3.88 68

154

2 specimens obtained either by hand, in
owl pellets, in nests, found dead on the
ground, or captured in live traps (see
Rose 1980). However, when pitfall traps
are used in conjunction with or in place
of snap traps, southeastern shrews are
more commonly collected. For example,
Tuttle (1964) caught 23 southeastern
shrews in 1,000 trap-nights using pitfall
traps in Tennessee. Rose (1980) reported
the capture of 54 southeastern shrews
from forest and oldfield study plots in
southern Indiana, all but 1 taken in pitfall
traps. In a related study conducted on 26
forest and 25 oldfield study plots located
within 4 km of the Ohio River in south-
western Indiana (Rose and McKean
1980), concurrent snap and pitfall trap-
ping revealed southeastern shrews in
both forests and oldfields but they were
more numerous in oldfields (Rose 1980).
In the present study, 8 southeastern
shrews were taken, 3 from oldfields (in
Kentucky) and the remainder from flood-
plain and terrace forests. There was no
evidence in this study that southeastern
shrews reached greater densities in old-
fields than in forests, as reported by Rose
(1980). Southeastern shrews (8) were
third in abundance behind white-footed
mice (42) and southern short-tailed
shrews (20) in the present study (Table
1). Thus, in this study as well as that of
Rose (1980) the conclusion that the
southeastern shrew is rare is not sup-
ported. It seems likely that the supposed
rarity of this species is related more to
the methods of study (snap trapping) that
have been used by previous investigators
than to a true abundance.

Pitfall traps also may be more efficient
than snap traps in catching meadow
jumping mice. Layne (1958) mentioned
finding 1 of his 2 specimens “swimming
weakly in a sunken tile”; consequently,
he inadvertently obtained part of his sam-
ple with pitfall traps. Rose (unpublished)
caught 16 of 25 meadow jumping mice in
pitfalls near the Ohio River in southern
Indiana, as were 3 of 4 specimens in this
study. The taking of 4 specimens from 4
different grids is typical, for these small
mammals are seldom numerous.

The rice rat also is restricted to the

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 43(3-4)

southeastern states, with southern IIli-
nois and western Kentucky being the
northern limit in the central states (Hall
1981). Barbour and Davis (1974) reported
specimens from about half of the west-
ernmost counties in Kentucky, but not
from Ballard or McCracken counties. Its
occurrence in these counties along the
Ohio River was not unexpected, for rice
rats are among the most aquatic rodents
in North America.

SUMMARY

This study presents new information
on the distribution and habitat prefer-
ences of small mammals in forests and
oldfields of Ballard and McCracken coun-
ties, Kentucky, and of Massac and Pulaski
counties in Illinois, all located near the
Ohio River below 107 m. Snap and pitfall
traps each caught mice of 8 species, but
snap traps captured twice as many indi-
viduals overall. Southeastern shrews and
southern bog lemming were trapped only
in pitfall traps. Three species were ob-
tained that previously had not been re-
ported for the 4-county area; they were
the southeastern shrew, rice rat, and
meadow jumping mouse.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

This investigation was conducted as
part of an environmental study under a
contract to WAPORA, Inc. by the Louis-
ville District of the U.S. Army Corps of
Engineers, to whom we are grateful for
permission to publish these results. We
acknowledge with thanks the field assis-
tance of R. Hall, D. Hamilton, and G.
Smith, the assigning of vegetational com-
munities by J. Ebinger, and both the re-
view of an earlier draft and the exami-
nation of the Sorex skulls by T. French.
Representative museum specimens were
prepared and many of the remaining an-
imals were saved as skeletal material.
These have been deposited in the ver-
tebrate collection at Old Dominion Uni-
versity.

LITERATURE CITED

BARBOUR, R. W., AND W. H. Davis. 1974. Mammals
of Kentucky. University Press of Kentucky,
Lexington.

SMALL MAMMALS IN WESTERN KENTUCKY AND ILLINOIS—Rose

CockruM, E. L. 1949. Range extension of the
swamp rabbit in Illinois. J. Mamm. 30:427-429.

FRENCH, T. W. 1980. Natural history of the south-
eastern shrew, Sorex longirostris Bachman.
Amer. Midland Nat. 104:13-31.

HALL, E. R. 1981. The mammals of North America.
John Wiley & Sons, New York.

HOFFMEISTER, D. F. 1977. Status of the cotton
mouse, Peromyscus gossypinus, in southern II-
linois. Amer. Midland Nat. 97:222-224.

, AND C. O. Moure. 1957. Fieldbook of II-
linois mammals. Nat. Hist. Surv., Illinois Dept.
Registr. Educ. Man. 4: 1-233.

Hupson, G. E., AND J. D. SOLF. 1959. Control of
small mammals with sunken-can pitfalls. J.
Mamm. 40:455-457.

LAYNE, J. N. 1958. Notes on mammals of southern
Illinois. Amer. Midland Nat. 60:219-254.

Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 43(3-4), 1982, 155-157

155

Monr, C. O. 1946. Distribution of the prairie vole

and pocket gopher in Illinois. J. Mamm.

27:390-392.

Rose, R. K. 1980. The southeastern shrew, Sorex

longirostris, in southern Indiana. J. Mamm.
61:162-164.

—., AND R. MCKEAN. 1980. Habitat associa-

tions of small mammals in southwestern In-
diana. Indiana Acad. Sci., Proc. 89:432-439.

STEPHENS, C. H., AND J. S. DURELL. 1979. Endan-

gered and rare species in Kentucky. Unpagi-
nated mimeo, March.

TUTTLE, M. D. 1964. Additional record of Sorex

longirostris in Tennessee. J. Mamm. 45:146-
147.

Mollusk Shells Associated With Evidence of Habitation by
Prehistoric Native Americans in a
Hardin County, Kentucky Cave

RALPH W. TAYLOR
Biological Sciences, Marshall University, Huntington, West Virginia 25701

ABSTRACT
During the summer of 1981, excavation of floor debris in the entry room of Bland Cave, Hardin
County, Kentucky produced subfossil mollusk shells that represented 4 species of naiads, 3
species of aquatic snails and 8 species of terrestrial snails. There was present also an abundance
of bone, carbon and flint chips that indicated human inhabitation of the cave. It is assumed that
the naiads were transported to the cave for use as food. No good explanation for the presence of
aquatic snails is available, but it is assumed that the land snails entered the cave to feed on

garbage left by the human cave dwellers.

With 2 exceptions, all species found in the cave are currently found in the immediate area.
Pleurocera canaliculatum has not been found recently in local streams; Anguispira kochi, while
found in good numbers in the cave, is sporadic in occurrence and is currently considered scarce

in Kentucky.

Hardin County is located in west-cen-
tral Kentucky, known as the Pennyroyal
Region. The county is peripheral to the
massive Mammoth Cave system and thus
is dotted with numerous sink holes and
commercially undeveloped, essentially
unexplored caves. While most of these
caves are small, many are of considerable
size. One such cave is located on the C.
L. Bland Farm in the southern tip of Har-
din County at the junction of Kentucky
State Road 720 and County Road 1375.

This intersection is known locally as
Flint Hill and is approximately 7 miles
west of the village of Sonora, Kentucky.

A field trip to the cave in the summer
of 1981 produced a collection of shells of
freshwater mussels and terrestrial and
aquatic snails. The mussel shells are of
some significance since the nearest river
in the area is the Nolin River, which is
ca. 3 miles away.

Funkhouser (1932) listed 11 sites of ar-
cheological importance in Hardin Coun-

156

ty. A telephone call to the Kentucky Of-
fice of State Archeology (University of
Kentucky) produced additional informa-
tion on recent archeological work in the
county. Many sites are recorded for the
area but most are rock shelters, cliffs and
surface village sites or burial mounds.
Apparently caves, as dwelling sites, are
relatively rare in the immediate area.

The archeological value of the cave
may never be known completely as much
of the floor of the entry room has been
disturbed. Stories gleaned from local res-
idents related that the family patriarch,
W. L. Bland, was an avid amateur collec-
tor and had many years earlier taken bas-
kets of artifacts, including human skeletal
material, from the cave. The disposition
of that material is presently unknown. As
is usual, the shell material, with no in-
trinsic value to a pot hunter, was discard-
ed with the rest of the overburden and
only the “good stuff’ was removed. The
entry room is presently very dry and the
shells remarkably well preserved.

No attempt was made to date the
shells, but they are obviously quite old
as many of them are completely enclosed
in heavy calcite deposits.

SHELLS FOUND

FRESHWATER SNAILS: Pleurocera canal-
iculatum (Say, 1821), Goniobasis cur-
reyana (Lea, 1841), Lithasia obovata
(Say, 1829).

LAND SNAILS: Anguispira alternata (Say,
1816), Anguispira kochi (Pfeiffer, 1845),
Mesodon inflectus (Say, 1821), Meso-
don elevatus (Say, 1821), Triodopsis
albolabris (Say, 1816), Stenotrema leai
(Binney, 1840), Ventridens demissus
(Binney, 1878), Hawaiia minuscula
(Binney, 1840).

NAIADS (freshwater mussels): Amblema
p. plicata (Say, 1817), Elliptio dilatata
(Rafinesque, 1820), Ptychobranchus
fasciolaris (Rafinesque, 1820), Lamp-
silis ventricosa (Barnes, 1823).

DISCUSSION

The presence of freshwater snails in
this cave may be of more significance
than the species found. The great dis-

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 43(3-4)

tance from the Nolin River confounds the
question of why these shells are in the
cave. Several theories are often given to
explain the presence of aquatic snails in
Indian middens: 1) the snails were a food
item; 2) the snail shells were valued as
ornamentation or as trade goods; and 3)
the shells were collected and returned to
the cave as an artifact of some collecting
technique used to gather mussels which
were used extensively as food items (i.e.
dredging, seining, etc.).

The good number of mussel shells in-
dicates that mussel flesh was a food sta-
ple for the human inhabitants of this cave
at least part of the year. All mussel
species represented in this collection are
currently found in abundance in the No-
lin River in the proximity of Bland Cave.

Of the 3 species of freshwater snails,
Stein (pers. comm.) found Goniobasis
curreyana and Lithasia obovata on re-
cent collecting trips to the Nolin River.
Pleurocera canaliculatum was not found
and may no longer be present in the riv-
er.

The presence of these species of land
snails in fairly large numbers in a cave
environment is unusual to say the least.
None would normally be found inside
caves although most could be found
around moist entranceways. Few investi-
gators have attempted to establish that
aboriginal Americans used land snails as
a food item. Most are content to accept
the fact that a majority of these species
accumulated in areas where food scraps
might be present (i.e. garbage heaps
within the cave entrance). Although the
association of snails with Indian middens
is ancillary and can provide little infor-
mation about the life style of primitive
man, a great deal can be learned about
the surrounding environment as it exist-
ed at a prescribed time in the past.

With one notable exception, Angui-
spira kochi, all land snails listed herein
are presently abundant and widespread
locally in the epigean environment. Pils-
bry (1948) and LaRocque (1970) mention
A. kochi as a species for which prime
habitat is rapidly disappearing. This
snail, according to these authors, is one

MOLLUSKS IN KENTUCKY CAVES—Taylor

which inhabits “old forests” and simply
does not exist even in “thick, second-
growth timber.” Branson and Batch
(1971) found A. kochi at only 3 of 59 lo-
cations surveyed throughout Kentucky.
The 3 localities are all in the mountain-
ous, heavily wooded regions of southern
and eastern Kentucky.

The current distribution of A. kochi
east of the Mississippi River is limited to
states north of the Ohio River with an oc-
casional relictual population south of the
river. MacMillan (1949) reported early
collections of A. kochi from the northern
panhandle of West Virginia. I have never
found this species in West Virginia other
than as subfossils also associated with In-
dian middens.

Bland Cave is situated at the southern-
most extent of the current range of distri-
bution of A. kochi, and the presence of
this snail in large numbers in the cave is
indicative of an environment much dif-
ferent from that which presently exists.

157

This snail was a co-inhabitor, with the
American Indian, of the vast hardwood
forests of the eastern United States that
existed until the arrival of modern man.
The forests provided a cooler, more me-
sic environment suitable for the snail’s
existence.

Voucher specimens have been placed
with the Ohio State University Museum
of Zoology.

LITERATURE CITED

BRANSON, B. A., AND D. L. BATCH. 1971. Annotated
distribution records for Kentucky mollusca.
Sterkiana 43:1-9.

FUNKHOUSER, W. D., AND W. S. WEBB. 1932. Ar-
cheological survey of Kentucky. Univ. Ky.
Press, Lexington.

LAROCQUE, A. 1970. Pleistocene Mollusca of Ohio.
Bull. Ohio Geological Survey, Columbus 62: 1—
800.

MACMILLAN, G. K. 1949. Land snails of West Vir-
ginia. Ann. Carnegie Museum 31:89-237.
PitsBry, H. A. 1948. Land Mollusca of North
America (north of Mexico). Acad. Nat. Sci. Phi-

la. II:1-1113.

Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 43(3-4), 1982, 158-167

Bottom Fauna in Doe Valley Lake,
Meade County, Kentucky'

EDMOND J. BACON? AND STUART E.. NEFF
Water Resources Laboratory, University of Louisville, Louisville, Kentucky 40292

ABSTRACT

Profundal bottom organisms were studied from 1969-1971 in Doe Valley Lake, a 147-ha im-
poundment on the spring-fed stream, Doe Run. Profundal bottom organisms were not randomly
distributed, and the fauna consisted mostly of Chaoborus punctipennis, 8 species of chironomids,
and Limnodrilus hoffmeisteri. Maximum populations of Chaoborus and chironomids did not
exceed 1,300 and 5,000 individuals per m?, respectively. A vertical distribution study demon-
strated the inability of chironomids to tolerate extremely low oxygen levels. The abundances of
Chironomus attenuatus, Chironomus plumosus, and Chaoborus punctipennis indicate that Doe
Valley Lake is a eutrophic lake, which is in agreement with its trophic status based on an annual

primary production rate of 214 g Cm? yr}.

INTRODUCTION

Considerable attention has been de-
voted to the use of profundal fauna in as-
sessing lake eutrophication (Thienemann
1922; Lundbeck 1936; Brundin 1949,
1956; Saether 1975). Most of the original
classifications of lake typology based on
benthos were in reference to oxygen re-
quirements of the more abundant chiron-
omids: Chironomus lakes and Tanytar-
sus lakes were proposed as eutrophic and
oligotrophic, respectively. In the United
States, Deevey (1941) and Stahl (1959)
applied this faunistic classification
scheme but raised strong opposition to its
usefulness and applicability. Brundin
(1949) concluded that chironomids have
been overemphasized as trophic indica-
tors, that they are better indicators of
temperature and oxygen conditions, and
that there is no firm, direct connection
between oxygen concentrations and eu-
trophication. Saether (1975) developed
the first list of nearctic indicator com-
munities and concluded that the chiron-
omid community of a lake can help in
evaluating various lake types. He later

' Contribution #201 (New Series: Department of
Biology, University of Louisville).

* Present address: Department of Biology, Uni-
versity of Arkansas at Monticello, Monticello, Ar-
kansas 71655.

(Saether 1979) presented these commu-
nities as water quality indicators.

Physicochemical data, primary produc-
tivity rates, and phytoplankton quotients
have indicated that Doe Valley Lake is a
eutrophic lake (Bacon and Neff 1974). A
study of the profundal bottom fauna was
carried out to further investigate the re-
lationship between bottom fauna, lake
morphometry, physicochemical condi-
tions, and primary productivity.

MATERIALS AND METHODS
Description of Doe Valley Lake

Doe Valley Lake is a 147.3-ha im-
poundment on the spring-fed stream,
Doe Run. The lake is located in eastern
Meade County, Kentucky, at 37°59’N and
86°06'W. Extensive karst topography pre-
dominates in the region, and the entire
area overlies a belt of Mississippi lime-
stone that is approximately 122 m thick
(Greene 1908). Analyses of the Mississip-
pi limestone by Cummings (1905) have
shown it to be more than 90% calcium
carbonate. Owen (1857) reported that soil
samples from the barren hill district in
Meade County consisted chiefly of alu-
minum, iron oxide, silica, phosphate,
and calcium carbonate. Minckley (1963),
Minckley and Tindall (1965), and Krum-
holz (1967) have provided detailed de-
scriptions of Doe Run and surrounding
areas. Doe Run exhibits the characteristic

158

Station IL

4;
Shug,

Fic. 1.

ax -

BENTHOS IN KENTUCKY—Bacon and Neff

SS

Mile 4

(ae DOE VALLEY LAKE
\ MEADE COUNTY, KENTUCKY
J E = = =x E x 1 =

Scale: j Mile

\

Se PR

I

Morphometric map of Doe Valley Lake, Meade County, Kentucky.

