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TRANSACTIONS.

OF THE

KENTUCKY

ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

Official Publication of the Academy

Volume 44
Numbers 1-2
March 1988

The Kentucky Academy of Science
Founded 8 May 1914

OFFICERS FOR 1983

President: J. G. Rodriguez, The University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky 40506
President Elect: Gary W. Boggess, Murray State University, Murray, Kentucky 42071
Past President: Ted George, Eastern Kentucky University, Richmond, Kentucky 40475

Vice President: Joe E. Winstead, Western Kentucky University,
Bowling Green, Kentucky 42104

Secretary: Robert Creek, Eastern Kentucky University, Richmond 40475
Treasurer: Morris Taylor, Eastern Kentucky University, Richmond 40475

Director of the Junior Academy: MWerbert Leopold, Western Kentucky
University, Bowling Green 42101

Representative to AAAS Council: Allen L. Lake, Morehead State University,
Morehead 40351

BOARD OF DIRECTORS

Gary Boggess 1983 Paul Freytag 1985
Debra Pearce, Chair. 1983 William Baker 1985
Mary McGlasson 1984 Manuel Schwartz 1986
Joe Winstead 1984 Gerrit Kloek 1986

EDITORIAL BOARD

Editor: Branley A. Branson, Department of Biological Sciences, Eastern
Kentucky University, Richmond 40475

Index Editor: Varley E. Wiedeman, Department of Biology, University
of Louisville, Louisville 40292

Abstract Editor: John W. Thieret, Department of Biological Sciences, Northern
Kentucky University, Highland Heights 41076

Editorial Board: John C. Philley, School of Science and Mathematics, Morehead State
University, Morehead 40351

Dennis E. Spetz, Department of Geography, University of
Louisville, Louisville 40292

William F. Wagner, Department of Chemistry, University of
Kentucky, Lexington 40506

Jerry Baskin, Thomas Hunt Morgan, University of Kentucky,
Lexington 40506

All manuscripts and correspondence concerning manuscripts should be addressed to the Editor.
Authors must be members of the Academy.

The TRANSACTIONS are indexed in the Science Citation Index. Coden TKASAT.

Membership in the Academy is open to interested persons upon nomination, payment of dues,
and election. Application forms for membership may be obtained from the Secretary. The TRANS-
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The TRANSACTIONS are issued semiannually in March and September. Four numbers com-
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Exchanges and correspondence relating to exchanges should be addressed to the Librarian, Uni-
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TRANSACTIONS of the

KENTUCKY

ACADEMY of SCIENCE

Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 44(1-2), 1983, 1-8

March 1983

VOLUME 44
NUMBERS 1-2

Extended and Internal Commuting Change in the
Intermetropolitan Periphery of Western Kentucky

ROBERT G. CROMLEY AND ROBERTA L. HAVEN
Department of Geography, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky 40506

ABSTRACT

One of the major development trends during recent times has been the economic and popu-
lation growth of nonmetropolitan America. After years of decline, nonmetropolitan areas are
experiencing unprecedented growth rates while major metropolitan areas are slowing down or
losing population. The magnitude of this reversal of former trends has led several authors to
speculate on the reasons and meaning of this turnaround for the changing urban system. A debate
has ensued whether recent nonmetropolitan growth is merely the residual spread effects of
metropolitan decentralization or if this growth represents a clean break with past urbanization
processes. This paper examines the nature of these forces within the intermetropolitan periphery
of western Kentucky, by comparing changes in the external and internal commuting fields of

this region between 1960 and 1970.

INTRODUCTION

Although the population growth rate of
nonmetropolitan areas during the 1970s
has been impressive, the economic
growth of these regions has been sub-
stantial since the early 1960s and can be
explained within a regional development
framework synthesizing elements of
growth-center theory and the product-
cycle model. Growth-center theory ex-
plains the spatial distribution of eco-
nomic activity in terms of relationships
between a growth center and its hinter-
land. Basic to the growth of a region is
the capacity for attracting industries that
produce goods for export to other regions.
As foci for investment, growth centers first
manifest polarization attracting the fac-
tors of production from peripheral areas
and often accentuating spatial disparities
in the economic development of a region
(1). During the polarization stage, ex-

tended commuting is one mechanism by
which a center extracts the labor pool it
needs from the periphery. Holmes (2)
suggested that extended commuting may
in fact be a prelude to outmigration from
rural areas to metropolitan areas and should
continue to expand into nonmetro areas
filling in the intermetropolitan periphery
(3). However, because commuting is a
spatial income redistribution mecha-
nism, it has been proposed by Hansen (4)
as a possible solution to the employment
problems of economically depressed, ru-
ral areas. Thus, extended commuting also
has the potential to transmit growth im-
pulses back to the periphery through in-
come multipliers.

Additionally, growth impulses are
transmitted to nonmetro areas through the
diffusion of mature industries from met-
ropolitan centers. Between 1962 and
1978, 56 per cent of the total increase in

2 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 44(1-2)
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U.S. manufacturing jobs were added to
nonmetropolitan areas (5). The most fre-
quent explanation for this shift has been
the “‘filterdown” process or product-cycle
model (6, 7). Large urban areas, with their
external economies of scale, incubate new
industry and enjoy the rapid growth as-
sociated with the early stages of an in-
dustry’s life cycle. However, as the in-
dustry matures and the production
process becomes standardized, increas-
ing competition and high-wage rates in
the metropolitan market may force the
firm to relocate production in smaller set-
tlements where cheaper labor can per-
form the simplified production process.

In time, as industries and retail activity
relocate in the periphery, the need for ex-
tended commuting is reduced. In fact, ex-
tended commuting may accentuate the
redistribution of economic activities to the
hinterland by training the labor force in
the necessary industrial skills. Thus, small
centers within the periphery will emerge
as foci for employment opportunities,
manifesting polarization themselves, al-
though at a lesser intensity than their
larger metropolitan counterparts. The ex-
pansion of large urban commuting fields
should slow down as internal commut-
ing, commuting within the intermetro-
politan periphery, becomes more impor-
tant.

The study area—the intermetropolitan periphery of western Kentucky.

Any shifts occurring in the regional dis-
tribution of economic activity should be
reflected in the extent and intensity of lo-
cal commuting fields over time. A com-
parison of extended and intemal com-
muting pattems should aid in ascertaining
whether the residents of the intermetro-
politan periphery are bound to metropol-
itan areas for employment opportunities
or whether smaller intermetropolitan
centers are emerging as foci for employ-
ment.

The area selected for the investigation
of these trends comprises the 57 non-
metropolitan counties in Kentucky that lie
west of the Appalachian Regional Com-
mission's delineation of the Appalachian
portion of Kentucky (Fig. 1). The devel-
opment of the nonmetropolitan counties
ot these two regions has differed signifi-
cantly. Eastern Kentucky has a long his-
tory of being a stagnant, economically de-
pressed region tied to the boom and bust
cycle of the coal industry, while western
Kentucky has a more diversified econo-
my with stronger ties to agriculture and
industry.

Although western Kentucky had its
highest population growth rate of recent
times during the 1970s (12.6%), the major
turnaround for this region occurred dur-
ing the 1960s. After experiencing a pop-
ulation loss during the 1950s (—2.5%), the

COMMUTING PATTERN CHANGES IN KENTUCKY—

ZERO PERCENT EXTENDED COMMUTING FIELDS, I960-70

Cromley and Haven 3

Fic. 2

population of western Kentucky grew at
a rate of 9.3% during the 1960s (8). This
time period of turmaround is more rele-
vant to the analysis of commuting changes
within the region if population growth is
indeed related to the provision of em-
ployment opportunities.

METHODS AND MATERIALS

Six Standard Metropolitan Statistical
Areas (SMSAs) that lie adjacent to the
study area—Cincinnati, Ohio; Louisville,
Kentucky; Lexington, Kentucky; Evans-
ville, Indiana; Owensboro, Kentucky; and
Clarksville, Tennessee/Hopkinsville,
Kentucky—provide the basis for exam-
ining extended commuting patterns for

the region (Fig. 1). An earlier analysis of

commuting destinations among the non-
metropolitan counties (9) identified 9
counties (with 9 associated centers)—
Warren (Bowling Green), Hardin (Eliza-
bethtown), Taylor (Campbellsville), Bar-
ren (Glasgow), Boyle (Danville), Frank-
lin (Frankfort), Hancock (Hawesville),
Hopkins (Madisonville), and McCracken
(Paducah)—as major intermetropolitan
destinations (Fig. 1).

The data were compiled from the Bu-
reau of the Census 1960 and 1970 samples
of commuting behavior (a 25% sample in
1960 and a 15% sample in 1970). The 260
census-county divisions (CCDs) in the 57
county region were used as the areal units

Zero per cent extended commuting fields, 1960-70.

for commuter origins. The 9 counties
mentioned above were used as the des-
tinations for all internal commuting; the
central counties of the 6 contiguous
SMSAs were used as the destination for
the measure of extended commuting, ex-
cept for the Clarksville, Tennessee/Hop-
kinsville, Kentucky SMSA. Because
Christian ‘County had a higher level of
nonmetropolitan commuters from west-
erm Kentucky than did the central county
of the SMSA, it was chosen as the desti-
nation for the measurement of extended
commuting for this SMSA.

RESULTS
Both cartographic and regression anal-
ysis were performed to analyze any rel-
evant changes in the commuting fields of
SMSA and nonmetropolitan destinations
between 1960 and 1970. Results suggest
that the residents of western Kentucky are
becoming less bound to metropolitan
areas for employment opportunities. In
fact, where commuting option zones exist
residents may have several alternative
workplace destinations to choose from
within the intermetropolitan periphery
along with the possibility of commuting

to a metropolitan center.

DISCUSSION

A zero per cent isoline map enclosing
all CCDs with any commuters to an SMSA

4 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 44(1-2)

Fic. 3. Zero per cent internal commuting fields, 1960-70.

was used to analyze the expansion of ex-
tended commuting between 1960 and
1970 (Fig. 2). Although this measure has
been criticized by Taaffe et al. (10) and
Hansen (4) as a poor indicator of urban
influence, it does denote the limit of ex-
tended commuting within the periphery.
While the change in the expanse of ex-
tended commuting was minimal between
1960 and 1970, the overall number of
CCDs within the zero per cent isoline
declined from 163 in 1960 to 153 in 1970
(Table 1). With respect to individual des-

TABLE 1.—CHANGE IN EXPANSE OF EXTENDED
COMMUTING BY DESTINATION UTILIZING THE ZERO
PER CENT ISOLINE!

tinations, Lexington was the only SMSA
experiencing expansion at this time, while
Evansville, Hopkinsville, and Louisville
displayed diminishing commuting fields
and Cincinnati and Owensboro remained
unchanged.

The zero per cent isoline map defining
the expanse of internal commuting fields
for the 9 selected intermetropolitan cen-
ters, however, displays a clear expansion
of internal commuting during this same

TABLE 2.—CHANGE IN EXPANSE OF INTERNAL COM-
MUTING BY DESTINATION UTILIZING THE ZERO PER
CENT ISOLINE!

1960 1970
Number Number
of CCDs of CCDs

1960 1970

Number Number

of CCDs _ of CCDs

incom- incom- 1960—

muting muting 1970 Percentage

Destination field field change change

Cincinnati 20 20 0 0.0%
Evansville 36 21 =15 —41'7%
Hopkinsville 31 25 —6 -19.3%
Lexington 33 37 +4 +12.1%
Louisville 77 70 =Y/ —9.1%
Owensboro 28 28 0 0.0%
Total 16325 lS? —10 —6.1%

incom- incom- 1960—
muting muting 1970 Percentage
Destination field field change change

Glasgow 14 19 +5 +35.7%
Elizabethtown 23 32 +9 +39.1%
Paducah 29 31 +2 +6.9%
Bowling Green 25 35) +10 +40.0%
Campbellsville ll ll 0 0.0%
Danville 8 12 +4 +50.0%
Frankfort 17 27 P10 +58.8%
Madisonville 28 34 +6 +214%
Hawesville 2 20 +18 +900.0%
Total 1462328 +20.9%

*“ These totals represent the actual number of CCDs contained within
the zero per cent isoline for each year, not a summation of column
values.

‘Source: Compiled from U.S. Bureau of the Census, Census of
Population and Housing, 1960, Special Report, Ph-4, and Census of
Population and Housing, 1970, Summary Tape, Fourth Count, File
B, Table 35.

® These totals represent the actual number of CCDs contained within
the zero per cent isoline for each year not a summation of column
totals.

' Source: Compiled from U.S. Bureau of the Census, Census of
Population and Housing, 1960, Special Report Ph-4, and Census of
Population and Housing, 1970, Summary Tape, Fourth Count, File
B, Table 35.

COMMUTING PATTERN CHANGES IN KENTUCKY—Cromley and Haven 5

20 7
Is

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=

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=

=

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x
Nl 1 1 jibes =I] a
15-25 25-35 35-45 45-55 55-65 65-75 75-85 85-95

MILES
Fic. 4. The regional profile for extended com-

muting.

period (Fig. 3). In fact, the number of

CCDs within the zero per cent isoline in-
creased from 134 in 1960 to 162 in 1970,
a 20.9% increase (Table 2). Each individ-
ual field also expanded except Camp-
bellsville which stayed the same (Camp-
bellsville expanded more in the
intermetropolitan periphery of Kentucky
outside the study area). Hawesville clear-
ly displayed the greatest overall expan-
sion.

To analyze the intensification of com-
muting during the 1960s, commuting pro-
files were constructed displaying the av-
erage commuting percentages of a given
destination by distance bands. These

percentages are based on the average of

actual commuters for only those nonme-
tro CCDs representative of some degree
of commuting. CCDs with no commuters
to the central county were excluded.

A regional profile of extended com-
muting by distance bands displays a
gradual distance decay, and an overall up-
ward shift of commuting percentages from
1960 to 1970 is evident (Fig. 4). This in-
tensification is occurring not only at dis-
tances close to the SMSAs but also at dis-
tances far from these destinations. In fact,
the greatest percentage change in the in-
tensification of extended commuting is at
distances of 55-75 miles from the central
SMSA county. The commuting profiles for
individual SMSAs also display a greater
intensity of commuting in 1970 as com-

pared with 1960 with the exception of

Owensboro.

The regional profile for internal com-
muting by distance bands displays an in-
tensification of commuting similar to the

CA) 7

% COMMUTING
3
T

1 =!)

I5 15-25 25-35 35-45 45-55 55-65 65-75 75-85
MILES
Fic. 5. The regional profile for internal commut-
ing.

regional profile for extended commuting
(Fig. 5). Along with a gradual distance
decay, there is also an overall upward shift
of commuting percentages from 1960 to
1970. This intensification of internal
commuting represents a 67.0 per cent in-
crease in the overall percentage of inter-
nal commuters. As opposed to the region-
al profile of extended commuting, the
intensification of internal commuting is
occurring near the intermetropolitan cen-
ters especially at distances 15-25 miles
away.

Likewise, the commuting profiles for
the individual intermetropolitan centers
display some degree of commuting inten-
sification with Hawesville experiencing
the greatest change in commuting inten-
sification. Negative externalities associ-
ated with the numerous primary metal
and wood pulp industries and a housing
shortage in Hawesville may be facilitat-
ing the desire to live farther away from
the job opportunities located there.

Finally, a series of forward stepwise
regression analyses are employed to
identify the significant factors that best
explain the spatial patterns of nonmetro-
politan commuting in western Kentucky
between 1960 and 1970. Factors describ-
ing the accessibility of an origin CCD to
respective destinations, factors describ-
ing the strength of smaller competing
centers and factors describing the site
characteristics of the origin CCD were
used to measure the strength of both ex-
tended and internal commuting patterns.
For this study a positive linear relation-
ship is expected between the number of
commuters to a given destination with:

6 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 44(1-2)
TABLE 3.—FACTORS AFFECTING COMMUTING (STANDARDIZED BETA COEFFICIENTS’)
Extended commuting Intemal commuting
Independent variables 1960 1970 1960 1970
1) Population of the origin 0.87 1.14
2) Distance to the destination —0.62 —0.64 —0.24 0.40
3) Distance to the competing center
4) Population of the competing center
5) Total number employed in the origin 0.09 0.25 —0.21 —0.57
6) Population of the destination 3.29 0.24
7) Total number employed in the competing center —0.22
8) Highway accessibility variable
9) Total number employed in the destination 0.48
10) Percentage unemployed in the origin
11) Percentage unemployed in the competing center
12) Percentage unemployed in the destination 0.20
R? 0.35 0.45 0.74 0.62
Sample size (N) 240 201 218 267

*“ Significant at .01 level.

(1) the population of the origin CCD; (2)
the Euclidean distance from the center of
the origin CCD to the nearest competing
center; (3) the total number of the civilian
labor force age 14 and over employed in
the origin CCD; (4) the percentage of the
civilian labor force age 14 and over un-
employed in the origin CCD; (5) the per-
centage of the civilian labor force age 14
and over unemployed in the nearest com-
peting center; (6) the population of the
county of destination; (7) the total num-
ber of the civilian labor force age 14 and
over employed in the destination county;
and (8) access to an interstate highway. A
negative linear relationship is expected
between the number of commuters to a
given destination with: (1) the Euclidean
distance from the center of the origin
CCD to the central city of the destination
county; (2) the population of the compet-
ing center; (3) the total number of the ci-
vilian labor force age 14 and over em-
ployed in the nearest competing center;
and (4) the percentage of the civilian la-
bor force age 14 and over unemployed in
the destination county.

Examining the correlates of extended
commuting through a regional profile of
the study area for 1960, the Euclidean
distance from the origin to the destina-
tion, the population of the destination, the
percentage unemployed in the destina-
tion, and the total number employed in
the origin are significant variables (Table

3). These 4 variables accounted for 35.2
per cent of the variation in the number of
extended commuters for the study area as
a whole. The population of the destina-
tion is the most important variable. Des-
tinations with larger populations and pos-
sibly a more diverse economic base,
provide potential commuters with ex-
panded employment opportunities. Fur-
thermore, commuters may be taking jobs
away from the local labor force, as the
linear relationship between the depen-
dent variable and the percentage unem-
ployed in the destination is positive rath-
er than negative.

In 1970, the distance variable, the total
number employed in the origin, and the
total number employed in the nearest
competing center entered the regression
equation significantly, accounting for 45.4
per cent of the explained variance. Al-
though the distance variable exerts the
most effect on the number of extended
commuters within the study area for 1970,
it must be noted that the role of compet-
ing centers within the intermetropolitan
periphery was more significant in 1970
than in 1960.

Next, the correlates of internal com-
muting were determined by a regional
analysis of the study area for 1960. Dur-
ing this time period, the population of the
origin, the distance to the destination,
the population of the destination, and
the total number employed in the origin

COMMUTING PATTERN CHANGES IN KENTUCKY—Cromley and Haven rth

together accounted for 74.4 per cent of
the explained variance (Table 3). The
population of the origin is the most im-
portant.

In 1970, the population of the origin,
the distance to the destination, and the
total number employed in the origin ac-
count for 61.7 per cent of the explained
variance. Not only is the population of
the origin again the most important vari-
able, but the increased magnitude of its
beta coefficient displays the increased
strength of this particular variable. This
is an indication that the larger the origin
population, the larger the potential num-
ber of commuters.

For both years, the relationship be-
tween the number of internal commuters
and the total number employed in the or-
igin is unexpectedly negative. This may
be an indication that employment oppor-
tunities within the intermetropolitan pe-
riphery are increasing. As employment
increases in many nonmetropolitan
CCDs, the need to commute outside one’s
own community is diminished. Clearly,
this intensification of employment oppor-
tunities and the growing population of
many nonmetropolitan areas may be sig-
nificant factors in the commuting process.

SUMMARY

Similar to studies done by Taaffe et al.
(10) and Fisher and Mitchelson (11, 12),
there is little evidence that the interme-
tropolitan periphery of western Kentucky
counties is shrinking. While there is evi-
dence of a diminishing intermetropolitan
periphery as extended and internal com-
muting fields show some degree of ex-
pansion, the greatest change is in an in-
tensification of commuting. Similarly, a
regression analysis of extended commut-
ing suggests that competing centers in
nonmetropolitan counties are diverting a
significant number of commuters away
from metropolitan destinations by pro-
viding more employment opportunities
closer to home.

The increased intensity of commuting
to nonmetropolitan centers suggests that
many of these smaller centers are indeed
emerging as foci for employment. While

the number of commuters to SMSAs in-
creased 42.2 per cent over the ten-year
period, the number of internal com-
muters to intermetropolitan centers in-
creased 67.0 per cent. The growing im-
portance of these intermetropolitan
centers may be due in part to growth im-
pulses being transmitted back to periph-
eral areas from metropolitan areas them-
selves. Filter-down effects may have
reached into the intermetropolitan pe-
riphery as some of these smaller centers
such as Bowling Green and Elizabeth-
town begin to manifest polarization char-
acteristics themselves.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The authors gratefully acknowledge the
assistance of R. Cunningham, J. Neichter,
and G. Pauer for the final preparation of
all graphics. The artwork was completed
under the auspices of the University of
Kentucky's Cartographic Laboratory in
the Department of Geography. The re-
search was supported in part by a re-
search assistantship from the Graduate
School of the University of Kentucky.

LITERATURE CITED

1. Vanneste, O. 1971. The Growth Pole Con-
cept and Regional Economic Policy. DeTempel,
Bruges.

2. Holmes, J. H. 1971. Extended Commuting
as a Prelude to Suburbanization. Annals. Assoc. of
Amer. Geog. 61:774-790.

3. Berry, B. J. L., and Q. Gillard. 1977. The
Changing Shape of Metropolitan America: Com-
muting Patterns, Urban Fields, and Decentraliza-
tion Processes, 1960-1970. Ballinger, Cambridge,
Massachusetts.

4. Hansen, N. 1976. Improving Access to Eco-
nomic Opportunity: Nonmetropolitan Labor Mar-
kets in an Urban Society. Ballinger, Cambridge,
Massachusetts.

5. Haren, C. C., and R. W. Holling. 1979. In-
dustrial Development in Nonmetropolitan Ameri-
ca: A Locational Perspective. In R. E. Lonsdale and
H. L. Seyler (eds.) Nonmetropolitan Industrializa-
tion. Halsted Press, New York.

6. Erickson, R. 1977. Nonmetropolitan Indus-
trial Expansion: Emerging Implications for Region-
al Development. Rev. Reg. Stud. 6:35-48.

7. Thompson, W. 1973. The Economic Base of
Urban Problems. In N. W. Chamberlain (ed.) Con-
temporary Economic Issues. Richard Irwin, Inc.,
Homewood, Illinois.

8. U.S. Bureau of the Census. 1950, 1960, 1970.

8 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 44(1—2)

Census of Population: Characteristics of the Popu-
lation, Kentucky. Government Printing Office,
Washington, D.C.

9. Cromley, R. G., and R. L. Haven. 1980. In-
dustrial Commuting Pattems in Nonmetropolitan
Kentucky. Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci. Geog. Sect. 1980:
26-41.

10. Taaffe, E. J., H. L. Gauthier, and T. A. Mar-
affa. 1980. Extended Commuting and the Inter-

Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 44(1-2), 1983, 8-12

metropolitan Periphery. Ann. Assoc. of Amer. Geog.
70:313-329.

1l. Fisher, J., and R. Mitchelson. 1981. Ex-
tended and Internal Commuting in the Transfor-
mation of the Intermetropolican Periphery. Econ.
Geog. 57:189-207.

12. ————_. 1981. Forces of Change in the
American Settlement Pattern. Geog. Rev. 71:298-
310.

Gastropod and Sphaeriacean Clam Records for Streams
West of the Kentucky River Drainage, Kentucky

BRANLEY A. BRANSON AND DONALD L. BATCH!

Department of Biological Sciences, Eastern Kentucky University, Richmond, Kentucky 40475

ABSTRACT
One genus and 3 species of sphaeriid clams and 6 families, 12 genera and 23 species of aquatic
snails are reported from the Tradewater, Tennessee and Green river systems and from some

small tributaries of the Ohio River in Kentucky.

INTRODUCTION

During our work on the rare and en-
dangered species of Kentucky (1), it be-
came obvious than many sections of Ken-
tucky were poorly represented in the
literature on aquatic snails and fingernail
clams. Because of this, we recently gen-
erated a series of papers (2, 3, 4, 5) de-
signed to alleviate the lack of information
in those 2 groups of conspicuous aquatic
organisms. This contribution, a contin-
uation of that series, treats records
gleaned from drainages west of the Ken-
tucky River basin.

COLLECTING SITES

In the annotated list of species, col-
lecting sites are indicated by the num-
bers listed below; the figures in paren-
theses indicate the number of specimens
collected at each site.

1. Smith Creek at KSR 696, Clinton
County, Cumberland River drainage; 13
June 1980.

' Dean, College of Natural and Mathematical Sci-
ences, Eastern Kentucky University, Richmond,
Kentucky 40475.

Green River Drainage

2. Little Barren River at US 68, Green
County; 6 May 1977.

3. Fallen Timbers Creek at SR 90, Bar-
ren County; 13 March 1974.

4. Small swampy creek at the junction
of US 127 and SR 70, Casey County; 27
October 1979.

5. Green River at Butler-Warren coun-
ty line, SR 195; 30 September 1980.

6. Green River at Mumfordville, Hart
County; 16 July 1968.

7. Pond, 1.4 km east of Maysville, Ma-
son County; 13 October 1980.

8. Rough River at Lock One, Ohio
County; 26 August 1980.

9. North Fork of the Rough River at SR
690, Breckinridge County; 15 April 1970.

10. Green River at Greensburg, Green
County; 6 May 1967.

11. Wolf Lick Creek, SR 107, Logan
County; 19 April 1970.

12. Sinking Creek, SR 79, Breckin-
ridge County; 18 April 1970.

13. Big Slough, SR 54, Grayson Coun-
ty; 29 July 1980.

14. Cave Springs, Edmonson County;
30 July 1981.

SNAILS AND CLAMS FROM KENTUCKY—Branson and Batch 9

15. Crane Pond, 1.5 km east of Green
River Parkway, Daviess County; 22 July
1980.

16. Rockhouse Slough, Ohio County;

25 September 1980.

17. Muddy Creek at US 231, Ohio
County; 9 September 1980.

18. Mud River at Muhlenberg-Todd
county line; 23 September 1980.

Salt River Drainage

19. Otter Creek at US 60, Meade
County; 11 October 1980.

20. Chaplin River at US 68, Boyle
County; 6 September 1980.

21. Small creek, 9.4 km south of Shep-
ardsville, SR 480, Bullitt County; 14 April
1966.

22. McCowans Pond, 1.6 km east of US
121, Mercer County; 10 July 1966.

23. Salt River near Shepardsville, Bul-
litt County; 11 October 1980.

24. Rolling Fork of Salt River at SR 527,
Marion County; 13 October 1980.

25. Salt River at SR 208, Marion Coun-
ty; 4 October 1980.

Tradewater Drainage

26. Flat Creek just above mouth, Hop-
kins County; 6 August 1980.

Tennessee River Drainage

27. Kentucky Lake, Land Between the
Lakes, 2.4 km west of Golden Pond, U.S.
Route 68, Lyon County; 14 March 1981.

Ohio River Drainage

28. Ohio River opposite Portsmouth,
Ohio, in Greenup County, Kentucky; 9
September 1980.

29. Beargrass Creek near mouth, Jef-
ferson County; 11 September 1980.

30. Small unnamed creek, muddy
banks, Cherokee Park, Louisville, Jeffer-
son County; 13 November 1980.

31. Small swamp just west of Warden’s
Slough, Union County; 17 July 1980.

32. Richland Slough, Henderson
County; 24 July 1980.

33. Bee Creek at SR 641, 0.7 km north
of Murray, Calloway County (Clarks Riv-
er); 3 December 1965.

ANNOTATED LIST

Voucher specimens of all species re-
ported herein are in the Eastern Ken-
tucky University Museum.

SPHAERIIDAE

Sphaerium fabale Prime
Collecting sites: 9 (1).

This habitat was muddy gravel and sand
at the edge of a slow riffle.

Sphaerium similis (Say)

Collecting sites: 9 (2).

This heavy shelled species is adapted
for life in backwaters and lakes with
sandy, vegetated bottoms. It is mostly as-
sociated with streams in englaciated parts
of America (6). However, the Green Riv-
er was a refugium for northern species
during Pleistocene times (7) so it is not
surprising to find residual populations of
species such as this one.

Sphaerium striatinum (Lamarck)

Collecting sites: 11 (5), 12 (2).

This is the most common stream sphae-

riid in Kentucky.

PLEUROCERIDAE

Our collections contained representa-
tives of 3 genera and 10 species of this
taxonomically confusing family.

Lithasia verrucosa (Rafinesque)

Collecting sites: 27 (4).

This species is correctly considered as
Endangered in Kentucky (1) and is being
considered for federal listing (8).

Lithasia obovata (Say)

Collecting sites: 5 (1), 6 (9), 12 (1), 18
(2), 23 (14), 24 (8).

Lithasia obovata is listed as of Special
Concern in Kentucky (1). However, in
view of the large populations of the
species in the Green, Rough, and Salt
rivers, it probably should be delisted.

Pleurocera acuta Rafinesque
Collecting sites: 1 (2), 6 (1), 23 (5), 28
(1)

An uncommon species in the Kentucky
River drainage (3, 5) and listed as of Spe-
cial Concern in Kentucky (1), P. acuta ap-
pears to be thriving in the Green and Salt
rivers.

10 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 44(1-2)

Pleurocera canaliculatum (Say)
Collecting sites: 6 (6), 23 (5), 27 (2).
This species is likewise of Special
Concern (1), particularly in the Kentucky
River drainage.

Pleurocera alveare (Conrad)
Collecting sites: 3 (2).
There is a thriving community of this
species in Fallen Timbers Creek.

Goniobasis semicarinata (Say)
Collecting sites: 21 (92), 24 (21), 25
(30), 29 (5).

This is the most common pleurocerid
throughout the Kentucky River drainage
(4) and, as indicated above, produces at
least some populations in Salt River. It
has been recently reported from the Lit-
tle South Fork of the Cumberland River
(5). The population discovered in Bear-
grass Creek in Jefferson County (Station
29), a tributary of the Ohio River, is an
interesting one in relation to 2 sites from
the Green River, Kentucky, and the Big
Blue River, Indiana (9, 10), emphasizing
the importance of the Ohio River and
smaller tributaries that possibly func-
tioned in tributary hopping during re-ex-
pansion migrations in post-glacial times.

Goniobasis costifera (Haldeman)
Collecting sites: 5 (1), 11 (19), 14 (9),
18 (11).
To our knowledge, this species has
heretofore not been reported from Ten-
nessee.

Goniobasis laqueata (Say).

Collecting sites: 2 (3), 3 (3), 9 (26), 12
(57).

This is the characteristic Goniobasis of
the Middle and Lower Green River and
its tributaries (9). It was the dominant
species present in the Rough River (sta-
tions 9 and 12).

Goniobasis curreyana (Lea)
Collecting sites: 10 (1), 14 (4), 19 (2).
Bickel (11) also reported specimens
from Otter Creek (near our Station 19) and
suggested that the species would proba-
bly be found in other parts of the Green
River. Our collections corroborate his
prognostications.

VIVIPARIDAE

The principal references to this family
were Clench (12), Clench and Fuller (13),
and Clench and Tumer (14).

Viviparus georgianus Lea

Collecting sites: 8 (8).

These are some of the few records for

this large operculate from Kentucky.

HYDROBIIDAE

A very poorly understood family in
Kentucky. Our collections contained
specimens of one amphibious species.

Pomatiopsis cincinnatiensis (Lea)

Collecting sites: 30 (7).

Our specimens closely resemble those
of van der Schalie and Dundee (15). The
same authors (16) reported this species
from a site in the Upper Cumberland Riv-
er in Kentucky, and there are few addi-
tional known sites in the state.

LYMNAEIDAE

Our generic and species concept in this
family follows Hubendick (17, 18). Three
species are reported.

Lymnaea humilis Say
Collecting sites: 7 (2).

Lymnaea humilis is a highly variable
species that is found in both standing and
slowly running water.

Lymnaea palustris (Muller)

Collecting sites: 31 (1).

There are very few records for this
species in Kentucky, and the ecology is
poorly understood. It is often associated
with bodies of water frequented by mi-
gratory birds.

Lymnaea (Pseudosuccinea) columella

(Say)
Collecting sites: 4 (2), 7 (2), 16 (2).

Found mostly in stagnate ponds and
backwaters, this snail is often heavily lad-
en with fluke larvae.

PHYSIDAE

One of the most confusing and variable
groups of aquatic snails in North Ameri-
ca, the Physidae is represented in Ken-
tucky by the genus Physa. Until the fam-
ily is thoroughly studied and revised, any

SNAILS AND CLAMS FROM KENTUCKY—Branson and Batch 1l

specific identification is tentative, as are
the 4 species reported here, based entire-
ly upon shell features.

Physa integra Haldeman
Collecting sites: 13 (4), 15 (3), 22
23 (1), 32 (7), 33 (35).

Typically with long spires and inflated
body whorls, Physa integra is often found
in flowing waters, although it also occu-
pies backwaters and lentic waters.

Physa virgata Gould

Collecting sites: 31 (18).

The shell is usually slender with a long
spire and a short, narrow aperture. The
habitat is usually well-vegetated stand-
ing waters over mud bottoms.

(8),

Physa heterostropha (Say)
Collecting sites: 20 (1).

Physa heterostropha is a rather squat
species with an inflated body whorl, a
short spire, and a capacious, elongated
aperture.

Physa gyrina Say

Collecting sites: 4 (5), 7 (1), 15 (2), 31
(1).

ANCYLOPLANORBIDAE

We follow Hubendick (17) in combin-
ing the Planorbidae and Ancylidae. Five
genera and 6 species are reported here.

Ferrissia rivularis (Say)

Collecting sites: 24 (1), 25 (1).

Because of the clandestine habitat on
stones, pelecypod valves, snail shells, and
other objects in lotic situations, this and
other members of the Tribe Physastrini
are often overlooked in general collect-
ing. Hence, published records for the
Kentucky erana are few.

Laevapex fuscus (C. B. Adams)
Collecting sites: 5 (2), 16 (5).

Mostly a lentic species, this snail is
often found in backwaters on submerged
limbs and rocks.

Gyraulus parvus (Say)

Collecting sites: 26 (2).

The scanty published Kentucky rec-
ords for this and other minute Planorbi-
nae reflect inadequate collecting rather
than scarcity.

Planorbula (Menetus) sampsoni (An-
cey)
Collecting sites: 17 (3).

This is one of three reported sites for
this species in Kentucky. We follow Hu-
bendick (17) in utilizing Planorbula rath-
er than Menetus.

Helisoma trivolvis (Say)

Collecting sites: 4 (25), 11 (1), 31 (17).

Found in both lentic and lotic waters,
H. tribolvis occurs statewide, as does the
next species.

Helisoma anceps (Menke)

Collecting sites: 12 (2).

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The authors appreciate the field assis-
tance of the following individuals: Lewis
Kornman, Kentucky Fish and Wildlife
Resources Commission; Steve Rice, Ken-
tucky Department of Transportation; John
MacGregor and Sam Call, Kentucky Water
Quality Section; Douglas Stevens and
Stephen Mims, Eastern Kentucky Uni-
versity; the late Morgan Sisk, Murray
State University; and Bruce Bauer, Soils
Systems, Inc., Marietta, Georgia.

LITERATURE CITED

1. Branson, B. A., D. F. Harker, Jr., J. M. Baskin,
M. E. Medley, D. L. Batch, M. L. Warren, Jr., W.
H. Davis, W. C. Houtcooper, B. Monroe, Jr., L. R
Phillippe, and P. Cupp. 1981. Endangered,
Threatened, and Rare animals and plants of Ken-
tucky. Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci. 42:77-89.

2, ————.,, and D. L. Batch. 1981. The gastro-
pods and sphaeriacean clams of the Dix River sys-
tem, Kentucky. Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci. 42:54- 61.

3: , and 1982. The gastropod
and sphaeriacean clams of Red River, Kentucky.
Veliger 24:200-204.

4, —_———., and 1982. Distributional

records for gastropods and sphaeriacean clams of
the Kentucky and Licking river and Tygarts Creek
drainages, Kentucky. Brimleyana. 7:137-144.

Ds , and . (in press). Molluscan
distributional records from the Cumberland River,
Kentucky. Veliger.

6. Herrington, H. B. 1962. A revision of the
Sphaeriidae of North America (Mollusca:Pelecy-
poda). Misc. Publ. Mus. Zool. Univ. Mich. 118:1-
74; 4 pls.

7. Johnson, R. I. 1980. Zoogeography of North
American Unionacea (Mollusca:Bivalvia) north of
the maximum Pleistocene glaciation. Bull. Mus.
Comp. Zool. Harvard Univ. 149:77-189.

8. Federal Register. 1980. Part Il. Department

12 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 44(1-2)

of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service. Endan-
gered and threatened wildlife and plants: republi-
cation of lists of Endangered and Threatened species
and correction of technical errors in final rules. 45
(99):33768-33779.

9. Goodrich, C. 1940. The Pleuroceridae of the
Ohio River drainage system. Occ. Pap. Mus. Zool.
Univ. Mich. 417:1-21.

10. Bickel, D. 1968a. Goniobasis semicarinata
and G. indianensis in Blue River, Indiana. Nautilus
81:133-138.

11. ————._ 1968b. Goniobasis curreyana
lyoni, a pleurocerid snail of west-central Kentucky.
Nautilus 82:13-18.

12. Clench, W. J. 1962. A catalogue of the Vi-
viparidae of North America with notes on the dis-
tribution of Viviparus georgianus Lea. Occ. Pap.
Mollusks Mus. Comp. Zool. Harvard Univ. 2(27):
261-287.

13. ————, and L. H. Fuller. 1965. The genus

Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 44(1-2), 1983, 12-13

Viviparus in North America. Occ. Pap. Mollusks
Mus. Comp. Zool. Harvard Univ. 2:385-412 .

14. ————, and R. D. Tumer. 1955. The North
American genus Lioplax in the family Viviparidae.
Occ. Pap. Mollusks Mus. Comp. Zool. Harvard Univ.
2:1-20.

15. Van der Schalie, H., and D. S. Dundee. 1956.
The morphology of Pomatiopsis cincinnatiensis
(Lea), an amphibious prosobranch snail. Occ. Pap.
Mus. Zool. Univ. Mich. 579:1-17; 7 pls.

16. —————, and ————_. 1955. The distri-
bution, ecology and life history of Pomatiopsis cin-
cinnatiensis (Lea), an amphibious operculate snail.
Trans. Amer. Micros. Soc. 74:119-133.

17. Hubendick, B. 1978. Systematics and com-
parative morphology of the Basommatophora. Pp.
1-47. In V. Fretter, and J. Peake (eds.) Pulmonates.
Academic Press, New York.

18. ————. 1951. Recent Lymnaeidae. Kungl.
Svenska Vetenskapsakad. Handl. Bd. 3:1-222.

Freshwater Naiads (Mussels) (Pelecypoda: Bivalvia) of
Slate Creek, A Tributary of the
Licking River, Kentucky

RALPH W. TAYLOR AND BEVERLY SPURLOCK

Department of Biological Sciences, Marshall University,
Huntington, West Virginia 25701

ABSTRACT

During the summer and fall of 1981, collections of freshwater naiads (mussels) were made
from 6 sites along Slate Creek, a tributary of the Licking River. Nineteen species of naiads were
found. Two species, Fusconaia maculata and Epioblasma triquetra, are currently considered
endangered, threatened, or rare in Kentucky. Fusconaia maculata is a rather rare shell in Slate
Creek, but Epioblasma triquetra was extremely abundant throughout the stream. All other species
reported are commonly found throughout Kentucky.

Slate Creek, a tributary of the South
Fork of Licking River, is a rather short
(approximate length 40 km) eastcentral
Kentucky stream, but one which has a rich
and diverse naiad fauna. The stream orig-
inates in the rolling hill region of Mont-
gomery County, Kentucky approximately
12.8 km SE of Mount Sterling and mean-
ders through Bath County to its conflu-
ence with the South Fork of the Licking
River ca. 9.6 km E of Owingsville. Slate
Creek rarely exceeds 2 m in depth and
10 m in width. The substrate is sand and
cobble with an occasional stretch of ex-

posed bedrock. The water quality is quite
good as no industries or urban centers are
located within the drainage.

During the summer and fall of 1981,
collections of freshwater naiads (mussels)
were made at irregular intervals from 6
stream sites, mostly by picking in shallow
waters (Table 1). Other records were de-
rived from bank shell debris. No live
specimens were taken when fresh dead
material of equivalent species could be
found and used as voucher specimens.
Reference specimens are housed in the
Marshall University Malacological Col-

PELECYPODS IN KENTUCKY—Taylor and Spurlock 13

TABLE 1.—FRESHWATER MUSSELS FOUND AT EACH SITE

Species

Anodonta grandis (Say 1829)
Anodontoides ferussacianus (Lea 1834)
Strophitus u. undulatus (Say 1817)

Alasmidonta viridis (Rafinesque 1820) = calceolus (Lea 1830)

Lasmigona costata (Rafinesque 1820)
Tritogonia verrucosa (Rafinesque 1820)
Quadrula quadrula (Rafinesque 1820)
Quadrula pustulosa (Lea 1831)
Amblema plicata (Say 1817)

Fusconaia maculata (Rafinesque 1820) = swbrotunda (Lea 1831)

Fusconaia flava (Rafinesque 1820)

Elliptio dilatata (Rafinesque 1820)
Ptychobranchus fasciolaris (Rafinesque 1820)
Actinonaias carinata (Barnes 1823)
Potamilus alatus (Say 1817)

Villosa iris (Lea 1829)

Lampsilis radiata luteola (Lamarck 1819) = siliquoidea

(Barnes 1823)
Lampsilis ventricosa (Bames 1823)
Epioblasma triquetra (Rafinesque 1820)

Corbicula fluminea (Miller) was found at all stations.

1 2 3 4 5 6
xX X xX Xx Xx
Xx
XxX x xX X Xx
xX X xX xX xX Xx
X Xx X xX X X
X Xx
XxX
X Xx
xX X Xx xX Xx xX
Xx Xx
X xX xX xX X Xx
X X xX X xX Xx
Xx xX Xx DA X
X
xX
xX X X xX
X Xx xX X xX XxX
X X xX Xx Xx
xX xX xX Xx xX

lections and the Ohio State University
Museum of Zoology. Scientific names are
those in current usage by Stansbery (1).

Location of Collecting Sites
All sites are in Bath County, Kentucky.

1. Slate Creek at Stepstone Rd., 1.6 km
S of intersection with US 60, 3.2 km
W of Owingsville.

Slate Creek at Kendall Rd., 1.6 km W
of KR 36.

Slate Creek at KR 36, 3.2 km S of Ow-
ingsville.

Slate Creek at I-64, 480 km E of Ow-
ingsville/Frenchburg exit on KR 36.
Slate Creek at bridge on US 60, 2.9 km
E of Owingsville.

Slate Creek off KR 111, 8 km NE of
Owingsville, 3.2 km from confluence
of Slate Creek and South Fork of Lick-

ing River.

a Kop Yo

DISCUSSION

A total of 19 species of naiads was col-
lected from Slate Creek. At all sites the

number of mussels present was phenom-
enal considering the small size of the
stream.

Fusconaia maculata and Epioblasma
triquetra are currently on the list of (En-
dangered, Threatened, and Rare Animals
and Plants of Kentucky) (2). Fusconaia
maculata is a rather rare shell in Slate
Creek, but E. triquetra was found to be
extremely abundant throughout the
stream. All other species reported are
commonly found throughout Kentucky.
The exotic Asian clam (Corbicula flumi-
nea) was found at all stations in large
numbers.

LITERATURE CITED

1. Stansbery, D.H. 1981. Naiad Mollusks of the
Ohio River Drainage System. Ohio State Univ. Mus.
Zool. (mimeographed). | p.

2. Branson, B. A., D. F. Harker, J. M. Baskin, M.
E. Medley, D. L. Batch, M. L. Warren, W. H. Davis,
W. C. Houtcooper, B. L. Monroe, L. R. Phillippe,
and P. Cupp. 1981. Endangered, Threatened, and
Rare Animals and Plants of Kentucky. Trans. Ky.
Acad. Sci. 42:77-89.

Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 44(1-2), 1983, 14-16

The Ferns and Fern Allies of Pike County, Kentucky

FOSTER LEVY, VEDA KING, CLARA OUSLEY, TOM PHILLIPS, AND DAVID WHITE
Department of Biology, Pikeville College, Pikeville, Kentucky 41501

ABSTRACT
A total of 41 species of pteridophytes are reported from Pike County, Kentucky. This represents
16 new county records. Several reports extend the ranges of species into the eastern third of the

state.

INTRODUCTION

Cranfill’s (1) monograph summarized
much of the information on the pterido-
phytes of Kentucky. However, distribu-
tional data is lacking for many of the east-
ernmost counties. This study assesses the
status and ecological relationships of
pteridophytes in Pike County, Kentucky.
Field work for this project was conducted
from November 1980 to November 1981,
throughout Pike County and adjacent
areas.

Nomenclature and taxonomic treat-
ment follow Cranfill (1). Voucher speci-
mens were placed in the Pikeville Col-
lege herbarium and duplicate specimens
in the University of Kentucky herbarium.

Pike County, largest and eastemmost
county in Kentucky, lies within the Cum-
berland Mountain-Cumberland Plateau
physiographic region (2) and within the
Mixed Mesophytic Forest floristic prov-
ince as delineated by Braun (3). Hills are
steep throughout the county with little
bottomland between. Elevations range
from 183 m along the Big Sandy River to
over 854 m on Pine Mountain and the
Dorton Flatwoods. Most of the county has
a local relief of 213-366 m. Forests in the
county are mainly successional, com-
posed of a mesophytic buckeye-bass-
wood-tulip-maple association on north
and lower south-facing slopes, beech-
mixed oak on south-facing slopes, and
oak-hickory on upper slopes and ridges.
Oak-pine is found on the more sandy
ridges and hemlock-rhododendron oc-
curs in the cooler ravines, becoming most
common on Pine Mountain.

Forty-one species are reported from
Pike County, 16 of which are new county

14

records, and 2, Lygodiwm palmatum and
Cystopteris bulbifera, have been report-
ed previously in the county but were not
found in this study (Table 1).

DISCUSSION
LYCOPODIACEAE

Lycopodium digitatum is common in a
variety of habitats, including cutover hill-
sides where successional processes have
not produced a closed canopy. It also in-
vades partly shaded roadsides and forest
edges in addition to being common in
more mature woods. Lycopodium obscu-
rum has been found only in the vicinity
of the highest peaks of the county.

OPHIOGLOSSACEAE

Ophioglossum pycnostichum is appar-
ently more common in eastern Kentucky
than present records indicate. Three scat-
tered colonies were located, each occur-
ring on level, but not flooded areas, such
as wooded benches on hillsides. In one
locality a colony was associated with black
walnut-ash-buckeye on a mid-slope bench
of a south-facing slope. In a second lo-
cality, Ophioglossum pycnostichum oc-
cupied a small bench on a west-facing
slope under a stand of beech, and in a
third site it was on a shaded lower slope
under sycamore-hemlock. The common
factors in each case were level, non-in-
nundated habitats.

Botrychium dissectum is one of the
most conspicuous fall and winter com-
ponents of woodlands and successional
edges. This highly variable species is
represented by the common var. obli-
quum with occassional var. dissectum in-
termixed. In addition, all intermediate

FERNS AND FERN ALLIES IN KENTUCKY—Levy et al. 15

TABLE 1.—LIST OF FERNS AND FERN ALLIES AND
NEW RECORDS FROM PIKE COUNTY, KENTUCKY

Lycopodiaceae
Lycopodium digitatum A. Braun *
L. lucidulum Michx.
L. obscurum L. *
Equisetaceae

Equisetum arvense L.
E. hyemale L.
Ophioglossaceae
Ophioglossum pycnostichum (Fern.)
Love & Love *
Botrychium dissectum Spreng.
var. dissectum
var. obliquum
B. johnsonii
B. virginianum (L.) Sw.
Osmundaceae
Osmunda cinnamomea L.

O. claytoniana L.
O. regalis L.

Schizaeaceae
Lygodium palmatum (Bermh.) Sw. p

Adiantaceae
Cheilanthes lanosa (Michx.)
D.C. Eaton
Pellaea atropurpurea (L.) Link
Adiantum pedatum L.

Polypodiaceae
Polypodium polypodioides (L.) Watt
P. virginianum L., diploid
P. virginianum L.., tetraploid

Dennstaedtiaceae

Dennstaedtia punctilobula
(Michx.) Moore <
Pteridium aquilinum (L.) Kuhn
Thelypteridaceae
Thelypteris noveboracensis
(L.) Nieuwland <

Phegopteris hexagonoptera
(Michx.) Fee

Aspleniaceae

Asplenium bradleyi D.C. Eaton *
x ebenoides Scott eS
montanum Willd.
. pinnatifidum Nutt. *
. platyneuron (L.) Oakes
. resiliens Kunze
. rhizophyllum L.
. trichomanes L.
. x trudellii Wherry 2
Onoclea sensibilis L.
Athyrium asplenioides (Michx.)

A.A. Eaton a
A. pycnocarpon (Spreng.)

Tidestrom

>>> DR DDD

TABLE 1—CONTINUED

A. thelypterioides (Michx.) Desv.

Cystopteris bulbifera (L.) Bernh. p
C. protrusa (Weatherby) Blasdell
Woodsia obtusa (Spreng.) Torrey

Polystichum acrostichoides
(Michx.) Schott
Dryopteris goldiana (Hook) Gray e
D. intermedia (Muhl.) Gray
D. marginalis (L.) Gray

*—county record.
p—previous county record exists but not located during this study.

forms are present. Several populations of
avery robust, lush Botrychium have been
located on shaded, mesophytic lower
slopes of ravines. It appears that this is
the same plant referred to as B. johnsonii
by Johnson (4), and collected by him in
nearby Johnson County, Kentucky. We
have located a site where B. johnsonii oc-
curs mixed with typical B. dissectum and
another site where B. johnsonii occurs in
pure colonies. The specific status of this
plant is currently under investigation by
Dr. Warren H. Wagner and the senior au-
thor.

OSMUNDACEAE

The genus Osmunda is not common in
Pike County although the county lies well
within the range of all 3 species of the
genus. Only on Pine Mountain are large
populations encountered, and this was the
only locality in which O. regalis and O.
claytoniana were located in this study.
Osmunda regalis requires constantly
moist wetland conditions and its sparse
distribution in the county reflects the
paucity of undisturbed wetlands.

ASPLENIACEAE

The genus Asplenium is well repre-
sented in Pike County with 9 species. In
the Appalachian Asplenium complex (5)
the 3 parent species are found as well as
4 species of hybrid origin. Asplenium
rhizophyllum is common on shaded,
moss-covered sandstone boulders and
outcrops, being distributed from creek
bottoms to the shaded side of ridge out-
crops. It should be emphasized that A.
rhizophyllum is not a limestone species.

16 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 44(1-2)

Asplenium platyneuron, abundant on
south-facing slopes, successional wood-
lands, and rock outcrops, is infrequent on
north-facing mesophytic slopes. At the
base of a sandstone outcrop on the Pike-
ville College Farm, Johns’ Creek, both A.
rhizophyllum and A. platyneuron are
found intermixed in a small colony. Ap-
proximately 1 m from this site, in a shad-
ed crevice at the base of the outcrop,
grows | tuft of A. x ebenoides.

The third parent species in the com-
plex, A. montanum, is mainly found on
cool, moist, sandstone outcrops and is thus
more common on Pine Mountain than in
other parts of the county. Aspleniwm
bradleyi has been found in 3 localities
and A. x trudellii in 1 locality near Caney
Creek and 1 locality on the Virginia side
of the Breaks Interstate Park. Due to the
richness of the genus in the county, other
members of the complex can be expected
to be found in the future.

In the genus Dryopteris, D. marginalis
is common in a variety of habitats and D.
intermedia is usually found along the
banks of shaded creeks and drainages be-
coming most common on Pine Mountain.
Dryopteris goldiana is associated with
rich, sometimes rocky draw slopes of hol-
lows.

Also abundant on Pine Mountain and
common locally in other parts of the
county is Cystopteris protrusa, which is
sparsely recorded in other areas of east-
erm Kentucky (1).

OTHER SPECIES OF NOTE

Cheilanthes lanosa and Polypodium
polypodioides are species which increase
in numbers to the west and south of the
eastern plateaus of Kentucky (1, 6). In 1
locality, within the city limits of Pike-
ville, both are found on the same south-
facing, exposed, sandstone-shale outcrop.
While data are not available, Pikeville
appears to be warmer than the outer parts
of the county.

The bedrock of Pike County consists
mainly of shales and sandstones with
sandstone caps and outcrops forming the

resistant mountain ridges. The only oc-
currence of limestone at the surface is on
Pine Mountain where 2 major strata have
been exposed due to faulting and uplift.
Some species usually restricted to lime-
stone have been found on sandstone sub-
strates in the county. These include a col-
ony of Woodsia obtusa approximately 10
m? in diameter. This extends the range of
Woodsia obtusa into the eastern third of
the state. Another limestone species, Pel-
laea atropurpurea, was found growing on
sandstone rock. In addition, 2 tufts of As-
plenium resiliens were found in Pikeville
on a sandstone outcrop.

Approximately 300 m across the state
line, in Dickenson County, Virginia, is a
series of Polystichum acrostichoides
which grades into a highly dissected P.
acrostichoides f. multifidum. These plants
were found in a mesophytic site.

Note: Since the preparation of this
manuscript, two additional species have
been found in Pike County. These species
are Selaginella apoda (L.) Spring ex Mart.
and Trichomanes boschianum Sturm ex
Bosch. Both were located near the Rus-
sell Fork River of Breaks Interstate Park.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Thanks to Dr. Warren H. Wagner for
assistance and support. Partial funding for
this project was provided by a grant from
the Botanical Foundation of the Ken-
tucky Academy of Science.

LITERATURE CITED

1. Cranfill, R. 1980. Ferns and Fer Allies of
Kentucky. Kentucky Nature Preserves Commission,
Frankfort, Kentucky 1:1-284.

2. Fenneman, N. M. 1938. Physiography of
Eastern United States. McGraw-Hill, New York.

3. Braun, E. L. 1950. Deciduous Forests of
Eastern North America. Hafner Press, New York.

4. Johnson, M. C. 1960. A new evergreen
grapefern discovered in Johnson County, Kentucky.
Castanea 25: 103-105.

5. Wagner, W. H., Jr. 1954. Reticulate evolu-
tion in the Appalachian aspleniums. Evolution 8:
103-118.

6. Radford, A. E., H. E. Ahles, and C. R. Bell.
1968. Manual of the Vascular Flora of the Caro-
linas. Univ. of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill,
North Carolina.

Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 44(1-2), 1983, 17-21

Hypothesis Testing and Model
Comparisons of Trend Surfaces

ALAN D. SMITH

Department of Geology, Eastern Kentucky University,
Richmond, Kentucky 40475

ABSTRACT

The use of trend-surface analyses is wide spread in many disciplines. However, researchers
need to statistically justify their selection of the trend that best fits the data of study areas. A
relatively simple computer program, written in APL language, is presented to accomplish this
task. The program uses total variance and amount of variance explained by each order surface
to complete an analysis of variance table for each trend surface. In addition, model comparison
between successively higher trend surfaces is completed to determine the statistical best fit.

TREND-SURFACE ANALYSIS

A trend is a statistically derived surface
to explain variations in a given set of val-
ues, known as Z-values, that have a given
geographic position, either regularly or
irregularly distributed in the x-y plane.
The surface is the representation of an
equation using the least-squares crite-
rion. This means that the generated sur-
face will be fitted to the input data in such
a way that the sum of the squared devia-
tions between the data at their particular
locations and the corresponding value of
the computed surface are minimized.
Thus, the least-squares criterion calls for
the surface to be laid down in such a way
that the sum of the squares of these dis-
crepancies is as small as possible, as in-
dicated by: d? = E, where d? = deviation
squared and E = minimum value.

The basic reasoning behind minimiz-
ing the sum of squares of the deviations,
and not minimizing the sum of the ab-
solute magnitudes of the discrepancies,
are: 1. It is extremely difficult to mathe-
matically deal with the absolute discrep-
ancies or deviations; while the treatment
of the squared deviations provides the
method of practical mathematical de-
velopments in the interpretation of the
regression equation. 2. Useful and desir-
able statistical properties follow from us-
ing the least-squares criterion (1, 2, 3).

The equation describing the surface can
be linear (plane), quadratic (paraboloid),
cubic (paraboloid with an additional point

of inflection), to higher-order degree sur-
faces. In general, the higher order of the
surface, the more the residuals, or indi-
vidual deviations, will be minimized and
the more computation will be required.
The higher-order trend surfaces may re-
flect the variation in Z-values more ac-
curately if the study area is complex, but
lower-order surfaces may be more useful
in the isolation of local trends. The filter-
ing mechanism allows the upper limit of
variability to be determined by the order
of the surface. The equation for a linear
trend surface, for example, is: Y = b, +
b,X, + b.X:, where Y = dependent vari-
able, b, = constant value related to the
mean of the observations, b,b. = coeffi-
cients, X,X. = geographic coordinates.
This linear equation generates 3 un-
knowns and 3 equations are needed to
determine a solution. These equations
are:

(1)

s Y = bon + by X, + by
i=1 i=1 i=1

Q) >

XY by > X, +b, y x2
i=1 i=

+ by S X,X., and
i=1

(3) » XY — bo 3 eee > X,X>

+ bs > Xe
i=1

where n = number of observations or data
collected. Solving these equations simul-

IEF

18 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 44(1-2)

TABLE 1.—TYPICAL ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE TABLE

FOR POLYNOMIAL TREND SURFACES. (IN THE TA-

BLE, M IS THE NUMBER OF COEFFICIENTS IN THE

TREND-SURFACE EQUATION, NOT INCLUDING THE

CONSTANT COEFFICIENT, B,, AND N IS THE NUMBER
OF DATA POINTS.)

Source of Sum of Degrees of | Mean

variation squares freedom squares F-ratio
Regression SSrez m MSree MSree/MSres
Residual SSres n — m — 1 MSpeg
Total SST

taneously will give the coefficients of the
best-fitting linear surfaces, where best fit
is defined by the least-square criterion (4).
Of course, as the degree of the trend sur-
face that is to be used increases, so does
the number of equations that must be
solved simultaneously.

STATISTICAL ANALYSIS OF TRENDS

According to Davis (4), the significance
of a trend or regression may be tested by
performing an analysis of variance, which
deals with the separation of the total vari-
ance of a set of observations into com-
ponents with defined sources of varia-
tion. In the case of trend-surface analysis,
the total variance in an independent vari-
able may be divided into the trend itself,
which is determined by regression anal-
ysis, and the residuals, or error vector. An
analysis of variance table can be calcu-
lated (Table 1). By reducing the sum of
squares, which were derived from the
least-square criterion, an estimate of the
variance can be compared by using the
F-distribution (4). The F-test, like a t-test,
is a very robust test and relatively insen-
sitive to violations of the assumptions of
random selection of observations and
normal distribution of the variables (5, 6).
Newman and Fraas (7) and Nunnally (8)
looked at a number of investigations that
dealt with the F-distribution assumptions
and their eventual violation, and summa-
rized by suggesting that no appreciable
effect on the accuracy of the F-test from
non-normality of sample distribution oc-
curred. In addition, if the sample sizes
are equal, heterogeneity of variance has
a negligible effect.

TABLE 2.—COMPUTER SOURCE PROGRAM FOR STA-
TISTICALLY ANALYZING DATA FROM TREND SUR-
FACE

Sel eB
9

28
DATA FOINTS'
Mats THE TOTAL VARIATION FOR

OF SURFACE’
BLE)'

x
E
4

me
€
E THE SURFACE’
EG

"ott A

FeMSSR=MSSE

REPORT4

Oxi CeuS ort )

Moe iv ipts4

MieidMi CTS)

EXF4¢1VEXF

EXFe 71 vEXF

DIF¢EXF1-EXF

UEXF'¢14UEXF

DF1¢M1-M2

DF2¢N-M1

MSSReEDIF=DF 4

MSSECUEXF=DF2

FeMSSR=MSSE

REFORT2

7]

SREPORTIGOIS

9 REPORT
voor Iel+t

(20p' *), ANOVA FOR DEGREE ',TTS{IJ

G VaR TATION MEAN SQ!
‘GNEXPLATRED® 5 { 3 THEKELT 35 ‘(8000 MDF DELS ‘Reto TASSELT
“TOTAL Ane 2 45ST), (i3e “Ce datio?, 1004 wed)
VACCrEXELTIASST (9 4 FVACC), (18.

2pOTCL 24 ee

SLOOF XV CIC eTS)

SREEORT2LOI¢

9 REP

10

LOOP -I+I+

(20 } MODEL COMPARISON FOR *,(4TSEIJ),* VS *,4TSEI#19
p VARIATION DF MEAN SQ!
EXFLAINED BY!

* DEGREE /CYTSEI+19), 40 2 VEXPICTI

"EXPLAINED BY‘

‘DEGREE " CFTSCEI2, 10,2, VEXBC

‘INCREASE (10 2 TOIEET}D «CtO° arial 1D; 15,2 THSSRET)
*UNEXPLAINED 40.3 JUEXFET]),(10 0 TDF? , 152 THSSELT
Ca ER ATIO! 40 UFC ED

FROK+(DFACIJ,DF2CIJ) B61 FETJ

(42p' *)

2e0TCC2)

SLOOP XT ((I+4) CpTS)

°

The F-test for significance of fit is a test
of the null hypothesis that the partial
regression coefficients are equal to zero
and, hence, there is no regression. If the
computed F-value exceeds the F-value
having a probability of a set alpha level,
commonly, .01 to .05, then the null hy-
pothesis is rejected and an alternative hy-
pothesis is accepted. According to Davis
(4), in polynomial trend-surface analysis,
it is customary for investigators to fit a
series of successively higher degrees to
the data without statistically testing the

MODEL COMPARISONS OF TREND SURFACES—Smith 19

higher order’s contribution in additional
variance. Davis further suggested that an
analysis of variance table be expanded to
analyze the contribution of the additional
partial regression coefficients to give a
measure of the appropriateness of in-
creasing the order of the equations. How-
ever, a standardized statistical technique
was not developed by Davis that can be
readily used by the nonstatistician.
Therefore, a computer program was de-
vised to calculate and present recom-
mended procedure for analyzing poly-
nomial trend surfaces.

COMPUTER PROGRAM

Table 2 represents a listing of the pro-
gram source deck to complete the analy-
sis of data related to trend-surface anal-
ysis. The program, written in APL, can
easily be adapted to almost any system
with an APL compiler. The program was
originally designed for an interactive
mode, but with a few revisions in the pro-
gram it can be adjusted to read in a batch
mode. The required input is the total

variation of the data, and the amount of

variance accounted for by the order sur-
face. This information is generated by
most computer software packages that
produce trend surfaces, such as SYMAP
(9) and SURFACE II (10).

Table 3 illustrates the printed output
of a successful execution of the program.
The program not only completes an anal-
ysis of variance table for each trend sur-
face, but also completes model compari-
son to determine if the use of a higher
degree surface produces a statistically
significant increase in amount of variance
explained by the trend surface to warrant
its use. Specifically, the example out-
lined in Table 3 shows that all 3 trends
are not statistically significant at the .05
level, and no higher order trend is statis-
tically better than its lower-order coun-
terpart.

Technically, the degrees of freedom
used in the F-test utilizes the following:
df, = m, — m,, df; = N — m, where df, =
degrees of freedom-numerator, df, = de-
grees of freedom-denominator, m, =
number of coefficients, counting the con-

TABLE 3.—EXAMPLE INPUT AND OUTPUT OF AN
ANALYSIS OF TREND-SURFACE DATA.

ANOVA
NUMBER OF DATA FOINTS

ENTFR
Eb
25
ENTER THE TOTAL VARIATION FOR THE SURFACE
25555
ENTER DEGR RFACE
CUUFERPSCEER acd
ENTER VARIATION EXPLANED
; 23471
ENTER DEGREE OF SURFACE
gENTER © FOR TABLE)
: 2
ENTER VARIATION EXPLANED
: 25792
ENTER DEGREE OF SURFACE
CENTER 0 FOR TABLE)
3
ENTER VARIATION EXPLANED
§ 42178
ENTER DEGREE OF SURFACE
CENTER 0 FOR TABLE)
: )
ANOVA FOR DEGREE 1
VARIATION DF MEAN SQ
EXPLAINED 23471.00 2 11735.50
UNEXPLAINED2532075.00 22 115094.32
TOTAL 2555546.00 FRATIO .1020
VAR ACCT FOR -0092
ANOVA FOR DEGREE 2
aera eon DE MEAN aaa
EXPLAINED 25792 5: 5158.
UNEXPLAINED2529754- 88 19 eS ASe 38
OTAL 55546.00 Io .0387
VAR ACCT FOR 0101
ANOVA FOR DEGREE 3
VARIATION DF MEAN SQ
EXPLAINED 42178.00 4686.44
UNEXPLAINED251 3368.00 15) 167557.87
TOTAL 2555546.00 FRATIO .0280
VAR ACCT FOR -0165
MODEL COMPARISON FOR 1 VS 2
VARIATION DF MEAN SQ
EXPLAINED BY
DEGREE 2. 25172600
EXPLAINED BY
DEGREE 23471.00
INCREASE 2321.00 3 773.67
UNEXPLAINED 2529754.00 19 133144.95
FRATIO .0058
MODEL COMPARISON FOR 2 VS 3
VARIATION DF MEAN sQ
EXPLAINED BY
3 42178.00
EXFLAINED BY
DEGREE 2 285792.00
INCREASE 16386.00 4 4096.50
UNEXFPLAINED 2513368.00 415; 167557.87
FRATIO 0244

stant coefficient, in the full model, m, =
number of coefficients, counting the con-
stant coefficient, in the restricted model,
N = number of observations. These
equations, determined by Newman and
Thomas (11) are similar in function to
those equations suggested by Davis (A),
except the addition of the constant term,
b,. In the case of trend-surface analysis,
m, corresponds to the number of coeffi-

20

cients, including the constant b, in the
higher-order surface, while the term m,
is associated with the number of coeffi-
cients, plus the constant term, in the low-
er-order surface. For example, in a sec-
ond-order trend surface, the equation is
represented by: Y = b, + b,X, + boX. +
bX,? + byX.? + bsX,Xo.

In hypothesis testing to determine if
this second-order equation is statistically
significant at a set alpha level, this equa-
tion becomes the full model, since it con-
tains all the required terms and their
coefficients. The restricted model is
defined as no information, since an in-
vestigator is asking the question if the
second-degree surface is predictive of the
geographical distribution of the data over
no other trend surface. Thus, m, equals 6
and m, equals 1, which is the constant
term common in both models. Ifa sample
size of 25 is assumed, the degrees of free-
dom-numerator are equal to 6 minus 1, or
5; and degrees of freedom-denominator
are equal to 25 minus 6, or 19 (Table 3).
The regression sum of squares term is
calculated by the amount of variance ex-
plained by the trend surface, which is re-
quired as input into the program. The re-
sidual sum of squares term is calculated
by substracting the variance explained
from the total variance, which is also re-
quired as input, to arrive at the variance
unaccounted for by the trend surface. The
mean sum of squares for each term is, in
turn, calculated by dividing the corre-
sponding degrees of freedom, and the re-
sulting ratio of these two mean sum of
squares yields an F-value. By comparing
this F-value with a tabulated F-ratio for
a selected alpha level, found in most sta-
tistical tables, a decision on statistically
accepting or rejecting the trend surface
can be made. The completion of this
analysis of variance in the format shown
in Table 3 is the function of the subrou-
tine, Report 1 (Table 2).

In addition, model comparison be-
tween trend surfaces is also completed
by the function of subroutine, Report 2.
The model comparison directly answers
the major question of determining the or-

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 44( 1-2)

der of best fit previously proposed by Da-
vis (4). In the case of trend-surface anal-
ysis, the full model corresponds to the
higher-order trend surface; and the re-
stricted model corresponds to the lower-
order trend surface, or 1 order less than
the order in the full model. Again, the
degrees of freedom and resultant F-value
are reached as previously defined. Hence,
an investigator can determine, by use of
this computer program, the trend surface
that statistically best fits geographically
distributed data.

SUMMARY

The relatively simple computer pro-
gram presented here utilizes ANOVA
techniques to help researchers make a
more effective and statistically sound de-
cision in the selection process involved
in trend-surface analyses. The author rec-
ommends that this test should be rou-
tinely used in geophysical and sociolog-
ical surveys involving analyses of trends
and their prediction.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I appreciate the help and constructive
criticism given in the development of the
program by Gayle Seymour, systems an-
alyst at the University of Akron.

LITERATURE CITED

l. McNeil, K. A., F. J. Kelly, and J. T. McNeil.
1976. Testing research hypotheses using multiple
linear regression. Southern Illinois Univ. Press,
Carbondale, Illinois.

2. Minium, E. W. 1978. Statistical reasoning in
psychology and education, 2nd ed. John Wiley and
Sons, Inc., New York.

3. Rohatigi, V. K. 1976. An introduction to
probability theory and mathematical statistics. John
Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York.

4. Davis, J. S. 1973. Statistics and data analysis
in geology. John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York.

5. Edwards, A. L. 1972. Experimental design
in psychological research, 4th ed. Holt, Rinehart,
Winston, Inc., New York.

6. Newman, I., and C. Newman. 1977. Concep-
tual statistics for beginners. Univ. Press of America,
W ashington, D.C.

7. ————, and J. Fraas. 1978. The malpractice
of statistical interpretation. Multiple Linear Regres-
sion Viewpoints 9: 1-25.

MODEL COMPARISONS OF TREND SURFACES—Smith Pall

8. Nunnally, J. 1967. Psychometric theory.
McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York.

9. Dougenik, J. A., and D. E. Sheehan. 1979.
SYMAP users reference manual. Harvard Univ.
Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts.

10. Sampson, R. J. 1978. Surface II graphics

Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 44(1-2), 1983, 21-23

system. Kansas Geological Survey, Lawrence, Kan-
sas.

11. Newman, I., and J. Thomas. 1979. A note
on the calculation of degrees of freedom for power
analysis using multiple linear regression models.
Multiple Linear Regression Viewpoints 9:53-58.

Additions to the Distributional List of Kentucky
Trichoptera: Big Sandy River (Boyd County);
Pond Creek and Scenic Lake (Henderson County)!

KIM H. HAAG AND PAuL L. Hin
Department of Biology, University of Louisville Louisville, Kentucky 40292

ABSTRACT

Adult caddisflies were collected from the Big

Sandy River in Boyd County, and from Pond

Creek and Scenic Lake in Henderson County, Kentucky. A total of 40 species in 7 families were
identified, including 4 new state records: Pycnopsyche indiana (Ross), P. luculenta (Betten), P.
scabripennis (Rambur), and Ironoquia lyrata (Ross). Occurrence of I. lyrata in Kentucky rep-
resents a southern range extension in North America.

INTRODUCTION

The caddisflies of Kentucky have been
thoroughly examined in a few drainages
only, and many areas remain unstudied
in the state. Resh (1) compiled the first
distributional list of Trichoptera in Ken-
tucky, relying on his own collections as
well as those from universities through-
out the region. No species were listed
from Boyd County, while only Potamyia
flava and Ceraclea maculata were re-
ported from Henderson County. This pa-

per presents the results of collections of

adult caddisflies from the Big Sandy Riv-
er at Ashland, in Boyd County, and from
Pond Creek and Scenic Lake, in Hen-
derson County. A total of 40 species in 17
genera were identified, representing 7
families.

RESULTS
Big Sandy River
The Big Sandy River and its tributaries
drain southeastern Kentucky and south-

‘University of Louisville, Department of Biology
Contribution No. 203.

western West Virginia. The stream joins
the Ohio River at Ashland, Kentucky
(ORM 322.6) and has a mean summer dis-
charge of 1,965 cfs. Water-quality data
were published by the U.S. Geological
Survey (2). Caddisfly adults were collect-
ed qualitativ ely at several outdoor lights
on the property of the Ashland Oil Com-
pany, from 14 June to 9 October 1973. A
total of 350 specimens were taken during
the summer, including 28 species refer-
able to 5 families (Table 1). While most
of the individuals taken represent county
records, the species Ironoquia lyrata,
Pycnopsyche indiana, P. luculenta, and
P. scabripennis are new state records. The
occurrence of I. lyrata (Ross) in Ken-
tucky represents a southem range exten-
sion for the species, previously known
only from Illinois and Pennsylvania (3),
New Hampshire (4), Maine (5), and
northern Ohio (6).

The family Hydropsychidae was nu-
merically dominant, and emergence of
adults spanned the entire season. Cheu-
matopsyche pettiti, the most abundant
species, emerged throughout the sum-

22

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 44( 1-2)

TABLE 1.—LIST OF CADDISFLIES COLLECTED FROM BOYD AND HENDERSON COUNTIES, KENTUCKY

Big Sandy River Scenic Lake Pond Creek

RHYACOPHILIDAE
Rhyacophila fenestra Ross
POLYCENTROPODIDAE

Cyrnellus fraternus (Banks)
Polycentropus sp.
Nyctiophylax affinis (Banks)

HYDROPSYCHIDAE

Diplectrona modesta (Banks)
Cheumatopsyche burksi Ross
C. harwoodi harwoodi Denning
C. pettiti (Banks)

Hydropsyche betteni Ross

H. orris Ross

H. valanis Ross

H. sp.

Potamyia flava (Hagen)

HYDROPTILIDAE
Oxyethira pallida (Banks)

Orthotrichia aegerfasciella (Chambers)
Orthotrichia cristata Morton

PHRYGANEIDAE
Phryganea sayi Milne

LIMNEPHILIDAE

**Tronoquia lyrata (Ross)

I. punctatissima (Walker)
**Pycnopsyche indiana (Ross)
**P. luculenta (Betten)

**P_ scabripennis (Rambur)

LEPTOCERIDAE

Ceraclea ancylus (Vorhies)
C. cancellata (Betten)

C. maculata (Banks)

C. tarsipunctatus (Vorhies)
Nectopsyche exquisita (Walker)
Nectopsyche sp.

Triaenodes abus Milne

T. connatus Ross

T. flavescens Banks

T. ignitus (Walker)

T. injustus (Hagen)

T. tardus Milne

Oecetis cinerascens (Hagen)
O. ditissa Ross

O. inconspicua (Walker)

O. nocturna Ross

O. persimilis (Banks)

3m
2f,1m 1f,1m 1f,lm
1f,lm
1f,3m
2m
Lie raat
af 14£,9m
85 f, 92 m 2f,2m
5f, 1m
2m 10-f, 11 m
lf Sit
10f
4f,3m 30 £ 81m
85 f, 20 m
2 £,20m
3f,3m
ikat
1f,1m
1f,2m
lm
1f,lm
Wak
Qf
10 f, 17m Qf
14f,6m
3 f,1m 2f2m
23m
5f
2f,6m
1f,2m
lm
1f,2m
1f,1lm
lm
lf lm
3 f,3m Qf 1f,1lm
lf 9f,4m lm
13 f£, 30m
6£,3m

m = male; f = female; ** = State record.

mer, but was found in greatest numbers
in June and early July, following a pat-
tern seen in Salt River in 1971 (7). Mem-
bers of the Leptoceridae also showed an
emergence pattern which extended
through the entire summer. Congeneric

species in this family did not appear to
show temporal segregation. Although
limnephilids were found in low num-
bers, their emergence patterns did sug-
gest temporal isolation of congeners.
Pycnopsyche indiana was found only in

CADDISFLIES IN KENTUCKY—Haag and Hill 23

mid-June while P. scabripennis was
present in a late August collection, and
P. luculenta was seen only in late Sep-
tember and early October. However,
Ironoquia lyrata and I. punctatissima
were found in low numbers in both mid-
June and late September.

Scenic Lake, Audubon State Park

Blacklight trap collections were made
on 14 June 1981 near a small unnamed
creek which drains Scenic Lake. This
man-made lake is the largest body of
water within the John James Audubon
State Park, just outside the city limits of
Henderson, Kentucky. The small, wood-
land stream that drains Scenic Lake flows
into the Ohio River approximately 2.4 km
downstream from the collection site. A
total of 294 specimens were collected, in-
cluding 18 species in 5 families. Pota-
myia flava, commonly found in large
rivers, was the most abundant species
taken, suggesting that the light trap was
attracting caddisflies emerging from the
nearby Ohio River. Oxyethira pallida, the
second most abundant species, is known
to live in small lakes and ponds such as
Scenic Lake (8).

Pond Creek, Jenny Hole Wildlife Area

Insects were collected from Pond Creek
in the Jenny Hole Wildlife Area on 27
July 1981, using blacklight traps. Pond
Creek is the primary drainage stream for
the entire Henderson Sloughs Wetlands
in western Henderson County. The un-
dulating terrain of the area provides an
unusual habitat of marshes, streams, and
cypress swamps. Pond Creek is a slug-
gish, heavily silted tributary of Highland
Creek that flows into the Ohio River at
Uniontown, Kentucky. The small collec-
tion of 43 adults, including 8 species in
3 families, may reflect the high turbidity,
low dissolved oxygen, and generally un-

favorable conditions of surface waters in
this area (9).

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

We wish to thank several people for
their help with this project. Specimens
from Boyd County were collected by Mr.
Dave Watkins and forwarded to us by Dr.
Donald Tarter, both of Marshall Univer-
sity. Specimens were collected in Hen-
derson County with the help of Ms. Jan
Taylor and Dr. Robert Bosserman, Uni-
versity of Louisville. Mrs. Diane Karpoff
typed the manuscript. This project was
supported in part by the U.S. Department
of the Interior, Office of Water Resources
Technology, Agreement No. 14-34-0001.

LITERATURE CITED

1. Resh, V. H. 1975. A distributional study of
the caddisflies of Kentucky. Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci.
36:6-16.

2. U.S. Geological Survey. 1980. U.S. Geolog-
ical Survey WaterData Report Ky-79-1. Water Re-
sources Data for Kentucky.

3. Ross, H. H. 1938. Descriptions of Nearctic
caddisflies (Trichoptera) with special reference to
the Illinois species. Bull. Il]. Nat. Hist. Surv. 21:
101-183.

4. Morse, W. J., and R. L. Blickle. 1953. A
checklist of Trichoptera (Caddisflies) of New
Hampshire. Ent. News 64:68-102.

5. Blickle, R. L., and W. J. Morse. 1966. The
caddisflies (Trichoptera) of Maine, excepting the
family Hydroptilidae. Maine Agric. Exp. Sta. Tech.
Bull. T-24:1-12.

6. McElravy, E. P., and R. A. Foote. 1978. An-
notated list of caddisflies (Trichoptera) occurring
along the upper portion of the west branch of the
Mahoning River in northeastern Ohio. Gr. Lakes
Entomol. 11:143-154.

7. Resh, V. H., K. H. Haag, and S. E. Neff. 1975.
Community structure and diversity of caddisfly
adults from the Salt River Kentucky. Environ. Ento-
mol. 4:241-253.

8. Ross, H. H. 1944. The Caddisflies of Tri-
choptera of Illinois. Bull. Ill. Nat. Hist. Surv. 23:1—-
326.

9. Mitsch, W. M., R. W. Bosserman, P. L. Hill,
and J. R. Taylor. (in press). Wetland identification
and management criteria for the western Kentucky
Coal Field. First Annual Report to Office of Water
Research and Technology.

Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 44(1-2), 1983, 24-28

Antibiotic Sensitivity in Group A Streptococci:
Evidence for Chromosomal Resistance

JULIE C. CHRISTOPHER, JOAN S. MYLROIE, AND JAMES G. STUART
Department of Biological Sciences, Murray State University, Murray, Kentucky 42071

ABSTRACT

Two hundred ten clinical isolates of Streptococcus pyogenes were tested for constitutive and
inducible resistance to penicillin, tetracycline, erythromycin, lincomycin, chloramphenicol, and
gentamicin. Of the 210 isolates tested by the disc-plate method, 71 appeared resistant to at least
1 of the antibiotics although none of these isolates were resistant to chloramphenicol. Minimal
inhibitory concentration testing revealed that 48 isolates were resistant to tetracycline (16.2%),
lincomycin (1%), erythromycin (6.2%), gentamicin (2.4%). No isolates were resistant to penicillin
or chloramphenicol. Also, no inducible antibiotic resistance was noted. Twenty of 210 isolates
exhibited minimal inhibitory concentrations above the average serum level for tetracycline (15.7%),
erythromycin (0.5%), lincomycin (1.0%), or gentamicin (2.8%). The clinically resistant isolates
were screened for the presence of extrachromosomal DNA by gel electrophoresis but no plasmids
were detected. Efforts to cure several antibiotic resistant strains were unsuccessful. The physical
and genetic evidence indicated a chromosomal location for genes mediating antibiotic resistance

of the isolates examined in this study.

INTRODUCTION

Surveys of antibiotic sensitivity of group
A streptococci have been reported from
the U.S. (1, 2) as well as from a number
of other countries (3, 4, 5), with the most
extensive work being done by Dixon and
Lipinski (6) in Canada. In several in-
stances (7, 8), antibiotic resistance in
Streptococcus pyogenes has been shown
to be a plasmid-mediated phenomenon.
To date, 6 plasmids have been described
(7, 8, 9, 10) which mediate macrolide, lin-
comycin and streptogramin B (MLS) re-
sistance in this species.

Inducibility of antibiotic resistance in
S. pyogenes, first reported by Hyder and
Streitfeld (11), is a property associated
with 5 of the 6 plasmids mentioned above.
Thus, a pattern seems to be emerging
whereby the MLS genotype is usually
plasmid borne and inducibly expressed.
A question which remains to be an-
swered in S. pyogenes is: what is the in-
cidence of plasmid-bome antibiotic resis-
tance among clinical isolates resistant to
one or more antibiotics? Data provided
in this report indicate that plasmid-borne
antibiotic resistance is uncommon among
group A streptococci isolated in Ken-
tucky.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Bacterial Strains.—Clinical isolates of
Streptococcus pyogenes were supplied by
the Kentucky Bureau for Health Services
(184 isolates) compliments of G. Kilgore
and by the Student Health Service of
Murray State University (26 isolates). All
isolates were obtained from throat cul-
tures processed from approximately Fall
1978 through January 1980. Streptococcal
isolates were grouped by the fluorescent-
antibody method at the Kentucky Bureau
for Health and by the bacitracin-disc
technique at Murray State University
Student Health Service. Following iden-
tification of each isolate as a group A
streptococcus, the culture was received
and analyzed as described below. Anti-
biotic-sensitive control strains included
9440 and K56 (12). Plasmid-containing
control strains included a group A strain,
ACI, obtained from Clewell and Franke
(8) and a group B strain MV154 described
by Hershfield (13).

Media.—The standard (YTH) broth
medium consisted of Todd Hewitt broth
(Difco) supplemented with 0.6% Yeast
Extract (Difco) plus 0.038% K,;HPO,. YTH
agar consisted of YTH broth with 1.5%
agar.

24

ANTIBIOTIC SENSITIVITY IN STREPTOCOCCI—Christopher et al.

Antibiotics.—These were obtained in
powder form from Sigma except lincomy-
cin which was obtained from Upjohn as
the injectable hydrochloride.

Disc Plate Screening.—Two ovemight
cultures of each isolate were cultivated,
one in YTH broth and one in YTH broth
containing subinhibitory concentrations
of the 6 antibiotics tested. One tenth ml
aliquots from each overnight culture were
spread on the surface of YTH agar plates.
Paper discs (Difco) individually impreg-
nated with penicillin (5 units), erythro-
mycin (2 wg), lincomycin (2 wg), tetracy-
cline (5 wg), chloramphenicol (5 wg), and
gentamicin (10 wg) were applied to each
agar plate. The agar plates were incubat-
ed at 37°C for 24 hours, and zones of
growth inhibition measured and record-
ed in mm. The inhibitory zone diameters
for each antibiotic against the control
strains (K56 and 9440) were averaged, and
those test isolates that had zones of in-
hibition less than % the control zone were
considered presumptively resistant (pr).

Minimal Inhibitory Concentrations.—
Each pr isolate was tested for the mini-
mal inhibitory concentration (MIC) by a
microtiter dilution technique adapted
from Baker and Thomsberry (14). Each
isolate was grown overnight as before in
YTH broth and in YTH broth containing
subinhibitory concentrations of the anti-
biotic(s) to be tested. Each overnight cul-
ture was diluted 1/100 in YTH broth, then
distributed in 25 yl aliquots to wells of
the microtiter dish. Previous to the in-
oculation of bacteria, 50 ul of YTH broth
supplemented with the appropriate anti-
biotic were added to the first well and
doubling dilutions were made. Strains
K56 and 9440 served as sensitive controls
and the average MIC for each antibiotic
was determined. Test isolates with MICs
16 times the control average were consid-
ered resistant. Criteria for inducibility
were set at the same level (i.e., inducibly
resistant strains showed at least 16-fold
difference between pre-induced and non-
induced cultures). Clinically resistant
strains possessed MIC values higher than
the average human serum level for that
antibiotic.

25

DNA Isolation.—Cell lysis was accom-
plished by a procedure described by
Forbes and Ferretti (pers. comm.). Anti-
biotic resistant strains were cultivated at
37 C in 200 ml of YTH broth containing
antibiotics to which each strain was re-
sistant at a concentration of 4% the MIC
value. Penicillin G (110 units/ml) was
added to late log-phase cells and incu-
bation continued for 2 hours. Cells were
then harvested by centrifugation and the
pellet frozen before use. The pellet was
resuspended in 5 ml of 0.15 M Trizma
(Sigma) base-HCl at pH 6.4 containing 4
mg of lysozyme (Natl. Biochem. Corp.)
and 5 ml of 0.25 M EDTA and the sus-
pension was incubated at 37°C for 3.5 hr.
The cells were then pelleted and resus-
pended in 10 ml of 0.1 M sodium citrate,
plus 0.8 ml of a 5% solution of protease
(Sigma type V) with overnight incubation
degraded the remaining proteins and en-
hanced cell lysis.

The method of separation of chromo-
somal DNA from plasmid DNA was es-
sentially that described by Currier and
Nester (15).

Gel Electrophoresis.—Gel electropho-
resis of the experimental and control (ACI
and MV154) DNA was accomplished by
the method of Sharp et al. (16). Both tube
gels (Buchler) and slab gels (Savant) were
used for the separation and visualization
of plasmid DNA. Ten or 20 wg of each
DNA preparation was layered on the slab
and tube gels, respectively.

Curing Methods.—Four plasmid cur-
ing methods were utilized: (a) storage of
the isolates on blood agar slants at 4°C for
at least 6 mo., (b) incubation of isolates
with subinhibitory concentrations of
ethidium bromide in YTH broth at 37°C
for 24 hr, (c) incubation of the isolate at
an elevated temperature (42°C) in YTH
broth for 18 hr (13, 8) and (d) incubation
at a high temperature (45°C) for an ex-
tended period (2-3 weeks) according to
Clewell et al. (17).

RESULTS
Disc Plate Screening.—Of the 210 iso-

lates tested, 71 exhibited presumptive re-
sistance to at least one antibiotic by this

26

TABLE 1.—PERCENTAGES OF ANTIBIOTIC RESIS-
TANT GROUP A ISOLATES DETERMINED BY THE MIN-
IMAL INHIBITORY CONCENTRATION METHOD

Jo* Resist-

Antibiotic ance r/pr x 100
Penicillin 0% 0%
Erythromycin 6.2% 86.7%
Lincomycin 1.0% 40.0%
Tetracycline 16.2% 70.8%
Gentamicin 24% 29.4%

Percentages of Multiply Resistant Group A Isolates
J Resis-

Antibiotics tant r/pr x 100
Gentamicin, Tetracycline 1.0% 33.3%
Erythromycin, Lincomycin 1.0% 100%
Erythromycin, Tetracycline 0.5% 100%
Erythromycin, Gentamicin,

Tetracycline 0.5% 100%

* Per cent based on 210 isolates tested.

method. No isolates demonstrated resis-
tance to chloramphenicol. Resistance to
penicillin, erythromycin, lincomycin, tet-
racycline, and gentamicin was demon-
strated by 3, 15, 5, 48, and 18 isolates,
respectively.

MIC Testing.—Seventy of the pr iso-
lates (1 stock was lost) were quantitated
for antibiotic sensitivity. Although no pr
isolates were noted exhibiting chloram-
phenicol resistance, 24 isolates were cho-
sen for MIC testing. Percentages of resis-
tant isolates are presented in Table 1. No
inducible resistance was exhibited by any
isolate tested by the MIC method. The
largest category of resistance included
those isolates resistant to tetracycline
(16.2%), whereas no pr isolates were

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 44(1—2)

found to be resistant to penicillin by this
method. The best agreement between
disc-screened resistance (pr) and MIC
testing (r) was observed with erythro-
mycin testing.

Multiple resistance was confirmed in 6
isolates with the MIC procedure (Table
1). Five of the isolates were doubly re-
sistant, whereas 1 isolate exhibited resis-
tance to 3 antibiotics.

Table 2 presents MIC ranges and me-
dians compared to average serum levels
of the 6 antibiotics tested. The highest
level of clinical resistance (15.7%) was
noted among the tetracycline resistant
isolates. No strains were clinically resis-
tant to chloramphenicol or penicillin, al-
though 1 strain exhibited clinical resis-
tance to erythromycin.

Gel Electrophoresis.—With the excep-
tion of 6 strains lost from culture, the clin-
ically resistant strains plus 12 additional
erythromycin resistant strains were sub-
jected to DNA isolation procedures and
gel electrophoresis. Figure 1 shows the
control strains AC] and MV154 with the
characteristic chromosomal and plasmid
bands of DNA compared to 8 experimen-
tal strains and plasmid negative 9440. No
plasmids were detected in any of the
clinical isolates tested with tube or slab
gels.

Curing.—Several clinical isolates and
the positive plasmid control strain ACI
were subjected to a variety of curing pro-
cedures shown in Table 3. Curing fre-
quencies in strain ACI varied from 0.5%-—
98.8% depending upon the curing regi-

TABLE 2.—ANTIOBIOTIC RESISTANCE LEVELS DETERMINED BY THE MINIMAL INHIBITORY CONCENTRATION

METHOD
Number
of
strains Average serum® Percent*
Antibiotic tested Range (ug/ml) Median (ug/ml) level (ug/ml) clinically resistant

Penicillin” 3 0.00-0.1 0.01 11.5 0%
Erythromycin 15 0.01-10.0 1.56 6.0 0.5% (1)
Lincomycin 5 0.01-125.0 0.08 11.0 1.0% (2)
Tetracycline 48 0.31-125.0 11.25 3.0 15.7% (32)
Gentamicin 17 0.12-38.6 1.21 4.5 2.9% (6)
Chloramphenicol 24 0.62-2.5 1.25 7.5 0%

‘Percent based on 210 isolates tested.
" The penicillin used in this survey contained 1.675 units/ug.
© From Lennett et al, (20).

ANTIBIOTIC SENSITIVITY IN STREPTOCOCCI—Christopher et al.

Bi Ken
chr—>

pl<y
chre

Fic. 1. Slab Gel Electrophoresis (1.0% agarose).
Slots #1, #2, and #3 are control strains. Slot #1
contains strain 9440 which possesses only chro-
mosomal (chr) DNA. Slots #2 and #3 contain MV154
and ACI, respectively and both possess chromo-
somal and plasmid (pl) DNA. Clinical isolates are
located in slots 4-11 and reveal only chromosomal
DNA.

men utilized. No curing was observed
among the selected clinical isolates with
any of the procedures employed.

DISCUSSION

The result of the antibiotic disc plate
and MIC testing are comparable to re-
ports of Dixon and Lipinski (18). How-
ever, our data showed higher incidences
with higher MICs for tetracycline, eryth-
romycin, and lincomycin resistance than
other reports from this country (1, 2). This
study indicates a continuing sensitivity of
group A strains to penicillin, although as
suggested earlier by Dixon and Lipinski
(18) sensitivity testing should be per-
formed when administering an alterna-
tive drug for penicillin-allergic patients.

The plasmid survey produced a sur-
prising lack of data in comparison to re-
ports concerning plasmids in other strep-
tococcal species (19, 13). This is the first
study to our knowledge which attempts
to correlate antibiotic resistance with the
presence or absence of plasmids in a pop-
ulation of clinical isolates. The physical
evidence and curing data suggest that an-
tibiotic resistance plasmids are rare in
group A streptococci. This is further sup-
ported by the fact that only 6 plasmids
from S. pyogenes have been described

27

TABLE 3.—CURING OF SELECTED CLINICAL ISO-

LATES
Antibiotic
resistance

Strain selected* Agent” % Curing
ACI Ery Control + Anti 0
AC] Ery EB 0.5
AC1 Ery NS 97.7
ACI Ery NS + EB 98.1
ACI Ery NS + 42°C 98.8
25 Tet NS + 42°C 0
154 Tet NS + 42°C 0
1148 Tet, Gm NS + 42°C 0,0
2372 Ery NS 0
2372 Ery NS + EB 0
2372 Ery NS + 42°C 0
2566 Ery NS + 42°C 0
2566 Ery NS + 45°C 0
2628 Ery NS + 42°C 0
2723 Ery NS + 42°C 0
2723 Ery NS + EB 0
3017 Ery NS + 42°C 0
3017. Ery NS + EB 0
3019 Lin NS + 42°C 0
3019 Lin, Ery NS + 42°C 0,0
3052 Lin, Ery NS + 42°C 0,0
3052 Lin, Ery NS + 42°C + EB 0,0
6003 Tet NS 0
6028 Gm NS + 42°C 0)

* Tet (tetracycline), Ery (erythromycin), Lin (lincomycin), and Gm
(gentamycin).

+ NS (natural segregation of cells following refrigeration for at least
six months), EB (ethidium bromide), 42 C (temperature at which
cells were incubated prior to plating), and Control] + Anti (the control
experiment whereby the cells were grown in the presence of the
antibiotic to which they were resistant).

and all confer the MLS phenotype (7, 8,
9, 10). Interestingly all 6 of the plasmids
are derived from a survey by Dixon and
Lipinski (6) of 18,628 S. pyogenes iso-
lates. Five of the 6 plasmids conferred
inducible resistance, and all 5 exhibited
high level resistance to erythromycin (200
pg/ml) and lincomycin (200 pg/ml). No-
tably, none of the isolates tested in this
study exhibited inducible resistance nor
MICs of this magnitude. Curing rates of
0.5% for ACI using ethidium bromide
were comparable with those reported by
Clewell using acridine orange (8). Addi-
tionally, excellent curing (98%) was ob-
tained by storage at 4°C. This represents
the most effective method yet reported
for curing plasmids in this species.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Our thanks are extended to Dr. George
Kilgore, Kentucky Bureau of Health Ser-

28

vices, who generously supplied most of
our isolates. This work was largely sup-
ported by the American Heart Associa-
tion, Kentucky Affiliate.

LITERATURE CITED

1. Finland, M., C. Gamer, C. Wilcox, and L. Sa-
bath. 1976. Susceptibility of beta-hemolytic strep-
tococci to 65 antibacterial agents. Antimicrob. Ag.
Chemother. 9:11-19.

2. Freundlich, L. F., E. Zanfordino, and S. L. Ro-
senthal. 1979. Susceptibility of streptococci to
newer tetracyclines and cephalosporins and to each
other antimicrobial agents, Amer. Jour. Med. Tech.
45:835-839.

3. Bergner-Rabinowitz, S., and A. M. Davies.
1970. Sensitivities of Streptococcus pyogenes types
to tetracycline and other antibiotics. Israel J. Med.
Sci. 6:393-398.

4. Nakae, M., T. Murai, Y. Kaneko, and S. Mit-
suhashi. 1977. Drug resistance in Streptococcus
pyogenes isolated in Japan (1974-1975). Antimi-
crob. Ag. Chemother. 12:427—428.

5. Robertson, M. H. 1973. Tetracycline-resis-
tant beta-hemolytic streptococci in south-west Es-
sex: decline and fall. Brit. Med. J. 4:84.

6. Dixon, J. M.S., and A. E. Lipinski. 1972. Re-
sistance of group A beta-hemolytic streptococci to
lincomycin and erythromycin. Antimicrob. Ag.
Chemother. 1:333-339.

7. Behnke, D., V. I. Golubkow, H. Malke, A. S.
Boitsov, and A. A. Totolian. 1979. Restriction en-
donuclease analysis of group A streptococci plas-
mids determining resistance to macrolides, lincos-
amides, and streptogramin B antibiotics. FEMS
Microbiol. Lett. 6:59.

8. Clewell, D. B., and A. E. Franke. 1974.
Characterization of a plasmid determining resis-
tance to erythromycin, lincomycin, and vemamycin
B in a strain of Streptococcus pyogenes. Antimi-
crob. Ag. Chemother. 5:534-537.

9. Malke, H., H. E. Jacob, and K. Storl. 1976.
Characterization of the antibiotic resistance plas-
mid ERL-1 from Streptococcus pyogenes. Mol. Gen.
Genet. 144:333-338.

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 44( 1-2)

10. Malke, H., W. Reichardt, M. Hartmann, and
F. Walter. 1981. Genetic study of plasmid-asso-
ciated zonal resistance to lincomycin in Strepto-
coccus pyogenes. Antimicrob. Ag. Chemother. 19:
91-100.

11. Hyder, S. L., and M. M. Streitfeld. 1973. In-
ducible and constitutive resistance to macrolide an-
tibiotics and lincomycin in clinically isolated strains
of Streptococcus pyogenes. Antimicrob. Ag. Chem-
other. 4:327-331.

12. Stuart, J. G., and J. J. Ferretti. 1978. Ge-
netic analysis of Antibiotic resistance in Strepto-
coccus pyogenes. J. Bacteriol. 133:852— 859.

13. Hershfield, V. 1979. Plasmids mediating
multiple drug resistance in group B streptococcus:
transferability and molecular properties. Plasmid 2:
137-149.

14. Baker, C. N., and C. Thornsberry. 1974.
Antimicrobial susceptability of Streptococcus mu-
tans isolated from patients with endocarditis. An-
timicrob. Ag. Chemother. 5:268—271.

15. Currier, T. C., and E. W. Nester. 1976. Iso-
lation of covalently closed DNA of high molecular
weight from bacteria. Anal. Biochem. 76:431-441.

16. Sharp, P. A., W. Sugden, and J. Sambrook.
1973. Detection of two restriction endonuclease
activities in Haemophilus parainfluenzae using an-
alytical agarose: ethidium bromide electrophoresis.
Biochemistry 12:3055-3063.

17. Clewell, D. B., Y. Yagi, and B. Bauer. 1975.
Plasmid-determined tetracycline resistance in
Streptococcus faecalis: evidence for gene amplifi-
cation during growth in presence of tetracycline.
Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 72:1720-1724.

18. Dixon, J. M. S., and A. E. Lipinski. 1978.
Prevalence of antibiotic resistance in pneumococci
and group A streptococci. In M. T. Parker (ed.)
Pathogenic Streptococci, Reedbooks Limited,
Windsor, England.

19. Forbes, B. A. 1979. Plasmid-mediated an-
tibiotic resistance and bacteriocin production in
group D streptococci. Ph.D. dissertation, University
of Oklahoma.

20. Lennette, E. H., A. Balows, W. J. Hausler,
and J. P. Truant. 1980. Manual of Clinical Micro-
biology, 3rd ed. American Society for Microbiology
Press, Washington, D.C.

Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 44(1-2), 1983, 29-33

Terrestrial Beetles (Coleoptera) of Bat Cave,
Carter County, Kentucky

DAVID BRUCE CONN! AND GERALD L. DEMoss

Department of Biological and Environmental Sciences,
Morehead State University, Morehead, Kentucky 40351

ABSTRACT

A survey of cavernicolous beetles in Bat Cave, Carter County, Kentucky was made using pitfall
trapping, Berlése extraction and visual census. Distribution observations revealed relative prox-
imity of beetles to Myotis sodalis Miller and Allen guano deposits in the cave’s upper level or
stream-bank detritus deposits in the lower level. Of 26 beetle taxa collected, only 4 were com-
mon. Of these, 3 were associated primarily with bat guano deposits. Aglenus brunneus (Gyllen-
hal) and Prionochaeta opaca (Say) were restricted to a single upper-level room containing large
guano deposits. Echochara lucifuga Casey occurred throughout the cave, but was more common
in the upper level. Atheta sp. occurred throughout the cave with approximately equal numbers
in the upper and lower levels. The other 22 taxa were found less frequently and were associated
primarily with stream-bank detritus in the lower level; most were considered to be accidental

in Bat Cave.

INTRODUCTION

Bat Cave in Carter County, Kentucky
is one of the world’s largest hibernacula
for the endangered Indiana Bat, Myotis
sodalis Miller and Allen, an estimated
40,000 of which hibernate in the cave (1)
along with fewer individuals of other
species (2, 3). Several studies of bats have
been made in Bat Cave, but other fauna
largely has been ignored, despite the fact
that bats, through guano deposition, pro-
vide a food supply which is not available
in most eastern Nearctic caves, where bats
rarely occur in such large numbers.

Several references have been made to
beetles from Carter County caves, but
only 10 species have been reported, in-
cluding 7 from Bat Cave (4-13). None of
those reports examined intra-cave distri-
bution patterns; all were parts of studies
covering a wider geographic area. In each
of the previous studies, Carter County
caves were mentioned only as related to
general collection locality.

The present study was initiated to cat-
alog the terrestrial coleopteran fauna of
Bat Cave and to determine its basic dis-
tributional patterns, especially with re-

' Present address: Department of Biological Sci-
ences, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, Ohio
45221.

gard to the occurrence of M. sodalis guano
deposits. This provides a basis for further
studies on the dynamics of the Bat Cave
ecosystem and an insight into the role of
M. sodalis in that system.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Bat Cave is approximately 1,030 m long
and has over 2,100 m of accessible pas-
sageway with 2 entrances and 2 main
levels (Fig. 1). The upper level is dry and
has a clay loam floor with some rimstone
pools and flowstone. Approximately 3 m
below this, the lower level is primarily a
stream channel for Cave Branch which
flows year-round. Bat guano is the pri-
mary food souce in the upper level and
stream-deposited plant detritus is the pri-
mary food source in the lower level.

Weekly visits to Bat Cave were made
between 11 July 1979 and 29 March 1980.
Three methods were used to collect bee-
tles. Endogenous and cursorial beetles
were collected by visual survey and cap-
ture, including searching under rocks,
logs and detritus. Edaphic beetles were
collected by Berlése extraction, as were
some vagile forms. For extraction, each
substrate sample (approximately 1 liter)
collected at various points in the cave
throughout the study period, was placed
in an 18-cm plastic funnel supplied with

29

30 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 44( 1-2)

TABLE 1.—IDENTIFICATIONS, FREQUENCY OF OCCURRENCE, DEVELOPMENTAL STAGES AND DISTRIBUTION
OF BEETLES COLLECTED FROM BAT CAVE, CARTER COUNTY, KENTUCKY (A = ADULT, L = LARVA, * = FIRST
REPORT FROM CARTER COUNTY CAVES)

Number collected Distribution
Brathinidae
Brathinus nitidus 2 (A) stream-bank detritus
Cantharidae
*Cantharid larvae 3 (L) Traps 3, 6, 9
Carabidae
Carabid larvae 4 (L) stream-bank detritus
Agonum sp. #1 8 (A) Traps 1, 4, 6; stream-bank detritus
Agonum sp. #2 1 (A) stream-bank detritus
Bembidion wingatei 9 (A) stream-bank detritus
*Clivina sp. 1(A) stream-bank detritus
*Dyschirius sp. 1 (A) stream-bank detritus
*Omophron americanus 1(A) Trap 6
Pterostichus sp. 1(A) Trap 4
Colydiidae
*Aglenus brunneus 88 (A) summer guano piles
40 (L) near Trap |
Histeridae
*Dendrophilus sp. 1(A) Trap 3
Leptodiridae
*Nemadus horni 3 (A) Traps 3, 5
Prionochaeta opaca 116 (A) Traps 1, 2; summer bat room
Nitidulidae
*Glischrochilus fasciatus 3 (A) Traps 3, 5
Pselaphidae
*Batrisodes sp. 4 (A) stream-bank detritus
Ptiliidae
*Ptenidium sp. 7 (A) Traps 3, 4; stream-bank detritus
Scydmaenidae
*Scydmaenus sp. 1(A) stream-bank detritus
Staphylinidae
*Staphylinid larvae 170 (L) Trap 8
*Echochara lucifuga 56 (A) Traps 1, 2, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9;
summer bat room
*Atheta sp. 213 (A) Traps 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 9, winter guano
deposits; stream-bank detritus;
bat carcasses in lower level
*Homaeotarsus sp. 1 (A) Trap 4
*Psephidonus sp. 1(A) Trap 6
*Ouedius sp. #1 1(A) Trap 7
*Ouedius sp. #2 3 (A) Traps 7, 9; stream-bank detritus
*Stenus sp. 2 (A) stream-bank detritus
*Tachinus sp. #1 4 (A) Traps 3, 5, 7; stream-bank detritus
*Tachinus sp. #2 1 (A) Trap 5

a 60-w incandescent bulb. Because many cm x 10-cm glass vial in the cave floor,
cavernicoles are cryptic in habit, pitfall leaving the rim flush with ground level.
traps similar to those described by Barber Approximately 5 g of spoiled pork liver
(7) were used primarily to attract scav- bait was wrapped in cheesecloth and
engers. Each trap was set by burying a 4- hung into the vial from 6-mm mesh hard-

CAVE BEETLES IN KENTUCKY—Conn and DeMoss

Bat Cave

50m

Fic. 1. Map of Bat Cave, Carter County, Kentucky

showing locations of pitfall traps.

ware cloth. Galt’s solution, a non-repel-
lent narcotizing and temporary preserv-
ing agent, was poured into each vial toa
depth of 2 cm. Nine traps were set at var-
ious points throughout the cave (4 upper,
4 lower, and 1 between levels) with dif-
ferent physical and biotic features. Sites
were as follows (see 14 for more detailed
descriptions): Trap 1: upper level; clay
loam and breakdown block substrate; wet-
weather seepage; as in previous years (2),
several hundred bats occurred here
throughout summer, leaving large guano
deposits. Trap 2: upper level; clay and
breakdown block substrate; wet-weather
seepage; approximately 9 m from guano
beds at Trap 1. Trap 3: lower level; thick
piles of plant detritus atop breakdown
blocks. Trap 4: lower level; small stones
and streambed gravel substrate; in main
hibernation room, but little guano or de-
tritus. Trap 5: lower level; clay loam and
breakdown block substrate; thin layer of
plant detritus. Trap 6: lower level; allu-
vial sand substrate; periodic flooding left
little guano or detritus. Trap 7: upper
level; clay substrate; intermittent trickle;
some wood planks and guano. Trap 8:
upper level; clay loam substrate; small
trickles during heavy rainfall; thin layer
of guano deposited during winter bat ac-
tivity. Trap 9: passage connecting levels;
clay substrate; shallow pools; no guano
or detritus.

All collecting was restricted to the
aphotic zone and great care was taken at
all times to avoid disturbing the bats.

31

Beetles were preserved in 70% etha-
nol. Some small forms were bleached in
30% NaOH, cleared in clove oil and
mounted in Kleermount for compound
microscopy.

RESULTS

A total of 746 beetles, representing 11
families and at least 26 species, was col-
lected (Table 1). Only Echochara luci-
fuga Casey and Atheta sp. were distrib-
uted widely in the cave. Among most
traps, E. lucifuga was collected more often
in the upper level and Atheta sp. in the
lower level. However, both species had
highest densities at Trap 8, an upper-level
trap.

DISCUSSION

Of the 26 taxa collected, 19 were found
less than 5 times, making their status in
Bat Cave difficult to determine. Most of
these were collected in the lower level
within short periods following flooding of
Cave Branch and thus are considered to
be accidental wash-in victims.

Six of the species collected less than 5
times in this study are reported to be
common in caves by other authors. Bra-
thinus nitidus LeConte was collected
only twice, but often has been found in
caves throughout the southeastern United
States (15) and has been collected in Bat
Cave previously (9, 13). As an epigean
riparian insect, B. nitidus is probably
subject to frequent transport into Bat Cave
by flood waters of Cave Branch; but re-
peated occurrence of this species in caves
may indicate a trogloxenous (periodically
cavernicolous) habit.

Pterostichus sp. was collected only
once, but some members of this genus
are found often in Nearctic caves (16).
Bolivar and Jeannel (8) found P. honestus
in Bat Cave. Though common in epigean
habitats, Pterostichus is probably a
threshold trogloxene.

Batrisodes sp. was collected 4 times,
always by Berlése extraction from stream-
bank detritus. This species may be more
common in Bat Cave than these data in-
dicate. The genus is common in caves and
includes many troglophilic (facultatively

32 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 44(1-2)

cavernicolous) and troglobitic (obligately
cavernicolous) species (17).

Quedius spp. were collected only 4
times, but some species of this genus are
common in caves throughout the eastern
United States (13). Some species are con-
sidered to be successful troglophiles, but
the present report is the first for Quedius
in an eastern Kentucky cave.

Cantharid larvae, collected only 3 times
in this study, are encountered frequently
in North American caves and are consid-
ered by Peck (18) to be important trog-
loxenous predators.

Seven species were collected more than
5 times and thus show more certain dis-
tributional trends. Ptenidium sp. was col-
lected only near stream-bank detritus in
the lower level. The genus is a common
epigean group and generally inhabits de-
caying plant material. The regular occur-
rence of Ptenidium sp. in Bat Cave
throughout the study period and the fact
that 2 of those collected were tenerals,
suggests that this species is an occasional
troglophile, although the genus has never
been reported as such.

Agonum sp. #1 was collected in the
upper and lower levels, and usually was
close to large organic deposits. Agonum
is common in eastern Nearctic caves and
some species are considered to be habit-
ual trogloxenes (16) or troglophiles (13).
Prior to the present study, A. angustatus
and A. tenuicollis were collected in Cas-
cade and Bat caves, respectively (13).

Bembidion wingatei Bland was asso-
ciated with stream-bank detritus through-
out the study period. Harker and Barr (13)
reported this species to be common in Bat
Cave. Barr (16) concluded that B. win-
gatei is a troglophile. The collection of a
teneral in the present study supports that
opinion.

Prionochaeta opaca (Say), Aglenus
brunneus (Gyllenhal), Echochara luci-
fuga and Atheta sp. occurred in Bat Cave
as well-established troglophilic popula-
tions. This is the first report of such pop-
ulations of the latter 3 species in eastern
Kentucky caves. Peck (12) reported such
populations of P. opaca from several east-
ern Nearctic caves and collected speci-

mens in Bat Cave. In the present study,
P. opaca was collected only in the sum-
mer bat room and only in the fall. Simi-
larly, A. brunneus was collected only in
the summer bat room. Berlése extraction
was the only method by which A. brun-
neus was collected. To avoid possible
population depletion, no samples were
taken in this area after October. How-
ever, presence of all life cycle stages in
fall samples suggests lack of seasonality.
This species is blind and depigmented,
but is found in epigean habitats and is
thus not truly troglobitic.

Atheta sp. and E. lucifuga were abun-
dant in Bat Cave during the entire study
period, occurring in highest densities near
Trap 8. Large numbers of staphylinid lar-
vae were collected only in Trap 8 and
may have represented one or both
species. Despite the lack of reports of
these genera from eastern Kentucky
caves, both are known to be successful
troglophiles in other areas (15, 19).

One beetle not collected in the present
study deserves special mention. The
troglobitic trechine carabid, Pseuda-
nophthalmus packardi Barr, is a very rare
riparian species which is known to occur
only in caves of Carter County (10, 13).

Myotis sodalis guano deposits appear
to influence distribution of beetles in Bat
Cave. Most species in this study were as-
sociated with stream-bank detritus, but
the more common species were found
predominantly or completely in the up-
per level close to major guano deposits.
Further studies are needed to elucidate
the relationships between M. sodalis and
cavernicolous invertebrates in Bat Cave,
especially regarding the bat’s role as a
nutrient supplier.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The authors appreciate the taxonomic
assistance of Paul J. Spangler, National
Museum of Natural History, Larry E. Wa-
trous, Field Museum of Natural History
and J. Klimaszewski, Agriculture Canada.
Several helpful suggestions from Thomas
C. Barr, Jr., University of Kentucky, are
appreciated.

CAVE BEETLES IN KENTUCKY—Conn and DeMoss

LITERATURE CITED

1. Humphrey, S. R. 1978. Status, winter habitat,
and management of the endangered Indiana Bat,
Myotis sodalis. Florida Sci. 41:65-76.

2. Hassell, M. D. 1967. Intra-cave activity of
four species of bats hibernating in Kentucky. Ph.D.
thesis, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Ken-
tucky.

3. Conn, D. B. 1981. Cave life of Carter Caves
State Park. Appalachian Development Center,
Morehead State University, Morehead, Kentucky.
50 pp.

4, Packard, A. S., Jr. 1886. The cave beetles of
Kentucky. Am. Nat. 10:282-287.

5. ————.. 1888. The cave fauna of North
America, with remarks on the anatomy of the brain
and origin of the blind species. Mem. Natl. Acad.
Sci. 4:3-156.

6. Garman, H. 1892. The origin of the cave fau-
na of Kentucky with a description of a new blind
beetle. Science 20:240-241.

7. Barber, H.S. 1931. Traps for cave-inhabiting
insects. J. Elisha Mitchell Sci. Soc. 46:259-267.

8. Bolivar, C., and R. Jeannel. 1931. Campagne
spéologique dans |’Amérique du Nord en 1928 (pré-
miére série). Arch. Zool. Exp. et Gén. 71:293-499.

9. Barr, T. C., Jr. 1958. Studies on the cave in-
vertebrates of the Interior Lowlands and Cumber-
land Plateau. Ph.D. thesis, Vanderbilt University,
Nashville, Tennessee.

10. ————. 1959. New cave beetles (Carabi-

33

dae, Trechini) from Tennessee and Kentucky. J.
Tenn. Acad. Sci. 34:5-30.

11. Nicholas, B. G. 1960. Checklist of macro-
scopic troglobitic organisms of the United States.
Am. Midl. Nat. 64:123-159.

12. Peck, S. B. 1977. A review of the distribu-
tion and biology of the small carrion beetle Prio-
nochaeta opaca of North America (Coleoptera;
Leiodidae; Catopinae). Psyche 84:299-307.

13. Harker, D. R., Jr., and T. C. Barr, Jr. 1979.
Caves and associated fauna of eastern Kentucky.
Tech. Rpt. Kentucky Nature Preserves Commis-
sion. Frankfort, Kentucky. 130 pp.

14. Conn, D. B. 1980. Distribution and ecology
of cavernicolous Coleoptera in Bat Cave, Carter
County, Kentucky. M.S. thesis, Morehead State
University, Morehead, Kentucky.

15. Barr, T. C., Jr. 1960. Caves of Tennessee.
State of Tenn. Dept. of Conservation and Com-
merce: Div. of Geol. Bull. 64. 567 pp.

16. ————. 1964. Non-troglobitic Carabidae
(Coleoptera) from caves in the United States. Co-
leopt. Bull. 18: 1-4.

17. Park, O. 1960. Cavernicolous pselaphid
beetles of the United States. Am. Midl. Nat. 64:66-—
104.

18. Peck, S. B. 1975. Cantharid beetle larvae in
American caves. Natl. Speleol. Soc. Bull. 37:77-78.

19. Casey, T. L. 1906. Observations on the
staphylinid groups Aleocharinae and Xantholinini,
chiefly of America. Trans. Acad. Sci. St. Louis 16:
125-435.

Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 44(1-2), 1983, 34-39

Ethanol and Acetylsalicylic Acid Effects on in vitro

Incorporation of C-14 Phenylalanine in
Rat Spleen Cells!

GERTRUDE C. RIDGEL
Department of Biology, Kentucky State University, Frankfort, Kentucky 40601

ABSTRACT

Experimental data indicated that ethanol-treated rat spleen cells may be inhibited in their
ability to incorporate L-phenyl-[U-"C]alanine. Summarized data demonstrated that a 0.4 mM
ethanol concentration had little or no inhibitory effect while 1.5 mM and 3 mM ethanol concen-
trations significantly inhibited phenylalanine incorporation. In an experimental series investi-
gating the effects of acetylsalicylic acid on phenylalanine incorporation, data indicated that there
was little or no inhibition with concentrations of 1.2 mM, 0.6 mM and 0.3 mM. A third series of
experiments showed that 3 mM ethanol strongly inhibited while 1.2 mM acetylsalicylic acid did
not inhibit the ability of rat spleen cells to incorporate phenylalanine. No synergistic effect was
observed when 3 mM ethanol and 1.2 mM acetylsalicylic acid were applied simultaneously.

INTRODUCTION

A popular mood-altering and medicinal
drug in almost every human society has
been, and is, alcohol. Its overconsump-
tion produces pathological changes in tis-
sues, especially liver tissue, and func-
tional changes that may cause disability
and death. Leiber (1) reviewed research
reports on the hepatic and metabolic ef-
fects of alcohol in man and other mam-
mals. Although there was much research
verifying previous observations of inter-
actions of ethanol and drug metabolism,
and the elucidation of new microsomal
pathways for ethanol oxidation, under-
standing the pathogenesis of alcohol hep-
atitis and cirrhosis remained unresolved.

A biophasic effect on aminotransferase
activity was observed by Badawy (2) in
liver extracts from rats that had been ad-
ministered interperitoneal doses of eth-
anol. He suggested that the biophasic ef
fect of ethanol was probably due to the
release of adrenal components.

Morland and Bessesen (3) pointed out
the difficulties of properly assaying in
vivo results of alcohol effects on liver tis-
sue because hormones and other extra-
hepatic factors can not be excluded. Us-

‘This research was supported by NIH Minority
Biomedical Support Program Grant No. 5 SO6
RRO8 124.

34

ing hepatocytes isolated from perfused
liver tissue, they demonstrated that eth-
anol (50 mM) exposed cells were inhib-
ited in the incorporation of valine by
about 70%. They suggested that ethanol
primarily affected the protein-synthesiz-
ing machinery of the cell.

Islam (4) showed that the presence of
ethanol (40 mg %) in the incubation me-
dium adversely affected the respiratory
activity of rat leucocytes in vitro. He
compared the respiration rates of non-
phagocytizing leucocytes with phagocy-
tizing leucocytes (heat-killed E. coli) af-
ter treatment with ethanol.

Using cells derived from Rueher hep-
atoma (H,), Shields et al. (5) found that
when these cells were exposed to ethanol
(0.1 vol % and 1.0 vol %) they grew as
well as untreated cells. Shields demon-
strated that the level of alcohol dehydro-
genase within the cell had no bearing on
the ability of the cells to tolerate ethanol.

Ridgel et al. (6) demonstrated that crude
preparations of spleen and liver cells were
inhibited in the incorporation of leucine
and phenylalanine after exposure to var-
ious concentrations of ethanol. They re-
ported that phenylalanine incorporation
was significantly higher than leucine in
the system employed.

Aspirin, a common analgesic, is widely
used to relieve human discomforts. The

PHENYLALANINE INCORPORATION IN RATS—Ridgel 35
TABLE 1.—PROTOCOL
Reagents

Groups MEM Ethanol Aspirin Tissue-MEM Radioactivity
Control(s) .6 ml 0) 0 2.2 ml .2 ml
Killed (K) .6 ml 0 0) 2.2 ml .2 ml
Killed spiked (2K) .6 ml 0 0 2.2 ml .2 ml
3 mM Ethanol 4 ml 2 ml 0 2.2 ml .2 ml
1.5 mM Ethanol 4A ml 2 ml 0 2.2 ml .2 ml
0.6 mM Ethanol 4 ml 2 ml 0 2.2 ml .2 ml
1.23 mM Aspirin 4 ml 0 2 ml 2.2 ml .2 ml
0.61 mM Aspirin 4 ml 0 2 ml 2.2 ml .2 ml
0.30 mM Aspirin 4 ml 0 .2 ml 2.2 ml 2 ml
3mM Ethanol + 1.23 mM Aspirin .2 ml .2 ml .2 ml 2.2 ml .2 ml

major side effects of aspirin treatment in
humans have been tinnitus and gastroin-
testinal disturbances (7). Clinical re-
search in humans gave evidence that sal-
icylic acid provided more effective and
safer treatment than did acetylsalicylic
acid (8). These results showed that fecal
blood loss after prolonged treatment with
aspirin was greatly increased. Other side
effects observed included headache,
heartburn, nausea, emesis, and stomach
upset. Kimerly and Platz (9) observed that
human patients given anti-inflammatory
dose levels of aspirin had elevated serum
creatinine and blood urea nitrogen and
decreased creatinine clearance. In pa-
tients with systemic lupus erythemato-
sus, renal disease was elevated after as-
pirin treatment.

Studying the effect of acetylsalicylic
acid on pain, Inoki et al. (10) reported
that 200 mg/kg of aspirin administered
into the intraperitoneal space of rats re-
sulted in an inhibition of the release of
kinen-forming enzyme following paw
pricking and _ sciatic-nerve stimulation.
Bowers et al. (11) reported aspirin admin-
istered intravenously to sheep appeared
to cause increases in lung lymph flow and
a higher lymph-protein clearance. Mono-
layer cultures of rat aorta smooth muscle
cells exposed to 0.2 mM of aspirin for 30
minutes did not synthesize prostacyclins,
but this synthesis was restored within an
hour after removal of the aspirin (12).
Vaughn and coworkers (13) investigated
the effect of aspirin feeding in simulated
altitudes on carbohydrate metabolism in

rats. Their results demonstrated that as-
pirin treatment increased the activity of
glutamic, oxalacetic, and glutamic pyru-
vate transaminases in the rat liver.

A review of the above suggests that as-
pirin and ethanol may have some effect
on enzyme activity and perhaps protein
synthesis. The present report gives re-
sults of investigations designed to vali-
date earlier results in our laboratory on
alcohol effects and to determine the abil-
ity of rat spleen cells to incorporate ami-
no acid after treatment with aspirin alone
and with aspirin and ethanol adminis-
tered simultaneously.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Sprague Dawley male rats weighing
150 to 200 grams were sacrificed by cer-
vical dislocation after fasting for 24 h. The
spleen was quickly removed, weighed,
and pressed through a wire strainer into
30 ml of ice-cold Earle’s Minimum Es-
sential Media (MEM) pH 7.4 containing
penicillin and streptomycin. After careful
agitation to suspend cells, the cell mix-
ture was allowed to stand in an ice-cold
bath and decanted from the residue. The
cell mixture was centrifuged at 2,000 rpm
for 10 minutes and the pellet suspended
in 30 ml of fresh MEM and strained
through cheese cloth and centrifuged
again. After a second resuspension and
centrifugation, the pellet was suspended
in 50 ml of MEM; this cell-mixture was
used to establish the experimental groups
according to the protocol (Table 1). Each

36

CONT ROL TO TREATED
a

OF

RATIO

‘S. A B Cc

Fic. 1. The in vitro incorporation of L-['*C] phen-

ylalanine in rat spleen cells. Comparison of control

(S) with experimental samples treated with 3 mM
(A), 1.5 mM (B), and 0.4 mM (C) ethanol.

experimental group was set up in dupli-
cate and some were triplicated.

All reagents were dissolved in MEM at
the concentrations indicated in the pro-
tocol. Cell samples labeled K and 2K were
killed by adding 3 ml of trichloracetic acid
(TCA) and to the 2K sample was added a
known concentration of radioactive
phenylalanine to be used to determine
the amount of quenching in the liquid
scintillation system.

L-“C-phenylalanine (513 mCu/m mol)
at a concentration of 50 uci/ml was ob-
tained from Amersham Corp. This amino
acid was diluted with MEM so that each
0.1 ml contained 5.55 x 10? dpm. After
incubation at 37°C for 50 min in a water
bath shaker, 3 ml of ice-cold 20% TCA
was added to each sample except the K
and 2K. All samples were allowed to stand
in the cold bath for 30 min and centri-
fuged at 5,000 rpm for ten min. Each pel-
let was washed in two changes each of
TCA, absolute alcohol and distilled
deionized water. Following each wash the
samples were centrifuged at 5,000 rpm

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 44(1-2)

fy 2G

w

<

w

ac

B

4

re)

ac

E

z 5

°

1}

aw

ro)

fo}

=

¢

ac

Py : te
S F G H

Fic. 2. The in vitro incorporation of L-[!*C] phen-

ylalaine in rat spleen cells. Comparison of control
(S) with experimental samples treated with 1.2 mM
(F), 0.6 mM (G) and 0.3 mM (H) aspirin.

for ten min. The final pellets were treated
as previously outlined (6) and counted on
a Searle Model 6868A Isocap/200 Tem-
perature Compensated Liquid Scintilla-
tion System.

The number of spleen cells in the ex-
perimental samples were determined by
the standard procedures for leucocyte
counting and the viability of cells was ap-
proximated by the exclusion of 0.4% try-
pan blue.

RESULTS

Figure 1 represents the results of sum-
mary data obtained from 10 rat spleens.
It can be seen clearly that, at concentra-
tions of 3 mM and 1.5 mM of ethanol,
inhibition of the incorporation of phen-
ylanine was nearly 50% of the control.
However, the amino acid incorporation
in spleen cells treated with 0.4 mM eth-
anol was no different from that of the con-
trol.

The results of phenylalanine incorpo-
ration obtained from rat spleen cells
treated with 1.2 mM, 0.6 mM and 0.3 mM
of aspirin were not significantly different
from the results of nontreated prepara-
tions. Summary data of the 5 rat spleens
are illustrated in Figure 2.

PHENYLALANINE INCORPORATION IN RATS—Ridgel

RATIO OF CONTROL TO TREATED

Ss ETOH

ASP

[= ine) H

ASP

Fic. 3. The in vitro incorporation of L-[“C] phen-

ylalanine in rat spleen cells. Comparison of control

(S) with experimental samples treated with 3 mM

ethanol (ETOH), 1.2 mM aspirin (ASP) and 3 mM
ETOH + 1.2 mM ASP.

In another series of experiments utiliz-
ing 4 rat spleens, 3 aliquots of a cell prep-
aration from each spleen cell preparation
were exposed to either 3 mM ethanol, 1.23
mM aspirin or a combined dose of etha-
nol (3 mM) and aspirin (1.23 mM). Figure
3 illustrates that 3 mM ethanol-treated

37

TABLE 3.—RATIO OF TREATED/CONTROL IN INDI-
VIDUAL EXPERIMENTAL SERIES

3 mM ethanol
Experimental
series

+
3 mM ethanol 1.2mM aspirin 1.2 mM aspirin

1 0.104 0.72 0.45
2 0.072 1.36 0.37
3 0.224 0.81 0.26
4 0.330 1.03 0.23

cells had an 80% inhibition of incorpo-
ration when compared with controls;
whereas a 1.23 mM aspirin-treated cell
preparation had 3% inhibition. The latter
results were shown not to be significantly
different from those of the control using
t-test for significant (0.05 level) differ-
ences of means. When 3 mM ethanol and
1.23 mM aspirin were added at the same
time to spleen cell samples, the inhibi-
tion of radioactive phenylalanine was
70%.

Tables 2 and 3 show the data of the
experimental series mentioned in the
above paragraph. A considerable amount
of variation was observed between the
individual series but there was clear in-
dication that a dose of 3 mM ethanol in-
hibited the incorporation of phenylanine
from 67 to 93%. In series 2 and 4, the
phenylalanine incorporation was some-
what higher than that of the control in
spleen cells exposed to 1.2 mM aspirin.
Series 1 and 3 of the aspirin-treated cells
incorporated phenylalanine at 72% and
81%, respectively. When 1.23 mM of as-
pirin and 3 mM of alcohol were admin-
istered at the same time to spleen cells,

TABLE 2.—COMPARISON OF ASPIRIN AND ALCOHOL EFFECTS ON THE UPTAKE OF ['!C] PHENYLALANINE
BY SPLEEN CELLS

3mM ETOH +

Experimental series Control 3 mM ethanol 1.2 mM aspirin 1.2 mM aspirin
1 1,184 + 34 123 + 11 860 + 29 534 + 23
2 1,734 + 42 125 + li 2,359 + 49 649 + 25
3 3,068 + 55 688 + 25 2,486 + 50 78 = 28
4 1,746 + 48 576 + 24 1,791 + 42 409 + 20

Average 1,933 + 44 378 + 19 1,874 + 43 595 + 21

Treated

Control 0.196 0.970 0.308

% inhibition 80.4 3 69.2

38 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 44(1-2)

the incorporation of phenylalanine in the
individual series ranged from 23% to 45%.
These data suggest no synergistic effects
between aspirin and alcohol.

DISCUSSION

Rat spleen cell preparations, by the
technique employed in this investiga-
tion, can be used to study the effects of
certain chemicals on the ability of the
cells to incorporate amino acids. At doses
of 3 mM ethanol and 1.2 mM aspirin, the
highest concentrations used in these ex-
periments, spleen cells remained ade-
quately viable as determined by standard
procedures for leucocyte counting and the
trypan blue viability test. Perin et al. (14)
and Morland and Bessesen (3) employed
up to 150 mM of ethanol without serious
lethality in their experimental systems
with liver slices and hepatocytes, respec-
tively.

The current results in our laboratory
verify previous findings that certain con-
centrations of ethanol inhibit the ability
of rat spleen cells to incorporate radio-
active phenylalanine. Perin et al. (14) ap-
plied several amino acids, leucine, gly-
cine, lysine, and theronine to their liver
slices; however, they did not use phen-
ylalanine. Their data demonstrated that
inhibition in amino-acid incorporation
was increased with increased doses from
0.5 mM to 150 mM. The data of Perin etal.
(14) showed inhibition of 24% in leucine
incorporation when liver slices were ex-
posed to 1 mM ethanol. Previous results
in our laboratory (6) from spleen cells
treated with the equivalent of 1.5 mM
ethanol showed 29% incorporation of
leucine. Morland and Bessesen (3) dem-
onstrate that the addition of 50 mM eth-
anol to liver cell preparations reduced in-
corporation to about 70%. If different
systems react similarly, this would sug-
gest that with increased dose of ethanol
there would be increased inhibition in
amino-acid incorporation.

Figure 1 demonstrates little difference
between the inhibitory effects of 1.5 mM
and 3 mM ethanol treatment and no ef-
fect with a dose as low as 0.4 mM. These

results might suggest that there is a
threshold level for ethanol effects and in-
creased doses would not further affect the
incorporation of the amino acid. How-
ever, based on the reports of Perin et al.
(14) and Morland and Bessesen (3), who
used higher concentrations of ethanol
with increased inhibition, other factors
must be responsible for the results ob-
tained in our experiments. The differ-
ence observed in the summary data on
incorporation of phenylalanine on 3 mM
ethanol-treated cells between the 10
spleens (Fig. 1), 51%, and that of the 4
spleens (Fig. 3), 19.6%, demonstrate a
significant variation. This type of varia-
tion in individual experiments cannot be
explained. Preliminary results, data not
included here, of recent experiments per-
formed in our laboratory, suggested that
100 mM ethanol inhibited spleen-cell
phenylalanine incorporation to over 80%.
This latter report appears to argue against
the threshold dose but more data must be
amassed before a conclusion can be
reached.

Spleen-cell preparations treated with
0.3 mM, 0.6 mM and 1.2 mM aspirin so-
lutions incorporated radioactive pheny]l-
alanine at levels not significantly differ-
ent from those of control preparations. Our
interpretations of these results are con-
trary to those of other workers (10, 13),
who showed increases and decreases in
protein synthesis following aspirin
administration. Whiting et al. (12) dem-
onstrated that exposure of rat smooth
muscle cells to 0.2 mM aspirin for 30
minutes completely inhibited the synthe-
sis of 6-keto-prostacyclin from exogenous
arachidonic acid. The fact that we ob-
served incorporation of an amino acid and
total protein synthesis rather than the
synthesis of a specific protein, as was in-
vestigated by the Whiting team (12), may
account for some of the differences in re-
sults.

When data from individual experi-
ments on aspirin were reviewed, Series
1 and 2 (Table 3) showed the greatest de-
parture from a 1:1 ratio between treat-
ments and controls. Analyzing data from

PHENYLALANINE INCORPORATION IN RATS—Ridgel

the individual series (Fig. 2), we found
that in 4 of the 5 series of cell prepara-
tions treated with 1.2 mM aspirin the ra-
tio of experimental : control ranged from
1.01 to 1.15. In the fifth series, the ratio
was 0.65, although other dose treatments
of aspirin in that series were at more ex-
pected levels. The 5 series of cell prep-
arations treated with 0.6 mM aspirin gave
experimental : control ratios ranging from
1.03 to 1.10, and with 0.3 mM aspirin from
0.86 to 1.27. Although the overall sum-
mary ratios for these doses in decreasing
concentrations were 1.08, 0.96, and 0.99
respectively, the analysis of individual
experiments might suggest a slight in-
crease in total protein synthesis at the
doses applied in our experiments.

When 3 mM ethanol and 1.2 mM as-
pirin were administered at the same time
to a given spleen-cell preparation in four
series of experiments, the experimental :
control ratios ranged from 0.23 to 0.45.
This variation reflected the type observed
in other experiments. Apparently the ef-
fect of the ethanol on the cells was more
dominant than that of aspirin, with an
average inhibition of amino acid incor-
poration at 69%.

Further investigations are underway in
our laboratory to quantify the synthe-
sized protein and to determine if there
are any differences in electrophoretic
protein separations between treated and
non-treated cell preparations.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Special thanks are offered to Reneé
Wilkins, David Barnett, P. J. Jain, Allan
Dunlap, and Kathy Dawson for their ef
forts in these investigations.

39

LITERATURE CITED

1. Leiber, C. S. 1973. Hepatic and metabolic
effects of alcohol (1966 to 1973). Gastroentero. 64:
821-846.

2. Badawy, A. A. B., B. M. Snape, and M. Evans.
1980. Biphasic effect of acetate ethanol adminis-
tration on liver tyrosine-2-oxo-glutarare amino-
transferose activity. Biochem. J. 186:755-761.

3. Morland, J., and A. Bessesen. 1977. Inhibi-
tion of protein synthesis by ethanol in isolated rat
liver parenchyma cells. Biochem. Biophys. Acta 474:
312-320.

4. Islam, M. F. 1975. Effects of ethanol on the
metabolism of the white blood cells. Environ. Phys-
iol. Biochem. 5:244-251.

5. Shields, A., D. Baltimore, and R. Ryback. 1976.
Viability of cells in ethanol: role of alcohol dehy-
drogenase. J. Stud. Alcohol 37:321-326.

6. Ridgel, G. C., G. Poignard, D. Lott, and D.
Bamett. 1979. Effects of ethanol on in vitro in-
corporation of C-14 leucine and phenylalanine in
rat spleen and liver cells. Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci. 40:
141-148.

7. Stecher, P. G. et al. 1968. The Merck index.
8th ed., Merck & Co., Inc., Ramway, N.Y., pp. 12-13.

8. Cohen, A. 1969. Fecal blood loss and plas-
ma salicylate study of salicylic acid and aspirin. J.
Clin. Pharm. 19:242-247.

9. Kimerly, R., and P. H. Platz. 1977. Aspirin-
induced depression of renal function. New England
J. Med. 296:418-424.

10. Inoki, R., T. Hayashi, T. Kudo, K. Matsumata,
M. Oka, and Y. Kotani. 1977. Effects of morphine
and acetylsalicylic acid on kinen forming enzyme
in rat paw. Arch. Int. Phar. 228:126-135.

1l. Bowers, R. E., K. L. Brigham, and P. J. Owen.
1977. Salicylate pulmonary edema: the mechanism
in sheep and review of the clinical literature. Amer.
Rev. Resp. Dis. 115:261-268.

12. Whiting, J., K. Salata, and J. M. Bailey. 1980.
Aspirin: an unexpected side effect on prostacyclin
synthesis in cultured vascular smooth muscle cells.
Science 210:663-665.

13. Vaughn, D. A., J. L. Steele, and P. R. Korty.
1969. Metabolic effects of feeding aspirin to rats to
simulated altitude. Fed. Proc. 28:1110-1114.

14. Perin, A., G. Scalabrino, A. Sessa, and A. Ar-
nabaldi. 1974. In vitro inhibition of protein syn-
thesis in rat liver as a consequence of ethanol me-
tabolism. Biochem. Biophys. Acta 366:101-108.

Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 44(1-2), 1983, 40-45

Spider Fauna of Alfalfa and Soybean
in Central Kentucky'

JOSEPH D. CULIN AND KENNETH V. YEARGAN
Department of Entomology, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky 40546

ABSTRACT
A 3-year study of spider communities in 4 alfalfa and 4 soybean plots (each 15 m x 30 m)
resulted in the collecting of 42,671 spiders representing 21 families, 86 identified genera, and
143 identified species. Three families, Amaurobiidae, Oecobiidae, and Segestriidae, were col-

lected in alfalfa only.

Tetragnatha laboriosa Hentz was the most abundant foliage-dwelling species in both crops.
On the ground surface, Grammonota inornata Emerton and Meioneta unimaculata (Banks) were
the most common species in alfalfa, while Erigone autumnalis Emerton and G. inornata were

the most abundant species in soybean.

INTRODUCTION

Surveys of the spider fauna of alfalfa
were presented by Howell and Pien-
kowski (1), Wheeler (2), and Yeargan and
Dondale (3). Only 2 studies (4, 5) have
presented lists of spider species found in
soybeans.

In connection with a study of spider-
community structure and population dy-
namics in alfalfa and soybean (6), an ex-
tensive survey of the spider fauna of these
2 crops in central Kentucky was under-
taken.

METHODS AND MATERIALS

This study was conducted during 1978-
1980 on a University of Kentucky Agri-
cultural Experiment Station research farm
located in Lexington, Kentucky. Collec-
tions were made in 4 plots each of “Buf-
falo’-variety alfalfa and “Williams’-variety
soybean. Each plot measured 15 m x
30 m.

In alfalfa, spider populations were sur-
veyed using both a carriage-mounted
D-VAC suction sampler (7), and pitfall
traps having V-shaped drift fences (8, 9).
Spiders in soybean were sampled using
both the shake-cloth method (10) and pit-
fall traps. The sampling schedule is pre-
sented in Table 1.

' This paper (82-7-65) is in connection with a proj-
ect of the Kentucky Agricultural Experiment Station
and is published with the approval of the Director.
Received for publication 20 April 1982.

On each sampling date, 4 D-VAC sam-
ples were taken in each alfalfa plot. Dur-
ing 1978 a sample consisted of the organ-
isms vacuumed from an area 0.25 m?,
while in 1979 and 1980 a sample consist-
ed of a transect of 10 0.09 m? sub-sam-
ples. In soybean 4 shake-cloth sam-
ples were taken in each plot on each
sampling date during all 3 growing sea-
sons. A shake-cloth sample consisted of
the organisms shaken from a 1 m portion
of a single row. Pitfall traps consisted of
a 12 cm dia. trap located at the apex of a
V-shaped drift fence measuring 10 cm x
60 cm on a side. In both crops, 4 traps
were used with each placed approximate-
ly 3 m from the edge. Further details of
the sampling methods can be found in
Culin (6).

The use of different sampling methods
in each crop was based on published re-
ports and the availability of equipment.
To date, no studies have been reported
that compare sampling methods for spi-
ders in alfalfa. However, Dietrick et al.
(11) and Callahan et al. (12), comparing
sweep-net and D-VAC methods, found
that most insect species in alfalfa were
better sampled by the D-VAC method.
Shepard et al. (13) compared the D-VAC
and shake-cloth methods in soybean and
found that the latter yielded the greater
number of spiders. On the other hand,
Marston et al. (14) and LeSar and Un-
zicker (4) reported that a back-pack-
mounted D-VAC collected more spiders
in soybean than the shake-cloth method.

40

SPIDERS IN KENTUCKY—Culin and Yeargan

4]

TABLE 1.—SAMPLING SCHEDULE USED IN COLLECTING SPIDERS FROM ALFALFA AND SOYBEANS IN CEN-
TRAL KENTUCKY

Crop Year D-VAC! Shake-cloth* Pitfall*
Alfalfa 1978 weekly _— weekly
25 May-14 Dec 24 Apr-24 Nov
1979 weekly — weekly
6 Apr-10 Dec 22 Mar—24 Nov
1980 bi-weekly = bi-weekly
7 Apr-4 Nov 17 Apr-29 Nov
Soybean 1979 — weekly weekly
29 Jun-17 Oct 5 Jun—24 Nov
1979 _ weekly weekly
11 Jun-29 Oct 22 Mar—24 Nov
1980 — bi-weekly bi-weekly
19 Jun-5 Nov 17 Apr-8 Nov

1 Samples both foliage and ground surface.
* Samples only foliage.
* Samples only ground surface.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

There were 42,671 spiders collected
during this study (35,171 in alfalfa D-VAC
samples; 3,084 in soybean shake-cloth
samples; 3,136 in pitfall traps in alfalfa;
1,280 in pitfall traps in soybean). The
greater number of spiders collected in
the D-VAC, compared to the shake-
cloth samples, was probably due in part
to differences in sample size caused by us-
ing different methods. In addition, the
D-VAC method samples spiders from both
the foliage and ground-surface, while the
shake-cloth samples only the foliage. In
the pitfall trap samples, the greater num-
ber of spiders collected in alfalfa may have
been in part due to the more moderate
environment caused by the relatively
dense ground cover.

Collected spiders represented 21 fam-
ilies, 86 identified genera, and 143 iden-
tified species (Table 2). Additional mor-
pho-species (small numbers of individuals
appearing morphologically distinct) were
occasionally collected (6); however, this
paper presents only those identified at
least to the generic level. Two taxa, Mis-
umenops spp. and Xysticus spp., are pre-
sented in Table 2 as representing multi-
ple species. Both of these consisted of
large numbers of immature individuals
that could not be positively identified be-
yond the generic level.

The families Oecobiidae, Amaurobi-
idae, and Segestriidae were rarely col-
lected and only in alfalfa. The remaining
families were collected in both crops, al-
though not all species were found in both.

Tetragnatha laboriosa Hentz was the
most abundant species collected in both
D-VAC and shake-cloth samples. Other
studies have also reported T. laboriosa as
being the most abundant species collect-
ed from the foliage in these 2 crops (al-
falfa, 1, 2; soybean, 4, 15). Miswmenops
spp. immatures were the second most
abundant foliage taxa collected in soy-
beans. Population trends and densities
were similar to those reported for Misu-
menops sp. in soybean fields in Delaware
(15). In pitfall traps, Grammonota inor-
nata Emerton and Meioneta unimacula-
ta (Banks) were the 2 most commonly
collected species in alfalfa, while Eri-
gone autumnalis Emerton and G. inor-
nata were the 2 most abundant ground-
surface species in soybeans. Of the most
abundant ground-surface species in this
study, only M. unimaculata has been re-
ported previously as being commonly
collected in either of these crops. Year-
gan and Dondale (3) found that Pardosa
ramulosa (McCook) was the most abun-
dant spider species collected in pitfall
traps in alfalfa in California, while Culin
and Rust (15) commonly collected Par-

42 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 44(1-2)

TABLE 2.—SPIDERS IDENTIFIED TO GENUS OR SPECIES COLLECTED FROM ALFALFA AND SOYBEAN

Crop and collection method”

Taxa* Alfalfa Soybean
Oecobiidae
Oecobius sp. D
Dictynidae
Dictyna sp. P S
Amaurobiidae
Titanoeca sp. P
Segestriidae
Ariadna sp. Pp
Theridiidae
Achaearanea sp. D S
Argyrodes fictilium (Hentz) S
Dipoena sp. D
Euryopis funebris (Hentz) D,P S*,P
Latrodectus mactans (Fabricus) P
Steatoda americana (Emerton) D,P SPs
Theridion albidium Banks D S
Theridion australe Banks D,P S,P
Theridion cheimatus Gertsch & Archer D

Theridion differens Emerton S,P

Theridion frondeum Hentz S

Theridion lyricum Walckenaer S

Theridion neshamini Levi D*,P S*,P

Theridion sexpunctatum Emerton S

Theridion sp. A D,P P

Theridion sp. B D

Theridion sp. C D S

Theridion sp. D D

Theridion sp. E D

Theridion sp. F D

Theridion sp. G D

Theridion sp. H D

Theridion sp. I S

Theridion sp. J S

Theridion sp. K S

Theridion sp. L S

Theridula emertoni Levi D S

Theridula opulenta (Walckenaer) D S
Linyphiidae

Bathyphantes pallida (Banks) D, P*® S, Pf

Florinda coccinea (Hentz) D S

Frontinella pyramitela (Walckenaer) D S

Meioneta dactylata Chamberlin & Ivie D,P S,P

Meioneta micaria (Emerton) D, P S, P

Meioneta unimaculata (Banks) D*, P‘ S, Pf

Microlinyphia pusilla (Sundevall) D* SE

Pimoa sp. D

Tennesseellum formicum (Emerton) D*, P# Ser
Erigonidae

Ceratinella placida Banks D,P S,P

Ceratinopsis laticeps Emerton D*,P Say

Eperigone tridentata (Emerton) D, P

Eperigone trilobata (Emerton) D, P S,P

Eridantes erigonoides (Emerton) D S,P

Erigone autumnalis Emerton D‘, P* Sap!

Erigone blaesa Crosby & Bishop D,P P

SPIDERS IN KENTUCKY—Culin and Yeargan 43

TABLE 2.—CONTINUED

Crop and collection method”

Taxa" Alfalfa Soybean

Grammonota capitata Emerton
Grammonota inornata Emerton
Walckenaeria spiralis (Emerton)

Araneidae
Acanthepeira stellata (Marx)
Araneus sp.
Argiope aurantia Lucas
Argiope trifasciata (Forskal)
Cyclosa turbinata (Walckenaer)
Eustala sp.
Gea heptagon (Hentz)
Leucauge sp.
Mangora sp.
Micrathena sagittata (Walckenaer)
Neoscona arabesca (Walckenaer)
Nuctenea spp.

Tetragnathidae
Mimognatha foxi (McCook)
Pachygnatha autumnalis Keyserling
Pachygnatha tristriata C. L. Koch
Tetragnatha laboriosa Hentz

Agelenidae

Agelenopsis pennsylvanica (C. L. Koch)

Cicurina sp.

Coras sp.

Cybaeus sp.
Hahniidae

Neoantistea agilis (Keyserling)
Mimetidae

Mimetus eperioides Emerton
Pisauridae

Dolomedes sp.

Pisaurina sp. prob. mira (Walckenaer)

Pisaurina sp.

Lycosidae
Allocosa funerea (Hentz)
Lycosa avida Walckenaer
Lycosa carolinensis Walckenaer
Lycosa frondicola Emerton
Lycosa helluo Walckenaer
Lycosa modesta (Keyserling)
Lycosa punctulata Hentz
Lycosa rabida Walckenaer
Lycosa ripariola Bonnet
Lycosa sp.
Pardosa milvina (Hentz)
Pardosa saxatilis (Hentz)
Pirata arenicola Emerton
Pirata sp. A
Pirata sp. B
Schizocosa bilineata (Emerton)
Schizocosa crassipes (Walckenaer)

Oxyopidae
Oxyopes salticus Hentz

ola:
ee

MOPS
z z

ae]

m

wuytwyY

WIOOOOO VION

o

7

44 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 44(1—2)

TABLE 2.—CONTINUED

Crop and collection method”

Taxa®* Alfalfa Soybean

Gnaphosidae
Drassodes sp. P Pe
Drassylus depressus (Emerton) D,P P
Gnaphosa sericata (L. Koch) P
Sergiolus sp.
Zelotes sp.

ine)

Clubionidae

Agroeca sp.

Castianeira sp.

Chiracanthium inclusum (Hentz)
Clubiona abboti L. Koch
Clubiona sp. A

Clubiona sp. B

Phrurotimpus sp.

Scotinella sp.

Trachelas tranquillus (Hentz)
Trachelas sp.

tae] ~~
nnd

TOVOTOOD VY

Anyphaenidae
Anyphaena celer (Hentz)

Aysha sp.

Wulfila sp. D
Thomisidae

Misumena vatia (Clerck)

Misumenoides formosipes (Walckenaer)

Misumenops asperatis (Hentz)

Misumenops spp. immature

Oxyptila sp.

Synema parvula (Hentz)

Xysticus auctificus Keyserling

Xysticus discursans Keyserling

Xysticus ferox (Hentz)

Xysticus funestus Keyserling

Xysticus texanus Banks

Xysticus triguttatus Keyserling

Xysticus sp. A

Xysticus sp. B

Xysticus spp. immature

Philodromidae

Ebo sp. D S
Philodromus sp. D S*, P
Tibellus oblongus (Walckenaer) D S

Nnn

°

oie)

m
m

Ing) tha} Ino} las]
nshiine} tye}

PVVIO VOUS
ADDINNTDNADHATDHNHKH

um
nc)
ae]

Salticidae
Eris marginata (Walckenaer) SE
Eris sp.
Habronattus sp.
Hentzia sp. S
Metacyrba sp.

Metaphidippus galathea (Walckenaer)
Metaphidippus sp. A

Metaphidippus sp. B

Peckhamia sp.

Phidippus audax (Hentz)

Phidippus sp.

Sarinda hentzi (Banks)

Sitticus floridanus Gertsch and Mulaik
Sitticus sp.

whe)

5 OOD
NDDANnNH
ae}

SPIDERS IN KENTUCKY—Culin and Yeargan 45

dosa milvina (Hentz), Erigone blasea
Crosby & Bishop, Tennesseellum for-
micum (Emerton) and M. unimaculata
using pitfall traps in soybean fields in
Delaware. However, compared with
studies dealing with foliage spiders in
crops, very few have dealt with the
ground-surface fauna.

There were 112 species collected in al-
falfa in the present study. Howell and
Pienkowski (1) and Yeargan and Dondale
(3), who also sampled using the D-VAC
and pitfall trap methods, reported 112
species in Virginia and 34 species in Cal-
ifornia alfalfa fields, respectively. Whee-
ler (2), sampling only alfalfa foliage, re-
ported 78 species from New York.

Eighty species were collected from the
soybean foliage in this study using the
shake-cloth method. LeSar and Unzicker
(4) found 77 species in soybean foliage in
Illinois using a D-VAC sampler, while
Culin (5) found 105 species in soybean
shake-cloth samples in Delaware.

Sixty-eight species were collected in
pitfall traps in alfalfa in this study, much
greater than the 19 spider species col-
lected in pitfall traps by Yeargan and
Dondale (3) during a 3-year study of
ground spiders in California alfalfa fields.
Soybean ground spider species richness
in this study (67 species) was greater than
that reported by Culin (5), who listed 48
species from pitfall traps during a 1-year
study of soybean fields in Delaware.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

We thank C. D. Dondale and J. Redner
of the Biosystematics Research Institute
for their identification of many of the
species collected. We also thank P. H.
Freytag, B. C. Pass and R. Scheibner for
their comments on an earlier draft of this
manuscript.

LITERATURE CITED

1. Howell, J. O., and R. L. Pienkowski. 1971.

Spider populations in alfalfa, with notes on spider
prey and effect of harvest. J. Econ. Entomol. 64:
163-168.

2. Wheeler, A. G. 1973. Studies on the arthro-
pod fauna of alfalfa V. Spiders (Araneae). Can. Ent.
105:425-432.

3. Yeargan, K. V.,and C. D. Dondale. 1974. The
spider fauna of alfalfa fields in northern California.
Ann. Entomol. Soc. Amer. 67:681-682.

4. LeSar, C. D., and J. D. Unzicker. 1978. Soy-
bean spiders: species comparison, population den-
sities, and vertical distribution. Il]. Nat. Hist. Surv.
Biol. Note 107.

5. Culin, J. D. 1978. Spiders in soybean fields:
Community structure, temporal distribution of the
dominant species, and colonization of the crop. M.S.
thesis, University of Delaware, Newark, Delaware.

6. Culin, J. D. 1981. The development, struc-
ture, and persistence of spider communities in al-
falfa and soybean ecosystems. Ph.D. dissertation,
University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky.

7. Schroder, R. F. W. 1970. A modified suction
machine for sampling populations of alfalfa weevils
on alfalfa. J. Econ. Entomol. 63:1329-1330.

8. Morrill, W. L. 1975. Plastic pitfall traps. En-
viron. Entomol. 4:596.

9. Smith, B. J. 1976. A new application in the
pitfall trapping of insects. Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci. 37:
94-97.

10. Boyer, W. B., and W. A. Dumas. 1963. Soy-
bean insect survey as used in Arkansas. Coop. In-
sect Rep. 13:19-20.

11. Dietrick, E. J., E. I. Schlinger, and M. J. Gar-
ber. 1960. Sampling insect populations in alfalfa
fields by new machine method. Calif. Agr. 14:9-11.

12. Callahan, R. A., F. R. Holbrook, and F. R.
Shaw. 1966. A comparison of sweeping and vac-
uum collecting certain insects affecting forage crops.
J. Econ. Entomol. 59:478-479.

13. Shepard, M., G. R. Carner, and S. G. Turnip-
seed. 1974. A comparison of three sampling meth-
ods for arthropods in soybeans. Environ. Entomol.
3:227-232.

14. Marston, N. L., G. E. Morgan, G. D. Thomas,
and C. M. Ignoffo. 1976. Evaluation of four tech-
niques for sampling soybean insects. J. Kansas Ent.
Soc. 49:389-400.

15. Culin, J. D., and R. W. Rust. 1980. Com-
parison of the ground surface and foliage dwelling
spider communities in a soybean habitat. Environ.
Entomol. 9:577-582.

16. Kaston, B. J. 1948. Spiders of Connecticut.
Connecticut State Geol. Nat. Hist. Surv. Bull. 70:1-
874.

17. Kaston, B. J. 1972. How to know the spi-
ders. 2nd edition. Wm. C. Brown Co., Dubuque,
Iowa.

—

* Family names arranged according to Kaston (16, 17); generic names listed alphabetically.

» D indicates species collected in D-VAC samples; S indicates shake-cloth samples; P indicates pitfall trap samples.
« Taxon representing at least 20% of the total individuals for the collection method

* Taxon representing between 15% and 19.9% of the total individuals for the collection method.

© Taxon representing between 10% and 14.9% of the total individuals for the collection method.

‘ Taxon representing between 5% and 9.9% of the total individuals for the collection method.

* Taxon representing between 1% and 4.9% of the total individuals for the collection method.

Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 44(1-2), 1983, 46-49

Savanna-Woodland in the Outer Bluegrass of Kentucky

WILLIAM S. BRYANT
Thomas More College, Ft. Mitchell, Kentucky 41017

ABSTRACT

Remnant stands of old trees comparable in structure, composition and physiognomy to the
presettlement savanna-woodland of the Inner Bluegrass occur in the Outer Bluegrass in Mason
and Shelby counties. They occur on sites similar to those of the Inner Bluegrass. The dominant
trees and their importance values in the Mason County stands are Fraxinus quadrangulata
(86.88), Quercus macrocarpa (51.29), Q. muehlenbergii (17.29); in the Shelby County stands,
they are Q. muehlenbergii (66.76), F. quadrangulata (40.09), Acer saccharum (21.37), F. amer-
icana (13.50), and Q. alba (12.79). Coefficients of similarity for the Inner Bluegrass remnants
and those in Mason and Shelby counties were 80.12% and 46.73%, respectively.

Trees are over 200 years old at all sites. Size-class distribution curves for all stands are bell-
shaped, which is typical of even-aged stands. Reproduction is poor and the stands are disap-
pearing. Fire and grazing probably were important in maintaining the savanna-woodland vege-

tation in presettlement times.

INTRODUCTION

According to Braun (1) the vegetation
of the Outer Bluegrass of Kentucky is very
similar to that of the Inner Bluegrass.
Braun cited an 1857 Kentucky Geological
survey report that, “locust, black walnut,
black and blue ash, wild cherry, and some
white oak; undergrowth of cane,’ were
present in the Outer Bluegrass portion of
Bath County. This combination of species,
especially the occurrence of blue ash with
cane, suggests some similarity to the blue
ash-oak savanna-woodland of the Inner
Bluegrass (2). Stands of widely spaced
trees, whose dominants included Fraxi-
nus quadrangulata (blue ash), Quercus
macrocarpa (bur oak), QO. muehlenbergii
(chinquapin oak), and QO. shumardii
(Shumard oak), occupied large areas of the
rolling landscape of the Inner Bluegrass
during presettlement times and remnants
have persisted to the present (2). Cane
(Arundinaria gigantea) was probably a
common understory member of that com-
munity, but it is now absent from the
remnants.

Because of Braun’s (1) statements con-
cerning the vegetational similarities be-
tween the Inner and Outer Bluegrass, a
search was made in most of the Outer
Bluegrass counties for extant stands of old
trees whose physiognomy and/or domi-
nants fit the savanna-woodland descrip-

46

tion. As a result of the search, large areas
of savanna-woodland were located in Ma-
son County and less extensive stands
were found in Shelby County. This re-
port gives quantitative descriptions of the
savanna-woodland in these two counties
and compares them to the savanna-wood-
land of the Inner Bluegrass.

The Environment

Geologically, the Outer Bluegrass is the
region where the Maysville, Richmond,
and younger formations of Ordovician age
outcrop. Topographically, it is a gently
rolling plain similar to the Inner Blue-
grass, but the soils are of somewhat lower
fertility (3). Although McFarlan (3) men-
tions that underground drainage is less pro-
nounced than in the Inner Bluegrass and
that sinks are few, all savanna-woodland
stands studied in both regions were on
gently undulating sites with sinks and
springs present consistently. Soils at all
sites were well-drained. Lowell silt loam,
a soil with high available water capacity
and medium natural fertility, is dominant
at the Mason County sites (4). In Shelby
County, Lowell silt loam and Shelbyville
silt loam are dominant (5). The Shelby-
ville silt loam also has a high available
water capacity and is medium in natural
fertility. Both soils are often associated
with karsted areas (5). The climate of the

SAVANNA-WOODLAND IN KENTUCKY—Bryant

Outer Bluegrass is of the humid conti-
nental type typical of the entire state. The
annual temperature averages about 13°C
and the mean annual precipitation of 109
cm is evenly distributed throughout the
year (6).

METHODS OF STUDY

Except for trees within 10 m of the edge
(fence rows) or groves of small trees on
disturbed sites, the diameters of all trees
20 cm and greater in diameter at 1.37 m
above ground level were measured. The
diameter measurements were converted
to basal area and summed for each
species. Tree numbers and basal areas
were analyzed to Relative Density (RD)
and Relative Dominance (RDo), respec-
tively, and those values were summed to
produce an Importance Value (IV) for
each species. Five sites were sampled in
Mason County and 2 in Shelby County.
Because of the close proximity of the
stands in each county it was assumed that
they were formerly continuous. For that
reason, individual stand data were
lumped to give a composite for each
county.

The Similarity Coefficient (C) as used
by Bray and Curtis (7) was used to com-
pare the similarities between stands in
the Outer and Inner Bluegrass. The
equation for calculating the coefficient is
C = (2w)/(a + b), where a= the sum of
importance values of all tree species in
one stand, b = the sum of importance val-
ues for the second stand, and w = the sum
of the lower values for the species that
occur in both stands. The value for C was
multiplied by 100 to give a percentage.

Ring counts of 16 trees recently cut for
fire wood were made to determine age
structure. Additionally, a Swedish incre-
ment borer was used to obtain core sam-
ples from 8 trees for age analysis.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

A total of 408 trees was measured in the
Mason County stands. As observed in the
Inner Bluegrass (2), blue ash (IV 86.88)
was the most important member of the
savanna-woodland (Table 1). Bur, chin-
quapin, and Shumard oaks had a collec-

47

tive IV of 73.04; thus, they were more
prominent here than in the Inner Blue-
grass. It should be emphasized that the
importance values for the species in these
and other remnants are not necessarily the
same as they would have been in the pre-
settlement communities. Some species
may not have the longevity of the oaks,
and at the time of settlement some trees
in the savanna-woodland were probably
removed for special uses. However, the
fact that 14 tree species occur in common
with the Inner Bluegrass and the high
coefficient of similarity of 80.12% point
to a strong resemblance between the Ma-
son County stands and those of the Inner
Bluegrass. Additionally, other similari-
ties between the Mason County stands
and those of the Inner Bluegrass, re-
spectively, are 17.1 trees/hectare (t/ha)
vs. 12.35-17.34 t/ha; and basal area of
11.35 meters?/hectare (m?/ha) vs. 9.24—
10.74 m*/ha.

A total of 112 trees was sampled in
Shelby County. The structure of these
stands, 15.5 t/ha and 10.2 m*/ha, was sim-
ilar to the savanna-woodland of Mason
County and the Inner Bluegrass. Al-
though there were 12 tree species pres-
ent that also occurred in the Inner Blue-
grass stands, the coefficient of similarity
of 46.73% was low. This is attributed to
a difference in dominants. Chinquapin
oak (IV 66.76) ranked first with blue ash
(IV 40.09) second (Table 1). Additionally,
sugar maple (Acer saccharum) was an im-
portant member with white oak (Q. alba),
black cherry (Prunus serotina), and Ohio
buckeye (Aesculus glabra) being minor
components. Bur oak was of minor im-
portance.

Tree size-class distributions for the sa-
vanna-woodland communities in Mason
and Shelby counties, as well as those in
the Inner Bluegrass, followed bell-shaped
curves (Figure 1) as observed by Ander-
son and Anderson (8) for presettlement
oak savannas of Williamson County, IIli-
nois. Such curves are indicative of even-
aged stands (9). Ring counts of trees in
Mason County showed the dominant
members to be consistently over 200 years
old, with several in the 300-year range.

48

0 — .
0

20 50 80 140 170

CENTIMETERS

Fic. 1. The size-class distributions of all trees in
the savanna-woodlands of Mason and Shelby coun-
ties, and the Inner Bluegrass. Curves have been
smoothed by connecting maximum numbers but not
all size classes.

These ages agree with the findings of
Bryant et al. (2) for the Inner Bluegrass,
indicating that many of the trees date from
presettlement times. A total of 23 oak
seedlings was observed in Mason Coun-
ty, but reproduction was almost non-
existent because of grazing, mowing of

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 44( 1-2)

pastures, cultivation, and perhaps fruit
and seed mortality.

The interaction of past climatic condi-
tions, chemical nature of the rocks, un-
derground drainage, soil character, fire,
and grazing were suggested as factors re-
sponsible for the maintenance of savan-
na-woodland in the Inner Bluegrass (2).
Undoubtedly some, if not all, of those fac-
tors were involved in the maintenance of
the Outer Bluegrass communities. The
physical environments, including undu-
lating topography with sinks and springs
at most sampling sites, and the climatic
history of the two regions are nearly iden-
tical. Although of different types, the soils
are deep and well-drained in both re-
gions.

Fires and grazing probably exerted ma-
jor influences in keeping the savanna-
woodland open during presettlement
times. Portions of Mason County were
once occupied by the Fort Ancient cul-
ture, especially Fox Field (10) in the vi-
cinity of Mays Lick where the savanna-
woodland is well-developed. The Fort

TABLE 1—THE NUMBER (N), RELATIVE DENSITY (RD), RELATIVE DOMINANCE (RDO), AND IMPORTANCE
VALUE (IV) OF TREE SPECIES IN THE SAVANNA-WOODLANDS OF MASON AND SHELBY COUNTIES OF THE
OUTER BLUEGRASS COMPARED WITH THE INNER BLUEGRASS

Mason County Shelby County Bie
Species N RD RDo IV N RD RDo IV x IV
Fraxinus quadrangulata 188 46.08 40.80 86.88 21 18.75 21.34 40.09 107.97
Quercus macrocarpa 79 19.36 31.93 51.29 2 1.79 2.63 4,42 19.37
Quercus muehlenbergii 32 7.84 9.48 17.32 34 30.36 36.40 66.76 17.60
Juglans nigra 32 7.84 1.97 9.81 6 5.36 3.31 8.67 5.96
Carya laciniosa 24 5.88 3.85 9.73 2 1.79 1.18 2.97 7.99
Gymnocladus dioicus 15 3.68 1.87 5.55 5 4.46 1.45 5.91 4.02
Ulmus americana 10 2.45 2.25 4.70 — _— — — 5.83
Quercus shumardii 5 1.23 3.20 4.43 2 1.79 2.45 4.24 8.49
Celtis occidentalis 7 1.72 1.35 3.07 4 3.57 2.69 6.26 4.83
Fraxinus americana 6 1.47 1.42 2.89 9 8.04 5.46 13.50 4.94
Acer saccharum 4 0.98 0.96 1.94 13. 11.61 O76, 2.377 2.74
Carya ovata 2 0.49 0.41 0.90 — — — — 5.20
Platanus occidentalis 1 0.25 0.24 0.49 1 0.89 0.24 1.13 3.25
Carya cordiformis 1 0.25 0.20 0.45 — — _ = —=
Morus rubra 1 0.25 0.05 0.30 0.28
Ulmus rubra 1 0.25 0.02 0.27 =
Quercus alba — — — — 6 5.36 7.43 12.79 —
Prunus serotina — — —_— — 3 2.68 2.15 4.83 —_—
Liriodendron tulipifera _ — — _— 2 1.79 2.72 4.51 0.52
Diospyros virginiana — — — — 1 0.89 0.63 1.52 —_—
Aesculus glabra = = = = 1 0.89 0.16 1.05 aa
Robinia pseudo-acacia — = = = = = — — 1.02

SAVANNA-WOODLAND IN KENTUCKY—Bryant

Ancient culture had an agricultural base
and fire may have been used as a means
for keeping the forest open or as a tech-
nique in hunting. Lightning scars are
prominent on the majority of large trees.
In earlier times, when the original ground
cover was composed of cane and warm-
season grasses, lightning fires were prob-
ably common. The fire resistance of bur
oak is well known (11). Filson (12)
showed “fine caneland” in Mason Coun-
ty and it is well known that the large herds
of buffalo grazed on cane (13). The Great
Buffalo Trace passed through Mason
County and the cane and scattered springs
may have attracted herds of grazing ani-
mals. According to Clark (14), the buffalo
came to drink at the saline springs at Blue
Licks just south of the Mason County line
and their appetites were sharpened to eat
every green thing in sight.

Based on the patterns of settlement, it
would seem that the early pioneers en-
tering Kentucky from the east showed a
definite preference for the open savanna-
woodlands. The first major settlements in
Kentucky were in the Inner Bluegrass
(1775), centering around Lexington, and
in Mason County of the Outer Bluegrass
(1784), centering around Mays Lick and
Washington. According to Shaler (15),
“The early settlers chose their places of
settlement by the nature of the timber.
Where blue ash, black walnut, or coffee
trees abounded, they knew that they had
the most fertile soils.” Additionally, the
open savanna-woodlands required little
clearing to convert to agriculture.

For the two centuries following settle-
ment, the savanna-woodland of Mason
and Shelby counties has remained in ag-
ricultural use, especially livestock rais-
ing. Changes in land use have caused
many of these farms to be lost to urban
expansion, as in the Inner Bluegrass. Re-
production or replacement of the old trees
is low. The trees are easy targets for light-
ning, as indicated by the numerous scars.
Additionally, woodchucks have under-
mined the root systems of many of them,
thus encouraging windthrow. The dis-
appearance of the blue ash-oak savanna-

49

woodland as a distinct community type
in Kentucky may be drawing near.

The similarities regarding habitat and
certain aspects of stand structure in the
remnant stands of the savanna-woodland
vegetation type of the Outer and Inner
Bluegrass make it apparent that savanna-
woodland was a distinct component of the
landscape of the Bluegrass region during
presettlement times. As stated by Bryant
et al. (2), “The high incidence of blue ash
distinguishes the Kentucky savanna-
woodlands from all other savanna types
or prairie groves in the eastern deciduous
forest.”

LITERATURE CITED

1. Braun, E. L. 1950. Deciduous forests of east-
em North America. The Blakiston Co., Philadel-
phia, Pennsylvania.

2. Bryant, W. S., M. E. Wharton, W. H. Martin,
and J. B. Varner. 1980. The blue ash-oak savanna-
woodland, a remnant of presettlement vegetation in
the Inner Bluegrass of Kentucky. Castanea 45: 149—
165.

3. McFarlan, A.C. 1943. Geology of Kentucky.
Univ. of Ky. Press, Lexington, Kentucky.

4. U.S.D.A. (Soil Cons. Serv.). 1975. General
Soil Map of Kentucky. 4-R-34874.

5. Hail, C. W., O. J. Whitaker, H. P. McDonald,
J. P. Fehr, R. D. Rightmeyer, and D. J. Gray. 1980.
Soil Survey of Shelby County, Kentucky. U.S.D.A.
Soil Cons. Serv. Govt. Print. Off., Washington, D.C.

6. Palmquist, W. N., Jr., and F. R. Hall. 1961.
Reconnaissance of ground-water resources in the
Blue Grass Region, Kentucky. Geol. Surv. Water-
Supply Paper 1533. U.S. Govt. Print. Off., Washing-
ton, D.C.

7. Bray, J. R., and J. T. Curtis. 1957. Ordination
of the upland forest communities of southern Wis-
consin. Ecol. Monogr. 27:325-349.

8. Anderson, R. C., and M. R. Anderson. 1975.
The presettlement vegetation of Williamson Coun-
ty, Illinois. Castanea 40:345-363.

9. Meyer, H. A. 1930. Forest mensuration.
Pennsylvania Valley Publ., State College, Pennsyl-
vania.

10. Webb, W. S., and W. D. Funkhouser. 1928.
Ancient life in Kentucky. The Ky. Geol. Surv.
Frankfort, Kentucky.

11. Curtis, J. T. 1959. The vegetation of Wis-
consin. Univ. of Wis. Press, Madison, Wisconsin.

12. Filson, J. 1784. The discovery, settlement
and present site of Kentucke. James Adams Printer,
Wilmington, Delaware.

13. Clark, T. D. 1968. Kentucky—land of con-
trast. Harper and Row, New York.

14. Clark, T. D. 1937. A history of Kentucky.
Prentice-Hall, New York.

15. Shaler, N.S. 1887. Forests of North Amer-
ica. Scribners Mag. 1:561-580.

Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 44(1-2), 1983, 50-55

The Effects of Topography on
Kentucky Tornadoes

L. MICHAEL TRAPASSO AND ROBERT R. MATTINGLY

Department of Geography and Geology, Western Kentucky University,
Bowling Green, Kentucky 42101

ABSTRACT

The relationship between tornadoes within Kentucky and the topography over which they
track is investigated. Previous studies of this type have offered numerous methods and varied
conclusions. In this study, 50 counties throughout the Commonwealth were chosen to attain a
variety of topographic characteristics. Topographic quadrangles were utilized to extract a mean
slope, a mean vertical relief and a mean ruggedness factor. These terrain variables were corre-
lated with tomado number per 1,000 miles? (1,600 km?), mean (Fujita) intensity, mean (Pearson)

path length, and mean (Pearson) path width.

The analysis resulted in negative correlations for all the relationships, suggesting that a rugged
topography experiences fewer and weaker tornadoes. The analysis further shows that topography

exerts a rather small influence on tornadoes.

INTRODUCTION

It has long been considered that tor-
nado incidence is less frequent over moun-
tainous terrain. Proponents of this concept
maintain that surface topography may af-
fect the development and propagation of
tornadoes by influencing inflow of air to
the storm, angular and linear momentum,
vertical shear, vertical motion fields, and
flow patterns aloft (1, 2, 3, 4). Topogra-
phy-tornado relationships have been re-
searched and varied conclusions have
been reached. Research of this type has
taken place in Indiana (5), Michigan (6),
Arkansas (5, 7), Wisconsin (7), Missouri
(2), the Southern Rockies (8), the Ozarks
and Appalachians (9), and the Boston
Mountains (4, 9).

The present study examines this rela-
tionship in Kentucky. A map of tornado
incidence by county (Fig. 1) seemed to
suggest topographic influence. It is hy-
pothesized that an increase in topograph-
ic slope, vertical relief and ruggedness is
accompanied by decrease in tornado
number per 1,000 miles? (1,600 km/?),
mean intensity (F), mean path length (P)),
and mean path width (P,,). Though the
topographic variables may be similar to
those used in previous studies, the use of
these 4 variables to quantify the tornado
phenomena constitutes a significant dif-
ference in methodological approach.

50

TORNADO-TOPOGRAPHY STUDIES

A number of researchers using various
methodologies have explored the effects
of topography on tornadoes. The use of
laboratory tornado simulators has shown
that an increase in surface roughness can
decrease tornado damage (10, 11) and in-
hibit the transition from a single vortex
to the more destructive multiple vortex
tornado (12). However, laboratory simu-
lations are not real-world situations and
conclusions drawn from such studies
should be taken with care (13).

Photogrammetric analysis was used by
Forbes (5) who noted changes in tornado
appearance with changes in the under-
lying surface. The vortex was visibly al-
tered as it passed over a grassy field to a
plowed filed, and then to a residential
area.

Statistical techniques were utilized by
several authors. Safford (1) correlated tor-
nado incidence with a roughness factor
and found no correlation coefficient
stronger than —0.6. Multiple regression
was used by Schroeder (2) to relate tor-
nado occurrence to a multivariate envi-
ronment. He found that correlations be-
tween tornado numbers and population
density and economic levels of the pop-
ulation overshadowed correlations with
topography. Fujita (8), however, correlat-
ed mean topographic height and height

TORNADOES IN KENTUCKY—Trapasso and Mattingly 51

Kentucky Climate Center

TORNADOES BY COUNTY 1950-1977

Gs 6

variance to tornado incidence and found
both variables to be significant.
Topographic influences were further
viewed by Galimore and Lettau (7) who
employed spectral curves to reconstruct
landscape profiles. Areas of higher than
normal tornado occurrence (tornado al-
leys) were found in areas of smoother ter-
rain while areas of lower than normal tor-
nado numbers (shunt regions) were
coincident with rougher terrain.

COUNTIES INCLUDED
IN THE STUDY

STUDY AREA

Fifty counties were chosen to investi-
gate the response of tornadoes to Ken-
tucky topography (Fig. 2). The counties
were selected primarily on the basis of
population density. When investigating
the regionalization of tornado reports, a
population bias must be considered (14),
especially when comparing low eleva-
tions to mountainous regions (9), grass-

FIG. 2.

52 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 44(1-2)

lands to forested areas (6) or rural to ur-
ban areas (8).

Researchers have addressed the prob-
lem of populaiton bias in a variety of ways.
Galimore and Lettau (7) chose to ignore
population bias, contending that tornado
damage left behind would, in time, be
discovered and reported regardless of the
population density of the region. Safford
(1) used partial correlation techniques to
remove the effect of population density
from his analysis. A “tornado index” was
established by Schroeder (2) to eliminate
large urban populations and ensure a
more homogeneous population density,
while Kelley et al. (15) suggested that
present-day tornado data are collected

with meticulous cross-referencing of

many sources thus reducing the impor-
tance of population bias.

In this research, attempts are made to
hold population bias in Kentucky to a
minimum. This is accomplished by
choosing counties in the western, less
mountainous regions, whose population
density ranged from 30 to 40 persons per
square mile. In the eastern mountainous
regions (characteristically sparse in pop-
ulation density), data were collected from
counties with population densities of 40
to 50 persons per square mile (16).

Population-density values may be off-
set by counties containing large urban
areas (2). Taking this into consideration,
only 4 of the 50 counties chosen for anal-
ysis include communities with popula-
tions greater than or equal to 10,000. The
most populated community in the study
area was Winchester, Clark County, with
a population of 15,700 (17).

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The completion of this research re-
quired the extraction of two distinct data
sets. The first set describes, in numerical
form, tornadoes in Kentucky; the second
set quantifies the terrain over which these
tornadoes were reported.

Tornado Variables.—Four variables
were utilized to describe the character-
istics of Kentucky tornadoes. These were
obtained from the National Severe Storm
Forecast Center, published in Compiled

TABLE 1.—RANGES OF VARIABLES

I. TORNADO VARIABLES (DEPENDENT VARI-
ABLES)
(1) Number of Tornadoes/1,000 sq. mi. (1,600 sq. km)
0 to 30.77
(2) Intensity (Fujita Scale)
: Light Damage (less than 120 km/hr)
: Moderate Damage (121 to 180 km/hr)
: Considerable Damage (181 to 250 km/hr)
: Severe Damage (251 to 330 km/hr)
: Devastating Damage (331 to 420 km/hr)
: Incredible Damage (421 to 510 km/hr)
(3) Path TepeIN (Pearson Scale)
0: Less than 1.6 km
1: 1.6 to 5.0 km
2: 5.1 to 16.0 km
3: 16.1 to 50.0 km
4: 51.0 to 16.0 km
5: 161 km or greater
(4) Path Width (Pearson Scale)
: Less than 0.016 km
: 0.016 to 0.048 km
: 0.049 to 0.145 km
: 0.150 to 0.500 km
: 0.510 to 1.600 km
: 1.610 or greater
Il. TOPOGRAPHIC VARIABLES (INDEPENDENT
VARIABLE)
(1) Mean Slope (in degrees)
3.15° to 28.28°
(2) Mean Relative Relief (in m)
19.82 m to 276.83 m
(3) Mean Roughness Factor (dimensionless)
0.029 to 0.341

TRONS

Tornado Statistics of Kentucky 1950
through 1979.

The first variable used values of the in-
cidence per county to derive the number
of tornadoes per 1,000 miles? (1,600 km/?).
The second variable utilized the Fujita
intensity (F) scale (Table 1) to derive a
mean intensity value per county (F).
Tabulated values of Pearson tornado path
length (P,) and path width (P,,) were the
basis from which mean path length (P,)
and mean path width (P,,) were derived.
These 2 quantities comprised the third
and fourth tornado variables (Table 1).

Topographic Variables.—The 50 coun-
ties chosen for analysis were selected
from various regions around the Com-
monwealth to display a variety of land-
scapes. The topographic variables used
to describe these landscapes were de-
rived from U.S. Geological Survey 1:
24,000 scale topographic quadrangles.
Contour-line intervals and spacing pat-

TORNADOES IN KENTUCKY—Trapasso and Mattingly

terns were applied in conjunction with
slope-indicator templates (18) to derive
the slope of the terrain in degrees. Ver-
tical relief was derived using contour lines
to find the distance between the highest
and lowest points in the area where slope
was determined. Lastly, a ruggedness
factor (19) was calculated using the fol-
lowing ratio: (Vr/Hd) where Vr equals
vertical relief and Hd equals the horizon-
tal distance between the points used to
determine vertical relief.

A minimum of 5 target areas were
quantified upon each topographic quad-
rangle from which mean values were de-
rived. (Three topographic quadrangles
equals approximately one county area.)
Thus, the topography of each county was
typified by a mean slope, mean vertical
relief and a mean ruggedness factor, the
ranges of which are indicated in Table 1.

During the data collection phase of this
research, the counties containing the
weakest tornadoes (FO and F1 intensity)
and the strongest tornadoes (F4 and F5
intensity) were noted. This was done to
reveal the existence of spatial patterns
where weaker or stronger tornadoes may
tend to persist. No significant patterns
were discovered. In fact, several counties
had experienced both F1 and F4 inten-
sity tornadoes through the period of data
record.

Graphic Appearance.—When topo-
graphic variables were graphed west to
east across the Commonwealth (Fig. 3) a
“ramp-like”’ appearance of Kentucky ter-
rain becomes visible. An eastward tra-
verse is accompanied by a movement up-
slope into rougher terrain. The three
topographic variables graphed in Figure
3 show general agreement with this trend.
Comparing this trend with that found in
Figure 4, the tornado variables sampled
across the Commonwealth show an in-
verse relationship with topographic vari-
ables especially at the foothills of the Ap-
palachians where the tornado frequency
drops to zero.

Statistical Analysis —When all the data
sets were tabulated, 2 problems became
evident. First, all 7 sets of data (3 topo-
graphic and 4 tornado variables) violated

RUGGEDNESS —
SLOPE a 92a
RELIEF : =

TOPOGRAPHIC
VARIABLES

» RUGGEDNESS

310 we rrr)

WwW
MO] KY DISTANCE FROM WESTERN BOUNDARY KY] VA
(Kilometers)

PIGws:

the assumption of a normal distribution,
an essential consideration when applying
parametric statistics. Secondly, 3 distinct
types of variables are represented in the
data. The rank order of F, P,, and P,, dis-
tinguish them as ordinal variables. While
tornado number, slope, and vertical relief
are examples of interval data, the rugged-
ness factors stand out as the only ratio
variable in the series. Again, the hetero-
geneity of the data precludes the use of
parametric statistics. It is the opinion of
these authors that the results of previous
or future tornado/topography research
must be examined carefully for violations
of assumptions that may render a para-
metric statistical analysis invalid.

The nature of the data sets was such
that a non-parametric statistical approach
was sought. Spearman (p) rank correla-
tion coefficients assume freedom from
population distribution and can be used
with nominal, ordinal, interval or ratio

TORNADO
VARIABLES

NUMBER/ 1000 SQ. MILE ———
AVERAGE F —-—
AVERAGE PL,

AVERAGE Pw

SCALE
Kilometers)

MILES (1600 Sq

FRA RY

NUMBER PER 1000 SQ

Ww E
MO| KY DISTANCE FROM WESTERN BOUNDARY KY] VA

(Kilometers)

Fic. 4.

54 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 44(1-2)

TABLE 2—CORRELATION MATRIX, SPEARMAN RANK
CORRELATION COEFFICIENT

Ruggedness Relief Scope
No./1,600 km? —0.57 —0.56 —0.52
F —0.43 —0.39 —0.37
P, —0.32 —0.34 —0.13
Pw —0.48 —0.46 —0.39

data (20). Spearman coefficients (p) were
used to relate each (dependent) tornado
variable to each (independent) topo-
graphic variable. The resulting correla-
tion matrix is shown in Table 2.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

A number of conclusions can be drawn
from the correlation matrix. Primarily, all
relationships, regardless of their strength,
show a consistent negative correlation.
These correlations support the inverse
relationship between tornado character-
istics and topography suggested in pre-
vious research. However, the strength of
the correlations (—0.13 to —0.57) indi-
cates that only a small amount of the vari-
ance in Kentucky tornadoes is accounted
for by local topography.

Of the relationships presented, the
number of tornadoes is most affected by
topography, followed by mean path width
(Py). Mean intensity (F') and mean path
length (P,) were the least affected by ter-
rain. Of the topographic variables rug-
gedness followed closely by relief exerts
the greatest influence on tornado exis-
tence and maintenance. The slope of a
surface appears to have less effect.

SUMMARY

Tornado statistics for 50 Kentucky
counties were correlated with the quan-
titative topographic variables for those
counties, disclosing that an inverse rela-
tionship exists. Tornadoes tend to be less
abundant, have shorter tracks, are nar-
rower and less intense in more rugged,
mountainous terrain. The findings sup-
port similar results in previous research.
However, the correlations between to-
pography and the incidence and average
characteristics of tornadoes in Kentucky
are rather weak. The highest Spearman

(p) value for these correlations was —0.57.
Though topography has its influence, the
key to understanding these violent and
sporadic storms still lies elsewhere.

LITERATURE CITED

1. Safford, A. T. 1970. The influence of terrain
on the frequency distribution of tornado and hail
oecurrence in the central Midwest. M.S. thesis, St.
Louis Univ., St. Louis, Missouri.

2. Schroeder, T. A. 1971. The effect of topog-
raphy upon tornado incidence for the central Mid-
west. M.S. thesis, Purdue, Lafayette, Indiana.

3. Fred, D. 1975. Some opinions on the influ-
ence of topography on the April 3, 1974 Cincinnati
tornado. M.S. thesis, Kent State, Kent, Ohio.

4. Dohne, R. J. 1980. Thunderstorm intensities
and trajectories over the Ozark Plateau region. M.S.
thesis, Univ. of Ark., Fayetteville, Arkansas.

5. Forbes, G. S. 1979. Observations of the re-
lationship between tornado structure, underlying
surface and tornado appearance. Eleventh Confer-
ence of Severe Local Storms. Amer. Met. Soc. Bos-
ton. pp. 351-356.

6. Snider, C. R. 1977. A look at Michigan tor-
nado statistics. Mon. Wea. Rev. 105:1341-1342.

7. Galimore, R. G., Jr., and H. Lettau. 1970. To-
pographic influences on tornado tracks and fre-
quencies in Wisconsin. Arts, Lett. Trans. Wis. Acad.
Sci. 58:101—-127.