159

160

TABLE 1.MORPHOMETRIC DATA FROM DOE VAL-
LEY LAKE, MEADE COUNTY, KENTUCKY

Location 37°59'N, 86°06’ W
Elevation above msl 121.9m

Area 147.4 ha

Volume 12,616,491.0 m?
Shoreline 16.2 km
Maximum depth 21.3 m

Mean depth 8.6 m

Volume development 1.23

Shoreline development 3.76

pattern of streams flowing over bedded
limestone since the stream gradient
changes abruptly in different sections of
the stream course. The lake extends from
stream mile 3.5 to mile 7.6 and is 6.6 km
long. Impoundment by cofferdam for
principal source of water supply to the
Olin Chemical Corporation, Branden-
burg, Kentucky, was completed in July
1961. The inside of the earthen dam was
rip-rapped with huge limestone boulders
which have provided suitable substrates
for lithophilic algae and the freshwater
sponge, Spongilla lacustris. The valley
floor lies at 121.9 m above mean sea
level. The shorelines are predominantly
clay with occasional outcroppings of
limestone. The slopes of the valley walls
are not steep, except along the upper
reaches of the lake near the mouth of Doe
Run. The dendritic impoundment attains
a maximum depth of 21.3 m and is ap-
proximately 352 m wide near the dam
(Fig. 1). Morphometric data including
depth, width, area, volume and devel-
opment are shown in Table 1.

Aquatic macrophytes are inconspic-
uous, but sparse stands of water-willow,
Justicia americana, appear annually in
the shallow bays near the upper end of
the lake. The paucity of aquatic vascular
plants is attributed to morphometry and
annual drawdown.

Sampling stations (Fig. 1) were estab-
lished at the upper (Station I) and lower
(Station III) regions of Doe Valley Lake
and correspond to stations used in pri-
mary productivity and water quality stud-
es. A 22.9 cm (9”) Ekman dredge was

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 43(3-4)

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c )
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|
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OXYGEN IN mag//I OXYGEN IN mg/l
0 5_10 15 20 25 30 35 40 0 5 10 15 20 35 30 35 40
TEMPERATURE °C TEMPERATU °C
Fic. 2. Selected temperature ) and dis-

solved oxygen (---) profiles from Doe Valley
Lake, Meade County, Kentucky.

used to obtain biweekly or monthly trip-
licate samples of the bottom organisms.
A profile series consisting of 3 samples at
2.0-m depth intervals was collected dur-
ing July 1970, to determine the distribu-
tions of organisms in relation to oxygen
levels. Identifications were accom-
plished with the following taxonomic
keys: Roback (1957, 1970); Johannsen
(1905, 1934, 1937a, 1937b); and Edmond-
son (1969). Chironomid larvae were
reared to adults for more complete iden-
tifications.

Temperature and dissolved oxygen
were determined with a calibrated YSI
Model 54 oxygen meter and sensor.

RESULTS

Annual Temperature and
Oxygen Regime
Doe Valley Lake is located on the bor-
derline climatic region (37°N latitude) for
dimictic lakes; the lake is monomictic
during mild winters. Selected tempera-
ture profiles are shown in Fig. 2. Fall
overturn occurs in late November at 10-
11°C. An ice cover seldom forms because

|

BENTHOS IN KENTUCKY—Bacon and Neff

of the exposure of the lake surface to
wind action and the influx of warmer
water from Doe Run during the winter.

| An ice cover of approximately 25 cm oc-

curred during the winters of 1965-1966
and 1969-1970. Unusual thermal stratifi-
cation in the upper 10 m of the lake near
the dam may occur during mid-winter
because of runoff and flooding. Surface
temperatures on 29 February 1972 were
10-11°C, except during ice formation.
Since spring-fed streams are colder in
summer and warmer in winter than
warm-water streams, the fate of incoming
stream water is variable. In spring and
summer, the colder Doe Run water (13-
20°C) sinks near the mouth of Doe Run
and seeks its own density level. In late
fall and throughout winter, the warmer
surface water overflows the colder lake
water. Doe Run exhibits the three differ-
ent characteristic inflow patterns de-
scribed by Wunderlick (1971). More com-
plex thermal behavior in Doe Valley
Lake, including isotherms, have been de-
scribed (Bacon and Neff 1974).

The seasonal cycle of dissolved oxygen
in Doe Valley Lake is typical of eutrophic
impoundments in that oxygen depletion
is pronounced in the hypolimnion by
mid-summer. Selected oxygen profiles are
shown in Fig. 2. Clinograde oxygen
curves were observed during late sum-
mer, and orthograde curves were found
during overturn and winter circulation.
Positive heterograde curves were com-
mon during spring and early summer
when spring metalimnetic maxima often
exceeded 130 per cent saturation with
values often as high as 180 per cent sat-
uration. Maxima were attributed to high
photosynthetic activities and the influx of
cold, oxygen-rich, and nutrient-laden
Doe Run water. Oxygen depletion was
quite severe and during summer stagna-
tion oxygen levels were less than 4.0 mg/
1 at a depth of 6 m. Below 10 m values
were essentially zero. A hypolimnetic
areal oxygen deficit was calculated by the
method of Hutchinson (1957). On 13
April 1972, the mean oxygen concentra-
tion below 9 m was 7.7 mg/l but de-

161

TABLE 2.—BENTHOS SPECIES LIST IN DOE VALLEY
LAKE, MEADE COUNTY, KENTUCKY

PLATYHELMINTHES
TURBELLARIA
Dugesia sp.
ANNELIDA
OLIGOCHAETA
Limnodrilus hoffmeisteri Claparede

ARTHROPODA
EPHEMEROPTERA
Hexagenia limbata (Serville)
Stenonema sp.
HEMIPTERA
Gelastocoris oculatus (Fabricius)—littoral

COLEOPTERA
Stenelmis sp.

DIPTERA

Chaoborus punctipennis (Say)
Chironomus attenuatus (Walker)
Chironomus plumosus (Linnaeus)
Glyptotendipes lobiferus (Say)
Cryptochironomus fulvus (Johannsen)
Clinotanypus pinguis (Loew)
Procladius (Procladius) sublettei Roback
Cricotopus sp.
Tanytarsus sp.
Bezzia sp.
MOLLUSCA

GASTROPODA
Physa sp.
Goniobasis sp.

PELECYPODA
Sphaerium sp.

creased to 1.7 mg/l by 21 June 1972 for
an areal deficit of 0.038 mg/cm?/day.

The Bottom Fauna

The littoral zone in Doe Valley Lake is
restricted because of the steep slopes of
the shores and species diversity is quite
low. The absence of aquatic vegetation,
the effects of siltation, and wave action
probably are important factors affecting
the kinds and numbers of organisms pres-
ent. The most abundant organism in the
littoral zone was Stenonema sp., and near
the dam, nymphs were associated with
mats of the freshwater sponge, Spongilla
lacustris. Mayfly nymphs, Hexagenia
limbata, occurred frequently in the lit-

162

1000

Sep
1969 ~

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 43(3-4)

EE
Chironomidae

Chaoboridae

te

Oligochaeta

Jul T Aug Sep Toct T Nov | Dec Jan
1971

Fic. 3. Seasonal abundance of profundal bottom organisms in numbers per m? at Station III in Doe
Valley Lake, Meade County, Kentucky, June 1969-January 1971.

toral zone and occasionally were collect-
ed at Station I at a depth of 8 m. Two
gastropods, Goniobasis sp., and Physa
sp., were found in the littoral area, and
Physa sometimes occurred in the profun-
dai zone and was not randomly distrib-
uted. Stenelmis sp. was infrequently col-
lected in the littoral zone and two
specimens were found in the profundal
zone at a depth of 10 m in July 1970. Ge-
lastocoris oculatus was a very common
inhabitant of the eulittoral zone.

The profundal fauna included tubifi-
cids (2 species), chironomids (8 species),
ceratopogonids (1 species), phantom
midges (1 species), gastropods (2 species),
pelecypods (1 species), and mayflies (1
species) (Table 2). The three most abun-
dant groups were chironomids (Chiron-
omus attenuatus and Procladius sublet-
tei), the phantom midge (Chaoborus
punctipennis), and an oligochaete (Lim-
nodrilus hoffmeisteri).

Seasonal Variations of Benthos

Distribution of profundal organisms in
Doe Valley Lake was not random, and
marked seasonal variations were evident
at each collection site (Figs. 3, 4, 5). The
fauna at Station III was largely com-
prised of Chaoborus punctipennis, and
high standing crops were observed
throughout the fall and winter with a
maximum of 4,849 individuals per m? on
16 December 1970. Populations began
declining in March and were extremely
low (129 individuals per m?) by 15 July
1979 due to emergence; population in-
creases as a result of a decline in emer-
gence, and oviposition by females com-
menced in late August and steadily
increased throughout the fall and winter
(Fig. 5). Other than Chaoborus, only chi-
ronomids, oligochaetes, and gastropods
occurred at short intervals corresponding
to periods when oxygen was present in
the hypolimnion at Station III. Chiron-

SS

BENTHOS IN KENTUCKY—Bacon and Neff

163

300

| 1000

ie Chaoboridae

Chironomidae

Oligochaeta

EE

° — EE En ie

re) Other

Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov T Dec Jan | Feb T Mar | Apr | May I Jun Jul Ww Aug T Sep I Oct Nov Dec Jan
1970

1969

1971

Fic. 4. Seasonal abundance of profundal bottom organisms in numbers per m’ at Station I in Doe Valley
Lake, Meade County, Kentucky, June 1969-January 1971.

omids were found at this site from April
to June and in low numbers. Oligo-
chaetes followed a similar trend but were
also reported in November. Gastropods
(Physa sp.) were taken on 30 April 1970
in small numbers (19 individuals per m7’).

At Station I, these 3 major groups (chi-
ronomids, Chaoborus, and oligochaeta)
were present during a major part of the
year. The estimated standing crops of
chironomids ranged from 22 to 1,875 in-
dividuals per m*, with Chironomus at-
tenuatus and Procladius sublettei domi-
nant. Numbers of individuals decreased
sharply in 1969 from 1,262/m? on 27 June
to 401/m? by 19 July and to only 57/m? by
28 August, and the population did not in-
crease substantially until November 1969
(1,290/m?). An apparent decline in num-
bers was detected 30 April 1970 (229/m?).
The general trend indicates one emer-
gence period between April and July, al-
though some species may have two emer-

gence periods. Data at Station I from 18
August 1971 to 17 July 1972 did indicate
that there were two emergence periods
because minimum estimated populations
were observed during June-July and
again in September (Fig. 5). Chaoborus
was more abundant at Station I during
late summer and winter, and a maximum
standing crop of 947/m? was found 28 Au-
gust 1969. Oligochaetes were most abun-
dant during early summer and fall but
populations were small and never ex-
ceeded 649/m?. All other groups of organ-
isms were seldom collected and no defi-
nite trend could be detected.

Vertical Distribution
A series of triplicate samples was col-
lected at 2-m intervals on 30 July 1970 to
study distributional patterns and oxygen
tolerance levels. Sample variance was ex-
tremely high but a general trend was ap-
parent in that chironomids and oligo-

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 43(3-4)

Ceratopogonidae

Oct
197|

Chironomidae

Chaoboridae

Ephemeroptera

Oligochaeta

A
1972

Fic. 5. Seasonal abundance of profundal bottom organisms in numbers per m? at Station I in Doe Valley
Lake, Meade County, Kentucky, August 1971-July 1972.

chaetes were far more abundant in the
shallow regions (depths less than 8 m)
(Fig. 6) of the lake near Station I. Cha-
oborus was more uniformly distributed
but the number of organisms per m? was
slightly higher at depths greater than 10
m. The longitudinal profile was conduct-
ed when profundal populations were
small and when oxygen concentrations
were essentially zero at depths greater
than 12 m, which indicates C. punctipen-
nis’s tolerance of low oxygen concentra-
tions. The absence of permanent mem-
bers of the benthos at depths greater than
8 m was found from this longitudinal pro-
file when oxygen levels were less than
0.3 mg/l at all depths below 8 m, and this
was also noted from the seasonal distri-
bution studies (Figs. 3, 4, 5). Chirono-
mids and oligochaetes were found at Sta-
tion III only during short intervals (27
June 1959, 30 April—21 July 1970) when
oxygen levels in the hypolimnion had not
been depleted. Such small, transitory
populations did not survive the anaerobic
conditions prevalent from mid-summer
to fall.

The oligochaete, Limnodrilus hoff-
meisteri, was not collected at depths

greater than 14 m in this vertical distri- ,
bution purview. Populations were most |

abundant at the 4 m depth, exceeding
350/m?. All the population estimates
were highly variable because of the non-
random distributions and the small num-
bers collected at depths exceeding 6 m.

DISCUSSION

Profundal benthic populations in Doe
Valley Lake were rather small when com-
pared with other eutrophic lakes (e.g.,
Berg 1938, Lindeman 1942). They exhib-

ited marked seasonal variations and were

not uniformly distributed. Chaoborus |

punctipennis was the most common or-
ganism, but maximum populations did
not exceed 5,000 individuals per m?. Ex-
amples of populations in other lakes are:
43,456/m? in Meyers Lake (Stahl 1966),

69,300/m2 in Lago di Varese (Bonomi ‘
1962), 93,940/m? in Lake Beloie (Borutz- -

ky 1939), 97,000/m? in Linsley Pond

(Deevey 1941), 100/m? in Mountain Lake |

(Roth and Neff 1964), and 55,000/m* in
Tom Wallace Lake (Neff 1955). Chaob-
orus larvae are most abundant in lakes
characterized by severe oxygen deple-
tion (Thienemann 1922, Findenegg 1955)

a I

Sa

BENTHOS IN KENTUCKY—Bacon and Neff

| and are planktonic. During the day, lar-
| vae are found in the mud, and they mi-

grate to the surface at night to feed on
plankton (Eggleton 1932, Berg 1937).
Their concentration in the anaerobic hy-
polimnion of lakes such as Doe Valley
demonstrates their ability to tolerate ex-
tremely low levels of oxygen. Popula-
tions were more dense at the deep water
station near the dam. Predation by fishes
is one of the most important factors in
regulating population size and may ac-
count for their concentrations in the hy-
polimnion where fishes are generally ex-
cluded during stagnation (Stah] 1966).
The presence of Chaoborus in sufficient
numbers is a criterion often used in as-
sessing the rate of eutrophication.

Population estimates of the oligochaete
Limnodrilus hoffmeisteri seldom ex-
ceeded 300/m? and estimates were highly
variable. In the vertical distribution
study, densities were the highest at the
4 m depth and no individuals were col-
lected at depths exceeding 14 m. Oligo-
chaetes were collected more frequently
at Station I, but populations were usually
less than 200/m?. At Station III, where
water depths ranged from 18-22 m, oli-
gochaete population estimates were the
most variable. The variability was attrib-
uted to non-random distribution of the
fauna and sampling error since oligo-
chaetes are not very mobile. The organ-
isms appeared to be more clumped at
Station III than at I and, when collected,
estimates were usually higher at Sta-
tion I.

Eight species of chironomids were
found in Doe Valley Lake, but only Chi-
ronomus attenuatus and Procladius sub-
lettei were present in substantial num-
bers. The presence of eutrophic species,
Chironomus attenuatus and Chirono-
mus plumosus, classify Doe Valley Lake
as a eutrophic impoundment. Chiron-
omid populations were generally low,
and a maximum of 1,262 individuals per
m* was reported at Station I on 27 June
1969. The vertical distribution study on
30 July 1970 showed that in late summer
chironomids are absent from the anaero-
bic hypolimnion. The absence of chiron-

165

4

n
144

2S

=

a

WwW

a Scale
lee 200

Chironomidae Chaoboridae
NUMBERS

Fic. 6. Vertical distribution of benthos in Doe

Valley Lake, Meade County, Kentucky, 30 July
1970.