8. Fujita, T. T. 1972. Estimates of maximum
windspeeds in the southernmost Rockies. Satellite
and Mesometeorology Research Project, Res. Pap.
Chicago 105: 1-47.

9. Skaggs, R. H. 1970. On tornado probabilities.
Ann. A.A.G. 2:123-126.

10. Dessens, J., Jr. 1972. Influence of ground
roughness on tornadoes: laboratory simulation. J.
App. Met. 11:72-75.

11. Bode, L. et al. 1975. A numerical study of
boundary effects on concentrated vortices with ap-
plications to tornadoes and waterspouts. Quart. J.
Roy. Met. Soc. 101:313-324.

12. Leslie, F. W. 1977. Surface roughness ef-
fects on suction vortex: laboratory simulation. J. Stm.
Se. 34:1022-1027.

13. Davies-Jones, R. P. 1976. Laboratory sim-
ulation of tornadoes. Proceedings of the Symposium
on Tornadoes: Assessment of Knowledge and Im-
plications for Man. Institute for Disaster Research,
Texas Tech Univ. pp. 151-171.

14. Abbey, R. F., Jr. 1976. Risk probabilities
associated with tornado wind speeds. Proceedings
of the Symposium on Tornadoes: Assessment of
Knowledge and Implications for Man. Institute for
Disaster Research, Texas Tech Univ. 177-236.

15. Kelley, D. L. etal. 1978. An augmented tor-
nado climatology. Mon. Wea. Rev. 106:1172-1183.

16. Karan, P. P., and C. Mathers. 1977. Atlas of
Kentucky. University Ky Press, Lexington, Ken-
tucky.

17. Kentucky Department of Commerce.
Kentucky Deskbook of Economic Statistics.

1980.

TORNADOES IN KENTUCKY—Trapasso and Mattingly

18. Thrower, N. J. W., and R. U. Cook. 1968.
Scales for determining slope from topographic maps.
Prof. Geog. 20:181-186.

19. Tuttle, S. D. 1970. Landforms and land-

Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 44(1-2), 1983, 55-58

55

scapes. William E. Brown Company, Dubuque,
lowa.

20. Ferguson, G. A. 1976. Statistical analysis in
psychology and education. McGraw-Hill Book
Company, New York.

Amphiachyris dracunculoides (DC.) Nutt.
(Common Broomweed) in Kentucky:
A Potentially Weedy Pest in Overgrazed Pastures?

JERRY M. BASKIN AND CAROL C. BASKIN

School of Bological Sciences, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky 40506

ABSTRACT

Amphiachyris dracunculoides (DC.) Nutt. (Common broomweed) is an annual composite that
was introduced into Kentucky and other eastern states from its native habitat farther west and
southwest. In Kentucky, it is presently known from rocky roadsides or badly overgrazed pastures
in 6 counties: Anderson, Madison, Meade, Simpson, Todd, and Washington. This unpalatable
weed may have the potential of becoming a serious pest in overgrazed Kentucky pastures.

INTRODUCTION

Amphiachyris dracunculoides (DC.)
Nutt. (Gutierrezia dracunculoides (DC.)
S. F. Blake; Xanthocephalum dracuncu-
loides (DC.) Shinners), a member of the
family Compositae (or Asteraceae) is an
annual herbaceous plant native to the
western United States. Solbrig (1) gives
its native habitat as Oklahoma and Texas,
but, according to Jones and Fuller (2), the
natural range of A. dracunculoides ex-
tends from western Missouri and Kansas
thru Oklahoma, Texas, eastern New Mex-
ico into Mexico. The species is an adven-
tive eastward (1, 2), and it has been col-
lected in several states east of the
Mississippi River (3).

Baskin and Baskin (4) reported A. dra-
cunculoides (as Gutierrezia dracuncu-
loides) from Washington and Anderson
counties, Kentucky. This was thought to
be the first report of the species in Ken-
tucky, although Solbrig (1) stated that it
had spread as far eastward as Kentucky.
In her taxonomic treatment of Amphia-
chyris, Lane (3) has only one dot on the
distribution map for A. dracunculoides in

Kentucky. The Kentucky distribution of

this species is based upon an Anderson
County specimen (cited above) collected
by J. & C. Baskin (M. Lane, pers. comm.).
It should be pointed out, however, that
although Lane (3) used the specimen from
Anderson County to construct her distri-
bution map, the dot appears to be in Pen-
dleton County. The only other known re-
port of this species from Kentucky is that
of Cranfill and Medley (5) who reported
it from Todd County.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Field observations on Common broom-
weed in Tennessee and Kentucky and
greenhouse studies on plants grown from
seeds collected in middle Tennesse show
that this species behaves both as a winter
and as a summer annual. Seeds are non-
dormant at maturity in late September and
October. Those that fall off the plant in
early autumn germinate soon after dis-
persal and form an overwinter rosette.
Those that are dispersed in mid- to late
autumn do not germinate until the fol-
lowing spring; these do not form a ro-
sette. Shoot elongation begins in spring
(soon after germination for those plants

56

Fic. 1. Flowering plant of Amphiachyris dracun-

culoides grown in a greenhouse. Seed germinated

in early spring 1981, and photograph was taken on
8 September 1981.

that germinate in spring) and continues
until about mid-summer; some plants may
grow to a height of 1.0 meter. During this
stage of vegetative growth, many branch-
es are produced on the upper one-third
of the plant. Flowering occurs from late
July to early October (Fig. 1), and the
seeds are mature in October. The ecolog-
ical life cycle of A. dracunculoides in
Texas is almost identical to that reported
above (6, 7, 8).

Over the past several years of fieldwork
in Kentucky, A. dracunculoides has been
collected from 6 counties. The collection
data are: ANDERSON CO.: Bluegrass
Pkwy, roadside, 6.4 km E of Co. Rd. 555
(J. & C. Baskin #1130, Sept. 17, 1971).
MADISON CoO.: Interstate 75, roadside
1.6 km S of St. Rd. 876 (J. & C. Baskin
#1966, Oct. 11, 1979). MEADE CO.:: Jct.
of US 60 and St. Rd. 448, roadside (J. &
C. Baskin #1796, Sept. 12, 1976). SIMP-

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 44(1-2)

FIG. 2.

Counties in Kentucky where authors have
collected Amphiachryis dracunculoides.

SON CO.: Interstate 75, pasture, 1.6 km
S of St. Rd. 100 (J. & C. Baskin #1550,
Aug. 20, 1972). TODD CoO.: St. Rd. 171,
pasture, 8.0 km S of Allegre (J. & C. Bas-
kin #1946, Sept. 5, 1977). WASHING-
TON CoO.: Bluegrass Pkwy., roadside, 3.7
km E of St. Rd. 555 (J. & C. Baskin #1129,
Sept. 18, 1971). A county dot-distribution
map is shown in Figure 2. We expect that
the species eventually will be found in a
number of additional counties in the state.

In the 6 localities where A. dracuncu-
loides was collected, the bedrock is either
limestone or calcareous shale. Soil from
the Anderson and Washington county
sites had a pH of 8.0 and 8.2, respectively
(4). The collections from Anderson, Madi-
son, Meade, and Todd counties are from
rocky roadsides, and those from Simpson
and Todd counties are from badly over-
grazed pastures. All of these sites have at
least 3 things in common: (1) the bedrock
is calcareous, (2) they have been badly dis-
turbed by man and/or his livestock, and
(3) competition on A. dracunculoides from
other plants is minimal. We have ob-
served this species in habitats with these
same characteristics in Missouri, Kansas,
Oklahoma, and in the Nashville Basin of
Tennessee. Warner (9) reported that in
east Texas A. dracunculoides is an indi-
cator of calcium carbonate in the soil and
that non-acid soils may be mapped by its
distribution.

Amphiachyris dracunculoides is not
presently a serious weedy pest in Ken-
tucky, except, perhaps, in a few local areas
such as the Todd County site, but it may
have the potential to become one. Ac-
cording to Solbrig (1), A. dracunculoides
is a weed of only secondary importance.

BROOMWEED IN KENTUCKY—Baskin and Baskin

However, Scifres et al. (8) stated that this
species can become a serious problem on
ranges where the grass cover has been
reduced by overgrazing or drought. The
invasion of A. dracunculoides in over-
grazed range land in Kansas (10, 11),
Oklahoma (12, 13, 14, 15, 16), and Texas
(17, 18, 19) is well documented.

Amphiachyris dracunculoides is very
drought tolerant, and thus during the great
drought of the 1930s its numbers greatly
increased in its native geographical range.
In the eastern third of Kansas, Gates (20)
observed that prior to the droughts the
species was found occasionally in open
woods, on rocky hillsides, along road-
sides, and in prairies, but during the
droughts it became abundant in aban-
doned fields, pastures, and prairies.

Heavy infestations of common broom-
weed can reduce forage production and
utilization by cattle (L. R. Rittenhouse,
unpubl. ms.), and the plants can cause
gastro-enteritis, an eye infection (similar
to pinkeye) in cattle, and skin irritation
(dermatitis) in cattle and in humans (20).
Although the plant is distasteful to cattle,
they will eat it when other forage is not
available (21). Thus, this unpalatable an-
nual weed appears to have the potential
to cause economic losses to cattle farmers
in Kentucky.

Common broomweed can be con-
trolled effectively by herbicides (7, 8, 22)
or by mowing before the plants set seeds
(23). The most desirable way of control-
ling it on grazing land seems to be the
maintenance of a good cover of perennial
grasses with which common broomweed
is a poor competitor. In western Kansas
the species is a principal forb on heavily
grazed prairie but is only sparingly pres-
ent on non-grazed sites (11), and in Okla-
homa it is absent from ungrazed grass-
land but invades and increases in number
as heavy grazing or overgrazing occurs
(13, 16).

In the tobosa grasslands of Texas, fire
is used to control A. dracunculoides (24,
25). It is the major winter annual in this
plant community, and spring burming will
control it for two years following the bum
(25). However, common broomweed soon

57

re-establishes on burned areas and in the
fourth growing season following a fire it
was slightly more important in the burned
than in the unbumed sites (24).

Few values have been attributed to A.
dracunculoides in the literature. Lehman
(26) and Chenault (27) indicated that it
served as a good cover for quail on farms
in central Texas; Parks (28) thought that
it had some value as a soil cover in stop-
ping wind erosion and in beautifying the
landscape with its numerous small yel-
low flowers; and Oertel (29) included it
in his list of important honey and pollen
plants in Kansas.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This project was financed in part by
Federal funds from the Environmental
Protection Agency under Grant Number
CR-806277-02.

LITERATURE CITED

1. Solbrig, O. T. 1960. The status of the genera
Amphipappus, Amphiachyris, Greenella, Gutier-
rezia, Gymnosperma and Xanthocephalum (Com-
positae). Rhodora 62:43-54.

2. Jones, G. N., and G. D. Fuller. 1955. Vas-
cular plants of Illinois. Univ. Ill. Press, Urbana, and
the Ill. State Mus., Springfield (Museum Sci. Ser.,
Vol. VI).

3. Lane, M. A. 1979. Taxonomy of the genus
Amphiachyris (Asteraceae: Astereae). Syst. Bot. 4:
178-189.

4. Baskin, J. M., and C. C. Baskin. 1972. Gu-
tierrezia dracunculoides new to Kentucky. Casta-
nea 37:287-290.

5. Cranfill, R., and M. E. Medley. 1981. Notes
on the flora of Kentucky. New and interesting plants
in Kentucky. Rhodora 83:125-131.

6. Heitschmidt, R. K. 1979. Relative annual
broomweed abundance as related to selected cli-
matic factors. J. Range Manage. 32:401—403.

7. Scifres, C. J., J. H. Brock, and R. R. Hahn. 1970.
Influence of herbicide rate, date of application and
phenology of common broomweed control. In Brush
Research in Texas. Texas A&M University, Texas.
Agric. Exp. Stn. Consolidated Prog. Rep. PR-2812:
52-54.

8, ————, R. R. Hahn, and J. H. Brock. 1971.
Phenology and control of common broomweed on
Texas rangelands. J. Range Manage. 24:370-373.

9. Warmer, S. R. 1926. Distribution of native
plants and weeds on certain soil types in eastern
Texas. Bot. Gaz. 82:345-372.

10. Hetzer, W. A., and R. L. McGregor. 1951.
An ecological study of the prairie and pasture lands
in Douglas and Franklin counties, Kansas. Trans.
Kans. Acad. Sci. 54:356-369.

58 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 44(1—2)

11. Tomanek, G., and F. Albertson. 1957. Vari-
ations in coverage, composition, production and roots
of vegetation on two prairies in western Kansas. Ecol.
Monogr. 27:267-281.

12. Bruner, W. E. 1926. Overgrazing from an
ecological point of view. Proc. Okla. Acad. Sci. 6:
34.38.

13. Hutchinson, G. P., R. K. Anderson, and J. J.
Crockett. 1966. Changes in species composition
of grassland communities in response to grazing in-
tensity. Proc. Okla. Acad. Sci. 47:25-27.

14. Kelting, R. 1954. Effects of moderate graz-
ing on the composition and plant production of a
native tall-grass prairie in central Oklahoma. Ecol-
ogy 35:200-207.

15. Sims, P., and D. Dwyer. 1965. Pattern and
retrogression of native vegetation in north central
Oklahoma. J. Range Manage. 18:20-25.

16. Smith,C.C. 1940. The effect of overgrazing
and erosion upon the biota of the mixed grass prai-
rie in Oklahoma. Ecology 21:381-398.

17. Dyksterhuis, E. J. 1946. The vegetation of
the Fort Worth prairie. Ecol. Monogr. 16:1-29.

18. ————.. 1948. The vegetation of the west-
erm Cross Timbers. Ecol. Monogr. 18:325-376.

19. Launchbaugh, J. 1955. Vegetational changes
in the San Antonio prairie associated with grazing,
retirement from grazing and abandonment from cul-
tivation. Ecol. Monogr. 25:39-57.

20. Gates, F. C. 1945. Amphiachyris dracun-

culoides as a poisonous plant. Trans. Kans. Acad.
Sci. 48:87-89.

21. Bare, J. E. 1979. Wildflowers and weeds of
Kansas. The Regents Press of Kansas, Lawrence,
Kansas.

22. Beck, D. L., and R. E. Sosebee. 1975. Fall
application of herbicides for common broomweed
control. J. Range Manage. 28:332-333.

23. Aldous, A. E. 1935. Management of Kansas
permanent pastures. Kans. Agric. Exp. Stn. Bull. No.
272:1-44.

24. Neuenschwander, L. N., H. W. Wright, and
S.C. Bunting. 1978. The effect of fire on a tobos-
agrass-mesquite community in the rolling plains of
Texas. Southwest. Nat. 23:315-338.

25. Wright, H. A. 1972. Fire as a tool to manage
tobosa grasslands. Proc. Tall Timbers Fire Ecol.
Conf. 12:153—-167.

26. Lehmann, V. W. 1937. Quail and cover on
three central Texas farms. Trans. N. Am. Wildl. Conf.
2:570-574.

27. Chenault, T. 1940. The phenology of some
Bobwhite food and cover plants in Brazos County,
Texas. J. Wildl. Manage. 4:359-368.

28. Parks, H. 1937. Valuable plants native to
Texas. Texas Agric. Exp. Stn. Bull. 551:1-173.

29. Oertel, E. 1939. Honey and pollen plants
of the United States. U.S.D.A. Cire. No. 554:
1-64.

Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 44(1-2), 1983, 59-67

Computer Mapping and Trend-surface Analysis of
Selected Controls of Hydrocarbon Occurrence in the
Berea Sandstone, Lawrence County, Kentucky

ALAN D. SMITH

Department of Geology, Eastern Kentucky University, Richmond, Kentucky 40475

ABSTRACT

Computer-generated contour maps were utilized in mapping parameters associated with oil
and gas production of wells that penetrate the Berea Sandstone, Lawrence County, Kentucky.
In addition, trend-surface analysis techniques, hypothesis testing, and model comparisons of
these trends were completed for the following variables: elevation of the top of the Berea Sand-
stone, Sunbury Shale thickness, oil production, gas production, and 5 lithologic characteristics
of the Berea. Therefore, for each variable studied, the spatial distribution was mapped and the
best-fit trend-surface for predictive purposes was determined. An F-test for significance of fit of
polynomial trend surface was used. The results illustrate that the first degree surtace is the best
fit for gas production; fifth order for oil production; third degree for Berea Sandstone thickness;
first order for Sunbury Shale thickness; sixth degree for elevation of top of Berea Sandstone; first
order for sand per cent from cuttings number one; and no trend surface accounted for enough

explained variance for sand per cent from cuttings number 2, 3, 4, or 5.

INTRODUCTION

A recent study by Smith and Morgan
(1) concerning hydrocarbon occurrence in
the Berea Sandstone, in Lawrence Coun-
ty, Kentucky (Fig. 1) was completed. In-
formation from 354 wells (Fig. 2) was used
in a statistical search for factors influenc-
ing hydrocarbon occurrence. The vari-
ables studied were: elevation of the top
of the Berea Sandstone, Sunbury Shale
thickness, oil production, gas production,
Berea Sandstone thickness, and 5 litho-
logic characteristics of the Berea Sand-
stone. In this statistical study by Smith
and Morgan (1), another problem pre-
sented itself: finding statistical rela-
tionships was not adequate to make the
study useful in a practical sense. The in-
formation in this study needed to be
mapped to provide visual information. In
addition, statistical relationships needed
to be spatially quantified to be useful.

METHODS

The Kentucky Department of Mines
and Minerals supplies the Kentucky Geo-
logical Survey with location plots for all
oil and gas wells that are permitted with-

in the state. An inventory was made of

every well on file at the Geological Sur-
vey that penetrated the Berea Sandstone

in Lawrence County, since this county has
been in the forefront of Berea-oriented
oil and gas exploration. Information was
collected for 354 wells concerning a va-
riety of Berea Sandstone, related lithol-
ogic characteristics, and hydrocarbon oc-
currence. Geophysical logs and cutting
samples were used to estimate depths to
the top and bottom of the Berea Sand-
stone and Sunbury Shale. Cuttings were
studied using a binocular microscope and
per cent sand present in each sample was
calculated using charts by Compton (2).
In addition, to gain more stratigraphic
control within the Berea, the formation
was vertically divided in 20-foot intervals
and the per cent sand was averaged for
each of these intervals (referred to as sand
per cent from cuttings number 1 through
5).

Computer mapping techniques using
SURFACE II (3) via an incremental
drum plotter located at the University of
Kentucky were utilized to visually dis-
play spatial variations throughout the
county. In addition, trend surface analy-
sis techniques using SYMAP (4) were
completed to arrive at predictive rela-
tionships of the variables studied with
spatial orientation. A computer program
developed by Smith (5), using concepts

59

60 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 44(1-2)

78 73 a? a 62 le

GOUNTY |

RI CH R |
Le & ii ey |

Fic. 1. Carter coordinates and geological quadran-
gles of Lawrence County, Kentucky (from in-pro-
gress thesis by Morgan (10)).

suggested by Davis (6) was employed to
statistically discriminate among trend
surfaces by model comparison and, hence,
to determine what degree equation could
best be used to spatially describe the
variables.

The basic form of graphic display pro-
duced by SURFACE II is the contour
map. In general, the sequence of three
basic operations performed by SUR-
FACE II to create a map from data is: (1)
input irregularly spaced data; (2) con-
struct a matrix or regular grid of estimat-
ed surface values; (3) plot a map from the

Fic. 2.

Well locations, Lawrence County, Ken-
tucky (from in-progress thesis by Morgan (10)).

grid matrix. Commands by the user im-
plement the various routines in the pro-
gram to perform each of the basic opera-
tions. These commands specify which
plot option to perform, how large to make
the display, how to calculate values in the
grid matrix, where to find the input data,
and the format to read the data.
Trend-surface analysis techniques were
applied to the various parameters studied
to arrive at spatially predictive relation-
ships. SYMAP program, using elective 38,
performed the actual regression analysis.
Unlike SYMAP’s standard interpolation
procedure for contouring, trend-surface

TABLE 1—SUMMARY OF F-RATIOS, PROBABILITY LEVELS, R? FOR BOTH THE FULL AND RESTRICTED MODELS,
DEGREES OF FREEDOM-NUMERATOR, DEGREES OF FREEDOM-DENOMINATOR, AND SIGNIFICANCE FOR EACH
TREND SURFACE FOR THE VARIABLE GAS PRODUCTION

Order of
trend surface R’, Res df F Probability Sign.
1 0.0462 0.0 2/297 7.1910 0.0009 S
2 0.0698 0.0 5/294 4.4142 0.0007 S
3 0.0920 0.0 9/290 3.2637 0.0008 )
4 0.1210 0.0 14/285 2.8014 0.0006 S
5 0.1607 0.0 20/279 2.6714 0.0002 S
6 0.1975 0.0 27/272 2.4787 0.0001 S
lvs 2 0.0698 0.0462 3/294 2.4908 0.0604 NS
2vs 3 0.0920 0.0698 4/290 1.7678 0.1353 NS
3 vs 4 0.1210 0.0928 5/285 1.8803 0.0977 NS
4vs5 0.1607 0.1210 6/279 2.2025 0.0430 S
5 vs 6 0.1975 0.1607 1/272 1.7791 0.0915 NS
(N = 300)

Note. An alpha level of 0.05 was employed before each hypothesis was considered statistically valid.

COMPUTER MAPPING IN KENTUCKY—Smith

61

TABLE 2.—SUMMARY OF F-RATIOS, PROBABILITY LEVELS, R? FOR BOTH THE FULL AND RESTRICTED MODELS,
DEGREES OF FREEDOM-NUMERATOR, DEGREES OF FREEDOM-DENOMINATOR, AND SIGNIFICANCE FOR EACH

TREND SURFACE FOR THE VARIABLE OIL PRODUCTION

Order of
trend surface R* Re df F Probability Sign.
1 0.0928 0.0 2/295 15.0849 0.0000 S
2 0.1240 0.0 5/292 8.2667 0.0000 S
3 0.2307 0.0 9/288 9.5950 0.0000 S
4 0.3083 0.0 14/283 9.0107 0.0000 S
5 0.3736 0.0 20/277 8.2589 0.0000 S
6 0.3973 0.0 27/270 6.5926 0.0000 S
lvs 2 0.1240 0.0928 3/292 3.4688 0.0166 S
2vs 3 0.2307 0.1240 4/288 9.9837 0.0000 S
3 vs 4 0.3083 0.2307 5/283 6.3537 0.0000 S
4vs5 0.3736 0.3083 6/277 4.8076 0.0001 S
5 vs 6 0.3973 0.3736 7/270 1.5211 0.1600 NS
(N = 298)

Note. An alpha level of 0.05 was employed before each hypothesis was considered statistically valid.

TABLE 3.—SUMMARY OF F-RATIOS, PROBABILITY LEVELS, R? FOR BOTH THE FULL AND RESTRICTED MODELS,
DEGREES OF FREEDOM-NUMERATOR, DEGREES OF FREEDOM-DENOMINATOR, AND SIGNIFICANCE FOR EACH
TREND SURFACE FOR THE VARIABLE BEREA SANDSTONE THICKNESS

Order of
tend surface R’, R’, df F Probability Sign.
1 0.0067 0.0 2/165 0.5557 0.5748 NS
2 0.1206 0.0 5/162 4.4425 0.0008 S
3 0.1850 0.0 9/158 3.9860 0.0001 S
4 0.1957 0.0 14/153 2.6591 0.0017 S
5 0.2699 0.0 20/147 Pag (ileal 0.0003 S
6 0.3227 0.0 27/140 2.4703 0.0003 S
lvs 2 0.1206 0.0067 3/162 6.9934 0.0002 S
2vs 3 0.1850 0.1206 4/158 3.1241 0.0166 S
3 vs 4 0.1957 0.1850 5/153 0.4056 0.8444 NS
4vs5 0.2699 0.1957 6/147 2.4899 0.0253 S
5 vs 6 0.3227 0.2699 7/140 1.5587 0.1526 NS
(N = 168)

Note. An alpha level of 0.05 was employed before each hypothesis was considered statistically valid.

TABLE 4.—SUMMARY OF F-RATIOS, PROBABILITY LEVELS, R? FOR BOTH THE FULL AND RESTRICTED MODELS,
DEGREES OF FREEDOM-NUMERATOR, DEGREES OF FREEDOM-DENOMINATOR, AND SIGNIFICANCE FOR EACH
TREND SURFACE FOR THE VARIABLE SUNBURY SHALE THICKNESS

Order of

trend surface R*, R’, df F Probability Sign.
1 0.0903 0.0 2/307 15.2310 0.0000 S
2 0.1043 0.0 5/304 7.0811 0.0000 5
3 0.1326 0.0 9/300 5.0967 0.0000 S
4 0.1688 0.0 14/295 4.2803 0.0000 S
5 0.1967 0.0 20/289 3.5383 0.0000 S
6 0.2493 0.0 27/282 3.4693 0.0000 S
lvs 2 0.1043 0.0903 3/304 1.5893 0.1920 NS
2vs 3 0.1326 0.1043 4/300 2.4477 0.0464 S
3vs 4 0.1688 0.1326 5/295 2.5707 0.0269 S
4vs5 0.1967 0.1688 6/289 1.6707 0.1280 NS
5vs 6 0.2493 0.1967 7/282 2.8251 0.0074 S

(N = 310)

Note. An alpha level of 0.05 was employed before each hypothesis was considered statistically valid.

62 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 44(1-2)

TABLE 5.—SUMMARY OF F-RATIOS, PROBABILITY LEVELS, R? FOR BOTH THE FULL AND RESTRICTED MODELS,
DEGREES OF FREEDOM-NUMERATOR, DEGREES OF FREEDOM-DENOMINATOR, AND SIGNIFICANCE FOR EACH
TREND SURFACE FOR THE VARIABLE ELEVATION OF TOP OF BEREA SANDSTONE

Order of
trend surface Ry R, df F Probability Sign.
1 0.7801 0.0 2/350 620.7875 0.0000 S
2 0.8331 0.0 5/347 346.3073 0.0000 S
3 0.8875 0.0 9/343 300.5669 0.0000 S
4 0.9083 0.0 14/338 239.2048 0.0000 S
5 0.9167 0.0 20/332 182.6278 0.0000 S
6 0.9358 0.0 27/325 175.5181 0.0000 S
lvs 2 0.8331 0.7801 3/347 36.6956 0.0000 S
2vs3 0.8875 0.8331 4/343 41.4659 0.0000 S
3vs 4 0.9083 0.8875 5/338 15.3759 0.0000 S
4vs5 0.9167 0.9083 6/332 5.5485 0.0000 S
5 vs 6 0.9358 0.9167 7/325 13.8486 0.0000 S
(N = 353)

Note. An alpha level of 0.05 was employed before each hypothesis was considered statistically valid.

TABLE 6.—SUMMARY OF F-RATIOS, PROBABILITY LEVELS, R? FOR BOTH THE FULL AND RESTRICTED MODELS,
DEGREES OF FREEDOM-NUMERATOR, DEGREES OF FREEDOM-DENOMINATOR, AND SIGNIFICANCE FOR EACH
TREND SURFACE FOR THE VARIABLE SAND PER CENT CUTTINGS NUMBER ONE

Order of
trend surface R*, R’. df 1a Probability Sign.
1 0.0833 0.0 2/48 2.1808 0.1240 NS
2 0.1033 0.0 5/45 1.0368 0.4078 NS
3 0.2842 0.0 9/41 1.8090 0.0959 NS
4 0.4212 0.0 14/36 1.8710 0.0652 NS
5 0.5524 0.0 20/30 1.8512 0.0618 NS
6 0.6595 0.0 27/23 1.6497 0.1131 NS
lvs 2 0.1033 0.0833 3/45 0.3346 0.8004 NS
2vs3 0.2842 0.1033 4/41 2.5911 0.0506 NS
3vs 4 0.4212 0.2842 5/36 1.7032 0.1589 NS
4vs5 0.5524 0.4212 6/30 1.4660 0.2234 NS
5 vs 6 0.6595 0.5524 7/23 1.0331 0.4356 NS
(N = 51)

Note. An alpha level of 0.05 was employed before each hypothesis was considered statistically valid.

TABLE 7.—SUMMARY OF F-RATIOS, PROBABILITY LEVELS, R? FOR BOTH THE FULL AND RESTRICTED MODELS,
DEGREES OF FREEDOM-NUMERATOR, DEGREES OF FREEDOM-DENOMINATOR, AND SIGNIFICANCE FOR EACH
TREND SURFACE FOR THE VARIABLE SAND PER CENT CUTTINGS NUMBER TWO

Order of

trend surface R?, R’, df F Probability Sign.
1 0.0811 0.0 2/48 2.1186 0.1313 NS
2 0.0871 0.0 5/45 0.8583 0.5164 NS
3 0.1245 0.0 9/41 0.6480 0.7495 NS
4 0.3049 0.0 14/36 1.1281 0.3686 NS
5 0.4778 0.0 20/30 1.3723 0.2115 NS
6 NA 0.0
lvs 2 0.0871 0.0811 3/45 0.9770 0.9609 NS
2vs 3 0.1245 0.0871 4/41 0.4386 0.7799 NS
3 vs 4 0.3049 0.1245 5/36 1.8687 0.1243 NS
4vs5 0.4778 0.3049 6/30 1.6549 0.1667 NS
5 vs 6 NA
(N = 51)

Note. An alpha level of 0.05 was employed before each hypothesis was considered statistically valid.

COMPUTER MAPPING IN KENTUCKY—Smith

63

TABLE 8.—SUMMARY OF F-RATIOS, PROBABILITY LEVELS, R* FOR BOTH THE FULL AND RESTRICTED MODELS,
DEGREES OF FREEDOM-NUMERATOR, DEGREES OF FREEDOM-DENOMINATOR, AND SIGNIFICANCE FOR EACH

TREND SURFACE FOR THE VARIABLE SAND PER CENT CUTTINGS NUMBER THREE

Order of
trend surface R*, R?, df F Probability Sign.
1 0.0408 0.0 2/46 0.9784 0.3836 NS
2 0.0933 0.0 5/43 0.8852 0.4993 NS
3 0.2053 0.0 9/39 1.1192 0.3726 NS
4 0.3897 0.0 14/34 1.5506 0.1457 NS
5 0.4625 0.0 20/28 1.2046 0.3192 NS
6 0.5013 0.0 27/21 0.7819 0.7295 NS
lvs 2 0.0933 0.0408 3/43 0.8303 0.4845 NS
2vs 3 0.2053 0.0933 4/39 1.3734 0.2609 NS
3 vs 4 0.3897 0.2053 5/34 2.0547 0.0956 NS
4vs5 0.4625 0.3897 6/28 0.6322 0.7033 NS
5 vs 6 0.5013 0.4625 7/21 0.2336 0.9722 NS
(N = 49)

Note. An alpha level of 0.05 was employed before each hypothesis was considered statistically valid.

TABLE 9.—SUMMARY OF F-RATIOS, PROBABILITY LEVELS, R® FOR BOTH THE FULL AND RESTRICTED MODELS,
DEGREES OF FREEDOM-NUMERATOR, DEGREES OF FREEDOM-DENOMINATOR, AND SIGNIFICANCE FOR EACH

TREND SURFACE FOR THE VARIABLE SAND PER CENT CUTTINGS NUMBER FOUR

Order of

trend surface RY, like df F Probability Sign.
1 0.1671 0.0 2/35 3.5108 0.0408 S
2 0.2965 0.0 5/32 2.6970 0.0383 S
3 0.4168 0.0 9/28 2.2236 0.0512 NS
4 0.5108 0.0 14/23 1.7151 0.1216 NS
5 0.5463 0.0 20/17 1.0235 0.4855 NS
6 0.6547 0.0 27/10 0.7022 0.7773 NS
lvs 2 0.2965 0.1671 3/32 1.9616 0.1396 NS
2vs3 0.4168 0.2965 4/28 1.4445 0.2455 NS
3vs 4 0.5108 0.4168 5/23 0.8833 0.5080 NS
4vs5 0.5463 0.5108 6/17 0.2219 0.9642 NS
5 vs 6 0.6547 0.5463 7/10 0.4484 0.8503 NS
(N = 38)

Note. An alpha level of 0.05 was employed before each hypothesis was considered statistically valid.

TABLE 10.—SUMMARY OF F-RATIOS, PROBABILITY LEVELS, R* FOR BOTH THE FULL AND RESTRICTED
MODELS, DEGREES OF FREEDOM-NUMERATOR, DEGREES OF FREEDOM-DENOMINATOR, AND SIGNIFICANCE

FOR EACH TREND SURFACE FOR THE VARIABLE SAND PER CENT CUTTINGS NUMBER FIVE

Order of
trend surface R*, REA df F Probability Sign
1 0.1690 0.0 2/18 1.8307 0.1889 NS
2 0.3576 0.0 5/15 1.6698 0.2025 NS
3 0.4496 0.0 9/11 0.9985 0.4924 NS
4 0.8073 0.0 14/6 1.7955 0.2427 NS
5 NA 0.0
6 NA 0.0
lvs 2 0.3576 0.1690 3/15 1.4675 0.2633 NS
2vs 3 0.4496 0.3576 4/11 0.4599 0.7638 NS
3vs 4 0.8073 0.4496 5/6 2.2273 0.1789 NS
4vsi NA
5 vs 6 NA
(N = 21)

Note. An alpha level of 0.05 was employed before each hypothesis was considered statistically valid.

64

Fic. 3.

Elevation contour of the top of the Berea
Sandstone (feet), Lawrence County, Kentucky (from
in-progress thesis by Morgan (10)).

analysis does not fit a surface so that it
passes through each point value. The sur-
face will be fitted to the data values in
such a way that the sum of the squared
deviations between the given values at
data points and the value of the comput-
ed surface is minimized. In the fitting of
a polynomial trend surface, the higher the
order of the surface, the more the resid-
uals will be minimized, resulting in

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 44(1-2)

Fic. 4. Thickness contour of Berea Sandstone
(feet), Lawrence County, Kentucky (from in-pro-
gress thesis by Morgan (10)).

greater computation time and cost. Low-
er-order surfaces may be quite useful in
isolating important local trends from those
that exist over larger areas, even though
higher order surfaces may reflect the vari-
ation in the input values more accurately.
Thus, as suggested by Davis (6) and im-
plemented by Smith (5), statistical testing
using the F-distribution should be per-
formed to determine the order of the sur-

TABLE 11.—MODEL COMPARISON OF THE THIRD DEGREE POLYNOMIAL TREND SURFACE WITH SECOND
DEGREE SURFACE FOR THE VARIABLE BEREA SANDSTONE THICKNESS

Explanation of models Models df R® Alpha F-ratio Probability Sign.
Model 3:
Z =a)U + a,X + asY + a,X? + Full 0.1850
a,XY + a;Y? + a,X* + a;X?Y
+ asXY? + a,Y°+E 4/158 0.05 3.1241 0.0166
Model 2: Ss
Z=a)U+a,X + a.Y + a,X2+ Restricted 0.1206
ayXY + a;Y? +E (covaried)
Where: Z = Berea Sandstone thickness measured in feet
U = unit vector
a) = constant term
a,-ay = partial regression coefficients in double precision
X,Y = geographical coordinates converted to SYMAP system
E = error vector (residuals) containing the difference between the actual and predicted
values for measured values of Berea Sandstone thickness
Hypothesis:

Does the third degree trend surface for Measured Values of Berea Sandstone Thickness account for a
significant amount of variance in predicting actual thickness values over and above that which can be
accounted for by the lower second order trend surface equation.

COMPUTER MAPPING IN KENTUCKY—Smith

Fic. 5. Thickness contour of Sunbury Shale (feet),
Lawrence County, Kentucky (from in-progress the-
sis by Morgan (10)).

face which best describes the spatial dis-
tributions of the variables studied.

The F-test, like the t-test, is a very ro-
bust test and relatively insensitive to vi-
olations of the assumptions of random se-
lection of observations and normal
distribution of the variables (7, 8, 9). The
F-test for significance of fit is a test of the
null hypothesis that the partial regression
coefficients are equal to zero and, hence,
there is no regression. If the computed
F-value exceeds the F-value having a
probability of a set alpha level, then the
null hypothesis is rejected and the alter-
native hypothesis is accepted. The re-
quired input into the program is the total
variation of the data, and the amount of
variance accounted for by the order of the
surface. This information is generated by
most computer software packages that
produce trend surfaces.

RESULTS

As shown in Tables 1-10, a regression
analysis of testing the null hypothesis of
each trend surface is represented by the
first 6 entries. For example, in Table 1,
each surface was found to be statistically
significant at the assigned alpha level of
0.05. The R? terms in the table, multi-
plied by 100%, reflect the per cent of
the variance in the data explained by

A

n = 1 1 1

Fic. 6. Production of oil (barrels/day), Lawrence
County, Kentucky (from in-progress thesis by Mor-
gan (10)).

the trend surface equation. R?; denotes the
full model, or model with all the terms
being tested, and the R?, represents the
restricted model, or the terms being held
constant or covaried. When testing the
null hypothesis, all the R?,. terms are zero,
since a test of the trend over no regres-
sion is being performed. Model compar-
isons are completed in the last 6 entries
of each of the tables, and the R?,. term is
the variance accounted for by the lower
order surface. Table 11 illustrates a mod-
el comparison of trend order second and
third for the variable Berea Sandstone
thickness. Therefore, a significance test
is used to determine the contribution to
explained variance in the prediction by
the higher order surface. As shown in
Table 1, the first degree surface is
the best fit for gas production; fifth or-
der for oil production (Table 2); third
degree for Berea Sandstone thickness
(Table 3); first order for Sunbury Shale
thickness (Table 4); sixth degree for ele-
vation of top of Berea Sandstone (Table
5); first order for sand per cent from cut-
tings number one (Table 6); and no trend
surface accounted for enough explained
variance for sand per cent from cuttings
number 2 (Table 7), number 3 (Table 8),
number 4 (Table 9), or number 5 (Table
10).

66 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 44( 1-2)

Fic. 7. Production of gas (1,000 ft*/day), Lawrence
County, Kentucky (from in-progress thesis by Mor-
gan (10)).

Figures 3 through 12 are computer-
generated contour maps of the various
parameters associated with hydrocarbon
occurrence studied in Lawrence County.
An option that calculates the element-
by-element difference between a grid
matrix and a matrix stored on an ex-
ternal file (ISOPACH) was used to pro-
duce the computer-generated maps. Fig-
ure 3 represents the SURFACE II
computer plot of elevation contour of the
top of the Berea Sandstone; Figure 4 il-

1 1 =n 1 L 1 1 4 1

Fic. 8. Contour of sand per cent from cuttings

number one, or first 20-foot interval, Lawrence

County, Kentucky (from in-progress thesis by Mor-
gan (10)).

Fic. 9. Contour of sand per cent from cuttings

number two, or second 20-foot interval, Lawrence

County, Kentucky (from in-progress thesis by Mor-
gan (10)).

lustrates the contour map of the thickness
of the Berea Sandstone; Figure 5 displays
the thickness contour of the Sunbury
Shale; Figure 6 is a graphic depiction of
production of oil, contoured in barrels per
day; Figure 7 depicts the computer-gen-
erated contour map of gas production in
1,000 ft? per day; Figures 8 through 12
represent contours of five lithological
parameters of the Berea Sandstone from
cuttings. Figure 8 displays the spatial re-

Fic. 10. Contour of sand per cent from cuttings

number three, or third 20-foot interval, Lawrence

County, Kentucky (from in-progress thesis by Mor-
gan (10)).

COMPUTER MAPPING IN KENTUCKY—S mith 67

Fic. 11.

Contour of sand per cent from cuttings
number four, or fourth 20-foot interval, Lawrence
County, Kentucky (from in-progress thesis by Mor-
gan (10)).

lationship of per cent sand from the first
20 feet or cuttings number 1, Figure 9 for
cuttings number 2, Figure 10 for cuttings
number 3, Figure 11 for cuttings number
4, and Figure 12 for cuttings number 5,
or the last 20-foot interval of the Berea
Sandstone.

SUMMARY

The use of computer graphics, trend
surface analyses, and significance testing
of trend surfaces can greatly aid the sci-
entist in the examination of spatially ori-
ented data. The author recommends that
these techniques, which are readily
available, be routinely used in determing
trends and their prediction.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I appreciate the help in compiling and
executing the computer graphics offered
by Baylus Morgan, a former graduate stu-
dent at Eastern Kentucky University, and
Brandon C. Nuttall of the Kentucky Geo-
logical Survey. In addition, the figures
used in this study were derived from an
in-progress thesis by Baylus Morgan, De-
partment of Geology at Eastern Kentucky
University, for whom I was major advis-
or. I extend my gratitude to Gayle Sey-
mour, Academic Programmer Analyst at
The University of Akron, for assistance in

Fic. 12. Contour of sand per cent from cuttings

number five, or fifth 20-foot interval, Lawrence

County, Kentucky (from in-progress thesis by Mor-
gan (10)).

developing the trend-surface model com-
parisons, which aided in the develop-
ment of Tables 1 through 11.

LITERATURE CITED

1. Smith, Alan D., and B. K. Morgan. 1982.
Analysis of selected controls of hydrocarbon occur-
rence in the Berea Sandstone, Lawrence County,
Kentucky. Abstracts with Programs, 1982, 16th An-
nual Meeting of the North-Central Section of GSA
14:288.

2. Compton, R. R. 1962. Manual of field geol-
ogy. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York.

3. Sampson, R. J. 1978. Surface II graphics sys-
tem. Kansas Geol. Surv., Lawrence, Kansas.

4. Dougenik, J. A., and D. E. Sheehan. 1979.
SYMAP users reference manual. Harvard Univ.
Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts.

5. Smith, Alan D. 1982. Statistical significance
of trend surfaces: Determining the best fit (abs).
Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci. 43(1-2):93.

6. Davis, J. C. 1973. Statistics and data analysis
in geology. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York.

7. Edwards, A. L. 1972. Experimental design
in psychological research, 4th ed. Holt, Rinehart,
and Winston, Inc., New York.

8. Newman, I., and J. Fraas. 1978. The mal-
practice of statistical interpretation. Multiple Lin-
ear Regression Viewpoints 9:1-25.

9, ————, and C. Newman. 1977. Conceptual
statistics for beginners. Univ. Press of America,
Washington, D.C.

10. Morgan, B. K. An analysis of controls on hy-
drocarbon occurrences in the Berea Sandstone,
Lawrence County, Kentucky. In-progress thesis,
Department of Geology, Eastern Kentucky Univ.,
Richmond, Kentucky.

Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 44(1-2), 1983, 68-73

Habitat Selection by Small Mammals
in an Urban Woodlot'

MarK A. MCPEEK’”, BARBARA L. COOK?, AND WILLIAM C. MCCOMB?
University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky 40546

ABSTRACT

Removal trapping was used to identify which of 27 habitat variables were important to each
of 5 small mammal species inhabiting an urban woodlot and an adjacent field. Microtus pine-
torum selected wooded areas with high vertical vegetative stratification, with an abundance of
evergreen shrubs and ground cover, and with many long logs. Microtus pennsylvanicus and M.
ochrogaster selected areas dominated by grass and sedge vegetation. Peromyscus leucopus was
captured in close proximity to trees in both wooded and field habitats. Logs were habitat char-
acteristics important to Blarina brevicauda captures.

INTRODUCTION

Many techniques have been employed
to study segregation of small mammal
species within an environment. Hamil-
ton (1) tried to describe habitats of small
mammals by indigenous plant taxa. Am-
brose (2) studied movements of M. penn-
sylvanicus in pens that simulated their
natural habitat. His studies indicated that
flexibility in habitat utilization would al-
low modification in the animal’s behavior
according to local environmental condi-
tions (2).

Recent studies have shifted emphasis
to the determination of structure and
composition of microhabitats. Dueser and
Shugart (3, 4) employed statistical anal-
ysis of structural variables to determine
microhabitats and niche overlap among
small mammal species. The distribution
of vegetative strata was used to describe
the distribution of Peromyscus leucopus
(5). Food abundance, nesting sites, and
complexity of escape routes also acted as
deterministic factors in the distribution
of P. leucopus (5). Stages and growth
forms of vegetation have been consid-
ered to be of primary importance in de-

' This investigation (No. 82-8-78) was in connec-
tion with Kentucky Agricultural Experiment Station
No. 624. It is published with approval of the Direc-
tor.

? School of Biological Sciences.

’ Present address: School of Forestry, Yale Uni-
versity, New Haven, Connecticut.

+ Department of Forestry.

termining small mammal distribution and
density (6, 7, 8, 9).

The objective of our study was to quan-
tify microhabitat differences among small
mammal species in an urban woodlot and
in an adjacent field, and to identify the
environmental variables that would dis-
tinguish among the preferred microhab-
itats for species within the small mammal
community.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The study area was Shady Lane Woods,
a 6-ha undisturbed tract in the southwest
section of the University of Kentucky
campus, Lexington. The area consists of
two adjacent but different habitats: one
dominated by Poa pratensis, Festuca spp.,
Carex spp. with a partial Juglans nigra
overstory, and another of mixed hard-
woods (J. nigra, Celtis occidentalis, and
Gymnocladus dioicus) with ground cover
ranging from sparse herbs to dense Eu-
onymus fortunei, E. americanus and
Symphoricarpos orbiculatus.

A grid system of 50 points (5 rows of 10
points) was established to equally sample
both the field and the forest. Intersection
points on the grid were 8 m apart. One
tree was present in the field portion of
the study area, and the field was partially
covered by the canopies of 2 adjacent
trees as well as by the trees at the wood’s
edge.

Following unacceptable capture effi-
ciency with pitfall traps and live traps, 4

68

MAMMALIAN HABITAT SELECTION—MCcPeek et al. 69

snap traps (2 mouse traps, 2 Museum
Specials) were distributed per grid point,
with emphasis on placing the traps on ex-
isting mammal runs within 1.5 m of the
plot point. Peanut butter and cotton were
used as bait.

Trapping was conducted for 3 periods
during 1981: 24 May to 5 June, 21 July to
23 July, and 11 September to 14 Septem-
ber. For purposes of calculation, the sec-
ond and third capture periods were com-
bined into 1 period since they were each
of short duration; the periods were simi-
lar in weather, and summer herbaceous
vegetation dominated during that time.
The traps were checked twice a day: 0700
and 1900 hours.

Habitat characteristics that do not vary
seasonally (tree, log, snag and stump
characteristics) were measured at each
grid point in March and April, 1981. Veg-
etative cover, stem density, and leaf cov-
er were measured in May 1981 and were
used to describe the first trapping period.
The characteristics that changed season-
ally were remeasured in July and consid-
ered representative of the habitat during
the second and third trapping periods. A
detailed description of habitat variables
and measurement techniques is found in
Table 3.

Linear correlation was used to deter-
mine association of habitat variables with
the number of small mammal captures. A
t-test was used to compare mean habitat
variables for plots where captures were
made with means for plots where cap-
tures were not made.

RESULTS

During the 2 trapping periods, 99 cap-
tures were made: 37 Microtus pineto-
rum, 8 Blarina brevicauda, and 6 Pero-
myscus leucopus during the first period
and 23 M. pinetorum, 10 M. pennsylva-
nicus, 9 P. leucopus, 3 B. brevicauda, and
3 M. ochrogaster during the second pe-
riod. Captures were made on 41 of the 50
grid points. Multiple captures were made
on 15 grid points. Animals were captured
on 27 of the 50 plots during the first trap-
ping period, and on 16 plots in the sec-
ond period.

Microtus pinetorum.—Microtus pine-
torum was captured more often in the
woods (44) than in the field (16) (P < 0.05)
but 11 were caught in the field and 13 in
the woods during the second trapping pe-
riod. Microtus pinetorum was trapped at
20 of the 25 points in the woods with a
maximum of 6 captures made at each of
2 woods points. In the field, M. pineto-
rum was taken at 10 points with multiple
captures at 4 points.

Of 27 habitat variables considered for
M. pinetorum, 15 showed significant cor-
relation to capture site during the first
trapping period, but no variable showed
significant correlation during the second
trapping period due to randomness of M.
pinetorum captures. Of the variables that
showed correlation during the first peri-
od, tree characteristics dominated (Ta-
ble 1). Positive correlations were ob-
tained for height of overstory (P < 0.01),
midstory (P < 0.01), and understory trees
(P < 0.05); per cent of canopy cover (P <
0.05); and foliage height diversity (P <
0.05). Captures were negatively correlat-
ed (P < 0.05) with distance to the nearest
tree. Results of the t-tests on these vari-
ables yielded similar results (Table 1).
Microtus pinetorum showed its prefer-
ence for the woods by its negative cor-
relation with major field variables: per
cent of grass cover (P < 0.1), density of
herbaceous cover (P < 0.1), and number
of herb species (P < 0.01) (Table 1). Per-
centage of non-deciduous plant cover in-
fluenced the distribution of M. pineto-
rum; evergreenness of shrubs (P < 0.001),
ground cover (P < 0.01), and herbs (P <
0.05) were positively correlated with cap-
tures of M. pinetorum. The t-test results
indicate that a preponderance of ever-
green ground cover (E. fortunei, E.
americanus, and S. orbiculatus) was the
most influential variable of the 3.

Finally, M. pinetorum showed prefer-
ence for logs in the environment. Cap-
tures showed positive correlation with log
diameter (P < 0.001) and log density (P <
0.001), and negative correlation with dis-
tance to the nearest log (P < 0.001).

Microtus pennsylvanicus.—Microtus
pennsylvanicus exhibited a preference for

70 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 44(1-2)

TABLE 1.—MEANS AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS FOR POINTS WITHOUT CAPTURES VERSUS POINTS WITH
CAPTURES, P > (t), AND COEFFICIENTS OF CORRELATION (r) FOR HABITAT VARIABLES OF Microtus pi-
netorum

Non-captures

(N = 20) Capture (N = 30)
Variable (@ + s) (= + s) P > (t) r

Overstory tree height (m) 7.2 + 11.0 14.3 + 11.8 0.04 0.373*
Midstory tree height (m) 3.3 + 4.9 6.8 + 4.9 0.02 0.420*
Understory tree height (m) 1.0 + 1.3 25+ 1.8 0.002 0.323*
Canopy cover (%) 62.8 + 36.9 82.4 + 27.2 0.05 0.300*
Foliage height diversity 1.0 + 0.4 12+ 0.3 0.04 0.302*
Tree distance (m) 8.2 + 7.4 Dis) so Wb55 0.0004 —0.349*
Grass cover (%) 52.7 + 34.0 26.1 + 32.6 0.009 —0.436*
Number of herb species 16.0 + 5.7 11.4 + 3.2 0.0007 —0.368*
Herb stem density/4 m? 385.6 + 217.8 177.8 + 189.4 0.002 —0.427*
Evergreenness of shrubs (%) a 2.4 42+ 4.7 0.02 0.480**
Evergreenness of herbs (%) 23.8 + 28.9 48.8 + 35.8 0.01 0.281*
Evergreenness of ground cover (%) 47.4 + 35.8 78.1 + 32.3 0.004 0.444*
Log diameter (cm) 44+ 6.5 11.6 + 6.2 0.0003 0.462**
Log density/4 m? 0.6 + 1.0 1.8 + 1.4 0.0007 0.454**
Log distance (m) 13.8 + 8.6 6.4 + 6.7 0.003 —0.424*

*P < 0.05.

**P < 0.001.

the field in this study. Ten M. pennsyl-
vanicus were taken at 5 of the 25 field-
points. Capture points had a lesser per
cent canopy cover (P < 0.001), and they
were farther from trees (P < 0.005) than
points without captures. Capture points
also had lower evergreen ground cover
(P < 0.0001), and denser herbaceous
ground cover (P < 0.001) than non-cap-
ture points.

Correlations between the number of
captures per point and habitat variables
influencing captures were more difficult
to make because of the small sample size
and the positions of points where cap-

tures were made (Table 2). Variables
measuring stratification of vegetation at
the points, canopy cover (P < 0.001) and
foliage height diversity (P < 0.001), were
negatively correlated with M. pennsyl-
vanicus captures. Captures were also
negatively correlated with the following
variables characteristic of woods: density
of woody stems (P < 0.05), number of
woody stems (P < 0.05), percentage of
evergreen herbs (P < 0.05), and ground
cover (P < 0.01).

Other Species.—Three other species of
small mammals were captured during this
study: P. leucopus, B. brevicauda, and M.

TABLE 2—MEANS AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS FOR POINTS WITHOUT CAPTURES VERSUS POINTS WITH
CAPTURES, P > (t), AND COEFFICIENTS OF CORRELATION (r) FOR HABITAT VARIABLES OF Microtus penn-
sylvanicus

Non-captures

(N = 45) Capture (N = 5)
Variable (¥ + s) (¥ + s) P > (t) r
Canopy cover (%) 75.6 + 31.4 17.8 + 22.0 0.0001 —0.465**
Foliage height diversity 11+0.3 0.5 + 0.3 0.0003 —0.430*
Tree distance (m) 5.4 + 6.3 12.8 + 7.9 0.02 0.242
Number of woody species 5.4 + 3.7 0.3 + 0.5 0.0001 —0.356*
Woody stem density/4 m* 22.4 + 19.9 4.2 + 10.2 0.04 —0.270*
Evergreenness of herbs (%) 36.8 + 33.7 ipyfes 1S 0.0001 —0.270*
Evergreenness of ground cover (%) 63.8 + 36.1 IS¥S) S= UPA 0.0001 —0.435*
Ground cover (%) 74.1 + 30.0 98.3 + 4.1 0.0001 —0.227

*P < 0.05.
**P < 0.001

MAMMALIAN HABITAT SELECTION—MCPeek et al. 71

TABLE 3.—DESIGNATION, DESCRIPTIONS, AND SAMPLING METHODS OF 27 VARIABLES MEASURING FOREST
HABITAT STRUCTURE

Variable

Methods

1) Per cent canopy cover
2) Per cent ground cover

3
4
5
6

) Per cent shrub cover
) Overstory tree height
Midstory tree height

Understory tree height

)
)

x1

Number of woody species

8) Number of herbaceous species
9) Woody stem density

10) Herbaceous stem density
11) Tree stump density

12) Tree stump distance

13) Log diameter

14) Log length

15) Log density
16) Log distance

17) Snag diameter

18) Snag distance
19) Tree diameter

20) Tree distance
21) Number of tree species
22) Leaf litter

Per cent of grass cover
Evergreenness of shrubs

)
)
5) Evergreenness of herbs
) Evergreenness of ground cover
)

Foliage height diversity

Per cent of overstory vegetation coverage above a 1.0 m
radius circle around plot center.

Percentage of soil covered by vegetation within a 1.0 m
radius circle around plot center.
Same as (1) for shrub-level vegetation.
Height in m of the nearest overstory tree.
Height in m of the nearest midstory tree.
Height in m of the nearest understory tree.
Woody species count within a 1.0 m radius circle around
point center.
Same as (7) for herbaceous species.
Live woody stem count within a 1.0 m radius circle
around point center.
Same as (9) for herbaceous stems.
Largest diameter in cm of the nearest tree stump.
Distance in m to the nearest tree stump.
Largest diameter in cm of the nearest fallen log (>10.0
cm diameter).
Length in m of the nearest fallen log (>10.0 cm diame-
ter).
Same as (9) for fallen logs (=10.0 cm diameter).
Distance in m to the nearest fallen log (=10.0 cm diame-
ter).
Diameter in cm at breast height of the nearest dead tree
(>10.0 em).
Distance in m to the nearest dead tree.
Diameter in cm at breast height of the nearest tree
(=10.0 cm diameter).
Same as (18) for distance to the nearest tree.
Same as (7) for tree species.
Greatest depth in cm of leaf litter within a 1.0 m radius
circle around plot center.
Same as (2) for grasses.
Same as (1) for evergreen shrub-level vegetation.
Same as (2) for herbaceous vegetation.
Same as (2) for ground cover.
Foliage height diversity index (19) calculated from the
following formula:
FHD = 3.3219(log N—(1/N(n, log n, + ny log ny, +
n, log n,))) where n, = per cent overstory cover,
Nm = per cent midstory cover,
n, = per cent understory cover, and N = n, + ny, +
Ny.

ochrogaster. Peromyscus leucopus was
captured 15 times during the study, 6
times during the first capture period and
9 times during the second period. Blari-
na brevicauda was taken 11 times, 8 dur-
ing the first sample period and 3 in the
second period. Only 3 M. ochrogaster

were captured, all during the second pe-
riod, and all were taken in the field.
Peromyscus leucopus has been char-
acterized as a species preferring a shrub-
land-woodland habitat (5, 10), but we
caught more P. leucopus in the field than
in the woods. The per cent canopy cover

2, TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 44(1-2)

was the only variable that showed cor-
relation with capture (P < 0.05) in both
sample periods. The points where P. leu-
copus were taken in the field indicated
its preference for trees since every cap-
ture site was within 8 m of a tree.

Blarina brevicauda was an ubiquitous
species that showed no preference for a
specific type of vegetation. They have
been taken in vegetation types ranging
from grasslike to forested (11, 12). Cap-
tures of B. brevicauda were positively
correlated with log length (P < 0.05),
probably because invertebrates could be
found in greater numbers there.

Only 3 M. ochrogaster were taken dur-
ing the study. However, these 3 captures
substantiated the available literature on
the prairie vole; it is a species of grassy
fields (7, 13, 14).

DISCUSSION

Microtus pinetorum captures were cor-
related with tree variables, reflecting the
predominance of captures in the woods.
They occurred at sites with thick canopy
cover, adjacent trees, and high tree
species diversity and showed preference
for sites of vegetative strata diversity. Life
forms of vegetation influenced selection
of habitat by M. pinetorum. Variables that
consider life forms rather than taxa have
been shown to be most important in M.
pinetorum habitat selection (8). This
species preferred sites with a preponder-
ance of evergreen vegetation. Woody and
herbaceous plants have more water avail-
able during the growing season than
grasses. Benton (15) reported that M. pi-
netorum is not dependent on water to any
degree in nature; the species thrives in
captivity without water if succulent food
is supplied. It is reported to feed on suc-
culent roots and tubers in nature (1). Mi-
crotus pinetorum also occurred at sites
with fallen logs. Log diameter, density,
and distance were important habitat fea-
tures. Microtine runs were observed along
fallen logs; M. pinetorum will nest under
fallen logs (13).

Microtus pennsylvanicus segregated
itself from M. pinetorum by its selection
of field characteristics, occurring at sites

with dense grass. Many studies have
shown M. pennsylvanicus to prefer grass-
like herbaceous cover (6, 9, 16, 17), while
avoiding areas where woody plants pre-
dominate (18).

The number of captures of other species
was low, but general trends were dis-
cerned. Peromyscus leucopus showed a
preference for points with trees in the vi-
cinity, Blarina brevicauda showed a
preference for long logs; and M. ochro-
gaster preferred grassy habitats.

The results of this study indicate that
habitat characteristics selected by small
mammals in an urban woodlot were sim-
ilar to characteristics reported in pre-
vious studies for each species in rural
areas. The location of the woodlot in an
urban environment had no obvious effect
on habitat selection by indigenous small
mammals. Shady Lane Woods offers
unique opportunities to study sympatric
small mammal species in an urban set-
ting because of its diverse habitats and
high species richness of small mammals.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

We thank Wayne H. Davis, Bart A.
Thielges, and Robert N. Muller for a crit-
ical review of an early draft of the manu-
script; Gail A. McPeek for assistance with
field-data collecting; and Charles Rowell
for assistance with statistical analysis.

LITERATURE CITED

1. Hamilton, W. J., Jr. 1938. Life history notes
on the northern pine mouse. J. Mammal. 19:163-
170.

2. Ambrose, H. W., III. 1973. An experimental
study of some factors affecting the spatial and tem-
poral activity of Microtus pennsylvanicus. J. Mam-
mal. 54:79-110.

3. Dueser, R. D., and H. H. Shugart, Jr. 1978.
Microhabitats in a forest-floor small mammal fauna.
Ecology 59:89-98.

4, —_—__. and 1979. Niche pattem
in a forest-floor small-mammal fauna. Ecology 60:
108-118.

5. M’Closkey, R. T., and D. T. Lajoie. 1975.
Determination of local distribution and abundance
in white-footed mice. Ecology 56:467-472.

6. Pearson, P.G. 1959. Small mammals and old
field succession on the Piedmont of New Jersey.
Ecology 40:249-255.

7. Fleharty, E. D., and L. E. Olson. 1969. Sum-
mer food habits of Microtus ochrogaster and Sig-
modon hispidus. J. Mammal. 50:475-486.

MAMMALIAN HABITAT SELECTION—McPeek et al.

8. Goertz, J. W. 1971. An ecological study of
Microtus pinetorum in Oklahoma. Amer. Midl. Nat.
86:1-12.

9. M’Closkey, R. T., and B. Fieldwick. 1975.
Ecological separation of sympatric rodents (Pero-
myscus and Microtus). J. Mammal. 56:119-129.

10. Brown, L.N. 1964. Ecology of three species
of Peromyscus from southern Missouri. J. Mammal.
45:189-202.

11. Getz, L. L. 1961. Factors influencing the
local distribution of shrews. Amer. Midl. Nat. 65:
67-88.

12. Briese, L. A., and M. H. Smith. 1974. Sea-
sonal abundance and movement of nine species of
small mammals. J. Mammal. 55:615-629.

13. Barbour, R. W., and W. H. Davis. 1974.
Mammals of Kentucky. Univ. Press of Kentucky,
Lexington.

73

14. Zimmerman, E. G. 1965. A comparison of
habitat and food of two species of Microtus. J. Mam-
mal. 46:605-612.

15. Benton, A. H. 1955. Observations on the
life history of the northern pine mouse. J. Mammal.
36:52-62.

16. Getz, L. L. 1961. Home ranges, territori-
ality, and movement of the meadow vole. J. Mam-
mal. 42:24-36.

17. Shure, D. J. 1970. Ecological relationships
of small mammals in a New Jersey barrier beach
habitat. J. Mammal. 51:267-278.

18. Hodgsen, J. R. 1972. Local distribution of
Microtus montanus and M. pennsylvanicus in
southwestern Montana. J. Mammal. 53:487-499.

19. MacArthur, R.H.,andJ.W. MacArthur. 1961.On
bird species diversity. Ecology 42:594-598.

Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 44(1-2), 1983, 74-77

NOTES

Three-dimensional Plotting of Schmidt Nets—
Problems involving angular relationships of lines and
planes can be solved with descriptive geometry
methods. However, if certain complex problems,
such as the 3-dimensional geometry of a rock mass,
are to be solved graphically, then the use of the
stereographic projection or stereonet is essential
(Ragan, Structural geology: An introduction to geo-
metrical techniques, 2nd ed., John Wiley & Sons,
1973). With a large number of scattered points, the
problem of treating and evaluating the data arises.
Thus, the statistical evaluation of orientational data
with the aid of a digital computer is certainly des-
tined to be an increasingly important approach
(Cruden and Charlesworth, G.S.A. Bull. 83:2019-
2024, 1972; Watson, Bull. Geol. Inst. 2:73-83, 1970).
The evaluation of plotted data requires a special
type of net, since the resulting distribution plotted
on the usual Wulff net would not be statistically
random. To overcome this difficulty, an equal area
of the Schmidt net is used, since, for many appli-
cations in structural geology, it is convenient to use
a projection that does not distort area. Once the point
diagram is prepared, the densities are counted out.
A wide range of graphical counting methods have
been developed (Denness, Geol. Mag. 109:157-163,
1972; Hobbs, Means, and Williams, An outline of
structural geology, John Wiley & Sons, 1976; Stauf-
fer, Canadian Jour. Earth Sci. 3:474-498, 1966).

In an attempt to illustrate a graphical counting
method, approximately 400 stike and dip readings
were taken in an area of the Shenandoah Valley
region, Virginia, and plotted on an equal area pro-
jection. SYMAP (Dougenik and Sheehan, SYMAP
users reference manual, Harvard Univ., 1979), which
is a computer package designed for the purpose of
producing line-printer maps to depict spatially dis-

PARTIAL PLOT OF SHENANOOAH VALLEY

tributed data, was used to contour the point densi-
ties and create an 89 x 89 digital data matrix of this
information on a tape file. This data file was then
fed into a three-dimensional plotting program using
the following options: QUSMO2, which performs a
9-point quadratic interpolation between points to
give a smooth appearance (Fig. 1); and QUTAB,
which produces a plot similar to a three-dimen-
sional histogram (Fig. 2) (Sawan and Nash, Three-
dimensional mapping programs user manual, Univ.
of Akron, 1974). Both figures display the same in-
formation, and the plots can be rotated in 8 direc-
tions; this more dramatically presents structural in-
formation than the traditional 2-dimensional contour
diagram.

SYMAP, QUSMO2, and QUTAB are commercially
available and require no previous programming ex-
perience or knowledge. Both SYMAP and SUR-
FACE II (Sampson, Surface II graphics system, Kan.
Geol. Survey, 1979), the counterpart to QUSMO2,
are presently available to interested persons through
the University of Kentucky as well as several other
academic computing centers—Alan D. Smith, Dept.
Geol., East. Ky. Univ., Richmond, Kentucky 40475.

New Species Records of Caddisflies (Trichoptera:
Hydropsychidae) in Kentucky—Two species of
caddisflies are added to the list of species known
from Kentucky: Hydropsyche frisoni Ross and
Symphitopsyche slossonae (Banks). Hydropsyche
frisoni larvae were collected on 6 June 1979 from
Crooked Creek, 3 August 1979 from Browne Fork
of Skeggs Creek, and on 14 August 1979 from the
Rockcastle River in Rockcastle County. Symphito-
psyche slossonae larvae were collected on 5 Sep-
tember 1979 from Horse Lick Creek and from Clo-
ver Bottom Creek, and again on 6 June 1979 from
Horse Lick Creek in Jackson County.

Specimens were identified by means of the keys
and species descriptions provided by Schuster and
Etnier (USEPA Publ., EPA 600/4-78-060, 129 pp.,

- 1978) and were confirmed by Dr. G. A. Schuster,

Eastern Kentucky University. These records sup-
plement the list of Kentucky Trichoptera (Resh,
Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci. 36:6-16, 1975), and bring the
current Commonwealth total to 177 species.

Hydropsyche frisoni is known from Illinois,
Michigan, Tennessee, Alabama, and Minnesota
(Ross, Bull. Ill. Nat. Hist. Surv. 21:101-183, 1938;
Ross, Bull. Ill. Nat. Hist. Surv. 23, 326 pp., 1944;
Leonard and Leonard, Occ. Pap. Mus. Zool. Mich.
522:1-35, 1949; Etnier, J. Ga. Ent. Soc. 8:272-274,
1973; Schuster and Etnier, 1978). Symphitopsyche
slossonae has a much broader known range, ex-
tending over the northeastern sections of the United
States and Canada. The discovery of these 2 species
in Kentucky was not surprising considering their
known distributional ranges, and more intensive
collecting in the area would probably increase the
total for Trichoptera in Kentucky.

74

NOTES 75

We thank Dr. G. A. Schuster for confirming the
identification of the specimens.—William T. Thoeny,
Dept. Entomol., Univ. Ky., Lexington, Kentucky
40506 and Donald L. Batch, College Nat. and Math.
Sci., East. Ky. Univ., Richmond, Kentucky 40475.

Suggested Format for Presenting Hypothesis
Testing and Model Comparisons of Trend Sur-
faces.—Trend-surface analysis is the term for a
mathematical method of separating map data into
two components, regional and local (Davis, Statis-
tics and data analysis in geology, John Wiley and
Sons, Inc., New York, 1973). Hypothesis testing and
model comparisons of successively higher order
trends are important in this process. The signifi-
cance of a trend, or regression, may be tested through
the analysis of variance, which separates variance
into components with defined sources, or through the
F-test which explores the null hypothesis that par-
tial regression coefficients are equal to zero and,
hence, there is no regression. In polynomial trend-
surface analysis, it is customary for investigators to
fita series of successively higher polynomials to the
data without justifying their contribution of addi-
tional explained variance over the previous lower
order trend. As demonstrated elsewhere (Smith,
Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci. (abs.) 43(1-2):93, 1982), an
analysis of variance table should be expanded to
analyze the contribution of the additional partial
regression coefficients to give a measure of the ap-
propriateness of increasing the order of the equa-
tion.

Hypothesis testing and model comparisons to
evaluate higher order trends are relatively recent
statistical procedures, not fully practiced by re-
searchers using trend surface analysis techniques.
A standardized format to present the data generated
from these procedures is needed. Table 1 illustrates
data for a fourth-degree polynomial trend surface
with random variation. The terms in the table are
esential to the development and understanding of
the statistical results to evaluate the explained vari-
ance of the additional partial regression weights.
Model 4 represents the fourth-degree surface with
its related statistics: degrees of freedom, both in the
numerator and denominator (df); amount of vari-
ance accounted for by the regression equation (R’);
set decision criterion (alpha); F-ratio; probability of
the F-ratio (P); and significance (NS or S). Model
99 shows a restricted model displaying simple ran-
dom variation, noted by the constant term, ayU, and
residual vector, E. Table 2 illustrates the results of
determining if additional variance accounted for by
a third-degree surface trend is significant enough to
warrant its use over and above the variance ac-
counted for by a second-degree surface. Lastly, Ta-
ble 3 lists a summary of F ratios, probability levels,
R? for both the full and restricted models, degrees
of freedom for both numerator and denominator, and
significance for each trend surface. This table con-
denses 11 separate tables in the hypothesis testing
and model comparisons process.

The tables presented here are an attempt to dis-
play, in an organized and selective fashion, the rel-
atively large amount of information associated with
a detailed statistical analysis of trend surfaces. The
suggested format, similar in nature to the related
statistical format frequently used with multiple lin-

TABLE 1.—MODEL COMPARISON OF FOURTH DEGREE POLYNOMIAL TREND SURFACE WITH RANDOM VARI-
ATION FOR THE SPATIALLY DISTRIBUTED FREE-AIR GRAVITY (HENNING AND SMITH, TRANS. Ky. ACAD.
Scr. (ABS.) 43(1-2):92, 1982)

Explanation of models Models df R? Alpha F P Sign.
Model 4:
Z=aoU + a,X + aY + aX? + Full 0.8767
ayXY + a,Y* + agX® + a,X?Y + 14/193 0.05 98.0220 0.0000 S
agX Y? + agY? + aX? + a,,X°Y +
ayX?Y? + ayyXY? + a,Yi+ E
Model 99:
Z=aU+E Restricted 0.0000
Where: Z = free-air gravity
U = unit vector
ap-ayy = regression coefficients
X,Y = geographical coordinates (SYMAP)
E = error vector (residuals)
Hypothesis:

The fourth degree trend surface of free-air gravity accounts for a significant amount of variance in pre-
dicting values over and above that which can be accounted for by random variation.

Note. The term “Full Model” denotes the trend equation with all the higher order coefficients and the equation that is being tested for
its contribution of additional variance. The term “Restricted Model” denotes the trend equation with the lower order coefficients and the
equation that is being held constant in terms of its contribution of explained variance.

76

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 44(1-2)

TABLE 2.—MODEL COMPARISON OF THIRD DEGREE POLYNOMIAL TREND SURFACE WITH SECOND DEGREE
SURFACE FOR ELEVATION DATA (SMITH AND TIMMERMAN 1982, UNPUBLISHED STUDY).

Explanation of models Models df R? Alpha EF P Sign.
Model 3:
Z =a)U + a,X + aY + a3X? + Full 0.2773
ayXY + a;Y? + a,X® + 4/129 0.05 6.4249 0.0001 S
a;X°Y + agXY* + ap¥? + E
Model 2:
Z=a,U + a,X + asY + a,X*+ Restricted 0.1333

ayXY + a;Y? + E

Where: Z = elevation of bedrock (feet)
U = unit vector
ap-ay = regression coefficients
XY = geographical coordinates
E = error vector (residuals)
Hypothesis:

The third degree trend surface accounts for a significant amount of variance in predicting bedrock elevation
over and above that which can be accounted for by the second degree surface.

Note. For definitions of “Full Model” and “Restricted Model,” see Table 1.

TABLE 3.—SUMMARY OF F-RATIOS, PROBABILITY LEVELS, R? FOR BOTH THE FULL AND RESTRICTED MODELS,
DEGREES OF FREEDOM-NUMERATOR, DEGREES OF FREEDOM-DENOMINATOR, AND SIGNIFICANCE FOR EACH
TREND SURFACE FOR THE VARIABLE BEDROCK DEPTH (SMITH AND TIMMERMAN 1982, UNPUBLISHED STUDY)

Order of

trend surface R*, R’, df F Probability Sign.
1 0.0202 0.0 2/135 1.3931 0.2518 NS
2 0.4766 0.0 5/132 24.0416 0.0000 S
3 0.4947 0.0 9/128 13.9529 0.0000 S
4 0.6026 0.0 14/123 13.3231 0.0000 S
5 0.7146 0.0 20/117 14.6456 0.0000 S
6 0.7807 0.0 27/110 14.5010 0.0000 S
lvs 2 0.4766 0.0202 3/132 38.3693 0.0000 S
2vs3 0.4947 0.4766 4/128 1.1472 0.3374 NS
3vs 4 0.6026 0.4947 5/123 6.6782 0.0000 S
4vs5 0.7146 0.6026 6/117 7.6488 0.0000 S
5 vs 6 0.7807 0.7146 7/110 4.7356 0.0001 S
(N = 138)

Note. An alpha level of 0.05 for a two-tailed, nondirectional test was employed before a hypothesis was considered statistically valid.

ear regression, is designed to maximize clarity of

information to aid the potential user in the inter-
pretation of trends. The author recommends this
format for routine use in all analyses of geographical
trends that have representative sample locations —
Alan D. Smith, Dept. Geol., East. Ky. Univ., Rich-
mond, Kentucky 40475.

Some Observations on the Egg String of a Nem-
atomorph Worm, Paragordius sp—On 12 Septem-
ber 1981 J. D. Jarnette, a graduate student in the
Biology Dept., Univ. of Louisville, brought to one of
our offices (F.H.W.) 2 living female specimens of

Paragordius sp., 1 of which was ovipositing. The
worms and egg string were placed in a container
with aquarium water and observed for about 5 weeks,
until the worms died. The adults were preserved in
70% ethanol, and the egg string was refrigerated at
4°C. The egg mass was subsequently examined on 4
occasions over 11 weeks for emerging and motile
larvae.

At no time was there any detectable swelling of
the egg string. During the fourth week, before re-
frigeration of the egg string, thousands of hatched
larvae were observed on the bottom of the culture
dish. Very few of these showed any movement. Al-
though not motile, some larvae were in the process
of emerging from the eggs (Fig. 1). Terminology of
Fig. 1 is of Dorier (Trav. Lab. Hydrobiol. Piscicult.

NOTES la

Fic. 1. Larva of Paragordius sp. in egg string. A
part of the postseptum is visible. Retracted within
the annulated postacanthal region of the preseptum
can be seen the stylets of the proboscis and some
spines of all 3 rows. Abbreviations: PA, postacan-
thal region; PO, postseptum; S1, spines of row 1;
S2, spines of row 2; $3, spines of row 3; ST, stylets
of proboscis. Bar equals 0.0058 mm.

Grenoble 22:1-183, 1930, and adopted from Mul-
dorf, Z. Wiss. Zool. 111:1-75, 1914 by Zapotosky,
Proc. Helminthol. Soc. Wash. 41:209-221, 1974). At
no time was any larva observed to be encysted. The
most signicant results of this study were observa-
tions of larval movement and emergence during each
of the 4 times the egg mass was examined following
the latter’s refrigeration for 11 weeks.

There was no information from the available lit-
erature regarding the length of time larvae continue

to hatch from eggs. The 11 weeks we recorded for
the larvae of Paragordius sp. are probably not un-
usual for nematomorphs. Such extended hatching
in nature would more effectively ensure the pres-
ence of infective larvae whenever hosts become
available in the immediate area. This spatial and
temporal relationship would have definite survival
value for the nematomorphan species, since the lar-
va probably does not survive long after hatching.

Basically, the larva is the infective stage for the
arthropod host in which it transforms to the parasitic
juvenile. Upon emergence, the juveniles rapidly
mature to free-living adults which mate. From one
to several million eggs are eventually deposited by
each female (Cheng, Gen. Parasitol., Academic
Press, 965 pp., 1973). Various modifications of how
the larva enters the host exist; for example, larvae
of Gordius aquaticus encyst and are perhaps in-
gested (Dorier, 1930), while larvae of G. robustus
and Paragordius varius penetrate the host (May, II.
Biol. Monogr. 5:1-118, 1919). A third condition is
the larva of Chordodes japonensis which emerges
from the egg, does not encyst, but must be ingested
by the host (Inoue, Jap. J. Zool. 12:203-218, 1958) —
Fred H. Whittaker and Robert L. Barker, Dept. Biol.,
Belknap Campus, Univ. of Louisville, Louisville,
Kentucky 40292.

Note on Kentucky Riffle Beetles —Distribution of
the 3 families of aquatic insect usually called riffle
beetles, i.e., Dryopidae, Psephenidae, and Elmi-
dae, is very poorly known in Kentucky, hence the
reason for this note. The following specimens were
collected from Mud Creek, 4 km above the mouth,
Madison County, Kentucky; 17 September 1970: 1
adult female Helichus lithophilus (Dryopidae), 12
immature Psephenus herricki (Psephenidae), 8 adult
Stenelmis sexlineata (Elmidae). Dr. Harley P.
Brown, foremost American authority on riffle bee-
tles, diagnosed the specimens. He is anxious to ob-
tain specimens from Kentucky and is willing to pro-
vide specific diagnoses. His address is: Dept. of
Zoology, University of Oklahoma, Norman, Okla-
homa 73069.—B. A. Branson, Dept. Biol., East. Ky.
Univ., Richmond, Kentucky 40475.

Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 44(1-2), 1983, 78-90

ACADEMY AFFAIRS

THE SIXTY-EIGHTH ANNUAL BUSINESS MEETING
OF THE KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

ASHLAND OIL, INC., ASHLAND, KENTUCKY
4-6 November 1982
Host: Dr. William Hettinger, Jr.

MINUTES OF THE ANNUAL BUSINESS MEETING

The meeting was called to order by President
George at 0930, 6 November in the Auditorium of
the Petroleum Building with approximately 85
members in attendance.

After a motion by Secretary Creek and a second
from the floor, the minutes of the 1981 annual busi-
ness meeting at Murray State University, as record-
ed in the Transactions Vol. 43(1-2), were approved.
Secretary Creek made a motion that all new mem-
bers for 1982 be accepted by the Academy. Follow-
ing a second from the floor the motion passed. Dr.
Creek said that only about 50 percent of the mem-
bership had paid their 1982 dues and thus received
the September issue of the Transactions. He point-
ed out that in order to receive the 1983 Transac-
tions the 1983 dues must be paid by February 1,
1983.

The Treasurer's report was made by Dr. Taylor.

TREASURER S REPORT TO AUDIT COMMITTEE
Kentucky Academy of Science
November 5, 1981-November 1, 1982

Cash in Madison National Bank, Richmond,

Kentucky _____ 1 November 1981 _____- $ 7,684.33
RECEIPTS:

Registration—Fall

Meeting, = 2==s ee $ 2,698.00
Membership Dues _____- 6,407.00
Transactions

Subscriptions ________- 1,400.00
Institutional

Affiliations e=sssess 250.00
Page Charges ___________ 1,245.00
Miscellaneous ___--_--____ 950.18

$12,950.18

Total Cash and Receipts—1981-82 __ 20,634.51

DISBURSEMENTS:
Transfers (Floristic
Grant)) ae ees $ 1,024.83
Operating Expenses _-_ 1,673.43
Junior Academy
of Science)____---=-- == 500.00

Publication of

Transactions

(Volume 42, No. 3-4,
(Vol. 43, No. 1-4)

17,313.17

Total Disbursements—1981-82 ______ 20,511.43
Cash on Hand—1 November 1982 ____ 123.08
Cash on Hand and Disbursements_____ 20,634.51
BALANCE:

Cash on Hand—1 November 1982

Kore LENE (LO 123.08
Prepaid 1983 Membership Dues --___ 1,737.00
Motalk€ashion Hand seen 1,860.08

Maria Athey Memorial Fund (CD) ___- $40,000.00
Interest (Reinvested in

Repurchase Agreements) _-_------ 3,878.49
MotalvResenvc sae $43,878.49
Botany Foundation (CD) _-__--------- $10,000.00
Interest coe en tee ee tee ee 757.32
Savings Account (1982) Working-____ 1,079.94
Total in Savings Account
(Renewal) Eee 1,066.72
Total Reserves Before Grants____ 12,904.20
‘Grantsy (2) eee ee cers 1,050.00
Balanceiirns &. 0. e) ey eda 11,854.20
Floristic Grant Fund—1981-82 _____ 1,524.83
Grants) (1) eae eee 500.00
Ballance ete ere ae re ee 1,024.83

Following a motion and a second from the floor
the report was approved. The report was audited by
Allen Singleton, Charles Helfrich and William Wat-
kins and found to be in order.

1. BOARD OF DIRECTORS. Ms. Mary Mc-
Glasson presented the following report.

The Board of Directors met twice this year and
was primarily concerned with revising the By-laws
of the Foundation. It was decided to merge the Flo-
ristic Survey Grant with the Botany Foundation af-
ter dispersement of the Grant’s current funds. The
Botany Foundation will be changed to the Botany
Research Fund in order to prevent confusion with
the K.A.S. Foundation.

The possibility of hiring an Executive Secretary
to handle the financial matters of the Foundation

78

ACADEMY AFFAIRS

was discussed by the Board. Although it was con-
sidered to be a good idea the Board decided it was
not feasible at this time due to inadequate funds
but should be reconsidered as funds became avail-
able.

A committee composed of Joe Winstead, Herb
Leopold, and William Baker is in the process of
developing guidelines for handling the foundation
funds. When these and the By-law revisions are fi-
nalized, a copy will be sent to K.A.S. members.

Also under consideration are ways to obtain do-
nations for the Foundation. One suggestion is to
develop a brochure that would show what the acad-
emy is, what it has accomplished, and what it pro-
poses to do with money donated to the Foundation.

Another consideration is the possibility of re-
questing from the state legislature a large one time
donation which would be invested in the money
market, the interest of which would be used in var-
ious ways such as employing an Executive Secre-
tary or toward publishing the Transactions.

The other remaining business transacted by the
Board was the selection of the recipient of the Dis-
tinguished Scientist Award for the current year.

2. COMMITTEE ON PUBLICATIONS. Dr. Bran-
ley Branson made the following report.

1. Volume 43(1-2), March 1982, consisted of 96
pages that included 12 papers, Academy Affairs,
Program, Abstracts of some of the papers presented
at the 1981 annual meeting of the Academy, and
News and Comments. Volume 43(3-4), 97 pages,
included 16 papers, Guidelines for Preparation of
Abstracts, Format Changes for the Transactions,
Academy Affairs, and the Annual Index. The cost
for printing 43(1-2) was $5,998.09 and that for 43(3-
4) was 5,490.39 for an annual total of $11,488.48, an
increase of $913.17 (7.95%) over the cost for Volume
42. The percentage increase was roughly 7.5% less
than that of the previous year, mostly because of a
$446.87 savings in labor charges, materials costs,
and mailing associated with revision of the mailing
list. The actual increase was associated with the
publication of a few more papers than in 1981. Ad-
ditional savings are anticipated because of the re-
cently applied format changes (see Transactions
43(3-4) and the elimination of blank pages in the
journal; the effect of these changes will not become
obvious until publication of 44(1-2). There was an
actual decrease in cost of printing per page from
1981 to 1982 amounting to approximately $1.50.
However, Volume 43 was 20 pages longer than Vol-
ume 42.

The subjects of the 28 papers in Volume 43 were
distributed among 4 disciplines as follows: General,
1 paper; Zoology and Entomology, 17 papers; Bot-
any and Microbiology, 9 papers; Geology and Ge-
ography, 1 paper.

2. Because of the precarious financial situation
now extant, the Editor has recently entered into a
discussion with the Allen Press, and he has suc-
cessfully convinced the press of our problem. Allen
Press has agreed to bill us for the production of the

79

journal in 1983 at the same price they charged us
in 1981, thus giving us a degree of price stability.
However, I have been informed that we should plan
for a price increase in 1984.

In view of this, I have conducted a brief survey
of other academies of science with regard to finan-
cial plights and their dues structure. The Kentucky
Academy of Science is at present charging members
far less than many other academies of comparable
size and quality. For example, the Kansas Academy
of Science charges members $16.00, students $10.00,
and libraries $20.00. The North Carolina Academy
of Science charges members $16.00 and libraries
$30.00 with no special class for students ($16.00).
The Oklahoma Academy of Science changes mem-
bers $20.00, students $10.00, and libraries $30.00.
We must increase our dues by $5.00 in order to
bring our dues structure in line with those charged
by other organizations in order to partially amelio-
rate our financial problems.

As mentioned previously, the format changes, the
installation of a note format, and the publication of
abstracts of papers presented at the annual meet-
ings will help our income picture somewhat. How-
ever, this is only a partial solution.

3. As reported by the research section of the Allen
Press to your Editor, before a society can have a
stable or growing membership structure, six to
twelve per cent new members must be added each
year. Not only are we not accomplishing that, we
have actually been losing membership. We must
make a intensive attempt to pull all the scientific
forces of Kentucky into the Academy of Science. If
we could accomplish that goal most of our financial
problems would virtually vanish. It is pathetic to
realize that the Academy membership includes such
a small percentage of Kentucky scientists.

3. COMMITTEE ON LEGISLATION. Dr. Charles
Kupchella presented the report.

Dr. Kupchella said that the committee had no for-
mal action upon which to report. There was con-
cern, however, about the formula for funding of
higher education being considered by the Council
of Higher Education. He said that this was an area
that should be followed closely because of the pos-
sible implications it would have in the science field.

4. COMMITTEES ON DISTRIBUTION OF RE-
SEARCH FUNDS.

(1) The Botany Research Fund report was made
by Dr. Joe Winstead.

Applications are being received for the 1983-84
year with the deadline for funding requests being
1 April, 1983.

Since the inception of the $10,000 endowment in
1978 six student research proposals have been
funded with a total expediture of $2,043 from the
earnings.

It is anticipated that available funding for 1982-
83 will exceed $1,400.

(2) Floristic fund—No report.

80 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 44(1-2)

5. SCIENCE EDUCATION ADVISORY COM-
MITTEE. Ms. Anna Neal made the following re-
port.

Ms. Neal reported that the brochure concerning
careers in science which was being developed by
the committee had been put on hold this past year
due to the involvement of the committee in the cri-
sis developing in teacher education in science. She
reported that as a result of attending the AAAS
meeting in Washington D.C. on science and math-
ematics education she felt more positive toward the
future of science education. She said she has been
contacted by Auburn University about the possibil-
ity of the Academy participating in a southeastern
regional conference to further discuss the problem.
She reported that following her AAAS meeting she
has had many inquiries about the scholarship-loan
program that Kentucky has recently made available.
Ms. Neal also reported that the State Science Ad-
visory Board was being reformed which was the
result of action taken by Raymond Barber. The
council will report directly to Mr. Barber.

6. KENTUCKY JUNIOR ACADEMY OF SCI-
ENCE. Mr. Herb Leopold made the following re-
port.

Our annual symposium was held at Western Ken-
tucky University on April 23-24, 1982. Thirty-one
papers were entered from 8 schools. Our speaker
was Dr. Thomas Coohill, who spoke on “Sunlight
and Cancer.” Also included were the Science Bowl
and Lab Skills Competitions. Clubs represented
were from as far away as Ashland and Murray.

Of major importance were two $1,000 scholar-
ships, awarded for study in the sciences or mathe-
matics at Ogden College. The scholarships were
made possible through efforts of Dr. Earl Pearson
and Dr. Gray Dillard who brought our Outstanding
Science Student program to the attention of Mr. Al
Temple of the Ogden Foundation, an independent
philanthropic organization. The two scholarships
were reserved for recipients of the K.J.A.S. Out-
standing Science Student program. Final selections
were made by the Foundation, assisted by Dr. Dil-
lard, based on our list of Outstanding Science Stu-
dent awards. These scholarships are often renew-
able if the recipients perform up to expectation. It
is our hope that we will again have these scholar-
ships available and that other foundations will ear-
mark some scholarships for similar use.

Our regionalization effort has progressed, but not
as rapidly as anticipated. Currently, we have a num-
ber of individuals who have agreed to serve as board
members in the various regions.

Murray, Arvin Crafton—Jane Sisk

Bowling Green, Mr. Jeff Richardson—C. Mere-
dith, Donna Chapin

Campbellsville, Dr. Tom Jeffries—Carol Nally,
Sister Jane Hancock

Covington, Sister Ethel Parrott—Names not sub-
mitted as of this date

Williamsburg, Dr. Ann Hoffelder—Mary Lane,
Charles Phelps, Lawana Scofield

Lexington-Richmond, Dr. Truman Stevens—Dr.
Don Birdd, Linda Grant, Phil Jones

Bullitt-Jefferson County, Mr. Chris Allen—Names
not submitted as of this date.

As you will note, the regions are being completed
and several have said they will be in operation this
year.

7. RESOLUTION COMMITTEE. Dr. Paul Frey-
tag presented the following resolutions.

Resolution No. 1:

Whereas, Ashland Oil, a major international oil
company which is incorporated in the common-
wealth of Kentucky, and

Whereas, Ashland Oil has graciously served as the
host for the sixty-eighth Annual Meeting of the Ken-
tucky Academy of Science, and

Whereas, Dr. William Hettinger, Jr., Mr. Tony Ber-
ry, Dr. Tom Bean, Mr. William Sutton and many
others of Ashland Oil have worked diligently to make
this meeting a great success, and

Whereas, Ashland Oil has been a leader in many
scientific areas, such as synthetic fuel and petrole-
um extraction technology,

Therefore, be it resolved: that the Kentucky Acad-
emy of Science expresses its sincere appreciation
to Ashland Oil, and the above individuals, and that
the secretary of the Kentucky Academy of Science
be instructed to so inform them.

A motion was made and seconded from the floor
to accept the resolution. Motion was passed.

Resolution No. 2:

Whereas, admission to Kentucky’s public colleges
and universities has traditionally been open to any
high school graduate who is a native of Kentucky,
and

Whereas, The Council of Higher Education in Ken-
tucky has been studying the problem of quality of
higher education in Kentucky, and

Whereas, The Council on Higher Education has
concluded that one of the problems in higher edu-
cation is that many do not use their opportunities
to the fullest that are available to them in high school,
and

Whereas, the Council has proposed that there be
certain minimum high school requirements for un-
conditional admission to Kentucky’s public univer-
sities, and

Whereas, the Council has suggested that each pub-
lic college and university set up some provision for
the admission, on appropriate and specified condi-
tions, of otherwise qualified applicants who do not
meet the specified minimum conditions,

Be it therefore resolved: That the Kentucky Acad-
emy of Science approve, in principle, the efforts of
the Council on Higher Education to improve the

ACADEMY AFFAIRS

scholarship of Kentucky students who plan to enter
college. ;

A motion was made and seconded from the floor
to accept the resolution. Motion was passed.

8. AD HOC COMMITTEES

A. Rare and Endangered Species Committee. The
report presented by Dr. Branley Branson.

The committee respectfully submits the follow-
ing revisions, including several changes in status,
of the original list of Endangered, Threatened, and
Rare animals and plants of Kentucky (Endangered,
Threatened, and Rare animals and plants of Ken-
tucky, Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci. 42:77-89, 1981, Bran-
son et al.):

PAGE 80

Epioblasma florentina should read Epioblasma flo-
rentina florentina

Epioblasma lewisi E [E] should read Epioblasma
lewisi E

Epioblasma sampsoni E should read Epioblasma
sampsoni E [E]

Lasmigona subviridis U should read Lasmigona
subviridis T

Pegias fabula E should read Pegias fabula T

Pleurobema rubrum E should read Pleurobema
rubrum T

Anculosa praerosa T [CL] should read Anculosa
praerosa T

Lithasia armigera E [CL] should read Lithasia ar-
migera E

Lithasia geniculata E [CL] should read Lithasia
geniculata E

Lithasia salebrosa T [CL] should read Lithasia sal-
ebrosa T

Lithasia verrucosa E [CL] should read Lithasia
verrucosa E

Rhodacmea elaitor should read Rhodacmea elatior

Cambarus bouchardi E [CL] should read Camba-
rus bouchardi E

Orconectes jeffersoni E(e) [CL] should read Orco-
nectes jeffersoni E(e)

PAGE 81

Sticklefin chub should read Sicklefin chub
mountain brook lamprey should read Mountain
brook lamprey

PAGE 82

Accipiter cooperi should read Accipiter cooperii

Accipter striatus should read Accipiter striatus

Backman’s Sparrow should read Bachman’s Spar-
row

Ammodramus savannarum II(b) T should read Am-
modramus savannarum II §

PAGE 84

Cystopteris fragilis var. Mackayi should read Cys-
topteris fragilis var. mackayi

81

Calamogrostis porteri should read Calamagrostis
porteri

White Ladyslipper should read White Lady’s Slip-
per

Lady’s slipper (undescribed) should read Lady’s
Slipper (undescribed)

PAGE 86

Drosera brevifolia Sundew should read Drosera
brevifolia Dwarf Sundew

PAGE 87

Eupatorium rugosum var. roanensis should read
Eupatorium rugosum var. roanense

Hedyotis michauxii T Thyme-leaved Bluets should
be inserted following Hedeoma hispidum U Hairy
Pennyroyal

PAGE 88

Plantago cordata E should read Plantago cordata
E [CL]

Silphium terebinthinaceum var. Lucy-brauniae
should read Silphium terebinthinaceum var. lucy-
brauniae

PAGE 89

Viola lanceolata S should read Viola lanceolata T

In addition, we include the longnose dace, Rhi-
nichthys cataractae (Valenciennes), as of Special
Concem based upon the recent discovery of this
species in Eastern Kentucky (Dr. Robert Kuehne,
pers. comm.).

Dr. Jerry Baskin and Max Medley are continuing
their work on the endangered plants of Kentucky.
They will publish a completely revised list in a fu-
ture issue of the Transactions.

The Lady’s Slipper (see previous page) listed as
Cypripedium sp. T. has been officially described by
Clyde Reed (Phytologia 48:426-428, 1981) as C.
kentuckiense Reed. The species continues to be
listed as Threatened.

The committee expresses its appreciation to the
Kentucky Nature Preserves Commission for its con-
tinued cooperation and assistance.

B. Committee to Study Legislatively Mandated
Educational Programs. Dr. Wallace Dixon made the
report.

Dr. Dixon said that the committee had nothing
significant to report concerning the mandated
teaching of scientific creationism. Since its defeat
in Lexington the issue of scientific creationism has
died down. Dr. Dixon said that the committee would
continue to watch this issue and any others that in-
volved mandated educational programs.

9. UNFINISHED BUSINESS. There was no unfin-
ished business.

82 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 44(1-2)

10. NEW BUSINESS.

A. Dr. Taylor reported that the Academy had been
operating at a deficit during the past few years with
the deficit being made up from a contribution from
the State some years ago. The last year for state
contributions was 1979. This grant has carried us
through two budget years but will not be available
in the future. In order to partly alleviate this prob-
lem Dr. Taylor moved that the dues be raised to
$15.00. He pointed out that an increase in dues
would not totally solve the problem as reflected by
the following proposed budget for 1983 which as-
sumes the proposed increase in dues.

Kentucky Academy of Science
Proposed Budget for 1983

RECEIPTS:
Individual Membership

400I@kS5:00) eee $ 6,000.00
Institutional Memberships __________ 1,700.00
Library Subscriptions —__------_--____ 1,400.00
Ravel Charges, Sears eee 1,400.00
Miscellaneous

(Registration ete); = eee 1,000.00

$11,500.00

DISBURSEMENTS:
KAS eiransactions}= ee ee eee $12,000.00
Operating Expenses __________ ~ 1,400.00
Junior Academy of Science —____-____- 500.00
$13,900.00
Deficit ara ee eee ern $ 2,400.00

Following a second from the floor a discussion fol-
lowed concerning the feasibility of raising the dues
and other possible means of raising revenues. The
following were the main points discussed:

(1) Library subscriptions would have to be raised
in the near future.

(2) An increase in the life membership dues would
have to be considered.

(3) The possibility of raising page charges was
another suggestion.

(4) The possibility of separating the Transactions
from the dues and give the member the option
of receiving the Transactions at a cost over and
above the dues.

The motion was voted upon and passed effective
for the 1983 fiscal year.

B. Dr. George made the following proposal for a
second area of institutional affiliations.

For several years, we have had a class of Insti-
tutional Affiliates who have helped support KAS by
donations. We have applied a rule of thumb in which
we ask each college or university to donate $50 for
each 1,000 full-time students. But there does not
seem to exist any such rule of thumb for industrial
and commerical concerns. At the August meeting of
the Board of Directors, it was voted to propose to
the membership that there be two areas of Institu-
tional Affiliation which would be called (1) Aca-
demic Affiliate and (2) Industrial Affiliate. There
would be four categories of Industrial Affiliate:

Associate Member
Member

Sustaining Member
Patron

The cost of each category of membership would
be set by the Executive Committee and adjusted
from time to time as they saw fit. The costs would
be adjusted on a sliding scale with Associate Mem-
ber least expensive and increasing in each category.
The other area, Academic Affiliates, would operate
as we are now doing; we suggest $50 for 1,000 full-
time students. Both classes of affiliates would be
published annually in the Transactions, in order
that they might receive recognition for their contri-
butions.

Dr. George made a motion to accept the proposal
which was seconded from the floor. A suggestion
was made, and accepted, to change the Industrial
Affiliation to a Commercial and Industrial Affilia-
tion. The motion was voted upon and passed.

11. NOMINATING COMMITTEE. Dr. Charles
Covell, Jr. offered the following nominations and
moved their acceptance.

Joe Winstead
Robert Creek
Morris Taylor
Gerrit Kloek
Manual Schwartz

Vice President
Secretary
Treasurer

Board of Directors
Board of Directors

The motion was seconded from the floor and
passed unanimously, there having been no further
nominations.

President George then presented President-elect
Dr. J. G. Rodriguez who addressed the Academy.

Following his remarks, the meeting was ad-
journed at 1030.

Robert Creek, Secretary
Kentucky Academy of Science

ACADEMY AFFAIRS 83

KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
68th ANNUAL MEETING
PROGRAM

Thursday, November 4, 1982

1900-2100 Buffet—Cafeteria, Ground Floor, Pe-
troleum Bldg.

Friday, November 5, 1982

0830-1100 Tour of Coal Liquefaction (H-Coal)
Plant; Reduced Crude Conversion
(RCC) Process and R & D Laboratory

1100-1300 Executive Committee Luncheon—
Conference Rm A, Petroleum Bldg.

1200-1600 Registration—Foyer, Petroleum Bldg.

1200-1700 Scientific Exhibits—Ground Floor,
Petroleum Bldg.

1300-1500 Sectional Meetings—(see following
pages)

1500-1530 Coffee Break—First Floor, Petroleum
Bldg.

1530-1700 Plenary Section—Auditorium, Petro-
leum Bldg.

1730-1845 Hospitality Hour—Foyer, Petroleum
Bldg.

1900-2 KAS Annual Banquet—Cafeteria,

Ground Floor, Petroleum Bldg.
Saturday, November 6, 1982

0800-1000 Registration—Foyer, Petroleum Bldg.

0800-1200 Scientific Exhibits—Ground Floor,
Petroleum Bldg.

0800-0900 Sectional Meetings—(see following
pages)

0900-0915 Coffee Break—First Floor, Petroleum
Bldg.

0915-1015 Annual Business Meeting—Audito-
rium, Petroleum Bldg.

1030-1200 Sectional Meetings—(see following
pages)

1300-? Sectional Meetings—(as needed)

THURSDAY NIGHT BUFFET

1900 Cafeteria, Ground Floor, Petroleum Bldg.
Speaker: Mr. Oliver J. Zandona
Senior Vice-President of Research and
Development Activities and Overseas
OPNS.
Ashland Petroleum Co.

PLENARY SESSION
Auditorium—Petroleum Bldg.
Friday, November 5

1530 “SYNFUEL IN KENTUCKY”
Speakers: Mr. Charles D. Hoertz, Jr.
President
Ashland Synthetic Fuels, Inc.

Dr. Jim Funk
Professor of Mechanical Engineering
University of Kentucky

ANNUAL BANQUET
Friday, November 5

1900 Cafeteria, Ground Floor, Petroleum Bldg.
Speaker: Mr. Charles J. Luellen

Senior Vice-President and Group

Operating Officer, Ashland Oil, Inc.

and President, Ashland Petroleum Co.
“THE PETROLEUM INDUSTRY IN THE 1990's”

BOTANY AND MICROBIOLOGY SECTION
Session I—Room G-1—Executive Bldg.
Marian Fuller, Chairman, Presiding
Harold E. Eversmeyer, Secretary

Friday, November 5, 1982

1500 Coffee Break
1530 Plenary Session

Saturday, November 6, 1982

0800 Vascular Plants of Lily Surface Mine Exper-
imental Area, Laurel County, Kentucky. Ralph
L. Thompson, Berea College.

0815 Seasonal Phytoplankton Succession in an Ur-
ban Reservior. Stephen D. Porter, Natural Re-
sources and Environmental Protection Cabi-
net, Division of Water.

0830 Differential Deer Browsing on Ferns. Foster
Levy, Lisa Barnett, Robin Moran, Warren H.
Wagner, Pikeville College.

0845 Analysis of Vegetation Changes on an Ohio
Strip Mine at Three, Thirteen, and Twenty-
three Year Intervals. Joe E. Winstead, West-
erm Kentucky University.

0900 Coffee Break

0915 Annual Business Meeting

1030 Trophic State Analyses and Use Impairment
of Selected Public Lakes in Kentucky. Terry
P. Anderson and L. Giles Miller, Natural Re-
sources and Environmental Protection Cabi-
net, Division of Water.

1045 The Distribution of Aster Phlogifolium Muhl.
ex Willd. (Asteraceae) in Kentucky. Ronald L.
Jones, Eastern Kentucky University.

1100 Vegetative Pattern and Life Forms on a Ken-
tucky River Rock Bar. Hal Bryan, Kentucky
Department of Transportation, Division of
Environmental Analysis.

1115 The Role of Vegetation Mapping in Environ-
mental Assessment. William H. Martin, East-
em Kentucky University: H. L. Ragsdale,
Emory University.

1130 Prairie Patches on Shale Barrens in Lewis
County. William Meijer, University of Ken-
tucky; Ray Cranfill, University of California
at Berkeley.

1145 Two New Orchid Records from Harlan Coun-
ty, Kentucky. John R. MacGregor, Non-game

84

Wildlife Program, Kentucky Department of
Fish and Wildlife Resources.

1200 A Preliminary Investigation of the Vascular
Plants of Calloway County, Kentucky. Mi-
chael Woods, Marian Fuller, Murray State
University.

1215 Data Banking of Species Records of Ken-
tucky. Marian Fuller, Murray State Univer-
sity.

1230 Election of Section Officers

Session II—Room G-2—Executive Bldg.

Saturday, November 6, 1982—Harold E. Evers-
meyer, Presiding

0900 Coffee Break

0915 Annual Business Meeting

1030 The Effect of Temperature on Epichloe ty-
phina in Tall Fescue Seed. D. R. Varney,
Eastern Kentucky University; M. R. Siegel,
M. C. Johnson, L. P. Bush, R. C. Buckner,
University of Kentucky.

1045 The Fescue Endophyte in Kentucky. D. R.
Varney, T. Meredith, S. Ballard, R. Ross, H.
Koury, Eastern Kentucky University; M. R.
Siegel, W. Nesmith, University of Kentucky.

1100 Cation Analyses of Burley Tobacco During
Induced Manganese Toxicity. F. R. Toman,
Western Kentucky University; Everett Leg-
gett, John Sims, University of Kentucky.

1115 Comparison of 5-hour Disc Susceptibility Test
with Standard Kirby-Bauer Technique. L. P.
Elliott, Western Kentucky University.

1130 The Bacterial Sulfur Cycle: Why Marshes
Smell Like Yellowstone Park Hot Springs.
David J. Minter, Berea College.

1145 Establishment of Tissue Culture of White
Pine. Karan Kaul, Kentucky State University
CRS/Biology.

1200 Rejoin other session for election of section of
ficers.

CHEMISTRY SECTION
Auditorium—Petroleum Bldg.

John Reasoner—Chairman
Sam Cooke—Secretary

Session I, John Reasoner, Presiding
Friday, November 5, 1982

1300 DMF Extractability as a Predictor for Plastic-
ity in Bituminous Coals. Jana M. Whitt, John
W. Reasoner, and William G. Lloyd, Depart-
ment of Chemistry, Western Kentucky Uni-
versity.

1315 Particulate Pollution and Energy Develop-
ment. Wm. D. Schulz, Eastern Kentucky Uni-
versity, and Kent J. Voorhees, Colorado School
of Mines.

1330 A Comparison of Simulated Distillation to
True Boiling Point Distillation of H-Coal Dis-
tillates. M. D. Kiser and D. P. Malone, Re-
search and Development Department, Ash-

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 44(1-2)

land Petroleum Company. (Sponsored by W.
P. Hettinger, Jr.)

1345 Correlation of H-Coal Recycle Solvent Qual-
ity with Various Physical Properties. Joe T.
Collins and Laurence J. Boucher, Department
of Chemistry, Western Kentucky University,
and Howard Moore, Ashland Petroleum
Company.

1400 Microautoclave Testing of H-Coal Liquefac-
tion Recycle Solvents. D. C. Boyer and H. F.
Moore, Research and Development Depart-
ment, Ashland Petroleum Company. (Spon-
sored by W. P. Hettinger, Jr.)

1415 Bacterial Degradation and Chemical Glass
Analysis of a Coal Liquid. Randall Salley and
Norman Holy, Department of Chemistry,
Western Kentucky University.

1430 Coal Liquids Distillation Tower Corrosion.
Mechanism of Inhibition by Strongly Basic
Amines. Diane E. Riley, Alberto A. Sagues
and Burtron H. Davis, Institute for Mining
and Minerals Research, University of Ken-
tucky.

1445 The Anodic Stripping Voltammetric Deter-
mination of Trace Elements in Coal Ash.
John T. Riley and J. Alvaro Jimenez Montoya,
Department of Chemistry, Western Kentucky
University.

1500 Coffee Break

1530 Plenary Session

Session II, Sam Cooke, Presiding
Room 1-4, Executive Bldg.

Friday, November 5, 1982

1300 A Data Acquisition System Based on an Apple
II Plus Computer and a Heath 6800 Micro-
compressor. Carl D. Slater and William S.
Wagner, Department of Physical Sciences,
Northern Kentucky University.

1315 Limited Data Acquistion and Laboratory
Control with Built-in Features of Personal
Computers. S. L. Cooke and Charles Hunt,
Department of Chemistry, University of
Louisville.

1330 Methyl Viologen Radical Cation Reactions
with Persulfate Ion and with Hydrogen Per-
oxide. G. Levey and T. Ebbeson, Department
of Chemistry, Berea College.

1345 Measurement of Mo Dispersion in Mo/AI,O,
Catalysts by ESCA and Model Compound
Reactions. Bruce Adkins, Burt Davis, and
Garrett Cawthon, Institute for Mining and
Minerals Research, University of Kentucky.

1400 UO.F, Particle Size Analysis by Coulter
Counter Method. Harry Conley, Murray State
University, and M. G. Otey, Union Carbide
Corporation.

1415 Preparation and Cloning of EcoRI Generated
Fragments from E. coli and Strep. fecalis. M.
Ruth Clark, Ricky Jackson, and Vaughn Van-
dergrift, Department of Chemistry, Murray
State University.

ACADEMY AFFAIRS 85

1430 Oxidations of Organic Compounds in Pressed
Discs of KBr. Rita K. Hessley, Department of
Chemistry, Western Kentucky University.

1445 Preparation and Evaluation of Mixed Transi-
tion Metal Catalysts for High Yield Syngas
Methanation. M. A. Takassi and D. A. Owen,
Department of Chemistry, Murray State Uni-
versity.

1500 Coffee Break

1530 Plenary Session

Session III, William Hettinger, Jr., Presiding
Auditorium—Petroleum Bldg.

Saturday, November 6, 1982

0800 Hydrogenation of Ary] Nitro Compounds with
a Polymer Bound Catalyst. Edwardo Boralt
and Norman Holy, Department of Chemistry,
Western Kentucky University.

0815 Kinetic and Spectral Studies of Cobalt(II)-
4,4’ 4” 4"-Tetrasulfophthalocyanane in Vari-
ous Media. Maria Torres and Robert Farina,
Department of Chemistry, Western Kentucky
University.

0830 Catalytic Hydrogenation of Nitrogen Con-
taining Heterocycles. D. Ross Spears and
Laurence J. Boucher, Department of Chem-
istry, Western Kentucky University.

0845 Structure and Characteristics of Palladium(II)
Bis(phenylthio)methane. Gary B. Kaufman
and P. E. Fanwick, Department of Chemistry,
University of Kentucky.

0900 Coffee Break

0915 Annual Business Meeting

1030 The Use of Blended Fuels in Diesel Engine
Applications. C. H. Jewitt and L. M. Fergu-
son, Automobile and Product Application
Laboratories, Ashland Petroleum Company.
(Sponsored by W. P. Hettinger, Jr.)

1045 Ethanol-Extended Motor Fuels—A 50,000-
Mile Test. G. L. Bostick and V. L. Kersey,
Automotive and Product Application Labo-
ratories, Ashland Petroleum Company.
(Sponsored by W. P. Hettinger, Jr.)

1100 Coal/Oil Mixtures and Coal/Water Mixtures:
Industrial Fuels of the Future. G. F. Felton
and A. J. Schmutz, Autometive and Product
Application Laboratories, Ashland Petroleum
Company. (Sponsored by W. P. Hettinger, Jr.)

1115 Heavy Hydrocarbon Analysis in Petroleum

Refining. Robert H. Wombles and David P.

Wesley, Ashland Petroleum Company. (Spon-

sored by W. P. Hettinger, Jr.)

Combustion Calorimetry on Eastern Oil

Shales. Gerald Thomas, D. W. Koppenaal, and

William C. Jones, Institute for Mining and

Minerals Research. (Sponsored by Burtron

David)

1145 Density Versus Chemical Composition and
Physical Properties of Kentucky Coal and Oil
Shales. William C. Jones, D. W. Koppenaal
and Gerald Thomas, Institute for Mining and
Minerals Research. (Sponsored by Burtron
David)

1200 Election of Sectional Officers

1130

GEOGRAPHY SECTION
Fifth Floor—Executive Bldg.

Gary C. Cox, Chairman, Presiding
William A. Withington, Secretary

Friday, November 5, 1982

1300 The Effectiveness of Spatial Solutions to the
School Desegregation Problem. Robert G.
Cromley and Mark Woodall, University of
Kentucky.

1315 The Human Ecosystem: A Conceptual
Framework for Geography. E. E. Hegen,
Western Kentucky University.

1330 Visitation Patterns to Kentucky Resort Parks.
John L. Anderson, University of Louisville.

1345 Kentucky County Government Expenditures,
1957-1977. Jerry Webster, University of Ken-
tucky.

1400 Alternative Work Schedules and Journey to
Work. Paul Schoniger, University of Ken-
tucky.

1415 The Effects of Topography on Kentucky Tor-
nadoes. Michael Trepasso, Western Kentucky
University.

1430 Precipitation Distribution in Kentucky. D.
Glenn Conner, Kentucky State Climatologist,
Western Kentucky University.

1445 Mennonite Settlement in Allen County, Ken-
tucky: A Case Study. Albert Petersen, West-
ern Kentucky University.

1500 Geography Section Business Meeting

1515 Coffee Break

1530 Plenary Session

Saturday, November 6, 1982

0800 Muldraugh or a Safe Place to Live: Perceived
Impacts of the 1979 Train Derailment. Stan-
ley D. Brunn, University of Kentucky.

0815 Wildlife Management in Northeastern Ken-
tucky: A Bright Future. Roland L. Burns,
Morehead State University.

0830 Migration Selectivity of College Graduates in
Northeastern Kentucky. Wilma J. Walker,
Eastern Kentucky University.

0845 Ethnic Patterns in a New York Village. Mark
Lowry, Western Kentucky University.

0900 Coffee Break

0915 Annual Business Meeting

1030 Coal Slurry Pipelines: Possible Implications
for Kentucky. Dennis E. Quillen, Eastern
Kentucky University.

1045 Havana: Colonial Spaces Forgotten and Fail-
ing. L. H. Kubiak, Eastern Kentucky Univer-
sity.

1100 Changing Patterns of Land Use in the Big
Sandy Basin of Eastern Kentucky. Gary C.
Cox, Morehead State University.

1115 The Black Population of Kentucky in 1980.
Dinker Patel, Kentucky State University.

86

GEOLOGY
Room A—Petroleum Bldg.

Graham Hunt, Chairman, Presiding
Roy VanArsdale, Secretary, Presiding

Friday, November 5, 1982

1300 The Stratigraphic Framework of the Western
Kentucky Coal Field. David A. Williams,
Kentucky Geological Survey.

1315 The Nomenclature of Some Lower Carbon-
dale Coal Beds in Western Kentucky. Allen
D. Williamson, Kentucky Geological Survey.

1330 Geology of Lake Malone and Lake Malone
State Park. Gail S. Stamper, James X. Corgan,
Department of Geology, Austin Peay State
University.

1345 Pore Pressure Determination Derived from
Drill Data Ratios and Electric Log Correla-
tion. H. Hull Rush, Department of Geology,
Austin Peay State University. Sponsored by
James Corgan.

1400 Stratigraphy and Petrology of the Laurel Do-
lomite (Silurian) on the Western Flank of the
Cincinnati Arch, Kentucky. James Webb and
Wm. GC. MacQuown, Department of Geology,
University of Kentucky.

1415 Rare and Unique Mineral Replacement of
Fossils from the Lower and Middle Parts of
the Borden Formation, Northeastern Ken-
tucky. Charles E. Mason, Department of
Physical Sciences, Morehead State Universi-
ty and Joseph H. Gilbert, Lewis County School
System. Sponsored by Roy VanArsdale.

1430 Geophysical Applications of Hypothesis
Testing and Model Comparisons of Trend
Surfaces. Alan D. Smith, Department of Ge-
ology, Eastern Kentucky University.

1445 Distribution of the Flint Clay Parting of the
Fire Clay Coal and its Implications. Don
Chestnut and Anne Schreiber, Department of
Geology, University of Kentucky.

1500 Coffee Break

1530 Plenary Session

Saturday, November 6, 1982

0800 Initial Analysis of Mine Roof Fall Data in Coal
Mines of Eastern Kentucky. Alan D. Smith,
Department of Geology, Eastern Kentucky
University and A. B. Szwilski, Department of
Mining Engineering, University of Kentucky.

0815 Discriminative Relationships Among Basic
Lithologies and Engineering Parameters Ob-
tained from the Point Load and Slake Dura-
bility Tests. Richard A. Smath and Alan D.
Smith, Department of Geology, Eastern Ken-
tucky University and James C. Cobb, Ken-
tucky Geological Survey.

0830 Regression Analysis Techniques Applied to
Petrographic Studies. Alan D. Smith and Gary
L. Kuhnhenn, Department of Geology, East-
ern Kentucky University.

0845 The Drought Problem: An Attempt at the De-
velopment of a Water-Retaining Soil. Pam

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 44(1-2)

Rust, Notre Dame Academy. Sponsored by H.
A. Leopold.

Coffee Break

Annual Business Meeting

Palynology of Eastern Kentucky Coals—New
Directions. Charles T. Helfrich, Department
of Geology, Eastern Kentucky University.
The Foerstia Zone—A Key to Late Devonian
Stratigraphy in Kentucky. Roy C. Kepferle,
Department of Geology, Eastern Kentucky
University and James D. Pollock, Institue for
Mining and Minerals Research, University of
Kentucky.

Distribution of Salines in Kentucky. Richard
Boisvert, Department of Anthropology, Uni-
versity of Kentucky and Steven Cordiviola,
Kentucky Geological Survey.

1115 Election of Officers

0900
0915
1030

1045

1100

PHYSIOLOGY, BIOPHYSICS, AND PHARMA-
COLOGY SECTION
Room 1-3, Executive Bldg.

Robert E. Daniel, Chairman
Thomas E. Bennett, Secretary

Thomas E. Bennett, Presiding
Friday, November 5, 1982

1300 The effect of long distance running on serum
cholesterol and triglyceride levels. Mark
Smith and Ray K. Hammond, Department of
Biology and Biochemistry, Centre College.
The influence of exercise on hypertension in
experimental animals. Charles H. Bennett,
Department of Biology, Kentucky State Uni-
versity and T. A. Kotchen, Department of
Medicine, University of Kentucky.

1330 In vivo study of the effects of danazol on cy-
toplasmic receptors in the female rat. Debbie
Spencer and David Magrane, Department of
Biological and Environmental Sciences,
Morehead State University.

Characterization of danazol binding to spe-
cific cytosol receptors in vitro. Gail Russell
and David Magrane, Department of Biologi-
cal and Environmental Sciences, Morehead
State University.

A new column perfusion technique using iso-
lated rat adrenal cells to study ACTH and
danazol. Diane Johnson and David Magrane,
Department of Biological and Environmental
Sciences, Morehead State University.

1500 Coffee Break

1530 Plenary Session

1315

1345

1400

Robert E. Daniel, Presiding
Saturday, November 6, 1982

0900 Coffee Break

0915 Annual Business Meeting

1030 Colorectal cancer incidence in Campbell
County, Kentucky. Raymond E. Richmond,
Department of Biological Sciences, Northem
Kentucky University.

ACADEMY AFFAIRS 87

1045 Glyosaminoglycan patterns in 8 lines of trans-
plantable hepatomas having different growth
rates and metastatic potentials. Saeid Baki-
Hashemi and Charles E. Kupchella, Depart-
ment of Biological Sciences, Murray State
University.

1100 Glyosaminoglycan changes in normal tissue
adjacent to implanted hepatomas. Maryjane
Estes, Saeid Baki-Hashemi, and Charles E.
Kupchella, Department of Biological Sci-
ences, Murray State University.

1115 Differential glycosaminoglycan infiltration in
human cutaneous mucinoses. Branley T.
Bryan, Charles E. Kupchella (Department of
Biological Sciences, Murray State Universi-
ty), Lois Matsuoka, Jacobo Wortsman (De-
partment of Medicine, Southern I]linois Uni-
versity School of Medicine), and John Dietrich
(Department of Pathology, Southern Illinois
University School of Medicine).

1130 Election of Officers

PHYSICS
Room 1-4, Executive Bldg.

P. J. Ouseph, Chairman, Presiding
Raymond McNeil, Secretary

Friday, November 5, 1982

1500 Coffee Break
1530 Plenary Session

Saturday, November 6, 1982

0800 Asymmetry Potential for Sub-Coulomb-Pro-
tons Interacting with Zr. D. S. Flynn, Uni-
versity of Kentucky.

0815 Edwin Hubble in Kentucky. Joel Gwinn,
University of Louisville.

0830 Magnetic Dimensional Resonance of Indium
Antimonide at Room Temperature. Raymond
Enzweiler and Donald E. Munninghoff,
Thomas More College.

0845 Using the SiO Maser as a Near Stellar Probe.
F. O. Clark, University of Kentucky.

0900 Coffee Break

0915 Annual Business Meeting

1030 Wigner Cusps Observed in Proton Radiative
Capture on *Zr, *!V, Zn, and “Ni. C. E. Laird
and B. S. Finch, Eastern Kentucky Universi-
ty; D. S. Flynn, R. L. Hershberger, and F.
Gabbard, University of Kentucky.

1045 Temperature Dependence of Velocity of
Sound: An Experimental Determination.
James Link and P. J. Ouseph, University of
Louisville.

1100 The Parabolic Rule—Application to Energy
Levels of °°Nb. Bernard D. Kern, University
of Kentucky.

1115 Comments on High School Physics Teaching
in Kentucky. Donald Esbenshade, St. Francis
High School.

1130 Physics Section Meeting

SCIENCE EDUCATION
Room 1-2, Executive Bldg.

Dan Ochs, Chairman
Jane Sisk, Secretary, Presiding

Friday, November 5, 1982

1500 Coffee Break
1530 Plenary Session

Saturday, November 6, 1982

0830 The Tree-hole Mosquito as a Classroom Or-
ganism. David R. Bezanson and Thomas C.
Rambo, Department of Biological Sciences,
Norther Kentucky University.

0845 Arson Investigations in the Laboratory: Class-
room Applications. Robert E. Fraas, Forensic
Science Program, Eastern Kentucky Univer-
sity.

0900 Coffee Break

0915 Annual Business Meeting

1030 Stated Reasons for Withdrawal and Degrees
of Satisfaction Among College Persisters and
Nonpersisters. Alan D. Smith, Department of
Geology, Eastern Kentucky University.

1045 A Microcomputer Exercise on Genetic Tran-
scription-Translation. John L. Meisenheimer,
Department of Chemistry, Eastem Kentucky
University.

1100 Election of Sectional Officers

PSYCHOLOGY
Fifth Floor—Petroleum Bldg.

Frank Kodman, Presiding
James A. Lee, Secretary

Friday, November 5, 1982

1300 The Effect of Friday Afternoon Class Atten-
dance on Grades. John C. Parkhurst, Steven
D. Falkenberg, Eastern Kentucky University.

1310 Pregnancy Symptoms and Mood Changes in
Expectant Fathers and Factors Relating to
these Experiences. Debbie Champion, Mur-
ray State University. Sponsored by Terry Bar-
rett.

1320 The Effect of Sex of the Victim on the Eyewit-
ness Accounts of Males and Females. John E.
Story, Murray State University. Sponsored by
Terry Barrett.

1330 Amount of Eye Contact as a Predictor of Per-
sonal Space. Tanas Ball, Murray State Uni-
versity. Sponsored by Terry Barrett.

1340 Cue Effectiveness in Facilitating Recall of a
Word in the “Tip-of-the-Tongue” State. Su-
san Parrish, Murray State University. Spon-
sored by Terry Barrett.

1350 The Effects of Contextual Selectivity on Am-
biguous Words. Jeff Johnston, Murray State
University. Sponsored by Terry Barrett.

1400 Automatic and Effortful Processes and the
Recall of Spatial Location. Shari A. Shields,
Murray State University. Sponsored by Terry
Barrett.

88

1410

1420

1430

1440

1450

1500
1530

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 44( 1-2)

The Effects of Stimulus Screening on Cogni-
tive and Motor Performance. Steven M.
Peaugh, Murray State University. Sponsored
by Terry Barrett.

Brainstorming: The Effectiveness of De-
ferred Judgment and Idea Quantity. Penny
Tucker Hailey, Murray State University.
Sponsored by Terry Barrett.

The Relation of Memory Distortion to Intel-
ligence. Glen Crouch, Murray State Univer-
sity. Sponsored by Terry Barrett.

Mental Activity and Memory in the Young and
Old. Terry R. Barrett and Louanne Yarbro,
Murray State University.

Alleviation of Learned Helplessness Effects
in an Academic Setting. Deborah A. Otto,
Murray State University. Sponsored by Terry
Barrett.

Coffee Break

Plenary Session

Saturday, November 6, 1982

0800

0810

0820

0830

0840

0850

0900.
0915
1030

1040

1050

1100

Teacher-Child Interactions and the Relation
to Performance. Barbara J. Smith, Murray
State University. Sponsored by Terry Barrett.
The Effects of Father-Daughter Relationships
on the Daughter’s Later Willingness Towards
Touching and Being Touched. Jacqueline R.
Pope, Murray State University. Sponsored by
Terry Barrett.

Effects of Modeling and Selective Attention
on Anxiety Reduction. Sherry Mayfield, Mur-
ray State University. Sponsored by Terry Bar-
rett.

SelfRegulation of Digital Skin Temperature
as Affected by Music. Sara C. Keeling, Mur-
ray State University. Sponsored by Terry Bar-
rett.

Coping Strategies of Normal Bereavement.
Karen W. Dodson, Murray State University.
Sponsored by Terry Barrett.

Are Males Really More Agressive than Fe-
males? Teresa Davis, Murray State Univer-
sity. Sponsored by Terry Barrett.

Coffee Break

Annual Business Meeting

Attitude Differences Among Males and Fe-
males in Intercollegiate Athletics. Virginia P.
Falkenberg and Scott Quesnel, Eastern Ken-
tucky University.

Attitudes of College Students toward Conju-
gal/Romatic Love Relationships. Vivian L.
Pyles and Steven D. Falkenberg, Eastern
Kentucky University.

A Study of Sex Differences among Student
Persisters and Nonpersisters Enrolled in the
Community and Technical College. Alan D.
Smith, Department of Geology, Eastern Ken-
tucky University. Sponsored by William H.
Watkins.

Inferential Statistical Techniques Commonly
Employed in Contemporary Life Science
Journals. Francis H. Osborne, Jeanne S. Os-

1110

1130

1140

1150

1200
1300

1310

1320

1330

1340

1350

1400

1410

1430

bome, Katherine E. Koch, and Malcolm P.
Graham, Morehead State University.

Cross Validation and Discriminative Analysis
Techniques to Estimate the Stability of Par-
tial Regression Weights for Predictive Pur-
poses. Alan D. Smith, Department of Geolo-
gy, Eastern Kentucky University. Sponsored
by William H. Watkins.

Aggression Behavior in Planaria. Jenny Fry.
Notre Dame Academy. WINNER: Kentucky
Junior Academy of Science Symposium, 1982.
Sponsored by H. A. Leopold.

Dual Coding Mechanisms in Implicit Learn-
ing. Barney Beins and Gary Beatrice. Thomas
More College. Sponsored by William H. Wat-
kins.

Effect of Background Color on Recall of Ran-
domly Positioned Symbols. Thomas D. Rob-
bins and William H. Watkins, Eastern Ken-
tucky University.

Recall of Stimuli from Auditory vs. Visual vs.
Pictorial Displays with Rehearsal Prevented.
Jane T. Riley and William H. Watkins, East-
ern Kentucky University.

Lunch Break

Visual Perception: A Comparison between the
Deaf and Hearing. Jim A. Herrell. Eastern
Kentucky University. Sponsored by William
H. Watkins.

Are the “Blue” and “Seven” Phenomena
Genuine? Terry Lee Miller and William H.
Watkins, Eastern Kentucky University.
Altruistic Behavior of Local Residents and
EKU Faculty Members of Richmond, Ken-
tucky toward Students and Non-Students.
Debi Smith and Steve Falkenberg, Eastern
Kentucky University.

Name Stereotypes and Appearance Rankings:
An Empirical Study. Robin Kim Boggs, East-
erm Kentucky University. Sponsored by Wil-
liam H. Watkins.

Affectionate Responding as a Function of
Success Experiences. Brian A. Keith, Steven
D. Falkenberg, and Richard J. Shuntich, East-
ern Kentucky University.

Use of the Observation Rating Scale in
Screening for Hyperactive Child Syndrome
(HCS) in the General Grade School Popula-
tion. Patricia Tobin, Eastern Kentucky Uni-
versity. Sponsored by William H. Watkins.
Affective Disorders in College Students: Are
New Theoretical Constructs Needed? Jack G.
Thompson, Donald H. Brown and Angela
Kirkland, Centre College of Kentucky.
Steepness of Approach and Avoidance Gra-
dients in Humans as a Function of Experi-
ence. Anthony Howard, Virginia P. Falken-
berg and Steven D. Falkenberg, Eastern
Kentucky University.

The Effects of Personality Moderator Vari-
ables in the Efficacy of EMG-Biofeedback
Relaxation Training: The Search for the Holy
Grail. Jack G. Thompson and Nora Meadows,
Centre College of Kentucky.

Election of Section Officers.

ACADEMY AFFAIRS

SOCIOLOGY SECTION
Room C—Petroleum Bldg.

John Curra, Chairman, Presiding
Steve Savage, Secretary

Friday, November 5, 1982

The Program for the Sociology Section will be
Available at the Annual Meeting.

ZOOLOGY AND ENTOMOLOGY
Session I—Room G-1, Executive Bldg.

Charles V. Covell, Jr., Chairman
Gerritt Kloek, Acting Secretary

Friday, November 5, 1982—

1315 Freshwater Mussels of Elkhorn Creek, Ken-
tucky (UNIONIDAE). Ralph W. Taylor, De-
partment of Biological Sciences, Marshall
University, Huntington, West Virgina.

1330 The Influence of Temperature on Testicular

Photosensitivity in the White-throated Spar-

row (Zonotrichia albicollis). Laurel Prinz and

Blaine R. Ferrell, Department of Biology,

Western Kentucky University.

You are Where You Eat—Influence of Sub-

strate Type on the Comparative Feeding

Strategies of Two Species of Estuarine Fish-

es. Michael Barton, Division of Science and

Mathematics, Centre College of Kentucky.

1400 The Prevalence of Heartworm Infection in

East-Central Kentucky Dogs. Allen L. Lake

and Hoy Miller, Jr., Morehead State Univer-

sity.

Status Signaling in House Sparrows, Passer

domesticus. Gary Ritchison, Department of

Biological Sciences, Eastern Kentucky Uni-

versity.

1430 The Fishes of Buck Creek, Upper Cumber-

land River System, Kentucky. Ronald R. Ci-

cerello, Kentucky Nature Preserves Commis-
sion and Robert S. Butler, Department of

Biological Sciences, Eastern Kentucky Uni-

versity.

Distribution of Two Treehole Mosquitos,

Aedes triseriatus Say and Aedes hendersoni

Cockerelle (Diptera: Culicidae) in Berea,

Kentucky. Jerome H. Waller, Department of

Biology, Berea College and Ellen M. Ballard,

Department of Entomology, University of

Kentucky.

1500 Coffee Break

1530 Plenary Session

Gerrit Kloek, Presiding

1345

1415

1445

ZOOLOGY AND ENTOMOLOGY
Session II—Room G-2, Executive Bldg.

Friday, November 6, 1982—Charles V. Covell, Jr.,
Presiding

1315 Field Biology of the Blackfaced Leafhopper,
Graminella nigrifrons (Forbes), in Kentucky.
John D. Sedlacek and Paul H. Freytag, De-
partment of Entomology, University of Ken-
tucky.

89

1330 Effect of Parasitism on the Development of
Fourth and Fifth Instar Heliothis virescens.
Bruce Webb and D. L. Dahlman, Department
of Entomology, University of Kentucky.

Pest Interactions in the Alfalfa Ecosystem Si-
tona hispidulus, Hypera postica and Soil-
Borne Root Rot Fungi. L. D. Godfrey and K.
V. Yeargan, Department of Entomology, Uni-
versity of Kentucky.

Seasonal Abundance and Impact of the Lo-
cust Twig Borer on Black Locust on a Surface-
Mine Reclamation Site. William T. Thoeny and
Gerald L. Nordin, Department of Entomolo-
gy, University of Kentucky.

L-Canavanine: Synergistic Effects with Car-
bamate Insecticides in Heliothis virescens and
Manduca sexta. G. W. Felton and D. L. Dahl-
man, Department of Entomology, University
of Kentucky.

Physical Characteristics of Corn Kermel Peri-
carp and Resistance Against the Rice Weevil.
D.F. Blake and L. A. Gomez, Division of Sci-
ence, Math & Nursing, Kentucky State Uni-
versity and J. G. Rodriguez, Department of
Entomology, University of Kentucky.
Utilization of Maize Endosperm by the Rice
Weevil. L. A. Gomez and D. F. Blake, Divi-
sion of Science, Math & Nursing, Kentucky
State University and J. G. Rodriguez and C.
G. Poneleit, Department of Entomology, Uni-
versity of Kentucky.

Coffee Break

Plenary Session

1345

1400

1415

1430

1445

1500
1530

ZOOLOGY AND ENTOMOLOGY
Candlelight Room—Petroleum Bldg.

Saturday, November 6, 1982—Charles V. Covell,
Jr., Presiding

0800 Rhopalosoma nearcticum Brues in Kentucky.
Paul H. Freytag, Department of Entomology,
University of Kentucky.

State Records of Stoneflies (Plecoptera) in

Kentucky. Donald C. Tarter and Dean A. Ad-

kins, Department of Biological Sciences,

Marshall University, Huntington, West Vir-

ginia and Charles V. Covell, Jr., Department

of Biology, University of Louisville.

0830 The Effect of Malathion on Larval Xenopus
laepis. Sharon Just, Lexington Catholic High
School, First Place Winner, Jr. KAS.

0845 The Effects of Testosterone on the Sexual
Differentiation of Lebistes reticulatus. Jef-
frey D. Smith, North Bullitt High School, First
Place Winner, Jr. KAS.

0900 Break

0915 Annual Business Meeting

1030 Effect of Chlorpyrifos, Bendiocarb, Trichlor-

fon, and Isofenphos on a Kentucky Bluegrass

Turf Arthropod Community. Stephen D.

Cockfield and Daniel A. Potter, Department

of Entomology, University of Kentucky.

Effects of Intensive Turf Management on Pests

and Non-target Invertbrates in Kentucky

Bluegrass. Daniel A. Potter and Terry B. Ar-

0815

1045

90
nold, Department of Entomology, University
of Kentucky.

1100 Reproductive Behavior in the Praying Man-

tis: A Sequential Analysis and Comparison of
Two Species (Tenodera aridifolia sinensis and
Stagmomantis carolina). Michael Poston,
Stephen Hirsch, J. William Porter, Melissa
Morehead, and Timothy Meier, Department
of Psychology and Biology, Thomas More
College.

Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 44(1-2), 1983, 90-93

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 44(1-2)

1115 Notes on the Lepidoptera Fauna of the Vicin-
ity of Tingo Maria, Peru. Charles V. Covell,
Jr., Department of Biology, University of
Louisville.

1130 Influence of Selected Leguminous Hosts on
Development and Potential Progeny of Potato
Leafhopper. Alvin M. Simmons, Bobby C.
Pass, and Kenneth V. Yeargan. Department of
Entomology, University of Kentucky.

1145 Election of Sectional Officers

ABSTRACTS OF SOME PAPERS PRESENTED
AT THE ANNUAL MEETING

BOTANY AND MICROBIOLOGY

Two new orchid records from Harlan County,
Kentucky. JOHN R. MACGREGOR, Nongame
Wildlife Program, Kentucky Department of Fish and
Wildlife Resources, Frankfort, KY 40601.

In July 1982 I discovered colonies of Liparis loe-
selii (L.) L. C. Rich. (Loesel’s twayblade) and Cor-
allorhiza maculata (Raf.) Raf. (spotted coral-root) in
Harlan County, Kentucky. There are no previous
records for L. loeselii in Kentucky. Earlier reports
for C. maculata in Kentucky have been based on
robust specimens of the closely-related C. wister-
iana or are unsupported by available voucher ma-
terial. Photographs of both of these orchids, brief
descriptions of the sites in which each was found,
and speculations conceming the existence of addi-
tional unreported species of orchids in the moun-
tains of southeastern Kentucky were presented.

Trophic State Analyses and Use Impairment of
Selected Public Lakes in Kentucky. TERRY P. AN-
DERSON* and L. GILES MILLER. Natural Re-
sources and Environmental Protection Cabinet, Di-
vision of Water, Frankfort 40601.

The Divison of Water surveyed forty-seven pub-
licly owned lakes in Kentucky to determine their
trophic state. Trophic status was assessed by the
Carlson Trophic State Index (TSI). Three lakes were
determined to be hypereutrophic, twenty-six were
eutrophic, fifteen were mesotrophic and three were
oligotrophic. Selected parameter ranges between the
hypereutrophic and oligotrophic lakes were, re-
spectively: TSI (Chlorophyll), 74-34; maximum
chlorophyll-a, 198-3 yg/l; total phosphorus, 840-7
ug/l; conductivity, 512-55 wS/em; euphotic zone
depth, 1.2-18.6 m; secchi depth, .3-8.8 m.

An impaired use assessment was conducted for
eight lakes. Causes of the impairments were attrib-
uted to shallow lake basins, excessive nutrient con-
tributions from cultural and agricultural sources, acid
mine drainage, and hypolimnetic discharges.

Vascular plants of Lily Surface Mine Experimen-
tal Area, Laurel County, Kentucky. RALPH L.

THOMPSON, Department of Biology, Berea Col-
lege, Berea, KY 40404.

The Lily Surface Mine Experimental Area, a 14.5-
hectare abandoned stripmine, was planted with 110
herbaceous and woody species by the U.S. Forest
Service in 1965-1966 and then allowed to progress
through natural plant succession. Floristic study in
1981-1982 disclosed 341 taxa from 86 families, in-
cluding 68 introduced species persisting from the
original plantings. Thirty 2 m x 100 m belt tran-
sects indicated important trees were Pinus virgin-
iana, Liquidambar styraciflua, Acer rubrum, Bet-
ula nigra, Cornus florida, Nyssa sylvatica, and
Oxydendrum arboreum. Important shrubs and vines
were Rhus copallina, Smilax glauca, Rhus radi-
cans, Rubus spp., Lonicera japonica, Spireae to-
mentosa, and Rosa multiflora. Sixty 1 m xX 1 m
quadrats revealed that the Poaceae, Asteraceae, and
Fabaceae were the most important families of the
herbaceous layer.

GEOGRAPHY

Visitation patterns of Kentucky resort parks. JOHN
L. ANDERSON, Department of Geography, Uni-
versity of Louisville, Louisville, KY 40292.

Changes in overnight attendance and average
distance traveled by visitors from the largest rec-
reational markets to Kentucky’s resort parks were
examined, revealing an increasing interest in taking
advantage of close-to-home opportunities. Recre-
ational hinterlands contracted and vistation de-
creased for most of the parks during the recent de-
cade. Lakes Cumberland and Barkley provided
noteworthy exceptions by registering outstanding
growth and hinterland expansion. Numerous and
complex reasons enter into travel decisions, but em-
phasis was given to accessibility, quality of envi-
ronments, and state of the economy.

GEOLOGY
The distribution and volcanic source area for the
flint clay parting of the Fire Clay Coal. DONALD
R. CHESNUT and ANNE M. SCHREIBER%, Ken-
tucky Geological Survey, Lexington, KY 40506.

ABSTRACTS OF PAPERS PRESENTED IN 1982 91

To support the volcanic origin for the flint clay
parting of the Fire Clay coal bed, an isopach of the
parting was constructed. It shows a pronounced de-
crease in thickness to the north. Paleogeographic
reconstruction of the Middle Pennsylvanian, the
isopach of the flint clay parting, the global wind
patterns, and the isomass map of the Mt. Saint He-
lens ash fall pointed to a source in the south-central
Appalachians coinciding with a portion of the Her-
eynian magmatic are from Maryland to Georgia.

Rare and unique mineral replacement of fossils
from the lower and middle parts of the Borden For-
mation, northeastern Kentucky. CHARLES E. MA-
SON*, Department of Physical Sciences, Morehead
State University, Morehead, KY 40351 and JO-
SEPH H. GILBERT, Lewis County School System,
Vanceburg, KY 41179.

The mineralization is restricted to invertebrate
fossils found in the Farmers, Nancy, and Cowbell
members of the Borden Formation. In lateral ex-
tent this mineralization has been observed from
Scioto County, Ohio, south to Rockcastle County,
Kentucky. The fossils are found in siderite nodules,
lenses, and beds preserved as molds and casts with
the internal mode dominating. Barite, in a colorless
form, is the most common mineral. Other associated
minerals in order of decreasing abundance are
sphalerite, pyrite, galena, and calcite. Pyrite com-
monly replaces areas of original shell whereas the
remaining minerals infill voids. Reports of barite
and sphalerite replacing or infilling fossils are rare
and this report of galena is unique.

Pore pressure determination derived from drill
data ratios and electric log correlation. H. HULL
RUSH, Department of Geology, Austin Peay State
University, Clarksville, TN 37040.

Data collected from nearby wells can provide in-
formation for predicting and determining pressures
in oil and gas exploration wells. Data correlation
with “E”-long conductivity is often used to predict
pressures and dictate drilling fluid weights. A for-
mula for determining pressures based on porosity
(Boone 1968) is:

Pressure, = Pressure, + A Potosi

+ Mud Weight
(ep 2 + MW)

When porosity is undetermined, a proposed em-
pirical formula based on rate of penetration (ROP)
in unrelieved shale sequences is:
Porosity, = Porosity, + (AROP x .2) + AMW
(0. — 6, + (AROP x .2) + AMW)
and: P,=P,+ A@+ MW

The results of these formulae are of value since they
are independent of surface physical data.

Geophysical applications of hypothesis testing and
model comparisons of trend surfaces. ALAN D.

SMITH, Department of Geology, Eastern Kentucky
University, Richmond, KY 40475.

The significance of a trend or regression may be
tested by performing an analysis of variance, which
deals with separation of the total variance of a set
of observations into components with defined
sources of variation. In the case of trend surface
analysis, total variance in an independent variable
may be divided into the trend itself, which is de-
termined by regression analysis, and the residuals,
or error vector. By reducing the sum of squares,
which were derived from the least-square criterion,
an estimate of variance can be compared by using
the F-distribution. Applications of the full and re-
stricted models in regression analysis were utilized
in determining the highest degree polynomial sur-
face for selected geotechnical borehole data, gravity
anomalies, oil and gas production, and stratigraphic
mapping examples.

Regression-analysis techniques applied to petro-
graphic studies. ALAN D. SMITH* and GARY L.
KUHNHENN, Department of Geology, Eastern
Kentucky University, Richmond, KY 40475.

Field observations and study of 98 polished slabs
and 113 thin sections were used in order to study
the depositional environment of the Strodes Creek
Member and its relationship to the enclosing Mil-
lersburg Member and Tanglewood Limestone
Member in north-central Kentucky. The Strodes
Creek Member consists of eight microfacies—an al-
gal boundstone, a claystone, a dolomitic ostracod
packstone, a dolomitic packstone, a dolomitic
wackestone, a dolomitic carbonate mudstone, a Tet-
radium packstone, and a skeletal grainstone—rep-
resenting various sub-environments within a shal-
low water, slightly restricted and sheltered
depositional framework. Regression-analysis tech-
niques and a detailed description of the steps in-
volved, including hypothesis testing and stepwise
regression, were used to statistically verify the mi-
crofacies classification.

Initial analysis of mine roof fall data in coal mines
of eastern Kentucky. ALAN D. SMITH*, Depart-
ment of Geology, Eastern Kentucky University,
Richmond, KY 40475 and A. B. SZWILSKI, De-
partment of Mining Engineering, University of
Kentucky, Lexington, KY 40506.

Roof falls are so common a problem that many
consider them to be a part of mining operations.
The purpose of this study was to develop a survey
instrument and resultant pilot study capable of sys-
tematically documenting the basic characteristics of
roof falls in eastern Kentucky. A statistical study
using Pearson correlations, multiple linear regres-
sion corrected for multiple comparisons, and fre-
quencies was completed for selected variables, e.g.,
depth, location, span, orientation, pillar dimen-
sions, seam and roof fall characteristics, geology of
the first four immediate roof beds, water, time, floor
heave, roof bolting, and various production param-
eters. Although only 13 cases were analyzed in the
pilot study, definitive relationships between roof fall,
water, and bolting characteristics were established.

Discriminative relationships among basic lithol-
ogies and engineering parameters obtained from the
point load and slake durability tests. RICHARD A.
SMATH* and ALAN D. SMITH, Department of
Geology, Eastern Kentucky University, Richmond,
KY 40475 and JAMES C. COBB, Kentucky Geolog-
ical Survey, Lexington, KY 40506.

A great need exists for information that allows for
the prediction of rock behavior as a function of li-
thology. A study to investigate this was based on
four cores derived from the eastern Kentucky coal
field, sampled at 5-foot intervals for slake durability
and point load tests. Twenty-seven research hy-
potheses were tested using multiple linear regres-
sion, with 15 hypotheses found to be significant at
the alpha level of 0.05. Several relationships were
established among three basic lithologies of mud-
stone, siltstone, and sandstone and their engineer-
ing tests for predictive purposes.

Geology of Lake Malone and Lake Malone State
Park. GAIL S. STAMPER* and JAMES X. COR-
GAN, Department of Geology, Austin Peay State
University, Clarksville, TN 37040.

Massive Caseyville sandstones crop out along the
shores of Lake Malone, forming joint-controlled
cliffs, locally over 200 feet high. Within cliffs,
weathering along joints and along crossbeds has
created over 30 small natural bridges, the largest 9
meters in span. Caseyville cliffs also display abun-
dant honeycomb weathering. This phenomenon is
rarely described from nonmarine, temperate set-
tings. Natural bridges and honeycomb make Lake
Malone a near classic area for study of differential
weathering. The park draws over 400,000 visitors
every year, and over 600,000 in good years. Much
of its aesthetic appeal is geological in origin.

Stratigraphy and petrology of the Laurel Dolo-
mite (Silurian) on the western flank of the Cincin-
nati Arch, Kentucky. JAMES WEBB* and W. C.
MacQUOWN, Department of Geology, University
of Kentucky, Lexington, KY 40506.

The Laurel Dolomite was deposited on a marine
shelf west of an exposed Cincinnati Arch in the II-
linois Basin. Five subsurface units consist of sec-
ondary dolomite formed by fresh/marine water mix-
ing (Dorag model). Structural and stratigraphic
hinge-lines separate the shallow shelf from the
deeper basin to the west. Petroleum occurs on the
shelf in structural, stratigraphic, and unconformity
traps. Dominant lithologies consist of two hypidi-
otopic early dolomite mosaics: fine crystalline (after
micrite) and medium crystalline (after biogenic
limestone). Early to late zoned dolomite rhombs and
late euhedral poikilotopic dolomite occur in both
fine and medium crystalline lithologies.

PHYSICS

Magnetic dimensional resonance of indium anti-
monide at room temperature. RAYMOND EN-
ZWEILER* and DONALD MUNNINGHOFF,
Department of Physics, Thomas More College,
Crestview Hills, KY 41017.

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 44(1-2)

We are studying microwave resonances in spheres
of indium antimonide. We are particularly con-
cemed with magnetic dimensional resonances, from
which the carrier concentration can be calculated.
We found the magnetic fields at which resonances
occur to be about 1,000 gauss higher than that pre-
dicted by theory. However, the known carrier con-
centration is within the error range of the measured
carrier concentration. Thus, we conclude the theory
may need slight adjustment but has the potential
for providing an effective method of measuring car-
rier concentration.

PHYSIOLOGY, BIOPHYSICS, AND
PHARMACOLOGY

Effects of adrenocorticotrophin and danazol on
isolated rat adrenal cells by column perfusion. DI-
ANE JOHNSON and DAVID MAGRANE*, De-
partment of Biological and Environmental Sci-
ences, Morehead State University, Morehead, KY
40351.

Collagenase isolated rat adrenal cells were sus-
pended in columns with Bio-Gel P-2 and perfused
with either Krebs ringers (KRBG) or KRBG plus
adrenocorticotrophin (ACTH), danazol, or both.
Hemocytometer cell counts of viable cells, checked
by trypan blue exclusion after isolation, were
364,000/mm® and 303,000/mm® after perfusion, in-
dicating only a 16.8% cell loss by continuous per-
fusion. Fluorometrically measured corticosterone
was stimulated within 5 minutes by 100 wU ACTH
(P < .02), and basal release was inhibited by 100
uM danazol within 30 minutes (P < .01). Danazol
(100 4M) inhibited 100 ~#U ACTH stimulated cor-
ticosteroidogenesis for 20 minutes with simulta-
neous perfusion (P < .02), indicating direct inhibi-
tion of steroidogenesis.

In vitro characterization of danazol binding to
specific cytosol receptors. GAIL RUSSELL* and
DAVID MAGRANE, Department of Biological and
Environmental Science, Morehead State Universi-
ty, Morehead, KY 40351.

The synthetic steroid danazol was investigated
for its dose responsiveness, specificity of binding to
cytosol receptors, and ability to translocate cytosol
receptors to the nucleus. Receptors for estradiol (E.),
dihydrotestosterone (DHT), progesterone (P), and
corticosterone (B) were evaluated in uterine, mam-
mary, adrenal, and hypothalamic tissues, using the
hydroxyapatite assay. Dose responsiveness was
shown in increased competition from physiological
doses (10-° M) to pharmacological doses (10~° M).
At 10-9 M, the androgen receptor (DHT) was bound
and translocated most efficiently in all tissues stud-
ied, followed by P, E,, and B respectively. These
data support the current literature and extend the
understanding of danazol’s action to mammary tis-
sue in vitro.

Effect of running on serum triglyceride and cho-
lesterol. MARK SMITH* and RAY HAMMOND,
Division of Science, Centre College of Kentucky,
Danville, KY 40422.

ABSTRACTS OF PAPERS PRESENTED IN 1982 93

Serum levels of several enzymes, triglyceride, and
cholesterol in two male runners, age 21 and 38, were
substantially influenced by running 7-10 miles.
There were age related differences both in pre-run
levels and extent of post-run change. Triglyceride
decreased 62%, total cholesterol decreased 23%, and
high density lipoprotein increased 47% in the older
subject (18% and 10% decrease, and 64% increase
respectively in the younger subject). These changes
persist substantially longer in the older subject.
Running appears to keep high density lipoprotein
levels in older males at “younger” levels.

In vivo study of the effects of danazol on cyto-
plasmic receptors in the female rat. DEBBIE SPEN-
CER* and DAVID MAGRANE, Department of Bi-
ological and Environmental Sciences, Morehead
State University, Morehead, KY 40351.

Effects of the synthetic steroid antigonadotrophin
danazol on cytoplasmic receptors were studied in
vivo in adult female rats. Competition with estrogen
(E,), progesterone, dihydrotestosterone, and corti-
costerone receptors in uterine, mammarian, adre-
nal, hypothalamic, and ovarian tissues were evalu-
ated by hydroxyapatite micromethod. Long term,
low dose (4 mg/kg/14 days) of danazol resulted in
significant reduction of E, receptors (P < .05) anda
non-significant reduction of other receptors in both
intact and ovariectomized rats. Uterine, adrenal, and
ovarian weights were significantly reduced by dan-
azol injections (P < .02). Short term, high dose (8
mg/kg/3 days) demonstrated no reduction of organ
weights and showed a non-significant reduction of
all receptors.

PSYCHOLOGY

Inferential statistical techniques commonly em-
ployed in comtemporary life science journals.
FRANCIS H. OSBORNE, JEANNE S. OSBORNE,
KATHERINE E. KOCH*, and MALCOLM P.
GRAHAM, Morehead State University, Morehead,
KY 40351.

The purpose of this study was to determine the
incidence and type of inferential statistics em-
ployed in several disciplines and to use this infor-
mation to make recommendations for content in an
interdisciplinary statistics course. Seven psycholo-
gy journals were surveyed for frequency of occur-
rence of statistical procedures in 1981. APA journals
included were those examined in Edington’s (1964,
1974) tabulations. Three journals were selected on
the basis of “impact factor” in each of three addi-
tional fields frequently served by introductory sta-
tistics courses: biology, education, and sociology.
Contingency table analysis indicated substantial
overlap in statistical techniques employed in these
disciplines as well as differences in emphasis spe-
cific to disciplines. For example, over 70% of psy-
chology articles surveyed used analysis of variance
techniques. The other disciplines surveyed tended
to use multiple regression techniques substantially
more than did psychology.

SCIENCE EDUCATION

Arson investigations in the laboratory: classroom
applications. ROBERT E. FRAAS, Forensic Sci-
ence Program, Eastern Kentucky University, Rich-
mond, KY 40475.

In response to increased emphasis on arson de-
tection, a special topics course on arson evidence
analysis has been developed. Topics included the
chemistry and physics of fire, heats of combustion,
petroleum refining processes, methods of analysis,
and report writing/courtroom testimony. Several
different extraction procedures were used in anal-
ysis of unknown arson residue samples. Laboratory
experiments also included gas chromatographic
analysis of common accelerants, analysis of dye ad-
ditives by thin layer chromatography, and analysis
of lead additives by gas chromatography/mass spec-
trometry.

Stated reasons for withdrawal and degrees of satis-
faction among college persisters and nonpersist-
ers. ALAN D. SMITH, Department of Geology,
Eastern Kentucky University, Richmond, KY 40475.

Revised questionnaire forms by the National
Center for Higher Education Management Systems
were given to students enrolled in the Community
and Technical College and the General College in
academic year 1978-1979 at The University of Ak-
ron. The response rate of usable questionnaires var-
ied from 22% of nonreturning students (485) to 28%
of the continuing student population (2,995). Dis-
criminative analysis of demographic variables was
completed to assess selection bias. Conflict with job
and studies, not enough money for school, and
needed temporary break from school were reasons
for withdrawal cited by more than 20% of the stu-
dent nonpersisters. Nonpersisters listed counseling
and advising services, financial aid opportunities,
and quality of instruction more frequently as the
first factors to be changed. Persisters listed registra-
tion processing, parking availability, and television
courses as the more frequent items to be changed.

ZOOLOGY AND ENTOMOLOGY

Distribution of two treehole mosquitoes, Aedes
triseriatus Say and A. hendersoni Cockerelle (Dip-
tera: Culicidae) in Berea, Kentucky. JEROME H.
WALLER, Department of Biology, Berea College,
Berea, KY 40404, and ELLEN M. BALLARD*, De-
partment of Entomology, University of Kentucky,
Lexington, KY 40506.

Four line transects and three area plots were used
to determine the occurrence of Aedes triseriatus
Say and A. hendersoni Cockerelle in the Berea Col-
lege Forest in Madison County, Kentucky. Effects
of altitude, tree species, sampling date, and climatic
conditions were examined. Sampling was conduct-
ed with the use of ovitraps, and two additional mos-
quito species were also found: Anopheles barberi
and Toxorhynchites sp. The protozoan parasite As-
cogregarina barretii was identified in field-collect-
ed larvae of Aedes triseriatus but not in A. hender-
soni. In late summer sampling, the effect of
transmittance of light in water from the traps was
compared with number of eggs collected.

Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 44(1-2), 1983, 94

NEWS AND COMMENTS

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Society Society (NABS) is

seeking new mem-
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94

dricks, University Center for Environ-
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University, Blacksburg, Virginia 24061.

69th Meeting of the
Kentucky Academy
of Science

The 69th annual
meeting of the
Kentucky Acad-
emy of Science
will be held at the University of Louis-
ville, Belknap Campus, in November
1983. The exact dates will be announced
in the Newsletter and in 44(3-4) of the
Transactions.

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CONTENTS

Extended and internal commuting change in the intermetropolitan periphery of
western Kentucky. Robert G. Cromley and Roberta L. Haven .-------------—-

Gastropod and sphaeriacean clam records for streams west of the Kentucky River
drainage, Kentucky. Branley A. Branson and Donald L. Batch.

Freshwater naiads (mussels) (Pelecypoda: Bivalvia) of Slate Creek, a pealeee! of
the Licking River, Kentucky. Ralph W. Taylor and Beverly Spurlock ...

The ferns and fern allies of Pike County, Roney S Foster ee Veda a King
Clara Ousley, Tom Phillips, and David White... Phat be eee ee

Hypothesis testing and model comparisons of trend surfaces. Alan D. Smith

Additions to the distributional list of Kentucky Trichoptera: Big Sandy River (Boyd
County); Pond Creek, and Scenic Lake (Henderson County). Kim H. Haag
cari Pat Bas GN ooo ie A ide

Antibiotic sensitivity in Group A Streptococci: evidence for chromosomal resis-
tance. Julie C. Christopher, Joan S. Mylroie and James G. Stuart —-------

Terrestrial beetles (Coleoptera) of Bat Cave, Carter County, Shean David
Bruce Conn and Gerald L. DeMoss ae a

Ethanol and acetylsalicylic acid effects on in vitro incorporation of C-14 phenyl-
alanine in rat spleen cells. Gertrude C. Ridgel.______

Spider fauna of alfalfa and soybean in central Kentucky. Joseph D. Culin and
Kenneth V:. Year part. 22 2 00) i 00 ek ae

Savanna-woodland in the Outer Bluegrass of Kentucky. William S. Bryant

The effects of topography on Kentucky tornadoes. L. Michael Trapasso and Rob-
ent Re Matting layer ee

Amphiachyris dracunculoides (DC.) Nutt. (common broomweed) in Kentucky: a
potentially weedy pest in overgrazed pastures? Jerry M. Baskin and Carol
Go Baskeite a ES eee a NN eee

Computer mapping and trend-surface analysis of selected controls of hydrocarbon
occurrence in the Berea Sandstone, Lawrence County, Kentucky. Alan D.

S71] eee ee RT Si ene NOU AD on Peet CM eA Res ee a at
Habitat selection by small mammals in an urban woodlot. Mark A. McPeek,
Barbara L. Cook, and William C. McComb....-—-—_-»__-_ =
NOTES
Three-dimensional plotting of Schmidt nets. Alan D. Smith ——————---—-——-—-----
New species records of caddisflies (Trichoptera: Hydropsychidae) in Kentucky.
William ‘Ff. Theeny and Donald i. Batch = ee eee
Suggested format for presenting hypothesis testing and model comparisons of trend
surfaces, .\AlanD. Smith 2223 a ee eee

Some observations on the egg string of a nematomorph worm, Paragordius sp. Fred
H) Whittaker’and ‘Robert 'L. Barker eee

A note on Kentucky riffle beetles. Branley A. Branson.

Academy Affairs

Trp ea re ee ee
Abstracts of some papers presented at the annual meeting ————_______

News and €omments———----___ ss oR a i Oe eS

_ “t

1 ISACTIONS

Kaax

CienHE
KENTUCKY
ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

Official Publication of the Academy

a cS ‘ii { Wane
i Cy i TY iy BD
ROGeet ne (963

~~ KIGRARIES_-—“
Volume 44
Numbers 3-4
September 1983

The Kentucky Academy of Science
Founded 8 May 1914

OFFICERS FOR 1983

President: J. G. Rodriguez, The University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky 40506 »
President Elect: Gary W. Boggess. Murray State University, Murray, Kentucky 4207] —
Past President: Ted George. Eastern Kentucky University, Richmond, Kentucky 40475

Vice President: Joe E. Winstead, Western Kentucky University,
Bowling Green, Kentucky 42104
Secretary: Robert Creek, Eastern Kentucky University, Richmond 40475
Treasurer: Morris Taylor, Eastern Kentucky University, Richmond 40475
Director of the Junior Academy: Herbert Leopold, Western Kentucky
University, Bowling Green 42101
Representative to AAAS Council: Allen L. Lake. Morehead State University.
Morehead 40351

ae

BOARD OF DIRECTORS
Gary Boggess 1983 Paul Freytag 1985
Debra Pearce, Chair. 1983 William Baker 1985
Mary McGlasson 1984 Manuel Schwartz 1986
Joe Winstead 1984 Gerrit Kloek 1986

EDITORIAL BOARD
Editor: Branley A. Branson, Department of Biological Sciences, Eastern
Kentucky University, Richmond 40475
Index Editor: Varley E. Wiedeman, Department of Biology, University
of Louisville, Louisville 40292
Abstract Editor: John W. Thieret, Department of Biological Sciences, Northern :
Kentucky University, Highland Heights 41076 oH
Editorial Board: William F. Wagner, Department of Chemistry, University of ty
Kentucky, Lexington 40506 i
Jerry Baskin, Thomas Hunt Morgan,
University of Kentucky, Lexington. 40506
James E. Oreilly, Department of Chemistry,
University of Kentucky, Lexington 40506
J. G. Rodriguez, Department of Entomology. |
University of Kentucky. Lexington 40506

All manuscripts and correspondence concerning manuscripts should be addressed to the Editor.
Authors must be members of the Academy.

The TRANSACTIONS are indexed in the Science Citation Index. Coden TKASAT.

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TRANSACTIONS of the

KENTUCKY

ACADEMY of SCIENCE

Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 44(3-4), 1983, 95-102

September 1983

VOLUME 44
NUMBERS 3-4

Hydrocarbon Occurrence in the Berea Sandstone,
Lawrence County, Kentucky

ALAN D. SMITH AND BAyLus K. MORGAN
Department of Geology, Eastern Kentucky University, Richmond, Kentucky 40475

ABSTRACT

Since 1918, approximately 1,100 oil and gas wells have been drilled into the Berea Sandstone
of Lawrence County, Kentucky. Information from 354 of these wells was used in a statistical

search for factors influencing hydrocarbon occurrence. Variables studied are elevation of the top
of the Berea Sandstone, Sunbury Shale thickness, oil production, gas production, Berea thickness
and five lithologic characteristics. Of the 2 general and 18 specific hypotheses tested, only 2
were found significant. Elevation of the Berea accounted for 4.9 per cent of the common variance
in oil production and 8.9 per cent of the common variance in gas production. Unstudied factors
account for the majority of the variance in hydrocarbon occurrence.

INTRODUCTION

The first well to penetrate oil bearing
sediments in Kentucky was drilled in
1819. Since that time, over 200,000 oil
and/or gas wells have been drilled (1, 2,
3). One of the most important producing
formations in the state is the early Mis-
sissippian Berea Sandstone. This forma-
tion extends from its type locality in
northern Ohio into eastern Kentucky and
western West Virginia. In general, the
Berea in Kentucky is composed of light
to medium gray sandstones, siltstones,
and shales. The underlying Bedford for-
mation is so similar that many research-
ers find it difficult to separate the 2 units
(4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9).

Since the turn of the century, Law-
rence County, Kentucky (Fig. 1), has been
in the forefront of Berea-oriented oil and
gas exploration, with approximately 1,100
wells drilled. Almost 17 million barrels
of oil have been produced since 1918 (1)
and 23 hydrearbon pools are recognized

95

(Fig. 2). The first 2 pools were discovered
in 1912: the Fallsburg Pool, producing
from the Berea Sandstone and Ohio Shale,
and the Busseyville Pool, producing from
the Berea and Clinton Sandstones. The
Redbush Pool, discovered in 1912, has the
largest number of producing formations;
8 including the Berea (1, 3). In 1978, two
new Berea pools were discovered:
Webbville South and Jobe Branch (Nut-
tall, Kentucky Geol. Survey, Lexington,
Kentucky, personal communication).
The purpose of this paper is to examine
within Lawrence County, factors that are
thought to be associated with hydrocar-
bon occurrences in the Berea Sandstone.

METHOD

The Kentucky Department of Mines
and Minerals supplies the Kentucky Geo-
logical Survey with location plots for all
oil and gas wells that are permitted with-
in the state. Upon completion of the well,
the operator is required to supply the

96

LAWRENCE
COUNTY

Fic. 1.

Kentucky Geological Survey with copies
of the drillers’ log and geophysical logs,
if any. This material is stored in Lexing-
ton at the Geological Survey and is open
for public inspection.

An inventory was made of every well
on file at the Geological Survey that pen-
etrated the Berea Sandstone in Lawrence
County. Each well was given an identi-
fication number and plotted on the ap-
propriate seven and one-half minute to-
pographic map. As each well was plotted,
a list of all the pertinent data contained
in the well envelope was compiled. The
operator, farm name, Carter Coordinate
location, quadrangle, date drilled, eleva-
tion, and total depth were recorded. The
production status of the well was listed,
and if there was production, the amount
of production, producing formation, and
producing interval were also noted. The
type and quality of geophysical logs, if
any, were listed as was the availability of
well cuttings. Depths to the top and bot-
tom of the Sunbury Shale and Berea
Sandstone were also recorded (Fig. 3).

Cuttings were studied using a binocu-
lar microscope. The per cent of sand
present in each sample was calculated

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 44(3-4)

Location of the study area.

using charts published by Compton (10).
Siltstone was grouped with shale be-
cause their gamma ray curves are similar
(11) and because neither is favorable for
petroleum accumulation. In an attempt to
gain more stratigraphic control, the Berea
was divided, vertically, into 20-foot in-
tervals. Per cent sand was averaged for
each interval and will be referred as sand

Fic. 2.

Hydrocarbon pools in Lawrence County,
Kentucky from Wilson and Sutton (3).

HYDROCARBONS IN BEREA SANDSTONE—Smith and Morgan 97

1BREATHITT Fm.

+ DWALE Sh.

VAN LEAR COAL

LEE Fm.
(SALT SAND)

PENNSYLVANIAN

LOWER TONGUE OF
THE BREATHITT Fm.

PENNINGTON Fm.

CARTER CAVES Ss.
NEWMAN Fm.

BORDEN Fm.

SUNBURY Sh.

BEREA Ss.
BEDFORD Sn?

MISSISSIPPIAN

OHIG Sh.

HUNTERSVILLE Fm.

ew

TIOGA

ORISKANY Ss.

HELDERBERG Ls.

“DEVONIAN

BASS {ISLAND Fm.

SALINA Fm.

LOCKPORT Dol.

BIG SIX Ss:
(KEEFER)

ROSE HILL Sh.

SILURIAN

CLINTON Ss,

BRASSFIELDO Dol.

NEWMAN Fm.

Fm.

BORDEN

PENNINGTON
Fm.

CARTER CAVES
GLEN DEAN

HARDINSBURG

HANEY
Ste. GENEVIEVE Ls. a
ite} Jel Je!
St. LOUIS Ls 4
WITS

RENFRO Mor loleleloeie!

NADA Mbrf{::
(INJUN and KEENER)

COWBELL
and

NANCY
Mors.

FARMERS Mbr.

SUN5SURY CL ———————

(COFFEE Sha

BEREA Ss|--
(GRIT) J.

Fic. 3. Stratigraphic relationships in eastern Kentucky from Wilson and Sutton (3).

98 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 44(3-4)

Well locations.

Fic. 4.

per cent from cuttings number 1-5. Each
good quality geophysical log was ana-
lyzed to establish formation boundaries
and thickness.

Data developed were analyzed using
multiple linear regression, a long-used
approach to statistical evaluation that is
related to the analysis of variance tech-
niques which analyses estimate popula-
tion variance and yield an F-statistic (12).
By allowing the selected predictor vari-
ables to enter into a multiple regression
equation with either gas or oil production
as the criterion, R? values were obtained.
An R? value in linear regression is the
amount or per cent of the variance in the
criterion variable which is accounted for
the predictor variables; another term de-
scribing this is common variance. The R?
value indicates to what extent the select-
ed variables are predictable of the ob-
served variance in oil and gas production.
If one subtracts the amount of common
variance from both the full and restricted
models, a figure for the per cent of the
common variance can be found for the
predictor variables not covaried or ac-
counted for in the model. Variables used

in the study are elevation of the top of

the Berea Sandstone, Sunbury Shale
thickness, oil production, gas production,
Berea thickness, and sand per cent cut-
tings number 1-5. For purpose of this
study, the entire lithologic interval be-

19)

Fic. 5. Elevation contour of the top of the Berea
Sandstone. (Contour interval = 100 feet.)

tween the Ohio and Sunbury Shale was
considered to be the Berea Sandstone.
This removed uncertainty about recog-
nition of the Bedford Shale.

In order to test for significant relation-
ships among these variables, a series of
hypotheses were developed. The .05 level
of significance was considered sufficient
to reject the nondirectional two-tailed hy-
potheses. When appropriate, a modifica-
tion for multiple comparisons was made
(13). Hypotheses tested are:

G,: Do the variables Elevation of the Top
of the Berea Sandstone, Sunbury
Shale Thickness, Gas Production,
Berea Thickness, and Sand Per Cent
Cuttings 1-5 account for a signifi-
cant amount of variance in predict-
ing Oil Production?

H,: Does the variable Elevation of
the Top of the Berea Sandstone
account for a significant amount
of variance in predicting Oil
Production?

H,: Does the variable Sunbury
Shale Thickness account for a
significant amount of variance
in predicting Oil Production?

H;: Does the variable Gas Produc-
tion account for a significant
amount of variance in predict-
ing Oil Production?

HYDROCARBONS IN BEREA SANDSTONE—Smith and Morgan

99

TABLE 1— SUMMARY OF F-RATIOS, PROBABILITY LEVELS, R? FOR BOTH THE FULL AND RESTRICTED MODELS,
DEGREES OF FREEDOM-NUMERATOR, DEGREES OF FREEDOM-DENOMINATOR, AND SIGNIFICANCE FOR EACH
RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS TESTING PREDICTIVE RELATIONSHIPS AMONG OIL AND GAS PRODUCTION AND VAR-
IOUS PARAMETERS ASSOCIATED WITH THE BEREA SANDSTONE

Hypothesis

number R? full R? restr. df EF Probability Sign.
Gl 0.7103 0.0 9/4* 1.0899 0.5057 NS
H1 0.0489 0.0 1/295 15.1499 0.0001 S
H2 0.0130 0.0 1/257 3.3919 0.0667 NS
H3 0.0162 0.0 1/271 4.4698 0.0354 NS
H4 0.0010 0.0 1/156 0.1557 0.6937 NS
H5 0.0537 0.0 1/43 2.4423 0.1254 NS
H6 0.0229 0.0 1/43 1.0078 0.3210 NS
H7 0.0005 0.0 1/41 0.0184 0.8928 NS
H8 0.0381 0.0 1/34 1.3474 0.2538 NS
H9 0.1000 0.0 1/17 1.8891 0.1871 NS
G2 0.5900 0.0 9/4* 0.6396 0.7352 NS
H10 0.0888 0.0 1/297 28.9524 0.0000 S
H11 0.0026 0.0 1/263 0.6798 0.4104 NS
H12 0.0162 0.0 1/371 4.4698 0.0352 NS
H13 0.0282 0.0 1/144 4.1789 0.0428 NS
H14 0.0010 0.0 1/42 0.0412 0.8401 NS
H15 0.0122 0.0 1/42 0.5181 0.4756 NS
H16 0.0331 0.0 1/40 1.3678 0.2491 NS
H17 0.0373 0.0 1/31 1.1998 0.2818 NS
H18 0.2239 0.0 1/16 4.6147 0.0439 NS

Note. An F-test was utilized to test for significant relationships between oil and gas production and various parameters associated with the
Berea Sandstone. The assigned alpha level of .05 for a two-tailed, nondirectional test was considered statistically significant. However, the
employment of a correction for multiple comparisons was necessary, using the Newman and Fry (13) method. The corrected alpha level

of .006 was used before the research hypothesis was considered significant.

* This statistic is not valid, due to the large number of missing cases.

H;:

Does the variable Berea Thick-
ness account for a significant
amount of variance in predict-
ing Oil Production?

Does the variable Sand Per
Cent From Cuttings Number 1
account for a significant amount
of variance in predicting Oil
Production?

Does the variable Sand Per
Cent From Cuttings Number 2
account for a significant amount
of variance in predicting Oil
Production?

Does the variable Sand Per
Cent From Cuttings Number 3
account for a significant amount
of variance in predicting Oil
Production?

Does the variable Sand Per
Cent From Cuttings Number 4
account for a significant amount
of variance in predicting Oil
Production?

(@e0

De

Does the variable Sand Per
Cent From Cuttings Number 5
account for a significant amount
of variance in predicting Oil
Production?

Do the variables Elevation of the Top
of the Berea Sandstone, Sunbury
Shale Thickness, Oil Production, Be-
rea Thickness, Sand Per Cent From
Cuttings Number | through Sand Per
Cent From Cuttings Number 5 ac-
count for a significant amount of vari-
ance in predicting Gas Production?
H,): Does the variable Elevation of
the Top of the Berea Sandstone
account for a significant amount
of variance in predicting Gas
Production?

Hg:

H,,: Does the variable Sunbury
Shale Thickness account for a
significant amount of variance
in predicting Gas Production?

H,.: Does the variable Oil Produc-

tion account for a significant

100

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 44(3-4)

TABLE 2.—SIGNIFICANT CORRELATIONS AMONG OIL AND GAS PRODUCTION, BEREA SANDSTONE PARAME-
TERS, AND RELATED VARIABLES

Variable Correlation Variable
Elevation of the Top of 0.2989 Gas Production
the Berea Sandstone —0.2210 Oil Production
0.3242 Sand Per Cent from Cuttings
Number One
0.4614 Sand Per Cent from Cuttings
Number Four
Berea Thickness 0.5968 Sand Per Cent from Cuttings
Number One
0.4097 Sand Per Cent from Cuttings
Number Four
—0.1679 Gas Production
Gas Production —0.1274 Oil Production
—0.4731 Sand Per Cent from Cuttings
Number Five
Oil Production 0.1141 Sunbury Thickness
Sand Per Cent from Cuttings 0.3130 Sand Per Cent from Cuttings

Number One

Number Four

amount of variance in predict-
ing Gas Production?

Does the variable Berea Thick-
ness account for a significant
amount of variance in predict-
ing Gas Production?

Does the variable Sand Per
Cent From Cuttings Number 1
account for a significant amount
of variance in predicting Gas
Production?

Does the variable Sand Per
Cent From Cuttings Number 2
account for a significant amount
of variance in predicting Gas
Production?

Does the variable Sand Per
Cent From Cuttings Number 3
account for a significant amount
of variance in predicting Gas
Production?

Does the variable Sand Per
Cent From Cuttings Number 4
account for a significant amount
of variance in predicting Gas
Production?

Does the variable Sand Per
Cent From Cuttings Number 5

account for a significant amount
of variance in predicting Gas
Production?

The testing of hypotheses involved the
use of the following hardware and soft-
ware: the University of Kentucky’s IBM
370 with the statistical packages DPLIN-
EAR (Double Precision Multiple Linear
Regression program) and SPSS (Statistical
Package for the Social Sciences) from the
University of Southem I]linois at Carbon-

dale.

RESULTS

Data from 354 wells, which penetrate
the Berea Sandstone, were analyzed. Well
locations are shown in Fig. 4. Of these
wells, 57 were dry holes, 46 were oil
wells, 98 were gas wells, 8 were oil and
gas wells, 32 were wells with oil shows,
26 were wells with gas shows, 27 were
wells with oil shows and gas shows, 6
were oil wells with gas shows, 28 were
gas wells with oil shows, and 26 were un-
classified.

Table 1 summarizes significance test-
ing. Only the hypotheses H, and Hy,

HYDROCARBONS IN BEREA SANDSTONE—Smith and Morgan

101

TABLE 3.—DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS OF OIL AND GAS PRODUCTION, BEREA SANDSTONE PARAMETERS, AND
RELATED VARIABLES

Valid Standard
Variable cases Mean deviation Variance Skewness Kurtosis

Elevation of the top of the

Berea Sandstone (m) 353 —203.9 94.1 29,048.1 0.1 -1.2
Sunbury Shale Thickness (m) 310 6.2 2.0 12.8 14 6.7
Gas Production (1,000 ft?/day) 300 58.8 114.2 13,043.1 3.2 16.7
Oil Production (barrels/day) 298 7.0 DED 6.2 5.4 37.6
Berea Thickness (m) 168 31.7 7.1 164.6 0.1 3.3
Sand Per Cent from Cuttings

Number One 51 83.7 16.2 261.3 —2.0 4.5
Sand Per Cent from Cuttings

Number Two 51 Ucks} 22.2 494.9 — 0 0.2
Sand Per Cent from Cuttings

Number Three 49 52.9 27.3 744.0 —0.2 —1.2
Sand Per Cent from Cuttings

Number Four 38 44.7 Dor) 641.1 0.1 —1.5
Sand Per Cent from Cuttings

Number Five 21 26.9 17.1 292.6 0.5 -1.1

which dealt with the elevation of the top
of the Berea Sandstone (Fig. 5), were sig-
nificant. The R, term in Table 1 indicates
the extent to which a variable is predic-
tive of the observed variance in oil and
gas production. The maximum value of
R? = 1.0 for continuous values. Of the sig-
nificant relationships found, the highest
R2 was 8.88 per cent and the lowest was
4.89 per cent. Thus, the other 91-95
per cent of the variance in gas and oil
production is unaccounted for, even
though the hypotheses were significant.
Table 2 represents the significant corre-
lation coefficients of the variables stud-
ied. The ability of the test to detect a dif
ference when it does exist for a medium-
effect size was over 95 per cent. Since
some of the independent variables have
correlations significantly greater than
zero, care must be taken when interpret-
ing the regression weights, due to mul-
ticolinearity. Table 3 summarizes the de-
scriptive statistics for both the criteria and
predictor variables.

CONCLUSIONS
Data may be biased as a result of geo-

logical exploration programs designed to
enhance oil and gas discovery. In addi-

tion, because of the age of many of the
wells, since operators are not required by
the state to provide production statistics,
data acquired for some of the variables
may be poor. However, the F-test is a very
robust statistical technique and is rela-
tively insensitive to violations of random
selection and normality of distributions.

Testing of the 2 general and 18 specific
hypothese yielded only 2 hypotheses that
are significant. Elevation of the top of the
Berea Sandstone was significant (P =
.0001) in predicting oil production, but it
only accounted for 4.89 per cent of the
variance in oil production. In addition,
this variable was significant (P = .0000)
in predicting gas production, accounting
for 8.88 per cent of the common variance
in gas production.

Many of the correlation values were
significant, suggesting that a wide range
of geological conditions may explain these
results since only a small amount of vari-
ance in oil and gas production was ex-
plained by the two significant hypothe-
ses. Other factors clearly account for the
majority of the variance in hydrocarbon
occurrence.

A greater understanding of the geology
of eastern Kentucky and of the Berea

102

Sandstone is needed to help understand
factors associated with hydrocarbon oc-
currence. The refinement of relation-
ships among the different structural ele-
ments of the region is greatly needed.
Analysis of the Berea-Bedford interval
with emphasis on the Berea-Bedford
boundary and the sources of their clastics
merits study. Further analysis of hydro-
carbon occurrences in the Berea Sand-
stone using oriented cores, if they be-
come available, would be useful in
delineating the effects of fracturing, mica
content and orientation, variations in ce-
mentation, and many other variables that
may be important.

LITERATURE CITED

1. Halbouty, M. T. 1980. Methods used, and
experience gained, in exploration for new oil and
gas fields in highly explored (mature) areas. A.A.P.E.
Bull. 60: 1210-1222.

2. Thomas, G. R. 1960. Geology of recent deep
drilling in eastern Kentucky. In Proceedings of
technical sessions, Kentucky Oil and Gas Assoc.,
24th annual meeting, June 1960 by McGrain, Pres-
ton, and Crawford, eds. Kentucky Geol. Survey,
Lexington, Kentucky, special pub. 3:10-28.

3. Wilson, E. N., and D. G. Sutton. 1976. Oil
and gas map of Kentucky, sheet 4, eastern part. Ken-
tucky Geol. Survey, Lexington, Kentucky.

4. Butts, C. 1922. The Mississippian series of
eastern Kentucky; a regional interpretation of the
stratigraphic relations of the subcarboniferous group
bases on new and detailed field examinations. Geol.
Survey 7(6):15-27.

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 44(3-4)

5. Ettensohn, F. R. 1976. Stratigraphic, pa-
leoenvironmental and structurally related aspects of
middle and upper Mississippian rocks (Newman and
Pennington Formations) east central Kentucky.
A.A.P.G. Bull. Abs. 60:1619.

6. Larese, R. E. 1974. Petrology and stratigra-
phy of the Berea Sandstone in Cabin Creek and
Gay-Fink trends, West Virginia. West Virginia Univ.,
Morgantown, West Virginia, unpub. Ph.D. disser-
tation.

7. McFarlan, A. C. 1943. Geology of Kentucky.
Univ. of Kentucky, Kentucky Dept. of Economic
Development, Lexington, Kentucky.

8. Pepper, J. F., W. Dewitt, Jr., and E. F. De-
marest. 1954. Geology of the Bedford Shale and
Berea Sandstone in the Appalachian basin. U.S.G.S.
prof. paper 259.

9. Van Bueren, V. V. 1981. The Sunbury Shale
of the central Appalachian basin—a depositional
model for black basinal shales. In Energy resources
of Devonian—Mississippian Shales of eastern Ken-
tucky. Abs. of reports and theses related to black
shale in eastern Kentucky. Univ. of Kentucky, Ken-
tucky Geol. Survey, Lexington, Kentucky, p. 12.

10. Compton, R. R. 1962. Manual of field ge-
ology. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York.

11. Maher, J. C. 1964. Logging drilling cut
tings, 2nd ed. Oklahoma Geol. Survey, Norman,
Oklahoma.

12. McNeil, K. A., F. J. Kelly, and J. T. McNeil.
1976. Testing research hypotheses using multiple
linear regression. Southern Illinois Univ. Press,
Carbondale, Illinois.

13. Newman, I., and J. A. Fry. 1972. Response
to “A note on multiple comparisons” and a com-
ment on skinkage. Mult. Linear Regr. Viewpts. 3:

71-77.

Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 44(3-4), 1983, 103-106

Observations on the Palezone and Sawfin Shiners,
Two Undescribed Cyprinid Fishes from Kentucky

BRANLEY ALLAN BRANSON

Department of Biological Sciences, Eastern Kentucky University, Richmond, Kentucky 40475

ABSTRACT
Variation in 11 mensurable and 4 enumeration characters are presented for the sawfin (Notro-
pis sp. cf. spectrunculus) and palezone (Notropis sp. cf. procne) shiners from the Little South
Fork of the Cumberland River in Kentucky. Notes on the coloration and pigment distribution in

these two undescribed species are included.

INTRODUCTION

It has been known since the 1960’s that
the Cumberland River drainage below the
falls and portions of the Tennessee River
drainage contain two undescribed cypri-
nid fish species, the putative palezone and
sawfin shiners (1), in Kentucky principal-
ly in the Little South Fork of the Cum-
berland River (2, 3). The palezone shiner,
Notropis sp. cf. procne is being consid-
ered by Robert E. Jenkins, Roanoke Col-
lege, Virginia, and the sawfin shiner, No-
tropis sp. cf. spectrunculus, is being
studied by John S. Ramsey, Auburn Uni-
versity (4). Both species are of consider-
able environmental concern (5), and very
little is known about the biology, vari-
ability, or total geographic distribution of
either species.

This contribution presents information
on the variability of several proportional
measurements and counts in these two
species of minnows in Kentucky.

OBSERVATIONS

Both species of minnows are still rela-
tively abundant in the high-quality waters
of the Little South Fork of the Cumber-
land River in Kentucky, where the sawfin
shiner ranks seventh and the palezone
shiner second in relative abundance be-
hind Notropis telescopus (3). Warren (6)
recently reported sawfin shiners from
Rock Creek (Big South Fork of the Cum-
berland River) in McCreary County, and
from Pitman Creek, a Cumberland River
tributary in Pulaski County, but the pa-
leozone shiner seems to be restricted to

the Little South Fork within the Cum-
berland drainage.

Because most field biologists and ich-
thyologists are not familiar with these
species, the following general descrip-
tions are presented.

The palezone shiner (Fig. la) is a slen-
der, slab-sided minnow with (in life)
nearly transparent flesh and a complete
lateral line. Proportional measurements
and counts are presented in Tables 1-3.
The color pattern is somewhat reminis-
cent of that in the swallowtail shiner.
Large melanophores line the upper lip
and there are a few scattered ones on
the lower lip; otherwise, the venter of
the head and most of the belly are nearly
immaculate. There is a very narrow black
streak on the venter behind the anal fin
and a very black streak occurs along the
base of that fin. A narrow, dusky band suf-
fused by silver (in life) follows the lateral
line and a black triangle (apex forward)
is associated with each lateral-line pore.
The sides below and immediately above
the lateral line are essentially pigment-
less. Above the pale zone, the scales are
outlined with small melanophores. A
small black blotch occurs just in front of
the dorsal fin and there is a second blotch
on the back near the middle of the dorsal
fin. A dusky streak extends through the
eye, and the uppermost and lowermost
rays of the caudal fin are streaked with
black.

By contrast, the sawfin shiner (Fig. 1b),
presumed to be most closely related to
the mirror shiner (3, 4), is not so distinc-

103

104 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 44(3-4)

Fic. la. The palezone shiner from the Little South Fork of the Cumberland River, Kentucky. Scale =
18.0 mm (57.0 mm SL).

Fic. lb. The sawfin shiner from the Little South Fork of the Cumberland River, Kentucky. Scale = 12.5
mm (49.5 mm SL).

TABLE 1.—PROPORTIONAL MEASUREMENTS (MEAN AND RANGE) OF PALEZONE AND SAWFIN SHINERS FROM
THE LITTLE SOUTH FORK OF THE CUMBERLAND RIVER, KENTUCKY (n = 100)

Characteristic Palezone Sawfin

Size range and mean standard length 46.2 (35.2-58.0) 42.3 (31.5-50.1)
In standard length

Body depth 5.98 (5.3-8.0) 5.36 (3.7-6.2)

Predorsal length 2.0 (1.7-2.2) 2.0 (1.6-2.2)

Caudal peduncle length 3.7 (2.84.3) 4.0 (3.14.7)

Head length 4.2 (3.7-4.6) 3.8 (3.84.7)
In head length

Dorsal origin to lateral line 2.2 (1.8-2.6) 2.1 (1.62.4)

Orbit length 3.1 (2.6-3.5) 2.8 (2.4-3.3)

Upper jaw length 3.6 (3.24.6) 3.3 (2.8-3.8)

Body width 1.9 (1.7-2.3) 2.1 (1.5-2.4)

Snout length 2.9 (2.44.0) 3.2 (2.4-3.6)

In caudal peduncle length
Caudal peduncle depth 3.2 (2.64.4) 2.7 (2.1-3.3)

PALEZONE AND SAWFIN SHINERS IN KENTUCKY—Branson

TABLE 2.—F REQUENCY DISTRIBUTIONS OF FIN-RAY
NUMBERS IN THE PALEZONE AND SAWFIN SHINERS
FROM THE LITTLE SOUTH FORK OF THE CUMBER-

105

TABLE 3.—FREQUENCY OF LATERAL-LINE SCALES
IN THE PALEZONE AND SAWFIN SHINERS FROM THE
LITTLE SOUTH FORK OF THE CUMBERLAND RIVER,

LAND RIVER, KENTUCKY KENTUCKY
Anal Rays 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 Mean
g @ g 2 Rage Palezone 1 13 28 31 18 6 1 368
Palezone 3 93 4 7.01 Sawfin 5 27 34 33) 1 36
Sawfin il 97 2) 8.01
Pectoral Rays
12 13 14 15 Mean
a eae eat hos aan cle. The lateral-line pores are outlined
Tess 2 a with small black blotches bearing verti-
Sawfin 1 34 59 6 IS 7/ ‘
Se cally elongated and thin black streaks.
elvic ays
7 8 9 Mean CONCLUDING REMARKS
Palezone 5 89 6 8.0 The palezone shiner is a rather distinc-
Sawfin 2 85 13 8.1 tive minnow that should not be confused

tive; in fact, it bears a strong resemblance
to Notropis volucellus, the mimic shiner,
a common species in Kentucky. The lat-
eral line is complete, the anteriormost
scales being somewhat higher than wide.
The supratemporal lateral-line canal is
narrowly to widely interrupted and the
infraorbital canal is narrowly interrupted
in a few specimens. Proportional mea-
surements and counts are presented in
Tables 1-3.

In coloration, the sawfin shiner resem-
bles the mimic shiner. Each pectoral fin
ray, but not those of the pelvics, bears a
row of very fine melanophores. There is
an indistinct black blotch at the base of
the caudal fin from which streaks extend
out onto the membranes. A distinct black
spot occurs on the belly immediately in
front of the anal fin and there is a dark
midventral streak behind that fin. A black
streak is obvious on the back in the base
of the dorsal fin.

In life, the general coloration is silvery.
The scales above the complete lateral line
are outlined with melanophores and the
sides below the midline, the belly be-
hind the pelvic and anal fins, and the sides
of the caudal peduncle bear scattered and
indistinct brownish freckles. The upper
lip is lined with enlarged melanophores.
A dusky band suffused with silver ex-
tends from head to tail, becoming slightly

enlarged at the base of the caudal pedun-

A

with any other species in Kentucky. The
pigmentless, virtually transparent stripe
above the lateral line is diagnostic. The
only other minnow in Kentucky waters
having a similar trait is the Tennessee
shiner, Notropis leuciodus, which is sep-
arable by other features. By contrast, the
sawfin shiner may be easily confused with
Notropis volucellus, the mimic shiner.
However, the last-named species has all
the rays of the dorsal fin lined with me-
lanophores whereas in the sawfin shiner
only the first four rays are marked in that
manner. Both species, and their closest
relatives, have the pharyngeal teeth ar-
ranged in a single row (4-4).

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I greatly appreciate the assistance of Dr.
Guenter Schuster, Eastern Kentucky
University, for field assistance, and the
reviews of Robert E. Jenkins, Roanoke
College, Virginia, and John S. Ramsey,
Auburn University, Alabama.

LITERATURE CITED

1. Stauffer, J. R., Jr., B. M. Burr, C. H. Hocutt,
and R. E. Jenkins. 1982. Checklist of the fishes of
the central and northern Appalachian Mountains.
Proc. Biol. Soc. Wash. 95:27-47.

2. Comiskey, C. E., and D. A. Etnier. 1972.
Fishes of the Big South Fork of the Cumberland
River. J. Tenn. Acad. Sci. 47:140-145.

3. Branson, B. A.,and G. A. Schuster. 1982. The
fishes of the wild river section of the Little South
Fork of the Cumberland River, Kentucky. Trans.
Ky. Acad. Sci. 43:60-70.

4. Jenkins, R. E. 1976. A list of undescribed
freshwater fish species of continental United States

106

and Canada, with additions to the 1970 checklist.
Copeia 1976:642-644.

5. Branson, B. A., D. F. Harker, Jr., J. M. Baskin,
M. E. Medley, D. E. Batch, M. L. Warren, W. H.
Davis, W. C. Houtcooper, B. Monroe, Jr., L. R. Phil-
lipe, and P. Cupp. 1981. Endangered, Threat-

Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 44(3-4), 1983, 106-110

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 44(3-4)

ened, and Rare animals and plants of Kentucky.
Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci. 42:77-89.

6. Warren, M. L. 1981. New distributional rec-
ords of eastern Kentucky fishes. Brimleyana 6:129-
140.

Wildlife Information Needs of Kentucky
County Extension Agents’

WILLIAM C. MCCOMB AND STEPHEN A. BONNEY
Department of Forestry, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky 40546-0073

ABSTRACT

A questionnaire was mailed to 120 county extension agents in February 1981. The question-
naire was used to identify their needs for information on various fish and wildlife topics, to
estimate the number of requests they received for fish and wildlife information, and to determine
the best means of information dissemination. The 80 respondents indicated they most needed
aquaculture information for warm-water species; animal damage control information for black-
birds, moles, woodchucks, pigeons, house sparrows, and rodents; and habitat management in-
formation on bobwhite quail, white-tailed deer, cottontail rabbits, and squirrels. This information
could best be provided through publications, workshops, and 4-H projects.

INTRODUCTION

County agricultural extension agents
are employed through the Cooperative
Extension Service (CES) stationed at
Land Grant Universities in each state.
The CES involves cooperation among
federal (USDA), state (university), coun-
ty, and private people and funds (1).
County extension agents are responsible
for providing fish and wildlife informa-
tion to the public via 4-H, workshops,
phone conversations, and on-site visits.
Wildlife and fisheries extension special-
ists work with the county agents to pro-
vide a variety of educational programs
(publications, workshops, 4-H projects,
and demonstrations) but identification of
the everyday information needs of county
agents is essential before a prioritized list

1 The information reported in this article (82-8-
251) is in connection with Agricultural Experiment
Station Project No. 624 and is published with the
approval of the Director.

of goals can be developed by personnel
providing information to the public via
county extension agents. Identification
needs also may provide wildlife profes-
sionals with an indication of the public’s
views on fish and wildlife importance,
particularly for those residing in rural vs
urban environments.

The objectives of this study were to
identify the important fish and wildlife
information needs of county extension
agents in Kentucky, and to compare in-
formation needs among 3 levels of human
population density and among 4 geo-
graphic areas.

METHODS

A questionnaire was developed which
addressed 4 broad topical areas: (1) the
absolute and proportional number of re-
quests made of a county agent for fish and
wildlife information in 1980, (2) ranking
of 13 broad categories of fish and wildlife
topics based on the number of requests
received in 1980 for each topic, (3) iden-

WILDLIFE INFORMATION NEEDS IN KENTUCKY—McComb and Bonney

tification of desirable information trans-
fer techniques (field days, publications,
etc.), and (4) determination of the degree
of interaction with conservation officers
and wildlife biologists of the Department
of Fish and Wildlife Resources during
1980. Within 5 of the 13 broad categories
of fish and wildlife topics, a list of 8 to 11
wildlife or fish taxa were listed and ranked
based on number of requests received for
each taxa within that wildlife topic.
Questionnaires were mailed during Feb-
ruary 1981 to the county agent for agri-
culture in each of the 120 counties in
Kentucky. Geographic and demographic
strata were developed at the county level
to identify differences in responses among
eastern, central, Bluegrass, and Purchase
physiographic regions in Kentucky and
among high (>20 people/km?), medium
(<20 people/km?, =10 people/km?), and
low (<10 people/km?) human population
densities (Fig. 1). Mean number of re-
quests, mean contacts, and mean ranks
were compared among geographic and
demographic strata using an analysis of
variance with Duncan’s multiple range
test.

RESULTS

Eighty of 120 county agents responded
to the questionnaire. Respondents were
uniformly located across the state (Fig.
1).

Information Requests.—Respondents re-
ceived an average of 65 requests for wild-
life information and 35 requests for fish
information, but the requests per county
agent varied widely (SD = 231; 89.8, re-
spectively) (Table 1). This represented
1.8% and 0.9% of the total requests each
year. The number of wildlife and fish infor-
mation requests did not vary geographi-
cally (P > 0.05) but did vary demograph-
ically. An average of 4.0% of all urban
contacts dealt with wildlife, while 1.3%
and 0.7% were wildlife oriented in me-
dium- and low-population areas, respec-
tively. Similarly there was a larger pro-
portion of fish-oriented contacts in high
population areas than in medium- and low-
population areas. There are a greater

107

as Central
Purchase

Fic. 1. Counties (darkened) from which county
agents responded to the fish and wildlife question-
naire, 1981.

number of potential contacts in densely
populated areas than in sparsely populat-
ed areas, but total (all subject areas) coun-
ty extension agent contacts did not differ
significantly among demographic strata.

Total agent contacts concerning all
types of agricultural information were
higher in central Kentucky (x = 5,148)
than in eastern Kentucky (¥ = 1,600) (P <
0.05).

Important Fish and Wildlife Topics.—
Management of fish ponds and animal
damage control (ADC, including control
of undesirable species) had the lowest
mean ranks (highest priority) of 13 fish
and wildlife topics (Table 2). This trend
was consistent over population and geo-
graphic strata. Game management infor-
mation was more important in eastern
Kentucky (, = 3.6) than in the Bluegrass
Area (¥p = 6.0) (P < 0.05). Information on
management of nongame species was
more important in urban (Xp = 6.1) than
rural (Xp = 9.0) areas (P < 0.05). Infor-
mation on hunting, fishing, trapping,
wildlife diseases, and wildlife food con-
sistently received low priority.

Important Fish and Wildlife Taxa.—Fish
species for which high information prior-
ity was given were warm-water species
that may be found in farm ponds: large-
mouth bass (Micropterus salmoides), cat-
fish (I[ctalurus sp.), and crappie (Pomoxis
spp.). Cold-water species (trout (Salmo
spp.), smallmouth bass (Micropterus do-
lomieui), and rock bass (Ambloplites ru-
pestris)) and bluegill (Lepomis macro-
chirus) received lower priority. Frogs

108

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 44(3-4)

TABLE 1.—MEAN RESPONSES TO GENERAL FISH AND WILDLIFE QUESTIONS, KENTUCKY COUNTY EXTEN-
SION AGENT QUESTIONNAIRE, FEBRUARY 1981

Question N} Response

How many contacts with the local Conservation Officer

in 1980? 79 8.24 (20.2)?
How many contacts with the local Wildlife Biologist

in 1980? 78 0.7 (1.3)
How many requests did you receive in 1980 for wildlife

information? 78 64.9 (231.3)
How many requests did you receive in 1980 for fish

information? 80 34.6 (89.8)
How many requests did you receive in 1980 for information

about all agricultural subjects? 70 3,667 (4,282)
Would the following programs be well received in your

county?

4-H Wildlife 79 50.6%?

Short courses or seminars in wildlife 79 45.6%

Organization of a sportsman’s club 79 7.6%

Organization of a birdwatching club 79 16.5%

Development of hunting lease 78 20.5%

Newsletter in wildlife and forestry from U.K. 79 63.3%

‘ N = number of respondents.
? Standard deviations indicated parenthetically.
3 Per cent of “yes” responses.

(Rana spp.) and crayfish (Cambarus spp.),
associated with farm ponds, received very
low priority. Mean ranks for importance
of aquatic taxa did not differ among de-
mographic or geographic strata.
Information on control of blackbirds
(Icteridae) and moles (Scalopus aquati-
cus and Parascalops breweri) received the
highest priority among pest species. Con-
trol of woodchucks (Marmota monax), pi-
geons (Columba livia), house sparrows
(Passer domesticus), rats, and mice also
received high priority. Rat and mouse
control was more important in mid-pop-
ulation areas than in urban or rural areas
(P < 0.05). Fewer requests were made for
woodchuck control information in the
Purchase Area than elsewhere (P < 0.05),
possibly because they are less numerous
in the Purchase Area than in the rest of
the state (4). Information on control of pi-
geons and house sparrows was more im-
portant in the Purchase Area than in the
rest of the state. Information requests for
other taxa—snakes (Colubridae), squir-
rels (Sciuridae), bats (Vespertilionidae),
woodpeckers (Picidae), chipmunks
(Tamias striatus), beavers (Castor cana-

densis) and raccoons (Procyon lotor)—
were low and consistent over geographic
and demographic strata.

Management information for bobwhite
quail (Colinus virginianus), white-tailed
deer (Odocoileus virginianus), cottontail
rabbits (Sylvilagus floridanus), and
squirrels received the highest priority
among game animals. Rabbit manage-
ment information was more important in
urban and mid-population areas than in
rural areas (P < 0.05). Information on
mourning dove (Zenaidura macroura)
management was important in central and
eastern Kentucky. Management informa-
tion for raccoons, foxes (Vulpes vulpes and
Urocyon cinereoargenteus), ducks, geese,
wild turkeys (Meleagris gallopavo), and
woodcocks (Philohela minor) received low
priority and was consistent over geo-
graphic and demographic strata.

Information needs on nongame man-
agement, particularly desirable in urban
areas, focused on snakes, bats, small
mammals, songbirds, and raptors. The
importance of snake information was
higher (P < 0.005) in urban and mid-pop-
ulation areas than rural areas. Informa-

WILDLIFE INFORMATION NEEDS IN KENTUCKY—McComb and Bonney

109

TABLE 2.—MEAN RANKS! GIVEN TO FISH AND WILDLIFE RELATED PROBLEMS BASED UPON THE NUMBER
OF REQUESTS FOR INFORMATION IN 1980, KENTUCKY COUNTY AGENT QUESTIONNAIRE, FEBRUARY 1981

Subject N? Mean rank
1. Mangement of fish ponds 76 3.00 (2.28)8
2. Control of undesirable species UU 3.10 (2.22)
3. Control of wildlife damage 75 3.45 (3.06)
4. Habitat management for game 65 4.94 (3.06)
5. Management of lakes and streams for game fish 60 6.00 (3.19)
6. Hunting in the county 60 7.37 (3.27)
7. Fishing in the county 62 7.58 (3.28)
8. Bird watching, bird house construction, ete. 61 8.11 (3.30)
9. Nongame management 58 8.12 (3.48)
10. Harvest regulations and game laws 56 8.43 (2.92)
11. Preparation of game for food 55 9.85 (3.58)
12. Wildlife diseases 54 9.94 (3.19)
13. Trapping in your county 54 10.13 (2.32)

14. Other subjects 18 11.20 (4.7)

‘ Rank of 1 = most important, rank of 14 = least important.
2 N = number of respondents.
3 Standard deviations indicated parenthetically.

tion requests for amphibians, turtles, en-
dangered species, lizards, bobcats (Lynx
rufus), and coyotes (Canis latrans) were
consistently low over geographic and de-
mographic strata.

Respondents ranked foxes, muskrats
(Ondatra zibethicus), raccoons, and minks
(Mustela vison) the important furbearers
for which information is needed. Infor-
mation needs for opossums (Didelphis
virginianus), skunks (Mephitis mephitis
and Spilogale putorius), and beavers were
consistently low.

Information Transfer Techniques.—Over
60% of the respondents indicated that an
extension newsletter from the University
of Kentucky would be a desirable method
of informing them and the public on fish,
wildlife, and forestry topics (Table 1).
Short courses and 4-H programs were also
considered important methods. Devel-
opment of clubs or leases was not consid-
ered a desirable means of informing the
public about fish and wildlife (Table 1).

DISCUSSION

Several state and federal agencies are
at least in part responsible for providing
fish and wildlife information needs to the
public. In addition to the Cooperative
Extension Service, the Soil Conservation
Service, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service,

and the Kentucky Department of Fish and
Wildlife Resources provide written infor-
mation and consultation with the public
regarding fish and wildlife information.
Our results may be biased toward infor-
mation needs associated with agricultural
situations because county agents most
frequently have training in agriculture,
but we think that our results provide
prioritized guidelines for preparation of
written materials and short courses to best
meet the needs of the public.

Of highest priority is aquaculture in-
formation for warm-water fish produc-
tion. County agents and landowners must
rely on aquaculture advice from the De-
partment of Fish and Wildlife Resources
and from federal agencies since there is
currently no designated aquaculture spe-
cialist in the Kentucky CES. An aquacul-
ture program is being developed at Ken-
tucky State University to meet this need.
It is imperative that these agencies co-
operate among themselves and especial-
ly with CES personnel if we are to pro-
vide this information.

Animal damage control has long been
recognized as an important information
need of the public (5, 6). In Kentucky,
information on blackbird control is need-
ed and since the U.S. Fish and Wildlife
Service is currently conducting research
on blackbird control in this state, we en-

110

courage their cooperation with county
agents in disseminating the most current
techniques for blackbird control. Infor-
mation on control of other species such
as moles, woodchucks, pigeons, house
sparrows, and rodents is also needed. A
handbook on Prevention and Control of
Wildlife Damage is available (7), but it is
not specific to Kentucky. A handbook of
animal damage control in Kentucky, based
on information from a variety of sources,
was prepared (8), but additional infor-
mation must be supplied to county agents
as new techniques become available. Fi-
nally, short courses and workshops on
ADC, similar to those currently conduct-
ed by the Fish and Wildlife Service,
should be scheduled on a regular basis
throughout the state and with inter-agen-
cy coordination.

Information on management of quail,
deer, rabbits, and squirrels is widely
available (9, 10), but little information is
specific to Kentucky. Publications deal-
ing with these topics as they apply to
Kentucky, in combination with work-
shops or field days are needed to make
landowners, especially farmland owners,
aware of the benefits of maintaining a di-
versity of habitats for these species.

Nongame management techniques for
reptiles, birds, and mammals should be
made available to the public, particularly
in urban areas. As urban areas expand,
the need for this information will likely
increase (11). Projects through the 4-H
system would greatly enhance educational
efforts in habitat management for non-
game and game species. New and updat-
ed projects are needed similar to those
developed by the Kentucky Nature Pre-
serves Commission (12). A coordinated
effort among agencies is essential if we

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 44(3-4)

are to maximize our educational efforts in

fish and wildlife.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

We thank each respondent for taking
the time to work on our questionnaire;
Richard Rauh and Gina Gigante for assis-
tance with computer coding; and Bart A.
Thielges, Allan J. Worms, and Donald E.
Graves for commenting on questionnaire
design and manuscript preparation.

LITERATURE CITED

1. Miller, J. E. 1981. Increasing educational
programs in fish and wildlife. Trans. N. Amer. Wildl.
Natur. Resour. Conf. 46: 199-207.

2. Hovatch, J.C. 1974. Detailed analysis—eco-
nomic survey of wildlife recreation in Kentucky.
Environ. Res. Group, Georgia State Univ., Atlanta,
Georgia. 174 pp.

3. Kellert, S. R. 1980. Activities of the Ameri-
can public relating to animals. U.S.D.I. Fish and
Wildl. Serv. 64 pp.

4. Barbour, R. W., and W. H. Davis. 1974. The
mammals of Kentucky. University Press of Ken-
tucky, Lexington.

5. Cutler, M. R. 1980. A wildlife policy for the
U.S. Department of Agriculture. Trans. Amer. Wildl.
Natur. Resour. Conf. 45:56—-66.

6. Miller, J. E. 1982. The role of the USDA in
animal damage control. Proc. 10th Vert. Pest Conf.,
Monterey, CA. 15 pp.

7. Henderson, F. R. 1980. Handbook on pre-
vention and control of wildlife damage. Kansas State
Univ., Manhattan.

8. McComb, W. C. (in press). Control of wild-
life damage in Kentucky. Coop. Ext. Serv., Univ. of
Ky., Lexington.

9. Trippensee, R. E. 1948. Wildlife manage-
ment—upland game and general principles. Vol. 1.
McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York.

10. Giles, R. H., Jr. 1978. Wildlife managment.
W.H. Freeman and Co., San Francisco.

11. Witter, D. J., D. L. Tylka, and J. E. Werner.
1981. Values of urban wildlife in Missouri. Trans.
N. Amer. Wildl. Natur. Resour. Conf. 46:424-431.

12. Harker, D. F., Jr., S. L. Schick, N. S. Theiss,
J. R. J. Dunn, and V. F. Denton. 1981. Our natural
heritage—a handbook for teachers. Kentucky Na-
ture Preserves Commission, Frankfort, KY.

Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 44(3-4), 1983, 111-116

Correlation of Fish Distribution and Stream Order in the
Upper Cumberland and Upper Kentucky Rivers Based
Upon an Information Retrieval System

Davip A. DIXON, BRANLEY A. BRANSON, AND DONALD L. BATCH
Department of Biological Sciences, Eastern Kentucky University, Richmond, Kentucky 40475

ABSTRACT

This article demonstrates some of the capabilities of a computerized information/retrieval
system designed to store distribution and ecological data of the lotic organisms of Kentucky.
Data for 152 species of fishes correlated with stream-order occurrence in the Upper Kentucky
and Upper Cumberland river systems are presented.

INTRODUCTION

Numerous reports on the fishes of the
Upper Cumberland and Upper Kentucky
rivers have been published. In an at-
tempt to more fully understand the dis-
tribution and ecological affinities of the
Kentucky aquatic fauna and flora, we (1)
developed, in conjunction with the Ken-
tucky Department of Natural Resources
and Environmental Protection, a com-

puterized information/retrieval system for

all the lotic organisms reported in the lit-
erature with indications of habitat, stream
order, water chemistry, and other ecolog-
ical notations, including river drainage,
subdrainage, and physiographic region.

Although this system doubtless will re-
quire constant revision, purging of errors,
and periodic updating as new srattomanee
tion is published, this open-ended sys-
tem is a very facile one that allows the
retrieval of data in a variety of forms and
correlations. The data presented here
(correlations between fish species and
stream magnitude in the Upper Cumber-
land and Upper Kentucky river basins)
are but one example of the system’s ca-
pability. Many others are possible, i.e.,
correlations between species and types
of habitat, between species and water
chemistry, between species and physio-
graphic regions, and so forth.

Of the 5 major stream systems in east-

Nn

=

CUMBERLAND RIVER DRAINAGE pf they

4

FIG. 1.

From Harker et al. (3).

111

112

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 44(3-4)

KENTUCKY RIVER DRAINAGE

STREAM
COUNTY
STUDY AREA queers
| KENTUCKY RIVER DRAINAGE
BUBDIVISIONS eececeesee

i a KRR_ RED RIVER ali
KLp LOWER PORTION |
KNF NORTH FORK
KSF SOUTH FORK

KMF MIDDLE FORK
INTENSVE SURVEY STES @

84°

Fic. 2. From Harker et al. (3).

ern Kentucky, embracing approximately
53,600 km? in drainage, the Kentucky and
Upper Cumberland drainages comprise
approximately 68% of the total (2). The
Upper Cumberland River arises in the
highlands of SE Kentucky, draining an
area of approximately 18,195 km? (Fig. 1).
The main stream is formed at the junction
of Poor Fork, Clover Fork, and Martin’s
Fork in Harlan County, flowing in a gen-
eral westward course through a gap in
Pine Mountain before reaching Cumber-
land Falls (3). Among its principal tribu-
taries are the Big South Fork, the Laurel,
and Rockcastle rivers in SE Kentucky.
The topography of the Upper Cumber-
land River basin is quite variable as the
stream passes through several distinct
physiographic regions. The easternmost
portion of the watershed is mountainous
with relief and elevation increasing to-

ward the headwaters. Eastern portions of
Laurel and Jackson counties, central Knox
and Whitley counties and southcentral
McCreary County lie in the Plateau Area
which is the least rugged portion of the
drainage. That portion of the drainage is
characterized by undulating to rolling
terrain. To the immediate west lies a nar-
row band known as the Escarpment Area
that encompasses much of the Rockcastle
and Big South Fork rivers and Cumber-
land Falls. The topography is rugged with
steep-sided and clifty valleys and narrow
ridges. The westernmost portion of the
Upper Cumberland River drainage lies in
the Mississippina Plateau, an area that is
variable with some rolling and undulat-
ing terrain. In places it is hilly or karsted,
and stream drainages may be rough and
precipitous (3).

The Kentucky River basin arises in

FISH DISTRIBUTION IN KENTUCKY—Dixon et al. 113

TABLE 1.—DISTRIBUTION OF FISHES BY STREAM ORDER IN THE UPPER CUMBERLAND AND UPPER KEN-
TUCKY RIVERS. K = KENTUCKY RIVER BASIN, C = CUMBERLAND RIVER BASIN, B = BOTH UPPER CUM-
BERLAND AND UPPER KENTUCKY RIVER BASINS

Stream order

to
ow

Species 1 4 5 6 7

Acipenser fulvescens

Alosa chrysochloris

Ambloplites rupestris K B
Ammocrypta clara

Ammocrypta pellucida

Aplodinotus grunniens C
Campostoma anomalum kK B
Carassius auratus

Carpioides carpio

Carpioides cyprinus

Carpioides species

Carpioides velifer K
Catostomus commersoni

Chaenobryttus gulosus

Chrosomus erythrogaster K
Chrosomus cumberlandensis
Cottus bairdi

Cottus carolinae

Cyprinus carpio

Dorosoma cepedianum
Ericymba buccata

Erimyzon oblongus

Esox americanus

Esox masquinongy
Etheostoma blennioides
Etheostoma caeruleum
Etheostoma camurum
Etheostoma cinereum
Etheostoma flabellare K
Etheostoma kennicotti

Etheostoma maculatum

Etheostoma nigrum K
Etheostoma obeyense

Etheostoma ruflineatum G
Etheostoma sagitta

Etheostoma simoterum

Etheostoma spectabile kK
Etheostoma species

Etheostoma stigmaeum Cc
Etheostoma tippecanoe

Etheostoma variatum

Etheostoma virgatum

Etheostoma zonale K
Fundulus catenatus

Fundulus notatus

Fundulus olivaceus

Gambusia affinis

Hiodon alosoides

Hiodon tergisus

Hybognathus nuchalis

Hybopsis amblops B
Hybopsis dissimilis

Hybopsis insignis

Hybopsis species

Hybopsis storeriana

Hypentelium nigricans K B B
Ichthyomyzon bdellium B

Vai BOR

Damm Ww

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o-@)
DADD OUWDWDHR AR DAR OA
BOA A

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ADA
loofior)
looflor)

BDWBADOOAKR OW

OK

ABAR
AQNBOKAAOQDPAARADOOTTODOOTTD

AQARODPOAR APWOWOOND ODP QBPBKAAQTPAARAGCHAODOD

BD DWOWOR OPBADOOPWDODOBDITA

AQ
Qn ies]
BA APD KH A
BAR AW AN AQAWDWDAROD ONQNODO DB OBBA ABDWAO
AO’K

114 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 44(3—4)

TABLE 1.—CONTINUED

Stream order

Species

uw

Ichthyomyzon fossor
Ichthyomyzon greeleyi
Ichthyomyzon unicuspis
Ictalurus furcatus
Ictalurus melas
Ictalurus natalis
Ictalurus nebulosus
Ictalurus punctatus
Ictiobus bubalus
Ictiobus cyprinellus
Labidesthes sicculus
Lagochila lacera
Lampetra aepyptera
Lampetra lamottei
Lampetra species
Lepisosteus osseus
Lepomis cyanellus
Lepomis gibbosus
Lepomis humilis
Lepomis macrochirus
Lepomis megalotis
Lepomis microlophus
Lota lota

Micropterus coosae
Micropterus dolomieui
Micropterus punctulatus
Micropterus salmoides
Minytrema melanops
Morone chrysops
Moxostoma anisurum
Moxostoma carinatum
Moxostoma duquesnei
Moxostoma erythrurum

Moxostoma macrolepidotum

Nocomis biguttatus
Nocomis effusus
Nocomis micropogon
Notemigonus crysoleucas
Notropis ardens
Notropis ariommus
Notropis atherinoides
Notropis blennius
Notropis boops
Notropis buchanani
Notropis chrysocephalus
Notropis fumeus
Notropis galacturus
Notropis hudsonius
Notropis leuciodus
Notropis photogenis
Notropis rubellus
Notropis spilopterus
Notropis stramineus
Notropis telescopus
Notropis umbratilis
Notropis volucellus
Notropis whipplei
Noturus eleutherus
Noturus exilis

AAD

ORD AWB loses)

QO DR KR BD Dw

Dam BARAK

AAD

QANKO

AQ BD RP BDWWD DOADDD A BDwWwwo www OH

BRAQARTA

BRAROAR FB DARD

Awe

ADWDDOWDBWDOAO BDADAADTAWD AADWAARAQOADWWO

AA

Panecmerioelosieeiesioelorier) ADDAADA ARO DAwmw

QOADADD OWS

ARWWDAQODDOD

BDAAWDWO AA

loofloe) DA

BOW BO BDWeR Anco

mA

O

QBPOQ OABOO

DADAAR

ADARAARAAADD Anon oH es]

nA oO

QO BAR

FISH DISTRIBUTION IN KENTUCKY—Dixon et al.

115

TABLE 1.—CONTINUED

Stream order

Species

3 4

ow
for)
~1

Noturus flavus

Noturus furiosus

Noturus gyrinus

Noturus insignis

Noturus miurus kK
Noturus nocturnus
Noturus species
Noturus stigmosus
Opsopoeodus emiliae
Percina burtoni
Percina caprodes
Percina copelandi
Percina cymatotaenia
Percina evides kK

Percina macrocephala K

Percina maculata C B
Percina oxyrhyncha

Percina phoxocephala

Percina sciera B

Percina shumardi

Percina squamata

Phenacobius mirabilis

Phenacobius uranops

Pimephales notatus K B
Pimephales promelas B
Pimephales vigilax

Polyodon spathula C
Pomoxis annularis

Pomoxis nigromaculatus

Pylodictis olivaris K
Rhinichthys atratulus K B
Salmo gairdneri

Salvelinus fontinalis C
Semotilus atromaculatus B B
Stizostedion canadense Cc
Stizostedion vitreum

B B
kK

w
a

‘a

A ADA Aw
AAD

On
AnD A © @
AAA

ABQ An DBD BoaR ww

BwO

Dn wBOwD wD
ADOBDWDAAR OFD 00 OK Ww
QOS OF BAD DADORKROAAANAD
AQ NAOADDAAARS

QOmm AR DAR

rugged terrain of the Appalachian Pla-
teau (Fig. 2), largely in Letcher, Leslie
and Clay counties, and the stream follows
a general NW course before flowing into
the Ohio River at Carrollton. The prin-
cipal tributaries are the North, Middle and
South forks, the Red River, the Dix River,
and Elkhorn and Eagle creeks. The basin
comprises 17,975 km?, much of it in rel-
atively fertile limestone land (2). Portions
of the headwaters are severely polluted
by acid-mine drainage, coal-mine wastes,
and by heavy siltation.

RESULTS

Utilizing information from the retrieval
system developed by us, we obtained

distributional data for 152 species of fish-
es reported from the Upper Cumberland
and Upper Kentucky river basins, corre-
lated by stream order and drainage basin.
Of the total, 40 species occurred in the
Upper Kentucky River exclusive of the
Upper Cumberland, and 20 species oc-
curred in the Upper Cumberland exclu-
sive of the Kentucky River. The remain-
ing 92 species were shared by the two
drainages. The distributional data re-
trieved from the storage system are pre-
sented in Table 1.

This system allows investigators to eas-
ily discern various distributional pat-
terns, such as stream-order restrictions, as
exemplified by Hiodon alosoides, H. ter-

116

gisus and Hybopsis insignis (5th order or
higher), rarity and/or disjunction, as in
Hybognathus nuchalis and Lepomis gib-
bosus, and drainage restrictions, as in No-
comis biguttatus.

This article, of course, is merely an ex-
ample of the system’s capabilities. Many
other combinations are possible. Inter-
ested investigators may contact Dean
Donald L. Batch, Eastern Kentucky Uni-
versity, for additional information.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The work on this project was supported
by funds from the Kentucky Department
of Natural Resources and Environmental
Protection, Division of Water Quality
Work Element 1-208, John Glass, Project
Coordinator, and Shelby Jett, 208 Pro-
gram Supervisor.

In addition to the two junior authors,

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 44(3-4)

the following personnel had important
input to the project: Andrew J. Winfrey,
Environmental Management, Inc., Gary
E. Dillard and Rudy Prins, Western Ken-
tucky University, Stuart E. Neff, Univer-
sity of Louisville, Paul Cupp, Stuart Las-
setter, John Williams, and Ann Bailey
(Computer Analyst), Eastern Kentucky
University.

LITERATURE CITED

1. Batch, D. L., B. A. Branson, and A. J. Winfrey.
1979. Development of water quality. Kentucky 208
Rept. Div. Water Qual., Ky. Dept. Nat. Res. Env.
Prot. 34 pp and appendices.

2. Clay, W. A. 1975. The Fishes of Kentucky.
Ky. Dept. Fish Wild. Res., Frankfort, Ky.

3. Harker, D. F., S. M. Call, M. L. Warren, Jr., K.
E. Cambum, and P. Wigley. 1979. Aquatic biota
and water quality survey of the Appalachian Proy-
ince, Eastern Kentucky. Ky. Div. Water Qual., Dept.
Nat. Res. Env. Prot., Frankfort, Ky.

Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 44(3-4), 1983, 117-124

Occurrence and Distribution of Rotifers in
Barren River Reservoir, Kentucky

Davip G. ABEL AND RUDOLPH PRINS
Department of Biology, Western Kentucky University, Bowling Green, Kentucky 42101

ABSTRACT

A study of the spatial distribution and temporal occurrence and diversity of rotifers in relation
to certain chemicophysical parameters was conducted in Barren River Reservoir, Kentucky, a
monomictic flood control lake in southcentral Kentucky, from January, 1970, through January,
1971. Average rotifer densities, in the main pool and tailwater, ranged from 2 to 565/]. From July
through September densities of rotifers at 6 m were significantly different from those at all other
depths except 3 m (3 m was not significant from the remaining depths). A diel study in July
revealed that this vertical pattern persisted over a 24-hour period. During other months (also
shown in diel studies of April and January) rotifers were generally more uniformly distributed
at all depths. Species diversity per sampling date was greatest from June through mid-October
(12 species). This period was characterized by low reservoir discharge (50 cfs), decreased tur-
bidity, increased Secchi disc transparencies (a mean of 3 m), and increased water temperatures
and stratification. A total of 28 species referrable to 18 genera of rotifers was identified during
the study. Polyarthra spp. (3), Keratella spp. (5), and Conochilus unicornis were the dominant
rotifers; they comprised 75-85% of the population when present. Keratella cochlearis, Polyarthra
vulgaris, and Kellicottia bostoniensis were most persistent and characteristic of the lake. Ke-
ratella americana, Ploesoma sp., Hexarthra mira, Keratella crassa, and Brachionus angularis
were warm water forms. Keratella quadrata, Kellicottia bostoniensis, and Polyarthra minor were

cold-water forms.

INTRODUCTION

This study was undertaken to deter-
mine the spatial and temporal distribu-
tions and diversity of rotifers in Barren
River Reservoir in southcentral Kentucky
and, where possible, to relate these find-
ings to chemicophysical features charac-
teristic of the reservoir. The study was
conducted from January, 1970, through
January, 1971, in the main pool area of

the lake.

Description of Study Area

Barren River Reservoir (Table 1), a
monomictic lake, is an integral unit of the
comprehensive flood control plan for the
Ohio and Mississippi Rivers enacted in
1938. Impounded in 1964, it is located in
Allen, Barren, and Monroe counties,
Kentucky; approximately 20 miles north
of the Kentucky-Tennessee boundary.

Barren River Reservoir has a capacity
for multilevel discharge with discharge
ports at 161, 155, and 145 m mean sea
level. During the study period, water was
drawn from the various levels of the lake
from January to April. From April through

September, pool elevations of 171 m msl
were maintained by the Corps of Engi-
neers by regulating discharge which orig-
inated from the upper 3 m of the main
pool. A conical extension with its apera-
ture positioned upward was affixed to the
tower around the port at 161 m msl to
allow withdrawal at the 3 m level. This
summer discharge regime was main-
tained as part of a more comprehensive
program concerned with overall produc-
tivity of the reservoir (1). After 30 Sep-
tember, rapid drawdown was initiated to
achieve a winter pool level of 161 m msl
by December; the drawdown regime af-
ter 30 September was similar to that of
January to April. Thus, the level of the
main pool varied 25 m to 15 m annually
due to the discharge regime employed,
fluctuations in discharge sometimes re-
flecting the need to maintain a given pool
level (Fig. 1).

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Plankton Samples

From 26 January, 1970, through 16 Jan-
uary, 1971, quantitative plankton sam-

117

4000-4 as
a |
re
o 30005 LL
wo
3
« |
< i] i}
35 2,000 1 | | b
2 | |
SH esl | |

1,000 | | 7] laa

Ta Li Le ee Le SO a ad

Fic. 1. Daily discharges, Barren River Reservoir,

January, 1970—January, 1971.

ples were obtained biweekly approxi-
mately mid-morning to noon from the
main pool and the tailwater of Barren
River Reservoir using a Birge-Juday sam-
pler equipped with a No. 20 net (68
meshes per cm). Paired, 10-liter samples

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 44(3-4)

TABLE 1.—HYDROGRAPHIC FEATURES OF BARREN
RIVER RESERVOIR. SUMMER POOL ELEVATIONS
WERE USED TO COMPUTE VOLUMES AND AREAS

Area 4,049 ha
Volume 316 x 10° m?
Maximum depth 27m

Mean depth 7.8m
Drainage area 243.6 km?
Length of dam 1,323 m
Main pool area 30-32 ha

were obtained at 3 m vertical intervals
from the surface to 15 m in the main pool
of the reservoir (maximum main pool
depth was 25 m). Diel studies were con-
ducted on 10-11 April, 1970, 18-19 July,
1970, and 29-30 January, 1971. Samples
during these studies were taken at the

TEMPERATURE (°C)

AG 4/10 4/24
U4 9 I 13 I 13
fo)
3
6
9
12
15
E O74) (8 2 On 4) 8) fi20 4 8
i 7/4 8/|
2 . lores On 24 28 (7 2! ; ese aie 3 2714 ae ee 19 ae 5 6
3
6
9
\2
15
ani eae aaa ens. |
© 6 FO Si Bie (© GB BO 6 9.2 © 9.0.
ae DISSOLVED OXYGEN (m@/ iter)

—o—e— D0

Fic. 2.

Selected dissolved oxygen and temperature profiles for the main pool.

ROTIFERS IN KENTUCKY—Abel and Prins

same depths as during routine sampling
at 4-hour intervals over a 24-hour period.
Tailwater samples were collected with
the use of an automatic plankton sampler
(2) located in the tailwater area. Samples
of 114 liters were filtered through the net
and bucket of the Birge-Juday sampler.
All samples were preserved in 10% for-
malin. Enumeration was accomplished
using a Sedgewick-Rafter counting cell.

Chemicophysical Measurements and
Determinations

Dissolved oxygen, temperature, dis-
solved solids, and pH were determined
from water samples collected with a 2-
liter Kemmerer sampler. From 26 Janu-
ary through 10 April dissolved oxygen and
temperature were measured with a Yel-
low Springs Instrument 51A oxygen me-
ter and probe; thereafter, dissolved oxy-
gen was measured with Hach Chemical
Co. methods and reagents. Dissolved sol-
ids were measured with the Myron L DS
meter. The pH was determined with a
Sargent-Welch, Model PBL, pH meter
within 10 hours after the water samples
were returned to the laboratory. Secchi
disc transparencies were determined in
situ. Mean values were calculated from
samples at depths. Daily discharge data
were obtained from the Corps of Engi-
neers, Louisville, Kentucky.

RESULTS
General Chemicophysical Features

The general temperature and dissolved
oxygen distributions in the reservoir dur-
ing the study period were typical of tem-
perature zone lakes (Figs. 2, 3). Stratifi-
cation began in late April, was completed
by August, and fall circulation occurred
in late October. The maximum tempera-
ture (30°C) at the surface was on 1 Au-
gust, the lowest (3.1°C) was on 26 Janu-
ary; the metalimnion was 6-9 m from June
to mid-October. There was a trace amount
of oxygen in the hypolimnion throughout
the summer and the average pH was con-
sistently slightly alkaline.

The mean concentrations of dissolved
solids (Fig. 4) ranged from a minimum of

119

=
5
= ” ~
=
.
z

—— MEAN TEMPERATURE
— — DISSOLVED OXYGEN
— % SATURATION

OXYGEN (mg/titer)

OLVED

% SATURATION

Fic. 3. Mean water temperatures, dissolved oxy-
gen concentrations and the percent saturations in
the main pool.

110 mg/l on 27 February to a maximum
of 193 mg/l on 29 December. Secchi disc
transparencies were less than 2 m from
27 February through 8 May (Fig. 4) in-
creasing to a maximum of 7.3 m on 5 June.
Values of less than 1 m were found after
fall turnover in late October. Except in
early June, turbidity values generally
mirrored Secchi Disc Transparencies
(Fig. 4).

Rotifers
A total of 28 species referrable to 18
genera of rotifers was identified (Table
2). Densities of about 10/1 occurred from
January through March (Fig. 5) and ver-
tical distribution patterns were irregular
(Fig. 6). There was a mean of 54/] in the

1 | 2
bios @
2 liege
S| Dar icr mes
> aE
mae i ts
8 ey
= T \
a lt |
3 f \
Qts0p Vy J 1
P
2 if ho 7 ~
fo) 1 \ I \ A \ ead
a \ w
B See \
5 if \/ ay a4
Hot 4 NA v ale
Br RX if
=e
2 io’ — Tu
tal | 4 \ —— mg/liter
< 4 1 \C ass —-— meters
ot Voi ae
z + y ms
qu es wee
re —
MG Ws Le SL DP

Fic. 4. Turbidity, dissolved solids, and Secchi disc
transparencies in the main pool.

}| —— TOTAL ROTIFERS: MP
— —TOTAL ROTIFERS TW

NO. /LITER

Fic. 5. Total rotifers (No./liter) in the main pool
(MP) and tailwater (TW).

main pool on 24 April, but on 8 May, a
mean of 565/l was found. On this date as
many as 1,326/] were found at 3 m and as
few as 115/] were found at 15 m.

In subsequent months, rotifer densities
fluctuated to a midsummer maximum

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 44(3-4)

DEPTH (m)

7 5710
No /liter * (No. Graph Unita)?

i
|
|

Fic. 6. Spatial distribution of rotifers (total No./
liter), in the main pool. Figures are derived from
the square root of the total No./liter at each depth.

mean of 154/] on 18 July on which date
483/1 occurred at 6 m, just above the
metalimnion (Fig. 6). From August until
fall turnover in late October, this pattern
of concentrating at 6 m persisted. A diel
study conducted in July, 1970 revealed
that this vertical distribution pattern per-

TABLE 2.—RELATIVE MONTHLY ABUNDANCE (NO./LITER) OF ROTIFERS IN THE MAIN POOL OF BARREN
RIVER RESERVOIR, AS DENOTED By: x < 10; 10 < y < 20; 20 < z < 40; 40 < + < 80; 80 < 0 < 120; and
120 <*

Keratella cochlearis Gosse
Keratella crassa Ahlstrom
Keratella earlinae Ahlstrom
Keratella americana Ahlstrom
Keratella quadrata (Muller)
Polyarthra vulgaris Carlin
Polyarthra minor Voigt
Polyarthra euryptera Wierzejski
Synchaeta spp.

Brachionus angularis Gosse
Brachionus calyciflorus Pallas
Brachionus havanaensis Rousselet
Ploesoma sp.

Hexarthra mira (Hudson)
Conochilus unicornis Rousselet
Conochiloides sp.

Filinia sp.

Kellicottia bostoniensis (Rousselet)
Asplanchna spp.

Philodina (Rotaria?) sp.
Cephalodella sp.

Trichocerca spp.

Collotheca mutabilis (Hudson)
Lecane curvicornis (Murray)
Notholca sp.

Platyias (=Brachionus) patulus (O. F. Muller)
Platyias quadricornis (Ehrenberg)

x Ce eX eZ: ZEIT YE REX DY
Xe OESt YA CHW EXO SEs
ws EXy eo Ke SFX OXON an
x XH eX
x
MOY CUEXS sagIXS SAV Zee XG OX SRUE DX le Xe, SS) AA Za
XG x W
Xe; ed [see
x Van ex Ker iV ae Xen x Z
xX Xe XC XG XG
x x x y
x
XEN AGKS ARKO PX
ATS KBP EX x
xt Xan ZZ
x xe Xp Xe wg
x x x x x
x KREG TEXTE X OP PEX Mm x
XOX Xp OXSOPREXC OD XS EX:
5S 88 x XP amex?
x x x
x x x
x
x
x
Xin GX
x

ROTIFERS IN KENTUCKY—Abel and Prins

— MAIN POOL
—— TAILWATER f
15 -
ras \ F
3° \ f
rm
a \ ~ f
5 sl
5, WA v i
2 /
/
Wf
|
alan Randa Mtoe A Minaat Osean’ A RnaneS Nt

Fic. 7. Species diversity of rotifers in the main
pool and tailwater.

sisted over a 24-hour period. Total deple-
tion of rotifers never occurred at any
depth.

Analyses of variance (3) were conduct-
ed on the vertical distributions for spring
(March—June), summer (June—Septem-
ber), autumn (September—December),
and winter (December—March). These
analyses showed that the only significant
difference between depths occurred dur-
ing summer. With the use of Duncan’s
new multiple range test (3), it was found
that total rotifers at 6 m and 3 m were not
significantly different, but that densities
at 6 m were significantly greater than
those at all other depths.

Species richness was greatest during
periods of maximum stability (mid-June
through mid-October) (Fig. 7). An aver-
age of 12 species was found during these
months (the maximum was 16 species on
15 August and the minimum was 9 species
on 20 June), whereas, the average for all
other months was six.

Rotifer densities in the main pool and
those in the tailwater did not always cor-
respond (Fig. 5). For example, on 24 April,
(water was discharged from the upper 3
m beginning | April) 545/1 were found in
the tailwater, and only 54/] were found in
the main pool. The average number of
animals at the surface and 3 m was 134/]
which was 83% of the total rotifers pres-
ent in the water column. In the main pool
on 18 July most rotifers were present at
6 m (483/1) an almost fourfold increase
from 4 July at this depth; however, rotifer
abundance within the tailwater showed
little change—103/1 on 4 July versus
102/1 on 18 July. Throughout August, ro-

121

Fic. 8. Seasonal distribution of Keratella spp., and
spatial distribution of K. cochlearis, K. earlinae, and
K. crassa in the main pool.

tifer densities in the upper two depths
(the surface and 3 m) of the main pool
were high but diminishing; e.g., from
combined mean values of 114/] on 15 Au-
gust to 81/l on 29 August, to 78/l on 12
September. In the tailwater, densities
fluctuated from 21/1 to.80/1 to 39/1 on the
same three dates, respectively. After 12
October, when drawoff was no longer re-
stricted to the upper 3 m, the means of
total rotifers in the main pool fluctuated
in range of 60-85/1 with a maximum of
118/] occurring on 29 December. In the
tailwater, the densities fluctuated from 8—
53/1. The increase that was observed in
the main pool from 6 to 29 December was
not reflected in the tailwater samples.

A dominant rotifer genus, Keratella,
was represented by 5 species. The high-
est density of 127/I, all species combined,
occurred on 18 July (Fig. 8). Keratella
cochlearis was the only representative
consistently found throughout the year. It
was major component of the first rotifer
pulse on 8 May with a mean of 47/] (Fig.
8), reaching a secondary maximum of
28/1 on 4 July. After 18 July, K. cochlearis
fluctuated irregularly, being represented
by usually less than 14/1.

In the tailwater, K. cochlearis was er-
ratic until 20 June, increasing sharply to
a maximum of 43/1 on 4 July, producing
another slight pulse of 21/1 on 29 August,
continuing until 12 September. After this,
it decreased sharply and fluctuated irreg-
ularly, never exceeding 6/1.

Keratella earlinae first appeared on 5

122

Fic. 9. Seasonal distribution of Polyarthra spp. and
spatial distribution of P. vulgaris, P. minor, and P.
euryptera in the main pool.

June (Fig. 8) and persisted for the rest of
the year reaching maximum abundance
of 8/1 in August and diminishing after fall
turnover. Keratella crassa was first ob-
served in late May. It constituted about
one-third of the rotifers on 4 July (28/1)
and on 18 July it was the dominant mem-
ber of the genus (97/1 out of a total 127/
1). The greatest density (344/1) was at 6 m
with the lowest (2/1) at the surface (Fig.
8). Usually fewer than 5/1 were found af-
ter turnover in October. Other species of
Keratella that appeared sporadically in
the tailwater and/or main pool areas and
always in small numbers included K.
americana and K. quadrata.

Three species of Polyarthra were found
during the study. All species combined,
they were most numerous in May and
December (Fig. 9). Polyarthra vulgaris

2oMue ae 229

Ne ee OANA

Fic. 10. Spatial distribution of Conochilus uni-
cornis, Synchaeta spp., and Brachionus spp. in the
main pool.

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 44(3-4)

| v2 S/B8 6/207/4 7/18 8/58/29 9/I2 9/25 10/12 10/24 wis 12/6 vie
oF A fl =]
| \ Natt
= 4 (Ra ve iateal it |
= 6! XC (i)
eo \ \ \ A \/ /\ N \ |
ar ee et AY FANGS | \
GH VOM MME AEC aa
Is} Yoel i (Wp
aa
| 5710

No-/litor = (No. Graph Units)®

Fic. 11. Spatial distribution of Kellicottia boston-

iensis in the main pool.

was the dominant species of this genus,
occurring in the lake throughout the year
(Fig. 9), but nearly disappearing in Feb-
ruary. The maximum (65/1) was found on
8 May. Polyarthra minor was present
sporadically (Fig. 9) appearing in rela-
tively significant densities (10/1 and 46/1
on only 2 occasions, 24 April, 29 Decem-
ber, respectively). The only major in-
crease of P. euryptera was on 4 July (16.1),
(Fig. 9).

Although it occurred in the samples on
only 2 occasions in late spring, Conochi-
lus unicornis was the major component
of the 8 May rotifer pulse with a mean of
452/1. The maximum was 1,159/l at 3 m
and the minimum was 52/] at 15 m (Fig.
10). It did not reappear until 18 July, but
then persisted through September.

Members of the genus Synchaeta were
present primarily in April and after mid-
July (Fig. 10). On 24 April, the largest
number was 37/] at 3 m; 83% enumerated
were from the surface and 3 m. These ro-
tifers appeared in substantial densities on
1 August (13/1), on 15 August (24/l) and
on 6 December (40/1).

Representatives of the genus Brachio-
nus were observed in the spring, fall, and
early winter (Fig. 10). Brachionus caly-
ciflorus was the only species sampled
from March through April. It was found
again only in December and January with
the largest number on 29 December (33/
1). Even though B. angularis was the only
species present consistently from July to
August it was very rare (less than 1/l) as
was B. havanaensis (4 July).

Kellicottia bostoniensis occurred irreg-
ularly and in low numbers until after the
fall turnover was initiated around 12 Oc-

ROTIFERS IN KENTUCKY—Abel and Prins

tober (Fig. 11). A maximum of 29/] was
found on 24 October, with most occurring
at 14 m. After 19/] were found on 14 No-
vember, there were usually fewer than
1/1 during the remainder of the study.

Other rotifers that were few in number
and/or occurred at irregular times were:
Asplanchna sp., Ploesoma sp., Hexarthra
mira, Conochiloides sp., Filinia sp., Phil-
odina (Rotaria?) sp., Cephalodella sp.,
Trichocerca spp., and Collotheca muta-
bilis. In addition, rotifers found in sup-
plemental samples not taken on routine
sampling dates were: Lecane cervicornis,
Platyias (=Brachionus) patulus, P. quad-
ricornis, and Notholca spp.

DISCUSSION

Factors which may have influenced the
vertical distribution of rotifers included
the presence or absence of stratification
particularly in reference to dissolved oxy-
gen concentration and temperature. Dur-
ing the period of July through September
the largest numbers of rotifers were found
at 6 m. From Duncan’s New Multiple
Range Test (3) it was shown that the den-
sities of rotifers at 6 m were significantly
different from the densities at all other
depths except 3 m (3 m did not differ sig-
nificantly from the remaining depths).
The diel study conducted on 18-19 July
revealed that at least at that time the
higher densities at 6 m persisted over a
24-hour period. However, diel studies in
April and January indicated that rotifers
were uniformly mixed in the water col-
umn. These latter two periods of non-
stratification were characterized by high
turbidity, low light, and circulation of the
water by winds. The latter two factors
have been suggested by Kikuchi (4) to be
present during periods of very little ver-
tical movements by rotifers. The circu-
lation within the water column may have
promoted a homogeneous vertical distri-
bution.

Temperature distributions may have
influenced the tendency for rotifers to ag-
gregate at 6 m. The largest concentrations
of rotifers in the metalimnion throughout
the summer suggests a preference for this

123

region. The laboratory studies of Harder
(5), which showed an aggregation of zoo-
plankton at temperature interfaces, might
suggest a possible explanation for the
consistently large numbers in the meta-
limnetic region, which is a temperature
interface between the epilimnion and the
hypolimnion.

In the 13-month study, species diver-
sity of rotifers was greatest from June
through mid-October. The period of
greatest species diversity occurred when
water temperatures reached their maxi-
ma. During this period, discharge vol-
umes from the impoundment were low
and restricted to the upper 3 m (Fig. 1).
Such low discharges normally would have
been accompanied by a slow flushing rate
and, correspondingly, a higher rate of
sedimentation in the upper reservoir sim-
ilar to that reported in Lewis and Clark
Lake (6). In the main pool area there was
a decrease in turbidity, an increase in
Secchi disc transparencies, and increases
in temperatures accompanied by thermal
stratification.

Ackefors (7) observed that maximum
species diversity occurred from July
through September in the northerm Bal-
tic. He suggested that it was closely as-
sociated with the short, warm water pe-
riod. These data may be instructive, since
Pennak (8) has reported that species di-
versity in lakes is very similar regardless
of latitude or altitude. A greater variety
of plankton was associated with warming
of water by Robinson et al. (9) in their
studies on the influence of artificial de-
stratification on plankton populations in
impoundments.

The following rotifers were most per-
sistent and characteristic of Barren River
Reservoir during the study: K. cochlear-
is, P. vulgaris, and K. bostoniensis. The
following were typical summer forms, oc-
curring from June through September: K.
americana, Ploesoma sp., H. mira, K.
crassa, and B. angularis. Some rotifers
were characteristically epilimnetic in
distribution: C. unicornis, Synchaeta
spp., Asplanchna spp., and K. crassa.
Cold-water forms included: K. quadrata,
K. bostoniensis, and P. minor.

124

The surveillance of zooplankton activ-
ities within a reservoir by sampling from
the tailwater is an important means of
measuring annual loss in discharges (10).
The comparability of numbers in the res-
ervoir and tailwater would appear to be
very important if such an estimate of dis-
charge loss is to be measured. In Barren
River Reservoir, the unique factor of dis-
charge level may affect such an estima-
tion of loss.

Since discharge from April through
September was restricted to the upper 3
m, rotifer concentrations observed in this
region of the main pool were compared
with those in the tailwater. By means of
Student’s t test (3) it was determined that
from June to mid-October numbers from
the tailwaters and the mean numbers in
the upper 3 m of the main pool were not
significantly different. Furthermore, den-
sities of rotifers found in the tailwater
seemed to reflect those found in the sur-
face samples more than those at 3 m. This
might have been due to the orientation
of the cone attached to the upper dis-
charge port; i.e., with an upward facing
opening at 3 m, water would have been
drawn from the overlying surface layers,
particularly during low discharges.

In a study conducted by the TVA En-
gineering Laboratory on Nolin Reservoir,
Kentucky, an impoundment with a simi-
lar multilevel discharge capacity, dis-
charges of 540 cfs from the upper 3 m
were shown to have a velocity profile ex-
tending to 5 m within the reservoir (11).
Hypolimnetic discharges of 50 cfs in Bar-
ren during the same study were too small
to measure the influence of velocity. Since
discharge rate in Barren River Reservoir
remained at 50 cfs from late May to mid-
September, the withdrawal was probably
from the region much shallower than 5
m. Consequently loss of rotifers from the
reservoir was probably minimal because
the greatest densities tended to occur be-
low this depth.

Qualitatively, plankters in the tailwater
and in the main pool were very similar
because rotifers did occur throughout the
water column even though most concen-
trated at 4 m to 6 m. Consequently, a

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 44(3-4)

qualitative survey of the main pool from
the tailwater during upper level dis-
charges would be feasible. However,
quantitative data probably would pro-
duce underestimates if the cone were in

place due to the apparent exclusion of the
bulk of rotifers from depths below the
cone.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

We acknowledge with thanks the par-
tial support of the Sport Fishing Institute
for this project, part of which was includ-
ed in a master’s thesis by the senior au-
thor at Western Kentucky University, and
to the Corps of Engineers for providing
information and data and for their gen-
erous cooperation in many ways.

LITERATURE CITED

1. Martin, Robert G., and R. H. Stroud. 1973.
Influence of Reservoir Discharge Location on Water
Quality, Biology and Sport Fisheries of Reservoirs
and Tailwaters, 1968-1971. U.S.A. Engineer Water-
ways Exp. Sta., Vicksburg, Mississippi 128 pp.

2. Swanson, G. A. 1965. Automatic plankton
sampling system. Limnol. Oceanogr. 10:149-152.

3. Steel, R. G. D., and J. H. Torrie. 1960. Prin-
ciples and procedures of statistics with special ref-
erence to the biological sciences. McGraw-Hill. New
York.

4. Kikuchi, K. 1930. Diurnal migration of
plankton crustacea. Q. Rev. Biol. 5: 189-206.

5. Harder, W. 1968. Reactions of plankton or-
ganisms to water stratification. Limnol. Oceanogr.
13: 156-167.

6. Benson, N. G., and B. C. Cowell. 1967. The
environment and plankton density in Missouri river
reservoirs. Res. Fish. Res. Symp. 1967:358-373.

7. Ackefors, H. 1969. Seasonal and vertical dis-
tribution of the zooplankton in the Asko area
(Northern Baltic proper) in relation to hydrograph-
ical conditions. Oikos 20:480-492.

8. Pennak, R. W. 1957. Species composition of
limnetic zooplankton communities. Limnol. Ocean-
ogr. 2:222-232.

9. Robinson, E. L., W. H. Irwin, and J. H. Sy-
mons. 1969. Influence of artifical destratification
on plankton populations in impoundments. Trans.
Ky. Acad. Sci. 30:1-18.

10. Cowell, B. C. 1970. The influence of plank-
ton discharges from an upstream reservoir on stand-
ing crops in a Missouri river reservoir. Limnol.
Oceanogr. 15:427-441.

11. Anonymous. 1970. Selective withdrawal—
Barren and Nolin reservoirs, field data. Water Re-
sources Research Lab. Report No. 21. TVA Engi-
neering Lab. Report No. 0-6877: 1-11.

Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 44(3-4), 1983, 125-128

Distributional Records for Fourteen
Fishes in Kentucky

STEPHEN P. RICE,! JOHN R. MACGREGOR, WAYNE L. Davis?

ABSTRACT

Surveys of streams in Kentucky over a 7-year period resulted in new records and range exten-
sions for 14 fish species, 10 of which are rare or poorly known. New records for Lepisosteus
oculatus, Esox niger, Notropis venustus, Ictalurus nebulosus, Fundulus notti, Lepomis margi-
natus, and Percina shumardi are reported from the Jackson Purchase. A range extension within
the Cumberland River drainage is noted for Ichthyomyzon greeleyi. Hybopsis dissimilis and
Notropis ariommus are reported from the Salt River drainage for the first time since 1892. The
ranges of Notemigonus crysoleucas, Typhlichthys subterraneus, and Percopsis omiscomaycus
are extended, and a population of Ammocrypta pellucida in the Little Sandy River is discussed.

INTRODUCTION

Since 1975, members of the Kentucky
Transportation Cabinet, Division of En-
vironmental Analysis, have made collec-
tions of fishes from streams in Kentucky.
Due to the continued threat of pollution
to the streams of the Commonwealth from
coal mining, petroleum exploration,
stream dredging, land clearing, and other
activities and the recent publication by
the Kentucky Academy of Science of a
list of fishes Endangered, Threatened,
and Rare in Kentucky (1), we felt the fol-
lowing distributional records worthy of
note.

ACCOUNTS OF SPECIES
This paper reports new drainage rec-
ords, adds localities for several fishes of
concern, and confirms the presence of 2
species not recorded from the Salt River
drainage since Woolman’s collections in
1890 and 1891 (2). Records are based on
collections deposited in the Kentucky
Transportation Cabinet, Division of En-
vironmental Analysis Museum. Nomen-

clature follows Robins et al. (3).
Ichthyomyzon greeleyi Hubbs and
Trautman. Mountain brook lamprey. This
species was known from the Kentucky and

' Division of Environmental Analysis, Kentucky
Transportation Cabinet, Frankfort, Kentucky 40622.

> Kentucky Department of Fish and Wildlife Re-
sources, Frankfort, Kentucky 40601.

3 Kentucky Department of Fish and Wildlife Re-
sources, Frankfort, Kentucky 40601.

Green river drainages and from the Little
South Fork of the Cumberland River
drainage (4, 5). On 9 May 1980, 4 adults
of this lamprey were taken from the
Rockcastle River about 4 km downstream
from Billows. Specimens came from 2
shallow (30 cm) riffles where a large
number of lampreys appeared to be con-
structing nests by moving small stones.
The status of this species in Kentucky was
listed as Undetermined by Branson et al.
(1).

Lepisosteus oculatus (Winchell). Spot-
ted gar. This gar, reported as rare in west-
erm Kentucky (5) and listed as Threat-
ened by Branson et al. (1), has been
recorded from Bayou du Chien (6), the
lower Cumberland River drainage (7), the
Tradewater River drainage, and the low-
er Green River drainage (8). Due to its
presumed rarity, all of our collections are
listed as follows: 1 from a tributary of
Bayou du Chien, Fulton County, 1.2 km
WNW from Halfmoon Pond, 14 June
1979; 1 from Dry Lake (Prehistoric Ca-
nal), Hickman County, at Whaynes Cor-
ner, 24 August 1978; 1 from Back Slough,
Carlisle County, 1.8 km NE of Laketon,
13 June 1979; 1 from Three Ponds, Hick-
man County, 2.9 km NW of Whaynes Cor-
ner, 24 August 1978; 10 from an unnamed
roadside slough, Fulton County, along KY
94, 1.4 km NE of the point where KY 94
crosses into Tennessee between Tyler
and Miller, 12 June 1979; 11 from an un-
named roadside pool, Fulton County, 305
m E of Miller along the S side of KY 1282,

125

126

21 August 1978; and 1 from Clarks River
sloughs, Marshall County, adjacent to US
641 at Benton, 10 March 1980. The larg-
est numbers were taken within the Reel-
foot National Wildlife Refuge from 2 small
seasonal pools, abundant with sub-
mersed and emergent aquatic vegetation,
which are inundated by flood water from
Reelfoot Lake.

Esox niger Lesueur. Chain pickerel.
The chain pickerel was known from 4 lo-
calities in Kentucky: Middle Fork of
Clarks River (9) and 3 oxbow lakes in
McCracken, Ballard, and Carlisle coun-
ties (10). We took 2 specimens from an
unnamed tributary of Bayou du Chien,
Fulton County, 1.22 km WNW of Half
moon Pond, 14 June 1979: 8 were cap-
tured with 2 Esox americanus Lesueur
from Whaynes Branch, Hickman County,
610 m E of Whaynes Comer, 15 June
1979: and 1 was taken from Three Ponds,
Hickman County, 24 August 1978.
Whaynes Branch was a sluggish stream
with banks heavily overgrown with bald
cypress and a substrate of silt and organic
debris. In contrast, the unnamed tribu-
tary of Bayou du Chien had a substrate of
very deep silt with little organic debris
and little shade-providing vegetation.
Branson et al. (1) considered this periph-
eral species to be Threatened.

Hybopsis dissimilis (Kirtland). Stream-
line chub. The only record of this fish
from the Salt River drainage was that of
Woolman (2) who reported it as very rare
in Rolling Fork. On 22 April 1980, we
took an individual from a swift, rubble-
bottomed riffle in Rolling Fork just
downstream from the KY 412 bridge,
Marion County, and M. L. Warren, Jr. and
R. R. Cicerello captured 10 approximate-
ly 1.7 stream km upstream from the KY
55/US 68 bridge, Marion County, 21 Sep-
tember 1982 (pers. comm.).

Notemigonus crysoleucas (Mitchill).
Golden shiner. According to Burr (5),
there were no records of this species in
Kentucky east of the Kentucky River
drainage. We captured 7 individuals in
an unnamed slough near the US 23 cross-
ing of Grays Branch in Greenup County
on 7 September 1978. It was abundant

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 44(3—-4)

and was the only species observed.
Though possibly introduced at this loca-
tion, it likely is native since Trautman (11)
stated that this shiner was present in the
Ohio counties bordering the Ohio River
before 1900.

Notropis ariommus (Cope). Popeye
shiner. This fish has been collected from
the Salt River drainage only by Woolman
(2) who took it from Rolling Fork. We col-
lected 1 specimen from Cloyds Creek at
the KY 412 bridge in Marion County, 22
April 1980. It was seined from shallow
water over a substrate of gravel and small
rubble. Cloyds Creek is a small tributary
of Rolling Fork. The status of the popeye
shiner is listed as Undetermined (1).

Notropis venustus (Girard). Blacktail
shiner. According to Burr (5), this fish was
known from Bayou du Chien, the Missis-
sippi River, and the lower Ohio River.
On 19 March 1981, we seined the lower
section of Sugar Creek, Mayfield Creek,
and what was apparently the remains of
the old, unchannelized Mayfield Creek;
all near the US 62 bridge over Mayfield
Creek about 1.6 km S of Lovelaceville,
Ballard County. The shiners (Notropis)
collected were 2 N. stramineus (Cope), 3
N. whipplei (Girard), and 1 N. venustus.
Branson etal. (1) listed the blacktail shin-
er as a peripheral species of Special Con-
cern.

Ictalurus nebulosus (Lesueur). Brown
bullhead. Burr (5) reported this catfish as
sporadic from the lower Cumberland
River to the Licking River. He did not
include the records from the Jackson Pur-
chase, i.e., those of Woolman (2) from
Bayou du Chien and Mayfield Creek, be-
cause no specimens are extant (B. M. Burr,
pers. comm.). On 12 June 1979, we col-
lected 17 brown bullheads from an un-
named roadside slough in the Reelfoot
Lake drainage about 1.4 km NE of where
KY 94 crosses into Tennessee between
Tyler and Miller, Fulton County. The
slough had an abundance of aquatic
vegetation, a mud bottom, and clear water.
Brown bullheads were the only ictalurids
captured.

Typhlichthys subterraneus (Girard).
Southern cavefish. Known in Kentucky

DISTRIBUTION OF KENTUCKY FISHES—Rice et al.

from caves in Barren, Edmonson, Hart,
Warren (Upper Green River drainage),
and Pulaski (Upper Cumberland River
drainage) counties (5), Cooper (12) in-
cluded localities for it in the Lower Cum-
berland and Lower Tennessee river
drainages in Tennessee. On | May 1981,
we collected 1 specimen from Big Sul-
phur Cave in Trigg County about 2.44 km
W of Peedee on the North side of a bend
of the Little River. The subterranean
stream is part of the Lower Cumberland
River drainage. According to David L.
Swofford (pers. comm.), he and Gregory
A. Sievert collected 4 specimens from the
cave in the summer of 1979 (specimens
not extant). This species was considered
Threatened by Branson et al. (1).

Percopsis omiscomaycus (Walbaum).
Trout perch. The trout perch was known
from the Green, Salt, Ohio, Licking, and
Little Sandy river drainages and from the
Big Sandy River drainage only as far up-
stream as Little Blaine Creek (5, 13). In
May of 1978, Ron Cicerello, Lewis Korn-
man, and the authors captured 7 speci-
mens from Right Fork of Beaver Creek
762 m E of Eastern in Floyd County, ex-
tending the range approximately 110 km
upstream into the Levisa Fork Big Sandy
River drainage. The fish were seined from
pools over substrates of sand and fine
gravel. It was listed as a peripheral
species of Special Concern by Branson et
ale):

Fundulus notti (Agassiz). Starhead top-
minnow. Branson (14) reported this fish
from Murphey’s Pond (Obion Creek
drainage) in Hickman County and Sisk
(15) reported it from Open Pond (Reel-
foot Lake drainage) in Fulton County. In
June of 1979, we collected it from 2 ad-
ditional localities in the Reelfoot Lake
drainage: 3 from an unnamed roadside
slough about 1.4 km NE of the point
where KY 94 crosses into Tennessee in
Fulton County; and | from a small stream
that drains Blue Pond into Running
Slough near the KY 311 bridge 670 m S
of the intersection of KY 311 and KY 1282,
Fulton County. R. R. Cicerello and M. L.
Warren, Jr. reported taking 5 individuals
from Running Slough, Fulton County, at

127

Ledford, 24 June 1982 (pers. comm.). This
topminnow was considered a species of
Special Concern by Branson et al. (1).

Lepomis marginatus (Holbrook). Dol-
lar sunfish. This fish of swamps and slug-
gish streams (16) was known in Kentucky
only from Murphey’s Pond (10) and Ter-
rapin Creek (5). On 15 July 1982 we pre-
served 7 of 15 specimens seined from a
spring-fed, perennial pool in Graves
County 1.9 km NE of Kaler. The pool was
within a lowland swamp, composed pre-
dominantly of saturated ground with
emergent hydrophytes and some wetland
shrubs and trees, that is inundated sea-
sonally by flood waters from the West
Fork of Clarks River. The 65 m long, 9 m
wide pool had a substrate heavily domi-
nated by firm clay with minor amounts of
silt and silt mixed with gravel. The water
was clear and lacked any aquatic vege-
tation although sweet flag, Acorus cala-
mus L., tearthumb, Polygonum sagitta-
tum L., and rice cutgrass, Leersia
orizoides (L.) grew on the banks to the
water's edge.

Two months previous to our collec-
tions (May 4), R. R. Cicerello and M. L.
Warren, Jr. seined 1 specimen from an
unnamed wetland approximately 7.3 km
S of our site (pers. comm.). This wetland
was being drained and was located adja-
cent to West Fork of Clarks River 0.9 km
ENE of Clear Springs, Graves County.

These are the first records of the species
from the Tennessee River drainage in
Kentucky although Bauer (16) reported it
from that drainage in Tennessee. Bran-
son et al. (1) listed it as Threatened in
Kentucky.

Ammocrypta pellucida (Putnam). East-
em sand darter. This darter is known in
Kentucky from the Ohio, Big Sandy, Roll-
ing Fork, Kentucky, Licking, Green,
Cumberland, and Little Sandy river
drainages (17). As reported in Branson et
al. (18), we took this fish from the Little
Sandy River between Grayson and Argil-
lite. Four sites yielded 9 specimens from
clean sand in gentle to moderate current.
Additionally, M. L. Warren and R. R. Ci-
cerello took 3 adults near Pactolus on 14
September 1982 (pers. comm.). Accord-

128

ing to Burr (5), the eastern sand darter is
rapidly declining in numbers in the state.
However, in the Little Sandy River
downstream of Grayson Lake, a relatively
intact population of this species appears
to exist. The species was listed as Threat-
ened by Branson et al. (1).

Percina shumardi (Girard). River dart-
er. Within the Jackson purchase, this spe-
cies was known previously from only
Obion Creek (2). On 15 June 1979 we
collected 4 immature specimens from
a backwater slough of Bayou du Chien,
about 3 km NW of Fulton County High
School, Fulton County.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

A. W. Berry, W. E. Blackburn, H. D.
Bryan, K. M. Howard, K. Lakshminaray-
an, M. J. Linville, and R. C. Wilson helped
collect fishes. Special recognition is due
the late Earnest Gay Amburgey whose
enthusiasm, diligence, and talent were
indispensable in the collection of many
of the species. R. R. Cicerello and M. L.
Warren, Jr., Kentucky Nature Preserves
Commission, provided additional records
for certain fishes. We thank Brooks M.
Burr for reviewing the manuscript and
correcting and confirming identifications.

LITERATURE CITED

1. Branson, B. A., D. F. Harker, Jr., J. M. Baskin,
M. E. Medley, D. L. Batch, M. L. Warren, Jr., W.
H. Davis, W. C. Houtcooper, B. Monroe, Jr., L. R.
Phillippe, and P. Cupp. 1981. Endangered,
Threatened, and Rare animals and plants of Ken-
tucky. Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci. 42:77-89.

2. Woolman, A. J. 1892. Report of an examina-
tion of the rivers of Kentucky, with lists of the fishes
obtained. Bull. U.S. Fish. Comm. 10:249-288.

3. Robins, C. R., R. M. Bailey, C. E. Bond, J. R.
Brooker, E. A. Lachner, R. N. Lea, and W. B. Scott.

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 44(3—4)

1980. A list of common and scientific names of fish-
es from the United States and Canada. 4th ed. Am.
Fish. Soc. Spec. Publ. No. 12. 1-174.

4. Comiskey, C. E., and D. A. Etnier. 1972.
Fishes of the Big South Fork of the Cumberland
River. J. Tenn. Acad. Sci. 47:140-145.

5. Burr, B. M. 1980. A distributional checklist
of the fishes of Kentucky. Brimleyana 3:53-84.

6. Webb, D. H., and M. E. Sisk. 1975. The fish-
es of west Kentucky. III. The fishes of Bayou de
Chien. Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci. 36:63-70.

7. Resh, V. H., C. R. Baker, and W. M. Clay. 1972.
A preliminary list of the fishes of the Land Between
the Lakes, Cumberland and Tennessee river drain-
ages, Kentucky. Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci. 33:73-80.

8. Warren, M. L., Jr., and R. R. Cicerello. 1982.
New records, distribution, and status of ten rare
fishes in the Tradewater and lower Green rivers,
Kentucky. Proc. SE Fishes Council 3:1-7.

9. Sisk, M. E. 1969. The fishes of west Ken-
tucky. I. Fishes of Clark’s River. Trans. Ky. Acad.
Sci. 30:54-59.

10. Burr, B. M., and R. L. Mayden. 1979. Rec-
ords of fishes in western Kentucky with additions
to the known fauna. Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci. 40:58-67.

11. Trautman, M. B. 1981. The fishes of Ohio.
Ohio State U. Press, Columbus.

12. Cooper, J. E. 1980. Typhlichthys subter-
raneus Girard, southern cavefish. Pp. 483. In D. S.
Lee etal. Atlas of North American freshwater fishes.
N.C. State Mus. Nat. Hist., Raleigh.

13. Warren, M. L., Jr. 1981. New distributional
records of eastern Kentucky fishes. Brimleyana 6:
129-140.

14. Branson, B. A. 1972. Fundulus notti in Ken-
tucky. Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci. 32:76.

15. Sisk, M.E. 1973. Six additions to the known
piscine fauna of Kentucky. Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci. 34:
49-50.

16. Bauer, B. H. 1980. Lepomis marginatus
(Holbrook), dollar sunfish. Pp. 599. In D. S. Lee et
al. Atlas of North American freshwater fishes. N.C.
State Mus. Nat. Hist., Raleigh.

17. Harker, D. F., Jr., S. M. Call, M. L. Warren,
Jr., K. E. Cambum, and P. Wigley. 1979. Aquatic
biota and water quality survey of the Appalachian
Province, eastern Kentucky. Ky. Nat. Pres. Comm.
Tech. Rep., Frankfort.

18. Branson, B. A., D. L. Batch, and S. Rice. 1981.
Collections of fishes from the Little Sandy River
and Tygarts Creek drainages, Kentucky. Trans. Ky.
Acad. Sci. 42:98-100.

Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 44(3-4), 1983, 129-134

Regression Analysis Techniques Applied to
Petrographic Studies

ALAN D. SMITH, GARY L. KUHNHENN, AND JOHN H. TRAUB

Department of Geology, Eastern Kentucky University, Richmond, Kentucky 40475

ABSTRACT

The Strodes Creek Member of the Lexington Limestone is a body of irregulary bedded lime-
stone and shale exposed in several outcrops in north-central Kentucky. Field observations, along
with study of 98 polished slabs and 113 thin sections were used in order to study the depositional
environment of the Strodes Creek Member and its relationship to the enclosing Millersburg and
Tanglewood Limestone members. The Strodes Creek Member consists of 8 microfacies: an algal
boundstone, a claystone, a dolomitic ostracode packstone, a dolomitic packstone, a dolomitic

wackestone, a dolomitic carbonate mudstone, a Tetradium packstone, and a skeletal grainstone

which represent various subenvironments within a shallow water, slightly restricted and shel-
tered depositional framework. Regression-analysis techniques and a detailed description of the
steps involved, including hypothesis testing and stepwise regression, were used to statistically

verify the microfacies classification.

INTRODUCTION

Petrographic analysis and its related
procedures are commonly used to pro-
vide the basic information in formulating
environments of deposition. Oriented thin
sections and slabs derived from outcrop
and core samples represent the major
source of petrographic information. In
addition to various classification schemes,
point counts are usually performed on
thin sections to obtain data for statistical
analysis. Various statistical methods are
commonly used. However, the use of
multiple linear regression techniques can
provide a wealth of information that is not
easily obtainable by other techniques.
Multiple linear regression can be used to
establish relationships among point-count
data parameters and categorical or con-
tinuous variables. Regardless of the na-
ture of the variable, however, any hy-
pothesis can be tested by the regression
approach so long as the least-square ap-
proach with a single criterion is used.

PETROGRAPHIC APPLICATIONS

The Upper Ordovician Strodes Creek
Member of the Lexington Limestone is a
sequence of mud-dominated limestone
and shale which is exposed at several lo-
calities in north-central Kentucky. As with
most units that have complex facies re-

lations and have been under study for
many years, the nomenclature has under-
gone many changes. Figure 1 presents the
general stratigraphy of the Blue Grass re-
gion. The western edge of the Strodes
Creek trends north-northwest between
Winchester and Cynthiana, Kentucky
(Fig. 2). The Strodes Creek appears to be
a lens within the Millersburg Member of
the Lexington Limestone throughout most
of its occurrence. Relatively little work
has been done on the petrology of the
Strodes Creek Member.

METHODS

The study area encompasses those parts
of north-central Kentucky where the
Strodes Creek Member of the Lexington
Limestone is exposed (Fig. 3). A total of
11 outcrops was described and measured
for this study, and are located in five 7.5
minute geologic quadrangles. Each out-
crop was sampled from the bottom to the
top. A sample of each limestone in the
Strodes Creek Member was collected
from every outcrop, along with several
samples of the interbedded shales. Where
the member is well exposed at two loca-
tions, samples were collected from both
ends of the outcrop to better determine
lateral variations. Where possible, sam-
ples were also collected from the enclos-

129

130 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 44(3-4)

Clays Ferry Formation

Tanglewood omy
28
Limestone oe
es
Millersburg Member Ss - 30
Member c
Devils Hollow roe
Member o®
" Greedale Lentil a5 as
= - (3) 2 | =| [7 |
= |e ee = a
° ;eoe-
= SEO
2) z o RAR
° Se
= ° S
E @ | = ae ones
—_ Brannon - Bs 7) PAA
al Member > 2 OSSD C) 2
Srie S. hoeS. -20
_ o SCO
Sy a Ss IMSS GN
Perryville x CBS
c Limestone fo) 2 eS ter
° Gri Member ° =
BS rier = >
fog D a
2 Limestone c 2
ie Macedonia Bed i vat i)
~ Member ao s s
Co) > ay
a
x —10
®
2
oO
Curdsville Limestone Member =
3
S
a )
2 .
° Tyrone Limestone
(e)
o
a
3
o _O feet
Fic. 2. Stratigraphic section of Winchester out-
= Camp Nelson Limestone crop (modified from Black and Cupples (2)).
a6

Fic. 1. General stratigraphic nomenclature in Blue _ ; ,
Grass region (modified from Cressman and Karlins collected limestone sample. The thin

(1)). sections were ground to slightly greater
than standard thickness (0.003 mm) and
stained with a combined solution of ali-

ing strata. A total of 125 samples were zarin red S and potassium ferricyanide (1,

collected from the Strodes Creek Mem- 2). When possible, a polished slab was

ber and enclosing strata, of which 113 prepared from each limestone sample and

were limestone and 12 were shale. studied with a binocular reflecting light
A thin section was prepared from each microscope.

PETROGRAPHIC REGRESSION ANALYSIS—Smith et al.

Fic. 3.
limit of Strodes Creek Member (modified from Black
and Cupples (2)).

Location of measured sections and western

Insoluble residues were prepared from
each shale sample and several limestone
samples. A 2-gram sample was dissolved
in 20% hydrocloric acid in order to obtain
the insoluble portion. The shale samples
were subjected to X-ray analysis by al-
lowing a powdered sample to differen-
tially settle in a water-filled cylinder, and
then withdrawing the clay fraction with
a pipet. This portion was then transferred
to 3 slides and allowed to dry. In order
to identify the clay minerals, 1 slide was
left untreated, 1 was glycolated, and 1 was
heat treated.

Point-count data obtained through pe-
trographic study were statistically ana-
lyzed by application of regression analy-
sis to perform hypothesis testing and
stepwise regression to determine the va-
lidity and significant characteristics of the
microfacies.

STATISTICAL ANALYSIS

Multiple linear and stepwise regres-
sion, as well as discriminative-analysis
techniques, were used to determine if the
microfacies, derived by petrographic ob-
servation, were statistically valid; and if
they were valid, what were the discrim-
inating variables characterizing each mi-
crofacies? Table 1 illustrates the descrip-
tions of the variable labels used in the
analysis.

RESULTS
Discriminant analysis allows the in-
vestigator to statistically distinguish be-

131

TABLE 1.—VARIABLE DESCRIPTIONS

Variable Variable description

MICRO 1 microfacies descriptions; 1 if al-
gal boundstone, 0 if other

MICRO 3 microfacies description; 1 if os-
tracode packstone, 0 if other

MICRO 4 microfacies description; 1 if
skeletal packstone, 0 if other

MICRO 5 microfacies description; 1 if
skeletal wackestone, 0 if oth-
er

MICRO 6 microfacies description; 1 if
carbonate mudstone, 0 if oth-
er

MICRO 7 microfacies description; 1 if Tet-
radium ackstone, 0 if other

MICRO 8 microfacies description; 1 if
skeletal grainstone, 0 if other

OSTRA ostracodes

BRACH brachiopods

BRYOZ bryozoans

ENBRY encrusting bryozoans

GASTR gastropods

PELEC pelecypods

TRILO trilobites

STROM stromatoporoids

TETRA Tetradium

GIRVA Girvanella

SOLEN Solenopora

CODIA Codiaceans

DASYC Dasycladaceans

DOLOM dolomite

MICRI micrite

SPARR sparry calcite

QUART quartz

PYRIT pyrite

VOIDS voids

UNKNO unknown bioclasts

PELMA pelmatozoans

PHOSP phosphate

BROWN brown organics

tween 2 or more groups of cases. In this
study, discriminant analysis techniques
with a dichotomous criterion variable
were used to determine which allochem-
ical and orthochemical parameters would
statistically distinguish each of the micro-
facies. The results of discriminant anal-
ysis were corrected for multiple compar-
ison using the method of Newman and
Fry (3) for a two-tailed nondirectional test
with an alpha level of 0.05. The discrim-

132

TABLE 2.—CHARACTERISTIC VARIABLES AND BEST
PREDICTOR VARIABLES FOR ALL MICROFACIES

Rank of best
predictor variable

Characteristic

Microfacies variable

MICRO 1 SOLEN SOLEN
MICRO 3 OSTRA OSTRA
MICRO 4 UNKNO UNKNO
PYRIT PELEC
MICRO 5 DOLOM DOLOM
PYRIT PYRIT
MICRI MICRI
MICRO 6 UNKNO UNKNO
DOLOM DOLOM
MILRI
PYRIT
VOIDS
MICRO 7 TETRA TETRA
BROWN BROWN
MICRO 8 SPARR SPARR
PELMA PELMA
GASTR
TRILO
GIRVA
DOLOM
MICRI

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 44(3—4)

inant or characteristic variables for each
microfacies are listed in Table 2.

Stepwise regression allows the investi-
gator to determine which variables are the
best predictors for each of the microfa-
cies. Forward stepwise regression was
used to determine which allochemical
and orthochemical variables would be the
best predictors for each of the microfa-
cies. The foward regression enters the in-
dependent variables (allochems and or-
thochems) only if they meet certain
statistical criteria (alpha level set to 0.05).
The order of inclusion is determined by
the respective contribution of each vari-
able to explained variance. By using this
method, the maximum number of best
predictor variables chosen was 3. The best
predictor variables for each microfacies
are listed in Table 2. The predictors for
each microfacies and the R?, multiple R,
degrees of freedom, F-ratio, and proba-
bility for each are listed in Table 3.

A power analysis of the research hy-
potheses using Cohen's (4) tables was in-
cluded. A power test, using a medium ef-
fect size (0.15), was performed for the best
predictor variables and discriminating

TABLE 3.—STEPWISE REGRESSION ANALYSIS OF MICROFACIES CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO VARIOUS
ALLOCHEMICAL AND ORTHOCHEMICAL PARAMETERS

Criterion Pred. R? Mult. R df F Prob.
MICRO 1 SOLEN 0.9908 0.9954 41/85 9,166.8619 0.0000
MICRO 3 OSTRA 0.5086 0.7131 81/85 87.9637 0.0000
MICRO 4 UNKNO 0.2124 0.4608 41/85 22.9180 0.0000
PELEC 0.2705 0.5201 »2/84 15.5770 0.0000
MICRO 5 DOLOM 0.1094 0.3308 41/85 10.4460 0.0017
PYRIT 0.1812 0.4257 >2/84 9.2972 0.0002
MICRI 0.2295 9.4791 °3/83 8.2434 0.0001
MICRO 6 UNKNO 0.2614 0.5113 41/85 30.0875 0.0000
DOLOM 0.3728 0.6106 »2/84 24.9663 0.0000
MICRO 7 TETRA 0.6179 0.7861 41/85 137.4401 0.0000
SPARR 0.6433 0.8021 52/84 75.7444 0.0000
BROWN 0.6619 0.8136 °3/83 54.1583 0.0000
MICRO 8 SPARR 0.6158 0.7847 41/85 136.2420 0.0000
PELMA 0.6799 0.8246 2/84 89.2159 0.0000

@ The power for the hypothesis using a medium effect size is .95
> The power for the hypothesis using a medium effect size is .91
© The power for the hypothesis using a medium effect size is .84

PETROGRAPHIC REGRESSION ANALYSIS—Smith et al. 133

TABLE 4.—SUMMARY OF F-RATIOS, PROBABILITY LEVELS, R? FOR BOTH THE FULL AND RESTRICTED MODELS,
DEGREES OF FREEDOM-NUMERATOR, DEGREES OF FREEDOM-DENOMINATOR, AND SIGNIFICANCE FOR EACH
RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS TESTING PREDICTIVE RELATIONSHIPS AMONG MICRO 8 AND VARIOUS ALLOCHEM-

ICAL AND ORTHOCHEMICAL PARAMETERS

Variable* R? full R? restr. df F Probability Sign.
OST 0.0020 0.0 1/85 0.1706 0.6806 NS
BRACH 0.0593 0.0 1/85 5.3639 0.0230 NS
BRY 0.0937 0.0 1/85 8.7919 0.0039 NS
ENBRY 0.0017 0.0 1/85 0.1439 0.7053 NS
GAS 0.1150 0.0 1/85 11.0498 0.0013 S
PELEC 0.0006 0.0 1/85 0.0501 0.8234 NS
TRIL 0.1258 0.0 1/85 12.2273 0.0008 S
STROM 0.0002 0.0 1/85 0.0171 0.8962 NS
TET 0.0070 0.0 1/85 0.6019 0.4400 NS
GIR 0.1142 0.0 1/85 10.9526 0.0014 S
SOL 0.0002 0.0 1/85 0.0202 0.8874 NS
COD 0.0125 0.0 1/85 1.0769 0.3023 NS
DASY 0.0374 0.0 1/85 3.2990 0.0728 NS
DOL 0.2253 0.0 1/85 24.7229 0.0000 S
MIC 0.2342 0.0 1/85 25.9892 0.0000 S
SPAR 0.6158 0.0 1/85 136.2419 0.0000 S
QTZ 0.0625 0.0 1/85 5.6652 0.0195 NS
PYR 0.0000 0.0 1/85 0.0006 0.9807 NS
VDS 0.0001 0.0 1/85 0.0098 0.9214 NS
UNK 0.0497 0.0 1/85 4.4470 0.0379 NS
PELMAT 0.1103 0.0 1/85 10.5359 0.0017 S
PHOS 0.0329 0.0 1/85 2.8966 0.0924 NS
BO 0.0062 0.0 1/85 0.5275 0.4697 NS

Note. An F-test was utilized to test for significant relationships between MICRO 8 and various allochemical and orthochemical parameters.
The assigned alpha level of 0.05 for a two-tailed nondirectional test was considered statistically significant. However, the employment of a
correction for multiple comparisons was necessary, using the Newman and Fry (2) method. The corrected alpha level of 0.002 was used

before the research hypothesis was considered significant.
4 The power for the hypothesis using a medium effect size is 0.95.

variables of each microfacies. The power
for each predictor variable is listed in Ta-
ble 3. The microfacies determined by pe-
trographic observation were found to be
statistically valid in all but one case (mi-
crofacies 6), and this may be due to the
presence of stromatoporoid, which re-
sulted in unusually high counts of this
allochem and resulted in lower counts of
the matrix. Table 4 is example of the re-
sults of the hypothesis testing and model
comparisons for microfacies 8 for illustra-
tive purposes.

A Pearson correlation was performed on
the allochemical and orthochemical vari-
ables in each of the microfacies, and then
related variables chosen by this function
were compared to the predictor variables
to check for multicollinearity. The pre-
dictor variables were not found to be
highly interrelated (Table 5), thus mul-

ticollinearity and the limitations associ-
ated with it were not seen as a problem
in the study.

CONCLUSIONS

Multiple regression is a powerful and
flexible technique for handling data anal-
ysis. With researchers involved with many
choices for statistical techniques, they
should be able to justify the statistical
procedure they select. This paper pre-
sents multiple linear regression, which is
unfamiliar or frequently misunderstood
by many, as a basic research tool and clar-
ifies selected steps in the hypothesis- and
model-comparisons process. An example
was made with a recent petrographic
analysis of the Strodes Creek Member
(Upper Ordovician) of the Lexington
Limestone in north-central Kentucky to
illustrate how these statistical techniques

134

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 44(3—4)

TABLE 5.—PEARSON CORRELATION OF MICROFACIES

Microfacies Significant variables*

Significantly correlated with”

MICRO 1
MICRO 3 OSTRA BRYOZ, GASTR, MICRI, QUART, VOIDS, PHOSP
MICRO 4 UNKNOW BRACH, STROM, DASYC, MICRI
PELEC BRACH, ENBRY, TRILO, GIRVA, DASYC
PYRIT ENBRY, PHOSP, BROWN
MICRO 5 DOLOM STROM, QUART
PYRIT OSTRA, DASYC
MICRI SPARR, QUART
MICRO 6 UNKNO
DOLOM STROM, SPARR
MICRI STROM, SPARR, QUART, PHOSP
PYRIT MICRI, SPARR, VOIDS, PHOSP
VOIDS
MICRO 7 TETRA SOLEN, CODIA
SPARR GASTR, PELEC
BROWN BRYOZ, PELEC, TRILO
MICRO 8 SPARR QUART, DOLOM, PELMA
PELMA BRYOZ, SPARR
GASTR MICRI
TRILO QUART, PYRIT
GIRVA TRILO
DOLOM BRACH, BRYOZ, PELEC, TETRA, SPARR,
VOIDS, PHOSP
MICRI OSTRA, BRYOZ, GASTR, QUART, PYRIT

@ Significant at 0.05 level, once corrected for multiple comparisons.
» Significant at 0.05 level, for a nondirectional test.

can be applied. The regression analysis
techniques were used to statistically ver-
ify the microfacies selected and serves as
an aid to the petrographer in classifying
the complex relationships among point-
count data. Of course, the statistical tech-
niques are no substitute for sound geo-
logical judgement but may be treated as
any other tool that the petrographer uses.

LITERATURE CITED

1. Cressman, E. R., and O. L. Karlins. 1970. Li-
thology and fauna of the Lexington Limestone (Or-
dovician of central Kentucky). In Guidebook for field

trips: 18th Annual Meeting of Southeastern Section,
Geol. Soc. America, Kentucky Geol. Survey, Lex-
ington, Kentucky: 17-28.

2. Black, D. F. B., and N. P. Cupples. 1973.
Strodes Creek Member (Upper Ordovician)—a new
map unit in the Lexington Limestone of north-cen-
tral Kentucky. U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. 1372-C:C1—
Cl6.

3. Newman, I., and J. A. Fry. 1972. Response
to “A note on multiple comparisons” and a com-
ment on shrinkage. Mult. Linear Regression
Viewpts. 2:36-39.

4. Cohen, J. 1977. Statistical power analysis for
the behavioral sciences. Academic Press, Inc., New
York.

Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 44(3-4), 1983, 135-145

Predicting Runoff from Small Appalachian Watersheds

IAN D. MOORE, GEORGE B. COLTHARP, AND PATRICK G. SLOAN

Departments of Agricultural Engineering and Forestry, University of Kentucky,
Lexington, Kentucky 40546-0075

ABSTRACT

A simple conceptual rainfall-runoff model was developed for predicting runoff from small,
steep-sloped, forested Appalachian watersheds. The model requires only daily precipitation and
an estimate of daily potential evapotranspiration, such as pan evaporation, as basic hydrological
and meteorological inputs. The model was tested with 6% years of observed discharge and
meteorological records from the 81.7 ha undisturbed Little Millseat watershed in the Eastem
Mountain and Coalfield region of Kentucky. Three and a half years of records were used for
calibrating the model and 3 years were used for validation. There was good agreement between
the observed and predicted daily discharges, and the results demonstrate the ability of the model
to simulate the “flashy” hydrologic response of this type of watershed.

INTRODUCTION

Within Kentucky, 116 daily read stream-
gauging stations, 123 crest stage, and 102
low-flow partial-record stations are main-
tained by the U.S. Geological Survey and
other Federal and State agencies (1). In
addition, a limited number of gauging
stations are maintained for special pur-
poses; for example, by the University of
Kentucky for research. These gauging
stations serve to monitor the flow of more
than 16,000 km of flowing streams in
Kentucky and are confined chiefly to larg-
er streams and tributaries of the major
river basins. It is economically impracti-
cal to gauge every stream, especially first,
second, and third order streams.

Knowledge of the hydrologic behavior
of ungauged streams and watersheds is
very important to all persons carrying out,
or potentially affected by, activities that
disturb and modify the hydrologic bal-
ance, whether it is for surface mining for
coal, timber harvesting, road construc-
tion, agriculture, or other forms of devel-
opment. Federal and state regulation of
these types of activities often mandate that
baseline water quantity and quality char-
acteristics be known and evaluated. To
make such evaluations is an extremely
difficult task, particularly on the un-
gauged watersheds that comprise the ma-
jority of the potentially affected wa-
tersheds in eastern Kentucky. Studies by

Springer and Coltharp (2) and others of
the hydrology of small watersheds in
eastern Kentucky have shown the “flashy”
behavior of streams in this region, with
quick-flow accounting for almost half the
total runoff volume. Flooding is a com-
mon problem in many of the eastern Ken-
tucky watersheds.

One cost-effective method of determin-
ing the hydrological character of a wa-
tershed is via the use of simulation
models. These models predict watershed
discharge (and quality) as either deter-
ministic or stochastic functions of precip-
itation and other variables that are more
readily and cost-effectively measured than
discharge. The application and/or evalu-
ation of a number of deterministic rain-
fall-runoff models on watersheds in Ken-
tucky has been reported, including Haan’s
Water Yield Model (3), the TVA Daily
Streamflow Simulation Model (4), and the
Stanford Watershed Model (5). The com-
plexity of these rainfall-runoff models and
their input data requirements vary, the
internal time step in the model being an
important factor. Generally, the smaller
the time step, the greater the complexity
of the model and the greater the input
data requirements. Haan’s model pre-
dicts monthly watershed yield and is the
simplest of the three models. The TVA
model predicts daily streamflow, while
the Stanford model predicts hourly

135

136

PRECIPITATION

Ys

CMAX 4 fcee “®

EVAPORATION

INTERCEPTION

THROUGHFALL.

RUNO!

( VARIABLE SOURCE )
AREA RUNOFF

EVAPOTRANSPIRATION

SOIL ZONE |

FFU ( DRAINAGE)
RUNO2
( INTERFLOW )
YPERCO ( PERCOLATION)

GROUNDWATER t
ZONE

Y FFS ( DRAINAGE )

(GROUNDWATER FLOW)

GW y

RUNOFF

( ae)

Fic. 1. Schematic flow diagram of the model.

streamflow. In tests of rainfall-runoff
models of varying complexity, Haef (6)
showed that simple models can give sat-
isfactory results. He could not prove that
complex models give better results than
simpler ones. However, he did demon-
strate that neither the simple nor the
complex models were free from failure in
certain cases.

In Kentucky, and many other parts of
the United States, the majority of rainfall
and runoff records are held as daily val-
ues. Many of the questions concerning the
baseline hydrological behavior of wa-
tersheds can be answered using these
daily data, or simple models that can pre-
dict daily streamflow. Nuckols and Haan
(4) reported poor results with the TVA
Daily Streamflow Simulation Model (7)
in Kentucky. The study reported herein
is aimed at developing and validating a

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 44(3-4)

simple raintall-runoff model, requiring a
minimum of input data, that is suitable
for predicting baseline streamflow from
small steep-sloped forested Appalachian
watersheds on a daily basis. The model
was validated on the Little Millseat wa-
tershed.

DESCRIPTION OF THE MODEL

The model, schematically illustrated in
Figure 1 and mathematically formulated
in Table 1, is a conceptual lumped-pa-
rameter representation of the rainfall-
runoff process. In this model, a wa-
tershed is idealized as consisting of a
series of interconnected water storages
with the in- and outflow representing ac-
tual physical processes. These processes
are described using both physically and
empirically based equations (Table 1).
The concepts used in the model are com-
mon to many daily rainfall-runoff models
including those of BROOK (8, 9),
BOUGHTON (10, 11), and MONASH (12,
13). These 3 models are the basis of the
watershed model described herein.

The model consists of 3 conceptual
water stores or zones—the Interception
Zone; the Soil Zone; and the Ground-
water Zone—and has 13 parameters and
1 function (FCAN) that characterize the
watershed. Definitions of these parame-
ters are given in Table 2.

Since snow is an insignificant form of
precipitation in eastern Kentucky (2), the
model does not account for snowfall or
snowmelt runoff. However, the model
could be modified easily to include a de-
gree-day approach for representing this
process.

Precipitation is added to the intercep-
tion store and any excess (throughfall) be-
comes available for infiltration or runoff
from the saturated source areas. The ca-
pacity of the interception store is a func-
tion of the maximum interception storage
capacity (CEPMAX) and the degree of
canopy development (FCAN). CEPMAX »
is dependent on the type of vegetation
and the maximum leaf-area and stem-area
indices, and FCAN reflects the annual
canopy growth characteristics and stem-
area index. Evaporation from the inter-

RUNOFF PREDICTION IN KENTUCKY—Moore et al. 137
TABLE 1.—MODEL FUNCTION DESCRIPTIONS
FUNCTION EQUATION FUNCTION SCHEMATIC PROCESS
1.0
A CMAX= CEPMAX * FCAN Ze INTERCEPTION
3 a
(0)
TIME OF YEAR
0.8
B RUNOI= PB ™ PRECIP 24 VARIABLE
INFIL= (I-PB) 3% PRECIP ap SOURCE AREA
PAC # ( USIN / USMAX ) (0) RUNOFF
PB= FSTR+ PCe USWP USMAX
SOIL ZONE ( USIN )
10
Cc RUNO2= KI ¥% FFU 2 3 SOIL ZONE:
PERCO = (1- KI) *% FFU E 6 DRAINAGE &
=4 INTERFLOW
¥ usin KU a 2
AOS TADS (cana) ° “Tswe USMAX
SOIL ZONE ( USIN )
> 10 :
D AEVAP = EVAP ( EVAP < PE ) So /'PE=7mm/d SOIL ZONE:
= PE ( EVAP > PE) £6 Ez 4 mm/a | EVAPOTRANSPIRATION
4
EVAP= (USIN - USWP) <2
SKUs ae. USWP USMAX
SOIL ZONE ( USIN )
E RUNO3 = K2 * FFS GROUNDWATER

GW = (1-K2) ® FFS
FFS= FS ® (SSIN)KS

ZONE: SEEPAGE
& GROUNDWATER
FLOW

FFS (mm/d)
OnhoaaS

GROUNDWATER ZONE
(SSIN )

ception store is assumed to occur at the
potential rate.

The size of the saturated source area
increases exponentially as the Soil Zone
wet ups (i.e., as USIN increases). This
source area consists of the stream area
(FSTR) and the near-stream saturated
zones that expand and contract in re-
sponse to precipitation. This process is
represented by the empirical equation
proposed by Federer and Lash (8) and is
represented by Function B (variable
source area process) in Table 1. Overland
flow from the saturated source area is

subtracted from the precipitation excess,
and the remainder represents the infiltra-
tion into the Soil Zone. Infiltration rates
in steep-sloped forested watersheds of the
Appalachian region are very high and tra-
ditional Hortonian (14) infiltration rarely
occurs. The infiltration rates were there-
fore assumed to be infinite.

Drainage from the Soil Zone is depen-
dent on the water content or water vol-
ume of the soil zone (USIN) and in-
creases exponentially as the water content
increases. Campbell (15) proposed a sim-
ple method of determining the hydraulic

138 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 44(3—4)
TABLE 2.—MODEL PARAMETER DESCRIPTIONS AND VALUES
Parameter value
Process/zone Parameter Definition (Little Millseat Watershed)
INPUT VARIABLES
Interception CEPMAX Maximum interception capacity (mm) 2.02
FCAN Canopy development function: modi- See Table 1
fies CEPMAX for time of year (i.e.
canopy development)
Variable source area FSTR Fraction of watershed always contrib- —_ 0.05 (0.05)+
runoff uting to direct runoff (i.e. area of
stream)
PAC Source area exponent 39.295 (40)**
PC Source area coefficient 4.11 x 10-® (4.1 x 10°5)**
Soil zone USMAX Soil zone thickness (mm) 1,087 (1,070)
KU Soil water conductivity exponent 11.810 (11.467)
(KU = 2b + 3, where —b is the
slope of a log-log plot of the soil
water retention curve)
FU Soil water conductivity coefficient 1.49 x 107
Kl Fraction of Soil Zone drainage be- 1.0 (1.0)
coming interflow
Evapotranspiration USWP Wilting point water volume (input as 124 (130)
% by volume, used as mm of water
in program)
ERATE Evapotranspiration rate coefficient 11.44% (12.14%)
Groundwater zone FS Groundwater exponent (1 for linear —*
groundwater recession)
KS Groundwater recession constant —_*
K2 Fraction of groundwater drainage be- © —*

coming baseflow

CMAX Actual interception capacity (mm)
USIN Actual soil water volume (mm)
SSIN Actual groundwater volume (mm)

PB Fraction of water contributing to di-
rect runoff

* Groundwater Zone does not exist in the Little Millseat watershed.

+ Values in parentheses are the initial parameter estimates prior to optimization.
** Values used in BROOK model (Federer and Lash, 1978) for Hubbard Brook Watershed.

conductivity as a function of water con-
tent from the soil water retention curve.
The method assumes that, and is only
valid if, the soil water retention function
can be described by the relationship: h =
a@-», where h is the pressure head, @ is
the volumetric water content (USIN/US-
MAX), and a and b are constants. This
form of the equation was proposed by
Gardner et al. (16). This relationship is
only valid if the water retention function
plots as a straight line on a log-log scale.
If the first equation is a valid represen-
tation of the water retention curve then

Campbell's equation can be used to es-
timate the hydraulic conductivity. Camp-
bell’s equation is: FFU = FU6?>*?, where
FFU is the hydraulic conductivity (Soil
Zone drainage rate), FU is a coefficient,
and the other variables are as previously
defined. The function is the same as that
describing Function C in Table 1. The
water draining from the Soil Zone is di-
vided between interflow and percolation
to the Groundwater Zone. This division
is assumed to be a fixed fraction, K1, of
the total drainage, FFU.
Evapotranspiration from the Soil Zone

RUNOFF PREDICTION IN KENTUCKY—Moore et al.

oO RAIN GAUGE

PERENNIAL STREAM
——- EPHEMERAL STREAM

N meer WATERSHED BOUNDRY

KENTUCKY

Fic. 2. Little Millseat Watershed.

is limited by either the atmospheric de-
mand (potential evapotranspiration) or by
the plant available water (USIN-USWP,
where USWP is the wilting point water
content). The evapotranspiration is equal
to the lesser of either the available water
divided by a rate constant (ERATE) or
the potential evapotranspiration (Func-
tion D, Table 1). In the model, potential
evapotranspiration is estimated from the
input daily pan evaporation. Many tech-
niques for estimating potential evapo-
transpiration have been proposed (17, 18,
19) and could be used if the required in-
put data were available. The model is not
sensitive to the natural daily variation of
potential evapotranspiration, but it is
sensitive to the long term average evapo-
transpiration rates over periods of months
and years.

Groundwater movement is modeled by
a groundwater store with no fixed capac-
ity (SSIN). Groundwater recharge occurs
by percolation from the Soil Zone to the
Groundwater Zone. Water is subsequent-
ly lost from the store as baseflow to the
stream (groundwater flow) or deep seep-
age. Deep seepage models the loss of
water to underlying aquifers and the un-
gauged water flowing beneath the river
bed. The normal groundwater storage-
discharge relationship used in this type
of rainfall-runoff model is linear, but Por-
ter and McMahon (12) argue that within
many watersheds more than one ground-
water source or storage exists, leading to
nonlinear behavior of the groundwater

139

flow component. A nonlinear discharge
function is therefore used in the model
(Function E, in Table 1). The ground-
water drainage is linearly divided (K2)
between baseflow and deep seepage.

DESCRIPTION OF THE LITTLE
MILLSEAT WATERSHED

The Little Millseat watershed, located
in the University of Kentucky's Robinson
Forest in the Eastern Mountain and Coal-
field region of Kentucky (Fig. 2), is 81.7
ha in area and is characterized by steep
slopes, narrow valleys, and a southeast
aspect (20). The hill-slopes average about
42% and the channel slope is about 6%
(21).

The soils of the watershed are similar
to those of the adjacent Field Branch wa-
tershed (40.5 ha) which are comprised
mainly of the Shelocta, Gilpin, DeKalb,
Sequoia, and Cutshin soil types (22). All
these soils have moderately rapid to rap-
id permeabilities (23). The Shelocta-Cut-
shin series, a cove association, varies in
depth from about 1.22 m to 1.83 m, the
Shelocta-Gilpin association averages 1.40
m deep, and the DeKalb-Sequoia series,
a ridge top association, is the shallowest
at about 1.00 m (22). Smith (22) found the
average weighted soil depth in Field
Branch watershed to be about 1.07 m,
with the wilting point and field capacity
water contents averaging about 12% and
30% by volume, respectively. The aver-
age total porosity is about 46% by vol-
ume. The deepest soils occur along the
upslope sides of benches and in cove
sites, while rock outcrops are common
along slopes and outslope edges of
benches (2). The bedrock is comprised of
alternating layers of sandstones, silt-
stones, shales, and coal of the Pennsyl-
vania Age (24).

Vegetation in the watershed is domi-
nated by the White Oak—Red Hickory
type. Cove sites consist of the Yellow
Poplar type and ridge-tops and upper
southwest exposures are classified as
Shortleaf Pine—Oak type (25). A complete
list of tree species found in Robinson
Forest has been compiled by Carpenter
and Rumsey (26).

140 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 44(3-4)
TABLE 3.—ANNUAL OBSERVED AND PREDICTED FLOW SUMMARY
Standard deviation
Mean (emsd x 107%) Coefficient of determination
Year Ge x AO) Monthly Daily Monthly Daily
Optimization Period
OAs i 8.67 160.3 19.27 0.619 0.637
2 11.88 138.9 11.77
1972 1 26.81 907.3 61.55 0.920 0.719
2 24.84 781.7 40.39
1973 1 13.43 353.6 33.38 0.891 0.812
2 17.32 386.5 28.08
1974 1 27.55 745.0 64.44 0.956 0.846
2 25.97 677.7 53.34
Test Period
1975 1 24.00 812.1 52.30 0.962 0.848
2 24.42 693.6 39.65
1976 1 17.26 432.0 34.73 0.933 0.724
2 17.28 412.9 34.78
1977 1 18.22 378.5 40.35 0.857 0.854
2 15.43 264.5 21.76

* 1 observed; 2 predicted.
** Partial year only (August-December).

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The hydrologic and meteorological data
used by the model and used to validate
the model included daily precipitation,
daily pan evaporation and mean daily
streamflow. Precipitation was measured
with a weighing-bucket type gauge lo-
cated in a clearing near the confluence of
the Little Millseat and Field Branch wa-
tersheds (Fig. 2). Continuous streamflow
was measured with a permanent 3:1 side-
slope, broad-crested V-notch weir,
equipped with a FW-1 water level re-
corder. The weir has a rated head of 0.9
m, which corresponds to a flow capacity
of 4.83 m?/s. Daily evaporation measure-
ments, in the form of pan evaporation
data, were obtained from Buckhorn Res-
ervoir in Perry County, Kentucky, about
30 km southwest of the Little Millseat
Watershed.

A split-record technique was used to
evaluate the rainfall-runoff model. One
section of the 6% years of available re-
cord was used to calibrate the model (Aug.
1971 to Dec. 1974), while the remainder
was used to independently evaluate
model performance (Jan. 1975 to Dee.
1977).

The input parameters of the model were
first estimated from the physical charac-
teristics of the watershed described ear-

TABLE 4.—STATISTICAL COMPARISON OF MODEL

PERFORMANCE
Optimization Period Test Period
Statistic Monthly Daily Monthly Daily
Mean* 20.89 603.5 19.82
21.26 579.8 19.04
Standard Deviation* 686.2 52.40 565.1 $3.15
600.6 39.73 490.9
Coefficient of Variation 11078! AGH 01936
Predicted (C. ) 0.927 1.868 0.847
Pp
Standard Error of Estimates* SE) 169.4 18.4 132.2
Coefficient of Determination (P) 0.920 0.785 0.927
0.91 0.769 0.917
0.78: 0.794 0.868
) 0.319 1.206 0.266
Ratio of Relative Error to the Mean (R__) 0.018 0.018 -0.039
Maximum Error of Model (kK) 0.260 0.734 0.228
Sign Test (2) = 3.518
* All flow values are in cmsd x 10>

p = Departure from mean for
predicted residual mass curve

RUNOFF PREDICTION IN KENTUCKY—Moore et al.

300

250

ny
°o
fo}

OBSERVED MONTHLY RUNOFF (mm)
fs) a
fo} fo}

X OPTIMIZATION PERIOD

o TEST PERIOD

PREDICTED MONTHLY RUNOFF (mm)

Fic. 3. Observed and predicted monthly runoff for

the optimization and test periods.

lier. These initial estimates are shown in
parentheses in Table 2. Individual pa-
rameters and groups of parameters were
then adjusted so that the predicted and
observed hydrographs showed good
agreement. It was found that a visual
comparison of the observed and predict-
ed hydrographs, although subjective in

nature, was the most effective means of

optimizing the model’s parameters. Fi-
nally, the steepest ascent method of au-
tomatic optimization (11) was used to re-
fine the parameter set. The sum of squares
of the errors in the daily flows was the
objective function for this optimization.
The final parameter set is presented in
Table 2. From this table it can be seen
that the limited optimization produced
very little change in the parameter set.
The main effect of the optimization was
to modify the peak flows, and determine
the appropriate values of CEPMAX and
FU, for which little information was ini-
tially available.

Evaluation of the standard of simula-
tion achieved by a watershed rainfall-
runoff model is difficult because stream-
flow provides a large amount of data of a
range of types (27), and no one test will
satisfactorily evaluate all types (e.g., peak
flow, low flow, mean flow, etc). There-

14]

(m/s x 10°)

MEAN DAILY FLOW

TEST PERIOD
TEST PERIOD

OBSERVED
PREDICTED

OPTIMIZATION PERIOD OBSERVED
OPTIMIZATION PERIOD PREDICTED

0.01 CO POU Bo te) 50 90 95 9899 99.9
PERCENT OF TIME FLOW EQUALLED OR EXCEEDED

Fic. 4. Observed and predicted 1-day flow dura-
tion curves for the optimization and test periods.

fore, a variety of statistical and graphical
tests is presented so that the reader may
evaluate the model’s performance. Many
of these statistical and graphical tests are
described by Aitken (28), WMO (29),
Moore and Mein (30), and Weeks and
Hebbert (27), and the reader is referred
to these citations for more complete de-
tails of the methods.

Tables 3 and 4 present the annual sum-
mary and the optimization/test period
summaries, respectively, on a monthly
and daily flow basis. Graphical compari-
sons of the observed and predicted
monthly runoff, the daily How duration
curves, and the residual mass curves for
the optimization and test periods are pre-
sented in Figures 3, 4, and 5, respective-
ly. Figure 6 presents the annual hydro-
graph of the observed and predicted daily
flows for 1976. This example represents
the worst simulation for the test period
in terms of the coefficient of determina-
tion of the daily flows (72 = 0.724), and
the predicted peak flows. The results
show that there is no significant differ-
ence in the standard of simulation in the

142

DAY)

(mYs -

CUMMULATIVE RESIDUAL FROM THE MEAN

Fic. 5.

optimization and test periods of the re-
cord.

The mean flow and the standard devia-
tions of the observed and predicted
monthly flows are in good agreement on
an annual basis (Table 3) and during the
optimization and test periods (Table 4).
However, the standard deviations of the
daily flows predicted by the model are
significantly lower than the observed
(Tables 3 and 4). For example, the coef-
ficient of variation (standard deviation/
mean) of the observed flows are 2.508 and
2.177 for the optimization and test pe-
riods, respectively, whereas those for the
predicted flows are 1.868 and 1.533, re-
spectively. Hence, the observed flows ex-

OPTIMIZATION PERIOD #——4

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 44(3—4)

OBSERVED

tl RE DI CME,

U—s,» TEST PERIOD

Observed and predicted residual mass curves for the optimization and test periods.

hibit greater variability than the predict-
ed flows.

The coefficients of determination (r?) of
the monthly and daily flows are uniform-
ly high, averaging about 0.92 and 0.80,
respectively. However, neither the mean,
standard deviation, or coefficient of de-
termination can indicate if there is bias,
or systematic errors, in the predicted
flows. Aitken (28) indicated that the coef
ficient of efficiency (E) could be used to
detect bias. If the coefficient of efficiency
is less than the coefficient of determina-
tion then bias is indicated. Table 4 shows
that in all cases the coefficient of efficien-
cy is slightly less than the coefficient of
determination, indicating a small bias in

RUNOFF PREDICTION IN KENTUCKY—Moore et al.

200

143

1976

—— PREDICTED

a
°

(m/s x 10%)

{00

50

AVERAGE DAILY DISCHARGE

JAN FEB MARCH APRIL MAY

JUNE

— — — OBSERVED

JULY AUG SEPA

OCT

Fic. 6. Annual hydrographs of the observed and predicted daily flows for 1976.

the model. The sign test (27, 28) can also
be used to detect systematic errors. The
technique is based on the number of runs
of residuals of the same sign which the
data set exhibits. The expected number
of runs is normally distributed, and a Chi-
square test indicates systematic errors. If
the magnitude of the normalized variate
(Z in Table 4) is greater than 1.96, then
the number of runs is significantly differ-
ent from that expected for random errors
at the 0.05 level of statistical significance.
Table 4 shows that |Z| > 1.96 for the dai-
ly ows during both the optimization and
test periods, thus indicating a small
amount of bias in the model. This finding
is consistent with the comparison of the
coefficients of determination and effi-
ciency.

Weeks and Hebbert (27) described the
maximum error of the model statistic (K
in Table 4) and showed that it can be in-
terpreted as being equivalent to a con-
stant error in the results. Table 4 shows
that the maximum error of the model
ranges from 23 to 26% for the monthly
flows and 70 to 73% for the daily flows.
As expected, the daily flows exhibit a rel-
atively high error.

The monthly predicted and observed
runoff (Fig. 3), the daily flow duration
curves (Fig. 4), and the residual mass
curve (Fig. 5) all show very good agree-
ment between the predicted and ob-
served flows. The residual mass curve
coefficient (R) measures the relationship
between the sequence of flows and not
simply the relationship between individ-
ual flow events (28). The residual mass
curve coefficients are reasonably high,
averaging about 0.79 and 0.86 for the op-
timization and test periods, respectively.

During the period of record, 1971 to
1977, the maximum observed peak daily
flow was 0.837 m?/s, and the correspond-
ing peak predicted flow was 0.834 m/s.
Generally, however, the extreme peaks
were underestimated by the model, as is
evident from an examination of the flow
duration curves for probabilities of oc-
currence of less than about 1%. Figure 6
shows that the hydrograph recessions and
the timing of the peak flows are modeled
very well. These results, plus the steep-
ness of the flow duration curves, indicate
that the model represents the “flashy”
behavior of the watershed very well. This
“flashy” behavior is characteristic of the

144

streams in Robinson Forest (2), and the
Appalachian region in general.

SUMMARY

A daily rainfall-runoff model was de-
veloped for predicting runoff from steep-
sloped forested Appalachian watersheds.
The model was validated on the Little
Millseat watershed located in Eastern
Kentucky, using a split-record technique.
The initial estimates of the model param-
eters, determined from the physical char-
acteristics of the watershed, were very
close to the optimized values, indicating
the physical significance of their values.

The results show very good agreement
between the predicted and observed
flows, and demonstrate the ability of the
model to predict the “flashy” response of
the watershed. The statistical and graph-
ical comparison of the observed and pre-
dicted flows indicated a slight bias, or
systematic error, in the predicted flows.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The work reported in this paper was
supported in part by Project No. A-085-
KY, Agreement Nos. 14-34-0001-1119 and
14-34-0001-2119, from the Office of Water
Resource Research and Technology, and
by funds provided by the College of Ag-
riculture of the University of Kentucky.
This paper is published with the approv-
al of the Director of the Kentucky Agri-
cultural Experiment Station and is des-
ignated Journal Article No. 82-8-268.

LITERATURE CITED

1. United States Geological Survey. 1981. Water
resources data for Kentucky, water year 1980. U.S.
Geol. Surv. Water-Data Rept. KY-80-1:1-3.

2. Springer, E. P., and G. B. Coltharp. 1978.
Some hydrologic characteristics of a small forested
watershed in Eastern Kentucky. Trans. Ky. Acad.
Sci., 29:31-38.

3. Haan, C. T. 1976. Evaluation of a monthly
water yield model. Trans. Amer. Soc. Agric. Eng.
19:55-60.

4. Nuckols, J. R., and C. T. Haan. 1979. Eval-
uation of TVA streamflow model on small Kentucky
watersheds. Trans. Amer. Soc. Agric. Eng. 22: 1097—
1105.

5. Ross, G. A. 1970. The Stanford watershed
model: The correlation of parameter values select-
ed by a computerized procedure with measurable

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 44(3-4)

physical characteristics of the watershed. Res. Rept.
No. 35, Kentucky Water Res. Instit., U. Kentucky,
Lexington, Kentucky.

6. Haef, F. 1981. Can we model the rainfall-
runoff process today? Hydrolog. Sci. Bull. Sci. Hy-
drolog. 26:3, 9.

7. Tennessee Valley Authority. 1972. A contin-
uous daily streamflow model. T.V.A. Res. Pap.
No. 8.

8. Federer, C. A., and D. Lash. 1978. BROOK:
A hydrologic simulation model for eastern forests.
Water Res. Res. Center Res. Rept. 19, U. New
Hampshire, Durham, New Hampshire.

9. Federer, C. A. 1982. Frequency and inten-
sity of drought in New Hampshire forests: Evalua-
tion by the BROOK model. Pp. 459-470. In V. P.
Singh (ed.) Applied Modeling in Catchment Hy-
drology. Water Res. Pub., Littleton, Colorado.

10. Boughton, W. C. 1966. A mathematical
model for relating rainfall to runoff with daily data.
Civil Eng. Trans., Instit. Eng. (Australia) CE 8:83-
93.

11. ————. 1968. Evaluating the variables in
a mathematical catchment model. Civil Eng. Trans.,
Instit. Eng. (Australia) CE 10:31-39.

12. Porter, J. W., and T. A. McMahon. 1971. A
model for the simulation of streamflow data from
climatic records. J. Hydrol. 13:297-324.

13. , and 1976. The Monash
model: User model for daily program HYDROLOG.
Depart. Civil Eng., Monash U., Res. Rept. 2:76:1-
41.

14. Horton, R. E. 1933. The role of infiltration
in the hydrologic cycle. Trans. Amer. Geophy.
Union, Hydrol. Pap. 1933:446460.

15. Campbell, G. S. 1974. A simple method for
determining unsaturated conductivity from mois-
ture retention data. Soil Sci. 117:311-314.

16. Gardner, W. R., D. Hillel, and Y. Benyamini.
1970. Post irrigation movement of soil water to plant
roots. I. Redistribution. Water Res. Res. 6:851-861.

17. Penman, H. L. 1963. Vegetation and hy-
drology. Commonwealth Bur. Soils, Harpenden,
England. Tech. Comm. 53:1-125.

18. Bowen, I. S. 1926. The ratio of heat losses
by conduction and by evaporation from any water
surface. Phys. Rev. 27:779-787.

19. Jensen, M. E., and H. R. Haise. 1963. Es-
timating evapotranspiration from solar radiation. J.
Irrigation and Drainage Div., Amer. Soc. Civil Eng.
S89(TR1): 1541.

20. Springer, E. P. 1978. Calibration and anal-
ysis of three Robinson Forest watersheds. Unpubl.
M.S. Thesis. U. Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky.

21. Nuckols, J. R. 1982. The influence of at
mospheric nitrogen influx upon the stream nitrogen
profile of two relatively undisturbed forested wa-
tersheds in the Cumberland Plateau of the eastern
United States. Unpubl. Ph.D. Diss., U. Kentucky,
Lexington, Kentucky.

22. Smith, W. D. The physical and hydrological
properties of soils on Field Branch watershed. Un-
publ. M.S. Thesis. U. Kentucky, Lexington, Ken-
tucky.

RUNOFF PREDICTION IN KENTUCKY—Moore et al.

23. United States Department of Agriculture.
1965. Soil reports for fourteen counties in eastern
Kentucky. USDA, Washington, D.C.

24, Hutchins, R. B., R. L. Blevins, J. H. Hill, and
E. H. White. 1976. The influence of soils and mi-
croclimate on vegetation of forested slopes in east-
ern Kentucky. Soil Sci. 12:234-341.

25. Shearer, M.T. 1976. Distribution of nitrate-
nitrogen in forest soil following ammonium-nitrate
fertilization. Unpubl. M.S. Thesis. U. Kentucky,
Lexington, Kentucky.

26. Carpenter, S. B., and R. L. Rumsey. 1976.
Trees and shrubs of Robinson Forest, Breathitt
County, Kentucky. Castanea 41:227-282.

Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 44(3-4), 1983, 145-147

145

27. Weeks, W. D., and R. H. B. Hebbert. 1980.
A comparison of rainfall-runoff models. Nordic Hy-
dro]. 11:7—24.

28. Aitken, A. P. 1973. Assessing systematic
errors in rainfall-runoff models. J. Hydrol. 20:121—
136.

29. World Meteorological Organization. 1974.
Intercomparison of conceptual models used in op-
erational hydrological forecasting. Geneva, Swit-
zerland. i

30. Moore, I. D., and R. G. Mein. 1976. Eval-
uating rainfall-runoff model performance. J. Hy-
draulics Div., Amer. Soc. Civil Eng. 102(HY9):1390-
1395.

The Effect of Temperature on the Rate of
Development of Aphidius matricariae Haliday
(Hymenoptera: Aphidiidae)'

M. K. Girt, B. C. PAss, AND K. V. YEARGAN?
Department of Entomology, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky 40546-0091

ABSTRACT
The developmental rates of Aphidius matricariae Haliday at 9 constant temperatures, 10, 12.8,
15.6, 18.3, 21, 24, 26.7, 29.5, and 32 C, are reported. The developmental rates were fitted with
a logistic curve (100/Y = (k/1 + e*~»*). The shortest time for development was 11.5 days at 26.7
C and the longest time was 41 days at 10 C. The duration of development decreased as tem-
perature increased up to 26.7 C. At 29.5 C, developmental times slightly increased, and at 32 C,
the parasite did not survive to the adult stage. Males developed significantly faster (P < 0.05)

than females except at 26.7 and 29.5 C.

INTRODUCTION

Aphidius matricariae Haliday, an en-
doparasite of the green peach aphid, My-
zus persicae (Sulzer), has been utilized
to control this pest in greenhouses (1, 2
and 3). The parasite has been reported to
parasitize 40 different species of aphids

' This paper is published with the approval of the
Director of the Kentucky Agricultural Experiment
Station as Journal article no. 82-7-302. To simplify
information in this publication, trade names of some
products are used. No endorsement by the Ken-
tucky Agricultural Experiment Station is intended,
nor is criticism implied of similar products not
named.

2 Graduate student, Professor, and Associate Pro-
fessor, respectively.

from 21 genera (4), and it has been re-
ported from 19 countries in Asia, Europe
and North and South America. Aphidius
matricariae has been reported from hot
deserts in Israel and Ivan (4) and from
cool plains in England (5) and Canada (1),
yet the effects of temperature on its de-
velopment are not adequately reported.
Rabasse and Shalaby (6) reported that the
development of A. matricariae was slow-
er in younger hosts (Myzus persicae) than
in older hosts at 10 and 15 C, but the de-
velopment was slower in older hosts at
20 C. Giri et al. (7) reported this parasite’s
mating behavior and production of prog-
eny under different temperature regimes.
The present study was performed to de-
termine optimal temperature regimes

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Temperature °C
Fic. 1. Relationship between temperature and de-

velopment for (A) mummy stage, (B) adult male and

(C) adult female Aphidius matricariae Haliday. (@)

Temperature-time and (O) Temperature-develop-
mental-velocity curves.

which could improve mass rearing tech-
niques for this parasite.
MATERIALS AND METHODS

The parasite was colonized on radish-
es, Raphanus sativus Linnaeus, in the

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 44(3-4)

TABLE 1.—DEVELOPMENT PERIODS OF Aphidius
matricariae HALIDAY FROM OVIPOSITION TO
THE MUMMY STAGE, ADULT MALE AND FEMALE AT
9 DIFFERENT CONSTANT TEMPERATURES. OB-
SERVED NUMBERS ARE WITHIN PARENTHESES

Development periods (in days)

Temp

(C) Mummy stage Male* Female*
10.0 20.0 (208) 39.6 (167) 41.0 (383)
12.8 17.0 (331) 30.3 (211) 31.0 (504)
15.6 14.6 (205) 21.8 (270) 22.4 (161)
18.3 11.6 (310) 17.2 (280) 17.9 (360)
21.0 8.4 (155) 14.9 (173) 15.6 (377)
24.0 7.1 (165) 12.3 (67) 12.7 (138)
26.7 6.7 (50) 11.4 (45) 11.7 (66)
29.5 6.6 (9) 12.2 (2) 12.4 (1)
32.0 — — —

* There was significant difference (P < 0.05) between male and
female emergence in temperature regimes from 10.0 to 24.0 C. (Stu-
dent’s t-test).

greenhouse. Mummified aphids were
picked and placed in gelatin capsules
(no. 00, Eli Lilly and Co.) individually so
that emerging parasites could be sexed
and mated. Ten mated female parasites,
which had emerged within the past 24 h,
were individually introduced into small
cages containing 50 aphids/cage.

Paper cartons (0.5 1) were used as par-
asitizing cages. The root of a 2-leaf stage
radish plant with 50 aphids was inserted
into and sealed inside a 7.4 cc glass vial.
The neck of the vial was then fitted into
a hole cut in the paper container 3 cm
below the upper rim. A similar hole was
cut 2 cm above the lower rim and closed
with a cork stopper. Filter paper was fit-
ted tightly in the bottom of the cage. The
top of the cage was covered with trans-
parent plastic wrap which was punctured
with insect pins to permit ventilation.

The total duration of development was
defined as the time required from the day
of parasitism to the day of adult parasite
emergence; this was determined at 10,
12.8, 15.6, 18.3, 21, 24, 26.7, 29.5, and
32 C. The time required to develop from
the day of parasitism to aphid mummy
formation was also recorded. This was
done by checking daily for the formation
of mummies. The duration of develop-
ment at different constant temperatures
was converted to rate of development per
day to fit a temperature-developmental

TEMPERATURE E\FFECTS ON APHIDIUS DEVELOPMENT—Giri et al.

velocity curve. The temperature-time and
temperature-developmental velocity
curves were fitted using Davidson’s (8)
equations Y = (1 + e?->*)/k and 100/Y =
k/(1 + e# ?*), respectively, where Y = de-
velopmental time, x = temperature, and
a, b and k are constants.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The rate of development of A. matri-
cariae increased with higher temperature
from 10 to 26.7 C, and then decreased at
29.5 C; at 32 C the parasite did not sur-
vive to the adult stage (Table 1). When
the duration of development from ovi-
position to mummy stage (Y) was plotted
against temperature (x), the line repre-
sented the course of the temperature-time
curve. When the reciprocals for devel-
opmental time (100/Y), representing the
average percentage development/day,
were fitted with Davidson’s (8) logistic
curve, the upper inflection appeared near
29 C (Fig. 1A). Similar logistic equations
were used separately to fit data on de-
velopmental rates from time of parasitism
to adult male and female emergence (Fig.
1B & C) because there were significant
differences in developmental time of
males and females at temperatures from
10 to 24 C (Table 1). Wiacknowski (9) de-
scribed similar differences in develop-
mental time for male and female Aphi-
dius smithi Sharma and Subba Rao.

The threshold temperature was calcu-
lated to be approximately 5 C by extrap-
olation of a straight line from the most
linear portion of the temperature-devel-
opmental-velocity curve. The point at
which this line intercepted the tempera-
ture axis was assumed to be the threshold
temperature. Based on this threshold
temperature, degree-days were calculat-
ed for mummy stage (from parasitism to
mummy formation), and male and female
adults (from parasitism to male or female
emergence) as 142.4, 235.8 and 243.3, re-
spectively.

Results presented here and by Giri (10)
indicate that A. matricariae can develop
from 10 C to 29.5 C. At higher tempera-
tures, development was terminated by the
death of the host. The optimal tempera-
ture in terms of the shortest develop-

147

mental period or the maximal rate of de-
velopment was 26.7 C. However,
considering the number of progeny pro-
duced and survival (7) as well as the rate
of development, 21 C is the optimal tem-
perature for greenhouse rearing of the
parasite.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

We thank J. C. Parr, Department of
Entomology, University of Kentucky, for
his technical assistance during this study.

LITERATURE CITED

1. McLeod, J. H. 1936. Some factors in the con-
trol of the common greenhouse aphid Myzus per-
sicae (Sulzer) by the parasite Aphididus phorodon-
tis Ashmead. Ann. Rept. Entomol. Soc. Ontario 67:
63-64.

2. Wyatt, I. J. 1970. The distribution of Myzus
persicae (Sulzer) on year round chrysanthemums.
II Winter season. The effect of parasitism by Aphi-
dius matricariae Haliday. Ann. Appl. Biol. 65:31—
4].

3. Tremblay, E. 1975. Possibilities for utiliza-
tion of Aphidius matricariae Haliday. (Hymenop-
tera: Ichnemonoidea) against Myzus persicae (Sulz-
er). (Homoptera:Aphidoidea) in smal] glasshouses.
Z. Pflanzenk Pflanzenschutz. 81:612-619.

4. Schlinger, E. I., and M. Mackauer. 1963.
Identity, distribution and hosts of Aphidius matri-
cariae (Haliday), an important parasite of the green
peach aphid, Myzus persicae (Hymenoptera: Aphi-
diidae—Homoptera:Aphididae). Ann. Entomol. Soc.
Am. 56:648-653.

5. Vevai, E. J. 1942. On the bionomics of Aphi-
dius matricariae Haliday, a braconid parasite of
Myzus persicae (Sulzer). Parasitology. 34:141-145.

6. Rabasse, J. M.,and F. F. Shalaby. 1980. Lab-
oratory studies on the development of Myzus per-
sicae Sulzer (Homoptera:Aphididae) and its pri-
mary parasite, Aphidius matricariae Haliday
(Hymenoptera:Aphidiidae) at constant tempera-
ture. ACTA Oecologica Oecol. Appli. 1:21-28.

7. Giri, M. K., B. C. Pass, K. V. Yeargan, and J.
C. Parr. 1982. Behavior, net reproduction, longev-
ity and mummy stage survival of Aphidius matri-
cariae (Hymenoptera:Aphidiidae). Entomophaga 27:
17-21.

8. Davidson, J. 1944. On the relationship be-
tween temperature and rate of development of in-
sects at constant temperatures. J. An. Ecol. 13:26—
38.

9. Wiacknowski, S. K. 1960. Laboratory studies
on the biology and ecology of Aphidius smithi Shar-
ma and Subba Rao. Bull. De L’academie Plonaise
des Sciences cl. 8:503-506.

10. Giri, M. K. 1979. Effects of temperature, in-
secticide and host plants on development, survival
and parasitism of Aphidius matricariae Haliday
(Hymenoptera:Aphidiidae). M.S. Thesis. Universi-
ty of Kentucky. 68 pp.

Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 44(3-4), 1983, 148-154

Distribution of Riverine Yeasts in the Barren River,
Warren County Kentucky

RICHARD A. VANENK

Department of Microbiology, University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, Kansas 66103

AND

Dr. LARRY P. ELLIOTT

Department of Biology, Western Kentucky University, Bowling Green, Kentucky 42101

ABSTRACT

Yeasts were isolated and identified the 12-month period March 1978 through February 1979
from 5 sampling sites in the Barren River, Warren County Kentucky. Sporadic yeast counts were
obtained that averaged 40 CFU/ml for the effluent, while the river averaged 15 CFU/ml. No
seasonal variation in yeast counts was noted. A total of 318 yeast cultures were isolated and
identified, including 16 different genera with Cryptococcus being the most common genus ob-
served. The Barren River contained a characteristic yeast population which varied with several
environmental factors at a statistically significant level, and the effluent released several patho-

genic yeast species which were not indigenous riverine yeasts.

INTRODUCTION

The yeasts, or unicellular fungi, make
up a substantial portion of the microbio-
logical flora of soil and water. Several
studies reported yeasts from rivers, but
the data are contradictory with respect to
the relationship between sewage pollu-
tion and yeast numbers. Simard and
Blackwood (1, 2) concluded that yeast
counts in the St. Lawrence River varied
over a 5-month sampling period but no
consistent relationship was seen be-
tween yeast counts and indices of pollu-
tion such as coliforms, total bacteria, dis-
solved oxygen (DO), and biological
oxygen demand (BOD).

Spencer et al. (3) sampled the South
Saskatchewan River and concluded that
several yeast species, including some
possible pathogens, had originated from
urban sewage. They suggested that the
differences in yeast numbers and species
between sites upstream and downstream
of a city could be used to indicate the
degree of biological pollution of the river
contributed by the municipal sewage ef-
fluent.

Cooke et al. (4) surveyed the yeast flora
of several sewage treatment plants and

reported the presence of many yeast
species that are considered opportunistic
human pathogens. All these studies sug-
gest that microbiological examination of
rivers for water quality should not be lim-
ited to the coliform test. The examination
of yeast floras may also give valuable in-
formation about river pollution.

The purposes of this study were to ex-
amine the Barren River for the presence
of yeasts; to determine whether the
Bowling Green sewage treatment plant
in southwestern Kentucky was contrib-
uting high numbers or unique species to
the natural river yeast flora; and td at-
tempt to correate selected physical-
chemical and biological features with riv-
er yeast counts.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Description of Sample Area
The Barren River drains 5,853.4 square
km of primarily agricultural land in
Southwestern Kentucky. It flows at an av-
erage rate of 91,918 | per second through
Bowling Green, Kentucky before joining
the Green River, a tributary of the Ohio
River. The water level of the Barren Riv-

148

RIVER YEASTS IN KENTUCKY—VanEnk and Elliott

er is controlled by an Army Corps of En-
gineers dam located 66.1 km upstream
from Bowling Green.

The Bowling Green municipal sewage
treatment plant discharges 21 x 10° | of
water per day into the water. All effluent
receives primary and secondary treat-
ment via an activated biological filter sys-
tem, and automatic chlorination.

Water samples were taken from 5 study
sites established in the Barren River (5).

Enumeration and Characterization

Samples were taken from midstream in
sterile bottles using the grab-sample
technique. They were placed on ice and
transported immediately to the Western
Kentucky University Microbiology Lab-
oratory for analysis. Yeast counts were
determined by the spread-plate tech-
nique by plating in triplicate 0.1 ml of
each sample on petri plates containing
Plate Count Agar (Difco, Detroit, Mi.)
supplemented with 100 mg each of
Chloramphenicol and Chlortetracycline
(Sigma, St. Louis, Mo.) to inhibit bacte-
rial growth (6). After incubation at 25 C
for five days, all yeasts were counted and
streaked for purification on Sabouraud
Dextrose Agar (Difco). All specimens
were identified using standard tech-
niques (7, 8). The tests used for identifi-
cation of the yeast isolates consisted
mainly of the fermentation and assimila-
tion of a battery of 12 carbohydrates. In
addition, Barnett’s and Pankhurst’s (9)
keys for the identification of yeasts were
used.

Physical-Chemical Characteristics
of Water Samples

Several environmental parameters were
measured at each site. River height and
velocity data were obtained from the
Army Corps of Engineers, monitored dai-
ly in Bowling Green. Dissolved oxygen
was determined by the iodometric test,
azide modification (10). Iron, nitrate, or-
tho-phosphate, and turbidity were deter-
mined using a Hach Direct Reading En-
gineers Laboratory Kit (Hach Chemical
Company, Ames, Ia.). Water temperature

149

TABLE 1.—COMPARISON OF YEAST COUNTS FROM
FIVE SAMPLE SITES IN THE BARREN RIVER

Standard

Site Mean error Range
Upstream 12 12.1 0-40
Effluent 40 73.5 0-300
Downstream #1 18 40.3 0-193
Downstream #2 13 21.9 0-103
Downstream #3 15 25.1 0-116

and pH were determined for each sam-
ple, and effluent chlorine content data
were kindly supplied by treatment plant
personnel. Total viable aerobic bacteria
counts were done on each sample using
the spread-plate technique on Plate Count
Agar (Difco).

Statistical Analysis
The data were analyzed as previously
described (5) by computer which per-
formed means, standard deviations,
ranges, analysis of variance, correlation
analysis, and regression analysis.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The most notable fact to emerge from
the yeast-count data was the large amount
of variability in the river bi-weekly via-
ble yeast counts. These viable counts
ranged from 0 to 300 colony forming units
per ml (CFU/ml) with the effluent aver-
aging 40 CFU/ml and the river sites av-
eraging 15 CFU/ml. The upstream site
yielded the lowest average counts and
showed the least variability (Table 1). The
sewage effluent exhibited both the high-
est yeast count average and the greatest
variability over the sampling period. The
effluent counts seemed to have no rela-
tionship to the river counts, suggesting
that different factors may be controlling
yeast numbers in the two sources.

No seasonal trends were noted in total
yeast counts. The St. Lawrence River also
yielded approximately equal yeast num-
bers throughout a 5-month study period
(1, 2). In that study, however, certain yeast
species, notably Rhodotorula spp.,
seemed to increase at some sites in late
summer. In the Barren River, all yeast

150 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 44(3—4)
TABLE 2.—COMPARISON OF PHYSICAL-CHEMICAL PARAMETERS AT FIVE SAMPLING SITES
Sampling sites
Parameter Unit UPS EFF DS #1 DS #2 DS #3
DO mg/1 10.7* 10.7 10.7 10.6 10.6
(7.8-15.4) (7.7—-15.9) (7.6-15.0) (7.2-15.0) (7.8-15.0)
pH 6.59 6.65 6.77 6.77 6.80
(5.8-7.2) (6. 1-7.2) (6.1-7.3) (6.2-7.4) (6.2-7.4)
Turbidity J.T.U. 26.6 27.6 37.6 25.1 26.7
(9-70) (7-90) (0-310) (6-7.9) (0-110)
Nitrate mg/l 3.17 8.87 3.37 3.04 3.12
(O-11.0) (0-37.0) (0-7.0) (0-8.3) (0-6.6)
Phosphate mg/l] 0.45 1.13 0.44 0.42 0.45
(.075-2.2) (0.2-2.0) (0.18—1.0) (.05-1.3) (.03-1.6)
Iron mg/l] 0.106 0.103 0.056 0.078 0.091
(O-.90) (0-.35) (O-.15) (O-.29) (0-.38)
Water temperature s€ 16.4 17.3 16.7 16.5 16.5
(3-27) (3-27) (6-27) (3-27) (3-27)
Total aerobic CFU/ml 6,500 48,000 10,000 9,700 3,500
**(2_-950) (1-3,000) (3-1,300) (3-1,650) (3-300)
* Given as mean of all samplings, with range in parentheses below.

** Range value times 10*

species appeared in approximately the
same proportions throughout the year.
This apparent lack of seasonal depen-
dence indicated that factors other than
temperature were the major determi-
nants of yeast growth during the study.
Rheinheimer (11) discovered a higher
winter than summer count in the Elbe
River of Germany, and suggested that
competition for certain nutrients was
more important than temperature in con-
trolling yeast reproduction. He also pos-
tulated that concentration of these
nutrients was largely dependent on fast-
growing algae, which are less populous
in winter.

Mean iron levels, DO, pH, and turbid-
ity values were not statistically different
from station to station (Table 2). No cor-
relation was found between the iron, DO,
and pH values and the yeast counts (Ta-
ble 3); however, turbidity affected the
yeast population. A maximum level of 0.3
ing/] iron in freshwater used for drinking
purposes has been set (12). The mean iron
levels did not exceed this limit. None of
the DO values were lower than the min-
imum allowable level of 5.0 mg/] that has
been established for freshwater streams.
All the pH values were within the limits

set for freshwater streams of 6.0-9.0 (13).
No standards were set for turbidity in
streams.

The mean nitrogen-nitrate level for the
EFF was significantly higher (F = 8.818)
than the means of the other 4 stations.
This situation was also noted by Cherry
et al. (14) who found high nitrate levels
associated with effluent from sewage
treatment plants. A limit of 45 mg/l nitro-
gen-nitrate has been established for
drinking water while averages must be
below 10 mg/l to control eutrophication
(12). A statistical correlation was found
between the nitrate levels and the yeast
counts.

The mean phosphate level for the EFF
was significantly higher than the other
station means (F = 14.76). The recom-
mended limit for phosphates in fresh-
water streams is no more than 0.015 ml/I
(10). The mean levels for phosphate ex-
ceeded the set limit at all stations. A sta-
tistical correlation was demonstrated be-
tween the phosphate levels and the yeast
counts.

The mean of the EFF counts of total
aerobic chemoorganotrophic bacteria iso-
lated on Plate Count agar with the spread-
plate technique was significantly higher

RIVER YEASTS IN KENTUCKY—VanEnk and Elliott

than the means of the other 4 stations (F =
3.48) (Table 2). The second highest mean
was that of DS #1 which may have re-
flected input of organisms from Jennings
Creek or cells washed downstream from
the EFF. Water from the Lost River Cave
complex resurges near Dishman Mill on
Jennings Creek. Elliott (15) found these
waters to have an average total coliform
count of over 5,000/100 ml, the maximum
allowed by the Kentucky Water Commis-
sion for public water supplies. All fecal
coliform densities were greater than the
recommended maximum of 200/100 ml for
contact recreation in Kentucky. Lovan et
al. (16) found the mean total coliform
count of Jennings Creek to be 641,950/
100 ml and the fecal coliform count to be
17,375/100 ml.

The mean chlorine level was 0.60 ppm.
Since chlorine was measured only at EFF,
no statistical analysis between chlorine
levels and yeast counts at the other sta-
tions was done. A negative correlation was
found between chlorine levels and yeast
counts. This is not surprising, since Jones
and Schmitt (17) demonstrated that 100%
of 10° Candida albicans cells per ml were
killed when exposed to 4 ppm of chlorine
for 30 minutes.

The average flow rate over the year-long
sampling period was 91,918 I/sec. It was
assumed that the river flow registered at
the monitoring station corresponded to
the flow rate at the sampling sites. A sta-
tistical correlation between flow rate and
yeast counts was significant (0.05 level).

Of all the parameters tested, regression
analysis revealed that only turbidity, ni-
trate, and chlorine gave significant F-val-
ues. These 3 variables seemed to have
the most influence on yeast content, sug-
gesting that several factors influence the
rate of yeast growth in water and sewage.
Nutrient concentration, reflected by ni-
trate and turbidity, and levels of toxic
chemicals, such as chlorine, appeared to
be the most important. Since these fac-
tors varied more in the sewage effluent
than in the river, they likely made a large
contribution to the increased variability
in yeast counts seen in the effluent.

151

TABLE 3.—CORRELATION COEFFICIENTS OF MEA-
SURED PARAMETERS VERSUS YEAST COUNTS

Correlation

Parameter coefficient
Chlorine! (—)? —.569**
Turbidity Olas
Total aerobic bacteria oonn
Phosphate Bones
Nitrate .225*
Flow Rate .202*
pH .192
Iron .182
Water temperature (—) —.181
DO .098

* Significance at the .05 level.
** Significance at the .01 level.

! Chlorine was tested in the effluent only.
? Negative correlation.

The river was shown to contain a nat-
ural flora of yeasts with respect to the
yeast isolated from the effluent, and the
total number of yeasts was not signifi-
cantly altered by release of treated sew-
age effluent into the river. In this respect,
the Barren River was similar to the St.
Lawrence River, but differed from the
South Saskatchewan River.

A total of 318 yeasts among 16 genera
were isolated and identified during the
course of the study (Table 4). The genus
Cryptococcus was the most frequently
isolated genus (30%). The species Cryp-
tococcus laurentii was the most common
species. Other major genera represented
were Candida (22%), Trichosporon (13%),
Rhodotorula (9%), and Torulopsis (7%).
These figures are unique in some re-
spects, but quite similar to those ob-
tained from other rivers. Lazarus and Ko-
burger (6) found the Suwanee River in
Florida to contain Candida (28%), Rho-
dotorula (24%), Cryptococcus (16%) To-
rulopsis (12%), and Trichosporon (3%).
Simard and Blackwood (1, 2) found Rho-
dotorula (57%), Candida (24%), and
Cryptococcus (8%) in the St. Lawrence
River. The South Saskatchewan River (3)
contained Candida (25%), Rhodotorula
(23%), Trichosporon (13%), Cryptococ-
cus (7%), and Torulopsis (5%).

The yeast flora contained in the Bowl-
ing Green sewage effluent was slightly

152

TABLE 4.—YEAST SPECIES ISOLATED, WITH SITE AND FREQUENCY OF ISOLATION

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 44(3-4)

Site
Species UPS EFF DS1 DS2 DS3 Total
Cryptococcus:
laurentii
var. flavescens 12 10 18 5 11 56
var. laurentii 3 1 2 2 0 8
var. magnus 1 1 1 0) 0) 3
albidus 1 1 2 2 0 6
hungaricus 3 2 1 1 2 9
luteolus 4 0 0 1 0 5
terreus 0 2 1 0 0) 3
uniguttulatus 0) 0) 0) 0) 2 2
gastricus 1 0) 0 0 0) 1
flavus 0 0 0 1 0) 1
Total 25 IN? 25 12 15 94
Candida:
guilliermondii 1 4 1 3 1 16
parapsilosis 3 re (0) 2 2 14
sake 1 6 1 2 0) 10
valida 1 3 0) 1 0) 5
ingens 1 3 1 0 0 5
intermedia (0) 2 0 2 0 4
aquatica 10) 0 2 0 0 2
lambica 0) 1 1 0) 0 2
cifferrii 0 1 1 0 0) 2
javanica 1 1 0 0 0 2
diddensii 0 0 0) 0 1 1
rugosa 0 0 0 0 1 1
valdiviana 0 0 0 1 (0) 1
curvata 0 1 0 0 10) 1
marina 1 0 0 0) 0 1
melinii 1 0) 0) 0 0 1
shehatae 1 0 0 0 0 1
zeylanoides 0) 1 0 0 0 1
Total 17 30 7 11 5 70
Trichosporon:
cutaneum 5 11 1 2 3 22,
capitatum 0 8 0 0 1 9
penicillatum 0 4 0) 1 0 5
fennicum 1 0 0 1 0 2
brassicae 1 0 0 0 0 1
melibiosaceum 0 0) 0 0 1 1
Total 7 23 1 4 5 40
Rhodotorula:
glutinis 2 4 1 1 2 10
graminis 0 3 0 i 0 4
rubra 0) 1 2 0) 1 4
marina 1 0) 2 0) 0) 3
minuta 0 1 1 0 0) 2)
pallida 0 0) 0 2 0) 2
lactosa 0 0 1 0 0) 1
aurantiaca 0 0 0 i 0) 1
Total 3 9 w 5 3 27
Torulopsis:
candida 0 2 0 0 3 5
xestobii 1 2, 1 0) 1 5
fujisanensis 0) 3 0) 0) 0) 3
versatilis 0 0) 0) 1 1 2

RIVER YEASTS IN KENTUCKY—VanEnk and Elliott 153
TABLE 4.—CONTINUED
Site
Species UPS EFF DS1 DSs2 DS3 Total

torresit 0) 10) 0 0) 1 1

haemulonii 0 0) (0) 0 1 1

wickerhamii 0 0 0 1 0 1

glabrata 0) 0 0 1 0 1

anatomiae 0 1 0 0) 0) 1

ingeniosa i 0 0 (0) 0 i

insectalens 0 1 0 0 0) 1

Total 2 9 1 3 7 22
Brettanomyces:

naardenensis 3} 6 3) 2, 4 18

custersianus 0 2 0 0 0) 2

Total 3 8 3 } 4 20
Leucosporidium:

capsuligenum 0) 7 0 1 0 8
Pichia:

chambardii 0 0) 0) 0) 1 1

trehalophila 0 0 1 0 0) 1

etchellsii 0 1 0) 0 0) 1

castilae 0) 1 0 0 0 1

pijperi 0 1 0 0 0 1

Total 0 3 1 0 1 bs)
Sporobolomyces:

salmonicolor 0) 1 0 il 5

gracilis (0) 0) (0) 0) 1

Total 0 1 1 1 3
Sterygmatomyces:

halophilus 0) 4 0) 0 0) 4
Kluyveromyces:

phaseolosporus 0) 0 0) 0 2 2
Endomycopsis:

ovetensis 0 2 0 0 0 2
Oosporidium:

margaritiferum 1 0 10) (0) 0 1
Rhodosporidium:

sphaerocarpum 0 0) 10) 1 0 1
Saccharomycoides :

ludwigii 0 0 1 0 0 1
“Black Yeasts” 0 10 1 1 3 15

Total 58 123 48 40 48 318

different from the river flora. The most
frequently found effluent yeast genera
were Candida, Trichosporon, Crypto-
coccus, and Rhodotorula, in decreasing
order of frequency. The survey by Cooke
et al. (4), found the order of occurrence
in their effluent samples to be Candida,
Rhodotorula, and Trichosporon.

The results of this study also indicate

that municipal sewage effluent may be a
source of medically important yeasts. If
one uses the API (API 20C, Analytab
Products, Inc., Plainview, N.Y.) listing of
25-30 yeast species as being clinical iso-
lates and potential pathogens in humans
whose health is compromised, then the
river contained 15 of such human-asso-
ciated yeasts. Finding these yeasts in a

154

river is significant both as an indicator of
possible human pollution of the river and
as a potential source of yeast infections
for humans in contact with the river water.
From this group of 15 species, 7 consist-
ed of Cryptococcus terreus, Candida
zeylanoides, Trichosporon capitatum,
Trichosporon penicillatum, Candida
parapsilosis, Trichosporon cutaneum,
Rhodotorula glutinis, the first 4 species
being limited to the effluent only. Fifty
six isolates of these medically important
yeasts were also identified using a com-
mercial yeast identification system (API
20C) in a comparison study with conven-
tional methodology (18). The API 20C
system, with computer assistance, iden-
tified 100% of the isolates for which it
was designed. Although the above species
are considered potential pathogens, their
virulence is quite low, and they pose
minimal health hazards. The opportunis-
tic yeast pathogen, C. albicans, was not
isolated from any Barren River station. No
other river studies reported its isolation
except for the Long Island Sound estuary
study where Buck et al. (19) reported its
presence inside shellfish in polluted
water.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The research was funded by a grant
from the Faculty Research Committee of
Western Kentucky University.

REFERENCES

1. Simard, R. E., and A. C. Blackwood. 1971.
Yeasts from the St. Lawrence River. Can. J. Micro-
biol. 17:197-203.

anc 1971. Ecological
studies on yeasts in the St. Lawrence River. Can. J.
Microbiol. 17:353-357.

3. Spencer, J. F. T., P. A. Gorin, and N. R. Gard-
ner. 1970. Yeasts isolated from the South Sas-
katchewan, a polluted river. Can. J. Microbiol. 16:
1051-1057.

4. Cooke, W. B., H. J. Phaff, M. W. Miller, M.
Shifrine, and E. P. Knapp. 1960. Yeasts in pollut-
ed water and sewage. Mycologia 52:210-230.

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 44(3—4)

5. Hansen, M. V., and L. P. Elliott. 1982. Iso-
lation and enumeration of Clostridium perfringens
from river water and sewage effluent. Trans. Ky.
Acad. Sci. 43:127-131.

6. Lazarus, C. R., and J. A. Koburger. 1974.
Identification of yeasts from the Suwannee River
Florida Estuary. Appl. Microbiol. 27:1108-1111.

7. Lodder, J. (ed.) 1970. The Yeasts. A Taxo-
nomic Study. North-Holland Publishing Co., Am-
sterdam.

8. Adams, E. D., and B. H. Cooper. 1974. Eval-
uation of a modified Wickerham medium for iden-
tifying medically important yeasts. Am. J. Med.
Technol. 40:377-388.

9. Barnett, J. A., and R. J. Pankhurst. 1974. A
New Key to the Yeasts. A Key for Identifying Yeasts
Based on Physiological Tests Only. North-Holland
Publishing Co., Amsterdam. American Elsevier
Publishing Co., New York.

10. Standard Methods for the Examination of
Water and Wastewater. 1975. 14th Edition. Amer.
Pub. Health Assoc., Washington, D.C.

11. Rheinheimer, G. 1974. Aquatic Microbiol-
ogy. John Wiley and Sons, New York.

12. Drinking Water Standards. 1962. U.S. De-
partment of Health, Education and Welfare, U.S.
Public Health Service. P.H.S. Pub. No. 956. Wash-
ington, D.C.: Government Printing Office.

13. Report of the Committe on Water Quality
Criteria. 1968. U.S. Dept. Inter., Fed. Water Poll.
Cont. Ad. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing
Office.

14. Cherry, A., L. Hopson, T. A. Nevin, and J. A.
Laseter. 1970. The relationship of coliform pop-
ulations to certain physiochemical parameters in the
Indian River-Bannana River complex. Bull. Envi-
ron. Contam. Toxicol. 5:447-451.

15. Elliott, L. P. 1976. Potential gas accumu-
lation in caves in Bowling Green, including rela-
tionship to water quality. N.S.S. Bull. 38:27-36.

16. Lovan, W. D., A. R. Harrison, F. Osbom, D.
Spencer, and N. Graham. 1972. A survey of water
quality of the Barren River watershed. Ky. Med.
Assoc. 1972:533-536.

17. Jones, J.,and J. A. Schmitt. 1978. The effect
of chlorination on the survival of cells of Candida
albicans. Mycologia 70:684-689.

18. VanEnk, R. A. 1979. Isolation and identifi-
cation of yeasts from the Barren River. Unpublished
MS Thesis, Western Kentucky University.

19. Buck, J. D., P. M. Bubucis, and T. J. Combs.
1977. Occurrence of human-associated yeasts in
bivalue shellfish from Long Island Sound. Appl.
Environ. Microbiol. 33:370-378.

Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 44(3-4), 1983, 155-156

The Sine-Gordon Equation in an Anisotropic
Cosmological Background

B. W. STEWART
Department of Physics, Thomas More College, Ft. Mitchell, Kentucky 41017

ABSTRACT

The sine-Gordon equation was examined in a Kasner cosmological background. A one soliton
solution is given. A procedure to obtain additional solutions is suggested.

INTRODUCTION

There has been much interest in the
sine-Gordon (SGE) equation (1) over the
last decade, partly due to the numerous
and diverse applications (1) of the equa-
tion. One area in which the SGE has been
applied is the theory of elementary par-
ticles. In this paper I examine the SGE
in a cosmological background metric. The
problem is not purely mathematical in
nature because the effect of an expanding
universe upon solitons propagating
therein is of physical interest as well.
Since we are solving the SGE in a given
background metric, we are assuming the
contribution to the background due to the
energy-momentum tensor of the soliton
field is negligible.

METHODS

We begin by examining the Einstein
field equations for a source consisting of
the self-interacting sine-Gordon field:

Ruv — YguvR = K Ty (1)
with
Tuy = —d,ud,v + egpv-
(b,0,* — 2M?sin*). (2)
The sine-Gordon field itself satisfies the
equation
[V-g¢,"]u + V—g M’singd =0 (3)
(4)

Unfortunately, the system of equations (1),
(2), and (3) is a highly non-linear set of
partial differential equations the solution
of which is generally very difficult. How-

g = det guv.

ever, if we assume that ¢ is small in am-
plitude, we can effectively decouple the
equations. In this case we first solve
equation (1) for a vacuum metric (Tuy =
0) then solve the sine-Gordon equation
(3) on this background metric. We are es-
sentially assuming that the right hand side
of (1) is essentially zero; that is, the influ-
ence of ¢ upon the metric is a negligible
perturbation, but ¢ is not so small that we
must linearize the sind term in (3). In this
case we can see non-linear effects in the
propagation of @ without having to ac-
count for the gravitational field generated
by @. This is true, as an example, for water
waves at the surface of the Earth. Here
non-linear propagation does not mean that
we must consider the gravitational field
of the wave.

Consider the special case of the vac-
uum Kasner (2) line-element

ds? = dt? — PPidx? — #Pdy? — 2?sdz? (5)
where
Di + Po + Ps = Dir + Po + pz = 1
In this case
Vg =t. (6)

For simplicity, we will assume that @ =
o(t,z) only. In this case equation (3) be-
comes

dst + td, — t2?°h, 2, + M?sind = 0. (7)

A futher simplification occurs if we
choose p; = 0. This particular back-
ground metric has been the object of study
concerning the propagation of electro-

155

156

magnetic waves (3). Equation (7) be-

comes in this case
dbx + tb —

RESULTS

Before giving the solution to (8), we ex-
amine the small amplitude case, @ < lI.
In this limit

sez + M?sind = 0. (8)

sind =~
and equation (8) becomes
Pst oF td, = Ps2z at Md = 0, (9)

which is readily solved by standard tech-
niques. The solution is

= AJ,(Kt)exp[+ iVK? — M? Z] (10)

where A and K are constants. In the
asymptotic time limit, t > ~, the solution
represents a plane wave propagating
along the z-axis, as long as K* > M?.

Returning to the exact equation (8), if
we perform the complex coordinate
transformation

Z—1T

tip, (11)

equation (8) becomes
57 — spp — P ‘bsp + M?sin @ = 0. (12)

This is just the (2 + 1) dimensional SGE
where 7 is the time-like coordinate and p
is the space-like co-ordinate. The solu-
tion is (4)

x a 2
@ = +2 cos-tsn al) = Bx).k| (13)
K

where a and @ are constants related to the
Lorentz factor, y, and the wave speed, v,
respectively, and sn is a Jacobian elliptic
function sine amplitude of modulus K.

Transforming to the original co-ordi-

t la
d@ = +2 cos ‘sn Bl, =

nates we obtain
K B

One can use similar complex co-ordinate
substitutions in order to utilize a proce-
dure suggested by Liebbrandt (5) in or-
der to obtain addition solutions to the
SGE in this background. Leibbrandt has
determined a method to obtain multi-so-

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 44(3-—4)

liton solutions to the (2 + 1) dimensional
SGE (12). In order to apply his technique
one needs only to follow Leibbrandt to
obtain the multi-soliton solution to equa-
tion (12) and then apply the inverse trans-
formation to obtain a multi-soliton solu-
tion to equation (8).

DISCUSSION AND SUMMARY

In this note we have briefly examined
the solution to the SGE in a cosmological
background metric. The SGE in a special
case of the Kasner anisotropically ex-
panding background is related to the (2 +
1) dimensional SGE of flat space via a
complex co-ordinate transformation. This
relationship can be exploited in order to
adapt a known solution of the (2 + 1) di-
mensional SGE to the present case. A
procedure recently proposed by Leib-
brandt (5) can also be adapted in order to
obtain multi-soliton solutions to the par-
ticular SGE investigated here.

The solution given here also has an ap-
plication in a recent theory of gravity giv-
en by Rosenbaum et al. (6). The sine-Gor-
don field @ given here is related to the
scalar field under consideration by Ro-
senbaum and co-workers (6) by

ig=0; +i = V-L.

The solution(s) given here can, then, be
applied to the investigation of that theory
of gravity as well.

LITERATURE CITED

1. Barone, A., F. Esposito, C. J. Magee, and A. C.
Scott. 1971. Theory and applications of the sine-
Gordon Equation. Riv Nuovo Cimento 1:227-267.

2. Kasner, E. 1921. Geometrical theorems on
Einstein’s cosmological equations. Am. J. Math. 43:
217-230.

3. Sagnotti, A., and B. Zwieback. 1981. Elec-
tromagnetic waves in a Bianchi type-I universe.
Phys. Rev. D 24:305-319.

4. Osborne, A., and A. E. G. Stuart. 1978. On
the separability of the sine-Gordon equation and
similar quasilinear partial differential equations. J.
Math. Phys. 19:1573-1579.

5. Leibbrandt, G. 1978. New exact solutions of
the classical sine-Gordon equation in 2+1 and 3+1
dimensions. Phys. Rev. Lett. 41:435-438.

6. Rosenbaum, M., M. P. Ryan, Jr., L. F. Urrutia,
and C. P. Luehr. 1982. Dynamical torsion in a
gravitational theory coupled to first order twist-ten-
sor matter fields. Phys. Rev. D. 26:761-769.

Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 44(3-4), 1983, 157-158

A New Variant of Plethodon wehrlei
in Kentucky and West Virginia!’

PAUL V. Cupp, JR. AND DONALD T. TOWLES

Department of Biological Sciences, Eastern Kentucky University,
Richmond, Kentucky 40475

ABSTRACT
A new variant of Plethodon wehrlei was discovered in Letcher County, Kentucky and Summers
County, West Virginia. The specimens from Kentucky represent a new state record for this
species, and extend the known geographic range of the species by 85 km. This variant differs
from other P. wehrlei in its possession of large, yellow spots on the dorsum.

INTRODUCTION

A new variant of Wehrlei’s salamander,
Plethodon wehrlei, was found in SE Ken-
tucky by D. T. Towles and in SW West
Virginia by R. Highton. Highton (pers.
comm.) collected a juvenile of this morph
4 km N of Hinton, Summers County, West
Virginia on 8 May 1981. Subsequent vis-
its to this site disclosed no additional
specimens. Towles collected an adult and
a juvenile on 13 June 1981 from a shale-
rock cliff on a hillside above Line Fork
Creek in Lilley Cornett Woods, Letcher
County, Kentucky. Subsequent visits dis-
closed only 6 additional specimens, 1
adult and 5 juveniles. The animals from
Kentucky were found primarily at night
on wet areas of the cliff face during and
following periods of rainfall.

The specimens had a brownish ground
color with relatively large (1-2 mm), ir-
regularly-shaped, yellow spots scattered
over the dorsum and extending on to the
upper portion of the tail (Fig. 1). In adults
and juveniles, the yellow spots are usu-
ally present at irregular intervals in 2 rows
over the dorsum. Also, juveniles from the
2 separate localities in Kentucky and West
Virginia are very similar in color pattern.
There are many small, light spots on the
lateral surfaces of the body, the sides of
the head and under the neck, extending

1 Publication no. 8 from Lilley Comett Woods Ap-
palachian Ecological Research Station, Eastern
Kentucky University.

down to the chest. The venter and un-
derside of the tail are light gray. All spec-
imens have 17 costal grooves and dis-
tinctly webbed toes as is characteristic of
P. wehrlei (1).

Both adults were 52 mm in snout-vent
length and 6.5 mm in head width. The
juveniles averaged 31 mm in snout—vent
length and 4.3 mm in head with (n = 6).

Specimens from other populations of P.
wehrlei are not known to have large, yel-
low spots. Small, red spots are present on
the dorsum of juveniles in some localities
(1, 2, 3). Red dorsal spots are present in
adult P. wehrlei in the southem part of
their geographic range (1, 3, 4). Newman
(4) described a red-spotted population
from Montgomery County, Virginia as a
distinct species, P. jacksoni, later syn-
onymized with P. wehrlei (1). There is
considerable variation of pigmentation in

Fic. 1. Yellow-spotted variant of Plethodon wehr-

lei from Kentucky. Scale = 10 mm.

157

158

P. wehrlei from various localities (1,
Thomas Pauley pers. comm.). In the
morph described here, the red is appar-
ently replaced by a yellow pigment.

The reported geographic range of P.
wehrlei extends from SW New York
through Western Pennsylvania, West Vir-
ginia and Virginia into North Carolina (1,
5). The occurrence of P. wehrlei in Letch-
er County, Kentucky extends the geo-
graphic range of this species NW by 85
km from the nearest reported locality at
White Top Mountain, Virginia; this is the
first report of this species from the state.
Because the shale-rock habitat extends
over much of eastern Kentucky it is likely
that other populations will be located.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We thank Dr. Richard Highton, Greg
Sievert, and John Macgregor for their as-

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 44(3-4)

sistance during this study. Also, we ac-
knowledge Dr. William Martin, Director
of the Division of Natural Areas at E.K.U.,
for financial support of the project at Lil-
ley Cornett Woods.

LITERATURE CITED

1. Highton, R. 1962. Revision of North Ameri-
can salamanders of the genus Plethodon. Bull. Fla.
State Mus. Biol. Sci. 6:235-367.

2. Dunn, E. R. 1926. The salamanders of the
family Plethodontidae. Smith College Ann. Publ.

3. Brooks, M. 1945. Notes on amphibians from
Bickle’s Knob, West Virginia. Copeia 1945:231.

4. Newman, W. B. 1954. A new plethodontid
salamander from southwestern Virginia. Herpeto-
logica 10:9-14.

5. Conant, R. 1975. A field guide to reptiles and
amphibians of eastern and central North America.
Houghton-Mifflin Co., Boston.

Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 44(3-4), 1983, 159-167

NOTES

A Report on the Occurrence of Chrysamoeba ra-
dians Klebs (Chrysophyceae) in Kentucky—In April
1980, a water sample was collected from a small
marsh alongside Jenny Ridge Road in the northern
portion of Land-Between-the-Lakes (LBL), Trigg
Co., Kentucky. Dense growths of Spirogyra and
Mougeotia were present in the marsh and the water
temperature and pH were 14 C and 6.3, respective-
ly. Microscopic examination of the sample revealed
the presence of an infrequently encountered chry-
sophycean alga, Chrysamoeba radians Klebs. This
alga has been described from various localities in
the United States (Prescott, Algae of the Western
Great Lakes Area, Wm. C. Brown Co., Dubuque,
Ia., 1962; Smith, Bull. Wis. Nat. Hist. Surv. 57:1—
243, 1920; Smith, The Fresh-Water Algae of the
United States, McGraw-Hill Co., N.Y., 1950; Tif
fany, Contr. Franz Theodore Stone Lab, 6:1-112,
1934; Whitford and Schumacher, A Manual of Fresh-
Water Algae, Sparks Press, Raleigh, N.C., 1973), but
has not been reported from Kentucky (Dillard, An
Annotated Catalog of Kentucky Algae, Ogden Col-
lege, Western Kentucky Univ., Bowling Green, Ky.,
1974; Dillard and Crider, Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci. 31:
66-72, 1970; Dillard, Moore, and Garrett, Trans. Ky.
Acad. Sci. 37:20-25, 1976). The living LBL speci-
men was studied for several weeks and a number
of photographs and drawings were made.

The genus Chrysamoeba (Klebs, Z. Wiss. Zool.
55:353-445, 1893) includes those non-loricate rhi-
zopodial chrysophycean algae with a temporary fla-
gellate stage in their life cycle, the cells of which
do not remain attached by their rhizopodia after di-
vision. Several investigators (Doflein, Arch. Protis-
tenk. 44:149-213, 1922: Hibberd, Br. Phycol. J. 6:
207-223, 1971; Mack, Ost. Bot. Z. 98:249-279, 1951;
Penard, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philad. 73: 105-168)
have provided detailed descriptions of the type
species, C. radians. Eight additional species, C.
planktonica (Pascher, Ber. Dt. Bot. Ges. 29:523-532,
1911), C. nana, (Scagel and Stein, Can. J. Bot. 39:
1205-1213, 1961), C. pyrenoidifera (Korshikoyv, Arch.
Protistenk 95:22-44, 1941), C. tenera (Matvienko,
Notul. Syst. Inst. Cryptog. Horti. Bot. Petropol, 7:
10-18, 1951), C. microkonta (Skuja, Nova Acta R.
Soc. Scient. Upsal., Ser. IV, 16:1-404, 1956), C.

helvetica (Reverdin, Arch. Sci. Phys. Nat., 1:302-
345, 1919), C. extensa (Korshikov, 1941) and C.
gelatinosa (Bourrelly, Revue Algol., Mem. Hors.
Ser., 1:1-412, 1957), have been described. The last
5 species have been placed in synonymy of C. ra-
dians (Hibberd, 1971). Distinguishing characteris-
tics of the freshwater species of Chrysamoeba are
presented in Table 1.

Chrysamoeba radians is distinguished from C.
pyrenoidifera by its lack of a noticeable pyrenoid.
Hibberd (1971) reported pyrenoids in the organism
he identified as C. radians, but they were observ-
able only with the electron microscope. In contrast,
the pyrenoids of C. pyrenoidifear can be seen with
the light microscope. C. planktonica is readily dis-
tinguishable from C. radians by its smaller size and
from C. pyrenoidifera by its smaller size and ab-
sence of a distinct pyrenoid. Hibberd (1971) con-
siders Klebs’ (1893) diagnosis of C. radians (Table
1) to be somewhat in error since the drawing ac-
companying his description depicts one (not two)
chloroplast per cell. This error has been perpetu-
ated by Smith (1950), Prescott (1962), and Whitford
and Schumacher (1973).

The characteristics of the Chrysamoeba collected
from LBL corresponded to those presented for C.
radians by Hibberd (1971). The naked cells were
ovoid (5.0 to 6.6 x 6.0 to 8.2 wm) with several long,
thin acicular pseudopodia (Fig. 1). Each cell had a
single curved plate-like chloroplast, 2 contractile
vacuoles, and a single nucleus. A pyrenoid or stig-
ma was not observed. The delicate bifurcate pseu-
dopodia arose laterally and several had small gran-
ules which were observed moving along them.
Asexual reproduction was by cell division with the
daughter cells remaining attached for a short time
by their pseudopodia (Fig. 2). Although a free
swimming flagellate stage was not observed, close
microscopic inspection revealed the presence of a
short flagellum on the amoeboid stage. Hibberd
(1971) observed a second much reduced flagellum
in electron microscopic investigations of the alga he
identified as C. radians. This vestigial flagellum was
not observed with the light microscope.

_ Pascher (Die Susswasser-Flora Deutschlands,
Osterreichs und der Schweiz, 2, Flagellatae II, 7—

TABLE 1.—DISTINGUISHING CHARACTERISTICS OF THE FRESHWATER SPECIES OF Chrysamoeba KLEBS

Number
of Number of
chloro- Pyren contractile
Species Cell size (um) plasts oid* vacuoles Reference
C. radians 12-15 2 = Dex Klebs (1893)
C. radians 4.5-8.5 x 5-12 1 — 2 Lund (1937)
C. radians 15-18 1 = 1 Penard (1921)
C. radians 6-10 1 — 2 Hibberd (1971)
C. planktonica 9-4 1 = 1 Pascher (1911)
C. pyrenoidifera 16 1 + 1 Korschikovy (1941)

* — indicates absence upon observation of cells with light microscope.

159

Fic. 1. Vegetative cell of Chrysamoeba radians showing pseudopodia, contractile vacuole, and plastid.

ire Say

ce ¢

ns
A aes

Fic. 2. Two vegetative cells attached by a pseudopodium.

NOTES

95, 1913) considered the presence of a flagellate
stage as requisite for inclusion of rhizopodial forms
in Chrysamoeba. He thus erected the genus Rhi-
zochrysis for amoeboid forms morphologically sim-
ilar to Chrysamoeba but for which a flagellate stage
was not observed. He included 3 species in this
genus. Two, R. planktonic Pascher (Pascher) and
R. scherffelii Pascher, had been described previ-
ously as C. planktonic (Pascher 1911) and C. radi-
ans (Scherffel, Bot. Ztg. 59:143-158, 1901), respec-
tively. The third, R. crassipes, was described by
Pascher as a new species. Smith (1920) included a
fourth organism, R. limnetica, in this genus. How-
ever, Matvienko (Handbook of Freshwater Algae of
the U.S.S.R., 3, Chrysophyta, Moscow, 1954) dis-
agreed with Pascher’s emphasis on the use of fla-
gellar characters in separating Rhizochrysis and
Chrysamoeba and combined these genera. Hibberd
(1971) noted the difficulty in observing flagella on
the amoeboid cells and that these structures are
ephemeral in some species. He concluded that
presence or absence of flagella should not be used
as a sole characteristic for separating these genera.

Some taxonomic treatises (Smith 1920, Prescott
1962, Whitford and Schumacher 1973) depict
Chrysamoeba with shorter and stouter pseudopodia
than Rhizochrysis. However, the observations of C.
radians by the author and Hibberd (1971) indicate
that the flagellate amoeboid cells have several long,
delicate pseudopodia which may be granulate in
appearance. The presence of granules was not re-
ported in the above mentioned treatises. It there-
fore seems that the use of pseudopodial characters
in separating these genera is questionable. On the
basis of this information, I suggest that there is lit-
tle, if any, justification in assigning organisms to
Rhizochrysis.

Our knowledge of the distribution and life his-
tories of chrysophycean algae is limited. Factors
which control their occurrence are poorly under-
stood and their collection is essentially a matter of
chance. Our inability to establish laboratory cul-
tures of chrysophycean algae has denied us oppor-
tunities to experimentally assess their growth re-
quirements and morphological development. Several
investigators (Dillard, J. Elisha Mitchell Sci. Soc.
86:128-130, 1970; Hibberd 1971; Nicholls, Phycol.
20:131-137, 1981; Whitford, Phycol. 8:199-200,
1969) have been frustrated in their attempts at col-
lection and cultivation of these organisms. Similar
problems were encountered in the present study of
Chrysamoeba radians. Repeated trips to the LBL
marsh failed to yield additional specimens and at-
tempts at establishing laboratory cultures of this alga
were unsuccessful. Such problems are undoubtedly
a major cause of the taxonomic confusion that
shrouds chrysophycean algae.

This study was supported in part through the
Murray State University Committee on Institutional
Studies and Research—Joe M. King, Dept. of Biol.
Sci. and Hancock Biol. St., Murray State Univ.,
Murray, Kentucky 42071.

161

Some delphacid planthoppers of Kentucky (Ho-
moptera)..—The delphacid fauna of Kentucky is
poorly known. Among the few published records
are Stobaera tricarinata Say (Slosson, Ent. News
7:262-265, 1896), Liburniella ornata Stal (Forbes
and Hart, Bull. II. Agric. Exp. Sta. 60:397-532, 1900)
and Delphacodes puella Van Duzee (Osbom, Ann.
Rept. Ohio St. Acad. Sci. 8:65, 1900 according to
Metcalf, General Catalogue of Hemiptera, Ed China,
1943). We verified and failed to find any mention
of Kentucky in the reports of Forbes and Hart and
Osborn. Sperka and Freytag (Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci.
36(3/4):57-62, 1975) reported collecting Delpha-
codes spp. including Delphacodes lutulenta (Van
Duzee), in connection with the parasitism by mer-
mithid nematodes.

Delphacids were collected using D-Vac sampler
and an insect net in pastures of Fayette and other
counties of Kentucky from May to October of 1980
and 1981. The collected specimens were killed and
preserved in 75% ethyl alcohol until sorted and
identified. Confirmation of many identified speci-
mens was made by J. P. Kramer, U.S. National Mu-
seum, Washington, D.C.

Adult delphacids were found in pastures from the
early part of May to the end of October. By early
May, the delphacids began reproduction as evi-
denced by the presence of nymphs by early June.
Delphacodes lutulenta was the most abundant del-
phacid in this area (unpublished data). During the
2 collecting seasons, a total of 6 genera and 14
species were collected, including 8 Delphacodes, 1
Liburniella, 1 Sogatella, 1 Euides, 2 Pissonotus and
nymphs that looked like Stenocranus. Among these,
Delphacodes campestris, D. lateralis, D. mcateei,
D. andromeda, D. uhleri, D. montezumae, Sogatel-
la kolophon, Euides weedi, Pissonotus flabellatus
and P. marginatus are new records for the state.
The counties where D. lutulenta and D. campestris
were collected are shown in Fig. 1. Other species
were collected in Fayette County. Stobaera trica-
rinata was collected from Bullitt County.

! This paper is published with the approval of the
Director of the Kentucky Agricultural Experiment
Station as Journal Article No. 82-7-207.

Fic. 1.
Delphacodes lutulenta (@) and Delphacodes cam-
pestris (*) were collected.

Map of Kentucky showing counties where

162

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 44(3-4)

TABLE 1—LIsT OF KENTUCKY DELPHACIDS WITH ADDITIONAL DATA

Wing forms*

Taxa Collection dates Sex collected B M Identification confirmed by:

Delphacodes lutulenta Van Duzee May 1-Oct 30 Both XxX xX Freytag & Giri
D. campestris (Van Duzee) May—Oct Both xX X Kramer

D. puella (Van Duzee) July—Oct Both xX Xx Kramer

D. lateralis (Van Duzee) Sept 25 é xX X Kramer

D. andromeda (Van Duzee) Aug 14-21 3 xX X Kramer

D. mcateei Muir & Giffard Aug 14-Sept 18 3 xX x Kramer

D. uhleri Muir & Giffard Aug 21-Sept 25 3 X Kramer

D. montezumae Muir & Giffard June 3 3 Xx Freytag & Giri
Liburniella ornata (Stal) May—Nov Both xX xX Kramer
Liburniella sp. Aug 28 2 Xi :

Sogatella kolophon (Kirkaldy) Sept 18-Oct 23 Both XxX Kramer
Euides weedi (Van Duzee) July 24—Oct 23 Both XxX x Kramer
Pissonotus flabellatus (Ball) Aug 7-—Oct 10 Both Xx XxX Kramer

P. marginatus Van Duzee Sept 4 c) xX Kramer
Stenocranus sp. ? June 17-Aug 21 =Nymphs Kramer
Stobaera tricarinata (Say)! > » Metcalf (1943)

* B = Brachypterous, M = Macropterous.
? Slosson 1896.

Some of the planthoppers showed wing dimor-
phism of short wing (Brachypterous) and long wing
(Macropterous) the time of occurrence, sexes, wing-
forms and the persons who confirmed the identifi-
cation are summarized in the Table 1. Most species
were collected from pastures dominated by tall fes-
cue (Festuca arundinacea Schreb.), orchardgrass
(Dactylis glomerata L.) and Kentucky bluegrass (Poa
pratensis L.), with green foxtail (Setaria faberi
Herrm.), Nimblewill (Muhlenbergia schreberi
Gmel.), hairy crabgrass (Digitaria sanguinalis L.)

appearing in the later part of the summer or fall,
either in pure stand or mixed with broadleaf weeds.

We attempted to colonize the species of plant-
hoppers in which both males and females were col-
lected. Delphacodes lutulenta and D. campestris
were colonized on the following plants: F. arun-
dinacea, D. glomerata, P. pratensis, S. halepense,
D. sanguinalis, Triticum aestivum L. Var. Abe
(wheat) and Avena sativa L. (oats). Delphacodes
puella colonized on D. sanguinalis while L. ornata,
S. kolophon colonized on T. aestivum and A. sativa.

TABLE 2.—SPECIES OF DELPHACIDS TESTED FOR COLONIZATION ON GRASSES

Species of Delphacids

Colonized on

Plants tested grasses indicated?

Delphacodes lutulenta i

O09 hy

maf SS

D. campestris JE

. arundinacea, 2. D. glomerata,
. P. pratensis, 4. D. sanguinais,
. S. halepense, 6. T. aestivum,
A. sativa

. arundinacea, 2. D. glomerata,
. P. pratensis, 4. D. sanguinais,
.S. halepense, 6. T. aestivum,

1,5, 6, & 7

D. puella
Liburniella ornata

Sogatella kolophon
Pissonotus flabellatus

P. marginatus

m1 ode

A. sativa

4. D. sanguinalis, 6. T. aestivum,
7. A. sativa

1. F. arundinacea, 6. T. aestivum,
7. A. sativa

6. T. aestivum, 7. A. sativa

1. F. arundinacea, 6. T. aestivum,
7. A. sativa

1. F. arundinacea, 6. T. aestivum,
7. A. sativa

‘ The numbers correspond to the numbers on the column of plants tested.

NOTES

Methods of colonization are discussed by Giri. (dis-
sertation, Univ. Kentucky, 1982). Colonization was
considered successful if oviposition and develop-
ment of immatures to adults took place. All species
tested except the 2 Pissonotus spp. colonized on
one or more of the tested plants (Table 2)—M. K.
Giri and P. H. Freytag,? Dept. of Entomology, Univ.
Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky 40546, USA.

* Graduate Student and Professor.

Tuomeya and Sirodotia, Freshwater Red Algae
New to Kentucky.—The taxonomy, distribution, and
ecology of the freshwater red algae of Kentucky are
poorly known, as exemplified by the recent addition
of 3 red algal genera to Kentucky’s flora (Camburn,
Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci. 43:74-79, 1982). The present
investigation adds Tuomeya americana (Kutzing)
Papenfuss and Sirodotia swecica Kylin sensu Flint
to the known flora. Historically, T. americana has
been referred to as T. fluviatilis Harvey, and all
literature citations herein have used this latter name.