Oligochaeta | Gastropoda Other al
ER METER

SQUARE

omids at depths greater than 12 m in Doe
Valley demonstrates their inability to tol-
erate extremely low oxygen levels. Brun-
din (1949) recognized that chironomids
have been overestimated as trophic in-
dicators. He suggested that they were
better indicators of temperature and oxy-
gen concentrations than trophic condi-
tions.

Lack of diversity of the bottom fauna in
Kentucky Knobs impoundments seems to
result from the irreconcilable morphom-
etry imposed on these bodies of water as
sloping, stream valleys are dammed and
inundated. The ratio of drainage area to
lake surface area usually exceeds 10:1 in
these lakes. While drainage-area land use
is an important factor, a drainage area to
lake surface area ratio in excess of about
10:1 usually indicates that a lake or im-
poundment will be eutrophic due to non-
point source nutrient loading (Uttormark
et al. 1974). At the outset, this factor im-
poses eutrophic conditions on the im-

166

poundment due to nutrient enhancement
from surface runoff, shelter from wind
actions, prolonged direct stratification,
and pronounced stagnation. Tom Wallace
Lake (Cole 1954) with a drainage
area:surface area ratio of 15:1 exhibits eu-
trophy and a paucity of benthic faunal
diversity. McNeely Lake, in a suburban
area of southern Jefferson Co., Kentucky,
has a ratio of 68:1 (G. C. Holdren, pers.
comm.), and the impoundment is highly
eutrophic with a very limited benthic
fauna.

Doe Valley Lake located in the Missis-
sippian karst topography has a
drainage:surface ratio that exceeds 25:1.
It is difficult to determine the ratio ac-
curately because numerous sinkholes in
the region supply the lake with subsur-
face drainage. The profundal benthic fau-
na is typical of eutrophic lakes—Nu-eu-
trophic or Xi-eutrophic (Saether 1979).
Using Saether’s (1979) comparisons of
chironomid community composition with
the average total phosphorus mean depth
ratio and chlorophyll a/mean depth ratio
in Doe Valley Lake, there is poor, but
reasonable agreement with his correla-
tion plots (Figs. 1, 2—Saether 1979). The
average total phosphorus/mean depth ra-
tio in Doe Valley Lake is 29.5, a value far
greater than any of Saether’s examples,
while the chlorophyll a/mean depth ratio
for the lake is 1.9. The latter ratio agrees
reasonably well with his correlation; the
former ratio does not. The Doe Valley
benthic fauna fits the broad categories
that Saether has outlined in characteriz-
ing trophic characteristics of lakes of the
world.

Profundal bottom fauna is indicative of
eutrophic conditions but production is
moderate in relation to primary produc-
tivity rates (214 g Cm “yr ‘at Station II).
The high siltation rate at Station I and the
absence of oxygen at Station III during
summer stagnation are probably critical
factors limiting benthic production in
Doe Valley Lake. The presence and dom-
inance of Chironomus attenuatus and
Chironomus plumosus are clearly indic-
ative of eutrophic conditions. We agree
with Saether (1975) that only some

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 43(3-4)

species of Tanytarsus characterize oli-
gotrophic conditions and specific identi-
fications are essential in utilizing Tany-
tarsus in lake typology.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

We are grateful to the late Dr. Louis A.
Krumholz who kindly assisted with the
illustrations, and John Rhines, Bruce
Wilson, and Thomas Weber for their as-
sistance in the field work. The studies on
which this report is based were support-
ed in part by the U.S. Department of the
Interior, Office of Water Resources Re-
search, as authorized under the Water
Resources Act of 1964, Project No. A-039-
KY.

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Washington, D.C.

Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 43(3-4), 1982, 168-175

Seasonal Occurrences and Movement Patterns of Fish in
the Barren River, Kentucky

ROBERT D. HOYT AND WILLIAM H. KRUSKAMP!

Department of Biology, Western Kentucky University,
Bowling Green, Kentucky 42101

ABSTRACT

The Barren River, Kentucky was electrofished from October 1979 to August 1980 to determine
seasonal occurrences and movement patterns of fishes in relation to discharges from Barren River
Lake. The greatest number of fishes observed, primarily small gizzard shad, was during the
winter months, particularly February. These small shad were observed throughout the study
area of the Barren River and probably resulted from being drawn through the dam during periods
of high discharge and upstream migration from the Green River. The greatest number of fishes
per km of river sampled occurred in spring just below the dam. Movements of tagged fish were
most evident in winter, but showed no upstream vs. downstream tendencies. The greatest dis-
tance travelled by any individual was 17 km. Fish capture was related significantly to water
temperature and lake discharge, fish number being inversely related to temperature and directly

related to discharge.

INTRODUCTION

The biology and behavior of fishes in
large streams and rivers have often been
investigated. Hall (1972) provided a good
overview of literature describing fish
movements and developed the theme of
energy conservation and use as the basis
of fish movements. Fishes increase or de-
crease the flow of energy by moving from
energy poor to energy rich areas or from
high population density to low density
regions. Cleary and Greenbank (1954) re-
ported the search for better feeding
grounds or spawning areas, altered water
levels and currents, temperature, light,
dissolved gases, water chemistry, and
sometimes an unexplained restlessness
as possible factors responsible for the
movements of stream fishes.

Concurrent with the interest in river-
ine fishes is interest in the effects of dams
along waterways. Several studies have
been conducted in these environments
(Moffett 1942, Powell 1958, Diuzhikov
1961, Fogle and Shields 1961, Sharanov
1963, Cavender and Crunkilton 1974,

' Present address: Department of Zoology, Uni-
versity of Georgia, Athens, Georgia 30609.

Brusven and MacPhee 1976, Hanson
1977).

The objectives of this study were two-
fold: to identify the seasonal ichthyo-
fauna of the Barren River from the dam
at River Km 127 to its confluence with
the Green River, and to describe fish
movement and relate it to environmental
conditions and fish behavior patterns.

STUDY AREA

The Barren River is the largest tribu-
tary of the Green River and drains a sec-
tion of Kentucky that is relatively free of
surface streams due to mature karst de-
velopment. The Barren River is the only
stream in the area that cuts through both
the Dripping Springs Escarpment and
the Mammoth Cave Plateau (Lambert
1976). The river is 254 km long, originat-
ing in Tennessee and joining the Green
River near Woodbury, Kentucky, on the
Butler-Warren County line (Fig. 1). The
river encompasses a drainage area of
5,859 km? and passes through Bowling
Green, Kentucky, at River Km 47. Of the
4,786 km?” of watershed above Bowling
Green, 1,269 km? are considered karst-
land (Lambert 1976) and are drained by
hypogean flow. Several major springs and
underground streams empty into the Bar-

168

MOVEMENT OF KENTUCKY FISHES—Hoyt and Kruskamp

ANG

7 WN

i)
we
&
>

Fic. 1.

169

EN COUNTY

ARR
ARREWN COUNTY

Ri

Map of the Barren River. Dotted lines along the waterway indicate areas sampled. Numbers

represent 8 km river sections.

ren River from 15 km above Bowling
Green to 15 km below the city.

The river has one major impoundment,
Barren River Lake, the dam of which was
completed in March 1964. The lake is
4,047 ha in surface area at seasonal pool
and 1,781 ha at minimum pool. The Bar-
ren River courses 127.2 km from the dam
in Barren-Allen counties to its mouth in
Butler County (Fig. 1). The lower-most
part of the river includes a series of large
pools extending from the mouth to River
Km 77. The first pool extends from the
mouth upstream to River Km 24, the lo-
cation of the Greencastle locks and dam,
an inoperative Corps of Engineers’ nav-
igational facility. The locks are closed
permanently and the dam is a tapered
concrete spillway with a 2 m vertical
drop on the downstream face. The depth
of the pool is influenced by the water
level in the Green River. The second
pool is produced by the Greencastle Dam
and extends upstream to River Km 54,
just downstream from Beech Bend Park
in Bowling Green. The third pool is
formed by a boulder, rubble outcropping
at River Km 60, just above the Highway
31-W bridge in Bowling Green, Ken-
tucky, and extends upstream to River Km
77, near Hardcastle Springs. Of the river
features relating to these 3 pools, only the

Greencastle Dam presents an obstacle to
fish movement during periods of low
flow.

Between Barren River Dam and the
river mouth, the Barren receives 7 named
tributaries of which Drake’s Creek, Gas-
per River, and Little Muddy Creek are
the most significant.

During the period of this study, 4 Oc-
tober 1979 to 13 August 1980, water from
Barren River Lake was drawn from the
hypolimnion and averaged 14.4°C (4—
28.5°C) immediately below the dam (Fig.
2). Average dissolved oxygen levels for
the period were 11.1 mg/ (7-13 mg/l) and
pH was 7.9 (7.5-8.5). Discharge from the
dam averaged 57 m/sec (2.5-140 m?/sec)
for the study and was inversely related to
temperature (Fig. 2).

METHODS AND MATERIALS

Fish were sampled weekly in the Bar-
ren River from 4 October 1979 to 13 Au-
gust 1980, except during periods of peak
fish abundance in December, January,
and March, when 2 samples were taken
per week. With few exceptions, each 16
km section of river was sampled at least
once each season. Because of the timing
of the study, seasons conformed to the
following months; October, November =
Fall; December, January, February =

304 a TE MPAs,
]
-* 0.0. mg/L

_ pischarce m/sec

(115)

°
Cc

(16)
Bid (5)

3
oO
DISSOLVED OXYGEN, ma/|

TEMPERATURE

DEN eye

T sie
JUNE JULY AUG

T T = T T T
OCT NOV DEC JAN FEB MAR APRe MAY

Fic. 2. Average monthly temperature (C), dis-

solved oxygen concentration (mg/1), and lake dis-

charge (m*/sec in parentheses) of the Barren River
for the period 4 October to 13 August 1980.

Winter; March, April, May = Spring; and
June, July, August = Summer.

Boat-mounted electrofishing equip-
ment used included a 3,500 watt alter-
nator providing alternating current
through 2 pairs of boom-suspended elec-
trodes. Electrofishing efforts were direct-
ed at shoreline areas and the mouths of
tributary streams. Unit effort was deter-
mined and expressed as the number of
fish captured per km of river sampled.
Stunned fish were dip-netted and placed
in a holding tank in the boat. After ap-
proximately 20 minutes of sampling, cap-
tured fish were identified, measured to
total length, tagged with a numbered, ad-
dressed dart tag on the right dorsum at
the posterior end of the dorsal fin, and
released. All collections were daylight
samples.

At the start of the study, all fish 12 cm
total length and longer were tagged and
released. However, due to the capture of
large numbers of gizzard shad, Dorosoma
cepedianum, only 1 of every 2 or 3 of this
species was tagged after the first season,
the others being counted, measured, and
released. During the winter months,
large numbers of small gizzard shad and
white crappie, Pomoxis annularis, were
captured. They were counted and aver-
age lengths determined from selected
representatives.

Information regarding the project and
detailing the return of tags was printed in

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 43(3-4)

a sports article in the Bowling Green
newspaper. District biologists of the Ken-
tucky Department of Fish and Wildlife
Resources, local conservation officers,
and the marina operator at the Barren
River Dam were likewise notified of the
project and their assistance requested in
the return of recaptured tags. Tags re-
turned by anglers were recorded and re-
turned with a letter explaining the pur-
poses of the project and thanking them
for their cooperation.

RESULTS

Forty five sampling trips were made on
the Barren River from 4 October 1979 to
13 August 1980. A total of 15,408 fish rep-
resenting 13 families and 38 species was
observed (Table 1). The greatest number
collected in any month was 5,159 (33% of
the total) in February and the fewest in
November, 235 (Table 2). Likewise, the
greatest number of fish captured per km
of river sampled occurred in February,
3,416 fish per km, followed by March,
468, and January, 226 (Table 2).

The dominant species collected was
the gizzard shad with 61% of the total
(Table 1). The white crappie was a dis-
tant second with 15% of the total fol-
lowed by carp, Cyprinus carpio, bluegill,
Lepomis macrochirus, and longear sun-
fish, Lepomis megalotis. Gizzard shad
and white crappie specimens less than 12
cm total length made up the majority of
the catch with 63% of the total (9,767 of
15,408). Most young were taken in Jan-
uary, February, and March (Fig. 3). Small
gizzard shad dominated with 7,605,
while white crappie numbered 2,162.
Few young of other species were taken.
With the exception of carp, cyprinid
species were noticeably absent from the
samples.

Seasonal dominance was observed for
the most abundant species. Gizzard shad
and white crappie were caught mostly in
winter and spring. Carp and bluegill
were spring occurrences; longear sunfish
were most abundant in spring and sum-
mer.

Longitudinal Distribution.—A total of
101.6 km of the Barren River was sam-

MOVEMENT OF KENTUCKY FISHES—Hoyt and Kruskamp

eval

TABLE 1.—LIST OF SPECIES AND NUMBER OF INDIVIDUALS TAKEN IN THE BARREN RIVER FROM 4 OCTOBER
1979 To 13 AUGUST 1980

Species No. Species No.
Lepisosteus oculatus 6 Ictalurus punctatus 105
L. osseus 81 Pylodictis olivaris 21
Anguilla rostrata Wel Morone chrysops 62
Alosa chrysochloris 2 Ambloplites rupestris 43
Dorosoma cepedianum 9,506 Lepomis cyanellus 7
Hiodon tergisus 6 L. gulosus 28
Salmo gairdneri 14 L. macrochirus 700
Esox americanus 2 L. megalotis 609
E. masquinongy 15 L. microlophus 12
Cyprinus carpio 949 Micropterus dolomieui 14
Notemigonus crysoleucas 1 M. punctulatus 183
Carpiodes carpio 1 M. salmoides 49
C. cyprinus 1 Pomoxis annularis DOT
Hypentelium nigricans ll P. nigromaculatus 83
Ictiobus bubalus 35 Stizostedion canadense 2
I. cyprinellus 2 S. vitreum 1
Minytrema melanops 120 Aplodinotus grunniens 25
Moxostoma carinatum 91
M. duquesnei 191 RO ley
M. erythrurum 88
M. macrolepidotum 28

pled. The length of shoreline sampled in
each 32 km section of river ranged from
15.5 in section 97 to 128 to 42.7 km in
section 33 to 64 (Table 3). A definite lon-
gitudinal distribution pattern was evi-
dent for the river with the number of fish
captured per km of river progressively in-
creasing from 69.7 in the most down-
stream section to 306.5 in the most up-
stream section (Table 3). An average of
151.7 fish per km was observed for the
entire river study area. The greatest num-
ber of fish taken per km was 734, just be-
low the Barren River Dam at Km 127.

Of the 38 species captured, 20 were
taken in each 32 km section of the river.
Certain species, such as the skipjack her-
ring, Alosa chrysochloris, mooneye, Hio-
don tergisus, grass pickerel, Esox ameri-
canus, muskellunge, Esox masquinongy,
carpsuckers, Carpiodes spp., sauger,
Stizostedion canadense, and walleye,
Stizostedion vitreum, were collected
only in the lower one-half of the river,
while others, such as the rainbow trout,
Salmo gairdneri, and smallmouth bass,
Micropterus dolomieui, were found only
in the upper one-half.

Of the most abundant species collect-

ed, gizzard shad, white crappie, carp, and
longear sunfish, all showed prominent in-
creases in River Km section 65-96 in the
winter and in the upper-most, lake tail-
water area (Km section 97-127) in the
spring. Bluegills were upper-river inhab-
itants in the spring but were in the lower
river reaches in the winter.

TABLE 2.—NUMBER OF KILOMETERS OF RIVER SAM-

PLED, NUMBER OF FISH CAPTURED, AND THE NUM-

BER OF FISH COLLECTED PER KILOMETER OF RIVER

SAMPLED IN THE BARREN RIVER, KENTUCKY, 4 OC-
TOBER 1979 To 13 AUGUST 1980

Number of
Kilometers Number fish per

of river of fish kilometer
Month sampled captured of river
October 6.8 298 43.8
November 6.6 235 35.6
December ed 458 63.6
January 9.4 2,114 224.9
February 1.5 5,159 3,439.3
March 8.4 3,931 468.0
April Toll 440 57.1
May Ne 1,252 70.7
June 17.0 368 21.6
July 10.6 349 32.9
August 8.7 804 92.4
TOTAL 101.6 15,408 151.7

=
~l
bo

[rai} = Adults >lacm

3000+ B = Young <!2cm

20004

OF FISH / KILOMETER

NUMBER
8
r)
r

ol ia L mul La fa O

Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar pr May June July Aug

Fic. 3. Number of fish greater than or less than 12

cm total length collected per kilometer of Barren

River by month, October 1979 to August 1980. Dark

bars represent specimens less than 12 cm, open bars
those greater than 12 cm.