Both T. americana and S. suecica are widely dis-
tributed in the eastern United States (Flint, Fresh-
water Red Algae of North America, Vantage Press,
New York, 1970). Few authors, however, have spe-
cifically addressed the habitat requirements of these
algae. In streams of southern Ontario (Sheath and
Hymes, Can. J. Bot. 58: 1295-1318, 1980), S. swecica
was a minor component of the epilithic flora in rif
fles, while T. americana commonly occurred in rif-
fles as well as areas of slower flow. Tuomeya amer-
icana was likewise reported to grow in great
abundance on rocks in a swiftly flowing stream in
Pennsylvania (Webster, Butler Univ. Bot. Stud. 13:
141-159, 1958).

Tuomeya americana and S. suecica were collect-
ed from the lower reaches of Kinniconick Creek in
northeastern Lewis County, Kentucky, on 15-16
September 1982. This high-quality stream is char-
acterized by frequent, shallow riffles which have
slow to moderate current. Extending upstream from
the mouth, 13 aquatic survey stations were estab-
lished along a 60 km segment of the stream. Tuo-
meya americana and S. suecica occurred at 6 and 1
stations, respectively. Tuomeya americana grew at-
tached to cobbles, boulders, and bedrock in shallow
riffle areas of slow to moderate current. At some
stations, this alga formed profuse growths com-
posed of large, dark, linear masses (up to 5.3 em in
length) which covered most of the rock surfaces in
large areas of the stream. Growth of S. swecica was
restricted to a single boulder in an area of moderate
current.

With these additions, the freshwater red algal
genera known from Kentucky are Batrachosper-
mum, Chroodactylon (as Asterocystis), Lemanea,
Rhodochorton (as Audouinella) (Dillard, An An-
notated Catalog of Kentucky Algae, W. Ky. Univ.,

163

Bowling Green, Ky., 1974), Boldia, Compsopogon,
Thorea (Cambum 1982), Sirodotia, and Tuomeya.
The strickly terrestrial red alga Porphyridium was
reported from the phytoplankton of Kentucky Res-
ervoir (Prather, Kinman, Sisk, Dobroth, and Gordon,
Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci. 43:27-42, 1982): however, this
habitat suggests a probable misidentification.

The apparent rarity of T. americana in Kentucky
is probably due in part to its resemblance to aquatic
bryophytes, while S. swecica is easily confused with
the commonly occurring genus Batrachospermum.
Consequently, their rarity may be a function of mis-
identification as well as a lack of comprehensive
collecting in many regions of the state.

I wish to thank Dr. Franklyn D. Ott, Memphis
State University, for verifying these specimens and
Mr. Melvin L. Warren, Jr. of the Kentucky Nature
Preserves Commission for editorial comments.—
Keith E. Camburn, Kentucky Nature Preserves
Commission, 407 Broadway, Frankfort, Kentucky
40601.

Three-Dimensional Modeling of Residual Sur-
faces Higher-order polynomial regression equa-
tions, in trend-surface analysis, may reflect the vari-
ation in particular values with geographic or spatial
distributions with more accuracy than lower-order
surfaces, but the low-order surfaces may be more
useful in isolating important local or regional trends
that may exist over larger areas. Thus, surface anal-
yses can be considered a process of filtering input
signals (measured values or Z-values), where the
surface represents the resultant signal after filter-
ing. The order of the surface determines the upper
limit of variability or frequency of the input data
that will pass through the gate or filter. Localized
or site-specific variation will be blocked by the filter
when lower orders are used, and it will be increas-
ingly transmitted as the order of the surface in-
creases. This filtering process is in contrast to stan-
dard linear interpolation used in contouring, where
all the input data are taken in equal importance
(Harbough and Merriam, Computer applications in

Lene, ily
gravity, as viewed from the northwest direction.
(Positive residual values are in milligals.)

First order residual surface for Bouguer

Fic. 2. Second order residual surface for Bouguer
gravity, as viewed from the northwest direction.
(Positive residual values are in milligals.)

Fic. 3. Third order residual surface for Bouguer
gravity, as viewed from the northwest direction.
(Positive residual values are in milligals.)

Fic. 4. Fourth order residual surface for Bouguer
gravity, as viewed from the northwest direction.
(Positive residual values are in milligals.)

Fic. 5. Fifth order residual surface for Bouguer
gravity, as viewed from the northwest direction.
(Positive residual values are in milligals.)

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 44(3—4)

stratigraphic analysis, John Wiley, NY, 1967; Doug-
enik and Sheehan, SYMAP user's reference manual,
Harvard U., Cambridge, MA, 1979). However, a vi-
sual check on the accuracy of the filtering mecha-
nism of trend-surface analysis would be very help-
ful in localing sources of noise or localized variation.
In addition, visual inspection would be of great val-
ue in determining the effectiveness of increasing
the order of the regression equations to account for
additional variation of the spatially oriented data.

A recent study by Henning and Smith (Trans. Ky.
Acad. Sci. (abs.) 43 (1-2):92, 1982) dealing with a
gravity survey of Early and Middle Precambrian rock
units in southwestern Marathon County, central
Wisconsin, utilized trend-surface analyses. Bouguer
and free-air gravity values collected from 208 sta-
tions were analyzed to determine regional trends
and sequentially compared with hand-specimen
petrology on representative samples of 738 samples
collected at approximately 100 sites to determine if
an interpretative relationship existed between the
gravity anomalies and major lithographic units in
the area. However, in determining the effects of
increasing the order of the regression equation on
local variation and where residuals were occurring,
the authors created three-dimensional plots at The
University of Akron’s computer center, via an incre-
mental drum plotter reading a data matrix from tape.
The data matrix was created by using SYMAP and
creating a tape file for each residual surface, first
through sixth order, for Bouguer and free-air gravity
values. The original gravity stations were evenly
distributed over the entire study area.

Figures 1 through 5 are representative three-di-
mensional plots of positive residual surfaces of Bou-
guer and free-air gravity values, measured in mil-
ligals. All figures are viewed from the NW, 30° from
the datum plane. Figures 1 through 5 are the first
complete to the fifth-order residual surfaces for
Bouguer gravity, respectively.

From a brief visual inspection of the various
models of the positive residual surfaces (Fig. 1) a
definite NW-SE trend of residual values or local-
ized noise, not explained by the first degree surface,
is illustrated. As one inspects the second residual
surface (Fig. 2), the NW-SE trend is still visable,
as well as a large residual anomaly in the NE comer
of the study area. Figures 3, 4, and 5 illustrate the
greater spatial diversity or spread of the noise in
the gravity values, as the order of the surface in-
creases.—A. D. Smith and R. J. Henning, Dept. of
Geol., East. Ky. Univ., Richmond, Kentucky 40475.

First Records of Ligumia subrostrata, Toxolasma
texasensis, and Uniomerus tetralasmus for Ken-
tucky.—The mussel fauna of Kentucky is relatively
well-known; however, the lowland areas of the
western one-third of the state have only recently
been examined for unionid species. Aquatic biota
surveys in Ohio River tributaries and the lower
Green, Tradewater, and Clarks rivers resulted in
the addition of three pelecypod species to the fauna
of Kentucky: Ligumia subrostrata, Toxolasma

NOTES

(=Carunculina) texasensis, and Uniomerus tetra-
lasmus.

Price (Nautilus 14:75-79, 1900) mentioned L.
subrostrata from Kentucky although no locality or
drainage was given, and based on Price’s report,
Ortmann (Ann. Carnegie Mus. 17:167—189, 1926)
speculated that the species may be present in the
lower Green River. Ortmann’s speculation was re-
cently confirmed upon examination of specimens
from a Pond River oxbow in Hopkins Co. (G. J. Fal-
lo, pers. comm.). Our specimens were collected in
Weirs Creek Swamp (Tradewater River drainage),
13 August 1980, 3.4 km SE of the junction of KY
814 and US. 41A and 6.4 km WSW of Nebo, Hop-
kins Co. and West Fork Clarks River (Tennessee
River drainage), 4 May 1982, at the Ky 131 crossing,
Graves Co. Although these are the first substanti-
ated records of the species from Kentucky, its oc-
currence is not unexpected since the species is
known throughout the Mississippi River drainage
north to Wisconsin and South Dakota (Parmalee, III.
State Mus. Pop. Sci. Ser. 8:1-108, 1967).

The record reported herein for T. texasensis rep-
resents the first published locality for Kentucky. Al-
though some authors regard T. texasensis as a syn-
onym (Johnson, Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool. Harvard
Univ. 149:77-189, 1980) or possible form (Parmalee
1967) of T. parva, we follow Stansbery (Ohio State
Mus. Zool. Rept. No. 4:1, 1982) in assigning the
specific epithet. The species was discovered in
Smith Ditch (Tradewater River drainage) on 9 De-
cember 1981 at the U.S. 60 crossing in Union Co.
Parmalee (1967) characterized the distribution as
the southem Mississippi River drainage with the
northernmost populations occurring in southern I]-
linois.

Although Bickel (Sterkiana 28:7-20, 1967) includ-
ed U. tetralasmus in a list of Kentucky species based
on Simpson (A Descriptive Catalogue of the Naiades,
or Pearly Freshwater Mussels: Parts I and II, Bryant
Walker, Detroit, Mich., 1900), no published drain-
age or locality records are available for the state.
The species was collected from the following Ken-
tucky localities: Craborchard Creek (Tradewater
River drainage), 9 December 1981, at the KY 1340
crossing, Webster Co.; Donaldson Creek (Trade-
water River drainage), 10 December 1981, at the KY
293 crossing, Caldwell Co.; Smith Ditch (Trade-
water River drainage), 9 December 1981, U.S. 60
crossing, Union Co.; Crane Pond Slough (Green
River drainage), 23 July 1980, 3.4 km NE Pleasant
Ridge, Daviess Co.; Capertown Swamp (Ohio River
drainage), 12 May 1981, 6.3 km SW town of Harrods
Creek, Jefferson Co.; Canoe Creek (Ohio River
drainage), 10 September 1908, at U.S. 41A crossing,
Henderson Co. The records cited herein indicate
that U. tetralasmus is widespread in western Ken-
tucky and apparently common in the Tradewater
River. The species is widely distributed in the Mis-
sissippi River drainage (Parmalee 1967).

The 3 species noted herein for the first time in
Kentucky are all inhabitants of ponds, sloughs,
backwaters, and other soft-bottomed lentic environ-
ments (Parmalee 1967). Additionally, as noted, they
are all widespread in the Mississippi River drainage
and have been reported in several surrounding

165

states. Based on the available evidence, the lack of
substantiated records for these species is not due to
their rarity or limiited distribution but is a result of
the neglect of collecting in their preferred habitats.
Most pelecypod surveys have focused on the up-
land portions of Kentucky’s rivers, and little effort
has been directed toward lowland habitats. We feel
that these species are more widely distributed and
common than our records indicate, and the Ken-
tucky range will undoubtedly be expanded as sur-
vey efforts focus on the lowland habitats of western
Kentucky. Nevertheless, documentation of L. sub-
rostrata, T. texasensis, and U. tetralasmus in Ken-
tucky further expands our knowledge of the spe-
ciose Kentucky fauna and emphasizes the need for
additional collecting in poorly known regions of the
state.

We wish to thank Dr. David H. Stansbery, Ohio
State Museum of Zoology, for identifying various
specimens and Mr. Keith E. Camburn of the Ken-
tucky Nature Preserves Commission for editorial
comments.—Melvin L. Warren, Jr., Kentucky Na-
ture Preserves Commission, 407 Broadway, and
Samuel M. Call, Division of Environmental Ser-
vices, 18 Reilly Road, Frankfort, Kentucky 40601.

Comparison of Serum Proteins and Esterases in
Three Subspecies of the Bobwhite Quail (Colinus
virginianus)—This study was conducted to deter-
mine if differences in biochemical characters exist
between 3 subspecies of the bobwhite quail: Coli-
nus virginianus virginianus, Colinus virginianus,
and Colinus virginianus texanus. The presence of
significant dissimilarities could possibly support the
credibility of the subspecies of this species. A num-
ber of avian systematists believe the category of
subspecies to be pointless (Dorst, The Life of Birds.
Columbia Univ. Press, Vol. 1; 1974) because the
subspecies may be synonymous with local popula-
tions (Farner and King, Avian Biology. Academic
Press, New York, Vol. 1; 1971).

Montag and Dahlgren (The Auk 90:318-323, 1973)
found esterases, transferrins, and pre-albumins the
most likely serum components to show intraspecific
variation. This study was, therefore, based upon a
qualitative and quantitative comparison of serum
proteins (including transferrins and pre-albumins)
and serum esterase isozymes.

Sibley and Johnsgard (Condor 61:85-95, 1959) es-
tablished that individual avian species can be iden-
tified by electrophoretic analysis of their sera. Sib-
ley (Condor 102:215-284, 1960) obtained valuable
taxonomic information at the species level by study-
ing avian egg-white proteins using paper electro-
phoresis.

Transferrins are known to show genetic variation
in a wide range of species. Mueller et al. (Genetics
47:1285-1392, 1962) were able to distinguish Co-
lumba livia and C. guinea by means of transferrin
phenotypes. Baker and Hanson (Comp. Biochem.
Physiol. 17:997-1007, 1966) found 3 Branta cana-
densis subspecies to have different transferrin phe-
notypes than those observed in 4 other subspecies.

Quinteros et al. (Genetics 50:579-582, 1964) found

166

origin

gamma region

slow-alpha,

beta

alpha)

albumin

RK,
OF % | :
a a 3
3 3 % €
iS fa a
| a a ‘4
as is 3| a
“A al | (aI -d
y y z| 3
° 0 x 4
ai} | 2 xT ||
wy re) zs) >
>I >I >I >I
ol oO} vu! ol
Fic. 1. Esterase pattern of three subspecies of the

bobwhite quail. Dashed lines indicate esterase iso-
zymes occasionally present.

3 albumin phenotypes, possibly controlled by a pair
of codominant alleles, in the hybrid descendants of
2 species of turkey, Meleagris gallopavo and M.
ocellata. Baker and Hanson (loc. cit.) found the se-
rum albumins of all Branta and Anser geese to be
identical in borate gels except for 1 individual. Al-
though Baker et al. (Comp. Biochem. Physiol. 17:
467-499, 1965) were able to distinguish Phasianus
colchicus from P. versicolor on the basis of serum
albumin mobility, they could not differentiate P.
colchicus subspecies on the basis of any serum pro-
tein.

Kristjansson (Genetics 48:1059-1063, 1963) ob-
served 2 electrophoretically different pre-albumins
in swine. Three pre-albumin phenotypes have been
detected in some inbred strains of mice using starch-
gel electrophoresis (Shreffler, Genetics 49:629-634,
1964). Baker and Hanson (loc. cit.) found consid-
erable individual variation in the pre-albumins of
geese. They observed up to 6 pre-albumin bands,
but no more than 4 bands occurred in any one in-
dividual.

Serum esterases show considerable variation in
the species that have been studied. Glick (Comp.
Biochem. Physiol. 45:109-111, 1973) identified 6

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 44(3-4)

TABLE 1—MEANS OF SERUM PROTEIN FRACTIONS
OF THREE SUBSPECIES OF THE BOBWHITE QUAIL

C. v. flori- c. U. virgin-

danus ianus (Gi, texanus

n=6 n= 39 = 13
pre-albumin 1.78 2.12 2.09
albumin 34.28 29.40 31.81
alpha, 4.38 4.27 4.74
beta 19.58 20.71 19.19
slow-alpha, 13.64 16.92 16.92
gamma 7s) 2s 1040s 6.05

indicates significant difference at the P < 0.05 level.

areas of esterase activity on acrylamide gel from the
sera of New Hampshire chickens. Baker and Han-
son (1966) found quantitative and qualitative vari-
ation in esterase isozymes of geese (Branta and An-
ser), but were unable to show any pattern as being
species specific. Baker et al. (loc. cit.) also found
considerable quantitative and qualitative variation
in serum esterases of the ring-necked pheasant,
Phasianus colchicus. Serum samples from P. ver-
sicolor and subspecies of P. colchicus showed a
similar range of esterase variation (9 main regions
of activity). Kaminski (Nature 209:723-725, 1966),
found 6 active esterase components in the Coturnix
quail.

The bobwhite subspecies used in this study were
obtained from Kentucky and Illinois (C. v. virgini-
anus), Florida (C. v. floridanus), and Texas (C. v.
texanus). Thirty one-day-old Kentucky bobwhites
were obtained from the Game Farm in Frankfort,
Kentucky, and were kept in captivity for 1 year. Fif-
ty 8-week old Illinois birds were obtained from a
game farm at Mt. Vernon, Illinois and were kept in
captivity for 11 months. Six adult Florida and 13
adult Texas bobwhites were trapped in their re-
spective states and kept in captivity for 6 months.
The birds were kept in an isolated room in wire-
floored cages, either individually or in groups, at
ambient temperature and under natural lighting. The
birds were given Purina game bird feed and water
ad libidum. Approximately 1 ml of blood was ob-
tained from the brachial vein of each bird. The blood
was placed in 10 x 75 mm test tubes and allowed
to coagulate. Samples were then centrifuged at 2,000
rpm for 10 minutes after which the serum was re-
moved and stored at —20° C.

Twenty microliter aliquots for total protein and
esterase runs were diluted 1:1 with 0.25 M sucrose
and refrigerated until electrophoresis. The remain-
ing serum was incubated at room temperature for
30 minutes with ferrous ammonium sulfate (0.1
g/ml) for the tranferrin sample, centrifuged, and 20
pl of the supernatant serum were removed and di-
luted 1:1 with 0.25 M sucrose.

Ten % cyanogum 41 polyacrylamide discs were
used for total protein and transferrin separations and
6% discs were used for esterases. Gels were made
up with and run in a Tris Borate buffer, pH 8.2. The
discs were prerun at 36 mA and 200 volts for 30
minutes before the samples were added.

NOTES

Twenty microliter aliquots were applied to each
disc. Total protein separations were run at 36 mA
(3mA per disc) and 200 volts for 4 hours and ester-
ases were run at 36 mA and 200 volts for 2 hours.

After separation the gel discs were stained for
either total proteins, transferrins, or esterase iso-
zymes. Total protein gels were stored at 4°C and
were kept moist until being scanned by a densitom-
eter.

The protein pattern generally observed was com-
posed of 6 regions: pre-albumin, albumin, alpha,,
beta, slow-alpha,, and gamma globulins. Pre-albu-
min was the most anodal in migration followed by
the other fractions in the above order. The pre-al-
bumin portion consisted of the pre-albumin I, mi-
grating just in front of the albumin fraction, and a
pre-albumin II, migrating faster than pre-albumin I
and sometimes separating into 2 bands. The albu-
min component separated into 2 fractions with slight
differences in migration occurring. The alpha, frac-
tion consisted of 2 or 3 faint bands. Beta, the next
fraction, separated into 2 to 5 bands. Occasionally,
the resolution of these beta bands was difficult due
to the high concentration of the beta fraction. Fol-
lowing the beta fraction was the slow-alpha, com-
ponent which separated into 1 large or 2 smaller
bands. No tests were performed to validify the al-
pha fractions; they were named on the basis of pro-
tein fractions generally observed in polyacrylamide
gels (Peacock et al., Science 147:1451-1453, 1965).
The gamma fraction was an arbitrary name given to
any protein fraction migrating slower than the slow-
alpha, band.

Each protein fraction was recorded by a densi-
tometer as per cent of the total scan. A Student’s t-
test was performed on each protein fraction be-
tween the 3 subspecies studied. Table 1 gives the
means for each protein fraction and indicates which
comparisons showed a significant difference. No
significant difference was found between any of the
protein fractions of C. v. floridanus and C. v. tex-
anus. A significant difference was found between
the gamma fractions of C. v. virginianus and C. v.
floridanus and between the gamma fractions of C.
v. virginianus and C. v. texanus. A single classifi-
cation analysis of variance with unequal sample sizes
(Sokal and Rohlf, Biometry, W. H. Freeman and
Company, San Francisco, 1969) was performed to
determine if the difference in gamma fractions was
due to variation among the subspecies or variation

167

within the subspecies. A significant added variance
component was found among the subspecies at P =
0.01. To interpret this added variance, an estimation
of variance components in a single classification an-
ova with unequal sample sizes was performed. This
test showed that 39.17% of the variation occurred
among the 3 subspecies and 60.84% within the sub-
species.

Six main regions of esterase activity were found
in the sera of most of the bobwhites studies. Three
bands migrated in the albumin region. The other
bands migrated in the beta, slow-alpha,, and gamma
regions (Fig. 1). Forty six percent of C. v. virgini-
anus had a faint alpha, region esterase. This band
was not found in the other 2 subspecies. The beta
region band was found in members of each subspe-
cies studied, but all birds did not have it. A few
members of each subspecies showed a fast beta re-
gion esterase. Thirty-six % of C. v. virginianus did
not show the slow-alpha, but all birds of the 3 sub-
species studied had the gamma band.

Johnsgard (Grouse and Quails of North America,
Univ. Nebraska Press, Lincoln, 1973) suggested
southern Mexico as a possible region of origin for
the genus Colinus. The early pre-virginianus stock
probably moved northward along the Gulf Coast,
ultimately reaching the eastern United States where
its expansion was limited on the north by cold win-
ters and on the west by arid climates and sparse
woody vegetation.

Although observed electrophoretic patterns
showed some variation, no pattern was limited to
any 1 subspecies. Different phenotypic patterns
were observed in the alpha, and beta regions but it
was not within the scope of this study to postulate
any specific genetic control. The major esterase
phenotypic variation occurred in the albumin re-
gion. Baker et al. (loc. cit.) found much of the in-
dividual esterase variability in the albumin region
of ring necked pheasants. No esterase pattern could
be correlated with sex, laying status, or subspecies.
The results of this study support the belief of many
avian taxonomists that the subspecies category for
bobwhite quail is pointless. No significant variation
in total protein or esterase electrophoretic patterns
was found among the 3 bobwhite subspecies com-
pared in this study—D. R. Varney and Rebecca N.
Tabatabai, Dept. Biol. Sci., Eastern Kentucky Uni-
versity, Richmond, Kentucky 40475.

Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 44(3-4), 1983, 168-170

NEWS AND COMMENT

Science The following persons have
Education been asked to serve on the
Committee Science Education Com-

mittee during 1983. Presi-

Department of Biology
Northern Kentucky University
Highland Heights, Kentucky 41076.

dent Rodriguez takes this opportunity to ela a tami
thank Ms. Neal for her continuing efforts
on behalf of the Academy of Science.
Floristic The following persons
Anna S. Neal (1984) (Chairperson) Grant Fund have been asked to serve
Fayette County Public Schools Committee on the Floristic Grant

701 East Main Street
Lexington, Kentucky 40502

Fund Committee. Presi-

dent Rodriguez extends his thanks for

]. Truman Stevens (1984) their acceptance of this important respon-

Department of Curriculum and In-
struction

University of Kentucky

Lexington, Kentucky 40506

Sue K. Ballard (1985)

Department of Chemistry
Elizabethtown Community College
Elizabeth, Kentucky 42701

Foster Levy (1985)

Department of Biology

Pikeville College

Pikeville, Kentucky 41501

Joe Winstead (KAS Vice-President)
Department of Biology

Western Kentucky University
Bowling Green, Kentucky 42101.

sibility.

John Thieret (1983) (Chairperson)
Department of Biological Sciences
Northern Kentucky University
Highland Heights, Kentucky 41076

Ralph Thompson (1984)
Department of Biology
Berea College

Berea, Kentucky 40403

Willem Meijer (1985)

Department of Biological Sciences
University of Kentucky

Lexington, Kentucky 40506.

Committee to Study The following
Legislatively persons have

Mandated Education been asked to

Botany President Rodriguez ap-
Foundation preciates the willingness
Fund of the following individu-

als to serve on the Botany
Foundation Committee.

Programs (ad hoc) serve on this im-

portant commit-

tee. President Rodriguez takes this op-
portunity to express his thanks to Dr.
Dixon for his diligence as chairperson of

the committee for the last two years.

Joe Winstead (1983) (Chairperson)
Department of Biology

Western Kentucky University
Bowling Green, Kentucky 42101
William S. Bryant (1983)

Thomas More College

Box 85

Ft. Mitchell, Kentucky 41017

Larry Geismann (1984)
168

Wallace Dixon (Chairperson)

College of Natural and Mathematical
Sciences

Eastern Kentucky University

Richmond, Kentucky 40475

William H. Dennen
Department of Geology
University of Kentucky
Lexington, Kentucky 40506

NEWS AND COMMENT

Anna S. Neal

Fayette County Public Schools
701 East Main Street
Lexington, Kentucky 40502

William F. Wagner
Department of Chemistry
University of Kentucky
Lexington, Kentucky 40506.

Junior Academy of The Academy of
Science Governing Science is greatly
Board indebted to Herb
Leopold for his
long dedication and labors in directing
the affairs of the Junior Academy of Sci-
ence. For these services, President Ro-
driguez expresses his appreciation.

Herbert Leopold (Chairperson)
Department of Health and Safety
Western Kentucky University
Bowling Green, Kentucky 42101

Arvin Crafton (1984)

College of Human Development and
Learning

Room 311, Mason Hall

Murray State University

Murray, Kentucky 42071

J. Truman Stevens (1984) (Editor, KJAS
Bulletin)

College of Education

Department of Curriculum and In-
struction

210 Taylor Education Building

University of Kentucky

Lexington, Kentucky 40506

Stephen A. Henderson (1984) (Trea-
surer)

Model Laboratory School

Eastern Kentucky University

Richmond, Kentucky 40475.

Committee on The Committee

Rare and on Endangered
Endangered Species Species is reap-
(ad hoe) pointed. Presi-

dent Rodriguez

169

thanks the committee members for their
continued service to the Academy.

Branley A. Branson (Chairman)
Department of Biological Sciences
Eastern Kentucky University
Richmond, Kentucky 40475

Jerry Baskin

Department of Biological Sciences
University of Kentucky
Lexington, Kentucky 40506

Donald L. Batch

Department of Biological Sciences
Eastern Kentucky University
Richmond, Kentucky 40475

Wayne Davis

Department of Biological Sciences
University of Kentucky

Lexington, Kentucky 40506.

Et, Gee eae ae Ee

President Rodriguez
thanks Dr. Philley for
assuming the duties
of this committee.

Committee on
Location and
Time of Meeting

John C. Philley

Department of Physical Sciences
Morehead State University
Morehead, Kentucky 40351.

As of 1 January
1984, by mandate
of the Board of Di-
rectors, the mandatory author page
charges for publication in the Transac-
tions of the Kentucky Academy of Sci-
ence are raised to $30.00 per published
page. All authors must be members in
good standing of the Kentucky Academy
of Science.

New Page Charges
for Transactions

The 69th an-
nual meeting of
the Kentucky
Academy of

69th Meeting of the
Kentucky Academy of
Science

170

Science will be held at the University of
Louisville, Belknap Campus, on 11-12
November 1983.

A Drive for There is an urgent need
Membership for all active members to

thoroughly solicit new
members and to urge old members to re-
join our ranks. Please contact all mem-
bers of your department or organization
and urge them to pay their dues or be-
come new members of this fine society.

Two important publica-
tions of interest and im-
portance to Kentucky sci-
entists have recently
appeared in print. Bird Species on Mined
Lands, by Pierre N. Allaire, released by
the Institute for Mining and Minerals Re-

Important
Publications
on Kentucky

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 44(3-4)

search, Lexington, Kentucky, not only in-
cludes photocopies of several original
watercolors by Alan Barron, but it also
includes sections on mining methodol-
ogy, habitats and census methods, habitat
preferences, and a discussion of the bird
species that frequent mined lands and
their management. ($10).

The second publication, prepared by
the Kentucky Nature Preserves Commis-
sion for the Division of Water, Kentucky
Natural Resources and Environmental
Protection Cabinet, is authored by R. R.
Hannan, M. L. Warren, Jr., K. E. Cam-
burn and R. R. Cicerello. 1982. Recom-
mendations for Kentucky's Outstanding
Resource Water Classifications with
Water Quality Criteria for Protection. The
459-page report provides a comprehen-
sive inventory of Kentucky’s most out-
standing aquatic resources, provides
water-quality standards designed for the
protection of the resources, and discusses
the Rare, Endangered or Threatened
species associated with each of the areas
considered.

ABEL, DAVID G., 117
ACADEMY AFFAIRS, 78-90
Acanthepeira stellata, 43
Acer rubrum, 90
A. saccharum, 46-48
Acetylsalicylic acid, 34
Achaearanea sp., 42
Acipenser fulvescens, 113
Acorus calamus, 127
Actinonaias carinata, 13
Adiantaceae, 15
Adiantum pedatum, 15
Adrenocorticotrophin, 92
effects of on isolated rat ad-
renal cells, 92
Aedes hendersoni, 93
A. triseriatus, 93
Aesculus glabra, 47, 48
Agelenidae, 43
Agelenopsis pennsylvanica, 43
Aglenus brunneus, 29, 30, 32
Agonum angustatus, 32
A. tenuicollis, 32
A. sp., 30, 32
Agroeca sp., 44
Alasmidonta viridis, 13
A. calceolus, 13
Alfalfa, 40
spider fauna of, 40
Allen County, 117
Allocosa funerea, 43
Alosa chrysochloris, 113
Amaurobiidae, 40-42
Amblema plicata, 13
Ambloplites rupestris, 107, 113
Ammocrypta clara, 113, 127-128
A. peilucida, 113, 125
Amphiachyris dracunculoides,
55-57
Amphibians, 109
Ancyloplanorbidae, 11
ANDERSON, TERRY P., 90
Anodonta grandis, 13
Anodontoides fercussacianus, 13
Anopheles barberi, 93
Anser, 166
Antibiotic sensitivity, 24
in group A Streptococci, 24
evidence for chromosomal re-
sistance, 24
Anyphaena celer, 44
Anyphaenidae, 44
Aphid, green peach, 145
Aphidius matricariae, 145
effect of temperature on de-
velopment, 145-147
Aplodinotus grunniens, 113
Appalachian watersheds, 135-
145
predicting runoff from, 135-
145
Araneidae, 43

INDEX TO VOLUME 44

Araneus sp., 43

Argiope aurantia, 43

A. trifasciata, 43

Argyrodes fictilium, 42

Ariadna sp., 42

Arson investigations, 93
classroom applications, 93

Arundinaria gigantea, 46

Ascogregarina barretii, 93

Ash, blue, 46

Asplanchna sp., 123

Aspleniaceae, 15

Asplenium bradleyi, 15, 16

A. xX ebenoides, 15, 16

A. montanum, 15, 16

A. pinnatifidum, 15

A. platyneuron, 15, 16

A. resiliens, 15

A. rhizophyllum, 15, 16

A. trichomanes, 15

A. x trudellii, 15, 16

Asteraceae, 90

Asterocystis, 163

Atheta sp., 29-32

Athyrium asplenioides, 15

A. pycnocarpon, 15

A. thelypterioides, 15

Audouinella, 163

Audubon State Park, 23

Avena sativa, 162

Aysha sp., 44

BALLARD, ELLEN M., 93
BARKER, ROBERT L., 77
Barren County, 117
Barren River, 148
BASKIN, CAROL C., 55
BASKIN, JERRY M., 55
Bass, large mouth, 107

rock, 107

small mouth, 107
Bat Cave, 29

beetles of, 29

Carter County, 29
BATCH, DONALD L., 75, 111
Bath County, 12
Bathyphantes pallida, 42
Batrachospermum, 163
Batrisodes sp., 30, 31
Bats, 108
Beargrass Creek, 9
Beavers, 108, 109
Bee Creek, 9
Beetles, 29, 77

riffle, 77

terrestrial, 29
Bembidion wingatei, 30, 32
Berea sandstone, 59, 95

hydrocarbon occurrence in, 59,

95
Betula nigra, 90
Big Sandy River, 14, 21

171

Big South Fork, 112
of the Cumberland, 112
Big Slough, 8
Bivalvia, 12
Blackbirds, 108
Black yeasts, 153
Blarina brevicauda, 68-70, 72
Bluegill, 107
Bluegrass, Kentucky, 162
in Kentucky, 46
outer, 46
savanna-woodland in, 46
Bobcats, 109
Bobwhite quail, 108
Boldia, 163
BONNEY, STEPHEN A., 106
Botrychium dissectum, 14, 15
var. dissectum, 14, 15
var. obliquum, 14, 15
B. johnsonii, 15
B. virginianum, 15
Boyd County, 21
Boyle County, 9
BRANSON, B. A., 77, 103, 111
Brachionus, 123
B. angularis, 117, 122-123
B. calyciflorus, 122
B. havanaensis, 122
Branta, 166
B. canadensis, 165
Brathinidae, 30
Brathinus nitidus, 30, 31
Breckinridge County, 8
Brettanomyces custersianus, 153
B. naardenensis, 153
Broomweed, common, 55
in overgrazed pastures, 55
BRYANT, WILLIAM S., 46
Buckeye, Ohio, 47
Butler County, 8
Bullhead, brown, 126
Bullitt County, 9

Caddisflies, 21, 74

new species records of, 74
CALL, SAMUEL M., 165
Calloway County, 9
Cambarus spp., 108
CAMBURN, KEITH E., 163
Campostoma anomalum, 113
Candida, 153
2. albicans, 151, 154
C. aquatica, 152
C. cifferrii, 152
C. curvata, 152
C. diddensii, 152
C. guilliermondii, 152
C. ingens, 152
G;
G
G
€

Q

. intermedia, 152
. javanica, 152

. lambica, 152

. marina, 152

172 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 44(3-4)

. melinii, 152
. parapsilosis, 152, 154
. rugosa, 152
. sake, 152
. shehatae, 152
. valdiviana, 152
. valida, 152
. zeylanoides, 152, 154
Cane, 46
Canis latrans, 109
Cantharid larvae, 30
Cantharidae, 30
Carabid larvae, 30
Carabidae, 30
Carassius auratus, 113
Carex spp., 68
Carpioides carpio, 113
C. cyprinus, 113
Giispells
C. velifer, 113
Carter County, 29
Carunculina, 165
Carya cordiformis, 48
C. laciniosa, 48
C. ovata, 48
Castianeira sp., 44
Castor canadensis, 108
Catostomus commersoni, 113
Cavefish, southern, 126-127
Cave Springs, §
Celtis occidentalis, 48, 68
Cephalodella sp., 123
Ceraclea ancylus, 22
C. cancellata, 22
C. maculata, 21, 22
C. tarsipunctatus, 22
Ceratinella placida, 42
Ceratinopsis laticeps, 42
Chaenobryttus gulosus, 113
Chaplin River, 9
Cheilanthes lanosa, 15, 16
Cherokee Park, 9
Cherry, black, 47
CHESTNUT, DONALD R., 90
Cheumatopsyche burksi, 22
C. harwoodi harwoodi, 22
C. pettiti, 21, 22
Chipmunks, 108
Chiracanthium inclusum, 44
Cholesterol, serum, 92
effect of running on, 92
CHRISTOPHER, JULIE C., 24
Chromosomal resistance, 24
in group A Streptococci, 24
Chroodactylon, 163
Chrosomus erythrogaster, 113
C. cumberlandensis, 113
Chrysamoeba planktonica, 159
C. pyrenoidifera, 159
C. radians, 159-161
occurrence in Kentucky, 159-
161
Chub, streamline, 126
Cicurina sp., 48

AQNAAAIAAYD

Cincinnati Arch, 92
laurel dolomite of, 92
Clarks River, 9
Clinton County, 8
Clivina sp., 30
Clover Fork, 112
Clubiona abboti, 44
C. sp., 44
Clubionidae, 44
COBB, JAMES C., 92
Coleoptera, 29
Colinus virginianus, 108, 165-
167
comparison of serum proteins
and esterases, 165-167
in three subspecies, 165-167
C. v. floridanus, 165-166
C. v. texanus, 165-166
C. v. virginianus, 165-166
Collotheca mutabilis, 123
COLTHARP, GEORGE B., 135
Columba guinea, 165
C, livia, 108, 165
Colubridae, 108
Colydiidae, 30
Commuting, 1
internal change in intermetro-
politan periphery, 1
Compsopogon, 163
Computer mapping, 59
Conochiloides sp., 123
CONN, DAVID BRUCE, 29
Conochilus unicornis, 117, 122-
123
COOK, BARBARA L., 68
Corallorhiza maculata, 90
C. wisteriana, 90
Coralroot, spotted, 90
Coras sp., 48
Corbicula fluminea, 13
CORGAN, JAMES X., 92
Cornus florida, 90
Cottontail rabbits, 108
Cottus bairdi, 113
C. carolinae, 113
Coyotes, 109
Crabgrass, hairy, 162
Crane Pond, 9
Crappie, 107
Crayfish, 108
CROMLEY, ROBERT G., 1
Cryptococcus, 148, 151, 153
. albidus, 152
. falvus, 152
. gastricus, 152
. hungaricus, 152
. laurentii, 151-152
var. falvescens, 152
var. laurentii, 152
var. magnus, 152
C. luteolus, 152
C. terreus, 152, 154
C. uniguttulatus, 152
CULIN, JOSEPH D., 40

QAAAQAYA

Cumberland Falls, 112
Cumberland Mountain, 14
Cumberland Plateau, 14
Cumberland River Drainage, 8,
111-116, 125
Cutgrass, rice, 127
Cybaeus sp., 43
Cyclosa turbinata, 43
Cyprinid fishes, 103-106
Cyprinus carpio, 113
Cyrnellus fraternus, 22
Cystopteris bulbifera, 14, 15
C. protrusa, 15, 16

Dactylis glomerata, 162
Danazol, 92
binding to specific cytosol re-
ceptors, 92
effects of on cytoplasmic re-
ceptors in female rats, 93
effects of on isolated rat ad-
renal cells, 92
Darter, eastern sand, 127-128
river, 128
Daviess County, 9
DAVIS, WAYNE L., 125
Deer, white-tail, 108
Delphacid planthoppers, 161—
163
of Kentucky, 161-163
Delphacodes andromeda, 161-
162
D. campestris, 161-162
D. lateralis, 161-162
D. lutulenta, 161-162
D. mcateei, 161-162
D. montezumae, 161-162
D. puella, 161-162
D. spp., 161
D. uhleri, 161-162
DeMOSS, GERALD L., 29
Dendrophilus sp., 30
Dennstaedtia punctilobula, 15
Dennstaedtiaceae, 15
Dictyna sp., 42
Dictynidae, 42
Didelphis virginianus, 109
Digitaria sanguinalis, 162
Diospyros virginiana, 48
Diplectrona modesta, 22
Dipoena sp., 42
DIXON, DAVID A,, 111
Dolomedes sp., 43
Dorosoma cepedianum, 113
Dorton Flatwoods, 14
Dove, mourning, 108
Drassodes depressus, 44
D. sp., 44
Drill data ratios, 91
pore pressure determination
derived from, 91
Dryopidae, 77
Dryopteris goldiana, 15, 16
D. intermedia, 15

D. marginalis, 15, 16
Ducks, 108
Dyschirius sp., 30

Ebo sp., 44

Echochara lucifuga, 29-32

Edmonson County, 8

Electric log correlation, 91
pore pressure determination

derived from, 91

ELLIOTT, LARRY P., 148

Elliptio dilatata, 13

Elmidae, 77

Endangered species, 109

Endomycopsis ovetensis, 153

ENZWEILER, RAYMOND, 92

Eperigone tridentata, 42

E. trilobata, 42

Epioblasma triquetra, 12, 13

Ericymba buccata, 113

Eridantes erigonoides, 42

Erigone autumnalis, 40-42

E. blaesa, 42, 45

Erigonidae, 42

Erimyzon oblongus, 113

Eris marginata, 44

E. sp., 44

Esox americanus, 113

E. masquinogy, 113

E. niger, 125-126

Ethanol, 34

Etheostoma blennioides, 113

E. caeruleum, 113

E. camurum, 113

. cinereum, 113

. flabellare, 113

. kennicotti, 113

. maculatum, 113

. nigrum, 113

. obeyense, 113

rufineatum, 113

. sagitta, 113

simoterum, 113

. spectabile, 113

sp., 113

. stigmaeum, 113

. tippecanoe, 113

. variatum, 113

. virgatum, 113

. zonale, 113

Euides, 161

E. weedi, 161-162

Euonymus americanus, 68, 69

E. fortunei, 68, 69

Euryopis funebris, 42

Eustala sp., 43

BRP SPR Pe

Fabaceae, 90
Fallen Timbers Creek, 8
Fern allies, 14

of Pike County, Kentucky, 14
Ferns, 14

of Pike County, Kentucky, 14
Ferrissia rivularis, 11

INDEX TO VOLUME 44

Fescue, tall, 162
Festuca arundinacea, 162
F. spp., 68
Filinia sp., 123
Fire Clay Coal, 90-91
Fish distribution, 111-116, 125—
128
and stream order, 111-116
based upon an information re-
trieval system, 111-116
in Kentucky, 125-128
in the Upper Cumberland
River, 111-116
in the Upper Kentucky River,
111-116
Flag, sweet, 127
Flat Creek, 9
Flint clay parting, 90-91
distribution of, 90-91
voleanic source area for, 90-
91
Florinda coccinea, 42
Fossils, 91
Borden Formation, 91
Foxes, 108, 109
Foxtail, green, 162
FRASS, ROBERT E., 93
Fraxinus americana, 48
F. quadrangulata, 46, 48
FREYTAG, P. H., 163
Frogs, 107-108
Frontinella pyramitela, 42
Fundulus catenatus, 113
F. notatus, 113
F. notti, 125, 127
F., olivaceus, 113
Fusconaia flava, 13
F. maculata, 12, 13
F. subrotunda, 13

Gambusia affinis, 113

Gar, spotted, 125

Gastropod, records for streams
west of the Kentucky Riv-
er Drainage, 8

Gea heptagon, 43

Geese, 108, 166

GILBERT, JOSEPH H., 91

GIRI, M. K., 163

Glischrochilus fasciatus, 30

Gnaphosa sericata, 44

Gnaphosidae, 44

Golden Pond, 9

Goniobasis costifera, 10

G. curreyana, 10

G. laqueata, 10

G. semicarinata, 10

GRAHAM, MALCOLM P., 93

Grammonota capitata, 42

G. inornata, 40, 41, 43

Grayson County, 8

Green County, 8

Green River, 8

drainage, 8

173

Greensburg, 8

Greenup County, 9
Gutierrezia dracunculoides, 55
Gymnocladus dioicus, 48, 68
Gyraulus parvus, 11

HAAG, KIM H., 21
Habitat selection, 68
by small mammals, 68
Habronattus sp., 44
Hahniidae, 43
HAMMOND, RAY, 92
Harlan County, 90, 112
two new orchid records from,
90
Hart County, 8
HAVEN, ROBERTA L., 1
Helichus lithophilus, 77
Helisoma anceps, 11
H. trivolvis, 11
Henderson County, 9, 21
HENNING, R. J., 164
Hentzia sp., 44
Hexarthra mira, 117, 123
JEUNE ILI ANON Ls IL. Pall
Hiodon alosoides, 113, 115
H. tergisus, 113, 115-116
Histeridae, 30
Homaeotarsus, sp., 30
Homoptera, 161
Hopkins County, 9
House Sparrows, 108
Hybognathus nuchalis, 113, 115
Hybopsis amblops, 113
H. dissimilis, 113, 125-126
H. insignis, 113, 116
H. sp., 113
H. storeiana, 113
Hydrobiidae, 10
Hydrocarbon occurrence, 59
computer mapping of, 59
in Berea sandstone, 59
trend-surtace analysis of, 59
Hydropsyche betteni, 22
H. frisoni, 74
H. orris, 22
Esp; 22
H. valanis, 22
Hydropsychidae, 21, 74
Hydroptilidae, 22
Hypentelium nigricans, 113
Hypothesis testing, 17, 75, 91
geophysical applications of, 91

Ichthyomyzon bdellium, 113
I. fossor, 114

I. greeleyi, 114, 125

I. unicuspis, 114

Ictalurus furcatus, 114

I. melas, 114

I. natalis, 114

TI. nebulosus, 114, 125-126
I. punctatus, 114

I. sp., 107

174 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 44(3-4)

Icteridae, 108

Ictiobus bubalus, 114

I. cyprinellus, 114

Indium antimonide, 92

magnetic dimensional reso-

nance of, 92

Tronoquia lyrata, 21-23

I. punctatissima, 22, 23

Jackson County, 112

Jackson Purchase, 125
Jefferson County, 9

Jenny Hole Wildlife Area, 23
JOHNSON, DIANE, 92
Juglans nigra, 48, 68

Kellicottia bostoniensis, 117,
122-123

Kentucky Lake, 9

Kentucky River, 8, 111-116

drainage, 8
Gastropod and Sphaeriacean

clam records for, 8

Keratella americana, 117, 122-
123

K. cochlearis, 117, 121, 123

K. crassa, 117, 122-123

K. earlinae, 121

K. quadrata, 117, 122-123

K. spp., 117

KING, JOE M., 161

Kluyveromyces phaseolosporus,
153

Knox County, 112

KOCH, KATHERINE, E., 93

KUHNHENN, GARY L., 91, 129

Labidesthes sicculus, 114
Laevipex fuscus, 11
Lagochila lacera, 114
Lake Malone, 92
Lake Malone State Park, 92
geology of, 92
Lampetra aepyptera, 114
L. lamottei, 114
L. sp., 114
Lamprey, mountain brook, 125
Lampsilis radiata luteola, 13
L. siliquoidea, 13
L. ventricosta, 13
Land Between the Lakes, 9
Lasmigona costata, 13
Latrodectus mactans, 42
Laurel County, 90, 112
Laurel dolomite, 92
of Cincinnati arch, 92
stratigraphy and petrology of,
92
Laurel River, 112
Lawrence County, 95-102
Lecane cervicornis, 123
Leersia orizoides, 127
Lemanea, 163
Lepisosteus oculatus, 125

L. osseus, 114

Lepomis cyanellus, 114

. gibbosus, 114, 116

. humilis, 114

. macrochirus, 107, 114
. marginatus, 125, 127
. megalotis, 114

. microlophus, 114
Leptoceridae, 22
Leptodiridae, 30
Leucauge sp., 43
Leucosporidium capsuligenum,

lll call callsail ss

153
Liburniella ornata, 161-162
L. sp., 162

Licking River, 12

Ligumia subrostrata, 164-165

Lily Surface Mine Experimental
Area, 90

Limnephilidae, 22

Linyphiidae, 42

Liparis loeselii, 90

Liquidambar styraciflua, 90

Liriodendron tulipifera, 48

Lithasia obovata, 9

L. verrucosa, 9

Lithology, 92

Little Barren River, 8

Little Sandy River, 125

Lizards, 109

Loesel’s twayblade, 90

Logan County, 8

Lonicera japonica, 90

Lota lota, 114

Louisville, 9

Lycopodiaceae, 14, 15

Lycopodium digitatum, 14, 15

L. lucidulum, 15

L. obscurum, 14, 15

Lycosa avida, 43

. carolinensis, 43

. frondicola, 43

_ helluo, 43

. modesta, 43

. punctulata, 48

. rabida, 43

L. ripariola, 43

L. sp., 43

Lycosidae, 43

Lygodium palmatum, 14, 15

Lymnaea columella, 10

L. humilis, 10

L. palustris, 10

Lymnaeidae, 10

Lynx rufus, 109

Lyon County, 9

Peo pee

MacGREGOR, JOHN R., 90, 125
MacQUOWN, W. C., 92
MAGRANE, DAVID, 92, 93
Mammals, small, 68

habitat selection by, 68

in an urban woodlot, 68
Mangora sp., 43

Maple, sugar, 47
Marion County, 9
Marmota monax, 108
Martin’s Fork, 112
MASON, CHARLES E., 91
Mason County, 8
MATTINGLY, ROBERT. R., 50
Maysville, 8
McCOMB, WILLIAM C., 68,
106
McCowans Pond, 9
McCreary County, 112
McPEEK, MARK A., 68
Meade County, 9
Meioneta dactylata, 42
M. micaria, 42
M. unimaculata, 40-42, 45
Meleagris gallopavo, 108, 166
M. ocellata, 166
Menetus, 11
Mephitis mephitis, 109
Mercer County, 9
Metacyrba sp., 44
Metaphidippus galathea, 44
M. sp., 44
Mice, 108
Micrathena sagittata, 43
Microlinyphia pusilla, 42
Micropterus coosae, 114
M. dolomieui, 107, 114
M. punctulatus, 114
M. salmoides, 107, 114
Microtus ochrogaster, 68-72
M. pennsylvanicus, 68, 69, 72
M. pinetorum, 69, 72
MILLER, L. GILES, 90
Mimetidae, 43
Mimetus eperioides, 43
Mimognatha foxi, 43
Mine roof fall, 91
Mink, 109
Minytrema melanops, 114
Misumena vatia, 44
Misumenoides formosipes, 44
Misumenops asperatis, 44
M. spp., 41, 44
Model comparisons, 17, 75, 91
geophysical applications of, 91
Modeling, three-dimensional,
163-164
of residual surfaces, 163-164
Moles, 108
Monroe County, 117
Montgomery County, 12
MOORE, IAN D., 135
MORGAN, BAYLUS K., 95
Morone chrysops, 114
Morus rubra, 48
Mosquitoes, treehole, 93
distribution of, 93
Mount Sterling, 12
Mourning dove, 108
Moxostoma anisurum, 114
M. carinatum, 114

M. duquesnei, 114

M. erythrurum, 114

M. macrolepidotum, 114
Muddy Creek, 9
Muhlenberg County, 9
Muhlenbergia schreberi, 162
Mumfordville, 8

MUNNINGHOFF, DONALD,

92
Murray, 9
Muscrat, 109
Mussels, 14, 164-165
Mustela vison, 109
MYLROIE, JOAN S., 24
Myotis sodalis, 29, 32
Myzus persicae, 145

Naiads, freshwater, 12

Ncclcn sucha exquisita, 22

N. sp., 22

Nemadus horni, 30

Nematomorph worm, 76
egg string of, 76

NEWS AND COMMENTS, 94,

168
Neoantistea agilis, 43
Neoscona arabesca, 43
Nimblewill, 162
Nitidulidae, 30
Nocomis biguttatus, 114, 116
N. effusus, 114
N. micropogon, 114

Notemigonus crysoleucas, 114,

125-126
NOTES, 74-77, 159-167
Notholca spp., 123
Notropis ardens, 114
N. ariommus, 114, 125-126
N. atherinoides, 114
N. blennius, 114
N. boops, 114
N. buchanani, 114
N. chrysocephalus, 114
N. fumeus, 114
N. galacturus, 114
N. hudsonius, 114
N. leuciodus, 105, 114
N. photogenis, 114
N. rubellus, 114
N. sp., 103

cf. spectrunculus, 103
cf. procne, 103
N. spilopterus, 114
N. stramineus, 114, 126
N. telescopus, 103, 114
N. umbratilis, 114
N. venustus, 125-126
N. volucellus, 103, 105, 114
N. whipplei, 114, 126
Noturus eleutherus, 114
N. exilis, 114
N. flavus, 115
N. furiosus, 115
N. gyrinus, 115

INDEX TO VOLUME 44

N. insignis, 115

N. miurus, 115

N. nocturnus, 115

N. sp., 115

N. stigmosus, 115
Nuctenea spp., 43
Nyctiophylax affinis, 22
Nyssa sylvatica, 90

Oak, bur, 46

chinquapin, 46

Shumard, 46

white, 47
Oats, 162
Odocoileus virginianus, 108
Oecetis cinerascens, 22
O. ditissa, 22
O. inconspicua, 22
O. nocturna, 22
O. persimilis, 22
Oecobiidae, 40-42
Oecobius sp., 42
Ohio County, 8, 9
Ohio River, 9

drainage, 9
Omophoron americanus, 30
Ondatra zibethicus, 109
Onoclea sensibilis, 15

Oosporidium margaritiferum,

153
Ophioglossaceae, 14, 15

Ophioglossum pycnostichum,

14, 15

Opossums, 109
Opsopoeodus emiliae, 115
Orchardgrass, 162
Orchid, 90

two new records, 90
Orthotrichia aegerfasciella, 22
O. cristata, 22
OSBORNE, FRANCIS H., 93
OSBORNE, JEANNE S., 93
Osmunda cinnamomea, 15
O. claytoniana, 15
O. regalis, 15
Osmundaceae, 15
Otter Creek, 9
Owingsville, 12
Oxydendrum arboreum, 90
Oxyethira pallida, 22, 23
Oxyopes salticus, 43
Oxyopidae, 43
Oxyptila sp., 44

Pachygnatha autumnalis, 43
P. tristriata, 43
Paragordius sp., 76, 77

egg string of, 76
Parascalops breweri, 108
Pardosa milvina, 43, 44
P. ramulosa, 41, 45
P. saxatilis, 43
Passer domesticus, 108
Peckhamia sp., 44

175

Pelecypoda, 12

Pellaea atropurpurea, 15, 16

Perch, trout, 127

Percina burtoni, 115

P. caprodes, 115

P. copelandi, 115

P. cymatotaenia, 115

P. evides, 115

P. macrocephala, 115

P. maculata, 115

P. oxyrhyncha, 115

P. phoxocephala, 115

P. sciera, 115

P. shumardi, 115, 125, 128

P. squamata, 115

Percopsis omiscomaycus, 125,
127

Peromyscus leucopus, 68-72

Petrographic studies, 91

regression-analysis tech-

niques applied to, 91

Phasianus colchicus, 166

P. versicolor, 166

Phegopteris hexagonoptera, 15

Phenacobius mirabilis, 115

P. uranops, 115

Phenylalanine, C-14, 34

incorporation of in rat spleen

cells, 34

Phidippus audax, 44

P. sp., 44

Philodina sp., 123

Philodromidae, 44

Philodromus sp., 44

Philohela minor, 108

Phrurotimpus sp., 44

Phryganea sayi, 22

Phryganeidae, 22

Physa, 10

P. gyrina, 11

P. heterostropha, 11

P. integra, 11

P. virgata, 11

Physidae, 10

Pichia castilae, 153

P. chambardii, 153

P. etchellsii, 153

P. pijperi, 153

P. trehalophila, 153

Picidae, 108

Pickerel, chain, 126

Pigeons, 108

Pike County, 14

Pimephales notatus, 115

P. promelas, 115

P. vigilax, 115

Pimoa sp., 42

Pine Mountain, 14, 112

Pinus virginiana, 90

Pirata arenicola, 43

P. sp., 43

Pisauridae, 43

Pisaurina mira, 43

P. sp., 43

176 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 44(3-4)

Pissonotus, 161
P. flabellatus, 161-162
P. marginatus, 161-162
P. spp., 163
Planorbula sampsoni, 11
Platanus occidentalis, 48
Platyias patulus, 123
P. quadricornis, 123
Plethodon jacksoni, 157
P. wehrlei, 157-158
in Kentucky and West Virgin-
ia, 157-158
Pleurocera acuta, 9
P. alveare, 10
P. canaliculatum, 9
Pleuroceridae, 9
Ploesoma sp., 117, 123
Poaceae, 90
Poa pratensis, 68, 162
Polyarthra euryptera, 122
P. minor, 117, 122-123
P. spp., 117
P. vulgaris, 117, 122-123
Polycentropodidae, 22
Polycentropus sp., 22
Polygonum sagittatum, 127
Polyodon spathula, 115
Polypodiaceae, 15
Polypodium polypodioides, 15,
16
P. virginianum, 15
diploid, 15
haploid, 15
Polystichum acrostichoides, 15,
16
f. multifidum, 16
Pomatiopsis cincinnatiensis, 10
Pomoxis annularis, 115
P. nigromaculatus, 115
P. spp., 107
Pond Creek, 21, 23
Poor Fork, 112
Porphyridium, 163
Portsmouth, Ohio, 9
Potamilus alatus, 13
Potamyia flava, 21-23
PRINS, RUDOLPH, 117
Prionochaeta opaca, 29, 30, 32
Procyon lotor, 108
Prunus serotina, 47, 48
Pselaphidae, 30
Psephenidae, 77
Psephenus herricki, 77
Psephidonus sp., 30
Pseudanophthalmus packardi,
32
Pseudosuccinea, 10
Ptenidium sp., 30, 32
Pteridium aquilinum, 15
Pterostichus honestus, 31
P. sp., 30, 31
Ptiliidae, 30
Ptychobranchus fasciolaris, 13
Pycnopsyche indiana, 21, 22

P. luculenta, 21-23
P. scabripennis, 21-23
Pylodictis olivaris, 115

Quadrula pustulosa, 13

Q. quadrula, 13

Quail, bobwhite, 108, 165-167
comparison of serum proteins

and esterases, 165-167
in three subspecies, 165-167

Quedius sp., 30, 32

Quercus alba, 46-48

Q. macrocarpa, 46, 48

Q. muehlenbergii, 46, 48

Q. shumardii, 46, 48

Rabbits, cottontail, 108
Raccoons, 108
Rana spp., 108
Rats, 108
Regression analysis, 91, 129
applied to petrographic stud-
ies, 91, 129
Rhinichthys atratulus, 115
Rhizochrysis, 161
R. crassipes, 161
R. limnetica, 161
R. planktonic, 161
R. scherffelii, 161
Rhodochorton, 163
Rhodosporidium sphaerocar-
pum, 153
Rhodotorula, 153
. aurantiaca, 152
. glutinis, 152, 154
. graminis, 152
. lactosa, 152
. marina, 152
. minuta, 152
. pallida, 152
. rubra, 152
spp., 149, 151
Rhus copallina, 90
R. radicans, 90
Rhyacophila fenestra, 22
Rhyacophilidae, 22
RICE, STEPHEN P., 125
Richland Slough, 9
Robinia pseudo-acacia, 48
Rockcastle River, 112
Rockhouse Slough, 9
Rough River, 8
North Fork of, 8
Rosa multiflora, 90
Rotaria, 123
Rotifers, in Barron River Reser-
voir, 117-124
in Kentucky, 117-124
occurrence and distribution of,
117-124
Rubus spp., 90
Runoff, predicting, 135-145
from small Appalachian wa-
tersheds, 135-145

DDD DDD DDD

RUSH, H. HULL, 91
RUSSELL, GAIL, 92

Saccharomycoides ludwigii, 153
Salmo gairdneri, 115
S. spp., 107
Salticidae, 44
Salt River, 9
drainage, 9, 125
Rolling Fork of, 9
Salvelinus fontinalis, 115
Sarinda hentzi, 44
Scalopus aquaticus, 108
Scenic Lake, 21, 23
Schizaceae, 15
Schizocosa bilineata, 43
S. crassipes, 43
Schmidt nets, 74
three-dimensional plotting of,
74
SCHREIBER, ANNE M., 90
Sciuridae, 108
Scotinella, 44
Scydmaenidae, 30
Scydmaenus sp., 30
Segestriidae, 40-42
Selaginella apoda, 16
Semotilus atromaculatus, 115
Sergiolus sp., 44
Setaria faberi, 162
Shepardsville, 9
Shiner, blacktail, 126
golden, 126
palezone, 103-106
popeye, 126
sawfin, 103-106
Sine-Gordon equation, 155-156
Sinking Creek, 8
Sirodotia, 163
S. suecica, 163
Sitticus floridanus, 44
S. sp., 44
Skunks, 109
Slate Creek, 12
SLOAN, PATRICK G., 135
SMATH, RICHARD A., 92
Smilax glauca, 90
SMITH, ALAN D., 17, 59, 74,
76, 91, 95, 129, 164
Smith Creek, 8
SMITH, MARK, 92
Snakes, 108
Sogatella, 161
S. kolophon, 161-162
Soybeans, 40
spider fauna of, 40
Sparrows, house, 108
SPENCER, DEBBIE, 93
Sphaeriidae, 9
Sphaerium fabale, 9
S. similis, 9
S. striatinum, 9
Spider fauna, 40
of alfalfa and soybeans, 40

Spilogale putorius, 109
Spireae tomentosa, 90
Spleen cells, of rats, 34
C-14 phenylalanine incorpo-
ration in, 34
acetylsalicylic acid effect on,
34
ethanol effect on, 34
Sporobolomyces gracilis, 153
S. salmonicolor, 153
SPURLOCK, BEVERLY, 12
Squirrels, 108
STAMPER, GAIL S., 92
Staphylinid larvae, 30
Staphylinidae, 30
Statistical techniques, inferen-
tial, 93
employed in life science jour-
nals, 93
Steatoda americana, 42
Stenelmis sexlineata, 77
Stenocranus, 161
S. sp., 162
Stenus sp., 30
Sterygmatomyces halophilus,
153
STEWART, B. W., 155
Stizostedion canadense, 115
S. vitreum, 115
Stobaera tricarinata, 161-162
Streptococci, 24
antibiotic sensitivity in, 24
evidence for chromosomal re-
sistance, 24
Group A, 24
Streptococcus pyogenes, 24
Strophitus u. undulatus, 13
STUART, JAMES G., 24
Sunfish, dolloar, 127
Sweet flag, 127
Sylvilagus floridanus, 108
Symphitopsyche slossonae, 74
Symphoricarpos orbiculatus, 68,
6

Synchaeta spp., 123
Synema parvula, 44
SZWILSKI, A. B., 91

TABATABAI, REBECCA N.,
167

Tachinus sp., 30

Tamias striatus, 108

TAYLOR, RALPH W., 12

Tearthumb, 127

Temperature, effect on devel-
opment of Aphidius ma-
tricariae, 145-147

Tennesseellum formicum, 42, 45

Tennessee River, 9

drainage, 9

Tetragnatha laboriosa, 40, 41, 43

Tetragnathidae, 43

Thelypteridaceae, 15

Thelypteris noveboracensis, 15

INDEX TO VOLUME 44

Theridiidae, 42
Theridion albidium, 42
T. australe, 42
T. cheimatus, 42
T. differens, 42
T. frondeum, 42
T. lyricum, 42
T. neshamini, 42
T. sexpunctatum, 42
T. sp., 42
Theridula emertoni, 42
T. opulenta, 42
THOENY, WILLIAM T., 75
Thomasidae, 44
THOMPSON, RALPH L., 90
Thorea, 163
Tibellus oblongus, 44
Todd County, 9
Topminnow, starhead, 127
Tornadoes, 50
effects of topography on, 50
Kentucky, 50
Torulopsis, 151
T. anatomiae, 153
T. candida, 152
T. fujisanensis, 152
. glabrata, 153
. haemulonii, 153
. ingeniosa, 153
. insectalens, 153
. torresii, 153
. versatilis, 152
. wickerhamii, 153
. xestobii, 152
Toxolasma texasensis, 164-165
Toxorhynchites sp., 93
Trachelas sp., 44
T. tranquillus, 44
Tradewater River, 9
drainage, 9
TRAPASSO, L. MICHAEL, 50
TRAUB, JOHN H., 129
Trend surfaces, 16, 75
hypothesis testing of, 17, 75
model comparisons of, 17, 75
Trichomanes boschianum, 16
Triaenodes abus, 22
T. connatus, 22
T. flavescens, 22
T. ignitus, 22
T. injustus, 22
T. tardus, 22
Trichocerca spp., 123
Trichoptera, 21, 74
Kentucky, 21
additions to the distribu-
tional list of, 21
Trichosporon, 151, 153
T. brassicae, 152
T. capitatum, 152, 154
T. cutaneum, 152, 154
T. fennicum, 152
T. melibiosaceum, 152
T. penicillatum, 152, 154

RAR AAAs

177

Triglyceride, serum, 92
effect of running on, 92
Triticum astivum, 162
var. Abe, 162
Tritogonia verrucosa, 13
Trophic state analyses, 90
of selected public lakes, 90
Trout, 107
Tuomeya, 163
T. americana, 163
T. fluviatilis, 163
Turkey, 166
wild, 108
Turtles, 109
Twayblade, Loesel’s, 90
Typhlichthys subterraneus, 125-
IP7/

Ulmus americana, 48
U. rubra, 48
Uniomerus tetralasmus, 164-165
Union County, 9
Urocyon cinereoargenteus, 108
Use impairment, 90

of selected public lakes, 90

VANENK, RICHARD A., 148

VARNEY, D. R., 167

Vascular plants, 90

of Lily Surface Mine Experi-

mental Area, 90

Vespertilionidae, 108

Villosa iris, 13

Viviparidae, 10

Viviparus georgianus, 10

Vulpes vulpes, 108

Walckenaeria spiralis, 43

WALLER, JEROME H., 93

Warden’s Slough, 9

Warren County, 8, 148

WARREN, MELVIN L., 165

WEBB, JAMES, 92

Wheat, 162

White-tail deer, 108

Whitley County, 112

WHITTAKER, FRED H., 77

Wildlife information needs, 106
in Kentucky, 106

Woodchucks, 108

Wolf Lick Creek, 8

Woodcock, 108

Woodpeckers, 108

Woodsia obtusa, 15, 16

Wulfila sp., 44

Xanthocephalum dracuncu-
loides, 55

Xysticus auctificus, 44

X. discursans, 44

X. ferox, 44

X. funestus, 44

X. texanus, 44

X. triguttatus, 44

178 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 44(3-4)

X. sp., 44 Yeasts, distribution of, 148-154 Zelotes sp. 44

X. spp., 41 in Barren River, 148-154 Zenaidura macroura, 108
Warren County, Kentucky,

YEARGAN, KENNETH V., 40 148-154

a a

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CONTENTS
Hydrocarbon occurrence in the Berea Sandstone, Lawrence County, Ken-
tucky.) Alan Di Smith\and Baylus KM Mon oan) ene si ececw Ween sue leanne 95
Observations on the palezone and sawfin shiners, two undescribed cyprinid fishes
from (Kentucky. "Branley Allan Branson. 20s 2 ese eae eee cea 103

Wildlife information needs of Kentucky county extension agents. William C.
MceGombiand ‘Stephen’ Av Borne yi eee oe gees Cera cena See ee 106

Correlation of fish distribution and stream order in the Upper Cumberland and
Upper Kentucky rivers based upon an information retrieval system. David

A. Dixon, Branley A. Branson and Donald L. Bathe icc ccccecce eset etnenene lll
Occurrence and distribution of rotifers in Barren River Reservoir, Kentucky.
David:G Abeliand Rudolphi Prins {oo eee ue ea aan eA eee eee 117

Distributional records for fourteen fishes in Kentucky. Stephen P. Rice, John R.

MacGregor and Wayne L. Davis 125
Regression analysis techniques applied to petrographic studies. Alan D. Smith,
Gary LE Ruhnhenn and: Jonmnkl sy Grattan eee ee eae 129
Predicting runoff from small Appalachian watersheds. Ian D. Moore, George B.
Goltharp and (Patrick Gu Slory Qe Cee GUN SE Ais COUN d Mane Na 135
The effect of temperature on the rate of development of Aphidius matricariae
Haliday (Hymenoptera: Aphidiidae). M. K. Giri, B. C. Pass and K. V.
Dif 771k] 11 7 RO NO NN est AO Ve DH Rha e LONE Renu ee) Ea arte LAM ok a 145
Distribution of riverine yeasts in the Barren River, Warren County, Ken-
tucky. ‘Richard Ai VanEnk andi Garryy Pes BUio tts nein centre eee eee 148
The Sine-Gordon Equation in an anisotropic cosmological background. B. W.
NS 21017 1 a eae teen ENE ae MOU AN BR EAEHUILR Wh or GPR ARUN RUSS en 155
A new variant of Plethodon wehrlei in Kentucky and West Virginia. Paul V.
Cupp: [rand Donald: Te Tousles fe BARE SONA Ry eae or ee ae 157
NOTES
A report on the occurrence of Chrysamoeba radians Klebs (Chrysophyceae) in Ken-
tuck Oe sii cine Wee Sa te case eee eh ee Biya alate)
Some delphacid planthoppers of Kentucky (Homoptera), M. K. Giri and P. H.

Bre yt 2h AE BD SEE AAC ES VL a 161
Tuomeya and Sirodotia, freshwater red algae new to Kentucky. Keith E. Camburn. 163
Three-dimensional modeling of residual surfaces, A.D. Smith and R. J. Henning... 163
First records of Ligumia subrostrata, Toxolasma texasensis, and Uniomerus tetralas-

mus for Kentucky. Melvin L. Warren Jr. and Samuel M. Call 0c cccccooten eee 164
Comparison of serum proteins and esterases in three subspecies of the bobwhite quail

(Colinus virginianus). D.R. Varney and Rebecca N. Tabatabai 0... 165

News and Gomme mts ko Ee OU Std nde EU A Rt a a OCS
Dane eye heh SSO cu NS UL CIAO cL NCR UL a AOE UN Os HL UN Upc RIE Wat

t

ux ANSACTIONS
ted Ee

BeNTUCKY
CADEMY OF

| Volume 45

LOaNG Numbers 1-2
AMT HSN, |
ARS RRL March 1984

Official Publication of the Academy ch

The Kentucky Academy of Science
Founded 8 May 1914

OFFICERS FOR 1984

President: Gary W. Boggess, Murray State University, Murray 42071

President Elect: Joe Winstead, Western Kentucky University, Bowling green 42101
Past President: J. G. Rodriguez, University of Kentucky, Lexington 40506

Vice President: Charles Covell, University of Louisville, Louisville 40292

Secretary: Robert Creek, Eastern Kentucky University, Richmond 40475
Treasurer: Morris Taylor, Eastern Kentucky University, Richmond 40475

Director of the Junior Academy: Herbert Leopold, Western Kentucky University,
Bowling Green 42101

Representative to AAS: Allen L. Lake, Morehead State University, Morehead 42101

BOARD OF DIRECTORS

Mary McGlasson 1984 Manuel Schwartz 1986
Joe Winstead 1984 Garrit Kloek 1986
Paul Freytag 1985 James Sickel 1987
William Baker 1985 Lawrence Boucher 1987

EDITORIAL BOARD

Editor: Branley A. Branson, Department of Biological Sciences, Eastern Kentucky University,
Richmond 40475

Index Editor: Varley E. Wiedeman, Department of Biology, University of Louisville,
Louisville 40292

Abstract Editor: John W. Thieret, Department of Biological Sciences, Northern Kentucky
University, Highland Heights 41076

Editorial Board: Jerry Baskin, Thomas Hunt Morgan, University of Kentucky,
Lexington 40506 1985
James E. Orielly, Department of Chemistry, University of Kentucky,
Lexington 40506 1985
Donald L. Batch, Eastern Kentucky University, Richmond 40475 1987
J. G. Rodriguez, Department of Entomology, University of Kentucky,
Lexington 40506 1984
All manuscripts and correspondence concerning manuscripts should be addressed to the Editor.
Authors must be members of the Academy.
The TRANSACTIONS are indexed in the Science Citation Index. Coden TKASAT.

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|
.

TRANSACTIONS of the

KENTUCKY

ACADEMY of SCIENCE

March 1984
VOLUME 45
NUMBERS 1-2

Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 45 (1-2), 1984, 1-13

Gene Frequencies in Domestic Cat Populations
of South-Central Kentucky

DANIEL J. TWEDT:

Department of Biology, Western Kentucky University, Bowling Green, Kentucky 42101.

ABSTRACT

Gene frequencies were estimated from independent surveys of 223 cats in Warren County and 114 cats in Logan
County, Kentucky. Estimated gene frequencies in the combined south-central Kentucky cat population. Based on
coefficients of genetic identity, the cats of south-central Kentucky are genetically more similar to populations of
southwestern North America than to northeast populations. An hypothesis for this similarity, based on Missis-

sippi River trade routes, is proposed.

INTRODUCTION

Gene frequencies for color, pattern, and
length of coat have been reported in world-
wide domestic cat populations. Although
data have been presented for several North
American cat populations, information from
much of the south-eastern United States is
lacking. To fill this void, surveys were con-
ducted from September 1980 through Decem-
ber 1981 to ascertain the gene frequencies in
domestic cat populations of Warren and
Logan Counties in south-central Kentucky.

METHODS

Phenotypes of cats from Warren and
Logan Counties were recorded for free-
ranging cats observed by the author. Both
phenotype and location were recorded to
minimize the likelihood of duplicate record-
ings. Mutant alleles considered in these
surveys included: sex-linked non-orange vs
orange (0+,0); and autosomal agouti vs non-
agouti (a*,a); striped vs blotched tabby (t*, tb);

1Present address: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Ken-
tucky Research Station, 334 15th Street, Bowling Green,
Kentucky 42101

intense vs dilute pigmentation (d*,d); white
spotting vs non-spotted (S,S*); dominant
white vs. pigmented (W,W*); Siamese dilu-
tion vs non-Siamese (cS,c*); and short vs long
hair (L*L). Nomenclature follows that of the
Committee on Standardized Genetic Nomen-
clature for Cats (3). Robinson (9, 10) detailed
the modes of inheritance and interaction of
these alleles.

Recessive allelic frequencies (q) were cal-
culated as the square root of the observed
phenotype frequencies. Dominant allelic
frequencies (P) were calculated as 1-q. Stan-
dard errors were obtained as_ 1-q?/4N and
(2-P)P/4N for recessive and dominantalleles,
respectively. Sex ratios were determined by
maximum likelihood estimates (11). Con-
formity to the Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium
was determined by chi-square comparison
of observed and expected phenotypes of
sex-linked orange. Gene frequencies between
the Warren and Logan County cat popula-
tions of other North American cities was
determined by calculating coefficients of
genetic identity (8), based on 5 loci (0, a, t, d,
and W) as employed by Anderson and Jen-
kins (1).

2 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 45(1-2)

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The Warren County sample consisted of
223 cats; 114 cats were sampled in Logan
County. Analyses of the observed and ex-
pected distribution of sex-linked orange
(Table 1) indicate only the Logan County
population appears to conform the Hardy-

TaBLE1. Numberofobservedandexpected( ) genotypes
and estimated gene frequencies (+- standard error) of the
sex-linked non-orange (0+), orange (0) allele in two south-
central Kentucky cat populations.

Phenotype Warren County Logan County Combined
(genotype)

Orange (0/-) 26 (32.5) 22 (25.1) 48 (57.0)
Orange (0/0) 7 (3.1) 4 (2.3) 11 (5.4)
Tortoiseshell 19 (20.3) 10 (10.3) 29 (31.0)
(0+/0)

Black (0+/0+) 31 (33.6) 10 (11.4) 41 (44.6)
Black (0+/-) 114 (107.5) 59 (55.9) 173 (164.0)
x2 6.88 1.99 8.15
Pidf=2) P=0.03 P=0.37 P=0.02
qo 0.232+-0.035 0.310+-0.046 0.258+-0.028

Estimated gene frequencies for autosomal
alleles were calculated for both samples bya
maximum likelihood method (Table 2). Sia-
mese phenotypes have been excluded from
gene frequency calculations as suggested by
Todd and Todd (13), but the incidence of
Siamese cats is included in Table 2. Esti-
mated gene frequencies differed significantly

Reno

Los Mochis
+975

Mexico
-992

FIG.1

-965 Chicago Columbus
5 972 95)
" jenver : é
San Francisco 995 SY tants Champaign
~993 983
~961 x
S.C. Kentucky
Phoenix Benton :
~927 +998 aS
Lubbock a
~989 Houston

Vera Cruz
+958

Weinberg equilibrium (X2=1.99; P=0.37), thus
warranting the assumption of panmixia.
The sex ratio deviates significantly from 1:1
with a greater proportion of males in both
Logan County (X2=30.9; P<0.01) and in
Warren County (X2=40.48; P<0.01).

TABLE2. Number of observed mutant phenotypes, “wild”
phenotypes, and estimated gene frequencies (* standard
error) in two south-central Kentucky cat populations.

Phenotype Warren County Logan County

(allele) mutant (wild) mutant (wild) Combined
Non-agouti (a) 117 (47) 845+-.021 42 (32) .753£-.038 8174-019
Blotched tabby 471) 2314-056 3 (54) .229+-.064 .2304-.042
(t?)

Dilute (d) 17 (179) .294+-.034 9 (96) .293+-.047 294+-028
White spotting 100 (97) .298+-.025 46 (59) .250+-032 281+-.020
(S)

Long hair (1) 17 (196) .282+-:031 23 (89) 453+-.042 351+-026
Dominant 16 (197) .038+-.009 7 (105) .023+-.012 036+.007
White (W)

Siamese (cS) 10 (213) 4.48% 2(112) 1.75% 3.56%

* Incidence of Siamese cats

between the Logan and Warren County cat
populations only for non-agouti (X2=4.89;
P=0.03) and long hair (X2=10.72; P_ 0.01).
Data from both counties were combined
to obtain the estimated gene frequencies in
the cat population of south-central Ken-
tucky (Tables 1 and 2). Estimated gene fre-
quencies in other North American cat popu-

Halifax
+947

Boston
943

New York
+950

Coefficients of genetic identity between south-central Kentucky and other North American cat populations.

(A coefficient of 1.00 indicates genetically identical populations.)

GENE FREQUENCIES IN CATS— Twedt

lations have been summarized by Gerdes (6),
Fagen (5), Morrill and Todd (7), and Ander-
son and Jenkins (1). Coefficients of genetic
identity between the cat population of south-
central Kentucky and the cat populations of
other North American cities (Fig. 1), indicate
the south-central Kentucky cat population
appears to be shifted from the ‘Anglo’ cat
population of eastern North America and
has a greater genetic similarity to the ‘Spa-
nish/Mexican’ cat population of western
North America as identified by Todd et al.
(12). Possible explanations for the deviation
of the Phoenix and Vera Cruz cat popula-
tions from other ‘Spanish/ Mexican’ popula-
tions are offered by Todd et al. (12).

The high degree of similarity between this
Kentucky cat population and the ‘Spanish/-
Mexican cat populations of Texas and other
western cities is unexpected based on Ken-
tucky immigration patterns. Several south-
central Kentucky communities were first
established around 1780 with increased
European immigration beginning shortly
thereafter (4). By 1800 the human population
of the two counties had grown to over 10,000
(2). The population more than doubled dur-
ing the next 10 years and by 1810 was over
24,000 (14). (Political boundaries have not
remained consistent since original counties
were established.) The majority of these
immigrants, originating in the former Brit-
ish colonies of Virginia, Maryland, and the
Carolinas, entered Kentucky via the Cum-
berland Pass with additional immigrants
moving down the Ohio River from Penn-
sylvania.

Between 1785 and 1795 Mississippi River
trade between Kentucky and the territories
of New Spain was at its zenith. Additionally,
the colonization schemes of Spain in the
central Mississippi River Valley culminated
during these years (4). These activities, coin-
ciding with the initial pre-1800 settlement of
south-central Kentucky, may have provided
‘Spanish/ Mexican’ cats, which in turn pro-
duced sufficient offspring to resist the influ-
ence of ‘Anglo’ cats arriving with the later
post-1800 influx of ‘Anglo’ immigrants. These
hypothetical cats of ‘Spanish/Mexican’ lin-
eage could account for the high degree of

genetic identity between the cat population
of south-central Kentucky and the cat popu-
lations of Texas and other western cities.
Estimated gene frequencies in cat popula-
tions of Tennessee, Arkansas, Mississippi,
and Louisana are needed to further eluci-
date this hypothesis.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I thank E. Gray, Western Kentucky Univer-
sity, Bowling Green, Kentucky; N. B. Todd,
Carnivore Genetics Research Center, New-
tonville, Massachusetts; and S. J. Silvey, U.S.
Fish and Wildlife Service, Bowling Green,
Kentucky for their assistance in data analy-
sis and manuscript preparation.

LITERATURE CITED

1. Anderson, M. M., and S. H. Jenkins. 1979. Gene
frequencies in the domestic cats of Reno, Nevada: con-
firmation of a recent hypothesis. J. Hered. 70:267-269.

2. Clift, G. G. 1970. Second census of Kentucky 1800.
Genealogical Publishing Co., Baltimore, Md.

3. Committee on Standardized Genetic Nomencla-
ture for Cats. 1968. Standardized genetic nomenclature
for the domestic cat. J. Hered. 59:39-40.

4. Connelley, W. E.,and E. M. Coulter. 1922. History of
Kentucky; Vol. 1, C. Kerr(Ed.). The American Historical
Society, Chicago, Ill.

5. Fagen, R. M. 1978. Domestic cat demography and
population genetics in a midwestern U.S.A. metropoli-
tan area. Carnivore 1:60-68.

6.Gerdes, R. A. 1973. Cat gene frequencies in five
Texas communities. J. Hered. 64:129-132.

7. Morrill, R. B., and N. B. Todd. 1978. Mutant allele
frequencies in domestic cats of Denver, Colorado. J.
Hered. 69:131-134.

8. Nei, M. 1972. Genetic distance between popula-
tions. Am. Nat. 106:238-292.

9. Robinson, R. 1959. Genetics of the domestic cat.
Bibliographia Genetica 18:273-362.

10, __________. 1971. Genetics for cat breeders.
Pergamon Press, Oxford.
11. __________. 1972. Mutant gene frequencies in

the cats of Cyprus. Theor. Appl. Genet. 42:293-296.

12. Todd, N. B., G. E. Glass, and D. Creel. 1976. Cat
population genetics in the U.S. Southwest and Mexico
Carniv. Genet. Newsl. 3:43-54.

13.________,and L. M. Todd. 1976. Mutantallele
frequencies among domestic cats in some areas of
Canada. J. Hered. 67:368-372.

14. Wagstaff, A. T. 1980. Index to the 1810 census of
Kentucky. Genealogical Publishing Co., Inc., Baltimore,
Md.

Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 45(1-2), 1984, 4-13

Influence of Support Systems on the Occurence
and Distribution of Roof Falls in Selected
Coal Mines of Eastern Kentucky

ALAN D. SMITH

Coal Mining Administration, College of Business
Eastern Kentucky University, Richmond, Kentucky 40475

RICHARD T. WILSON

Department of Geology, Eastern Kentucky University

ABSTRACT

Mine roof support and resupport systems in coal mines are the leading element of expense in ground control.
Selected parameters associated with support systems were collected in 5 coal mines, located in Pike, Martin, and
Floyd Counties, eastern Kentucky, to aid in determining the degree of relationship among support and resupport
systems on the occurence and distribution of mine roof falls. A total of 250 falls were measured that involved 4 coal
seams: Peach Orchard, Brods, Pond Creek, and Fire Clay.

Results illustrate the vast majority of falls occured either in the entry or intersection, had spans of approximately
20 feet, portrayed some presence of water before the actual fall, occured in less than 30 weeks after initial coal
extraction, usually were located more than 100 feet from the nearest coal face, gave evidence of cracks in mine roof
before occurrence of the fall, generally presented a stable roof profile before the fall, showed presence of sloughing
of coal ribs, and exhibited little or no evidence of floor heave. Most roofs were either originally supported by
mechanical anchor bolts (57.2%) or resin bolts (38.8%); very rarely did the roof fail if supported by posts or cribs. The
results of 7 research hypotheses testing the relationship of the type of initial mine roof support system and
selected physical parameters illustrated that only 2 hypotheses were statistically significant. In general, the
shorter the time between coal excavation and the mine roof fall, the greater the frequency of full column or resin
roof bolts were in use. Also, sloughing of the coal ribs were associated with a greater occurence of resin roof bolts.

INTRODUCTION

Roof fall occurrence is a common ground
control problem. In fact, roof falls are so
common many mining operatings consider
them a part of the regularly computed
downtime (1, 2). In some instances, it may
cost as much to clean up a fall as it does to
mine actual coal. The loss of revenues asso-
ciated with downtime is not the only tragedy
involved; there is sometimes a loss of life.
Roof falls are the major cause of death in
underground coal mines in the United States,
accounting for over 50 percent of all fatali-
ties (2). Nearly all roof failures can be traced
to 2 major causes: 1 the interaction of
stresses in the roof, pillars and floor exceeded
the rupture point of the roofrock strata; and
2 geological disturbances in the immediate
roof, such as slickslides, channel sands,
transition zones, rider coal seams, kettle-
bottoms, cracks and joints, and the pres-
ence of water, are often associated with roof
falls (3,4,5,6).

As Coal is excavated, stresses are set up in

the mine roof because the equilibrium of the
in-situ stress state is upset, resulting in
pressures that cause fractures and slight
movements that are frequently difficult to
detect. Unless the immediate roofin the exca-
vated area is given support by artificial
means, an increasing probability of a roof
fall or a succession of falls, highly variable in
size, exists. The two broad types of roof
support systems involve the artificial sup-
port of the immediate roof above the coal
and the main roof. In general, artificial sup-
port for mining purposes is only concerned
with the immediate roof, since large blocks
of solid coal or pillars will support the main
roof.

SUPPORT SYSTEMS

If the immediate roof is made of inter-
bedded material, laterally continuous and
void of irregularities, it can be supported (3).
The most widely used method of support-
ing underground entries is the roof bolt (1,7).
Roof bolts have been found to have some

INFLUENCE OF SUPPORT SYSTEMS IN MINES—Smith E

advantages over other types of roof sup-
ports, such as timbers, posts, or cribs. Pro-
duction has increased and fatalities have
decreased since the introduction of roof
bolts in the 1950's (7). Most estimates place
the current roof bolt consumption at slightly
over 100 million per year. At an in-place cost
of approximately $10 per bolt; this repres-
ents an annual effort of over $1 billion. Of all
the roof bolts installed, mechanically an-
chored bolts account for about three-
quarters of all the bolts. However, in spite of
such extensive use of rock bolts, the mecha-
nism by which bolts provide support is not
completely understood. Each year a large
number of injuries are caused by bolt fail-
ures at the rib and roof areas. Maintaining
adequate tension in the bolts adds substan-
tially to the competence of the roof strata by
the mechanisms of suspension, friction,
and keying (8,9).

Peng (1) documents the existence of a
high correlation between roof fall fatalities
and questionable roof support practices. In
addition, roof-bolt length often determines
the height of the fall by holding more roof
strata together and causing it to fall as a
single unit (5). Peng (1) suggested that roof
bolts do not adequately perform under the
following conditions: 1 the bolts are too
short to anchor in a suitable horizon and
thus permit excessive bleedoff of bolt ten-
sion; 2 the bolts do not adequately torque
during installation; 3 the bolts are not rou-
tinely checked for bleedoff; 4 the roof falls at
or above the anchorage horizon.

The blasting of coal or rock places high
stresses on the roof strata and can adversely
affect roof bolts in the strata (10). Blasting
has been linked to the loss of bolt tension,
the breaking and bending of bolts, and
cracks in the roof causing the roof rock to
lose its ability to support a load, thus initiat-
ing roof falls.

Vibrations caused by machinery associated
with mining may also lead to roof bolt fail-
ures. These vibrations are transmitted into
the bolt anchorages by the operation of
transportation systems in the immediate
area of the roof bolts.

RESUPPORT SYSTEMS

Most roof falls are not cleaned up and
resupported because resupporting these
roof falls often exposes men and equipment
to dangerous unsupported roofs. Inspec-
tion of roof fall statistics by Sterns, et al. (11)
indicate that 5 per cent of all roof fall fatali-
ties occurred during resupport operations.
The process is also very expensive and
unless it is a vital entry, such as a beltway,
haulage, or aircourse, it is abandoned (11,12).
Supports made of cribbing or beams in
some Cases are not effective protection due
to the shrinkage of timbers, thus losing con-
tact with the rock.

Conventional methods of rehabilitating
mine roofs include: 1 drive a bypass around
the fall (this has a low initial cost but can
lower production by reducing haulage
speeds and causing the rerouting of tracks
and belts); 2 cribbing of the fall by the use of
posts, cribbs, steel beams or headers. Re-
support by this method reduces production
by narrowing passages and therefore slow-
ing haulage speeds (12). An alternative to
standard roof resupport is the steel arch
canopy. This method has been proven effec-
tive in minimizing exposure of miners to
dangerous roof resupport work. However,
canopies are often prohibitively expensive.

METHODS

Cooperation by 4 mining companies,
located in Pike, Martin, and Floyd Counties,
allowed the investigation and data collec-
tion of mine roof falls in 5 different coal
mines (Fig. 1) to aid in the determination of
the influence of support/resupport systems
on the occurrence and distribution of roof
falls in eastern Kentucky. A total of 250 falls
were measured and involved 4 coal seams:
Peach Orchard, Broas, Pond Creek, and Fire
Clay. Multiple linear regression analysis
techniques (13) were performed, via SPSS
(Statistical Package for the Social Sciences)
and DPLINEAR (Double Precision Linear
Regression), to test hypotheses relating type
of support before the fall (coded either resin
or nonresin for discriminative analysis pur-
poses) with selected physical parameters. In

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 45(1-2)

LEGEND

= Adit
3B Slope Adit
= Shaft

- Peach Orchard Coal Seam
- Broas Coal Seam

- Pond Creek Coal Seam

- Pond Creek Coal Seam

- Fire Clay Coal Seam

mHoOaNDDS

Scale

5 (0) 5 10 miles

FIGURE 1

addition, a combination of the computer
softward packages of SPSS and PLOTALL, a
computer-graphics software to generate fre-
quencies and visual profiles of the distribu-
tion of selected parameters, were com-
pleted. Specifically, the variables collected
and analyzed concerning type of support
before and after the fall, length of bolts
before and after the fall, and descriptions of
the original support and resupport systems.
Associated parameters that are related to
support systems and their design that were
also studied included: location of the fall,
mine roof span, presence of water before the
fall, time of roof fall after coal excavation,
distance to the nearest coal face, presence
of cracks before the fall, assumed condition
of the roof before the fall, sloughing of coal
ribs before the fall, and presence of floor
heave condition before the fall.

Prestonbure
&

pPikeville

PIKE

Location of entrances to the coal seams for the mines studied.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Table 1 illustrates the summary of fre-
quency counts, relative frequencies, and
cumulative frequencies for support and
associated physical parameters for the mine
roof falls studied. Table 2 represents a sum
mary of the F-ratios, probability levels, R? for
both the full and restricted models, degrees
of freedom, and significance for each re-
search hypothesis testing discriminative
relationships among the type of support
system (resin or nonresin) before the occur-
rence of the mine roof fall and selected
physical parameters. Figs. 2 through 6 gra-
phically display the distribution of the type
of support and resupport system (Fig. 2 and
3, respectively), location of the fall (Fig. 4),
span of the roof or entries (Fig. 5), and
assumed condition of the roof before the
occurence of the fall (Fig. 6).

INFLUENCE OF SUPPORT SYSTEMS IN MINES— Smith

TABLE 1.—SUMMARY OF FREQUENCY COUNTS, RELATIVE FREQUENCIES, AND CUMULATIVE FREQUENCIES
FOR SUPPORT SYSTEMS AND ASSOCIATED PHYSICAL PARAMETERS.

Parameter Value Absolute Relative Adjusted

Label Frequency Frequency (%) Cumulative
Frequency\%)

Location of Fall ENTRY 101 40.4 40.4
CROSSCUT 35 14.0 54.5
INTERSECTION 86 34.4 88.8
HAULAGE ROAD 20 8.0 96.8
BELTWAY 4 1.6 98.4
AIRWAY 4 1.6 100.0
TOTAL 250 100.0

Mine Roof Span 16.0 1 0.4 0.4

(ft.) 17.0 2 0.8 1.2
18.0 17 6.8 8.0
19.0 27 10.8 18.8
20.0 203 81.2 100.0
TOTAL 250 100.0

Presence of WaterYES 195 78.0 78.0

Before the Fall NO 55 22.0 100.0
TOTAL 250 100.0

Time of Roof Fall 0.00-0.99 23 9.2 10.0

After Coal 1.00-1.99 23 9.2 20.0

Excavation 2.00-2.99 16 6.4 27.0

(weeks) 3.00-3.99 9 3.6 30.9
4.00-4.99 25 10.0 41.7
5.00-9.99 19 7.6 50.0
10.00-19.99 22 8.8 59.1
20.00-29.99 28 11.2 Wales
30.00-39.99 10 4.0 75.7
40.00-49.99 7 2.8 78.7
50.00-99.99 23 G4 88.7
100.00-199.99 16 6.4 95.7
200.00-599.99 10 4.0 100.0
MISSING 20 8.0 100.0
TOTAL 250 100.0

Distance to the 0.0-9.9 16 6.4 7.0

Nearest Face (ft.) 10.0-24.9 4 1.6 8.7
25.0-49.9 3 1.2 10.0
50.0-74.9 14 5.6 16.6
75.0-100.0 15 6.0 23.1
101- 176 70.4 100.0
MISSING 21 8.4 100.0

TOTAL 250 100.0

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 45(1-2)

Cracks in Roof YES 188 75.2 85.1

Before Fall NO 33 13.2 100.0
MISSING 29 11.6 100.0
TOTAL 250 100.0

Assumed EXCELLENT 1 0.4 0.4

Condition of the VERY GOOD 6 2.4 2.8

Roof Before the GOOD 152 60.8 63.6

Fall POOR 79 31.6 95.2
VERY POOR 12 48 100.0
TOTAL 250 100.0

Sloughing of Coal YES 108 43.2 47.0

Ribs Before the NO 122 48.8 100.0

Fall MISSING 20 8.0 100.0
TOTAL 250 100.0

Presence of Floor YES 7 2.8 3.1

Heave Before the NO 220 88.0 100.0

Fall MISSING 23 C4 100.0
TOTAL 250 100.0

Type of Support RESIN BOLTS 97 38.8 38.8

Before the Fall ANCHOR BOLTS 143 57.2 96.0
POST 1 0.4 96.4
CRIBBS 3 ple! 97.6
NOT SUPPORTED 6 2.4 100.0
TOTAL 250 100.0

Spacing of Roof 2 1 0.4 0.4

Bolts Before the 4 239 95.6 100.0

Fall (ft.) MISSING 10 4.0 100.0
TOTAL 250 100.0

Type of Support RESIN BOLTS 16 6.4 6.4

After the Fall ANCHOR BOLTS 63 Zoe 31.6
POST 6 2.4 34.0
BARS 1 04 34.4
CRIBBS 91 36.4 70.8
CRIBBED OFF 21 8.4 79.2
NOT SUPPORTED 51 20.4 99.6
CANOPY 1 0.4 100.0
TOTAL 250 100.0

Spacing of Roof 2 6 2.4 7.6

Bolts After the 4 3 29.4 100.0

Fall (ft.) MISSING 171 68.4 100.0
TOTAL 250 100.0

INFLUENCE OF SUPPORT SYSTEMS IN MINES—Smith

Length of Roof 30
Bolts Before the 42
Fall (in.) 48
54
60
ie:
84
96
MISSING

TOTAL

Length of Roof 30
Bolts After the 42
Fall 48

96
MISSING

TOTAL

250

0.8
7.2
36.0
0.4
44.4
2.8
0.4
4.0
4.0

100.0

0.4
1.2
3.2
9.2
2.4
0.4
4.0
10.8
68.4

100.0

0.8
8.3
45.8
46.2
92.5
95.4
95.8
100.0
100.0

1.3
5.1
15.2
44.3
fit)
53.2
65.8
100.0
100.0

4Adjusted cumulative frequency for the exclusion of missing cases or data values.

10

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 45(1-2)

TABLE 2.— SUMMARY OF F-RATIOS, PROBABILITY LEVELS, R* FOR BOTH THE FULL AND RESTRICTED MODELS,
DEGREES OF FREEDOM, AND SIGNIFICANCE FOR EACH RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS TESTING DISCRIMINATIVE
RELATIONSHIPS AMONG SUPPORT BEFORE THE FALL AND SELECTED PHYSICAL PARAMETERS.

Variables R2 R2 df

Dependent Independent f r F-Ratio Prob. Sign
Time of Roof Fall Support Before 0.05372 0.0 1/193 10.95715 0.0011 S
After Coal the Fall

Excavation

Cracks in Roof Support Before 0.00680 0.0 1/193 1.32139 0.2518 NS
Before Fall the Fall

Distance to the Support Before 0.00579 0.0 1/193 1.12388 0.2904 NS
Nearest Face the Fall

Presence of Water Support Before 0.01502 0.0 1/193 2.94264 0.0879 NS*
Before Roof Fall the Fall

Assumed Condition Support Before 0.01938 0.0 1/193 3.81489 0.0522 NS*

of the Roof the Fall

Before the Fall

Sloughing of Coal Support Before 0.24169 0.0 1/193 61.51320 0.0000 S

Ribs Before the the Fall

Fall

Presence of Floor Support Before 0.00977 0.0 1/193 1.90335 0.1693 NS
Heave Before the the Fall

Fall

Note. An F-test was utilized to test for significant relationships among types of support before the fall and seleced physical parameters. The assigned
alpha level of 0.05 tor two tailed, nondirectional test was considered statistically significant. However, the employment of a correction for multiple
comparisons was necessary, using the Newman and Fry(14) method. The corrected alpha level of 0.007 was used before any specific research hypothesis
was considered significant
“approaching significance at the 0.05 level
The power for each specific research hypothesis, using a medium effect size is 0.995.

As evident from an inspection of Table 1,
the vast majority of falls occurred either in
the entry (40.4%) or intersection (34.4%), had
spans of approximately 20 feet (81.2%), por-
trayed some presence of water before the
actual fall (78.0%), occurred in less than 30
weeks after initial coal excavation (71.3%),
were located usually greater than 100 feet
from the nearest coal face (70.4%), gave evi-
dence of cracks in mine roof before occur-
rence of fall (75.2%), generally portrayed a
good roof condition before the fall (60.8%),
showed presence of sloughing of coal ribs
(48.8%), and no occurrence of floor heave
(88.0% no heaving) before occurrence of fall.

In terms of the characteristics of the original
support by mechanical-anchor bolts (57.2%)
or resin or full-column bolts (38.8%); very
rarely did the roof fail if supported by posts
(0.4%) or cribs (1.2%). The roof-bolt spacing is
usually associated with 4-foot centers in the
vast majority of the cases studied, both
before and after the fall, which is standard
engineering practice in eastern Kentucky
coal mines. The length of roof bolts do
appear to be longer in resupported roof sys-
tems than used in the initial roof support
system (92.5% of initial support systems
used 60 inch bolts or less as compared to
44.3% of the resupported mine roofs).

INFLUENCE OF SUPPORT SYSTEMS IN MINES— Smith rE

RESIN BOLTS

ENTRY

ANCHOR BOLT CROSSCUT

INTERSECTION

Fic.2. Distribution of type of initial mine roof support

/ i ical- Its). : :
systems (resin bolts, mechanical-anchor bolts Fic. 4. Location of the occurrence of mine roof falls

(entry, crosscut, intersection, haulage road, beltway,

airway).
RESIN BOLTS
=)
w
nu
ANCHOR BOLTS
w
N
~
o
o
Nu
w
~~
CRIBS yy o
22
Y Pm
CRIBBEO OFF
A 34
=
NONSUPPORTED us
H CANOPY »
°
Fic. 3. Distribution of type of resupport mine roof ”
systems (resin bolts, anchor bolts, posts, bars, cribs, fe
cribbed off, nonsupported, canopy). "
)
16 FT. L7EEN 18 FT. IS FT. FT.
The results of 7 research hypotheses test- SPAN OF ROOF

ing the relationship of the type of initial

mine roof support system (resin ornonresin Fic.5 Frequency of span of mine roof in feet.

for discriminative analysis purposes) and

selected physical parameters illustrated that

only 2 hypotheses were found to be statisti- occurrence of the actual fall were found to
cally significant at the 0.05 alpha level for a_ be significantly related to the initial support
nondirectional test, once corrected for mul- system. In general, the shorter the time
tiple comparison using the Newman and_ between coal excavation and roof fall, the
Fry (14) method of adjusting the decision greater the frequency of full column or resin
criterion. The parameters of times of roof fall roof bolts were in use. Since resin bolts are
after initial coal excavation and presence of generally used in roof rock that is in poor
sloughing of the coal ribs or sides before the condition or a suitable anchor horizon is

12

not available, the presence of the bolts
appear to shorten the length of time between
coal excavation and the roof fall occurrence.
Possibly, the individual roof layers in the
immediate roof are already weakened and
near failure, hence failure occurs relatively
quickly after coal excavation, which pro-
vided the initial support. In addition, slough-
ing of the coal ribs were associated with a
greater occurrence of resin roof bolts. This
may indicate that the resin support systems
hold the immediate roof bed as a thicker or
more rigid unit, thus allowing for greater
stress concentrations to occur along the
coal ribs. If the stress concentrations exceed
the allowable rupture strength of the coal,
then failure and eventual sloughing of the
ribs will develop.

EXCELLENT

GOOD

Fic.6 Distribution of assumed condition of mine roof
before occurrence of the actual roof fall (excellent, very
good, good, poor, very poor).

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 45(1-2)

The parameters of cracks in roof before
the fall, distance to the nearest face, pres-
ence of water before the fall, assumed con-
dition of the mine roof before the fall, and
presence of floor heaves before the fall were
not found to be statistically related to the
type of original mine support systems.
Hence, these factors are not directly influ-
enced by or on the initial support system.

CONCLUSIONS

The last decade has shown considerable
advancement in the knowledge of improved
roof control systems and the prediction of
potential problem areas. Advances in satel-
lite imagery analysis of linears and their
correlation with “bad top” or mine roof-fall
areas, improved pillar design, barrier blocks,
and mine projections, utilization of differ-
ential movement station via extensonme-
ters to monitor separations in roof layers,
and utilizations of the bore scope and T.V.
camera to monitor the mine roofas the min-
ing aproaches suspected problem areas are
all techniques that are important and should
be standard mining practice in ground con-
trol. However, as illustrated in this study, a
detailed analysis of selected factors asso-
ciated with mine roof support and resup-
port systems, based on historical record of
falls, can give important correlations that
may be useful in forecasting potential prob-
lem areas that are under the immediate
control of the ground control supervisor,
engineer, or shift foreman.

INFLUENCE OF SUPPORT SYSTEMS IN MINES—Smith

LITERATURE CITED

1. Peng, S. S. 1978. Coal mine ground control. John
Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York.

2. Gaddy, F. L. 1973. Roof control. In elements of
practical coal mining, S. M. Cassidy (ed.) Port City Press,
Inc., Baltimore, Maryland.

3. Moebs, N. N. 1974. Geologic guidelines in coal mine
design. In Proceedings, Bureau of Mines technology
seminar, March 6, 1973, Lexington, Kentucky. U. S.
Bureau of Mines Information Circ., 8630: 63-69.

4. Pothini, B. R., and H. von Schonfeldt. 1979. Roof fall
prediction at Island Creek Coal Company. In Stability
in coal mining, C. O. Brawer (ed.) Miller Freeman Pub-
lisher, San Francisco.

5. Hylbert, D. K. 1980. Delineation of geologic roof
hazards in selected coalbeds in eastern Kentucky —
with Landsat imagery studies in eastern Kentucky and
the Dunkard Basin. U. S. Bureau of Mines open file
report, Contract no. JO188002: 1-97.

6. Horne, J. C., J. C. Ferm, and F. T. Currucio. 1978.
Depositional models in coal exploration and mine
planning. In Carboniferous depositional environmentin
the Appalachian region, J. C. Ferm, and J. C. Horne
(eds.), Carolina Coal Group, Dept. of Geol., U. Southern
Carolina, 544-575.

7. Adler, L., and M. C. Sun. 1968. Ground control in
bedded formations. Virginia Polytechnic Inst., Blacks-
burg, Virginia.

13

8. Mahyera, A., C. J. H. Brest van Kempen, J. P. Con-
way, and A. H. Jones. 1981. Controlled thrust and
torque placement of mechanical anchor bolts and their
relationship to improved roof control. In Proc. First.
Ann. Conf. Ground Control Mining: Peng (ed.) West
Virginia U. Morgantown, West Virginia: 98-105.

9. Sawyer, S. G., G. J. Karabin, Jr., and W. J. Debevec.
1976. Investigation of the effects of thrust and hardened
washers on the installed tension of a roof bolt. MSHA
report IR1031: 1-18.

10. Stehlik, C. J. 1964. Mine roof rock and roof bolt
behavior resulting from nearby blasts. U. S. Bur. Mines
Inform. Circ. 6372: 1-33.

11. Stears, J. H., J. P. Conway, and R. C. Bates. 1976.
Roof-fall resupport accidents, a study. U. S. Bur. Mines
Inform. Circ. 8723: 1-94.

12. Chumecky, N. 1981. Resupporting high roof falls.
In Proc. First Ann. Conf. Ground Control in Mining:
Peng (ed.) West Virginia University, Morgantown, West
Virginia: 116-136.

13. McNeil, K. A., F. J. Kelley, and J. T. McNeil. 1976.
Testing research hypotheses using multiple linear
regression. Southern Illinois U. Press, Carbondale,
Illinois.

14. Newman, L., and J. Fry. 1972. Aresponse to ’Anote
on multiple comparisons’ and a comment on shrin-
kage. Multiple Linear Regression Viewpoints: 71-77.

Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 45(1-2), 1984, 14-18

Additions to the Crayfish Fauna of Kentucky,
with New Locality Records for Cambarellus shufeldtii

BROOKS M. BURR AND HORTON H. Hosss, JR.
Department of Zoology, Southern Iilinois University at Carbondale, Illinois 62901,

and Department of Invertebrate Zoology, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D. C. 20560

ABSTRACT

Recent collections in western Kentucky have added 5 crayfishes, Cambarellus puer, Fallicambarus fodiens,
Orconectes lancifer, O. palmeri, and Procambarus viaeviridis, to the faunal list of the state, and several new
localities are reported for Cambarellus shufeldtii. Five of the 6 species (F. fodiens being the exception) are limited in
geographic occurrence to the Jackson Purchase region; all are in need of conservation status evaluations by the
Endangered Species Committee of the Kentucky Academy of Science.

INTRODUCTION

Nearly 40 years ago, Rhoades (1) presented
the first comprehensive report on the cray-
fishes of Kentucky. He visited each of the 120
counties in the state and reported the pres-
ence therein of 27 species and subspecies.
Since that time, several of Rhoades’ subspe-
cies have been elevated to specific rank (2),
new species have been described or reported
from Kentucky (3, 4, 5), and the presence of 1
species in the western part of the state has
been discovered as a result of additional
collecting (6). Recently, extensive field work,
particularly in western Kentucky waters,
has revealed the presence of 5 previously
unreported species of crayfishes. Several
new distributional records for Cambarellus
shufeldtii (Faxon 1884), a species previously
known from only one locality in Kentucky
(6), were also discovered. It is the purpose of
this paper to report records of 6 crayfishes,
all of which have limited ranges in Ken-
tucky, so that knowledgeable evaluations of
their conservation status may be made by
the Endangered Species Committee of the
Kentucky Academy of Science.

ACCOUNT OF SPECIES

Distributional records are based mostly
on recent collections made in western Ken-
tucky and on those deposited in the Illinois
Natural History Survey (INHS), the US.
National Museum of Natural History (NMNH),
and Southern Illinois University at Carbon-
dale (SIUC).

14

Species accounts include the locality,
major drainage, county, date of collection,
and (in parentheses) the museum in which
specimens are deposited, their sex, and
reproductive condition. The abbreviation
“T’ designates form I or first form males; “II”
form II or second form males; ‘“j’, juveniles;
and ‘ovig.”, ovigerous females. Genera and
species are treated alphabetically. For syn-
onymy and statements concerning the
ranges of each, see Hobbs (2).

Cambarellus puer Hobbs 1945 — New
Kentucky locality: (1) unnamed cypress
swamp (Mayfield Cr. dr.) 4.0 km. E Melber at
Hwy. 1241 crossing, Graves-McCracken Co.
line, 29 September 1979 (NMNH 664 II, 89,
1j3, 1jQ); 17 November 1979 (NMNH 241, 19);
22 December 1979 (NMNH 261, 1@1I, 19); 15
January 1980 (NMNH 1@lII, 29); 22 February
1980 (NMNH 161, 481, 69).

REMARKS—This crayfish ranges from Bra-
zos and Brasorio counties, Texas to the Mis-
sissippi River basin in which it occurs from
the lower delta to Johnson County, Illinois.
Despite considerable collecting efforts in
presumably suitable habitats throughout
much of western Kentucky, Cambarellus
puer has been found in only 1 locality. Most
of the localities sampled, all of which
appeared to provide suitable ecological con-
ditions, yielded C. shufeldtii, a species con-
sidered by Penn and Fitzpatrick (7) to be
dominant to C. puer. The 2 species rarely
coexist, at least for long periods of time, and
C. shufeldtii was reported (7) to have sup-
planted C. puer in several localities farther

ADDITIONS TO CRAYFISH FAUNA— Burr and Hobbs 15

south. Crayfishes associated with C. puer at
the swamp adjacent to Mayfield Creek were
Cambarus diogenes subsp. and Procamba-
rus acutus acutus (Girard 1852).

Page and Burr (6) reported the occurrence
of Cambarellus puerin southern Illinois and
southeastern Missouri. The locality cited
here is the first for Kentucky and helps to fill
the distributional gap between southern
Illinois and western Tennessee. Because of
its limited occurrence in Kentucky, we recom-
mend that C. puer be considered by the
Endangered Species Committee for Special
Concern or Threatened status.

Cambarellus shufeldtii(Faxon 1884)—New
Kentucky localities: (1) Fish Lake (Ohio R.
dr.), 4.8 km. W Barlow at Hwy. 118 crossing,
Ballard Co., 21 July 1978 (INHS 1 j@, 1j9). (2)
Fish Lake (Mississippi R. dr.), 2.4 km. W Burk-
ley, Carlisle Co., 19 July 1978 (NMNH 1611,
19). (3) Back Slough (Mayfield Cr. dr.), 2.4 km.
N Laketon, Carlisle Co., 19 July 1978 (NMNH
141, 2411, 59). (4) Lake No. 9 (Reelfoot Lake
dr.), 4.0 km. W Tyler, Fulton Co., 20 July 1978
(NMNH 3@II, 29). (5) Murphy Pond (Obion Cr.
dr.), 3.2 km. SE Beulah, 19 July 1978 (NMNH
441, 2611, 1 ovig. 9); 29 September 1979
(NMNH 341, 3€Il, 69). (6) Open Pond (Reel-
foot Lake dr.), 1.6 km. WSW Sassafras Ridge,
Fulton Co., 20 March 1980 (NMNH 19). (7)
Bayou du Chien (Mississippi R. dr.) at Hick-
man; county road 3.4 river km. from River,
Fulton Co., 15 June 1973 (NMNH, 461], 39).

Remarks—Page and Burr (6) reported the
only previous record of Cambarellus shu-
feldtii from Kentucky (Mitchell Lake, 1 km.
W Oscar, Ballard County), and predicted that
this species would be found in other oxbow
lakes. It has been found only in lowland
sloughs, lakes, and oxbows, usually around
bald cypress knees in association with sub-
mergent vegetation and organic debris. Cray-
fishes associated with C. shufeldtii were
Cambarus diogenes subsp., Orconectes lan-
cifer(Hagen 1870), Procambarus acutus acu-
tus, and P. clarkii (Girard 1852).

The status of the species was listed as
undetermined by Branson et al. (8) because
insufficient information was available to
permit an assessment of its occurrence
within the state. Although its range is limited
to the extreme western counties, it is more

widespread in Kentucky than previously
thought. In veiw of the newrecords reported
here, we recommend that Cambarellus shu-
feldtii be reassigned to the status of Special
Concern.

Fallicambarus fodiens (Cottle 1863)—New
Kentucky localities: (1) W. Fk. Clarks R. (Ten-
nessee R. dr.), 3.2 km. NW Brewers at Hwy. 80
crossing, Marshall Co., 26 April 1975 (INHS
1j, 1jQ). (2) Cr. (Clarks R. dr.), 4.4 km. W
Brewers on Hwy. 80, Marshall Co., 14 April
1969 (NMNH 11, 19, 1j@; 1j9). (3) Lee Cr.
(Tennessee R. dr.), 3.2 km. N Altona, Living-
ston Co., 14 June 1979 (NMNH 2j9). (4) trib.,
Fish Lake (Mississippi R. dr.), 1.6 km. W Burk-
ley, 19 April 1980 (NMNH 19). (5) Little Cr.
(Obion Cr. dr.), 4.0 km. SE Milburn at Hwy.
307 crossing, Carlisle Co., 22 February 1980
(NMNH 1@11). (6) trib., Green R. (Ohio R. dr.), at
Reed, Henderson Co., 5 June 1979 (NMNH
2j6, 2jQ). (7) Sulphur Run (Green R. dr.), at
Sulphur Springs at Hwy. 69 crossing, Ohio
Co., 11 March 1979 (NMNH 4j9). (8) Obion Cr.
(Mississippi R. dr.), at Hwy. 51 crossing,
Hickman Co., 10 May 1973 (NMNH 1), 2j9).
(9) Cr. (Bayou du Chien dr.), 10.2 km. SW
Wingo on Hwy. 45, Graves Co., 15 April 1969
(NMNH 5<II). (10) roadside ditch (Clarks R.
dr.), 15 km. W Aurora on Hwy. 80, Marshall
Co., 14 April 1969 (NMNH 1jQ). (11) Cr. (Mis-
sissippi R. dr.), 3 km. WNW Hwy. 802 on Hwy.
121, Ballard Co., 12 June 1982 (NMNH 1j@).

REMARKS—The relationships between Fal-
licambarus fodiens and F. hedgpethi(Hobbs
1948) are not understood. In view of their
apparent overlapping ranges in the Missis-
sippi Basin and the doubt surrounding the
assignment of populations, including some
of those occurring in Kentucky, to one or the
other of the two, perhaps F. hedgpethi
should be relegated to the synonymy of F.
fodiens. Until a thorough study has been
made of populations throughout their com-
bined ranges, which extend from Ontario
southward to Texas and Georgia, we are
tentatively assigning all of the members of
Fallicambarus that we have examined from
the state to F. fodiens. One of the reasons
why such a study has not already been
undertaken is the paucity of first form males
in collections; for example, only one such
specimen has been obtained from the 11

16 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 45(1-2)

localities reported here. As pointed out by
Crocker and Barr (9), F. fodiensis primarily a
burrowing species, and the sporadic occur-
rence of adults in open water probably
accounts for the lack of adequate samples of
the adult population in available collec-
tions. The same may be said of F. hedgpethi.

Crayfishes associated with F. fodiens in
Kentucky were Cambarus diogenes subsp.,
Orconectes rusticus (Girard 1852), O. immu-
nis (Hagen 1870), Procambarus a. acutus, P.
clarkii, and P. viaeviridis (Faxon 1914). The
conservation status of this species has not
been established, but because of the extent
of its known range in the state and of its
habits, there is no reason to suspect that its
presence in Kentucky is in any way en-
dangered.

Orconectes lancifer (Hagen 1870)—New
Kentucky localities: (1) Fish Lake (Ohio R.
dr.), 4.8 km. W Barlow at Hwy. 118 crossing,
Ballard Co., 21 July 1978 (INHS 1jQ). (2) Met-
ropolis Lake (Ohio R. dr.), 4.8 km. N Graham-
ville, near end of Hwy. 305, McCracken Co.,
26 April 1975 (INHS 1jQ). (3) Mississippi R.
backwater at Hickman, Fulton Co., 6 August
1982 (SIUC 1611). (4) Back Slough (Mayfield
Cr. dr.), 2.4 km. N Laketon, Carlisle Co., 19
July 1978 (NMNH 44)I, 49). (5) Fish Lake (Mis-
sissippi R. dr.), 2.4 km. W Burkley, Carlisle
Co., 19 July 1978 (1j3, 1j9).

REMARKS—Orconectes lancifer has not
been previously reported from Kentucky,
but is known from southern Illinois (6) and
western Tennessee (2). In Kentucky, this
crayfish has been collected only from
sloughs, bottomland lakes, and backwaters
of the Mississippi River. It was found near
shore among vegetation, sticks, and other
organic debris, usually in association with
bald cypress. As pointed out by Black (10) it
seldom occurs in large numbers and rarely
in a sexually mature condition. Crayfishes
associated with O. lancifer in the localities
cited here were Cambarellus shufeldtii and
Cambarus diogenes subsp.

Although not formally reported from Ken-
tucky, the Endangered Species Committee
(8), on a recommendation from Burr (in lit.),
assigned O. lancifer to a status of Special
Concern, primarily because of its limited
geographic occurrence in the state. Such a

status is consistent with evaluations made
for other species having a similar dis-
tribution.

Orconectes palmeri palmeri(Faxon 1884)—
New Kentucky locality: Obion Cr. (Missis-
sippi R. dr.), 2.4 km. NW Oakton at Hwy. 123
crossing, Hickman Co., 22 July 1980 (NMNH
3Q, 7j3, 7jQ); 7 November 1981 (NMNH 14)).

REMARKS—Previously known from adjacent
western Tennessee and farther south in the
lower Mississippi valley (11), Orconectes p.
palmeri has not been reported from Ken-
tucky. This crayfish has been taken twice
from Obion Creek in swift, debris-ridden rif-
fles over a mixed sand, mud, and gravel bot-
tom. Cambarus diogenes subsp. was the
only crayfish collected with O. p. palmeriin
Obion Creek. Although the latter was des-
cribed from nearby Reelfoot Lake in Obion
County, Tennessee, because of its limited
geographic occurrence in Kentucky, this
crayfish should be considered for state
Endangered/Threatened status.

Procambarus viaeviridis (Faxon 1914)—
New Kentucky localities: (1) E. Fk. Clarks R.
(Tennessee R. dr.), 1.6 km. ENE Hardin at
Hwy. 80 crossing, Marshall Co., 25 April 1980
(NMNH 2jQ). (2) Bayou du Chien (Mississippi
R. dr.) at Hickman; county road 3.4 river km
from River, Fulton Co., 15 June 1973 (speci-
mens not extant; examined by HHH, 161,
19). (3) Cr. (Mississippi R. dr.), 3 kn WNW
Hwy. 802 on Hwy. 121, Ballard Co., 12 June
1982 (NMNH 1jé, 1j9).

REMARKS—Procambarus viaeviridis was
known to occur in northeastern Arkansas,
western Tennessee (12), and southern Illi-
nois (6), but has not been previously reported
from Kentucky. It was collected from debris-
ridden pools of 3 lowland streams; crayf-
ishes associated with it were Cambarellus
shufeldtii, Cambarus diogenes subsp., Falli-
cambarus fodiens, Orconectes rusticus(ora
closely related, undescribed species), Pro-
cambarus a. acutus, and P. clarkii.

This species is still so poorly known in
Kentucky that it should probably be placed
in the category of Special Concern. Addi-
tional collecting in suitable habitats, partic-
ularly during fall and spring months, will
undoubtedly reveal other localities for the
species.

ADDITIONS TO CRAYFISH FAUNA— Burr and Hobbs

DISCUSSION

The list of Kentucky crayfishes has ex-
panded considerably since Rhoades (1) pre-
sented the first comprehensive account of
the crayfishes of the state. This has been due
to the discovery of new species, the resur-
rection of one from synonymy, the elevation
of subspecies to specific rank, and intensive
collecting in poorly worked areas. Hobbs (2,
12) presented a list of 33 species that were
believed to occurin Kentucky, but 2 of them
were found to have been included in error:
Cambarus dubius Faxon (1884) had been
misidentified as Cambarus carolinus(Erich-
son 1846), and Orconectes juvenilis (Hagen
1870) was shown to be a synonym of O. rusti-
cus (Girard 1852) by Bouchard (13). Subse-
quent to the appearance of Hobbs list, Page
and Burr (6) cited the first localities for Cam-
barellus shufeldtii; Hobbs and Bouchard (14)
described Cambarus cumberlandensis and
recorded specimens from Kentucky; Bou-
chard (3) described Cambarus buntingi from
Tennessee and Kentucky; Hobbs (2) reported
the presence of Cambarus dubius; Schuster
(5) described Cambarus batchi from eastern
Kentucky; and Bouchard (15) resurrected
Cambarus graysoni Faxon (1914) from syn-
onymy with Cambarus striatus Hay (1902).
With the addition of 5 species reported here,
not counting undescribed ones, the total
number of Kentucky crayfishes is 42.

Of these 42 species, 15 are already repres-
ented on the state Endangered/Threatened
list (8). Three more species are here recom-
mended for inclusion; if approved, this will
bring the total number of Endangered/
Threatened crayfishes in Kentucky to 18 (or
43% of the fauna).

Warren and Cicerello (16, 17) have observed
a number of man-caused disturbances that
are actively reducing the lowland habitat in
western Kentucky that is now available to
crayfishes. In view of these modifications of
the environment, we hope that future recom-
mendations for management of Kentucky
waterways will include provisions for pre-
serving some of the state’s lowland swamps,
sloughs, and oxbow lakes where members
of rare Kentucky fishes also occur.

17

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We are grateful to P. H. Carlson, K. S.
Cummings, W. W. Dimmick, K. C. Fitzpa-
trick, R. L. Mayden, L. M. Page, S. D. Ogle, J. F.
Payne, D. J. Peters, J. E. Pugh, M. E. Retzer,
and S. J. Walsh who assisted in the collec-
tion of crayfishes reported here. Lawrence
M. Page provided us with Kentucky crayfish
records deposited at the Illinois Natural His-
tory Survey. For criticisms of the manuscript
we thank C. W. Hart, Jr.

LITERATURE CITED

1. Rhoades, R. 1944. The crayfishes of Kentucky, with
notes on variation, distribution and descriptions of
new species and subspecies. Amer. Mid. Nat. 31:111-149.

2. Hobbs, H. H., Jr. 1974. Achecklist of the North and
Middle American crayfishes (Decapoda: Astacidae and
Cambaridae). Smithsonian Contrib. Zool. 166:1-161.

3. Bouchard. R. W. 1973. Cambarus buntingi, a new
species of Puncticambarus (Decapoda, Astacidae) from
Kentucky and Tennessee. Amer. Midl. Nat. 90:406~412.

4. and Horton H. Hobbs, Jr. 1976. Anew
subgenus and two new species of crayfishes of the
genus Cambarus (Decapoda: Cambaridae) from the
southeastern United States. Smithsonian Contnb. Zool.
224:1-15.

5. Schuster, G. A. 1976. A new primary burrowing
crayfish of the subgenus Jugicambarus (Decapoda,
Cambaridae) from Kentucky, with notes on its life his-
tory. Amer. Midl. Nat. 95:225-230.

6. Page, L. M., and B. M. Burr. 1973. Distributional
records for the crayfishes Cambarellus puer, C. shufeld-
tii, Procambarus gracilis, P. viaeviridis, Orconectes lan-
cifer, O. bisectus, and O. rusticus. Trans. Kentucky
Acad. Sci. 34:51-52.

7. Penn, G. H., Jr.,and J. F. Fitzpatrick, Jr. 1963. Inters-
pecific competition between two sympatric species of
dwarf crawfishes. Ecology 44:793-797.

8. Branson, B. A., D. F. Harker, Jr., J. M. Baskin, M. E.
Medley, D. L. Batch, M. L. Warren, Jr., W. H. Davis, W. C.
Houtcooper, B. Monroe, Jr., L. R. Phillippe, and P. Cupp.
1981. Endangered, threatened, and rare animals and
plants of Kentucky. Trans. Kentucky Acad. Sci. 42:77-89.

9. Crocker, D. W., and D. W. Barr. 1968. Handbook of
the crayfishes of Ontario. Univ. Toronto Press, Toronto,
Ontario.

10. Black, J. B. 1972. Life history notes on the crawfish
Orconectes lancifer. Proc. Louisiana Acad. Sci. 35:7-9.

11. Penn, G. H., Jr. 1957. Variation and subspecies of
the crawfish Orconectes palmeri. (Faxon) (Decapoda,
Astacidae). Tulane Stud. 2001. 5:231-262.

12. Hobbs, H. H., Jr. 1972, 1976. Crayfishes (Astacidae)

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 45(1-2)

18

of North and Middle America. Environ. Prot. Agency,
Biota of Freshwater Ecosystems Ident. Manual 9:1-173.
(Reprinted in 1976.)

13. Bouchard, R. W. 1976. Geography and ecology of
crayfish of the Cumberland Plateau and Cumberland
Mountains, Kentucky, Virginia, Tennessee, Georgia and
Alabama; Part I. The genera Procambarus and Orco-
nectes. Freshwater Crayfish. Proceedings of the Second
International Crayfish Symposium, pp. 563-584.

14. Hobbs, H. H., Jr., and R. W. Bouchard. 1973. Anew
crayfish from the Cumberland River system with notes
on Cambarus carolinus (Erichson). Proc. Biol. Soc.
Washington 86:41-68.

Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 45(1-2), 1984, 18-29

15. Bouchard, R. W. 1978. Taxonomy, ecology and
phylogeny of the subgenus Depressicambarus, with
the description of a new species from Florida and
redescriptions of Cambarus graysoni, Cambarus lati-
manus and Cambarus striatus (Decapoda: Cambari-
dae). Bull. Alabama Mus. Nat. Hist. 3:27-60.

16. Warren, M. L., Jr., and R. R. Cicerello. 1982. New
records, distribution, and status of ten rare fishes in the
Tradewater and lower Green rivers, Kentucky. Proc.
Southeast. Fishes Council 31-7).

17. _____. 1983. Drainage records and conser-
vation status evaluations for thirteen Kentucky fishes.
Brimleyana: in press.

A Geotechnical Application of Computer-Generated Statistical Models of
Contour, Trend, and Residuals Surfaces

ALAN D. SMITH

Coal Mining Administration, Department of Business Administration
Eastern Kentucky University, Richmond, KY 40475

DAVID H. TIMMERMAN

Department of Civil Engineering, The University of Akron
Akron, OH 44325

GAYLE A. SEYMOUR

Computer Center, The University of Akron
Akron, OH 44325

ABSTRACT

Computer generated three dimensional models of contour, first through sixth order trend surfaces, and their
residuals of the geotechnical parameter depth to bedrock were completed by the use of several standard software
packages. In addition, statistical models were generated to test the addition to explained variance by the
employment of sequentially higher degree polynomial trend surfaces. The visual inspection of the computer
graphics illustrated that the second and third order distributions had lower values than the other residual or error
surfaces. However, the sixth order trend surface was found to the best statistical fit, using the full and restricted
model principle, but contained the largest magnitudes of residuals, especially along the periphery of the study
area. The combined use of visual inspection of the computer generated models and common sense aid the
investigators in selecting the second or third degree polynomials as the best fit.

INTRODUCTION

The expanding uses of computer graphics
and its application to engineering and geol-
ogic problems and data gathering are rapidly
becoming an essential tool by investigators
from a variety of disciplines. However, the
usefulness of data collected and analyzed
should also be based on its ability to com-
municate the results. The primary purpose
of this paper is to present the use of selected

computer graphical techniques in the trend
surface analysis process, using the geotech-
nical parameter, depth to bedrock surface,
as an example for illustrative purposes.
Higher order regression equations, in trend
surface analysis, may reflect the variation in
particular values with a geographic or spa-
tial distribution with more accuracy than
lower order surfaces, but the low order sur-
faces may be more useful in isolating impor-

COMPUTER— GENERATED MODELS OF SURFACE—Smith 6

tant local or regional trends that may exist
over a larger area. Thus, surface analyses
can be considered a process of filtering an
input signal (measured values or Z-values),
where the surface represents the resultant
signal after filtering. In this process, the

order of the surface determines the upper
limit of variability or frequency of the input
data which will pass through the gate or
filter. Localized or site-specific variation will
be blocked by the filter when lower orders
are used, and it will be increasingly trans-
mitted as the order of the surface increases.
This filtering process is in contrast to stand-
ard linear interpolation used in contouring,
in which all the input data are taken in equal
importance. However, a visual check on the
accuracy of the filtering mechanism of trend
surface analysis would be very helpful in
locating sources of noise or localized varia-
tion. In addition, visual inspection would be
of great value in determining the effective-
ness of increasing the order of the regres-
sion equations to account for additional
variation of the spatially oriented data.

METHODS
Incremental Drum Plotter

The incremental drum plotter, which was
the major device used to create the compu-
ter graphics in this study, refers to a type of
plotter on which the paper is held by two

rolls—a supply roll and a take-up roll—
separated by a drum. The drum itself facili-
tates movement of the paper from the
supply roll to take-up roll and provides a
surface suitable for a pen. A pen holder is
mounted on a bar above, parallel to the
length of the drum. The pen is free to move
along the length of the bar or, in other
words, across the width of the paper. Also,
the pens can be raised or lowered in the
holder to either make contact with the
paper or not be in contact with the paper.
Hence, a combination of paper and pen
movements can produce lines in practically
any direction resulting in a finished graph.
The movement of the pen from point to
point in a series of steps or increments can
be as small as 0.0025 inch. The computer
graphics produced in the present study
used the incremental drum plotter for the

final output. However, the data base that
was used as initial input into the plotting
routines was the software package SYMAP.

SYMAP

SYMAP is a computer package designed
for the purpose of producing line-printer
maps to depict spatial distributed data. It is
suited to a broad range of applications and
has numerous options to fit a variety of
needs. The SYMAP program is written in
FORTRAN IV language and the source deck
for the package is at The University of Akron,
the University of Kentucky, and many other
installations. Overall design and concept for
the SYMAP program were developed by
Northwestern Technological Institute. How-
ever, recent developments in the SYMAP
program were completed by the Laboratory
for Computer Graphics at Harvard Univer-
sity. The 3 types of 2-dimensional, line prin-
ter maps produced by SYMAP are contour
maps or isoline maps, conformant, and
proximal maps.

The contour map consists of closed curves
or contour lines that connect points having
the same numeric value. Contour lines
emerge from the datum plane in a series of
levels which are determined from the scale
of the map and the data range. The use of
this type of mapping procedure should be
restricted to the representation of continu-
ous information such as the structural con-
tours and geophysical data.

The conformant map hold data values
within specific appointed areas. In other
words, each data zone is enclosed by a
boundary determined by a predefined spa-
tial unit. The entire spatial unit is given the
same value and symbolism is assigned accor-
ding to its numeric class.

The proximal map is a hybrid of both the
contour and conformant mapping proce-
dures. It has the approach of the contour
map, but functions as a conformant map.
Spatial units are defined from point infor-
mation. Each character location of the line
printer map is assigned the value of the data
point nearest to it. Boundaries are assumed
along the line where the values change and
the conformant mapping procedure is then
applied (1).

an) TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 45(1-2)

The investigators used the contour SYMAP
procedure to display the sample distribu-
tion of depth to bedrock from surface of 138
borehole sites from the various construc-
tion projects involved on The University of
Akron's campus. The result was a line prin-
ter map with contours. Several electives
available to the potential user of the pro-
gram were then used to create a data matrix
of 89 columns and rows on disk file to be
used in the production of 3-dimensional
plots (2,3).

Three Dimensional Plotting Software

The 3-dimensional plotting programs can
be used via the incremental drum plotter to
produce statistical surfaces of geographic
units with assigned values of continuous
data suchas population density. There area
variety of options available to the user and
these programs also produce their own
diagnostic messages for common errors
that the user may encounter. There are bas-
ically 4 programs under the 3-dimensional
plotting programs, each 1 designed to give
either a completely different type of plot or
flexibility in the presentation of its final
form; these options are known as QUSMO,
QUSMO2, QUCRS, and OUTAB.

Quick Smooth(QUSMO) produces a smooth-
ed surface over an input data matrix and
places the surface on a base or plane. This

This program performs a 9-point quadratic
interpolation between the input data points
to give the plot a smooth appearance.
QUSMO:, however, combines the features of
QUSMO but allows for control over the size
output, vertical scale, and read the data
matrix from tape storage. QUSMO2, similar
in function to the commercially available
SURFACE II software (4), was used to pro-
duce the 3-dimensional plot found in this
study.

Quick Crosscut (QUCRS) also produces a
smoothed surface over the input data as
does QUSMO and QUSMO2. However, it
does not put interpolated surface on a
plane. A base is drawn for the surface so that
it can be visualized as if it was isolated in
space.

Quick Tabular (QUTAB) produces a plot
similar to a 3-dimensional histogram. Each

data point of the data matrix is assumed to
be the center of a plotted cell and thus
appears as many small squares at various
levels. Since there is no interpolation be-
tween the input data points, the program
produces a step-like surface. In addition, all
4 plotting routines have the option to view
the surface from 8 directions (north, south,
east, west, northwest, northeast, southeast,
southwest).

Trend Surface Analysis

Another technique used in the course of
the study was model comparisons to test for
significant relationships among the trends
produced in predicting depth to bedrock, as
derived from borehole logging. A trend is a
statistical surface to explain variations in a
given set of values, known as Z-values, that
have a given geographic position, either
regularly or irregularly distributed in the X-Y
plane. The surface is the representation of
an equation using the least-squares criter-
ion. This means that the generated surface
will be fitted to the input datain such a way
that the sum of the squared deviations will
be minimized. The F-test for significance of
a fit tests the null hypothesis that the partial
regression coefficients are equal to zero
and, hence, there is no regression. If the
computed F-value exceeds the F-value hav-
ing a probability ofa set alpha level, common-
ly 0.01 to 0.05, then the null hypothesis is
rejected and an alternative hypothesis is
accepted. According to Davis (5), in poly-
nomial trend-surface analysis, it is custom-
ary for investigators to fit a series of succes-
sively higher degrees to the data without
statistically testing the higher order's con-
tribution to explained variance. Davis (5) and
Smith (7) further suggested that an analysis
of variance table be expanded to analyze the
contribution of the additional partial re-
gression coefficients to give a measure of the
appropriateness of increasing the order of
the equations, that is, model comparisons of
trends (6, 7, 8).

Study Area
The study area was the 114-acre urban
campus of The University of Akron, Ohio.
This campus is centrally located in an

COMPUTER— GENERATED MODELS OF SURFACE— Smith

industrial urban area of approximately 1.5
million persons. Since, at the time of the
study, new construction was underway and
being planned, bore-hole data from pre-
vious building sites within the campus were
gathered in an attempted to extrapolate
geotechnical information into these new
areas, based on their relationships and
derived degree of reliability. The data col-
lected, for illustrative purposes for the whole
campus were: elevation and depth, in feet,
of the bedrock surface.

RESULTS

The graphic displays of the 3-dimensional
plots for depth of bedrock can be found in
Figs. 1 through 13. The viewing direction
was from the northeast, 30° from the data
plane. Figure 1 presents the contour sur-
face; Figs. 2 through7 show the first, second,
third, fourth, fifth, and sixth orders of trend

Ze =e NN
SEES SESSA SOS SSSR ee geee > < Z[ ————
(Se eee iypereere
(ea ee
[Tip BEES SS ON SRR Nt ——
| M proses SO SSO NN PSE \ ——
pee ee lll :
=
as

‘i
M
‘i

SS
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21

surfaces, respectively; Figs. 8 through 13
graphically display the positive residuals,
both magnitude and location, for each
degree of trend surface generated. The in-
spection of the computer-generated gra-
phical presentations of the increasing order
trend-surface equations show the complex-
ity and variance in magnitude of prediction.
The maximum depth, as illustrated in Fig. 1,
was 23.5 feet. The maximum depth as model-
ed by first-order trend (Fig. 2) was 13.12 feet;
86.73 feet for the second-degree trend (Fig.
3); 138.62 feet for the third-order trend (Fig.
4); 128.19 feet for the fourth-degree trend
(Fig. 5); 4640.69 feet for the fifth order trend
(Fig. 6); and 5271.19 feet for the highest-
degree trend studied (Fig. 7). Obviously,
along the periphery, equations are quite dis-
torted, due to lack of control points outside
or adjacent to the study area.

ESSSSSSSSSSSSS OS.
liana
SSESESESS ll I \) (\ |
SOS OSS Os
SSSESESOP {\ [\ (\ NS SSASASLSLSVS
SSSSSSSCI SSS SSSR E
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BASE

DEPTH TO BEDROCK IN FEET FROM THE SURFACE OF BOREHOLE (CONTOUR SURFACE)

Fic. 1.—Structure contour surface of dep

th to bedrock from surface of borehole.

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 45(1-2)

22

3 =
SSo3s SESS SSeS.
ss ==
SESS eS] 3!
SoSSosese 3 SERS =<
SSS333 SSS! <=
SoS Sco ——— =
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Ss So> S282 SoSe i332
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BASE PLANE

OEPTH TO BEDROCK IN FEET FROM THE SURFACE OF BOREHOLE (151 OEGREE TREND SURFACE)

Fig. 2.—First degree polynomial trend surface of depth to bedrock from surface of borehole.

J

25259
SS
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SIS oS ASS OSS
Seems
Seaesseseweeceseseee
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SSSSSSOS SS ESSE IS SINS
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BASE PLANE

OEPTH TO BEDROCK IN FEET FROM THE SURFACE OF BOREHOLE (2ND DEGREE TREND SURFACE)

Fic. 3.—Second degree polynomial trend surface of depth to bedrock from surface of borehole.

COMPUTER—GENERATED MODELS OF SURFACE— Smith

SS
Sos2

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DEPTH TO BEOROCK IN FEET FROM THE SURFACE OF BOREHOLE (3AR0 DEGREE TREND SUAFACE)

Wiss
eceess
PPS O-Oa,
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Ses SSSSLSLSLSLS LS
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DEPTH TO BEDROCK IN FEET FROM THE SURFACE OF BOREHOLE (NTH DEGREE TREND SURFACE)

DATA RANGE

DEPTH VARIATIONS (FT)
13842

742

402)

Fic.4.—Third degree polynomial trend surface of depth to bedrock from surface of borehole.

DATA RANGE

DEPTH VARIATIONS (FT)
nm,

BASE PLANE

Fic.5.—Fourth degree polynomial trend surface of depth to bedrock from surface of borehole.

23

24 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 45(1-2)

<2

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OEPTH TO BEDROCK IN FEET FROM THE SURFACE OF BOREHOLE (STH DEGREE TREND SURFACE)

Fic. 6.—Fifth degree polynomial trend surface of depth to bedrock from surface of borehole.

The residual diagrams are displayed in better fit than the first. However, as sug-
Fig. 8 through 13. Only the positive residuals gested by Davis (4), hypothesis testing and
were plotted, due to the limitations of the model comparisons are needed to deter-
software used. As shown in Fig. 8, the first- mine ifthe contribution to be explained var-
order residual surface is quite similar in iance by increasing the order of the regres-
appearance to the contour surface (Fig. 1), sion equations is statistically significant.
since it represents the deviations from a_ Figure 11 illustrates the residual model or
plane surface cutting through the observed — surface for depth of bedrock for the fourth
data points by the least sum of squares cri- degree trend, the maximum residual was
terion. The maximum positive deviation or 629.36 feet. The maximum residual value for
residual was 11.47 feet. The maximum posi- _ the fifth (Fig. 12) and sixth (Fig. 13) degree
tive residuals for the second-order residual polynomial degree trends are 136.79 and
surface (Fig. 9) was 10.54 feet, while for the 12576.95 feet, respectively. It appears that
third-degree residual surface (Fig. 10), the | the residuals were minimized more dramat-
maximum was 8.43 feet. Evidently,asecond _ ically with the fifth order surface than either
or third degree polynomial surface was a_ the fourth or sixth degree trends.

COMPUTER— GENERATED MODELS OF SURFACE— Smith 25

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Fic.7.—Sixth degree polynomial trend surface of depth to bedrock from surface of borehole.

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Fic. 8.—Residual surface of first degree polynomial trend of depth to bedrock from surface of borehole.

of TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 45(1-2)

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DEPTH TO BEDROCK IN FEET FROM THE SURFACE OF BOREHOLE (2ND DEGREE RESTOUALS)

Fic. 9.—Residual surface of second degree polynomial trend of depth to bedrock from surface of borehole.

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Fic. 10.—Residual surface of third degree polynomial trend of depth to bedrock from surface of borehole.

COMPUTER—GENERATED MODELS OF SURFACE— Smith 27

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DEPTH TO BEOROCK IN FEET FROM THE SURFACE OF BOREHOLE (4TH DEGREE RESIQUALS)

Fic. 11.—Residual surface of fourth degree polynomial trend of depth to bedrock from surface borehole.

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OEPTH TO BEOROCK IN FEET FROM THE SURFACE OF BOREHOLE (STH DEGREE RESTOUALS)

Fic. 12.—Residual surface of fifth degree polynomial trend of depth to bedrock from surface of borehole.

28

Table 1 is a summary of F-ratios, probabil-
ity levels, R? for both the full and restricted
models, degrees of freedom-numerator,
degrees of freedom-denominator, and sta-
tistical significance for the hypothesis test-
ing and model comparisons among trend
surfaces for bedrock depth. The R? term is
an indication of the amount of variance
explained or accounted for by the regres-
sion equation describing the actual depth to
bedrock distribution. Thus, for the first
degree surface, only 2.02 percent of the var-
iance in the geographically distributed bed-
rock depth was accounted for by the surface.
When this R? was tested over random varia-
tion, which has an R? equal 0.0, this was not
found to be significant. The 1 vs. 2 term in
the table makes use of the full versus res-
tricted model concept. For example if the
first model, Z = Bo + B1X; + BoY; + €;, where Bo
is equal to the constant term, 8; and B» are
the regression coefficients, and X and Y are
the geographic coordinates of each of the
138 borehole locations in the study area, € is
the error or residual vector, and Z is depth
to bedrock at each location, is termed the
full model, then the restricted model is the
full model with the null hypothesis being
true. The null hypothesis in the case testing

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TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 45(1-2)

the first degree trend over random variation,
B, and B2 would be equal to zero, hence
there would be no first order regression. In
model comparisons, the restricted model
would contain only the regression weights
of the next lower degree surface, since the
null hypothesis would assign a value of zero
to the higher order regression coefficients.
As illustrated in the table, assuming a 2-
tailed, nondirectional test with an alpha
level set at 0.05, the second through the
sixth order trend surfaces were found to be
Statistically significant in predicting depth
to bedrock over random variations. In the
model comparisons process, the second
order surface accounted for more explained
variance than the first. Since as shown in
Fig. 9 and 10, the positive residual values
and their locations were similar, they were
not found to be statistically significant. Fol-
lowing the model comparison process, the
sixth order surface was found to be statisti-
cally better fit than the fifth. However, as
shown in Fig. 13, the magnitude of the
residuals are located accurately, larger
errors will be made in predicting depth to
bedrock for this high order polynomial
surface.

———

2
FSLSSSS
Sess:

2

=
SSosees

iy

DATA RANGE
DEPTH VARIATIONS (FT)
ness

DEPTH TO BEDROCK IN FEET FROM THE SURFACE OF BOREHOLE (GTH DEGREE RESIQUALS)

Fic. 13.—Residual surface of sixth degree polynomial trend of depth to bedrock from surface of borehole.

COMPUTER—GENERATED MODELS OF SURFACE— Smith

TABLE 1—SUMMARY OF F-RATIOS, PROBABILITY LEVELS, R? FOR
BOTH THE FULL AND RESTRICTED MODELS, DEGREES OF FREEDOM-
NUMERATOR, DEGREES OF FREEDOM-DENOMINATOR, AND SIGNIFI-
CANCE FOR EACH TREND SURFACE FOR THE GEOTECHNICAL VARIA-
BLE BEDROCK DEPTH FROM SURFACE OF BOREHOLE.’

Order of
Trend Ref Rr df F Probability Sign.
Surface
1 0.0202 0.0 2/135 1.3931 0.2518 NS
2 0.4766 0.0 5/132 24.0416 0.0000 S
3 0.4947 0.0 9/128 13.9259 0.0000 S
4 0.6026 0.0 14/123 13.3231 0.0000 s
5 0.7146 0.0 20/117 14.6456 0.0000 S
6 0.7807 0.0 27/110 14.5010 0.0000 S
lvs 2 0.4766 0.0202 3/132 38.3693 0.0000 Ss
2vs 3 0.4947 0.4766 4/128 1.1472 0.3374 NS
3vs4 0.6026 04947 5/123 6.6782 0.0000 Ss
4vs5 0.7146 0.6026 6/117 7/6488 0.0000 Ss
5vs6 0.7807 0.7146 7/110 4.7356 0.0001 Ss
(N = 138)

‘An alpha level of 0.05 was employed before each hypothesis was consi-
dered statistically valid.

SUMMARY

The computer mapping of the contour,
polynomial trends, and residuals can be a
valuable aid in using trend surface analysis
as a potential tool for predictive analysis. As
illustrated in this paper, a visual inspection
of the trends, residuals and their magni-
tudes seem to indicate the second or third
order surfaces as being the best fitted poly-
nomial surface. However, by using a F-test
and the full and restricted model concept,
the sixth order surface was found to be sta-
tistically the best fit. The R?s values are
inflated because of degrees of freedom in
the numerator due to added terms in the
full model, which might explain why the
sixth order polynomial trend was found to

29

be significant. The use of plotting the surfa-
ces can give the investigator a chance to
actually visualize what the trend surface
looks like and locate the residuals and their
magnitudes. This process can bring in the
investigators’ “common sense’ and geolog-
ical judgement into play to determine the
best fit. With the increasing use and availa-
bility of appropriate software and hardware,
computer modeling should be used in con-
junction with statistical models in estimat-
ing the usefulness and limitations of trend
surface analysis for predictive purposes.

LITERATURE CITED

1. Torma, R. A., and T. L. Nash. 1974. SYMAP user
manual. Lab. for cartographic and Spatial Anal. at Univ.
of Akron, Akron, OH.

2. Sawan, S. P.,and T. L. Nash. 1974. Three-dimensional
plotting programs user mannual. Lab. for cartographic
and Spatial Anal. of Univ. of Akron, Akron, OH.

3. Dougenik, J. A. and D. E. Sheehan. 1979. SYMAP
user's reference mannual. Harvard Univ., Cambridge,
MA.

4. Sampson, R. J. 1978. Surface II graphics system.
Kan. Geol. Survey, Lawrence, KA.

5. Davis, J. C. 1973. Statistics and data analysis in
geology. John Wiley and Sons, Inc., NY.

6. Smith, A. D. 1983. Hypothesis testing and model
comparisons trend surfaces. Tran. Ky. Acad. Sci. 44
17-21.

7. Smith, A. D. 1983. Suggested format for presenting
hypothesis testing and model comparisons of trend
surfaces. Tran. Ky. Acad. Sci. 44:75-76.

8. Smith, A. D., and D. H. Timmerman. 1983. Three-
dimensional modeling and trend surface analysis of
selected borehole information for analysis for geotech-
nical applications (abs.). Abstracts with Programs, 17th
Ann. Meeting of the North-Central Section GSA. 15:217.

Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 45(1-2), 1984, 30-32

The Fishes of Jessamine Creek,
Jessamine County, Kentucky

MICHAEL BARTON

Division of Science and Mathematics, Centre College, Danville, KY 40422

ABSTRACT

During the summer of 1983, a survey was made of the fishes of Jessamine Creek. This represents a contribution
towards the completion of a floral and faunal inventory of the Jessamine Creek Gorge, a natural area that has
recently come under the management of the Kentucky Nature Conservancy. A total of 1,555 individuals, represent-
ing 26 species, were collected. Although the creek has a history of pollution, this study indicates that no

substantial alteration of the fish fauna has occurred.

INTRODUCTION

In 1982, the Kentucky chapter of the
Nature Conservancy entered into agree-
ments with landowners in the Jessamine
Creek Gorge area to protect and preserve
what is considered one of the most ecologi-
cally significant natural areas in the state. A
stewardship committee was formed to develop
an inventory of the flora and fauna of the
gorge area. Because of the relative inacces-
sability of the gorge, the terrestrial flora and
fauna are considered to be minimally im-
pacted. There has been much concern,
however, that pollution, in the form of efflu-
ents from sewage treatment plants serving
the towns of Wilmore and Nicholasville as
well as from other sources, may have altered
the community composition of the stream
ichthyofauna eliminating many sensitive
species. This report presents the results ofa
survey of fish populations in Jessamine
Creek and its major tributary, Town Fork.

STUDY AREA

Jessamine Creek and Town Fork originate
from springs in north-central Jessamine
County and course through a deep and lar-
gely inaccessible valley in southwest Jes-
samine County to empty into the palisades
section of the Kentucky River. The stream
bed is fairly typical of central Kentucky
streams with a substrate of bedrock, limes-
tone slab, and coarse rubble. The upper
reaches of the stream are characterized by
riffle and shallow pool areas flowing through
croplands and pasture. Near the town of
Wilmore, the creek descends into a steep
gorge that is part of the palisades. Here,

short stretches of riffles separate pools that
may be hundreds of meters long and several

-meters deep. Most of the gorge is densely

canopied by a riparian forest. The Nicholas-
ville sewage treatment plant is located on
Town Fork which empties into Jessamine
Creek above the gorge while the Wilmore
sewage treatment plant is located ona small
tributary that empties into Jessamine Creek
at the head of the gorge.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Sampling was conducted at several sites
from June, 1983 to August, 1983:

1. Jessamine Creek at KSR 29 overpass,
2.6 km from Nicholasville.

2. Jessamine Creek at Glass Mill Road
overpass, 3.3 km West of Wilmore
(sampled twice)

3. Jessamine Creek crossing at Camp-
ground Lane, 3.3 km West of Wilmore.

4. Town Fork at Shun Pike bridge, 6 km
West of Wilmore

5. Jessamine Creek Gorge, 0.5 km stretch
of stream approximately 2.5 km down-
stream from Site 5.

Fish were collected using standard elec-
troshocking and seining techniques. At road-
way overpass sites, the length of stream
sampled was approximately 150 m. Over
one km of stream within the gorge was
sampled (sites 5, 6, 7). Fish were identified to
species, counted, maximum and minimum
sizes recorded, and returned to the stream.
Those species that were unidentifiable in
the field were preserved in 10% buffered
formalin and saved.

30

FISHES OF JESSAMINE CREEK— Barton

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

A total of 1,555 individuals, comprising 26
species, were collected during the course of
this study (Table 1). Among the most abund-
ant species were the minnows Campostoma
anomalum, Pimephales notatus, and Semoti-
lus atromaculatus (30.5%, 14.8%, and 4.1%,
respectively). The blacknose dace, Rhinich-
thys atratulus, was the most abundant spe-
cies at the Town Fork site (8.2%). The large
numbers of smallmouth bass (Micropterus

31

dolomieui) recorded were mostly juveniles
in the 25 to 45 mm size range. The most
abundant darter was the rainbow darter
(Etheostoma caeruleum), which was re-
corded at all sampling stations, while the
closely related orangethroat darter (E. spec-
tabile) was restricted to headwater sites.
According to Clay (1), E. spectabile generally
occurs in smaller streams than E. caeru-
leum and two species rarely overlap in
distribution.

TABLE 1.—NUMBER OF FISH SPECIES COLLECTED AT 7 SAMPLING SITES ON JESSAMINE CREEK, KENTUCKY. NUMBER IN
PARENTHESES REPRESENT SIZE RANGE IN MM FOR EACH SPECIES.

Species

1 2 3
Campostoma anomalum 1 (66) 103 (41-94) 100 (40-148)
Notropis ardens 4 (46-47)
N. atherinoides 6 (18-20)
N. chrysocephalus
Pimephales notatus 29 (34-49) 153 (43-76) 10 (35-50)
P. promelas 1 (66)
Rhinichthys atratulus 4 (33-69)
Semotilus atromaculatus 2 (46-66) 19 (50-120) 3 (45-128)
Catostomus commersoni 4 (28-39) 16 (178-190)
Hypentelium nigncans 10 (92-138)
Ictalurus melas
I. natalis 4 (26-105) 1 (175)
Noturus flavus
Gambusia affinis 10 (19-28)
Micropterus dolomieui 9 (25-80) 25 (23-190)
M. salmoides
Lepomis cyanellus 6 (38-95) 13 (61-100) 5 (40-82)
L_ macrochirus 8 (67-104) 4 (76-90)
L. megalotis
Ambloplites rupestris
Etheostoma blennioides 2 (33-34) 1 (50) 3 (52-71)
E. caeruleum 5 (26-44) 14 (33-52) 23 (30-50)
E. flabellare 11 (30-42) 5 (30-35) 1 (52)
E. spectabile 58 (24-38)
Percina caprodes
Cottus carolinae 3 (30-38) 3 (28-40) 1 (33)
Total no. species

11 14 14

In the late 1960's and early 1970's, the late
Dr. Henry Howell of Asbury College col-
lected fishes from Jessamine Creek in con-
junction with student field projects. The
species list compiled was similar to that
reported here although no relative abun-
dance data were available (2). Additional
species recorded by Howell as occuring in
Jessamine Creek include the carp (Cyprinus

Total

Sample Site No. % Total
4 5 6 7

34 (38-80) 88(40-115) 85(36-120) 65(40-126) 476 30.5
1 (57) 5 Bo)
4 (70-74) 1 (69) 11 tf
35 (54-127) 16 (55-80) 8 (55-72) 59 3.8
22 (21-52) 4 (40-44) 7 (3141) 6 (40-50) 231 14.8
13 (24-30) 14 9
123 (23-80) 127 8.2
31 (45-128) 1 (133) 7 (60-82) 1 (45) 64 4.1
4 (65-67) 24 1.5
12 (39-236) 10 (66-21) 5 (29-160) 37 2.4
1 (35) 1 (225) 2 A
1 (148) 6 ‘3
1 (38) 2 (30-62) 3 (21-110) 6 3
10 &
4 (41-106) 18(32-170) 16 (21-174) 72 4.6
1 (155) 1 A
5 (21-114) 4 (25-96) 1 (102) 34 2.2
1 (100) 9 (82-110) 2 (40-122) 24 15
1 (83) 7 (81-117) 8 5
1 (118) 3 (45-97) 5 (110-132) 9 6
7 (40-80) 1 (82) 2 (68-68) 16 1.0
1 (34) 18 (35-53) 64 (29-55) 42 (36-50) 167 10.7
11 (3640) 4 (38~40) 5 (3644) 4 (19-44) 41 2.6
27 (28-36) 85 5.5
2 (86-108) 2 al
17 (40-59) 24 1.5

1555

13 15 15 16

carpio), the golden redhorse (Moxostoma
erythrurum), and the warmouth (Lepomis
gulosus). These may have been obtained in
large, deep pools which were not sampled
in this study. Some of the 27 species recorded
by Howell (2), including the bullhead min-
now (Pimephales vigilax)and the brown bul-
lhead (Ictalurus nebulosus), may have been
misidentified by students since they would

32 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 45(1-2)

not be expected to be present in streams of
the Kentucky drainage (1, 3, 4). Five species
recorded in this study, the fathead minnow
(Pimephales promelas), the black bullhead
(Ictalurus melas), the yellow bullhead (I.
natalis), the mosquitofish (Gambusia affinis),
and the orangethroat darter (Etheostoma
spectabile) were not reported by Howell (2).
When the results of this study are compared
with other studies on central Kentucky
stream fishes (4, 5), Jessamine Creek appears
to be fairly typical of a small to medium
sized stream of moderate gradient with
respect to the diversity of the fish popula-
tion. Although no sampling was attempted
near the mouth of the creek, additional spe-
cies characteristic of larger rivers probably
are present there. None of the endangered,
threatened or rare species reported by
Branson et al. (6) were recorded. Compari-
son of the total number of species recovered
in this study with the species diversity
reported fora polluted creek in central Ken-
tucky (7) suggests that the pollution that
affects Jessamine Creek is not sufficient to
have caused a substantial change in the fish
population. More detailed analysis of the
age structure of these populations is needed
before this can be verified.

In summary, comparison of the species
list compiled in this study with that com-
piled by Howell (2) and his students sug-
gests that no major changes have occurred
in the fish populations in the last 15 years.
The area of Jessamine Creek Gorge to be
managed by the Nature Conservancy sup-
ports a relatively diverse and seemingly

healthy fish population that has not been
severly impacted by pollution in the water-
shed.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Thanks and appreciation are extended to
Chris Barton, Rick White and David White
who provided assistance in the field. Alice
Howell kindly provided information on Jes-
samine Creek Gorge including the species
list compiled by her father, Dr. Henry How-
ell. This research was supported by a grant
from the Centre College Faculty Develop-
ment Fund.

LITERATURE CITED

1. Clay, W. M. 1975. The Fishes of Kentucky. Ky. Dept.
Fish Wild. Resour., Frankfort, Kentucky.

2. Howell, H. List of fish known to be in Jessamine
Creek Gorge exclusive of river forms at the mouth of the
creek. Unpublished ms.

3. Burr, B. M. 1980. A distributional checklist
of the fishes of Kentucky. Brimleyana 3:53-84

4. Branson, B. A. and D. L. Batch. 1981. Fishes
of the Dix River, Kentucky. Ky. Nature Preserves
Comm. Sci. and Tech. Ser. 2:1-26.

5. Small, J. W., Jr. 1975. Energy dynamics of
benthic fishes in a small Kentucky stream.

Ecology 56:827-840.
6. Branson, B. A., D. F. Harker, Jr., J. M. Baskin,
M. E. Medley, D. L. Batch, M. L.Warren, Jr., W. H. Davis,
W. C. Houtcooper, B. Monroe, Jr., L. R. Phillippe, and P.
Cupp. 1981. Endangered, threatened, and rare animals
and plants of Kentucky. Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci. 42:77-89.

7. Kuehne, R. A. 1975. Evaluation of recovery in a
polluted creek after installation of new sewage treat-
ment procedures. Univ. Ky. Water Resour. Res. Inst.
Rep. 25:1-33.

Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 45(1-2), 1984, 33-35

Development of the Potato Leafhopper
On Selected Legumes

A. M. SIMMONS, K. V. YEARGAN AND B. C. PASS

Department of Entomology, University of Kentucky
Lexington, Kentucky 40546-0091.

ABSTRACT

Developmental rates for the potato leafhopper /Empoasca fabae (Harris)] were determined at 2 constant
temperatures, 24°C and 27°C. Seven kinds of leguminous host plants were used: ‘Apollo’, ‘Buffalo’, and ‘Riley’
alfalfa; ‘Major’ broad bean; ‘Kenstar’ and ‘Kuhn’ red clover; and ‘Williams’ soybean. Development of the leafhopper
varied among hosts. The least time was required to develop from egg to adult emergence on broad bean; the
leafhoppers developed at the rates of 5.08% and 6.0% per day at 24°C and 27°C, respectively. A relatively slow rate of
development was attained by potato leafhoppers on soybean (4.44% and 5.39% per day at 24°C and 27°C, respec-
tively). Males developed faster than females in most cases.

INTRODUCTION

The potato leafhopper, Empoasca fabae
(Harris), is a polyphagous insect which is
commonly found on alfalfa, clover, soybean,
and many other cultivated and wild plants
in Kentucky. Broad bean (Vicia faba L.) is a
plant on which the potato leafhopper is
easily reared. Consequently, much informa-
tion on the potato leafhopper has been
compiled using broad bean as the host.
However, broad bean is not commonly grown
in the areas where this insect is a pest.
Simonet and Pienkowski (1) (using broad
bean as the host) and Kouskolekas and
Decker (2) (using ‘Buffalo’ alfalfa as the host)
reported different threshold temperatures
for nymphal development of the potato
leafhopper. Saxena et al. (3), working with
other species of leafhoppers, reported that
host plants can influence the developmen-
tal rate of leafhoppers.

It is imperative that the biology of the
potato leafhopper be understood in order to
devise sound management strategies for
this pest. The study reported herein tested
for influence of host plant on the develop-
ment of the potato leafhopper.

MATERIALS AND METHODS
Seven kinds of greenhouse-grown, legum-
inous host plants were used for develop-
mental studies: ‘Apollo’, ‘Buffalo’ and ‘Riley’
alfalfa; ‘Major’ broad bean; ‘Kenstar’ and
‘Kuhn’ red clover (the former a pubescent
variety and the latter a variety with a few

closely-appressed hairs); and ‘Williams’ soy-
bean. Alfalfa and red clover plants were cut
and allowed to regrow 1.5 to 2 weeks (to a
height of 10 to 15 cm) prior to being used in
this study. Broad bean plants ca. 15 cm tall
and soybean plants at growth stages V2
through V3 (4) were selected to start the
experiment. Two environmental chambers
were maintained at a 15:9 L:D photoperiod
and at 24 + 2°C and 27 + 2°C, mean tempera-
tures which the potato leafhopper frequently
encounters in its natural environment.
Illumination was by high output, cool white,
40 watt fluorescent lamps.

The host plants were caged with 61 cm x
15.2 cm diameter plexiglas tubing, the de-
tailed design of which was described by
Simmons (5), and placed in the environmen-
tal chambers in a randomized block design,
2 blocks/chamber. There were 5 such repli-
cates at each temperature. Relative humid-
ity varied from 60% to 99%, depending on the
temperature and when the plants were
watered. Plants were watered from the bot-
tom as needed.

Insects were collected from an alafalfa field
in Fayette Co., KY, with a sweep net. The
contents were emptied into a 30 x30 x40 cm
plexiglas cage, which had a sleeve opening
(covered with stockinnette) which permit-
ted hand entry. The leafhopppers could eas-
ily be sexed without magnification as they
rested on the sides of the transparent cage.
Adult female potato leafhoppers were aspi-
rated from the cage into a 65 ml cup, the lid

33

34 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 45(1-2)

of which had a 2 cm diameter opening; an
alfalfa stem was placed in each cup and a
piece of cotton was inserted into the open-
ing after aspirating the leafhoppers. Ten
females were collected per cup, one cup
being used for each host plant. During hot
weather the cups of leafhoppers were
placed in an ice chest until they were trans-
ported to the laboratory.

Female potato leafhoppers were allowed
to oviposit over a 12 hour period of continu-
ous light. The amount of time required by
the potato leafhopper to develop from egg to
adult emergence at 24°C and 27°C on each
host plant was recorded. The first day was
counted as 12 hours after the oviposition
period ended. Adults which emerged on
each day were removed from the cage,
sexed, and the number of each gender
recorded for each host plant.

Duncan's Multiple Range Test was used
to separate the mean developmental rates of
the leafhoppers among host plants. Treat-
ment (host plant) means were compared
within temperatures (24°C and 27°C) for the
sexes combined, as well as for males and
females separately.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The number of days required for the
potato leafhopper to develop from egg to the
adult stage on 7 leguminous hosts at 24°C
and at 27°C is presented in Table 1. The
number of days required for the potato leaf-
hopper to develop at 24°C ranged, among
the plants tested, from 19.8 days (19.4 for
males and 20.1 for females) on broad bean to
22.7 days (22.4 for males and 22.9 for females)
on soybean. A similar duration (ca. 19.0 days)
for newly oviposited eggs to reach the adult
stage on broad bean at 24°C can be calcu-
lated from a study by Simonet and Pien-
kowski (1). At 27°C the duration in days for
development ranged from 16.7 days (16.5 for
males and 17.4 for females) on broad bean to
18.7 (18.1 for males and 19.2 for females) on
soybean.

Developmental rates for the potato leaf-
hopper on the7 host plants at 24°C and 27°C
are presented in Tables 2 and 3. Significant
differences (P<0.05) were found among
developmental rates of leafhoppers on dif-

TABLE 1. DURATION IN DAYS FOR DEVELOPMENT OF THE POTATO
LEAFHOPPER FROM EGG TO THE ADULT STAGE ON DIFFERENT LEGUM-
INOUS HOSTS AT 24°C AND 27°C.

Host plants Male Female Both sexes
24°C
Broad Bean 19.4 20.1 19.8
Buffalo (alfalfa) 19.5 20.5 20.0
Kuhn (red clover) 20.3 210 20.7
Apollo (alfalfa) 20.2 21.5 20.9
Riley (alfalfa) 20.5 219 21.2
Kenstar (red clover) 21.5 22.2 218
Soybean 22.4 22.9 22.7
27°C
Broad Bean 16.5 174 16.7
Buffalo (alfalfa) 16.7 17.8 17.2
Riley (alfalfa) 16.4 17.9 17.5
Apollo (alfalfa) 17.2 18.0 17.6
Kuhn (red clover) 17.5 18.3 17.9
Kenstar (red clover) 18.0 18.8 18.5
Soybean 18.1 19.2 18.7

ferent host plants. The fastest development
was on the broad bean at 27°C; one of the 2
fastest rates at 24°C also occurred on the
broad bean. The mean per cent develop-
ment per day on broad bean was 5.08 (5.17
for males and 5.0 for females) at 24°C; at 27°C
the rate was 6.0%/day (6.07%/day for males
and 5.85%/day for females). In the order of
decreasing rate of development on the other
host plants, the trend was as follows: alfalfa,
red clover, and soybean. Among the 3 alfalfa
varieties, the potato leafhopper developed
at the fastest rate on ‘Buffalo’ at 24°C, but
there were no differences among alfalfa var-
ieties at 27°C. Between the 2 red clover varie-
ties, the fastest rate was on Kuhnat 24°C, but
no significant difference in developmental
rates was observed between red clover var-
ieties at 27°C. Development of the potato
leafhopper on soybean was the slowest of all
plants tested at 24°C and one of the 2 slow-
est at 27°C. At 24°C on soybean, the devel-
opmental rate was 4.44%/day (4.5%/day for
males and 4.38%/day for females), and at
27°C the developmental rate was 5.39%/day
(5.54%/day for males and 5.24% day for
females).

Male potato leafhoppers developed faster
than females (Tables 2 and 3). This was true
for development at both temperature
regimes and on all plants tested, with 2

DEVELOPMENT OF POTATO LEAFHOPPER— Simmons, et.al.

TABLE 2. MEAN PER CENT DEVELOPMENT PER DAY (EGG TO
ADULT) OF MALE AND FEMALE POTATO LEAFHOPPERS ON LEGUMI-
NOUS PLANTS AT 24 +2°C.

Male Female Both sexes

Host plants N Mean N Mean Mean
Broad Bean SOS 7ayine 29 5.0a 5.08a
Buffalo (alfalfa) 56 5.15a 50 490ab 5.03a
Kuhn (red clover) 60 4.95b 66 4.79bc 4.86b
Apollo (alfalfa) 49 497b 55 4.67cd 4.81bc
Riley (alfalfa) 73 4.90b 73 460de 4.75c
Kenstar

(red clover) 36 4.68c 31 4.50ef 4.60d
Soybean 26 4.50c 33 4.38f 4.44e

* Means within a column and followed by the same letter are not signifi-
cantly different (P>0.05).

** On each host plant males developed significantly (P<0.05) faster than
females, except for soybean on which there was no difference between
developmental rates of the sexes.

TABLE 3. MEAN PER CENT DEVELOPMENT PER DAY (EGG TO
ADULT) OF MALE AND FEMALE POTATO LEAFHOPPERS ON LEGUMI-
NOUS PLANTS AT 27 +2°C.

Male Female Both sexes

Host plants N Mean N Mean Mean
Broad Bean 50 6.07a°** 20 5.85a 6.0a
Buffalo (alfalfa) 36 6.05ab 31 5.68ab 5.87b
Riley (alfalfa) 43 5.93b 55 5.54be 5.78b
Apollo (alfalfa) 36 5.86b 34 5.67ab 5.72be
Kuhn (red clover) 35 5.70cd 35 546cd 5.60cd
Kenstar

(red clover) 7 5.58cd 10 5.29de 5.54de
Soybean 15 5.54d 16 5.24e 5.39e

* Means within a column and followed by the same letter are not signifi-
cantly different (P>0.05).

** On each host plant males developed significantly |P<0.05) faster than
females, except for Kenstar’ red clover on which there was no difference
between developmental rates of the sexes.

exceptions: no significant differences were
observed between sexes on soybean at 24°C
or on ‘Kenstar’ red clover at 27°C. Newton
and Barnes (6) also noted that female potato
leafhoppers required longer than males to
develop.

The sex ratio of all adults which emerged
was 51:49, male to female (49:51 at 24°C and
52:48 at 27°C).

The results reported herein indicate that
host plants can influence the developmen-
tal rate of the potato leafhopper. This sug-
gests that some of the earlier data obtained
on the biology of the potato leafhopper using

35

broad bean as a host plant may not be
directly applicable to other host-plant sys-
tems. For example, if one utilized develop-
mental data obtained from potato leaf-
hoppers reared on the broad bean to predict
phenological events occurring on soybeans,
those events would occur later than pre-
dicted. On the other hand, those same data
should provide accurate predictions of
development on ‘Buffalo’ alfalfa, a variety
commonly grown in Kentucky.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors thank Dr. R. E. Sigafus for
supplying seeds of the alfalfa and red clover
varieties used in this study, and Mr. J. C. Parr
for his technical contributions.

The investigation reported in this paper
(No. 83-7-170) is in connection with a project
of the Kentucky Agricultural Experiment
Station and is published with approval of
the Director.

LITERATURE CITED

1. Simonet, D. E., and R. Pienkowski. 1980. Tempera-
ture effect on development and morphometrices of the
potato leafhopper. Environ. Entomol. 9:798-800.

2. Kouskolekas, C. A., and G. C. Decker. 1966. The
effect of temperature on rate of development of the
potato leafhopper, Empoasca fabae (Homoptera: Cica-
dellidae). Ann. Entomol. Soc. Amer. 59:292-298.

3. Saxena, K. N., J. R. Gandhi, and R. C. Saxena. 1974.
Patterns of relationship between certain leafhoppers
and plants. I. Responses to plants. Ent. Exp. Appl.
17:303-318.

4. Fehr, W. R,, and C. E. Caviness. 1977. Stages of
soybean development. Iowa Coop. Ext. Serv. Spec. Rep.
80:1-11.

5. Simmons, A. M. 1983. Influence of selected legumes
on the developmental rate, ovipositional rate, fecun-
dity, adult survival, and ovipositional preference of the
potato leafhopper, Empoasca fabae (Harris) (Homop-
tera: Cicadellidae). M. S. thesis, University of Kentucky.
80 pp.

6. Newton, R. C., and D. K. Barnes. 1965. Factors
affecting resistance of selected alfalfa clones to the
potato leafhopper. J. Econ. Entomol. 58:435-439.

Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 45(1-2), 1984, 36-50

Discriminative Analysis of Selected Rock Strengths and Geological
Parameters Associated with Basic Lithologies Derived
From the Eastern Kentucky Coal Field

ALAN D. SMITH

Coal Mining Administration, College of Business, Eastern Kentucky University, Richmond, KY 40475

JAMES C. COBB
Kentucky Geological Survey, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY 40506

Kort F. UNRUG

Department of Mining Engineering, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY 40506

ABSTRACT

A computer-based information system for engineering and geological data pertaining to surface mining was
developed under the Title III Program by the Kentucky Geological Survey and the University of Kentucky Mining
Engineering Department. Approximately 1,000 tests were performed on cores derived from the Eastern Kentucky
Coal Field using slake durability, direct shear, Brazilian tensile, punch shear, and ultimate and compressive
strength testing. Statistical analyses were performed on the data generated by this project. Multiple linear
regression, hypothesis testing, power analysis, stepwise regression, and model building were the statistical
methods applied to the Title III data base. The analyses provided estimates of relationships between the sets of
engineering test results and the geological criteria in the overburden rocks. Statistically significant relationships
were found among the parameters: slake durability, direct shear-test mean and standard deviation, punch
shear-stress mean and deviation, Brazilian tensile-test mean and standard deviation, and the criterion gross-
overburden lithology. No predictive relationships with the various engineering and geological tests were found
associated with depth of core sampling.

behavior of overburden rocks. Data of this
type are usually incomplete and scattered

INTRODUCTION
There are at least 36 types of rocks in the

coal-bearing strata of Kentucky that can be
differentiated by geologic characteristics.
All these rocks occur in the highwalls and
spoils of surface mines. Each rock type was
deposited as sediment under different con-
ditions and responds differently to weather-
ing and compaction, particularly after dis-
turbances such as mining. Asa result, each
rock will weather at a different rate, produce
water with different pH, and remain stable
after backfilling at varying slope angles.
There is, unfortunately, no source of infor-
mation which contains data on the weath-
erability and strength of these rocks from
which mining and reclamation planning
can be based.

However, with the introduction of state
and federal legislation governing reclama-
tion procedures for surface-mined lands,
immediate needs were checked for defining
geological characteristics and engineering

throughout various agencies, reports, and
private sources. The acquisition of these
data for use by all public and private parties
will lend support in particular to Sec. 515 (3)
of Public Law 95-87:

To restore to approximate original contour, the

operator, ata minimum shall backfill, grade, and

compact (where advisable) using all available
overburden and other spoil and waste materials

to attain the lowest practicable grade but not

more than the angle of repose.

Provided adequate data are available for
geological and engineering classification of
the overburden, groupings ofrocks could be
introduced which would serve as an aid to
more effective and efficient backfilling of the
overburden. Additionally, the technical
feasibility of mining coal at a particular loca-
tion and the durability and safety of a pro-
posed excavation, whether in a strip under-
ground mine, cannot be assessed adequately
without comprehensive data on the engineer-

36

ANALYSIS OF SELECTED ROCK STRENGTHS— Smith, et.al. 37

ing characteristics of the rock units which
confine and support the coal strata to be
removed. The design of the slopes and other
reclamation procedures, applications of ex-
cavating equipment, blasting patterns, and
haul roads in a surface mine or the size
openings and selection of mining methods
in an underground mine are governed by
the types of rock encountered. Only by ob-
taining comprehensive information on the
properties of the rocks, both geological and
engineering, can the most effective and
economical design be attained.

The principal goal of this project was to
develop a computer-based information sys-
tem for geotechnical data related to surface
mining and reclamation. Other objectives
were: (1) to generate data on the geological
and engineering properties of overburden
rocks, (2) to create computer programs to
access and analyze this data, (3) to perform
statistical analyses on the data generated, (4)
to direct theses projects in diverse aspects
of geology and engineering related to over-
burden rocks, and (5) to develop a user's
manual for the computer information sys-
tem. The thrust of this paper is to report the
results of statistical analysis on the data
initially generated from this project.

METHODS
Location of Cores Used for Testing

In order to make the study of overburden
characteristics relevant to Kentucky’s coal-
producing areas, drill cores were sought
from many sources. Government agencies
and private companies were contacted for
drill cores or coal-bearing sequences in
which typical overburden rocks were en-
countered. These cores were geologically
described, sampled, and prepared for phys-
ical testing. The geological description was
done using the 3-digit code system of Ferm
and Weisenfluh (1). This system was selected
for use because it is the method recom-
mended by the Kentucky Bureau of Surface-
Mining Reclamation and Enforcement and
it facilitates computer storage of geologic
data. In addition, the names applied to the
rock types are a combination of driller and
geologists’ terms. As noted by Farm and
Weisenfluh (op. cit.), the cores logged by

their methods should alert engineers to
rock types which can produce problems in
slope and shaft construction, and general
planning for underground and surface mines.
The classification employes a three-digit
system instead of the traditional descriptive
classification. The first digit, ranging from
one to nine, describes the rock type by grain
size. The second digit may describe either
the sand components, color, or fossil con-
tent. The third place digit describes any sed-
imentary features present. Other descrip-
tive symbols, suchas the term ‘flat’ (FLT) or
“rippled” (RIP) may follow the description if
shale or sandstone streaks are present. If the
streaks are horizontal and parallel, the term
“flat” is used; and ifthe streaks are wavy, the
term ‘rippled’ is used. Table 1is a summary
of the three-digit rock classification, and
accompanying geological description of the
overburden rock types found in the cores
studied. Table 2 shows the core locations,
recorded by computer identification num-
ber, Carter coordinates, geological quad-
rangle, county, surface elevation, and cored
interval of the cores used in the present
study.

TABLE 1.—THREE-DIGIT CLASSIFICATION CODES AND THE ASSO-
CIATED GEOLOGICAL DESCRIPTION

Code Geological Description

013 - Slumped shale

014 - Slumped sandy shale

017 - Shale mud flow

018 - Sandy shale mud flow

020 - Coal

113 - Black shale with coal streaks

114 - Black shale

123 - Dark gray shale with coal streaks

124 - Dark gray shale

127 - Dark gray fire clay

313 - Black shale with sandstone streaks

322 FLT - Dark gray shale and interbedded sandstone, flat
322 RIP - Dark gray shale and interbedded sandstone, rippled
323 - Dark gray shale with sandstone streaks

324 - Dark gray massive sandy shale

325 - Dark gray massive churned sandy shale

326 - Dark gray churned sandy shale

327 - Dark gray sandy fire clay

328 - Dark gray burrowed sandy shale

332 - Light gray-green shale and interbedded sandstone
541 - Gray crossbedded sandstone

542 - Gray sandstone, layered

543 - Gray sandstone with shale streaks

543 FLT - Gray sandstone with shale streaks, flat

543 RIP - Gray sandstone with shale streaks, rippled

38

TABLE 2—LOCATION OF CORES USED IN THE PRESENT STUDY

Computer Carter Geologic Cored
ID Coord Quadrangle County Elevation Interval
C338 12-T-78 Bruin Elliott 1080 10-646
C400 1-F-69 Fount Knox 1570 14-525
C307 19-C-70 Middlesboro N. Bell 1311 10-306
C253 9-J-73 Buckhorn Perry 920 3-115
C385 17-M-77 Guage Breathitt 1542 15-974
C382 5-0-80 Ivyton Johnson 1007 25-707
BECC 18-I-81 Mayking Letcher 1800 15-510
MECC 8-L86 Lick Creek Pike 1296 12-205
LECO 14-H-74 — Cutshin Leslie 1560 0-505
CE01 14-H-79 Blackey Letcher 1009 15-57
CEO2 14-H-79 Blackey Letcher 1059 11-187
CE03 14-H-79 Blackey Letcher 1182 0-68
CE04 16-L-71 Booneville Owsley 1054, 216-307
CEOS 14-H-79 _ Blackey Letcher 1008.0 21-67
CE06 16-L-71 Booneville Owsley 840 7-191
CE07 16-L-71 _ Booneville Owsley 820 7-167
CE08 16-L-71 Booneville Owsley 820 5-160

ENGINEERING ROCK-TESTING
Procedures

The following list contains brief descrip-
tions of the various tests performed on
selected rock cores.

BRAZILIAN TENSILE TEST: 1. Objective: This
test is used for the determination of the
tensile strength of rocks. 2. Procedure: The
Brazilian Test is an indirect method of
determining the tensile strength of rocks.
This test involves a solid circular disc witha
length to diameter ratio of 1:1. The disc is
loaded diametrically (line or strip load) until
failure. This test is only valid when primary
fracture initiates from the center of the disc
spreading along the loading diameter. 3.
Application: The data from Brazilian test
along with the data from the Uniaxial Com-
pression test will give the limits of min-
imum and maximum strength of the rock.
This information can be used for the
mechanical winning of minerals in rock,
drilling and blasting of rock, and failure
predictions of roofs and floors in under-
ground mines.

PUNCH SHEAR AND DIRECT SHEAR: 1. Objec-
tive: These tests are used to determine the
shear strength of rocks parallel and per-
pendicular to bedding planes. 2. Procedure:
The punch-shear test involves a flat disc of
rock cut parallel to bedding. The thickness
of the disc may range from 0.25 to 0.50
inches. The shearing effect is achieved by
loading a cylindrical plunger perpendicular

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 45(1-2)

to bedding until the plunger punches
through the disc (i.e., failure occurs). The
direct-shear test uses a shear box that has
two movable parts. The specimen is placed
in the shear box and is set in hydrostone to
prevent movement. The lower half of the
shear box remains stationary while the
upper halfis loaded until sliding movement
initiates across the lower half. Thus, failure
is achieved when the sample breaks parallel
to bedding. 3. Application: The application
of the direct shear and punch shear data is
used for the calculations of sliding and fail-
ure of a high wall in strip mining. Since the
data is determined parallel and perpendic-
ular to bedding, a limit of shear strength of
the high wall can be determined for high-
wall stability.

UNIAXIAL AND ULTIMATE COMPRESSIVE
STRENGTH, POISSON'S RATIO, AND YOUNG'S
MODULUS: 1. Objective: The objective of this
test is to determine the Compressive
Strength, Poisson's ratio, and Young’s Modu-
lus of a rock sample. 2. Procedure: A cylin-
drical, right-angled specimen of rock with a
length-to-diameter ratio of 2:1 is uniaxially
loaded between the platens of a testing
machine. The displacement of the original
dimensions caused by uniaxial loading is
measured by linear variable differential trans-
ducers (LVDI). This displacement of dimen-
sions is used in the calculation of a stress-
strain curve of the sample. From this curve
the Poisson's strength of the sample is
found at the failure point of the curve for the
sample. 3. Application: The data obtained
from the test is used for the basic calcula-
tions of elastic theory and can be related to
the angle of internal friction. This in turn
can be used for the design of high walls and
foundation work in strip mining and refill
work, respectively.

SLAKE DURABILITY: 1. Objective: This test is
used for the determination of weather dur-
ability ofrock. 2. Procedure: The Slake Dura-
bility test uses 10 pieces of a sample weigh-
ing 40 to 60 grams each. These samples are
placed in a wire-mesh basket which is
immersed in water. The basket is rotated at
60 rpm for 30 minutes. Later, the basket is
oven dried for 24 hours to remove all excess
water and weighed. The Slake Durability

ANALYSIS OF SELECTED ROCK STRENGTHS— Smith, et.al. Ba

Index is calculated as a percentage of final
weight to initial weight of the sample. The
Slake-Durability Index ranged from 0 to
100%. The 0% represents total disintegration
of the sample. 3. Application: The Slake Dur-
ability Index gives the weathering durability
of the rock sample. It also gives the percen-
tage of matrix material produced during the
handling of the spoil material and can be
related to fill calculations.

RESEARCH QUESTIONS

The major research questions asked in
the present study are: 1. Are there predictive
relationships among the various engineer-
ing tests and basic lithologies? 2. Can each
specific rock type according to the system of
Ferm and Weisenfluh (1) be descriminated
from the remaining rock types based on the
results of the engineering-rock testing?

STATISTICAL TECHNIQUES
MULTIPLE LINEAR REGRESSION AND HYPOTHESIS
TESTING— Multiple linear regression is an
extremely flexible technique that makes
available much statistical information once
certain mechanical topics are mastered.
Newman (2) and Fraas and Newman (3), in a
discussion of the advantages of regression
hypotheses testing procedures, compiled
several reasons why multiple linear regres-
sion is an appropriate and, in many Cases,
preferable procedure. A few advantages are:
1. Multiple linear regression is the general
case of the least sum of squares solution.
Chi square, t-and F-tests are special cases of
the least squares solution. Therefore, any-
time anyone could use any of the special
cases of the least squares solution, the more
general case would be appropriate, 2. With
the regression procedure one states the
hypothesis and then writes the regression
model to test the hypothesis. So every test of
significance is a test of a specific hypothesis,
3. Regression is more flexible in being able to
write the models that specifically reflect the
research hypotheses, 4. Since regression
can deal with categorical and continuous
variables, it is more flexible in its ability to
reflect real world problems, 5. All analyses of
covariance procedures are really regression
procedures because the covariables are

always held constant by regressing it on the
criterion.

MODEL BUILDING—Applied researchers who
use multiple regression frequently are in-
terested in: 1. Estimating the relationship
between a set of predictive variables to a
criterion in a sample for the purpose of gen-
eralizing to the population; 2. Estimating
the magnitude of relationships from sample
to sample and then to the population. Gen-
erally, in any regression model, a R? needs to
be large enough to be practically as well as
statistically significant. This means that the
regression model or equation should actu-
ally be able to predict significantly better
than by chance alone as well as visual
inspection, especially in the case of rock
mechanics studies. If the model does not
predict significantly better, then the model
is not practically useful and one must
reconsider the variables that went into the
model. The following are some reasons that
may be considered in explaining why the
model may not be predicting well: 1. The
variables used in the model should be con-
sidered as interactions. However, there could
be first, second, third, and higher orders of
interactions, which increases the number of
variables examined in the model. As more
interactions are added, the number of vari-
ables decreases, thus causing a greater
instability in the regression equation’s abil-
ity to accurately predict, 2. There may be
second or higher degree curvilinear rela-
tionships between the criterion and predic-
tor variables that are not reflected in the
model. Therefore, in multiple linear regres-
sion, if curvilinear relationship exists, the
linear predictor is not a good predictor
since the model does not reflect the curvili-
near aspect. One can examine by plotting
the error vector or residuals to see if a regu-
lar second or higher order pattern exists,
hence reflecting a possible curvilinear rela-
tionship. Unfortunately, everytime a higher
order term is added to the model the
number of variables increase, thus reducing
the data collected to variable ratio, 3. Other
important considerations include the relia-
bility and validity estimates of the variables.
Even though a particular variable has been
demonstrated in the literature as an impor-

aD TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 45(1-2)

tant factor, the current estimates, limited by
present data collection and instrumenta-
tion techniques, of the variable may be poor
and better estimates should be sought before
it is included in the model. Obviously, the
model will only be as good as the degree of
relevancy of the variables entered into the
model.

Once the variables in the model are deter-
mined to be a good predictor and have prac-
tical significance, usually determined by
hypothesis testing and model comparisons,
interpretation of the regression weights and
associated values for the variables are
another major concern. Each variable in the
model has a partial regression weight by
which it is multiplied. These weights are
calculated by the least sum of squares
method via a commercial computer pro-
gram like SPSS or SAS, and are intended to
maximize the prediction. Generally, the
larger the R? term the more accurate the
prediction. However, a common problem
with this procedure is that researchers and
readers of research tend to interpret the
partial regression weights and the standard-
ized regression weights by attaching greater
importance to those variables with higher
weights. This is only legitimate if the varia-
bles are not significantly correlated, or there
is no multicolinearity. The more the correla-
tion between the predictor variables, and
hence multicolinearity, the less appropriate
it is to interpret these weights.

RESULTS
Overburden Rock Testing

Almost 1,000 individual tests were per-
formed on cores, using slake durability,
direct shear, punch shear, Brazilian tensile,
compressive, and ultimate compressive
strength. Whenever possible, 3 samples were
used in the testing process, with a recorded
mean and standard deviation for the strength
test. A total of 262 different rock samples
with partially paired data were recorded
and used in the statistical analysis of the
results to answer the major research ques-
tions generated in this study. Table 3 pres-
ents a summary of the coded label and des-
cription of the geological and engineering
parameters used in the study.

TABLE 3— DESCRIPTIVES OF THE GEOLOGICAL AND ENGINEERING
PARAMETERS STUDIED.

Parameter Label Parameter Description

FERM Ferm and Weisenfluh’s (1981) Rock Classifi-
cation Number.

BRAZM Brazilian Tensile Test Mean Performed on
Three Rock Samples of Same Rock Classifi-
cation Number. (Units in kg/cm?)

BRAZDEV Brazilian Tensile Test Standard Deviation
Performed on Three Rock Samples of Same
Rock Classification Number.

SLAKE Slake Durability Test. (Units in percentage)

DSHEAR Direct Shear Test Mean Performed on Three
Rock Samples of Some Rock Classification.
(Units in kg/cm?)

DSDEV Direct Shear Test Standard Deviation Per-
formed on Three Rock Samples of Same
Rock Classification.

PUNCHSR Punch Shear Test Mean Performed on
Three Rock Samples of Same Rock Classifi-
cation. (Units in kg/cm?)

PUNCHDV Punch Shear Test Standard Deviation Per-
formed on Three Rock Samples of Same
Rock Classification.

STRESSM Compressive Uniaxial Strength Test Mean
Performed on Three Rock Samples of Same
Rock Classification. (Units in kg/cm?)

ETAN Young's Modulus of Elasticity

DEPTH Depth from Ground Surface to Core Sample
(Units in feet)

ELEVATION Elevation of the Top of the Core Sample.
(Units in feet)

vy Poisson's Ratio. (Vertical Direction)

Vx Poisson's Ratio. (Horizontal Direction)

VAVER Poisson's Ratio. (Averaged) (VY + VX)/2

POSS Transformed Poisson's Ratio. (VY -VX)

MOMENT Bending Moment. (Units in kg/cm?)

SOIL Soil Type. (Intervals in feet)

co Ultimate Compressive Strength (Rupture).

(Units in psi)

HYPOTHESIS TESTING AND MODEL COMPARISONS

The first general research question was
attempted by using multiple linear regres-
sion analysis techniques, as discussed in
the previous section. To accomplish this
task, the Ferm’s and Weisenfluh’s number
was grouped into 4 gross categories; where
000 to 039 equal to 1, 090 to 299 equal to 2,
300 to 499 equal to 3, and 500 to 900 equal to
4. The rationale for this manipulation is to
place the overburden rocks derived from
the cores into one of the following major

ANALYSIS OF SELECTED ROCK STRENGTHS— Smith, et.al.

TABLE 4—SUMMARY OF MODELS TESTED, BOTH FULL AND RE-
STRICTED MODELS, R? FOR BOTH MODELS, DEGREES OF FREEDOM-
NUMERATOR, DEGREES OF FREEDOM-DENOMINATOR, F-RATIO, PROB-
ABILITY LEVELS, AND STATISTICAL SIGNIFICANCE FOR EACH RESEARCH
HYPOTHESIS THAT TESTED FOR DISCRIMINATIVE RELATIONSHIPS
AMONG THE ENGINEERING AND GEOLOGICAL PARAMETERS AND THE
CRITERION VARIABLE FERM CLASSIFICATION AND GROSS LITHOLOGY

Engineering

or Geological Rall Ltrs df F-Ratio Prob. Significance

Parameteris)
BRAZM, BRAZDEV 0.22778 0.0 2/47 6.93169 0.0023 Ss
BRAZM®@ 0.06050 00 1/48 3.09089 0.0851 NS
BRAZDEV* 0.11511 0.0 1/48 6.24386 0.0159 Ss
VX, VY, VAVER:
POSS, CO 0.02798 0.0 4/48 0.34548 0.8459 NS
vxb 0.01304 00 1/51 067402 04155 NS
cob 0.01440 0.0 1/51 074488 0.3921 NS
vyb 0.00982 00 1/51 0.50559 0.4803 NS
VAVER? 0.01325 0.0 1/51 0.68497 0.4117 NS
poss? 0.00088 00 1/51 0.04511 0.8327 NS
SLAKE 0.12219 0.0 1/55 7.65626 0.0077 Ss
DSHEAR, DSDEV 040786 00 2/16 551030 0.0151 Ss
DSHEAR® 0.39528 00 1/17 1111237 0.0039 s
DSDEV* 0.40786 00 2/16 551030 0.0151 Ss
PUNCHSR,
PUNCHDV 0.25882 0.0 2/53 9.25366 0.0004 Ss
PUNCHSR® 0.24759 0.0 1/54 17.76929 0.0001 s
PUNCHDV* 0.01225 00 1/54 066975 0.4167 NS
MOMENT, STRESSM 0.02676 0.0 2/79 1.08616 0.3425 NS
MOMENT" 0.02429 0.0 1/80 199132 0.1621 NS
STRESSM® 002673 0.0 1/80 219675 0.1422 NS
Vy, VX, CO, ETAN 0.06158 0.0 4/48 0.78744 0.5390 NS
DEPTH 0.00322 0.0 1/115 0.37180 0.5432 NS
ETAN 0.01853 0.0 1/51 0.96293 0.3311 NS

NOTE, An F-test was utilized to test for statistically significant relationships
among the various engineering and geological parameters studied with
the lithology reclassified from the Ferm's rock designation code. The
assigned alpha level of 0.05 for a two-tailed, nondirectional test was used
because each specific research hypothesis was considered statistically
significant. However, a correction for multiple comparisons was deemed
necessary in a number of cases in the hypothesis-testing process. The
alpha level was corrected using the Newman and Fry (4) method. The
corrected alpha level was used before each specific hypothesis was
considered statistically significant. Listed below are the corrected alpha
levels for the affected hypotheses. The symbols S denotes statistical
significance, while NS denotes nonsignificance at the stated alpha level

Acorrected alpha level is equal to 0.025

Ss

corrected alpha level is equal to 0.010

rock groups: sandstones (pebbly and sand-
stones and conglomerates), sandy shales
and fireclays, shales and fireclays, ironstone,
limestones, and flint clays. Hence, the coding
of 500 to 900 represents relatively coarse-
grained rocks of sandstones, pebbly sand-
stones, and conglomerates. The coding of
090 to 299 illustrates the basic lithology of
shales and fireclays coupled with ironstone,
limestone, and flint clay; while the coding of
000 to 039 represents coal and bone. As illus-
trated in the coding scheme, increasing sig-
nificance is granted to coarser-grained rock
and the reverse is true for finer-grained rock.
By this grouping, all the rock samples (N=262)
can be entered into the regression equa-

41

tions for predictive purposes and allow for
sufficient power of the test for internal valid-
ity purposes. Table 4 is a summary of the
models tested, both full and restricted
models, R? for both models, degrees of
freedom-numerator, degrees of freedom-
denominator, F-ratio, probability levels, and
statistical significance for each research
hypothesis that tested for discriminative
relationships among the engineering and
geological parameters and the criterion var-
iable, gross lithology.

The second general research question
was approached by coding all the other
classification numbers as a 2, and the actual
classification number as a 1. This allowed
for the formulation of a dichotomized criter-
ion variable to be used for discriminative
analysis purposes. The dependent and engi-
neering and geological parameters were
entered into multiple linear regression equa-
tions. The results of this testing, for illustra-
tive purposes, are summarized in Tables 5
through 7. However, due to the general lack
of success of this procedure, not all possible
combinations of classification numbers were
delineated in this manner. Table 8 is a
summary table illustrating the results of the
hypotheses testing and model comparisons
using depth to the top of the sample core as
the criterion.

TABLE 5—SUMMARY OF MODELS TESTED, BOTH FULL AND RE-
STRICTED MODELS, R? FOR BOTH MODELS, DEGREES OF NUMERATOR,
DEGREES OF FREEDOM-DENOMINATOR, F-RATIO, PROBABILITY LEVELS,
AND STATISTICAL SIGNIFICANCE FOR EACH RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS
THAT TESTED FOR DISCRIMINATIVE RELATIONSHIPS AMONG THE
ENGINEERING AND GEOLOGICAL PARAMETERS AND THE CRITERION
VARIABLE FERM CLASSIFICATION 138 (LIGHT GRAY FIRECLAY)

Engineenng

or Geological Re Romeo df F-Ratio Prob. Significance
ull ~~ restr.

Parameters)
BRAZM, BRAZDEV 0.0 NOT TESTABLE®
BRAZM@ 0.0 NOT TESTABLE®
BRAZDEV* 0.00 NOT TESTABLE
VX, VY, VAVER, :
POSS, CO 0.37798 0.0 4/48 7.29200 0.0001 s
vx 0.00399 00 1/51 0.20421 0.6533 NS
coe 0.35951 0.0 1/51 28.62660 0.0000 Ss
vw 0.01800 0.0 1/51 0.93468 0.3382 NS
VAVER? 0.01101 00 1/51 0.56796 0.4545 NS
poss? 0.00005 0.0 1/51 0.00232 0.9618 NS
SLAKE 0.00022 00 1/51 0.01209 0.9128 NS
DSHEAR, DSDEV 0.00 NOT TESTABLE®
DSHEAR® 0.0 NOT TESTABLE®
DSDEV4 0.0 NOT TESTABLE®
PUNCHSR, :
PUNCHDV On) NOT TESTABLE®
PUNCHSR@ 0.0 NOT TESTABL!
PUNCHDV* 0.0
MOMENT, STRESSM 00 NOT TESTABLE
MOMENT 0.0 NOT TESTABLE®
STRESSM* 0.0 NOT TESTABLE®
VY. VX,CO,ETAN 0.43801 0.0 4/48 9.35266 0.0000 s
DEPTH 0.00008 0.0 1/115 0.00912 0.9241 NS

42 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 45(1-2)

TABLE 5— CONTINUED

NOTE. An F-test was utilized to test for statistically significant relation-
ships among the various engineering and geological parameters studied
with the lithology reclassified from the Ferm’s rock designation code. The
assigned alpha level of 0.05 for a two-tailed, nondirectional test was used
before each specific research hypothesis was considered statistically
significant. However, a correction for multiple comparisons was deemed
necessary in a number of cases in the hypothesis-testing process. The
alpha level was corrected using the Newman and Fry (4) method. The
corrected alpha level was used before each specific hypothesis was con-
sidered statistically significant. Listed below are the corrected alpha
levels for the affected hypotheses. The symbol S denotes statistical signifi-
cance, while NS denotes nonsignificance at the stated alpha level.

Acorrected alpha level is equal to 0.025.

beorrected alpha level is equal to 0.010.

variables in the equation are constant or have missing correlations and
cannot be processed.

TABLE 6—SUMMARY OF MODELS TESTED, BOTH FULL AND
RESTRICTED MODELS, R? FOR BOTH MODELS, DEGREES OF FREEDOM-
NUMERATOR, DEGREES OF FREEDOM-DENOMINATOR, F-RATIO, PROB-
ABILITY LEVELS, AND STATISTICAL SIGNIFICANCE FOR EACH RESEARCH
HYPOTHESIS THAT TESTED FOR DISCRIMINATIVE RELATIONSHIPS
AMONG THE ENGINEERING AND GEOLOGICAL PARAMETERS AND THE
CRITERION VARIABLE FERM CLASSIFICATION 127 (DARK GRAY FIRE-
CLAY)

Engineering

or Geological Real Fan df F-Ratio Prob. Significance

Parametens)
BRAZM, BRAZDEV 0.19453. 0.0 2/47 5.67553 ——-0.0062 )
BRAZM® 0.05974 00 1/48 3.04975 0.0871 NS
BRAZDEV* 0.17182 0.0 1/48 995807 0.0028 Ss
VX. VY, VAVER,
POSS, CO 0.04956 0.0 4/48 0.62571 0.6464 NS
vxb 0.00138 00 1/51 0.07058 07916 NS
cob 0.04345 0.0 1/51 2.31663 0.1342 NS
vy> 0.00136 00 1/51 0.06942 0.7932 NS
VAVERD 0.00159 00 1/51 0.08122 0.7768 NS
poss? 0.00056 0.0 1/51 0.02875 0.8660 NS
SLAKE 0.02916 00 1/55 165214 0.2041 NS
DSHEAR, DSDEV 0.12258 «0.0. 2/16—-1.11760 0.3513 NS
DSHEAR® 0.07646 00 1/17 140734 0.2518 NS
DSDEV* 0.08043 0.0 1/17 148699 0.2393 NS
PUNCHSR,
PUNCHDV 0.16943 0.0 2/53 540564 0.0073 Ss
PUNCHSR® 0.03461 0.0 1/54 193574 0.1698 NS
PUNCHDV@™ 0.13351 0.0 1/54 8.32061 0.0056 Ss
MOMENT, STRESSM 00 NOT TESTABLE
MOMENT" 0.0 NOT TESTABLE
STRESSM®* 00 NOT TESTABLE®
VY, VX.CO,ETAN 0.06830 0.04/48. 0.87975. 0.4831 NS
DEPTH 0.00195 0.0 1/115 0.22468 0.6364 NS

NOTE. An F-test was utilized to test for statistically significant relation-
ships among the various engineering and geological parameters studied
with the lithology reclassified from the Ferm’s rock designation code. The
assigned alpha level of 0.05 for a two-tailed, nondirectional test was used
because each specific research hypothesis was considered statistically
significant. However, a correction for multiple comparisons was deemed
necessary in a number of cases in the hypothesis-testing process. The
alpha level was corrected using the Newman and Fry (4) method. The
corrected alpha level was used before each specific hypothesis was con-
sidered statistically significant. Listed below are the corrected alpha
levels for the affected hypotheses. The symbols S denotes statistical
significance, while NS denotes nonsignificance at the stated alpha level.

4corrected alpha level is equal to 0.025

corrected alpha level is equal to 0.010.

©variables in the equation are constant or have missing correlations and
cannot be processed.

TABLE 7—SUMMARY OF MODELS TESTED, BOTH FULL AND
RESTRICTED MODELS, R? FOR BOTH MODELS, DEGREES OF FREEDOM-
NUMERATOR, DEGREES OF FREEDOM-DENOMINATOR, F-RATIO,
PROBABILITY LEVELS, AND STATISTICAL SIGNIFICANCE FOR EACH
RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS THAT TESTED FOR DISCRIMINATIVE RELA-
TIONSHIPS AMONG THE ENGINEERING AND GEOLOGICAL PARAME-
TERS AND THE CRITERION VARIABLE FERM CLASSIFICATION 136
(LIGHT GRAY SHALE)

Engineenng

or Geological Rrull Re df F-Ratio Prob. Significance

Parameters)
BRAZM, BRAZDEV 0.02968 0.0 2/47 0.71874 ~—-0.4926 NS
BRAZM@ 0.01681 0.0 1/48 0.82050 0.3696 NS
BRAZDE\* 0.01985 00 1/48 097190 0.3291 NS
VX, VY, VAVER,
POSS, CO 0.02547 00 4/48 0.31365 0.8675 NS
vxb 0.00445 00 1/51 0.22811 0.6350 NS
co 0.00915 00 1/51 047120 0.4955 NS
vw 0.01346 0.0 1/51 069571 0.4081 NS
VAVER? 0.00951 00 1/51 048945 0.4874 NS
poss? 0.00265 00 1/51 0.13540 0.7144 NS
SLAKE 0.11663 00 1/55 7.26125 0.0093 Ss
DSHEAR, DSDEV 00 NOT TESTABLE
DSHEAR® 0.0 NOT TESTABLE
DSDEV* 0.0 NOT TESTABLE
PUNCHSR,
PUNCHDV 0.01613 0.0 2/53 043452 0.6499 NS
PUNCHSR® 0.00002 00 1/54 0.00124 0.9721 NS
PUNCHD\* 0.01610 0.0 1/54 0.88343 0.3514 NS
MOMENT, STRESSM 00 NOT TESTABLE®
MOMENT® 0.0 NOT TESTABLE
STRESSM® 0.0 NOT TESTABLE
VY, VX,CO,ETAN 0.09734 0.0 4/48.——-1.29398 0.2857 NS
DEPTH 0.00455 0.0 1/115 052511 0.4701 NS

NOTE. An F-test was utilized to test for statistically significant relation-
ships among the various engineering and geological parameters studied
with the lithology reclassified from the Ferm’s rock designation code. The
assigned alpha level of 0.05 for a two-tailed, nondirectional test was used
because each specific research hypothesis was considered statistically
signicant. However, a correction for multiple comparisons was deemed
necessary in a number of cases in the hypothesis-testing process. The
alpha level was corrected using the Newman and Fry (4) method. The
corrected alpha level was used before each specific hypothesis was con-
sidered statistically significant. Listed below are the corrected alpha
levels for the affected hypotheses. The symbols S denotes statistical
significance, while NS denotes nonsignificance at the stated alpha level.

Acorrected alpha level is equal to 0.025.

Dcomected alpha level is equal to 0.010.

variables in equation are constant or have missing correlations and
cannot be processed.

TABLE 8—SUMMARY OF MODELS TESTED, BOTH FULL AND RES-
TRICTED MODELS, R? FOR BOTH MODELS, DEGREES OF FREEDOM-
NUMERATOR, DEGREES OF FREEDOM-DENOMINATOR, F-RATIO,
PROBABILITY LEVELS, AND STATISTICAL SIGNIFICANCE FOR EACH
RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS THAT TESTED FOR DISCRIMINATIVE RELA-
TIONSHIPS AMONG THE ENGINEERING AND GEOLOGICAL PARAME-
TERS AND THE CRITERION VARIABLE DEPTH TO SAMPLE CORE

Engineering
or Geological
Parameters)

BRAZM, BRAZDEV
BRAZM4
BRAZDEV*

VX, VY, VAVER,
POSS, CO

vxb

co

vy»

VAVER?

poss?

SLAKE

DSHEAR, DSDEV
DSHEAR®
DSDEV*
PUNCHSR,
PUNCHDV
PUNCHSR®
PUNCHDV*
MOMENT, STRESSM
MOMENT*
STRESSM*

Vy, VX. CO, ETAN

NOTE. An F-test was utilized to test for statistically significant relationships
among the various engineering and geological parameters studied with
the lithology reclassified from the Ferm’s rock designation code. The
assigned alpha level of 0.05 for a two-tailed, nondirectional test was used
because each specific research hypothesis was considered statistically
significant. However, a correction for multiple comparisons was deemed
necessary in a number of cases in the hypothesis-testing process. The
alpha level was corrected using the Newman and Fry (4) method. The

corrected alpha level was used before each specific hypothesis was con-

Rerull

0.007251
0.04916
0.00923

0.06430
0.04217
0.00316
0.03022

0.04859
0.02381
0.02523

Re
restr

0.0
0.0
0.0

0.0
0.0
0.0
00
0.0
00
0.0
00
0.0
0.0

0.0
00
00
0.0
00
00
0.0

ANALYSIS OF SELECTED ROCK STRENGTHS— Smith, et.al.

df

2/47

1

48

1/48

=e

eene

= =
Jan

53
54
54

Significance

NS
NS
NS

NS
NS
NS
NS

NS
NS

F-Ratio Prob.
1.83730 0.1705
2.48185 0.1217
0.44715 0.5069

NOT TESTABLE

NOT TESTABLE®

NOT TESTABLE®

NOT TESTABLE

NOT TESTABLE

NOT TESTABLE
3.22990 0.0787
0.35222 0.7084
0.05394 08191
0.52980 04766
135329 0.2672
1.31727 0.2561
1.39794

NS

NOT TESTABLE®
NOT TESTABLE®

NOT

sidered statistically ha level is equal to 0.025

b

variables in the equation are constant or have missing correlations and

cannot be processed

corrected alpha level is equal to 0.010

STABLES

FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTIONS
AND DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS

The frequencies of the various engineer-
ing and geological parameters are displayed
in Table 9 and selected parameters visually
displayed in computer-generated graphics
in Figures 1 through 13. Descriptive statis-
tics are performed on selected continuous

variables and summarized in Table 10.

Adjusted@
Absolute Relative Cumulative
Parameter Frequency Frequency Frequency
(%) (%)
Slake Durability (%)
(N=57)

0.0 - 10.0 3 11 5.3
10.0 - 20.0 0 0.0 5.3
20.0 - 30.0 1 04 7.0
30.0 - 40.0 0 0.0 7.0
40.0 - 50.0 0 0.0 7.0

43
TaBLE 9— CONTINUED

Adjusted@

Absolute Relative Cumulative

Parameter Frequency Frequency Frequency

(%) (%)
50.0 - 60.0 0 0.0 7.0
60.0 - 70.0 4 15 14.0
70.0 - 80.0 9 34 29.8
80.0 - 90.0 18 6.9 614
90.0 - 100.0 22 84 100.0
MISSING CASES 205 78.2 100.0
262 100.0

Direct Shear

Stress (Kg/cm?)
(N=30)

0.0 - 10,000 3 11 10.0
10.000 - 20.000 7 27 33.3
20.000 - 30.000 4 15 46.7
30.000 - 40.000 4 15 60.0
40.000 - 50.000 4 15 73.3
50.000 - 60.000 3 11 83.3
60.000 - 70.000 2 08 90.0
70.000 - 80.000 3 1.1 100.0

MISSING CASES 232 92:7 100.0
262 100.0
Shear Standard
Deviation
(N=19)

0.0 - 0.10000 3 11 10.3
0.100 - 0.2000 6 2.3, 41.9
0.2000 - 0.3000 0 0.0 419
0.3000 - 0.4000 0 0.0 419
0.4000 - 0.5000 3 11 57.7
0.5000 - 0.6000 2 0.8 68.2
0.6000 - 0.7000 3 11 84.0
0.7000 - 0.8000 2 08 100.0

MISSING CASES 243 92.7 100.0
262 100.0
Brazilian Tensile
Test Mean
(Kg/cm2)
(N=58)

0.0 - 10.000 1 04 17
10.000 - 20.000 0 0.0 17
20.000 - 30.000 1 04 3.4
30.000 - 40.000 0 0.0 34
40.000 - 50.000 8 Sal 17.2
50.000 - 60.000 11 42 36.2
60.000 - 70.000 13 5.0 58.6
70.000 - 80.000 17 6.5 87.9
80.000 - 90.000 4 1.5 94.8
90.000 - 100.000 1 04 96.5

100.000 - 110.000 1 04 98.3

110.000 - 120.000 1 04 100.0

779

MISSING CASES 204

100.0

yi TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 45(1-2)

TaBLE 9— CONTINUED.

Adjusted@
i Absolute Relative Cumulative
Adjusted@ Parameter Frequency Frequency Frequency
Absolute Relative Cumulative ss (5) (<)
Parameter Frequency Frequency Frequency
(%) (5) Ferm Classification
Groupings
Punch Shear Stress (N=262)
Min Gah 000 - 039 10 38 38
INFeY) 090 - 299 35 13.4 172
SoS ey ae oe) oe 300 - 499 101 38.5 557
100.00 - 150.00 12 46 526 ath <x aie AD “ane
150-005 200 00 UW oe one) MISSING CASES 0 0.0 100.0
200.00 - 250.00 6 23 825 — ——
250.00 - 300.00 4 15 895 262 100.0
300.00 - 350.00 4 15 96.5
350.00 - 400.00 1 04 98.2 Uniaxial Compressive
400.00 - 450.00 1 04 100.0 Strength (Kg/cm*)
MISSING CASES 205 78.2 100.00 (N=82)
= ee 0.000 - 10.000 27 103 329
: 10.000 - 20.000 19 73 56.1
= 20.000 - 30.000 16 61 756
UAH SEA SECS 30.000 - 40.000 10 38 878
SETA DEVEL 40.000 - 50.000 6 23 95.1
aaa : ss ye 50.000 - 60.000 3 141 988
0.100 - 0.200 12 46 33.9 a ney mene a ace
aaa onto 3 non a 70.000 - 80.000 1 04 100.0
MISSING CASES 180 68.7 100.0
0.300 - 0.400 11 42 75.0 —— ——
0.400 - 0.500 8 31 89.3 262 100.0
0.500 - 0.600 4 15 964
0.600 - 0.700 2 08 100.0 Young's Modulus of
MISSING CASES 206 78.6 100.0 Elasticity
Tegee Raney (N=55) (X108 Ibs/in?)
aa 7 0.000 - 0.500 ty) 0.0 0.0
: 0.500 - 1.000 2 08 36
sees ee 1.000 - 1.500 3 11 91
ines 1.500 - 2.000 10 38 27.3
sey Ba or eG 2.000 - 2.500 15 57 545
2.500 - 3.000 10 38 727
pie i se en 3.000 - 3.500 12 46 945
MISSING CASES 137 523 100.0 Soret eet aa 3 zi ees
papers sess MISSING CASES 207 79.0 100.0
252 100.0 262 100.0
Depth to,Core Poisson's Ratio
Sample (feet)
(N=117) YAverage)
0.0- 1000 27 10.3 23.1 Niet
100.0- 200.0 25 95 444 eee ne g oo 00
200.0- 300.0 17 65 60.0 O05 050-100 Z os oe
300.0- 400.0 23 88 78.6 02100-0780 4 Ap 1
400.0- 500.0 16 61 923 011305 0-200 2 Le 209
500.0- 600.0 7 27 98.3 02000250 iz oH 363
600.0 - 700.0 1 04 99.1 peer 5 19 82
700.0- 800.0 0 0.0 99.1 2300 0350 8 oe g27
800.0- 900.0 0 0.0 99.1 et z rail 2
900.0 - 1000.0 1 04 100.0 oO atee $2 ces
eee MISSING CASES 207 79.0 100.0
MISSING CASES 145 55.3 100.0 —— ——
[= 262 100.0

262 100.0

ANALYSIS OF SELECTED ROCK STRENGTHS— Smith, et.al.

TABLE 9— CONTINUED.

Adjusted@
Absolute Relative | Cumulative
Parameter Frequency Frequency Frequency
(%) (%)
Ultimate
Compressive Strength

(Ibs/in?) (N=53)

5.000.0 - 10000.0 7 2.7 13.2
10000.0 - 11000.0 6 2.3 24.5
11000.0 - 12000.0 10 3.8 43.4
12000.0 - 13000.0 6 2.3 54.7
13000.0 - 14000.0 4 15 62.3
14000.0 - 15000.0 2 08 66.0
15000.0 - 16000.0 13 5.0 90.6
16000.0 - 17000.0 1 04 92.5
17000.0 - 18000.0 0 0.0 92.5
18000.0 - 19000.0 0 0.0 92.5
19000.0 - 30000.0 4 15 100.0

MISSING CASES 209 798 100.0
262 100.0

4adjusted cumulative frequency for the exclusion of missing cases or data
values.

TaB_eE 10—DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS ON SELECTED CONTINUOUS
GEOLOGIC AND ENGINEERING PARAMETERS.

Standard

Parameter Mean Range Variance Deviation Kurtosis Skewness

SLAKE

(N=57) 80.719 91.300 444.735 88.724 21.147

DIRECT
SHEAR

STRESS (N=30) 35.620 78.969 500,923 22.381 0.913 0.296

DIRECT
SHEAR
DEVIATION

(N=19) 0.375 0.695 0.064 -1.707 0.146

BRAZILIAN
TENSICE

(N=58) 65.638 106.822 303.457 1.674

BRAZILIAN
DEVIATION

(N=50) 0.201 0464 0.013 0.113 -0.605 0.416

PUNCH SHEAR
STRESS

(N=57) 163.343 352.770 7536.871 86.815 0.948

PUNCH SHEAR
DEVIATION

(N=56) 0.281 0.594 0.026 0.162 -0.806 0.378

ELEVATION TO.
TOP OF CORE

(N=125) 1590.32 823.00 132990.06 364.678 -1.244

DEPTH OF
CORE SAMPLE
(N=117) 258.106 896.200 29606475 172.065

0465 0.705

COMPRESSIVE
STRESS

(N=82) 20.029

“I
te
w
oe
-}

260.668 16.145 0.835

45
TasLeE 10—ConrTINUED.

Standard

Parameter Mean Range Variance Deviation Kurtosis Skewness

YOUNG'S
MODULES OF
ELASTICITY

(N=55) 2.465 3.050 0478 0.691 -0.320

POISSON'S
RATIO
(HORIZONTAL)

(N=55) 0.289 0.437 0.012 0.109 0.289 -0.364

POISSON'S
RATIO
(VERTICAL)

(N=55) 0.450 0.010 0.102 0310 -0.463

POISSON'S
RATIO
(AVERAGE)

(N=55) 0.285 0.355 0.010 0.098 0.728 -0.468

NOTE. The symbol ‘N’ represents the total number of valid data points or
cases analyzed for each parameter.

DISCUSSION
Predictive Relationships Among the
Geological and Engineering Parameters with
Gross Lithology of Overburden

Eight specific research hypotheses (Table
3) were found to be statistically significant at
the 0.05 alpha level, once corrected for mul-
tiple comparisons, in discriminating among
the basic lithologies based upon informa-
tion derived from the geologic and engineer-
ing parameters studied. Testing results de-
rived from the Brazilian Tensile Test, Slake
Durability Test, Direct Shear-Stress Test,
and the Punch Shear Stress Test signifi-
cantly differentiated among the gross lithol-
ogies.

In general, both the Brazilian Tensile Test
and the standard deviation determined from
the 3 tests run on each rock sample signifi-
cantly predicted or discriminated between
the various gross lithologies. The variables
accounted for 22.78% of the common or
explained variance in predicting the var-
iance in lithology (P=0.0023). However, when
tested separately, only the standard devia-
tion associated with the Brazilian Tensile
Test mean accounted for enough variance
in predicting the variance associated with
the varying lithologies. The standard devia-
tion of the test, which is a measure of the
variability of the results of the Brazilian Ten-
sile strengths of the rock tested accoun-

46

ted for 11.51% of the common variance in
lithology (P=0.0159). It appears as the varia-
bility, as measured by the standard devia-
tion of the test results, decrease, an in-
creased in grain size (greater occurrence of
sandstones) resulted. Hence, less variability
of the test results were statistically asso-
ciated with coarser-grained rocks.

Slake Durability Test results (Table 4) illus-
trated a significant relationship in differen-
tiating basic rock types. The common or
technique variance associated with slake
durability accounted for 12.22% of the var-
iance in lithology (p=0.0077). A direct rela-
tionship between lithology and slake dura-
bility was found. Hence, as slake durability
increased, a predictive increase in grain-size
or coarsening in lithology was found.

Both Direct Shear-Stress mean and stan-
dard deviation were found to statistically
discriminate among the gross lithologies
tested (Table 4). The 2 strength parameters
accounted for 40.79% of the common var-
iance in predicting the variance among
lithologies. However, this figure is inflated,
as mentioned in the methodology section,
due to a relative low number of samples.
However, the standard deviation associated
with the direct shear stress testing did not
account fora significant amount of variance
in isolating the variance in gross lithology of
the rocks tested. The results from the direct
shear stress testing accounted for a signifi-
cant amount of variance (39.53%) of the var-
iance in discriminating lithologies (P=0.0039).
However, as previously discussed, inflation
of the R? isa problem in the interpretation of
this result. In general, as direct shear stress
or strength increased, a predictive increase
in coarsening of grain-size into sandstones
was evident.

Both Punch Shear Stress mean and stan-
dard deviation accounted for a statistically
significant among the variance in predicting
the variance associated with lithologies,
when the results were considered collec-
tively. Approximately 25.88% of common var-
iance was accounted for in predicting the
variance among lithologies by both parame-
ters (p=0.0004). However, when tested indi-
vidually, only the punch shear test mean
accounted for enough explained variance in

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 45(1-2)

discriminating lithology (25.76% of common
variable and probability due to change alone,
alpha equal to 0.0001). In general, increase in
punch shear strength was associated with
increasing grain-size.

PREDICTIVE RELATIONSHIPS AMONG THE
GEOLOGICAL AND ENGINEERING PARAMETERS
WITH EACH SPECIFIC ROCK CLASSIFICATION

The multiple linear regression analysis,
using the concepts of discriminative analy-
sis techniques as discussed in the metho-
dology section, tested for differential rela-
tionships among the engineering and geo-
logical parameters and each rock classifica-
tion, are summarized in Tables 5 through 7.
Table 8 isa summary of the hypothesis test-
ing and model comparisons with depths to
top of core as the dependent or criterion
variable. However, the success in isolating
discriminative complex relationships among
the engineering and geological parameters
was extremely limited and eventually dis-
continued. Hence, not all rock classification
codes were inspected and the authors great-
ly suggest that if this methodology is to be
followed in future studies, a much greater
data base needs to be established first. A
total of 8 hypotheses were found to be statis-
tically significant in discriminating among
the rock classification schemes investigated.
However, due to the insufficient power and
lack of control of the distributions of the
individual parameters, a detailed discus-
sion of the significant results is not
warranted.

In terms of depth, as illustrated in Table 8,
no statistically significant relationships
among the various engineering tests and
geological parameters were found. Hence,
based on the sampling and testing com-
pleted in the process of the present study,
no predictive relationships with depth to
the top of the core sample were found.

CONCLUSIONS

The ability to predict the ultimate behav-
ior of rocks in highwalls and spoil banks
after surface-mining disturbances from their
geologic attributes alone would greatly aid
in mine and reclamation planning. This
ability would reduce the need for expensive

ANALYSIS OF SELECTED ROCK STRENGTHS— Smith, et.al.

and time consuming rock tests. The pres-
ent investigation is only the most prelimi-
nary study of the physical properties of a
wide variety of rocks routinely encountered
in surface mining. Much more work is
needed before the behavior of rocks in mine
spoil can be generalized.

Lastly, some discussion is needed on the
limitations of the study. To begin with, the
type of regression and correlation analysis
completed is ex post facto, hence no cause
and effect statements can be made. This,
however, is true of most geological studies,
since geologists have little or no control in

1S31 ALTVISvYeNd 3XxVIS

Fic. 1. Graphical Presentation of Slake Durability
Test Results (%).

1-02 100.00

50.00P%

S0.00P%

NOILVIASG SS3Y1S YVSHS 103u10

07-08

Fic. 3. Graphical Presentation of Direct Shear Stress
Standard Deviation Results as a Percent of the Grea-
test Value Interval.

33.33P%

47

the formation of the earth materials. In
addition, the time between the drilling and
preparation of the core and strength testing
was not recorded or controlled. Therefore,
desiccation and contamination of the core
samples is a real problem. In addition,
secondary bedding features, recrystalliza-
tion, and a variety of other equally impor-
tant geological features were not inspected.
The relationship among these parameters
and the results of rock strength testing are
important but not parameterized in the
present study, and hence, unknown.

100.00P%

(HN

Fic. 2. Graphical Presentation of Direct Shear Stress
Test Mean Results (Kg/cm?) as a Percent of the Grea-
test Value Interval.

hh

SS3Y¥LS YV32HS 103410

NV3W 1S31 JTISNSL NVIVIZVUS

Fic. 4. Graphical Presentation of Brazilian Ten-
sile Test Mean Results (Kg/cm?) as a Percent of the
Greatest Value Interval.

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 45(1-2)

48

BRAZILIAN TENSILE TEST STANDARD DEVIATION

Fic.5. Graphical Presentation of Brazilian Tensile Test
Standard Deviation Results as a Part of the Total
Sample.

58.S3P%

NOTLVIA3O SS3YLS YV3HS HONNd

Fic. 7.
Test Standard Deviation as a Percent of the Greatest
Value Interval.

Graphical Presentation of Punch Shear Stress

100.00Pz
v
‘=
3
61-11PZ =
2
33.33Pz m
>
aD
22.22Pz w
D
9 m
n”
22. 22Pz a
=
m
>
z

Fic.6. Graphical Presentation of Punch Shear Stress
Test Mean Results(Kg/cm?) as a Percent of the Greatest
Value Interval.

i=]

m

v

=

5

i?)

i=)

z

m

<<

ao

00 600 oor ou.
|
|

0-900] 0-00P
Fic.8. Graphical Presentation of Depth to Core Sam-

ple (ft) as a Percent of the Greatest Value Interval.

ANALYSIS OF SELECTED ROCK STRENGTHS— Smith, et.al. no

| 100.00Pz

FERM ROCK CLASSIFICATION GROUPINGS

37. 04PX

p"

SS

HLON3ZYLS Z3AISS3YdWOD IWIXVINN

Fic. 10. Graphical Presentation of Uniaxial Compres-
sive Strength Test Results (Kg/cm2) as a Percent of the
Greatest Value Interval.

Fic.9. Graphical Presentation of Ferm and Weisen-
fluh's Classification Groupings as a Part of the Total
Sample.

a9vysAV-OlL¥Y NOSSIOd

Fic. 12. Graphical Presentation of Poisson's Ratio
(Average) as a Part of the Total Sample.

13. 33P%
Z

me
Oo
= = 76,9271 =
20. 00P% i a
g =
= =
S m
=
g
(=
100.00 @ =
fo} 100.00P% a
n wn
am n
im <=
> m
wn
80. 00P% = )
Y QO 18000 - 19000] 0. 00Pz gs)
V/ 20. 00P% 3 ras : 3
HA so TN) = z

Fic. 11. Graphical Presentation of Young's Modulus of Fig. 13. Graphical Presentation of Ultimate Compres-
Elasticity as a Percent of the Greatest Value Interval. sive Strength Test Results as a Percent of the Greatest
Value Interval.

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 45(1-2)

50

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The information used in the present study
was financially supported bya Title III Grant
numbers 5195018 and 1195018 to the Uni-
versity of Kentucky Institute for Mining and
Minerals Research to the Kentucky Geologi-
cal Survey and the University of Kentucky
Mining Engineering Department, respec-
tively. Work was performed jointly by the
Kentucky Mining Engineering Department.
Drs. Frederick D. Wright (U.K. Department of
Mining Engineering) and Norman C. Hester
(Kentucky Geological Survey) were the orig-
inal principal investigators for these grants
and initiated the project. Student contribu-
tors to this project included James C. Bolton

(University of Kentucky), Gilbert W. Cumbee
(Eastern Kentucky University), and Joseph
G. Turner, III (University of Kentucky).

LITERATURE CITED

1. Ferm, J. C.and G. A. Weisenfluh. 1981. Cored rocks
of the southern Appalachian coal fields. Department of
Geology, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY.

2. Newman, I. 1976. Brief note on the justification for
using multiple linear regression. Mult. Linear Regres-
sion Viewpts. 6:50-53.

3. Fraas, J. and I. Newman. 1978. The malpractice of
Statistical interpretation. Mult. Linear Regression
Viewpts. 9:1-25.

4. Newman, I.and J. A. Fry. 1972. Response to “A note
on multiple comparisons” and a comment on skrin-
kage. Mult. Linear Regression Viewpts. 3:71-77.

Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 45(1-2), 1984, 51-54

Age at First Pregnancy Among Females
at the Indian Knoll OH 2 Site

ELIZABETH FINKENSTAEDT

Department of Art, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky 40456

ABSTRACT

Four archaeologically demonstrable cases of maternal death were used as an index to age at first pregnancy
among women 15-30 years of age at the archaic site of Indian Knoll. Two primaparous individuals were fou nd tobe
age 18 * while two multiparas were 23+. An additional 38 females were examined according to established skeletal
criteria for age and maternal status. Among the total number, 17 women between the ages of 15-20 were classified

as nulliparous/primaparous, two multiparous and one questionable. In the age group 21 and over, 8 were
nulliparous/primaparous, 9 multiparous, and one questionable. Based on the lowest possible skeletal age, the
mean age at first pregnancy was found to be 16.6 years. Based on the highest possible skeletal age, the mean figure

was 19.7 years.

INTRODUCTION

Investigation of the maternal status of
females in the age range 15-30 by means of
established skeletal criteria strongly sug-
gests that age at first pregnancy at the
Indian Knoll site was between 16 and 19
years. The shell midden site was occupied
for more thana millennium, between 3352 *
300 to 2013 t 350 according to C'* readings
taken from antler points, but these figures
are based on Libby's (1) unrefined half-life
for C'* and are certainly inaccurate. More
recent adjustments in the half-life of the
trace element as well as in dating methods
have been put forward by Derricourt (2) with
respect to Egyptian material.

While population density at any given
time must have been very limited at Indian
Knoll, Snow's (3) estimate of twenty-five
concurrent inhabitants undoubtedly is too
low. He based his calculations on two
erroneous hypotheses, that the site was
continuously occupied throughout the year
and that the principal staple foodstuff was
mussels, a marginal nutritional source which
would not have supported a large popula-
tion (3). The general health status of the
Indian Knoll people as attested by skeletal
remains suggests that a more varied and
healthier diet was available.

METHODS

Four cases of archaeologically attested
pregnancy or childbirth related deaths are
used here as an index to maternal status ofan

51

additional 38 females in the age ranger 15-30
years to determine the earliest probable age
at first pregnancy. More than 4 deaths from
obstetric causes must have occurred, but
only those which are clearly defined archae-
ologically are taken into account here.
Among males at Indian Knoll, slightly more
than 50% died between the ages of 15-30 as
opposed to slightly more than 60% of females.
Differences in life expectancy, however, can-
not be attributed wholly to birth trauma (4).
All statistics are based on 836 individuals
currently housed at the Museum of Anthro-
pology, University of Kentucky.

The individuals in the comparative group
were selected on the basis of skeletal age
and good condition of the remains. No indi-
vidual with skeletal pathologies owing to
systemic disease was included. Criteria for
maternal status for all 43 females are sum-
marized in Table 1. Skeletal age is based on
standard criteria: 1. condition of the public
symphysis; 2. epiphyseal union and ossifi-
cation; 3. suture closure ectocranially and
where possible, endocranially; 4. absence/-
presence of third molars. Maternal status is
based on the following criteria: 1. condition
of the pubic symphysis; 2. ventral lipping of
the os pubis. 3. dorsal pitting of the os pubis;
4.absence/presence of tubercles; 5. absence/
presence of auricular grooves.

None of these criteria is wholly reliable.
Auricular grooves, for example, may occur
in females presenting no other skeletal signs
of childbirth or even in males (5). The condi-

52 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 45(1-2)

Auricular Pubic Ventral Dorsal
Burial Age Groove Symphysis Lipping Pitting Tubercle Status Totals
9 24-25 r: slight, :deep rr: very worn = = = M N/P 20 yrs. and under: 17
10 20-22 5 no damage - = - N/P M_ 20 yrs. and under: 2
13 30+ deep missing yes yes = M M_ 20 yrs. and under: 1?
17 25-30 - damage pit = = M
39 18-29 - no damage = é - N/P
52 23-25 deep worm yes yes yes M
68 20-22 slight no damage - NP N/P 21 and over: 8
75 18-20 none wear: dorsal margin - = 2 N/P M_ 21 and over: 9
81 25-30 slight no damage e - N/P M_ 21 and over: 1?
107 25-28 slight no wear : - : N/P ——
18
109 25-30 slight worn 1 pit 3 M Grand Total 38
121 18-19 INS no wear - + - N/P
140 25-28 yes worn yes > yes M
146 23+ slight INS yes yes - M?
153 15 none no wear > - = N/P
184 19-20 slight no wear = = . N/P
170 15 slight no wear = = - N/P
183 25-27 rectangular slight wear yes yes 2 M
191 19-20 1: deep, r: slight worn - - M
205 25-28 r: deep no wear 2 : N/P
215 17-18 INS wear yes yes = M
269 27 slight pm damage severe _ slight 3 M
302 16-17 2 no wear - = - N/P
314 23-24 slight worn = = = M
338 28-35 deep worn severe deep M
381 17-19 deep pm damage - yes = M?
398 22-23 slight no wear > - N/P
417 19-20 slight no wear = > N/P
440 22-25 slight no wear = = N/P
483 14 slight no wear - - . N/P
501 16-19 slight no wear - . : N/P Legend:
522 22-23 = slight wear N/P
545 20 > no wear - = - N/P__N/P nullipara/primapara
563 16 = no wear = > > N/P M multipara
576 19 deep no wear > 2 N/P _INS insufficient
588 19-20 deep pm damage © 5 = N/P _ r, I right, left
751 16-17 2 no wear . = N/P_ - absent
761 20-21 slight no wear groove - N/P
Childbirth Cases
146 23+ slight worn yes deep left - M
240 18-20 deep no wear yes yes = P
242 23-24 deep severe wear yes yes yes M
340 17-18 yes no wear 2 mild = P
TABLE 1.—Summary of Pelvic Features
tion of the pubic symphysis is given the Case 1

greatest weight in evaluation of both age
and maternal status. Multiparous status is
considered to have existed only in the pres-
ence of definitive scarring of the pubic sym-
physis and at least one other criterion or, in
some instances, in the presence of 3 of the
criteria if symphyseal wear cannot be tho-
roughly assessed.

Burial #340 represents one of the two
teenage females. Epiphyseal union had
occurred in all long bones, but the epiphy-
seal scars are strongly marked. The iliac
crests are not fused. Both maxillary and
mandibular molars were in the process of
erupting at the time of death. An approxi-
mate age a few months either side of 18 is

AGE AT FIRST PREGNANCY AT INDIAN KNOLL—Finkenstaedt

reasonable.

The pubic symphysis, the most important
skeletal evidence in this case, is immature
and completely undamaged. Slight dorsal
pitting of the os pubis as well as slight bilat-
eral auricular grooves of Houghton’s (5) GL
type are present. Houghton (5) does not
regard either as indicative of mechanical
stress.

The young woman was buried in a flexed
position on the abdomen while remains of
the fetus buried with her are described in
the burial records as being beneath her pel-
vic cavity. Fetal remains are fragmentary.
Only one measurement is possible, that of
both tibiae which measure identically 5.8
cm. The proximal tibial epiphyses cannot be
identified in the incomplete remains. These
would not be present, however, if fetal age
were less than nine intra-uterine months (6).
An approximate calculation of fetal lengthis
44.25 cm based on Smith's reduction table
cited by Krogman (6). These figures indicate
that the fetus was not simply buried with
the adult but in fact was unborn. One can
conclude only that the individual died in
consequence of her first pregnancy. No sig-
nificant pathologies can be identified in the
skeletal remains to account for this event.

Case 2

According to analysis of fetal remains, a
second individual, burial #240, apparently
died as a result of premature childbirth.
Burial was in a shallow pit without grave
goods. The adult was placed in a tightly
flexed position on the abdomen. The re-
mains of a fetus in middle to late intra-
uterine life were found beneath the left foot
of the mother in a context which apparently
had been disturbed in antiquity. The fetal
femur measures 5.4 cm and the tibia 4.9 cm;
thus the fetus was roughly 36-37 cm in
length.

The young woman was 18 or 19 at the
time of death. The distal humeri show tra-
ces of epiphyseal fusion while the distal fib-
ula is fused but the epiphyseal line is visible
on the posterior aspect. Neither the iliac
crests nor the ischial rami are fused.

The billowing, completely undamaged
symphyseal surfaces of the os pubisindicate

53

that the individual was experiencing her
first pregnancy. Slight dorsal pitting is pres-
ent but would not necessarily suggest a pre-
vious birth episode (7). Very slightly ventral
lipping on the os pubis is present, and a
deep auricular groove on the right innomi-
nate contrasts with a much smaller groove
on the left. Non-symmetrical or even unilat-
eral appearance of auricular grooves is not
uncommon in this population. The pres-
ence of these 3 traits would indicate a mul-
tipara were it not for the totally undamaged
pubic symphysis.

Case 3

An interesting anomaly is offered by #146,
the burial of a woman who died in child-
birth as the direct result of the malpresenta-
tion of a full-term infant. The infant had
become inextricably wedged in the birth
canal. The excavation photographs are un-
clear on this point, but according to the
archaeologist’s notes, both arms and one leg
had been born and were to have been fol-
lowed by a cervical certebra. This extraordi-
nary complication must indicate a fatal
anencephaly in the infant. The right femur
of the infant measures 7.5 cm. and the tibiae
6.4 cm. for an over-all length of about 47-50
cm., not too small for full term in this gracile
population. The age of the mother must
have been 22-23. All cranial sutures are two-
thirds closed ectocranially. The third molars
are present and slightly worn. All epiphyses
are fused except for the medial ends of the
clavicles. The left pubic symphysis was
retrieved, and the ventral demi-face is worn
while the dorsal half retains some billowing
of the surface. Ventral lipping and dorsal
pitting are present, but the minimal auricu-
lar grooves are Houghton’s GL, a type men-
tioned above as characteristic of nulliparas
and males in whom auricular grooves occur.
The question arises whether one can deter-
mine that symphyseal wear is the result of
repeated childbirth or simply of chronolog-
ical age. While it is not unlikely that the
individual had experienced a previous birth
episode, there is little difference between
the condition of her pubic symphysis and
those of males in the same age group. Thus
one may speculate that the number of preg-

54 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 45(1-2)

nancies in this case was small.

Case 4

Burial #242 is that of a woman about 25
years of age whose death is attributable to
childbirth as a primary cause. The burial
records attest that fetal bones were found in
the pelvis. The fetal remains cannot be
located now, and the fetal age is unknown.
The woman was buried in a pit barely large
enough to contain the body, and, and at
that, the limbs must have been bound in
tight flexion.

Age may be estimated from a number of
skeletal criteria. The basilar suture is closed,
as are the iliac crests, the ischial rami, and
the epiphyses of all long bones. All third
molars had erupted with the exception of 1
M3. The pubic symphyses show a strong
ventral rampart and considerable resorp-
tion and granulation of both demi-faces.
The ventral margins are very worn and flat-
tened, features which may be ascribed to
repeated birth episodes. Marked dorsal pit-
ting is present. A deep auricular groove
occurs on the right innominate with a lesser
groove on the left. The individual may be
regarded as multiparous.

DISCUSSION

Among these 4 individuals, the earliest
age at pregnancy was about 18, while the 2
multiparas were over 20. Thirty-eight addi-
tional females, selected as stated above, also
were examined. None attests skeletal evi-
dence for childbirth before about age 17 at
the earliest. It is entirely possible that early
death among females at Indian Knoll is
attributable to birth trauma associated with
first pregnancy. Therefore, the nulliparous/

primaparous group must be treated as a
single unit since in either case skeletal evi-
dence of birth trauma would not necessarily
be present.

Among the N-P group of 27 females, the
mean age at pregnancy was 19.7 years based
on the latest age derived from skeletal crite-
ria. The earliest possible mean age was 16.6.
Both are included here to allow for inevita-
ble variations in reading the same data,
since no criterion for aging prehistoric
remains is entirely reliable. That skeletal
evidence does not attest signs of a birth
episode in any individual before age 17 but
does suggest nulliparous or primaparous
status in individuals in their twenties in-
dicates that age at first pregnancy was rela-
tively late at the Indian Knoll site. Moreover,
the very limited index offered by the known
maternal deaths is seen to represent an
accurate view of maternal status at this site.

LITERATURE CITED

1. Libby, W. F. 1955. Radiocarbon Dating. Chicago
Press, Chicago, Ill.

2. Derricourt, R. M. 1971. Radiocarbon chronology for
Egypt and North Africa. JNES 30:271-292.

3. Snow, C. E. 1948. Indian Knoll skeletons of Site 2,
Ohio County, Kentucky. University Ky. Dept. of Anthro
and Archaeol Reports 4 (3) Part 2.

4. Ortner, D. J. and Putschar, W. G. J. 1981. Identifica-
tion of pathologocial conditions in human skeletal
remains. Smiths. Contr. Anthro. 28:100-102.

5. Houghton, P. 1974. The Relationships of the pre-
auricular groove of the ilium to pregnancy. AJPA
41:381-384.

6. Krogman, W. M. 1962. The Human Skeleton in
Forensic Medicine. Chas Thomas, Springfield, III.

7. Suchey, J. M., et al. 1979. Analysis of dorsal pitting
in the os pubis in an extensive sample of modern
American females. AJPA 51:517-523.

Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 45(1-2), 1984, 55-72

Small-Stream Recovery Following
Surface Mining in East-Central Kentucky

BRANLEY A. BRANSON, DONALD L. BATCH AND WILLIE R. CURTIS!

Department of Biological Sciences
Eastern Kentucky University
Richmond, Kentucky 40475

and
Northeastern Forest Experiment Station
U. S. Forest Service, Berea, Kentucky 40403

ABSTRACT

Analyses of physio-chemical, piscine and macrobenthological data secured from two small-stream drainages
affected by surface mining in eastern Kentucky are presented. Adverse pH values were not encountered during the
study. Stream magnesium, calcium, manganese and sulfate concentrations increased rapidly during the onset of
mining and continued to increase until 1982. The bottom sediments in both streams have remained very heavy
throughout the study.

The creek chub, Semotilus atromaculatus, has greatly increased its populations in the headwaters while
populations of other piscine species have remained virtually unchanged. Although active mining has ceased in
the Leatherwood Creek drainage, fish population recovery has been minimal. A few species have been successful
in re-establishing small populations, but many species are still absent. A second impulse of mining started in 1979
in Bear Branch probably resulted in a setback of recovery in that stream.

None of the macrobenthological data have been published previously. Analysis of these data demonstrated a
decrease in the total taxa and mean diversity of Leatherwood Creek and Bear Branch from June 1968 to October
1970 followed by a modest increase in these 2 features from October 1970 to July 1982. The population levelin most
taxa remains low and mollusca have been extirpated in both streams. Mean diversity indices may be misleading,
principally because of habitat changes that allow groups of organisms like the Heteroptera to replace other groups.

INTRODUCTION

To evaluate the impact of surface mining
on the fish faunas of first and second order
streams in east-central Kentucky, Branson
and Batch (1) conducted a 17-month study
from 1967 through 1969. The study area is
located in Breathitt County, Kentucky and
includes Leatherwood Creek and Bear
Branch. Six stations were established on
each stream (Fig. 1). The principal aim of the
study was to document the effects of surface
mining activities on benthos and fish fauna.
Another objective was to trace changes in
stream chemistry. Settleable solids were
considered to be one of the most important
features relating to changes in fish and re aa aa
benthos. Fic. 1. Proximity map of the study area, Breathitt County,

Results of the aforementioned study (1) — Kentucky.
indicated that fishes were progressively
eliminated from headwaters downstream Semotilus atromaculatus seemed to be
and that the benthic food organisms were resistant to silt and turbidity, principally
reduced in number and kind, often by as because of its ability to feed off the water
much as 90%. Reproduction in darters and surface. Although considerable data on the
most minnows was curtailed. benthos were collected and analyzed they
i have not been previously published. These
‘Hydrologist, U. S. Forest Service, Berea, Kentucky 40403. data, and new information gleaned during

55

56

the present study, are presented here.

A follow-up study, conducted during 1972,
indicated no tendency toward recovery by
the fish fauna (2). In fact, further degradation
and elimination of species had occurred.
With many of the competing species gone,
the creek chub population expanded, a
phenomenon observed also in Tennessee
(3).

The mining history of this area and
streams, including normal and mining-
induced chemical and physical features,
were discussed and analyzed by Bryan and
Hewlett (4), Curtis (5, 6, 7), and Dyer and
Curtis (8).

In the interim, several other studies with
direct bearing on the problem of coal min-
ing and the environment have appeared,
particularly with reference to benthic orga-
nisms. Because of their limited mobility,
benthic organisms may be better indicators
of mine pollution than fishes (9). Increased
sedimentation not only degrades habitat for
fishes, particularly during increased water
temperatures (10), but it also often severely
alters or eliminates benthic organisms depen-
dent upon a clean-gravel habitat. Sediments
often fill the interstices of gravel to depths of
one meter or more, replacing a cobble-
gravel habitat with a silty sand one (11). In
the case of the streams we studied, the silt
load during active mining was observed to
reach 46,400 ppm (5). Highest yields of sedi-
ment from surface mining normally comes
during the first 6 months after mining (7).

Sedimentation poses direct problems for
benthic organisms (12). It has been known
that insect drift downstream is the major
means ofrecolonization ofboth natural and
altered streams (13); upstream migration of
insects being only 5-30% as important in
repopulating a decimated area (14). Chang-
ing the bottom from a cobble-gravel habitat
to a sandy one, however, may preclude
active recolonization by upstream migra-
tion in larval insects such as stoneflies like
Pteronarcys and Acroneuria because of the
unstable sand. By contrast, caddisflies with
heavy cases (Dicosmoecus) are more suc-
cessful in moving upstream on sand (15).
Such phenomena can produce unbalanced
benthic faunas by allowing resistant forms

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 45(1-2)

to control a given habitat.

The objectives of this study were to col-
lect data on fish populations and benthos
invertebrates to compare with data collected
in the original studies made in 1967-1969,
and to trace changes in water chemistry
following surface mining and reclamation
activities.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

As in the previous studies, the fish popu-
lations at each station were sampled by 30
minutes of intensive seining. During all
sampling visitation, invertebrates were hand-
collected from representative, random sec-
tions at each sampling site, care being exer-
cised to include all habitat conditions.

Mean diversity ‘'d” indices were calcu-
lated using the machine formula method of
Lloyd, Zar and Karr (16) see also, Weber (17),
an index that is compared with a hypothe-
tical maximum “‘d” based upon arbitrarily
selected distributions (18) related to MacAr-
thur’s (19) broken-stick model. This model
results in a distribution frequently encoun-
tered in nature (17), i-e., a few abundant spe-
cies and a progressively large number of
species that are less abundant. Since in
nature the members of a given local com-
munity are highly unlikely to be equally
abundant, Lloyd and Ghelardi(20) proposed
the concept of “equitability’ “e” and pres-
ented a table for its determination (17) using
a number of species in a sample ‘'s’ with the
number of species expected “'s’” from a
community that conforms to MacArthur's
(19) model: e = —. Our calculations of ‘e”
follow these authors’ recommendations.

The physio-chemical measurements were
made by standard methods in the laborato-
ries of the Northeastern Forest Experiment
Station, USDA, Forest Service, Berea, Ken-
tucky. Samples were collected at monthly
intervals.

RESULTS
Water Quality
Determinations of water quality have been
made since late 1967 in Leatherwood Creek
and since the spring of 1968 in Bear Branch
(5). Although many individual substances

SMALL STREAM RECOVERY— Branson

and elements were monitored by the North-
eastern Forest Experiment Station at Berea,
Kentucky, we are reporting the results only
for the substances that readily indicate the
influence of surface mining on water quality
or substances that may be implicated as
partially responsible for the perturbation of
biotic communities.

LEATHERWOOD
oo + PH

DENOTES PERIODS OF ACTIVE SURFACE MINING

Ge. 69.75. 7), 72 73.94 75. 76, 77. 78. 75. Bo. Bl. B2

YEAR

Fic. 2. pH in Leatherwood Creek.

iooy
MILLER
so + PH
Bal pulp |W
72
a,
Qeom +
DENOTES PERIODS OF ACTIVE SURFACE MINING
so +
wa t

se. 63. 75. 7! 72. 73°70 75. 76 77. 78. 75. 63. B81. 82

YEAR

Fic.4. pH in Miller Branch of Bear Branch.

57

Low pH is often a serious problem in
waters affected by surface mining, primarily
due to the formation of hydrosulfuric acid
following the oxidation of various pyritic
materials (21). However, adverse pH was
never encountered at any of our study sta-
tions (Figs. 2-5).

aay
JENNY
an | PH
|
oe!
TL to MN
YAN \w\ | i" Non
x |
z..|"
|
eek
YEAR

Fic. 3. pH in Jenny Fork of Bear Branch.

13.3

MULLINS
so t PH

PH

DENOTES PERIODS OF ACTIVE SURFACE MINING

68. 65. 75. 71. 72. 73. 94. 75. 76 77.78. 75 85. SB. Bo

YEAR

FIG. 5. pH in Mullins Fork of Bear Branch.

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 45(1-2)

58

3.oe7

LEATHERWOOD

IRON
=say

MILLION

uso

PARTS PER
a
a

eect
a, \ AR
NA Dew Lee,

Ge, Ge. 7a 71, 77a 7. ee. . oS. on wl. BZ,

YEAR

Fic. 6. Iron concentration in Leatherwood Creek.

Sion
MILLER
IRON
z=ot
|
Gack
ai
=
= i)
oO
WwW
a
Likes
fe
a
rc
a
Gest
IIs me these aon

Go G8 75. 71 72 72 74 = 76. 77. 78. 75. eo a!. oF

YEAR
Fic. 8. Iron concentration in Miller Branch.

LEATHERWOOD
MAGNESIUM
oc. +

z

eI

Sen +

=

a

Ww

Desc

ul

E

a

a

Oise. +

Se a a a a

YEAR

Fic. 10. Magnesium concentration in Leatherwood

Creek.
a
MILLER
MAGNESIUM
cot
z
is}
seo. }
=
re
WwW
boot
uw
E
rc
z |
Ose,

= oS 8 7). 7 7S ee 7, ee. ee.

YEAR

Fic. 12. Magnesium concentration in Miller Branch.

sony

JENNY
IRON

Go. GS 75.71. 72.73. 04 7S 76. 77 78 75 oo eo! os

YERR

Fic. 7. Iron concentration in Jenny Fork.

MULLINS

IRON

=sofT
G 200
on
a
= och
jeg
Ly
a
Woe
= |
ao
ee
a

“| ees |

Ee: Ge. 70. 7)|. 72. 72. 74. 7= 76 77 78 75.65. 8! ez

\ow.7
JENNY
MAGNESIUM

eo. +

rr

=I

seo. +

=

ita

Ww

(ley It

uw

i

a

c

ae. +

Fic. 11. Magnesium concentration in Jenny Fork.

cra
MULLING
MAGNESIUM

oo

Zz

Q

Sent

=

Qe

WwW

Qa +

uw

fa

a

c

Qos. +

Gs 68 98.9). 92 93 0 Je 98 97 oe 78 6S 6! oF

YEAR

Fic. 13. Magnesium concentration in Mullins Fork.

SMALL STREAM RECOVERY— Branson

140.7

LEATHERWOOD
tzoT CALCIUM

PARTS PER MILLION

20.

Fic. 14. Calcium concentration in Leatherwood Creek.

MILLER

EE <cRALCIUM
Bites
6
J
ai
=
tr
se +
uw
bE
ecm
ee y
ao

sat

ee as Ss Se Se a es a
YEAR

Fic. 16. Calcium concentration in Miller Branch.

LEATHERWOOD
svt MANGANESE

PARTS PER MILLION

YEAR
Fic. 18. Manganese concentration in Leatherwood
Creek.

MILLER
Vet MANGANESE
L2ot
Sas!
5 .ea
=I
=
oe 7eet
ra
ocat
uw
=
a
x
a

4 ctu

Fic. 20. Manganese concentration in Miller Branch.

JENNY
120 <ALCIUM

fy]
Ly
+—

i
a
-

PARTS PER MILLION

N
§
+

7. 72. 72. 74, 7=. 76. 77. 78, 70. oo. oF. oF

YEAR

Fic. 15. Calcium concentration in Jenny Fork.

MULLINS
iercntt <AL cium

\ yyy

Se. 6s. 70.71. 72.7294. 75. 76. 77. 78. 75, om. oF. oF

PARTS PER MILLION
é o¢
——

N
a
+

YEAR

Fic. 17. Calcium concentration in Mullins Fork.

Leo
| JENNY
hae MANGANESE
eo
8
5 oe
=| ||
2 acl
a |
ui
o
aa!
ry)
o
oot
o
ozot

=o. 60.98. 7! 92. 73.94. 75. 78 77 7a. 7D OD B&!. OZ.

YEAR

Fic. 19. Manganese concentration in Jenny Fork.

leay
MULLINS
Let MANGANESE

zat

eet

PARTS PER MILLION

Fic. 21. Manganese concentration in Mullins Fork.

59

60

During mining or other surface distur-
bances such as haul-road construction and
use, sulfates are readily produced, often in
the form of calcium, magnesium and iron
complexes (22). Hence measurements of
those substances as well as of specific con-
ductivity are important to an understanding
of the degradation process. Figures 6-9 illus-
trate an initial increase from less than 0.5
ppm of iron in the study streams to approx-
imately 1.0 ppm in Leatherwood Creek and
Miller Branch and to over 2.0 ppm in Mul-
lins Fork following the onset of mining with
a sharp decline post 1972. A second peaking
occurred in Mullins Forkin 1978-1981. Jenny
Fork, never mined and only moderately dis-
turbed otherwise, experienced no marked
increases in iron content. Concentrations of
iron by itself at these levels probably do not

LEATHERWOOD
SULPHATE

seo. t+

2=0,

h

al
| elt ly

PARTS PER MILLION
1 4
a

a
a
i

n
a

ZN

Fic. 22 Sulphate concentration in Leatherwood Creek.

MILLER
SULPHATE

oun ei ee

YEAR

Fic. 24. Sulphate concentration in Miller Branch.

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 45(1-2)

pose any threat to aquatic bota in eastern
Kentucky. The same type of unqualified
statement cannot be made concerning cal-
cium, magnesium and sulfates. The compo-
sition of the macrobenthos, because of
limited mobility, may reflect long-term,
cumulative responses to degrading influen-
ces (22). In this regard, it has been observed
that, following surface mining, calcium, mag-
nesium, manganese and sulfate concentra-
tions tend to increase ina systematic fashion
with the passage of time (23, 6). Thus, the
streams discussed herein exhibited a nearly
classical picture with regard to magnesium
(Figs. 10-13), calcium (Figs. 14-17) and man-
ganese (Figs. 18-21) concentrations during
mining and up to the present. Unmined
Jenny Fork exhibited only normal seasonal
cycles.

JENNY
SULPHATE

u
a
a

N
4
a

+

PARTS PER MILLION
fo oa 4
a a

a
a

so.

Nee ee ilu

68. 6S. 75. 71. 72, 7S 4 =. eS Sos. o|. oF

YERR
Fic. 23. Sulphate concentration in Jenny Fork.

soo.y7

MULLING
SULPHATE

Meo.

Soe. t

PARTS PER MILLION

=| Ny NINA

\excn.+
ee

es. «e750. 71

72. 73. 75. 7. 76. 77. Fo 78. oo. o|. or

YERR

Fic. 25. Sulphate concentration in Mullins Fork.

SMALL STREAM RECOVERY— Branson

\omm t LEATHERWOOD
SPC. CONDUCTIVITY

MICRO MHOS PER ¢M

Go 63. 78. 7|. 72 73. 74 7= 76 77.78. 79. oo. a! oF

TERR

Fic. 26. Specific conductivity in Leatherwood Creek.

OES MILLER
SPC. CONDUCTIVITY

u 8
8 2&8
a 38

MICRO MHOS PER CM
Usaereen
Pry 14
Geo

y
g
ed

UE

6S. G8. 75.7). 72, 73.74. 75 76 77, 78. 79 80, @) oF

o YEAR

Fic. 28. Specific conductivity in Miller Branch.

(oom. + JENNY
SPC. CONDUCTIVITY

MICRO MHOS PER CM
Hy
8
'

=

6S. 68. 70, 7). 72.73.74 7= 76. 77. 76. 28.00 o). oF

~ YEAR

Fic. 27. Specific conductivity in Jenny Fork.

‘oom. MULLINS
| Se CONDUCTIVITY
son.

J

a

a
+

Ry)

a

a
+

a
a
a

+

jit

MICRO MHOS PER CM
rn
g
a

yo
a &
8 8
+——+ —+

a
a
+

+ =
Go. 65.75.71. 72.73.74 7= 7G. 77. 78.75. oo 8). oF

4 YEAR

Fic. 29. Specific conductivity in Mullins Fork.

61

62 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 45(1-2)

Sulfate is probably the most useful indica-
tor of the condition of a stream and its con-
centration reflects the extent of watershed
disturbance. Following a log phase of sulfate
generation at the onset of mining, a long-
term production of the substance continues
from disturbed watersheds (23). In general,
high sulfate and hardness components are
associated with poor biotic populations (22).

As can be seen in figures 22-25, again with
the exception of Jenny Fork, there was a
significant increase in sulfate production
with the onset of mining and a continuous
generation of the substance thereafter. How-
ever, sulphate concentrations seldom exceed-
ed the levels established for drinking water
standards. Specific conductivity measure-
ments covering the same period reflect a
similar trend (Figs. 26-29).

All of these components demonstrated
periodic variations of relatively large magni-
tude, a feature also reported by other inves-
tigators (23). This phenomena may be, in
part, correlated with peak and mean daily
discharge of the streams involved. In that
regard, figures 30-33 are of specific interest.

Discharge is also of importance when
dealing with erosion and subsequent stream
sedimentation. Disturbed soil materials are
usually very susceptible to erosion, espe-
cially during storms (5, 6, 24, 25, 26). Curtis
(5) measured 9,600 to 46,400 ppm of sus-
pended solids in one of the tributaries to
Leatherwood Creek following the onset of
mining as contrasted with 150 ppm for
unmined watersheds in the same general
area. The sediment remained high after ces-
sation of mining, as indicated by Branson
and Batch (1).

Although this study does not report new
measurements of settleable solids, field vis-
ual observations indicate that the study
streams are still heavily silted; the bottom
and sides of the streams have silt deposits
that are in many areas more than 45 cm
deep.

Periodic turbidity measurements of the
study streams give little insight into the sed-
iment problem. Though the measurements
spike at 600-700 JTU (Jackson Turbidity
Units) following rain storms (Figs. 34-36), the
readings quickly return to low levels. Jenny

LERTHERWOOD
MEAN CRILY DISCHARGE

ses

7209723. 74%. 75. 76. 77. 78. 73, eo. et. B2

Yili

Fic. 30. Mean daily discharge in Leatherwood Creek.

JENNY
MEAN ORILY

DISCHARGE

CSM
0
a
+

A | \| |
WAPOA

se l=7.

Fic. 31. Mean daily discharge in Jenny Fork.

MILLER
MERN DCRILY DISCHARGE

m1 c

6S, 68. 05. JI. 72 72. 74. 7S 76. 77. 78. 75. oo. B!. B=

¢SM
nv
a
+

YERR

Fic. 32. Mean daily discharge in Miller Branch.

SMALL STREAM RECOVERY— Branson

MULLING
MEAN DAILY DISCHARGE

Fic. 33. Mean daily discharge in Mullins Fork.

UENNY
man TURBIDITY

JACKSON UNITS

Fic. 35. Turbidity measurements in Jenny Fork.

MULLING
7h TURBIDITY

Gao.t

u fe a
§ cy g
a 8 a
+ + +

JACKSON UNITS

Venn LaeN

ao, Ge, 70. 71. 72. 7a. 74 7a 7G. 77. 78 78 ea ol. a2,

YEAR

Fic. 37. Turbidity measurements in Mullins Fork.

aoey
JENNY
oan} SUSPENDED SOLIDS
soot
Zz
a
5 se0.+
a
=
saw. }
[va
Ww
a
aaa.t
un
te
a
ff 2e0.+
a
tao.t
66.68.98, 91 92 98 7s IG 77 98, 78. eo a Be,
YERR

Fic. 39. Suspended solids in Jenny Fork.

LEATHERWOOD
qow.t TURBIDITY

JACKSON UNITS

u u
§ §
8 8
en

YEAR
Fic. 34. Turbidity measurements in Leatherwood
Creek.
eee.7

MILLER
zane TURBIDITY

JURCKSON UNITS

UN AO net!

Ge. 68. 75, 7|. 72. 73, 74. 7&7. 77. 78 7m eo oO! BF

YEAR

Fic. 36. Turbidity measurements in Miller Branch.

LEATHERWOOD
7aa.y SUSPENDED SOLIDS

5
a

PARTS PER MILLION
| ai ateeeny
a 3 8
a
|

Fic. 38. Suspended solids in Leatherwood Creek.

MILLER
ATi SUSPENDED SOLIDS

PARTS PER MILLION

Ge. Go. 70, 7'|. 72. 73, 74, 7S. 76. 77. 70, 75, oo. |. B2

YEAR

Fic. 40. Suspended solids in Miller Branch.

63

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 45(1-2)

eon.
MULLINS
7ao,} SUSPENDED SHOLICS
600.7
a
5 saa
=
=
4am.
jee
lJ
a
aac.
ul
a
( 2a0
ioe
oo.ft

Fic.41. Suspended solids in Mullins Fork.

Fork (Fig. 37), however, did not exhibit the
degree of fluctuation exhibited by the other
streams.

Suspended solids also exhibited fluctua-
tions associated with rain storms during the
study period (Figs. 38-41) but each stream
quickly returned to pre-storm conditions as
the transported materials settled to the
bottom.

Many of these physical and chemical
conditions adversely affect stream biotas.
Matter, Ney and Maughan (22) reported a
general trend toward poor biotic popula-
tions associated with streams impacted by
high sulfate and hardness concentrations
produced by mining. In addition, siltation
often severely affects aquatic biota and its
microdistribution in relation to stream velo-
city, substrate particle size, silt and detritus
(27). Fishes are usually displaced down-
stream or eliminated by heavy siltation (1).
Both suspended solids and sediments cause
negative responses in macroinvertebrate
populations.

Most species, however, are more or less
uniformly affected; hence, diversity indices
may not be altered (28) although abundance
may be greatly lowered (22). There are, of
course, exceptions. For example, certain
mayflies (Tricorythodes)and beetles (Stenel-
mis) are resistant to siltation and tend to
increase any time competitors are removed
(28). Particle size of sediments is apparently
of importance in considering the impact
upon the benthos, with sand and fine silt

having the greatest impact (27, 15). Most of
the sediments deposited in our study areas
are in the sand and silt categories. Siltation
influences may often be long-term. Vaughan,
Talak and Anderson (29) indicated that aqua-
tic invertebrate populations in Tennessee
may require 20 or more years to return toa
predisturbance level. In other instances fol-
lowing drastic land disturbance, the ben-
thos have remained disturbed for 50 years
(30).

Recolonization of disturbed portions of
streams comes from 4 principal sources:
drift, 41%; upstream migration in the water,
18%; upstream migration in the substrate,
19%; and aerial migration with subsequent
reproduction, 28% (31, 32, 33). If the distur-
bance occurs downstream from a non-
impacted headwater where the substrate is
suitable, drift may allow rapid recoloniza-
tion. Headwater disturbance significantly
increases drifting downstream of inverte-
brates which may serve to hasten recoloni-
zation of previously disturbed downstream
sites (28, 34). Ifa whole drainage is disturbed,
other mechanisms must effect the repopu-
lation of a stream. This is essentially the
situation in the case of the streams herein
discussed.

Fishes

Table 1 summarizes the fish data from the
first two study periods (1, 2) and those
gleaned during the present investigation. It
is not intended that the data from similar
numbered stations be compared by water-
shed and to do so could be misleading. For
example, Station 4 on Leatherwood repres-
ents a point well downstream draining
some 1200 acres while Station 4 on Bear
Branch represents a headwater drainage of
less than 300 acres. Stations 3, 5, and 6 are
somewhat comparable. Study of the table
indicates no change in the fish fauna at Sta-
tion 1 in either stream, and no change at
Station 2 in Bear Branch. However, in Lea-
therwood Creek Semetilus, Campostoma,
Ericymba, and Etheostoma flabellare have
all successfully invaded or reinvaded the
area even though the last 3 species are pres-
entin small numbers only. Semotilus, which
is more or less resistent to sedimentation of
its habitat (1, 35), is the dominant species at

SMALL STREAM RECOVERY— Branson

65

TABLE 1.—FISH DATA FOR SIX SITES EACH IN LEATHERWOOD CREEK AND BEAR BRANCH, BREATHITT COUNTY, 1968-1982. UPPER ROW OF
SYMBOLS FOR EACH SPECIES REPRESENT LEATHERWOOD CREEK OBSERVATIONS, THE LOWER ROW REPRESENTS BEAR BRANCH OBSERVATIONS.

INDICATES LACKING; + INDICATES PRESENT. THE LAST ENTRY IN EACH ROW IS THE 1982 OBSERVATION; THE OTHER ENTRIES REPRESENT THE
OBSERVATIONS MADE PREVIOUSLY (1, 2).

TABLE 1.— COLLECTING STATIONS

SPECIES
Semotilus
atromaculatus

Campostoma
anomalum
Encymba
buccata
Notropis
ardens
Notropis
chrysocephalus
Notropis
photogenis
Notropis

volucellus

Notropis
rubellus

Pimephales
notatus

Nocomis

mw cropogon
Hypentelium
nignicans
Percina
caprodes

2 3

+++ +etetit

tettet +httt+

4

5 6

StFtttet Hb ee ete tHteetee

+4 —

tattt + ebttt

FFtttt te thtetete teeeeeee

Att+ ++

ttt +tt-t+

tot ttt tttteete

+ttt+- +++

SPECIES
Percina
maculata
Etheostoma

flabellare
Etheostoma
caeruleum
Etheostoma
nigrum
Etheostoma
vaniatum
Etheostoma
sagitta
Etheostoma
blennioides
Etheostoma
baileyi
Catostomus

commersoni

Micropterus
dolomieui

Lepomis

Ath +t 444-44

ttt ttetet

+ +44 4444+

—++— + htttt

all stations in both streams.

At Station 3 on Bear Branch, Campostoma,
Ericymba, Pimephales notatus, Percina
maculata, Etheostoma flabellare, E. variatum,
and E. sagitta have not returned to the
fauna. Semotilus, Campostoma, Ericymba,
and E. flabellare were present at Leather-
wood Creek Station 3, but Etheostoma caer-
uleum continues to be absent.

Water volume, current, and oxygen con-
tent is higher at stations 5 and 6 than at the
other stations, resulting in a slightly better
habitat at these stations, and while large
quantities of sediments are present, particu-
larly along the margins of the streams and in
pools, recovery in the fish faunas have been
modest. For example, at Station 5 in Bear
Branch, Catostomus commersoni was ob-
served for the first time and Notropis chry-
socephalus rejoined the fauna. Etheostoma
flabellare, a clean-water fish dropped out of
the fauna and Nocomis micropogon, Etheos-
toma caeruleum, E. nigrum, and E. sagitta
continue to be absent. Similarly, at Leather-
wood Station 5 Notropis chrysocephalus has
apparently dropped out of the fauna, and N.
photogrenis, N. volucellus, and Pimephales

notatusare still missing. At the same station,
Hypentelium nigricans and Etheostoma
caeruleum were observed for the first time
since the onset of mining, and E. sagitta has
rejoined the fauna.

Stations 6, located at the mouth of the
respective watersheds, are under the influ-
ence of normal longitudinal succession
which reflects expansion of the habitat.
Normally, such sites are kept relatively clear
of sediments because of the higher flows,
especially during storms. However, in both
streams there are some thick bars and lens-
shaped deposits of sediments.

At these two sites, some piscine changes
were evident. In Bear Branch Station 6,
Lepomis megalotis, Micropterus dolomieui
(2 juveniles), and Notropis rubellus were col-
lected for the first time, and Ericymba and
Hypentelium nigricans have rejoined the
fauna. However, Notropis photogenis, Etheos-
toma sagitta, and E. baileyi dropped out of
the fauna, giving a net positive change of one
species. Notropis volucellus, Percina cap-
rodes,and Etheostoma blennioides continue
to be absent.

In Leatherwood Station 6, 3 species—

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 45(1-2)

66

Catostomus commersoni, Notropis rubel-
lus, and Micropterus dolomieui — were
observed for the first time, and Hypentelium
nigricans has rejoined the fauna. However,
Notropis ardens, N. photogenis, N. volucel-
lus, Etheostoma nigrum, E. variatum, and E.
Sagitta apparently have not been able to
reinvade the stream.

Many of these species, such as the bass,
suckers, and some of the minnows and dar-
ters, are usually found at the mouths of small
streams because of the proximity of the
larger streams into which the tributaries
flow. In this case, however, the larger streams
have also been heavily impacted by mining.
South Fork of Quicksand Creek, receiving
Leatherwood Creek, and Buckhorn Creek,
to which Bear Branch is tributary, are both
choked with sediments and fine silt. Both
streams’ faunas have also been decimated,

so they are no longer capable of providing
parent populations of fishes for repopula-
tion of the study streams. Since Bear Branch
has recently been redisturbed (see Figs. 2-1)
the faunal recovery of that stream has been
slower than that of Leatherwood Creek.

Stations 1 and 2 of both watersheds and
Station 4 of Bear Branch are on small, first
order streams that may be ephemeral. Thus,
the diversity and populations of fishes found
in larger streams are not to be expected
here.

Macrobenthos

None of the Leatherwood Creek and Bear
Branch data on macrobenthos have been
published previously (Tables 2 and 3). Thus,
these data provide us with considerable
new insight into the long-term influences of
surface mining on the aquatic fauna in east-
ern Kentucky.

TABLE 2.—MACROBENTHOS OBSERVATIONS IN LEATHERWOOD CREEK, BREATHITT COUNTY, KENTUCKY, 1968 - 1982. COLLECTING DATES HEAD
EACH COLUMN BELOW WHICH ARE GIVEN THE NUMBER OF SPECIMENS COLLECTED(COLLECTION SITEIS) IN PARENTHESES). TOTAL TAXA, TOTAL
NUMBER COLLECTED, MEAN DIVERSITY INDICES, MAXIMUM DIVERSITY INDICES, AND EQUITABILITIES ARE PRESENTED AT THE END OF EACH
COLUMN.

TABLE 2.— LEATHERWOOD CREEK

6/1/68 10/26/68 5/17/69 11/1/69 10/3/70 8/14/71 12/2/72, 7/31/82
NO. (STA) NO. (STA) NO. (STA) NO. (STA) NO. (STA) NO. (STA) NO. (STA) NO. (STA)

Ephemeroptera

Baetis 27 (2,3,4,5,6) 4(14 1(5) 10 (4,5)

Epeorus 1 (2) 13 (2,3,4,5)

Stenacron 4 (1,2) 3 (2) 6 (3) 2 (3) 3 (4)

Stenonema 9(1,2,4) 49(3,4,6) 19 (4,6) 74 (2,4,5,6) 14(34,6) 11(3,5,6) 58(3,4,5,6) 414.6)

Isonychia 22 (6) 5 (6) 2 (6) 2 (6) 7 (3,6) 2 (3,4) 26 (4,5,6)

Paraleptophlebia 4 (2)

Ephemera 1 (2) 1(6) 1(4)

Dannella 1(4) 1(1)

Drunella 13 (1,2,4) 1(5)

Ephemerella 3 (2,6)
Odonata

Boveria 9 (1,2,4) 1(6)

Lanthus 1 (4) 1(6)

Cordulegaster 1(1)

Caloptervx 1 (3)
Plecoptera

Amphinemura 1 (1) 3 (3,5)

Allocapria 2 (3,4)

Leuctra 1(1)

Peltoperla 1(1)

Isoperla 3 (5,6)

Remenus 2 (1,2)

Yugus 11 (1,2) 1 (6) 3 (4) 2(3) 1 (4) 1(5)

SMALL STREAM RECOVERY— Branson 67

TABLE 2.—LEATHERWOOD CREEK (CONTINUED)

6/1/68 10/26/68 5/17/69 11/1/69 10/3/70 8/14/71 12/2/72 =7/31/82
NO. (STA) NO. (STA) NO. (STA) NO. (STA) NO. (STA) NO. (STA) NO. (STA) NO. (STA)

Plecoptera (Continued)

Acroneuria 1 (3)
Acroneuria
carolinensis 18(1,2,3) 54.(3,4,5,6) 10(2,4,5,6) 13 (4,5,6) 2 (4) 5 (4,5)
Eccoptura 4 (1,4)
Heteroptera
Gerris 9 (4,5)
Trepobates 3 (3,6) 4 (4,5)
Microvelia 1(5)
Rhagovelia 9 (3)
Megaloptera
Corydalus cornutus 3 (6) 1 (6) 2 (3,6) 2 (3) 9 (3,4)
Trichoptera
Diplectrona 9 (1,2) 18 (3,4,6) 2 (2,5) 1(1)
Cheumatopsyche 2 (2) 21 (3,4,6) 7 (4,5,6) 12 (34,6) 10 (3,4) 58 (3,4,5)
Hydropsyche 4 (3,6) 7 (4,5,6) 12(3,4,6) 10 (3,4) 58 (3,4,5)
Ceratopsyche 3 (3) 4 (3) 5 (5)
Chimarra 70 (4,5)
Hydroptila 1 (4)
Rhyacophila 1 (6)
Neophylax 1 (1)
Coleptera
Haliplus 1 (6) 2 (6)
Hydrophilus 1 (6)
Hydroblus 1 (4)
Psephenus 2 (3,6)
Helichus 1 (2) 2 (3,6) 1 (2) 4 (4,5,6) 1(6) 1 (6) 1 (3)
Optioservus 1 (4)
Diptera
Tipula 12 (1,2,3,4) 26 (1,3,6) 2 (3,4) 4 (4,5,6) 40 (4,5,6) 4 (3,4)
Eriocera 3 (1,2)
Dixa 2(1)
Chironomidae 2 (4)
Pentaneura 1 (5) 3 (4)
Simulium 1(1) 1 (6) 3 (3,4)
Hemerodromia 1 (4)
Decapoda
Cambarus bartonii 27 (1,2,3,4,5) 18 (1,3,4,6) 30 (2,3,4,5,6) 13 (2,3,4,5,6) 4 (4,6) 3 (5,6) 2 (5,6) 15 (3,4)
Orconectes putnami 55(3,4,5) 18 (3,4,6) 13 (4,5,6) 26 (4,5,6) 13(4,5,6) 29(3,4,5,6) 6(4,5,6) 48 (3,4,5,6)
Total Taxa 21 16 20 18 8 13 14 27
Total Number 182 241 144 162 46 81 135 293
Diversity Index (Mean) 3.371 3.181 3.478 2.790 2.438 2.940 2.439 3.463
Diversity Index (Max.) 4.392 4.000 4.322 4.170 3.000 3.700 3.807 4.755

Equitability 705 804 800 535 923 828 528 586

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 45(1-2)

68

In general, analysis of the benthos dem-
onstrated a decrease in total taxa and mean
diversity index in Leatherwood Creek be-
tween June 1968 and October 1970 with an
increase in both from October 1970 to July
1982, with the exception ofa slightly lowered
diversity index in December 1972. Concom-
itant changes in equitability were also ob-
vious (Table 2).

Similar changes were noted in Bear Branch
(Table 3) from March and April 1969 to
November 1970, i.e., decreases in total taxa
and mean diversity index, with a tendency
toward an increase in total taxa and mean
diversity index and equitability from Novem-
ber 1970 through October 1982.

In both watersheds, however, the numbers
of individuals within given taxa tended to be
lower in 1982 than previously. The popula-
tion diversity remains lower in Bear Branch
than it was in 1969, but in Leatherwood it is
higher (Tables 2 and 3). Mayflies (Ephemer-
optera) tend to be microhabitat specialists
(36), the nymphs often burrowing deeply
into the substrata (37) where they are sub-
ject to decimation by heavy siltation. Further-
more, the feeding activities, i.e., shredding/
chewing of vegetation, collecting, or scraping/
grazing, are often depreciated by sediments.
Certain mayflies, like the various species of
Stenonema, are moderately resistant to sed-
iment pollution (38). Although some genera
of mayflies (Baetis, Stenonema, Isonychia,
and others) were able to persist during and
after mining, others like Ameletus, Leptop-
hlebia, Paraleptophlebia, Ephemera, Dannella
and Ephemerella were apparently eliminated
from the fauna of Bear Branch. Some of
these same genera, mostly the collector/
gatherers or deposit feeders, are also still
missing from Leatherwood Creek. The
Odonata were likewise seriously decimated
by mining pollution in both streams. In fact,
in Leatherwood Creek only Lanthus and
Calopteryx were found in the fauna; both are
lotic climbers and detritus feeders. In Bear
Branch, Boyeria, Lanthus, Progromphusand
Cordulegaster have returned, probably be-
cause of the increased amount of sediments
suitable for burrowing.

The Plecoptera are, in general, particu-
larly sensitive to sedimentation as demon-
strated by Tables 2 and 3. Many genera elim-

inated from the fauna during mining have
not yet successfully recolonized. The genera
Yugus, Peltoperlaand some Acroneuria have
become re-established at low levels.

Megalopterans (Corydalus, Nigronia, Sia-
lis), living among coarse rubble and stones,
are active hunters and, hence, are resistant
to sediment and acid pollution (38). Our
data confirm this.

The Heteroptera (water strides and asso-
ciated genera) poses an interesting pheno-
menon. From 1968 through 1970, intensive
collecting failed to turn up specimens of any
member of this order. It is doubtful that this
is an artifact of collecting since the gerrids,
at least, are a very obvious member of the
fauna when present. We hypothesize that
the influence of sedimentation, by slowing
the current, producing several sluggish,
ooze-filled pools, and otherwise disturbing
the normal conditions changed the habitat
enough to allow these organisms to colon-
ize both streams. In any case the addition of
these organisms to the fauna of both streams
helped to counteract the tendency toward
lowered diversity indices created by the
absence of mayflies, stoneflies, and other
insects.

Most streams show a consistently lower

abundance and diversity of Trichoptera
when impacted by mining pollution (22),
although genera like Cheumatopsyche and
Hydropsyche appear to be resistant to sed-
imentation pollution (38). These facts are
supported by the data in Tables 2 and 3.

Although trichopterans often form a major
component of invertebrate drift, especially
at night, very little is known about their
upstream migrations. Poole and Stewart (39)
observed that various trichopterans use the
loosely packed materials of the hyporheic
zone as refuges from sedimentation and
associated bottom scouring and thus are
able to quickly recolonize streams following
abatement of the sediment pollution.

The aquatic beetles (Coleoptera), though
not abundant in Leatherwood Creek at the
onset of the study, have been severely deci-
mated in both streams. Helichus persisted
in Leatherwood Creek through the mining
period but was not found 10 years later.
Hydrobius was the main genus observed in
Bear Branch in 1982. It was not found in
previous surveys.

SMALL STREAM RECOVERY— Branson

69

TABLE 3.— MACROBENTHOS OBSERVATIONS IN BEAR BRANCH, BREATHITT COUNTY, KENTUCKY, 1968-1982. ALL OTHER DETAILS AS IN TABLE 2.

Ephemeroptera
Baetis
Centroptilum
Epeorus
Stenacron
Stenonema
Isonychia
Ameletus
Leptophlebia
Paraleptophlebia
Ephemera
24 (2,4)
Ephemerella

Odonata
Boyeria
Hagenius
Lanthus
Progomphus
Cordulegaster
Pantala
Calopteryx
Argia

Plecoptera
Ostrocerca
Brachypterinae
Allocapnia
Leuctra
Peltoperla
Isoperla
Yugus
Alloperla
Acroneuria
Acroneuria carolinensis
Eccoptura

Heteroptera
Gerris
Rheumatobates
Trepobates
Microvelia
Rhagovelia

Megaloptera
Corydalus cornutus
Nigronia
Sialis

Trichoptera
Diplectronia
Cheumatopsyche
Hydropsyche

3/21 & 4/26/69

NO. (STA)

7 (3,4,5)

48 (1,2,3,4)
37 (1,2,4)
48 (1,2,3,4,5)

7 (1,3,4)
11 (2)

3 (1,3)

11 (3,4,5,6)
2(1,4)
21 (3,5)

5 (1,3,5)

1 (6)

1 (4)

3 (3,6)

3 (3)
2 (2)
1 (1)
3 (4,5)
23 (1,2,3,4,5)
15 (1,2,3,4,5)
3 (6)

5 (1,3,4,5)
2(1)

4 (6)
1 (4)

9 (1,2,4)
14 (1,3,4,5)
2 (1,4)

TABLE 3.—LEATHERWOOD CREEK

12/12/69
NO. (STA)

2(1)
53 (1,3,4,5,6)
1 (6)

14 (1,2,4)

9 (3,4,6)

3 (1,3,6)

2 (2)

3 (1,4)

1 (6)
6 (6)
3 (3,5)

1 (6)
4 (6)

1 (5)

5 (3,4,5)
1 (6)

11/7/70

NO. (STA)

16, (1,4,5)
40 (3,4,5)

3 (4,5)

24 (2)

2 (2)

2 (3,5)

2 (4)

3 (3)
1(1)

1(1)
38 (1,3,4,5)
2 (1,3)

9/4/71
NO. (STA)

1 (6)

40 (1,2,3,4,5,6)
24 (1,2,4,5,6)
7 (6)

3 (3,5,6)

1 (6)

1 (2)
1 (6)

3 (3,5)

1 (3)

2 (2,6)

1 (6)

4 (3,6)

5 (1,6)

8 (3,4,5,6)
2 (1,6)

9/9/72 8/1/82
NO. (STA) NO. (STA)
2 (3,6) 1 (6)
1 (2)
13 (3,4,6)
29 (3,4,5,6) 1 (6)
2 (5,6) 2 (5,6)
2 (2,6)
1 (6)
4 (1,3)
1 (6)
1 (2)
1 (2)
1 (6)
2 (6)
5 (4)
1 (4)
4 (6) 3 (1,2)
5 (3,5)
4 (3,5) 9 (3,5)
1 (3) 3 (5)
3 (3)
5 (1,2,3,6)
4 (5,6) 1 (5)
1 (3)
1 (2)
19 (3,5) 13 (1,5,6)
1 (6) 1 (6)

70 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 45(1-2)

TABLE 3.— MACROBENTHOS OBSERVATIONS IN BEAR BRANCH, BREATHITT COUNTY, KENTUCKY, 1968-1982. ALL OTHER DETAILS AS IN TABLE 2.

TABLE 3.—LEATHERWOOD CREEK (CONTINUED)

3/21 & 4/26/69 12/12/69 11/7/70 9/4/71 9/9/72 8/1/82
NO. (STA) NO. (STA) NO. (STA) NO. (STA) NO. (STA) NO. (STA)
Trichoptera (Continued)
Ceratopsyche 2 (3)
Chimarra 24 (6) 25 (3,6) 1(1)
Wormaldia 1(1)
Polycentropus 1(1) 1(1)
Rhyacophila 2 (1,4)
Pychopsyche 1(4)
Neophylax 97 (1,3,4) 4 (5) 6 (2,4)
Pseudostenophylax 17 (3,4,6) 7 (6) 1(6)
Coleoptera
Laccophilus 3 (1,2,5)
Tropisternus 1(3) 1(1)
Hydrobius 6 (1,3,4)
Psephenus 11 (1,2,3) 4 (1,5) 4 (3,6) 2 (5) 6 (1,3,4)
Ectopria 7 (14,5) 4 (5,6)
Helichus 1(1) 1 (6) 2 (1,3) 13 (3,5,6) 24 (1,5,6) 1 (2)
Diptera
Tipula 40 (1,2,3,4,5,6) 16 (2,3,4,5,6) 22 (1,3,4,5,6) 1 (6) 1 (3) 4 (3,6)
Dicranota 2 (3,4)
Hexatoma 2 (3,6)
Bittacomorpha 1 (4) 1 (2)
Dixa 1 (4)
Chironomidae 4 (1,24)
Pentaneura 1 (4) 1(4) 4 (4) 11 (6)
Simulium 6 (1,2) 1 (6)
Atherix 1 (6)
Heterondonta
Sphaerium striatinum 2 (6) 8 (6)
Mesogastropoda
Pleurocera acuta 4 (6) 8 (6) 6 (6) 9 (6)
Goniobasis semicarinata 4 (6) 6 (6)
Basommatophora
Ferrissia fragilis 1 (6)
Helisoma anceps 1 (6) 2 (6)
Decapoda
Cambarus bartonii 44 (1,2,3,4,5,6) 5 (1,5,6) 9 (1,2,3,6) 29 (1,3,4,5,6) 2 (2,5) 21 (1,3,6)
Orconectes putnami 10 (5,6) 10 (6) 3 (5,6) 33 (2,3,5,6) 38 (2,5,6) 32 (1,2,3,5,6)
Total Taxa 45 26 22 29 27 32
Total Number 560 169 183 231 209 143
Diversity Index (Mean) 4.427 3.737 3.389 3.880 3.793 4.090
Diversity Index (Max.) 5.492 4.700 4.459 4.858 4.755 5.000

Equitability .706 743 681 739 745 779

SMALL STREAM RECOVERY— Branson

In many instances, aquatic diptera, par-
ticularly chironomids, become dominantin
streams following decimation by pollution
(38). However, this tendency was not observed
in the Leatherwood and Bear Branch drain-
ages. Although genera like Tipula, Simulium,
and the Chironomidae persist in Leather-
wood and Bear Branch in small numbers,
genera such as Hexatoma, Bittacomorpha,
Pentaneura, Simulium, Atherixare generally
absent Tables 2 and3 . Anderson and Dicke
(40) found that sediment-laden waters are
unfavorable to dipterans, particularly simul-
ids, because the suspended matter clogged
their primary fans and digestive tracts. Bit-
tacomorpha, found at Bear Branch Station 2
and at Jenny Fork Station 4 (Table 3), lives in
stagnate shallow water (less than 4 cm deep)
in substrates that are rich in organic matter
(41). Both of our collection sites are of this
nature.

Mollusks have been eliminated from the
Bear Branch fauna; they were never observed
in Leatherwood Creek (Tables 2 and 3). The
decapod crustaceans (Cambarus bartonii
and Orconectes putnami) remain abundant
in both streams, adding significantly to the
biomass and diversity indices.

DISCUSSION

Although the computation of total taxa
present, diversity indices, and equitability
during the evaluation of stream biotas and
their tolerance to pollutants is very impor-
tant (42), these parameters taken alone may
be misleading with regard to pollution impact.
The shifting of biotic elements (losses and
gains of genera or family) may cause the
diversity and total numbers to remain high,
as demonstrated by results in our study.
Each component group in the fauna must
be studied individually. The present study
makes it clear that the biota of both streams
have been affected by the influences of sur-
face mining and that recovery is often very
slow.

The fish fauna has made only minor
advances toward recovery, many species
and groups of species being absent from the
streams after more than 10 years. Success in
recolonization by genera of macrobenthos
has been varied, some have returned; others
have not, and a number of genera never
observed before are present now.

71

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This research was funded by the USS.
Forest Service through the office of the Nor-
theastern Forest Experiment Station, Berea,
Kentucky. The authors are grateful to Dr.
Guenter Schuster, Department of Biological
Sciences, Eastern Kentucky University, for
assistance in diagnosing some of the insect
macrobenthos.

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Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci. 45(1-2), 1984, 73-81

NOTES

Preliminary survey of the Mussels of Elkhorn Creek,
Northcentral Kentucky—The major tributaries of Elk-
horn Creek, North and South Fork, originate in Fayette
County east and west of Lexington, Kentucky, respec-
tively. The North Fork meanders across Fayette and
Scott counties while the South Fork flows through
Fayette and Woodford and into Franklin County where
the two forks converge, just east of Frankfort, to form
main Elkhorn Creek. The total length of the creek,
including both major forks, is Ca. 170 km. Elkhorn
Creek discharges into the Kentucky River approxi-
mately 16 km due north of Frankfort. For the majority of
its course, Elkhorn Creek flows through the rich farm
lands of the bluegrass region in the proximity of Lex-
ington, Georgetown, and Frankfort.

During May and June, 1982 mussels were collected
from 6 localities along Elkhorn Creek. The stream rarely
exceeds 1 m in depth, so handpicking from the water
and shore line were used as the collecting techniques.
Only fresh-dead shells were collected for voucher
material. These specimens are in the Marshall Univer-
sity Malacological Collections. Specimens were also
accessioned to the Ohio State University Museum of
Zoology.

Nineteen species of unionacean clams plus the Asia-
tic clam Corbicula fluminea were found in Elkhorn
Creek during this survey (table 1). Although 6 sites were
designated for intensive collecting, good numbers of
mussels were found throughout the entire stream. The
more commonly found species included Elliptio dila-
tata, Fusconaia flava, Lampsilis radiata luteola, and
Lasmigona costata. Only single specimens of Anodonta
imbecillis, Lasmigona complanata,and Quadrula quad-
rula were found. The Asian clam Corbicula fluminea
was found in large numbers at all stations.

TABLE 1.— SPECIES OF FRESHWATER MUSSELS FOUND IN ELKHORN
CREEK, KENTUCKY. THETOTAL NUMBER OF SHELLS FOUND IS EN-
CLOSED IN PARENTHESES.

Site Number

Scientific Name nig 8 2° 6.6

Anodonta imbecillis Say, 1829 (1) xX
Anodonta g. grandis Say, 1829 (8) x x xX
Strophitus u. undulatus Rafinesque, 1820(3) X
Alasmidonta marginata Say, 1818 (5) X
Alasmidonta viridis (Rafinesque, 1820) (9) x X xX
Lasmigona complanata (Barnes, 1823) (1) x
Lasmigona costata \Rafinesque, 1820) (24) x Xx XSEXeaeeX
Magnonaias nervosa (Rafinesque, 1820) (2) x
Quadrula quadrula |Rafinesque, 1820) (1) x
Amblema p. plicata (Say, 1817) (16) XP XO EXE EXE? aX
Fusconaia flava (Rafinesque, 1820) (27) WS DOS x x
Elliptio dilatata (Rafinesque, 1820) (34) Xie OX XGe EX
Ptychobranchus fasciolaris

(Rafinesque, 1820) (10) xX XGaeX:
Leptodea fragilis (Rafinesque, 1820) (4) XvsaX
Potamilus alatus (Say, 1817) (8) x AS 28 2S
Villosa i. iris (Lea, 1829) (20) © DS 98. 8
Lampsilis r. luteola (Lamarck, 1819) (39) PX Ga X came XX ee XX.
Lampsilis ventricosa |Barnes, 1823) (16) 2G 2G 28 x X
Lampsilis fasciola Rafinesque, 1820 (16) x Xe eX eX!
Total Number of Species Per Site 8 11 6 10 11 14

The Asiatic clam Corbicula fluminea occurred at all stations.

Station Localities: 1. North Fork Elkhorn Creek, Scott
County. At bridge on White Oak Road, 3.2 km S of
Stamping Ground, KY off U.S. 227; 2. North Fork Elkhorn
Creek, Franklin County. Along County Road 1689, 8 km
W of Switzer, KY; 3. South Fork Elkhorn Creek, Franklin
County. Along Scruggs Road at the Village of Forks of
Elkhorn, 2.4 km N of U.S.421;4. Elkhorn Creek, Franklin
County. Along County Road 1900, .6 km N or Frankfort,
KY; 5. Elkhorn Creek, Franklin County. Along County
Road 1262 at Peak’s Mill, KY; 6. Elkhorn Creek, Frankiin
County. At the Frankfort Federal Fish Hatchery, Ca. 14.5
km N of Frankfort, KY on Indian Gap Road.— Ralph W.
Taylor, Dept. Biol. Sci., Marshall U., Huntington, W. Va.
25701.

The Blacktail Redhorse, Moxostoma poecilurum
(Catostomidae), in Kentucky, with Other Additions to
the State Ichthyofauna.—Since publication of the most
recent checklist of Kentucky fishes (Burr, Brimleyana
3:53-84, 1980), 5 additional species have been found.
These include the introduced alewife, Alosa pseudo-
harengus (Clupeidae), now present in the Ohio River
(Trautman, The Fishes of Ohio, 782 pp., 1981), the intro-
duced lake trout, Salvelinus namaycush (Salmonidae),
now present in Dale Hollow Lake (Ronald R. Cicerello,
pers. comm.), the introduced brook stickleback, Culaea
inconstans(Gasterosteidae), formerly known from Levisa
Fork of the Big Sandy River (John MacGregor, pers.
comm.) and as a bait-bucket release in Meadow Creek,
Owsley County (Branson and Batch, Proc. Southeast.
Fishes Council 4:1-15, 1983), and the native greater red-
horse, Moxostoma valenciennesi (Catostomidae), now
extirpated from the Ohio River (Jenkins, in Lee, et al.,
Atlas of North American Freshwater Fishes, p. 434,
1980). Two exotics have recently been captured in Ken-
tucky waters, but are not considered a part of the state
fauna. They include the silver carp, Hypophthalmich-
thys molitrix (Cyprinidae), collected in the Ohio River
below Uniontown Dam in 1982 (David Bell, pers.
comm.) and a species of piranha (Serrasalmus: Chara-
cidae) discovered in Lighthouse Lake near Louisville
(Anonymous, T.F.H. Magazine 31(#220):64, 1981).

Another species expected to occur in Kentucky, but
which until now had not been reported, is the blacktail
redhorse, Moxostoma poecilurum, which commonly
occurs on the Gulf slope from Galveston Bay tributar-
ies, Texas, to the Choctawhatchee drainage, Florida
(Jenkins, in Lee, et al., Atlas of North American Fresh-
water Fishes, p. 430, 1980). Two recent collections, the
most northern record for the species, from Terrapin
Creek, Graves County, Kentucky, included juveniles of
M. poecilurum. Both were taken from sandy-bottomed
pools upstream from the Tenn. Hwy. 69 bridge, one on
6 March (SIUC 7720, 41 mm SL) and the other on 18
June 1983 (SIUC 7852, 62 mm SL). This fish is extremely
rare in Terrapin Creek as evidenced by its absence in
over 40 other monthly collections made in the water-
shed in the past 4 years.

73

74 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 45(1-2)

The closest reproducing population of M. poecilu-
rum occurs in the Obion River, Tennessee (Jenkins,
1980); however, the species is never common this far
north ofits main range. Of 25 collections made in suita-

ble redhorse habitat in the Obion River drainage in the
past 5 years, only 2 have yielded specimens of M. poecil-
urum. One large juvenile (SIUC 7828, 186 mm SL) was
collected on 14 July 1980 in North Fork Obion River at
Hwy. 69 bridge, Henry County, Tennessee, about 4.5 air
km from the Kentucky state line anda tuberculate male
(SIUC 5053, 250 mm SL) with running milt was collected
at night on 25 May 1982 in Middle Fork Obion River at
Hwy. 22 bridge, Weakley County, Tennessee. In addi-
tion to the Terrapin Creek records, the North Fork
Obion River record is a significant range extension not
previously reported (see Jenkins, 1980).

The recent additions to the Kentucky fish fauna brings
the total number of species reported in the state to 234
(this number does not include the exotics), only 13 or 14
being the result ofintroduction by man. The presence of
M. poecilurumin Terrapin Creek emphasizes once again
the unusual diversity of fishes found in this creek and
nowhere else in the state (Burr, 1980; Walsh and Burr,
Brimleyana 6:83-100, 1981). Other fishes known in Ken-
tucky only from Terrapin Creek include the least mad-
tom, Noturus hildebrandi;the brown madtom, N. phaeus;
the gulf darter, Etheostoma swaini;the banded darter, E.
zonale lynceum; and the lowland snubnose darter, E.
(Nanostoma) sp. (an undescribed species). Reproduc-
ing populations of other unusual Kentucky fishes with
small ranges in the state occur in Terrapin Creek and
include the dwarfed, partially neotenic population of
the least brook lamprey, Lampetra aepyptera (Walsh
and Burr, loc. cit.); the central mudminnow, Umbra
limi; the bluntface shiner, Notropis camurus; the
banded pygmy sunfish, Elassoma zonatum; the dollar
sunfish, Lepomis marginatus; and the goldstripe dar-
ter, Etheostoma parvipinne. Appropriately, Terrapin
Creek was included in the list of Oustanding Resource
Waters by the Kentucky Nature Preserves Commission
and was recognized for the diverse aquatic biota it
supports (Hannan, et al., Recommendations for Ken-
tucky's Outstanding Resource Water Classifications
with Water Quality Criteria for Protection, 459 pp.,
1982). The unusual aquatic biota in Terrapin Creek
deserves protection from future modifications that
could result in the loss ofa unique Kentucky resource.—
Brooks M. Burr and Douglas A. Carney, Department of
Zoology, Southern Illinois University, Carbondale, IIli-
nois 62901.

Observations on Anguispira kochi (Mollusca: Gas-
tropoda) in Kentucky.—Taylor (Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci.
43:155-157, 1982) stated that the present distribution of
the land snail A. kochi(Pfeiffer) is limited to areas north
of the Ohio River east of the Mississippi with “relictual
populations south of the river.” Pilsbry (Proc. Acad. Nat.
Sci. Philad. II:1-1113, 1948) and LaRocque (Bull. Ohio

Geol. Surv. 62:1-800, 1970) indicated that habitats for the
species were vanishing, and Pilsbry (loc. cit.) thought
the prime habitat consisted of mature forests, second-
growth forests being avoided. Admittedly, distribu-
tional records for A. kochi are scanty in Kentucky
(Branson and Batch, Sterkiana 43:1-9, 1971; Branson,
Bull. Ky. Dept. Fish Wildl. Res., 1973:1-67, 1973), but that
is doubtless a reflection of inadequate collecting.
Previously published records include the following
Kentucky counties (Branson loc. cit.): Fulton, Hickman,
Meade, Hardin, Taylor, Green, Rockcastle, Jessamine,
Mercer, and Franklin.

Recent field work disclosed relatively large popula-
tions of this rather secretive snail at 3 localities in
Franklin Co., Kentucky: in and under rock fences at
Frankfort; in young, second-growth woodlots at the
Kentucky Fish and Wildlife Resource Commission
Game Farm, Frankfort; and in a relatively undisturbed
woodlot 16.8 km N Frankfort (all in Sept. 1980). Two
additional sites with healthy populations were: second-
growth woods around the confluence of Goose Creek
with Salt River, Spencer Co. (9 Sept. 1980); and a sparse,
second-growth woodlot at the U. S. 62 Kentucky River
bridge, Woodford Co. The last two sites are new distri-
bution records in Kentucky.

All these sites had in common loose soil that was rich
in humus, a feature that allowed the snail to burrow,
and microhabitats that maintained a high relative
humidity. One of the reasons this snail is easily missed
during general collecting is its tendency to burrow
deeply into the soil during cold or hot weather, and its
marked crepuscular or nocturnal behavior.

The author acknowledges the assistance of S. P. Rice,
Kentucky Department of Highways, and John MacGre-
gor, Nongame Species Program, Ky. Dept. Fish Wildl.
Res. Comm. for their assistance in collecting—Branley
A. Branson, Dept. Biol., Eastern Ky. Univ., Richmond,
Kentucky 40475.

Rhopalosoma nearticum Brues in Kentucky'—The
wasp, Rhopalosoma nearticum Brues (Hymenoptera:
Rhopalosomatidae), is considered a rare species. It is
known from the southeastern states and is a larval
parasite of crickets of the subfamily Eneopterinae.

Ashmead (Proc. Ent. Soc. Washington 3:304, 1896)
was the first to record this species from Kentucky. He
stated he saw a single male collected by H. Garman
from Louisville. This specimen was not from Louisville
(as recorded) but from Jessamine County. The speci-
men is in the University of Kentucky Collection labeled
“No. 1723, Jessamine Co., Ky., August 15, 1894, H. Gar-
man, from sweeping.’ It also has an identification label
stating “Rhopalosoma poeyi: Cresson, by Ashmead.”
This was a misdetermination but was the name used
by Ashmead at that time. As far as I know this species

‘The investigation reported in this paper (83-7-90) is in connection witha
project of the Kentucky Agricultural Experiment Station and is published
with approval of the Director.

NOTES 75

has never been collected in Louisville.

Townes (Contributions Amer. Ent. Institute 15 (1): 34
pp. 1977), in his revision of this family, gave the most
recent information on this species. He also recorded an
additional Kentucky locality, Golden Pond. He recently
gave me the following data on the specimens involved:
Trigg Co. — 4 males, 8 females, Golden Pond, June 10 to
August 10, 1964, S. G. Breeland; 3 males, 3 females,
Golden Pond, August 1965, S. G. Breeland, (Townes
Collection).

My new records are as follows: Jessamine Co.—5
females, July 23-30, 1974, Paul H. Freytag; 1 female
August 1-8, 1974, Paul H. Freytag; 1 male, 5 females,
August 8-15, 1974, Paul H. Freytag; 11 females, August
15-22, 1974, Paul H. Freytag; 8 females, August 22-29,
1974, Paul H. Freytag; 4 females, August 29 - September
2, 1974, Paul H. Freytag. Mercer Co. — 1 female, July
19-26, 1976, Paul H. Freytag. Wayne Co. — 1 male, July
11-18, 1972, Chris Sperka. All were collected in Malaise
traps. One parasitized cricket has been collected with
the following data: Nicholas Co. - September 25, 1982,
Rudy A. Scheibner.

This species has now been collected in 5 counties in
Kentucky, three of which are new records. The data
also indicate adults can be collected in Kentucky from
mid-July to early September.

I thank Henry K. Townes for his help on the data for
Kentucky specimens, Charles V. Covell, Jr.(University of
Louisville), and Arnold S. Menke (U.S. National Museum)
for checking their collections for Kentucky records.—
Paul H. Freytag, Department of Entomology, University
of Kentucky, Lexington, KY. 40546-0091.

Notes on Various Growth Features of the Paddlefish
in the Ohio River.—Fisheries managers have been
interested in the biology of the paddlefish, Polvodon
spathula, for many years. However, with the recent
development of sport fisheries for the species and the
modification of it’s habitat by dam construction, a need
for it’s management has been realized. The purpose of
this paper is to document some growth features of the
species in the Ohio River.

Adult paddlefish were collected with gill net tackle
from the Louisville hydroelectric discharge pool down-
stream from the Falls of the Ohio at River km 976. Larval
specimens were collected in April and May 1975 by TVA
biologists with 0.5 and 1 m ichthyoplankton nets with
0.5 mm mesh, set in the intake basin of the Shawnee
steam electric plant intake canal, located on the lower
Ohio River at River km 1523. First and second year
paddlefish, impinged on 1 cm: traveling screens in the
Shawnee plant intake canal, were collected from
October 1974 through October 1975. Growth features
were compared by combining the fish into 3 groups:
fish up to 7 months of age (less than 250 mm TL), fish
aged seven to 24 months (greater than 260 mm but less
than 800 mm TL), and adult fish (greater than 850 mm
TL). The length-weight relationship and coefficient of

condition were based upon standard body length
measurements from the tip of the tail to the nostrils.

A total of 161 paddlefish were collected, 8 larvae, 130
first and second year specimens, and 23 adults. Recently
hatched paddlefish were first observed on 23 April 1975
(water temperature 12.8 C); two specimens were col-
lected (10 and 11 mm TL). Six larvae ranging from 11 to
15 mm TL were taken on 21 May(21 C). Growth of 0 Age
Class individuals averaged 2.0 mm/day from 23 April to
26 July, but from 26 July to 31 October decreased to an
average of 0.3 mm/day (Fig. 1). The average total length
of paddlefish at the end of the first year’s growth was
approximately 300 mm. During the second year, growth
averaged 2.3 mm/day from 25 April to 3 July. The aver-
age total length of fish at the end of the second year was
approximately 540 mm. Three Age Classes, O, I, and II,
were indicated by growth curves (Fig. 1). Adult paddlef-
ish sampled ranged from 875 to 1262 mm TL, but
because ages were not estimated, growth rates could
not be determined.

Although growth in length was similar during the
first 2 summers, weight increases were much greater
during the second summer than the first. During their
first summer, paddlefish gained approximately 0.16
g/day (23 April - 26 July). In their first fall, weight gain
decreased to 0.04 g/day, with the fish averaging 39 g at
the end of their first year. During the second summer,
the average weight gain increased to 2.04 g/day,
decreased to 0.4 g/day during the second fall, and
totaled 310 g at the end of the second year. The stand-
ard length-weight relationship for 85 paddlefish was
log W = -4.879 + 2.92 log SL. The average coefficient of
condition (Kg,;) for the 3 size groups varied consider-
ably: 0.99 (0.64 to 1.55) for small fish N = 48, 0.74 (0.62 to

mm

LENGTH,

TOTAL

1974 1975

Fic. 1. Number of fish, average total length, and range of
total lengths of paddlefish by month from the Ohio
River, 1974-1975.

0.89) for medium size fish N = 14, and 0.87 (0.45 to 1.36)
for adults N = 23.

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 45(1-2)

76

The collection of paddlefish larvae on 23 Apriland 21
May 1975 indicated spawning occurred in early to mid-
April and May at water temperatures of 9 - 14 C and
during periods of marked water level fluctuations. The
Ohio River varied from 98.4 m above mean sea level on
14 March 1975 to 94 m on 18 April, back to 98 m on 2
May, and down to 94.3 m on 22 May.

Early growth of paddlefish in the Ohio River was
similar to that of the fish from Barkley Reservoir and
Mississippi River (Pasch et al., Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc.
109:157-167, 1980) and Lewis and Clark Lake (Unken-
holz, South Dakota Dept. Game, Fish and Parks, D-J
Project F-15-R-12, 1976). However, the average total
length of Ohio River fish at the end of the first year’s
growth was less than that reported by Purkett (Prog.
Fish. Cult. 25:31-33, 1963) and Pasch et al. (loc cit., 1980),
but greater than that reported by Robinson (Proc. Mon-
tana Acad. Sci. 26:33-44, 1966). Estimates of growth
made in this report have been biased by small sizes and
because larger individuals may not have been as sus-
ceptible to impingement.

The period of maximum growth for Ohio River fish,
March through July, was also observed for the species
by Ruelle and Hudson (Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc. 106:
09-613, 1977), Pasch etal. (loc. cit., 1980), and Houser and
Bross (Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc. 88:50-52, 1959). Ohio River
paddlefish grew at a slightly slower rate than those
sampled by Ruelle and Hudson (loc. cit., 1977) in the Mis-
souri River. This difference also may be a function of
the bias introduced by using fish impinged on screens.

Weights of Ohio River paddlefish were generally sim-
ilar to those compiled by length group by Carlander
(Handbook Freshwater Fishery Biology, Iowa State
Univ. Press, 1969). Adams (Amer. Mid. Nat. 28:617-630,
1942) and Unkenholz (South Dakota Dept. of Game, Fish
and Parks, D-J Project F-15-R-15, 1980), however, indi-
cated lengths and weights to be considerably greater
for first and second year specimens than those observed
in this study or listed by Carlander (loc. cit., 1969). No
condition values for young paddlefish were observed
in the literature.—Robert D. Hoyt, Dept. Biol., Western
Kentucky Univ., Bowling Green, Ky. 42101.

New Distributional Record for Mustela nivalis in
Kentucky.— On November 26, 1981, a weasel was col-
lected at a private residence in Woodford County,
Kentucky. The specimen had been killed and cached
with several rodents by a domestic house cat. The
weather at this time was unseasonably warm and the
specimen was in advanced stages of decay; the tail was
missing.

The collecting site is 0.2 km north of U.S. 421 on CR
1685, approximately 8 m west of the road. The elevation
of the area averages approximately 244 m witha maxi-
mum of 259 m. The site was less than a km from South
Elkhorn Creek. The area is typical of the central
Kentucky Bluegrass area, with gently rolling hills of
open pasture land and cultivated fields. There is abun-

dant vegetational cover in the fence and ditch lines and
along stream banks.

Neither tail or foot measurements were made. Obser-
vations included total body length (including an esti-
mate of tail length), about 152 mm; pelage, brown from
the dorsal area to the sublateral area and white ven-
trally (junction very irregular); and the sex, which was
male. The head was removed and the skull cleaned for
further identification purposes and preservation. The
skull is in the museum collection at the University of
Kentucky in Lexington. The skull, 29.4 mm long witha
cranial breadth of 13.5 mm, was adult and bore a full set
of teeth. These observations confirmed that the speci-
men was Mustela nivalis.

The only other record of M. nivalisin the state is from
Letcher County in SE Kentucky (Davis and Barbour,
Trans. Ky. Acad. of Sci. 40:111, 1979). That specimen
was collected in February 1976 at an elevation of 310 m.
This animal was thought to be a northern species,
occurring in Kentucky only in the eastern Appalach-
ian region. The present report from Woodford County
may indicate a population that ranges from the Blue-
grass area into the SE coal fields. The nearest collect-
ing sites outside Kentucky are from eastern Tennessee,
southern Ohio, and eastern Illinois (Hall, Mammals of
North Americal, Wiley and Sons, Sec. ed., Vol. II, 1981).
The southern-most record from Indiana is from Mus-
catatuck National Wildlife Refuge in Jennings County
(Mumford and Whitaker, Mammals of Indiana, Univ.
Press, 1983). The general distribution of M. nivalisin the
United States is from northern Montana to southwest
Nebraska to southern Ohio and down the Appalach-
ian Chain from Pennsylvania to western North
Carolina (Blair, Blair, Brodkorb, Cagle, and Moore,
Vertebrates of the United States, McGraw-Hill, 1968).

I thank Dr. Wayne Davis for confirming my identifica-
tion and for executing the skull measurements, and
John MacGregor for confirmation and assistance.
Thanks is also given to the David Adkinson family for
bringing the specimen to our attention.—Kerry W.
Prather, Kentucky Depart. Fish Wildlife Res., Prestons-
burg Community College, Prestonsburg, Kentucky
41653.

An Improved Method for the Preparation of Steryl
N-Methylcarbamates.—The synthesis of carbamates is
usually a straightforward addition of the isocyanate to
the alcohol in a suitable inert solvent with or without
the addition of catalytic amounts of pyridine. CH3NCO) +
ROH—-CH3NHCO3)R. References to such syntheses are
numerous and this simple reaction has been incor-
porated in college textbooks for the identification of
organic compounds (Shriner, Fuson and Curtin, Sys-
tematic Identification of Organic Compounds, 4th Ed.
John Wiley, NY, p. 211, 1956). References to the synthesis
of N-methylcarbamates of sterols are, however, very
scarce and with one exception, when these carbamates
have been synthesized at all they were obtained from

NOTES

the reaction of the steryl chloroformate with methy-
lamine (Campbell, Sheperd, Johnson and Ott, J. Am.
Chem. Soc., 79:1127, 1957, McKay and Vavasour, Can. J.
Chem., 31:688, 1952). Only stigmasterol N-methylcarba-
mate is reported to have been synthesized from the
direct reaction of methyl isocyanate and stigmasterol,
but no information is given regarding the yield or the
purity of the crude product (Campbell et al, loc. cit.,
1957).

The lack of literature references to the synthesis of
sterol carbamates by direct reaction of methyl isocya-
nate with the appropriate sterol appears to be an indi-
cation that this direct reaction is unsatisfactory. Our
own experience, in which the synthesis of the N-
methylcarbamates of cholesterol, stigmasterol and
sitosterol by direct reaction of methyl isocyanate with
an ethereal solution of the sterol (even in the presence
of catalytic amounts of pyridine) was unsuccessful,
confirming this conclusion.

However, we have found that the use of pyridine asa
solvent has a pronounced effect on this reaction. Thus,
almost quantitative yields of analytically pure steryl
N-methylcarbamates are obtained when sterols of var-
ious structures are dissolved in pyridine and allowed
to react with a pyridine solution of methyl isocyanate.
The results are summarized in Table 1.

TABLE 1, STERYL N-METHYLCARBAMATES

Calculated Found
Sterol mp(C’) Yield C H N Cc H N
(%)
cholesterol 183-4 93 7850 11.13 3.16 78.54 11.17 3.16
stigmasterol 200-2 91 79.26 10.94 2.98 79.22 10.94 2.98
sitosterol 205-7 95 78.92 11.32 2.97 78.89 11.32 2.93

testosterone 162-3. 93 73.01 9.04 4.05 7298 9.07 401
72.58 9.57 4.03 72.51 960 4.02
79.42 1044 3.09 79.35 1046 3.07

androsterone 161-2 91

ergosterol 200-2 95

Procedure for the preparation of steryl N-methylcar-
bamates: a solution of 0.02 mol of methyl isocyanate in
2 mL of pyridine was added dropwise at room temper-
ature to a stirred solution of 0.01 mol of sterol in just
enough pyridine to cause complete dissolution. After
addition was complete, stirring was stopped and the
reaction flask was allowed to stand at room tempera-
ture for 24~48 h, at the end of which time the crystalline
steryl methylcarbamate was collected by filtration and
washed 3 times with ice-cold ether. The methyl car-
bamate obtained was analytically pure and needed no
recrystallization.

This investigation was supported by the University of
Kentucky Tobacco and Health Research Institute Pro-
ject No. KTRB 22142.—Walter T. Smith, Jr. and John M.
Patterson, Department of Chemistry, University of Ken-
tucky, Lexington, Kentucky 40506 and Nabeel F. Haidar,

77
Beirut University College, Beirut, Lebanon.

A New Kentucky Record for the Minnow, Clinosto-
mus elongatus (Kirtland).—The redside dace, Clinos-
tomus elongatus, is herein reported from the Kentucky
River basin. A single individual, 52.1 mm in standard
length was caught April 19, 1982 in Edward Branch
about 0.5 km upstream from its juncture with North
Fork, Red River in Menifee Co., Kentucky. The speci-
men has been deposited in the fish collection at South-
ern Illinois University, Carbondale. Collecting assist-
ance from my ichthyology class is gratefully acknowled-
ged.

Arecord of C. elongatus was reported from the Lick-
ing River basin based on an earlier unpublished check-
list of fishes in that river system (Clark, unpubl. mimeo.
list, Ky. Game & Fish Comm., Frankfort, 1940; Clay, The
Fishes of Kentucky. Ky. Dept. of Fish & Wildlf. Res.,
Frankfort, 1975). Specimens were not found later and
the most recent state list (Burr, Brimleyana 3:53-84,
1980) can only indicate the possibilities of misidentifi-
cation, rarity, or extirpation of this species in Kentucky.
My record verifies the presence of C. elongatus in Ken-
tucky and adds support to the validity of the earlier
record.

Edward Branch is a second-order stream of moder-
ate gradient. Substrates vary from sand to coarse
gravel and rubble, temperatures are cool, water clarity
is exceptionally high for the region, the stream is well
shaded by forest canopy and shrubs such as alder and
buttonbush, and the watershed is uninhabited. These
conditions are essentially those favored by this min-
now in Ohio (Trautman, The Fishes of Ohio, Ohio State
Univ. Press, Columbus, 1981).

Frequent collecting by me in the Red River basin and
an extensive fish survey published on the system never
produced records of the redside dace (Branson and

Batch, Fishes of the Red River Drainage, Eastern Ken-
tucky, Univ. Press of Ky., Lexington, 1974). The possibil-
ity exists that this species was released as a bait min-
now and that my collection simply records such an
event. It is more probable that C. elongatus is a rare
native species at this southern margin of its range and
that Clark's record and mine verify the presence of two
relict populations, others of which might persist in
northeastern Kentucky. Even toward the heart of its
range the redside dace may be approaching a relict
status. Trautman (1981) says that many populations of
this minnow have disappeared from Ohio or have been
drastically reduced in abundance since 1925.

Even species thought perhaps to have become
extinct may persist locally and in very small numbers,
as illustrated by the darters, Etheostoma acuticeps, E.
sellare, and E. trisella, all rediscovered after long peri-
ods of unsuccessful attempts at capture. Thinking that
Etheostoma sagitta would be as common in Red River
as it is in the upper forks of the Kentucky River, I
released an adult female caught there in 1959. Despite

3 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 45(1-2)

almost yearly collecting, I never took this darter again
in Red River, nor did Branson and Batch (1974) in the
most extensive survey conducted in that basin. That
the species persists has been verified recently (Green-
berg and Steigerwald, Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 42:37, 1981).
I suggest that C. elongatus, like E. sagitta, occurs in
limited numbers in the protected watersheds of the
Red River Gorge Unit of Daniel Boone National Forest.
This and similarly well managed portions of the Fed-
eral lands in eastern America provide refugia for such
threatened elements of our ichthyofauna. Robert A.
Kuehne, Biological Sciences, Univ. of Kentucky, Lexing-
ton, Ky. 40506.

Additional Kentucky Records of the Yellow Perch,
Perca flavescens (Mitchill)—On July 6, 1978 Kuehne
and John Kuehne seined a yellow perch, 79.1 mm in
standard length, from Little Yellow Creek (Upper Cum-
berland R. basin), about 1 km below the dam of Fern
Lake, city water supply for Middlesboro, Kentucky, Bell
County. It seemed unlikely that a native population
would exist there and subsequent discussions with
officers of the lake's fishing club revealed that several
species had been introduced. Mr. Larry Brooks checked
club records and verified a single stocking of yellow
perch in 1972 from some source in Ontario, Canada. He
indicated that specimens were caught regularly since
that year and that yellow perch were well-established
in the lake. The reservoir is clear and cool, lying in a
heavily forested basin at about 370 m elevation. Since
the upper end of the reservoir and most of its catch-
ment is in Claiborne Co., Tennessee, yellow perch pre-
sumably are found there as well. Tennessee popula-
tions are already reported for the Hiwasee River basin
(Timmons, J. Tennessee Acad. Sci. 50:101-02, 1975).
Future records from the Yellow Creek drainage in Ken-
tucky are likely to occur.

On November 3, 1973 Branson was given a specimen
of the yellow perch by Mr. Oral Brooks, an employee of
the Jellico Coal Company. The fish was caught in a
small company impoundment, Wilton Lake, near Wood-
bine, Whitley Co., Kentucky. Mr. Brooks indicated that
yellow perch were apparently stocked in the lake dur-
ing the 1940's and were plentiful. Escapees from Wilton
Lake may exist locally in that portion of the Upper
Cumberland basin. Introduced populations of yellow
perch may do quite well in suitable waters far south of
the natural range of the species.

Records of the yellow perch near the mouth of the
Little Kentucky River (Charles, project progress report
F-13-R-2, Ky. Dept. Fish and Wildlife Res., Frankfort,
1959), at intake screens of the Louisville water treat-
ment plant (Clay, The Fishes of Kentucky, Ky. Dept.
Fish and Wildlife Res., Frankfort, 1975), and from the
Lower Cumberland River (Burr, Brimleyana No. 3:53-
84, 1980) may be viewed as isolated, introduced popula-
tions but alternatively might represent natural, relict
populations. Trautman (The Fishes of Ohio, Ohio State

Univ. Press, Columbus, 1981) states that most yellow
perch in the southern part of Ohio are stocked or have
invaded from the north via canals. A few records, how-
ever, particularly old ones, cannot be discounted as
possibly natural populations. Two old records from
southeastern Indiana may also represent native stock
(Gerking, Invest. Indiana Lakes and Streams 3(1), 1945).
Reinvasion of northern habitat as Pleistocene ice
fronts retreated must have initiated in the Ohio and
middle or upper Mississippi river basins and the yel-
low perch, like so many other fishes, probably left
behind locally persistent, relict populations. Stream
habitat deterioration and corresponding losses in yel-
low perch stocks is known for Illinois (Smith, The
Fishes of Illinois, Univ. of Illinois Press, Urbana, 1979).
Similar changes elsewhere probably add to the diffi-
culty of determining the natural southern limits of the
yellow perch.

Research support for Kuehne was given by the
National Park Service, Contract C X 5000 71 232.—
Robert A. Kuehne, Biological Sciences, Univ. of Ken-
tucky, Ky., 40506 and Branley A. Branson, Dept. of Bio-
logical Sciences, Eastern Kentucky Univ., Richmond,
Ky., 40475.

Characteristics of Mine Roof Falls in Selected Deep-
Coal Mines of Kentucky: A Pilot Study —A common
ground-control problem is the occurrence of mine-roof
falls. In fact, the“... roof fall is so common that many
consider it to be part of mining operations’ (Peng, Coal
mine ground control, John Wiley & Sons, 1978, p. 28).
Large roof falls cause production losses and, thus,
increase the maintenance cost of entries. ‘“Unfortu-
nately, there is no systematic documentation of the
characteristics of roof falls in American coal mines”
(Peng, loc. cit. p. 29). Roof-fall fatalities have accounted
for more than half of the yearly underground coal-mine
deaths since fatality records were established. Statisti-
cal studies of mine roof-fall investigations over the last
decade have established some general correlations
among roof-fall fatalities and location, size of the roof
falls, seam thickness, immediate roof characteristics,
roof-control plans, and roof-testing methods (Barry,
U.S. Bureau Mines, 1:1-298; Caudle, in, Ground control
aspects of coal mine design, U. S. Bur. of Mines, JC
8630:79-85, 1971; Doughterty, A study of fatal roof fall
accidents in bituminous coal mines, M.S. thesis, West
Virginia Univ., Morgantown, WV, p. 1-77, 1971).

A pilot study was undertaken to investigate selected
factors associated with roof falls, as derived from an
intensive review of the literature. Specifically, the pur-
poses of the study were to:(1) studyin a systematic and
empirical fashion selected parameters that may be
capable of differentiating characteristics of roof falls
and(2) obtain some predictive indices based on selected
physical and management-related variables so that
predictions of potential future problems associated
with mine-roof falls can be made. The achievement of
these goals would result in valuable guides to the min-

NOTES

ing engineer in scheduling exploration work and
determining economic feasibility of certain ground-
control and mining projects and practices. Table 1 lists
the parameters investigated in this pilot study and
their coding for analysis purposes. Although a large
number of other more detailed parameters associated
with mine-roof falls, such as the petrology and petro-
graphy of the immediate roof bed or secondary bed-
ding features, which are a function of the sedimentary
environment of deposition and consequent erosion
and compaction can be studied, the parameters listed
in Table 1 represent a good starting point from the
mine engineer's perspective.

The dependent variables chosen from Table 1 to be
studied were: (1) surface area of the roof fall (roof-fall
length (x roof-fall width); (2) assumed condition of the
roof before the mine roof fall, using categorical analysis
techniques; (3) length of time the mine-roof fall occurred
after the coal excavation; (4) type of support before the
fall, assuming resin-coated or non-resin-coated roof
bolts; (5) presence of water and cracks before the fall;
and (6) selected pillar dimensions. The independent
variables selected included selected physical and geo-
logical parameters associated with rock failure, once

TABLE 1.—DESCRIPTION AND LISTING OF PHYSICAL AND MINE
MANAGEMENT PARAMETERS ASSOCIATED WITH MINE ROOF FALLS
AND THEIR CODING FOR ANALYSIS

Variable Label Description of Variable

MINE Name of Mine

WORKING Working Section (1 if roof fall occurred in working
section, 2 if not)

INVEST Name of Investigator or Mine Foreman

COUNTY County of Mine (1 if Perry, 2 if Pike, 3 if Hopkins, 4 if
Muhlenberg, 5 if Union, 6 if Martin, 7 if Floyd)

SPAN Mine Roof Span (feet)

ORIENT Orientation of Mine (degrees)

PILWID Pillar Width (feet)

PILLEN Pillar Length (feet)

THICK Thickness of Coal Seam (inches)

ROOFLN Length of Mine Roof Fall inches)

ROOFWID Width of Mine Roof Fall (inches)

ROOFHT Height of Mine Roof Fall (inches)

SURFACE Surface Area of Mine Roof Fall (feet?)

SHAPE Shape of Mine Roof Fall (1 if arch, 2 if dome, 3 if other
shape)

THINLAY Thickness of the Thinnest Immediate Layer (inches)

THICK 1 Thickness of the First Immediate Layer |inches)

TYPE 1 Lithology of the First Immediate Layer in Mine Roof
(1 if shales, 2 if bone coal, 3 if shales, 6 if coal, 7 if
laminar shales, 8 if black shales, 9 if laminer sand-
stone) In the analysis, all shales were coded 1, while
the others were coded 0 for discriminative analysis
purposes

TYPE 2 Lithology of Second Immediate Layer in Mine Roof
(coded same as TYPE 1)

TYPE 3 Lithology of Third Immediate Layer in Mine Roof
(coded same as TYPE 1)

TYPE4 Lithology of Fourth Immediate Layer in Mine Roof
(coded same as TYPE 1)

THICK 2 Thickness of Second Immediate Layer (inches)

THICK 3 Thickness of Third immediate Layer (inches)

THICK 4 Thickness of Fourth Immediate Layer (inches)

79

SUPPORTB Type of Support of Roof Before Mine Roof Fall (1 if
resing bolts, 2 if anchor bolts, 3 if posts, 4 if bars, 5 if
cribs, 6 if nonsupported, 7 if cribbed off, 8 if canopy)
For discriminative analysis purposes, resin bolts were
coded 1, and 0 if other.

SPACING Spacing of Roof Bolts Before the Mine Roof Fall (feet)

LENGTHB Length of Roof Bolts Before th Mine Roof Fall inches)

SUPPORA Type of Support of Roof After Mine Roof Fall (coded
same as SUPPORB)

LENGTHA Length of Roof Bolts After the Mine Roof Fall (inches)

WATER Presence of Water Before the Mine Roof Fall |1 if yes,
2 if no)

TIME Length of Time Fall After Coal Excavation (weeks)

DISTANCE Distance to the Nearest Face (feet)

INJURY Physical Injury due to Mine Roof Fall (1 if yes, 2 if no)

OPERAT Operation During the Time of the Mine Roof Fall (1 if
continuous miner, 2 if bolting, 3 if other, 4 if conven-
tional, 5 if hand, 6 if abandon) For discriminative
analysis purposes continuous mining operations
were coded 1 and 0 if other operation.

LOCATIO Location of the Mine Roof Fall (1 if entry, 2 if crossec-
tion, 3 if intersection, 4 if haulage way, 5 if beltway, 6
if airway) For discriminative analysis purposes, if
entry, coded 1, and coded 0 if not

DAY Day of the Mine Roof Fall (1 if Monday, 2 if Tuesday, 3
if Wednesday, 4 if Thursday, 5 if Friday, 6 if Saturday,
7 if Sunday)

SHIFT Working Shift During the Mine Roof Fall (1 if morning,
2 if noon, 3 if evening)

CRACKS Presence of Cracks Before the Mine Roof Fall (1 if yes,
2 if no)

CONDIT Assumed Condition of the Mine Roof Fall Before the
Roof Fall (1 if excellent, 2 if very good, 3 if good, 4 if
poor, 5 if very poor)

SLOUGH Presence of Sloughing Before the Mine Roof Fall of
the Coal Ribs (1 if yes, 2 if no)

FLOOR Presence of Floor Heave Condition Before the Mine

Roof Fall (1 if yes, 2 if no)

TABLE 2.—RESULTS OF THE TESTING OF SPECIFIC RESEARCH
HYPOTHESIS TEN

Explanation of Models Models Re df Alpha F-Value Prob Sign

Model 10: Full
WATER = (0.82759)U +
(0.37931) CRACKS + E

041724

1.11 0.05 7.87574 0.0171 S
Model 99: Restr. 00
WATER = (0.82759)U + E
Hypothesis 10: Where: E denotes error vector of residuals

J arinitwoa

ThelvariablelCracksin U denotes unit vector
the Roof Before the
Fall does not account

(x.xxxx) denotes partial regression weights
R? denotes proportion of variance
accounted for

for a significant
df denotes degrees of freedom for both

amount of variance in
predicting the varia-
ble Presence of

Water.

numerator and denominator

Note. See list of parameter descriptions, see Table 1

properly coded for discriminative or categorical ana-
lyses. Multiple linear regression techniques and cor-
rections for multiple comparisons were employed in
the testing process of 18 major research hypotheses.
Table 2 illustrates the tenth hypothesis or model com-
parison tested, for illustrative purposes, using stand-
ard multiple regression terminology. Table 3 repres-
ents a summary of the models tested, dependent and
independent parameters tested, R? values, degrees and

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 45(1-2)

80

statistical significance for each hypothesis. Although
only 13 mine-roof falls were mapped and measured
from 7 counties, mostly in eastern Kentucky, the pres-
entresults should provide valuable input into structur-
ing a larger study in the future.

TABLE 3.—SUMMARY OF MODELS TESTED, DEPENDENT AND
INDEPENDENT PARAMETERS, R? VALUES, DEGREES OF FREEDOM, F-
RATIOS, PROBABILITY LEVELS, AND STATISTICAL SIGNIFICANCE FOR
THE SPECIFIC RESEARCH HYPOTHESES TESTED.

Parameters Hypo- R?-
Dep Indep. esis R*-Full Restr. df,/dfy F-Ratio Prob. Sign
No.
CONDIT FLOOR 12 0.04224 00 1/9 0.39694 0.5443 NS
CONDIT CRACKS 2a 0.39485 0.0 1/9 5.87235 0.0384 NS
CONDIT SLOUGH 3° not testable, due to constant or invariance of data
CONDIT PILWID 4a 0.2993 00 1/9 3.84484 0.0815 NS
CONDIT PILLEN Sa 0.00084 0.0 V9 0.00758 0.9325 NS

SUPPORTBROOFLN 6b
SUPPORTBROOFWID = 72
SUPPORTB ROOFHT gb
SUPPORTBCRACKS gb

0.03228 00 1/11
0.01229 00 1/11
0.53386 0.0 V1l
0.01006 00 1/11

0.36697 0.5570 NS
0.13684 0.7185 NS
12.59811 0.0046 S
0.11176 0.7444 NS

WATER = CRACKS 10 041724 00 1/11 7.87574 0.0171 S

CRACKS THINLAY 11 0.18978 00 1/6 140536 0.2806 NS
ROOFHT SPAN 12. 007452 00 Vil 0.88576 0.3668 NS
TIME SPAN 13° 0.01266 00 1/8 0.10262 0.7569 NS
PILWID SPAN 14 0.04347 0.0 1/11 049995 04942 NS
PILLEN SPAN 15 0.1674 0.0 V/11 0.18729 0.6736 NS
ROOFLN SPAN 16 0.02851 00 Vil 0.32279 05813 NS
ROOFWID SPAN 17 0.00546 00 1/11 0.06037 08104 NS
SURFACE SPAN 18 0.02385 00 1/11 0.26566 0.6165 NS

Note. An F-test was utilized to test for significant relationships between
various parameters associated with roof falls. The assigned alpha level
for a two-tailed nondirectional test was considered statistically signifi-
cant. However, the employment of a correction for multiple compari-
sons was necessary in several cases. The corrected alpha was used
before the specific research hypothesis was considered significant.
4denotes corrected alpha equal to 0.010

bdenotes corrected alpha equal to 0.012

Tables 4 and 5 list descriptive statistics and frequen-
cies for selected parameters which could be collected
for most of the roof falls measured in the study. The
typical roof fall had an average roof span of 20.8 feet, 406
feet depth to coal seam, occurred 136 feet from nearest
face, coal seam thickness of 56 inches, pillar width of 45
feet, surface area of roof fall 1160 ft?, mainly laminar-
shaped, previously rated roof before the fall between
good and very good, little floor heave, cracks before the
fallin about 40% of reported cases, shalesin most of the
immediate layers, and usually located in an entry of
intersection.

The model comparisons and hypotheses testing
yield several important conclusions, based on the
limited data. As illustrated in Table 3, only 2 hypo-
theses were found to be statistically significant at the
0.05 alpha level, once adjusted for multiple compari-
sons. The remaining 15 hypotheses were not found to
be significant. The presence of cracks were found to be
related to the presence of water in the mine roof-fall
areas. As shown in Table 2, 41.72% of the explained
variance in presence of water was accounted for by
evidence of cracks in the mine roof before the actual

TABLE 4.— DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS FOR SELECTED CONTINUOUS
PREDICTOR AND CRITERION PARAMETERS.

Variable Mean Range Variance Standard Kurtosis Skewness
Deviation

DEPTH (ft.) 405.7 6200 371744 192.81 1.373 1351
(N = 13)
SPAN (ft.) 208 22.0 34.36 5.86 12,081 3.424
(N = 13)
ORIENT 1111 105.0 1479.85 38.47 -1.137 0.314
(degrees) (N = 9)
PILWID (ft.) 446 20.0 60.26 776 0.155 -1.114
(N = 13)
PILLEN (ft.) 518 48.0 258.97 16.09 0411 0.864
(N = 13)
THICK (in.) 55.9 14.0 27.91 528 -1.261 0.594
(N = 13)
ROOEFLN (in.) 713.5 1223.0 151022.77 388.62 0.731 9.321
(N = 13)
ROOFWID (in.) 235.4 84.0 519.92 22.74 5.433 1.961
(N = 13)
ROOFHT (in.) 84.1 182.0 3406.74 58.37 0.566 1.286
(N = 13)
THINLAY (ft.) 47 17.0 34.28 5.86 3.262 1.809
(N = 8)
THICK1 (ft.) 45 15.5 19.76 4.445 4.325 1.880
(N= 11)
THICK2 (ft.) 29 92 8.31 2.883 3.146 1.700
(iN = 10)
THICKS (ft.) 17.2 79.9 1233.97 35.128 4.962 2.226
(N=5)
THICKS (ft.) 07 07 0.13 0.361 0.0 1.152
(N= 3)
SPACING (ft.) 4.2 10 0.14 0.376 3.223 2.179
(N = 13)
TIME (hrs.) 4115.0 262760 7989.274 8.658 2.879
(N = 10)
DISTANCE (ft.) 136.0 460.0 16782.22 129.546 9.340 3.003
(N = 10)

“denotes number exceeding 10°.

failure of the roof (p = 0.0171). In addition, the roof fall
height was significantly related (p = 0.0046) to the type
of roof support system in use before the actual fall. In
general, the greater the use of resin bolts, the greater
the occurrence of large heights of fall material from the
mine roof (R? = 0.534). Hence, even using a limited
sample size, interesting relationships among selected
physical and geological parameters may give some clue
to understanding the mechanism behind roof falls and
their occurrence. Of course, a larger and more repre-
sentative sample is needed before any conclusive deci-
sions can be inferred.

The author extends gratitude to A. B. Szwilski, Asso-
ciate Professor of Mining at the University of Kentucky,
for his original input to the selection of important
mining parameters associated with mine roof falls in
eastern Kentucky.—Alan D. Smith, Coal Mining Admin-
istration, Department of Business Administration,
Eastern Kentucky University, Richmond.

NOTES

TABLE 5.—FREQUENCY COUNTS, RELATIVE FREQUENCIES, AND
CUMULATIVE FREQUENCIES FOR SELECTED PARAMETERS ASSOCIATED
WITH MINE ROOF FALLS.

Parameter Variable Absolute Relative Adjusted
Label Frequency Frequency Cumulative
(%) Frequency
(%)
SHAPE Arch 2 154 16.7
Dome 1 77 25.0
Laminar 6 46.2 75.0
Other (Combination) 3 23.1 100.0
MISSING CASES 1 77 100.0
TOTAL VALID CASES 12
CONDIT Excellent 1 77 91
Very Good 5 38.5 54.5
Good 2 15.4 727
Poor 3 23.1 100.0
Very Poor 0 00 100.0
MISSING CASES 2 15.4 100.0
TOTAL VALID CASES 11
FLOOR Yes 1 77 77
No 12 92.3 100.0
TOTAL VALID CASES 13
CRACKS Yes 4 308 308
No 4 308 615
Unknown 5 38.5 100.0

TOTAL VALID CASES 13

81

SURFACE 0.0- 500.0 3 23.1 23.1
(ft2) 500.0 - 1000.0 2 154 38.5
1000.0 - 1500.0 5 38.5 769
2000.0 - 2500.0 1 77 100.0

TOTAL VALID CASES 13
WATER Yes 5 385 385
No 8 615 100.0

TOTAL VALID CASES 13
SUPPORTB Resin Bolts 6 46.2 46.2
Anchor Bolts 7 538 100.0

TOTAL VALID CASES 13
TYPE1 Shales 11 846 100.0
MISSING CASES 2 154 100.0

TOTAL VALID CASES 11
TYPE2 Shales 6 46.2 54.6
Sandstones 4 308 90.9
Coal 1 77 100.0
MISSING CASES 2 154 100.0

TOTAL VALID CASES 11
LOCATIO Entry 7 538 538
Crosscut 2 154 69.2
Intersection 4 30.8 100.0

TOTAL VALID CASES 13

4adjusted for missing cases.

Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 45(1-2), 1984, 82-88

ACADEMY AFFAIRS

THE SIXTY-NINTH ANNUAL BUSINESS MEETING
OF THE KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

UNIVERSITY OF LOUISVILLE, LOUISVILLE, KENTUCKY

11-12 November 1983

Host: Dr. Charles Covell, Jr.

MINUTES OF THE ANNUAL BUSINESS MEETING

The meeting was called to order by President Rodri-
guez at 0920, 12 November in Middleton Auditorium of
Strickler Hall with approximately 95 members in atten-
dance.

After a motion by Secretary Creek and a second from
the floor, the minutes of the 1982 annual business
meeting at Ashland Oil, Inc., as recorded in the Tran-
sactions Vol 44 (1-2), were approved. Secretary Creek
made a motion that all new members for 1983 be
accepted by the Academy. Following a second from the
floor the motion passed. Dr. Creek reminded the
members that in order to receive the 1984 Transactions
their 1984 dues must be paid by February 1, 1984.

The Treasurer's report was made by Dr. Taylor.

TREASURER'S REPORT TO THE AUDIT COMMITTEE
Kentucky Academy of Science
November 1, 1982—November 3, 1983

Cash in Madison National Bank

(Novell 1983) ees $ 8131.34
RECEIPTS:

Registration - Fall Meeting........ $ 3204.93

Membership dues...................... 6320.00

Library subscriptions ................ 1200.00

Transactions
Institutional affiliations —......... 2671.75
Page charge sts see eae 1300.00
TOTAL $14696.68

Total Cash and Receipts .........-.....---.-.---.---- $22828.02

DISBURSEMENTS:

Junior Academy of Science ...... $ 500.00

Eloristic) Grantees 1237.00
Operating Expenses .................. 1635.56
Transactions (Vol 43, #34) _..... 5490.39

Transactions (Vol 44, #14) __... 10683.07
Ashland Oil Company .............. 2250.00

TOTAL $21796.02

BALANCE:
Total Cash and Receipts for 1983 .. .. $22828.02
Total Disbursements. -. 21796.02
Cashions{Hand i a ee ee 1032.00

KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE FOUNDATION:
Botany Foundation -- $10000.00

Interest Earned in 1983 .. 1078.12
Savings Account (Working).. - 1181.50
Savings Account (Accumulation).................. 1153.04
Reserves subtotals ee $13412.66
Grants/1983:-020o.5 ee ee eae 1900.00
‘TotalRESenves: acer $11512.66
Floristic/Gramt) Rum peer eceeee $ 1237.00
Grants)1983)3 2 eee 1237.00
Total‘Reserves<:22222:-23 4 $ 00.00
Marcia Athey Foundation ...................-.......- $55645.30
Interest Earned 1983 4638.88
Total Reserves $60284.18

Following a motion and a second from the floor the
report was approved. The report was audited by Dr.
Douglas Dahlman and Dr. Thomas Strickler and found
to be in order.

Dr. Taylor presented the following proposed budget
for 1984.

RECEIPTS: 1983 1984
Individual Memberships (400 at $15) ____.. $ 6000.00$ 6000.00
Institutional Affiliations... 1700.00 1700.00
Library Subscriptions 1800.00 1800.00
Page Charges... 1400.00 1400.00
Miscellaneous .. 1000.00 1000.00

$11900.00$11900.00

DISBURSEMENTS:
Mransac tions esses eee eee $12000.00$ 6000.00
Operating Expenses .......................--.---- 1400.00 2000.00
Junior Academy of Science -................... 500.00 500.00
Approved Projects .........-------<------++-+--+--+ 00.00 3000.00

$13900.00$11500.00

82

ACADEMY AFFAIRS

He indicated that the Academy almost reached a
zero balance during 1983 but with the change in the
publishers there should be a sufficient balance to begin
considering various projects.

1. BOARD OF DIRECTORS. Dr. Joe Winstead presented
the following report.

The Board of Directors met three times this year: 15
January at the University of Kentucky, 23 April at West-
ern Kentucky University and 27 August at the Univer-
sity of Louisville. Guidelines were developed and
approved concerning the Marcia Athey Fund which
includes an endowment of $50,000 to support Science
in Kentucky. Utilization and management of the assets
of the Foundation were outlined with three categories
which are:

Utilization of Management of Assets of the
Foundation of the Kentucky Academy of Science

I. Gifts, Donations or Bequests designated as Unre-
stricted:

To be used for betterment and operation of the
Kentucky Academy of Science as determined by
the Board of Trustees.

II. Kentucky Academy of Science Endowment Fund:

Earnings from this Endowment to be used for
the operation of the Kentucky Academy of
Science as specified by the Board of Trustees.

IIL. Special Endowment Funds:

Specified for use by the donor or donors with
restrictions developed and approved by agree-
ment between the donors) and the Board of
Trustees.

Special Endowment Funds, each with specified
restrictions, are:

A. Botany Research Fund
B. Marcia Athey Fund

Bylaws of the Foundation were changed to allow
expansion of the Board of Trustees of the Foundation
to include an advisory council and subsequently the
new advisory council, consisting of individuals from
principally the private sector, met with the Board of the
August meeting. A continuing goal of the Board will be
expand the base of income for the Academy to allow
the organization to have a greater impact on the devel-
opment of science in Kentucky.

2. COMMITTEE ON PUBLICATION. Dr. Branley Branson
made the following report.

A. Volume 44 (1-2), March 1983, consisted of 94 pages
that included 15 papers, 5 notes, Academy Affairs,
Program, the abstracts some papers presented at
the annual meeting, and News and Comments.

83

Volume 44 (3-4), September 1983, consisted of 83
pages that included 12 papers, 6 notes, News and
Comments, and the annual index. The cost for
printing 44 (1-2) was $5,192.68 and that for 44 (3-4)
$5,490.39, for a total of $10,683.07, a decrease of
$805.39 over the previous year, even though more
papers were published. The savings reflect pre-
viously reported format changes.

The subjects of the 27 papers and 11 notes were
distributed among 6 diciplines as follows: Zoology
and Entomology, 19 papers, Botany and Microbi-
ology, 6 papers, Physiology, 1 paper, Geology and
Geography, 10 papers, Genetics, 1 paper, and
Physics and Mathematics, 1 paper.

B. During the past year, the Board of Directors, offic-
ers of the Academy, and the Editorial Board have
wrestled with the problem of finances. It has
become patently clear that the Academy will be
unable to increase its income unless a massive
and successful membership drive is mounted.
Since that is highly unlikely, the Board voted
favorably upon President Rodriguez’ recommen-
dation that we change printers. President Rodri-
guez, accompanied by the Editor, Dr. Jerry Baskin,
and other members of the Editorial Board, met
with John Barker, manager of the University of
Kentucky Printing Services in order to ascertain
how best to effect a change to that firm. Manager
Barker assured us that he could print the Transac-
tions without a loss of quality, using essentially
the same quality of paper stock, print stock, and
covers, at a cost substantially lower than charged
by Allen Press. The Board voted to accept the
University Kentucky Press offer. Thus, starting
with 45 (1-2), the Transactions will henceforth be
printed at the University of Kentucky Press.

This change in printers, of course, has involved
more than merely saving money. For one thing,
the University of Kentucky Press can not provide
technical editing and copy marking; those will fall
upon the shoulders of the Editor. Therefore, it
becomes highly necessary that all authors use
even more caution than usual in critically correct-
ing galley proofs. Furthermore, the press has no
means whereby they may mail or collect for
reprints. Thus, the Editor will have to assume that
duty and the associated bookkeeping job.

All this brings to mind a famous admonition: “NON

COMPOS MENTIS".

3. MEMBERSHIP COMMITTEE. Dr. Larry Elliott present-
ed the report.

The membership committee sponsored a member-
ship contest with the winners receiving a free meal at
the banquet. The winners were Tom Despard of the
Forestry Service at Berea and Charles Covell, Jr. from

84 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 45(1-2)

the University of Louisville. Since August there had
been 41 new members giving a total of 70 new members
for the year. Dr. Elliott urged all members to take pos-
ters back to their school and use them for advertise-
ment of the Academy.

4. STATE GOVERNMENT/SCIENCE ADVISORY COM-
MITTEE. Dr. Charles Kupchella made the following
report.

During 1982-83, this committee did not meet in for-
mal session; however, several items of business were
conducted via telephone and letter exchanges between
the chairman and various committee members.

On March 3, 1983 we solicited position statements
from candidates for governor and for state superin-
tendent of public instruction. We received replies from
Stumbo, Collins, and Grahm in time to provide sum-
maries of their responses to the membership as part of
the March 1983 newsletter. Subsequently, we also
received a reply from Sloan. We have yet to hear from
Ms. McDonald in direct answer to our inquiry; how-
ever, committee member Boggess received a response
to a similar inquiry made in September.

Copies of our letters to Collins and McDonald are
attached to the official copy of this report. Copies of the
responsesby Collins and McDonald are attached here.

In light of Ms. Collin’s and Ms. McDonald's elections,
and in light of their acknowledgement of problems in
science education and research support, it would
seem advisible that KAS follow up by seeking face-to-
face audiences with both Collins and McDonald as
soon as possible—even before they take office.

The following letters are the responses of Governor
Collins and Superintendent of Public Instruction Alice
McDonald.

Dear Dr. Kupchella:

As a former mathematics teacher, I share the Ken-
tucky Academy of Science's high standards for instruc-
tion and research in mathematics and science and
appreciate the opportunity to address some of the
Academy's concerns.

The shortage of qualified math and science teachers
and declining SAT scores by high school students in
these subject areas are two very disturbing trends that
must be corrected if the United States is to maintain its
position as a world leader. The first step needed was to
make the public recognize and accept that there is a
problem. This has been done. The next step is action at
the national, state, and local levels.

During the last three years, I have served as Ken-
tucky’s representative on the Task Force on Higher
Education and the Schools, appointed by the Southern
Regional Education Board. One of the topics we dis-
cussed frequently was the shortage of qualified math
and science teachers in our public schools. Recom-
mendations 7 and 8 on page 13 of our report, a copy of
which I have enclosed, address this problem.

7. States should develop an array of incentives to
attract math teachers, including scholarships or
loan programs for prospective teachers tied to the
teaching of these subjects within the state, following
the established pattern of state subsidies to train
medical personnel in short supply.

8. States should modify certification requirements to
permit graduates in mathematics and science who
lack professional education preparation to teach at
the secondary levels, with safeguards to insure the
quality of instruction. Certification should also accom-
modate teachers in related surplus fields to teach
mathematics and science, with refresher courses as
needed.

As you know, one of the Task Force's recommenda-
tions, scholarships for prospective math and science
teachers, has been implemented in Kentucky. And Con-
gress is looking at funding scholarships and research
ona national level. These proposals are a good start, but
may not be enough. A possibility is salary differentials
for teachers in shortage areas, but one must consider
the effect that would have on the morale of teachers in
other subjects. As Governor, I would not rule out prop-
osing salary differentials or stipends, but would want to
consider other alternatives first.

Part of a short-term solution could be to provide
programs for our marginally qualified math and science
teachers and unemployed teachers through summer
workshops and institutes, similar to the University of
North Carolina at Chapel Hill's Middle School Math and
Science Program. Middle School Math and Science
teachers, most of whom are not certified in that field,
receive daily instruction during the summer and weekly
instruction throughout the school year. Tuition was
paid for the participants who received credit for rene-
wal of their teaching certificate.

Our long-term solution rests with encouraging more
of our gifted students to consider careers in math and
science. Information about the shortage of math and
science teachers needs to be brought to the attention of
high school and college students. The materials designed
to attract students should emphasize the availability of
teaching jobs. The state boards of education and higher
education, professional guidance associations, and local
school boards could help prepare and distribute the
materials.

Another area that demands attention is the quantity
and quality of our math and science courses in our
public schools. The recently adopted pre-college cur-
riculum will strengthen math and science requirements
at the high school level. Instruction at the elementary
and middle school levels could be improved by increas-
ing the number of hours in science courses required for
an elementary certificate. As Governor, I will ask the
Kentucky Council on Teacher Education and Certifica-
tion to consider an increase or restructuring of present
requirements.

ACADEMY AFFAIRS

As we increase our science requirements, we must
also provide adequate laboratories and equipment.
One of my priorities in the education budget for local
schools will be capital outlay and current expenses,
from which schools pay for laboratory equipment.
Because these two line items of the minimum founda-
tion program have received minimal increases the last
few years, many schools have not had the funds to
purchase equipment.

I have reviewed the articles on Federal Funding for
Research and Development in Kentucky, which points
out the need for our institutions of higher education to
commit greater efforts toward obtaining federal re-
search funding support. With the arrival of the Reagan
Administration, lessened federal support for higher
education research has resulted. This makes institution
support and the attainment of private support for
research that much more critical. I will encourage the
institutions to support faculty research efforts whe-
never possible.

It is important and encouraging to note that the cur-
rent draft formula funding proposal under considera-
tion by the Council on Higher Education does not rec-
ognize research in the calculations. Additional funding
for researchalso can be requested outside the formula
with the understanding that any agreement reached
regarding the need for additional support would be
added to the formula.

Thank you for writing. Be assured that my commit-
ment to quality education at all levels is solid. As the
only candidate with experience as a teacher, I have the
background and statewide understanding to give edu-
cation the priority it deserves. | look forward to working
for you and with you as Governor in making Kentucky's
future even brighter by providing our youth witha qual-
ity education today.

Sincerely,

Martha Layne Collins

Dear Dean Boggess:

Thank you for your letter of September 7 concerning
the need to escalate statewide efforts to improve
science. The Science Advisory Council should be helpful
in that regard, and I appreciate your recommendation
that this group of advisors continue to function.

I also appreciate your comments on the “Incentive
Loan” program. The Kentucky Academy of Sciences can
be very influential in the promotion of science for Ken-
tucky schools. I am glad to have your offer of help.

Sincerely yours,

Alice McDonald

85

5. COMMITTEE ON DISTRIBUTION OF RESEARCH
FUNDS. Dr. Joe Winstead made the following report.

The Botany Fund which operates from a $10,000
endowment in the KAS Foundation awarded five
grants totaling $1900 for the 1983 year. Recipients and
their funded projects were: Mr. Kelly Carter, and
undergraduate at Pikeville College, $400.00 to support
his study on Silphium mohrii; Miss Donna A. Godbey,
MS student at Eastern Kentucky University, $300.00 for
her project on the vascular flora of Maywoods; Mr.
Harry Woodward, graduate student at the University of
Louisville, $400.00 to help in his anatomical study of the
Magnoliacae native to Kentucky; Mr. Max Medley,
graduate studentat the University of Louisville, $400.00
financing his verification of new and rare species of
vascular plants in Kentucky; and Mr. George F. Buddell,
student at Northern Kentucky University, $400.00 to
help underwrite his floristic survey of Lewis County,
Kentucky.

The committee was please to note that two former
recepients, Mr. Jay Jones, graduate student at Indiana
University and Mr. Charles Tarrents, graduate student
at Syracuse University are listed on the program in the
Botany and Microbiology section with presentations
on their work.

The original endowment continues to grow as 10% of
the annual earnings are added to the principal each
year. Applications for 1984 awards should be sent to
the Chairman of the Botany Fund prior to 1 April. It is
anticipated that approximately $1400.00 will be availa-
ble for 1984 awards.

Grants are open to undergraduates or graduate stu-
dents enrolled in a college or university program
within the Commonwealth or applicants may be
enrolled in institutions of higher learning located out-
side the political boundaries of the state if the individ-
ual’s research program involves a study that would be
conducted primarily within the state of Kentucky.
Grant applications must involve research projects
within the generally accepted boundaries of the field of
botany. As a general outline this encompasses: Plant
Taxonomy or Systematic Botany, Plant Ecology, Plant
Genetics, Plant Anatomy, Plant Morphology, Plant
Cytology, Phycology, Mycology, Plant Physiology and
Paleobotany.

Applications should include a brief description of
the proposed research, references to appropriate liter-
ature and an outline of anticipated costs. Research
projects are expected to be completed within a two
year period from initiation of funding and the appli-
cant will be expected to present a summary of his/her
results before an appropriate sectional meeting of the
Kentucky Academy of Science.

Dr. Winstead reported that all of the money had been
distributed from the Floristic Fund and no more appli-
cations would be accepted.

Dr. Rodriguez reported the Marcia Athey Fund had

86 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 45(1-2)

received only one grant application which had been
withdrawn for changes and would be resubmitted at a
later date. He said that applications were available from
the chairman of the Committee, Dr. Paul Freytag, or the
secretary, Dr. Robert Creek.

6. SCIENCE EDUCATION COMMITTEE. Mrs. Anna Neal
made the report.

Ray Barber, Superintendent of Public Instruction
appointed a Science Advisory Council to report directly
to him with recommendations for science education.
The Kentucky Academy Committee has worked closely
with the Council to coordinate activities and also
because several members of KAS were also members of
the Council.

Following isa list of activities of the Science Advisory
Council.

1. Standards for preparation and Certification of ele-
mentary teachers were formulated. This recom-
mendation varied little from the 1977 one jointly
formulated by the KAS, KAPS and Science Advisory
Council. Also influenced by the AAAS guidelines of
1970.

. It was recommended that the State Department of
Education establish Regional Science Resource
Teachers for each of twelve regions in the state to
work with, and under the direction of, the State
Science Consultant.

3. Guidelines should be developed so that science
teachers, utilizing a laboratory approach could be
provided the opportunity for extended employment.

4. We requested that the State Science Consultant be
relieved of several paper work” assignments unre-
lated to science education, and that he be encour-
aged and funded to participate actively in state and
national science organizations.

te

The Advisory Council also explored the possibilities
for developing closer ties between Business/Industry/
and Science Education. A pilot program began in
Fayette County Schools this year.

In addition to these tasks the Science Education
Committee has worked on the following projects:

1. Helped develop Minimum Standards of Compliance
as a check list to examine secondary schools for
State Accreditation.

2. Helped develop a Minimum Standards Equipment
List as a further check on accreditation.

3. Dr. Truman Stevens took on an individual task with
Frank Howard to develop a Profile of Kentucky
Science Teachers, Grades 7-12. This will show
science teachers by district and school, their certi-
fication, and whether or not they are teaching
within field. It will also show elementary teachers
who are teaching 7th and 8th grade science.

4. A major accomplishment of the committee has
been the publication of a brochure Choices of
Today Will Count Tomorrow - Guidelines to Choos-

ing Science Courses. This brochure is being dissem-
inated to principals, counselors and teachers by the
Higher Education Coordinator at the state univer-
sities.

7. KENTUCKY JUNIOR ACADEMY OF SCIENCE. Mr.
Herb Lespold made the following report.

Our annual symposium was hosted by Eastern
Kentucky University at Model Lab School on April
29-30, 1983. Three paper sections were conducted
with thirty papers from ten schools. Our speaker
was Dr. Wm. H. Martin, who spoke on “Endangered
Species.’ Other activities included the Science Bowl
and the Lab-Skills Competitions. Five papers from
this symposium are scheduled for this meeting of
KAS.

Efforts toward regional organization have not
been successful to date, but several groups have
expressed a continued interest and indicate that
they will be able to develop active organizations.

During the year we had 16 clubs witha total of 500
members.

Two scholarships were again made available
through the Ogden Foundation for use at Western
Kentucky University, with the requirement that
they be used only for science or mathematics pro-
grams. Also of major importance, Murray State Uni-
versity provided one of their best scholarships for
another of our ‘Outstanding Science Graduates.”
This makes a current total of four students with
scholarships that resulted from our scholarship-
recognition program.

This year’s annual meeting is scheduled for April
at Western Kentucky University. It is our 50th Anni-
versary and plans are underway to properly recog-
nize fifty years of the Academy's service to science
education.

Dr. Stephen Hendersson presented the KJAS
Treasurer's report.

Balance on Hand, September 1, 1983-....--- $886.06
DISBURSEMENTS
Research Grants, Fall 1983 -..............---.--- $525.00
Robert Elder - St. Charles Junior High...... 20.00
Toni Miles - St. Charles Junior High --..--.. 25.00
Duane England - Deming High School -.... 75.00
Kimberly Sale - Deming High School....--.- 75.00
Terri Dietz - Notre Dame Academy --.------- 40.00
Trina Wagner, Karen Vormbrock, Debbie
Teisl - Notre Dame Academy -.----------- 150.00
Robin Wigelsworth - Harrison County
High}School @-eaeste----seennne=ecn none eseaae ee 65.00
Tommy Wade - East Hardin
High) School ecsscsescerserseme terme enn ene 75.00
Total Disbursements...-..------------------------ $525.00
RECEIPTS
Club Dues (Since April 30, 183) -..-.......-..-- $100.50
MotalsRecel ptsyecsseessse sees se ree e ee see $100.50

Balance on Hand, November 8, 1983 ........-..- $461.50

ACADEMY AFFAIRS

The report was audited by Dr. Morris Taylor and
found to be in order.

8. RESOLUTION COMMITTEE. Dr. John Philley pres-
ented the following resolution.

Whereas, the University of Louisville has served as
the host institution for the Sixty-ninth Annual Meeting
of the Kentucky Academy of Science, and whereas Cha-
rles Covell, Jr., Varley Wideman, and their colleagues at
the University of Louisville have given graciously and
freely of their energies to assist the Academy for this
meeting and in other ways in a very successful manner,

Therefore, be it resolved that the Kentucky Academy
of Science expresses its deep appreciation to the host
institution and to those individuals who were involved
in the arrangements to provide the Academy a most
successful annual meeting.

A motion was made and seconded from the floor to
accept the resolution. Motion was passed.

9. AD HOC COMMITTEES.

A. Rare and Endangered Species Committee. The
report was made by Dr. Branley Branson.

I. RECOMMENDATION: Following considerable com-
munication and discussion with John MacGregor,
Commonwealth Wildlife Biologist, and the Kentucky
Nature Preserves Commission and committee members,
it is recommended that a meeting—to include Mac-
Gregor, the Kentucky Nature Preserves Commission,
and the Kentucky Academy of Science Committee on
Rare and Endangered Species—be convened at an
early date in order to establish regular procedures
(listing packets, etc.) for adding species to the list and
for changing the status of species. This meeting would
also examine the present designations, discuss revi-
sion of the list, and examine the possibility of establish-
ing an official state list.

II. The Kentucky Academy of Science Committee
should serve as an advisory committee to the Kentucky
Nature Preserves Commission and to the Kentucky
Fish and Wildlife Resources Commission.

III. The following crayfish species are recommended
for the designations indicated below on the strength of
Burr's and Hobbs (Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci. 1984: in press)
report:
Cambarellus puer Hobbs: Special Concern
Cambarellus shufeldtii (Faxon): change from
Undetermined to Special Concern
Orconectes palmeri palmeri (Faxon): Threatened
Procambarus viaeviridis (Faxon): Special Concern

VI. The following gastropods (snails), based upon the
recommendations of John MacGregor, are recommend-
ed for Special Concern:

Bulimulus dealbatus (Say)

Mesodon mitchellianus (Lea)

Mesodon chilhoweensis (Lewis)

87

V. Wayne H. Davis, committee member, recommends
Sorex longirostris and Microsorex hoyi for a status
change from Threatened to Special Concern, and that
the status of Mustela nivalis be changed from Endan-
gered to Special Concern.

VI. Jerry M. Baskin, committee member, recommends
the addition to the Kentucky list of Trifolium stolonife-
rum Muhl. ex. A. Eaton as Rare, and that Lesquerella
lescurii (Gray) Watson be added to the list as Rare.

Dr. Branson further recommended that Rich Han-
nonand John MacGregor be made permanent members
of this committee. It was suggested from the floor that
the list of endangered species be sent to the legislature
and ask for a bill to be passed concerning the endan-
gered species of Kentucky. Dr. Branson replied that
more work was needed on the list by the committee
along with interaction with state organizations.

B. Meeting Location and Time Committee.

Dr. John Philley reported that the Academy had
received an invitation to hold its 1984 annual meeting
at Kentucky State University at Frankfort, Kentucky on
November 9-10, 1984. A motion was made and seconded
to accept the invitation from Kentucky State University.
The motion was passed.

C. Committee on Legislatively Mandated Programs.

Dr. Creek reported that the committee recommends
an additional statements to the KAS Science Policy
Statement which was passed at the 1981 Annual Meet-
ing. The statement which was published in the Sep-
tember Newsletter and would be paragraph five of the
Policy Statement reads as follows:

It is further recommended that the Kentucky
Academy of Science encourage its members and
other professional scientific groups to give support
and aid to those classroom teachers who present
the subject matter of evolution fairly and encounter
community objection. We also encourage adminis-
trators and individual teachers to oppose the inclu-
sion of non-scientific concepts in the science class-
room.

Amotion was made and passed to add the additional
paragraph.

Dr. Creek reported that Dr. Wallace Dixon would
continue to serve as chairman of the Committee to
Study Legislatively Mandated Educational Programs
and anyone wishing information, particularly on scien-
tific creationism, should contact him.

D. Awards Committee.

Dr. Debra Pearce reported on the awards that were
presented the previous evening at the annual banquet.
The award for the Outstanding Teacher in Science at
the college-university level was presented to Dr. Sam L.
Cooke, Department of Chemistry, at the University of
Louisville. The Outstanding Teacher in Science at the
secondary education level was awarded to Steve Zimmer

88

of Warren East High School. Mrs. Anna Neal was pres-
ented a plaque for her contributions in science educa-
tion. Dr. Pearce urged that all members begin to con-
sider possible nominations for the 1984 Distinguished
Scientist Award. The award was not presented this
year.

10. UNFINISHED BUSINESS. There was no unfinished
business.

11. NEW BUSINESS.

A. Dr. Rodriguez moved that the ad hoc Science Edu-
cation committee be changed toa standing commi-
tee as announced in the September issue of the
Newsletter. This would be paragraph five in Section
2 of Article VIII of the Bylaws and would read as
follows: Committee on Science Education that con-
sist of at least three members will be appointed by
the President. Following a second from the floor the
motion was passed.

B. Dr. Creek announced that a Speaker's Bureau was
going to be set up that would enable elementary
and secondary teachers and other interested par-
ties to draw upon the expertise of scientists through-
out the state. Dr. Creek indicated that the necessary
forms were available and should be returned to him

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 45(1-2)

as soon as possible. A booklet will be put together
listing pertinent information about the scientists
and the areas about which they will speak. The
bulletin will be made available throughout the state.

12. NOMINATING COMMITTEE. Dr. Gertrude Ridgel
offered the following nominations and moved their
acceptance.

Charles V. Covell, Jr............--

Robert Creekecrejoneherehon tel cievatelrelTokenenenene Secretary
Morris Taylor ......-.-+s-2seeeeeeee Treasurer
James Sickel ............... Board of Directors
Lawrence Boucher..........- Board of Directors
David Prior ............+.-- AAS Representative

The motion was seconded from the floor and, with
no further nominations, was passed unanimously.

President Rodriguez then presented President-elect
Boggess with the gavel and welcomed him as President
of the Kentucky academy of Science for 1984.

President Boggess presented Dr. Rodriguez a plaque
for his service as President and his contributions to the
Academy. Following a briefaddress by Dr. Boggess, the
meeting was adjourned at 1030.

Robert Creek, Secretary
Kentucky Academy of Science

ACADEMY AFFAIRS 89

KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
69th ANNUAL MEETING
PROGRAM

Friday, November 11, 1983

Saturday, November 12, 1983

0800-1000 _—-Registration - Lobby, Strickler Hall
0800-1200 = Scientific Exhibits - Lobby, Strickler Hall
0800-0900 _— Sectional Meetings -(See Following Pages)
0900-0915 Coffee Break - Lobby, Strickler Hall
0915-1015 Annual Business Meeting - Middleton
Auditorium, Strickler Hall

1030-1200 Sectional Meetings -(See Following Pages)
1300- ? Sectional Meetings - (As Needed)

KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

The Sixty-Ninth Annual Meeting
At The

University of Louisville
November 11-12, 1984
Arrangements: Dr. Charles Covell, Jr.

1030-1200 Community College Faculty Meeting -
Middleton Auditorium Strickler Hall
1130-1300 Executive Committee Luncheon - Dining
Room C, North Dining Room, University
Center
1200-1600 _—- Registration - Lobby, Strickler Hall
1200-1700 _— Scientific Exhibits - Lobby, Strickler Hall
1300-1500 Sectional Meetings -(See Following Pages)
1500-1530 Coffee Break - Lobby, Strickler Hall
1530-1700 Plenary Session - Middleton Auditorium,
Strickler Hall
1800-1900 Hospitality Hour - Mastersons Restaurant
1900 - ? KAS Annual Banquet - Mastersons Res-
taurant
OFFICERS OF THE ACADEMY
President ............... -.... J. G. Rodriguez
University of Kentucky
President Elect ................. Gary Boggess
Murray State University
Vice President .................. Joe Winstead
Western Kentucky University
Past President......... 65000000 Ted M. George
Eastern Kentucky University
Secretary ......... 6o0nG0000 . + Robert Creek
Eastern Kentucky University
WADI oo Cobo OoODCOOOOOD OO dO0S Morris Taylor
Eastern Kentucky University
Director of Junior Academy ...... Herbert Leopold
Western Kentucky University
Editor of Transactions .......... Branley Branson
Eastern Kentucky University
Representative of AAAS. .......... Allen L. Lake

Morehead State University

BOARD OF DIRECTORS

Debra K. Pearce (Chp)...-.-..-+-++sseeeee 1983
Gary W. Boggess .... +--+ eeeeeeecceeees 1983
Mary McGlasson .....--.-2++eeeeeeeees 1984
Ip Wiiertl coooooadConboCOD DDO UOnDS 1984
Paul Freytag -----22sseccccesrccescece 1985
WilliamjBakergenelaretetctenelefenetonsterehlenclelsreleler= 1985
(Camis cocod0ndo000000 00g 0000000 1986
Manuel Schwartz.......-++- dooCOooDDOOeN 1986

PLENARY SESSION

Friday, November 11

1530 THE INTERFACE OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY
Speakers: Dr. Paulette G. Lankford, Director of
Technology, Humana, Inc.
Mr. Al Turchick, Manager, U.S. Steel Mining Corp.
Research

90 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 45(1-2)

ANNUAL BANQUET

Saturday, November12

1900 Mastersons Restaurant
Speaker: Dr. Mounir M. Kamal, Director of
Technology, General Motors Research Labs

“GAPS AND BRIDGES BETWEEN INDUSTRY AND
UNIVERSITY”

BOTANY AND MICROBIOLOGY
Session I—Room 109, Natural Science Bldg.

Ralph L. Thompson, Chairman, Presiding
Ronald L. Jones, Secretary

Friday, November 11, 1983

1500 Coffee Break.
1530 Plenary Session.

Saturday, November 12, 1983

0800 A taxonomic analysis of Dryophyllum(Fagaceae)
leaf forms from the Claiborne Fm. (Eocene) of
Graves Co., Kentucky. Jay H. Jones, Indiana
University.

0815 Seed germination patterns in the woodland
perennial, Maianthemum canadense Deg. (Lili-
aceae). Cindy Williams, Centre College.

0830 Population dynamics of sweet buckeye. Foster
Levy, Pikeville College.

0845 The present aims and prospects of the Plant
Resources Center of the University of Kentucky.
Willem Meijer, University of Kentucky.

0900 Coffee Break.

0915 Annual Business Meeting.

1030 Seed bank development on a series of aban-
doned lead-zinc mine dumps in southwest Wis-
consin. Robin Kimmerer, Transylvania Univer-
sity.

1045 Observations of Amelanchier arborea (Michx. f.),
Fernald, Sarvis, on the Kentucky River Palisades.
Ron Houp, Department for Environmental
Protection.

1100 Clone patterns and sexual expressionin sumac.
Charles Tarrants, Syracuse, New York.

1115 Recovery of trampled bryophyte communities
near Mountain Lake, Virginia. Susan M. Studlar,
Centre College.

1130 Leaf length/width differences in the geographic
distributions of Euonymus americanus. Paul E.
Bayer and Joe E. Winstead. Western Kentucky
University.

1145 A decade of change in Bonayer Woods, Barren
County, Kentucky: a climax woodlot of the
Western Mesophytic Forest. Joe E. Winstead,
Western Kentucky University.

1200 Lunch Break.

1300 Carex texensis(Cyperaceae): Species, Variety, or
Synonym? Dan K. Evans, Marshall University
(sponsored by Ralph Thompson).

1315

1330

1345

1400

Plant communities of the Cincinnati Region—
an updating of Braun. William S. Bryant, Thomas
More College.

Floristic affinities of the vascular flora of Shiloh
National Military Park, Tennessee. Ronald L.
Jones, Eastern Kentucky University.

A mesophytic Kentucky River ravine forest in
Franklin County, Kentucky. Hal Bryan, Frank-
fort, Kentucky.

The vascular flora of Calloway County, Ken-
tucky. Michael Woods and Marian J. Fuller,
Murray State University.

New and rarely reported plants in Kentucky.
Max Medley, University of Louisville.

Catalogue of vascular plants of Kentucky. Max
Medley, University of Louisville.

Election of Sectional Officers.

Session II—Room 110, Natural Science Bldg.

Ronald L. Jones, Presiding

Saturday, November 12, 1983

0800

0815

0830

0845

0900
0915
1030

1045

1100

1115

1130

1145

Changes in the phosphorus and organic matter
content in the sediments of McNeely Lake, Jef-
ferson County, Kentucky. James D. Mayfield,
University of Louisville.

Investigation of nonpoint source pollution prob-
lems associated with karst aquifer systems. W. D.
Green, N. C. Crawford, L. P. Elliott, and J. T. Riley,
Western Kentucky University.

Microbial ecology of two Kentucky caves. James
Greer and James Dyar, Bellarmine Colleg.
Factors affecting diatom immigration onto sub-
strates. R. Jan Stevenson, University of Louisville.
Coffee Break.

Annual Business Meeting.

Periphyton variability in stream systems. Ste-
phen D. Porter, Department for Environmental
Protection.

Growth and differentiation of white pine tissue
cultures. Karen Kaul and T. S. Kochhar, Ken-
tucky State University.

Isolation, cell wall regeneration, and cell div-
ision of barley protoplasts. M. M. Rahman, Ken-
tucky State University.

Characterization of SGP147 as a soil additive.
Pamela Rust, Notre Dame Academy. (Sponsored
by Herb Leopold)

The effects of biological and chemical control
agents on Galleria mellonella. Mary T. Kramer,
Notre Dame Academy. (Sponsored by Herb
Leopold)

Toxicity of coal liquification compounds to Spi-
rodela polyrrhiza. Karen Coley, Murray State
University. (Sponsored by Joe King).

Algae of Kentucky Lakes. Lisa Barnese, Murray
State University.

Election of Sectional Officers in Rm. 109, Natural
Science Bldg.

ACADEMY AFFAIRS

CHEMISTRY SECTION

Samuel L. Cooke, Chairman
Car] D. Slater, Secretary

Session I, Carl D. Slater, Presiding
Room 100—Education Bldg.

Friday, November 11, 1984

1300

1315

1330

1400

1415

1430

The Design of Reaction Mechanisms. P. L. Corio,
Department of Chemistry, University of Ken-
tucky.

Analysis of Insoluble Portions of Environmental
Air Particulate Samples. William D. Schulz, De-
partment of Chemistry, University of Kentucky.
Determination of Choline Using Non-suppressed
Cation Exchange Chromatography with Con-
ducting Detection. Melissa Newhalland Preston
Miles, Division of Science and Mathematics,
Centre College.

Enzymatic-Flourometric Trace Analysis of Lac-
tose. Susan Hargan and Preston Miles, Division
of Science and Mathematics, Centre College.
Buffer Catalysis in the Hydrolysis of N-Methyl-2-
fluoropyridinium Iodide. Denise R. Taylor and
Oliver J. Muscio, Jr., Department of Chemistry,
Murray State University.

Cloneing of DNA Fragments from Pathogenic
Bacteria. Christopher E. Rickman, Ricky A. Jack-
son, and Vaughn Vandegrift, Department of
Chemistry, Murray State University.

Heats and Entrophies of Fusion of n-Alkyl 3,5-
Dinitrobenzoates. Hattie Murphy, G. L. Shoe-
maker, S. L. Cooke, Department of Chemistry,
University of Louisville.

Solubility Parameter Spectroscopy of Polymers.
James M. Poole and Joan Reeder, Department of
Chemistry, Eastern Kentucky University.

Coffee Break.

Plenary Session.

Session II, James H. Niewahner, Presiding
Room 102— Education Bldg.

Friday, November 11, 1983

1300

1315

1330

Abis(Aminopropionitrile)hydroxidoperchlorato-
zinc(II): A Novel Compound. Harry M. Smiley,
Department of Chemistry, Eastern Kentucky
University.

On the Preferred Site for Hydrogen Atoms in bec
Transition Metals. Audrey L. Companion, Frank
Liu, Department of Chemistry, University of
Kentucky, and David P. Onwood, Department of
Chemistry, IUPU-Fort Wayne.