Movements.—A total of 4,505 fish rep-
resenting 38 species was tagged and re-
leased in the Barren River to determine
fish movements. The number of fish
tagged per month ranged from a low of 0
in February and August to 1,279 in
March. The greatest number of fish
tagged and released by season was 2,187
in the spring and the fewest, 552, in the
fall. An average of 44 fish per km was
tagged along the river, ranging from 507
fish at river section 65-96 to 1,562 at river
section 97-127.

The gizzard shad was the most abun-
dant species tagged, representing 27% of
the total, followed by carp, bluegill, and
longear sunfish. These 4 species repre-
sented 71% of all tagged specimens and
were distributed throughout all reaches
of the river.

Of 4,505 tagged fish, 86 (2%), repre-
senting 13 species, were recaptured. Of
the recaptures, 49 (57%) were taken by
electrofishing and 37 (43%) were angler
returns. The greatest number of recap-
tures (60) was taken in the spring and in-
cluded mostly bluegill taken in the spill-
way area just below the dam.

No consistent movement pattern was
identified by the recaptures. The greatest
distance travelled by any specimen was
17 km upstream by a longnose gar, Lep-
isosteus osseus. Seven recaptures, shad,
carp, bluegill, and longnose gar, moved

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 43(3-4)

TABLE 3.—NUMBER OF KILOMETERS OF RIVER SAM-

PLED, NUMBER OF FISH CAPTURED, AND THE NUM-

BER OF FISH COLLECTED PER KILOMETER OF RIVER

SAMPLED BY 32 KM SECTIONS OF THE BARREN RIVv-
ER, KENTUCKY

Kilometers Number Number of
River section sampled of fish fish/km
0-32 26.2 1,827 69.7
33-64 42.8 4,865 113.7
65-96 17.1 3,964 231.8
97-128 15.5 4,752 306.5
TOTAL 101.6 15,408 151.7

upstream an average of 4.7 km (0.5-17
km), while 10 fish, shad and carp, moved
downstream an average of 8 km (2-15.6
km). Eleven of the 17 fish having moved
did so in the winter. The remaining 69
recaptures (longear sunfish, muskel-
lunge, redear sunfish, Lepomis microlo-
phus, white bass, Morone chrysops, spot-
ted bass, Micropterus punctulatus, black
crappie, Pomoxis nigromaculatus, white
crappie, rainbow trout, carp, and black
redhorse, Moxostoma duquesnei, did not
exhibit any observed movements. The
greatest duration at-large by any recap-
ture was 147 days by a carp and 134 days
by a redear sunfish. Both fish were taken
in the summer at the same site as re-
leased. The average time at-large by fish
which moved upstream was 70 days,
those that moved downstream 56 days,
and those that exhibited no movement 20
days.

The seasonal abundance of fish ob-
served was tested against water temper-
ature and lake discharge rate. An inverse
relationship existed between number of
fish and temperature, the number of fish
decreasing as temperature increased (r =
0.4; df = 41). A strong statistical relation-
ship was observed between number of
fish captured and discharge during pe-
riods of high lake release (r = 0.7; df=
19), the number of fish increasing as dis-
charge increased (October through Feb-
ruary). However, little to no relationship
(r = 0.1; df = 22) was observed between
number of fish and low lake discharge
during the remainder of the study.

MOVEMENT OF KENTUCKY FISHES—Hoyt and Kruskamp

DISCUSSION

The occurrence of large numbers of
fish, mostly small shad, in streams and
large rivers in winter has been observed
in several studies (Hall 1972, Clay 1975,
Hoyt 1979). Clay (1975) reported that
shad in the Ohio River moved upstream
in astonishing numbers in winter, but he
failed to identify a reason for the move-
ment. In the Barren River, small shad
were found in large schools in all reaches
of the river in the winter, and their pres-
ence was believed to result from their
passage through the dam from Barren
River Lake and migration upstream from
the Green and lower Barren River. The
river stage during this period was suffi-
ciently high to allow free movement over
the Greencastle locks. The ecological ba-
sis of this winter abundance of small giz-
zard shad could not be determined in this
study, although the combined features of
low temperature and high water level
were felt to be related. Reproductive be-
havior was not considered to be respon-
sible since shad spawning does not occur
in Kentucky until April (Kindschi et al.
1979).

Similar observations relating fish oc-
currences to low water temperature and
high levels have been reported in the lit-
erature. Hall (1972) reported increased
water levels in the spring, summer, and
fall to induce upstream movements by
large fish while small individuals moved
downstream. Gerking (1950) suggested
that fish exhibit a general tendency to
move upstream in high water.

With the exception of carp, the other
prominent species collected in the Bar-
ren River exhibited seasonal patterns
similar to that reported in the literature
for those species. Carp were commonly
encountered along shoreline areas in the
winter in the Barren River, but Funk
(1957) suggested the species to be sed-
entary in cold water. Bluegill and longear
sunfish were displaced from the shallow-
er, upstream river reaches to the deeper,
downstream areas in cold weather, simi-
lar to the movements reported by Berra

173

and Gunning (1972). Like bluegill and
longear sunfish, white crappie shifted
downstream from the dam-tailwater area
into deeper water in winter and returned
in spring. This displacement probably re-
sulted from high winter lake releases dis-
rupting the tailwater habitat. Hansen
(1951) reported that crappie travelled up-
stream and downstream, but these move-
ments were not related to spawning.
Morgan (1954) observed white crappie to
be active in winter, moving at random
along the shoreline.

Reproductive behavior was observed
to be the basis for the seasonal occur-
rences of several species. The spring in-
crease in bluegill numbers along the
shoreline and longear sunfish in the
spring and summer were felt to be
spawning related. Well over one-half of
all the black and river redhorses, spotted
suckers, and northern hog suckers cap-
tured in the study were taken on or near
riffle areas in early spring. This occur-
rence, coupled with the “ripe” condition
of the individuals, was the basis of relat-
ing their presence to reproductive activ-
ity.

The presence of certain species in par-
ticular river sections in Barren River was
observed to be environment and habitat
related. Rainbow trout and smallmouth
bass were limited to the upper river
reaches close to the dam where water
temperature was lower. River herring,
Alosa chrysochloris, carpsuckers, moon-
eye, and grass pickerel were found only
in deeper downstream areas having
shoreline vegetation and_ noticeable
mainstream current. Muskellunge were
taken in river areas having deeper pools
that were influenced by hypogean in-
flows (springs). These species occur-
rences by river reach amplified the state-
ment by Cleary and Greenbank (1954)
that the homogeneity of river fish popu-
lations is disrupted by habitat availabil-
ity and preference.

The observation of the greatest number
of fish per kilometer taken in the study
occurring in the pool immediately below
the dam appeared to result from the pas-
sage of fish through the dam with the

174

high winter lake releases and the accu-
mulation of migrating fish from down-
stream areas in the spring. Such a build-
up of fish below dams in the spring has
been described by Hulsey (1959) as char-
acteristic of cold tailwaters.

The absence of cyprinid species in this
study was considered to be a result of
using electrofishing gear as a sampling
technique. Cyprinids are common inhab-
itants of the Barren River below the dam
as reported by Hoyt and Robison (1980)
using rotenone.

Based upon the duration at-large by
tagged specimens and their movements,
it was concluded that fish movements in
Barren River were random as to upstream
versus downstream tendencies and were
generally limited in distance. The num-
ber of tagged fish recaptured in this study
(2%) was similar to the returns in other
studies, 1.4% by Funk (1957) and 2% by
Harrison (1951). Tag returns in this study
were felt to have been affected by an un-
willingness of anglers to return the tags
without a monetary reward, loss of tags
by the fish in the river, and fish mortality
resulting from handling, especially in the
late spring and summer. Laboratory tag-
ging experiments with goldfish during
the study indicated mortality by this
species to be zero, however, tag retention
averaged only 15.5 days.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

This study was supported in part by the
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, East Cen-
tral Reservoir Investigations, Bowling
Green, Kentucky, in conjunction with the
Environmental and Water Quality Oper-
ational Studies of the U.S. Army Engi-
neers Waterway Experiment Station,
Vicksburg, Mississippi.

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{
|

MOVEMENT OF KENTUCKY FISHES—Hoyt and Kruskamp

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175

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Terpene Production in Liquidambar styraciflua L.

JOE E. WINSTEAD
Department of Biology, Western Kentucky University, Bowling Green, Kentucky 42101

ABSTRACT

Gas chromatography analysis of field-collected leaf samples from 10 individual trees revealed
21 of 73 different secondary compounds present in more than trace quantities (0.1 of 1%). Five
of the compounds made up over 63% of the total sample. The most abundant compounds were
a-pinene, B-pinene and Di-pentane. Under cooler growth conditions (24-16°C day/night tem-
perature cycle) a reduction in the synthesis of a-pinene was noted compared with seedlings
grown under warmer day/night cycles of 32-24°C in growth chambers. Since a-pinene is the
main constituent of oil of turpentine, synthesis of terpenes by sweetgum may prove to be im-
portant in studies involving the production of synthetic fuels and other uses of natural biota’s

hydrocarbons.

INTRODUCTION

With increased interest in alternate
fuel sources and the probable examina-
tion of synthetic fuel sources, it is clear
that greater demands are going to be
made on plant biomass in attempts to
maintain energy consumption levels. In
recent years there has been a concentra-
tion of research involving terpenoid com-
pounds as taxonomic tools, particularly in
various genera of conifers. There is little
known about terpenoid patterns of woody
deciduous plants. One species, Liquid-
ambar styraciflua L., has long been not-
ed for its aromatic compounds. This in-
vestigation was undertaken to examine
patterns of secondary compounds that
might be valuable in any further exami-
nation of this species as a source for syn-
thetic fuel compounds.

This study involved determining the
secondary compounds content of this
species from field-collected samples and

an attempt to assay the ettects of cooler
temperatures on terpene production of
plants grown under controlled condi-
tions.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Field-collected samples represented
10 trees ranging in height from 3 to 24 m
from Titus County, Texas, approximately
23 km southwest of Texarkana in June.
Leaves were frozen within 12 hr after col-
lection and kept frozen until placed in
the distillation apparatus.

Seedlings representing 4 different pop-
ulations (Union Co., Hlinois; Anderson
Co., Tennessee; Alachua Co., Florida
and Harris Co., Texas) were germinated
in the lab and when 30 days old grown
under warm and cool growth-chamber
conditions. Growth-chamber conditions
were set for daily 14-hr photoperiods
(with 10-hr dark period) with 1 chamber
programmed for a warm-temperature

176

cycle for 12-hr regimes of 32° and 24°C
each day. A cooler temperature cycle of
12-hr regimes of 24° and 16°C represent-
ed the other growth condition for the
comparison. Total growth period of the 4
populations under the above conditions
was 180 days.

Upon removal from the growth cham-
bers, 3 leaves of each of 5 plants from
each population and temperature pro-
gram were frozen until distillation.

Leaf samples were distilled for 1 hr in
reflux columns and the volatile com-
pounds collected in an ether layer and
condensed by evaporation under nitro-
gen gas. In general, 0.3 ml of terpenes
were collected for each 15 g of leaf ma-
terial. All samples were stored at 0°C un-
til injection in the gas chromatograph.

Samples in | microliter quantities were
injected into a Varian Aerograph, series
1520 equipped with a Model 20 recorder
and Model 476 digital computer. The
chromatograph was set at a flow rate of
20 ml/min and temperature programming
started at 45°C and increased linearly to
200°C at the rate of 3°C/min. The boiling
point of each compound was determined
by coordination of peaks recorded mea-
sured against the time and temperature
changes.

Identification of compounds utilized a
Perkin-Elmer 137 sodium chloride spec-
trophotometer.

RESULTS

Gas chromatography analysis of the
samples taken from the 10 trees collected
from nature revealed 21 different com-
pounds present in more than trace quan-
tities (0.1 of 1%) over 50% of the time.
There were indications of another 52
compounds but they did not appear with
the consistency of the 21 indicated in
Figure 1. All compounds were generally
separable into three groups of boiling
ranges: (1) 48-93°C, (2) 96-141°C, (3)
143-200°C. The lower boiling com-
pounds composed an average of 95% of
the total sample, the higher boiling oils
made up 5.5%, and the very high boiling
terpenes contributed only 1.3%.

Three of the major compounds indicat-

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 43(3-4)

ed in Figure 1 were identified. These

were Compound | a-pinene; Compound |
4A B-pinene (closely associated with un- |

known 4B) and Compound 7A Di-pen-
tane (closely associated with unknown

7B). Di-pentane and unknown 7B made |

up the largest amount of the volatile oils
in individual samples ranging from 33-

58% of the total; a-pinene contributed |

between 23-40%, and B-pinene plus un-
known 4B varied between 7-12% of the
samples.

The growth of samples from 4 different 1

populations of Liquidambar styraciflua
in growth chambers under warm and cool
temperature programs allowed an exam-
ination of shifts in total terpene produc-
tion. In each of the populations tested
there was a noticeable decline in the pro-

duction of a-pinene under the cooler

growth chamber conditions of 24°-16°C
(Table 1). While the overall pattern was
a shift to a lower percentage of each sam-
ple being of the low boiling compounds
(48°-93°C range), the greatest part of the
shift involved a reduction in production
of a-pinene. Of the 4 populations tested,
the Illinois population showed the great-
est reduction of a-pinene.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS

The detection of volatile oils in leaves
of Liquidambar styraciflua collected in
the field and their measurement in regard
to per cent of sample showed that the
lower boiling hydrocarbons made up
92% of the total sample. The separation
of the 21 compounds that occurred in
more than trace quantities into the 3 boil-
ing ranges indicates the potential for
more in-depth study of this genus regard-
ing basic groups of terpenoid chemistry.
Studies on conifers indicate that com-
pounds in the boiling range of 96°-141°C
would include oxygenated compounds,
and the very high boiling range of 143°
200°C contains sesqueterpenes (von Rud-
loff and Couchman 1964).

In terms of potential value as a fuel
source, or even medicinal stocks, it is in-
teresting to note that 3 of the most abun-
dant compounds show closeness of struc-
tures. The a-pinene, or 2-pinene, to

SS

TERPENE PRODUCTION IN SWEETGUM—Winstead

60

50

40

7

130 140 150 160

110 120

BOILING POINT DEGREE C

30 1
= 20
a
2
fo)
cs)
s 4 |
oO 10 AaB
>
q

8

54 60 70 80 90 100

Fic. 1.

Average boiling points of 21 terpenoid compounds from field-collected leaves of a Texas popu-

lation of Liquidambar styraciflua.

which it is sometimes referred, has a mo-
lecular weight of 136. This compound is
the main constituent of oil of turpentine,
an essential oil, also known in the family
Coniferae. The B-pinene has the same
empirical formula and molecular weight
but a slightly different structure. It is as-
sumed that B-pinene is also important in
turpentine production. Di-pentane, the
third compound identified and one of the
most plentiful in the distillate, also is
chemically close to the other 2 and is a
common compound in pine needles. The
distribution of such compounds as ter-
penes in nature is yet poorly understood,
particularly in regard to potential func-

tions as bacteria or herbivore repellents
in deciduous species. Analysis of Doug-
las fir terpenes by Andrews et al. (1980)
indicates that a-pinene inhibits the
growth of a variety of bacteria by destruc-
tion of cellular integrity; it also caused
modification of mitochondrial activity in
a yeast species.

Variability of certain terpenoid com-
pounds, including a-pinene, possibly is
a response to seasonal conditions and age
of leaves in some conifers (Powell and
Adams 1973, Adams and Hagerman
1977). von Rudloff (1962), in studies on
white spruce (Picea glauca) and blue
spruce (Picea pungens) concluded that

178

TABLE 1COMPOSITION OF @-PINENE IN Liquid-
ambar styraciflua SEEDLINGS GROWN UNDER CON-
TROLLED CONDITIONS

Per cent composition
of a-pinene

Population 32°-24°C 24°-16°C
Illinois 37.0 18.0
Tennessee 24.8 21.9
Texas 41.4 37.9
Florida 25.0 20.0

a-pinene is produced in early stages of
growth. Numerous studies in Liquidam-
bar styraciflua (Williams 1971, Williams
and McMillan 1971, Winstead 1972,
McMillan and Winstead 1976) have dem-
onstrated differential population re-
sponse to photoperiod and thermoperiod
in a variety of physiological and pheno-
logical patterns where more northern
populations respond faster to environ-
mental stimuli. In this study, the greater
reduction of a-pinene production by the
Illinois population under cooler growth
conditions is probably an expression of
genotypic response to simulated fall tem-
perature conditions, hinting that the time
of season may be very important if spe-
cific compounds of this type were
deemed important for future investiga-
tions.