Implantation of Hydrogen Atoms in and on Tit-
anium Metal Clusters. Frank Liu and Audrey L.
Companion, Department of Chemistry, Univer-
sity of Kentucky.

The Synthesis and Characterization of Some
Novel Group VIII Metal Derivatives Incorporat-
ing the Pentaphenylcyclopentadienyl Ligand.

1400

1415

1430

1445

1500
1530

91

Joan L. Cmarik, Danny Garland, and David A.

Owen, Department of Chemistry, Murray State

University.

Mass Spectra of Transition Metal Complexes

Incorporating the Pentaphenylcyclopentadienyl
Ligand. Thomas H. Pritchett and David A.

Owens, Department of Chemistry, Murray State

University.

Dithioacetal Complexes of Palladium. Phillip E.

Fanwick and Gary B. Kaufmann, Department of

Chemistry, University of Kentucky.

Heterobimetallic Compounds with Early to Late

Transition Metal Bonds. William Sartain and

John P. Selegue, Department of Chemistry, Uni-

versity of Kentucky.

Synthesis of Molybdenum Vinylidene Complexes.

Peter Nickias and John P. Selegue, Department

of Chemistry, University of Kentucky.

Coffee Break.

Plenary Session.

Session III, Carl D. Slater, Presiding
Room 100-Education Bldg.

Saturday, November 12, 1983

0800

0815

0830

0845

0900

0915

1030

1045

1100

An Evlauation of Computer Simulated Experi-
ments in the Freshman Chemistry Labs. Joan
Lewisand Howard Powell, Department of Chem-
istry, Eastern Kentucky University.
Instructional REVIEW Programs for Introduc-
tory Chemistry. Version for the Apple II-plus
Microcomputer. Darnell Salyer, Department of
Chemistry, Eastern Kentucky University.
Computer Dnill on Chemical Equations. John
Chamberlin, Department of Chemistry, Western
Kentucky University.

Computer Aided Drills in Organic Reactions.
Victor I. Bendall, Department of Chemistry,
Eastern Kentucky University.

A Microcomputer Program to Assist Instruction
on Reaction Energetics. John L. Meisenheimer,
Department of Chemistry, Eastern Kentucky
University.

Annual Business Meeting.

Computer Models for Calculating Pore Size Dis-
tributions in Catalysts Supported on Spherical-
Particle Substrates. Bruce D. Adkins, Burton H.
Reucroft, Materials Engineering Department,
University of Kentucky.

Use of the Apple II+ Computer with the Adalab
Card for the Acquisition of Chromatographic
Data and for the Determination of Separation
Quality Parameters. Shayne Green and Thomas
H. Pritchett, Department of Chemistry, Murray
State University.

Software for Acquisition and Evaluation of Spec-
trometric First-Order Kinetic Data. Thomas H.
Pritchett, David E. Theobald, and Oliver J. Mus-
cio, Jr., Department of Chemistry, Murray State
University.

92

1115

1130

1145

1200

1215

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 45(1-2)

Direct Shearch Optimization of the Infinite Time
Value in First-Order Kinetic Studies. Oliver J.
Muscio, Jr. and Jeffrey E. Anderson, Department
of Chemistry, Murray State University.
Electrochemistry with the Apple Microcompu-
ter. Jeffrey E. Anderson, Department of Chemis-
try, Murray State University.

Laboratory Microcomputing with FORTH.
Robert Shoemaker and S. L. Cooke, Department
of Chemistry, University of Louisville.
Automated Conductometric Titrations. Mark
Hail and F. J. Holler, Department of Chemistry,
University of Kentucky.

Election of Section Officers.

Section IV, William R. Oliver, Presiding
Room 102— Education Bldg.

Saturday, November 12, 1984

0915
1030

1045

1100

1115

1130

1145

Business Meeting.

Supported Cobalt Phthalocyanines as Catalysts
in the Hydrogenation of Nitrogen Containing
Heterocycles. Terry L. Matthewsand Laurence J.
Boucher, Department of Chemistry, Western
Kentucky University.

Determination of Moisture in Coal Using Pulsed
10 and 20 MHz and NMR Instruments. John T.
Riley, Department of Chemistry, Western Ken-
tucky University.

Acid Leaching of White Coal for the Rapid
Determination of Elements by Atomic Absorp-
tion Spectrometry. J. Daniel Pawleyand James E.
O'Reilly, Department of Chemistry, University of
Kentucky.

ANALYTICAL PYROLYSIS: A Novel Approach to
Coal Plasticity. John W. Reasoner, William G.
Lloyd, Department of Chemistry, Western Ken-
tucky University, and James C. Hower, Linda P.
Yates, Institute for Mining and Mineral Research,
University of Kentucky.

Chromatographic Determination of Methyl Mer-
cury in Seafood: Use of Sodium-Halide-Loaded
Columns. Jafariah Jaafar and James E. OReilly,
Department of Chemistry, University of Ken-
tucky.

Furnace AA Determination of Chromium in
Urine and its Relationship to other Urinalysis
Tests. David Bugg and B. E. McClellan, Depart-
ment of Chemistry, Murray State University.
Oxidation of Ascorbic Acid with Thallium (IID.
Ann M. Snepp, Rita K. Hessley, and Robert D.
Farina, Department of Chemistry, Western Ken-
tucky University.

Election of Section Officers in Room 100 - Educa-
tion Bldg.

GEOGRAPHY SECTION
Room 221—Bingham Humanities BLDG.

William A. Withington, Chairman, Presiding
John L. Anderson, Secretary

Friday, November 11, 1983

1300

1315

1330

1345

1400

1415

1430

1445

1500
1530

North America’s Rift Valley, The Salton Trough of
California. Anthony O. Clarke, University of
Louisville.

The Seasonal Relationships Between Clouds
and Precipitation. L. Michael Trapasso, Western
Kentucky University.

Seasonal Changes in Kentucky Precipitation
Patterns. Glen Conner, Western Kentucky
University.

A Local Example of Structural Control in the
Kentucky Pennyroyal. Ronald R. Dilamarter,
Western Kentucky University.

Estimates of the Flux of Latent Energy in the
Southern Hemisphere. David Howarth, Univer-
sity of Louisville.

The Significance of Topography to the History of
Tight Hollow. C. A. Leuthart and H. T. Spencer,
University of Louisville.

The Effects of Altitude and Latitude on the Dis-
tribution of the Normal Mean Annual Tempera-
tures in Kentucky. Robert M. Simpson and
Clifford S. Hardin, Western Kentucky University.
The Geography Section, Kentucky Academy of
Science, 1971-1983. William A. withington, Uni-
versity of Kentucky.

Coffee break.

Plenary Session.

Saturday, November 12

0800

0815

0830

0845

0900
0915
1030

1045

Mediterranean Seas and the United States of
America. E. E. Hegen, Western Kentucky Univer-
sity.

Reorientations of Kentucky Resort Visitors: Im-
pact of the 1982 World's Fair. John L. Anderson,
University of Louisville.

Male-Female Differences in Industrial Commut-
ing Patterns Within Non-Metropolitan Kentucky.
Roberta Haven Webster, University of Kentucky.
The Geography of Local Government Debt in
Kentucky. Gerald R. Webster, University of Ken-
tucky.

Coffee Break.

Annual business Meeting.

Milledot Method for Kentucky's Population Dis-
tribution. Reza Ahsan, Western Kentucky Univer-
sity.

Geography Texts in Kentucky: A Historical Pers-
pective. Edwin T. Weiss, Jr. and Rebecca Sturm,
Northern Kentucky University.

1100

1115

1130

1145

ACADEMY AFFAIRS

Beyond Gingerbread and Monumentality? A Chi
Square Analysis of Preservation Consciousness.
Karen Koegler, University of Kentucky.
Modeling Desegregation of Jefferson County
Schools. A William Dakan, University of Louis-
ville.

Spatial Dimensions of Racial Segregation. Mark
Lowry II, Western Kentucky University.

Foreign Medical Graduates in Small Towns;
Pikeville, Kentucky. Matrini Nathalang, Univer-
sity of Kentucky.

Breweries in Louisville: The Passing of an Era.
Dennis Spetz, University of Louisville.
Prehistoric Settlement Patterns in Meade Co.,
Ky. John Hale, University of Louisville.

A Geographic View of Education in Kentucky.
Dennis E. Quillen, Eastern Kentucky University.
Migration from Appalachian Kentucky: 1965-
1970. Claudia Craig, University of Cincinnati.
Election of Sectional Officers.

GEOLOGY
Room 16—Chemistry Bldg.

Roy VanArsdale, Chairman
Peter W. Whaley, Secretary, Presiding

Friday, November 11, 1984

1330

1400

1415

1430

1445

1500

Low Altitude Remote Sensing of Fracture Patt-
erns in Western Kentucky, Related to Coal and
Oil Production. Bruce R. Moore, Department of
Geology, University of Kentucky. Sponsored by
William C. MacQuown.

The Plaeozoic History of the Rockcastle River
Uplife in Eastern Kentucky. Gregory K. Maynor
and William C. MacQuown, Department of
Geology, University of Kentucky.

The Subsurface Lithology, Structure and Strati-
graphy of the Middle and Upper Ordovician
Rocks in the Cumberland Saddle Region of
South-central Kentucky. Gary Jacobs, Depart-
ment of Geology, University of Kentucky. Spon-
sored by William C. MacQuown.

The August 17, 1983 Earthquake and Its Relation-
ship to Past Seismicity of the Area. David Couch,
Department of Geology, University of Kentucky.
Sponsored by William MacQuown.
Post-Pleistocene Deformation Within the Ken-
tucky River Fault System. Roy B. VanArsdale,
Department of Geology, Eastern Kentucky Univer-
sity.

Investigation of Late Tertiary to Recent Move-
ment Along the Kentucky River Faul System in
Northwest Madison and Southeast Jessamine
Counties, Kentucky. J. Macklin Cox, Eastern
Kentucky University. (Sponsored by Roy
VanArsdale)

Coffee Break.

93

1530 Plenary Session.

Saturday, November 12, 1983

0800 Influence of Support Systems on the Occur-
rence and Distribution of Roof Falls in Selected
Coal Mines of Eastern Kentucky. Alan D. Smith,
Coal Mining Administration, Eastern Kentucky
University, and Richard T. Wilson, Department
of Geology, Eastern Kentucky University.
Cost-sensitive Mine Planning of Proposed Pillar
Dimensions: A Case Study. Alan D. Smith, Coal
Mining Administration, Eastern Kentucky Univer-
sity.

The Results of Refraction Studies of Pre-ccambnan
Basement Rock in Southeastern Kentucky. Alex-
ander Zekulin, Department of Geology, Univer-
sity of Kentucky. Sponsored by William C.

0815

0830

MacQuown.
0900 Coffee Break.
0915 Annual Business Meeting.

1030 Selected Aerial Photography of Kentucky Geo-
logical Features. D. K. Hylbert, J. C. Philley, and
M. Esham, Department of Physical Sciences,
Morehead State University.

A Paleo-channel System Above the Springfield
Coal of Western Kentucky. D. A. Williams and A.
D. Williamson, Kentucky Geological Survey.
Fast Foods, Fossils, and You. Peter W. Whaley,
Department of Geosciences, Murray State
University.

Discriminative Analysis of Selected Rock Strength
and Geological Parameters Associated with Basic
Lithologies Derived from the Eastern Kentucky
Coal Field. Alan D. Smith, Coal Mining Adminis-
tration, Eastern Kentucky University, and James
C. Cobb, Kentucky Geological Survey, University
of Kentucky.

Election of Sectional Officers.

1045

1100

1115

1130

PHYSICS SECTION
Room 13—Natural Science Bldg.

Marshall Wilt, Chairman, Presiding
Raymond McNeil, Secretary

Friday, November 11, 1983
1500 Coffee Break.
1530 Plenary Session.

Saturday, November 12, 1983

0800 The Old and the New Danger to High School
Physics. Mohammad Shams, Bardstown High
School.

0815 Experiments for an Undergraduate Nuclear
Laboratory. P. J. Ouseph, University of Louisville.

0830 Internal Positron-Electron Pair Detection. Zol-
tan Gacsi, University of Kentucky.

0845 *6Fe(n,n ) Reaction - New Levels and Lifetimes in

a4 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 45(1-2)

56Fe. J. L. Weil, J. Sa, and S. O'Brien, University of
Kentucky.

Coffee Break.

Annual Business Meeting.

A Capsule History of AAPT Involvement in the
Crisis in Science Education. Jack M. Wilson,
Executive Officer, American Association of Phys-
ics Teachers.

The Society of Physics Students and Sigma Pi
Sigma in Kentucky. Bernard D. Kern, University
of Kentucky.

VUV Emissions from Krypton - A Kinetic Model.
Jerry D. Cook, Eastern Kentucky University.
Autokinetic Effect. Joel Gwinn, University of
Louisville.

Strong Circumstellar Si0 Maser Flux Peaks. F. O.
Clark, University of Kentucky.

An Atari-800 Data-Analysis Program for the Reso-
lution of the Mixed Decay Curves for '°*Ag and
n0Ag. R. M. Brengelman, Morehead State Univer-
sity.

Lunch.

ALow Cost Data Acquisition System for Apple II.
William S. Wagner, Northern Kentucky Univer-
sity.

Thoroughly Modern Millikan. D. L. Humphrey,
Western Kentucky University.

Student Conceptions of Forces and Motion;
Questionnaire Results and Conclusions. Jerry
Moulder, Transylvania University.
Carrier-Mediated Transport in Liquid Membrane
Systems. Terri Dietz, Notre Dame Academy.
(Sponsored by Herb Leopold)

Physics Section Business Meeting.

0900
0915
1030

1045

1100
1115
1130

1145

1200
1300

1315

1330

1345

1400

PHYSIOLOGY, BIOPHYSICS,
AND PHARMACOLOGY SECTION

Strickler Hall— Cochran Auditorium—Room 102

Thomas E. Bennett, Chairman, Presiding
Raymond E. Richmond, Secretary

Friday, November 11, 1983

1300 Changesin Fatty-Acid Content of Pisolithus tinc-
torius Due to Common Soil Phenolic Com-
pounds. J. H. Melhuish, Jr. and Gary L. Wade,
United States Department of Agriculture.
Butylated Hydroxytoluene Inhibits Herpes Sim-
plex Viral Infection of Rabbit Corneas. Thomas P.
Coohill, Blaine R. Ferrell, Donald Carson, and
Bobetta Bentley. Western Kentucky University.
Physiological and Behavior Correlates of Plasma
Caffeine as Determined by HPLC. Andrew Keis-
ker, Brent C. White, and J. Preston Miles, Centre
College.

Levels of Glycolytic Enzymes in the Housespar-
row Flight Muscles and Heart Lactate Dehy-
drogenases. W. W. Farrarand Y.J.K. Farrar. East-
ern Kentucky University.

1315

1330

1345

1400 Comparative Physical and Chemical Properties
of Housesparrow Flight Muscles and Heart Lac-
tate Dehydrogenases. W. W. Farrar and Y.J.K.
Farrar. Eastern Kentucky University.

Motilin and the Interdigestive Migrating Motor
Complex. T. L. Peeters, D. K Pearce, J. Janssens,
and G. Van Trappen. Northern Kentucky Univer-
sity.

A Preliminary Evaluation of the Role of Glyco-
saminoglycans in the Gastrointestinal Ulcera-
tion Associated With Trauma. Karla Guess, and
Charles E. Kupchella. Murray State University.
An Evaluation of Control Tissue in Glycosamin-
oglycan Histochemistry. Bradley T. Bryan, and
Charles E. Kupchella. Murray State University.
Coffee Break.

Plenary Session.

1415

1430

1445

1500
1530

Saturday, November 12, 1983

0800 The Effect of U.V. Radiation on Colchicine Bind-
ing to Microtubules. F. R. Toman and M. Tino
Unlap.

Ultraviolet Action Spectroscopy Using A Tuna-
ble Dye Laser. John Calkins, Ed Colley, and John
Wheeler. University of Kentucky.

Reactivation of Lethally Injured Tetrahymena
pyriformis by Subsequent Doses of Radiation or
Carcinogenic Chemicals. John Calkins, and Ed.
Colley. University of Kentucky.

Fractures and Fracture-Dislocations in a Prehis-
toric Kentucky Indian Population. Elizabeth
Finkenstaedt. University of Kentucky.

Coffee break.

Annual Business Meeting.

A Survey of VonWillebrand’s Disease in Dober-
man Pinschers of Clark and Floyd Counties,
Indiana. Laura M. Howard and Thomas E. Ben-
nett. Bellarmine College.

Election of Sectional Officers.

0815

0830

1045

SCIENCE EDUCATION
Room 102—Life Sciences Bldg.

Dan Ochs, Chairman, Presiding
Jane Sisk, Secretary

Friday, November 11, 1983
1500 Coffee Break.
1530 Plenary Session.

Saturday, November 12, 1983

0815 Using Aerial Photography to Enhance the Teach-
ing of Physical Science. Maurice Esham, David
Hylbert and John C. Philley, Physical Science
Department, Morehead State University.
Report from the Science Advisory Council to the
State Department of Education. Frank Howard,
Science Consultant, State Department of Educa-
tion and Anna Neal, Science Coordinator, Fayette
County Schools.

0830

0900
0915
1030

1045

1100

ACADEMY AFFAIRS

Coffee Break.

Annual Business Meeting.

Analysis of Student Achievement in the Creative
Inquiry Science Program. Donald L. Birdd, Model
Laboratory School, Eastern Kentucky University.
The Effect of Microwave and Heat on Escheri-
chia Coliand Staphylococcus Aureus. Stephanie
Pack, Summit Jr. High School. (Sponsored by
Herb Leopold)

Election of Sectional Officers.

PSYCHOLOGY SECTION
Strickler Hall— Middleton Auditorium

Steve Falkenberg, Chairperson
Terry R. Barrett, Secretary

Friday, November 11, 1983

1300

1315

1330

1345

1400

1415

1430

1500
1530

The Effects of Presentation Time on Delayed
Free Recall. Anne E. Polk, Murray State Univer-
sity. Sponsored by Terry R. Barrett.

Hostility and Self-Esteem in Human Subjects.
Daniel R. Evans, Eastern Kentucky University.
Sponsored by William H. Watkins.

Factors in the Happiness of Lesbians. Starla
Cravens, Murray State University. Sponsored by
Terry R. Barrett.

Manipulation of Subject Imputed Velocity in the
Tau and Kappa Effects. Kelly Layne Hendrick-
son, Murray State University. Sponsored by
Terry R. Barrett.

The Effects of Relevant and Irrelevant Informa-
tion on Organization of Prose Passages. Barney
Beins and Chris Perrino, Thomas More College.
Friendship Patterns in Divorced Men and Women.
Cecilia Edwards, Murray State University. Spon-
sored by Terry R. Barrett.

Religiousity, Locus of Control, and Intelligence.
David Walter, Eastern Kentucky University. Spon-
sored by William H. Watkins.

The Role of Target Muscle in the Efficacy of EMG
Biofeedback Training. Beth Gibson and Jack G.
Thompson, Centre College.

Coffee Break.

Plenary Session.

Saturday, November 12, 1983

0800

0815

0830

0845

Social Facilitation, Social Impairment and Social
Loafing: A Self-Attention Theory Integration.
Brian Mullen, Murray State University.

An Examination of Death Anxiety, Locus of Con-
trol, and Other Variables. William J. Humes,
Eastern Kentucky University. Sponsored by Wil-
liam H. Watkins.

When Age Differences in Free Recall Disappear.
Terry R. Barrett and Brenda B. Estes, Murray
State University.

Social Reinforcement vs. Cooperation-
Competition as a Mediator of Locus of Control.
David Futrell, Murray State University. Spon-

03900
1030

1045

1100

1155

1130

1145

1200

1300

1315

1330

1400

1415

1430

1445

1500

1515

95

sored by Terry R. Barrett.

Coffee Break.

Sex-Role Stereotypes of Four- and Eight-Year
Olds. Sherri L. Farmer, Eastern Kentucky Uni-
versity. Sponsored by William H. Watkins.
Cognitive Patterns of Hardcore and Softcore
Inmates. Frank Kodman, Murray State Univer-
sity.

Generational Stereotyping Across the Adult Life
Span. Mark Thompson, Murray State University.
Sponsored by Terry R. Barrett.

Differences in Self-Asteem Among Only Child-
ren, First Borns, and Later Borns. Tyra J. Taylor,
Murray State University. Sponsored by Terry R.
Barrett.

Attitudes Toward the Aged Among College Stu-
dents. Bill McLaurine, Eastern Kentucky Univer-
sity. Sponsored by Steve Falkenberg.

The Generation of Asch-Type Conformity in a
Line Generation Task. Barney Beins, John Wil-
liam Porter and Patty Hoeper, Thomas More
College.

Lunch.

Interracial Dating on Campus Between Blacks
and Whites. Dagmar R. Rains, Murray State Uni-
versity. Sponsored by Terry R. Barrett.

The Full Moon and Aggressive Behavior. Chet
Overstreet, Murray State University. Sponsored
by Terry R. Barrett.

Children’s Perception of Sex-Roles. Teresa J. Pat-
terson, Eastern Kentucky University. Sponsored
by William H. Watkins.

The Efficacy of Group and Individual Treatment
of Mild and Moderate Depression in College
Students. Jack G. Thompsonand Angela G. Kirk-
land, Centre College.

Apathy Versus Empathy: The Influence of Social
Background. Andrea Galjan, Murray State Uni-
versity. Sponsored by Terry R. Barrett.
Attitudes of Eastern Kentucky University Stu-
dents Toward Seeking Professional Psychologi-
cal Help. Dana Ward, Rebecca Sebastian, and
Steve Falkenberg, Eastern Kentucky University.
Effectiveness of the Horne-Ostberg Morningness-
Eveningness Questionnaire as a Predictor of
Circadian Rhythms in Motor Performance. Mark
V. Lathem, Murray State University. Sponsored
by Terry R. Barrett.

Selection of Intellectually Gifted Children: Do
Achievement Tests Bias Selection? Walton, H.,
Thompson, G., Rogers, P., and Thompson, J. G.,
Centre College.

Juror Decision Making: The Effect of Juror Race
and Gender on Decisions Regarding Defendant
Race and Gender. Cathy J. Crawford, Murray
State University. Sponsored by Terry R. Barrett.
Interactions Among Various Types of Planaria.
Jennifer Fry, Notre Dame Academy. (Sponsored
by Herb Leopold)

96

1530

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 45(1-2)

Election of Sectional Officers.

ZOOLOGY AND ENTOMOLOGY
Room 101—Life Science Bldg.

Gertrude C. Ridgel, Chairperson

Douglas L. Dahlman, Secretary, Presiding

Friday, November 11, 1983 — Tour Meet at 139 Life
Science Building (outside Department of Biology Office).

1300-

1400

Tour of the insect collection, University of Louis-
ville, Charles V. Covell, Jr. presiding.

Friday, November 11, 1983

1300

1315

1330

1345

1400

1415

1430

1445

1500

Distribution of Fishes in the Rolling Fork River.
William L. Fisher, Water Resources Laboratory,
University of Louisville.

Fishes and Their Distribution in the Tradewater
River System, Knetucky. Lewis G. Miller and
Michael M. Mills, Natural Resources and Envir-
onmental Protection Cabinet, Frankfort.
Longitudinal Zonation in the Niche Relations of
Ozasrk Stream Minnows. David L. McNeely,
Dept. Biological and Environmental Sciences,
Morehead State University.

Biological and Water Quality Investigation of the
Ross Creek Drainage—A System Impacted by Oil
Well Brines. Samuel M. Call, Michael R. Mills,
Stephen D. Porter, Robert W. Logan, Ronald E.
Houp, Donald K. Walker and Clifford C.
Schneider, Div. Environ. Services, Dept. Environ.
Protection, Frankfort.

The Life History of the Banded Darter, Etheos-
toma zonale lynceum (Jorden), in Kentucky.
Diana L. Belland Thomas J. Timmons, Hancock
Biological Station, Murray State University.

Age, Growth, and Condition of White Crappie,
Promoxis annularis (Rafinesque) in Kentucky
and Barkley Lakes. Donna L. Parrish, Hancock
Biological Station, Murray State University and
Thomas D. Forsythe, U.S. Tenn. Valley Authority,
Land Between the Lakes, Golden Pond.
Mussell Investigation at Green River Dam Num-
ber and Barren River Dam Number 1. James B.
Sickel, Dept. Biological Sciences, Murray State
University.

Role of Aquatic Surface Respiration in the Adap-
tation of Two Species of Fishes to Headwater
Environments. K Elkins and M. Barton, Div.
Science and Mathematics, Centre College.
Relative Abundance of Mosquito Species Col-
lected in Jefferson County, Kentucky, over a
Fifteen-year Period. Barbar K Bollinger and
Charles V. Covell, Jr., Dept. Biology, University of
Louisville.

1515
1530

Coffee Break.
Plenary Session.

Saturday, November 12, 1983 - Gertrude C. Ridgel, Chair-
person, Presiding.

0800

0815

0830

1045

1100

1115

1130

1145

1200

1215

Stoneflies (Plecoptera) of Kentucky. Donald C.
Tarter and Dean A. Adkins, Dept. Biological
Sciences, Marshall University and Charles V.
Covell, Jr., Dept. Biology, University of Louisville.
Life History Features of Dibusa angata (Ross)
(Hydroptilidae-Trichoptera), in a Central Ken-
tucky Limestone Stream. Ron Houp, Div. Environ.
Services, Dept. Environ. Protection, Frankfort.
The Bluegrass Region Effects on Amphibian and
Reptile Distribution. John MacGregor, Non-game
Wildlife Program, Kentucky Department of Fish
and Wildlife Resources, Frankfort.

Rare Species and Subspecies of Amphibians and
Reptiles in Kentucky. John MacGregor, Non-
game Wildlife Program, Kentucky Department
of Fish and Wildlife Resources, Frankfort.
Coffee Break.

Annual Business Meeting.

Ovipositional Selection and Percentage Eclosion
of the Potato Leaf-hopper on Soybean at Selected
Growth States, A. M. Simmons, L. D. Godfrey and
K. V. Yeargan, Dept. Entomology, University of
Kentucky.

Breeding Success of Starlings (Sturnus vulgaris)
Using Nest Boxes in Warren County, Kentucky.
Daniel J. Twedt, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service,
Denver Wildlife Research Center, Bowling Green.
Consequences of Artificially Inducing Spring
Conditions in Starlings in Winter on the Timing
of Their Breeding Season. Blaine R. Ferrell, Dept.
Biology, Western Kentucky University.

Learning Centers: An Alternative to Auto Tutor-
ial and Computer Assisted Instruction in Ento-
mology. John D. Sedlacek, Dept. Entomology,
University of Kentucky.

Vocal Behavior of Cardinal, Cardinalis cardina-
lis. Gary Ritchison, Dept. Biological Sciences,
Eastern Kentucky University.

Survivable Atmospheric Alternatives for Droso-
phila melanogaster. Gerrit Kloek, Dept. Biology,
Kentucky State University.

Preliminary Investigation of the Allelochemical
Effects of the Terpenes of Liquidambar styraci-
flua L. W. Blaine Early, Ill and Kathy R. Spears,
Dept. Biology, Cumberland College.

Election of Sectional Officers.

ACADEMY AFFAIRS

97

ABSTRACTS OF SOME PAPERS PRESENTED
AT THE ANNUAL MEETING

BOTANY AND MICROBIOLOGY

A taxonomic and evolutionary analysis of Dryophyl-
lum leaf forms from the Eocene of Kentucky. JAY H.
JONES’ and DAVID L. DILCHER, Department of Biology,
Indiana University, Bloomington, IN 47405.

Leaves of the genus Dryophyllum have been thought
to play an ancestral role within the Fagaceae. The
forms occurring in western Kentucky were examined
to assess their taxonomic position and evolutionary
significance. The fagaceous affinities of these fossils
were confirmed, but the fossils could not be allied with
any modern genus. Leaf architectures characteristic of
both the Castaneoideae and Quercoideae were found
among these intergrading forms. The cuticular features
of all forms are closest to those of modern oaks yet
distinct from all extant Fagaceae. The intergradation
and unique complement of foliar characteristics sug-
gests that these leaf forms are part of an extinct inter-
breeding complex from which modern oaks and chest-
nuts may have evolved.

Seed germination patterns in the woodland peren-
nial Maianthemum canadense Desf. (Liliaceae). CYN-
THIA L. WILLIAMS", Division of Science and Mathemat-
ics, Centre College, Danville, KY 40422.

Seed germination and establishment of Maianthe-
mum canadense were studied under laboratory condi-
tions and at four vegetationally different field sites in
northern Wisconsin. Ninety percent of seeds were via-
ble and able to germinate after 6 months stratification.
Rates of germination varied significantly for seed from
different sources, but total germination did not. In the
field, most of the seeds remained dormant for several
years. Seedling success varied significantly from site to
site and was dramatically influenced by weather, local
environmental factors, and microhabitat. No differen-
ces in total percent germination among seeds from
different sources or between seeds of the two varieties
were seen.

ENGINEERING

Cost-sensitive mine planning or projected pillar
dimensions: a case study. ALAN D. SMITH, Coal Mining
Administration, College of Business, Eastern Kentucky
University, Richmond, KY 40475.

The coal-sensitive mine-planning process involves
spatial projection of conditions that will have the
greatest impact on cost and coal quality fora particular
mine site. A comparison of actual piller dimensions,
factors of safety, and pillar dimensions, based on the
theories of Salamon (1968), Salamon and Munro (1967),
Bieniawski (1973), Bieniawski, Rafia, and Newman(1980),
and Skelly, wolgamott, and Wang (1977), which cover a
broad spectrum of mining conditions, was made for a
small coal mine in Whitley County, southeastern Ken-
tucky. A series of five zones, based on topography, were

mapped over the proposed mine layout, and compara-
tive results indicate that the present pillars’ dimen-
sions in initial development of the mine are too large
and, as in zone 2, result in loss of clean coal revenue of
approximately $4,295 per pillar.

Discriminative analysis of selected rock strength and
geological parameters associated with basic lithologies
derived from the eastern Kentucky coal field. ALAN D.
SMITH’, Coal Mining Administration, College of Busi-
ness, Eastern Kentucky University, Richmond, KY 40475,
JAMES C. COBB, Kentucky Geological Survey, Univer-
sity of Kentucky, Lexington, KY 40506, and KOT F.
UNRUG, Department of Mining Engineering, University
of Kentucky, Lexington, KY 40506.

Approximately 1,000 tests were performed on cores
derived from the Eastern Kentucky coal field using
slake durability, direct shear, Brazilian tensile, punch
shear, and ultimate and compressive strength testing.
Statistical analyses were performed on the generated
data. Multiple linear regression, hypothesis testing,
power analysis, stepwise regression, and model build-
ing were the statistical methods applied to the Title III
data base. Statistically significant relationships were
found among the parameters: slake durability, direct
shear test mean and standard deviation, punch shear
stress mean and standard deviation, Brazilian tensile
test mean and standard deviation, and the criterion
gross overburden lithology. No predictive relationships
with the various engineering and geological tests were
found associated with depth of core sampling.

Influence of support systems on the occurrence and
distribution of roof falls in selected coal mines of east-
ern Kentucky. ALAN D. SMITH’, Coal Mining Adminis-
tration, College of Business Eastern Kentucky Univer-
sity, Richmond, KY 40475, and RICHARD T. WILSON,
Department of Geology, Eastern Kentucky University,
Richmond, KY 40475.

The vast majority of 250 measured falls occurred in
the entry of intersection, had spans of approximately
20 feet, portrayed some presence of water before the
fall, occurred less than 30 weeks after initial coal extrac-
tion, located usually greater than 100 feet from the
nearest coal face, gave evidence of cracks in mine roof
before fall, generally presented a stable roof profile
before fall, and showed presence of sloughing of coal
ribs and little evidence of floor heave. Most roofs were
either originally supported by mechanical bolts (57.2%)
or resin bolts (38.8%). Sloughing of the coal ribs were
associated with a greater occurrence of resin roof bolts.

GEOGRAPHY

Kentucky geography textbooks: a historical perspec-
tive. EDWIN T. WEISS, JR.°, Department of History and
Geography, and REBECCA STURM, Steely Library,
Northern Kentucky University, Highland Heights, KY
41076.

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 45(1-2)

98

Kentucky is one of twenty states that has a state-wide
adoption law for textbooks. We examined geogrpahy
textbook adoption since 1914 when the present Ken-
tucky system was instituted. Before WW I, geography
texts in the Commonwealth were oriented toward
physical and “commercial-economic” geography. Dur-
ing and after the war there was an abrupt shift to world
regional geography texts; geography textbooks change
since WW II has been far less frequent. A cluster analy-
sis revealed that Kentucky's list remained separate
until the 13th grouping, indicating a relatively low
degree of similarity with the geography lists of other
adoption states.

The geography section of KAS, 1971-1983. WILLIAM
A. WITHINGTON, Department of Geography, University
of Kentucky, Lexington, KY 40506.

Since 1922 Academy members with spatial research
interests have presented a published papers, notably
Burroughs (1922-1958), Kennamer (1932-ca.1960), and
Schwendeman (1946-ca.1976). Only in 1971 was the
separate Geography Section established in the Academy
of Science. This section's 13-year history was involved:
(1) 15 geographers from eight universities as officers; (2)
160 papers read, only 5 in 1975 but 22 in 1981; and (3) 70
papers of their abstracts printed in eight volumes of
The Proceedings of the Geography Section, KAS, 1973-
1982. A continuing challenge is encouragement of
greater involvement of government and business, as
well as academic, members in section affairs.

Paleozoic history of the Rockcastle River Uplife in
eastern Kentucky. GREGORY K. MAYNOR’® and WIL-
LIAM C. MACQUOWN, Department of Geology, Univer-
sity of Kentucky, lexington, KY 40506.

The Rockcastle River Uplift is a southwest-northeast
trending, doubly-plunging anticline in Pennsylvanian
strata exposed in Laurel, Clay, and Owsley counties of
the Appalachian Plateau of eastern Kentucky, 50 miles
east of the Cincinnati Arch. Subsurface work indicates
that the uplift existed throughout most of the Paleozoic
Era as an area of less subsidence between the Rome
trough to the northwest and the Appalachian Basin to
the southeast. The local extent of the uplift has been
controlled by growth faulting and a complex pattern of
differential subsidence, local erosion, deltaic lobe build-
up, and draping of overlying units.

PHYSIOLOGY, BIOPHYSICS, BIOCHEMISTRY,
AND PHARMACOLOGY SECTION

A survey of vonWillebrand’s Disease in Doberman
pinschers of Clark and Floyd counties, Indiana. LAURA
M. HOWARD and THOMAS E. BENNETT,” Department
of Biology, Bellarmine College, Louisville, KY 40205.

VonWillebrand’s Disease (VWD) is one of the most
prevalent inheritable bleeding disorders present in
humans, swine, and dogs. VWD is an autosomal domi-

nant trait with variable clinical expression. Of the 25
breeds of dogs affected by VWD, the highest incidence
is found in Doberman pinschers. In a two-county ser-
vey, 14 of 42 (33%) purebred Doberman pinschers were
diagnosed as having the VWD gene. The primary pur-
pose of genetic screening is to reduce the frequence of
VWD through selective breeding practices. It is only
through owner awareness and voluntary adherence to
breeding guidelines that canine vonWillerbrand’s Dis-
ease will be eradicated.

Changes in fatty-acid content of Pisolithus tinctorius
due to commong soil phenolic compounds. J. H.
MELHUISH* AND G. L. WADE, Northeastern Forest
Experiment Station, Forest Service, U. S. Department of
Agriculture, Berea, KY 40403.

Mycorrhizal development on surface mine spoils
may be inhibited by compounds produced by some
herbaceous covers. Ferulic, p-coumaric, and vanillic
acids inhibited in vitro growth of Pisolithus tinctorius.
All these compounds are produced by some grasses.
Concomitant effects included an increase in total lip-
ids and the conversion of 18:1 fatty acid to 18:2.
Changes in concentration of phenolic compounds
influenced leakage of materials form the mycelium into
the media. This suggests that allelopathic effects inhibit
P. tinctorius early in ecosystem development. Increas-
ing media nutrient content, although itself toxic to
fungal growth, nullified the effects of ferulic acid.

The effect of U.V. radiation on colchicine binding to
microtubules. F. R. TOMAN* and M. TINO UNLAP,
Department of Biology, Western Kentucky University,
Bowling Green, KY 42101.

Tubulin+H-colchicine complex was prepared from
bovine microtubules. The study included the effect of
U.V. radiation on the stabliity of the tubulin-3H-
colchicine complex and the capacity of the complex to
bind to intact microtubules. The complex was found to
dissociate upon exposure to U.V. radiation, the amount
of dissociation increasing with increased exposure
time. When tubulin-*H-colchicine complex was bound
tointact microtubules prior to U.V. radiation exposure,
it showed no increased stability. Tubulin*H-colchicine
complex exposed to U.V. radiation showed decreased
binding activity to intact microtubules.

ZOOLOGY AND ENTOMOLOGY

Role of aquatic surface respiration in the adaption of
two species of fishes to headwater environments. KIM
ELKINS* and MICHAEL BARTON, Division of Science
and Mathematics, Centre College, Danville, KY 40422.

The role of aquatic surface respiration (ASR) was
investigated for two headwater species, the northern
studfish (Fundulus catenatus) and the striped shiner
(Notropis chrysocephalus). Oxygen consumption and
survival times were measured in respirometers with-
out an air space and compared with those achieved in

ACADEMY AFFAIRS 99

respirometers with an equal volume of water but
including an air space. Fishes not permitted ASR had
mean survival times of 8.4 hours for Fundulus catenatus
and 3.5 hours for Notropis chrysocephalus; those per-
mitted ASR had mean survival times of 68.4 hours and
83.0 hours, respectively. Acquatic surface respiration is
presumed to be an adaptation permitting continued
aerobic metabolism in environments that experience
periodic oxygen deficiencies.

GEOLOGY

Low altitude infrared remote sensing of faults and
fractures, western Kentucky coalfields, Morganfield,
Kentucky. BRUCE R. MOORE, Department of Geology,
University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY 40506.

A low altitude scanning system was developed for
obtaining infrared images from light aircraft. The
images were processed in an analog and digital com-
puter television system for edge enhancement, false
color, and lineament analysis. The area processed is
portion of the Rough Creek fault zone of western Ken-
tucky and adjacent to an active deep mining area. The
study confirmed the existence of previously mapped
faults, corrected their accurate position, and disclosed

extensions and new lineaments. The main method
utilizes the temperature difference between ground-
water from the fractures and the surrounding rock and
soil. Results can predict future mine roof conditions.

PHYSIOLOGY, BIOPHYSICS, AND PHARMACOLOGY

Motilin and the interdigestive migrating motor com-
plex. T. L. PEETERS, J. JANSSENS, and G. VAN TRAPPEN,
Labo Gastroenterology, University of Leuven, Leuven
B-3000, Belgium, and D. K. PEARCE’, Department of
Biological Sciences, Northern Kentucky University, High-
land Heights, KY 41076.

The site of origin of the interdigestive migrating
motor complex (MMC) vs. blood motilin level was
determined in 11 normal subjects. Only MMC’s ongi-
nating in the stomach were preceded by a significant
peak of plasma motilin. Upon infusion of stomatostatin
(supresses the release of motilin), gastric MMC’s were
abolished, but no effect was seen on those originating
in the small bowel. It was concluded that motilin hasa
physiological role in initiation of gastric activity during
the interdigestive cycle but not in regulation of the
small bowel.

100

NEWS AND COMMENTS

70TH MEETING OF
THE KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

The 70th annual meeting of the Kentucky Academy of
Science will be held at the Kentucky State University,
Frankfort on 9-10 November 1984. Additional informa-
tion will be forthcoming in the Newsletter.

MEMBERSHIP

The Membership Committee has been successful in
effecting an appreciable increase in our membership
during 1983. However, the Academy is still far under

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 45(1-2)

what it should be for a state of this size. Let us all
continue to solicit new members and urge all old
members to pay their dues.

CHANGE IN PRINTERS

Because the change in printers has eliminated tech-
nical editing, one of the reasons for cost saving, it is
imperative that authors be extremely careful in reading
and marking proofand in returning same as quickly as
possible to the editor. Since the University of Kentucky
Printing Office has no mechanism for billing authors
for reprints, that task has to be assumed by the editors
office. Henceforth, all billing will come from the Editor
on publication-associated matters.

CONTENTS
Gene frequencies in domestic cat populations of south-central Kentucky. Daniel J. Twedt -.....
Influence of support systems on the occurence and distribution of roof falls in selected coal
mines of eastern Kentucky. Alan D. Smith and Richard T. Wilson............------------------------------ =
Additions to the crayfish fauna of Kentucky, with new locality records for Cambarellus shufeldtii.
Brooks M.) Burr, and /HOrtoniHy EODDS) ed Tes ccsae ese ee
A geotechnical application of computer-generated statistical models of contour, trend and
residuals surfaces. Alan D. Smith, David H. Timmerman and Gayle A. Seymour-...........-----:------------
The fishes of Jessamine Creek, Jessamine County, Kentucky. Michael Barton 2-22-2000
Development of the potato leafhopper on selected legumes. A. M. Simmons, K. V. Yeargan and B.
(= 6: KR se SE SE ee a es ore senere aero aera
Discriminative analysis of selected rock strengths and geological parameters associated with
basic lithologies derived from the eastern Kentucky coal field. Alan D. Smith, James C. Cobb and
B53) GU GA 1 09 or 8 [aera ah ls PEE AOE eA GR AE EMRE pat ECE eo a tasnte sh ces cece,

Age at first pregnancy among females at the Indian Knoll OH 2 site. Elizabeth Finkenstaedt......

Small-stream recovery following surface mining in east-central Kentucky. Branley A. Branson,
Donald. Batehiand: Willie TR! \ Gurtis sen. oes nece sues ese ee eee

NOTES
A priliminary survey of the mussels of Elkhorn Creek, northcentral Kentucky. Ralph W.
TAY LOW a 25528 OE Sg Fa ae es PA SB Se ae Oe

The blacktail redhorse, Maxostoma poecilurum(Catostomidae), in Kentucky, with other
additions to the state ichthyofauna. Brooks M. Burr and Douglas A. Carney ......-...-----------

Observations on Anguispira kochi (Mollusca: Gastropoda) in Kentucky. Branley A.

BraniSOM 225s ssc Be ie ee Te SE rs eS RO en arene a

Notes on various growth features of the paddlefish in the Ohio River. Robert D. Hoyt......
New distributional record for Mustela nivalis in Kentucky. Kerry W. Prather...

An improved method for the preparation of Steryl N-methylcarbamates. Walter T. Smith,
John/M: ‘Pattersoniand|Nabe ell hey Bat Gla Yee: ee ea ere ee

A new Kentucky record for the minnow, Clinostomus elongatus (Kirtland). Robert A.
KRUG PAG oats os ae ECR ce ec eee ace

Characteristics of mine roof falls in selected deep-coal mines of Kentucky: a pilot study.
ONE Y AW OPM LLU ¢ Heteeeiee eee mee oa eee Pe Os ee rg PE occa Pan teem acelin:

Additional Kentucky records of the yellow perch, Perca flavescens (Mitchill). Robert A.
Kuehne’and) Brantley. A: Bra Son secon ee

AGa le my: Agta irs is: 35 cs cog cocoa es Se bese itn Se Gece eee Ete ae! ees St es LE

14

18
30

33

TRANSACTIONS

tree
ye Sh THSON Ay;
DEC 15 (¥34

LIBRARIES

Volume 45
Numbers 3-4
September 1984

Official Publication of the Academy i

The Kentucky Academy of Science
Founded 8 May 1914

OFFICERS FOR 1984

President: Gary W. Boggess, Murray State University, Murray 42071

President Elect: Joe Winstead, Western Kentucky University, Bowling Green 42101

Past President: J. G. Rodriguez, University of Kentucky, Lexington 40506

Vice President: Charles Covell, University of Louisville, Louisville 40292

Secretary: Robert Creek, Eastern Kentucky University, Richmond 40475

Treasurer: Morris Taylor, Eastern Kentucky University, Richmond 40475

Director of the Junior Academy: Herbert Leopold, Western Kentucky University, Bowling
Green 42101

BOARD OF DIRECTORS

Mary McGlasson 1984 Manuel Schwartz 1986
Joe Winstead 1984 Garrit Kloek 1986
Paul Freytag 1985 James Sickel 1987
William Baker 1985 Lawrence Boucher 1987

EDITORIAL BOARD
Editor: Branley A. Branson, Department of Biological Sciences, Eastern Kentucky
University, Richmond 40475
Index Editor: Varley E. Wiedeman, Department of Biology, University of Louisville,
Louisville 40292
Abstract Editor: John W. Thieret, Department of Biological Sciences, Northern Kentucky
University, Highland Heights 41076
Editorial Board: Jerry Baskin, Thomas Hunt Morgan, University of Kentucky, Lexington
40506 1985
James E. Orielly, Department of Chemistry, University of Kentucky,
Lexington 40506 1985
Donald L. Batch, Eastern Kentucky University, Richmond 40475 1987

J. G. Rodriguez, Department of Entomology, University of Kentucky,
Lexington 40506 1984

All manuscripts and correspondence concerning manuscripts should be addressed to the Editor. Authors must be members of the
Academy.

The TRANSACTIONS are indexed in the Science Citation Index. Coden TKASAT.

Membership in the Academy is open to interested persons upon nomination, payment of dues, and election. Application forms for
membership may be obtained from the Secretary. The TRANSACTIONS are sent free to all members in good standing. Annual dues are
$15.00 for Active Members; $7.00 for Student Members.

Subscription rates for nonmenbers are: domestic, $30.00; foreign, $30.00; back issues are $30.00 per volume.

The TRANSACTIONS are issued semiannually in March and September. Four numbers comprise a volume.

Correspondence concerning memberships or subscriptions should be addressed to the Secretary. Exchanges and correspondence relating
to exchanges should be addressed to the Librarian, University of Louisville, Louisville, Kentucky 40292, the exchange agent for the Academy.

RH - Caddisflies in Kentucky — Haag et al.

TRANSACTIONS of the
KENTUCKY
ACADEMY of SCIENCE

September 1984
Volume 45
Numbers 3-4

Changes in the Adult Caddisfly (Trichoptera) Community
of the Salt River, Kentucky

K. H. HAAG, V. H. RESH', and S. E. NEFF

Water Resources Laboratory, University of Louisville
Louisville, KY 40292

ABSTRACT

A series of one-hour light trap collections was made between 4 June—30 July, 1979, from the Salt
River and Brashears Creek, Spencer Co., Kentucky. Since 1971, both streams have received
increased loads of suspended solids as a result of road and dam construction. Comparison of adult
caddisflies collected in 1979 from the Salt River with 1971 Salt River samples revealed an increase in
species richness (mean number of species per collection: 1971 = 24 + 3; 1979 = 35 + 7) and species
diversity (1971 H = 2.0—3.0, X = 2.3 + 0.3;1979H = 2.2—3.2, X = 2.7 + 0.5). Changes also occur-
red in the seasonal pattern of species diversity values, from a mid-summer peak in 1971 to a mid-
summer low in 1979. Major shifts occurred in relative abundance of net-spinning species. Chimarra
obscura declined from 7.0% of all individuals in 1971, to 0.3% in 1979, possibly because C. obscura’s
capture net has small irregular pores that become occluded by the increased suspended solids. Com-
parison of changes in the Salt River fauna between 1971 and 1979 with data on annual variability (AV)
from other localities revealed that fluctuations in the caddisfly community of the Salt River exceed
those expected in the absence of sediment pollution. Comparison of 1979 Salt River and Brashears
Creek collections emphasizes the similarity of sediment influences on the two streams.

INTRODUCTION

During a preimpoundment survey of the por-
tions of the Salt River in Spencer and Anderson
counties, Kentucky, extensive collections of ben-
thic invertebrates were made from 1968 through
1975 (1, 2, 3). As a part of this survey, light-trap
samples were taken during the summer of 1971.
From these collections, the adult caddisfly com-
munity was studied, and a summary of the
adults collected, their relative abundance, and
their diversity was reported (4). From more than
87,000 specimens, 56 species, distributed in 11
families, were identified.

Beginning in 1975, construction of the outlet
works for the Taylorsville Lake impoundment,
along with a visitors’ center and new access

roads, resulted in the removal of much of the
vegetational cover around the damsite, which
exposed soil surfaces to erosion. Within the
drainage basin, 4 sections of secondary road
(Fig. 1; a, b, c, d) and a main highway with a
bridge (Fig. 1, KY. 55) were relocated or
modified. These construction and road projects
contributed to the increased loads of suspended
solids in surface runoff and, ultimately, in the
Salt River and Brashears Creek. During the
1979 light-trap collections described below,
some construction was still in progress. The
dam and its appurtenances were completed in
June 1981, and filling of the reservior began on
January 4, 1983.

‘Department of Entomological Sciences, University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720

102

Oo 5

| |

SCALE-KM
=== foo moads |!

2 pare |

Proposed
SITAYLORS VILLE
ZB por VRESER VO!

ioe J
fos |
he \ ye cos \
\ c b
55 IS y
Figure 1: Map indicating the location of
Brashears Creek, the Salt River, sampling sites
(Station 23 and Station 33), and the proposed
impoundment. Also shown are four sections of
relocated secondary road (a - d) and KY Hwy.
55. See Resh et al. (4) for complete map of
drainage basin.

Benthic sampling from 1968-1975 indicated
that the freshwater sponge Spongilla lacustris
(Linnaeus) was distributed widely in the Salt
River, as was the sponge-feeding caddisfly,
Ceraclea transversa (Hagen). Benthic collec-
tions in 1977-1978 indicated that sponge popula-
tions had been extirpated in the localities where
they had been abundant. Since the sponge
declined drastically, we speculated that abun-
dance of the sponge-feeding caddisfly, along
with other cadissfly populations, might be af-
fected by the factors that reduced sponge abun-
dance. Thus, a study was designed to compare
the caddisfly community of the Salt River, 1979
with the community present in 1971, and to
compare the caddisfly fauna of the Salt River
with the fauna of Brashears Creek, a tributary
stream below the damsite, that had been in-
fluenced by silation from bridge and road con-
struction. In addition, we examined certain
water-quality parameters to ascertain whether
changes in caddisfly community structure may
be related to the effects of dam construction and
road relocation.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Site Description

The Salt River and its tributaries drain 7,563
km? in north-central Kentucky. The basin en-
compasses gently rolling topography of the
outer Bluegrass Region, and the area above the
damsite is characterized by steep ridges and
narrow valleys. Slopes are generally heavily
wooded, but the cleared areas are subject to
heavy erosion and high runoff with little infilta-
tion (5). Water-quality data for the Salt River,
including physicai, chemical, and _ biological

Trans. Kentucky Academy of Science — 45(3-4)

parameters, have been reported (1,2,3, and 6).

Resh et al. (4) reported collecting results from |

a site (Fig. 1, Station 23) on the Salt River which

is located 4.5 km downstream from Taylorsville. —
Here the river is approximately 30 m wide and 4 |
m deep during average flow conditions. A riffle is |
bordered by two pools, and substrate ranges |
from gravel to boulders over bedrock. A second |
site (Fig. 1, Station 33), located on Brashears |
Creek at Taylorsville and approximately 0.8 km |}
from its confluence with the Salt River, also was |
examined in 1979. At this site, the creek is a {
meter or less in depth and averages 20 m in |
width. Several large beds of water willow grow |
in the stream channel on small gravel bars, and |

the stream bed is covered with gravel and small
boulders.

COLLECTION PROCEDURES AND
DATA ANALYSIS

Rather than attempting to encompass the en-

tire season of adult emergence, light-trap collec-

tions in 1979 were confined to the period of |
greatest flight activity, previously determined (4) |

as June through July. Adult insects were sam-

pled biweekly at both Station 23 and Station 33 i
with the type of trap used in the 1971 collections |

— a modified Texas light trap equipped with an
8-watt fluorescent blacklight bulb. The traps
were hung approximately 2.5 m off the ground
on the steam bank and each collection began 20
minutes after sunset and continued for 1 hour.

Insects were collected directly into 70%_ethyl |

alcohol. Species diversity per individual (H) was
calculated using Brillouin’s (7) equation. The
collecting methods and statistical analyses of
species
methods used in the 1971 light trap collections
(4).
between the 2 studies.

Water samples were collected on each sampl-
ing date and analyzed to determine dissolved
solids, suspended solids, and total solids. Other
water quality parameters measured included
pH, conductivity, alkalinity, hardness, and
turbidity.

RESULTS
WATER CHEMISTRY

The Salt River and Brashears Creek flow over
limestones and shales of Clays Ferry and
Calloway Creek Formations (Upper Ordovician)
and alluvium derived from these deposits (8).
The streams drain farm and pastureland and
receive no industrial effluents. They are similar
in type of substrate, water chemistry,
macrophytic vegetation, and benthic fauna (9).

A comparison of water quality data collected |

in 1979 with data collected in 1971 indicates that
changes have occurred in these streams.

diversity outlined here paralleled |

This was done to permit comparison |

Caddisflies in Kentucky — Haag et al.

Krumholz (1) described water chemistry
characteristics of the Salt River at that time and
reported the following ranges: pH (6.3—7.5),
total dissolved solids (40-160 mg/1), and con-
ductivity 100—300 umhos/cm). Data from the
Salt River in 1979 indicate changes in pH
(7.7—8.5), and increases in total dissolved solids
(223—272 mg/1) and conductivity (270—440
umhos/cm.) Data from Brashears Creek in 1979
show pH from 7.4—8.6 conductivity from
340—530, and turbidity from 3.8 to 35 NTU.
Although a continuous profile of water quality is
not available for the seven-year period, these
data and others (6,10) suggest that the changes
in stream conditions are attributable to
increased sediment load.

A comparison of the 1979 water quality data
from Brashears Creek and the Salt River sug-
gest that sediment pollution levels are
somewhat higher in the Salt River. Suspended
solids ranged from 23 to 88 mg/1 in the Salt

103

Brashears Creek (x = 33 mg/1). Turbidity levels
in the Salt River ranged from 16-72 NTU (x =
36). Levels of alkalinity and hardness were quite
similar in the two streams in 1979, ranging from
87 to 172 mg/1 in the Salt River, and 130 to 250
mg/1 in Brashears Creek.

SPECIES RICHNESS

In 1971, the collections made from the Salt
River between 4 June and 30 July yielded 77,458
individuals and 44 species (Table 1). Salt River
collections from this same time period in 1979
yielded 45,784 individuals and 49 species. The
increase in species richness in the Salt River is
reflected by the change in mean number of
species per collection. The 1979 collection from
the Salt River averaged 35 + 7 species per col-
lection, whereas collections from 1971 averaged

River (x = 55 mg/1), and from 5 to 76 mg/1 in 24 + 3 species per collection.

Table 1. Species present, number of inviduals, and their abundance as percentage of total caddisflies collected in
1971 and 1979, from the Salt River and Brashears Creek, Kentucky.

Salt River 1971 Salt River 1979 Brashears Cr. 1979

% of % of % of
Number Individuals Number Individuals Number Individuals

: Collected Collected Collected Collected Collected Collected
|
¢ Family GLOSSOSOMATIDE
2 Protoptila maculata (Hagen) 6,205 7.91 4,207 9.19 4,584 19.72
Family PHILOPOTAMIDAE
; Chimmara obscura (Walker) 5,816 7.41 104 0.23 100 0.40
1 Family POLYCENTROPODIDAE

Nyctiophylax affinis (Banks) 246 0.31 7 0.02 5 0.02
+ Polycentropus cinereus (Hagen) 787 1.00 75 0.16 48 0.20
} Polycentropus sp. 0 0 0 0 3 0.01

Cyrnellus fraternus (Banks) 118 0.15 237 0.52 172 0.70
; Family PSYCHOMIIDAE
_ Cernotina sp. 7 0.01 1 <0.01 0 0
__ Psychomyia flavida (Hagen) 0 0 <0.01 1 <0.01
_ Family HYDROPSYCHIDAE
Hydropsyche betteni Ross 34 0.04 7 0.02 3 0.01
_ Hydropsyche cheilonis Ross 0 0 2 <0.01 2 0.01
1 Hydropsyche dicantha Ross 5 0.01 643 1.40 443 1.90
> Hydropsyche incommoda Hagen 0 0 6 0.01 0 0
| Hydropsyche orris Ross 8 0.01 0 0 0 0
* Hydropsyche simulans Ross 202 0.26 119 0.26 26 0.11
‘ Cheumatopsyche pettiti (Banks) 3.057 3.91 2,349 5.13 942 4.05
| Cheumatopsyche campyla Ross 6,143 7.83 20,684 45.18 5,676 24.42

Cheumatopsyche pasella Ross 9 0.01 33 0.07 0 0
, Cheumatopsyche speciosa (Banks) 9 0.01 0 0 0 0
, Potamyia flava (Hagen) 13 0.02 12 0.03 3 0.01
|| Family HYDROPTILIDAE
| Hydroptila ajax Ross 7 0.01 16 0.03 0 0

continued

104 Trans. Kentucky Academy of Science — 45(3-4)

Table 1 continued

Hydroptila angusta Ross 82 0.10 119 0.26 80 0.34
Hydroptila armata Ross 23,106 29.45 647 1.40 1,044 4.49
Hydroptila consimilis Morton 6 0.01 10 0.02 6 0.02
Hydroptila hamata Morton 0 0 6 0.01 6 0.02
Hydroptila perdita Morton 12,170 15.51 4,503 9.84 6,172 26.56
Hydroptila waubesiana Betten 11 0.01 32 0.07 35 0.15
Hydroptila sp. 0 0 5 0.01 0 0
Ithytricia nr mazon Ross 16 0.02 2 <0.01 2 0.01
Neothrichia okopa Ross 10 0.01 1 <0.01 2 0.01
Neothricia vibrans Ross 0 0 701 1.53 756 3.25
Neotrichia riegeli Ross 0 0 0 0 1 <0.01
Ochrotrichia spinosa (Ross) 7 0.01 1 <0.01 0 0
Ochrotrichia tarsalis (Hagen) 6 0.11 466 1.02 61 0.26
Orthotrichia aegerfasciella (Cham.) 39 0.05 28 0.06 15 0.05
Orthotrichia cristata Morton 12 0.02 18 0.04 2 <0.01
Oxyethira pallida (Banks) 284 0.36 148 .032 146 0.63
Stactobiella palmata (Ross) 62 0.08 25 0.05 1 <0.01
Family LEPTOCERIDAE
Ceraclea ancylus (Vorhies) 822 1.05 120 0.26 22 0.09
Ceraclea transversa (Hagen) 175 0.22 89 0.19 86 0.37
Ceraclea maculata (Banks) 804 1.02 244 0.53 119 0.51
Ceraclea tarsipunctatus (Vorhies) 10 0.01 735 1.61 311 1.33
Ceraclea cancellata (Betten) 15,604 19.89 7,049 15.40 1,781 7.66
Nectopsyche candida (Hagen) 0 0 1 <0.01 0 0
Nectopsyche exquisita (Walker) 723 0.92 1,031 2.25 186 0.80
Nectopsyche sp. 10 0.01 20 0.04 41 0.18 |
Oecetis cinerascens (Hagen) 91 0.12 7 0.02 29 0.12
Oecetis ditissa Ross 24 0.03 105 0.23 4 0.02
Oecetis inconspicua (Walker) 890 1.13 230 0.50 188 0.80
Oecetis nocturna Ross 545 0.69 289 0.63 50 0.22
Oecetis persimilis (Banks) 26 0.03 614 1.34 61 0.26
Triaenodes connatus Ross 2 <0.01 17 0.04 17 0.07
Triaenodes ignitus (Walker) 0 0 13 0.03 8 0.03
Triaenodes melacus Ross 180 0.23 0 0 0 0
Triaenodes tardus Milne 68 0.09 0 0 1 <0.01 |
Triaenodes sp. 0 0 2 <0.01 0 0 |

78,458 45,784 23,240

| River

}

Caddisflies in Kentucky — Haag et al.

SPECIES DIVERSITY

In contrast to species richness, changes in
species diversity values were less pronounced.
Species diversity ranged from 2.0-3.0 (x = 2.3 +
0.3) in 1971 Salt River collections, and 2.2—3.2
(x = 2.7 + 0.5) in 1979 Salt River collections
(Fig. 2). In 1971, the peak in species diversity
values occurred in mid-July, with lowest diversi-
ty found in June. However, in 1979, diversity
estimates were highest in early June and much
lower in mid-July. These peaks are related to the
phenology and population size of selected
species in the community.

a 7
30 Se Ee
ot WS
] < AS hisses aii 7
Fs aa SN BE eee
Pas Van ee /
= =|
= 20 ~ ese d
ac
w
>
a

o—1971 Salt River

© -01979 Salt River

SPECIES

©— 1979 Brasheor's Ck

2

oo+ - ~ + 1 - : .
JUNE

COLLECTION

JULY
DATES

Figure 2: Comparison of species diversity in
1971 and 1979 from the Salt River and in 1979
from Brashears Creek adult caddisfly
collections.

For example, in 1971, early June collections
contained large numbers of Hydroptila perdita,
Cheumatopsyche pettiti, and Ceraclea
cancellata, which raised redundancy and
lowered diversity to 2.0 (Fig. 2). Mid-July collec-
tions showed highest diversity values (3.0)
which reflected peak emergence of the majority
of the species and a decline in numbers of C.
cancellata. Diversity remained relatively con-
stant through July and did not decrease until

| early August when Protoptila maculata became
| more abundant and most other species declined

in numbers.

In 1979, early June collections from the Salt
displayed highest diversity, with an
estimated value of 3.1 (Fig. 2). Diversity values
from mid-June to mid-July were lower, ranging
from 2.2 to 2.4. During this period, Cheumato-
psyche campyla comprised 45 to 55% of each
hour’s catch. Ceraclea cancellata was abundant
in mid-June (19% of total catch), but was sur-
passed in numbers by H. perdita and P.
maculata (emerging earlier than in 1971) in July.
During most of July, these two species con-
tributed 25 to 50% of each hour’s collection and
along with C. campyla, they constituted approx-

105

imately 80% of each hour-long collection. The
end of July brought a return to the higher diver-
sity values seen earlier in the season. Numbers
of C. campyla, P. maculata, and H. perdita
decreased, along with the total number of
individuals collected.

POPULATIONS

In terms of numbers of species present in 1979,
the family Hydroptilidae was highest with 17
species; collections in 1971 contained 14 species.
Although 45% of all caddisflies collected in 1971
were hydroptilids, only 15% were of this family
in 1979. This decrease is due primarily to a
reduced mid-July emergence in the number of
Hydroptila armata. This species had only a brief
emergence peak in 1971 (4). Since the sample
collected on 28 May 1979, contained a very large
number of H. armata, we believe that this
species did not substantially decline in numbers
from 1971 to 1979, but simply emerged earlier in
1979. The second most abundant hydroptilid in
the Salt River in 1979 was Neotrichia vibrans, a
species not found in the 1971 Salt River
collections.

The family Leptoceridae had the second
highest species richness with 16 species in the
Salt River 1979 collections; the 1971 samples
had 15 species. Species of the genus Ceraclea
were numerically dominant in both 1971 and
1979. Within this genus, some changes in
relative abundance of individual species did oc-
cur. Ceraclea tarsipunctata increased markedly
in abundance, from 0.05% of all leptocerids in
1971 to 9.0% in Salt River 1979 collections.
Although the sponge populations declined
dramatically, abundance of adults of the
sponge-feeding caddisfly, C. transversa, were
similar in 1971 and 1979 (0.2%). Changes also
occurred within the leptocerid genus
Triaenodes. Triaenodes melaca and T. tarda
were both present in 1971 collections but were
completely absent in 1979 collections.

In the family Hydropsychidae, we found 9
species in both 1971 and 1979. Numerical
dominance of this family is attributable to the
very high numbers of C. pettiti and C. campyla
collected, although the relative proportions of
these 2 species changed dramatically. In 1971,
the ratio of C. pettiti to C. campyla was 2:1,
whereas, in 1979, the ratio was 9:1.

Examination of the various families of net
spinners reveals other changes in their relative
abundance between 1971 and 1979. Most
notable was a shift in the ratio of Hydro-
psychidae to Philopotomidae, which was less
than 2:1 in 1971 collections, but increased to
more than 229:1 in 1979 collections. The ratio of
Hydropsychidae to Polycentropodidae also in-
creased from 4:1 in 1971 to 75:1 in 1979.

106 Trans. Kentucky Academy of Science — 45(3-4)

COMPARISON OF SALT RIVER AND
BRASHEARS CREEK FAUNAS

Brashears Creek collections between 4 June
and 30 July contained 23,240 individuals and 44
species (Table 1). The caddisfly fauna of the Salt
River and Brashears Creek in 1979 shared 41
species in common; 3 were present only in the
Salt River and 3 were present only in Brashears
Creek (Table 1). In most cases these unique
species were represented by only 1 or 2 in-
dividuals, with the exception of Cheumato-
psyche pasella which was represented by 33
individuals in the Salt River.

Species diversity estimates in Brashears
Creek (range = 1.9—3.3, X = 2.4 + 0.7), were
slightly lower than those of the Salt River,
although the pattern of these estimates showed
the same general trend (Fig. 2). Diversity values
were approximately 3.0 in early June but fell in
late June to about 2.0 due to the numerical
dominance of C. campyla, H. perdita, and P.
maculata. The lowest diversity value of the
season, 1.9, occurred when P. maculata and H.
perdita comprised 58% and 19%, respectively,
of the sample. Diversity values again rose at the
end of July and returned to approximately 3.2,
as total catch declined in numbers.

Individuals of the caddisfly family Hydro-
ptilidae were more common in Brashears Creek
(36% of all individuals collected) than in the Salt
River (15%), and N. vibrans was also abundant
in Brashears Creek collections. As in the Salt
River, 15 species of leptocerid caddisflies occur-
red in Brashears Creek, making it the second
highest family in species richness.

Examination of the net-spinning species in
Brashears Creek in 1979 shows that the ratio of
C. pettiti: C. campyla was 6:1 Hydropsychidae:
Philopotamidae was 71:1, and Hydropsychidae:
Polycentropodidae was 75:1. Although each of
these ratios was higher than 1971 Salt River col-
lections, they were lower than 1979 Salt River
collections.

Protoptila maculata, a glossosomatid, was
abundant in 1979 Brashears Creek collections,
where it contributed almost 20% of the season’s
total. In the Salt River, it was also common
(9.2%) and its relative abundance changed very
little from 1971 to 1979.

DISCUSSION

Within the Salt River drainage basin, paterns
of land use and population distribution did not
change appreciably from 1971 to 1979. The only
significant activities to occur over the 8 year
period were those associated with construction
of the proposed dam _ outlet-works, visitors’
center with access roads, bridges, and the con-
struction of Kentucky State Hwy. 55. Beginning

in 1975, these activities generated chronic low
levels of suspended solids which eventually
entered the Salt River.

In 1979, both Brashears Creek and the Salt
River were characterized by moderate levels of
suspended solids and turbidity, with levels in the
Salt River usually higher than those in
Brashears Creek. The caddisfly fauna was
similar in these 2 streams, and species diversity
values were comparable at the 2 sites with both
communities demonstrating a mid-season low
in species diversity. Four species, P. maculata,
C. campyla, H. perdita, and C. cancellata,
made up approximately 70% of the season’s
total at both sites. Ratios among the various net
spinners suggest that the fauna of Brashears
Creek and the Salt River in 1979 is more similar
than that of the Salt River in 1971 and 1979.

An evaluation of the Trichoptera community
in the Salt River based solely on collections in
1979 does not indicate a greatly stressed com-
munity; however, a comparison of the caddisfly
community in 1979 with that present in 1971
does suggest that changes have occurred.

Ten species were collected in 1979 from the
Salt River which were not found in collections in
1971 (Table 1). Included among these is N.
vibrans, which was found in_ substantial
numbers (1.5% season’s total in 1979), and is
apparently a new state record for Kentucky (11,
12). The remaining 9 species collected from the
Salt River in 1979 that were absent in 1971 col-
lections, were present in very low numbers, often
as single specimens. Variations in emergence
synchrony may be responsible for failure to col-
lect these species in 1971; alternatively, these
rare species may be inhabiting a marginal
habitat in the collecting area or may represent
immigrants from other breeding habitats, e.g.,
Crichton (13).

We found that species diversity did not change
greatly from 1971 to 1979 (Fig. 2), although the
season patterns of species diversity values is ap-
preciably altered. For example, a midsummer
low was present in 1979 Salt River collections,
whereas in 1971 highest diversity values occur-
red in midsummer. The very large numbers of C.
campyla coliected in 1979 raised redundancy
and consequently lowered diversity at this time,
even though in both years the number of total
species collected was highest in midsummer.
Sorensen et al. (14) and others have noted that
benthic communities are often maintained
through succession of species; individual taxa
may differ as sediment pollution persists, but
estimates of diversity remain constant. We
would expect this type of response in the
benthos to be reflected in light-trap collections
of adults (15).

Although we did not see a decrease in species
diversity values in the Salt River, and species

Caddisflies in Kentucky — Haag et al.

‘richness in fact increased, major shifts in

species composition and abundance were
observed within several families from 1971 to
1979. For example, the underlying reason for the
dramatic change in the ratio of hydropsychids
to philopotamids (2:1 to 299:1) is the decline in
abundance of Chimarra obscura, from 7.0% of
the season’s total in 1971 to less than 0.3% in
the Salt River in 1979. Turbidity and suspended
solids levels in the Salt River frequently exceed
the upper limits of tolerance observed for this
species (2.5 to 51 NTU: 178—198 mg/1 total
solids) that were reported by Harris and
Lawrence (16).

Chimarra obscura has a small net mesh size
(Fig. 3). In addition, near the middle and
posterior end of the net shelter, the mesh is
covered with a sticky, gelatinous secretion that
apparently aids in capturing small particles. The
strands of the net, rather than forming a
regularly arranged network, appears to serve as
a support structure for the gelatinous material.
This secretion is also susceptible to occlusion of
fine, suspended sediments, which probably
accounts for this species’ decline in the Salt
River.

Figure 3: Chimarra obscura collecting net, inner
surface at posterior end. Roughness of some
strands due to dried secretion. 2000X.

Hydroptila perdita also showed a decline in

relative abundance, from 15% in 1971 to 9% in

1979. Although little is known about the
ecological requirements of species in the genus,
it is generally thought that larvae feed on at-
tached diatoms as well as on the contents of
algal cells (17). Shading and abrasion of
exposed surfaces by suspended solids may be
particularly detrimental to larvae dependent on
‘periphyton food sources.

Ceraclea cancellata appears to be propor-
tionately less abundant in Salt River 1979 collec-
tions (15% of total catch) than in 1971 (20%).

107

This species showed a 1979 emergence peak in
June, similar to the peak seen in 1971, indicating
that a difference in sampling schedules is not the
source of the apparent change in abundance.
Data on tolerance of this species to suspended
solids are not available (16), but Resh and
Unzicker (18), in their discussion of the genus
Ceraclea (= Arthripsodes), suggested that some
species in the genus may be more tolerant of
pollution effects than others.

Although the freshwater sponge Spongilla
lacustris is fairly pollution tolerant, it is in-
tolerant of sediment pollution (19). Thus, silta-
tion changes are probably responsible for its
decreased abundance. The similarity in relative
abundance of C. transversa in 1971 (0.22%) and
1979 (0.19%) probably also reflects the ability of
this species to function as a detritus feeder (20).

Flynn and Mason (21) observed a decrease in
the species number of hydropsychids in
response to nonpoint sources of sediment pollu-
tion. In contrast, the number of species in the
Salt River did not decline from 1971 to 1979,
although relative proportions of species of
Cheumatopsyche varied. For example, C. cam-
pyla was more abundant in 1979 than in 1971,
whereas C. pettiti remained relatively constant.
However, patterns of seasonal emergence for
those 2 species remained similar in 1979 to those
seen in 1971, with C. campyla more abundant
earlier in the summer than C. pettiti.
Cheumatopsyche spp. had been found in condi-
tions of relatively high suspended solids (22).
Thus, the population of C. campyla may be
expanding in numbers to fill habitat vacated by
other, less sediment-tolerant, net-spinning
species.

An examination of observed changes in the
caddisfly community from 1971 to 1979 raises
the question of what can be expected in terms of
temporal variability in the absence of perturba-
tions. Wolda (23), in research with tropical in-
sects, used a parameter called Annual Variabili-
ty (AV) to measure fluctuation in numbers of in-
dividuals from one year to the next. McElravy et
al. (24). applied this statistic to other data on
temperate insect communities and found a
range of values for AV from 0.080 to 0.325. Using
AV to measure fluctuations seen in the Salt
River from 1971 to 1979, we obtained a value of
0.925, which is several times greater than the
maximum value reported above. The magnitude
of this value suggests that, even though the data
are not for successive years, the changes exceed
those expected in the absence of increased
siltation.

Further changes are anticipated once the
Taylorsville project is completed and flow
augmentation for improving potable water
quality if begun. Although construction-related

108

sediment generation will abate, suspended
material will still enter the streams as runoff
after precipitation. In the Salt River, as stream
flow is regulated, the scouring effects of high
flow conditions will no longer be available to
help remove this accumulated material from the
stream bed. Consequently, sediment may begin
to fill in and cover over much of the benthic
habitat. Continuing studies will examine further
change in the Salt River caddisfly community.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We wish to thank P. Barker, D. Crawford, T.
R. Haag, L. McCoy, F. Smith, and D. Sullivan
for their assistance in the collection and sorting
of samples. Scanning electron micrographs
were produced by Mr. Robert Apkarian, Univer-
sity of Louisville Graduate School Electron
Microscope Facility. This work was supported in
part by the U.S. Department of the Interior, Of-
fice of Water Resources Research, Project No.
B-035-KY.

LITERATURE CITED

1. Krumholz, L.A. 1971. A preliminary ecological
study of areas to be impounded in the Salt River
basin of Kentucky. Rep. No. 43, Water
Resources Res. Inst., Univ. Kentucky.

2. Krumholz, L. A. and S. E. Neff. 1972. A
preliminary ecological study of areas to be
impounded in the Salt River basin of Kentucky.
Rep. No. 48, Water Resources Res. Inst., Univ.
Kentucky.

3. Neff, S. E. and L. A. Krumholz. 1973. A
detailed investigation of the sociological,
economic, and ecological aspects of proposed
reservoir sites in the Salt River Basin of
Kentucky. Rep. No. 67, Water Resources Res.
Inst., Univ. Kentucky.

4. Resh, V. H., K. H. Haag, and S. E. Neff. 1975.
Community structure and diversity of caddisfly
adults from the Salt River Kentucky. Environ.
Entomol. 4:241-253.

5. Miller, A. C. 1976. A water chemistry study of
the Salt River in Anderson and Spencer
counties, Kentucky. Ph.D. dissertation,
University of Louisville.

6. Miller, A. C., L. A. Krumholz, and S. E. Neff.
1977. Assessment of the water quality in the
Salt River prior to its impoundment in Anderson
and Spencer counties, Kentucky. Rep. No. 106,
Water Resources Res. Inst., Univ. Kentucky.

7. Brillouin, L. 1962. Science and Information
Theory, 2nd Edition. Academic Press, New
York.

8. Peterson, W. L. 1977. Geologic map of the
Taylorsville Quadrangle, Spencer and Shelby
counties, Kentucky. U.S.G.S. Map GQ-1433.

9.

10.
11.

12.

13.

14.

15.

16.

17.

18.

19.

20.

21.

24.

Trans. Kentucky Academy of Science — 45(3-4)

Woodling, J. D. 1971. Studies on the water
chemistry and bottom fauna of Brashears
Creek, Spence and Shelby counties, Kentucky.
M.S. thesis, University of Louisville.

Jennings, D. E., pers. comm.

Resh, V. H. 1975. A distributional study of the
caddisflies of Kentucky. Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci.
36:6-16.

Blickle, R. L. 1979. Hydroptilidae (Trichoptera)
of American north of Mexico. New Hamp.
Agric. Exp. Stn. Bull. 509.

Crichton, M. I. 1960. A study of captures of
Trichoptera in a light trap near Reading,
Berkshire. Trans. R. Entomol Soc. Lond.
112:319-344.

Sorensen, D. L., M. M. McCarthy, E. D.
Middlebrooks, and D. B. Porcella. 1977.
Suspended and dissolved solids effects on
freshwater biota: a review.

EPA-600/3077-Q42: 1-65.

Swegman, B. G., W. Walker, and J. L. Sykora.
1981. The adult Trichoptera of Linesville Creek,
Crawford County, Pennsylvania, with notes on

their flight activity. Trans. Amer. Entomol. Soc.
107:125-147.

Harris, T. L. And T. M. Lawrence. 1978.
Environmental requirements and pollution
tolerance of Trichoptera. Natl. Tech. Inf.
Service PB-29-321, Report No. EPA
600/4078-063 (1978): 1-309.

Wiggins, G. B. 1977. Larvae of the North
American caddisfly genera (Trichoptera). Univ.
Toronto Press, Toronto, Canada.

Resh, V. H. and J. D. Unzicker. 1975. Water
quality monitoring and aquatic organisms: the
importance of species identification. J. Water
Pollut. Control Fed. 47:9-19.

Harrison, F. W. 1974. Sponges, P. 29-66. In:
Hart, C. W., Jr. and S. L. H. Fuller (eds.),
Pollution Ecology of Freshwater Invertebrates.
Academic Press, New York.

Resh, V. H. 1976. Life histories of coexisting spe
cies of Ceraclea caddisflies (Trichoptera:
Leptoceridae): The operation of independent
functional units in a stream ecosystem. Can.
Entomol. 108:1303-1318.

Flynn, K. C. and W. T. Mason (eds.). 1978. The
freshwater Potomac: Aquatic communities and
environmental stresses. Proc. Sympos. Jan.
1977. Interstate Comm. Potomac River Basin.

. Travis, S. C. 1979. Environmental preferences of

selected freshwater benthic macroinvertebrates.
Mass. Dept. Environ. Qual. Engineering,
Westborough Div. of Water Poll. Control, Publ.
No. 10795-103-50-8078-CR (1978): 1-93.

Wolda, H. 1978. Fluctuations in abundance of
tropical insects. Am. Nat. 112:1017-1045.

McElravy, E. P., H. Wolda, and V. H. Resh.
1982. Seasonality and annual variability of
caddisfly adults (Trichoptera) in a “non-
seasonal” tropical environment. Arch.
Hydrobiol. 94:302-317.

RH - Mine-Roof Falls in West Virginia— Smith

Geometry and Physical Characteristics of
Mine-Koof Falls: A Case Study In
The Upper Freeport Coal Seam

Alan D. Smith

Coal Mining Administration, College of Business
Eastern Kentucky University, Richmond, KY 40475

ABSTRACT

An initial data based in the Upper Freeport Coal Seam (Pennsylvanian age) was established,
describing basic geometric and physical characteristics of coal-mine roof failure areas. Multiple
linear regression analysis techniques were employed without correcting the decision criteria for multi-
ple comparison, in order to maximize the possibility of detecting significant relationships. A total of
21 mine-roof falls were measured for 15 geologic or engineering parameters associated with roof
failure. The averages for the parameters studied were: thinnest immediate roof layer is (0.427 cm)
maximum roof height about roof edge or top of surface originally cut (2.86 m), height to second

horizon or break-plane above roof lie (1.83 m), third horizon (p. 65 m), fourth horizon (0.41 m), length
| of roof bolts used during resupport (1.75 m), span of mine entry (5.59 m), and vertical opening of entry
(2.71 m). The majority of falls showed no presence of water, occurred mainly in intersections or en-
tries, used resin bolts during resupport, dome-shaped roof falls, no presence of cracks in roof top after
fall occurrence, and showed presence of rib sloughing. In terms of the hypothesis testing and model
building, only 6 out of a total of 45 hypotheses were found to be statistically significant. Both
parameters, presence of water and height to second break-horizon of roof strata were found to be
significant in predicting maximum roof height. Location of falls in intersections and length of roof
bolts accounted for a significant amount of explained variance in discriminating dome-shaped roof

falls.

INTRODUCTION

Roof control is one of the most important
| phases of underground mining and, coupled
| with mine ventilation requirements, is a major
| determinant of width of working spaces, opera-

j tions at the mining face, and eventual sub-

: sidence. Mine roof control is a nonending task
| that must be continued for the life of the mine.
| Hence, ground control measures may frequently
| be the largest single cost item in the develop-
) ment and actual production of underground coal
|mines (1). In order for mine roof predictive
| models to be effective, in-situ studies associated
‘with the geology of the immediate roof and
‘floor, strength properties, and stress states are
needed as basic inputs. The basic thrust of this
| study is to examine the geometry and associated
‘failure parameters of roof falls in a West Virginia
coal mine, mining in the Upper-Freeport Coal
‘Seam (Pennsylvanian age), to establish such a
‘basic data bank and to determine if predictive
relationships exist between roof fall geometry
‘and associated mine roof failure parameters.

109

GEOMETRY OF ROOF FALLS

The basic geometry or shape of a roof fall
depends greatly upon the stresses placed on the
roof and floor (2,3,4). Laminar and dome-
shaped falls are basically the result of tensile
stresses and associated geological features or
deficits in the roof strata (Fig. 1). These
geometries are characterized by low horizontal
stresses, incompetent floor and ribs as com-
pared to the mine roof, jointed roof and ribs, and
beds in the roof sagging independently of one
another. A major difference between laminar
and dome-roof falls is the location of the in-
tersection of the separation planes. If the
separation planes intersect on a bedding plane,
laminar roof falls may develop; if separation
planes intersect inside a bed, a dome-shaped
roof fall geometry may develop as a result of
high compressional stresses (Fig. 1). They are
usually characterized by high horizontal
stresses, which are common in the Eastern Ken-
tucky Coal Field, large amounts of overburden,
thin immediate roof beds, and very competent
floor and ribs as compared to the immediate
roof. Under these conditions the separation

110

planes usually will intersect at some point in the
immediate roof and form arched-shaped roof
falls.

1. Basic Geometrics Associated with Common
Roof Falls, in Appalachian Coal Mines. Note,
the Letters A, B, and C Denote Dome, Arch,
and Laminar Shaped Roof Falls, Respectively.
Modified from Caudle (2).

METHODS

A total of 21 roof falls were described at a
particular mine site in the Upper Freeport Coal
Seam located in West Virginia. Propriety pur-
poses prevent disclosure of the exact location of
the mine site. Basic descriptive statistics,
relative, absolute, and cumulative frequencies
and multiple linear regression analysis techni-
ques were utilized to describe the relationship of
selected parameters associated with mine roof
falls with the size and geometry of coal mine
roof failures.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Tables 1 and 2 summarize the descriptive
statistics and frequency counts, relative frequen-
cies and cumulative frequencies, respectively,
for selected engineering or geological
parameters studied. Figures 2 through 8
graphically portray distributions of selected
variables. As illustrated in Table 1, the averages

Trans. Kentucky Academy of Science — 45(3-4)

TABLE 1. Descriptive Statistics for Selected
Mine Roof Fall Parameters Studied.

Parameter Mean Variance StandardKurtosis Skewness
Deviation

THINLAY 0.168 0.045 0.212 12.542 3.337
(inches)
N = 21
ROOF HT 9.390 69.166 8.317 5.243 2.316
(feet)
N = 21
STRATA 2 6.020 38.563 6.210 13.771 3.544
(feet)
N = 19
STRATA 3 2.144 0.639 0.799 0.437 0.559
(feet)
N = 10
STRATA 4 1.340 0.003 0.057 0.000 0.000
(feet)
N = 2
LENGTHA 68.842 29.474 5.429 -0.718 -1.170
(inches)
N = 19
SPAN 18.340 3.619 1.902. 1.593 1.156
(feet)
N = 21
OPENVER 8.884 1.155 1.075 -0.525 -0.651
(feet)
N = 21

Note. N denotes number of valid statistics used in
arriving at the stated descriptive statistics.

TABLE 2. Frequency Counts, Relative Frequencies,
and Cumulative Frequencies for the
Engineering or Geological Parameters
Associated with Mine Roof Falls Studied.

a
Parameter Absolute Relative Adjusted
Label or Frequency Frequency Cumulative
Value (%) Frequency

(%)

ana: 4 3 rh
Adjusted cumultive frequency for the exclusion of missing cases or data

values.

WATER CONDITION

YES 7 33.3 33.3
NO 14 66.7 100.0
TOTAL 21 100.0

Continued)

Mine Roofs in West Virginia — Smith

Table 2 continued

LOCATION OF MINE ROOF FALL

ENTRY 8 38.1 38.1

CROSSCUT 3 14.3 52.4

INTERSECTION 10 47.6 100.0
TOTAL 21 100.0

TYPE OF ROOF SUPPORT SYSTEM BEFORE
ROOF FALL OCCURRENCE

RESIN BOLTS 19 90.5 90.5
NOT SUPPORTED 2 9.5 100.0
TOTAL 21 100.0

TYPE OF ROOF SUPPORT SYSTEM AFTER
INITIAL ROOF FALL OCCURENCE

RESIN BOLTS 12 57.1 57.1

CRIBBS 3 14.3 71.4

CANOPY 6 28.6 100.0
TOTAL 21 100.0

SHAPE OR GEOMETRY OF MINE ROOF FALLS

ARCH 4 19.0 19.0

DOME 11 54.4 71.4

LAMINAR 6 28.6 100.0
TOTAL 21 100.0

PRESENCE OF CRACKS IN ROOF TOP

YES 5 23.8 23.8

NO 16 76.2 100.0
TOTAL 21 100.0

PRESENCE OF SLOUGHING OF COAL RIBS

YES 16 76.2 76.2
NO 5 23.8 100.0
TOTAL 21 100.0

for the parameters studied are: thinnest im-
mediate roof layer is 0.168 in. (0.427 cm), max-
imum roof height (9.39 ft, 2.86 m), height to
second roof horizon or break-plane above the
roof line (6.02 ft., 1.83 m), vertical height to
fourth roof horizon or break-plane above the
roof line (1.34 ft., 0.41 m), length of roof bolts
after the roof fall (68.84 in., 1.75 m) span of mine
entry (18.34 ft., 5.59 m), and vertical opening of

111

entry (8.88 ft., 2.71 m). Presented in Table 2 and
graphically presented in Figures 2 through 8 are
the frequencies of selected parameters studied in
association to roof falls. The majority of falls
showed no presence of water (66.7 per cent), oc-
currence in intersections (47.6 per cent) and en-
tries (38.1 per cent), used resin bolts after roof
fall (57.1 per cent), dome-shaped roof falls (54.4
per cent), no presence of cracks in roof top after
fall occurrence (76.2 per cent), and presence of
rib sloughing (76.2 per cent).

&y Tey

A
a)
3
Sl
Ss

INTERSECTION

2. Graphically Depicted Distribution of Location of
Mine Roof Falls Studied (Entry, Crosscut, and
Intersection).

DOME
MN

3. Graphically Depicted Distribution of Geometry
of Mine Roof Falls Studied (Dome, Arch, and
Laminar Shaped).

112 Trans. Kentucky Academy of Science — 45(3-4)

4. Graphically Depicted Distribution of Presence of
Cracks in Mine Roof Falls Studied After Initial
Failure (Yes or No).

5. Graphically Depicted Distribution of Sloughing
of Coal Ribs Associated with Mine Roof Falls
Studied (Yes or No).

Table 3 is the explanatory summaries of the
full and restricted regression models, with ac-
companying regression coefficients and related
hypotheses the models test, for the statistically
significant relationships found in the present
study. Summaries of the hypothesis testing
among selected roof-iall parameters and the
criterion variables of maximum roof fall height,
height to second horizon from roof line, and

TABLE 3. Summary of Results of Selected
Hypothesis, Illustrating Basic Multiple
Linear Regression Terminology, Testing
for Relationships Among the Mine Roof
Fall Parameters Studied.

Explanation Models df R*
of Models n/

df

d

Alpha F-Ratio Prob. Sing.

Model 1:

ROOFHT =
22.22500U Full
-7.70071
WATER + E

0.20005
1/19 0.05 4.75155 0.0421 S*
Model 99: Restr. 0.0
ROOFHT =

22.22500U

+E

Hypothesis:

The variable presence of water accounted for a statistically significant
amount of variance in predicting maximum roof fall height.

Model 2:

ROOFHT =
2.94592UU Full
+ 1.10594
STRATA 2 + E

0.05131

1/17 0.05332 1710455 0.0000 S**
Model 99: Restr. 0.0

ROOFHT =
2.04592U
+E

Hypothesis:
The variable height to second horizon of roof strata accounted for a

statistically significant amount of variance in predicting maximum roof
fall height.

Model 3:

STRATA 2 =
0.8895U Full
+ 1.53267
STRATA 3 + E

0.39433,

1/8 0.05 5.20851 0.0519 S*
Model 99:

STRATA 2 = Restr. 0.0
0.88895U
+E

Hypothesis:
The variance height to third horizon of roof strata accounted for a

statistically significant amount of variance in predicting height to
second horizon of roof strata.

Mine Roofs in West Virginia — Smith 113

Table 3 continued

Model 4:

SHAPE =
7.4545U Full
+ 42727
LOCATION + E

0.27802

1/19 0.05 7.31639 0.0140 S**
Model 99:

SHAPE = 0.0

0.74545U,
+ E Restr.

Hypothesis:

The variance location of roof fall in intersections accounted for a
statistically significant amount of variance in predicting dome-shaped
roof falls.

Model 5:

SHAPE =
0.042866U Full
-1.37143
LENGTHA + E

0.21039

1/17 0.05 4.52961 0.0482 S**
Model 99:

SHAPE = 0.0
0.04286U
+ E Restr.

Hypothesis:

The variable length of roof bolts after the initial roof fall for resupport
accounted for a statistically significant amount of variance in predicting
dome-shaped roof falls.

* Significant at the 0.05 level for a two-tailed, nondirectional test.

** Significant at the 0.01 level for a two-tailed nondirectional test.

shape or geometry of mine-roof falls studied are
found in Table 4. As evident in the tables, only 6
hypotheses out of a total of 45 were found to be
Statistically significant for a two-tailed, non-
directional test at 0.05 or 0.01. Both parameters,
presence of water and height to second break
horizon of roof strata above the roof edge were
found to be statistically significant in predicting
maximum roof height. However, no corrections
were made to correct he decision criteria for
multiple comparisons, since it was decided to
maximize the possibility of detecting difference if
they occurred. The parameter, presence of
water, accounted for 20 per cent of the explained
variance (p = 0.0421) in discriminating max-
imum roof height above the roof line. In general,
a greater presence of water was associated with
higher roof falls, as is to be expected, due to the
greater hydrostatic pressure causing roof layers
to separate and eventually fail. In addition,
height above the roof line to the second horizon-
tal strata of the roof fall accounted for over 95
per cent of the explained variance in predicting

maximum roof fall height (p = 0.0000). Thus,
higher vertical heights to the second roof strata
were associated with greater overall roof
heights. However, there appeared to exist no
statistically significant relationships in
discriminating or predicting maximum _ roof
height and the following variables: location of
the roof fall, vertical height to third roof strata in
mine roof, spacing of the bolts before the fall,
type of support before fall, spacing of the bolts
after the fall, type of support after fall, length of
bolts before the fall, length of bolts after the fall,
span of mine entry, cracks, sloughing of coal
ribs, vertical opening of the entry, and thickness
of thinnest, immediate, mine roof-rock layer.

6. Graphically Depicted Distribution of Presence of
Water Associated with Mine Roof Falls Studied
(Yes or No).

a

i) \

\ Oy

7. Graphically Depicted Distribution of Type of

Roof Support System in Use Before Failure of
Mine Roof Falls Studied (Resin Bolts and Non-
Supported or Failed during Cutting).

114 Trans. Kentucky Academy of Science — 45(3-4)

Table 4 summarizes F-ratios, probability
levels, R? for both full and restricted models,
degrees of freedom-numerator, degrees of
freedom-denominator, and significance for each
research hypothesis testing discriminative rela-
tionship among height to second horizon or
break-plane from roof line and associated
parameters. Of the 15 hypotheses tested, only 2
were found to be statistically significant. Again,
maximum roof height above roof line was found
to be significant. However, the height to the
third break-plane or roof rock strata was found
to account for a statistically significant amount
of explained variance (39.43 per cent), in predict-
ing height to second strata of mine roof fall (p =
0.0519). Both variables were found to be
positively correlated. The other parameters,
similar to those tested with the other dependent
variables, were also not found to be statistically
significant.

TABLE 4. Summary of F-Ratios, Probability Levels,
R? for Both the Full and Restricted Models,
Degrees of Freedom-Numerator, Degrees
of Freedom Denominator, and Significance
for Each Research Hypothesis Testing
Discriminative Relationships Among
Selected Failure Parameters and Geometry
of Mine Roof Falls.

Independent R? R? df F Proba- Sig.

Variable(s) f r bility
Dependent Variable = MAXIMUM ROOF FALL

HEIGHT
WATER 0.20005 0.0 1/19 4.75155 0.0421 S*
LOCATION 0.04062 0.0 1/19 0.80437 0.3810 NS
STRATA2 0.95131 0.0 1/17 332.17104 0.0000 S**
STRATA3 0.32173 0.0 1/8 3.7943 0.0873 NS
SPACINB NOT TESTABLE DUE TO INVARIANCE
SUPPORB 0.06475 0.0 1/19 1.31540 0.2657 NS
SPACINA NOT TESTABLE DUE TO INVARIANCE
SUPPORA 0.14715 0.0 1/19 3.27835 0.0860 NS
LENGHTA 0.00020 0.0. 1/17 0.00338 0.9543. NS
LENGTHB NOT TESTABLE DUE TO INVARIANCE
SPAN 0.00175 0.0 1/19 0.03330 0.8571 NS
CRACKS 0.02283 0.0 1/19 0.44382 0.5133 NS
SLOUGH 0.00001 0.0 1/19 0.00017 0.9897 NS
OPENVAR 0.10162 0.0 1/19 2.14919 0.1590 NS
THINLAY 0.00014 0.0 1/19 0.00274 0.9588 NS

Dependent Variable = HEIGHT TO SECOND BREAK
HORIZON ABOVE ROOF LINE

WATER 0.08409 0.0 1/17 1.56082 0.2285 NS
LOCATION 0.05477 0.0 1/17 0.98511 0.3349 NS
STRATA3 0.39433 0.0 1/8 5.20851 0.0519 S*
ROOFHT 0.95131 0.0 1/17 332.17104 0.0000 S**
SPACINB NOT TESTABLE DUE TO INVARIANCE

SUPPORB 0.01028 0.0 1/17 0.17657 0.6796 NS
SPACINA NOT TESTABLE DUE TO INVARIANCE

SUPPORA 0.05702 0.0 1/17 1.02804 0.3248 NS
LENGHTA 0.06623 0.0 1/16 1.13485 0.3026 NS
LENGTHB NOT TESTABLE DUE TO INVARIANCE

SPAN 0.00085 0.0 1/17 0.01438 0.9059 NS
CRACKS 0.09725 0.0 1/17 1.83127 0.1937. NS
SLOUGH 0.07592 0.0 1/17 1.39661 0.2536 NS
OPENVER 0.05081 0.0 1/17 0.91000 0.3535 NS
THINLAY 0.00437 0.0 1/17 0.07459 0.7715 NS
Dependent Variable = GEOMETRY (DOME SHAPED)

OF MINE ROOF FALL

WATER 0.00455 0.0 1/19 0.8676 0.7715 NS
LOCATION 0.27802 0.0 1/19 7.31639 0.0140 S**
STRATA2 0.11779 0.0 1/17 2.26980 0.1503 NS
STRATA3 0.09275 0.0 1/8 0.81788 0.3922 NS
SPACINB NOT TESTABLE DUE TO INVARIANCE

SUPPORB 0.11579 0.0 1/19 2.48810 0.1312 NS
SPACINA NOT TESTABLE DUE TO INVARIANCE

SUPPORA 0.00303 0.0 1/19 0.05775 0.8127 NS
LENGTHA 0.21039 0.0 1/17 4.52961 0.0482 S*
LENGTHB NOT TESTABLE DUE TO INVARIANCE

SPAN 0.02203 0.0 1/19 0.42797 0.5208 NS
CRACKS 0.01920 0.0 1/19 0.37203 0.5491 NS
SLOUGH 0.13136 0.0 1/19 2.87336 0.1064 NS
OPENVER 0.06487 0.0 1/19 1.31803 0.2652 NS
THINLAY 0.05389 0.0 1/19 1.08221 0.3113 NS

“Denotes statistical significance of 0.05 level for a
nondirectional test.

**Denotes statistical significance of 0.01 level for a
nondirectional test.

Also found in Table 4 is a summary of the
hypothesis testing and model comparisons in
discriminating the shape of mine roof falls
(dome-shaped) and selected parameters. Only 2
of the 15 hypotheses were found to be statistical-
ly significant at the 0.05 level. The parameters
location of the roof fall (intersections) and length
of bolts used after the fall were found to be
significantly correlated to the geometry of the
falls. As illustrated in Table 3, location of the

Mine Roofs in West Virginia — Smith 115

falls in intersections accounted for a significant
amount of explained variance (27.80 per cent) in
discriminating dome-shaped roof falls. Hence, a
greater occurrence of dome-shaped falls are
associated with intersections. When considering
the nature of intersections and the stress con-
centrations equally spaced on the abutments,
this conclusion is supported by previous findings
(3,5). In addition, the length of bolts used after
the fall were significantly related (p = 0.0482) in
discriminating dome-shaped falls (Table 3). The
relationship is negatively correlated, thus
shorter length of roof bolts used to resupport the
fall were associated with a greater occurrence of
dome-shaped roof falls. Since many of the falls
are several generations in reoccurrence, shorter
bolts used to resupport the fall may cause a
more uniform and relatively shallow roof
horizon to fall, forming an equidimensional,
dome-shaped geometry. The other 13
parameters previously tested in Table 4 were not
found to be statistically significant in
discriminating roof fall geometry.

8. Graphically Depicted Distribution of Type of
Roof Support System used After Initial Failure
of Mine Roof Falls Studied (Resin Bolts,
Canopy, and Cribs). Note, Usually the Use of
Canopy or Cribs also Entail the Combined Use
of Roof Bolts.

CONCLUSION

Hence, as evident in an inspection of the
overall findings, a basis for a profile of mine-roof
falls associated with the Upper Freeport Coal
Seam, located in West Virginia, can be
established. With this data base established,
coupled with future studies of mine roof falls
describing similar characteristics, predictive
models for use in forecasting and eventual
prevention of major ground control problem
areas may be attempted in Appalachian coal
mines.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The author expresses appreciation to Dr.
Kot F. Unrug, Department of Mining, University
of Kentucky, for providing financial support dur-
ing the months June through August, 1984 for
data collection used in the present study. Also,
assistance from personnel from Island Creek
Coal Company was generously donated.

LITERATURE CITED

1. GADDY, F. L., 1981. Roof Support. In Elements
of practical coal mining, 2nd ed., D. F.
Crickmer and D. A. Zegeer (eds.). SME of
AIME, Inc., New York: pp. 106-139.

2. CAUDLE, R. D., 1974. Mine roof stablility. In
Proceeding: Bureau of Mines Info. Circ. 8630:
79-84.

3. MORGAN, T. A., 1974. Coal mine roof
problems. In Proceed.: Bur. Mines tech. transfer
seminar, U.S. Bur. Mines Info. Circ. 8630:
56-62.

4. PENG, S. S., 1978. Coal mine ground control.
John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York.

5. POTHINI, B. R., and H. VON SCHONFELDT,
1979. Roof fall prediction at Island Creek Coal
Company. In Stability in coal mining, C. O.
Brawer (ed.). Miller Freeman Pub. San
Francisco. CA.

RH - Mine Planning in Kentucky— Smith

Dimensional Analysis of Coal Pillars: An Application of Cost-Sensitive
Mine Planning Principles to a Southeastern Kentucky Mine

Alan D. Smith

Coal Mining Administration, College of Business
Eastern Kentucky University, Richmond, KY 40475

ABSTRACT

The cost-sensitive mine planning process involves spatial projection of the geological and
economical conditions that will have the greatest impact on cost and coal quality for a particular
mine site. A comparison of actual, maximum safety, and recommended pillar dimensions and their
associated factors of safety, based on the theories of Salamon, Salamon and Munro, Bieniawski,
Bieniawski, Rafia, and Newman, and Skelly, Wolgamott, and Wang, which cover a broad spectrum
of mining conditions, were made for a small coal mine near Leatherwood, Kentucky in southeastern
Kentucky. From a preliminary and economic forecasting viewpoint, the traditional 40-foot square
pillar appears to be too large, at least from the standpoint of overburden thickness and common
lithologic characteristics found in the eastern Kentucky coal fields. The alternative system of room-
and-pillar mining with 34-foot pillars and conservative 20-foot entries would allow for 5 entries to be
developed in the same area of coal, which would result in an increase of 320 tons of raw coal per
move up. Assuming the price of coal is $32 per ton and standard coal preparation losses at 20 per
cent, additional revenue of about $8,200 per move up would be realized. This increase in cash flow is
especially important in developmental stages of underground mining, due to the shortage of cash
flows.

INTRODUCTION layout. Assuming other factors are predictable
in the location of pillars, a generalized plan of
Cost-Sensitive Mine Planning anticipated pillar widths can be spatially

oriented and according costs or benefits be
Cost-sensitive mine planning systems have assessed.
been developed to help coal companies design

underground mines that will recover coal Pillar Design Theory
reserves in the most profitable method. Informa-
tion obtained from borehole logs, local mines, Coal pillars are solid coal left in-situ to sup-

mining equipment manufacturers, and previous port entires, sections, panels, and prevent sur-
mining experience should be used in the mine face subsidence. Since pillars are left for sup-
planning process. According to Ellison and _ port, their failure greatly contributes to ground
Scovazzo (1), cost-sensitive mine planning control problems. Although pillars are exten-
assumes that the physical and economic condi- _ sively used for many purposes as part of the
tions that will have the greatest impact on cost multiple design elements in underground min-
and coal quality can be predicted accurately ing, no single design method or pillar strength
enough to assist mine planners in making deci- _ formula has been accepted in the United States.
sions. In the planning process, many maps, As_ suggested by Babcock, Morgan, and
such as coal seam thickness, expected roof cav- Haramy (2), several equations for mine pillar
ing conditions, geologic lineaments, roof shale design have been developed since the 1830s.
thickness, distance to the first sandstone, over- Most of these equations are essentially of the
burden thickness, underclay thickness, as well same nature, using pillar width to height rela-
as a host of other factors, can be generated as __ tionships. Yet, in spite of considerable research
overlays on each other to assist planners in conducted, especially since the 1900s, mine
selecting appropriate locations and orientations __ pillar dimensions in this country continue to be
for the portal, mains, submains, and longwall _ predominately selected on the basis of precedent
panels. The thrust of the present study is to ex- or practical experience. While pillars in coal
amine overburden and strength characteristics mines are mainly associated with room-and-
of a small mine in southeastern Kentucky and pillar systems, their use as support elements in
determine minable pillar widths, according to 3. development entries for longwall and shortwall
popular pillar strength theories, based upon _ systems are an integral part of their design. In
depth of overburden over the proposed mine fact, these development entries, being service

116

Mine planning in Kentucky — Smith

entries for such vital services as ventilation,
power distribution, escapeways, haulage
avenues, are the main pulse of the daily routine
in underground mining and, hence, must be
maintained in a safe and adequate manner (3).

The design of pillars involves the deter-
mination of proper size pillars for certain loca-
tions in line with the expected load history. The
data generally required in the design of pillars
are: (1) the expected load history, including
premining pillar loading and mining-induced
abutment pressure; (2) stress distribution within
the pillar; (3) pillar strength; (4) interaction be-
tween roof, pillar, and floor.

Some types of mining, compared to mining
bedded-deposits, require different shapes of
pillars and some differences in the _ pillar
geometry. Bedded deposits, such as coal and
limestone, may require the height of pillars to
vary over a considerable range, from as low as 2
to a high of 80 feet. However, in ore bodies, the
height variation may even be greater. In addi-
tion, nearly all materials show a creep effect
with time when placed under varying
magnitudes of stress. In many cases, the
ultimate effect of creep in coal is difficult, if not
impossible, to forecast. However, the
technology of designing coal pillars is presently
further advanced than similar technology in
designing pillars for other minerals. For these
and other reasons, 3 pillar formulas have been
selected for use in this study in relating pillar
strength to its geometry and structural material
in the mine site. The 3 pillar formulas cover a
broad enough spectrum of conditions to be of
general applicable value. The formulas to be us-
ed in the present study were derived by Salamon
(4), Salamon and Munro (5), Bieniawski (6),
Bieniawski, Rafia, and Newman (7), and Skelly,
Wolgamott and Wang (8).

The design of a room and pillar layout
necessitates the knowledge of the size of coal
pillars that will act as a permanent support to
the immediate roof strata until the depillaring
operation stage, if any. Many investigations
have been carried out in studying the most
stable dimensions of a pillar. Salamon (4),
Salamon and Munro (5) developed an empirical
formula by which the approximate strength of a
pillar may be determined. Salamon et al. (loc.
cit.) based this formula upon back-analysis
derived from underground information and per-
formance of stable and collapsed, or failed,

| pillars:

Sp = 1320 w-46
140.66

| Where Sp is the pillar strength, W is the width of

117

the pillar, and H is the height of the coal seam in
inches. Of course, stable coal pillars are likely to
deteriorate due to weathering or creep;
therefore, it is necessary to take into account the
strength and time dependent properties of the
coal seam and surrounding strata. This process
of coal pillar deterioration may be accelerated if
undermined by previous room and pillar work-
ings. In addition, the stability of the immediate
roof strata may be lessened by deterioration.
Room and pillar designs are particularly sen-
sitive to the ability of the roof of the entries to be
self-supporting (9). According to Bieniawski (6)
and Bieniawski, Rafia, and Newman (7), the
strength of a coal pillar may be approximated
by:

Sp = 650 (0.64 + 0.36 W/H)

Again, the symbols are the same as previously
defined for Salamon’s equation. Skelly et al (8)
developed the following equation for predicting
the strength of the pillar:

Sp = 650 (0.78 + 0.222 W/H)

This formula is fairly similar to Bieniawski’s, but
reflects more of an attempt to modify Bieniawski
and Salamon’s work to suit the conditions found
in the Appalachian coal fields.

Upon computing a pillar strength by the
above formulas, they can be compared to the
actual calculated stress applied to a particular
pillar, and a factor of safety can be determined.
A factor of safety is simply the stress on the
pillar divided into the strength of the pillar.
Salamon recommended a factor of safety ran-
ging from 1.3 to 1.9, with 1.6 being associated
with a stable pillar; Bieniawski et al. and Skelly
et al. collectively recommended 1.0 to 3.0, with
2.0 being the factor of safety associated with a
stable pillar. Of course, there are ranges in the
factors of safety, since different mining condi-
tions may warrant more conservative or more
liberal pillar dimensions. However, the smaller
the factor of safety, the smaller the coal dimen-
sion, and the greater overall coal recovery.

The determination of the actual stress on
the pillar can easily be determined, assuming
tributary loading and not pressure arch theory,
by the following formula:

op = yd (We + Wp)?
Wp?

Where 5p is the actual stress on the pillar, y is
the weighted density of overburden over the coal
pillar, d is the depth to the top of the coal seam,
We is the width of the entries or roof between
pillars, and Wp is the width of a square pillar.

118 Trans. Kentucky Academy of Science — 45(3-4)

The above formula can be modified for a rec-
tangular pillar by using the length of the pillar as
well:
55 = yd (We + Wp) (We + Lp)
(Wp) (Lp)

Where the only new term, Lp, is simply the
length or longest dimension of the rectangular
pillar.

METHOD
Study Area

A small southeastern Kentucky coal mine
near Leatherwood, Kentucky is owned and
operated by a large mining company that will re-
main unidentified for proprietary purposes, was
studied to apply the cost-sensitive mapping pro-
cedures suggested by Ellison and Scovazzo (1).
A typical small Kentucky coal mine is usually
shallow (between 200 to 500 feet (60 to 150 m) of
vertical overburden) and of relatively short dura-
tion. Therefore, the motive is to derive as much
minable coal in as short a time as possible. This
small mine is operated in a thin coal seam,
ranging between 40 and 72 inches, with a sand-
stone/siltstone partition of approximately 12 in-
ches in parts of the mine. The coal seam is
essentially flat-lying, with some gentle folds
causing a maximum in the seam’s elevation of
25 feet above and 20 feet below the seam’s eleva-
tion at the driftmouth or mine entrance. In addi-
tion, the seam dips slightly to the west. The
overburden is very shallow in that the deepest
cover is 350.2 ft. (106.74 m) in thickness and the
average depth is 265.6 ft. (80.95 m). The im-
mediate roof is sandstone, which is considered a
hard and competent strata; unfortunately, in
this mine it is highly fractured and weakened.
The mine has a predicted life expectancy of 3 to
5 years for development mining and 3 to 5 years
of retreat mining.

Mining Methods to Produce Coal

A large mining company that owns and
operates the small mine uses the continuous
mining method in the room-and-pillar system.
Continuous mining reduces the mining cycle
compared to that of the conventional method by
removing some pieces of the equipment and
associated miners to operate it, thus increasing
productivity. The continuous mining method
uses one machine to break the coal loose where
the conventional method uses _ several
machines, such as the horizontal drill and front-
end loader or load-haul-dumpers (LHD). The
continuous miner has teethed drums that rotate

against the coal and breaks it up. The broken
coal then travels to the tail of the miner via a
chain conveyor and is loaded onto a shuttle car.
The shuttle car then travels to a belt conveyor
and unloads the coal. The beltline then take the
coal to the driftmouth. However, the shuttle car
must travel a route which is designed to
minimize the number of corners turned and,
hence, the total distance traveled. Since the
continuous miner can cut coal fast enough to
keep 2 cars busy, these cars must be scheduled
to cut down on idle time and avoid potential ac-
cidents. Once the miner moves on to its next
cut, a roof bolter is moved in to install im-
mediate roof supports. Usually, 2 roof bolters
are required to keep up with the continuous
miner in this mine. The bolting machine drills
holes into the immediate roof to a depth which
reaches a stronger layer of rock or anchor
horizon. Roof bolts vary in lengths from 28 in-
ches (0.71) to 8 feet (2.44 m) and come in 2
general types. The first type uses an expanding
shell that flares out as the bolt is torqued
against the roof. This flaring creates the
pressure that causes the bolt to hold up the im-
mediate roof through tension. The second type
of bolt uses resin to create the hold between it
and the rock strata. As the resin flows into the
cracks in the rock it solidifies and this contact
creates the tension needed. Of course, the resin
bolt is more expensive, and is employed in very
bad roof top areas for better ground control.

The mining system used is that of room-
and-pillar. The room-and-pillar mining method
is traditionally used in the many small coal
mines of southeastern Kentucky. In room-and-
pillar mining, entries are driven into the coal
seam at its outcrop. As the entries develop,
crosscuts are made to join the entries for ventila-
tion and coal haulage purposes. The number of
entries varies in typical room-and-pillar mines
from 2 to 8 or more. Two entries are minimally
required to get proper ventilation flow with one
entry being used for intake air and the other for
exhaust air. However, most mines in the area,
and including the one under study, use one entry
for a track to take in men and supplies and
another for the beltline to come out. These en-
tries require the presence of workers and, hence,
cannot be exposed to exhaust from the coal
face, 3 intake entries are usually used. The
number of entries increases once the mine
develops further to increase productivity
through the prevention of delays in the mining
cycle. The action of driving entries and crosscuts
leaves pillars or columns of coal to support the
roof. Room-and-pillar mining assumes the
tributary load concept, although the pressure
arch theory can be applied in selected areas to

Mine planning in Kentucky — Smith

relieve part of the load on main and submain
pillars. Under the tributary load concept, each
pillar is assumed to uniformly support the
weight of the rock overlying the pillar and mid-
way the span of the entry or room on each side
of the pillar.

Pillar Dimensional Design

An average depth of overburden was assumed to
be 265.6 feet (80.95 m), average density of over-
burden of 160 Ibs/ft* (2.86 g/cm’, the standard
often used in association with sedimentary
lithologies found in Kentucky), coal seam height
of 5 feet (1.52 m), width of entries to be 20 feet
(6.10 m), a calculated overburden or geostatic
pressure of 657.36 Ibs/in? on a 40 ft. (12.19 m)
pillar in performing a_ pillar dimensional
analysis. Factors of safety and recommended
pillar sizes were also calculated, using the
theories of Salamon et al. (5), Bieniawski (6),
Bieniawski et al. (7), and Skelly et al. (8).

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Pillar Dimensional Analysis and
Associated Factors of Safety

Once having the mean, actual stress on the
pillars presently used in the mine near Leather-
wood, Kentucky calculated, the pillar strength
can then be calculated, according to the
previously discussed design equations. The cor-
responding factors of safety can be calculated,
since, as stated earlier, the factor of safety is
simply the relationship of pillar strength,
whether based on ultimate strength or pro-
gressive failure criteria, to the mean, actual ver-
tical stress acting on the pillar. Table 1 sum-
marizes the various factors of safety associated
with a 40-foot square pillar, maximum safety,
and recommended for safe-rigid pillar according
to the theories of Salamon (4), Salamon and
Munro (5), Bieniawski (6), Bieniawski, Rafia,
Newman (7), and Skelley, Wolgamott, and
Wang (8). The figures in the table were based on
the qualifying assumptions previously stated in
the methods section. As evident from a quick in-
spection of the table, the 40-foot pillar is over-
designed, since the associated factors of safety
are noticeably larger than the factors of safety
for a pillar of maximum safety for all but one

theory (8). The factors of safety for a recom-

mended safe-rigid pillar, based on the tributary
load concept is lower than the actual pillars’ fac-
tors of safety for all 3 theories. Since there is a
direct relationship between pillar width and fac-
tors of safety, the larger factors of safety repre-
sent unnecessary waste of coal that could have
been mined, instead of left for support and
ground control. Of course, this means that by

119

using a standard and oversized pillar, based on
precedent or practical experience, a much
reduced coal recovery results and, hence,
diminished profits. To find the proper size pillars
under these conditions, the pillar dimensions
should be recalculated at the recommended fac-
tors of safety for each theory explored and back-
calculated the optimum pillar dimensions to
maximize coal recovery.

TABLE 1. Factors of Safety Associated with 40 Foot Square Pillars,
Maximum Safety, and Recommended for Safe-Rigid Pillars.

Factors of Safety Factors of Safety Factors of Safety

Pillar Design For a 40-Foot For Maximum For Recom-
Theory Square Pillar® Safety Pillar ommended Safe-
Rigid Pillar

Salamon (4), 3.79 1.9 1.6
Salamon and

Munro (5)
Bieniawski (6), 3.48 3.0 2.0
Rafia, and

Newman (7)

Skelley, 2.53 3.0 2.0
Wolgemott,

and Wang (8)

“Factors of safety is equal to the ultimate strength of the pillar (S))
divided by the actual stress of the pillar on assuming the ultimate

strength approach as defined by Peng (10).

The trial and error solutions for pillar
dimensions, using the factors of safety for max-
imum safety and recommended dimensions can
be found in Table 2. The recommended pillar
dimensions range from a high of 34 feet (10.36
m) for Skelly et al. (8) and a low of 21 feet (6.40
m) Salamon (4) and Salamon and Munro (5). Of
course, these pillar dimensions may be enlarged
to counter the effects of deterioration resulting
from exposure to moisture in the ventilated air
as well as other factors. However, this mine, as
well as similar mines in southeastern Kentucky
are of limited duration, therefore the
deteriorating effects of moisture in the at-
mosphere will have minimal effect. However,
from a preliminary and economic fore-
casting viewpoint, the traditional 40-foot square
pillars that this mining company is using in this
particular mine appears to be too large, at least
from the standpoint of overburden thickness.
This statement is further evidenced by the
absence of noticeable numbers of mine roof
falls; thus, this is another indication that the
pillar dimensions are too conservative in the
overall mine layout.

120 Trans. Kentucky Academy of Science — 45(3-4)

TABLE 2. Comparison of the Actual, Maximum Safety, and
Recommended Dimensions for a Square Pillar at the
Leatherwood Mine.

Square Pillar Dimensions in Feet (Meters)
Pillar Design
Theory

Actual Maximum Safety Recommended

Salamon (4), 40 (12.19) 24 (7.32)
Salamon and

Munro (5)

21 (6.40)
n

Bieniawski (6), 40 (12.19) 36 (10.97) 28 (8.53)

Rafia, and
Newman (7)

Skelley, 40 (12.19) 45 (13.72) 34 (10.36)
Wolgemott,

and Wang (8)

Extraction Ratio Comparison and Cost/Benefit
Sensitive Analysis and Planning

A simple cost/benefit analysis can be per-
formed to illustrate the amount of money in-
volved in applying the principles of cost-
sensitive planning. Presently, based on 40-foot
pillars, the coal extraction ratio is approximate-
ly 56 percent. The extraction ratio for a 34-foot
pillar, based on the largest recommended pillar
dimension from the calculations utilizing
Skelley et al. (8), is 60 percent. Of course, if the
width of span of the entries between pillars were
allowed to increase, then the corresponding ex-
traction ratio would increase drastically.

Although the percentage increase appears
to be small, the tonnage of coal recovered will
have a significant impact on tonnage produced.
The 40-foot pillar has a volume of coal of 8,000
ft.2 (226.53 m’) while the 34-foot pillar has a
volume of 5,780 ft.’ (163.67 m‘*). Thus, a
difference of 2,220 ft.? (62.86 m‘) in the 40-foot
pillar that could be mined by utilizing a system
of 34foot pillars. Assuming coal has a unit
weight or density of 80 Ibs/ft* (1.43 g/cm*) and
multiplying this by the difference of 2,220 ft.°, a
total weight of raw coal of 177,600 Ibs. or 88.8
tons per pillar is available, if the entries are
allowed to expand. However, if using the
original entry system of 40-foot pillars and main-
taining the same 20-foot entries with a four-entry
system means 200 linear feet (61 m) of coal from
rib to rib is being mined. The alternative system
of 34-foot pillars would allow for 5 entries of 20
feet each in the same area of coal. The 4entry
system will provide 1,120 tons per move up and
five-entry system will provide 1,440 tons per
move up which results in a difference of 320 tons
per move up. Assuming the price of coal is ap-
proximately $32 per clean ton and a standard
coal preparation recovery of 80 percent, this

would bring in $8,192 per move up during
development mining. Once the development
mining is finished the remaining coal is partially
removed where possible by a process known as
robbing or retreat mining. However, it is during
development stage of mining that cash flows are
a major problem, especially in the fluctuating
coal markets of today. Hence, the additional
revenue during this stage is of extreme impor-
tance, especially to the owners and operators of
small coal mines, such as this one _ in
Leatherwood, Kentucky.

CONCLUSIONS

As demonstrated in the _ preliminary
analysis and discussion of recommended pillar
dimensions, based on overburden thickness and
common properties of rocks contributed to the
eastern Kentucky coal fields, the mining com-
pany may be too conservative in its approach to
its Leatherwood Mine. This point is well taken,
since results obtained from all 3 diversed pillar-
dimensional theories point to the same conclu-
sion of oversized pillars. The overdesigning of
pillars may be costly, as evident by the simple
cost/benefit analysis previously illustrated,
utilizing the principle of cost-sensitive planning.
Hence, the current design of coal mine pillar
pillars in southeastern Kentucky can be
significantly improved by selecting a more ap-
propriate pillar strength formula and more
realistic safety factors. The state of rock
mechanics and mining engineering is such that
mine planners can be more effective in the
overall desing of the pillar dimensions in ad-
vance of mining operations, development, and
eventual production.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The author expresses thanks to Wallace H.
Barger, an undergraduate student majoring in
coal mining administration at Eastern Kentucky
University, for his part in the collection of the
initial data base for the present study.

LITERATURE CITED

1. Ellison, R. D., and V. A. Scovazzo. 1981. Profit
planning begins with mapping. Coal Age 81:
68-81.

2. Babcock, C., T. Morgan, and K. Haramy. 1981.
Review of pillar design equations including the
effects of constraint. In Proc. First Ann. Conf.
on Ground Control in Mining, S. S. Peng (ed.).
West Virginia U., Morgantown, West Virginia:
23-34.

3. Bieniawski, Z. T. 1981. Improved design of coal
pillars for U.S. mining conditions. In Proc. First
Ann. Conf. on Ground Control in Mining, S. S.

Mine planning in Kentucky — Smith 121

Peng (ed.). West Virginia U., Morgantown, West
Virginia: 13-22.
. Salamon, M.D.G. 1968. A method of designing

bond and pillar workings. J. South African Inst.
Mining and Metall. 69: 68-78.

. Salamon, M.D.G., and A. H. Munro. 1967. A
study of strength of coal pillars. J. South
African Inst. Mining and Metall. 68: 55-67.

. Bieniawski, Z. T. 1973. Engineering classifica-
tion of jointed rock masses. Trans. South
African Inst. Civil Eng. 15: 335-344.

. Bieniawski, Z. T., R. Rafia, and D. A. Newman.
1980. Ground control investigations for assess-

10.

ment of roof conditions in coal mines. Proc. 21st
U.S. Symp. Rock Mechanics, U. Missouri,
Rolla, Missouri.

. Skelley, W. A., J. Wolgamott, and F. Wang.

1977. Coal mine pillar strength and deformation
prediction through laboratory sample testing.
Proc. 18th U.S. Symp. Rock Mechanics,
Keystone, Colorado, 2B5-1 - 2B5-5.

. Szwilski, A. B. 1979. Stability of coal seam

strata undermined by room and pillar opera-
tions. Proc. 20th U.S. Symp. on Rock
Mechanics, Austin, Texas, 59-66.

Peng, S. S. 1978. Coal mine ground control.
John Wiley and Sons, Inc., N. Y.

RH - Orientation in White-Throated Sparrow - Pauly and Ferrell

Sunset as an Orientational Cue for a Nocturnal Migrant,
the White-throated Sparrow (Zonotrichia albicollis).

James R. Pauly’ and Blaine R. Ferrell

Western Kentucky University, Bowling Green, Kentucky 42101

ABSTRACT

The possibility that nocturnal migrants use sunset as an orientational cue was explored using
the white-throated sparrow (Zonotrichia albicollis) in a series of experiments conducted between 1
April and 24 April, 1981. Orientation tests were performed on the roof of the biology building at
Western Kentucky University with birds assumed to be in proper physiological condition for migra-
tion. Birds exposed only to the night skies, birds isolated from all visual cues, and birds exposed to
both day and night skies did not exhibit the northward directional preference appropriate for the
spring season. However, white-throated sparrows exposed only to the sunset and tested in the
absence of visual nighttime cues exhibited significant orientation northward. These data support the
hypothesis that white-throated sparrows can use the sunset as an orientational cue.

INTRODUCTION

Various environmental cues are available
for the orientation of migrating birds (1,2,3). The
use of several orientational cues may increase
the accuracy of a migrant’s heading but con-
founds efforts to establish which cues are actual-
ly utilized. The possibility that nocturnal
migrants use the position of the setting sun as
an orientational cue was first suggested by
Kramer (4). The casual observations of Kramer
were followed by several field experiments that
more strongly implicated the sunset as an im-
portant orientational cue to nocturnal migrants
(5,6,7). In 1978, Frank Moore (8) provided more
direct evidence that directional information
derived from the sunset was used by a nocturnal
migrant, the savannah sparrow (Passerrulus
sanduichensis). Bingman and Able (9) per-
formed similar experiments using white-
throated sparrows (Zonotrichia albicollis) tested
in an autumnal migratory condition. Although
the data presented by these authors are suppor-
tive of the hypothesis of sunset as an orienta-
tional cue, their experimental protocol did not
measure the orientational response of birds ex-
posed only to the sunset and tested in the
absence of night sky orientational cues.
Therefore, the present study was carried out in
order to investigate more rigorously the
possibility that sunset is an important direc-
tional cue used by white-throated sparrows
during spring migration.

?Present Address: Department of Biology,

MATERIALS AND METHODS

During January and February, 1981, 38
winter-resident white-throated sparrows were
captured by mist net or live traps in the vicinity
of Bowling Green, Kentucky. Orientation tests
were conducted on the roof of the biology
building on the campus of Western Kentucky
University from 1 April to 22 April, 1981. All
birds were maintained indoors under 14L:10D
before the test periods and were judged to be ina
migratory seasonal condition based upon easily

observed criteria, such as enlarged gonads, in- .

creased fat stores, and nocturnal unrest
(Zugunruhe) (10). Locomotor activity was
monitored using perches that rested on

microswitches interfaced with an _ Esterline-
Angus event recorder. Subcutaneous fat stores
were examined visually weekly and gonad size
was determined monthly by unilateral
laparotomy.

Four treatment groups were established.
Birds in one experimental group were exposed to
the open night sky during the test period but
were maintained in photoperiod chambers on
the roof at all other times. In another ex-
perimental group, birds were placed in holding
cages where they were exposed to the sun begin-
ning one hour before sunset. Birds in this same
group were denied exposure to the nighttime sky
during the test period and maintained in
photoperiod chambers at all other times. A
third group of birds (Control Group 1) was ex-

Marquette University, Milwaukee, Wisconsin 53233

122

Orientation in White-throated sparrow - Pauly 123

posed to both sunset and the nighttime sky.
Birds in the fourth group (Control Group II) were
maintained in photoperiod chambers during the
day and were denied exposure to the nighttime
sky by a black plastic cover during the test
period. In order to provide a stimulatory photo-
periodic schedule, 15-watt fluorescent bulbs
were attached to the holding cages located on
the roof. Twelve Emlen funnels (i.e., 3 from
each test group) were placed in an orientation
chamber on each test night. The walls of the test
chamber were lined with black plastic and ex-
tended 12 inches above the Emlen funnels, thus
denying the test birds a view of landmarks on
the horizon. Birds housed in one-half of this
chamber were denied exposure to the night sky
by an opaque black plastic cover. The half of the
chamber that housed birds allowed exposure to
the night sky was covered with a clear plastic in
order to keep the treatments as consistent as
possible. Birds were tested for two hours begin-
ning at 1930 hours (i.e., approximately one hour
after sunset), a time of night appropriate for the
initiation of spring migratory flights.

The footprint method described by Emlen
and Emlen (11) was used in tests for orientation.
The test unit consisted of a blotter paper funnel
which was supported by a cardboard funnel. The
small ends of these funnels were placed in two-
quart aluminum pans and the entire apparatus
was covered by quarter-inch hardware cloth
fastened to the aluminum pan. A slit cut in the
lower side of each aluminum pan facilitated the
insertion of foam ink pads into the test funnels.
The pads were saturated with india ink on each
night of use. A bird placed in the funnel thus was
standing on an ink pad surrounded by outwardly
sloping walls of blotter paper. The forward
movement of a bird resulted in black footprints
on the paper. It was the accumulation of these
footprints that created the orientation record of
a bird. A total of 144 bird-nights (i.e., 36 replica-
tions from each test group) of orientational data
was generated. For statistical purposes, foot-
print records were quantified according to a
method reported previously (11). Mean angular
directions of activity were calculated and tested
for significance according to the method
described by Zar (12). Since white-throated
sparrows breed throughout the northern United
States and southern Canada, mean angular
directions between 270 and 90 degrees were con-
sidered appropriate orientational choices for the
spring season. Zero degrees represented due
north.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Birds exposed to sunset only were the only
ones that exhibited an appropriate directional

choice that was statistically significant (Table 1
and Figure 1). The activity of this group was the
lowest among all groups tested but this activity
was precisely oriented.

Table 1. Analysis of orientation in White-throated Sparrows exposed to
different celestial cues in spring.

Total Footprint
Activity (N_)
in Activity Units

Mean Angular
Direction Compass

Treatment N? R* in Degrees Direction

Nighttime sky only

Total 17 .093 89 185 SW
trial 1' 6 .338 96 289 NW
trail 2 11 .334 86 108 SE

Both sunset and

nighttime sky 16 .237 132 105 SE

(control I)
Neither sunset nor

nighttime sky 9 .283 179 241 SW

(control Il)
Sunset only

Total 11 .613 56 58** NE
trial 3 .756 43 37° NE
trial 2 8 .529 61 28 NE

' Orientation tests conducted prior to April 11, 1981 (trial 1) and orienta-
tion tests conducted after April 11, 1981 (trial 2).

? The number (N) of birds showing significant orientational activity.

* The length of the vector (R) determined from the sample mean of
measurements (in degrees) on a circular scale.

** Indicates significant directionality of orientation and significant foot-
print activity as determined by Raleigh's Test (Zar 1974).

The fact that birds exposed to daytime and
nighttime skies did not orient consistently in the
appropriate direction is not in accordance with
reports of previous studies (9). Although we at-
tempted to exclude extraneous light sources,
such as horizon glow, through the orientation
test chamber architecture, it is possible that
these birds were directing their activity toward
the glow created by the city lights of Bowling
Green located southwest of the orientation test
site. This supposition is supported by the fact
that many birds exposed only to the night sky
also chose this direction. Birds denied exposure
to the night sky by a black plastic cover showed
little tendency to orient in this direction.

124

nighttime sky only

neither sunset nor E

nighttime sky

sunset only E

both sunset and
nighttime sky

Figure 1. The mean angular directions of individual birds (closed
circles) plotted about a circular scale with compass direc-
tions indicated by E (east), S (south), W (west), and N
(north). Triangles represent group mean angular directions.
Open triangles represent a non-significant directional choice
and the shaded triangle (sunset-only group) represents a

significant directional choice.

Results of this study do not indicate the use
of magnetic cues in orientation by white-
throated sparrows. If the earth’s magnetic field
was a source of orientational information, then
correct orientational responses should have oc-
curred consistently in all treatment groups. The
fact that Emlen funnels are too small for a
response due to geomagnetic fields might ac-
count for the observed lack of response. It has
been reported that birds exhibit a weak response
to geomagnetic cues when placed in Emlen fun-
nels (13). Although results of this study do not
support the concept that nocturnal migrants can
use magnetic fields as orientational cues, our
results do indicate that the position of the sun at
sunset is in fact an important orientational cue
used by a nocturnal migrant, the white-throated
sparrow.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We would like to express thanks to the
Western Kentucky University Graduate Student
Research Grant Committee for their financial
support.

10.

11.

12,

13.

Trans. Kentucky Academy of Science — 45(3-4)

LITERATURE CITED

. Able, K. P. 1980. Mechanisms of orientation,

navigation, and homing. Pp. 283-373. In: S. A.
Gauthreau (ed.), Animal Migration, Orientation
and Navigation. Academic Press, New York.

. Keeton, W. T. 1974. The navigational and orien-

tational basis of homing in birds. Pp. 47-132.
In: Advances in the Study of Behavior (Volume
5). Academic Press, New York and London.

. Griffin, D. R. 1969. The physiology and

geophysics of bird navigation. Rev. Biol.
4:255-276.

. Kramer, G. 1952. Experiments on bird orienta-

tion. Ibis. 94:265-285.

. Emlen, S. T. 1975. Migration: orientation and

navigation. Pp. 129-219. In: D. S. Farner and
J. R. King (eds.), Avian Biology (Vol. V).
Academic Press, New York and London.

. Emlen, S. T. and N. J. Demong. 1978. Orienta-

tion strategies used by free-flying bird migrants:
A radar tracking study. Pp. 283-293. In:

K. Schmidt-Koenig and W. T. Keeton (eds.),
Animal Migration, Navigation and Homing.
Springer-Verlag, New York.

. Able, K. P. 1978. Field studies of the orientation

cue hierarchy of nocturnal songbird migrant.
Pp. 228-238. In: K. Schmidt-Koenig and W. T.
Keeton (eds.), Animal Migration, Nagivation
and Homing. Springer-Verlag, New York.

. Moore, F. 1978. Sunset and the orientation of a

nocturnal migrant. Nature (Lond.) 274:154-156.

. Bingman, V. P. and K. P. Able. 1979. The sun

as a cue in the orientation of the white-throated
sparrow, a nocturnal migrant. Anim. Behav.
27:621-622.

Weise, C. M. 1956. Nightly unrest in caged
migratory sparrows under outdoor conditions.
Ecology 37:275-287.

Emlen, S. T. and J. T. Emlen. 1966. A techni-
que for recording migratory orientation of cap-
tive birds. Auk 83:361-367.

Zar, J. H. 1974. Biostatistical Analysis.
Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, N.J.

Rabol, J. 1979. Magnetic orientation in night
migrating passerines. Ornis. Scand. 10:69-75.

RH - Microbiological Sampling Device - Lisle and Mardon

A Convenient Apparatus for Microbiological Sampling of River Waters

John T. Lisle’ and David N. Mardon?
Eastern Kentucky University, Richmond, Kentucky 40475

ABSTRACT

A compact water sampler for the collection of microorganisms from selected depths in both

lentic and lotic waters is described.

INTRODUCTION

A prerequisite to quantitative studies of
aquatic microbial populations is a specimen-
sampling apparatus suitable for collecting from
desired depths (2, 7). Various investigators and
organizations have developed samplers accord-
ing to their specific needs (1, 4, 5, 6, 7).
However, each of these samplers has features
which can restrict its application. Some pro-
blems within the above group of samplers are;
capacity limitations, sterility of the sample con-
tainer, lateral stability in lotic waters, unreliable
collection of samples from specific depths, dif-
ficulty in the rapid replacement of broken parts,
compact storage, and inconvenience or inability
for varying the length of the sampler to allow
collection at selected depths. The Eastern Ken-
tucky University (E.K.U.) water sampler
described below was designed to minimize these
difficulties during the collection of microbial
samples from the Kentucky River.

CONSTRUCTION OF THE E.K.U.
MICROBIAL WATER SAMPLER

The collecting section of the sampler con-
sists of a 0.6 m piece of 31.89 mm by 1.6 mm
aluminum frame, bent to accommodate
biochemical oxygen demand (B.O.D.) bottles or
similar vessels up to 500 ml in capacity (Fig. la).
This aluminum frame is fastened to one end of a
0.9 m section of polyvinylchloride (PVC) tubing
via two 63.1 mm by 4.8 mm round head bolts,
lock washers and nuts (Fig. 1c). The bottle is
held onto the frame by a stainless steel flask
holder and an adjustable stainless steel hose
clamp (Fig. 3c and 4c). The removable flask
holder, which may be selected for any size flask
from 25 ml to 500 ml capacity, is connected to
the aluminum frame via a 4.8 mm flat-head bolt
(Fig. 3d and 4d).

' Present Address: City of Tampa Water Department, Production Division,

7125 North 30th Street, Tampa, Florida 33610.

The shaft of the sampler is made of 0.9 long
sections of 25.4 mm diameter PVC tubing witha
sleeve glued in place at one end of each 0.9 sec-
tion (Fig. 1b). This modification of the PVC
tubes allows convenient fitting of sections when
expansion of the sampler shaft is desired (Fig.2).
Near each end of the 0.9 m PVC sections are two
holes to accommodate a 63.1 mm by 4.8 mm
round head bolt which can be passed through
the aligned holes of the joined PVC sections,
then secured with a 4.8 mm wing nut and
washer (Fig. 2a). Inside each PVC section is a
1.1 m by 4.8 mm threaded rod with a threaded
sleeve at one end (Fig. 1d). At the collecting end
of the sampler is another 4.8 mm threaded
sleeve attached to the initial threaded rod (Fig.
3e and 4e). A 63.1 mm diameter by 4.8 mm ad-
justable spacer secured by 4.8 mm nuts on each
side is located at the desired position on the in-
itial threaded rod above this sleeve (Fig. 3a and
4a). The location of the spacer disk can be ad-
justed to accommodate the height of the bottle
fastened to the collection section of the sampler.
Normally, this spacer is adjusted so that when
the immersed bottle is opened, the stopper will
not be pulled out of the lip of the bottle farther
than 1.5 cm thus, allowing the stopper to re-
main aligned with the bottle opening (Fig. 4).
Each bottle is sealed with a separate rubber
stopper of appropriate size which has a flat head
bolt 50.89 mm long by 4.8 mm inserted through
its center (Fig. 3b and 4b). The head of this bolt
is at the bottom of the stopper and is covered
with a thin layer of silicone to prevent metallic
leaching. The threaded bolt protrudes through
the top of the stopper and therefore can readily
be attached to the sleeve on the end of the initial
threaded rod. Each bottle and stopper can be
sterilized (autoclaved) as a unit and stored prior
to use. Figure 2 shows how each 0.98 m length
of PVC tubing and 1.1 m threaded rod may be

* Reprint requests should be addressed to this author at: Department of Biological Sciences, Eastern Kentucky University, Richmond, Kentucky

40475.

125

126 Trans. Kentucky Academy of Science — 45(3-4)

| Figure | Figure 2

Io
Za
a
a y
c
a
Figure 1 Two Views of the E.K.U. Figure 2 Exploded view of the threaded rod
Microbiological Water Sampler. (left and sleeve component and the male-
to right. Full view of the sampler female fitting of the PVC shaft.

showing the internal threaded rod
and sleeve structure. Side view of the
sampler.

“p=

°

=i d
Figure 4 The collection end of the sampler in Figure 3 The collecting end of the sampler in
the open stopper position. the closed stopper position.

Microbiological Sampling Device — Lisle and Mardon 127

added to the sampler shaft to allow lengthening
of the sampler as needed.

COLLECTION OF MICROBIAL SAMPLES

A sterile stoppered vessel (B.O.D. bottle) is
clamped onto the flask holder. The threaded rod
at the collecting end of the sampler is fastened
to the extended threads of the stopper bolt via a
threaded sleeve (Fig. 3b and 4b). The sampler is
the lowered to the desired depth and the central
threaded rod pulled up until its movement is
stopped by the spacer disk. This procedure
removes the stopper from the bottle allowing it
to fill with water. When the bottle is full the cen-
tral rod is pushed back down forcing the stopper
back into the bottle. The apparatus is then
retrieved, the sample bottle removed and either
stored temporarily or prepared immediately for
microbial counts.

DISCUSSION

The prerequisites for a versatile microbial
water sampler are satisfied by the E.K.U. pro-
totype. Its performance was excellent during a
six month study on a section of the Kentucky
River at sampling depths between 1.0 m and 9.0
m (3). The E.K.U. sampler’s simple construc-
tion, rugged design and versatility should
enhance its usefulness for research, industrial
and educational purposes. The ability to use
sampling bottles with volumes between 25 ml
and 500 ml is an advantage as is maintenance of
the integrity of a sample from a particular depth
during retrieval. Once at a desired depth the
bottle can be readily opened, filled, then closed
by an operator on the surface. Furthermore,
since the stopper is opened and closed manually
and there are no messengers, incomplete
samples and broken parts are rare. The rigid
shaft construction with its permanent sounding
marks allows the sampler to be lowered to a
specified depth with minimal lateral drifting in

lotic waters. The use of shaft sections 1.1 m in
length facilitiates assembly and dismantling of
the E.K.U. sampler as well as its storage in a
limited space, such as a small vehicle or boat.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We wish to thank Mr. William Henderson
for his technical assistance in the construction
of the E.K.U. water sampler.

LITERATURE CITED

1. Geldreich, Edwin E., Harry D. Nash, Donald F.
Spine, and Donald J. Reasoner. 1980. Bacterial
dynamics in a water supply reservoir: A case
study. J. Amer. Water Works Assoc. 72:31-40.

2. Kittrel, F. W. 1969. A practical guide to water
quality studies of streams. U.S. Department of
the Interior, Federal Water Pollution Control
Administration. CWR-5.

3. Lisle, J. T. 1982. Effects of recreation, precipita-
tion, and turbidity upon the populations of
selected microorganisms isolated from the
Kentucky River at Boonesborough State Park.
Unpublished M.S. Thesis, Eastern Kentucky
University.

4. Niskin, Shale J. 1962. A water sampler for
microbiological studies. Deep-sea Res.
9:501-503.

5. United States Environmental Protection Agency.
1980. Handbook for sampling and sample
preservation of water and wastewater.
EPA-600/4-82-029. P. 327-337.

6. Wheaton Scientific. 1983. Fisher Scientific
Products Catalog. Grab sampler, item #990250.
P. 1276.

7. Zobell, Claude E. 1941. Apparatus for collecting
water samples from different depths for
bacteriological analysis. J. Marine Res.
4:173-188.

RH - Wintering Raptors in Kentucky - Sferra

Population Densities of Diurnal Raptors Wintering in
Madison County, Kentucky

Nancy J. Sferra
Department of Biological Sciences, Eastern Kentucky University
Richmond, Kentucky 40475°

ABSTRACT

Between December 1980 and March 1981 population densities of wintering diurnal raptors were
determined using an automobile strip census. Winter population density estimates/km? were 0.19
Kestrels (Falco sparverius), 0.09 Red-tailed Hawks(Buteo jamaicensis), 0.05 Rough-legged Hawks
(B. lagopus), 0.05 Northern Harriers (Circus cyaneus), 0.004 Red-shouldered Hawks (B. lineatus).
0.003 Sharp-shinned Hawks (Accipiter striatus), and 0.001 Cooper’s Hawks (A. cooperii).

INTRODUCTION

Winter raptor population studies have been
performed in many areas (1,2,3,4,5), but no
such research has been conducted in central
Kentucky. In Madison County, raptors may be
an important part of the winter bird community
because extensive areas of pastureland and
other open habitats potentially support high
prey populations. The purpose of the present
study was to determine population densities of
diurnal raptors wintering in Madison County,
and to record temporal fluctuations in those
densities.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Diurnal raptor populations were sampled
by means of an automobile strip census (6) of
the secondary roads in Madison County, Ken-
tucky. The census route was chosen so that it
covered each of the 4 physiographic regions of
the county: the Hills of the Bluegrass, the Outer
Bluegrass, the Knobs Section of the
Cumberland Plateau, and the Mountains (7).
One census was run per week beginning in late
December 1980 and ending in March 1981, for a
total of 10 censuses (Table 1). Each census
covered 235 km; none was taken whenever
visibility was hampered due to fog, snow, or
rain.

* Present Address: Department of Zoology, Michigan State University

East Lansing, Michigan 48824.

128

Table 1. Census dates for winter of 1980-1981.

Census no. Date
1 28 December to 1 January
2 5 January to 11 January
3 11 January to 18 January
4 22 January to 25 January
5 29 January to 31 January
6 5 February to 6 February
7 12 February to 15 February
8 20 February to 21 February
9 26 February to 28 February
10 6 March to 12 March

A driver/observer and a _ passen-
ger /observer were present on every census. The
routes were driven at speeds between 32 and 48
kph, and all raptors seen on each side of the
road were recorded. Craighead and Craighead
(6) assumed that all raptors present within 0.40
km of the road could be sighted, and this
assumption was used in the present study. Each
raptor sighting was plotted on a map of the
study area after estimating the distance of the
bird from the road. All distance estimates were
made by the same person to ensure consistency.
Only raptors identified to species were included
in density estimates. Although Turkey Vultures
(Cathartes aura) and Black vultures (Coragyps
atratus) were present in the area, they were not
included in this study. Both species are most
common in highly dissected terrain with vertical
rock walls (8); they could, therefore, not be ac-
curately counted using an automobile census.

Wintering Raptors in Kentucky — Sferra 129

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

A total of 585 raptors were sighted during jamaicensis), Northern Harrier (Circus
the winter of 1980-1981 (Table 2). The 7 species cyaneus), Rough-legged Hawk (B. lagopus).
wintering in Madison County, in decreasing Red-shouldered Hawk (B. lineatus), Sharp-
order of abundance, were the American Kestrel shinned Hawk (Accipiter striatus), and Cooper’s

(Falco sparverius), Red-tailed Hawk (Buteo Hawk (A. cooperii).

Table 2. Actual numbers and population densities/km? by species of wintering raptors along the census route in
Madison County, Kentucky.

Census no.

Species 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Total x + S.E.
Kestrel /km? 5845 36 40 87 essa 3B 359 35.9 & 3.34
0.31 0.24 0.19 0.21 0.20 0.15 0.14 0.15 0.11 0.20 0.19 + 0.02

Red-tailed Hawk/km’? 6 17; 14 16 13 13 26 18 17 2 163 168 + 2.10
0.03 0.09 0.07 0.09 0.07 0.07 0.14 0.10 90.09 0.09 0.09 + 0.009

Unidentified buteo/km? — 6 3 1 3 1 1 — 2 3 20 2.0 + 0.59
— 0.03 0.02 0.005 0.02 0.005 0.005 — 0.01 0.02 0.01 + 0.003

Northern Harrier/km? 2 1 2 2 —_ 1 1 1 _ - 10 1.0 + 0.26
0.01 — 0.01 0.005 0.005 0.005 0.01 _ - - 0.005 + 0.002

Rough-legged Hawk/km’ 2 — 2 1 1 1 2 - - - 9 0.9 + 0.28
0.01 — 0.01 0.005 0.005 0.005 0.01 _ - - 0.005 + 0.001

Red-shouldered Hawk/km? — = 1 1 1 3 1 - 1 8 0.8 + 0.29
— — 0.005 0.005 0.005 0.02 0.05 — — 0.005 0.005 + 0.002

Sharp-shinned Hawk/km? 5, — = = — 1 — _ - = 6 0.06 + 0.50
0.03 — — = — 0.005 — — - _ 0.004 + 0.003

Unidentified accipiter/km? — — 2 _ _ _ _ 1 - - 3 0.3 + 0.22
- - 0.01 — _ — — 0006 — - 0.002 + 0.001

Cooper’s Hawk/km? = = = — - 1 1 — - — 2 0.4 + 0.27
_ — _ —_ — 0.005 0.005 — — —- 0.001 + 0.001
American Kestrels accounted for 61% of the Mengel (8) states that spring migration is

total raptor count, although their numbers not usually apparent in Kentucky; however,
steadily declined throughout the winter. The there was a dramatic increase in Kestrel
lowest tally occurred during census 9 when only —_ numbers during census 10 (38 sightings), prob-
21 Kestrels were seen. This decline may have ably due to a wave of migrants moving through
been due to winter mortality and behavior the area. Behavior associated with the breeding
changes brought about by unusually cold season could also have contributed to the high
weather conditions. Mills (5) found a sharp count due to the conspicuousness of courtship
decline in Kestrel populations in central Ohio flights and increased numbers of paired birds.

following the first cold spell of the winter, and Mean Kestrel density for the winter was
Enderson (9) was able to correlate low 0.19/km* (Table 2). In Colorado, lower
temperatures and low Kestrel numbers in east- _—_ estimates were obtained on grazing and wheat
central Illinois. In Madison County, the first cold lands of the plains immediately east of the
spell occurred during a 9-day period beginning Rocky Mountains, where habitats were probably
on 5 January. During that time, the minimum less diverse than in Madison County (10). Far
daily temperature was below - 12°C for 8 out of higher estimates were obtained in Florida (11),
the 9 days. Decreasing Kestrel numbers, begin- _ where Kestrel densities included two subspecies,

ning during census 2, coincided with the period F.s. paulus, a resident race, and F.s. sparverius,
of cold weather. a winter migrant. Only one subspecies, F.s.

130

sparverius, is present in Madison County (8). In
addition, milder weather conditions in Florida
could have contributed to higher densities.

The Red-tailed Hawk was the most abun-
dant Buteo species during the winter, compris-
ing 29% of all raptors observed. The lowest
count occurred during census 1 (6 sightings)
which may have been due to inexperienced
observers on the initial count. The 2 highest
counts were made during census 7 (26 in-
dividuals) and census 10 (28 individuals). Spring
migration dates for Red-tailed Hawks in Ken-
tucky are not well known, but Mengel (8) states
that migrating flocks are seen in February to
early March. Present data for census 7 and 10
confirmed the timing of spring migration. Dur-
ing census 10, for instance, 6 Red-tailed Hawks
were observed soaring in an area of approx-
imately 2 km’, in what appeared to be an ag-
gregation typical of migrating birds.

Red-tailed Hawks generally preferred perch
sites along woodlot edges overlooking open
areas (12). Madison County habitats are very
diverse with plenty of edge habitat; in spite of
that, the density was low (0.09/km?, Table 2)
when compared with areas in Wisconsin com-
prising mostly open habitat, with a probably
lower frequency of perch sites (13). In those
areas, it may have been higher prey density
which favored larger raptor populations: Ring-
necked pheasants (Phasianus colchicus), absent
in Madison County, were considered an impor-
tant prey species in Wisconsin especially when
snow provided shelter for small mammals. In
addition, Madison County estimates were ob-
tained in rolling country with many woodlots;
density would therefore, be more easily
underestimated than in Wisconsin, where
counts were made in open, level terrain with few
woodlots (13).

Hawk densities generally may be related to
availability of perch sites. Relatively low in the
plains of Colorado (10), populations reported for
Kansas were comparable to those of Madison
County; the areas surveyed in Kansas (14) en-
compassed a variety of suitable edge habitats
such as tree lines along gullies and fields and
small stands along stream margins.

Rough-legged Hawks, Northern Harriers,
Red-shouldered Hawks, Sharp-shinned Hawks,
and Cooper’s Hawks were seen in low numbers
and together made up 6% of all observations.
Northern Harriers and Rough-legged Hawks are
found in Madison County primarily during the
winter and migrate from the area before the
onset of the breeding season (8). Last sightings
for both species were made during census 8,
which represented the approximate time of
northward migration. Both species occurred in

Trans. Kentucky Academy of Science — 45(3-4)

mean densities of 0.005/km? (Table 2), which is
far below estimates obtained for both in Col-
orado (10). The Rough-legged Hawk’s southern
limit of its main winter range is just north of
Kentucky, and low densities were expected (8).
Both species prefer open areas for hunting,
which may account for their high winter density
in Colorado. Craighead and Craighead (6)
found that Northern Harriers spent up to 57% of
their time perched on the ground, whereas
Rough-legged Hawks preferred to perch in lone
trees or on telephone poles (15). These species
do not require wooded areas and can reach high
densities in the plains of Colorado where open
spaces and isolated perch sites prevail.

Red-shouldered Hawks were present in
Madison County in small numbers throughout
the winter, the mean density being 0.004 in-
dividuals /km/? (Table 2). Densities of this species
in other areas are not known; in Madison Coun-
ty, they constituted a minor component of the
raptor community.

Sharp-shinned and Cooper’s Hawk popula-
tions (0.0004 and 0.001/km?, respectively, Table
2) were probably grossly underestimated. Both
species prefer wooded habitats where they are
not easily counted by automobile census.

All population estimates must be con-
sidered minimum estimates, since some birds
were probably obscured by landscape features
and buildings, and Northern Harriers, for in-
stance, spend much time on the ground where
they may not be visible from a car. The hunting
ranges of some raptors frequently the study area
undoubtedly covered a larger territory than the
width of the census strip. A bird hunting outside
of the census strip on any given day would have
been omitted from the census.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Special thanks are extended to those who
helped in obtaining field data: R. Altman, G.
Barels, P. Mastrangelo, G. Murphy, J. Schafer,
C. Schuler, T. Towles, and, especially, J. Col-
burn; and R. Snider for reviewing the
manuscript.

LITERATURE CITED

1. Bart, J. 1977. Winter distribution of Red-tailed
Hawks in central New York state. Wilson Bull.
89:623-625.

2. Bildstein, K. L. 1978. Behavioral ecology of
Red-tailed Hawks (Buteo jamaicensis), Rough-
legged Hawks (B. lagopus), Northern Harriers
(Circus cyaneus), American Kestrels (Falco
sparverius), and other raptorial birds wintering
in southcentral Ohio. Ph.D. Dissertation. The
Ohio State University, Columbus.

Wintering Raptors in Kentucky — Sferra 131

. Bolen, E. G. and D. S. Derden. 1980. Winter
returns of American Kestrels. J. Field Ornithol.
51:174-175.

. Johnson, D. and J. H. Enderson. 1972. Road-
side raptor census in Colorado - winter
1971-1972. Wilson Bull. 84:489-490.

. Mills, G. S. 1975. A winter population study of
the American Kestrel in central Ohio. Wilson
Bull. 87:241-247.

. Craighead, J. J. and F. C. Craighead, Jr. 1956.
Hawks, owls and wildlife. Stackpole,
Harrisburg, PA.

. Soil Conservation Service. 1973. Soil survey of
Madison County, Kentucky. U.S. Dept. of Agri.
& Ky. Agri. Exp. Sta., Lexington, KY.

. Mengel, R. S. 1965. The birds of Kentucky.
Ornithol. Mono. No. 3. Am. Ornithol. Union.,
Lawrence, Kansas.

. Enderson, J. H. 1960. A population study of the
Sparrow Hawk in eastcentral Illinois. Wilson
Bull. 72:222-231.

10.

11.

12.

13.

14.

15.

Enderson, J. H. 1965. Roadside raptor count in
Colorado. Wilson Bull. 77:82-83.

Layne, J. N. 1980. Trends in numbers of
American Kestrels on roadside counts in
southcentral Florida from 1968 to 1976. Flo.
Field. Nat. 89:1-36.

Sferra, N. J. In Prep. Habitat utilization of
Kestrels (Falco sparverius) and Red-tailed
Hawks (Buteo jamaicensis) wintering in
Madison County, Kentucky.

Gates, J. M. 1972. Red-tailed Hawk populations

and ecology in east central Wisconsin. Wilson
Bull. 81:421-433.

Fitch, H. S. and R. O. Bare. 1978. A field study
of the Red-tailed Hawk in eastern Kansas.
Trans. Kan. Acad. Sci. 81:1-12.

Schnell, G. D. 1968. Differential habitat utiliza-
tion of wintering Rough-leqged and Red-tailed
Hawks. Condor 70:373-377.

RH - Transportation Costs in Kentucky - Smith and Hilton

Polynomial Modeling and Predictive Evaluation
of Tariff-Derived Transportation
Costs in Kentucky

Alan D. Smith
Coal Mining Administration, College of Business
Eastern Kentucky University, Richmond, KY 40475

Charles L. Hilton
Department of Business Administration, Eastern Kentucky University
Richmond, KY 40475

ABSTRACT

The analysis of transportation and distribution costs includes careful and accurate calculation
of costs. These calculations include rate studies and their adjustments within a particular location
that a company or carrier operates. One approach to this problem is to model physical distribution
costs, based on carrier tariffs derived from the National Motor Freight Classification for commodity
classes, from selected origin and distribution points to the state of Kentucky.

The present study is based on polynomial-surface modeling and spatial analysis, via hypothesis
testing and model comparisons of polynomial trend-surfaces, of costs in dollars for 100-pound
shipments in commodity classes or ratings of 77.5 and 100. The origin point is Chicago, Illinois, for
illustrative purposes, to selected destination points in the state of Kentucky. Significant and predic-
tive trends were established, with R’s over 83 per cent of explained variance of spatial-oriented,
transportation costs in Kentucky. In general, the generated models and their mathematical expres-
sion and error analysis may aid the decision maker in setting realistic prices, based on the predictive
trends derived from the tariffs studied. These models may be developed for almost any series of
origin and destination points that a particular carrier or user wants to establish, assuming certain
data and research design constraints are observed.

INTRODUCTION Along with the desire to establish rates
associated with transportation costs is the need
to classify all articles of commerce in a uniform
fashion. The Standard Transportation Com-
modity Codes were developed by adhering as
closely as possible to the classification system
used by the Budget Bureau’s Standard In-
dustrial Classification and were initially used by
the railroads to accomodate the reporting of
carload statistics to the ICC (3).
Transportation rates have traditionally
been established using two basic factors: ship-
ping characteristics of the product and the
distance factor, which reflects the amount of
miles between origin and destination points.
Shipping characteristics have been treated in
the Uniform Freight Classification for the
railroad industry and the National Motor
Freight Classification for the motor carrier in-
dustry. Class ratings reflect the proportional dif-
ferences in the carrier’s handling of the specific
group of commodities - a class rating of 100
commodity would cost proportionally more to
handle than a class rating of 77.5. Carrier rates

Transportation enterprises are engaged in
producing a composite of heterogeneous groups
of services for which precise costs cannot be
determined. In addition, transportation or
physical removal and replacement of com-
modities is only one aspect of the total amounts
involved in the calculation of physical distribu-
tion costs. Physical distribution costs include a
large variety of separate and distinct functions
that are coordinated together, such as
warehousing and related storage, packaging,
inventory control, and materials handling. This
lack of price control is true for most modes of
transport, although the railroads are the most
outstanding illustration of this situation (1).
Hence, because of the position that the railroads
held in the transport structure of this country
until relatively recent years, discrimination in
some form or another has resulted in the in-
tervention of regulatory bodies. However,
discriminatory pricing may contain both com-
petitive and monopoly elements, and it is very
difficult to separate the 2 and give them a quan-

titative content (2, 3). Although this is so, it does increase as a funditon of distance, but at an
not follow that all discrimination would be overall decreasing Tale: :

undesirable and, in fact, it may be necessary for The purpose of this research is to relate the
survival. cost of transportation derived from carrier tariffs

132

Transportation Costs in Kentucky — Smith 133

as a function of physical distance, from cen-
tralized locations to particular points for model-
ing purposes. Hence, by mathematically model-
ing, for predictive purposes, establishing
general trends and its error evaluation, a
managerial decision tool can readily be made
available.

METHODS

The major research tools used in the pre-
sent study are polynomial-trend surface
analyses, hypothesis testing, and model com-
parisons of trend surfaces, generated from com-
mercially available computer software, via the
line printer (4).

Polynomial Trend Surface Analysis
and Model Comparisons

A trend is a statistically derived surface to
explain variations in a given set of values, known
as Z-values, that have a given geographic posi-
tion, either regularly or irregularly distributed in
the x-y plane. The surface is the representation
of an equation using the least-squares criterion.
This means that the generated surface will be fit-
ted to the input data in such a way that the sum
of the squared deviations between the data at
their particular locations and the corresponding
value of the computed surface are minimized.
Thus, the least-squares criterion calls for the
surface to be laid down in such a way that the
sum of the squares of these discrepancies is as
small as possible, as indicated by: d* = E,
where d’? = deivation squared and E =
minimum value.

The basic reasoning behind minimizing the
sum of squares of the deviations, and not
minimizing the sum of the absolute magnitudes
of the discrepancies are 1) It is extremely difficult
to mathematically deal with the absolute
discrepancies or deviations; while the treatment
of the squared deviations provides the method of
practical mathematical developments in the in-
terpretation of the regression equation and 2)
Useful and desirable statistical properties follow
from using the least-squares criterion (5, 6, 7).

The equation describing the surface can be
linear (plane), quadratic (paraboloid), cubic
(paraboloid with an additional point of inflec-
tion), to higher order degree surfaces. In
general, the higher the order of the surface, the
more the residuals, or individual deviations will
be minimized and the more computation will be
required. The higher-order trend surfaces may
reflect the variation in Z-values more accurately
if the study area is complex, but lower-order sur-

faces may be more useful in the isolation of local
trends. The filtering mechanism allows the up-
per limit of variability to be determined by the
order of the surface. The equation for a linear
trend surface, for example, is: Y = b, + b,X, +
b.X,, where Y = dependent variable, b = con-
stant value related to the mean of the observa-
tions, b,, b, = coefficients, X,, X, = geographic
coordinates. This linear equation generates 3
unknowns and 3 equations are needed to deter-
mine a solution. These equations are:

n n n.
(1) 2 Y = bon+b, = X,+b, =X
=) i=1 i=l,

(2) 8SeX, Vieibyac Xai aX, Geiby. SOX-Xs, and
=] i=) i= l=

n n n n
(3) 2 XiY=bo 2 X,+b, 2 X,X,+b, 2 X.

reat i=l evil i=l

where n = number of observations or data col-
lected. Solving these equations simultaneously
will give the coefficients of the best-fitting linear
surfaces, where best fit is defined by the least-
square criterion. As the degree of the trend-
surface that is to be used increases, so does the
number of equations that must be solved
simultaneously.

The significance of a trend or regression
may be tested by performing an analysis of
variance, which deals with the separation of the
total variance of a set of observations into com-
ponents with defined sources of variation (8). In
trend-surface analysis, the total variance in an
independent variable may be divided into the
trend itself, which is determined by regression
analysis, and the residuals, or error vector. An
analysis of variance table can be calculated
(Table 1). By reducing the sum of squares,
derived from the least-square criterion, an
estimate of the variance can be computed by us-
ing the F-distribution (8). The F-test, like a
t-test, is a very robust test and relatively insen-
sitive to violations of the assumptions of random
selection of observations and normal distribu-
tion of the variables (9, 10). Newman and Fraas
(11) and Nunnally (12) looked at a number of in-
vestigations that dealt with the F-distribution
assumptions and their violation and sum-
marized by suggesting that no appreciable effect
on the accuracy of the F-test from skewed sam-
ple distribution occurred. In addition, if sample
sizes are equal, heterogeneity of variance has a
negligible effect.

134

Table 1 - Typical Analysis of Variance Table for
Polynomial Trend Surfaces.

Source of Sum of Degrees of Mean F Ratio
Variation Squares Freedom Squares
Regression SS m MS MS /MS
Reg Req Reg Res
Residual SS n-m-1 MS
Res Res
Total SS n-1
Note In the table, m is the number of coefficients in the polynomial-

trend surface equation, not including the constant term, by; and
n is the number of valid data points used in the regression

equation.

The F-test for significance of fit is a test of
the null hypothesis that the partial regression
coefficients are equal to zero and, hence, there
is no regression. If the computed F-value ex-
ceeds the F-value having a probability of a set
alpha level, (7° = 0.01 to 0.05) the null
hypothesis is rejected. In polynomial trend-
surface analysis, it is customary for in-
vestigators to fit a series of successively higher
degrees to the data without statistically testing
the higher order’s contribution in additional
variance. Davis (8) suggested that an analysis of
variance table be expanded to analyze the con-
tribution of the additional partial regression
coefficients to give a measure of the ap-
propriateness of each order equation. In regres-
sion work, the question often arises as to
whether it was worthwhile to include certain
terms associated with the order of the
polynomial in the model. This question can be
investigated by considering the extra portion of
the regression sum of squares which arises due
to the fact that the terms under consideration
were in the model. If this extra sum of squares is
significantly large, those terms should be includ-
ed. However, if nonsignificant, they are judged
unnecessary and should be deleted. For exam-
ple, SS (b,/b,) is the extra sum of squares owing
to the B,X, term included in a model which
otherwise only contained B,. If the F-test in-
dicated significance, the model should include
the B,X, term. The full versus restricted model
principle implies that if the null hypothesis,
where H,:B, = 0 were true, and if this condition
is imposed on the model, the result would be
that contribution of the 3,X, term is zero. This is
equivalent to discharging the [3,X, term from the
model, resulting in the restricted model. Hence,
the restricted model is the model which results
when the specific null hypothesis, which is
assumed true, is imposed or restricted on the full
model. The full model is the model which con-
tains all the terms of the lower and higher order

Trans. Kentucky Academy of Science — 45(3-4)

polynomial coefficients being tested. The sum of
squares of the null hypothesis (SS (H,)) is equal
to the difference of the regression sum of
squares of the full less the regression sum of
squares of the restricted model. Also, the
degrees of freedom of the null hypothesis (df
(H,)) is simply the difference between the
degrees of freedom of the full and restricted
models.

Study Area

For illustrative purposes, motor carrier
transportation costs were computed using com-
modity classes 77.5 and 100 at the 100 pounds of
shipment weight and were selected from an
origin point in Chicago, Illinois to destination
points in or around Kentucky (Table 2). The
costs are in dollars, per 100 pounds of shipment

weight.

Table 2. Transportation Costs for Classes 77.5 and 100
from Chicago, Illinois to Selected Points in or
around Kentucky.

From Chicago
to Points in

Zip

Rate

Costs, in Dollars,
Code Group per 100 Pounds of

Kentucky Shipment Weight
Class 77.5 Class 100
Manchester 409 41 13.15 16.50
London 407 39 12.80 16.05
Somerset 425 37 12.43 15.65
Russell Springs 425 37 12.43 15.65
Columbis 427 34 11.91 14.80
Glasgow 421 40 12.96 16.26
Munfordville 427 34 11.91 14.80
Bowling Green 421 40 12.96 16.26
Morgantown 421 40 12.96 16.26
Greenville 423 33 11.65 14.50
Princeton 424 32 11.35 14.21
Paducah 420 34 11.91 14.80
Wickliffe 420 +34 11.91 14.80
Middlesboro 409 41 13.15 16.50
Pineville 409 41 13.15 16.50
Williamsburg 409 41 13.15 16.50
Albany 385 46 14.19 17.91
Tompkinsville 421 40 12.96 16.26
Scottsville 421 40 12.96 16.26
Corbin 407 39 12.80 16.05
Franklin 421 40 12.96 16.26
Russellville 422 34 11.91 14.80
Hopkinsville 422 34 11.91 14.80
Canton 420 34 11.91 14.80
Murray 420 34 11.91 14.80
Mayfield 420 34 11.91 14.80
Hickman 420 34 11.91 14.80
Williamson 412 37 12.43 15.65
Prestonberg 414 39 12.80 16.05

Continued)

Table 2 continued
Salyersville
Irvine
Richmond
Danville
Elizabethtown
Hardinsburg
Owensboro
Henderson
Morganfield
Sebree
Lebanon
Lancaster
Berea
Jackson
Pikeville
Jenkins
Hazard
McKee

Mt. Vernon
Campbellsville
Letchfield
Caneyville
Hartford
Madisonville
Marion
Lynch

Hyden
Covington
Walton

Portsmouth, O.

Vanceburg
Maysville
Falmouth
Williamstown
Carrollton
New Castle
Owenton
Ashland
Grayson
Cythiana
Louisville
Shelbyville
Frankfort
Georgetown
Paris
Morehead
Louisa
Liberty

Mt. Sterling
Winchester
Lexington
Bloomfield
Shepherdsville

BRESREBSEEERRKEESSRRSESRRBBKRREY

Ww Ww YW
BSBSSS

32

Transportation Costs in Kentucky — Smith 135

12.80
11.91
12.27
12.27
11.91
11.65
11.65
11.35
11.35
11.35
11.35
12.27
12.27
12.80
eee i(6)
13.72
13.15
12.27
12.27
11.91
11.91
11.91
11.65
11.35
11.35
13.72
13515
11.35
11.35
12.80
12.43
11.35
11.35
11.35
11.35
11.35
11.35
12.43
12.43
11.35
11.35
11.35
11.91
11.91
11.91
11.91
12.43
12.80
11.91
11.91
11.91
11.35
11.35

16.05
14.80
15.42
15.42
14.80
14.50
14.50
14.21
14.21
14.21
14.21
15.42
15.42
16.05
16.50
17.22
16.50
15.42
15.42
14.80
14.80
14.80
14.50
14.21
14.21
17.22
16.50
14.21
14.21
16.05
15.65
14.21
14.21
14.21
14.21
14.21
14.21
15.65
15.65
14.80
14.21
14.21
14.80
14.80
14.80
14.80
15.65
16.05
14.80
14.80
14.80
14.21
14.21

Data Collection Techniques

A total of 79 points were selected in Ken-

tucky and their related physical distribution
costs from Chicago, Illinois were calculated. All
costs, for both commodity classes 77.5 and 100
were derived from tariffs for 100 pounds of ship-
ment weight. The 79 data points were estab-
lished by selecting points in a straight-line
fashion across the state of Kentucky at approx-
imately 20-30 mile-wide bands. Next, the
associated transportation costs from Chicago,
Illinois, were determined and used as the initial
data base, along with spatial coordinates, in the
development of the mathematical models. Each
destination point was recorded and trend sur-
face analysis techniques, via SYMAP (13) anda
computer program suggested by Smith (14),
were performed.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Tables 3 and 4 illustrate the mechanics and
results of the hypothesis testing and model com-
parisons of polynomial trend surfaces in predict-
ng transportation costs to the state of Kentucky
for the commodity classes 77.5 and 100, as well
as the differences in changes for the various
classes. Table 3 shows the hypothesis testing
and modeling comparison results, in traditional
analysis of variance (ANOVA) format, to deter-
mine if the third-degree, polynomial trend sur-
face of classes 77.5 and 100 differences, from
Chicago, Illinois to selected points of destination
in Kentucky, accounted for enough explained
variance in predicting its spatial distribution
over random variation or no trend. The variance
accounted for by the third-order surface was
substantial (R? = 75.20) and was found to be
highly significant (p = 0.0000). Table 4 sum-
marizes the same basic information found in
Table 3, but restates it in standard multiple
linear regression (MLR) terminology. As shown
in Table 4, a summary of the F-ratios, prob-
ability levels, R? for both the full and restricted
models, degrees of freedom-numerator, degrees
of freedom-denominator, and _ statistical
significance for each trend surface is presented.
As evident from a quick inspection of the table,
the costs for the two commodity classes studied
from Chicago, Illinois to location coordinates in
Kentucky, similar results were not evident.
Although both the sixth-degree, polynomial
trends were found to account for a statistically
significant amount of explained variance (R? for
77.5 was 83.03 per cent, and R? for class 100 was
83.03 per cent as well, representing a constant
and proportionate difference in the costs for the
two commodity classes), the sixth-degree sur-
face was not found to be statistically the best fit,
since it did not account for enough variance for
the lower-degree surfaces. the second-order sur-
face was found to be best fit (R? = 75.89 per
cent, p = 0.0000).

136 Trans. Kentucky Academy of Science — 45(3-4)

Table 3. ANOVA Table for Third-Degee, Polynomial Trend Surface
Predicting the Spatial Distribution of Transportation Costs,
Class Differences between 100 and 77.5, from Chicago, Il-
linois to Points in Kentucky, Over Random Variation.

Source of

f
Variation Ss ane MS F-Ratio Prob. Sign.
d
Third Degree*
Regression 2.77074 9 0.30786 23.2454 0.0000 S**

Error (Residuals) 0.91383 69 0.01324

Total 3.68457 78

R? = 0.7520, R? = 0.0
f r
** Denotes statistical significance at the 0.01 level for a nondirectional,
two-tailed test.

a
Third order regression equation, with geographic coordinates, X and
Y, in SYMAP asis system:

TRANSPORTATION COSTS = 5.3764160172 - 0.40624614518X -
0.58931266603Y + 0.01974342150X + 0.5875116076XY +
0.04008445257Y? — 0.00020337758X" — 0.00167429687X*Y —
0.00126830580XY? — 0.00068289589Y" + Error (Residuals)

Table 4. Summary of F-Ratios, Probability levels, R? for both the Full
and Restricted Models, Degrees of Freedom-Numerator,
Degrees of Freedom-Denominator, and Significance for each
Trend Surface for Predicting Transportation Costs from
Chicago, Illinois to Destination Points in Kentucky.

Order of

_ & 2 2
Trend Surface Ri Rt 0/ af

Class of 100 (N = 79)

1 0.7229 0.0 2/76 99.13200.0000 Ss
2 0.7589 0.0 5/73 45.94990.0000 Ss
3 0.7776 «(0.0 9/69 26.80380.0000 Ss
4 0.7894 0.0 14/64 17.13860.0000 Sia
5 0.8196 0.0 20/58 13.17670.0000 Ss
6 0.8303 0.0 27/51 9.24320.0000 Sines
lvus2 0.7589 0.7229 3/73 3.63120.0168 Ss
2vs3 0.7776 0.7589 4/69 1.45120.2266 NS
3us 4 0.7894 0.7776 5/64 0.72000.6108 NS
4us5 0.8196 0.7894 6/58 1.61750.1587 NS
5 vs 6 0.8303 0.8196 7/51 0.45970.8589 NS

Class of 77.5(N = 79)

1 0.7229 0.0 2/76 99.13200.0000 S)

2 0.7589 0.0 5/73 45.94990.0000 Shik
3 0.776 80.0 9/69 26.80380.0000 S*
4 0.7894 0.0 14/64 17.13860.0000 S)

5 0.8196 0.0 20/58 13.17670.0000 Sve
6 0.8303 0.0 27/51 9.24320.0000 Sr?
lvs 2 0.7589 0.7229 3/73 3.63120.0168 S>
2vs3 0.7776 0.7589 4/69 1.45120.2266 NS
3us 4 0.7894 0.7776 5/64 0.72000.6108 NS
4vus5 0.8196 0.7894 6/58 1.61750.1587 NS
Svs 6 0.8303 0.8196 7/51 0.45970.8589 NS

denotes statistical significance at the 0.05 level
** denotes statistical significance at the 0.01 level

CONCLUSION

As evident in the spatial modeling and the
polynomial surfaces derived and its statistical
analyses summarized in Table 4, significant and
predictive trends do exist for the transportation
costs, as derived from the motor-carrier tariffs,
for the commodity classes studied in the state.
The models aid the decision maker in setting
realistic prices, based on these tariffs, and may
be established for almost any series of origin and
destination points that a particular company or
user may be interested in, provided certain data
and research design constraints are observed.

The major benefit of modeling research is to
be able to parameterize the actual distributions
of important parameters associated with
physical distribution costs. Examples illustrated
in this research allow the user to mathematical-
ly portray selected distributions of parameters in
order to take administrative measures in the
future to establish reasonable pricing structures.
This process can bring the business ad-
ministrator’s “common sense” and judgement
into play to determine the best fit. With the in-
creasing use and availability of appropriate soft-
ware and hardware, computer modeling should
be used in conjunction with statistical models in
estimating the usefulness and limitations of
trend-surface analyses for predictive purposes in
generating models with geographic dimensions.

LITERATURE CITED

1. Pegrum, D. F. 1973. Transportation: Economics
and Public Policy. Richard D. Irwin, Inc.,
Homeword, Il.

2. Ballou, R. H. 1973. Business Logistics Manage-
ment. Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, New
Jersey.

3. Flood, K. U. 1975. Traffic Management, 3rd ed.
William C. Brown Co., Dubuque, Iowa.

4. Wheeler, J. O., and P. O. Muller. 1981.
Economic Geography. John Wiley and Sons,
Inc., New York.

5. McNeil, K. A., F. J. Kelly, and J. T. McNeil.
1976. Testing Research Hypotheses using Multi-
ple Linear Regression. South Illinois University
Press, Carbondale, Illinois.

6. Minium, E. W. 1978. Statistical Reasoning in
Psychology and Education, 2nd Ed. John Wiley
and Sons, Inc., New York.

7. Rohatigi, V. K. 1976. An Introduction to Prob-
ability Theory and Mathematical Statistics.
dohn Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York.

8. Davis, J. C. 1973. Statistics and Data Analysis
in Geology. John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New
York.

9. Edwards, A. L. 1972. Experimental Design in
Psychological Research, 4th ed. Holt, Rinehart,
and Winston, Inc., New York.

10. Newman, I., and C. Newman. 1977. Conceptual
Statistics for Beginners. Univ. Press of America,
Washington, D.C.

11.

12.

Transportation Costs in Kentucky — Smith 137

Newman, I., and J. Fraas. 1978. The malprac-
tice of statistical interpretation. Multiple Linear
Regression Viewpoints. 9:1-25.

Nunnally, J. 1967. Psychometic Theory.
McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York.

13.

14.

Dougenik, J. A. and D. E. Sheehari. 1979.
SYMAP User’s Reference Manual. Harvard
University Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts.
Smith, A. D. 1982. Hypothesis Testing and
Model Comparisons of Trend Surfaces. Trans. of
the Kent. Acad. of Sci. 44:17-21.

RH - Insects and Aflatoxin in Kentucky corn—Rodriguez, et. al.

Role of Selected Corn Insects
and Plant Stress in

Aflatoxin Production in Kentucky Corn’

J. G. Rodriguez, C. G. Patterson, M. F. Potts
C. G. Poneleit, and R. L. Beine
University of Kentucky
Lexington, KY 40546-0091

ABSTRACT

The influence of such prominent ear-damaging insects as the corn earworm, Heliothis zea
(Boddie), European corn borer, Ostrinia nubilalis (Hubner), and the maize weevil, Sitophilus
zeamais Motschulsky was examined in their capacity to disseminate Aspergillus parasiticus and A.
flavus spores to pre-harvest corn. Corn earworm infestation was simulated (S-CEW) by stabbing the
ear through the husk with a knife blade, and this also served to inoculate the kernels with high
aflatoxin producing strains of A. parasiticus (NRRL 2999) and A. flavus (NRRL 3251). European corn
borer (ECB) was introduced as egg masses and maize weevils (MW) were introduced as adults. All
treatments were introduced singly or in combinations. Rainfall was adequate during the 1982 grow-
ing season but drought conditions prevailed during 1983. The highest levels of aflatoxin occurred
generally in treatments involving insects or their combinations plus either species of the fungi. In
1983, very high levels of aflatoxin were attributable to the drought stressed corn. A mean production
of >54,000 ppb total aflatoxin was elicited from the ECB, S-CEW plus NRRL 2999 and MW combina-
tion compared with >24,000 ppb when NRRL 3251 was inoculated instead of NRRL 2999. The
untreated control produced a mean of >2,500 ppb aflatoxin in 1983 compared to a mean of 1 ppb in
1982.

INTRODUCTION

loss from feeding such corn. Hundreds of

Only since 1971 has aflatoxin contamina- animals . . . have been lost from some cause
tion of corn been recognized as mainly a thought to be the eating of this moldy corn.”
preharvest problem of field corn (1). These They also recognized storage problems for they
workers surveyed the northern, central and wrote: “Corn is stored in cribs and sold in the
southern counties of both Indiana and Kentucky husks about Hickman, and farmers state that
in 1971 and 1972 and found field corn infected unless it is thoroughly dried before putting in the
with Aspergillus flavus. This is not to say that cribs it molds badly and that stock often refuse

“moldy corn” has not been recognized as a prob- to eat it. They charge the molding to the
lem for a longer period. Garman and Jewett (2), earworm.”
in studying the life history of the corn earworm, Since then, continued investigation has

Heliothis zea (Boddie) in Kentucky, speaking removed any doubt that Aspergillus contamina-
about corn injured by the corn earworm stated tion and aflatoxin production is primarily a
in part: “Injured corn does not sell well, and if problem that begins in the field and it is not
badly damaged, can hardly sell at all. If used by —_ nearly the serious storage problem as formerly

the farmer himself, . . . there is the risk of injur- believed, as drying high moisture grain prevents
ing and even killing the animals to which it is mold growth. We have been involved in the
fed . . . numerous complaints have come each aflatoxin problem in corn because Kentucky and

winter to the Kentucky Experiment Station of the southeastern states comprise a region where

‘The investigation reported in this paper (No. 84-7-58) is in connection with a project of the Kentucky Agricultural Experiment Station and is

published with approval of the Director.

138

Insects and aflatoxin in Kentucky corn — Rodriquez et al. 139

aflatoxin contamination is recognized as a
serious problem (3). Research in this area has
progressed rapidly and a regional aflatoxin sym-
posium involving the southeastern states was
held in 1982 to review and report findings (4).

The role of arthropods in field contamina-
tion of Aspergillus flavus in corn was thoroughly
reviewed at the above symposium (5). Our
research has also examined the role of insects
and mites in A. flavus dissemination and
conuomitantly the effect of mycotoxins on the
arthropod (6, 7, 8).

The objectives in the work reported here
were to examine the influence that some
selected insects such as the European corn
borer, Ostrinia nubilalis (Hubner), maize weevil,
Sitophilus zeamais Motschulsky, and corn ear-
worm, Heliothis zea (Boddie) may exert in com-
bined effects of dissemination, and infection of
A. flavus and production of aflatoxins under
Kentucky conditions. Concomitantly, it was our
objective to determine the possible additive
effects of plant stress, introduced to the corn
plant by the European corn borer, on alfatoxin
production.

MATERIALS AND METHODS
GENERAL METHODS.

Corn hybrids were planted in 6 replications
of a randomized block design with each plot
having 20 plants minimum. Four European corn
borer (ECB) egg masses were introduced per
plant by placement on the leaf immediately
beneath the ear at beginning silk and again 3-4
days later. Simulated corn earworm (S-CEW)
injury was via a knife wound made by a stab (ca.
3 cm long) about mid-ear, longitudinally
through the husk, and this also served to in-
troduce fungal spores to the ear. The fungi were
originally obtained from the USDA Northern
Regional Research Laboratory, Peoria, IL.
Aspergillus parasiticus NRRL 2999, a heavy G
aflatoxin producer, and A. flavus NRRL 3251, a
heavy B aflatoxin producer, were inoculated by
dipping the knife blade tip into the inoculum,
which was standardized to provide a spore
count of ca. 2.5 x 10° spores/ml. Inoculation was
generally done 15 days after 50% pollination had
occurred. Maize weevil (MW) were introduced
onto the ear by pulling the husk tip down slightly
and placing the weevils on the kernels and then
closing the husk and securing with a rubber
band. MW adults were randomly selected from a
mixed population and placed on established
Aspergillus cultures of NRRL 2999 and NRRL
3251, and allowed to become contaminated
overnight. Five MW adults were then introduced

to each ear. Uncontaminated weevils were used
as a check. All treatments were made singly or
in combination with other treatments (Tables
1-3). The untreated control plants were allowed
to grow undisturbed to maturity/harvest. All
plots were protected from bird damage by cap-
ping the ear with a plastic screen mesh bag.
Ears were harvested by hand and placed in
nylon net bags for oven drying; this was done for
1 wk at 38°C, lowering the moisture to ca. 13
percent. The ears were then hand-shelled,
ground in a Stein mill, the 20-ear sample was
split to ca. 1/16 of the original sample, and
weighted into a tared bottle.

Table 1. Treatments on Pioneer 3369A planted in
the South farm, University of Kentucky,
Lexington, 1983. Treatments were
replicated 6 times, 1 row of 20 plants per
replicate.

TREATMENTS
applied 15 days after 50% pollination®

1. Knife wound (S-CEW), simulated corn earworm
2. S-CEW with NRRL 2999, Aspergillus
parasiticus
3. S-CEW with NRRL 3251, A. flavus
4. European corn borer (ECB), Ist generation
5. ECB, 2nd generation
6. ECB, Ist and 2nd generation
7. ECB, 2nd generation plus MW (5/ear)
8. ECB, 2nd generation plus MW (10/ear)
9. Maize Weevil (MW)
10. MW plus NRRL 2999
11. MW plus NRRL 3251
12. ECB 2nd generation, S-CEW with NRRL 2999
13. ECB 2nd generation, S-CEW with NRRL 3251
14. ECB 2nd generation, S-CEW with NRRL 2999
and MW
15. ECB 2nd generation, S-CEW with NRRL 3251
and MW
16. Untreated control

Corollary Experiment:
S-CEW with NRRL 3251 and MW -
Days after 50% pollination

1. 7 days
2. 15 days
3. 28 days
4. 35 days
5. Untreated control (same as 16 above)

* ECB treatments: Ist generation made when plants
were ca. 0.5 m high; 2nd generation made when corn
was beginning to silk.

140 Trans. Kentucky Academy of Science — 45(3-4)

Table 2. Treatments and results of aflatoxin analyses of corn from
two hybrids grown at Quicksand, Kentucky, 1982.
Treatments were replicated 6 times, 1 row of 20 plants
per replicate.

Means, 2 Hybrids (ppb)*

Treatment B, B, G, G, Total
1. Untreated control Ic Ic Oc 7c Ic
2. Knife wound (S-CEW) 27b 2b 8c Ic 38b
3. S-CEW with NRRL 2999 610a 39a 153b 10b 8ila
4. S-CEW with NRRL 3251 664a Sda 27c 2c 747a
5. European corn borer (ECB)° Ic Ic Oc Oc Ic
6. ECB plus S-CEW with

NRRL 2999 783a 54a 303a 19a 1159a
7. ECB plus S-CEW with

NRRL 3251 742a 58a Oc Oc 800a

Hybrid effect across all treatments (Total aflatoxin, ppb)
C166xFR802W - 266a
FRMO017xT232 - 541b

a P aan "
Values with the same letter are not significantly different at 5% level,
by Duncan's multiple range test

by
Simulated corn earworm

c .
ECB egg masses on all second generation treatments

Analysis for aflatoxin was by a proven TLC
method of high sensitivity developed by us
(RLB), and followed the procedures outlined in
Rodriguez, et al. (8).

The data were analyzed using SAS
ANOVA, with log transformations, and
Duncan’s multiple range test. Aflatoxin levels
are reported in actual values.