Although it was beyond the scope of
this study, some speculation might be
made on the potential of harvesting the
terpenoids found in sweetgum. A 10 m
high tree with a dbh of 15 cm can easily
produce 12,000 g of leaf material. Distil-
lation of that biomass would produce an
estimated 255 ml of volatile oils. Future
events and research on secondary com-
pounds may determine that sweetgum, in
addition to being an important timber
and decorative species, could provide
materials for synthetic fuels or other com-
modities.

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 43(3-4)

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

This work was supported by Forest
Service Grant No. 1 to Dr. Calvin Mc-
Millan at the Department of Botany, Uni-

versity of Texas, Austin. The gas chro- ,
matography equipment was furnished by |

Dr. Tom Mabry’s Brackenridge Tract
Chemosystematic Laboratory at the Uni-

versity of Texas. I am greatly indebted to ;
Dr. Robert Adams for his specific iden- |

tification of compounds and help in using
this equipment.

LITERATURE CITED

ADAMS, R. P., AND A. HAGERMAN. 1977. Diurnal
variation in the volatile terpenoids of Juniperus
scopulorum (Cupressaceae). Amer. J. Bot.
64:278-285.

ANDREWS, R. E., L. W. PARKS, AND K. D. SPENCE.
1980. Some effects of Douglas fir terpenes on
certain microorganisms. App. and Environ. Mi-
crobiol. 40:301-304.

McMILLAN, C., AND J. E. WINSTEAD. 1976. Adap-
tive differentiation in Liquidambar styraciflua
L. from eastern United States and northeastern

Mexico under uniform environmental condi- |.

tions. Bot. Gaz. 137:361-367.

POWELL, R. A., AND R. P. ADAMS. 1973. Season
variation in the volatile terpenoids of Juniperus
scopulorum (Cupressaceae). Amer. J. Bot.
60:1041-1050.

VON RUDLOFF, E. 1962. Gas-liquid chromatogra-
phy of terpenes. Part V. The volatile oils of the
leaves of black, white and Colorado spruce.
Tappi 45:181-184.

, AND F. M. COUCHMAN. 1964. Gas-liquid
chromatography of terpenes. Can. J. of Chem.
42:1890-1895.

WILLIAMS, G. J., III. 1971. Populational differen-
tiation in the Hill reaction of United States,
Mexico, and Central America Liquidambar sty-
raciflua L. Photosynthetica 5:139-145.

——, AND C. MCMILLAN. 1971. Phenology of

six United States provenances of Liquidambar
styraciflua under controlled conditions. Amer.
J. Bot. 58:24-31.

WINSTEAD, J. E. 1972. Fiber tracheid length and
wood specific gravity of seedlings as ecotypic
characters in Liquidambar styraciflua L. Ecol-
ogy 53:165-172.

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“However, when investigators shifted
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promptly merged 2 genera of clams on
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genera into 6.”

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TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 43(3-4) |

4. Burch, T. C. 1980. New molluscan generic |.

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Molluscan systematics. Akademol Press, Afton
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New Host Record for the Blue Cactus Borer (Mel-
itara dentata).—Several blue cactus borer larvae,

Melitara dentata Grote (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae), |

were observed in the devil’s pincushion, Echino-
cactus texensis Hopffer (Cactaceae), in eastern New

Mexico. The blue cactus borer infests the low-grow- |
ing prickly pears, Opuntia tortispina and its rela- |

tives (Mann and Smith, Bull. U.S. Nat. Mus. 256:1-
158, 1969) and the saguaro (Davis, Trans. Ky. Acad.
Sci. 33:12-14, 1979). The only insect previously re-
ported to feed on Echinocactus is the long-nosed
beetle Moneilema albopicta White (Mann 1969).

This study was funded by the Nat. Sci. Found.
(grant no. 6826).—A. T. Hamilton, Dept. Biol., East.
Ky. Univ., Richmond, Kentucky 40475.

Branley Allan Branson
Editor, Transactions

(a
>)

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Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 43(3-4), 1982, 181-183

ACADEMY AFFAIRS

Junior Academy The following persons have agreed to serve on the Junior Acad-

' of Science emy of Science Governing Committee. President George takes
Governing this opportunity to express his thanks for their dedication.
Committee Herbert Leopold, Chairman

Department of Health and Safety
Western Kentucky University
Bowling Green, Kentucky 42101

Arvin Crafton (1984) Department of Curriculum
College of Human Development and Instruction
and Learning University of Kentucky
Murray State University Lexington, Kentucky 40506
Murray, Kentucky 42071 Stephen A. Henderson, Treasurer (1984)
J. Truman Stevens, Editor Model Laboratory School
KJAS Bulletin (1984) Eastern Kentucky University
College of Education Richmond, Kentucky 40475

kK *K * * **

Science President George expresses appreciation to the following individuals
Edueation for their continuing service to the Academy and to the Commonwealth

Committee of Kentucky.
Anna S. Neal, Chairman (1982)
Fayette County Public Schools

701 East Main Street
Lexington, Kentucky 40502

J. Truman Stevens (1984) Ann M. Hoffelder (1982)
College of Education Department of Chemistry
Department of Curriculum and Cumberland College

Instruction Williamsburg, Kentucky 40769
University of Kentucky Garry Boggess, Vice-President,
Lexington, Kentucky 40506 Kentucky Academy of Science
Mike McCoy (1982) Dean, College of Environmental Science
Warren East High School Murray State University
Route | Murray, Kentucky 42071

Bowling Green, Kentucky 42101
ote * * * *
State Government The following persons have been asked to serve on the State
Science Advisory Government Advisory Committee for 1982. President George

Committee expresses his thanks to Dr. Kupchella for his continuing efforts
on this important committee.

Charles E. Kupchella, Chairman (1982) Robert E. Daniel (1982)

Department of Biological Sciences Department of Biological Sciences
Murray State University Murray State University
Murray, Kentucky 42071 Murray, Kentucky 42071

181

182 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 43(3-4)

Marvin Russell (1982) J. G. Rodriguez, Kentucky Academy of
Department of Physics and Astronomy Science President Elect |
Western Kentucky University Department of Entomology !
Bowling Green, Kentucky 42101 University of Kentucky i
Exe Officio Lexington, Kentucky 40506
Ted M. George, Kentucky Academy of John C. Philley, Kentucky Academy of
Science President Science Past President
Department of Physics and Astronomy Department of Physical Sciences 1
Eastern Kentucky University Morehead State University )
Richmond, Kentucky 40475 Morehead, Kentucky 40351 |

Distribution of President George expresses his appreciation to the following per-
Research Funds sons for their willingness to serve on the next two committees.

i

Ponunittee BOTANY FOUNDATION FUND
Joe Winstead, Chairman (1983)
Department of Biology L
Western Kentucky University
Bowling Green, Kentucky 42101
William S. Bryant (1983) Environmental Sciences |
Thomas More College Morehead State University |
Box 85 Morehead, Kentucky 40351

Ft. Mitchell, Kentucky 41017 johnuihieree harman (es3)

Larry Gelsmann (1984) Department of Biological Sciences

Department of Biology Northern Kentucky University

Northern Kentucky University Highland Heights, Kentucky 41076

Highland Heights, Kentucky 41076 Ralph Thompson: (1984) |
FLORISTIC GRANT FUND Department of Biology !

Howard L. Setser (1982) Berea College |

Department of Biological and Berea, Kentucky 40403 |

* * * * *

Committee to The following individuals have agreed to continue their |
Study Legislatively important work on this sensitive committee, and President |

Mandated Educational George expresses his appreciation for their dedicated ser-
Programs, Ad Hoc vice.

Wallace Dixon, Chairman Anna S. Neal

College of Natural and Fayette County Public Schools
Mathematical Sciences 701 East Main Street

Eastern Kentucky University Lexington, Kentucky 40502

Richmond, Kentucky 40475 William Wagner

William H. Dennon Chemistry Department

Geology Department University of Kentucky

University of Kentucky Lexington, Kentucky 40506

Lexington, Kentucky 40506

ACADEMY AFFAIRS 183

i Committee on President George expresses his appreciation to the following indi-

| Rare and viduals for agreeing to continue their service on this committee.
. Endangered

| Species, Branley A. Branson, Chairman

| Ad Hoe Department of Biological Sciences

i Eastern Kentucky University

H Richmond, Kentucky 40475

| Jerry Baskin Eastern Kentucky University

| Thomas Hunt Morgan Building Richmond, Kentucky 40475

| University of Kentucky Wayne Davis
_ Lexington, Kentucky 40506 Depweat of Zoolouy

Donald L. Batch University of Kentucky
Department of Biological Sciences Lexington, Kentucky 40506

* * *k * ok

I Sixty-ninth The Sixty-ninth Annual Meeting of the Kentucky Academy of Science
| Annual will be held at The Ashland Oil Company, Ashland, Kentucky. The
| Meeting meeting will be Friday and Saturday, 5-6 November 1982.

Academy Affairs, 81, 181

Acalypha rhomboidea, 46

Acer rubrum, 44, 46
Aceraceae, 46
Achnanthaceae, 112
Achnanthes affinis, 11
A. austriaca, 11
A. chlidanos, 11
A. clevei, 11
var. rostrata, 11
A. deflexa, 11
A. detha, 11
A. exigua, 11
var. heterovalva, 11
A. flexella, 11
A. harveyi, 11
A. hungarica, 11
A. inflata, 11
A. lanceolata, 11, 113
var. dubia, 11
var. rostrata, 11
A. lapponica, 11
var. ninckei, 11
A. linearis, 11
f. curta, 11
var. pusilla, 11
marginulata, 11
microcephala, 11
minuta, 113
minutissima, 11, 76
var. cryptocephala, 11
. nollii, 11
. pinnata, 11
. pseudolinearis, 11
. reimeri, 11
Spa LilZ
. stewartii, 11
. sublaevis, 11
var. crassa, 11
A. subrostrata, 11
var. appalachiana, 11

>> SER RD BRED

Acroneuria abnormis, 140

. carolinensis, 140
A. evoluta, 140
A. filicis, 138, 140
A. internata, 140
A. lycorias, 140
A. perplexa, 140
Acroneuriinae, 140
Actinastrum, 33
Actinospaerium, 33
ADKINS, DEAN A., 138
Aedes canadensis, 56, 57
A. dupreei, 56, 57
A. nigromaculis, 55, 57
A. sollicitans, 55, 57
A. stimulans, 55
A. striticus, 56, 57
A. triseriatus, 56-58
A. trivittatus, 56, 57
A. vexans, 55-57

INDEX TO VOLUME 43

Aedimorphus, 56
Agrimonia parviflora, 46
Agrostis alba, 45
A. perennans, 45
Algae, of Kentucky, 74-77
Alisma subcordatum, 45
Alismataceae, 45
Allocapnia cunninghami, 139
A. curiosa, 139
A. forbesi, 139
A. frisoni, 139
. granulata, 139
. indianae, 139
. mystica, 139
. nivicola, 139
. ohioensis, 139
. pygmaea, 139
. recta, 139
. rickeri, 139
. smithi, 138-139
. vivipara, 139
. zola, 139
Allonarcys proteus, 139
Alloperla chloris, 138, 140
A. idei, 138, 140
A. imbecilla, 140
Alona costata, 115
A. rectangula, 115
Alosa chrysochloris, 171
Amblema plicata plicata, 156
Ambloplites rupestris, 63, 67,
171

Ambrosia artemisiifolia, 47
Amoeba, 33
Amphicarpa bracteata, 46
Amphinemura delosa, 139
A. nigritta, 139
A. varshava, 139
A. wui, 139
Amphinemurinae, 139
Amphipleura kriegerana, 76
A. pellucida, 11
Amphiprora ornata, 11
Amphora birugula, 11
A. fontinalis, 11
A. ovalis, 11

var. affinis
A. perpusilla, 11
A. submontana, 11
Anabaena, 31
A. sp., 112
Anabaina licheniformis, 75
Anacardiaceae, 46
Anacystis montana, 76
Anguilla rostrata, 171
Anguispira alternata, 156
A. kochi, 157-158
Ankistrodesmus, 29
A. falcatus, 112
A. f. mirabilis, 112
A. spiralis, 112

184

Serer ere eee

Annelida, 33, 161

Annonaceae, 46

Anomoeoneis serians, 12
var. brachysira, 12, 76

A. sphaerophora, 12

A. vitrea, 12

Anopheles barberi, 56, 57

A. punctipennis, 55, 57

A. quadrimaculatus, 56, 57

Aphanizomenon flos-aquae, 112 |

A. sp., 112
Aphanocapsa, 30
Aphanothece, 30
Aplodinotus grunniens, 171
Araceae, 45
Arctium minus, 47
Arctoperlaria, 138
Arenaria patula, 50-54

comparative germination re-

sponses of, 50-54

var. patula, 50-54

var. robusta, 50-54
Arisaema dracontium, 45
A. triphyllum, 45
Arthropoda, 114, 115, 161
Arthrospira, 30
Asclepiadaceae, 47
Asclepias incarnata, 47
Asimina triloba, 44, 46
Asplanchna, 33
A. priodonta, 115
Asplanchnidae, 115
Asplanchnopus, 33
Asplenium platyneuron, 45
Aster lateriflorus, 47
A. ontarionis, 47
A. vimineus, 47
Asterionella, 31
A. formosa, 12, 113

var. gracillima, 12
A. gracillima, 12
Atherinidae, 67
Attheya sp., 113
Aulacosira ambigua, 14
A. distans, 14

var. alpigena, 12, 14
A. granulata, 12

var. angustissima, 12
A. herzogii, 14
A. italica, 14

Bacillaria paradoxa, 12

B. paxillifer, 12, 16

Bacillariophyceae, 10, 31, 76,
110, 112

BACON, EDMOND J., 158

Balsaminaceae, 46

Bangiales, 31, 76

Barren River, 168

BASKIN, CAROL C., 50

| BASKIN, JERRY M., 50

Bass, largemouth, 61, 68
smallmouth, 67, 171
spotted, 67
white, 67

| Bat, gray, 136-137

observations on an active ma-
ternity site, 136-137
in Jessamine County, Ken-
tucky, 136-137
BENSON, KIMBERLY B., 138
Berberidaceae, 46
Bezzia sp., 161
Biddulphia laevis, 12
Bidens bipinnata, 47

| B. comosa, 47
_ B. frondosa, 44, 47

Bignoniaceae, 47

|| Binuclearia tatrana, 75

B. tectorum, 75

Blarina brevicauda, 150

B. carolinensis, 150, 152-153
Bluegill, 67, 170

Boehmeria cylindrica, 44, 46
Boldia, 75

B. erythrosiphon, 76, 77

| Bosmina, 33, 117
- B. longirostris, 114-116

Bosminidae, 115
Botrychium dissectum, 45
f. obliquum, 45

| B. virginianum, 45

Botryococcus, 29

Brachionidae, 115

Brachionus, 31, 33

B. angularis, 115

B. bidentata, 115

B. calycifloris, 115

B. caudatus, 115

B. havanaensis, 115

B. quadridentata, 115

Brachypterinae, 139

BRADER, JAMES D., 4

Branchiopoda, 114

BRANSON, BRANLEY A., 60

Brodhead Swamp Forest, 43
vascular flora of, 43

Bullhead, yellow, 67

Calanoida, 33
Calanoidae, 116
CALL, SAMUEL M., 146
Calloway County, 55
Caloneis bacillum, 12
C. hyalina, 12
C. lewisii, 12

var. inflata, 12
C. limosa, 12
C. ventricosa, 12
Calothrix, 31
Cambarus laevis, 137
CAMBURN, KEITH E., 74
Campostoma anomalum, 63,

106, 135

INDEX TO VOLUME 43

Campsis radicans, 44, 47
Campylodiscus hibernicus, 12
C. noricus, 12
var. hibernica, 12
Candida, 141
influence of carbon dioxide on
morphogenesis, 141-146
. albicans, 141-145
. guilliermondii, 142, 144
. krusei, 142, 144
. parapsilosis, 142, 144
. pseudotropicalis, 142, 144
. tropicalis, 142-145
Capartogramma crucicula, 12
Capniidae, 139
Caprifoliaceae, 47
Cardamine bulbosa, 46
C. hirsuta, 46
Carex blanda, 45
C. frankii, 45
. granularis, 45
. lupuliformis, 44, 45
. normalis, 44, 45
. rosea, 45
. swanii, 45
. typhina, 44, 45
. vulpinoidea, 45
Carp, 63, 170
Carpinus caroliniana, 44, 45
Carpiodes carpio, 171
C. cyprinus, 171
C. spp., 171
Carpsucker, 171
Carteria, 29
C. sp., 112
Carya cordiformis, 45
C. glabra, 45
C. ovata, 45
C. tomentosa, 45
Caryophyllaceae, 46
Catfish, 61, 66
blue, 4
channel, 4, 67
hematological values of, 4-9
Catostomidae, 66
Catostomus commersoni, 63, 66
Celastraceae, 46
Celtis occidentalis, 46
Centrales, 31, 113
Centrarchidae, 67

AQ) @

OSHS) QQ)e)

Centritractus belanophorus, 75,

76
Centronella, 31

Cephalanthus occidentalis, 47,

151
Cephalodella, 33
Cerasterias, 29
Ceratium, 30
Ceratophyllum, 76
Cercis canadensis, 46
Ceriodaphnia lacustris, 116
Chaetonotus, 33
Chaetophora, 29
Chaetophorales, 29
Chaetosphaeridium, 29

185

Chamaesiphon, 30
Chamaesiphonales, 30
Chaoborus, 33, 162, 164-165
C. punctipennis, 158, 161-162,
164-165
Characium, 29
Chelone glabra, 47
Chimaphila maculata, 47
Chironomus, 158
C. attenuatus, 161-163, 165-166
C. plumosus, 158, 161, 165-166
Chlamydomonadaceae, 112
Chlamydomonas, 29
Chlorella, 29
Chlorococcaceae, 112
Chlorococcales, 29, 75, 112
Chloromonadineae, 30
Chloromonadophyta, 30
Chloroperlidae, 140
Chloroperlinae, 140
Chlorophyceae, 29, 74, 112
Chlorophyta, 29, 112
Chodatella, 29
CHRISTENSEN, BRUCE M..,
55
Chromogaster, 33
Chroococeaceae, 112
Chroococcales, 30, 112
Chroococcus, 30
Chrysococcus, 31
Chrysomonadales, 31, 114
Chrysophyceae, 31, 114
Chrysophyta, 31, 112
Chub, bigeye, 64
blotched, 61, 64
creek, 66
redtail, 64
streamline, 64
Chydorus sphaericus, 115
Chydroidae, 115
Ciliata, 33
Circaea quadrisulcata, 47
var. canadensis, 47
Cladocera, 33, 115, 117
Claytonia virginica, 46
Clematis virginiana, 46
Clethra acuminata, 47
Clethraceae, 47
Clinotanypus pinguis, 161
Closteriopsis, 29
Gr spy eli,
Closterium, 30
Clostridium beijerinckii, 130
C. bifermentans, 129
C. botulinum, 130
C. novyi, 130
C. perfringens, 127-131
isolation and enumeration of,
127-131
from river water and sewage
effluent, 127-131
. ramosum, 130
. sordellei, 130
. sporogenes, 130
. tertium, 130

GIGkGi@

186 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 43(3-4)

Cocconeis, 31
C. diminuta, 12
C. pediculus, 12
C. placentula, 12
var. euglypta, 12
var. lineata, 12
C. scutellum, 12
Cocculus carolinus, 46
Codonella, 31, 33
Coelastrum, 29
Coelosphaerium, 30
Coleoptera, 161
Colurella, 33
Commelina diffusa, 45
Commelinaceae, 45
Compositae, 47
Compsopogon coeruleus, 77
Compsopogonales, 77
Copepoda, 33, 114, 116, 117
Coquillettidia perturbans, 56, 57
Corallorhiza odontorhiza, 45
Cornaceae, 47
Cornus amomum, 44, 47
C. corylaceae, 45
C. florida, 47
Corydalus cornutus, 147
Corylus americana, 44, 45
Coscinodiscaceae, 113
Coscinodiscus subtilis, 12
C. rothii, 12
Cosmarium, 30
Cottidae, 69
Cottus carolinae, 63, 69, 135
COURTNEY, CHERYL C., 55
COVELL, CHARLES V., JR.,
138
Crappie, 61
white, 170
Crassulaceae, 46
Crataegus crus-galli, 46
C. spp., 46
Cricotopus sp., 161
Cruciferae, 46
Crucigenia, 30
C. finestrata, 112
Crustacea, 115
Cryptochironomus fulvus, 161
Cryptomonadales, 114
Cryptomonas sp., 114
Cryptophyceae, 114
Cryptophyta, 114
Cryptotaenia canadensis, 47
Cryptotis parva, 150, 152-153
Culcidae, 55
Culex erraticus, 56, 57
C. pipiens, 55, 57
pipiens, 55
quinquefasciatus, 55
restuans, 55
salinarius, 55
C. restuans, 56, 57
C. salinarius, 56, 57
C. tarsalis, 56-58
C. territans, 56, 57

Culicella, 56

Culiseta inornata, 56, 57

C. moristans, 55-57

Cumatopleura solea, 12

Cumberland River, 60-70
Little South Fork of, 60-70

fishes of the wild river sec-

tion of, 60-70
Cupressaceae, 45
Cyanobacterium, 114
Cyanophyceae, 112
Cyanophyta, 30, 112
Cyclopoida, 33
Cyclopoidae, 116

Cyclops bicuspidatus thomasi,

116
C. scutifer, 116
C. varicans rubellus, 116
C. vernalis, 116
Cyclotella, 31
. atomus, 12
. bodanica, 12
. glomerata, 12
. meneghiniana, 12, 113
. ocellata, 113
. pseudostelligera, 12
Spells
. stelligera, 12, 113
Cylindrocystis, 30
Cylindrotheca gracilis, 12
C. gracilis, 12
Cymatopleura, 31
C. elliptica, 12
C. librile, 12
C. solea, 12
C. soles, 12
Cymbella, 31
. affinis, 12, 113
.amphicephala, 12
. aspera, 12
. cesatii, 12
. cistula, 12, 113
. clausti, 12
. cuspidata, 12
. cymbiformis, 12, 118
. delicatula, 12
. gerloffii, 12
. hauckii, 12
. hohnii, 12
. hustedtii, 12
. inaequalis, 12
. javanica, 12
. lanceolata, 12
. lunata, 12
. microcephala, 12
. minuta, 12
var. pseudogracilis, 12, 76
var. silesiaca, 12
C. naviculiformis, 12
C. norvegica, 12
C. perpusilla, 12, 76

BIOS QE Vigr@

PVOVO}VQVNGKS OK eV@ey Overt ruerae) ue) @|

C. prostrata, 12
var. auerswaldii, 12
C. pusilla, 12

C. ruttneri, 12

var. obtusa, 12

. sinuata, 12

. triangulum, 12

. tumida, 12

. turgida, 12

. turgidula, 12

. ventricosa, 113
Cymbellaceae, 113
Cyperaceae, 45
Cyperus strigosus, 45
Cyprinidae, 61, 62, 106
Cyprinodontidae, 67
Cyprinus carpio, 63, 170-171

DM QQ oe

Dace, blacknose, 66
redbelly, 61
southern redbelly, 66
Dactylococcus, 30
Daphnia, 33
D. parvula, 116
D. sp., 116
Daphnidae, 116
Darter, ashy, 61, 68
banded, 69
barcheek, 61, 68
bluebreast, 68
Cumberland snubnose, 68
fantail, 68
greenside, 61, 68
longhead, 61, 69
orangethroat, 69
rainbow, 61, 68
speckled, 61, 69
spotted, 61, 68
stripetail, 68
Deermouse, prairie, 150
Desmidium, 30
Desmodium laevigatum, 46
Diaphanosoma, 33
D. brackyurum, 114-116
Diaptomus sp., 116
Diatoma, 31
D. elongatum, 13
D. tenue, 13
var. elongatum, 13
D. vulgare, 13
var. breve, 13
var. brevis, 13
var. linearis, 13
var. producta, 13
Diatomella balfouriana, 13, 76
Diatoms, of Kentucky, 10-20
Dictyosphaerium, 29
Difflugia, 31, 33
Dimorphococcus, 29
Dinobryon, 31
D. bavaricum, 114
D. divergens, 114
Dinophyceae, 30, 76, 114
Dioscorea villosa, 45
Dioscoreaceae, 45

Dipetalonema reconditum, 103-

105

Diploneis elliptica, 13
_marginestriata, 13
. oblongella, 13
_ovalis, 13

_ pseudovalis, 13

. puella, 13
_smithii, 13

var. dilatata, 13

D. subovalis, 13

SESHSESESeS)

|| Diploperla robusta, 140
| Diptera, 32, 33, 55

Dirofilaria immitis, 103-105
DOBROTH, DALE, 27

Doe Run, 158

Doe Valley Lake, 158-167

| Dorosoma cepedianum, 170-171
| Dryopteris spinulosa, 45, 48

Dugesia sp., 161

Echinochloa colonum, 45

Echinosphaerella, 29

Eclipta alba, 47

Ectocyclops sp., 116

Eleocharis obtusa, 45

Elephantopus carolinianus, 47

ELLIOTT, LARRY P., 127

Elliptio dilatata, 156

Enteroplea, 33

Entomoneis ornata, 11, 13

E. paludosa, 13

Ephemeroptera, 32, 161

Epilobium coloratum, 47

Epiphanes, 33

Epithemia intermedia, 13

E. sorex, 113

E. turgida, 13

Erechtites hieracifolia, 47

Eremosphaera, 29

Ericaceae, 47

Erigeron philadelphicus, 47

Esox americanus, 171

E. masquinongy, 171

Etheostoma asprigene, 22

E. atripinne, 68, 131-136

E. bellum, 23

E. blennioides, 22, 23, 61, 63, 68,
135

E. caeruleum, 61, 63, 68, 135

E. camurum, 63, 68

E. cinereum, 61, 63, 68

E. flabellare, 63, 68, 135

E. histrio, 21-26

E. kennicotti, 68

E. maculatum, 61, 63, 68

E. nigrum, 22, 23

E. obeyense, 61, 63, 68

E. rufilineatum, 135

E. simoterum, 131

E. sp., 135

E. spectabile, 69, 135

E. squamiceps, 22, 135

E. stigmaeum, 61, 63, 69

E. zonale, 23, 63, 69

Euastrum, 30

INDEX TO VOLUME 43

Euchlanis, 33
E. dilatata, 115
E. sp., 115
Eucopepoda, 116
Eucyclops prionophorus, 116
Eudorina, 29
Euglena, 30
E. sp., 112
Euglenaceae, 112
Euglenales, 30, 112
Euglenophyceae, 30, 112
Euglenophyta, 30, 112
Euholognatha, 138
Eumeces anthracinus anthraci-
nus, 80
range extension in Kentucky,
80
E. fasciatus, 80
Eunotia bigibba, 13
var. pumila, 13
E. cristagalli, 13
E. curvata, 13
var. subarcuata, 13
E. diodon, 13
E. elegans, 13
E. exigua, 13
E. fallax, 13
var. gracillima, 13
E. flexuosa, 13
. formica, 13
. incisa, 13
. major, 13
. meisteri, 13
. naegelii, 13
E. pectinalis, 13
var. minor, 13
var. undulata, 13
E. perpusilla, 13
E. praerupta, 13
var. bidens, 13
E. rhomboidea, 13
E. septentrionalis, 13
E. serra, 13
var. diadema, 13
E. sp., 113
E. sudetica, 13
E. tenella, 13
E. trinacria, 13
var. undulata, 13
E. vanheurckii, 13
var. intermedia, 13
Eunotiaceae, 113
Euonymus americanus, 46
Eupatorium coelestinum, 47
E. fistulosum, 47
E. perfoliatum, 47
E. serotinum, 47
Euphorbiaceae, 46

Haase

Fagaceae, 45
Fagus grandifolia, 45
FALLO, GLEN J., 131
Fauna, bottom, 158-167
in Doe Valley Lake, 158-167

187

Festuca elatior, 45, 98
Filariasis, canine, 103
in southcentral Kentucky, 103
Filinia, 33
F. longiseta, 115
Filiniidae, 115
Fish, seasonal occurrences and
movement patterns of,
168-175
in the Barren River, Ken-
tucky, 168-175
Flosculariacea, 115
Format changes for the Trans-
actions, 180
Fragilaria, 31
F. arcus, 13
F. brevistriata, 13
var. inflata, 13
capucina, 13
capucinna, 13
construens, 13
crotonensis, 13, 113
inflata, 13
kriegerana, 76
pinnata, 113
sp., 113
vaucheriae, 13
virescens, 13
var. capitata, 13
Fragilariaceae, 113
Franceia, 29
Fraxinus pennsylvanica, 44, 47
FREEZE, THOMAS MI-
CHAEL, 4
Frustulia rhomboides, 13, 113
f. capitata, 13
var. amphipleuroides, 13
var. capitata, 13
var. crassinervia, 13
var. saxonica, 13
F, vulgaris, 13
F. weinholdii, 13
Fundulus catenatus, 63, 67

Galium aparine, 47
G. tinctorium, 47
Gar, 62

longnose, 62
Gastropoda, 161
Gastrotricha, 33
Gelastocoris oculatus, 161-162
Geminella minor, 75
Geum canadense, 46
G. vernum, 46
Glaucomys volans, 150
Gleditsia triacanthos, 46
Glenodinium, 30
Gloeoactinium limneticum, 75
Gloeocapsa, 30
Gloeocystis, 29
Gloeodinium montanum, 76
Gloeotrichia, 31
Glyceria striata, 45
Glyptotendipes lobiferus, 161

188 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 43(3-4)

GOETZ, ROBERT C., 4
Golenkinia, 29
Gomphoneis, 31
G. olivaceum, 13, 14
Gomphonema, 31
G. accuminatum, 13
G. acuminatum, 13
var. clavus, 13
var. cornata, 13
var. elongatum, 13
var. pusillum, 13
var. turris, 13
G. affine, 14
var. insigne, 14
G. angustatum, 14
var. intermedia, 14
var. productum, 14
var. sarcophagus, 14
.angur, 14
. brasiliense, 14
. clevei, 14
. constrictum, 14
. dichotomum, 14
. gibba, 14
. gracile, 14
. grunowii, 14
. hotchkissii, 14
. intricatum
var. pulvinatum, 14
var. pumila, 14
G. lanceolatum, 14
var. insignis, 14
G. longiceps, 14
G. manubrium, 14
G. mehleri, 14
G. montanum, 14
var. subclavatum, 14
G. olivaceoides, 14
var. hutchinsoniana, 14
G. olivaceum, 14
G. parvulum, 14, 113
var. micropus, 14
G. puiggarianum, 14
var. aequatorialis, 14
G. rhombicum, 14
G. sparsistriatum, 14
f. maculatum, 14
G. sphaerophorum, 14
G. subclavatum, 14
var. mexicanum, 14
G. subtile, 14
var. sagitta, 14
G. tenellum, 14
G. truncatum, 14
var. capitatum, 14
var. cuneatum, 14
G. turris, 13
Gomphonemaceae, 113
Goniobasis curreyana, 156
G. sp., 161-162
Gonium, 29
Gonyostomum, 30
GORDON, MARSHALL, 27
Grabhamia, 56