Table 3. Treatments and results of aflatoxin analyses of corn from
two hybrids grown at South Farm, Lexington, Kentucky,
1982. Treatments were replicated 6 times, 1 row of 20
plants per replicate.
Means, 2 Hybrids (ppb)*
Treatment B, B, G, G, Total
1. Untreated control 8c Ic Od = Od 9d
2. Knife wound (S-CEW) 28c Se ld 0d 32d
3. S-CEW with NRRL 2999 723ab 55ab 368b 22c 1058abc
4. S-CEW with NRRL 3251 625b 43b 3d Id 649c
5. Maize weevil (MW) 4c 2c Id 0d 12d
6. MW plus NRRL 2999 1643a 93a 146la 90a 3287a
7. MW plus NRRL 3251 630ab 47ab24c_—O dS 802ab
8. European corn borer
(ECB) 2c Od Od Od 9d
9. ECB plus S-CEW with
NRRL 2999 975ab 59ab 704a 35b 1773ab
10. ECB plus S-CEW with
NRRL 3251 603ab 37ab 2d 1d 699be

Hybrid effect across all treatments (total aflatoxin, ppb)
C166xFR802W - 685a
FRMO17xT232 - 1007b

a Pa peers Fy
Values with the same letter are not significantly different at 5% level,
by Duncan's multiple range test

Simulated corn earworm

c
Second generation ECB egg masses on all ECB treatments

1982 Studies — Corn hybrids C166xFR802W
(white) and FRMO017xT232 (yellow) were grown
at the Robinson Substation, Quicksand, Ken-
tucky, and at the South Farm of the Kentucky
Agricultural Experiment Station in Lexington.
The Quicksand treatments are listed in Table 2
and were administered according to procedures
described above.

The Lexington treatments included MW in-
troductions which were not made at Quicksand
(Table 3).

1983 Studies — The experimental design for
the 1983 growing season varied from the
previous year in that one corn hybrid (Pioneer
3369A) was planted only at the South farm of the
Kentucky Agricultural Experiment Station in
Lexington. ECB egg masses were introduced to
coincide with first generation moth flight on
June 16-21, when the corn plants were ca. 0.5m
high, while the second generation introduction
was made at beginning silk. All other treatment
procedures followed those outlined in the
general test methods and are listed in Table 1.

A corollary experiment was performed to
study the effect of kernel maturity on aflatoxin
production when exposed to A. flavus (NRRL
3251), S-CEW and MW. Five adult MW’s were
introduced to each ear at 7, 15, 28 and 35 days
after 50% pollination had occurred. The
samples were harvested and prepared for
aflatoxin analysis as described previously.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The growing season in 1982 was considered
“normal”; precipitation was adequate at both
experimental fields in Quicksand and Lexington.
Hence, stress factors from abiotic sources were
generally absent. In reviewing the conditions
leading to fungal invasion of corn kernels with
A. flavus, Hesseltine (9) enumerated spore
inocula quantity, stress factors on the growing
plant, insect and mite populations, damage
from other fungi, varietal susceptibility or
resistance, mechanical damage from farming,
storm damage, bird damage, mineral nutrition
of the plant, and temperature. Our experimental
method involved stressing the growing plant
and developing ear with European corn borer
(ECB, via inoculation with egg masses), maize

Insects and aflatoxin in Kentucky corn — Rodriquez et al. 141

weevil (MW) and corn earworm (S-CEW, via
simulation by knife wound).

Analyses of the aflatoxins confirmed earlier
results demonstrating the high aflatoxin produc-
ing characteristics of the NRRL 2999 and NRRL
3251 strains (8). Also, the results pointed up the
especially high productivity of aflatoxin G, and
total aflatoxin by NRRL 2999 (Tables 2-6).
Again, this characteristic had been
demonstrated earlier (8). In 1982, the Quicksand
experiment showed that ECB combined with
NRRL 2999 introduced via S-CEW produced the
highest levels of B,, B,, G,, and G, aflatoxins,
but only in the G, type was this level significant
from the second highest level produced (Table
2). The ECB plus NRRL 2999 with S-CEW treat-
ment also elicited production of the second
highest level of the B and G aflatoxins at the
Lexington planting, being outproduced only by
the MW with NRRL 2999 treatment. The dif-
ference, however, was not significant (Table 3).
ECB alone did not prove to be significantly dif-
ferent than the untreated control, producing
only traces of aflatoxin at either location (Tables
2 and 3). The S-CEW treatment alone promoted
significantly higher levels of B,, B, and total
aflatoxin than ECB, or untreated control at
Quicksand (Table 2) but not at Lexington (Table
3). At Lexington, when MW was introduced in
several treatments, it played an important role
in influencing aflatoxin production. MW plus
NRRL 2999 produced the highest level of total
aflatoxin, while ECB plus S-CEW with NRRL
2999, S-CEW with NRRL 2999, and MW plus
NRRL 3251 followed in that order. MW alone,
however, proved to influence only low level
aflatoxin production (Table 3).

Hybrid effect was significant and this was
borne out at both locations, with FRM017xT232
giving a_ significantly higher level of total
aflatoxin than Cl66xFR802W (Tables 2, 3). This
difference, however, should be viewed from the

perspective of relative magnitude, and it is ap-
parent that this is not large enough to have a
significant impact in host plant resistance
towards Aspergillus contamination/aflatoxin
production. Consequently, we accept the find-
ings that neither hybrid offers genetic sources of
aflatoxin resistance. Because of this, Pioneer
3369A was planted in 1983, not only in Kentucky,
but in other southern states as part of a regional
study.

The summer of 1983 was extremely dry
except for the early one-third of the growing
season, and the planting at the South Farm in
Lexington was under great water stress. Harvest
yield in the experimental field was estimated as
being ca. 40 percent of normal (Avg. corn yield
for Fayette County was estimated at 32 bu/A. by
Kentucky Crop and Livestock Reporting Ser-
vice, compared to 105 bu/A. in 1981).
Aspergillus infection was readily evident at
harvest, and unusually high levels of aflatoxin
were produced in all treatments, including the
control plots (Table 4). This was attributable to
the stressed condition of the growing plant and
preharvest corn. The highest levels were found
in the treatments involving insects, i.e., ECB,
MW, and S-CEW, or their combinations plus
either species of the fungi. A mean production of
54,330 ppb total aflatoxin was encountered from
the ECB (2nd gen.), S-CEW plus NRRL 2999
and MW (treatment no. 14), compared with
24,760 ppb when NRRL 3251 (treatment no. 15)
was substituted for NRRL 2999 (Tables 4, 6). The
untreated control produced 2,560 ppb, com-
pared to a mean of 1 ppb in 1982. The insects, or
their combinations, contaminated with
Aspergillus, generally resulted in significantly
higher levels of total aflatoxin than the
treatments introducing insects without fungi, or
the untreated control. The only exception was
the ECB, Ist and 2nd generation, treatment no.
6 (Tables 1, 4).

142

Table 4. Treatment effect: Aflatoxin analyses of corn hybrid grown at South Farm, Lexington, Kentucky, 1983.

Trans. Kentucky Academy of Science — 45(3-4)

Aflatoxin Mean, ppb?

Treatment
No.> B, B, G, G, Total
14 25,670a 2,330ab 23,330a 3,000a 54,330a
10 17,330abc 2,170ab 14,670ab 2,000ab 36,170ab
12 18,330abc 2,170ab 13,000abc 2,170ab 35,670ab
2 15,570abed 1,730ab 11,900abc 1,630ab 30,830abc
ll 27,670a 2,770ab 170def 100cde 30,700abcd
15 20,050abcde 2,070abc 2,180de 450cd 24,760bcdef
3 21,830abc 2,620a 40g 40e 24,530abcde
13 20,830ab 2,130ab 80fg 60de 23,100abcde
6 10,020cdef 680bcd 2,000de 400c 13, 100efg
1 8,120efg 410e 2,340bcd 540bc 11,400fgh
5 7,170bcdef 780abc 1,850cd 230bc 10,030defg
7 7,920abcdef 750abc 1,000d 220bc 9, 880cdefg
9 6,470defg 770abed 920d 230bc 8,380fgh
8 5,350defg 730abcd 970de 180cd 7,230fgh
4 3,450fg 370cd 320def 100cd 4,240gh
16 1,700g 250de 550de 60cd 2,560h

“Values with the same letter are not significantly different at the 5% level, by Duncan’s multiple range test

bRefer to Table 1 for treatments.

The corollary study to examine the in-
fluence of plant maturity on aflatoxin production
showed that there was no significant difference
among the treatments contaminated 7, 15 and
28 days after 50% silking, but the 7-day treat-
ment was significantly higher than the 35-day
treatment. All treatments were significantly
higher in total aflatoxin production than the

Table 5. Results of corollary experiment, 1983.
Effect of maturity on aflatoxin production,
with knife wound (S-CEW), NRRL 3251
plus Maize Weevil (MW) treatments and
days after 50% silking effects.

Aflatoxin mean, ppb®

Treatment?
(Days) B, B, G, G, Total
17, 18,670a 1,380a 30a 20a 20,100a
215) 18,500a 1,270a 200a 70a 20,060ab
3. 28 13,320a 1,250a 550a 150a 15,500ab
4. 35 6,280b 1,070a 670a 200ab 8,210b
5. Control 1,700c 250b 790b 60a 2,560c

“Values with the same letter are not significantly dif-
ferent at the 5% level, by Duncan’s multiple range test

bRefer to Table 1 for treatments.

untreated control (Table 5). These results point
up the role that corn development (maturity)
has in the infection and aflatoxin production
process. A previous study had shown a maturity
effect of 316 ppb total aflatoxin produced when
contamination was made 15 days after 50%
pollination compared to 105 ppb at 21 days, but
levels in that instance were considerably lower

(8).

Table 6. Fungi effects across treatments indicated.
Mean of total aflatoxin - ppb®.

Treatment NNRL 2999 NRRL 3251

S-CEW 30,830abc 24,530abcde

MW 36,170ab 30,700abcd

ECB (2nd gen), S-CEW —35,670ab_ 23, 100abcde

ECB (2nd gen), S-CEW, MW 54,330a 24,760abcde
Control 2,560d 2,560f

*From means, Table 4. Values with the same letter

are not significantly different at the 5% level, by |

Duncan’s multiple range test

bRefer to Table 1.

Insects and aflatoxin in Kentucky corn — Rodriquez et al.

In conclusion, the effect of drought in 1983
on aflatoxin production in corn was dramatic as
compared with more normal years, and clearly
demonstrated that while insect interaction also
increased the aflatoxin levels drastically,
basically the plant has to be physiologically
disposed/stressed to provide the correct am-
biance for fungal synthesis of mycotoxin (10).
The possibility of Kentucky corn carrying
relatively large loads of aflatoxin in the 1983
crop was great. If our untreated control plots
were any indication of the condition of the 1983
crop generally, the aflatoxin level exceeded the
FDA permitted levels of 20 ppb by a factor of
more than 100 x.

LITERATURE CITED

1. Rambo, G. W., J. Tuite and R. W. Caldwell.
1974. Aspergillus flavus and aflatoxin in
preharvest corn from Indiana in 1971 and 1972.
Cereal Chem. 51:595, 600-604. Erratum 848-853.

2. Garman, H. and H. H. Jewett. 1914. The life
history and habits of the corn earworm
(Chloridae obsoleta). Ky. Agric. Exp. Sta. Bull.
187:513-591.

3. Zuber, M. S. and E. D. Lillehoj. 1979. Status of
the aflatoxin problem in corn. J. Environ. Qual.
8:1-5.

4. Diener, U. L., R. L. Asquith, and J. W.
Dickens. 1983. Aflatoxin and Aspergillus flavus
in Corn. Southern Coop. Ser. Bull. 279:
Alabama Aar. Exp. Sta., Auburn Univ.

10.

143

. McMillian, W. W. 1983. Role of arthropods in

field contamination. Pp. 20-22 In, U. L. Diener,
R. L. Asquith, and J. W. Dickens, Eds.,
Aflatoxin and Aspergillus flavus in Corn.
Southern Coop. Ser. Bull. 279: Alabama Aar.
Exp. Sta. Auburn Univ.

. Rodriguez, J. G., M. Potts and L. D. Rodriguez,

1979. Survival and reproduction of the species of
stored product beetles on selected fungi. J.
Invertebr. Pathol. 33:115-117.

. Rodriguez, J. G., M. F. Potts and L. D.

Rodriguez. 1980. Mycotoxin toxicity to
Tyrophagus putrescentiae. J. Econ. Entomol.
73:282-284.

. Rodriguez, J. G., C. G. Patterson, M. F. Potts,

C. G. Poneleit and R. L. Beine. 1983. Role of
selected arthropods in the contamination of
corn by Aspergillus flavus as measured by
aflatoxin production. Pp. 23-26 In, U. L. Diener,
D. L. Asquith, and J. W. Dickens, Eds.,
Aflatoxin and Aspergillus flavus in Corn.
Southern Coop. Ser. Bull. 279: Alabama Agr.
Exp. Sta., Auburn Univ.

. Hesseltine, C. W. 1976. Conditions leading to

mycotoxin contamination of foods and feeds.
Pp. 1-22 In, J. V. Rodricks, Ed. Mycotoxins and
Other Fungal Related Food Problems. Adv.
Chem. Ser. 149: Amer. Chem Soc.,
Washington, D.C.

Payne, Gary A. 1983. Epidemiology of aflatoxin
formation by A. flavus. Pp. 16-19 In, U. L.
Diener, R. L. Asquith, and J. W. Dickens, Eds.,
Aflatoxin and Aspergillus flavus in Corn.
Southern Coop. Ser. Bull. 279: Alabama Agr.
Exp. Sta., Auburn Univ.

RH - Mine Roofs in West Virginia — Smith

Borehold Determination of Immediate
Lithologic Characteristics of Adjacent
Stable and Unstable Coal Mine Roofs

Alan D. Smith
Coal Mining Administration, College of Business,
Eastern Kentucky University
Richmond, Kentucky 40475

ABSTRACT

An in-depth study of 4 adjacent mine crosscuts, 2 of which juxtaposed a major beltway, in an
underground coal mine located in the Northern Appalachian Coal Field, northeastern West
Virginia, was completed to determine if lithologic and geologic parameters of the immediate roof
strata could be used to differentiate roof conditions. Three of the crosscuts were extremely unstable
and, if they had not been bolted and reinforced with a series of wooden cribs, would have, in most
probability, failed. The stable crosscut, which showed no sign of deterioration, is flanked by the
unstable areas and is supported by the traditional roof-bolt techniques and patterns common to the
Appalachian Coal Field. A study, using diamond coring, borescoping, and X-ray diffraction techni-
ques, was completed. All cores from 4 sites had primarily dark gray shales (124), hard sandstones
with rippled shale streaks (563 RIP), and dark gray shales with interbedded sand, rippled sandstone
streaks (322 RIP) as the dominant lithologies. The stable crosscut appeared to contain slightly more
massive strata of the 322 RIP and 564 lithologies. Drill site 4, classified as extremely unstable, witha
previously recorded major roof fall on the belt a few meters away, had evidence of expandable
montmorillonite-illite, mixed-layer clay minerals. No evidence of these clay minerals was observed
in the stable crosscut. However, the evidence collected does not clearly differentiate among adjacent
stable and unstable immediate mine roof profiles; hence, more complex geological and mechanical
interactions must be in play to account for the extreme changes in mine-roof quality.

INTRODUCTION ee :
be employed after initial coal extraction to
The mechanics and geological conditions monitor separations in rock layers at various

that result in coal mine roof falls are complex levels in the mine roof. This would aid in the
and not completely understood. The measure- __ identifying roof failure mechanisms and be
ment, monitoring, and forecasting of mine roof useful in formulating appropriate corrective
falls involves a continuous process. Several pro- _ action.

grams can be implemented to improve ground In narrowing down possible causes of roof
control or underground stability and aid in the _ falls, the influence of tectonic forces, geologic
prediction of potentially bad areas. As sug- conditions, mine geometry, and roof support
gested by Tennant (1), some of these various _ techniques all interact to play a vital role that
programs that can be implemented in the Ap- should be considered. Unfortunately, the degree

palachian Coal Field include a detailed analysis of interaction among these variables is great,
of satellite imagery to detect structural difficult to isolate, and highly dependent on the
linements and their correlation with the known mine’s in-situ combination of these conditions.
areas of mine roof instability. Also, improve- The correlation of topographical features, in-
ment is needed in mine planning, mine projec- cluding such features as the presence of creek
tions with in-situ. stress measurements are beds, water table locations, mountain terrains,
needed, increased emphasis in regard to pillar | and data concerning the high lateral stresses,
design, and barrier block design. Other pro- common to the Appalachian Coal Field, with
grams, such as utilizing extensometers, televi- the actual occurrence and distribution of mine
sion, and traditional optical borescoping should roof falls are generally inconclusive (2).

144

Mine Roofs in West Virginia — Smith 145

Probably more important parameters, such as
geological disturbances, which include a host of
features including paleochannels consisting of
sandstones and accompanying slickenslides,
clastic dikes, kettle bottoms, joints and axial
plane cleavage, and expandable clays, are
extremely difficult to assess in the short term,
since their occurrence may not be predictable
and they are generally not encountered until
actual coal extraction. Frequently, mine roof
strata will contain geologic and _ lithologic
features that will eventually cause roof failure.
Unfortunately these features are not readily
identified until after the failure has occurred.
The purpose of any comprehensive monitoring
program for ground control should be to identify
potentially unstable roof strata soon after coal
extraction. This enables the mining engineer to
take preventive measures before roof con-
vergence becomes uncontrollable and complete
failure is likely.

According to research completed by Van
Besien (3) in underground mines of the western
United States, many roof falls are associated
with localized defects in the immediate roof.
Factors contributing to roof falls include the type
and thickness of the rock strata, slickensides,
plant material on bedding planes, burrowed and
rotted zones, rider coal seams, kettle bottoms,
cracks in the roof, and the presence of water.
Dougherty (4) found in his study that roof falls
occurred 7 per cent of the time when the roof
was sandstone, and 12 per cent of the time when
coal was left to protect the shales, while 80
percent of roof falls occurred when the roof
consisted of unprotected shales.

The best quality roof strata generally con-
sists of well consolidated graywacke sandstone
which are generally about 10 feet thick and
laterally continuous for more than 2000 feet (5).
However, sandstones also present roof control
problems. Orthoquartzitic sandstones may pro-
vide high quality roof rock needed, but this
sandstone tends to react more brittely than
other sandstones or non sandstones (6, 7).
Usually orthoquartzitic sandstones are jointed
and fractured producing the possibility of a
severe roof fall (5).

In roofs where interbedded sandstones and
shales or flaggy sandstones exist, roof com-
petence depends on bed thickness (5, 7). When
beds are less than 2 feet thick, separation can
occur along the bedding plane giving rise to a
roof fall that can fall as a single unit. If beds
become thicker than 10 feet, slickenside sur-
faces develop due to differential compaction giv-
ing rise to roof falls that may not fall as single
units. Tiylveri’s (3) study also indicates that
lithified plant material on bedding lanes is likely
to contribute to the incidence of roof falls,

because it weakens the cohesiveness of the rock
to the next bed. Therefore, the optimum bed
thickness is 2 to 10 feet thick producing an
optimum bridging strength of the material.
Discontinuous sandstone bodies, such as
sandstone channels, often rank as one of the
more troublesome roof control problems (6, 8).
These bodies also frequently cut out coal beds,
are involved in roof falls, and can start water
problems. The associated problems with discon-
tinuous sandstones are due to the abrupt change
of lithologies, such as the change from shale
and standstone, and the differential compaction
of sediments along the boundary of the sand-
stone deposit. These 2 factors create the shears
and/or slumps which cause natural zones of
weakness and excellent places for roof control
problems to develop (7, 9). The field techniques
to recognize these problem areas may include
the presence of fractures and/or steeply dipping
coal beds, slickenside surfaces becoming more
numerous, and the observation of a rise in the
floor elevation (8, 10). However, the occurrence
of sandstone channels is at best difficult to

predict.
Studies by Hylbert (7) and Lagather (11),
found that thick shale roofs are often

characterized by laminated shales, usually
coarsening upward to a rider coal seam. Roofs
such as these are hazardous because laminated
shales tend to separate along bedding planes.
Sudden changes in the thickness of shales by
either pinchouts or wedging of sediments are
sometimes associated with roof falls.

Heavily burrowed shales or siltstones
present potential roof control problems. The
strength of these fine-grained rocks is reduced
by burrowing. Supporting burrowed roof rock by
bolting is difficult, if not impossible, due to the
nonbeaming support nature of the burrowed
rock. Rooted shales and siltstones are another
roof control problem with engineering problems
similar to burrowed shales. Roots penetrating
these rocks often show slickenslides intersecting
at angles of 90 to 120 degrees (12). Rooting
weakens the rock making bolting to form the
roof beam difficult and sometimes impossible.

The occurrence of rider coal seams has
been found to have a definite influence on roof
stability (7, 9). Hylbert (7) and Horne et al. (5)
found that rider coal seams and their associated
root zones represent incompetent layers. Rider
seams have their worst effects when they are
within 6.1 m of the coal seam being mined. It is
at the interface between the rider seam and the
adjacent roof rock where separation of the
strata may occur, causing a mine roof fall. The
fall usually begins at the coal seam and falls to
the above rider seam. If a higher concentration
of water is present along the separation, this

146 Trans. Kentucky Academy of Science — 45(3-4)

may weaken the ability of the roof to support a
load, making roof instability a greater likeliood.
Although the design of a safe mine roof can
be quite complex, challenging, and in need of
constant surveillance, generally crude and
relatively unsophisticated equipment is used to
install and to monitor mine roof conditions. Of
course, this situation is probably due to the
expensive and possible delicate nature of the
more advanced eqduiprnent (13). In addition,
there is usually some resistance to the interfac-
ing of new applications and techniques into the
underground coal mining environment by min-
ing personnel, primarily due to tradition and
routine of daily operations. The monitor equip-
ment is generally costly, for example a relatively
simple optical borescope with a 6 to 9 m cable
extension may easily result in a $10,000 to
$20,000 expense, depending on the model and
attachments. Generally, some training by a
specialist is needed for interpretation.

The purpose of the present research is to
evaluate the monitoring value of both adjacent
unstable and stable mine roof top in a coal mine
in the Appalachian Coal Field to determine if
detailed borehole scoping, diamond drilling and
associated coring, lithologic classification, and
dimensional analyses can significantly enhance
roof quality assessments. Results from
borescope inspection can correlate, in practice,
very well with diamond-drill core logs and help
resolve the question whether a fracture is the
original or resulted from stress induced during
the drilling process. The detection and assess-

rosscut
13

ment of immediate roof characteristics, if
significant, may be monitored in the future
through various stations in coal mines, usually
during the roof bolting operation to differentiate
potentially stable and unstable mine roof
conditions in order to estimate proper and cost
effective support systems.

METHODS
STUDY AREA

The Upper Freeport coal seam in the mine
studied averages about 9 ft. (2.7 m) thick with a
variable parting of siltstone and bone thickness
from 2.5 ft (0.8 m) to small fractions of an inch.
The coal, relatively high in sulfur content which
frequently staines the powered limestone utilized
in the rock dusting process. A site was chosen to
investigate the adjacent stable and unstable
areas in the immediate roof in this coal mine in
northeastern West Virginia, owned and
operated by Island Creek Coal Company. A
total of 4 locations were marked and measured,
as illustrated in Fig. 1. The lithology of the
immediate mine roof consisted of primarily
shales. As can be seen in Fig. 1, entry spans ad-
jacent to the roof falls and/or unstable areas are
not significantly different precluding differential
loading from overburden as a_ contribution
factor in these failures.

Crosscut
W

(=) {|

20
ra feet —_{;

He) (a a) eae)

(Viele

Com 6 ee

— OZ

1. Planametric view of adjacent stable and unstable areas and positions of drill hole sites 1 through 4.

Mine Roofs in West Virginia — Smith 147

SAMPLING AND BORESCOPING TECHNIQUES

Diamond drill holes of 2 in. (5.1 cm)
diameter resulting in an approximately 0.88 in.
(2.2 cm) diameter solid core were completed to
varying depths in the immediate mine roof tops
in the 4 sites portrayed in Fig. 1. A hydraulic
pump was used in connection with the portable
drill rig to retrieve the cores. Only water without
the benefit of bentonite was used as the drilling
fluid. The drill apparatus was _ sufficiently
anchored below the mine floor and above on the
mine roof with hydraulic compression rams; in
addition a safety chain was used near adjacent
wooden cribs to provide an extra margin of safe-
ty. A post for safety purposes was always erected
near the drilling site and immediately over the
hydraulic control box. The cores derived from
the drilling of the various sites were boxed, short
notes concerning speed of drilling, core
recoveries, and lithologic classification, accord-
ing to Ferm and Weisenfluh’s code system (14)
were recorded and tabulated (Table 1). Some of
the samples from drill site 4 underwent X-ray dif-
fraction to identify the clay minerals present.
These samples were selected because of the
intermittent water flow characteristics they
exhibited during drilling, which may be caused
by expandable mixed-layered clays. Finally,
standard borescope analysis techniques were
employed to locate fractures and gross
lithologic changes in the 4 drill sites.

Tabie 1. Three-digit classification scheme of Ferm
and Weisenfluh (14) and their correspon-
ding lithologic descriptions. (see Fig. 3 for
actual core logs).

Lithologic Lithologic Description
Code of Actual Cores

124 dark gray shale, extremely limited silt
content

322 RIP dark gray shale, of sandy content, and
interbedded sandstone that are rippled
in configuration

323 dark gray, sandy shale with sandstone
streaks

324 dark gray, massive sandy-shale

325 dark gray, massive churned sandy-
shale

563 hard sandstone with shale streaks

563 RIP hard sandstone with shale streaks that

are rippled in configuration

564 gray, hard, massive sandstone

RESULTS

The data summaries and calculation of the
per cent core recovery can be found in Table 2.
Figure 2 portrays the lithologic description of
the 4 drill logs, according to the classification of
Ferm and Weisenfluh’s (14) classification
scheme (Table 1). Figure 3 is the X-ray dif-
fractograms performed on the clay samples col-
lected from drill site 4. Lastly, Table 3 presents
the optical borescoping information collected
and described for drill sites 1 through 4.

148

Trans. Kentucky Academy of Science — 45(3-4)

Table 2. - Core sample lengths and recoveries for drill holes 1 through 4.

Drill Hole Cumulative Borehole Cumulative Sample Borehole Drill Borehole Sample Percent
Number Length (in) Length (in) Length (in) Length (in) Recovery (%)
96.0 33.5 96.0 33.5 34.9

1
total
recovery NA NA NA NA NA
= 46.0%

2 50.0 37.0 50.0 37.0 74.0
total 98.0 78.0 48.0 41.0 85.4
recovery 140.0 119.0 42.0 41.0 97.6
= 87.2% 196.0 171.0 56.0 52.0 92.90

3 57.0 51.0 57.0 51.0 89.5
total 116.0 108.0 59.00 57.0 96.6
recovery 154.0 146.0 38.0 38.0 100.0
= 94.9%

NOTE: Hit very hard sandstone at 80 in into hole. At 84 in., past sandstone into soft shale. At 109 in. entered
extremely hard sandstone. No plugging of bit occurred the first 60 in. of drilling in the wet roof.

4 58.0 48.0
total 96.0 81.5
recovery
= 84.9%

58.0
38.0

48.0
33.5

82.8
88.2

NOTE: During drilling, encountered many thin sandstone sequences of extremely hard nature, which made it
very difficult to drill (up to 1400 psi of thrust, which is the maximum allowable on the machine). Drill
fluid leaked out through the shale and sandstone sequences toward the exposed roof fall over the belt
and flowed out by the bolt header boards. However, this condition was stopped a few weeks later due
to the expansive nature of the clay derived from drilling into the shale.

DISCUSSION

CORING AND BOREHOLE SCOPING OF
DRILL SITES 1 THROUGH 4

Presented in Fig. 2 and Table 3 are the data
derived from coring and optical borescoping of
drill locations 1 through 4. Due to the relatively
poor core recovery of drill site 1 (Table 2), the
lithologies of the first few meters are relatively
uncertain and extrapolated from the other cores
and borescope data. Basically, strata in the dia-
mond cores can be characterized using three
lithologic types: 124 (dark gray shale), 563 RIP
(hard sandstone with rippled shale streaks), and
322 RIP (dark gray shale of sandy content with
interbedded, rippled sandstone streaks). These
lithologies are relatively consistent throughout
the cores, for both the stable (drill site 2 and
unstable (drill sites 1, 3, and 4) areas. The stable
roof strata appears, however, to contain a more
massive section of 322 RIP and 564 lithologies
that are closer to the initially cut roof top, but

the variability of lithologies of the adjacent
unstable immediate roof beds are relatively
high; and, thus, may make this observation
invalid.

Table 3. - Borehole scoping information for drill
holes 1 through 4.

Drill Hole (ft)

Number Beginning of

Geologic and Physical

Hole (Roof) Description
1 0.42-1.67 Interbedded shale and
(7-25-83) sandstone, mainly
shale, highly fractured
and broken zone.
2.75-6.92 Interbedded shale and-

sandstone, highly frac-
tured zone, 2.75 ft. open
crack, top of fracture
zone at 6.92 ft.

continued

Table 3 continued

8.00

8.08-8.17

8.67

Mine Roofs in West Virginia — Smith 149

Sandstone contact
begins.

Interbedded shale and
sandstone, highly frac-
tured and broken zone.

Top of broken zone,
8.08-8.67 fracture zone
extent.

2 0.00-1.67
(7-25-83)

1.67-5.17

5.17
5.17-6.00

6.75-7.00

13.67

13.67-14.25

14.25

Interbedded shale and
sandstone, mainly shale
with some dark to black
color, fracture zone,
large fracture at 1.67 ft.

Interbedded shale and
sandstone,w ith inter-
mittent thin sandstone
layers.

Open crack.

Fracture zone, 6.00 ft.
end of fracture zone.

Sandstone, massive,
begins, very sharp tex-
tural contact.
Interbedded sandstone

and shale contact within
massive sandstone.

Interbedded sandstone
and shale zone.

Sandstone, massive
zone continues.

3 6.75 Open crack, approx-

imately 1/16 inch.

7.00 Black shale contact,

with presence of water.
8.75 Open crack.
9.00

9.17 Sandstone, massive,
begins, very sharp tex-
tural contact.

Open crack.

9.17-12.00 Massive sandstone, stop

scoping at 12.00 ft.

3 0.00-0.50
(7-26-83)

1.08-1.58

2.00

2.00-6.00

6.00

6.42

6.50

Interbedded shale and
sandstone, mainly
shale, dark color highly
fractured and broken
zone.

Interbedded shale and
sandstone, mainly
shale, highly fractured
and broken zone.

Interbedded shale and
sandstone, sharp, well
defined sandstone
layers, good intact rock.

Interbedded shale and
sandstone, good intact
rock.

Open crack, approx-
imately 1/16 inch.
Open crack, approx-
imately 1/16 inch.
Open crack, approx-
imately 1/16 inch.

Interbedded shale and
sandstone, mostly shale,
series of open cracks.
Interbedded shale and
sandstone, mostly shale,

fracture zone, ends at
1.42 ft.

1.75 Interbedded shale and
sandstone, approximate-
ly 1 inch highly broken
zone.

(7-26-83)

1.17-1.42

2.17 Highly broken zine, ap-
proximately 1 inch.

5.67 Sandstone, thin laminar
contact.

7.25 Shale bed contact with
associated crack.

7.25 Series of hairline
cracks, approximately
0.5 inches apart.

8.17 Sandstone, massive,
contact, at base of sand-
stone washout zone.

The borehole scoping results (Table 3)
prove to be even more inclusive, especially in
light of the fact that some measurable con-
vergence has occurred in the unstable areas
(drill sites 1, 3, and 4) and fracture zones are
expected. The stable crosscut (drill site 2) hada
noticeable open crack at approximately 5.2 ft.
(1.6 m). However, this same crack, which may
have led to the development of fracture zones
characterized in the other drill sites, is also
represented in the unstable roof top as well. This
presence of cracks at this depth into the roof is
puzzling, especially since this stable crosscut is
flanked by unstable roof tops (Fig. 1).

BOREHOLE LOGGING

Reconstructed Core Length [ft.] in Mine Roof

2.0

UNSTABLE STABLE

564

UNSTABLE

UNSTABLE

2. Lithologic description, according to Fermand Weisenfluh (14), of the 4 recovered cores from drill hole
sites 1 through 4. Please refer to Table 1 for geologic descriptions of classification codes used in the

logs.

X-RAY DIFFRACTION OF DRILL SITE 4

It is difficult to make quantitative deter-
minations at mixed-layered silicate structures
particularly when layers of the different silicate
minerals are interstratified. Figure 3 ABC
display X-ray diffractograms of clay sampled

from drillhole site 4. As illustrated in Fig. 3,
parts A through C, which represent different
treatments, some recognizable peaks for
qualitative interpretation are evident in the
defractogram, using a copper-target element.
The quartz peak, represented by the
characteristic diffraction of 26.7 20 angle, ap-

Mine Roofs in West Virginia — Smith 151

pears in all the diffractograms. Standard
preparation techniques, as outlined by Cullity
(15), Grim (16), and Mitchell (15), using the
powdered method of preparation, in which a
small sample, giving particles of all possible
orientations is placed in a collimated beam of
parallel X-rays. As portrayed in Fig. 10A, an
untreated powered sample was exposed to
X-rays and, based on the basal spacing deter-
mined from the first order reflections, kaolinite
(12.35 20 angle, d or basal spacing equal to 7.19
A), and illite (8.8 20 angle, d equal to 10.0 A) can
be identified. However, to identify _ illite-
montomorillonite mixed-layered clays is more
difficult, as previously mentioned. Since mont-
morillonite is characterized by extensive
isomophoric substitution, it has a high cation
exchange capacity (10-15 times that of
kaolinite), causing water molecules and other
cations to be attracted between crystal units.
This attraction results in expansion of the
crystalline lattice, high plasticity, and cohesion
properties. Based on these properties, by a com-
bination of glycolation and heating treatments,
illite-montmorillonite qualitative identifications
can be made (Fig. 3 B-C). However, quantitative
determinations of the amounts of the different
minerals in the clay sample taken from drill hole
site 4 on the basis of simple comparison of dif-
fraction peak heights or areas cannot be made.
The reasons for this inability to differentiate the
exact amounts of illite and montmorillonite in-
volve the differences in mass absdorption coeffi-

A

26.7

cients of different minerals, in particle orienta-
tions, in same weights, in surface texture of the
powdered sample, in crystallinity in the
minerals, in hydration, as well as other factors
(17). As shown in Fig. 3C, the prominant feature
of this diffractogram is the reduction of the
kaolinite peak and a sharpening of a mixed-
layer montomorillonite-illite peak at about 13.6
; also evident is the illite peak remaining
unchanged, as well as the quartz peak.
Although a quantitative analysis is complex, as
suggested by Moore (18) and Buck (19), a semi-
quantitative analysis can be attempted. The
montomorillonite peak is usually small on the
diffractogram and, when found in conjunction
with illite, may be up to a multiple of 7 of that
peak actually recorded in the diffractogram
compared to the illite recorded peak (15, 17, 18).
Therefore, there could be theoretically a 1:1
relationship of illite to montmorillonite, when
comparing the two peaks. Although the diffrac-
togram indicates the possible presence of small
amounts of montmorillonite, the amount could
be significant and, due to its great expansive
properties, be a major contributor to mine roof
instability. The clay samples were derived from
a depth of approximately 1.5 meters (4.8 ft.) into
the roof in the 124 coded lithology. In addition,
although further tests were not completed due to
sampling constraints, similar clay appeared to
be present in the relatively unstable drill site 1.
However, no evidence of this clay forming dur-
ing the drilling operation was found in site 2.

12.35 BLK

12.35

Trans. Kentucky Academy of Science — 45(3-4) 152

aos

12.35

3. Prominant features of the diffractogram on clay sample taken from drill site number 4. Numbers are
in 20. Note, letters symbol various treatments: (A) untreated, (B) heat treated at 300°C for 6 hours,
(C) heat treated at 500°C for 2-5 hours according to techniques suggested by Cullity (15) and Grim

(16).

CONCLUSION

The results of this study of adjacent stable
and unstable immediate mine roofs creates
more questions than it solves. Although it ap-
pears that the expansive nature of the
montmorillonite-illite clay mixtures may be a
potential cause in the unstable areas, it does not
explain the origin of the source of water or addi-
tional cations available to these clays, causing
subsequent swelling behavior. The lithologies
associated with the clays, especially the in-
terbedded shales and sandstones, and fractures
found may act as a conduit for subsurface flow,
but these lithologies are associated, according
to the cores, with the stable area as well. In-
deed, an open crack, according to the borescop-
ing data, was also found in the stable area that
could allow for this directional water flow,
although no expandable clay was observed dur-
ing drilling. Generally, the present study il-
lustrated in this case that the immediate
lithologic and geologic features corresponding
with the stable and unstable area were not clear-
ly different or predictable, in order to base a
design approach for ground control in the
development of stable entries for the affected
coal mine. Hence, other than the results of the
X-ray diffraction and identification of expansive
layer silicates, many, if not most, mine roof falls
occur under a complex set of conditions and
subsequent interactions that frequently can not
be forecasted on the basis of geological and
lithological evidence alone. However, many
potential roof problems can be successfully
predicted geologically using conventional rock
coring and field reconniaissance. The designing
of ground control systems must be _inter-
disciplinary in nature, as presented in this study,
based on probability of occurrence.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The author appreciates the financial
assistance in the data collection phase of this
project by Kot F. Unrug, Department of Mining
Engineering, University of Kentucky, through a
grant from the Department of Energy.

LITERATURE CITED

1. Tennant, Sr., J. M. 1981. Methods used to
monitor roof geology and entry supports. In,
Proc. 2nd conference on ground control in min-
ing, Peng, S.S., and J. H. Kelley (ed). Dept. of
Mining Enar., West Virginia Univ., Morgantown
WV: 118-122.

2. Pothini, B. K., and H. von Schonfeldt. 1979.
Roof fall prediction at Island Creek Coal Com-
pany. In, Stability in Coal Mining, Brawer, C.
O. (ed). Miller Freeman, Publ., San Francisco,
CA: 214-227.

3. Van Besien, A. C. 1973. Analysis of roof fall
statistics and its application to roof control
research. Presented at AIME Annual Meeting,
Chicago, Illinois, Preprint no. 73-F071.

4. Dougherty, J. J. 1971. A study of fatal roof fall
accidents in bituminous coal mines.
Unpublished M. S. Thesis, West Virginia
University, 77 p.

5. Horne, J. C., Ferm, J. D., Carrucio, F. T. 1978.
Depositional models in coal exploration and
mine planning. In Ferm, J. C., and Horne, J. C.
(ed). Carboniferous depositional environment in
the Appalachian region: Carolina Coal Group,
department of Geology, University of South
Carolina: 544-575.

6. Moegs, Noel N. 1973. Geologic guidelines in
coal mine design. In Proceedings, Bureau of
Mines Technology Transfer Seminar, March 6,
1973, Lexington, Kentucky. U. S. Bur. Mines
Inf. Cir. 8630: 63-69.

7. Hylbert, D. K. 1981. Delineation of geologic roof
hazards in selected coal beds in Eastern

10.

11.

12.

Mine Roofs in West Virginia — Smith 153

Kentucky—with landsat imagery studies in
Eastern Kentucky and the Dunkard Basin. U. S.
Bur. Mines Open File Rept. Contract No.
JOIBRW2: 1-97.

. Custer, E. S., Jr., and Gaddy, F. L. 1981. The

use of geologic modeling in the prediction of
adverse roof conditions. In, Peng, S. S. (ed),
Proc. 1st Annual Conf. Ground Control in
Mining. West Virginia University: 167-173.

. McCulloch, C. M., and Deul, M. 1973.

Geological factors causing roof instability and
methane emission problems. The Lower Kittan-
ning Coal Bed, Cambria County, Pennsylvania.
U. S. Bur. Mine Rept. Invest. 7769: 1.25.
McCabe, K. W., and Pascoe, W. 1978. Sand-
stone channels: Their influence on roof control
in coal mines. Mine Safety Health Adm. Rept.
Invest. 1096: 1-24.

Lagather, R. B. 1979. Guide to geologic features
affecting coal mine roof. Mine Safety Health
Adm. Invest. Rept. 1101: 1-18.

Ferm, J. C., and Melton, R. A. 1979. Geologic
factors effecting roof conditions in the Pocahon-
tas #3 Coal Seam, southern West Virginia. In,
Ferm, J. C., and Horn, J. D. (ed), Carbonif-
erous depositional environment in the
Appalachian region. Carolina Coal Group,

13.

14.

19.

Dept. Geol. University of South Carolina:
5H.

Herget, G. 1981. TV borehole inspection and
vacuum testing of roof strata. In, Proc. second
conference on ground control in mining, Peng,
S. S., and J. H. Kelley (eds.) Dept. Mining
Engr., West Virginia Univ., Morgantown, WV:
209-213.

Ferm, J. C., and G. A. Weisenfluh. 1981. Cored
rocks of the southern Appalachian coal fields.
Sept. of Geo. Univ. of Kentucky, Lexington, KY.

. Cullity, B. S. 1967. Elements of X-ray

diffraction. Addison-Wesley Publ Co., Inc..
Reading, MA.

. Grim, R. E. 1968. Clay mineraology, 2nd ed.

McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York.

. Mitchell, J. K. 1976. Fundaments of soil

behavior. John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New
York.

. Moore, C. A. 1971. Effect of mica on K, com-

pressibility of two soils. Journal of the Soil
Mechanics and Foundations Div., ASCE,
97(SM9): 1275-1291.

Buck, A. D. 1973. Quantitative mineralogical
analysis by X-ray diffraction. Proc. 10th meeting
of the Clay Minerals Society and 22nd annual
clay minerals conf. Banff, Alberta, Canada.

RH - Notes

NOTES

Break Angle Determination and Con-
touring of Coal Mine Roof Falls: Sug-
gested Methods and Case Study.
—Geometry of mine roof falls and _ their
associated break angles of the strata involved
are basic input into many rock mechanics,
ground control techniques, and mine-roof fall
prevention programs (Karhnak, 1981, An over-
view of Bureau of Mines ground control
research, In Proc. of First Annual Conf. on
Ground Control in Mining, Peng (ed.), West
Virginia Univ., Morgantown, WV; Obert and
Duvall, 1967, Rock mechanics and the design of
structures in rock, John Wiley and Sons, Inc.,
New York; Peng, 1978, Coal Mine Ground Con-
trol, John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York). The
geometry of mine-roof falls depends on the
lithologic characteristics, strata stresses, pro-
gressive failure characteristics, time duration of
opening, moisture contents, and degree of com-
petency of the mine-roof beds. A suggested
method for gathering basic information for the
determination of break angles and the eventual
plotting of the basic geometry of mine roof falls
was established. The technique for data collec-
tion is relatively simple and involves only 15 to
45 minutes to complete, depending on the com-

OUTBY

crosscut

19

IBELTWAY

crosscut

20

Figure 1.

ae}
Planametric view presenting the location of
the coal mine roof fall measured and
contoured.

plexity and areal extent of the fall and the
experience of the researchers. The only equip-
ment required specifically for this procedure are
string, a small wooden base station with 22.5
degree intervals marked on the side facing up,
and an extendable measuring pole to reach the
various horizontal strata involved.

The mine-roof fall was mapped, for il-
lustrative purposes, in a coal mine in the
Appalachian coal fields located in Bayer, West
Virginia. Figure 1 outlines the basic location of
the mine roof fall: between the 19th and 20th
break or crosscuts inby (inby refers to the direc-
tion towards the working face or away from the
mine shaft) in 3-Left submain entry. The base
station is located 16.7 ft. (5.1m) from the mid-
section of the crosscut facing the belt entry and
the farthest extent to the east of the roofline is
23.3 ft. (7.1 m) from the edge of the 19th break,
as shown in the figure. The O-degree interval
pointed due east or directly outby (outby refers
to the direction towards the mine shaft or away
from the mine working face) and the rest of the
readings are located in relation to that origin
point. Figure 2 is the result of plotting the infor-
mation found in Table 1 and portrays the
elongated geometry of each strata break

18.211155m.)

Final geometrics of coal mine roof fall. Note
that the contour interval between strata
break horizons are not constant, see Table 1
for more specific information.

154

Notes

horizontal. Of course, it must be remembered
that an individual break horizon may be com-
posed of several separate and/or interbedded
lithologies. Finally, Table 2 summarizes the
break angles of each series of horizons and can
be used to compare symmetry of the fall. As evi-
dent in Table 2, the mean break angle for all
strata horizons in the outby direction was 41.4°
(o = 16.98), the mean break angle in the inby

155

direction was 61.1° (o=15.97), the average
break angle facing north was 66.5° (o = 14.03),
and the average break angle of the mine roof fall
facing directly south was 51.4° (c= 15.01).
However, its most useful function would be to
compare break angles of other falls in the area
to the major stress axes to determine if direction
of insitu stress was a major determiner of mine-
roof falls.

Table 1. Raw data from the survey of break angles of mine roof strata and contouring of basic geometrics of the

crosscut located, coal mine roof fall.

Roof Strata Break Horizon in Feet (Meters)

Orientation

of Base Station

(degrees) Roof Top Strata Below Roof Top Strata Above Roof Edge _— Roof Edge®
(1) (2) (3) (4)
H Vv H Vv H Vv H V

0.0 (E) 5.25 (1.6) 3.67 (1.1) 8.42 (2.6 2.08 (0.6) 10.00 (3.0) 1.08 (0.3) 10.50 (3.2) 0.0
22.5 4.67 (1.4) 3.67 (1.1) 7.83 (2.4) 2.08 (0.6) 11.17 (3.4) 1.08 (0.3) =: 11.33 (3.5) 0.0
45.0 5.17 (1.6) 3.67 (1.1) 7.42 (2.3) 2.08 (0.6) 11.58 (3.5) 1.08 (0.3) 12.33 (3.8) 0.0
67.5 4.67 (1.4) 3.67 (1.1) 6.33 (1.9) 2.08 (0.6) 8.33 (2.5) 1.08 (0.3) 9.42 (2.9) 0.0
90.0 (S) 6.58 (2.0) 3.67 (1.1) 7.08 (2.2) 2.08 (0.6) 8.17 (2.5) 1.08 (0.3) 9.50 (2.9) 0.0
112.5 5.58 (1.7) 3.67 (1.1) 7.92 (2.4) 2.08 (0.6) 9.33 (2.8) 1.08 (0.3) 10.08 (3.1) 0.0
135.0 9.00 (2.7) 3.67(1.1) 10.08 (3.1) 2.08 (0.6) 10.83 (3.3) 1.08 (0.3) 12.50 (3.8) 0.0
157.5 7.92 (2.4) 3.67 (1.1) 9.75 (3.0) 2.08 (0.6) 10.67 (3.3) 1.08 (0.3) 11.08 (3.4) 0.0
180.0 (W) 7.67 (2.3) 3.67 (1.1) 9.67 (2.9) 2.08 (0.6) 10.00 (3.0) 1.08 (0.3) 10.33 (3.1) 0.0
202.5 5.58 (1.7) 3.67 (1.1) 7.50 (2.3) 2.08 (0.6) 9.17 (2.8) 1.08 (0.3) 10.33 (3.1) 0.0
225.0 5.42 (1.7) 3.67 (1.1) 6.00 (1.8) 2.08 (0.6) 6.08 (1.9) 1.08 (0.3) 7.83 (2.4) 0.0
247.0 5.92 (1.8) 3.67 (1.1) 6.00 (1.8) 2.08 (0.6) 6.92 (2.1) 1.08 (0.3) 7.08 (2.2) 0.0
270 (N) 6.92 (2.1) 3.67 (1.1) 7.08 (2.2) 2.08 (0.6) 7.92 (2.4) 1.08 (0.3) 8.42 (2.6) 0.0
292.5 7.58 (2.3) 3.67 (1.1) 8.42 (2.6) 2.08 (0.6) 8.17 (2.5) 1.08 (0.3) 8.58 (2.6) 0.0
315.0 6.75 (2.1) 3.67 (1.1) 8.25 (2.5) 2.08 (0.6) 11.17 (3.4) 1.08 (0.3) 10.83 (3.3) 0.0
337.5 5.42 (1.7) 3.67 (1.1) 8.33 (2.5) 2.08 (0.6) 10.25 (3.1) 1.08 (0.3) 12.50 (3.8) 0.0

Note.

The letters in parentheses next to the orientations of the base stations symbol basic direction, where east

represents the mine inby direction and west represents the outby direction. The symbols H and V represent
horizontal distance from the base station to the perpendicular dropped directly from the strata break

horizon and the vertical distance to each break horizon, respectively.

@ Denotes that the roof edge or roof line is 9.5 ft. (2.9 m) above the mine floor.

As evident from the break angles listed in
Table 2 and the roof fall diagram of Figure 2, the
steepest angles are associated with the N-S
direction, probably due to the cutter-roof forma-
tion along the ribs. Large amounts of stress con-
centrate along the ribs, causing brittle rupture of
roof rock at steeper break angles, which may
approach near vertical break angle
measurements. In addition, the NW-SE
elongaton of break angles may be in line with

the major axis of the strain ellipsoid, which may
give an indication of major stress direction. In
the Appalachian Coal Fields, this direction has
been generally measured in a NE-SW direction.
Since the major stress and strain axes run
perpendicular to each other, the geometry of the
fall, if controlled by stress-release mechanisms
instead of the lithologic character of the roof,
appears to provide additional evidence for the
NE-SW direction of the major stress axis.

156 Trans. Kentucky Academy of Science — 45(3-4)

Table 2. Computed break angles for each strata
horizon measured in Table 1.

Break Angles in Degrees
Orientation

of Base
Station From Roof From Strata From Strata
(degrees) Top (1) Below Roof Above Roof
to Strata Top (2) to Edge (3) to
Below Roof Strata Above Roof
Top Roof Edge Edge
(2) (3) (4)

0.0 (E) 26.7 32.3 65.2
22.5 26.7 16.7 81.6
45.0 35.2 13.5 55.2
67.5 43.8 26.6 44.7
90.0 (S) 72.5 42.5 39.1

112.5 33.9 35.3 55.2
135.0 55.8 53.1 85.4
157.5 41.0 47.4 69.2
180.0 (W) 38.5 71.7 73.0
202.5 39.6 30.9 43.0
225.0 70.0 85.4 31.7
247.5 87.1 47.4 81.6
270.0 (N) 84.3 50.0 65.2
292.5 62.2 90° 69,2
315.0 46.7 18.9 90°
337.59 28.7 27.5 25.6

Note. The break angles approaching near vertical
slopes close to the north-south direction may
be the result of cutter-roof forming along the
entry ribs.

@ Sample calculation using the following formula:
slope = arctan AV
AH/AH

where: H = change in horizontal direction from base
station, V = change in vertical direction from floor to
strata horizon. For example, from Table 1, the change
in horizontal distance for 337.5 degrees reading is
8.33-5.42, and the change in vertical distance is
3.67 - 2.08. The arctan of 1.59/2.91 gives a break
angle of 28.7 degrees.

b Break angle greater than 90 degrees, assumed to be
vertical.

Roof control is a never-ending task, not
only at the working face and in sections where
miners are working, but along haulways and air-
ways that must be kept open. As coal is being
excavated, the stresses that are set up and pro-
gressively changing in the roof result in fractures
and movements that are very difficult if not
presently impossible to detect, and may lead to
mine-roof falls. The measurement of pre-

existing and newly developed falls, through
break angle determination and contouring of
basic geometrics may add needed data for the
establishment of statistical relationships with
failure parameters associated with mine roof
falls and eventually develop predictive and
preventative techniques for mine ground control
in underground mining operations.—Alan D.
Smith, Coal Mining Admin., College of
Business, Eastern Ky. Univ., Richomond, KY
40475; Kot F. Unrug, Dept. of Mining Enar.,
Univ. of Ky., Lexington, KY 40506.

Experimental Transplants of
Plerocercoids of Triaenophorus crassus
Forel into the Body Cavity of Whitefish,
Coregonus clupeaformis (Mitchill).
—Triaenophorus crassus is a pseudophyllidean
tapeworm whose plerocercoid larva is found in
the muscles of a variety of salmonid fish.
Normally, the parasite occupies the host body
cavity only during the first week of infection
before migrating from the fish digestive system
to the muscles (Rosen and Dick, Can. J. Zool.
62:203-211, 1984). Recently, experimental infec-
tions of whitefish fry, Coregonus clupeaformis
(Rosen and Dick, Can. J. Zool. 62:203-211,
1984), and rainbow trout fry, Salmo gairdneri
(Rosen and Dick, J. Wild. Dis. 20:34-38, 1984),
with T. crassus resulted in a small number of
incompletely differentiated plerocercoids that
reentered the body cavity from the muscles
between days 40-60 postinfection (PI) and
survived in this site. Considerable pathology, in-
cluding hemorrhaging and granuloma forma-
tion, was associated with these plerocercoids in
the body cavity.

It is not known whether fully differentiated
plerocercoids (i.e., worms with hooks and at
least 3 months old) contained in a host capsule
may reenter the body cavity of fish, but several
worms with hooks have been observed to
penetrate through the host capsule within the
muscles of whitefish (Rosen and Dick, Can. J.
Zool. 62:203-211, 1984). These worms may
represent a long-term source of parasites
capable of reentering the body cavity since they
may live 4 to 5 years in muscles (Miller, Bull.
Fish. Res. Board Can. No. 95, 1952). It is impor-
tant to determine whether these fully differen-
tiated plerocercoids of T. crassus may also sur-
vive upon reentry into the host body cavity if the
pathology in fish caused by this parasite is to be
accurately assessed. The objective of this study
was to determine whether or not T. crassus
plerocercoids can survive in the body cavity of
whitefish if they are introduced into this site
after they are completely differentiated and
encapsulated by the host.

RH - Notes

Fully formed plerocercoids of T. crassus
were removed from capsules in the muscles of
cisco, Coregonus artedii, obtained from Quigly
Lake, Manitoba (54°51’N, 101°04’W). Plerocer-
coids (4-5/fish) of unknown age were pipetted
into the body cavity through an incision made in
the ventral hypaxial muscles of nine 4-5 year old
laboratory reared whitefish packed in ice and
anesthetized with MS-222. The incision was
then closed with catgut chromic 310 USP (B.
Broun Melsungen A. G., W. Germany), and the
revived fish were held in 12°C aerated water.
Fish were sacrificed at weekly intervals starting
at day 7 PI. Plerocercoids and associated host
tissues were removed from the body cavity,
placed in a 0.75% salt solution and observed
with a Wild M-3 dissecting microscope. Some
worms and tissues were then fixed in Bouin’s
solution, routinely processed for paraffin embed-
ding, sectioned at 10mM and stained with
hematoxylin and eosin.

All plerocercoids recovered from the
transplants were dead. Worms were stretched
along the length of the body cavity or entwined
around viscera. Most plerocercoids were com-
pletely surrounded by connective tissue at day 28
PI, and all were in a state of degeneration.

These results clearly show that plerocer-
coids of T. crassus have the capacity to survive
in the body cavity of whitefish only if they
reenter this site from the muscles prior to the
completion of their development and encapsula-
tion by the host. Therefore, the pathology
associated with plerocercoids of T. crassus in
the body cavity of whitefish must originate dur-
ing the two month migratory phase of develop-
ing plerocercoids prior to their encapsulation.

This work was supported by a University of
Manitoba Fellowship to R. Rosen and grants
from the Natural Sciences and Engineering
Research Council of Canada and Fisheries and
Oceans, Science Subvention Program, to T.
Dick. —Ron Rosen, Div. Nat. Sci., Union Col-
lege, Barbourville, Kentucky 40906 and T. A.
Dick, Dept. Zool., Univ. Manitoba, Winnipeg,
Manitoba, Canada R3T 2N2.

Dawson Springs Seep Swamp: Site of
Some Significant New Amphibian
Records.— Dawson Springs Seep Swamp is a
privately owned, forested Sphagnum swamp
located in the floodplain of Montgomery Creek
near its confluence with the Tradewater River,
Caldwell County, Kentucky. Its geological and
ecological features were described by Quarter-
man and Powell (Potential ecological/
geological tandmarks of the Interior Low

| Plateaus, U.S. Dept. Int., Nat. Pk. Serv., 1978),

and Harker et al. (Western Kentucky Coal Field:

157

preliminary investigations of natural features
and cultural resources. Vol. I, Part II, Technical
Report., Ky. Nature Preserves Comm.,
Frankfort, 1980) conducted aquatic and ter-
restrial surveys of the site’s flora and fauna. The
purpose of this note is to augment the biological
findings of these studies and to present new Ken-
tucky distributional data for three species of am-
phibians whose ranges in western Kentucky are
poorly understood. Specimens cited are in the
Austin Peay State University Museum of
Zoology (Nos. 3487 to 3491).

Two visits were made to the swamp, 7 June
1983, and 24 February 1984. On both occasions
the area was thoroughly searched for amphib-
ians by looking under rocks, logs, leaf litter and
Sphagnum. During the first visit, 2 Pseudotriton
montanus (snout-vent lengths 65 mm and 57
mm) and Rana sylvatica (snout-vent length 50
mm) were taken. All were found under rocks at
the edge of a spring located at the base of a low
sandstone bluff which borders the swamp. On
the second visit, 2 P. montanus (snout-vent
lengths 78 mm and 75 mm), 2 R. sylvatica
(snout-vent lengths 56 mm and 53 mm) and 3
Hemidactylium scutatum (snout-vent lengths 34
mm, 30 mm, and 31 mm) were obtained. Both
P. montanus were beneath rocks at the same
spring where the species was discovered on the
previous visit. One specimen of R. sylvatica was
found beneath a rotting log; the other was taken
from among Sphagnum and leaf litter along the
swamp’s margin. All 3 H. scutatum were taken
from beneath Sphagnum and leaf litter. Other
species of amphibians encountered at the
swamp were Ambystoma maculatum, A. tex-
anum, Eurycea bislineata, Plethodon dorsalis,
P. glutinosus, Acris crepitans, and Pseudacris
triseriata.

The collections of H. scutatum, P. mon-
tanus, and R. sylvatica cited above represent
new locality records and document the western-
most known populations of these species in
Kentucky. The nearest published localities for
each, respectively, are: Edmonson County
(Brandon, Trans. Ill. Acad. Sci. 58:149, 1965),
approximately 145 km to the east; Todd County
(Barbour, Amphibians and Reptiles of Ken-
tucky, Univ. Press of Ky. Lexington, 1971),
about 65 km to the southeast; and Henderson
County (Barbour, loc. cit., 1971), some 65 km to
the north-northeast.

In light of these findings, it seems
reasonable to expect these amphibian species in
suitable habitats throughout Kentucky as far
west as the western edge of the Shawnee Hills
Section of the Interior Low Plateaus Province.

The authors wish to thank Mike Wood and
Nathan Rutherford for their aid in the field and
Lisa Stokes for proofing the manuscript. Field

158

work was supported by an Austin Peay State
University Tower Research Grant.—A Floyd
Scott, Dan VanNorman and Kon Rich,
Dept. of Biology, Austin Peay State University,
Clarksville, TN 37044.

Range Extensions and Drainage
Records for Four Kentucky Fishes—The
Kentucky distribution of Ammocrypta pellucida
includes portions of the Green, Salt, Kentucky,
Licking, Littke Sandy, Big Sandy, and Ohio
rivers (Burr, Brimleyana 3:53-84, 1980; Rice et
al., Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci. 44:125-129, 1983;
Williams, Bull. Ala. Mus. Nat. Hist. 1, 1975),
but this fish was last collected from the Salt
River drainage in 1890 by Woolman (Bull, U.S.
Fish. Comm. 10:249-288, 1892), who considered
the species to be common. Two specimens col-
lected on 1 August 1983 from the Rolling Fork at
Gaddy’s Ford, 1.7 km S of Howardstown,
Nelson County, confirm the persistence of A.
pellucida in the Salt River drainage. Although
historically A. pellucida had a wide distribution
in Kentucky and may at times be collected in
good numbers at certain localities (Rice et al.,
loc. cit.; per. obs.), the species is considered
threatened in Kentucky (Branson et al., Trans.
Ky. Acad. Sci. 42:77-89, 1981) and is being
evaluated for possible addition to the U.S.
endangered and threatened species list (U.S.
Fish and Wildl. Serv., Fed. Reg. 47:58454-58460,
1982).

Although Clay (The Fishes of Kentucky,
Ky. Dept. Fish. Wildl. Resour., Frankfort, 1975)
referred to 2 collections (KFW 1352 and 1746) of
Etheostoma maculatum from the upper Ken-
tucky River, the specimens were not found by
the authors in the University of Louisville and
Kentucky Department of Fish and Wildlife
Resources collections. Etnier (in Lee et al., Atlas
of North American Freshwater Fishes, 1980)
and Burr (loc. cit.) noted E. maculatum from
the Green and Cumberland rivers only in Ken-
tucky. William L. Fisher, University of
Louisville, brought to the junior author’s atten-
tion one juvenile Etheostoma (Nothonotus),
subsequently identified as Etheostoma
maculatum, from the North Fork of the Ken-
tucky River at the mouth of Rock Lick Creek,
Breathitt County, 14 March 1981. This collec-
tion represents the first confirmed record of E.
maculatum from the Kentucky River and lends
credence to Clay’s (loc. cit.) records for the
Middle Fork. It is recommended that adult
specimens be sought to help define the species
taxonomic affinities and range in the Kentucky
River.

Notropis emiliae was previously known in
Kentucky from Ohio River tributaries upstream

Trans. Kentucky Academy of Science — 45(3-4)

to and including the Green River drainage (Clay,
loc. cit.; Burr, loc. cit.). Two specimens, col-
lected on 1 November 1983 from Pottinger
Creek, Nelson County, 1.3 stream km upstream
from the Rolling Fork confluence, extend the
range of N. emiliae in the Ohio River valley of
Kentucky upstream to include the Salt River
drainage. Trautman (The Fishes of Ohio, Ohio
State University Press, Columbus, 1981)
assumed N. emiliae was extirpated from Ohio
River tributaries in Ohio. The Salt River record
represents the farthest upstream extant popula-
tion in the Ohio River drainage (Gilbert and
Bailey, Occas. Pap. Mus. Zool. Univ. Mich. 664,
1972).

Notropis venustus is known in Kentucky
from 2 localities each in Bayou du Chien, the
Mississippi River, and the lower Ohio River
(Burr, loc. cit.) and one locality in Mayfield
Creek (Rice et al., loc. cit.). A single specimen
of Notropis venustus, secured 19 May 1982 from
Obion Creek 3.4 km SSW of Milburn and 0.15
km §S of the Carlisle-Hickman County line in
Hickman County, is the first record of the
species from that stream. The specimen was
collected with Notropis lutrensis and Notropis
lutrensis x N. venustus hybrids. Smith and Sisk
(Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci. 30:60-68, 1969) reported
Notropis lutrensis in their survey of the system.
Notropis venustus is regarded as of special con-
cern in Kentucky (Branson et al., loc. cit.).

The species reported herein appear to have
extremely localized distributions in the Ken-
tucky drainages covered. Ammocrypta
pellucida and N. emiliae each occurred in one of
18 collections made in the Salt River drainage
during this survey and were not collected from
the drainage during other recent fish surveys
(Henley, Ky. Dept. Fish. Wildl. Resour. Bull. 67,
1983; Hovt et al., Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci. 40:1-20,
1979; W. L. Fisher, pers. comm.) The absence of
E. maculatum in previous surveys of Kentucky
River drainages (Jones, Ky. Dept. Fish. Wildl.
Resour. Bull. 56, 1973; Branson and Batch,
Southeast. Fishes Council Proc. 4(2):1-15, 1983;
and others) suggests an extremely localized
distribution. The darter subgenus Nothonotus
often occurs in habitats which are difficult to
sample and members of this subgenus have
recently been discovered in rivers in Kentucky
and elsewhere after having been missed by
previous surveyors (Warren and Cicerello,
Brimleyana in press; Williams and Etnier, Proc.
Biol. Soc. Wash. 91(2):463-471, 1978). The
distribution of Notropis venustus within Ken-
tucky drainages may also be characterized as
localized. This pattern is observed even in
drainages where suitable habitat is relatively
abundant (Burr, loc.cit.).

Notes 159

Richard R. Hannan, Director of the Ken-
tucky Nature Preserves Commission (KNPC),
supported this work and the KNPC staff lent
field assistance; Mr. William L. Fisher, Universi-
ty of Louisville, provided the E. maculatum
specimen; and Dr. B. M. Burr, Southern Illinois
University at Carbondale, confirmed the N.
venustus identification and provided distribu-
tional information—RONALD R. CICERELLO,
Kentucky Nature Preserves Commission,
Frankfort, Kentucky 40601 and MELVIN L.
WARREN, Jr., Department of Zoology,
Southern Illinois University at Carbondale,
Carbondale, Illinois 62901.

REDISCOVERY OF THE RARE
KENTUCKY ENDEMIC SOLIDAGO
SHORTII T. & G. IN FLEMING AND
NICHOLAS COUNTIES.—Solidago shortii a
member of the angiosperm plant family Com-
positae (= Asteracaea), is one of the two
goldenrods endemic to Kentucky. (The other
one is S. albopilosa E. L. Braun.) Historically,
S. shortii was known only from 4 counties in
Kentucky: Fleming, Jefferson, Nicholas and
Robertson (Braun, E. L. 1941. Rhodora 43: 484;
Medley, M. 1980. Status report on Solidago
shortii submitted to the U.S. Fish and Wildlife
Service, Unpubl.). This species currently is
under status review by the U.S. Fish and
Wildlife Service for listing as federally
endangered (Federal Register 45 (242): 82538. 15
December 1980).

In a status report on S. shortii to the Fish
and Wildlife Service, Medley (1980) concluded
that the only known extant population of this
species in is “.. . Blue Lick State Park along
both sides of the Old Buffalo Trace Trail and in
edges of a nearby cedar glade.” Thus, the pur-
pose of this short note is to report the
rediscovery of S. shortii in Nicholas and Flem-
ing counties. The localities follow: NICHOLAS
CO.: Along east side of U.S. 68, 0.16 km south
of the Robertson County line, J. & C. Baskin
#2094 (KY), 11 September 1983; Along east side
of U.S. 68, 0.48 km south of Licking River, J. &
C. Baskin #2095 (KY), 11 September 1983.
FLEMING CO.: 2.4 km NE of Blue Licks Bat-
tlefield State Park on U.S. 68 and 0.8 km E on
old U.S. 68, across road from the Assembly of
God Church, J. & C. Baskin #2096 (KY), 11
September 1983.

In addition, we found a second site for the
species in Blue Licks Battlefield State Park:
ROBERTSON CoO.:: Blue Licks Battlefield State
Park, W of and adjacent to the camping area, J.

& C. Baskin #2093 (KY), 11 September 1983.
Medley (1980) reported that the largest popula-
tion of S. shortii in Blue Licks Battlefield State
Park recently was destroyed during construction
of the camping area. Apparently, the plants still
growing adjacent to the camping area are part
of a larger population that existed in this part of
the park prior to construction of the camping
area.

Although the 4 additional extant popula-
tions of S. shortii reported here extends the
known number of individuals in the species
population by perhaps a few hundred, we agree
with Medley (1980) that the species should be
listed as endangered at the federal level.

Specimens of S. shortii cited in this note
have been annotated as such by Max
Medley.—JERRY M. BASKIN and CAROL C.
BASKIN, School of Biological Sciences,
University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY
40506-0225.

Notes on Kentucky Mammals: Myotis
keenii and Sorex longirostris— Myotis
keenii, a northern species, is one of the scarcest
bats in Kentucky (Barbour and Davis, Mammals
of Kentucky, Univ. Press of Kentucky, Lex-
ington, 1974). Most specimens have been taken
by netting at caves in summer. All summer
specimens previously taken in Kentucky have
been males.

On 30 June 1983, Chadwick, in a study to
assess potential environmental impact of the
proposed Means Oil Shale Project near Jeffer-
sonville, netted a lactating female Myotis keenii
over West Fork Creek, Menifee Co., Ky.

The nearest locality where this species is
known to bear young is Roosevelt Lake, Scioto

County, Ohio (Brandon, J. Mammal.
42:400-401, 1961). In Missouri, Caire et al.,
(Amer. Mid Nat 102:404-407, 1979) netted

lactating M. keenii in June.

Also of interest is a southeastern shrew,
Sorex longirostris taken in Foley Hollow,
Montgomery Co., Ky. on 15 August 1983. This
locality extends the known range of the species
into eastern Kentucky 100 km from the Franklin-
Scott County line (Caldwell and Bryan,
Brimleyana 8:91-100, 1982).

Specimens collected during this project
have been desposited in the University of
Kentucky collection: JAMES W. CHADWICK,
Chadwick and Associates, 5767 South Rapp St.,
Littleton Co., 80120 and WAYNE H. DAVIS,
School of Biological Sciences, University of
Kentucky, Lexington 40506.

NEWS AND COMMENTS

PRESIDENT’S REPORT TO THE
KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

As the Kentucky Academy of Science
celebrates its 70th Anniversary, the objectives of
the organization are as relevant as when first
written. To refresh your memory, I share with
you those objectives as they appear in the KAS
Constitution: 1) to encourage scientific
research, 2) to promote the diffusion of scientific
knowledge, and 3) to unify the scientific interests
of the Commonwealth of Kentucky.

Much is being said about the scientific com-
petency, or rather the lack thereof, of the
present generation of students both in the
Commonwealth and throughout the Nation. It’s
true that much is being said and written but very
little is being done. There is tremendous oppor-
tunity for the Academy to significantly impact
science and mathematics education for Ken-
tuckians. We must do more than merely offer
our services, our combined and individual exper-
tise, and our willingness to provide resources.
We must become actively involved in the
decision-making process. It is a most opportune
time for the scientists of Kentucky to work con-
certedly in the design and development of an
eclucational construct that is both relevant and
futuristic. I ask that you join me in reflecting on
best possible solutions to our educational prob-
lems and that you than share your ideas with
other members of the Academy, the Executive

Committee, and me. In turn, we can then in-
teract with other scientific societies in a
combined effort to impact state programs.

This year’s emphasis on education is a
natural progression of the Academy’s recent
history. Significant gains were made under the
presidencies of Dr. Philley, Dr. George, and Dr.
Rodriguez in strengthening ties between
academe and industry. In 1982 meeting in
Ashland was most impressive to those of us in
academe. The 1984 annual meeting is scheduled
for November 9, 10 in Frankfort and the focus
will be the interrelationships of academe/in-
dustry/government. Such a theme and place
seem appropriate for the times.

I consider it a signal honor to serve as Presi-
dent and am looking forward to working with
you in carrying out the objectives of the
Academy. Your comments and suggestions will
be appreciated.

Sincerely,

Gary W. Boggess

IMPORTANT PUBLICATIONS BY
KENTUCKY SCIENTISTS

The long-awaited book, The American
Darters (University Press of Kentucky), by Drs.
Robert A. Kuehne and Roger W. Barbour has
appeared. It is a stunning piece of work, full of
information of value to field biologists, novice
fish-watchers, museum taxonomists, natural
history photographers, and biogeographers.
The full-color photographs are of excellent
quality. Although there is another book present-
ly in print on the American percid fishes called
darters, no book on any segment of the North
American fish fauna has ever presented so many
species in color photography. The book will cer-
tainly find a lasting place in the library of
anybody with even a remote interest in fishes.

“Distribution and Status of Ohio River
Fishes” by William D. Pearson and Louis A.
Krumholz, Water Resources Laboratory, ©
University of Louisville (ORNL/SUB/ |
79-7831/1). This 401-page review chronicles the —
effects of human settlement in the Ohio River |
Valley on the river and its fishes. Trends in the |
fish community are outlined, and the effects of
navigation projects, pollution, and pollution
abatement are described. Distribution maps for
the major species are plotted for three time |
periods. The report was prepared under subcon-

160

News and Comments 161

tract 7831 for Oak Ridge National Laboratory
(Dr. S. Marshall Adams, project officer) and for
the U.S. Environmental Protection Agen-
cy—Region V Water Division (Walter L. “Pete”
Redmon, project officer).

The report incorporates much of the “grey
literature” contained in environmental reports,
impact statements, and interagency com-
munications issued in the 1970's; unpublished
data from lock chamber rotenone collections
made by the Ohio River Valley Water Sanitation
Commission (ORSANCO), the U.S. Environ-
mental Protection Agency, and various state

agencies; and unpublished original data and
museum holdings. The complete data base for
the report is available to qualified investigators
in the Louis A. Krumholz Memorial Reading
Room, Biology Department, University of
Louisville. The report is available from the
National technical Information Service, 5285
Port Royal Road, Springfield, Virginia, 22161
(NTIS #DE 84007922).

A limited number of copies are available
from the first author.

ACADEMY BUSINESS

— COMMITTEES OF THE KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE: 1983-1984

President Bogess takes this opportunity to thank all of the individuals listed below for gracious-
ly accepting various committee assignments. He expresses special appreciation to those individuals

who accepted chairperson responsibilities.

EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE

Gary Boggess (President)

College of Environmental Sciences
Murray State University

Murray, KY 42071

(501) 762-2886

Joe Winstead (President-Elect)
Department of Biology
Western Kentucky University
Bowling Green, KY 42101
(502) 745-3696

Charles Covell, Jr. (Vice-President)
Department of Biological Sciences
University of Louisville

Louisville, KY 40292

(502) 588-6771

J. G. Rodriguez (Past-President)
Department of Entomology
University of Kentucky
Lexington, KY 40546-0091

(606) 257-4902 or 3148

Robert O. Creek (Secretary)
Department of Biological Sciences
Eastern Kentucky University
Richmond, KY 40475

(606) 622-1539

Morris D. Taylor (Treasurer)
Department of Chemistry
Eastern Kentucky University
Richmond, KY 40475

(606) 622-1465

Branley A. Branson (Editor)
Department of Biological Sciences
Eastern Kentucky University
Richmond, KY 40475

(606) 622-1537

David Pryor (NAAS Representative)
Department of Biological Sciences
University of Kentucky

Lexington, KY 40506-0225

(606) 257-9302

Herbert Leopold (Director - KJAS)
Department of Health and Safety
Western Kentucky University
Bowling Green, KY 42101

(502) 563-5731

Manuel Schwartz (Chairman,
Board of Directors)
Department of Physics
University of Louisville
Louisville, KY 40292

(502) 588-6787 or 588-5235

BOARD OF DIRECTORS

Manuel Schwartz (1986) (Chairman)
Department of Physics

University of Louisville, KY 40292
(502)588-6787 or 588-5235

Mary McGlasson (1984)
429 Breck Avenue
Richmond, KY 40475
(606) 623-1585

Joe Winstead (1984)
Department of Biology
Western Kentucky University
Bowling Green, KY 42101
(502) 745-3696

Paul Freytag (1985)
Department of Entomology
University of Kentucky
Lexington, KY 40546-0091
(606) 257-7452

William A. Baker (1985)

The General Electric Company
Appliance Park AP35-1301
Louisville, KY 40225

(502) 452-4642

Gerrit Kloek (1986)
Department of Biology
Kentucky State University
Frankfort, KY 40601

(502) 227-6095

Lawrence Boucher (1987)
Department of Chemistry
Western Kentucky University
Bowling Green, KY 42101
(502) 745-3457

James Sickel (1987)
Department of Biology
Murray State University
Murray, KY 42071

(502) 762-2786

162

Academy Business 163

COMMITTEE ON MEMBERSHIP

Larry P. Elliott (1985) (Chairman)
Department of Biology

Western Kentucky University
Bowling Green, KY 42101

(502) 745-3696

George Coltharp (1984)
Department of Forestry
University of Kentucky
Lexington, KY 40546-0073

Paul Freytag (1985)
Department of Entomology
University of Kentucky
Lexington, KY 40546-0091
(606) 257-7452

COMMITTEE ON PUBLICATIONS

Branley A. Branson (Chairman)
Department of Biological Sciences
Eastern Kentucky University
Richmond, KY 40475

(606) 622-1537

Jerry M. Baskin (1984)
Department of Biological Sciences
University of Kentucky

Lexington, KY 40506-0225

(606) 257-8770

James E. O‘Reilly (1985)
Department of Chemistry
University of Kentucky
Lexington, KY 40506-0055
(606) 257-7080

Donald L. Batch (1986)

College of Natural and Mathematical Sciences
Eastern Kentucky University

Richmond, KY 40475

(606) 622-1818

Gary Boggess (KAS President)
College of Environmental Sciences
Murray State University

Murray, KY 42071

(502) 762-2886

COMMITTEE ON LEGISLATION:

STATE GOVERNMENT
SCIENCE ADVISORY COMMITTEE

Charles E. Kupchella (1986) (Chairman)
Department of Biological Sciences
Murray State University

Murray, KY 42071

(502) 762-2786

Rudolph Prins (1984)
Department of Biology
Western Kentucky University
Bowling Green, KY 42101
(502) 745-3696

Jerry C. Davis (1985)
President, Alice Lloyd College
Pippa Passes, KY 41811

(606) 368-2701

Ex Officio

Gary Boggess (President)

College of Environmental Sciences
Murray State University

Murray, KY 42071

Jeo Winstead (President-Elect)
Department of Biology
Western Kentucky University
Bowling Green, KY 42101
(502) 745-3696

J. G. Rodriguez (Past-President)
Department of Entomology
University of Kentucky
Lexington, KY 40546-0091

(606) 257-4902

DISTRIBUTION OF RESEARCH
FUNDS COMMITTEE

William S. Bryant (1986) (Chairman)
Thomas More College

Box 85

Ft. Mitchell, KY 41017

Larry Geismann (1984)
Department of Biology
Northern Kentucky University
Highland Heights, KY 41076
(606) 292-5304

Ralph Thompson (1986)
Department of Biology
Berea College

Berea, KY 40403

(606) 986-9341

RESEARCH AWARD COMMITTEE

Carolyn P. Brock
Department of Chemistry
University of Kentucky
Lexington, KY 40506-0055
(606) 257-8086

Karan Kaul

Department of Biological Sciences
Kentucky State University
Frankfort, KY 40601

(502) 564-6066

164 Trans. Kentucky Academy of Science — 45(3-4)

James L. Lee

Department of Psychology
Eastern Kentucky University
Richmond, KY 40475

(606) 622-2197

William S. Wagner

Department of Physical Sciences
Northern Kentucky University
Highland Heights, KY 41076
(606) 572-5414

Paul H. Freytag, Chair
Department of Entomology
University of Kentucky
Lexington, KY 40546-0091
(606) 257-7452

JUNIOR ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
GOVERNING BOARD

Herbert Leopold (Chairman)
Department of Health and Safety
Western Kentucky University
Bowling Green, KY 42101

(502) 563-5731

Arvin Crafton (1984)

College of Human Development and Learning
432 Wells Hall

Murray State University

Murray, KY 42071

(502) 762-3790

J. Truman Stevens (1984)

(Editor of KJAS Bulletin)

College of Education

Department of Curriculum and Instruction
210 Taylor Education Building

University of Kentucky

Lexington, KY 40506-0001

(606) 257-3894

Stephen A. Henderson (1984) (Treasurer)
Model Laboratory School

Eastern Kentucky University

Richmond, KY 40575

(606) 622-3766

SCIENCE EDUCATION COMMITTEE

Ted M. George (1986) (Chairman)
Department of Physics

Eastern Kentucky University
Richmond, KY 40475

(606) 622-1521

J. Truman Stevens (1984)

Department of Curriculum and Instruction
University of Kentucky

Lexington, KY 40506-0017

(606) 257-3894

Sue K. Ballard (1985)

Department of Chemistry
Elizabethtown Community College
Elizabethtown, KY 42701

(502) 769-2371

Donald L. Birdd (1986)
Science Education

Eastern Kentucky University
Richmond, KY 40475

(606) 622-2167

Dan Ochs (1986)
Science Education
University of Louisville
Louisville, KY 40292
(502) 588-6591

Charles Covell, Jr. (KAS Vice-President)
Department of Biology

University of Louisville

Louisville, KY 40292

(502) 588-6771

COMMITTEE TO STUDY
LEGISLATIVELY MANDATED
EDUCATIONAL PROGRAMS

Wallace Dixon (Chairman)

College of Natural and Mathematical Sciences
Eastern Kentucky University

Richmond, KY 40475

(606) 622-1818

William H. Dennen
Department of Geology
University of Kentucky
Lexington, KY 40506-0059
(606) 257-6931

Anna S. Neal

Fayette County Public Schools
701 East Main Street
Lexington, KY 40502

(606) 259-1411

William F. Wagner
Department of Chemistry
University of Kentucky
Lexington, KY 40506-0055
(606) 257-1159

COMMITTEE ON RARE
AND ENDANGERED SPECIES

John MacGregor (Chairman)
KY Fish and Wildlife Resources
Frankfort, KY

(502) 564-5448

Academy Business

Branley A. Branson

Department of Biological Sciences
Eastern Kentucky University
Richmond, KY 40475

(606) 622-2635

Jerry Baskin

Department of Biological Sciences
University of Kentucky

Lexington, KY 40506-0225

(606) 257-8770

Donald Batch

Department of Biological Sciences
Eastern Kentucky University
Richmond, KY 40475

(606) 622-1818

Wayne Davis

Department of Biological Sciences
University of Kentucky

Lexington, KY 40506-0225

(606) 257-1828

Richmond Hannan

Director, KY Nature Preserves Commission
407 Broadway

Frankfort, KY 40601

(502) 564-2886

NOMINATING AND RESOLUTION
COMMITTEE

John C. Philley (Chairman)
Department of Physical Sciences
Morehead State University
Morehead, KY 40351

(606) 783-2913

Harold Eversmeyer
Department of Biology
Murray State University
Murray, KY 42071

(502) 762-2786

Debra K. Pearce

Departmtne of Biology
Northern Kentucky University
Highland Heights, KY 41076
(606) 572-5362

AUDIT COMMITTEE

Douglas L. Dahlman
Department of Entomology
University of Kentucky
Lexington, KY 40546-0091
(606) 257-4962

Thomas D. Strickler
Department of Physics
Berea College

Box 2326

Berea, KY 40403

(606) 986-9341, ext. 587

Vaughn Vandegrift
Department of Chemistry
Murray State University
Murray, KY 42071

(502) 762-2587

165

ACADEMY AFFAIRS, 82-99
ACADEMY BUSINESS, 162
Accipiter, unidentified, 129
Accipiter cooperii, 128, 129
A. Striatus, 128, 129
Acris crepitans, 157
Acroneuria, 67, 68, 69
A. Carolinensis, 67, 69
Aflatoxin production, 138
in Kentucky corn, 138
role of corn insects in, 138
role of plant stress in, 138
Alasmidonta marginata, 73
A. viridis, 73
Allocapnia, 69
Alewife, 73
Allocapria, 66
Alloperla, 69
Alosa pseudoharenqus, 73
Amblema plicata plicata, 73
Ambloplites rupestris, 31
Ambystoma maculatum, 157
A. texanum, 157
Ameletus, 68, 69
Ammocrypta pellucida, 158

INDEX TO VOLUME 45

specific conductivity in, 61

sulfate concentration in, 60

suspended solids in, 63

turbidity measurements in, 63
Miller Branch of, 57

calcium concentration in, 59

iron concentration in, 58

Magnesium concentration in,58
manganese concentration in, 58
mean daily discharge in, 62

PH in, 57

sulfate concentration in, 60
specific conductivity in, 61
suspended solids in, 63
turbidity measurements in, 63

Mullins Fork of, 57

calcium concentration in, 59
iron concentration in, 58
magnesium concentration in,58
manganese concentration in, 58
mean daily discharge in, 63

pH in, 57

sulfate concentration in, 60
specific conductivity in, 61
suspended solids in, 64

C. cumberlandensis, 17
C. diogenes, 15-17
C. dubius, 17
C. graysoni, 17
C. striatus, 17
Campostoma anomalum, 31, 65
CARNEY, DOUGLAS A., 74
Carp, 31
silver, 73
Catostomidae, 73

Catostomus commersoni, 31, 65, 66

Centroptilum, 69

Ceraclea ancylus, 104

. cancellata, 104, 105, 107
. maculata, 104

. tarsipunctata, 105

. tarsipunctatus, 104

. transversa, 102, 104, 107
Ceratopsyche, 67, 70
Cernotina sp., 103
CHADWICK, JAMES W., 159
Characidae, 73
Cheumatopsyche, 67-69

C. campyla, 103, 105-107
C. pasella, 103, 106

ANAND

C. pettiti, 103, 105-107
C. speciosa, 103
Chimarra, 67, 70
C. obsura, 103-107
Chironomidae, 67, 70, 71
Chub, creek, 55
CICERELLO, RONALD R., 159
Circus cyaneus, 128
Clam, Asiatic, 73
Clinostomus elongatus, 77

a new kentucky record for, 77
Clupeidae, 73
Coal fields, 36-50

of Eastern Kentucky, 36-50
Coal mines, 4-13

support systems, 4-13

in relation to roof falls, 413
Coal pillars, 116

dimensional analysis of, 116

application of cost-sensitive

mine planning, 116

COBB, JAMES, C., 36
Coleptera, 67, 70
COMMITTEE

ON LEGISLATION, 163

Amphibian records, 157 turbidity measurements in, 63
in Dawson Spring seep swamp, BEINE, R. L., 138
157 Bittacomorpha, 70, 71
Amphinemura, 66 BOARD OF DIRECTORS, 162
Anguispira kochi, 74 Borer, European corn, 138
observations on in kentucky, 74 —_Boyeria, 66, 68, 69
Anodonta imbecillis, 73 Brashears Creek, 101
A. grandis gradis, 73 Brachypterinae, 69
Argia, 69 BRANSON, BRANLEY A., 55, 74,
Arthripsodes, 107 78
Aspergillus flavis, 138 Breathitt County, 55
A. parsiticus, 138 Bullhead, black, 32
Atherix, 70, 71 brown, 31
AUDIT COMMITTEE, 165 yellow, 32
BURR, BROOKS M., 14, 74
Buteo, unidentified, 129
Buteo jamaicensis, 128, 129
B. lagopus, 128, 129
B. lineatus, 128, 129

Baetis, 66, 68, 69
BARTON, MICHAEL, 30
BASKIN, CAROL C., 159
BASKIN, JERRY M., 159
Basommatophora, 70
Bass, smallmouth, 31
BATCH, DONALD L., 55
Bear Branch, 55, 57
Jenny Fork of, 57

Caddisfly community, 101-108
in Salt River, 101-108

Caldwell County, 157

Calopteryx, 66, 68, 69

calcium concentration in, 59
iron concentration in, 58
magnesium concentration in,58
manganese concentration in, 58
mean daily discharge in, 62

PH in, 57

Cambarellus puer, 14, 15

C. shufeldtii, 14-18
Cambarus bartonii, 67, 70, 71
C. batchi, 17

C. buntingi, 17

C. carolinus, 17

166

STATE GOVERNMENT
SCIENCE ADVISORY
COMMITTEE, 163
ON MEMBERSHIP, 163
ON PUBLICATIONS, 163

ON RARE AND ENDANGERED
SPECIES, 163
TO STUDY LEGISLATIVELY
MANDATED EDUCATIONAL
PROGRAMS, 164

Computer-generated statistical
models, 18-29
geotechnical application
of, 18-29
of contour, trend, and
residuals surfaces, 18-29
Corbicula fluminea, 73
Cordulegaster, 66, 68, 69
Coregonus clupeaformis, 156
Corydalus, 68
C. cornutus, 67, 69
Cottus carolinae, 31
Crayfish fauna, 14-18
of Kentucky, 14-18
Culaea inconstans, 73
CURTIS, WILLIE R., 55
Cyprinidae, 73
Cyprinus carpio, 31
Cyrnellus fraternus, 103

Dace, blacknose, 31
redside, 77
Dannella, 66, 68
Darter, banded, 74
goldstripe, 74
gulf, 74
lowland snubnose, 74
orangethroat, 31, 32
rainbow, 31
DAVIS, WAYNE H., 159
Dawson Springs, 157
new amphibian records, 157
Decapoda, 67, 70
DICK, T. A., 157
Dicranota, 70
Diplectrona, 67
Diplectronia, 69
Diptera, 67, 70
DISTRIBUTION OF RESEARCH
FUNDS COMMITTEE, 163
Dixa, 67, 70
Drunella, 66

Earworm, corn, 138
Eastern Kentucky, 36-50
coal fields, 36-50

discriminative analysis of, 36-50
selected rock strengths of, 36-50
geological parameters of, 36-50

Eccoptura, 67, 69

Ectopria, 70

Elassoma zonatum, 74

Index to Volume 45

Elkhorn Creek, 73
mussels, of, 73

Elliptio dilatata, 73

Empoasca fabae, 33

Epeorus, 66, 69

Ephemera, 66, 68, 69

Ephemerella, 66, 68, 69

Ephemeroptera, 66, 69

Ericymba buccata, 65

Eriocera, 67

Etheostoma acuticeps, 77

. baileyi, 65

. blennioides, 31, 65

. caeruleum, 31, 65

. flabellare, 31, 65

. maculatum, 158

nigrum, 65, 66

parvipinne, 74

. sagitta, 65, 66, 77

sellare, 77

. spectabile, 31, 32

. swaini, 74

. trisella, 77

. variatum, 65, 66

. zonale lynceum, 74

. (Nanostoma) sp., 74

Eurycea bislineata, 157

EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE, 162

mamma ooo

Falco sparverius, 128, 129
F. sparverius paulus, 129
F. sparverius sparverius, 129
Fallicambarus fodiens, 14-16
F. hedgpethi, 15, 16
FERRELL, BLAINE R., 122
Ferrissia fragilis, 70
FINKENSTAEDT, ELIZABETH, 51
Fishes, drainage records of, 158
of Jessamine Creek, 30-32
Jessamine County, Kentucky,
30-32
range extension of, 158
FREYTAG, PAUL H., 75
Fusconaia flava, 73

Gambusia affinis, 31, 32
Gasterosteidae, 73
Gastropoda, 74
Gene frequencies, 1-3
in domestic cat populations, 1-3
Gerris, 67, 69
Glossosomatide, 103
Goniobasis semicarinata, 70

HAAG, K. H., 101
Hagenius, 69

HAIDAR, NABEEL F., 77
Haliplus, 67

167

Harrier, northern, 128-130

Hawk, Cooper’s, 128
red-shouldered, 128-130
red-tailed, 138-130
rough-legged, 128-130
sharp-shinned, 128-130

Helichus, 67, 68, 70

Heliothis zea, 138

Helisoma anceps, 70

Hemerodromia, 67

Hemidactylium scutatum, 157

Heterondonta, 70

Heteroptera, 67, 69

Hexatoma, 70, 71

HILTON, CHARLES L., 132

HOBBS, HORTON H., JR., 14

HOYT, ROBERT D., 76

Hydrobius, 68, 70

Hydroblus, 67

Hydrophylus, 67

Hydropsyche, 67-69

H. betteni, 103

. cheilonis, 103

. dicantha, 103

. incommoda, 103

. orris, 103

. simulans, 103

Hydropsychidae, 103

Hydroptilidae, 103

Hydroptila, 67

H. ajax, 103

H. angusta, 104

H. armata, 104, 105

H. consimillis, 104

H.

H.

H.

rIlItTIT

. hamata, 104
. perdita, 104-107
. waubesiana, 104
H. sp., 104
Hymenoptera, 74
Hypentelium nigricans, 31, 65, 66
Hypophthalmichthys molitrix, 73

Ictalurus melas, 31, 32
I. natalis, 31, 32
I. nebulosus, 31
Indian Knoll, 51-54
OH 2 site, 51-54
age at first pregnancy among
females at, 51-54
Isonychia, 66, 68, 69
Isoperla, 66, 69
Ithytricia nr mazon, 104
Jessamine County, Kentucky, 30-32
Jessamine Creek, 30-32
fishes of, 30-32
in Jessamine County, Kentucky,
30-32

168 Trans. Kentucky Academy of Science — 45(3-4)

JUNIOR ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

GOVERNING BOARD, 164

Kestrel, American, 129
Kestrels, 128, 129
KUEHNE, ROBERT A., 78

Laccophilus, 70

Lanthus, 66, 68, 69
Lamprey, least brook, 74
Lampsilis fasciola, 73

L. r. luteola, 73

L. ventricosa, 73
Lamptera aepyptera, 74
Lasmigona complanata, 73
L. costata, 73

Leafhopper, potato, 33-35

development of selected legumes,

33-35

Leatherwood Creek, 55, 57
calcium concentration in, 59
iron concentration in, 58
magnesium concentration in, 58
manganese concentration in, 58
mean daily discharge in, 62
PH in, 57
specific conductivity in, 61
sulfate concentration in, 60
suspended solids in, 63
turbidity measurements in, 63

Lepomis, 65

L. cyanellus, 31

L. gulosus, 31

L. macrochirus, 31
L. marginatus, 74
L. megalotis, 31, 65

Leptoceridae, 104
Leptodea fragilis, 73
Leptophlebia, 68, 69
Leuctra, 66, 69
LISLE, JOHN T., 125

Madtom, brown, 74
least, 74
Magnonaias nervosa, 73
MARDON, DAVID N., 125
megaloptera, 67, 69
Mesogastropoda, 70
Microbiological sampling, 125
apparatus for, 125
of river waters, 125
Micropterus dolomieui, 31, 65, 66
M. salmoides, 31
Microvelia, 67, 69
Mine roof falls, 78, 109, 154

break angle determination of, 154

case study, 109
contouring of, 154

characteristics of, 78, 109
geometry and physical

characteristics of, 109
in deep coal mines, 78

in upper Freeport coal seam, 109

Mine roofs, 144

lithologic characteristics of, 144

Mining, 55-72
in East-Central Kentucky, 55

small-stream recovery following,

55-72
surface, 55-72
Minnow, bullhead, 31
flathead, 32
Minnows, 31
Mollusca, 74
Montgomery Creek, 157
Mosquitofish, 32
Moxostoma erythrurum, 31
M. poeciliurum, 73, 74
M. valenciennesi, 73
Mudminnow, central, 74
Mussels, 73
of Elkhorn Creek, 73
Mustela nivalis, 76
new distributional record in
in Kentucky, 76
Myotis keenii, 159

Nectopsyche candida, 104
N. exquisita, 104

N. sp., 104

NEFF, S. E., 101
Neophylax, 67, 70
Neothrichia okopa, 104
N. riegeli, 104

N. vibrans, 104-106
NEWS AND COMMENTS, 160
Nigronia, 68, 69

Nocomis micropogon, 65

NOMINATING AND RESOLUTION

COMMITTEE, 165
NOTES, 73-81
NOTES AND COMMENTS, 100
Nothonotus, 158
Notropis ardens, 31, 65, 66
. atherinoides, 31
. camurus, 74
. chrysocephalus, 31, 65
emiliae, 158
. lutrensis, 158
photogenis, 65, 66
rubellus, 65, 66
. volucellus, 65, 66
. venustus, 158
Noturus flavus, 31
N. hildebrandi, 74

Z22Zzzz2zz222z

N. phaeus, 73
Nyctiophylax affinis, 103

Ocrotrichia aegerfasciella, 104
O. cristata, 104

O. spinosa, 104

O. tarsalis, 104
Odonata, 66, 69
Oecetis ditissa, 104
O. ditissa, 104

O. inconspicua, 104
O. nocturna, 104

O. persimillis, 104
Optioservus, 67
Orconectes immunis, 16
. juvenilis, 17

. lancifer, 14-16

. palmeri, 14

. palmeri plamri, 16
. putnami, 67, 70, 71
. rusticus, 16, 17
Ostrinia nubilalis, 138
Ostrocerca, 69
Oxyethira pallida, 104

Oooo0°0o

Paddlefish, 75

growth features of, 75

in the Ohio River, 75
Pantala, 69
Paraleptophlebia, 66, 68, 69
PASS, B. C., 33
PATTERSON, C. G., 138
PATTERSON, JOHN M., 77
PAULY, JAMES R., 122
Peltoperla, 66, 68, 69
Pentaneura, 67, 70, 71
Perca flavescens, 78

additional Kentucky records of, 78

Perch, yellow, 78

additional Kentucky records of, 78

Percina caprodes, 31, 65

P. maculata, 65

Phasianus colchicus, 130
Pheasants, ring-necked, 130
Philopotamidae, 103
Pimephales notatus, 31, 65
P. promelas, 31, 32

P. vigilax, 31

Piranha, 73

Plecoptera, 66-67, 69
Plerocercoids, transplants of, 156
Plethodon dorsalis, 157

P. glutinosus, 157
Pleurocera acuta, 70
Polycentropodidae, 103
Polycentropus, 70

P. cinereus, 103

P. sp., 103

ey

Polyodon spathula, 75
PONELEIT, C. G., 138
Potamilus alatus, 73
Potamyia flava, 103
POTTS, M. F., 138
PRATHER, KERRY W., 76
Pregnancy, 51-54
among females at the Indian

Knoll OH 2 site, 51-54
Procambarus acutus acutus, 15, 16
P. clarkii, 15, 16
P. viaeviridis, 14, 16
Progromphus, 68, 69
Protoptila maculata, 103, 105, 106
Psephenus, 67, 70
Pseudacris trisriata, 157
Pseudostenophylax, 70
Pseudostenophylax, 70
Pseudotriton montanus, 157
Psychomiidae, 103
Psychomyia flavida, 103
Ptychobranchus fasciolaris, 73
Pychopsyche, 70

Quadrula quadrula, 73

Raptors, 128
in Madison County, Kentucky, 128
population densities of, 128
wintering populations, 128
Rana sylvatica, 157
Redhorse, blacktail, 73, 74
golden, 31
greater, 73
Remenus, 66
RESEARCH AWARD
COMMITTEE, 163
RESH, V. H., 101
Ragovelia, 67, 69
Rheumatobates, 69
Rhinichthys atratulus, 31
Rhopalosoma nearticum, 74
in Kentucky, 74
R. poeyi, 74
Rhopalosomatidae, 74
Rhyacophila, 67, 70
RICH, RON, 158
RODRIGUEZ, J. G., 138
Roof falls, 78
of deep coal mines, 78
ROSEN, RON, 157

Salmonidae, 73
Salt River, 101-108
Caddisfly community in, 101-108
Salvelinus namaycush, 73
SCIENCE EDUCATION
COMMITTEE, 164

Index to Volume 45

SCOTT, A. FLOYD, 158
Semotilus atromaculatus, 31, 55, 65
Serrasalmus, 73
SEYMOUR, GAYLE A., 18
SFERRA, NANCY J., 128
Shiner, bluntface, 74

Sialis, 68, 69

SIMMONS, A. M., 33
Simulium, 67, 70, 71
Sitophilus zeamais, 138
SMITH, ALAN D., 4, 18, 36,

80, 109, 116, 132, 144, 156
SMITH, WALTER T., Jr., 77
Solidago albopilosa, 159
S. shortii, 159

in Fleming County, 159

in Nicholas County, 159
Sorex longirostris, 159
Sparrow, white-throated, 122

sunset as an orientational cue for,

122
Sphagnum, 157
Spencer Cunty, 101
Sphaerium striatinum, 70
Spongilla lacustris, 102, 107
Stactobiella palmata, 104
Stenacron, 66, 69
Stenonema, 66, 68, 69
Steryl N-Methylcarbamates, 76
improved method for preparation
of, 76
Stickleback, brook, 73
Strophitus undulatus undulatus, 73
Sunfish, banded pygmy, 74
dollar, 74

TAYLOR, RALPH W., 73

TIMMERMAN, DAVID H., 18

Tipula, 67, 70, 71

Tradewater River, 157

Transportation costs, 132
in Kentucky, 132
polynomial modeling of, 132
predictive evaluation of, 132
tariff-derived, 132

Trepobates, 67, 69

Triaenodes connatus, 104

. ignitus, 104

. melaca, 105

. melacus, 104

. tarda, 105

. tardus, 104

sp. 104

Triaenophorus crassus, 156
transplants of plerocercoids, 156
into Coregonus clupeaformis, 156
into whitefish, 156

Trichoptera, 67, 69, 70, 101

AAA}

169

Tropisternus, 70
Trout, lake, 73
TWEDT, DANIEL J., 1

Umbra limi, 74
UNRUG, KOT F., 36, 156

VanNORMAN, DAN, 158

Vicia faba, 33

Villosa iris iris, 73

Vultures, black, 128
turkey, 128

Warmouth, 31
WARREN, MELVIN L., JR., 159
Weasel, 76
Weevil, maize, 138
Whitefish, 156
transplants of plerocercoids into,
156
WILSON, RICHARD T., 4
Wormaldia, 70

YEARGAN, K. V., 33
Yugus, 66, 68, 69

Zonotrichia albicollis, 122
sunset as an orientational cue for,
122

ae is,

Tien
+h

oes

ee
Ke

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CONTENTS

Changes in the adult caddisfly (Trichoptera) community of the Salt River, Ken-

AAG RG le eClep Wiehe nCIeheK JE ING coonccodedssseenongsopous eee kn eo 101
Geometry and physical characteristics of mine-roof falls: a case study in the Upper
Freeport GoaliSeam: Alam Di Srtitht etc were ole tate viet) +)eietets) ee telat 109

Dimensional analysis of coal pillars: an application of cost-sensitive mine planning
principles to a southeastern Kentucky mine. Alan D. Smith ................++.. 116

Sunset as an orientational cue for a nocturnal migrant, the white-throated sparrow

(Zonotrichia albicollis). James R. Pauly and Blaine R. Ferrell ..............--.-- 122
A convenient apparatus for microbiological sampling of river waters. John T. Lisle
and: David Nii Mardonicis 20 ccrckele wisccie aroecor sc ctelerey a tavetets tare eenere eas tesa chet eles remane 125
Population densities of diurnal raptors wintering in Madison County, Kentucky.
INGNEV ds Serra’ ..)oisis cack ee sqaterers encase a oetecraeeteteicietateteselotehel ancl Yeterekstcte Spates tale et tetenee 128
Polynomial modeling and predictive evaluation of tariff-derived transportation
costs in Kentucky. Alan D. Smith and Charles L. Hilton ...................+.5-- 132

Role of selected corn insects and plant stress in aflatoxin production in Kentucky
corn. J. G. Rodriguez, C. G. Patterson, M. F. Potts, C. G. Poneleitand R. L. Beine 138

Borehole determination of immediate lithologic characteristics of adjacent stable

andiunstable coal-mine’ roofs: Alan D: Smith) <3. <2... 3 - \saseies etertl= lore eiete 144
NOTES
Break angle determination and contouring of coal-mine roof falls: suggested
methods and case study. Alan D. Smith and Kot F. Unrug ...............------ 154

Experimental transplants of pleurocercoids of Triaenophorus crassus Forel into the
body cavity of whitefish, Coregonus clupeaformis (Mitchill). Ron Rosen and T. A.

10) (0) St aa RNC rh anemone RTE Nin SPERM n atom cc obec obec boore 156
~ Dawson Springs seep swamp: site of some significant new amphibian records. A.
Floyd Scott, Dan VanNorman and Ron Rich ........... 26... eee eee cee eee 157
Range extensions and drainage records for four Kentucky fishes. Ronald R.
Gicerello.and'MelviniEs Warren.s- sas s:cs-sc es Reece yee ees ees 158
Rediscovery of the rare Kentucky endemic Solidago shortii Gray in Fleming and
Nicholas counties. Jerry M. Baskin and Carol C. Baskin ....................+-- 159
Notes on Kentucky mammals: Myotis keenii and Sorex longirostris. James W.
Chadwickiand: Wayne’ No Davis. sencicmciieisie 1's oe oe eis eee ieee aoe 159

NEWS AND COMMENTS
President:s|\Reports Gary Ws Bogessinacn acti ciicoei deta isotonic crete 160
Important publications by Kentucky Scientists ...................--00 202s e eee 160

ACADEMY BUSINESS

Committees of the Kentucky Academy of Science: 1983-1984 .................-- 162
11D) ©), CUR nasil n onan eaa nig Ooi acta an AwM alnn doin s Reap ado Mab oce Saco ba lS0¢ 166
INSTRUCTIONS TOICONTRIBUTORS Eisenia leis ieietereierer ees Inside Back Cover

IANSACTIONS
ate
KENTUCKY
ACADEMY OF
SCIENCE |

2X

I

SMITHSON,

() Juvattaee
\ )

Volume 46
Numbers 1-2
March 1985

Official Publication of the Academy

The Kentucky Academy of Science
Founded 8 May 1914

OFFICERS FOR 1985

President: Joe Winstead, Western Kentucky University, Bowling Green 42101

President Elect: Charles Lovell, University of Louisville, Louisville 40292

Past President: Gary Bogess, Murray State University, Murray 42071

Vice President: Larry Giesmann, Northern Kentucky University, Highland Heights 41076

Secretary: Robert Creek, Eastern Kentucky University, Richmond 40475

Treasurer: Morris Taylor, Eastern Kentucky University, Richmond 40475

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Representative to A.A.A.S.: Joe King, Murray State University, Murray 42071

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Paul Freytag 1985 William Hettinger 1987
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40292

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University Highland Heights 41076
Editorial Board: James E. Orielly, Department of Chemistry, University of Kentucky, Lexington
40506 (1985)
Donald L. Batch, Eastern Kentucky University, Richmond 40475 (1986)
Gerrit Kloek, Kentucky State University, Frankfort 40601 (1987)
Joe Winstead (KAS President), Western Kentucky University,
Bowling Green 42101

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RH - Geochemical Analysis in Kentucky — Perkinson et al.

TRANSACTIONS of the
KENTUCKY
ACADEMY of SCIENCE

March 1985
Volume 46
Numbers 1-2

Geochemical Analysis of the Providence Limestone Member of the
Sturgis Formation (Upper Pennsylvanian)

MARY C. PERKINSON and GARY L. KUHNHENN, Department of Geology,
Eastern Kentucky University, Richmond, KY 40475

ALAN D. SMITH, Coal Mining Administration, College of Business,
Eastern Kentucky University, Richmond, KY 40475

ABSTRACT

The Providence Limestone Member, Sturgis Formation (Upper Pennsylvanian), cropping out in the western
Kentucky coal field, represents 2 transgressive carbonate units deposited in separate and distinct environments.
The lower and upper limestone units occur between the Kentucky No. 11 and No. 13 coal beds and are separated
by claystone and the Kentucky No. 12 coal bed, or a smut zone where the No. 12 coal is absent. Both limestone
units were deposited over broad, relatively flat-lying platforms built upon a deltaic system.

A geochemical analysis of the Providence Limestone Member was conducted to obtain cation information
to aid in an understanding of the depositional history of the area. The analysis was determined by atomic ab-
sorption spectrophotometry and involved only the carbonate portion of the rock. The results, while adding
helpful information about environments of deposition, must be viewed with caution in that the insoluble (noncar-
bonate) portion of the rock, as well as diagenetic factors, may affect the distribution and amount of elements.
The elements analyzed were calcium, magnesium, iron, manganese, strontium, sodium, and potassium.

In reviewing the results, certain variations occur within the limestone units. Both the lower and upper
limestone units consist of low-magnesium calcite, which may be considered to be indicative of an environment
with normal marine salinity. Slight variations do occur between cores and probably reflect localized conditions
within the units.

INTRODUCTION

Glenn (1) assigned the name Lisman For-
mation to a stratigraphic sequence of upper

vidence, Kentucky. Glenn described the Pro-
vidence as consisting of an argillaceous, impure,

Pennsylvanian rocks overlying the Carbondale
Formation. Lee (2) assigned the term Henshaw
Formation to a sequence of rocks overlying the
Lisman Formation. Further studies indicated
minor variations in the lithology of these units;
hence, the names were abandoned and the 2
units were combined and reassigned to the
Sturgis Formation (3).

The Providence Limestone was first describ-
ed by Hutchinson (4), who referred it to the
lower limestone unit as the Jelly Limestone.
Glenn (1) assigned the name _ Providence
Limestone to a unit of limestone found above the
Kentucky No. 11 coal in the vicinity of Pro-

irregularly bedded limestone, locally containing
shale partings. Glenn found the Providence to be
a valuable horizon maker and was able to cor-
relate it with the Brereton Limestone of Illinois.
Glenn further defined the Providence as occurr-
ing between the Kentucky No. 11 and Kentucky
No. 12 coal beds. After extensive mapping it has
been shown that Kentucky No. 12 coal beds,
referred to by Glenn, is actually the Kentucky
No. 13 coal. The Providence Limestone Member
of western Kentucky is a Middle-Upper Penn-
sylvanian (Desmoinesian) marine unit located at
the base of the Sturgis Formation. The Pro-
vidence Limestone lies along the southeastern

rim of the Eastern Interior Basin and is regional-
ly persistent throughout the western Kentucky
coal fields. The Providence Limestone Member
is located between the Kentucky No. 11 and No.
13 coal beds and has been noted to occur as 2
distinct beds referred to as the upper and lower
units (3). These 2 beds are separated by the Ken-
tucky No. 12 coal bed, or by a dark clayey shale
where the No. 12 coal is absent.

TECTONIC SETTING

Pennsylvanian coal-bearing rocks of the
western Kentucky coal fields are exposed in an
area of about 11655 km? (5). The rocks are, in
general, deltaic and tidal flat in origin and ex-
tend out over a gentle slope. They consist mainly
of shale, siltstone, sandstone, and minor
amounts of coal and limestone.

The study area, located in the western Ken-
tucky coal fields, is within the Eastern Interior
Basin (Illinois Basin). Although the major por-
tion of this basin is concentrated around the
state of Illinois, it does encompass rocks in Ken-
tucky, Indiana, Iowa, and Missouri. The basin is
a spoon-shaped depression with its major axis
trending in a _ north-northwest to south-
southwest direction with the southern tip of the
spoon in Kentucky (6). It is bordered on the west
by the Ozark uplift and on the east by the Cin-
cinnati Arch. In Kentucky, the basin is
dominated by 3 structural features: (1) the
Rough Creek fault system, (2) the Moorman
Syncline, and (3) the Pennyrile fault system
(Fig.1).

IND, OHIO

'
'
'
'
t
'
'
'
‘

ILLINOIS

BASIN

Figure 1: Generalized structural map, illustrating the
study area.

Trans. Kentucky Academy of Science — 46(1-2)

i

iw
a STURGIS
=)
2
<
wn
ptt
2
3
=
a CARBONDALE
z a
SS
2
<
alee ;
>
w [=]
z{:
aaa
-*)

TRADE WATER
CASEYVILLE

LEITCHFIELD

LOWER
CHESTER MORRWIAN ATOKAN}

MISSISSIPPIAN

Figure 2: Stratigraphic column of Pennsylvanian
strata in western Kentucky.

STRATIGRAPHY

The Pennsylvanian rocks of the western
Kentucky coal fields are considered to be an
extension of the Eastern Interior Basin and rest
unconformably on the Upper Mississippian
Chesterian sequence. The Pennsylvanian
sequence in western Kentucky is about 1070 m
thick (7) and, in ascending order, consists of the
following formations: (1) the Caseyville, (2) the
Tradewater, (3) the Carbondale, and (4) the
Sturgis (Fig. 2). As mentioned previously, the
Sturgis Formation contains those rocks former-
ly belonging to the Lisman and Henshaw forma-
tions. Pennsylvanian strata are unroofed in most
areas of the Eastern Interior Basin. For this

Geochemical Analysis in Kentucky — Perkinson et al.

reason the upper limit of the Sturgis Formation
was undefined. Douglas (8) has since identified
Triticites sp. from a drill core located in Union
County, Kentucky, indicating the presence of
Permian-age material within the southern part
of the Eastern Interior Basin. In this area, the
Sturgis Formation is estimated to be 610 m
thick (5).

With the discovery of Permian-age material
in this area, the term Mauzy Formation has
been tentatively proposed for these rocks (9).
The Mauzy Formation is an estimated 120 m in
thickness and is very similar, in terms of
lithology, to the underlying Pennsylvanian
strata, with the exception of a higher percentage
of limestone. Permian rocks in the Eastern In-
terior Basin have been found only in a small
down-faulted area in Union County, Kentucky.

STURGIS FORMATION

The Sturgis Formation, which overlies the
Carbondale Formation, contains all Upper
Pennsylvanian strata in the western Kentucky
coal field. The lower contact for the Sturgis For-
mation is placed at the base of the Providence
Limestone Member (3). In most of this area, the
upper portion of the Pennsylvanian has been
removed by erosion, hence, no upper contact
has been determined. Permian rocks have,
however, been identified from core material in
Union County, Kentucky, as_ previously
mentioned.

The Sturgis Formation, containing rocks
that were previously assigned to the Lisman and
Henshaw formations, consists of sandstone,
siltstone, shale, limestone, and coal. Since a
large portion of the Sturgis is concealed by
loess, alluvium, and collevium, no adequate
outcrop for a type section has been designated.
Data from two core holes drilled by Cities Ser-
vice Oil Company, both northeast of Sturgis,
Kentucky, have been combined and identified as
the type area and composite section for the
Sturgis Formation (3). In ascending order, the
members of this formation are: (1) the Prov-
idence Limestone, (2) the Kentucky No. 12
(Paradise) coal, (3) the Kentucky No. 13 (Baker)
coal, (4) the Anvil Rock Sandstone, (5) the Ken-
tucky No. 14 (Coiltown) coal, (6) the Madison-
ville Limestone, (7) the Carthage Limestone, (8)
the Lisman coal, and (9) the Geiger Lake coal.

Sandstone makes up 30 to 50 % of this for-
mation and is the dominant rock type (3). It is
commonly light gray, weathering to yellowish-
brown, and is fine-to-medium grained except in
channel deposits where it is locally con-
glomeratic.

Siltstone, light to dark gray, is usually

interbedded with sandstone and shale. The
shale is generally medium to light gray and silty,
but when associated with coal beds it is dark
gray to black and carbonaceous. It also com-
monly occurs as olive green and clayey, with
slickensides. Kehn (3) notes that the shale
contains brachiopods and crinoids only when
interbedded with limestone.

In general, the coals of the Sturgis Forma-
tion are not as thick or widespread as those of
the underlying Carbondale Formation. The
lower section does, however, contain the Ken-
tucky numbers 12, 13 and 14 coals which locally
are very thick and of economic importance. The
Kentucky No. 14 coal has been reported to be
more than 4 m thick in some drill holes (3).

Limestone beds of the Sturgis Formation
are thicker and more abundant than those of the
underlying Pennsylvanian formations, but make
up only 5% of the Sturgis (3). They are generally
light to dark gray, fine-grained, fairly dense, and
usually occur in beds 0.01 to 0.3 m in thickness.

PROVIDENCE LIMESTONE MEMBER

The Providence Limestone Member consists
of all limestone beds located between the Ken-
tucky No. 11 and No. 13 coal beds. Exposures
utilized in this study consist of 2 limestone beds,
referred to as the upper and lower units (Fig. 3).
At some localities as many as 4 different beds,
separated by clayey shale and, locally, thin
lenses of sandstone, have been described (3). In
the area around Sturgis and Providence, Ken-
tucky, the Providence limestone comprises as
much as 10 m of strata (3) extending from the
top of the No. 11 coal bed to just beneath the
No. 13 coal bed. In the study area, however, the
Providence consists of only a maximum of 3.4m
within the same interval.

The lower unit of the Providence is general-
ly light gray to dark gray, fine-grained, dense,
fossiliferous and averages about 0.6 m in
thickness within the study area. Dark zones of
argillaceous material are common within the
lower unit and tend to contain a greater abun-
dance of fossil material as well as a crystalline
texture. The fossil assemblages commonly in-
clude brachiopods, pelecyopods, pelmatozoans,
bryozoans, foraminifera, and algae.

The upper unit is separated from the lower
unit by 2 to 3 m of claystone and shale partings,
as well as the Kentucky No. 12 coal bed, or a
dark clayey shale where the coal is absent. The
Kentucky No. 12 horizon occurs about 0.61 m
beneath the upper unit. The upper unit is
generally a buff to light brown, very dense,
microcrystalline limestone containing calcite
blebs and abundant sub-rounded limestone
clasts. Weathered portions tend to be extensive-

4 Trans. Kentucky Academy of Science — 46(1-2)

fares] em | eect | incteies |
=

No. 13 coal

Upper

Providence

No. 12 coal

PENNSYLVANIAN

Lower

Providence

No. 11 coal

& blueband

Carbondale

Figure 3: Representative stratigraphic coiumn/sec-
tion of the study area.

ly stained by iron and display a greater abun-
dance of limestone clasts resulting in a pseudo-
brecciated appearance. In some _ localities
Stigmaria is present along the base of the upper
unit where it is interbedded with claystone and
shale. Other than the Stigmaria, ostracods
were the only fossils found in the upper
limestone.

The Kentucky No. 13 coal bed generally oc-
curs 0.3-0.6 m above the top of the upper unit
within the study area. It averages about 1.0m in
thickness and tends to contain high amounts of
sulfur.

In most of the study area, the Pennsylvan-
ian section above the Kentucky No. 13 coal has
been removed by erosion. The Madisonville
Limestone Member occurs about 61 m above the
base of the Sturgis Formation (3) and is light to
medium gray, fine to medium crystalline, and
fossiliferous. It may contain as many as 4
separate limestone beds, and is_ usually
associated with sandstone, claystone, shale,
and coal.

METHODS

The study area is located within the
Western Kentucky Coal Field, in Ohio and
Muhlenberg counties, and is represented by five
7.5 minute geologic quadrangles (Fig. 4). Nine
stratigraphic sequences, including outcrops and
cores, were located and sampled at 0.3 m inter-
vals or where a lithologic change occurred. Ad-
ditional cores were located and studied to pro-
vide a better understanding of the unit.

A geochemical analysis of the Providence
Limestone Member was conducted to obtain ad-
ditional information to aid in an understanding
of the depositional history of the area. The
analysis was determined by atomic absorption
spectrophotometry and involved only the car-
bonate portion of the rock. The core samples
were pulverized, then placed in solution by
dissolving in hydrochloric acid and distilled
water. The results, while adding helpful infor-
mation about environments of deposition, must
be viewed with caution in that the insoluble
(noncarbonate) portion of the rock, as well as
diagenetic factors, may affect the distribution
and amount of elements. The elements analyzed
were calcium, magnesium, iron, manganese,
strontium, sodium, and potassium.

Many factors govern the distribution of
elements in limestones including: (1) the abun-
dance and diversity of the source biomass, (2)
environmental effects at the time of deposition,
(3) the influence and composition of detrital
material, (4) tectonic activity, and (5) diagenetic
processes. The presence of these variables will
greatly influence the final outcome of the
elemental distribution within the limestone.
Diagenetic processes alone may play a large
role in altering the composition of the original
sediment. Hence, it may be impossible to com-
pletely interpret the environment at the time of
deposition through geochemical studies alone.

RESULTS

The elemental data are summarized in
Tables 1 through 3. Table 1 lists the elemental
content of each individual sample analyzed,
while Table 2 shows the average elemental con-
tent of each core. Slight variations do occur
between the cores and probably reflect localized
conditions within the units. Significant as well
as insignificant variations occur between the
lower and upper limestone units (Table 3).

Geochemical Analysis in Kentucky — Perkinson et al.

y Outcrops

© Cores

J
Muhlenberg

Figure 4: Study area, showing outcrop and core location.

Table 1. Elemental content (expressed in percentage) of the lower
and upper units of the Providence Limestone Member. The lower and
upper unit samples are designated by L, and U, respectively.

Sample
Number Ca Mg Fe Mn Sr Na K

RO-1-A-L 34.904 4.738 1.002 0.132 0.069 0.044 0.022
RO-1-B-L 35.191 4.639 1.008 0.088 0.077 0.035 0.015
RO-1-C-L 31.775 5.708 2.243 0.174 0.068 0.037 0.020
RO-1-D-L 31.594 5.641 2.807 0.215 0.072 0.040 0.018
HA-1-A-L 37.743 1.032 0.697 0.185 0.036 0.037 0.028
HA-1-B-L 37.030 1.013 0.485 0.195 0.044 0.039 0.017
HA-1-C-L 37.730 0.641 0.453 0.273 0.043 0.044 ~—-0.023
HA-1-D-U 32.466 4.544 2.782 0.138 0.043 0.038 0.007
HA-1-E-U 36.666 1.280 0.959 0.188 0.049 0.034 0.009
HA-2-A-L 38.067 1.112 0.424 0.201 0.064 0.042 0.022
HA-2-B-L 37.017 1.418 0.412 0.126 0.097 0.034 0.009
HA-2-E-U 36.906 1.398 1.029 0.180 0.081 0.049 0.044
HA-3-B-U 35.608 2.854 2.131 0.152 0.053 0.044 0.022
HA-3-C-U 35.740 2.835 1.690 0.148 0.047 0.034 0.007
HA-3-D-U 36.991 1.804 1.204 0.158 0.067 0.067 0.040
HA-3-G-L 38.141 0.948 0.365 0.190 0.050 0.034 0.014
HA-3-H-L 38.566 0.957 0.471 0.175 0.061 0.074 0.028
MI-1-A-L 29.784 0.782 0.415 0.083 0.048 0.067 0.055
MI-1-B-L 35.097 4.514 1.559 0.113 0.068 0.056 0.035
MI-1-C-L 30.744 6.861 1.316 0.108 0.062 0.021 0.043
MI-1-D-L 38.033 1.908 0.595 0.090 0.065 0.023 0.012
MI-1-E-L 27.344 7.786 1.229 0.094 0.044 0.047 0.055
MI-1-F-L 34.981 4.366 0.768 0.088 0.061 0.030 0.015
MI-1-G-L 33.368 5.996 0.717 0.094 0.078 0.039 0.028

Table 2. Average elemental content (expressed in percent) of
individual cores analyzed.

Core
Number Ca Mg Fe Mn Sr Na K

RO-1 33.366 5.184 1.731 0.151 0.071 0.039 0.019
HA-1 36.327 1.702 1.415 0.196 0.043 0.023 0.017
HA-2 37.330 1.309 0.622 0.169 0.081 0.036 0.013
HA-3 37.009 1.879 1.172 0.164 0.056 0.051 0.022
MI-1 37.019 4.601 0.943 0.09% 0.516 0.042 0.040

Table 3. Average elemental content (expressed in percent) of the
lower and upper units of the Providence Limestone Member.

Ca Mg Fe Mn Sr Na K

Lower Unit 34.839 3.305 0.942 0.150 0.061 0.042 0.023
Upper Unit 35.729 2.452 1.632 0.161 0.056 0.044 0.021

DISCUSSION

Sodium, the most abundant cation in sea
water (10) is believed to lend information in-
dicating the degree of salinity of fluids during

6 Trans. Kentucky Academy of Science — 46(1-2)

diagenesis. In sea water, the average concentra-
tion of Na+ is 1050 ppm as compared with 25
ppm for fresh groundwater (10). Where the 2 are
mixed, the concentration of sodium will be
directly proportional to the degree of mixing.

Land and Hoops (10) noted that due to the
lack of information on the Na+ /Ca and Na/Mg
partitioning coefficient in natural carbonates, no
acceptable method for determining paleosali-
nites at the time of deposition has been found.
They do suggest, however, that the salinity of
the latest diagenetic solution may be indicated
by the bulk sodium content.

The analysis of strontium in carbonate
rocks has been the subject of numerous studies.
Many of these studies have attempted to show
the relation of the concentration of strontium
with environmental parameters like salinity,
temperature, and organisms. In determining the
strontium concentration of precipitated car-
bonate minerals, the Sr * ?/Ca* ? ratio has been
noted to play an important role (11). Kinsman
(11) noted the ability of organisms to incor-
porate strontium into their shell structures and
found that individual organisms may contain up
to 20,000 ppm Sr*? when composed mainly of
argonite. This association of higher amounts of
strontium with argonitic shells than with calcitic
shells has also been suggested in other studies
by Kulp et al. (12) and Pilkey and Goodell (12).
The Sr/Ca ratio, as noted by Lowenstam (14), is
thought to be related to the proportions of
aragonite and calcite found in tests of organisms
where the presence of the organisms are depen-
dent on water temperature. From this he con-
cludes that warmer waters contain higher
amounts of strontium. After studying numerous
carbonate rocks and associated fossils, Kulp et
al. (12) suggest that temperature is not an im-
portant factor, but that the presence of
organisms is more important. They note the
organisms themselves, regardless of shell com-
position, account for a higher concentration of
strontium as compared with that of the surroun-
ding matrix.

The presence of iron in carbonate rocks is
believed to have resulted from the influx of
detrital material into the environment of deposi-
tion (15). This material may have been intro-
duced into the environment by the influx of fresh
water as well as from diagenetic alterations of
compounds to form siderite (15).

The Ca/Mg ratio in carbonate rocks will
decrease as the salinity increases (16). Ingerson
(16) noted that widespread marine fossil
assemblages occur only in areas where the

Ca/Mg ration is greater than 50. The absence of
fossils is generally indicative of an environment
with increased salinity, hence, a low Ca/Mg
ratio.

In reviewing the results, certain variations
occur within the limestone units. Both the lower
and upper limestone units consist of a low-
magnesium calcite. Folk and Land (17) consider
this association to be indicative of an environ-
ment with a normal marine salinity. The iron
content of the upper limestone unit is significant-
ly higher than that of the lower limestone unit.
This reflects the presence of the iron-oxide stain
abundant in the upper limestone unit. This stain
is present in both core and outcrop locations,
hence, it is not a result of recent weathering.

Berner (15) noted that the majority of iron
present in carbonate rocks has been derived
from the detrital materials. The pyrite found in
the lower limestone unit is believed to have been
introduced into the environment as hematite,
and later reduced to pyrite and siderite.

There is a slight variation in the content of
manganese between the lower and upper
limestone units. Khawlie and Carozzi (18), in
their study of the Brereton Limestone,
associated the presence of manganese with iron
minerals and the influx of fresh water. The oc-
currence of manganese, along with iron, may be
associated with the slight increase of
manganese in the upper unit.

Ronov and Ermishkina (19) noted that the
presence of manganese in amounts greater than
0.01% is indicative of a humid environment.
This may be due to the tendency of manganese
to become concentrated in organic acid-rich
waters found in a humid environment. All
samples analyzed show a manganese concen-
tration significantly over that of 0.01%. This
relationship reflects the humid climate present
at the time of the formation of the Pennsylvan-
ian coal swamps.

There is a small variation in the strontium
concentration between the lower and upper
limestone units, with slightly more present in
the lower limestone unit. The higher concentra-
tion in the lower unit reflects the abundant fossil
assemblages that occur in the lower unit while
the upper unit is very sparse in fossil content.

Variations in both sodium and potassium
that occur within the lower and upper units are
insignificant. Although sodium plays an impor-
tant role in the percentage of salinity (20), there
are no adequate methods to determine
paleosalinities at this time.

10.

11.

Geochemical Analysis in Kentucky — Perkinson et al. 7

LITERATURE CITED

Glenn, L.C. 1912. A geological reconnaissance of
the Tradewater River region, with special
reference to the coal beds. Kentucky Geol. Surv.
Bull. 17. 75 pp.

Lee, W. 1916. Geology of the Kentucky part of
the Shawnee Quadrangle. Kentucky Geol. Surv.
Bull., ser. 4, 4:1-73.

Kehn, T.M. 1973. Sturgis Formation (upper
Pennsylvanian), a new map unit in the western
Kentucky coal field. U.S. Geol. Surv.
1394-Bull.:24 pp.

Hutchinson, F.M. 1912. Report on the geology
and coals of the Central City, Madisonville,
Calhoun, and Newburg quadrangles in
Muhlenberg, Hopkins, Ohio, McLean, Webster,
Davies, and Henderson counties. Kentucky Geol.
Surv. Bull., ser. 3. 19, 217 pp.

Whaley, P.W., N.C. Hester, A.D. Williamson,
J.G. Beard, and W.A. Pryor. 1979. Depositional
environments of Pennsylvanian rocks in western
Kentucky. Geol. Soc. of Ky. annual field conf.
Guidebook. Ky. Geol. Surv. 48 pp.

Willman, H.B., E. Atherton, T.C. Buschback, C.
Collinston, J.C. Frye, M.E. Hopkins, J.A.
Lineback, and J.A. Simon. 1975. Handbook of Il-
linois Stratigraphy. Illinois St. Geol. Surv.
Bull.95:261 pp.

Kehn, T.M. 1979. Stratigraphy and depositional
history of Pennsylvania and Permian systems in
the western Kentucky coal field, (abs.). Sym-
posium, Kentucky Geol. mapping project
1960-1978. Kentucky Geol. Surv. 14

Douglas, R.C. 1979. The distribution of fusulinids
and their correlation between the Illinois Basin
and the Appalachian Basin, in Palmer J.E., and
Dutcher, R.R., eds., Depositional and structural
history of the Pennsylvanian System of the Il-
linois Basin, Part 2: Invited papers. Field trip
9/Ninth International Congress of Carboniferous
Stratigraphy and Geology, Illinois St. Geol.
Surv: 15-20.

Whaley, P.W., J.G. Beard, J.E. Duffy, and W.J.
Nelson. 1980. Structure and depositional en-
vironments of some carboniferous rocks of
western Kentucky. Field trip guidebook Eastern
Section Am. Assoc. Petroleum Geologists, Mur-
ray State Univ.

Land, L.S., and G.K. Hoops. 1973. Sodium in
carbonate sediments and rocks: A possible index
to the salinity of diagenetic solutions. Jour. Sed.
Petrol. 43: 614-617.

Kinsman, D.J. 1969. Interpretations of Sr * ? con-
centrations in carbonate minerals and rocks.
Jour. Sed. Petrol. 39: 486-508.

12.

13.

14.

15.

16.

17.

18.

19.

Kulp, J.L., Turekian, K., and D.W. Boyd. 1952.
Strontium content of limestone and fossils. Geol.
Soc. America Bull. 75: 217-228.

Pilkey, O.H. and G. Goodell. 1964. Comparison
of the composition of fossil and recent mollusk
shells. Geol. Soc. Amer. Bull. 75: 217-228.

Lowenstam, H.A. 1953. Environmental relation-
ships of modification compositions of certain
carbonate secreting marine invertebrates. Na-
tional Acad. Sci. Proc. 40:39-40.

Berner, R.A. 1971. Principles of chemical
sedimentology. McGraw-Hill New York.

Ingerson, E. 1962. Problems of the geochemistry
of sedimentary carbonate rocks. Geochimica et
Cosmochimica Acta. 26: 815-847.

Folk, R.L., and L.S. Land 1975. Mg/Ca ratio and
salinity: two controls over crystallization of
dolomite. Amer. Assoc. Petrol. Geol. Bull. 59:
60-68.

Khawlie, M.R., and A.V.Carozzi. 1976.
Microfacies and geochemistry of the Brereton
Limestone (Middle Pennsylvanian) of
southwestern Illinois, USA. Archives des Sci. 29:
67-110.

Ronov, A.B., and A. Ermishbina. 1959. Distribu-
tion of manganese in sedimentary rocks.
Geokhimiya. 3: 206-225.

Badiozamani, K. 1973. The Dorag dolomitiza-
tion model-application to the Middle Ordovician
of Wisconsin. J. Sed. Petrology. 43: 227-250.

RH - Properties of Silty Clay in Kentucky — Smith

ENGINEERING AND STRENGTH PROPERTIES
OF SELECTED SILTY-CLAY MIXTURES
DERIVED FROM MADISON COUNTY, KENTUCKY

ALAN D. SMITH

Coal Mining Administration, College of Business
Eastern Kentucky University, Richmond, KY 40475

ABSTRACT

Engineering properties of 6 representative sites of silty-clay mixtures in and around Richmond, Kentucky
were investigated to help understand and qualify functional relationships among common soil strength and con-
sistency measures in this area. Since all the sites are scheduled for future development in terms of a variety of
construction projects, and the silty-clay mixtures, classified by the uniform classification system as SC, are
common throughout Madison County, extensive laboratory tests were performed. On all sample sites, standard
and modified energies of compaction, via the Proctor Compaction Density Laboratory Test, were completed a
total of 3 times. In addition each layer, 3 in the standard and 5 in the modified, in the compaction mold was
sampled a total of 3 trials for water content, vane shear, and compressive strength, as measured by the penetra-
tion test. Atterberg Limits were performed on 3 representative samples to determine the variability of the plastic
range.

Multiple linear regression techniques were applied in the hypothesis testing process, which resulied in 13
hypotheses being statistically significant. In general, higher energies of compaction were associated with lower
water content, less void space, higher shear and compressive strengths, lower water contents were found to be
related to higher maximum dry densities, higher compressive strengths with greater maximum dry densities,

and vane shear strengths positively related to compressive strengths as measured by the penetration test.

INTRODUCTION

Problems associated with soil mechanics
and foundation engineering are usually solved
through a combination of theoretical
knowledge, awareness of the precedents in the
area, geology, history, and properties of the soil
conditions obtained from laboratory and field
testing procedures. Only through a combination
of these features and an appreciation of the func-
tion of the proposed structure can a proper
design and construction program be formulated.
Characterization of the soil properties and
subsequent engineering judgments are based on
laboratory tests performed on representative
samples taken during a site investigation. The
scope, type, and quality of the corresponding
site investigation are important and decided
upon only after considering the subsequent
laboratory test program (1, 2, 3, 4).

The engineering classifications in common
use are based on the size composition of the
solid constituents and on their interaction with
the water substance as evidenced by the resul-
tant volume and consistency changes (5, 6).
Hence, relationships between water content, op-
timal strength, and the soil’s volume and con-
sistency behavior should be established before
the design and construction of structures are
under way. Although each site warrants its own
preliminary exploration and investigation of
physical parameters, general guidelines con-

cerning strength properties and these
parameters for similar soils and environmental
conditions would provide valuable aids in
engineering design and result in cost savings by
not performing repetitive tests.

The principal goals of this research are to
help establish ranges of basic soil mechanics
and foundation data of representative soil types
in the Madison County area, Kentucky, for con-
struction and scientific purposes. In addition,
the interrelationships among fundamental
laboratory tests of strength and soil consistency
for representative soil types need to be estab-
lished.

METHODS

Laboratory tests, including water contents,
Atterburg Limits determination, Proctor density
tests with both standard and modified compac-
tion energies, vane shear and penetration tests
were performed on representative samples of
dominant residual soil complexes of silt-clay. All
the samples used in the study were collected
from potential building sites on exposed
cultivated land in and near Richmond city limits
and were classified as SC, using the unified soil
classification system (7).

Properties of Silty Clay in Kentucky — Smith 9

Atterburg Limits

The soil consistency tests, originally
established by Atterberg (8), have been further
developed and standarized by practicing
engineers and scientists. The Atterberg Limits
used in the present study included the liquid
limit and plastic limit. The liquid limit (LL,Wy) is
essentially the water content at which 2 halves
of a soil cake prepared in a standarized manner
in the cup of a liquid limit device will flow
together from a distance of 0.5 inch (1.25 cm)
along the bottom of a groove when the cup is
dropped 25 times for a distance of 1 cm at the
rate of 2 drops per second (ASTM D423). Fang
(9) provided a simple procedure for the deter-
mination of the liquid limit of soils, which is
derived from the flow index:

Ir = LL-W,
logN - log25

LL = W,, + IglogN
25

Where If is the flow index approximately equal
to the slope of the flow curve; N is the number of
blows (17<N <36); and W,, is the moisture con-
tent at N blows. As for the plastic limit (PL, Wp),
it may be defined as the moisture content as a
percentage of the oven-dry weight of a soil to
which it can be rolled into threads of 1/8 inch
diameter without the threads breaking into
pieces (ASTM D424). Through the use of these
tests, a measure of soil volume and state of con-
sistency can be established and the range of
plastic behavior be measured (10, 11).

Proctor Density Compaction Test

Compaction of soil, usually by mechanical
methods, reduces air voids with the primary aim
of controlling subsequent moisture-conient
changes, achieving a state of increased unit
weight, increasing the shear strength of the soil,
reducing permeability, and making the soil less
susceptible to settlement under load (1).
Laboratory tests have been developed so that
the specification for field compaction can be
written and checks can be made on the fill
material as placed and compacted. The function
of the laboratory compaction tests is to deter-
mine the optimum quantity of water and cor-
responding unit weight to achieve maximum
strength in the field. Compaction of cohesive
soils has been proven to follow the principles
stated by Proctor (12); although there are
several laboratory compaction standards and
types of compacted fills of compactive efforts
used in construction, the effect of the water con-

tent of the soil on the resulting dry density is
similar for all methods. The standard Proctor
test (ASSHTO-99) uses a 5.5 Ib. hammer, drop
12 inches, made in a 1/30 ft? cylindrical mold, 3
layers each compacted by the hammer by 25
blows for an energy input of 12,375 ft-lbs. per ft’.
Standard Proctor energies are equivalent to
light rollers and compaction equipment. The
modified tests uses a 10 lb. hammer, 18 inch
drop length, 5 layers at 25 blows each for a com-
paction energy of 56,250 ft-lb per ft? of energy
(AASHTO-108). Modified is approximately
equal to heavy compaction equipment, such as
the dual-drum sheepsfoot roller, with several
passes over the structural fill.

Vane Shear and Penetration Tests

The purposes of shear-strength tests allow
the prediction of soil displacement under work-
ing loads and the evaluation of the external
forces required to cause shear failure of a soil (1,
7). The vane-shear test gives a rapid estimation
of the undrained shear-strength of fine-grained
soils. The vane consists of four blades, set at
right angles, attached to a central, circular rod.
The vane is pushed into the soil until it is embed-
ded and a torque is applied until failure. The Soil
Test, model CL-600 was used in the study, per-
formed and recorded 3 times at every layer dur-
ing both standard and modified energies in the
compaction testing. The same procedure was
followed for the Soil Test, model CL-700
penetrometer, which quickly measures com-
pressive strength of the soils studied.

Statistical Techniques

Multiple linear regression techniques, once
corrected for multiple comparisons, were util-
ized to test hypotheses concerning compacted
dry density, compaction energies, vane shear,
penetration or compressive strength, and water
content. Since multiple regression is a very flexi-
ble technique, a number of hypotheses were
established and tested in an attempt to clarify
statistical relationships among these important
physical parameters.

RESULTS

Table 1 and 2 are summaries of the plastic
range determinations and physical character-
istics of water content and strength, respective-
ly, of the 6 sites intensely sampled. The sites
were representative of the silty-clay (SC) mix-
tures found in Madison County, Kentucky. As
evident from Table 1, the liquid and plastic
limits were relatively similar, with a mean
plastic range of 18.8 %, an indication of the low

10 Trans. Kentucky Academy of Science — 46(1-2)

compressiblity of this silty-clay mixtures in the
area. Table 2 displays relationships that are not
readily apparent without hypothesis testing

Table 1. Plastic range determinations for typical Richmond's silt-
clay mixtures.

Sample Number Liquid Limit Plastic Limit Plastic Range®
(%) (%) (%)
1 44.8 22.8 20.0
2 39.0 26.2 12.8
3 44.3 22.8 21.5
Means 42.7 23.9 18.8

Plastic range or plastic index is equal to liquid limit minus plastic limit.

Table 3 lists the models tested, R?, degrees
of freedom, F-ratio, probability levels, statistical
significance, and associated statistics for the
various hypotheses tested in the course of the
study. As evident from a quick inspection of
Table 3, a total of 13 hypotheses were found to
be statistically significant. Proctor compaction
energies, both standard and modified, were
discriminated from each other by the para-
meters water content, dry density, vane shear,
and compressive strength, as measured by the
penetration test. The explained variance in dif-
ferentiating standard and modified energies of
compaction by the engineering characteristics
of the silty-clay samples ranged from a low of
24.2 per cent (vane shear) to a high 48.4 per cent
(dry density). In general, the results of the
hypothesis testing illustrated the following:
lower water contents measured during the com-
paction of the soil samples were associated with
higher energies of soil compression; greater
maximum dry densities were associated with
modified energies of compaction; higher shear
strengths, as measured by vane shear, were
associated with higher energies of compaction;
increased compressive strengths were found to
be directly related to modified compaction ef-
forts. These results are reflected in the Pearson
correlations among engineering parameters of
silty-clay mixtures listed in Table 4.

The other engineering characteristics were
also found to be related with each other in
predictive functions. Maximum dry density ac-
counted for 29.6 per cent of the common
variance in predictive water contents sampled
after laboratory compaction of the soil samples
(p = 0.0006). As expected, a decrease in water
content and compression of the void space in

Table 2. Summary of water contents, dry densities, vane shear and
penetration strength results associated with the standard and modified
Proctor laboratory tests performed on the Richmond's silt-clay mix-
tures.

Sample Proctor Water Dry Vane
Location Laboratory Content Density Shear Penetration
Number Test (%) (Ibs/ft) (kg/cm) (kg/cm)
1 S) 24.8 149.6 4.1 4.6
S 20.8 147.1 5.7 3.5
S 24.5 144.4 41 3.8
M 21.3 148.3 2.6 PL)
M 20.1 152.0 4.3 4.6
2 S 17.1 139.5 4.7 3.7
Ss 18.0 137.5 3.5 2.8
S 19.1 136.0 3.5 2.0
M 15.7 156.6 4.7 4.5
M 16.0 150.6 5.0 4.5
M 15.0 156.8 6.4 45
3 S 20.5 143.5 1.7 4.2
Ss 19.8 145.4 1.4 3.3
S) 21.9 141.7 1.7 2.4
M 21.3 140.9 2.6 2.9
M 21.0 145.1 4.4 4.5
M 19.9 146.1 4.4 4.5
4 S 20.3 133.3 4.7 3.8
Ss 20.3 130.4 3.5 2.8
Ss 23.6 128.2 3.5 2.0
M 18.0 151.0 4.7 4.5
M 19.0 145.0 5.0 4.5
M 17.0 151.8 5.2 4.5
5 S 24.8 130.5 4.3 4.0
S 20.8 137.1 3.8 4.3
Ss 24.6 129.8 5.8 3.5
M 18.4 153.7 5.7 45
M 19.1 148.9 8.3, 4.5
M 20.2 144.7 6.6 4.5
6 s' 19.9 144.7 2.5 4.1
Ss 21.0 144.4 3.7 3.2
Ss 21.7 140.9 3.8 2.8
M' 18.9 144.5 5.6 4.5
M 19.4 153.3 6.2 4.3
M 18.5 155.2 B2/ 4.5

‘The symbols S and M correspond to the standard and modified
compaction energies of the Proctor density laboratory test, respectively.

Properties of Silty Clay in Kentucky — Smith 11

Table 3. Summary of models tested, R, degrees of freedom for both numerator and denominator, F-ratio,
mean square, probability levels, and statistical significance for each research hypothesis that tested for predic-
tive relationships and the engineering parameters associated with SC (silty-clay) samples derived from the
Richmond area.

Engineering Parameters R df MSR eg F-ratio Prob. Sign
Dependent Independent
Proctor Compaction Water content, 0.5810 4/31 1.3073 10.7470 0.0000 S
Energy Dry Density, Vane
Shear, Penetration
Water Content® 0.2499 1/34 2.2498 11.3322 0.0019 S}
Dry Density 0.4836 1/34 4.3522 31.8368 0.0000 S
Vane Shear® 0.2421 1.34 2.1785 10.8582 0.0023 S
Penetration 0.3513 1/34 3.1619 18.4146 0.0001 S
Water Content Proctor Compaction 0.3438 4/32 17.9084 4.0611 0.0092 S
Energy, Dry Density,
Vane Shear,
Penetration
Dry Density? 0.2964 1/34 61.7463 14.3214 0.0006 S
Vane Shear? 0.0886 1/34 18.4577 3.3051 0.0779 NS
Penetration” 0.10236 1/34 21.38773 3.8773 0.0521 Ns°
Dry Density Proctor Compaction 0.6289 4/31 334.3553 13.1371 0.0000 S
Energy, Water Con-
tent, Vane Shear,
Penetration
Vane Shear 0.1055 1/34 224.3704 4.0108 0.0532 NS°
Penetration© 0.4063 1/34 864.0287 23.2711 0.0000 S
Vane Shear Proctor Compaction 0.3426 4/31 7.0604 4.6025 0.0049 Ss
Energy, Water Con-
tent, Dry Density,
Penetration
Penetration® 0.2911 1/34 22.0668 13.9639 0.0007 S$
Penetration Proctor Compaction 0.5458 4/31 3.1177 9.3118 0.0000 Ss
Energy, Water Con-
tent, Dry Density,
Vane Shear
Note: An F-test was utilized to test for statistically significant relationships among the various engineering

parameters associated with the silty-clay samples derived from the Richmond area. The assigned
alpha for a two-tailed, nondirectional test was used before each specific hypothesis was considered
significant. However, a correction for multiple comparisons was deemed necessary in a number of
cases in the hypothesis testing process. The alpha level was corrected using the Newman and Fry (13)
Method. The following are corrected alpha levels:

a 0.0125 d 0.05

b 0.0167 e denotes hypothesis approaching statistical significance at the

c 0.025 0.05 alpha level for a two-tailed test

12 Trans. Kentucky Academy of Science — 46(1-2)

the soils were significantly related to an increase
in dry density. However, although approaching
statistical significance at the 0.05 alpha level,
uncorrected for multiple comparisons, no such
relationship was found for vane shear and com-
pression strengths. This lack of significance on
the strength characteristics as a function of
water content is probably related to the complex
interparticle interaction of cohesive materials.
As demonstrated in Table 3, penetration test
results accounted for a significant amount of ex-
plained variance (40.6 per cent) in differentiating
dry density of the silty-clay mixtures (p =
0.0000). Increased compressive strengths were
associated with greater maximum dry densities.
Lastly, vane shear characteristics were
significantly predicted by the compresssive
strength tests (29.1 per cent of the explained
variance, p = 0.0007). Hence, as expected,
higher shear strengths are related to higher
strengths in the cohesive soil samples.

Table 4. Pearson correlations among engineering parameters of
silty-clay mixtures (SC) derived from the Richmond area.

Proctor Penetration
Engineering Compaction Water Dry Vane (Compressive
Parameters Energy Content Density Shear Strength)
Proctor
Compaction 1.000 0.500° 0.695° 0.492° 0.593°
Water
Content 1.000 -0.544° -0.2977. —_ -0.3199
Dry Density 1.000 0.325 0.637°
Vane Shear 1.000 0.540°
Penetration 1.000
(Compressive
Strength)

Note: All the correlations were found to be statistically significant at the
two-tailed, nondirectional alpha level of 0.05.

* denote highly significant at the 0.01 level.

CONCLUSIONS

The data collected and summarized in
Tables 1 and 2, and the statistical analysis
presented in Tables 3 and 4 for representative
silty-clay samples derived from the Richmond
area establish several important and fundamen-
tal relationships. Although the strength proper-
ties of cohesive soil mixture, such as the silty-
clays studied, are characterized by complex
cation interactions and variable properties,
which make quantitative correlations difficult to
obtain, several predictive functions were estab-
lished. Due to the complexity of soil mechanics
and foundations, exploratorv site investigations
are still needed in Madison County, but the cor-

relations among field and laboratory water con-
tents measured during the development and
construction of structural fills and the soil’s
associated parameters of maximum dry density
strength measurements, plastic ranges, and
energies of compaction to obtain specified con-
struction requirements should provide useful
guides in engineering design in this area.

LITERATURE CITED

1. Vickers, B. 1983. Laboratory work in soil
mechanics, 2nd ed. Granada Publishing, Lon-
don.

2. Mathewson, C.C. 1981. Engineering geology.
Charles E. Merrill Pub. Co., Columbus, OH.

3. Sowers, G.F. 1979. Soil mechanics and founda-
tions: Geotechnical Engineering, 4th ed. Mac-
Millan Pub. Co., New York.

4. McWilliams, P.C. and D.R. Tesarik 1983. Field
determinations of a probabilitic density function
for slope stability analysis of tailings em-
bankments. Bur. Mines Informa. Circ. 8941,
U.S. Dept. of the Interior.

5. Lowe, III, J. and P.F. Zaccheo 1975. Subsurface
explorations and sampling. In Foundation
Engineering Handbook, H.F. Winterkorn and
H.Y. Fang (eds.). Van Nostrand Reinhold Co.,
New York, pp. 1-65.

6. Smith, A.D. 1982. The predictability of the
plasticity index from selected soil parameters.
Trans. Ky. Acad. of Sci., 43:199-126.

7. Lambe, T.W. and R.V. Whitman. 1969. Soil
mechanics. John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New
York.

8. Atterberg, A. 1911. Die plastizitat der tone. int.
Mitt. fur Boden Kude, I:10-43.

9. Fang, H.Y. 1960. Rapid determination of liquid
limit of soils by flow index method. Highway Res.
Bd. Bull. 254:30-35.

10. Mitchell, J.K. 1976. Fundamentals of soil
behavior. John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York.

11. Winterkorn, H.F. and H.Y. Fang. Soil
technology and engineering properties of soils. In
Foundation Engineering Handbook, H.F.
Winterkorn and H.Y. Fang (eds.). Van Nostrand
Reinhold Co., New York, pp. 67-120.

12. Proctor. R.R. 1933. The design and construction
of rolled earth dams. Engr. News-Record, III,
August 31, Sept. 7: 21, 28.

13. Newman, I. and J.A. Fry. 1972. Response to “A
note on multiple comparisons” and a comment
on shrinkage. Mult. Linear Regr. Viewpits.
3:71-77.

RH - Anova Techniques in Kentucky Mine Roofs — Smith

STATISTICAL METHODS IN MINING ENGINEERING:
EXPANDED ANOVA TECHNIQUES FOR THREE-DIMENSIONAL
CHARACTERIZATION OF MINE-ROOF PARAMETERS

Alan D. Smith
Department of Business Administration
Eastern Kentucky University
Richmond, KY 40475

ABSTRACT

Recent years have shown profound advances in applying quantitative approaches to mining geology and
engineering. These approaches, better known as geostatistical methods, have provided a theoretical basis for
formal statistical tests in the designing and planning aspect of mine development and production, especially in
sampling schemes and drilling plans. Most of the statistical methods center around calculting best-fits of
response surfaces over spatially-distributed samples with explained variances as the central theme. Expanded
analysis of variance (ANOVA) techniques were developed and calculated for two important parameters used in
designing proper ground-control practices to minimize the occurrence of mine roof falls: maximum height of
fallen material from roof, measured from the roof edge to top of failed area in roof, and height above roof line to
second rock-break horizon. A total of 21 roof falls were examined from a coal mine in the Northern Appalachian
Coal Field, Upper Freeport Coal Seam, to develop the statistical techniques to differentiate between three-
dimensional models predicting spatial distributions of these 2 variables. Fourteen expanded ANOVA tables were
developed in the hypothesis-testing process among the response surfaces studied. A fourth-degree surface ac-
counted for 98 percent of explained variance in predicting height to second-break horizon as a function of spatial
location. No regional trend was determined to be statistically significant in projecting maximum height of mine

roof falls.

INTRODUCTION

Statistical Methods in Mining Engineering

Geostatistics is a common term associated
with the application of statistical methods to
geology, mining, and geographic problems.
However, as indicated by Davis (1) and Clark
(2), most of the techniques of quantitative
geology may be regarded as “quasistatistical” or
“protostatistical” procedures. Since few of the
commonly used methods in geostatistics are
sufficiently developed to be used in rigorous tests
of statistical hypotheses, and there is a general
lack of general theory about the nature of
geologic population parameters about which
sample statistics can be used to infer. Hence,
geomathematical techniques are based on the
concept that information concerning the
geologic phenomenon can be inferred from an
in-depth examination of a small sub-sample col-
lected from the vast pool of potential observa-
tions that, due to time, cost, or physically dif-
ficult to examine constraints, prevent measure-
ment.

Mining geologists and engineers (2-10) have
used statistical techniques for many years.
These techniques were found to be especially
useful in mine development and production
stages. In fact, many geologists and engineers
design sampling schemes and drilling plans ac-

cording to statistical designs and eventually sub-
ject their observations to hypothesis testing and
detailed statistical analysis (1, 6, 9, 10). Several
statistical theories and associated distributions
have been proposed to account for variation in
mine values (grade, continuity, strength), pro-
viding the theoretical basis for statistical model-
ing and inferrence (2). However, as warned by
Davis (1), geologists and engineers frequently
deal with data over which they had no influence
with regard to where the sample is taken, “Here,
the well-developed tests of hypotheses do not
exist, and the best we can hope from our pro-
cedures is help in what ultimately must be a
human decision” (p. 7). Geostatistics, by its very
nature, deals with the application of statistical
procedures to data that lack the degree of con-
trol required by the tests. According to conven-
tion, there are some basic assumptions in
geostatistics, including: differences among col-
lected samples and their magnitudes are deter-
mined by the relative spatial orientation of those
samples; since the mean and variation are ex-
tremely important in establishing relationships
with geological and mining phenomena, their
corresponding orientation is extremely impor-
tant; in establishing trends or predictive rela-
tionships, an assumption of random variation or
no trend is made in order to emphasize the
variance of the difference in values between
samples (1, 9, 10).

14 Anova Techniques in Kentucky Mine Roofs — Smith

The thrust of the present study is to expand
analysis of variance techniques (ANOVA) in
testing selected hypotheses of the predictive
trends of important parameters used in mine
development and design. One of the goals of
mine planning is to three-dimensionally
characterize these parameters in such a way
that useful maps for decision-making can be im-
plemented. The parameters frequently used in
preparing mine plans are associated with mine-
roof falls.

Mine-Roof Fall Prediction

Since the first records in 1838 on coal-mine
health and safety, more than 130,000 U.S.
miners have lost their lives in mine accidents.
Death rates in mines of this country are higher
than in any other Western industrialized nation
engaged in coal mining (11). A major cause of
death and physical injury in underground coal
mines is roof failure. As suggested by Moebs and
Stateham (12), instability in coal-mine roofs is
considered to be either the result of defect-
related/geological features or nondefect-
related, such as the strength-stress state exist-
ing in the rock mass. Support of underground
entries is based on recommendations of the
physical characteristics of geologic structures
and the overall effect the structures have on
mine roof stability.

The stability of coal-mining tunnels, entries,
rooms, and associated openings plays a major
role in the success of any major underground
project. Hence, if the main access openings toa
new coal mine become deformed and damaged
by strata movement to the extent of requiring
serious repairs, special problems may arise
which will have an influence on ventilation, im-
pairment to speed and reliability of transport
systems as well as the direct and indirect costs
involved with the repair program (13, 14).

The mechanical design of a roof-support
system is basically a matter of a working
knowledge of statics and dynamics, assuming
that the imposed loads and mining conditions
are known. However, in the Appalachian Coal
Fields the general conditions are known well
enough to allow for the majority of mining
operations, including traditional room-and-
pillar as well as longwall mining techniques and
be furnished with standard and commercially
available supports. Of course, these support
systems and roof control procedures are accom-
panied by suitable variants and options (15). The
overall design of a mining system, which design
incorporates not only size and capacity of the
equipment to be used, but includes equipment
adaptability to the mining scheme; equipment
versus human constraints; operation at the
designed levels; and coordination of operation,

maintenance and support design (15).

Hence, a multitude of factors must be con-
sidered in successful underground operations
(14). Cost-sensitive mine-planning systems have
been developed to help coal companies design
underground mines that will recover coal
reserves in the most profitable method. Informa-
tion obtained for borehole logs, local mines,
mining equipment manufacturers, and previous
mining experience should be used in the mine
planning process. According to Ellison and
Scovazzo (16), cost-sensitive mine planning
assumes that the physical and economic condi-
tions that will have the greatest impact on cost
and coal quality can be predicted accurately
enough to assist mine planners in making deci-
sions. In the planning process, many maps,
such as coal seam thickness, expected roof cav-
ing conditions, geologic lineaments, roof shale
thickness, distance to the first sandstone, over-
burden thickness, underclay thickness, as well
as a host of other factors, can be generated as
overlays on each other to assist planners in
selecting appropriate locations and orientations
for the portal, mains, submains, and longwall
panels (12, 17, 18). As compiled and sum-
marized by Moebs and Stateham (12), a recent
study to investigate in a graphic manner, all
rock-fall hazards related to geologic conditions
in the Pittsburgh Coalbed for a 9-county-area,
located in northern West Virginia and
southwestern Pennsylvania, resulted in the
systematic collection and analysis of field data.
A total of 7 geologic and 5 mining-engineering
related variables were found to be causally
related to roof failure. However, only 3 of the
significant geological parameters, namely over-
burden thickness, roof lithology, and vertical
distance to the rider coal seam, were found to be
useful in the final map preparation.

Although mine-roof falls are not random
events and their occurrence is usually con-
tributed to an interaction of a host of geologic
and stress-strength parameters, some of the
conditions that cause failure may be frequently
continuous in nature. Examples of this con-
tinuous nature in mine-roof failure includes, as
previously stated, overburden thickness, roof
lithology, and vertical distances to selected
bedding-plane features. These interactions, both
related to rock mechanics and geological
phenomena, result in determining the max-
imum mine roof fall height during a given time
interval. Therefore, by modeling the structural
contour of maximum mine height after failure,
and associated heights of various rock-break
planes that are prominent in the failure area, a
better understanding of the behavior of mine-
roof falls may develop and be useful in projecting
potential areas of roof failure.

Trans. Kentucky Academy of Science — 46(1-2) 15

Expanded ANOVA Techniques for Modeling
Predictive Surfaces

Simple analysis of variance and covariance
must have a dependent variable that must be
measured on at least an interval scale (19).
ANOVA techniques can be applied to test rela-
tionships among three-dimensional models with
spatial coordinates (1). A detailed discussion of
testing the significance of these trend surfaces
can be found in work completed by Smith (9, 10,
20). The concepts of using the full and restricted
models in testing these relationships among
trends and the process of determining the best-
fit predictive surface have been discussed
theoretically (21) and operationalized (20).

The equation describing the surface can be
linear (plane), quadratic (paraboloid), cubic
(paraboloid with an additional point of inflec-
tion), to higher-order degree surfaces. In
general, the higher order of the surface, the
more the residuals, or individual deviations, will
be minimized and the more the residuals, or in-
dividual deviations, will be minimized and the
more computation will be required. The higher-
order trend surfaces may reflect the variation in
Z-values more accurately, if the study area is
complex, but lower-order surfaces may be more
useful in the isolation of local trends. The filter-
ing mechanism allows the upper limit of
variability to be determined by the order of the
surface. The equation for a linear-trend surface,
for example, has the following form: Y = b, +
b,X, + b,X,, where Y = dependent variable, b,
= constant value related to the mean of the
observations, b,b, = coefficients, and X,,X, =
geographic coordinates.

In addition, model comparison between
trend surfaces is also completed. The model
comparison directly answers the major question
of determining the order of best fit. In the case of
trend-surface analysis, the restricted model cor-
responds to the lower order trend surface, or one
order less than the order in the full model. The
degrees. of freedom and resultant F value are
reached as follows: df; = m, - m:, df, = N-m,,
where df, = degrees of freedom-numerator, df,
= degrees of freedom-denominator, M, =
number of coefficients, counting the constant
coefficient, in the full model, m, = number of
coefficients, counting the constant coefficient, in
the restricted model, and N = number of obser-
vations. These equations, determined by
Newman and Thomas (22), are similar in func-
tion to those equations suggested by Davis (1),
except the addition of the constant term, bo. In
the case of trend-surface analysis, m, cor-
responds to the number of coefficients, including
the constant, b,, in the higher order surface
while the term, m,, is associated with the

number of coefficients, plus the constant term,
in the lower order surface. For example, in a
second order trend surface, the equation is
represented by: Y = by + biX, + b.X, + b3X”7,
+ b,X?, + b;X,X,. In the hypothesis testing to
determine if this second order equation is
statistically significant at a set alpha level, this
equation becomes the full model, since it con-
tains all the required terms and their coeffi-
cients. The restricted model, on the other hand,
is defined as no information, since an in-
vestigator is asking the question if the second
degree surface is predictive of the geographical
distribution of the data over no other trend sur-
face.

The typical ANOVA table for polynomial
trend surfaces testing, if the surface accounts for
a statistically significant amount of explained
variance in predicting the criterion by the
variance in spatial coordinates of the sample
location over random variation or no trend (null
hypothesis), can be found in Table 1. Table 2 il-
lustrates the basic ANOVA format required to
test or covary lower-order surfaces (restricted
models) from higher-degree surfaces (full
models), using standard multiple linear regres-
sion (MLR) terminology. The concept involved
in the calculation of Table 2 is to test if the addi-
tion of explain variance or sum of squares of the
higher-degree surface is statistically significant
over the lower surface (plus the error or residual
variance associated with the higher surface).

Table 1. Typical Analysis of Variance Table for Polynomial Trend Sur-

faces.

Source of Sum of Degrees of Mean F Ratio
Variation Squares Freedom Squares
; a Re
Regression Soed m msRea msReg ms 3
R
Residual SIs n-m-1 ms"°S
Total ss! n-1
Note: In the table, m is the number of coefficients in the
polynomial-trend surface equation, not including the

constant term, by; and n is the number of valid data
points used in the regression equation

16

Table 2. Expanded analysis of Variance Table for Model Comparisons of
Polynomial Trend Surfaces Testing for Statistical Significant Amounts
of Explained Variance of Higher-Order over Lower-Order, Three-
Dimensional Response Surfaces.

Source of Sum of Mean
Variation Squares df Squares F-Ratio
Higher- sshigher Reg. my-m; msHigher Reg jycHigher Reg)
Regression msCombined
Low-Order 4
Regression sghowerReg+ = Nm, , msCombined

+
Error Variance SS°TOF (higher)
Associated

with Higher-

Order

Regression

Note: In the table, m, is the number of coefficients in the

response surface containing the full model, or model
with the most spatially-depicted terms, not including
the constant term, b,; m, denotes the number of coef-
ficients in the response surface containing the
restricted model, or model with the least spatially-
depicted terms of the lower-order surface to be
covaried with the full model, not including the con-
stant term, bo. N represents total number of sampling
locations or measured values.

METHODS

A total of 21 roof falls were measured and
described at a particular mine site in the Upper
Freeport Coal Seam, located in the Northern
Appalachian Coal Field in West Virginia. The
failure parameters of maximum height of roof
fall, heights to second and third horizon of roof
strata or break-planes, mine span of entries, and
vertical height of main opening associated with
the roof falls, thinnest immediate roof layer,
bolting characteristics, and associated
characteristics were collected. In addition, max-
imum height of the failure zone into mine roof
entry and second roof horizon or break-plane
was chosen, due to the completeness of the
database and the importance of these
parameters as cited in the literature review, to
develop mathematical models or surfaces and
apply expanded ANOVA techniques to deter-
mine the best fit in terms of predicting spatial
distributions.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Descriptive Statistics

The averages for the thinnest immediate
roof layer is 0.17 inches, maximum roof height
(9.4 feet) height to second roof horizon or break-
plane above the roof line (6.0 feet), height to
third roof horizon on break-plane above the roof
line (2.1 feet), vertical height to fourth roof
horizon or break-plane above the roof line (1.3

Anova Techniques in Kentucky Mine Roofs — Smith

feet), length of roof bolts after the roof fall (68.8
inches), span of mine entry (18.3 feet), and ver-
tical opening of entry (8.9 feet). The majority of
falls showed no presence of water (66.7 percent),
occurrence in intersections (47.6 percent) and
entries (38.1 percent), used resin bolts after roof
fall (57.1%), dome-shaped roof falls (54.5%), no
presence of cracks in roof top after fall occur-
rence (76.2%) and presence of rib sloughing
(16.2%) (Table 3.)

Table 3. Descriptive Statistics for Selected Mine Roof Fall Parameters
Studied.

Parameter Mean Variance Standard Kurtosis Skewness
THINLAY 0.168 0.045 0.212 12.542 3.337
(inches)
N = 21
ROOFHT 9.390 69.166 8.317 5.243 2.316
(feet)
N = 21
STRATA2 6.020 38.563 6.210 13.771 3.544
(feet)
N = 19
STRATA3 2.144 0.639 0.799 0.437 0.559
(feet)
N = 10
STRATA4 1.340 0.003 0.057 0.000 0.000
(feet)
N = 2
LENGTHA _ 68.842 29.474 5.429 -0.718 -1.170
(inches)
N = 19
SPAN 18.340 3.619 1.902 1.593 1.156
(feet)
N = 21
OPENVER 8.884 1.155 1.075 -0.525 -0.651
(feet)
N = 21
Note. N denotes number of valid statistics used in arriving at

the stated descriptive statistics.

ANOVA and Mathematical Modeling

Table 4 displays the basic coordinates in
SYMAP and SYMUV inch-grid system (a con-
touring program) (23) and the input data for the
hypothesis testing and model comparisons of
trend surfaces, as reflected in the ANOVA
tables. Tables 5 through 11 illustrate the
hypothesis testing and model comparisons of
response surfaces via expanded ANOVA techni-
ques for maximum heights of roof failure. Table
12 is asummary table of the F-ratios, probability
levels, R? for both the full and restricted models,

Trans. Kentucky Academy of Science — 46(1-2)

degrees of freedom, and statistical significance
for each surface and model comparison in
predicting the spatial distribution of failure
height into the mine roof. Similar information is
displayed in Tables 13 through 20 for height to
second break-horizon from roof line for the roof
falls studied. In addition, Figure 1 is a three-
dimensional, computer-generated, graphical

17

portrait of the measured height above roof edge
to second break-horizon for the roof falls
studied. Alpha levels of 0.01 and 0.05 were
employed for a two-tailed, nondirectional test,
and standard statistical criteria were employed
to reject or fail-to-reject the null hypothesis, Ho,
in order to determine statistical significance.

Figure 1. Three-dimensional model displaying spatial distribution of height to second rock-break horizon, from the roof edge, for the present mine

layout, as viewed from the northeast direction.

Table 4. Location coordinates (SYMAP) and input data for hypothesis
testing and model comparisons of trend surfaces.

Fall Y-coordinate X-coordinate Height of | Height to
Identification (SYMAP (SYMAP roof fall* Second Hor-
Number axis system, axis system, (ft) izon of Roof
in) in) Strata (ft)*
1 4.6 27.3 4.0 3.58
2 4.9 19.6 3.67 2.08
3 10.7 29.4 7.12 4.45
4 7.4 5.3 3.30 2.30
5 7.2 5.3 30.00 ~~ -----
6 6.5 5.3 11.75 7:75
7 5.7 49 35.00 30.00
8 4.4 6.3 4.0 2.67
9 4.1 6.5 6.20 4.13
10 18.7 7.8 7.58 5.33
11 19.1 8.6 9.83 7.08
12 6.4 23.4 13.42 4.25
13 6.4 23.0 7.92 6.00
14 4.6 27.0 4.22 3.42
14A (15) 6.4 27.6 11.42 4.75
15 (16) 4.6 26.7 1.830 -=--
16 (17) 18.3 29.8 6.08 2.41
17 (18) 18.3 30.2 6.16 4.25
20 (19) 4.2 27.4 4.66 3.41
21 (20) 8.4 29.4 9.20 4.6
22 (21) 19.5 11.4 9.84 4.92

Table 4 continued
*Note: All roof height measurements are in relation to roof
edge (vertical height of mine opening) as initial start-
ing point.
The data values are accurate to the nearest tenth, the
two digits to the right of the decimal point were used to
prevent rounding-off errors in the statistical response
surfaces generation and evaluation.

Table 5. ANOVA Table for the First Degree Polynomial Trend Surface
for Structure Contour of Maximum Mine Roof Fall Height

Source of
Variation SS df ms F-ratio Sign
1st Degree
Regression 244.6572 2 122.3286 1.6449 NS
Error
Residual 1338.6707 18 74.3706

TOTAL 1383.2379

R? full model (regression) = 0.7686
R? restricted model (null hypothesis) = 0.0

18

Anova Techniques in Kentucky Mine Roofs — Smith

Table 6. ANOVA Table for the Second Degree Polynominal Trend
Surface for Structure Contour of Maximum Roof Fall Height

Source of ss df ms F-Ratio Sign
Variation

2nd Degree

Regression 429.1304 5 85.8261 1.3492 NS

Error

(Residual) 954.1975 15 63.6132

TOTAL 1383.3279

R? full model (regression) = 0.31026
R? restricted model (null hypothesis) = 0.0

Table 7. ANOVA Table for the Third Degree Polynominal Trend
Surface for Structure Contour of Maximum Mine Roof Fall Height

Source of Ss df ms F-Ratio Sign
Variation

3rd Degree

Regression 771.0737 9 85.6749 1.5393 NS
Error

(Residual) 612.2542 11 55.6595,

TOTAL 1383.8279

R? full model (regression = 0.55740
R? restricted model (null hypothesis) = 0.0

Table 8. ANOVA Table for the Fourth Degree Polynominal Trend

Surface

for Structure Contour of Maximum Mine Roof Fall Height

Source of Ss df ms F-ratio Sign
Variation

4th Degree

Regression 954.2024 14 68.1573 0.9529 NS
Error

(Residual) 429.1255 6 71.5209

TOTAL 1383.3279

R? full model (regression) = 0.68979
R? restricted model (null hypothesis) = 0.0

Table 9. Model Comparison of the Second Order versus the First
Order Trend Surface for Structure Contour of Maximum Mine Roof

Fall Height

Source of
Variation

ms F-ratio

Sign

Table 9 continued

2nd Degree

Regression 184.4732 3 61.4911 0.7694 NS

Ist Degree

Regression 1198.8547 15 79.9237
+ Error

Residual

R? full model (regression) = 0.31026
R? restricted model (null hypothesis) = 0.17686

Table 10. Model Comparison of the Third Order versus the Second
Order Trend Surface for Structure Contour of Maximum Mine Roof
Fall Height

Source of ss
Variation

F-Ratio Sign

3rd Degree

Regression 771.0737 4 192.7684 2.0362 NS

2nd Degree

Regression 1041.3846 ll 94.6713

+ Error
(Residual)

R? full model (regression) = 0.55470
R? restricted model (null hypothesis) = 0.31026

Table 11. Model Comparison of the Fourth Order versus the Third
Order Trend Surface for Structural Contour of Maximum Mine Roof
Fall Height

Source of SS df ms F-Ratio Sign

Variation

4th Degree

Regression 954.2024 5

3rd Degree

Regression 1200.1992 6

+ Error
(Residual)

R? full model (regression = 0.68979
R? restricted model (null hypothesis) = 0.55470

Table 12. Summary of F-Ratios, Probability Levels, R* for Both the
Full and Restricted Models, Degrees of Freedom-Numerator, Degrees
of Freedom-Denominator, and Significance for Each Trend Surface
for the Variable Structure Contour of Maximum Mine Roof Fall
Height.

Order of
Trend

Surface R’f R dfn/dfd _ F-Ratio Significant

Trans. Kentucky Academy of Science — 46(1-2)

Table 12 continued

1 0.17686 0.0 2/18 1.64485 NS
2 0.31026 0.0 5/15 1.34919 NS
3 0.55740 0.0 9/11 1.53927 NS
4 0.68979 0.0 14/6 0.95297 NS
5 0.97518 0.0 N/A
6 0.76216 0.0 N/A
lvs2 0.31026 0.17686 3/15 0.76937 NS
2vs 3 0.55470 0.31026 4/11 2.03619. NS
3vs 4 0.68979 0.55470 5/6 0.95404 NS
4vs5 0.97518 0.68979 NA
5 vs 6 0.76216 0.97518 NA
(N = 21)

Table 13. ANOVA Table for the First Degree Polynominal Trend
Surface for Height to Second Horizon of Roof Strata.

Source of

Variation ss df ms F-ratio Sign
1st Degree

Regression 83.605713 2 41.8029 1.0955 NS
Error

Residual 610.530760 16 38.1582

TOTAL 694.13647

R? full model (regression) = 0.12045
R? restricted model (null hypothesis) = 0.0

Table 14. ANOVA Table for the Second Degree Polynominal Trend
Surface for Height to Second Horizon of Roof Strata

Source of SS df ms F-Ratio Sign
Variation

2nd Degree

Regression 113.86328 5 22.7727 0.5102 NS

Error

(Residual) — 580.27319 13 44.6364

TOTAL 694. 13647

R? full model (regression) = 0.16404
R? restricted model (null hypothesis) = 0.0

As evident in the ANOVA tables, no predic-
tive trend was discovered to account for a
Statistically significant amouxt of variance for
structure contour ofables, no predictive trend
was discovered to account for a statistically
significant amount of variance for structure con-
tour of maximum failure zone above roof line or
edge. As evident in Table 12, the expanded
ANOVA techniques resulted in no significant
variance of response surface over/above ran-

19

dom variation or covariance of lower-degree
surfaces. Hence, the occurrence of maximum
roof-failure height above the roof edge cannot
be spatially depicted, due to its high spatial
variability, at least for the sites measured.

In terms of the expanded ANOVA techni-
ques applied to height, above roof edge, to se-
cond break-horizon, a statistical significant
amount of explained variance was accounted for
by the fourth-degree, polynomial response sur-
face (Table 16 and 20). The fourth-degree
polynomial surface accounted for 98.04 percent
of explained variance (p 0.01) in predicting the
spatial distribution of height of second rock-
break horizon. Probably, this significance is
related to the continuous nature of the
lithologies and geologic structures that resulted
in failure, either plastic or brittle deformation, at
this level.

Table 15. ANOVA Table for the Third Degree Polynominal Trend
Surface for Height to Second Horizon of Roof Strata

Source of Ss df ms F-Ratio Sign
Variation

3rd Degree

Regression 444.20947 9 49.3566 1.7774 NS
Error

(Residual) —249.92691 9 27.7696

TOTAL 694.13647

R? full model (regression = 0.63995
R? restricted model (null hypothesis) = 0.0

Table 16. ANOVA Table for the Fourth Degree Polynominal Trend
Surface for Height to Second Horizon of Roof Strata.

Source of Ss df ms F-ratio Sign
Variation

4th Degree

Regression 680.51343 14 48.6081 14.2725 S°*°
Error

(Residual) 13.622908 4 3.4057

TOTAL 694. 136747

R? full model (regression) = 0.98037
R? restricted model (null hypothesis) = 0.0

**denotes statistical significance at the 0.01 level for a two-tailed, non-
directional test.

20 Anova Techniques in Kentucky Mine Roofs — Smith

Table 17. Model Comparison of the Second Order versus the First
Order Trend Surface for Height to Second Horizon of Roof Strata.

Source of

Variation Ss df ms F-ratio Sign

2nd Degree

Regression 0.0640 NS

113.86328 3 37.9544

1st Degree

Regression 13 593.2732

610.53076

+ Error
Residual

R? full model (regression) = 0.61404
R? restricted model (null hypothesis) = 0.12045

Table 18. Model Comparison of the Third Order versus the Second
Order Trend Surface for Height to Second Horizon of Roof Strata.

Source of SS df ms F-Ratio Sign

Variation

3rd Degree

Regression 3.0255 NS

444.20947 4 111.0524

2nd Degree

Regression 330.34619 9 36.7051

+ Error
(Residual)

R? full model (regression) = 0.63995
R? restricted model (null hypothesis) = 0.61404

Table 19. Model Comparison of the Fourth Order versus the Third
Order Trend Surface for Height to Second Horizon of Roof Strata.

Source of Ss df ms
Variation

F-Ratio Sign

4th Degree

Regression 680.51343 5 136.1027 2.1783 NS

3rd Degree

Regression 249.92687 4 62.4817
+ Error

(Residual)

R? full model (regression) = 0.98037
R? restricted model (null hypothesis) = 0.63995

Table 20. Summary of F-Ratios, Probability Levels, R? for Both the Full
and Restricted Models, Degrees of Freedom-Numerator, Degrees of
Freedom-Denominator, and Significance for Each Trend Surface for the
Variable Height to Second Horizon of Roof Strata.

Order of
Trend
Surface R’f R’f dfn/dfd -F-Ratio Significant
1 0.12045 0.0 2/16 1.09550 NS
2 0.16404 0.0 5/13 0.51018 NS
3 0.63995 0.0 9/9 1.77736 NS
4 0.98037 0.0 14/4 14.27246 Sis
5 0.99997 0.0 N/A
6 0.99981 0.0 N/A
lvs 2 0.16404 0.12045 3/13 0.06397 NS
2vs3 0.63995 0.16404 4/9 3.02553, NS
3vus 4 0.98037 0.63995 5/4 2.17828 NS
4vs5 0.99997 0.98037 NA
5 vs 6 0.99981 0.99997 NA
(N = 19)
Note: The symbols * denote statistical significance at 0.05

level, ** denote statistical significance at 0.01 level,
both for a two-tailed, nondirectional test.

CONCLUSIONS

As evident in the ANOVA tables, Tables 4
through 20, expanded analysis of variance
techniques can be applied to aid geoscientists
and engineering in testing certain hypotheses
concerning three-dimensional characterization
of selected parameters for predictive purposes.
As previously mentioned, most mining problems
dealing with design and planning, especially for
ground control stability and forecasting, are
concerned with establishing statistically predic-
tive relationships among measured parameters
based on their associated variabilities. As
demonstrated in the hypothesis-testing process,
expanded ANOVA techniques can accom-
modate statistical testing of relatively
sophisticated research hypotheses concerning
spatial distributions in typical mining engineer-
ing problems. Although statistically significant
trends were not found for one parameter
studied, structural contour of maximum roof fall
height, but determined for height to second
break-horizon above roof line, the technique is
readily available and is another tool that may be
applicable in the decision-making process.

LITERATURE CITED

1. Davis, J.C. 1973. Statistics and data analysis in
geology. John and Sons, New York.

10.

11.

12.

Trans. Kentucky Academy of Science — 46(1-2) 21

Clark, I. 1982. Practical geostatistics. Applied
Science Pub., LTD, London, England.

Reedman, J.H. 1979. Techniques in mineral ex-
ploration. Applied Science Pub., LTD, London,
England.

Smith, A.D., J.C. Cobb, and K.F. Unrug. 1984.
Discriminative analysis of selected rock
strengths and geological parameters associated
with basic lithologies derived from the Eastern
Kentucky Coal Field. Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci.
45:36-50.

Smith, A.D, and R.T. Wilson. 1984. Influence of
support systems on the occurrence and distribu-
tion of rock falls in selected coal mines of Eastern
Kentucky. Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci. 45:4-13.

Smith, A.D. 1984. characteristics of mine roof
falls in selected deep-coal mines of Kentucky: A
pilot study. Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci. 45:78-81.

Smith, A.D. 1984. Mine roof condition and the
occurrence of roof falls in coal mines. Ohio Jour.
of Sci. 84:133-138.

Smith, A.D. 1984. Cost-sensitive mine planning
of projected pillar dimensions: A case study. The
Compass 61:65-69.

Smith, A.D. 1983. Geophysical applications of
hypothesis testing and model comparisons of
trend surfaces (abs). Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci. 44:91.

Smith, A.D., and D.H. Timmerman. 1983.
Three-dimensional modeling and trend surface
analysis of selected borehole information for
analysis for geotechnical applications. Abstracts
with Programs, 17th Annual meeting of North-
Central GSA 15:217.

Warner, Jr., J.R. 1982. Crime in the mines. Proc.
of West Virginia Acad. Sci. 54:132-139.

Moebs, N.N., and R.M. Stateham. 1984.
Geologic factors in coal mine roof stability - a
progress report. U.S.D.I. Bur. of Mines Info. Cir.
8976:1-27.

13.

14.

15.

16.

17.

18.

193

20.

21.

Wells, B.T., and B.N. Whittaker. 1981. Stability
behavior of coal mining tunnels with different
supports. In Proc. of Ann. Conf. on Ground Con-
trol in Mining. West Virginia Univ., Morgantown,
WV, pp. 67-75.

Smith, A.D. 1984. Lithologic characteristics of
immediate mine roof in selected coal mines of
eastern Kentucky. Abstracts with Program, 18th
Annual meeting of South-Central GSA 16:113.

Hutchinson, T.L. 1981. Design and operation of
powered and entry supports. In Proc. of First
Ann. Conf. on Ground Control in Mining. West
Virginia Univ., Morgantown, WV, pp. 201-208.

Ellison, R.D., and V.A. Scovazzo. 1981. Profit
planning begins with mapping. Coal
86:68-81.

Chase, F.E., and G.P. Sames. 1983. Kettlebot-
toms: Their relation to mine roof and support.
U.S.D.1., Bur. of Mines Report of Investigations
8785: 1-12.

Jansky, J.H., and R.F. Valore. 1983. Correlation
of LANDSAT and air photo linears with roof con-
trol problems and geologic features. U.S.D.I.,
Bur. of Mines Report of Investigations 8777:1-22.

Age

Edwards, A.L. 1972. Experimental design in
psychological research, 4th ed. Holt, Rinehart,
and Winston, Inc. New York.

Smith, A.D. 1982. Hypothesis testing and model
comparisons of trend surfaces. Trans. Ky. Acad.
Sci. 44:17-21.

NcNeil, K.A., F.J. Kelly, and J.T. NcNeil. 1976.
Testing research hypotheses using multiple
linear regression. Southern Illinois Univ. Press,
Carbondale, IL.

Newman, I., and J. Thomas. 1979. A note on the
calculation of degrees of freedom for power
analysis using multiple linear regression models.
Mult. Linear Regression Viewpts. 9:53-58.

Dougenik, J.A., and D.E. Sheehan. 1979.
SYMAP user’s reference manual. Harvard Univ.
Press, Cambridge, MA.

RH - Natural Arches in Kentucky — Kind and Shelby

Mantle Rock and Alcove Arch,

Livingston County, Kentucky

Thomas C. Kind and Lynn Shelby
Department of Geosciences
Murray State University
Murray, Kentucky 42071

ABSTRACT

Two natural arches, Mantle Rock and Alcove Arch, are located in Livingston County, Kentucky. Alcove
Arch is at an early stage of development while Mantle Rock is a spectacular feature spanning nearly 58 m. The
arches formed in association with physical and chemical weathering processes which have been active along

fractures in the Pennsylvanian Pounds Sandstone.

INTRODUCTION

The presence of known scenic natural
arches in west Kentucky is very limited. Two
structures located in Livingston County, Mantle
Rock (Fig. 1) and a smaller arch (here named
Alcove Arch) (Fig. 2) in Livingston County, Ken-
tucky, are unique to the area landscape.
According to Corgan and Parks (1) there have
been a total of 20 natural bridges and arches
described in Kentucky. The most recent descrip-
tion of bridges within Kentucky was accomp-
lished by these authors in a work on two bridges
in Christian County, Kentucky. The bridges
were then the two westernmost structures of this
type described within the state. An account of

Wy

Fig. 1. Mantle Rock, Livingston County, Kentucky

22

many of the other bridges and arches within the
state was written by McFarlan in Geology of
Kentucky (2).

Mantle Rock, with a span of 57.6 m is, in
fact, one of the longest bridges in Kentucky
although its height, 9.1 m, is not as impressive
as others, such as the Natural Bridge of Ken-
tucky, which is 23.7 m high, or Smoky Bridge,
which is 15.2 m high (2). Mantle Rock is locally
known but Alcove Arch is often overlooked due
to a position which is partially obscured by large
collapse blocks. Alcove Arch is much younger
than Mantle Rock with respect to its develop-
ment and represents an arch in the early stages
of development.

RE

Trans. Kentucky Academy of Science — 46(1-2) 23

Mantle Rock is a truly oustanding physical
landscape feature. Interestingly, it is also men-
tioned in historical records in conjunction with
the Trail of Tears, the trek of the Cherokee In-
dians from their territory in the southeastern
United States to Oklahoma during the 1830's.
Property owned by the Cherokee was seized as a
result of the Dahlonega goldrush in Georgia.
The Cherokee, numbering about 15,000, were
removed by force during the fall and early winter

of 1838. Their route through west central Ten-
nessee and western Kentucky brought them to
the Ohio River near Salem, Kentucky. The river
at that time was ice-filled and too dangerous to
cross. Hundreds died and were buried near Man-
tle Rock and the town of Joy, Kentucky, as
many were ill and exhausted from travel and
could not survive the bitter winter. Nearly one-
fourth of the Cherokee died before reaching
their destination in Oklahoma (3).

Fig. 2. Alcove Arch, Livingston County, Kentucky

LOCATION

Mantle Rock and Alcove Arch are located
on the Golconda Quadrangle, 7.5-minute series
(4), approximately 4 km west of the small com-
munity of Joy on Kentucky Highway 133 (Fig. 3).
The arches are situated on property owned by
Reynolds Metals, Salem, Kentucky. Access
from Highway 133 is by a trail across the proper-
ty of Dale Calendar, Ledbetter, Kentucky.