ANAAAAAAYRYD

Gramineae, 45

Gratiola neglecta, 47

Green River, 21-26

Guidelines for preparation of
abstracts, 179

Guttiferae, 46

Gymnodiniales, 76

Gyrosigma, 31

. accuminatus, 14

.acuminatum, 14

. attenuatum, 14

. exilis, 14

. kutzingii, 14

. nodiferum, 14

. obscurum, 14

. obtusatum, 14

. scalproides, 14

. sciotense, 14

. sp., 113

. spencerii, 14

var. nodifera, 14

DNANDAAQAAAAAYA

Habenaria flava, 45

var. flava, 45, 48
Haloragaceae, 47
Hamamelidaceae, 46
Hannaea arcus, 13
HANNAN, RICHARD R., 43
HANSEN, MICHAEL V., 127
Hantzschia amphioxys, 14

f. capitata, 14

var. vivax, 14
H. sp., 113
Hardin County, 155
HARLEY, JOHN P., 103
Harpacticoidae, 116
Hastoperla brevis, 140
Hawaiia minuscula, 156
HELLER, MARK P., 109
Helopicus subvarians, 140
Hemiptera, 161
Herring, skipjack, 171
Heterococcales, 31
Hexagenia, 32
H. limbata, 161
Hexarthra mira, 115
Hexarthridae, 115
Hieracium gronovii, 47
Hiodon tergisus, 171
Homeocladia sigmoides, 14
Hormogonales, 30, 112
Houstonia purpurea, 47
HOUTCOOPER, WAYNE C., 97
HOYT, ROBERT D., 168
Hybopsis amblops, 64
H. dissimilis, 63, 64
H. insignis, 63, 64
Hydracarina, 33
Hydrosera, 31
Hypentelium nigricans, 63, 66,

135) 7a

Hypericum mutilum, 46
H. punctatum, 47

H. tubulosum, 47
var. walteri, 47

Ichthyomyzon bdellium, 62
I. greeleyi, 62

Ictaluridae, 66

Ictalurus furcatus, 4

I. natalis, 67

I. punctatus, 4, 67, 171

I. spp., 61

Ictiobus bubalus, 171

I. cyprinellus, 171
Impatiens capensis, 44, 46
Impatiens sp., 98
Iridaceae, 45

Isoetaceae, 45

Isoetes engelmannii, 45, 48
Isoperla bilineata, 139

I. burski, 139

I. clio, 139
I. marlynia, 139

I. namata, 139

I. nana, 139

I. richardsoni, 138, 139
I. similis, 139

I. transmarina, 138, 139
Isoperlinae, 139

Janthinosoma, 56
Jessamine County, 136
Juglandaceae, 45
Juncaceae, 45

Juncus acuminatus, 45
J. dudleyi, 45

J. effusus, 45

J. tenuis, 45

Juniperus virginiana, 45

KATZ, HARVEY M., 109
Kellicotia, 33

Kellicottia bostoniensis, 115
Kentucky Lake, 4, 27-42
Keratella, 31, 33

K. cochlearis, 114-116

K. quandrata, 115

K. serrulata, 115

K. sp., 115

K. valga, 115

Killifish, 67

KINMAN, BENJAMIN, 27
Kirchneriella, 29

Krasskella kriegerana, 14, 75
KRUMHOLZ, LOUIS A., 1

KRUSKAMP, WILLIAM H., 168 |

Kyllinga pulila, 45

Labiatae, 47

Labidesthes sicculus, 63, 67
Lactuca floridana, 47
Lagerheimia, 29
Lagocheila lacera, 66

Lake Barkley, 4

t

Lamprey, 62

Allegheny brook, 62

Ohio, 62
Lampsilis ventricosa, 156
LASSETTER, J. STUART, 43
Lauraceae, 46

| Lecane, 33

L. sp., 115

» Lecaninae, 115

Leersia oryzoides, 45

L. virginica, 45, 98
Leguminosae, 46

Lemming, southern bog, 150
Lemna 76

Lepisosteidae, 62
Lepisosteus osculatus, 171
L. osseus, 62, 171-172

| Lepocinclis, 30

Lepomis cyanellus, 171

| L. gulosus, 171

L. macrochirus, 63, 67, 170-171

L. megalotis, 63, 67, 170-171

L. microlophus, 171-172

Leptodora, 33

Lernaea, 77

Leuctra ferruginea, 139

L. sibleyi, 139

Leuctridae, 139

Leuctrinae, 139

Ligustrum sinense, 47

Liliaceae, 45

Limnodrilus hoffmeisteri, 158,
161-162, 164-165

Lindera benzoin, 44, 46

Liquidambar styraciflua, 44, 46,
71, 175

terpene production in, 175—

178

Liriodendron tulipifera, 46

Lithasia obovata, 156

Lizard, northern fence, 80

Lobelia cardinalis, 47

L. inflata, 47

Lobeliaceae, 47

Logperch, 69

blotchside, 61, 69

Lonicera japonica, 47

Ludwigia alternifolia, 47

L. palustris, 47

Lycopodiaceae, 45

Lycopodium flabelliforme, 45

Lycopus virginicus, 44, 47

Lyngbya, 30

L. sp., 112

Lysimachia ciliata, 47, 98

L. lanceolata, 47

MacGREGOR, JOHN R., 136
Magnoliaceae, 46

Malirekus hastatus, 138, 140
Mallomonas, 31

Mammals, of the Ohio River

floodplain, 150-155
MARDON, DAVID N., 141

INDEX TO VOLUME 43

Marsoniella, 30
Mastigophora, 116
Mastogloia smithii
var. lacustris, 14
McCOMB, WILLIAM C., 71
Meade County, 158
Melanoconion, 56
Melosira, 31
M. ambigua, 14
M. crenulata, 113
M. distans, 14
var. alpigena, 14
M. granulata, 14, 111, 113
var. angustissima, 14, 113
var. procera, 14
M. herzogii, 14
M. italica, 14, 110, 111, 113
M. roeseana, 15
M. varians, 15, 113
Menispermaceae, 46
Menispermum canadense, 46
Mentha piperita, 47
Meridion, 31
M. circulare, 15
var. constrictum, 15
Merismopedia, 30, 111
M. sp., 112
Mesodon elevatus, 156
Mice, jumping, 97
current distribution and status
of in Kentucky, 97
Micractinium, 29
Microcystis, 30
M. sp., 112
Micropterus dolomieui, 63, 67,
Hla:
M. punctulatum, 63
M. punctulatus, 67, 171-172
M. salmoides, 61, 68, 171
Microsiphona potamos, 15
Microspora, 29
Microsporales, 29
Microstegium vimineum, 45
Microtus ochragaster, 150, 152-
153
Mimulus alatus, 47
Minnow, 62
bluntnose, 61, 66
fathead, 66
suckermouth, 65
Minytrema melanops, 171
Mischococcales, 75
Mole, eastern, 150
Mollusca, 161
Mollusk shells, 155-157

associated with evidence of

habitation by prehistoric
native Americans, 155-
157,
in a Hardin County, Kentucky

cave, 155-157

Monocilia viridis, 75

Monogononta, 115

Monostyla sp., 115

189

Mooneye, 171
Moraceae, 46
Morone chrysops, 67, 171-172
Morus rubra, 46
Mosquitoes, 55
diversity and seasonal abun-
dance of, 55
Mougeotia, 30, 75
M. parvula, 75, 76
M. sp., 75
Mouse, cotton, 150
golden, 150
house, 150
meadow jumping, 97-101
white-footed, 150
woodland jumping, 97, 101-
102
Moxostoma carinatum, 171
M. duquesnei, 66, 171-172
M. erythrurum, 66, 171
M. macrolepidotum, 171
Mus musculus, 150, 152-153
Muskellunge, 171
Mussels, freshwater, 156
Myotis grisescens, 136-137
Myxophyceae, 30

Naiads, 156
Nanostoma, 135
Napaeozapus insignis, 97, 100-
102
Navicula, 31
N. accomoda, 15
N. anglica, 15
var. subsalsa, 15
N. angusta, 15
N. arvensis, 15
N. auriculata, 15
N. bacillum, 15, 113
N. bicephala, 15
N. capitata, 15
var. hungarica, 15
N. caroliniana, 15
N. clementis, 15
N. cocconeiformis, 15
N. confervacea, 15
. contenta, 15
var. biceps, 15
N. crytocephala, 15, 113
var. exilis, 15
var. veneta, 15
N. cuspidata, 15
var. ambigus, 15
N. decussis, 15
N. elginensis, 15, 113
var. neglecta, 15
N. exigua, 15
N. exigus, 15
N. farta, 15
N. festiva, 15
N. fluminitica, 15
N. fracta, 15
N
N

2

N. gottlandica, 15
). gracilis, 15

190 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 43(3-4)

. graciloides, 15
. gregaria, 15
. grimmei, 15
. gysingensis, 15
. halophila
f. tenuirostris, 15
N. hassiaca, 15
N. hasta, 15
N. heufleri

var. leptocephala, 15
N. hungarica, 15
var. capitata, 15
. hustedtii, 15
N. keeleyi, 15
N. krasskei, 15
N. lacustris, 15
N. laevissima, 15
N. lanceolata, 15
N. litos, 15
N
N
N.
N.

Zi

2

. mediocris, 15
. menisculus
var. upsaliensis, 15
minima, 15
mutica, 15
f. lanceolata, 15
var. binodis, 15
var. nivalis, 15
N. notha, 15
N. oblonga, 15
N. paratunkae, 15
N. pelliculosa, 15
N. placenta, 15
N. placentula, 15
f. rostrata, 15
N. pupula, 15, 113
f. rostrata, 15
var. capitata, 15
var. elliptica, 15
var. rectangularis, 15
N. pygmaea, 15
N. radiosa, 15, 113
var. parva, 15
var. tenella, 15
lV. rhynchocephala, 15
var. germainii, 15
N. rhyncocephala, 15
N. salinarium
var. intermedia, 15
N. salinarum
var. intermedia, 15
N. sanctaecrucis, 15
N. savannahiana, 15
N. schroeteri
var. escambia, 15
N. secreta
var. apiculata, 15
N. secura, 15
N. seminulum, 15
var. hustedtii, 15
N. simplex, 16
N. sp., 113
N. splendicula, 16
N. subhamulata, 16
N. subtilissima, 16

N. symmetrica, 16
N. tantula, 16
N. tridentula, 16
N. tripunctata, 15, 16
var. schizonemoides, 16
N. tuscula, 16
N. viridula, 16
var. avenacea, 16
var. linearis, 16
var. rostellata, 16
N. wallacei, 16
N. yorkensis, 16
N. zanoni, 16
Naviculaceae, 113
Naviculales, 76
NEFF, STUART E., 3, 158
Neidium affine, 16
var. amphirhynchus, 16
var. ceylonicum, 16
var. longiceps, 16
var. tenuirostris, 16
N. apiculatum, 16
N. binode, 16
N. bisulcatum, 16
var. subundulatum, 16
N. dubium, 16
f. constrictum, 16
N. hercynicum, 16
f. subrostratum, 16
N. hitchcockii, 16
N. iridis, 16
var. ampliatum, 16
N. ladogense
var. densestriatum, 16
N. productum, 16
Nemalionales, 77
Nemalionopsis shawii, 77
f. caroliniana, 77
Nematoda, 33
Nemouridae, 139
Nemourinae, 139
Nemouroidea, 138
Neoculex, 56
Neoperla freytagi, 138, 140
N. gaufini, 140
N. stewarti, 138, 140

NEWS AND COMMENTS, 92

Nigronia fasciatus, 147
N. serricornis, 146-149

distributional records and ob-

servations of, 146-149

in eastern Kentucky, 146-149

Nitzschia, 31

. abridia, 16

_ acicularis, 16

.acula, 16

N. amphibia, 16

N. amplectens, 16

N. angustata, 16
var. acuta, 16

N. apiculata, 16

N. apiculate, 16

N. biacrula, 16

N. brevissima, 16

nk S,

. calida, 16

. capitellata, 16

. clausii, 16

. coarctata, 16

. constricta, 16

var. subconstricta, 16

N. debilis, 16

N. denticula, 16

N. dissipata, 16
f. undulata, 16
var. media, 16

N. dubia, 16

N. elegantula, 16

N. filiformis, 16

N. fonticola, 16

N. frustulum, 16

PE CAPS PC

. gracilis, 16
. hantzschiana, 16
heufleriana, 16
hungarica, 16
ignorata, 16
intermedia, 16
. lacunarum, 16
. levidensis, 16, 17
. linearis, 16
. lorenziana
var. subtilis, 16
N. lorinziana
var. subtilis, 16
N. minuta, 16
N. montanestris, 16
N. obtusa
var. nana, 16
. palea, 16
. paleacea, 16
paradoxa, 16
. perminuta, 16
perspicillata, 16
pumila, 16
pusilla, 16
rautenbachiae, 16
recta, 16
reversa, 16
. romana, 16
. rostellata, 16
. scalaris, 17
sigma, 17
. sigmaformis, 16
sigmoidea, 14, 16
. sigmoides, 17
sinuata
var. tabellaria, 17
N. sociabilis, 17
N. sp., 110, 113
N. tenuis, 17
N. thermalis, 17
N. tropica, 17
N. tryblionella, 17
var. levidensis, 17
var. victoriae, 17
N. valdestriata, 17
N. vermicularis, 17
Nitzschiaceae, 113

zz222222222

222222222222 222222

. gandersheimiensis, 16

Nocomis effusus, 64
Nostoc, 31
Nostocaceae, 112
Notemigonus crysoleucas, 171
Notommata, 33
Notropis ardens, 63, 64
N. ariommus, 61, 63, 64
N. atherinoides, 65
N. boops, 64, 106
x N. chrysocephalus, 106-108
N. chrysocephalus, 106
N. cornutus, 61, 63, 64
N. fumeus, 106
N. galacturus, 63, 64
N. leuciodus, 65
N. photogenis, 63, 65

|| N. procne, 65

N. rubellus, 63, 65

N. sp., 61

N. spectrunculus, 65
N. spp., 61

N. telescopus, 61, 63, 65
N. umbratilus, 106

N. volucellus, 63, 65
N. whipplei, 106
Noturus eleutherus, 23
N. flavus, 67, 135
Nyssa sylvatica, 44, 47
Nyssaceae, 47

Ochlerotatus, 56
Ochromonadaceae, 114
Ochrotomys nuttalli, 150
Oedogonales, 29
Oedogonium, 29

Oleaceae, 47

Oligochaeta, 161
Oligochaeta, 33
Onagraceae, 47

Onoclea sensibilis, 45
Oocystaceae, 112
Opephora martyi, 17
Ophiocytium, 31
Ophioglossaceae, 45
Ophrydium, 75
Orchidaceae, 45
Orthopodomyia signifera, 56, 57
Oryzmys palustris, 152-153
Oscillatoria, 30
Oscillatoriaceae, 112
Osmunda regalis, 45
Osmundaceae, 45
Ostracoda, 114, 116, 117
Oxalidaceae, 46

Oxalis stricta, 46

O. violacea, 46
Oxydendrum arboreum, 47

Pandorina, 29

Je, Siok, ID

Panicum agrostoides, 45
P. dichotomiflorum, 45
P. microcarpon, 45

INDEX TO VOLUME 43

Paragnetina media, 140

Paraleuctra sara, 139

Parthenocissus quinquefolia, 44,
46

Pediastrum, 29

Pegias fabula, 69

Pelecypoda, 161

Peltoperla arcuata, 139

Peltoperlidae, 139

Peltoperlinae, 139

Pennales, 31, 112

Penthorum sedoides, 46

Perch, 68

Percichthyidae, 67

Percidae, 68

Percina burtoni, 61, 69

. caprodes, 22, 63, 69, 135

. copelandi, 23

. evides, 23

. macrocephala, 61, 69

. maculata, 22

. ouachitae, 21-26

. phoxocephala, 22, 25

. sciera, 22, 23

Peridiniaceae, 114

Peridiniales, 30, 114

Peridinium, 30

P. sp., 114

Perlesta placida, 140

P. frisoni, 140

Perlidae, 140

Perlinae, 140

Perlinella ephyre, 140

Perlodinae, 140

Perloidae, 139

Perloidea, 139

Peromyscus gossypinus, 150

P. leucopus, 150, 152-153

P. 1. noveboracensis, 71

nest box and natural cavity use

by, 71

P. maniculatus, 152

P. m. bairdii, 150, 153

Petromyzontidae, 62

Phacus, 30

P. sp., 112

Phasganophora capitata, 140

Phenacobius mirabilis, 65

Philodina, 33

Phormidium, 30

Phoxinus erythrogaster, 61, 66,
106

Phryma leptostachya, 47

Phrymaceae, 47

Phyllanthus caroliniensis, 46

Physa, sp., 161-162

Phytolacca americana, 46

Phytolaccaceae, 46

Phytomonadina, 116

Phytoplankton, composition and
density of, 109

in Lower Green River, Ken-

tucky, 109

Pickerel, grass, 171

Ine line| sme) ins}ilne): Iyo) ne) as)

1

Pilea pumila, 44, 46
Pimephales notatus, 61, 63, 66,
106
P. promelas, 66
Pinnularia, 31
P. abaujensis
var. rostrata, 17
P. acrosphaeria, 17
var. turgidula, 17
P. appendiculata, 113
P. biceps, 17, 113
P. borealis, 17
var. rectangularis, 17
braunii, 17
brebissonii
var. diminuta, 17
brevicostata, 17
burkii, 17
caudata, 17
divergens, 17
var. parallela, 17
formica, 17
gibba, 17
hilseana, 17
interrupta, 17
lata
var. amplissima, 17
legumen, 17
maior, 17
var. transversa, 17
mesogonglya, 17
mesolepta, 17
microstauron, 17
nobilis, 17
obscura, 17
stomatophora, 17
subcapitata, 17
var. paucistriata, 17
P. termitina, 17
P. viridis, 17
Pisces, 106
Plagiotropis lepidoptera
var. proboscidea, 17
Plasticity index, predictability of,
119
Platanaceae, 46
Platanthera flava, 48
Platanus occidentalis, 44, 46
Platydorina, 29
Platyhelminthes, 161
Platyias, 33
P. patulus, 115
P. quadricornis, 115
P. sp., 115
Plecoptera, 138
Pleodorina, 29
Pleurocera canaliculatum, 156
Pleurosigma delicatulum, 17
Ploesoma, 33
P. truncatum, 115, 116
Ploesomatidae, 115
Ploima, 115
Pluchea camphorata, 47
Podophrya, 33

aa

SO ee ee ee ee ee ae ee

192 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 43(3-4)

Podophyllum peltatum, 46

Polyarthra, 31, 33

Polyarthra sp., 114-116

Polyedriopsis, 29

Polygonaceae, 46

Polygonatum biflorum, 45

Polygonum cespitosum, 46

var. longisetum, 46

. hydropiperoides, 46

. punctatum, 46

. sagittatum, 46

. setaceum, 46

. sp., 98

Polypodiaceae, 45

Polystichum acrostichoides, 45

Pomoxis annularis, 170-171

P. nigromaculatus, 171-172

P. spp., 61

Porphyridium, 31

Portulacaceae, 46

Potamogeton, 76

Potentilla simplex, 46

PRATHER, KERRY, 27

Primulaceae, 47

Procladius (Procladius) sublet-
tei, 161

Proserpinaca palustris, 44, 47

Prostoia similis, 139

Protomacleaya, 56

Protozoa, 33, 114, 116, 117

Prunella vulgaris, 47

Prunus serotina, 46

P. spp., 46

Psorophora ciliata, 56, 57

P. confinnis, 55-57

P. cyanescens, 56, 57

P. ferox, 56, 57

P. howardii, 56, 57

Pteromonas, 29

Pteronarcyidae, 139

Pteronarcyoidea, 139

Ptychobranchus fasciolaris, 156

P. subtenum, 69

Pylodictis olivaris, 171

Pyrolaceae, 47

Pyrrhophyta, 30, 114

las} neh neha) tac}

Quandriqula sp., 112
Quercus alba, 45, 71
Q. bicolor, 44

Q. falcata, 45

Q. imbricaria, 46

QO. palustris, 44, 46
Q. velutina, 46

Ranunculaceae, 46
Ranunculus abortivus, 46
R. pusillus, 46
R. recurvatus, 46
R. septentrionalis, 46
Rat, hispid cotton, 150
Redhorse, black, 66
golden, 66
Remenus bilobatus, 138, 140

RESH, VINCENT H., 3
RETZER, MICHAEL, 106
Rhamnaceae, 46
Rhamnus caroliniana, 46
Rhinichthys atratulus, 66
Rhizosolenia, 31
Rhizosoleniaceae, 113
Rhodophyceae, 31, 76
Rhodophyta, 31
Rhoicosphenia curvata, 17
Rhopalodia, 31
R. gibba, 17
R. gibberula

var. vanheurckii, 17
R. musculus, 17
Rhus radicans, 44, 46
Rhynchospora corniculata, 45
Rockbass, 67
Rockcastle County, 43
Roratoria, 33
Rosa multiflora, 46
R. palustris, 46
R. setigera, 46
Rosaceae, 46
ROSE, ROBERT K., 150
Rotaria neptunia, 33
Rotifera, 114, 115, 117
Roya obtusa, 75
Rubiaceae, 47
Rubus argutus, 46

Salicaceae, 45

Salix nigra, 45

Salmo gairdneri, 171
Sambucus canadensis, 47
Samolus parviflorus, 47
Sanicula canadensis, 47
Sarcodina, 33

Sassafras albidum, 46
Sauger, 171
Saxifragaceae, 46
Scalopus aquaticus, 150
Scapholeberis kingi, 116
Sceloporus undulatus, 80
Scenedesmaceae, 112
Scenedesmus, 29

S. acuminatus, 112

S. bernardi, 112

S. denticulatus, 112

S. opoliensis, 112

S. quadricauda, 112
Schizochlamys gelatinosa, 74
Schroederia setigera, 112

SCHUSTER, GUENTER A., 60

Scincella lateralis, 80
Scirpus atrovirens, 45
S. cyperinus, 45
Sciurus niger, 150
Scrophulariaceae, 47
Sculpin, 69

banded, 69
Scutellaria elliptica, 47
S. integrifolia, 47

S. lateriflora, 47
S. nervosa, 47
Scytonema Hofmannii, 75
Sedum ternatum, 46
SEEGERT, GREGORY L., 150
Selenastrum, 29
S. sp., 112
Semotilus atromaculatus, 61, 63,
66, 106
Senecio aureus, 47
Shad, gizzard, 170
Shiner, bigeye, 64
common, 61, 64
emerald, 65
mimic, 65
palezone, 61, 63, 65
popeye, 61, 64
rosefin, 64
roseyface, 65
sawfin, 63, 65
silver, 65
telescope, 61, 65
Tennessee, 65
whitetail, 64
Shrew, least, 150
short-tailed, 150
Shroederia, 29
Sididae, 116
SIEVERT, GREGORY, 80
Sigmodon hispidus, 150
Silverside, brook, 67
Siphonales, 30
SISK, MORGAN E., 27
Sisyrinchium mucronatum, 45
Skeletonema potamos, 15
Skink, five-lined, 80
ground, 80
northern coal, 80
range extension in Kentucky,
80
Smilax rotundifolia, 45
SMITH, ALAN D., 119
Snails, freshwater, 156
land, 156
Soil parameters, predictability of
the plasticity index from,
119
Solanaceae, 47
Solanum carolinense, 47
Sorex longirostris, 152-153
Soyedina vallicularia, 139
Sphaerium, 32
S. sp., 161
Sphaerocystis, 29
Sphaerophrya, 33
Spirogyra, 30, 75
Spirulina, 30
Spongilla, 75
S. lacustris, 161
Squirrel, fox, 150
southern flying, 150
Staurastrum, 30
Stauroneis anceps, 17
f. gracilis, 17

f. linearis, 17
var. hyalina, 17
dilatata, 17
kriegeri, 17
livingstonii, 17
nobilis, 17
f. alabamae, 17
S. phoenicenteron, 17
f. gracilis, 17
S. phonenicenteron, 17
S. smithii, 17
var. incisa, 17
Staurophrya, 33
Stellaria media, 46
S. pubera, 46
Stenelmis sp., 161
Stenonema sp., 161
Stenopterobia intermedia, 17
f. subacuta, 17
Stenotrema leai, 156
Stentor, 75
Stephanodiscus, 31
. astrea, 17
. hantzschia, 17
. hantzschii, 17
. niagarae, 17
_ rotula, 17
wisp lS
STEPHENS, DOUGLAS E., 80
Stigeoclonium, 29
Stigonema, 31
Stizostedion canadense, 171
S. vitreum, 171
Stonecat, 67
Stoneflies, of Kentucky, 138-141
Stoneroller, 63
Strophopteryx fasciata, 139
Studfish, northern, 67
Sucker, 66
hairlip, 66
northern hog, 66
white, 66
Sunfish, 67
longear, 67, 170
Surirella, 31
. agmatilis, 17
.angusta, 17
. biseriata, 17
. brightwellii, 17
. carolinicola, 17
. delicatissima, 17
. elegans, 17
. guatamalensis, 17
. guatemalensis, 17
. guatimalensis, 17
. linearis, 17, 113
var. helvetica, 17
. moelleriana, 17
. ovalis, 18
. ovata, 18
var. africana, 18
var. pinnata, 18
var. salina, 18
. patella, 18

DARN

NNNNNN

NNNNNNHNNHNANNV

NNN

WN

INDEX TO VOLUME 43

S. robusta, 18

f. punctata, 18

var. splendida, 18

. sp., 113

. stalagma, 18

. striatula, 18

. suecica, 18

. tenera, 18

var. nervosa, 18

Surirellaceae, 113

Sweltsa onkos, 138, 140

Sylvilagus aquaticus, 150

S. floridanus, 150

Synaptomys cooperi, 150, 152—
153

NNNNN

Synchaeta sp., 114-116
Synchaete, 33
Synchaetidae, 115
Synedra, 31
S. actinastroides, 18
S. acus, 18
var. radians, 18
S. biceps, 18
S. delicatissima, 18
S. famelica, 18
S. fasciculata, 18
S. filiformis
var. exilis, 18
S. goulardi, 18
S. minuscula, 18
S. nana, 18
S. parasitica, 18
var. subconstricta, 18
S. pulchella, 18
var. lacerata, 18
S. radians, 18, 110, 113
S. rumpens, 18, 110, 111, 113
var. familiaris, 18
var. fragilarioides, 18
var. meneghiniana, 18
var. scotica, 18
S. sp., 113
S. tabulata, 18
S. ulna, 18, 113
f. mediocontracta, 18
var. aequalis, 18
var. amphirhynchus, 18
var. contracta, 18
var. danica, 18, 76
var. longissima, 18
var. obtusa, 18
var. oxyrhynchus, 18
var. ramesi, 18
Synura, 31
Systellognatha, 139

Tabellaria, 31

T. fenestra, 18

T. fenestrata, 18

T. flocculosa, 18, 76
Tachidius sp., 116
Taenionema atlanticum, 139
Taeniopterygidae, 139
Taeniopteryginae, 139

193

Taeniopteryx burksi, 139

T. lita, 139

T. maura, 139

T. metequi, 139

T. parvula, 139
Tanytarsus, 158, 166

T. sp., 161

Taraxacum officinale, 47
Tardigrada, 33

TARTER, DONALD C., 138
Taxodium distichum, 150
TAYLOR, RALPH W., 155
Tennessee River, 27
Testudinella patina, 115
Testudinellidae, 115
Tetradesmus, 29
Tetraedron, 29

T. lunula, 112

Tetrallantos, 30
Tetramastix, 33
Tetraspora, 29
Tetrasporales, 29, 74
Tetrastrum, 30
Thalassiosira weissflogii, 18
Thelypteris palustris, 45
Thorea ramosissima, 77
Tovara virginiana, 46
Trachelomonas, 30

T. spp., 112

Treubaria, 29

Trichocera, 33

Trichocerca multicrinis, 115
T. sp., 115

Trichocercidae, 115

Trigg County, Kentucky, 27
Triodopsis albolabris, 150
Trochiscia, 29

Trout, 171

Turbellaria, 161

Ulmaceae, 46

Ulmus americana, 46

Ulothrix, 29

Ulotrichales, 29, 75
Umbelliferae, 47

Uranotaenia sapphirina, 56, 57
Uroglenopsis, 31

Urticaceae, 46

Vaucheria, 30

Ventridens demissus, 156

Verbesina occidentalis, 47

Vernonia altissima, 47

Veronica serpyllifolia, 47

Vickers Creek Embayment, 27
aquatic environments of, 27-

42

Villosa trabilis, 69

Viola papilionacea, 47

Violaceae, 47

Vitaceae, 46

Vitis spp., 46

V. vulpina, 46

Vole, prairie, 150

194 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 43(3-4)

Volvocaceae, 112
Volvocales, 29, 112
Volvocidae, 116
Volvox, 29
Vorticella, 33

WADDLE, ROSEZELL G., 103

Walleye, 171

WALSH, STEPHEN J., 106

WARREN, MELVIN L., JR., 21,
131

WESTERMAN, ALBERT G.,
136
WINSTEAD, JOE E., 175

Xanthidium, 30
Xanthophyceae, 31, 75

Zapodidae, 97
Zapus hudsonius, 97-101, 152—
153

Z. h. americanus, 98
Z. h. intermedius, 98
Zealeuctra claasseni, 139
Z. fraxina, 139
Zoochlorella parasitica, 75
Zooplankton, composition and
density of, 109
in Lower Green River, Ken-
tucky, 109
Zygnema, 75
Zygnematales, 30, 75

RR Fr SS

mae ee A

Se ee

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provide complete information on the material referred to. See Volume 43(3-4) 1982 for
style.

5. For style of abstract preparation for papers presented at annual meetings, see Volume
43(3—4) 1982.

6. Each table, together with its heading, must be double spaced, numbered in Arabic numer-
als, and set on a separate page. The heading of the table should be informative of its contents.

Each figure should be reproduced as a glossy print either 5 X 7 or 8 X 10 inches. Line
drawings in Indian ink on white paper are acceptable, but should be no larger than 8% X
11 inches. Photographs should have good contrast so they can be reproduced satisfactorily.
All figures should be numbered in Arabic numerals and should be accompanied by an
appropriate legend. It is strongly suggested that all contributors follow the guidelines of
Allen’s (1977) “Steps Toward Better Scientific Illustrations” published by the Allen Press,
Inc., Lawrence, Kansas 66044.

The author is responsible for correcting galley proofs. He is also responsible for checking
all literature cited to make certain that each article or book is cited correctly. Extensive
alterations on the galley proofs are expensive and costs will be borne by the author. Reprints
are to be ordered when the galley proofs are returned by the Editor.

CONTENTS

Current distribution and status of jumping mice (Zapodidae) in Ken-
tucky:. Wayne) C: Houtceoper 222 es ee aah sce eee

Canine filariasis in southcentral Kentucky. Rosezell G. Waddle and
VonnsP: Harley) i200 ee De SU eee er eee

A natural hybrid between Notropis boops and Notropis chrysocephalus
(Pisces: Cyprinidae). Michael E. Retzer and Stephen J. Walsh _.

Composition and density of phytoplankton and zooplankton communi-
ties in the Lower Green River, Kentucky (1978-1979). Mark P.
Heller and Haroey Ms Kata ig i ene ace gi aliniateseeaanenannen ie aia

oy
The predictability of the plasticity index from selected soil parameters.
PMT ed ORO] JAA ( iaesea teas Aacam Re eae Um UGA NGN LAN (SN a

Isolation and enumeration of Clostridium perfringens from river water
and sewage effluent. Michael V. Hansen and Larry P. Elliott

Distribution and habitat of Etheostoma atripinne in Kentucky. Glen
J: Vallovand:MelpindL Warren fi) 225 Se eae onesie at

Observations on an active maternity site for the gray bat in Jessamine
County, Kentucky. John R. MacGregor and Albert G. Wester-
TUE eS EIN 8 a SOE TM SMR GE CES PE

A preliminary checklist of the stoneflies (Plecoptera) of Kentucky.
Donald C. Tarter, Dean A. Adkins, Kimberly B. Benson and
Charles V AGovell Pipe OU ER AAU

Influence of carbon dioxide on morphogenesis of Candida. David
Nr MG oe (12500) 2 2 sen nT GIN a A Vs

Distributional records and observations of Nigronia serricornis (Say)
(Magaloptera: Corydalidae) in eastern Kentucky. Samuel M.
Call

Small mammals of the Ohio River floodplain in western Kentucky and
adjacent Illinois. Robert K. Rose and Gregory L. Seegert _______

Mollusk shells associated with evidence of habitation by prehistoric
Native Americans in a Hardin County, Kentucky cave. Ralph W.
Taylor

Bottom fauna in Doe Valley Lake, Meade County, Kentucky. Ed-
mond). Bacon and Stuart E) Neff Vo) a

Seasonal occurrences and movement patterns of fish in the Barren River,
Kentucky. Robert D. Hoyt and William H. Kruskamp ____

Terpene production in Liquidambar styraciflua L. Joe E. Win-

SEE ia oes NN SS Sila
Guidelines for preparation of abstracts. John W. Thieret ___________.
Format changes for the Transactions. Branley A. Branson ______
Academy Affairs

Index

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106

109

119

127

131

136

138

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