MANTLE ROCK

Mantle Rock trends in a_ northeast-

southwest direction. The span, measured at the
base, is 57.6 m (Fig. 4). Maximum height of the
span is located to the left of center and is 9.1m.
The minimum thickness of the span is 3.0 m,
while the width of the span is 5.8 m at its nar-
rowest point. The opening or window behind the
span is 48.8 m long with a maximum width of
5.0 m (Fig. 5). The surface beneath the arch
slopes gently from northeast to southwest. A few
large pieces of breakdown are partially buried in
surficial material near the northeast end of the
span. Primary fractures associated with the
bridge trend approximately N45°E while a
secondary fracture pattern is oriented N78°E.

24 Natural Arches in Kentucky — Kind and Shelby

ALCOVE ARCH

Alcove Arch is located approximately 300 m
northeast of Mantle Rock along the same out-
crop. The arch spans 20 m and has a maximum
height of 8.5 m (Fig. 6). Minimum thickness of
the span is 3.3 m while the width of the span is
approximately 5.2 m at its narrowest point. The
window of the arch is 5.5 m long and 0.9 m wide
(Fig. 7). Two prominent joints are present at this
arch. One fracture is oriented N44°E although
the window of the arch has formed along a frac-
ture trending N68°E. Large slabs of sandstone
that have fallen from the roof of the structure
are situated beneath the arch.

en

MANTLE
eee
ROCK==:

Hampton

LIVINGSTON CO.

| Study Area

Fig. 3. Location of study area.

N * > AS j
= nN ~~ 2 é es

Fig. 5. View of the window above Mantle Rock.

Fig. 4. Dimensions associated with Mantle Rock. Fig. 6. Dimensions associated with Alcove Arch.

Trans. Kentucky Academy of Science — 46(1-2) 25

GEOLOGY

The Shawnee Hills section of the Interior
Low Plateaus is the physiographic regional set-
ting for the arches (5). The topography of the
local area is characterized by rugged to rolling
hills and steep-walled valleys. Elevations range
from 90 to 250 m. This area is known for its ex-
tensive faulting and abundant fluorite deposits.
Over 75 per cent of the fluorite production in the
United States has been from the surrounding
Kentucky-Illinois mining district. Significant
lead and zinc deposits associated with the
fluorite are currently being investigated by
private industry.

Fig. 7. View of the window above Alcove Arch

According to Heyl and Brock (6), “the
district is located in the most complexly faulted
area in the craton of the United States.” Three
major fault zones, the Shawneetown-Cottage
Grove, the Rough Creek, and the New Madrid,
intersect approximately 24. 5 km north of the ar-
ches. Some north-trending faults are present as
are a small number of east-trending faults;
however, the predominant orientation of faults
on the Golconda Quadrangle is northeast.

Mantle Rock and Alcove Arch lie within a
graben that is approximately 0.9 km wide and

ms

5.3 km long (Fig. 8). Figure 8 is a generalized
map niodified from Amos (4). Displacement
within the graben is estimated to be 46 m. The
graben is bounded on the southeast by a fault
which trends N39°E. This fault is associated
with the Rosiclare Fault System which is
located .4 km east of the arches. The graben is
also bordered on the northwest by a fault of the
Big Creek Fault System which trends N18°E
and is situated .8 km west of the arches. The
stresses responsible for this post-Pennsylvanian
faulting were also of primary importance in the
formation of the extensive joint sets of the study
area.

The larger arch, Mantle Rock, is oriented
N45°E. As previously stated, the major joint in
the backwall of this arch strikes N45°E and a
secondary joint trends N78°E. The joints in
Alcove Arch have bearings of N44°E and
N68°E. Joint orientations exemplify conjugate
shears that developed approximately 30° east
and west of the principal stress orientation in the
region.

Alcove Arch *
EE /
Mantle Rock SF 7

LEGEND

Qal Quaternary Alluvium —— Geologic Contacts
IPI Lower Pennsylivanlan Serles ————= atts

IPm Middle Pennsylvanian Serles ——_ Road

Mchs Mississippian Chesterlan Serles =---—) Trall

Fy Pounds Sandstone - Pennsylvanian

Fig. 8. General geology of the study area [Modified
after Amos (4)].

26 Natural Arches in Kentucky — Kind and Shelby

STRATIGRAPHY

The arches have formed in the Pounds
Sandstone Member of the Pennsylvanian
Caseyville Formation immediately above a
regional Mississippian /Pennsylvanian unconfor-
mity (Fig. 8). The Pounds Sandstone in the
study area varies from 25-40 m thick. The sand-
stone is medium to coarse-grained with 1.5 cm
quartz pebbles. It is generally light gray in color
and shows some cross beds that dip to the south
and southwest. Honeycomb weathering is very
well defined on the northeastern exposures of
the outcrops (Fig. 9). some Liesegang layering,

the deposition of limonite and hematite in joints
and roughly concentric rings, is present at Man-
tle Rock, but absent at Alcove Arch (7). A local
unconformity exists below the Pounds. Beneath
the unconformity an unnamed shale, siltstone,
and sandstone member of the Caseyville is
present. This member is represented at the site
by a thin, even-bedded, light gray siltstone
which is approximately 9 m thick. In some near-
by locations this member is completely cut out
by the overlying members (4). The unnamed
siltstone is exposed in the stream bed 15 m east
of the larger arch and about 0.4 km southwest
along another small stream.

Fig. 9. Honeycomb weathering in the Pounds Sandstone Member of the Caseyville Formation.

MODE OF FORMATION

Mantle Rock was formed as a result of
physical and chemical weathering activity along
the sandstone cliff face and associated joints. It
is also possible that an intermittent stream
which flows toward the southwestern corner of
the span assisted in the removal of material
along a small portion of the cliff face. The
weathering processes alone or in combination
with stream erosion removed material at the

base of the cliff to a point where a widened frac-
ture parelleling the face of the cliff was en-
countered as shown in the cross-sections in
Figure 10, Steps 1 through 3. As weathering pro-
gressed, another widened fracture was en-
countered (Step 4). Chemical weathering
weakened the bedrock along the joints resulting
in the removal of support and gradual collapse
of roof material (Step 5). Subsequent weather-
ing and mass wasting has removed more
material resulting in the present situation, Step

Trans. Kentucky Academy of Science — 46(1-2) 27

6. Infiltration of water into the cross strata and
Liesegang layering has helped to accelerate the
weathering processes.

The smaller arch has formed in essentially
the same manner as Mantle Rock except for the
lack of any stream erosion due to the elevated
entrance of Alcove Arch and a lack of Liesegang
layering. The life of this arch may be short
geologically due to the presence of a vertical
fracture that cuts the northeastern end of the
span. As weathering processes continue along
this fracture the span will weaken and finally
collapse, leaving only a rock shelter.

Fig. 10. Mode of arch formation.

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

Mantle Rock and Alcove Arch are situated
farther west in Kentucky than any like structures
that have been documented. Both arches have
formed in response to chemical solution and
physical weathering along widened intersecting
joints which are directly related to regional
structural trends. Undercutting by stream ero-
sion may have been a factor which influenced
the collapse of roof material from the southwest
end of Mantle Rock but had no influence on the
formation of Alcove Arch. Infiltration along pro-
minent crossbeds and Liesegang layering helped
to accelerate the weathering processes at Man-

tle Rock and may be responsible for a more
mature stage of arch development. Although
crossbeds which facilitate weathering processes
are present at Alcove Arch, visible Liesegang
layering is absent.

Numerous other undocumented natural ar-
ches and/or bridges may exist along the exten-
sive outcrop of the Pounds Sandstone Member
due to the existence of the aforementioned con-
ditions. It should be noted that the scenic area
surrounding Mantle Rock and Alcove Arch is
perfectly suited for field instruction and exten-
sive geologic investigations on such topics as
fracture analyses, differential weathering pro-
cesses, and sedimentary structures.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors would like to thank Joe
Thomas, Charles Thomas, and Barry Johnson
for their assistance with the photography. Fun-
ding which supported the publication of this
paper was supplied by the Committee on Institu-
tional Studies and Research, Murray State
University.

LITERATURE CITED

1. Corgan, J. K. and J. T. Parks, 1977. Natural
bridges of Southern Christian County, Ken-
tucky. Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci. 38: 74-78.

2. McFarlan, A. C. 1943. Geology of Kentucky.
University of Kentucky. Lexington, Ky.

3. McDonald, L. 1972. Echoes of Yesteryear. The
Livingston Ledger, Livingston, Ky.

4. Amos, D. H. 1966. Geologic map of the
Golconda Quadrangle, Kentucky-Illinois, and
the part of the Brownfield Quadrangle in Ken-
tucky. U.S. Geological Survey Geologic
Quadrangle Map GQ-546.

5. Fenneman, N. M. 1938. Physiography of
Eastern United States. McGraw-Hill Book
Company, Inc., New York.

6. Heyl, A. W. and M. R. Brock, 1961. Structural
framework of the Illinois-Kentucky Mining
District and its relation to mineral deposits.
U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper
424-D: D3-D6.

7. Fairbridge, R. W. 1967. Phases of Diagenesis
and Authigenesis. P. 56. In G. Lawson and G.
Chilingar (eds.), Diagenesis in Sediments.
Elsevier Publishing Company, New York.

RH - Paddlefish Reproduction in Kentucky — Bronte and Johnson

GROWTH OF PADDLEFISH IN TWO MAINSTREAM RESERVOIRS
WITH REFERENCE TO COMMERCIAL HARVEST'

Charles R. Bronte? and Donald W. Johnson *
Hancock Biological Station, Murray State University, Murray, Kentucky 42071

ABSTRACT

Adult and juvenile paddlefish from commercial net catches from Kentucky Lake and Lake Barkley were
studied to determine growth and maturation information. Backcalculated lengths at dentary bone annuli re-
vealed rapid growth for the first 4 years with body length of 10 cm or greater attained within the first year. Dif-
ferential growth in terms of weight at age between the sexes was noted. Males appeared to become sexually
mature in their sixth or seventh year. Lengths and weights of mature males sampled by the fishery ranged from
74 to 97 cm and 5.3 to 13.2 kg, respectively. Gravid females sampled ranged from 88 to 102 cm and 16.8 to 22.7
kg; all were 9 years or older. Mesh sizes currently used by commercial fishermen are selecting for mostly im-
mature fish and may have possible negative affects on breeder recruitment under intensive fishing pressure.

INTRODUCTION

Paddlefish (Polyodon spathula) have
undergone some restrictions in range and
declines in numbers since 1900 from
overharvesting and destruction of suitable
spawning habitat (1, 2, 3, 4). Impoundments
throughout the Mississippi River drainage have
flooded and/or made inaccessible many spawn-
ing areas.

Fifty percent (124 tons) of the total recent
commercial harvest (260 tons) of paddlefish
comes from the Tennessee and Cumberland
Rivers (5) located in southwestern Kentucky and
western Tennessee. Recently, commercial
fishing pressure has increased in these areas.
Reduced imports of Caspian Sea sturgeon eggs
have made it necessary for the caviar industry to
switch to paddlfish as an alternate egg source.
High prices ($65/kg) paid for paddlefish roe pro-
vide incentive for increased fishing pressure.

In 1979, Lake Barkley (Cumberland R.) and
Kentucky Lake (Tennessee R.) in western Ken-
tucky were reopened to gill and trammel net
usage to harvest under-utilized buffalofish
(Ictiobus spp.) and carp (Cyprinus carpio).
Catch data from the first year (1979-1980)
revealed that 6 tons of paddlefish were taken as
by-catch. With this increase in harvest and
potential for spawning stock damage, it became
imperative to collect information on growth and
maturation of these stocks to ensure responsible
management.

METHODS

Paddlefish from the Kentucky and Ten-
nessee portions of Lake Barkley (n=101) and
Kentucky Lake (n = 89) were obtained from com-
mercial net catches between December 14, 1980
and February 5, 1981. Kentucky permits com-
mercial harvest in these reservoirs with 90-115
mm bar mesh gill and trammel nets from
November 1 through March 31. A year-round
gill and trammel net fishery exists in Tennessee
where regulations stipulate that bar mesh sizes
must be 76 mm or greater.

Rostrum, body, and total lengths, as well as
weight, sex, and condition of gonads were
recorded and dentary bones collected from all
fish. Body lengths (BL) were measured from the
anterior margin of the eye to the base of the
hypural bone. Rosen (6) suggested this as a
more valid index of paddlefish growth than total
length. Only 22% of variation in body lengths
was explained by variation in rostrum length.

Ages were estimated by examining dentary
bone cross sections (7). Thin sections of dentary
bone were cut with a rotary saw where the bone
bends mesially. Sections were thinned by grind-
ing on a wet stone and cleared in xylene or
methyl salicylate to facilitate identifying annuli.
Annuli were counted and_ backcalculation
distances measured on the mesial lobe of the
dentary bone section. Only growth bands which
extended around the bone were considered true
annuli. Most dentaries were read twice with

* This work was supported in part by funds provided by the Commonwealth of Kentucky under Federal Commercial Fisheries Research and

Development Project No. 2-368-R-1.

* Present Address: Red Cliff Fisheries Department, Red Cliff Band of Lake Superior Chippewas, P.O. Box 529, Barfield, WI 54814.

* Center for Environmental Studies, Biology Department, Memphis State University, Memphis, TN 38152.

28

Trans. Kentucky Academy of Science — 46(1-2)

discrepancies settled by assigning the older age
estimate.

Backcalculations to estimate length at age
were performed by measuring the distance from
the middle of the central core to the distal por-
tion of each annulus. All reported lengths are
body lengths. Rosen (6) determined that central
core development was completed after the first
growing season, therefore, the core center pro-
vides an appropriate reference point for
backcalculation measurements. Fish length at
annulus formation was estimated on the basis of
direct proportional expansion (8).

RESULTS

The size range of fish sampled resulted from
selectivity of the 90-152 mm bar mesh nets used
by commercial fishermen and may not be in-
dicative of true population age and size
characteristics. Fishermen in Kentucky used
90-115 mm mesh nets which selected for buf-
falofish, carp and catfish (Ictaluridae) with pad-
dlefish incidental to the catch. Larger mesh nets
(152 mm) were used by Tennessee fishermen
targeting gravid paddlefish. Body lengths (cm)
of commercially harvested paddlefish ranged
from 32 to 102 and 27 to 139 for Kentucky Lake
and Lake Barkley samples, respectively while
weights (kg) ranged from 0.4 to 22.7 and 0.6 to
30.2, respectively (Tables 1 and 2).

Table 1. Paddlefish age, size, and sex distribution of commercial catch
samples from Lake Barkley (Cumberland River).
1980-February 1981.

December

Body Length
(cm)
Mean Range

Weight
(kg)
Mean Range F M U

Sex (%)
Year
Class Age’ N

1978 2 4 36 26-48 1.2 0.61.7 25 25 50
1977 3 7 51 39-63 27 1046 57 43
1976 4 7 54 45-59 2.7 1.43.4 43 57
1975, 5 13 65 52-79 4.7 228.9 23 77
1974 6 24 73 58-84 7.5 3.9-13.6 33 67
1973° 7 12 77 72-83 8.2 5.6-11.8 36 64
1972 8 17 89 64-97 10.9 6417.5 59 41
197) 14 90 84-97 14.7 5.5-20.1 100 0
1970 10 20) 100 0
1969 11 0 -- -- -- -- so
1968 12 1 132 - 30.2 100 0

1
Number of growing season completed.

2
Unable to determine sex.

29

Table 2. Paddlefish age, size, and sex distribution of commercial catch

samples from Kentucky Lake (Tennessee River). December
1980-February 1981.

Body Length Weight Sex (%)
Year ‘ (cm) (kg) A
Class Age N Mean Range Mean Range F M U
1978 2 i 3 -- 0.4 -- 0 0 100
1977 3 5 40 35-42 0.8 0.51.0 0 20 80
1976 4 8 50 41-56 19 1.02.7 25 75
1975) 5 4 67 66-68 44 41-47 50 50
1974 6 16 68 62-72 5.6 3.86.6 44 56
1973. 7 12 73 65-88 67 469.3 50 50
1972 8 20 77 64-87 8.2 5.1-11.4 50 50
1971 9 16 79 72-9 8.8 6.5-12.4 25 75
1970 10 4 89 87-93. 13.3 11.816.8 50 50
1969 11 1 91 -- 14.4 100 0
1968 12 0 -- -- -- -- --
1967 13 1 99 -- 22.7 -- 100 0
1966 14 1 102 -- 20.1 -- 100 0

1
Number of growing season completed.

2
Unable to determine sex.

Interpretation of dentary bones indicated
that age classes 2-12 and 2-14 were represented
in Lake Barkley and Kentucky Lake samples,
respectively. Age at recruitment to the fishery
appears to be at six to seven years when mean
lengths approach 70 cm. Annual mortality
estimated by catch curve analysis of age fre-
quencies of fully recruited fish (>6 yrs) was 44%
for Kentucky Lake fish and 45% for Lake
Barkley fish.

Growth data from backcalculated lengths
were consistent with observed lengths at age in
samples (Table 3). Growth was similar in both

Table 3. Growth of Kentucky Lake and Lake Barkley paddlefish determined from den-
tary annulj backcalculations.

Length at Annulus Formation (cm)

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Ey VD) 10
Kentucky Lake
Males 20.4 31.8 424 523 61.1 67.1 73.4 77.6 83.0 86.5
SD 33 #38 #42 50 56 55 51 49 35 20
Growth(cm) 204 114 106 99 88 60 63 42 54 3.5
Females 20.9 31.9 429 513 59.2 65.3 70.5 77.3 80.5 85.4
sD 3:54. Oe 5:3 G1 5-30 9-805 86-6) 97-6) 09-2 LTB
Growth(cm) 20.9 11.0 110 84 79 61 52 68 32 49
Lake Barkley
Males 204 338 454 548 63.1 69.5 71.5 77.8 820 84.1
SD a 85 Gl GG z6t OO OS Oe OO) cys
Growth(cm) 204 134 116 94 83 64 20 63 42 21
Females 20.7 327 44.6 55.3 63.3 71.3 78.3 84.8 90.1 89.0
SD 3:2, 63 60 55 67 82 9.0 106 123 -
Growth(cm) 20.7 120 119 107 80 80 70 65 53

30 Paddlefish Reproduction in Kentucky — Bronte and Johnson

lakes. Paddlefish grew relatively rapidly during
the first four years with annual increases
generally greater than 10 cm. Differential
growth in length between the sexes was not
observed as in other studies (6, 9). Growth in
length for all fish was described by von
Bertalanffy equations (Table 4).

Table 4. Von Bertalanffy growth equations for Kentucky Lake and Lake
Barkley paddlefish (BL = body length in cm); R? for all equations =
0.99).

Kentucky Lake

Males Blea titen (piece to.s29)))
Females BL, = 112.4 ( TERIA se OES) )
Lake Barkley
Males Bln =196:7) (ieee eent OTD)
Females BL, = 116.3 ( Teese 1oKt + 0.217) )
Weight at age was estimated using

backcalculated lengths in length-weight regres-
sions (Table 5); differential growth in weight be-
tween the sexes was observed for Lake Barkley

Table 5. Length-weight regressions for Kentucky Lake and Lake Barkley
paddlefish samples.

Kentucky Lake

—

Males LOG W = -5.329 + 3.197 LOG BL* -99

Females LOG W = -6.308 + 3.534 LOG BL -98
Lake Barkley

Males LOG W = -4.240 + 2.822 LOG BL 91

Females LOG W = -5.020 + 3.100 LOG BL -95

“Body Length

fish. Lake Barkley females were heavier than
males after the fifth growing season with dif-
ferences increasing with age. Kentucky Lake
paddlefish failed to show sexual dimorphism by
weight. Differences in weight may be due to the
development of ovaries and associated fat
bodies. Weight differences are further reflected
in comparing mean calculated condition factors
[K(BL)], for arbitrary length classes (Table 6).
Condition generally increased with length for all
fish. Lake Barkley females had higher condition
values than males for most length classes.
Previous to sexual maturity, Kentucky Lake
females exhibited lower condition factors than
males.

Table 6. Calculated condition values [K(BL)] for Kentucky Lake and
Lake Barkley paddlefish.

Kentucky Lake
Males Females

Lake Barkley

Body Length Males Females

35.0-44.9 1.35 -- 1.52 1.66
45.0-54.9 1.51 1.45 1.53 1.70
55.0-64.9 1.68 1.42 1.73 1.87
65.0-74.9 1.84 1.68 1.70 1.72
75.0-84.9 1.65 1.87 1.01 2.09

95.0 -- 2.12 -- 2.25

Sexual maturity was estimated by visual ex-
amination (2, 6). Mature males exhibited ex-
panded and convoluted testes which assumed
white mottled appearance and extended into the
caudal end of the body cavity. Kentucky Lake
mature males ranged from 74 to 90 cm in length
and 8.0 to 12.4 kg in weight and were 7 to 10
years old; Lake Barkley mature males were 764
to 97 cm and 5.3 to 13.2 kg with ages ranging
from 6 to 8 years. The presence of black or gray-
black eggs indicated maturity in females.
Although many large females were sampled,
few contained eggs. Most had ovaries which
were yellow to slightly pink in color extending
throughout the body cavity. Gravid females
from Kentucky Lake ranged from 93 to 102 cm
and 16.8 to 22.7 kg, and were greater than 9 or
10 years old.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS

Age frequencies of Kentucky Lake and Lake
Barkley paddlefish samples were similar to
samples reported from Mississippi River-Pool
13, Iowa (10); Missouri River below Gavins Point
Dam, Nebraska (11, 12); and the Neosho River,
Oklahoma (13); however, older fish (20-26
years) have been collected in the Mississippi
River-Pool 19, Iowa (14); the Osage River,
Missouri (9); Lake Francis Case, South Dakota
(15); and a free flowing section of the Missouri
River, South Dakota (6).

Paddlefish exhibited large length increases
for the first three to four years when compared
to other populations (6, 7, 9, 11, 14, 16, 17, 18).
Impinged young-of-the-year paddlefish from
Cumberland Steam Plant (Lake Barkley, Ten-
nessee), were over 30 cm in total length by late
winter (19) and agree well with backcalculated
estimates.

As reported by others, gonad examination
revealed that these fish mature relatively late in
life. Testes indicated males may become sexual-
ly mature at the sixth or seventh year. Helms
(20) states that at maturity, testes enlarge to
sizes greater than the associated fat tissue.

Trans. Kentucky Academy of Science — 46(1-2) 31

None of these fish showed these characteristics.
Testes expansion was limited to 10-20 mm in
width as noted by Rosen (6). Gravid females
were some of the largest and oldest individuals
sampled. However, 91 percent of females of
similar or greater size and age contained no
mature eggs. It is not unusual to observe few or
no ripe females in samples containing old fish (1,
4, 6, 15, 18, 20). This may indicate that only a
small percentage of mature individuals spawn
each year (14, 16). Rosen (6) suggested that
maturation may not be age dependent, but that
the formation of large egg masses may be
limited by available energy. Appropriate stimuli
may not be present in these reservoirs to induce
egg maturation. Purkett (4) noted that warming
water temperatures and rising water levels are
needed to induce spawning migrations. Whether
other stimuli are also required for oocyte
maturation early in the season is unknown.

Fast growth leading to large sizes during
early life can lead to adverse consequences to
the population from commercial fishing. This
concept was addressed early by Adams (7) and
later by Larimore (2) who both recognized that
knowledge of growth rates, age at maturity, and
spawning habits are imperative for responsible
management and protection. Data presented
here for Kentucky Lake and Lake Barkley pad-
dlefish suggest that many individuals are being
removed before contributing to reproduction.
Mean lengths and ages of commercially
harvested females are below those observed for
mature fish. Absence of older fish and high total
mortality rates may indicate fishing has cropped
these age classes. Harvests consist of younger
fish as they are recruited into the fishery. Mesh
sizes (152 mm) commonly used in the Tennessee
fishery may be inappropriate for maintaining
favorable population structure. Use of larger
mesh gill nets that select for fish greater than 80
cm should be investigated.

Sport fishery harvests currently exceed
surveyed commercial landings through most of
the paddlefish’s range and may pose a greater
threat to the species’ future than the commer-
cial fishery (5). Although current fishing mor-
tality rates associated with commercial fisheries
will yield sustained harvests, monetary incen-
tives for roe may increase total harvest levels
and lead to population declines. Appropriate
regulation is needed to ensure that this commer-
cially and aesthetically valuable resource
remains renewable.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Data collection would not have been possi-
ble without the cooperation of commercial
fishermen M. Mann, T. Melton, B. French, B.

Bartee, and S. Parker. The technical and profes-
sional support of Dr. Thomas Forsythe (TVA)
was also critical to completion of the project.
This paper is based in part on a thesis submitted
by the senior author in partial fulfillment for the
degree of Master of Science, Murray State
University, Kentucky.

LITERATURE CITED

1. Stockard, C. R. 1907. Observations on the
natural history of Polyodon spathula. American
Naturalist 41:753-766.

2. Larimore: R. W. 1950. Gametogenesis of
Polyodon spathula (Walbuam): a basis for
regulation of the fishery. Copeia 1950:116-124.

3. Barnickol, P. G. and W. C. Starrett. 1951. Com-
mercial and sport fishes of the Mississippi River
between Caruthersville, Missouri and Dubuque,
Iowa. Illinois Natural History Survey Bulletin
25(5):267-350.

4. Purkett, C. A. 1961. Reproduction and early
development of the paddlefish. Transactions of
the American Fisheries Society 90:125-129.

5. Carlson, D. M. and P. S. Bonislawsky. 1981. The
paddlefish (Polyodon spathula) fisheries of the
midwestern United States. Fisheries 6:17-26.

6. Rosen, R. A. 1976. Distribution, age and growth,
and feeding ecology of paddlefish (Polyodon
spathula) in unaltered Missouri River, South
Dakota. Unpublished Masters Thesis, South
Dakota State University, Brookings, South
Dakota, USA. 95 pp.

7. Adams, L. A. 1942. Age determination and rate
of growth in Polyodon spathula, by means of the
growth rings of the otoliths and dentary bone.
American Midland Naturalist 28:617-630.

8. Begenal, T. B. and F. W. Tesch, 1978. Age and
Growth. Pp, 101-136 In T. B. Bagenal, ed.
Methods for assessment of fish production in
fresh waters. IBP Handbook No. 3, Backwell
Scientific Publications, London.

9. Russell, T. R. 1972. Age and growth of the pad-
dlefish. Missouri Department of Conservation,
D-J Project F-1-R-21, Study S-4, Job Number 1.
Final report. 9 pp.

10. Gengerke, T. W. 1977. Paddlefish investigations.
lowa Conservation Commission, National
Marine Fisheries Service, Project 2-255-R. Seg-
ment 1, Progress Report. 18 pp.

11. Boehmer, R. J. 1973. Ages, lengths, and weights
of weights of paddlefish caught in Gavins Point
Dam Tailwaters, Nebraska. Proceedings of the
South Dakota Academy of Science 52:140-146.

32

12.

13.

14.

15.

Paddlefish Reproduction in Kentucky — Bronte and Johnson

Unkenholz, D. G. 1976. Investigations of pad-
dlefish populations in South Dakota and
development of management plans, 1976. South
Dakota Department of Game, Fish, and Parks.
D-J Project F-15-R-12, Study Number 9, Job
Numbers 3, 5, 7. Progress Report. 19 pp.

Combs, D. L. 1982. Angler exploitation of pad-
dlefish in the Neosho River, Oklahoma. North
American Journal of Fisheries Management
2:334-382.

Meyer, F. P. 1960. Life history of Marsipometra
hastata and the biology of its host, Polydon
spathula. Ph.D. Thesis. Iowa State University,
Ames, Iowa, USA. 145 pp.

Friberg, D. V. 1973. Investigations of paddlefish
populations in South Dakota and the develop-
ment of management plans, 1972. South Dakota
Department of Game, Fish, and Parks. D-J Pro-
ject F-15-R-7, Study 9. Job Numbers 1-5. Pro-
gress Report. 33 pp.

16.

17.

18.

19.

Houser, A. and M. G. Bross. 1959. Observations
on the growth and reproduction of the pad-
dlefish. Transactions of the American Fisheries
Society 88:50-52.

Houser, A. 1965. Growth of the paddlefish in Fort
Gibson Reservoir, Oklahoma. Transactions of
the American Fisheries Society 94:91-93.

Bonislawsky, P. S. 1977. Paddlefish investiga-
tion. Kansas Fish and Game Commission. D-J
Project F-15-R, Study 030. Final Report. 18 pp.

Pasch, R. W., P. A. Hackney, and J. A.
Holbrook II. 1980. Ecology of paddlefish in Old
Hickory Reservoir, Tennessee, with emphasis on
first-year life history. Transactions of the
American Fisheries Society 109:157-167.

Helms, D. 1976. Paddlefish investigations. lowa
Conservation Commission, National Marine
Fisheries Service. Project 2-255-R. Segment 1.
Progress Report. 15 pp.

RH - Azospirillum Nitrogen Fixation in Kentucky Coal Mines — Mardon and Rothwell

An Azosipirillum lipoferum Isolate with

High Nitrogen-Fixing Capabilities

by

from a Coal Surface-Mined Site

David N. Mardon and Frederick M. Rothwell
Department of Biological Sciences, Eastern Kentucky University, Richmond, Kentucky 40475
and
The Northeastern Forest Experiment Station, U.S. Forest Service, Berea, Kentucky 40403

ABSTRACT

Azospirillum lipoferum was isolated from the rhizosphere soil of Festuca arundinacea growing on a coal
surface-mined site in Eastern Kentucky. As measured by the acetylene reduction assay, this isolate fixed
nitrogen at a substantially higher rate in comparison with other Azospirillum cultures. These results
demonstrate the potential significance of associative nitrogen-fixation in establishing and maintaining growth of
herbaceous vegetation on minesoils when nitrogen is a limiting factor.

INTRODUCTION

Azospirillum is an asymbiotic nitrogen-
fixing bacterium characteristically found in
close association with the roots of many her-
baceous plants, particularly the grasses (1, 3, 4,
15). The genus is composed of 2 species, A.
brasilense and A. lipoferum (14). Both species
have been implicated in nitrogen fixation in the
rhizosphere soil of the above plants (12).

Asymbiotic nitrogen-fixing micro-
organisms, including Azospirillum, have occa-
sionally been isolated from rhizosphere soil of
grasses used in minesoil reclamation (10).
However, little information is available regard-
ing the significance of Azospirillum in this type
of environment. This paper presents evidence
that the nitrogen-fixing capacity of an A.
lipoferum isolated from the rhizosphere soil of a
perennial grass, Festua arundinacea, growing
on a coal surface-mined site was significantly
higher than selected Azospirillum species
tested.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Microorganisms—The primary microbial
isolate in this study has been tentatively iden-
tified as Azospirillum lipoferum based upon the
results of morphological and physiological tests
(14). Two morphologically distinct colonies of
the original isolate were obtained via the streak-
plate method. These cultures were designated
Martiki-R (Rough) and Martiki-S (Smooth) in
accordance with their respective colonial mor-
phology. Other bacteria used in this investiga-
tion were obtained from the American Type
Culture Collection as follows: A. lipoferum
ATCC 29707, A. brasilense ATCC 29145 and
Azotobacter paspali ATCC 23833.

Culture Medium—All bacteria were main-

QQ

tained with bi-monthly transfers on agar slants
of a nitrogen-free malate medium similar to that
employed by Haahtela et al. (4). Each compo-
nent of this medium was autoclaved and main-
tained separately in 10X concentration as a
stock solution with the exception of the agar
which was dissolved in 880 ml of distilled water
and autoclaved. Next, 10 ml of each sterile stock
solution was added aseptically to the agar
suspension. These additional components of the
final medium were: biotin, 100ug; pyridoxine-
HCL, 200 pg; Na,MoO,.2H,0, 0.005 g; KH,PO,,
0.4 g; K,HPO,.3H,0, 0.13 ; NaCl, 0.1 g;
CaCl,.2H,0, 0.2 g; MgSO,.7H,0, 0.2 g;
FeSO,.7H,0, 0.2 g; DL-malic acid, 5 g; CaCO,
0.5 g and 40% w/v KOH solution added to a
final pH of 6.8-7.0.

Growth and Preparation of Cultures for
Ethylene Assays—The microorganisms used in
this study were grown at 32°C for 72 h on
nitrogen-free agar slants. Cells were washed
from the slants using nitrogen-free broth, col-
lected by centrifugation (5000 x g for 10 min) and
suspended in fresh nitrogen-free broth. The
culture was then adjusted to a density of 100
klett units (approximately 1.2 x 10° cells per ml)
using a Klett-Summerson Colorimeter. One-
fourth ml of this cell suspension was then in-
oculated into 6 replicate 13.5 ml serum vials
each of which already contained 3.25 ml of
nitrogen-free agar medium. While immersed in
an ice bath, each vial was next flushed with
glasswool filtered nitrogen at a rate of 400
ml/min for 5 min. following this procedure, a
specified volume of nitrogen wes withdrawn
from the vial and replaced with oxygen. In vials
containing A. lipoferum, 0.85 ml of oxygen was
added; in vials with A. brasilense, 1.28 ml of
oxygen was added; and for vials with

34 Azospirillum Nitrogen Fixation in Kentucky Coal Mines — Mardon and Rothwell

Azotobacter paspali, 0.43 ml of oxygen was used
(5, 9). Cultures were incubated at 32°C for
selected time periods (Table 1 and 2) after which
1.0 ml of the gas phase in each vial was removed
and replaced with 1.0 ml of acetylene (6). After
the addition of acetylene each vial was subse-
quently incubated for an additional 3 h at 32°C
then assayed for ethylene.

Acetylene Reduction (Ethylene) Assay—All
assays for acetylene reduction were done on 0.5
ml samples taken from the reaction vessels with
mininert valves (13). The ethylene produced was
determined by using a varian 2700 gas
chromatograph with a one-eighth inch, 80/100
mesh Porapak-R column, 2.8 m in length and a
flame ionization detector, as outlined by
Smibert and Krieg (11) and Haahtela et al. (4).
All data are expressed as nanomoles of ethylene
produced/mg protein/h.

Protein Assays—Cells were washed from
the reaction vials with 0.5 ml of IN NaOH. After
digestion at 23°C for 24 h with NaOH, culture
extracts were assayed for protein, using bovine
serum albumin as a standard (7).

Table 1. Comparative Rates of Ethylene Formation by Two Cultures of
Azospirillum lipoferum isolated from a strip-mined Site in Martin Coun-
ty Kentucky

Hours of Incubation Martiki-S Martik-R?
Prior to Acetylene Addition‘
0 592 + 82 284 + 44
3 438 + 33 439 + 60
9 360 + 22 505 + 49
15 449 = 19 502 + 70
18 11,703 + 756 436 + 30
21 38,204 + 2,338 303 + 13
24 29,172 + 4,652 391 + 34
27 51,108 + 4,128 287 + 25

‘ At each time indicated acetylene was added to 6 replicate vials of
each culture. (The cultures were incubated for 3 additional hours at
32°C then assayed for ethylene).

*Values represent nanomoles of ethylene formed/mg protein/h.
Each value is the mean + standard deviation of 6 replicate vials.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

As shown in Table 1, after 15h and continu-
ing throughout the incubation period, the rate of
acetylene production was markedly higher for
Martiki-S than for Martiki-R. Although low in
comparison with Martiki-S, in this study, the
rate of acetylene reduction by Martiki-R was
nevertheless comparable to that previously
reported for Azospirillum lipoferum (1, 5). David
and Fay (2) have reported the preincubation or

constant incubation of nitrogen-fixing
microorganisms with acetylene for longer than
3.0 h may deplete cellular nitrogen and subse-
quently depress the nitrogenase system,
resulting in artificially high estimates for
acetylene reduction. To determine if such
derepression might be the cause of high rates of
nitrogen fixation in our Martiki-S cultures the
acetylene pulse was reduced to 1.0 h (9). The
subsequent rates of acetylene reduction under
these conditions were still comparable to those
shown in Table 1, indicating that for the
Martiki-S culture the high values for acetylene
reduction were not due to excessive incubation
periods with acetylene.

Comparison of maximum rates for
acetylene reduction by all bacterial species
tested (Table 2) indicate that nitrogen fixation by
Martiki-S was approximately 37-fold greater
than Azotobacter paspali and about 100 times
greater than A. brasilense, A. lipoferum ATCC
29707, and A. lipoferum Martiki-R. With the
exception of A. lipoferum Martiki-S the max-
imum rates of acetylene reduction obtained for
the cultures used in this study (Table 2) are all
comparable to values reported in the literature
for Azotobacter and Azospirillum isolates (2, 3,
9). Some investigators have observed high rates

of nitrogen fixation with Enterobacter ag-

glomerans and Klebsiella penumoniae (8);
however, these values are 5-10 fold lower than
those observed for Martiki-S.

Table 2. Comparison of Ethylene Formation by Martiki and Stock
Cultures’

Culture Ethylene Formation’

Azospirillum lipoferum Martiki-R 505 + 49
Azospirillum lipoferum Martiki-S 51,108 + 4,128
Azospirillum lipoferum ATCC 29707 527 + 43
Azospirillum brasilense ATCC 29145 460 + 13
Azotobacter paspali ATCC 23833 1,384 + 271

‘After incubation at 32°C acetylene was added to 6 vials of each
microorganism at selected intervals over the 36 h incubation period.
Three hours after the addition of acetylene the vials were assayed for
ethylene.

*Values represent nanomoles of ethylene formed/mg protein/h dur-
ing the period of maximum ethylene formation. Each value is the mean
+ standard deviation of 6 replicate vials.

When the microorganisms used in this
study were incubated beyond 27 h and then
pulsed with acetylene, ethylene formation
decreased with increasing incubation times.
After 96 h the Martiki-S culture still retained a
substantially greater capacity for acetylene
reduction.

Trans. Kentucky Academy of Science — 46(1-2) 35

Perennial grasses are commonly a part of
the grass legume mixture used to stabilize the
surfaces of recently graded minesoils. Although
symbiotic nitrogen-fixers undoubtedly represent
the major factors in maintenance of the nitrogen
economy on minesoils, the rapid availability of
the fixed-nitrogen from asymbiotic bacteria may
be of considerable importance in the early
growth and development of grasses on these
sites. It would be premature to speculate upon a
biochemical basis for the high rate of acetylene
reduction we observed with the Martiki-S
culture. However, the efficiency of the isolate as
demonstrated in this study underscores the need
for continued investigations into the factors af-
fecting the nitrogen-fixing capability of
Azospirillum found in association with
reclamation plants.

LITERATURE CITED

1. Barber, L.E., and H. J. Evans. 1976.
Characterization of a nitrogen-fixing bacterial
strain from the roots of Digitaria sanguinalis.
Can. J. Microbiol. 22:254-260.

2. David, K. A. V., and P. Fay. 1977. Effects of long-
term treatment with acetylene on nitrogen-fixing
microorganisms. Appl. Environ. Microbiol.
34:640-646.

3. Dobereiner, J., I. E. Marriel, and M. Nery. 1976.
Ecological distribution of Spirillum lipoferum
Biejerinck. Can. J. Microbiol. 22:1464-1473.

4. Haahtela, K., T. Vartiovaara, V. Sundman and
J. Skujins. 1981. Root associated N, fixation
(acetylene reduction) by Enterobacteriaceae and
Azospirillum strains in cold-climate spodosols.
Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 41: 203-206.

5. Haahtela, K., K. Kari and V. Sundman. 1983.
Nitrogenase activity, (acetylene reduction) of
root associated cold-climate Azospirillum,
Enterobacter, Klebsiella, and Pseudomonas
species during growth on various carbon sources
and at various partial pressures of oxygen. Appl.
Environ. Microbiol. 45:563-570.

6. Hardy, R. W. F., R. D. Hosten, E. K. Jackson
and R. C. Burns. 1968. The Acetylene-ethylene
assay for N, fixation: laboratory and field evalua-
tion. Plant Physiology. 43:1185-1207.

7. Lowry, O. H., N. J. Rosebrough, A. L. Farr and
R. J. Randall. 1951. Protein measurement with
the Folin phenol reagent. J. Biol. Chem.
193:265-275.

8. Neilson, A. H., and L. Sparell. 1976. Acetylene
reduction (nitrogen fixation) by
Enterobacteriaceae isolated from paper mill pro-

cess waters. Appl. Environ. Microbiol.
32:197-205.

10.

11.

12.

13.

14.

15.

Nelson, L. M., and R. Knowles. 1978. Effect of
oxygen and nitrate on nitrogen fixation and den-
trification by Azospirillum brasilense grown in

continuous culture. Can. J. Microbiol.
24:1395-1403.

Rothwell, F. M., and D. E. Eagleston. 1984.
Microbial relationships in surface mine revegeta-
tion. Minerals and the Environ. (In Press).

Smibert, R. M. and N. R. Krieg. 1981.
Nitrogenase activity and nitrogen fixation. In
Manual of Methods for General bacteriology.
Edited by P. Gerhardt. pp. 428-430.

Stephan, M. P., F. O. Pedrosa, and J.
Dobereiner. 1981. Physiological studies with
Azospirillum Spp. In Associative N,—Fixation,
Eds. Vose & Rusehel, Vol. I, CRC Press, Boca
Raton, Fla. pp. 7-13.

Tam, T-Y and J. T. Trevors. 1981. Toxicity of
penta-chloro-phenol to Azotobacter vinelandii.
Bull Environm. Contam. Toxicol. 27:230-234.

Tarrand, J. J. N. R. Krieg and J. Dobereiner.
1978. A taxonomic study of the Spirillum
lipoferum group, with descriptions of a new
genus, Azospirillum Gen. Nov. and Two Species,
Azospirillum lipoferum (Beijerinck) Comb. Nov.
and Azospirillum brasilense Sp. Nov. Can. J.
Microbiol. 24:967-980.

Van Berkum, P. 1980. evaluation of acetylene
reduction by excised root for the determination of
nitrogen fixation in grasses. Soil Biol. an
Biochem. 12:141-145.

RH - Nonmetropolitan Industrialization in Kentucky — Cromley and Arcury

The Spread Effects of Nonmetropolitan Industrialization

Robert G. Cromley
Department of Geography, University of Connecticut
Storrs, Connecticut 06268

Thomas A. Arcury
Center for Developmental Change, University of Kentucky
Lexington, Kentucky 40506-0027

ABSTRACT

This paper examines the impact of rural manufacturing decentralization on the occupational structure of
rural areas that are not hosting nonmetropolitan industries but are within the labor shed of these factories.
Focusing on the manufacturing workers of one such county, changes in occupation structure are related to the
development of manufacturing industries in adjacent nonmetropolitan counties. The relationship between
manufacturing employment and agriculture, the traditional dominant employer, is tested and the availability of
agricultural work is not found to have an impact on the occupational structure of manufacturing workers.

INTRODUCTION

A major problem accompanying the in-
dustrial development of capitalist economies
has been unbalanced regional economic growth
(1, 2). While regional disparities in the United
States have different forms at various
geographical scales, most have their roots in
the fundamental transformation from a
predominantly rural agricultural society to an
industrialized urban one and the separation of
worker from the land. Between 1920 and 1970,
the rural population of the United States re-
mained constant at 54 million while the urban
population increased almost threefold to 149
million in 1970 (3). Improvements in farming
technology and the mechanization of
agriculture had reduced the need for farm
laborers. Nonmetropolitan nonfarm industries
were not able to absorb the excess population,
thus creating a surplus farm population. The
result was a large rural to urban migration
stream for most of this century. Metropolitan
centers became the vanguard of population and
economic growth while rural areas became
pockets of poverty, high unemployment, and
heavy out-migration.

The major policy measures for improving
this imbalance have tried to integrate the lag-
ging rural periphery with the economic oppor-
tunities of the cities (4, 5). Growth-center
strategists maintained that the best hope for
rural areas lay in the ‘trickling-down’ of
economic growth impulses from metropolitan
centers (6, 7). This view was supported by the
fact that nonmetropolitan regions adjacent to a
Standard Metropolitan Statistical Area (SMSA)
or part of its daily system were growing at rates

36

higher than the rest of the nonmetropolitan
periphery (8, 9).

Recently it has been noted that nonadjacent
counties in the rural periphery grew during the
1970's at a rate that exceeded most large
metropolitan centers and the national average
(10). A major impetus for the population and
economic reversal of many nonmetropolitan
places has been the decentralization of industry
from the urban core to these regions (11, 12, 13).
The filter-down of branch plants has been the
primary force behind the industrial growth of
Many nonmetropolitan communities (14, 15).
Many manufacturers are establishing factories
in rural areas seeking lower labor costs as wages
have become a more important component of
total costs. Rural residents are still being
transformed from agricultural to industrial
workers but in many instances no longer need to
migrate to an SMSA and can remain closer to
their farms.

The level of this industrial movement is not
uniform throughout nonmetropolitan America.
There exists a place hierarchy within the in-
termetropolitan periphery whose settlements
range from non-urban hamlets to large towns
almost equal in size to small metropolitan
centers. Branch plants tend to locate in the
larger rural towns, while indigenous firms
predominate in smaller hamlets (14, 16).
Because firm stability is greater among branch
plants than indigenous firms, employment is
usually more stable in the larger rural towns. In-
termetropolitan centers are thus emerging as
foci for employment opportunities (17, 18).
However, the relocation of industry and retail

Trans. Kentucky Academy of Science — 46(1-2)

activity in the periphery does enable places
lower in the settlement hierarchy to participate
more fully in the industrial economy as the need
for commuting long distances to large
metropolitan centers is reduced (19, 20). There
is also evidence that the labor sheds for branch
plants are larger than their indigenous counter-
part. Regardless of plant size or industrial type,
a larger proportion of Kentucky branch plant
employees commute from outside the county in
which the plant is located (21). This indicates
that branch plants, located in larger rural
towns, have a strong impact on the surrounding
hinterland.

It also implies that the hinterland residents
are an important labor source for the movement
of manufacturing to nonmetropolitan urban
centers. It has been suggested that rural areas
have a wage advantage due to the presence of a
class of workers, part-time farmers, who derive
income from a supplementary source, farming
(22). Alternatively, it has also been suggested
that the presence of manufacturing has made it
possible for individuals involved in small scale
and part-time agriculture to maintain two com-
plementary sources of income (20).

Most research has examined the economic
and social impact of manufacturing on these
larger urban communities, but few have studied
the spread effect of this industrialization on
more “rural” counties, and especially the labor
relationship between farming in these areas and
urban industrial jobs. This paper examines the
hypothesis that rural communities that do not
have any manufacturing plants, but are located
in the vicinity of nonmetropolitan places that are
hosting industrial growth, are experiencing an
economic metamorphosis of their own. The
transformation of the occupational structure of
these areas is occurring without being strongly
allied with the daily commuting system of an
SMSA. Additionally, it examines the linkages
that exist within the labor force between the
transitional employer, agriculture, and the new
industrial factories to determine whether by sup-
plementing their income as part-time farmers,
manufacturing workers in these areas are able
to work for lower wages, reinforcing the wage
disparities between urban and rural regions.

STUDY AREA AND DATA

Robertson County, Kentucky has been
selected as a suitable study area for examining
these hypotheses. The nonmetropolitan coun-
ties of Kentucky have been part of the nation-
wide growth of rural industry (14, 16). In 1980,
Robertson County was one of only 3 counties in
the state that did not host any manufacturing
activity, branch or indigenous. The other 2

37

counties are located in the heart of the Eastern
Kentucky coal field, whereas Robertson County
is located in the northeast part of the Kentucky
Bluegrass Region (Figure 1). Although the Ap-
palachian Kentucky region has experienced re-
cent growth in manufacturing, its overall
manufacturing employment still lags behind the
central and western portion of the state.
Manufacturing is especially weak in the coal
producing counties of Eastern Kentucky where
there is strong competition with the higher min-
ing wages, and poor access to the highway
system.

poe { LAWS
2 Pie
Flemingsburg \yess

TaN

sicaght as ate Gila Neo
Le Mn i

Carlisle / if Olive

« fe ill /

s ils \ /

o
\Georgetown >
Aes rae i)

SSA

Figure 1: Location of Robertson County, Kentucky.

Robertson County is also removed in prox-
imity from major metropolitan centers. The
county is approximately 50 miles northeast of
Lexington, Kentucky, and the same distance
southeast of Cincinnati, Ohio, the 2 closest
SMSAs. The county does not have direct access
to the Interstate Highway System, (the closest,
1-64, and I-75, are 50 miles distant), railway
lines, or commercial bus lines. The major
transportation routes are US 62 and US 68
which give the population direct access to the
county seats of surrounding counties and to
Lexington.

Finally, Robertson is one of the most non-
urban counties within the state. It is Kentucky’s
second smallest county with an area of 101
square miles, and has the smallest county
population with 2,265 persons in 1980. Mt.
Olivet, the county seat, has a populaton of
about 400 persons and is the only incorporated
town in the county. The size of the county’s
population has declined steadily over the past
century. From a high of 6,131 persons in 1880
(23) it fell to 2,149 persons in 1970 with an in-
crease to 2,265 persons in 1980. The population
decline is due to high-level out-migration.

38 Nonmetropolitan Industrialization in Kentucky — Cromley and Arcury

The primary data for this study were ob-
tained from a general purpose survey of Robert-
son County that was conducted between June 1
and August 30, 1980. This door-to-door survey
attempted to enumerate the residents of every
household in the community. Data on earlier
occupational and employment patterns have
been abstracted from U.S. Census reports. In-
formation on the presence and types of
manufacturing industries in Robertson and sur-
rounding counties are derived from the Ken-
tucky Directory of Manufacturing.

OCCUPATIONAL CHANGE

Historically farming has been the predomi-
nant occupation in Robertson County. The 1870,
1880, and 1900 Censuses show that over 90% of
the county's work force was employed as
farmers. Those who were not farmers were
employed in agricultural support occupations
such as plowmaker and blacksmith. Other
documentary sources and ethnographic data in-
dicate that until the mid-1920s subsistence farm-
ing was the major pursuit. Farm produce in-
cluded a wide variety of items needed for home
consumption such as_ vegetables, wheat,
sorghum, and honey. Since the 1920s, farming
has changed to cash cropping with tobacco and
corn being the major crops while some farmers
maintain large beef and dairy operations.

The portion of the work force associated
with farming occupations has greatly decreased
since 1930. In 1930, 70% of the work force was
employed as farmers or farm managers while
13% held other agricultural jobs (24, p. 947).
During the next 30-year period, these figures
slowly declined until only 56.7% were employed
as farmers or farm managers and 7% as
agricultural workers in 1960 (25, pp. 19-234).
The total number of farms decreased from 826 in
1930 to 515 in 1959. Since 1960, the decline in
farming has been more rapid. By 1970, only
40.8% of the work force was employed in any
type of farming occupation, and this figure had
decreased even further, to only 23.7% in 1980
(26, pp. 19-432). Only 356 farms were still in
operation in Robertson County in 1978 (27.).!

The total size of the work force also
decreased from 1094 in 1930 to 728 workers in
1960. This decline is associated with the ab-
solute losses occurring in the agricultural sector
without other sectors expanding their job offer-
ings. A Kolmogorov-Smirnov test showed a
significant shift in the occupational structure of
the labor force during each decade since 1960

’ The decrease in the number of farms between 1930 and 1978 may
actually be less than the figures stated. The U.S. Bureau of the Census
raised the farm income levels needed to be defined as a farm in 1959 and
in 1978.

(Table 1). The size of the work force also in-
creased even though agriculture was still ex-
periencing a decline. During this latter period
other sectors of the economy were expanding
faster than agriculture was declining. Every oc-
cupational group increased except those that
are farm-related. Operatives and kindred
workers experienced the greatest absolute in-
crease — from 38 workers in 1960 to 184 in 1980.
Clerical and kindred workers, salesworkers, ser-
vice workers, and laborers also had a substan-
tial increase in numbers. In general, the occupa-
tional change that has occurred since 1960 sug-
gests that other activities, such as manufactur-
ing and retailing, are replacing agriculture as
the dominant employment for Robertson Coun-
ty residents.

Table 1. Number and Percent of Persons by Major Occupational Groups:
1960, 1970, and 1980.

Major Occupational 1970?
Groups n % on % on %

Professional, Technical,
and Kindred Workers 43 5.9 38 48 58 6.8

Farmers & Farm
Managers 413 56.7 273 346 189 221

Managers, Officials &
Proprietors, except

Occupation not Specified 17 2.3 0 0.0

Farm 25 3.4 40 5.1 32 3.7
Clerical & Kindred
Workers 27 3.7 40 5.1 73 8.5
Salesworkers 0 0.0 9 1.1 47 5.5
Craftsmen, Foremen and
Kindred Workers 60 8:2 92a) L7G) 7.0
Operatives & Kindred
Workers 38 5.2 139 17.6 184 21.5
Private Household
Workers 10 1.4 5 0.6 13 1.5
Service Workers 30 41 68 8.8 76 8.9
Farm Laborers 51 7.0 44 ES 7/ 9.0
Laborers, except Farm 14 1.9 41 5.2 46 5.4
0
855

Total Employed 728 99.8 789 100.2

U.S. Bureau of the Census 1970, pp. 19-244; Kolmogorov-
Smirnov Test for 1960-1970 significant at .05 level.

U.S. Bureau of the Census 1973, pp. 19-432; Kolmogorov-
Smirnov Test for 1970-1980 significant at .05 level.

Compiled by authors.

Trans. Kentucky Academy of Science — 46(1-2) 39

THE DISTRIBUTION OF MANUFACTURING
EMPLOYMENT

The most striking facet of occupational
change in Robertson County has been the
emergence of manufacturing as an important
source of employment although no manufactur-
ing firm has actually established a plant there.
In 1960, there were fewer secondary sector
employees (only 1.1% of the work force) in the
couniy than there were before 1900. At that
earlier time some manufacturing shops existed
to produce tools, wagons, and other goods for
local consumption. These cottage industries
soon lost their market due to increasing external
competition. In 1980, the 21.5% of the Robert-
son County work force employed by manufac-
turing firms commuted to places outside the
county for their jobs.

The spatial distribution of these commuters
exhibit a strong distance decay function and
directional bias (Table 2). Seventy five % of the
manufacturing work force commute to another
nonmetropolitan county directly adjacent to
Robertson, while only 7.5% commuted to a tier
of counties once removed. The remaining com-
muters are scattered over a wide range of
destinations. The distance decay effect is similar
for both male and female workers. Females
were more selective in their destination outside
the adjacent ring of counties. Sixteen of the 20
female workers commuted to either Falmouth in
Pendleton County or Cinncinnati, Ohio, while
male workers were evenly distributed over the
longer trips. This reflects the greater job oppor-
tunities for male workers.

The highway system around Robertson
County is responsible for a strong direction bias
toward those settlements that are directly con-
nected to Robertson by either US 62 or US 68
(see Figure 1). Located on these 2 routes,
Maysville, Carlisle, and Cynthiana receive the
overwhelming majority of Robertson workers.
Bracken and Fleming Counties have relatively
poor connector routes, and only 2 workers com-
mute to either of these counties although both
are adjacent to Robertson.

The spatial distribution of commuting is
also strongly influenced by the arrangement of
employment opportunities in neighboring
nonmetropolitan counties. Robertson County is
not dependent on major metropolitan centers for
industrial jobs but rather on other
nonmetropolitan areas. Only 14% commuted to
a county that is part of a Standard Metropolitan
Statistical Area (SMSA) while 82% commuted
to another nonmetropolitan county. Robertson
is at the bottom layer of the regional settlement
hierarchy. Its rapid increase in manufacturing
employees is a result of the nationwide move-

Table 2. Place of Manufacturing Employment by Sex

Male Female Total
N %N % N %
In Adjacent Counties
Maysville, Mason Co. 20 18.9 14 17.5 34 18.3
Flemingsburg, Fleming
Co. 1 0.9 #1 LS Paz 11
Carlisle, Nicholas Co. 6 5.7 3 42.5 40 21.5

Cynthiana, Harrison
Co. 53 50.0 11 13.8 64 34.4

In Counties One Tier

Removed
Paris, Bourbon Co. 1 O:9552 2.5 3 1.6
Butler, Pendleton Co. 1 09 =O 1 0.5

Falmouth, Pendleton
Co. 2 1.9 8 10.0 10 5.4

In Other Counties

Olive Hill, Carter Co. 1 0.9 #0 1 0.5
Lexington, Fayette Co. 6 5.7 0 6 3.2
Georgetown, Scott Co. 3 28) el pO | 2.2
Covington, Kenton Co. 1 0.9 +O 1 0.5
Ludlow, Kenton Co. 2 19 O 2 1.1
Florence, Boone Co. 1 0.9 #0 1 0.5
Cincinnati, Ohio 1 09 8 10.0 9 4.8
Unknown 7 6.6 1 iiSj fe 4.3
Total 106 99.8 80 100.2 186 99.9

ment to nonmetropolitan areas since 1960. Of
the 16 firms located in the nometropolitan
centers to which Robertson residents commute,
only 4 were established before 1960. The majori-
ty were estabished in the boom period of
nometropolitan industrialization during the late
1960s and early 1970s. Nine of these firms are
branch operations of an external parent com-
pany, while 7 are indigenous or locally controll-
ed. The indigenous firms account for only 39%
of those Robertson County manufacturing
employees who commute to nonmetropolitan
industry.

This new industry has resulted in a heavy
concentration of employment opportunities
within relatively few Standard Industrial
Classification (S.I.C.) groups among the 6 im-
mediate neighhboring counties. Almost 91% of
the total manufacturing work force employed in
these counties are distributed among 8 S.I.C.
groups and are low technology (Table 3). With
respect to individual counties, only Harrison and
Mason Counties, the two largest employing
counties, have a reasonably uniform distribution
of employment over these eight groups, while
the majority of jobs in the other counties are
centered in a single S.I.C. group.

40

Nonmetropolitan Industrialization in Kentucky — Cromley and Arcury

Table 3: Major Standard Industrial Classification Group Employment Distribution in Robertson County's Neighboring Counties

S.1.C. Group Bracken Fleming Harrison Mason Nicholas Pendleton Total
N % N % N % N % N %N %N %

21°Tobacco

Products 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 570 21.2 0 0.0 0 0.0 570 8.0
22? Textile Mill

Products 0 0.0 0 0.0 120 6.0 569 21.1 664 97.6 0 0.0 1353 19.0
26Paper and Allied

Products 216 76.6 0 0.0 11 0.6 9 0.3 0 0.0 180 21.9 416 5.8
31°Leather and

Leather Products 0 0.0 476 71.0 0 0.0 252 9.3 0 0.0 430 52.4 1158 16.2
32Stone, Clay, Glass

Products 0 0.0 0 0.0 552 27.8 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 552 7.7
34>Fabricated Metal

Products 52 18.4 160 23.9 547 27.6 0 0.0 13 1.9 46 5.6 818 11.5
35°Machinery, Except

Electrical 0 0.0 2 0.3 1 0.1 920 34.1 0 0.0 142 17.3 1065 14.9
38 Instruments, Related

Products 0 0.0 0 0.0 531 26.8 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 531 7.4
Total 282 669 1985 2694 680 820 7130

Compiled from 1980 Kentucky Directory of Manufacturers

b Low Technology SIC groups

The S.I.C. distribution of Robertson County
residents mirrors this employment pattern
(Table 4). Most residents work in a plant that
produces either textile mill products, the largest
regional employer, or fabricated metals, the
third largest employer. The lack of reasonable
connector links to Fleming and Pendleton Coun-
ties is probably responsible for few residents be-
ing employed in S.I.C. 31, leather and leather
products, the second largest regional employer.
This distribution is also sharply divided by sex.
Typical of many rural areas of the South, the
majority of the female workers commute to a
textile mill, the lowest paying S.I.C. industrial
group in Kentucky. Among males, fabricated
metals is clearly the dominant employer while
non-electrical machinery is a distant second.

Besides the predominance of low
technology firms, a concern is whether in-
dustries will contribute to the development of
local entrepreneurial skills. Branch operations
in general contribute relatively few management
opportunities for host communities (28). Rural
counties that are only part of the labor shed
should receive even fewer white collar jobs. For
Robertson County, only 3 individuals were
employed in a professional or managerial oc-

Table 4. Standard Industrial Classification Group of Those Employed by
Manufacturing Firms by Sex, 1980

SIC Group Males Females Total
n %n %n %
20 Food & Kindred
Products 2 1.8 0 0.0 2 1.1
21 Tobacco Products 1 0.9 0 0.0 1 0.5
22 Textile Mill
Products 10 9.445 56.2 55 29.5
23 Apparel, Other
Textile Products 1 0.9 3 3.7 4 21
26 Paper & Allied
Products 2 18 0 0.0 2 1.1
28 Chemical & Allied
Products 1 0.9 0 0.0 1 0.5
30 Rubber, Misc. Plastic
Products 1 0.9 0 0.0 1 1.1
31 Leather and Leather
Products 2 1.8 8 10.0 10 5.4
32 Stone, Clay, Glass
Products 5 47 0 0.0. 5 2.7
33 Primary Metal
Industries 4 3.75 6.2 9 4.8
34 Fabricated Metal
Products 51 48.1 2 2.5 53 28.5
35 Machinery, Except
Electrical 16 15.0 5 6.2 21 11.3
36 Electrical, Electronic
Equipment 2 18 0 0.0 2 11
38 Instruments, Related
Products 1 0.9 3 3.7 4 2.1
Unknown 7 6.6 9 11.2 16 8.6
Total 106 99.2 80 99.7 186 100.4

Trans. Kentucky Academy of Science — 46(1-2) 41

cupation (see Table 5). In general, Robertson
County residents are blue-collar workers.

MANUFACTURING AND AGRICULTURAL
EMPLOYMENT LINKAGES

Although manufacturing has attained an
importance as an employer in Robertson County
almost equal to agriculture, this change has not
created 2 separate classes of workers. Given the
dominance of agriculture as the primary
employer in the recent past, many currently
employed in manufacturing once farmed or were
reared in farming households. Some manufac-
turing employees who do not farm do own land
and a tobacco base which they lease to others.
Most importantly, many individuals and
households obtain portions of their incomes
from both manufacturing and agricultural oc-
cupations. Of the 186 manufacturing employees,
44 stated that they also farmed as a secondary
occupation. Only one of these 44 was female.
Most part-time farmers have primary occupa-
tions as operatives. However, when a Chi-
Square test was performed to see if a greater
proportion of manufacturing operative sup-
plemented their incomes with part-time farm-
ing than did other manufacturing employees, no
significant correlation was found (Table 5).

Table 5. Occupational Group of Manufacturing Workers by Status as
Part-Time Farmers

Occupational Group Part-Time Non-Farmers
of Manufacturing Farmers

Workers N % N

ae

Professional, Technical,
and Kindred Workers;

Managers and Administrators 1 2.3 2 1.4
Sales and Clerical Workers 5 11-3, 17 12.3
Craftsmen and Foremen 7 15.9 6 4.3
Operatives and Laborers 30 68.2 108 deli
All Service Workers 1 23) 6 4.3
Total 44 100.0 139 100.0

Missing = 3

Chi Square = 7.251 df = 4 _ not significant at .05 level

Examining the types of employment within
a household is another perspective for analyzing
the relationship between agricultural and
manufacturing employment. A total of 152
households have at least one member employed
in manufacturing, and 64 of these contain
manufacturing workers who themselves are
part-time farmers or have members who are
employed full-time in an agricultural occupation

Table 6. Occupational Group of Manufacturing Workers for Families
with Manufacturing and Agricultural Workers, and for Families with
Manufacturing but No Agricultural Workers

Occupational Group Manufacturing Manufacturing

of Manufacturing and Agri- with No Agri-
Workers cultural cultural
Families Workers
N % N %
Professional, Technical,
and Kindred Workers;
Managers and Administrators 1 1.6 2 2.3
Sales and Clerical Workers 7 10.9 8 9:1
Craftsmen and Foremen 3 4.7 9) 10.2
Operatives and Laborers 52 81.2 67 76.1
All Service Workers 1 1.6 2 2.3
Total 64 100.0 88 100.0

Chi Square = 1.873 df = 4 _ not significant at .05 level

(Table 6). The occupations of the majority of the
manufacturing workers in these manufacturing-
agriculture households is that of operative.
Again, a Chi-Square test performed to see if a
greater proportion of manufacturing operative
households supplemented their income with
farming than did other manufacturing employee
households showed no significant correlation.

DISCUSSION

One of the predominant industrial trends
during the last 2 decades has been the move-
ment of manufacturing from metropolitan to
nonmetropolitan regions. The labor mobility of
rural areas in former times is now being re-
placed by capital mobility from metropolitan
regions as the mechanism for resolving regional
imbalances of labor supply and demand (29).
This phenomenon has changed the rural land-
scape by directly stimulating the growth of
nonmetropolitan urban places; some places
have even been elevated to metropolitan status.

Just as important, rural communities which
do not have manufacturing plants, but which
are located near nonmetropolitan places that
are hosting industrial growth, are also experien-
cing economic change and this ecomomic
change is occurring without strong alliance wth
the daily commuting system of an SMSA. This
is supported by the Robertson County situation.
The industrial transformation of its occupational
structure has occurred without being strongly
allied with the daily urban system of an SMSA
or having any manufacturing firms of its own.
Past studies have noted that job leakage from
host communities have regionalized the impacts

42 Nonmetropolitan Industrialization in Kentucky — Cromley and Arcury

of these nonmetropolitan manufacturing firms.
Due to the perspective of these studies, examin-
ing the commuter sheds of specific firms, the full
impact of the rural manufacturing phenomenon
on participating communities has not been
presented. The Robertson County situation is an
example of the pervasiveness of rural in-
dustrialization. While it has not attracted any
manufacturing firms, it is within the commuting
sheds of several nonmetropolitan firms in the
surrounding counties. Commuting has become
the adaptive mechanism by which this formerly
agricultural area has added a new mode of
economic activity.

Different analysts have suggested that the
mix of agricultural and manufacturing employ-
ment is both the cause and effect of the
nonmetropolian industrial phenomenon. In
Robertson County a high percentage of
manufacturing workers do farm on a part-time
basis, or live in households in which agricultural
wages are part of the family income. The
availability of agricultural income may allow
some rural manufacturing workers to earn a bet-
ter livelihood given the relatively low wages paid
by nonmetropolitan manufacturers. This study
does not support the hypotheses that such sup-
plemental agricultural income is necessary for
the economic survival of the nonmetropolitan
manufacturing worker. The majority of these
workers do not reside in households with
agricultural income, nor are there significant
differences among the manufacturing workers
by occupational group in the proportion with
agricultural income. Agricultural income may
offset the cost of extended commuting for some,
but it probably has no relationship to the wage-
rates of these workers.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This research was supported by Grant No.
IPO1AGO1358 from the National Institute on
Aging. An earlier version of this paper was
presented at the annual meeting of the
Southeastern Division of the AAG, November,
1982.

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RH - Demography in Kentucky Raccoons — Smith and Kennedy

Demography of the Raccoon (Procyon lotor) at Land Between The Lakes

Richard A. Smith and Michael L. Kennedy
Memphis State University, Memphis, Tennessee 38152

ABSTRACT

Sex ratio, age structure, and litter size of a population of raccoons (Procyon lotor) were studied from
December 1980 through November 1981. The study area was land Between The Lakes in Stewart County, Ten-
nessee, and Lyon and Trigg counties, Kentucky; 145 specimens were examined. The population was 49.7% male
and 50.3% female. Twenty per cent of the animals were juvenile, 13.3% subadult, 25.0% adult, and 41.7% old

adult. Average litter size was determined to be 2.9.

INTRODUCTION

The raccoon (Procyon lotor) has been the
subject of many biologic investigations. Since
the animal is an important game species, many
previous studies have been directed toward
questions related to its management. Investiga-
tions directed toward collection of data concern-
ing sex ratio, age structure, litter size, parasites,
and other features have been numerous. Lotze
and Anderson (1) summarized much of the
available literature. However, demographic in-
formation tends to vary between geographic
areas for raccoons; therefore, management in-
formation obtained for one region may not be
applicable to management programs in others.

With the exception of Dew (2), little infor-
mation is available concerning population
characteristics of P. lotor in western Tennessee
and western Kentucky. The purpose of this study
was to examine the demographic features of sex
ratio, age structure, and litter size associated
with a raccoon population in western Tennessee
and western Kentucky. This study provides addi-
tional baseline data for raccoon management in
Kentucky and Tennessee.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The study was conducted at Land Between
The Lakes (LBL) in Stewart County, Tennessee,
and Lyon and Trigg counties, Kentucky. LBL is a
170,000— acre peninsula with approximately 482
km of shoreline between Kentucky Lake on the
west and Lake Barkley to the east. The habitat
was predominantly upland hardwood forest.
Some old fields and agricultural lands were
within the study area.

Collections from December 1980 through
November 1981 yielded 145 animals (72 males;
73 females). Seasonal samples were as follows
(male sample size is given first): winter—8,13;
spring— 20,15; summer—27,25; fall—17,18.
Seasonal data were incomplete for 2 females.
Most animals were collected by gun, with the
use of dogs or spotlighting from a boat or truck.

44.

Animals were transferred to the Department of
Biology, Memphis State University, where they
were stored and later examined. Gross examina-
tion was conducted for age and sex determina-
tion. Specimens were aged as juvenile (class I, N
= 12), subadult (class II, N = 8), adult (class III,
N = 15), or old adult (class IV, N = 26) follow-
ing Junge and Hoffmeister (3). Reproductive
tracts were removed and examined. Average lit-
ter size was based on counts of embryos and
sites of placental attachment (placental scars)
from 26 females. Reproductive tracts were
stored in 10% formalin. Raccoon skeletons,
skins, and preserved material were deposited in
the Memphis State University Museum of
Zoology. Individual data for specimens and a
map of localities are presented in Smith (4).

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Of the raccoons examined, 49.7% were
male and 50.3% female. This sex ratio coincides
with those reported for Tennessee specimens by
Dew (2) and Woods (5). Studies conducted in
other geographic areas (6, 7) also reported, in
general, a 100:100 sex ratio. Cummingham (8)
and Johnson (9) noted that sex ratios of rac-
coons collected with dogs and guns may be less
biased than those of animals caught in traps.
Since specimens in the present study were col-
lected primarily with dogs and guns during all
seasons, the sex ratio determined should reflect
an accurate estimate of population structure in
relation to sex. Schwartz and Schwartz (10) in-
dicated that the sex ratio of raccoons tends to
vary with the population level. When the
population is increasing, there are more females
than males; when it is decreasing, there are
more males. Thus, based on sex-ratio results,
the LBL population was approximately stable
during the study period. However, hunter-
success data (raccoons/hunter/night) indicated
the population to be decreasing at this time (un-
publ. rep., TVA, Golden Pond, KY, 1982). The

Trans. Kentucky Academy of Science — 46(1-2) 45

stability of the LBL raccoon population during
the study is uncertain and such population
characteristics are in need of additional study.

The age structure of the raccoons taken
was 20.0% age class I, 13.3% age class II,
25.0% age class III, and 41.7% age class IV.
These results differ from previously reported age
structures for raccoons. Whitney and Under-
wood (11), Sharp and Sharp (12), Johnson (9),
and Schwartz and Schwartz (10) reported
highest percentages of young animals; percen-
tages decline with age. Age structure seen in the
present study probably reflects methods and
times of sampling. Since juveniles make up the
majority of harvest during the hunting season,
this would leave fewer juveniles on the study
area during the winter and spring. If summer
and fall mortality is high in the first year animals
and low in older animals as suggested by Smith
(4), one would expect to find greater numbers of
older animals in the population during the
winter and spring.

From 26 raccoons which contained placen-
tal scars, litter size results were as follows: 2, N
= 8; 3, N = 14;4,N = 3;5, N = 1. Sanderson
(13) showed that raccoon placental scars are
reliable indicators of the number of young pro-
duced. Average litter size for the LBL population
was determined to be 2.9. This is greater than
the 2.3 reported by Dew (2) for western Ten-
nessee but equal to the 2.9 he reported for
eastern Tennessee. The 2.9 value has also been
reported in Illinois by Sanderson (13). Johnson
(9) indicated a 2.2 litter size for Alabama rac-
coons. Litter size in raccoons apparently varies
geographically, increasing with northern
latitudes.

LITERATURE CITED

1. Lotze, J., and S. Anderson. 1979. Procyon
lotor. Mammalian Species. 119:1-8.

2. Dew, R. D. 1978. Biology of the raccoon, Pro-
cyon lotor: I. Genic variation; II. Population
age structure and average litter size. Un-
published M.S. Thesis, Memphis State Univ.,
Memphis, Tennessee.

10.

ile

12.

13.

Junge, R., and D. F. Hoffmeister. 1980. Age
determination in raccoons from cranial suture
obliteration. J. Wildl. Manage. 44: 725-729.

Smith, R. A. 1983. Ecologic characteristics of
the raccoon, Procyon lotor: 1. Seasonal Food
Habits; Il. Endoparasites; II]. Demography.
Unpublished M.S. Thesis, Memphis State
Univ., Memphis, Tennessee.

Woods, J. W. 1978. Population characteristics
of raccoons (Procyon lotor) on the Chuck Swan
Wildlife Management area, Tennessee. Un-
published M.S. Thesis, Univ. Tennessee, Knox-
ville.

Stuewer, F. W. 1943. Raccoons: Their habits
and management in Michigan. Ecol. Monogr.
13:203-257.

Sanderson, G. C. 1951. Breeding habits and a
history of the Missouri raccoon population from
1941 to 1948. Trans. N. Amer. Wildl. Conf.
16:445-460.

Cunningham, E. R. 1962. A study of the
eastern raccoon, Procyon lotor, on the Atomic
Energy Commission Savannah River Plant. Un-
published M.S. Thesis, Univ. Georgia, Athens.

Johnson, A. S. 1970. Biology of the raccoon
(Procyon lotor varius Nelson and Goldman) in
Alabama. Agric. Expt. Sta. Auburn Univ. Bull.
402:1-148.

Schwartz, C. W., and E. R. Schwartz. 1976.
The wild mammals of Missouri. Univ. Missouri
Press and Missouri Department of Conserva-
tion.

Whitney, L. F., and A. B. Underwood. 1952.
The raccoon. Practical Science Publishing Co.
Orange, Connecticut.

Sharp. W. M., and L. H. Sharp. 1956. Noctur-
nal movements and behavior of wild raccoons
at a winter feeding station. J. Mammal.
37:170-177.

Sanderson, G. C. 1950. Methods of measuring
productivity in raccoons. J. Wildl. Mange.
14:389-402.

RH - Phytoplankton in Kentucky — Barnese and King

A Checklist of Phytoplankton (Exclusive of Diatoms)
in Kentucky Reservoir’

Lisa E. Barnese and Joe M. King?

Department of Biological Sciences and The Hancock Biological Station,
Murray State University, Murray, Kentucky 42071

ABSTRACT

A survey of the phytoplankton (exclusive of diatoms) in the lower portion of Kentucky Reservoir was con-
ducted from September, 1982 to September, 1983. One hundred and fifty-six species, varieties, and forms
representing 59 genera were identified. The green algae dominated the algal flora in all seasons but were most
numerous in the summer. Blue-green algae were most abundant in summer and fall, while euglenoids reached
their peak numbers in summer. The number of dinoflagellates remained relatively low throughout the year.

INTRODUCTION

The algal flora of Kentucky Reservoir has
been the subject of relatively few investigations.
The only published records of Kentucky Reser-
voir phytoplankton are those resulting from lim-
nological studies of Anderson Creek and Vickers
Creek embayments (1, 2). The dominant
phytoplankton at other locations in Kentucky
Reservoir are presented in unpublished reports
(3-5) from water quality surveillance programs
which included this aquatic system. However,
these publications and reports focused primarily
on identifications of taxa to the generic level;
thus, we have little information on the species
composition of the algal flora in Kentucky
Reservoir.

In this study we attempted to identify the
phytoplankton species which occur in the lower
portion of Kentucky Reservoir. It is part of an
overall effort to gain more insight into the com-
position of the primary producers of this surface
water resource. Diatom identifications are still
in progress; thus, these algae are not included.

COLLECTION SITES

Fourteen collection sites were established
between Tennessee River miles 43.3 and 49.0 on
Kentucky Reservoir (Fig. 1). Two sites were
located in each of 2embayments on the western
(Anderson Creek Embayment, Snipe Creek Em-
bayment) and eastern (blockhouse Creek Em-
bayment, Turkey Creek Embayment) sides of
the reservoir. Six collection sites were estab-

Partial! funding provided by Committee on Institutional Studies
and Research, Murray State University

* Address for correspondence

lished in the main portion of the reservoir and
were situated upriver, between and downriver
from the embayments.

Water samples were collected from each
site 10 times from September, 1982, to
September, 1983. The samples were taken with
a plastic bucket at the surface and with a Kem-
merer bottle at the mid-water column and 0.5 m
from the bottom. Equal volumes of the samples
were mixed, transferred to one-liter plastic bot-
tles, and placed on ice for transport to the
laboratory. Species identifications were made
through microscopic observations of raw
samples and from subsamples concentrated by
centrifugation at 5,000 x g for 5 minutes.

CHECKLIST

The nomenclature in this report follows that
of Bold and Wynne (6). One hundred and fifty six
species, varieties’ and forms, representing 59
genera were identified (Table 1). Of these, 37
species and three genera had not been previous-
ly reported as occurring in Kentucky (7-17).

Species of green algae dominated the
phytoplankton assemblages in all seasons but
were most numerous in the summer (Table 2).
The greatest number of species were in the
Chlorellales, due primarily to those in the genus
Scenedesmus. Species of blue-green algae were
most abundant in summer and fall while
euglenoid species, especially trachelomonads,
reached their peak numbers during the summer.
The number of dinoflagellates remained
relatively low throughout the year.

This paper provides preliminary informa-
tion on the species composition of
phytoplankton in a segment of Kentucky Reser-

Trans. Kentucky Academy of Science — 46(1-2)

KENTUCKY DAM

TRM 43.3

TRM 49.0

PICKWICK LANDING
DAM

Fig. 1. Collection sites on Kentucky Lake.

48

Phytoplankton in Kentucky — Barnese and King

voir. The checklist provided is certainly not
complete and undoubtedly will be expanded and

modified as

more information becomes

available on these organisms. However, future
studies need to be expanded to include other
areas of Kentucky Reservoir in order to develop
a more comprehensive understanding of the
algal flora of this aquatic system.

Table 1. Algal species, varieties, and forms identified in water samples
collected between Tennessee River miles 43.3 and 49.0 on Kentucky
Reservoir September, 1982, to September, 1983

CYANOCHLORONTA

Chroococcales

Anacystis sp.
Aphanocapsa pulchra (Kutz.) Rabh.

* Chroococcus dispersus (Keissl.) Lemm.

C. limneticus var. subsalsus Lemm.
C. minutus (Kutz.) Nag.
Dactylococcus acicularis Lemm.

D. rhaphidioides Hansq.

D. smithii Chod. & Chod.
Gloeocapsa punctata Nag.

* Marssoniella elegans Lemm.

Merismopedia punctata Meyen
M. tenuissima Lemm.
Microcystis aeruginosa Kutz.

* M. incerta Lemm.

Rhabdoderma lineare Schmid. & Lautb.
R. sigmoidea fa. minor Moore. & Car.

Oscillatoriales

Anabaena sp.
A, sp.

* Anabaenopsis circularis (W & W) Miller

A, elekinii Miller

Lyngbya contorta Lemm.

L. limnetica Lemm.

Oscillatoria amphibia Aq.

O. limnetica Lemm.

O. sp.

Phormidium minnesotense (Tilden) Dr.
P. tenue (Menegh) Gom.

Raphidiopsis curvata Fritsch & Rich

CHLOROPHYCOPHYTA

Volvocales

Platydorina

Carteria sp.

Chlamydomonas sp.

Eudorina elegans Ehr.
Pandorina morum (Mull.) Bory
caudata Kofoid
Sherffelia sp.

Chlorococcales

Pediastrum biradiatum Meyen
P. duplex Meyen
P. duplex var. clathraturm (A. Br.) Lag.
P. simplex (Meyen) Lemm.
P. simplex var. duodenarium (Bail.) Rabh.
P. tetras (Ehr.) Ralfs
Schroederia setigera (Schroed.) Lemm.
continued

Table 1 continued

Chlorellales

Actinastrum Hantzschii var. fluviatile Schroed.
Ankistrodesmus falcatus (Corda) Ralfs
A. falcatus var. marabilis (W & S) G. M. Sm.
Chlorella sp.
* Chodatella quadriseta (Llemm.) G. M. Sm.
C. subsala Lemm.
c. wratislaviensis (Schroed.) Ley
Closteriopsis longissima Lemm.
Coelastrum cambricum Arch.
C. microporum Nag.
Crucigenia crucifera (Wille) Col.
C. fenestrata Schmid.
C. irregularis Wille
C. quadrata Mor.
C. rectangularis (A. Br.) Gay
C. tetrapedia (Kirch.) W & W
Dictyosphaerium Ehrenbergianum Nag.
D. pulchellum Wood
Gloeoactinium limneticum G. M. Sm.
Golenkinia radiata (Chod.) Wille
Kirchneriella contorta (Schmid.) Bohlin
K. lunaris (Kirch.) Moeb.
K. lunaris var. irreqularis G. M. Sm.
K. obesa (W. West) Schmid.
* K. subsolitaria G. S. West
Micractinium pusillum Fres.
Oocystis Borgei Snow
* O. crassa Witt.
O. parva W & W
Polyedriopsis spinulosa Schmid.
Scenedesmus abundans (Kirch.) Chod.
. abundans var. asymmetrica (Schroed.) G. M. Sm.
. abundans var. longicauda G. M. Sm.
. acuminatus(Lag.) Chod.
acutiformis Schroed.
. armatus (Chod.) G. M. Sm.
bijuga (Turp.) Lag.
bijuga var. alternans (Reinsch.) Hansg.
brasiliensis Bohlin
denticulatus Lag.
dimorphus (Turp.) Kutz
. incrassatulus Bohlin
. longus Meyen
. opoliensis Richter
. quadricauda (Turp.) Bréb.
. serratus (Corda) Bohlin
Selenastrum bibraianum Reinsch.

DDDDNDDDDDDDHDHDAD

S. gracile Reinsch.

S. minutum (Nag.) Col.

Tetradesmus smithii Pres.

Tetraedron gracile (Reinsch.) Hansq.

~ minimum (A. Br.) Hansq.

. muticum (A, Br.) Hansg.

. pentaedricum W & W

. requlare Kiitz.

. trigonum (Nag.) Hansg.

. tumidulum (Reinsch.) Hansq.
Tetrallantos lagerheimii Teil

Tetrastrum heterocanthum (Nordst.) Chod.
T. staurogeniaeforme (Schroed.) Lemm.
Treubaria setigera (Arch.) G. M. Sm.

N35 555

Tetrasporales

Elaktothrix gelatinosa Wille
Sphaerocystis Schroeteri Chod.
Ulotrichales

Ulothrix sp.
continued

Trans. Kentucky Academy of Science — 46(1-2) 49

Table 1 continued

Zygnematales
Table 2. Summary of the Number of Genera and Species Identified

Closterium acutum (Lyngb.) Bréb.

¥a in Each Algal Division.
C. parvulum Nag. a

Cc. pens Kutz, y ALGAL NO. NO. NO. SPECIES IDENTIFIED
Cosmarium bioculatum Breb. DIVISION GENERA SPECIES PER SEASON
C. circul Reinsch.

2 GLC CES Fall Winter Spring Summer

C. constrictum Delp.

Euastrum denticulatum (Kirch.) Gay
E. binale Ehr.

Sphaerozosma sp.

Spondylosium sp.

Staurastrum americanum (W & W) G. M. Sm.
chaetoceros (Schroed.) G. M. Sm.
cuspidatum Bréb.

grallatorium Nordst.

grallatorium var. forcipigerum Lag.
S. paradoxum Meyen

12

39
3
0

Cyanochloronta 15 28
Chlorophycophyta 38 93
Euglenophycophyta 4
Pyrrhophycophyta 2

Pw iB

5 20
27 82
8 28
1 5

TOTAL 59 156

g
z

41 135

S.
Ss.
° Ss.
Ss.

EUGLENOPHYCOPHYTA

Euglenales

Euglena acus Ehr. LITERATURE CITED

E. gracilis Klebs
EJproximaDang ag 1. Kinman, B., K. Prather, M. E. Sisk, D.
Co uso mats) (cart) Lema: Dobroth, and M. Gordon. 1981. Biological and

Phacus acuminatus Stokes 5 . F F
. acuminatus var. drezepolskii Skv. chemical evaluation of aquatic environments I.

. helikoides Poch.

. longicauda (Ehr.) Duj.

. orbicularis Hueb.

. pyrum (Ehr.) Stein
Trachelomonas abrupta (Swir.) Defl.

uM DUT

Anderson Creek Embayment on Kentucky
Lake. Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci. 42:135-148.

Prather, K., B. Kinman, M. E. Sisk, D.
Dobroth, and M. Gordon. 1982. Biological and

: a a Senay iat chemical evaluation of aquatic environments II.
. armata T. ein
T. bulla (Stein) Def. Vickers Creek Embayment, Kentucky Lake.
T. eurystoma var. Klebsii Playf. Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci. 43:27-42.
T. hispida (Pert.) Stein .
TAhisotdawwarhcoronatailerims Taylor, W. D., F. A. Hiatt, S. C. Hern, J. W.
T. hispida var. crenulatocollis Defl. Hilgert, V. W. Lambou, F. A. Morris, R. W.
G. intermedia Dang. Thomas, M. K. Morris, and L. R. Williams.
S id ire 1977. Distribution of phytoplankton in Ken-
. playfairii Defl.
T. pobustal Swit. tucky. Working Paper No. 683. Natl.
T. rotunda Swir. Eutrophication Surv., U.S. EPA, Corvallis En-
T. spectabilis Defl. viron. Res. Lab., Corvallis, Ore., and the En-
feisuperbay(Swir) Dell: viron. Monitoring and Support Lab., Las
T. superba var. duplex Defl. NV. 31
T. tambowika Swir. Vegas, f PP.
a pone ae: Tennessee Valley Authority. 1974. Quality of
. volvocina Tr. . ty ° Py
TAA seein ara punictate Plat water in Kentucky Reservoir. Div. Environm.
Plan., Water Quality Branch. Rept. No.
PYRRHOPHYCOPHYTA E-WQ-743.
ostlnieltas 5. U.S. EPA. 1976. Report on Kentucky Lake,

Hardin, Decatur, Wayne, Perry, Benton, Hum-
phreys, Houston, Henry, and Stewart Counties,
Tennessee, and Calloway, Trigg, Marshall,
Lyon, and Livingston Counties, Kentucky.
Working Paper No. 354, Natl. Eutrophication

* Glenodinium gymnodinium Pen.
* G. palustre (Lemm.) Schil.
* 6. pulvisculus (Ehr.) Stein
G. quadridens (Stein) Schil.
* Peridinium inconspicuum Lemm.

Surv., U.S. EPA, Corvallis Environ. Res. Lab.,
Corvallis, Oreg., and the Environ. Monitoring
and Support Lab., Las Vegas, NV. 24 pp.

6. Bold, H.C., and M. J. Wynne, 1978. Introduc-
tion to the algae. Prentice-Hall, Inc.,
Englewood, NJ.

7. Camburn, K. E. 1982. The occurrence of thir-
teen algal genera previously unreported from
Kentucky. Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci. 43:74-79.

*Species not previously reported as occurring in Kentucky

**Genera not previously reported as occurring in Kentucky

10.

11.

12.

13.

Phytoplankton in Kentucky — Barnese and King

Dillard, G. E., and S. B. Crider. 1970. Ken- 14.
tucky algae, I. Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci. 31:66-72.

_ «1974. An annotated catalog of
Kentucky algae. Ogden College, W. Ky. Univ.,
Bowling Green KY. 135 pp.

__S—S—F SS. P. Moore, and L. S. Garrett.
1976. Kentucky Algae, II. Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci.
37:20-25.

Geiling, W. T., and L. A. Krumholz. 1963. A
limnological survey of sinkhole ponds in the

vicinity of Doe Run, Meade County, Kentucky. 15

Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci. 24:37-80.

Harker, D. F., Jr., S. M. Call, M. L. Warren,
Jr., K. E. Camburn, and P. Wigley. 1979.
Aquatic biota and water quality survey of the
Appalachian Province, eastern Kentucky.

Technical Rept., Ky. Nat. Pres. Comm., 16.

Frankfort, KY. 1-1,152

. M. L. Warren, Jr., K. E. Cam-
burn, S. M. Call, G. J. Fallo, and P. Wigley.
1980. Aquatic biota and water quality survey of
the upper Cumberland River Basin. Technical
Rept., Ky. Nat. Pres. Comm., Frankfort, KY.
1-679.

17

. R. R. Hannan, M. L. Warren,
Jr., L. R. Phillippe, K. E. Camburn, R. S.
Caldwell, S. M. Call, G. J. Fallo, and D. Van-
Norman. 1980. Western Kentucky Coal Field:
Preliminary investigations of natural features
and cultural resources. Vol. I, Parts I and II,
Introduction and ecology and ecological
features of the western Kentucky coal field.
Technical Rept., Ky. Nat. Pres. Comm.,
Frankfort, KY. 1-584.

King, J. M., and R. Oddo. 1980. Algal flora of
a relict cypress swamp (Murphy’s Pond) in
western Kentucky. Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci.
41:141-143.

MclInteer, B. B. 1941. Algae of Kentucky: Addi-
tions to the check list of March, 1939.
Castanea 6:6-8.

Orser, J. A., and G. E. Dillard. 1980 Analysis
of the periphyton of Sloan’s Crossing Pond,
Mammoth Cave National Park, Kentucky.
Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci. 41:60-69.

RH - Root Phenols in Kentucky Plants — Creek and Wade

Excretion of phenolic compounds from the roots of Festuca arundinacea,
Eragrostis curvula, and Lespedeza striata.

Robert Creek
Department of Biological Sciences
Eastern Kentucky University
Richmond, Kentucky 40475

and

Gary L. Wade
Northeastern Forest Experiment Station
U.S. Forest Service
Berea, Kentucky 40403

ABSTRACT

Festuca arundinacea, Eragrostic curvula, and Lespedeza striata were grown hydroponically using a con-
tinuous circulating system in which root exudates were collected in columns containing XAD-4 resin. The ex-
udates were separated into neutral, acidic, and basic fractions. Lettuce radicle bioassay showed only the neutral
fractions to be inhibitory. Analysis of the neutral fractions by paper chromatography, TLC, and gas
chromatography indicated the presence of 5 inhibitory compounds, which were tentatively identified as the
phenolic compounds cinnamic acid, ferulic acid, gallic acid, gentisic acid, and syringic acid.

INTRODUCTION

Allelopathy, chemical interference by one
plant species with another, is a widespread
phenomenon. It has been documented in forest,
grassland, freshwater, marine, and agricultural
ecosystems. Allelochemics, chemical com-
pounds produced by a plant species, may
operate directly on another plant species, in-
directly on its symbiotic organisms, or through
modification of the ecosystem (1). Reforestation
of surface-mined lands now requires planting
trees in an herbaceous ground cover. Frequent
problems with tree survival and growth under
these conditions suggest that allelopathy may
be a factor in herb-tree competition in some
situations. Allelopathy has not been
demonstrated on surface-mine spoil, but this is
due more to a lack of research than to negative
research results. A necessary first step is to
determine if species commonly used in land
reclamation are allelopaths. Identification of the
allelochemics produced together with their
known effects on different organisms allows
potential problems to be identified and studied.
Accordingly, this study investigated
allelochemic production by three herbaceous
species commonly used as ground cover on
surface-mined lands, tall fescue (Festuca arun-
dinacea Schreb.), weeping lovegrass
(Eragrostic curvula Nees.), and Kobe lespedeza
(Lespedeza striata (Thunb.) H. & A.).

Water extracts of tall fescue, weeping
lovegrass, and Kobe lespedeza cause a delay in

germination of crown vetch (Coronilla varia L)
and crimson clover (Trifolium incarnatum L.),
but later radicle growth is not significantly in-
hibited (2). Litter of tall fescue inhibits growth
and nitrogen fixation in black locust (Robinia
pseudo-acacia L.), red clover (Trifolium
pratense L.), and black alder (Alnus glutinosa
(L.) Gaertn.) (3), and germination, hypocotyl
growth and root growth of birdsfoot trefoil
(Lotus cortniculatus L.) (4). Tall fescue
genotypes differ in inhibition of birdsfoot trefoil
and red clover (5). Leachates of red fescue (F.
rubra L.) roots are inhibitory to root and shoot
growth of forsythia (Forsythia intermedia
Spaeth.) (6). Sericea lespedeza (L. cuneata L.)
residues in the soil give rise to a number of
phenolic compounds (7). None of the above
studies attempted to identify toxins released into
the soil by living plants.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Plant Growth And Extraction.—A_ con-
tinuous root exudate collecting system
developed by Tang and Young (8) was used to
grow donor plants and to collect root exudates.
The containers were 3.79 L bottles with bottoms
removed. The bottles were placed neck down,
stoppered, and filled with a 2 cm layer of pebbles
over which was added a mixture of washed silica
sand and pebbles. The bottles were then wrap-
ped in aluminum foil and autoclaved.

51

52 Root Phenols in Kentucky Plants — Creek and Wade

Seeds of tall fescue, weeping lovegrass, and
Kobe lespedeza obtained from commercial
sources were sown on the surface of the sand
and covered with a layer of sterile sand. They
were watered every other day with 0.1 strength
Hoagland solution and with additional distilled
water as necessary. When the plants were 2 cm
tall, the circulating attachments and columns
containing XAD-4 resin, which absorbs organic
compounds, were connected to the bottoms of
the containers. The water level in the sand
culture was adjusted to within 1 cm of the sur-
face with distilled water and replenished daily as
needed to maintain this level. One hundred ml
of 0.1 strength Hoagland solution was added
once a week. The solution was circulated at an
approximate rate of 500 ml/hr. All plants were
grown under greenhouse conditions during the
spring and summer without extension of the
photo period. Temperatures ranged from 20° to
30°C. Because greenhouse glass does not pass
most of the ultraviolet portion of sunlight (9),
supplementary ultraviolet light was added four
hours per day using Westinghouse FS-40 lamps
with 15 mil mylar filters to remove wavelengths
less than 320 nm. Lamp to pot distance was 1 m.
Pot controls did not contain plants, but they
were treated identically otherwise.

The plants were grown for 4 weeks. Then the
columns were removed, washed with 2 L of
distilled water and eluted with 100 ml of diethyl
ether. The eluates from the columns of 5
replicates of each species were pooled, and the
ether was evaporated to dryness under reduced
pressure. The dried residue was taken up in 50
ml of water, pH was adjusted to 6.0, and the
solution was extracted 3 times with 100 ml
methylene chloride. The extracts were com-
bined, dried over anhydrous magnesium sulfate
and concentrated to 25 ml in vacuo. Final con-
centration to 3 ml was carried out under a
stream of nitrogen. This final concentrated
material represented the neutral fraction. The
remaining aqueous fraction was acidified to pH
2.0 with 1 N HCl and again extracted with
methylene chloride to give the acidic fraction.
The acidified aqueous fraction was then ad-
justed to pH 11.0 with 1 N NaOH and extracted
with methylene chloride to give the basic frac-
tion. The acidic and basic fractions were con-
centrated to a final volume of 3 ml.

Chromatography—Two hundred ul aliquots
from the neutral fractions were streaked on
Whatman No. 3 MM filter paper and developed
in the descending mode using a 2 per cent (v/v)
glacial acetic acid solvent system. The
chromatograms were dried and cut into 10 equal
segments (Rf/10). Each segment was eluted
with 5 ml of methanol, then reduced to a final
volume of 1 ml and bioassayed as described

below. We used thin layer chromatography
(TLC) on microcrystalline cellulose plates with
phosphor (Alltech Associates) with 2 per cent
glacial acetic acid as the solvent system. Spots
were visualized under ultraviolet light (253.7 and
375.0 nm) and after spraying with diazotized
p-nitroanaline (10). Standards were run with all
chromatograms.

Biossay.—Aliquots (100 and 50 ul) of the
neutral, acidic, and basic fractions were added
separately to Whatman No. 3 MM filter paper
contained in 5.5 cm diameter petri dishes. The
solvent was evaporated and 0.2 ml of distilled
water added to the filter paper. Five 48-hr old
lettuce seedings (Lactuca sativa L.) were added
to each petri dish. After the seedlings were
grown in darkness for 48 hours at room
temperature, about 21° C, the lengths of their
radicles were measured. All bioassays were car-
ried out in triplicate, and results were expressed
as per cent of inhibition relative to the pot con-
trols. Student’s t-test was used to determine
significance of treatment differences. Because
only the neutral fraction showed significant ef-
fects on lettuce radicle growth, the acidic and
basic fractions were not tested further.

Gas-Liquid Chromatography.—The GLC
analysis was made with a Varian Model 2840
chromatograph equipped with a flame ioniza-
tion detector. Nitrogen was used as the carrier
gas at a flow rate of 40 ml/min. A 20 mm (I.D.) x
2 m glass column was packed with 3 per cent
SP-2250 on 100/120 mesh Sueplcoport and pro-
grammed from 150° to 220°C at a rate of 8°
C/min. The injector and detector were main-
tained at 250° C.

Trimethylsilyl derivatives were prepared by
evaporating 1 ml of the neutral extract to
dryness under nitrogen. One-half ml of Tri-
Sil/BSA formula D (Pierce Chemical Co.) was
added to the vials and solution allowed to sit for
one hour before GLC analysis. The phenolic
standards were prepared in a similar manner.

RESULTS

Only the neutral fractions of the root
exudates from the 3 donor species were toxic to
lettuce (Table 1). The 100 yl dose of each of the 3
donor species significantly inhibited growth of
lettuce radicles. Tall fescue was the only donor
whose exudates were significantly inhibitory at a
50 ul dose.

The Rf/10 bioassays of the 200 pl aliquots
from the neutral fractions of tall fescue
significantly inhibited growth of lettuce radicles
in segments 0.2-0.3 and 0.5-0.6 (Table 2). The
0.3-0.4 seqment from weeping lovegrass and the
0.3-0.4 and 0.5-0.6 seqments from Kobe
lespedeza also significantly inhibited lettuce

Trans. Kentucky Academy of Science — 46(1-2) 53

radicle growth. No significant stimulations of
lettuce radicle growth were found in any of the
Rf/10 segments.

Table 1. Results of bioassay using lettuce radicle elongation for effects of
acidic, neutral, and basic fractions of donor plant root exudates
expressed as percent of controls.

Donor Species

Fraction Dose Tall Fescue Weeping Kobe
Lovegrass Lespedeza
Acidic 50 ul 101 99 101
100 ul 102 102 103
Neutral 50 ul 95° 99 98
100 ul gore* 92°* 94°
Basic 50 pl 99 98 99
100 ul 100 99 100
* Significantly different from control, a = .05
°* Significantly different from control, a = .01
*** Significantly different from control, a = .001

Table 2. Results of bioassay using lettuce radicle elongation for effects of
Rf/10 segments from paper chromatography of neutral fraction of donor
plant root exudates expressed as percent of controls.

Donor Species

Rf/10 Tall Fescue Weeping Kobe
Segments _Lovegrass Lespedeza

0.0-0.1 105 100 105
0.1-0.2 99 102 100
0.2-0.3 95° 96 96
0.3-0.4 96 93° 94°
0.4.0.5 102 99 97
0.5-0.6 95° 101 96"
0.6-0.7 104 98 103
0.7-0.8 97 99 100
0.8-0.9 100 99 102
0.9-1.0 101 101 98
* Significantly different from control, @ -05

nou

** Significantly different from control, a = .01

Comparisons of GLC retention times and
TLC and paper chromatograph Rf values and
colors with those of standards (Table 3) in-
dicated that tall fescue exuded the three
phenolic compounds, cinnamic acid (3-phenyl-
2-propenoic acid), ferulic acid (3-(4-hydroxy-3-
methoxyphenyl)-2-propenic acid), and Kobe
lespedeza exuded ferulic acid, gentisic acid, and
syringic acid (4-hydroxy-3, 5-dimethoxybenzoic
acid). Other unidentified compounds were
released by the 3 donor species.

The Rf value of 0.30 for ferulic acid in paper
chromatography indicates that the spot pro-
duced in the Rf/10 bioassay would have been
split between segments 0.2-0.3 and 0.3-0.4. Both
of these segments showed inhibition of lettuce
radicle growth, but it was only significant in seq-
ment 0.2-0.3 from tall fescue and seqment
0.3-0.4 from weeping lovegrass and Kobe
lespedeza. The Rf value for gallic acid fell in the
middle of segment 0.3-0.4 but GLC indicates
that only weeping lovegrass produced this com-
pound. Segment 0.40.5 containing syringic
acid, produced only by Kobe lespedeza, did not
show significant inhibition of lettuce in this test.

Gentisic acid, produced by all 3 species,
had an Rf value of 0.59 whch could have caused
spot splitting in the Rf/10 test, but significant in-
hibition was only noted in tall fescue and Kobe
lespedeza extracts in the 0.5-0.6 segments. No
significant effects were noted in segment 0.6-0.7
which would have contained cinnamic acid.

Table 3 Chromatographic characteristics of exuded compounds and
matching standards.

Paper TLC Colors GLC Donor

Compound Rf Values UV(254nm) DPNA Rt (sec) Species

Cinnamic
Acid 65 .57 dk. blue - Pavia cal
Ferulic
Acid 30 23 Blue-purp. blue WO2y 253
Gallic Acid 35 39 dk. purp. tan 498
Gentisic
Acid 59 73 blue - 360 «1,2,3
Syringic
Acid 47 -48 dk. purp. 1. green 516 3
Donor Species: 1 = Tall Fescue
2 = Weeping Lovegrass
3 = Kobe Lespedeza

DISCUSSION

Lack of inhibition of lettuce radicle growth
by some of these compounds may be due to non-
susceptibility of lettuce to some phenolic com-
pounds, insufficient amounts produced by donor
plants, or small amounts used in the testing.

Ferulic acid is a unit compound in the syn-
thesis of lignin. It is one of the most commonly
identified phenolic compounds leached or
exuded from living plants, leached from plant lit-
ter, or produced in the soil during decomposi-
tion of lignin. It has been found in forest,
grassland, peat, and cultivated soils by
numerous researchers (1). Ferulic acid causes
decreased protein synthesis (11, 12) and

54 Root Phenols in Kentucky Plants — Creek and Wade

decreased root growth in lettuce (12), while in
Paul’s Scarlet rose cells it causes increased syn-
thesis of lipids and decreased synthesis of pro-
tein and organic acids (13). In soybean leaves,
ferulic acid reduces dry weight (14), chlorophyl a
an b content (14, 15), depresses photosynthesis
(15), and lowers stomatal conductance (15).
Ferulic acid reduces Mg, Ca, K, P, Fe, Mn, and
Mo uptake in Paul’s Scarlet rose cells (16),
reduces K absorption by oak roots (17), and in-
hibits phosphate uptake in three varieties of soy-
beans (18). Ferulic acid acts like polyphenols in
synergizing IAA-induced growth by counterac-
ting IAA-decarboxylation (19). Ferulic acid in-
creases total lipid content, changes fatty acid
composition of and apparently degrades mem-
brane function, and it decreases growth in vitro
of Pisolithus tinctorius (Pers.) Coker and Couch,
an ectomycorrhizal fungus considered very im-
portant in the revegetation of mine spoils with
pine and oak (Melhuish and Wade, unpublished
data).

Cinnamic acid, derived from L-phenyl-
alanine (20), is known to be produced by many
plants (1) and has been identified as a root
secretion of guayule (21). Cinnamic acid has
been found in corn field residues (22). It
decreases rice growth (23), changes water rela-
tions in beet cells (1), lowers stomatal conduc-
tance and chlorophyl content, and decreases
photosynthesis in soybean (15), and inhibits pro-
tein synthesis and root growth in lettuce (12).
Cinnamic acid causes a breakdown in protein
synthesis from amino acids (15). Ferulic acid, in
contrast, lowers protein synthesis by diversion of
resources away from amino acid synthesis.

Gallic acid is produced in plants from
dehydroshikimic acid (20) and can be produced
by digestion of hydrolyzable oak tannins (24). It
is produced by several plant species and has
been found in soils (1). Gallic acid inhibits
growth of Amaranthus retroflexus L. and
Bromus japonicus Thunberg. (25), and causes
lower chlorophyl concentrations, decreased
photosynthesis, and decreased stomatal
resistance in soybean (15). It may influence the
nitrogen cycle in ecosystems by inhibiting the
nitrogen-fixing alga Anabaena in soils (26),
nitrification by Nitrosomonas (27), and by
reducing nodulization in legumes (28). Gentisic
acid is produced by Celtis laevigata L. (29), and
Eucalyptus globulus Labill. (30).

Syringic acid has been found in crop
residues and cropped soils (31, 32, 33, 34) and in
the rhizosphere of Zea mays L. (35). It is pro-
duced by yellow nutsedge (Cyperus esculentus
L.) (36).

The phenolic compounds produced by
donor species in this study have a wide range of
potential effects on other organisms and

ecosystem functions. The actual importance of
production of these phenolic compounds by the
species we have examined will be determined by
further study. Even if the amounts produced are
low, they still may have significant synergistic
effects. Additional phenolic compounds can
result from decomposition of some of the ones
found in this study; for example, vanillic acid is
produced during the breakdown of ferulic acid
and thus synergistic effects may be enhanced.
Local concentrations associated with clays or
organic matter in soils may enhance the
importance of amounts produced (1).

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

This research was funded by the U.S.
Forest Service through the office of the North-
eastern Forest Experiment Station, Berea,
Kentucky.

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del Moral, R., and C. H. Muller. 1970. The
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NOTES

Runt Egg In The Wood Duck.—Unusually small
or runt eggs are extremely rare, with very few reports
on the occurrence of such eggs in nature. Among the
few species or groups in which runt eggs have been
reported are the Canada Goose (Branta canadensis),
gulls (Larus spp.), House Wren (Troglodytes aedon),
Starling (Sturnus vulgaris), Common Grackle
(Quiscalus quiscula), and several woodpeckers
(Picidae) (Koenig, Wilson Bull. 92:169-176, 1980). In
each of these, the incidence of runt eggs is extremely
low, ranging from 0.02% in gulls to 0.6% in the
Canada Goose. In one exceptional species, the Acorn
Woodpecker (Melanerpes formicivorus), the percen-
tage of runt eqgs was reported as 4.3% (Koenig 1980).
On 4 May 1984 we found a runt egg in a Wood Duck
(Aix sponsa) nest located in the Clay Wildlife Manage-
ment Area, 16 Km ENE of Carlisle, Nicholas County,
Kentucky. The nest also contained 11 normal eggs.
The normal eggs subsequently hatched and the young
had apparently all fledged by the time the nest was
checked on 2 June. The runt egg measured 35.5 x 27.8
mm. Robinson (Condor 60:256-257, 1958) reported
that the average size of 51 Wood Duck eggs was 46.8 x
37.4 mm; Bellrose (Ducks, Geese, and Swans of
North America, Stackpole Books, Harrisburg, PA,
1976) noted that the average dimensions of a Wood
Duck egg were 51.1 x 38.8 mm; and Palmer (Hand-
book of North American Birds, Vol. 3, Yale Univ.
Press, New Haven, CN, 1975) indicated that the
average Wood Duck egg measured 50.7 x 39.0 mm.
No mention of runt eggs was made by any of these
authors. A review of the literature revealed no other
published reports of runt eggs in the Wood Duck.
The runt egg showed no evidence of embryonic
development and contained no yolk. The absence of
yolk was noted also in the runt eggs of other species
(Romanoff and Romanoff, The Avian Egg, Wiley and
Sons, New York, 1949). Little is known about runt
eggs. Physiologically, the production of such eggs is
apparently stimulated by temporary disturbances, ac-
cidents, or infections in the oviduct (Romanoff and
Romanoff 1949). Very few are thought to be the result
of permanent abnormalities (Pearl and Curtis, J.
Agricu. Res. 6:977-1042, 1916). The only species with
a rather high incidence of runt eggs appears to be the
Acorn Woodpecker. Koenig (1980) indicated that this
may be due to the fact that these woodpeckers are
communal nesters. As females attempt to maneuver
within the nest cavities they may come in contact with
each other or the walls of the cavity. Such physical
contact may subsequently result in the production of
runt eggs—GARY RITCHISON and KEITH D.
KRANTZ, Department of Biological Sciences,
Eastern Kentucky University, Richmond, KY 40475.

The longnose dace, Rhinichthys cataractae
(Valenciennes), in Kentucky.—On 4 April 1984, 3
specimens of the longnose dace, Rhinichthys catarac-
tae, were collected from the Russell Fork of the Big
Sandy River, Pike County, Kentucky at a site 1.21 KM
(0.75 mile) downstream from the Kentucky-Virginia
state line. These specimens represent the first known
record for this species in the state. Other species col-
lected at the same location included Campostoma

anomalum, Etheostoma_ blennioides, Etheostoma
caeruleum, Etheostoma variatum, and Percina
maculata.

The habitat from which these specimens were
collected is similar to that described by Gilbert and
Shute (in Lee et al., Atlas of North American
Freshwater Fishes, p. 353, 1980). Russell Fork at this
location is an Order VI mountain stream (elevation
311 m) with clear, fast-flowing, turbulent water and a
substrate of boulders and rubble.

The longnose dace is predominantly a northern
species (Gilbert and Shute, loc. cit.) which ranges
southward through the Appalachian Mountains into
North Carolina, Tennessee, and northern Georgia.
Burr (Brimleyana 3:53-84, 1980) considered the
longnose dace as a problematic species in Kentucky
and speculated that it possibly occurs in the Big San-
dy or Upper Cumberland River drainages. This report
confirms his assumption for the Big Sandy River
drainage.

Voucher specimens of Rhinichthys cataractae
have been deposited at Southern Illinois University,
Carbondale (SIUC), Eastern Kentucky University
(EKU), and the Kentucky Department of Fish and
Wildlife Resources at Frankfort (KDFWR). These
specimens have the following measurements: (SIUC
10159) standard length (SL) = 43.0 mm, preorbital
head length (PHL) = 5.0 mm, postorbital head length
(POHL) = 5.0mm, and eye diameter (ED) = 2.5mm;
(EKU 1305) SL = 50.0 mm, PHL = 5.5mm, POHL =
6.0 mm, and ED = 2.9mm; (KDFWR 1835) SL = 50.5
mm, PHL = 5.2mm, POHL = 6.0mm, and ED = 2.9
mm.

The authors appreciated the field assistance of
Messrs. Robert Bay and Doug Winford (U.S. Fish and
Wildlife Service, Cookeville, Tennessee); the
assistance of Mr. Ronald Cicerello (Kentucky Nature
Preserves Commission) with the specimens; and Drs.
Robert Kuehne (University of Kentucky) and Branley
A. Branson (Eastern Kentucky University) for verify-
ing our diagnosis. DOUGLAS E. STEPHENS and
KERRY W. PRATHER, Kentucky Department of Fish
and Wildlife Resources, *1 Game Farm Road,
Frankfort, KY 40601

Trans. Kentucky Academy of Science — 46(1-2) 57

Electrofishing vs. Angler Harvest: Dif-
ferences in Length-Frequency Distribu-
tions—lIn recent years, fishery managers have found
it necessary to investigate new, more economical and
innovative methods of sampling fish populations.
Standard methods of netting and electrofishing are
very expensive because of time involvement of person-
nel and equipment. Use of angler-reported data have
been shunned because of biases and inaccuracies. We
have found that a combination of techniques can be
the most inexpensive and accurate means fo obtaining
data on certain fish populations. This method is the
use of clerk-collected data from angler harvest.

Several criteria should be met for use of angler-
harvest data to be advantageous: (1) the species of in-
terest should be a target species of anglers; (2) the
species of interest should have few fishing regulations
(i.e., bag or size limits); (3) fishing pressure and
harvest need to be high during the collecting period;
and (4) areas of fishermen concentration (e.g., fish-
cleaning stations) are necessary to optimize data col-
lection.

During nesting and spawning in early May 1982,
Kentucky Lake white crappie (Pomoxis annularis)
data were collected by electrofishing and angler
harvest. Fish taken by both methods were most fre-
quently found in shallow water. Weather and water
conditions did not change over the sampling period.
When fishermen arrived at fish-cleaning stations,
creels of cooperative anglers were borrowed for pro-
cessing. Total length, weight, and sex were recorded
for each fish and scale samples were taken. Fish were
returned promptly to anglers for cleaning. The white
crappie obtained by electrofishing were processed in
the same manner.

The length-frequencies of white crappie collected
by electrofishing versus angler harvest were com-
pared by a Smirnov Test (Conover, Practical non-
parametric statistics, 2nd ed., Wiley and Sons, New
York, N.Y., 1980). The dates and sample sizes of the
length-frequencies were given for each day (Fig. 1).
The differences in the comparison of the length-
frequencies of the electrofishing day to each day of
angler harvest, and to the 3-day combination angler
harvest were significant. The range in size obtained by
electrofishing. The angler data is skewed toward
smaller fish, while the electrofishing data appeared
more normal in distribution. Possibly these differences
occurred because of the variability and biases
associated with each method.

There was a significant difference in the efficiency
of the sampling methods. Fish obtained by angler
harvest on 5/2/82 were processed at approximately 31
fish/hr. The rate of collecting and processing of fish
taken by electrofishing was approximately 7.6 fish/hr,
which was 0.25 as efficient as the angler-harvest
method.

res ELECTROFISHING
Ww
2) 5/5/82
BE a0 n=107
J0
rz 20F
ao
Boe thy
Be fal
160 200 240 280 320 360 400
TOTAL LENGTH (mm)
=
ANGLER HARVEST
= 30} 5/4/82
~ 90 n=116
Ww
2 10 [|
= | io ail
(a) oq iat fh 1
z
=)
m 30fF
<x = 5/2/82
Zi t] n=217
=
= 10F
2 al ae
i
s 1
a
20 5/1/82
10 et = Ps
160. 200 240 280 320 360 400

TOTAL LENGTH (mm)
Fig. 1. Length frequency of white crappie collected by
two methods.

As an added benefit to the fisheries manager, use
of angler-harvest data promotes a cooperative effort
involving the public. Anglers generally respond very
favorably to helping obtain data concerning “their”
fish. Anglers perceive this method as_ beneficial;
whereas, electrofishing removes “their” fish before
they have the opportunity to catch them.—DONNA
L. PARRISH, Hancock Biological Station, Murray
State University, Murray, KY 42071 (Present address:
Ohio Cooperative Fishery Research Unit, 1735 Neil
Ave., Columbus, Ohio 43210), THOMAS D. FOR-
SYTHE, TVA-Land Between the Lakes, Golden Pond,
KY 42231, TOM J. TIMMONS, Hancock Biological
Station, Murray State University, Murray, KY 42071.

ACADEMY AFFAIRS

KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
The Seventieth Annual Meeting
at
Kentucky State University
November 9-10, 1984

Arrangements: Dr. Gerrit Kloek

OFFICERS OF THE ACADEMY

President) oc); .c/-jay< = e\srei010js esis evens
President-Elect ..................

Vice-President...................
Past President...................

Secretary /.).2(cccis onic cincietes

INCE Cioneooosonboupocbposdone

Director of Junior Academy

wistapevsyeyevsevinl sie ei cusiens: ohsisyovsisy datereee Joe Winstead

Western Kentucky University

HOB AOC POEHS donaedocodeed Charles Covell

University of Louisville

sis aaje! eves sexo) vaeNGVahee Leon eranstol ee Larry Giesmann
srohesbeers tate rotstoh el AGRE STA CRI oD ers Gary Boggess

Murray State University

Spe otal SUe Tey Sy ere tavave sooreeeskon ese NO Sea Robert Creek

Eastern Kentucky University

SULeeRehenotsh he severe ye nevecetotecnctone esters Morris Taylor

Eastern Kentucky University

SbadoSbanbaapoouoe DoGOdoseonS Herbert Leopold

Western Kentucky University

Editor of the Transactions................... cee cece eeeeee cece Branley Branson
Eastern Kentucky University
Representative to A.S.A.S. 2.1.2.0... . 0. cece ee cc eect e eee eens Joe King
Murray State University
BOARD OF DIRECTORS
Pauli Freytag’. <jscisj5scv-jsvsis ie avsis oieieroisye s)crniousiesverel= 1985
William Baker.................. 0002-02 e ee 1985
Gerrit Kloekee sis ois Sesion bitte oi scereiee seals rei 1986
Manuel Schwartz (Chp) ...............-...5- 1986
Lawrence Boucher..............--2---2-eeees 1987
William Hettinger....................-.22200- 1987
William’ Bryantysieyers ae e ctoreiocle ors lnceetereriye 1988
William Beasley ............... 2.0 e eee e eee 1988

Trans. Kentucky Academy of Science — 46(1-2) 59

THE SEVENTIETH ANNUAL BUSINESS MEETING
OF THE KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

KENTUCKY STATE UNIVERSITY
FRANKFORT, KENTUCKY

9-10 November 1984
Host: Dr. Gerrit Kloek
Minutes of the Annual Meeting

The meeting was called to order by President Bogess at 0930, 10 November, in the Lobby Auditorium of
Bradford Hall with approximately 100 members in attendance.

After a motion by Secretary Creek, and a second from the floor, the minutes of the 1983 annual business
meeting at the University of Louisville, as recorded in the Transactions Vol. 45(1-2), were approved. Secretary
Creek moved that all new members for 1984 be accepted by the Academy. Following a second from the floor,
the motion passed. Dr. Creek reported that he had only received 25 forms for the Speaker’s Bureau that is being
developed. He felt that there should be at least 50 participants in order to have a quality program and anyone
wishing to participate should send a form into the Secretary as soon as possible.

The Treasurer’s report was made by Dr. Taylor.

TREASURER’S REPORT
KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
NOVEMBER 3, 1983-NOVEMBER 1, 1984

CashtiniMadison)Nationall Banki(NOv-;3s L983) !o.cc-ercrescterere, fel cie erates a esate ravere)}ore) ojnts wie leleyese.cfeieieisiel ste glares $ 1059.00
RECEIPTS:
Registration! (totalldeposits)ivayjsc cc ai aerate <cfersiose erste eco. a tisteiatate aisieieiatare| «\ere ets lars ieyilefelelscera micieVevosetessie $ 5580.00
Membership duesyay.ciepterecte a core cic tere etarera cee belo eva rete le petesavarere elovevola otal sce inal a;etetarotereiese.sraisie! ets cletetace $ 7200.00
Mibrary/Subscriptions roils ccecrace tote ele cs orotere orev are aia wsaalanalercvstsi cists is) =(ele tetera (atenateteyaietsie?ayerayal al e}at~ $ 1400.00
InstitutionallA fhiliations scjaysec pester rel ctetare! clots tee rctarey Vole) siehetoilorsierousselcvarahete over ous (eleven svete aleveratsy eet cts $ 2000.000
Bagel@hargesterrtecrrirrtsttterirc cress cere atecter cheietes taarctsTaterateselelepetotavel stelagevavars tne lscaie levers erelajcloiersteienssaleiers $ 2593.54

Total $18773.54

shotaliGashiandiR eceipts sary syecsvepe ia sseloy=icis sale jotere oie ois ciovotalsne\osoratate toler syosel eta ayerorevelese) cis (eiereispe/e\nV=)e/* $19832.54
DISBURSEMENTS:

JUNIOMACADEMYLON SCIENCE SSSA) kes eyejct score, ones efeteseqeie ofe otal =lats, ese le}ajee’ziate oie{eLetarotaleie ere sfulare eferetelsiainys $ 1000.00

Mperatingiexpensesyiress sere toscesscr sis yes sensi ale pc ete esete fore ied ane = aosievnsl ela telays my eielelehere{elovereheleysayereadlecetaisiaisi= $ 2040.38

Mransactions (VON 4S in-eol <2) hyesscpsvevec severe creereystezel ete lezen vers ofr intoiereferatassierayapefeteveperekersteystehsiste.cieicuare $ 5854.45

Miscellaneous: (Banquet etc) rate yerecces cishar eve rocciev et sve ctsyev ici sispesefssoloresosesarevenesel eis eis\aielos hel sfelisieinjeuefelsiciel $ 3035.71

BALANCE:
Motal\GashiandiReceiptsifor 1984 37.25 - rors) ss'e aim cvercs crores ole ays itis te} sle\s/aielafeieie, aie slaveleseialals|et sich eys:¥(2 21 1=hn\e $19832.54
MotaliMisbursem emtsucryecrse ese eye cites edepesey statuette elatrsvonolebciayz tela cle cuveacponekelepelessbsuevauakallelsreis iste $11930.54

60 Academy Affairs

KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE FOUNDATION

Botany Foundation ($10000 CD) Interest ..... 2.2.2.5... eee cee eee eee eee eee $ 940.04
Cele ce bt. Cen ee ATE Un nan aM Gea Sent oe aeCnaEnoT mo noatGonanoseacGosadcgdaa $ 800.00
Subtotal $ 1565.51

Floristic Fund (Refund of grant) $ 300.00
Marcia Athey Fund ($55645-CD’s)

Trnterest: 1983 5 i565. c isco 5S a RS RRSP Neate oy EIST RV ANS rare Sv Selb SRI Fete or Te Vo svete Tore $ 4638.88

Interest 1984) 5 cis ssteky oicva ia tevsa qu jatne cuayacoveyclarens Sisle wrecetetchokeueloletatenacaccretelevarete terrae eveToteeat eran tereees $ 4449.52

Subtotal $ 9088.40

Grants’ 1 9845: ais sisi che ooo eS SOS FT STRETTON SOSTER er eTe TSS $ 6250.00

Total $ 2838.40

Dr. Taylor indicated that the cash on hand was about $2000.00 more, due to interest from C.D.’s received
after November 1.

Following a motion and second from the floor, the report was approved.

1. COMMITTEE ON PUBLICATION. Dr. Branley Branson made the report.
Vol. 45 (3-4) of the Transactions has not been received, but have been assured by the printers that the jour-
nal will be delivered within the next week.

Vol. 45 (1-2) consisted of 100 pages that included 9 full-length papers, 10 notes, Academy Affairs, Program
of the Annual Meeting, abstracts of papers presented at the annual meeting of Academy, and News and Com-
ments. Vol. 45 (3-4), September 1984, 102 pages, included 9 papers, 6 notes, News and Comments, Academy
Business, and the annual index to the Transactions. The cost for printing 45 (1-2) was $5,854.45, less approx-
imately $360.00 for reprints recovered from authors. He said he had not received a bill for Vol. 45(3-4).

The subjects of the 18 papers and 16 notes in Vol. 45 were: Zoology and Entomology, 21; Geology, 8;
Microbiology, 1; Geography, 1; Botany, 1; Anthropology, 1; and Chemistry, 1. Thus, the diversity of papers
continues to increase, although the preponderance of them still comes from zoologists.

2. MEMBERSHIP COMMITTEE. Dr. Larry Elliott made the report.

The contact people that have served this year are as follows: Drs. Coltharp and Freytag, University of Ken-
tucky; Dr. Joe Winstead, Western Kentucky University; Dr. Al Smith, Eastern Kentucky University; Dr. Charles
Kupchella, Murray State; Dr. Manuel Swartz, University of Louisville; Dr. Susan Studlar, Centre College; Dr.
Thomas Strickler, Berea College; Dr. Bill Beasley, Jr., Paducah Community College; Dr. Tom Seay,
Georgetown College; Dr. Gertrude Ridgel, Kentucky State College; Dr. Jerry Carpenter, Northern Kentucky
University an Dr. John Philley, Morehead University.

A membership list from the secretary of KAS, Dr. Robert Creek, was received in January. Each contact
person was sent a list of inactive members at their institution and asked to contact these people for reenlistment.
They were also asked to recruit new members. To the other inactive members in the KAS I sent a letter remind-
ing them they were inactive. This was beneficial as errors were found on our membership lists and new members
have joined.

The secretary of KAS sent me an updated computer list of members in February and the same procedure
was followed. The contact people were particularly urged to determine if the people they contacted had followed
through on their commitment to renew their membership or join the KAS. This same process was repeated in
September of 1984. There were 62 new members for 1984 giving a total of 491 members paid for 1984.

A report from the membership committee appeared in the March Newsletter of KAS. If the board would
suggest contact people for other organizations that have none, the committee would appreciate it since this
would enable KAS to optimize recruitment. The following organizations need contact people for recruitment:
Ashland Petroleum Co., Elizabethtown Community College, Thomas More College, Hazard Community Col-
lege, Henderson Community College, Madisonville Community College, Brescia College and Prestonburg Com-
munity College. He indicated that members from Ashland Petroleum Co. and Elizabethtown Community Col-
lege had said they would serve as contact people. He said that if anyone else is interested in being a contact per-
son, to see him or a member of the committee.

Trans. Kentucky Academy of Science — 46(1-2) 61

3. STATE GOVERNMENT/SCIENCE ADVISORY COMMITTEE. Dr. Charles Kupchella made the report.

He stated that the efforts of the committee to bring science closer to government has resulted in a merger
with the “Kentucky Tomorrow: the Commission of Kentucky’s Future”. This is an effort by Lt. Governor Beshear
to focus the importance of science and technology on the future of Kentucky. Dr. Boggess was appointed to the
Commission and it is expected that a majority of the members of a Science and Technology panel to serve with
the Commission will be members of KAS. A KAS membership list has been submitted to the Lt. Governor’s of-
fice. An inaugural luncheon was held on July 25 for the Commission. The purpose of the meeting was to
brainstorm the approach and the nature of the task of what will ultimately become the Science and Technology
Panel under the Commission. Dr. Kupchella concluded by sitting that he felt very positive about the approach
being taken by Lt. Governor Beshear.

4. DISTRIBUTION OF RESEARCH FUNDS. Dr. William Bryant presented the following report.
During 1984, the Botanical Grants Fund awarded four grants for a total of $800.00. The recipients were:

1. Mr. Harry Woodward, University of Louisville, $200.00 grant, for his work on Liriodendron. This
award was in addition to a previous grant of $400.00 in 1983.

2. Ms. Donna Godbey, Eastern Kentucky University, $100.00 grant, for additional work on her floristic
survey of Maywoods. Ms. Godbey had received a previous award. She will present a paper on her
research at the annual meeting.

3. Mr. Paul Grote, University of Indiana, $400.00 grant, to supplement his work on the paleobotany of
the Eocene deposits in Western Kentucky.

4. Ms. Jennifer Sharp, Western Kentucky University, $100.00 grant, for her dendrochronology work in
south-central Kentucky.

During the year, a number of requests for information on the Botanical Grants was received. The Botanical
Grants Committee is open to applications Botany Fund prior to April 1, 1985. Grants are open to
undergraduates and graduate students enrolled in a college or university program within the Commonwealth or
applicants may be enrolled in institutions outside of Kentucky but doing research in this state. All areas of
botanical research will be given consideration for funding.

Applications should describe the proposed research and include appropriate literature citations and an
outline of the costs. Three copies are required. Recipients are expected to file a summary report with the
Botanical Grants Committee and/or present the results of his/her research before an appropriate sectional
meeting of the KAS.

5. SCIENCE EDUCATION ADVISORY COMMITTEE. Dr. Ted George presented the following report.

For many years, this committee has been concerned with the number of teachers who are teaching out-of-
field. This has been a continuing problem with science last spring, Anna Neal and Ted George visited Mrs.
Caroline Wasaba who is now head of the Accreditation Section of the State Department of Education and aired
our concerns. (The number of teachers teaching out-of-field are governed by accreditation regulations.) Mrs.
Wasaba was very receptive to our point of view. We shall continue to monitor this situation.

We received problems this committee should be addressing in addition to the above—extra pay for science
teachers, the proposed three tiers of certification and continuation of the Science Advisory Council. It was
decided that the best approach would be to re-establish the Science Advisory Council. Therefore, it was recom-
mended to the Executive Committee that the President write a letter to Alice McDonald, Superintendent of
Public Instruction to request that the Science Advisory Council be re-instated. To our knowledge, only one Ad-
visory Council has been organized (the Environmental Council). We shall continue efforts along this line.

Presently, Kentucky teachers are certified in two tiers—elementary (K-8) and secondary (7-12). A three
tiered certification has been passed by the Kentucky Council on Teacher Certification in May and by the State
Board of Education in July. According to this program, effective September 1, 1989, it is proposed that new
teachers may be certified as Elementary (K-4), Middle School/Junior High (5-8) and Secondary (9-12). Teachers
certified before that date will be certified under the two tiered system. Teachers meeting the requirements for
one tier of certification may be endorsed for another tier by meeting the requirements for that tier.

The requirements for certifying teachers in elementary and secondary remain the same. Briefly, the new re-
quirements for middle school require 48 semester hours in the specialty component, which must be divided be-
tween two teaching fields of 24 hours each. The fields are: (1) English and Communication (2) Mathematics (3)
Science and (4) Social Studies.

For the science field: Preparation shall include 6 semester hours in each of physical sciences, biological
sciences and earth sciences; at least one biological science and one physical science course must be accom-
panied by a laboratory requirement.

62 Academy Affairs

Our committee does have some concerns about the new middle school guidelines and again proposed to
the Executive Committee that the President of the Academy write to Superintendent McDonald our concerns.
So far, we have had no reply but here are our concerns:

(1) The newly certified middle school teacher must satisfy requirements in two fields. Is this teacher then
restricted to teaching subjects only within those two fields? For example, if a new teacher satisfied field re-
quirements in English and Social Science; could that teacher then teach natural science in the middle school?
The guidelines as we read them do not specifically say that this would not be allowed. If it is indeed the case that
such a teacher would be teaching out-of-field and would not be allowed, then the guidelines should explicitly
state that. On the other hand, if it is envisioned that once a teacher has satisfied the requirements of two fields,
they could teach any subject in middle school, then I think all science groups would be unalterably opposed. We
would appreciate a clarification of this issue.

(2) We are concerned that middle school certification may have difficulty in attracting enough applicants to
maintain the teaching staffs. Our experience indicates that prospective teachers will not deliberately choose
middle school but will opt for elementary or secondary. It is our understanding that Indiana tried three levels of
certification several years ago and has been unable to secure enough applicants for middle school. Have the ex-
periences of other states been surveyed?

(3) While requiring 24 hours in each of the four fields may seem an even-handed approach—we feel that it is
severly unbalanced. Six hours in each subject of physical, biological and earth science is not comparable to 24
hours in mathematics. There are many science courses in all universities intended to inform the general student
which are certainly not suitable as a background for teachers. These courses are most often offered in three
hour units and we fear these are the courses that will be used for the science field. We compare this to 24 hours
in mathematics, which would probably take the new teacher completely through the calculus sequence! Clear-
ly, the preparations in math and science are not comparable.

Dr. George said that Dr. Boggess and he would be meeting in December with Mr. Simandle to discuss the
above mentioned concerns.

6. KENTUCKY JUNIOR ACADEMY OF SCIENCE. Mr. Herb Leopold made the following report.
The 1984 membership was 742 paid members from 20 clubs, an average of 41 students per club.

Research grants were awarded to 10 students for a total of $550.00.

As in previous years, our major activity was the annual symposium which was hosted by Western Kentucky
University. Forty-one abstracts were submitted and 37 papers read. These were from 11 schools. Other regular
activites included the Lab-Skills and Science Bowl competitions.

A party celebrating the 50th anniversary of the K.J.A.S. was substituted for our usual special speaker. This
was so successful that the sponsors and board members decided to make some food and good times a regular
feature of our annual spring meeting.

As a result of our “Outstanding Science Graduates” programs, two more students have scholarships this
year in the Physics Department at Western. These scholarships were provided by the Ogden Foundation.

This year we are scheduled to hold our Symposium at Model Laboratory School, Eastern Kentucky Univer-
sity the last Friday and Saturday of April.

The KJAS Treasurer’s report was presented by Mr. Leopold.

“Balance on hand, September 1, 1984 $ 823.20
Disbursements -0-
Receipts
Club Dues 65.00

Grant Co. High School 5.00
Deming High School 12.50
Russellville High School 13.00
Russellville High School (83-84) 12.00

Bowling Green High School 22.50

Trans. Kentucky Academy of Science — 46(1-2) 63

KAS Contribution 500.00
Total Receipts 565.00
Balance on Hand, November 1, 1984 $1,388.20

The report was audited by Dr. Taylor and found to be in order.

7. RARE AND ENDANGERED SPECIES COMMITTEE. Dr. Branson made the report.

Dr. Branson said that Mr. John MacGregor would be the new chairperson of the committee. The commit-
tee is in the process of developing a standardized form for the addition or changing of species on the endangered
list. He pointed out that Kentucky still had one of the longest lists of endangered species. The committee would
have the list completed by the next meeting.

8. AAAS—no report

9. NOMINATING COMMITTEE. Dr. John Philley offered the following nominations and moved their accep-
tance.

VICE PRESIDENT: Larry Giesmann
Northern Kentucky University
SECRETARY: Robert O. Creek

Eastern Kentucky University

TREASURER: Morris D. Taylor
Eastern Kentucky University

REPRESENTATIVE TO AAAS: Joe King
Murray State University
BOARD OF DIRECTORS: William Bryant

Thomas More College

William Beasley
Paducah Community College

William Hettinger, Jr.
Ashland Petroleum Co.

The motion was seconded from the floor and, with no further nominations, was passed.

10. RESOLUTION COMMITTEE. Dr. John Philley submitted the following resolution which were accepted
unanimously.

Resolution No. 1

WHEREAS,
Kentucky State University has served in a very outstanding manner as the host institution for Seventieth
Annual Meeting of the Kentucky Academy of Science, and

WHEREAS,
President Raymond Burse, Gerrit Kloek and many others at Kentucky State University have worked
diligently to provide for the success of this annual meeting, and

WHEREAS,

Kentucky State University has had a notable past and will have a bright future in providing educational op-
portunities in the sciences in the Commonwealth of Kentucky,
THEREFORE,

be it resolved herewith that the Kentucky Academy of Science express its appreciation to Kentucky State
University and the above-named individuals, and
that the Academy’s Secretary be instructed to so inform them, and

that the Kentucky Academy of Science congratulate Kentucky State University for its educational successes in
the Commonwealth and the Nation and for promoting science through instruction, public service, and research.

64 Academy Affairs

Resolution No. 2

WHEREAS,
the Honorable Steven L. Beshear, Lieutenant Governor of the Commonwealth of Kentucky, is providing
outstanding leadership in addressing and improving the status of science, technology, and government,

THEREFORE,

be it resolved that the Kentucky Academy of Science commend Lieutenant Governor Beshear for his con-
cerns and efforts to bring about a productive and cooperative atmosphere for science, technology, and govern-
ment, and

that the Academy offer its support for these endeavors.

NEW BUSINESS

A. Dr. John Philley, on behalf of Morehead State University, extended to the Academy an official invitation to
hold its 1985 annual meeting on the campus of Morehead State University. A motion was made and seconded to
accept the invitation.

B. Dr. Joe Winstead announced plans to hold a joint meeting in 1986 with the Kentucky Association for Progress
in Science, Kentucky Council of Teachers in Math and School Science and Mathematics Association, Inc.
(SSMA). The tentative location is the convention center in Lexington, Kentucky. The only change would involve
a joint plenary session. Any workshops sponsored by the other Associations would be available to the Academy.
The SSMA would underwrite the cost of the meeting. The joint meeting would also attract a larger number of
venders. Dr. Winstead stated that he would be meeting in December with representatives of the different
organizations to begin planning for the 1986 meeting.

President Boggess concluded his tenure as President by thanking the Academy for their help during the
past year. Although progress was made during the past year, he stated that the Academy needs to continue to
strive to obtain more research money for Kentucky and to become the focal unit for representing science in Ken-
tucky. President Boggess then presented President-elect Winstead with the gavel and welcomed him as Presi-
dent of the Kentucky Academy of Science for 1985.

President Winstead presented Dr. Boggess with a plaque for his service as President and his contributions
to the Academy. Following a brief address by President Winstead, the meeting was adjourned at 1015.

Robert Creek, Secretary
Kentucky Academy of Science

KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
70th ANNUAL MEETING
PROGRAM

Friday, November 9, 1984

0900-1200 Community College Faculty Meeting -
Academic Service Bldg
Lobby Auditorium

1130-1300 | Executive Committee Luncheon -
Presidential Dining Room
Academic Service Bldg

1200-1600 Registration - Lobby, Bradford Hall

1200-1700 Scientific Exhibits - Lobby,
Bradford Hall

1300-1500 Sectional Meetings - (See Following
Pages)

1500-1530 Coffee Break - Lobby, Bradford Hall

1530-1700 Plenary Session - Little Theater,
Bradford Hall

1730-1900 Reception - Lieutenant Governor’s
Mansion

1930-? KAS Annual Banquet - Capital Plaza

Hotel, Ball Room
Saturday, November 10, 1984

0800-10009 Registration - Lobby, Bradford Hall

0800-1200 Scientific Exhibits - Lobby, Bradford
Hall

0800-0900 Sectional Meetings - (See Following
Pages)

0900-0915 Coffee Break - Lobby, Bradford Hall

0915-1015 Annual Business Meeting - Little
Theater, Bradford Hall

1030-1200 Sectional Meetings - (See Following
Pages)

1300-? Sectional Meetings - (As Needed)

PLENARY SESSION
Friday, November 9
1530 Little Theater, Bradford Hall

THE INTERFACING OF EDUCATON,
SCIENCE, AND GOVERNMENT

Speakers: Dr. Raphael O. Nystrand
Secretary of Education
and the Humanities Cabinet

Dr. Joseph Danek
Director of Special Projects
National Science Foundation

ANNUAL BANQUET

Friday, November 9
1930 Capital Plaza Hotel, Ball Room

Speaker: Steven L. Beshear
Lieutenant Governor
Commonwealth of Kentucky

“SCIENCE AND GOVERNMENT:
PROGRESS THROUGH
COOPERATION”

BOTANY AND MICROBIOLOGY
SECTION

Max E. Medley, Chairperson, Presiding
Ronald L. Jones, Secretary
Room 107 - Hathaway Hall

Friday, November 9, 1984

1300 The ecological life cycle of Campanula
americana. Jerry Baskin and Carol
Baskin, University of Kentucky.

1315 The influences of some environmental fac-
tors on the germination of some of the
desert annual plants of the Negev Desert
of Israel. Y. Gutterman, University of Ken-
tucky, sponsored by J. Baskin.

1330 Preservation of leaves and flowers by
microwave in the plant biology laboratory.
Charles D. Howes, Ashland Community
College.

1345 Nitrogen-fixing capabilities of Azospirillum
lipoferum from a coal surface-mined site.
D. N. Mardon and F. M. Rothwell,
Eastern Kentucky University and USDA-
Forest Service.

1400 Vegetative growth of Phytophthora in-
hibited by ectomychorrhizal fungi.
Frederick M. Rothwell, USDA-Forest Ser-

vice.

1415

1430

1445

1500

1515
1530

Program

Allelopathic inhibition of the bacteria
Thiobaccillus ferrooxidans Temple and
Colmer by woody species on abandoned
strip mines. Valina Kay Hurt. Hazard
Community College.

The aquatic aeromonads. Dennis Lye,
Northern Kentucky University, sponsored
by L. Giesmann.

Establishment of tissue culture from
mature pine trees—the problem of
microbial contamination. Karan Kaul,
Kentucky State University

Incidence and dissemination of Epichloe
typhina in tall fescue. Dan Varney,
Eastern Kentucky University.

Coffee Break

Plenary Session

Saturday, November 10, 1984

0800

0815

1045

1100

1115

1130

Community composition of a beech-
hemlock woods in south-eastern Madison
County, Ronald L. Jones and Ralph L.
Thompson, Eastern Kentucky University
and Berea College.

The status of Polymnia laevigata in Ken-
tucky. Marc Evans, Kentucky Nature
Preserves Commission.

The Eden Shale flora east of Lexington,
Kentucky, along Liberty Road. Patricia

Dalton and Willem Meijer, University of
Kentucky.

Rafflesia: the largest flower in the world,
studied at the University of Kentucky.
Willem Meijer, University of Kentucky.

Coffee Break
Annual Business Meeting

The vascular flora of Maywoods En-
vironmental and Educational Laboratory,
Garrard and Rockcastle Counties, Ken-
tucky. Donna A. Godbey, Miami Universi-
ty, Ohio.

Immunization of cucumber against Col-
lelotrichum logenarium. Polly Johnson,
Paducah Tilghman High School, spon-
sored by H. A. Leopold.

Growth of oral bacteria on various sugars
and sugar substitutes. Rose Marie
O’Brien, Notre Dame Academy, spon-
sored by H. A. Leopold.

Inhibition of nitrogen uptake by sulfate
ions. David J. Minter, Berea College.

Diatoms as water quality indicators in
Kentucky. Part I: Halophilic species.

1145

1200
1300

1315

1330

1345

1400

1415

Stephen D. Porter, Kentucky Division of
Water.

Bryophytes as a habitat for Myxomycetes
(slime molds). Steven L. Stephenson and
Susan Moyle Studlar, Fairmont State Col-
lege, West Virginia, and Centre College.

Lunch break

Patterns of recovery of a clear cut forest
stand in Laurel County, Kentucky after 19
years. Joe E. Winstead, Western Kentucky
University.

Geographic and vegetational influences on
sexual reproduction in Maianthemum
canadense Desf. (liliaceae). Cynthia L.
Williams, Centre College.

The natural vegetation of the so-called
Bluegrass Region. Julian Campbell,
University of Kentucky.

Uncommon communities and quantitative
environmental assessment. Hall Bryan,
Frankfort.

The use of historical documents, early
maps, military land grants, and GLO
surveys in the vegetation research in Ken-
tucky. William S. Bryant and William H.
Martin, Thomas More College and Eastern
Kentucky University.

Election of sectional officers

CHEMISTRY SECTION

Carl D. Slater, Chairman
Audrey L. Companion, Secretary

Session I. Joan Reeder, Presiding
Little Theater - Bradford Hall

Friday, November 9, 1984

1300

1315

1330

1345

Solvent-induced Swelling of Coal using
Cyclic Hydrocarbons and their Nitrogen
Heterocycle Analogs. Jan Buckmaster and
Joan Reeder. Eastern Kentucky Universi-
ty.

The Nature of Supported Co-Mo and Ni-W
Catalysts. E. J. Dady, L. J. Boucher and
B. H. Davis. Western Kentucky University
and I.M.M.R., University of Kentucky.

Raman Spectra of CO Absorbed on Ni
(100). H. A. Marzouk and E. B. Bradley.,
University of Kentucky.

Thermal Analysis in the Study of
Petroleum Pitch. William L. Budden.
Ashland Petroleum Company.

1400

1415

1430

1445

1500

1530

1300

1315

1330

1345

1400

1415

1430

Trans. Kentucky Academy of Science — 46(1-2) 67

A Field Study on the Self-Heating of Il-
linois Basin Coals During Barging. S. M.
Fatemi, P. E. Pfannerstill, K. J. Thrasher,
S. M. Williams, G. S. Yates, J. W.
Reasoner and J. T. Riley. Western Ken-
tucky University.

Establishment of a Data Bank on the Self-
Heating of Coal. S. M. Fatemi, P. E. Pfan-
nerstill, K. J. Thrasher, D. D. Watson, S.
M. Williams, G. S. Yates, J. T. Riley and
J. W. Reasoner. Western Kentucky
University.

Preparation and NMR Studies of
Stereochemically-nonrigid Molybdenum
Complexes. P. N. Nickias, J. P. Seleque
and S. L. Smith. University of Kentucky.

A Shielded Mercury Microelectrode for
Use in Voltammetry. Cheryl L. Hughes
and Jeffrey E. Anderson. Murray State
University.

Antibiotic Susceptibility and Plasmid
Screening Studies of Three Clinical
Isolates of Acinetobacter Calco-Aceticus.
Thomas M. Maudru and V. Vandegarift.
Murray State University.

Plenary session

Session II. Carl D. Slater, Presiding
Room 104 - Bradford Hall

The Preparation, Structure and Reactivity
of [Fe CH (PPh,); (Cp)] (PF.). Fame D.
Goodrich and John P. Selegque. University
of Kentucky.

Selective Oxidations of Sucrose. Synthesis
of Glucosyltransferase Inhibitors. S. Singh
and K. G. Taylor. University of Louisville.

Fourier Transform Spectroscopy at the
University of Louisville. Richard A. Porter.
University of Louisville.

The Design of Reaction Mechanisms. P. L.
Corio. University of Kentucky.

The Synthesis of Tetrabutylammonium
Dichloroidodide and Bis [bis(ethylene-
dithio)tetratiafulvalene]dichoroiodide.
Patricia Jackson and Jack D. Williams.
Cumberland College and Argonne Na-
tional Laboratory.

Synthesis and Structure of a Novel
Molybdenum-Zirconium Complex. William
J. Sartain and John P. Selegue. University
of Kentucky.

Theoretical Studies on N-Bonded Pyrazole
Derivatives of Boron. A. L. Companion,
Frank Liu and K. Niedenzu, University of
Kentucky.

1445 Proton-Transfer in the Hydrolysis of 2- and
4-Fluoro-N-Heterocycles. Denise Ruther-
ford and Oliver J. Muscio. Murray State
University.

1500 Formation of Lactones by the Palladium
Catalyzed Carbonylation of Haloalcohols.
Arlene R. Courtney, Carol Condon and
Julie Obermark. Murray State University.

15:30 Plenary Session

Session III. Audrey Companion, Presiding
Little Theater - Bradford Hall

Saturday, November 10, 1984

0800 Magnetic Properties of o-Diphenol Com-
plexes of Copper (II). Model of Tyrosinase
Activity. Robert M. Buchanan and Cheryl
Wilson-Blumenberg. University of
Louisville.

0815 Quinone Chemically Modified Electrodes.
Electrocatalytic Reduction of Fer-
ricytochrome c. Robert M. Buchanan and
Mark Mashuta. University of Louisville.

0830 Orientation and Rotation Effects on
Crystal Growth. Sodium Chlorate System.
Calcium Tartrate System Jackie Rust.
Notre Dame Academy.

0845 Studies Involving Liquid Membranes. Terri
Dietz. Notre Dame Academy.

0900 Coffee Break
0915 Annual Business Meeting

Joint Session with Physics Section: Little Theater
- Bradford Hall

1030 A Visit into the Past-Some Views of the
History of Science. Norman Hunter,
Western Kentucky University.

1115 PANEL DISCUSSION: Increasing Com-
munication between High School and Col-
lege Teachers of Chemistry and Physics

1205 Chemistry Section Meeting: Election of
Section Officers.

GEOGRAPHY SECTION
John L. Anderson, Chairman, Presiding
Glen Conner, Secretary
Room 224 - Hathaway Hall
Friday, November 9, 1984

1300 A Simple Interactive Computer Model for
Calculating the Soil Moisture Balance,

1315

1330

1345

1400

1415

1430

1445

1500
1530

Program

David A. Howarth and Tammy J. Baker,
University of Louisville.

Geomorphic Variations in the Dripping
Springs (Chester) Escarpment. Ronald R.
Dilamarter, Western Kentucky University.

Space and Place in Early Childhood,
Karen Koegler, University of Kentucky.

Local Weather Fluctuations During the
Annular Solar Eclipse, 30 May 1984. L.
Michael Trapsso, Western Kentucky
University.

A Measure of the Subjective Component
of Lineament Analysis of Topographic
Maps. Chris Groves, Western Kentucky
University.

Cross-validation Techniques to Establish
Extent of Concurrent Validity for Discrimi-
nant Marketing-Research Surveys. Alan
D. Smith, Eastern Kentucky University.

On Rivers that Flow the Wrong Way and
Similar Matters. Dennis L. Spetz, Univer-
sity of Louisville.

Cultural Regions of Afghanistan. S. Reza
Ahsan, Western Kentucky University.

Coffee Break

Plenary session

Saturday, November 10, 1984

0815

1045

1100

Subscribership Patterns, A Clue to Ken-
tucky’s Social Geography. John L. Ander-
son, University of Louisville.

Spatial Variations in Housing Values in
Bowling Green, Kentucky: A
Neighborhood Analysis. James M.
Bingham and Wayne L. Hoffman, Western
Kentucky University.

Lion Pride Territory Range. John Snaden,
Eastern Kentucky University.

Plant Hardiness Zones in Kentucky. Kevin
D. Brown, Western Kentucky University.

Elevation of Sectional Officers
Annual Business Meeting

Water-shy Geographers. Edmund E.
Hegen, Western Kentucky University.

Geographical Determinants in the
Prehistory of North America. John R.
Hale, University of Louisville.

Kentucky’s Evolving Lake Landscape: A
Recent Development. William A.
Withington, University of Kentucky.

1115 A Closer Look at a Record Breaking At-
mospheric Low Pressure System. Bryan
Kinkel, Western Kentucky University.

1130 Reflexions on Philosophy of Geography.
Milos Sebor, Eastern Kentucky University.

1145 A University Student Center and Central
Place. Jerry L. Johnson, Western Ken-
tucky University.

1200 Polynomial Modeling and Predictive
Evaluation of Tariff-derived Transportation
Costs in Kentucky. Alan D. Smith and
Charles L. Hilton, Eastern Kentucky
University.

1215 Rural Development Efforts in Portugal. T.
J. Kubiak, Eastern Kentucky University.

GEOLOGY SECTION

Peter W. Whaley, Chairman
Gary L. Kuhnhenn, Secretary, Presiding
Room 226 - Hathaway Hall

Friday, November 9, 1984

1300 Applications of Computer Graphics to
Undergraduate Education in the Earth
Sciences. Alan D. Smith, Coal Mining Ad-
ministration, Eastern Kentucky University.

1315 Diagenesis of Mineral Matter in Coal: Ap-
plication of Carbonate Models. Michael J.
Andrejko, Eastern Kentucky University.
Sponsored by Gary L. Kuhnhenn.

1330 Three-Dimensional Modeling and Trend
Surface Analysis of Selected Borehole In-
formation for Geotechnical Applications.
Alan D. Smith, Eastern Kentucky Univer-
sity, David H. Timmerman, University of
Akron.

1345 Syntectonic Influence on Late Devonian
Deposition in the Vicinity of the Cincinnati
Arch, Kentucky. James D. Pollock, Ken-
tucky Center for Energy Research
Laboratory, and Roy C. Kepferle, Eastern
Kentucky University.

1400 A Statistical Note on Power Analysis as
Applied to Hypothesis Testing Among
Selected Petrographic Point-Count Data.
Alan D. Smith, Gary L. Kuhnhenn,
Eastern Kentucky University.

1415 First Occurrence of Ordovician
Eurypterids in Kentucky. William B. Beasy
III, Oldham County School System. Spon-
sored by Anne V. Noland.

1430 Dimensional Analysis of Coal Pillars: An
Application of Coat-Sensitive Mine Plan-

Trans. Kentucky Academy of Science — 46(1-2) 69

ning Principles to a Southeastern Ken-
tucky Mine. Alan D. Smith, Eastern Ken-
tucky University.

1445 Election of Sectional Officers.
1500 Coffee Break.
1530 Plenary Session

Saturday, November 10, 1984

0900
0915

Coffee Break

Annual Business Meeting

PHYSICS SECTION
Joel Gwinn, Chairman, Presiding
Raymond McNeil, Secretary
Room 104 - Bradford Hall
Friday, November 9, 1984

1500
1530

Coffee Break.

Plenary Session.
Saturday, November 10, 1984
0800 Will Our Atmosphere Survive the In-
dustrial Revolution? James O. Manning

(sponsored by Bernard Kern), University of
Kentucky.

0815 Vibrating Reed Measurements in One-
Dimensional Conductors. William Roark
(sponsored by Bernard Kern), University of

Kentucky.

Design of an Apparatus for Producing a
Multiple-Charged lon Beam. Barton
Smith (spnsored by Bernard Kern),
University of Kentucky.

Investigations of the Fluidyne Engine.
Debbie Teisl (sponsored by Herbert
Leopold), Notre Dame Academy.

Al\(P,P’d) Calibration for In-Beam
Gamma-Ray Experiments. C. E. Laird,
Eastern Kentucky University.

Annual Business Meeting.

A Visit into the Past - Some Views of the
History of Science. Norman Hunter,
Western Kentucky University. (Joint Ses-
sion with Chemistry Section - Little
Theater - Bradford Hall)

1115 Increasing Communication between High
School and College Teachers of Chemistry
and Physics. Panel Discussion. (Joint Ses-
sion with Chemistry Section - Little

Theater - Bradford Hall)

1200
1300

Lunch

It’s a Wonderfully Disordered World. Shi-
yu Wu, University of Louisville.

1340 Computer-Assisted Solutions of the
Krishnan-Lonsdale Equations for Magnetic
Anisotropy. Michael Eismann (sponsored
by Sr. Mary Eleanor Fox), Thomas More

College.

1355 Measuring the Lifetime of a Metastable
State in an Optical Material. Don J.
Schertler (sponsored by Jack Wells),

Thomas More College.

1410 A Simple Electrostatic Voltage Generator
for the Student Laboratory. Bernard D.

Kern, University of Kentucky.

1425 Computer Programming in College
Physics. Hai Van Nquyen and Les D. Bur-

ton, Jefferson Community College.
Coffee Break.

Data-Analysis and Tutorial Microcomputer
Programs for an Undergraduate Nuclear
Physics Course. Russell M. Brengelman,
Morehead State University.

1440
1445

1500 Progress on the Design of a New Introduc-
tory High School Physics Course. Lester

Evans, Tates Creek Senior High School.

1515 The Physics Teacher - Certification Pro-

gram at Morehead State University in the
Summer of 1983. Russell M. Brengelman,
Charles J. Whidden, and John C. Philley,

Morehead State University.

1530 Physics Section Business Meeting.

PHYSIOLOGY, BIOPHYSICS, BIOCHEMISTRY
AND PHARMACOLOGY SECTION

Raymond E. Richmond, Chairman
John Calkins, Secretary Presiding

Friday, November 9, 1984

Room 314 - Hathaway Hall
1300-
1500 Workshop: Integrative Study in Physiology
and Medicine. Joseph Engelberg, Universi-

ty of Kentucky
Session I - Room 318 - Hathaway Hall
Friday, November 9, 1984

1300 Glycuronidation of 4’ -chloro-4-biphenylol,
a primary polycholorinated biphenyl
metabolite. Robert F. Volp, Murray State

University.

70 Program

1315 Amino Acid Incorporation in
Pentobarbital-Treated Rat Spleen and
Leydig Cells. Russell Crabtree, Sponsored
by Gertrude Ridgel. Kentucky State

University.

1330 Electrophoretic Separation of Proteins in
Pentobarbital-Treated Rat Spleen and
Leydig Cells. Linda Winkle, Kentucky

State University.

1400 Monoclonal Antibodies to Human
Adenosine Deaminase. Anne Philips,

University of Kentucky.

1415 Altered Oligosacchorides - Lipid Assembly
in Insulin - Deprived 3T3 LI Adipocytes.

Palmer Orlandi, University of Kentucky.

1430 An Evaluation of Control Tissue in
Glycosaminoglycan Histochemistry.
Bradley T. Bryan and Charles E. Kup-

chella, Murray State University.

1445 Skin Glycosaminoglycan Changes
Associated with Diet-Induced
Hypothyroidism in the Rat. Darrell
Johnson and Charles E. Kupchella, Mur-

ray State University.

1500 Coffee break.

1530 Plenary Session.

Session Il
Room 318 - Hathaway Hall

Saturday, November 10, 1984
0800 Action Spectra and Quantum Yields for
Killing of UV Irradiated Tetrahymena
pyriformis, John Calkins, University of
Kentucky.

0815 Use of Aldehyde Dehydrogenase
Histochemistry in the Detection of
Chemically induced Mouse Liver Tumors.
Raymond E. Richmond, Northern Ken-

tucky University.

0830 Comutagenicity of Complex Mixtures and
Non-lonizing Radiation, Christopher P.
Selby, John Calkins and Harry G. Enoch,

University of Kentucky.

The UV-C and UV-B Action Spectra for
Killing the Algae Chlamydomonas and Its
Implication for Solar UV-B Action. Cindy
I. Keller and John Calkins, University of
Kentucky.

0845

0900
0915
1030

Election of Sectional Officers
Annual Business Meeting.

Dyes and Dye Mixtures Useful for Genera-
tion of UV in a Flashlamp Driven Tunable
Dye Laser. John Wheeler and John
Calkins, University of Kentucky.

1045 Comparisons Between Canavanine
-Adapted and Canavanine Non-adapted
Seed Predators. John A. Bleiler, Gerald
A. Rosenthal and Daniel H. Janzen,

University of Kentucky.

1100 Skeletal Evidence for Aortic Aneurysms in
Three Ancient Indian Populations.
Elizabeth Finkenstaedt, University of Ken-

tucky.

1115 Caffeine, Exercise, Body Weight and
Heart Rate in Rats. Brent C. White, Ann

Sisto and Amy Boulden, Centre College.

1130 Biological Effects of the Nonprotein
Amino Acid, L-Canavanine in the Rat.
Deborah A. Thomas and Gerald A.

Rosenthal, University of Kentucky.

1145 Water Content of the Rat Cremaster Mus-
cle - Effect of Bradykinin. Jamie S. Young
and Frederick N. Miller, University of

Louisville.

1200 Control of Kidney Microcirculation. David

L. Wiegman, University of Louisville.

1215 Effects of Hormonal Substances on Rats.
Glen Revan and Edwin A. Hess, Eastern

Kentucky University

1230 Effect of Altered Calcium Concentration
on the In Vivo Microvascular Response in
the Spontaneously and Renovasculr
Hypertensive Rat. Jessica Dowe and Irving

Joshua, University of Louisville.

SESSION III
Raymond E. Richmond, Chairman, Presiding
Room 320 - Hathaway Hall
1030 Metabolism and Transport of Canavanine
in Jackbean Canavalia ensiformis.
Timothy P. Rudd and Gerald A. Rosen-
thal, University of Kentucky.

1045 Localization of Tobacco Vein Mottling
Virus Helper Component Gene by Hybrid
Arrest Translation. Gary Hellman, Univer-

sity of Kentucky.

1100 A Protein is Covalently Linked to the S’
-Terminus of Tobacco Vein Mottling Virus
RNA. Muhammed Shababuddin, Universi-

ty of Kentucky.

1115 Biochemically-based Studies of
L-canavanine Toxicity and Detoxification
in Heliothis virescens F. Lepidoptera.
Milan A. Berge and Gerald A. Rosenthal,

University of Kentucky.

1130 Separation of Dansyl Hydrazine Denatur-
ized Oligosaccharides by Liquid
Chromatography. Steven A. Hull, Univer-

sity of Kentucky.

1145

Trans. Kentucky Academy of Science — 46(1-2) 71

The Effect of Toxic Fescue on the
Reproductive Potential in Laboratory Rats.
D. Varney, S. L. Jones. M. Ndefru,
Eastern Kentucky University and M. L.
Siegel, P. Zaves, J. Jackson, University of
Kentucky.

PSYCHOLOGY SECTION

Terry R. Barrett, Chairperson, Presiding

Virginia P. Falkenberg, Secretary
Room 312 - Hathaway Hall

Friday, November 9, 1984

1300

1315

1330

1345

1400

1415

1430

1445

1500
1530

Stress-Related Physiological Disorders
Among Families of Patients Afflicted with
Alzheimer’s Disease. Linda Hutchcraft
Smith, Murray State University. Spon-
sored by Terry R. Barrett.

The Relationship Between Hand and Foot
Thermal Biofeedback. Jack G. Thompson
and Christopher J. Duff, Centre College.

Frequency Effects for Identifying Rule-
Governed Stimuli: Evidence for Dual
Codes. Barney Beins and Pam Auciello,
Thomas More College.

Enhanced Memory for Rule-Generated
Letter Strings with Delayed Testing.
Barney Beins and Karen Lenhoff, Thomas
More College.

Children’s Use of Substitution. Sandra J.
Kearns and Virginia P. Falkenberg,
Eastern Kentucky University.

Recall and Recognition Memory of Supra-
and Subliminal Stimuli. Annette Rogers
and Jack G. Thompson, Centre College.

Saliency of Handedness in Self Concept.
Sandra J. Gibson, Murray State Universi-
ty. Sponsored by Terry R. Barnett.

The Effect(s) of Music on Anxiety and Per-
formance. Allen W. Pool, Murray State
University. Sponsored by Terry R. Barrett.

Coffee Break.

Plenary Session.

Saturday, November 10, 1984

0800

0815

Educational Effects on Helping Behavior.
Denise Tolle, Murray State University.
Sponsored by Terry R. Barrett.

Nontraditional Students in the Two-Year
College. Alan D. Smith, Eastern Kentucky
University.

0830

1045

1100

1115

1130

1145

1200

1215

1230

The Effects of Candidate Image on the
1984 Presidential Debates. Stanley S.
Bone, Murray State University. Sponsored
by Terry R. Barrett.

Career Choice in Relation to Job Satisfac-
tion. Tami Canter, Murray State Universi-
ty. Spnsored by Terry R. Barrett.

Coffee Break
Annual Business Meeting

Spatially Depicted Student Flow Models
for a Regional State University. Alan D.
Smith, Eastern Kentucky University.

The Existence and Origin of Personal
Name Sterotypes. Deborah R. Stairs,
Murray State University. Sponsored by
Terry R. Barrett.

Athletes’ Perceptions of the Effects of
Athletic Involvement on Academic
Achievement. Richard Brooks and
Virginia P. Falkenberg, Eastern Kentucky
University.

Women in Politics: Some Historical and
Cultural Aspects of Voting Patterns. Peggy
A. Smith, The University of Akron, and
Alan D. Smith, Eastern Kentucky Univer-
sity.

Differences Between 1-Career and
2-Career Families in the Influence of Sex
of Child and Parent on Parental Reactions
to Hypothetical Parent-Child Situations.
Jacqueline S. McMillan, Eastern Kentucky
University. Sponsored by Virginia P.
Falkenberg.

Attitudes of College Students Toward Mar-
riage. Keena Peek, Murray State Universi-
ty. Sponsored by Terry R. Barrett.

The Adjustment of Males to Divorce.
Thomas L. Montgomery, Murray State
University. Sponsored by Terry R. Barrett.

Attitudes and Patterns of Interracial
Dating Among Blacks and Whites. Damar
Rains, Murray State University. Spon-
sored by Terry R. Barrett.

Election of Sectional Officer.
Science Education Section
Janice Fish, Chair, Presiding

Don Birdd, Secretary
Room 226 - Hathaway Hall

Friday, November 9, 1984

1500
1530

Coffee Break
Plenary Session.

72 Program

Saturday, November 10, 1984

0800 Hancock Biological Station as a Resource
for Science Education. Charles Kupchella,
Murray State University.

0815 Intellectual Survival in Science Teaching.
Herb Leopold. Wester Kentucky Universi-
ty.

0830 Progress report on the Development of an

Introductory Physics Course. Lester
Evans. Fayette County Public Schools.
(Don Birdd, Sponsor).

0845 Re-trenching Pre- and Inservice Teachers
into Various Areas of the Natural
Sciences. Randy Falls and John Philley.
Morehead State University.

0900 Coffee Break
0915 Annual Business Meeting

1030 Teacher Perceptions of Mainstreaming in
Inquiry-Oriented Elementary Science. Ron
Atwood. University of Kentucky.

1045 Do Something WILD — An Overview of
Project WILD for Science/Environmental
Educators. Ann Seppenfield. Kentucky
Department of Education. (Don Birdd,
Sponsor).

1100 Creative Potential and Science Career
Preference of Participating Students in the
Kentucky Governor’s Scholars Program.
Don Birdd. Eastern Kentucky University.

1115 Election of Sectional Officers

1130 Teaching to Improve Middle School
Science. Tim Tassie. Kentucky Educa-
tional Television. (Don Birdd, Sponsor).

1145 The Design and Construction of an
Economical Column Gel Electrophoresis
Chamber. David R. Hartman. Western
Kentucky University.

1200 Profile of Kentucky Science Teachers. J.
Truman Stevens and Frank Howard.
University of Kentucky and Kentucky
Department of Education.

1215 Marine Service — A Field Experience for
Undergraduate Students. Ed Story.
Maysville Community College. (Don
Birdd, Sponsor).

1230 Dimensions of Wilderness Anxiety of
Junior High School Students. Charles T.
Crume and Gary D. Ellis. Western Ken-
tucky University.

1245 A Guide to Preparing Research Reports
for Science Projects (Grades 4-12). Janice
Fish. Jefferson County Public Schools.

Sociology Section

Reid Luhman, Co-Chairman, Presiding
Craig Taylor, Co-Chairman
Room 320 - Hathaway Hall

Friday, November 9, 1984

1300 K.A.S. vs. A.S.K.: Science vs.
Humanism? Thomas P. Dunn

1315 Undergraduate Recruitment of Sociology
Major. James S. Wittman, Jr. Western
Kentucky University

1330 Alleged Mediterranean Writings in Ancient
Kentucky, Tennessee, and Georgia: What
Do We Do With Them? James Murray
Walker, Eastern Kentucky.

1345 Social Research on Poverty: Is the
Classification Paradigm Shifting? Phyll
Esh, Eastern Kentucky University.

1400 The Socialization Chapter in 1984. Craig
H. Taylor, Western Kentucky University.

1415 The Soical Aspects of Hypertension. S.
Brent Tuthill

1430 Unraveling Class Interests. Steve Gilham,
University of Missouri, Kansas City.

1445 Is It Growing and Who Cares? A Study of
the Growth of the Underground Economy
and Its Sigificance. Leo Dyehouse,
Eastern Kentucky University.

1500 The Professional Thief: In Defense of Ed-
win Sutherland. John Curra and Steve
Savage, Eastern Kentucky University.

1515 Student/Faculty Perceptions of Interna-
tional Students at Eastern Kentucky
University. Allen Singleton, Eastern Ken-
tucky University.

1530 Plenary Session
Saturday, November 10, 1984

0900 Coffee Break
0915 Annual Business Meeting

ZOOLOGY AND ENTOMOLOGY
Douglas L. Dahlman, Chairperson, Presiding
Thomas C. Rambo, Secretary
Room 103 - Hathaway Hall
Friday, November 9, 1984

1300 Oviposition and feeding behavior of the
maize weevil, Sitophilus zeamais Motsch.

1315

1330

1345

1400

1430

1445
1500
1530

Trans. Kentucky Academy of Science — 46(1-2) 73

as affected by sex ratio and corn variety.

Philip W. Tipping, J. G. Rodriguez, and C.

G. Poneleit, University of Kentucky.

Photographic analysis of flower color: Its
use in the study of pollinator behavior. W.
Blaine Early, III, Cumberland College.

Singing behavior of female Northern Car-
dinals. Gary Ritchison, Eastern Kentucky
University.

Observations of Turkey Vulture nesting
behavior. William L. Lynch, Eastern Ken-
tucky University.

Interpopulational variation in growth
responses of small-mouthed salamanders:
The role of genotype versus environment.
James W. Petranka, University of Ken-
tucky.

Experimental infections of whitefish, Cor-
egonus clupeaformis (Mitchill), with
plerocercoids of Triaenophorus crassus
Forel. Ron Rosen, Union College.

Election of Sectional Officers
Coffee Break

Plenary Session

Thomas C. Rambo, Presiding

Saturday, November 10, 1984

0800

0815

The status of heron rookeries in Kentucky.
Sherri A. Evans, and John R. MacGregor,
Kentecky Department of Fish and Wildlife
Resources.

Least Tern (Sterna antillarum) survey of
the Mississippi River adjacent to Ken-
tucky: Results and management con-
siderations. Brian D. Anderson, Kentucky
Nature Preserves Commission, and Sherri
A. Evans, Kentucky Department of Fish
and Wildlife Resources.

The gray treefrogs (Hyla versicolor com-
plex) and map turtles (Graptemys) of Ken-
tucky. John R. MacGregor and Douglas
E. Stephens, Kentucky Department of
Fish and Wildlife Resources.

Coffee Break

0915
1030

1045

1100

1115

1130

1145

1200

1215

1230

1245

1300

Annual Business Meeting

Effect of salinity on oxygen consumption of
Cyprinodon variegatus. Michael Barton
and A. Christine Barton, Centre College.

Fish as indicators of ecological integrity.
Lewis Giles Miller, Kentucky Division of
Water.

Agonistic behavior in the Northern Fence
Lizard, Sceloporus undulatus hyacin-
thinus. Jamie Monroe and Blaine R. Fer-
rell. Western Kentucky University.

The freshwater mussels (Bivalvia:
Unionidae) of Buck Creek, Upper
Cumberland River System, Kentucky.
Robert S. Butler and Guenter A. Schuster,
Eastern Kentucky University.

Population overlap of aquatic isopods
Caecidotea forbesi and Lirceus fontinalis
in a woodland seep and run in north War-
ren County. Rudolph Prins, Western Ken-
tucky University.

Life history and Ecology of Eccoptura xan-
thenes (Newman) (Plecoptera: Perlidae)
from a small Kentucky stream. Beverly L.
Allen, Sue Bennett College, and Conald
C. Tarter, Marshall University.

Effects of variation in atmospheric oxygen
levels on hatching in Drosophila
melanogaster. Julia A. Clark, Gerrit
Kloek, and Diane Mason, Kentucky State
University.

Insect feeding deterrents in endophyte-
infected tall fescue. Douglas L. Dahlman,
University of Kentucky.

Foraging frequencies of various bees
(Superfamily Apoidea) to UV reflectant
and absorbent patterns in flowers. Rozen-
na B. Carr, University of Louisville.

The role of feeding regimens on the
growth of neonate broad-banded water
snakes, Nerodia fasciata confluens, and
possible effects on reproduction. Roy
Scudder, Millersville University.

Energy Consumption and Food Utilization
in the Indian Meal Moth. Paul
Hockensmith, Kentucky State University,
Terry Devine and J. G. Rodriguez, Univer-
sity of Kentucky.

Abstracts of Some Papers Presented
at the Annual Meeting

BOTANY AND MICROBIOLOGY

Preservation of leaves and flowers by microwave
in the plant biology laboratory. CHARLES D.
HOWES, Biological Sciences, Ashland Community
College, University of Kentucky, Ashland, KY 41101.

Plant materials with moderately thin tissues such
as leaves and flowers may be preserved rapidly by
utilizing microwave radiation to dehydrate them. Ina
single laboratory period 20 students can prepare two
or three items using a single microwave oven. Set-
tings of low to medium are used in the preservation
steps. Specimens are placed in an old book with ab-
sorbent pages, weighted, and cooked for 5 minutes.
Dampness is removed by arranging the items in a
stack of dinner plates and drying for 3-5 minutes.
Samples are loosened, given a final drying of 1-3
minutes on open plates, and mounted.

Geographic and vegetational influences on sexual
reproduction in Maianthemum canadense Desf.
(Liliaceae). WILLIAMS, CYNTHIA L. Division of
Science and Mathematics, Centre College, Danville,
KY 40422.

The existence of a threshold size for flowering in
this species leads to a prediction of lowered flowering
rates in stressful habitats; this prediction is not borne
out by statewide reproductive patterns in Wisconsin.
Southern populations, at the edge of the species
range, expend greater effort on flowering. Their
ramets flower at younger ages. These populations are
not more efficient at producing seeds than the nor-
thern populations; in fact, more sexual recruitment
takes place in northern populations. Geographic and
community-type patterns in flowering, fruit produc-
tion, and seed production give some insight into fac-
tors limiting sexual reproduction.

ENGINEERING

Dimensional analysis of coal pillars: An applica-
tion of cost-sensitive mine planning principles to a
southeastern Kentucky mine. ALAN D. SMITH, Coal
Mining Administration, College of Business, Eastern
Kentucky University, Richmond, KY 40475.

Cost-sensitive mine planning involves spatial pro-
jection of geological and economical conditions hav-
ing the greatest impact on cost and coal quality for a
particular site. Through comparison of actual, max-
imum safety, and recommended pillar dimensions and
associated factors of safety, based on a number of
theories, of a small coal mine near Leatherwood, Ken-
tucky, the traditional 40-foot pillars appear too large.
The alternative system of room-and-pillar mining with

34-foot pillars and conservative 20-foot entries would
allow for five entries to be developed in the same area
of coal, which would result in an increase of 320 tons
of raw coal per advance.

Three-dimensional modeling and trend-surface
analysis of selected borehole information for
geotechnical applications. ALAN D. SMITH,* Coal
Mining Administration, College of Business, Eastern
Kentucky University, Richmond, KY 40475, and
DAVID H. TIMMERMAN, Department of Civil
Engineering, University of Akron, Akron, OH 44325.

Three-dimensional computer-modeling and
statistical significance testing were performed on
selected borehole data derived from engineering
reports and loggings from construction sites on an ur-
ban university's campus. The results indicated that
the elevation of bedrock surface was best described by
the third-order trend-surface, bedrock depth by the
second-order, and elevation of water level after com-
pletion of the borehole by the third-order surface.
Although the models vary in effectiveness, they can
provide insights in predicting and eventually exten-
ding the placement of exploratory boreholes in the
future.

GEOLOGY

Applications of computer graphics to
undergraduate education in the earth sciences. ALAN
D. SMITH, Coal Mining Administration, College of
Business, Eastern Kentucky University, Richmond,
KY 40475.

There are large numbers of commercially
available computergraphics hardware and software
packages in today’s market. Many applications can be
directed towards classroom activities in the earth
sciences. A working database utilizing geotechnical
engineering and geological parameters, used in con-
junction with undergraduate courses in mining
geology and mine systems design, illustrated the
potential capabilities of appropriate computer soft-
ware (SYMAP, PLOTALL, and QUSMO) with existing
output facilities (electrostatic plotter, line-printer ter-
minal, and incremental drum plotter) to produce com-
puter graphics. Computer graphics are an essential
tool in helping students conceptualize and visualize
complex geological interactions and in preparing
them for the applied earth-science disciplines.

A statistical note on power analysis as applied to
hypothesis testing among selected petrographic
point-count data. ALAN D. SMITH, * Coal Mining Ad-

74

Trans. Kentucky Academy of Science — 46(1-2) 75

ministration, College of Business, and GARY L.
KUHNHENN, Department of Geology, Eastern Ken-
tucky University, Richmond, KY 40475.

In the power-analysis process are four
parameters than can be manipulated: alpha, sample
size, effect size, and degrees of freedom. Usually the
effect and alpha are set, and sample size and degrees
of freedom are directly related. Hence, the greatest
advantage of power analysis should be to determine
the sample size before a statistical test is performed.
Power was applied to a recent petrographic study of
the Strodes Creek Member of the Lexington
Limestone of north-central Kentucky. Powerful
statistical tests (P = 0.95) were determined to add in-
ternal validity to the microfacies delineated.

PHYSICS

Data-analysis and tutorial microcomputer pro-
grams for an undergraduate nuclear physics course.
RUSSELL M. BRENGELMAN, Department of
Physical Sciences, Morehead State University,
Morehead, KY 40351.

Four BASIC programs have been developed on
the subject of radioactive decay for the ATARI 800.
The first program separates mixed _ half-life
laboratory-counting data for Ag-108 and Ag-110. The
program makes resolving time and background data
corrections. The two component half-lives are then
computed using the method of weighted least
squares. Semi-log graphs of the separated com-
ponents are displayed. A second program uses ran-
dom numbers to simulate silver-counting data. The
third and fourth programs are three-component
nuclear-decay-chain demonstration programs.

The physics treacher certification program at
Morehead State University, Kentucky, during sum-
mer 1983. CHARLES J. WHIDDEN,’ JOHN C.
PHILLEY, and RUSSELL M. BRENGELMAN,
Department of Physical Sciences, Morehead State
University, Morehead, KY 40351.

A certification program in physics was offered at
Morehead State University during summer 1983,
primarily for those teachers already certified in some
other area of science. Students could earn up to 15
semester hours of credit, which, when added to the 8
or 10 hours earned previously in an introductory
2-semester course, would meet certification re-
quirements. Courses offered were in optics,
astronomy, nuclear science, and secondary physics
teaching. Four in-service teachers completed the pro-
gram and received certification, and four other pro-
spective teachers started work on certification during
this session.

PHYSIOLOGY, BIOPHYSICS, AND
PHARMACOLOGY

Effect of altered calcium concentration on the in
vivo microvascular response in the spontaneously
hypertensive rat. J.P. DOWE* and I.G. JOSHUA,
Department of Physiology, University of Louisville,
Louisville, KY 40223.

In vivo responses of third-order arterioles (3A) to
elevations in bath calcium [Ca* * ] were determined
in the spontaneously hypertensive rat (SHR; 12 wk)
and the age-matched Wistar Kyoto control (WKY).
The cremaster muscle with intact circulation and in-
nervation was suspended in a modified Krebs solution
(34.5°C; pH 7.4); CaCl, (0.0 to 10.2 mM) was sequen-
tially added. The re-introduction of calcium to the
bath caused a concentration-dependent constriction
in small arterioles. The magnitude of constriction in
3A arterioles appears to be greater in the SHR at bath
calcium concentrations of 2.55 mM and above. The
ED.,, value for SHR (1.9 + .3) had a trend to be lower
compared to WKY (2.9 + .9). The slope of the
calcium dose response curve for SHR (.25 + .02) was
steeper than that of the WKY (.11 + .04). These data
suggest a greater entry of extracellular calcium into
small arterioles of the SHR.

Aortic aneurysms in the Shawnee. ELIZABETH
FINKENSTAEDT, Department of Art, University of
Kentucky, Lexington, KY 40506.

Sternal perforations arising from non-syphilitic
aneurysms of the ascending aorta in individuals from
archaeological sites are examined with respect to
etiology. The differential diagnosis includes infective
disorders and morphological anomalies. Disease en-
tities considered include bacterial endocarditis, coarc-
tation of the aorta, osteomyelitis, and tuberculosis.
The small size of the lesions and the absence of signs
of infectious disease affecting bone suggest that con-
genital predisposition to thinning of the aortic wall
may be implicated. At two adjacent sites presumed on
archaeological grounds to be Shawnee, the statistical
prevalence of sternal lesions expresses a phenotypical
feature persisting over time.

Glucuronidation of 4-cholor-4-biphenylol, a
primary polychlorinated biphenyl metabolite. R.F.
VOLP, Department of Chemistry, Murray State
University, Murray, KY 42071.

Experiments were performed to study the
glucuronide metabolites of 4,4-dichloro-biphenyl
(DCB), a representative polychlorinated biphenyl
metabolite. DCB incubated with monkey liver
microsomes, NADPH, and UDPGA produces a mix-
ture of primary and secondary metabolites. The
secondary metabolites are largely glucuronides of the
primary metabolites. Since several primary
metabolites are produced, definitive studies of
glucuronidation require incubations with individual
primary metabolites. One such metabolite, 4’-chloro-

76 Abstracts

4-biphenylol (MCBol) was incubated with rat liver
microsomes and UDPGA. MCBol concentration
decreased with time, MCBol was extracted, and the
remaining aqueous phase gave, after beta-
glucuronidase treatment, a chromatographic fraction
coeluting with MCBol, indicating that the compound
in the incubation mixture was the glucuronide of
MCBol.

Control of kidney microcirculation. D.L.
WIEGMAN, Department of Physiology, University of
Louisville, Louisville, KY 40292.

In vivo observations of the kidney microcircula-
tion were made using the hydronephrotic rat kidney
preparation. For this preparation, the kidney is split
with a cautery along its greater curvature and is
spread out as a thin tissue in a bath. The kidney is
transilluminated and image of the vasculature is
observed via television microscopy. I quantitated the
effects of saralasin (angiotensin antagonist) applied
locally in the tissue bath on afferent and efferent
arteriole diameters and on glomerular blood flow.
Saralasin produced a significant increase in efferent
arteriole diameter (21 + 4%) and blood flow (19 +
4%) and had no effect on afferent arteriole diameter.
These data suggest that angiotensin is involved in the
control of total kidney blood flow and in the control of
filtration fraction.

Water content of the rat cremaster muscle: effect
of bradykinin. JAMIE S. YOUNG* and FREDERICK
N. MILLER, Department of Physiology and
Biophysics, University of Louisville, Louisville, KY
40292.

The rat cremaster muscle was studied to deter-
mine if this preparation was artificially edematous and
if a mediator of edema, bradykinin, could alter the
water content of this tissue. The cremaster with intact
innervation and circulation was equilibrated in Kreb’s
solution with or without bradykinin or was immediate-
ly removed from the animal. Another skeletal muscle,
the gastrocnemius, was used for comparison to the
cremaster. no significant difference in percent water
content was found between the groups of cremaster
muscles. However this muscle contained a greater
percentage of water than the gastrocnemius and this
was not due to equilibration in the Krebs solution.

SCIENCE EDUCATION

Creativity and science career preference of
students enrolled in the Kentucky Governor’s
Scholars Program, 1984. DONALD L. BIRDD, Ken-
tucky Governor’s Scholars Program and Department
of Science Education, Eastern Kentucky University,
Richmond, KY 40475.

Students invited to participate in Kentucky’s sum-
mer program for rising seniors, designed to promote
higher level thinking and to expand creative potential,
exhibit many of those characteristics displayed by

scientists/technologists. This part of the study in-
volved 185 students (35% of the total population and
was equally balanced between females and males)
who indicated a _ science/technology career
preference. As a pre-posttest design, students com-
pleted the Torrance Test of Creative Think-
ing—Figural and showed significant gains beyond the
.001 level (Chi square analysis) in the following
categories: fluency, originality, elaboration, and
resistance to closure. These students represented 75
counties statewide.

Re-trenching pre- and in-service teachers into the
various areas of the natural sciences. RANDY FALLS
and JOHN C. PHILLEY,* Department of Physical
Sciences, Morehead State University, Morehead, KY
40352.

Data from the Kentucky Department of Educa-
tion for 1971-81 show that few certified teachers for
sciences and mathematics were produced by colleges
in the state. A national study in 1982 indicated that
Kentucky was experiencing teacher shortages in
chemistry, physics, earth science, and mathematics.
Responding to the science-and-math loan-incentive
program initiated by the Kentucky Department of
Education, Morehead State University provided sum-
mer programs in 1983 and 1984 in physics, chemistry,
and mathematics. From August 1983 to August 1984,
23 newly certified teachers were produced: 11 in
mathematics, 6 in chemistry, 5 in physics, and 1 in
biology. For the 1984-85 academic year, 23 science-
and-math students applied for the teacher-education
program, and 17 completed or applied for the student-
teaching practicum. All numbers, significantly greater
than for previous years, reflect the impact of the loan
program.

An economical column gel electrophoresis
chamber. DAVID R. HARTMAN, Department of
Chemistry, Western Kentucky University, Bowling
Green, KY 42101.

Plans and a materials list were presented for the
construction of an enclosed column gel elec-
trophoresis chamber to hold six polyacrylamide gel
columns. Complex mixtures of proteins or nucleic
acids can be separated in the clear plastic chamber
which cost less than 20 dollars to construct. A low-
cost power supply can be constructed that would put
this sophisticated technique in a price range attractive
to secondary schools for science fair projects.

ZOOLOGY AND ENTOMOLOGY

Effect of salinity on oxygen consumption of
Cyprinodon variegatus. MICHAEL BARTON’ and A.
CHRISTINE BARTON, Division of Science and
Mathematics, Centre College, Danville, KY 40422.

The effect of salinity dilution on routine metabolic
rate of the sheepshead minnow, Cyprinodon

Trans. Kentucky Academy of Science — 46(1-2) 77

variegatus, was studied. Populations of C. variegatus
were sampled from several inland lakes of San
Salvador Island, Bahamas. Individuals from Little
Lake, a body of water that ranges from hypo- to
hyper-saline throughout the year, were acclimated for
5 days at 35 ppt after which measurements of oxygen
consumption were obtained both at acclimation
salinity and at 10 ppt. Analysis of the linear regression
of weight upon routine oxygen comsumption revealed
a significant increase in oxygen consumption when ex-
posed to dilute salinities. This study suggests that
short-term metabolic adjustments are necessary for
this euryhaline species when exposed to dilute en-
vironments.

Effects of variation in atmospheric oxygen levels
on hatching in Drosophila melangaster. JULIA
CLARK,* DIANE MASON, and GERRIT KLOEK,

Area of Biology,
Frankfort, KY 40601.

Kentucky State University,

Atmospheric oxygen levels affect hatching in
Drosphila eggs. Below 27°C, increased oxygen con-
centrations accelerate development and above 27°C
increased oxygen levels delay it. Low oxygen levels
delay development at all temperatures. Other studies
have shown that increased oxygen levels delay hat-
ching and lower oxygen levels stimulate hatching. A
contributing factor to this response in Drosophila
could be that this species is opportunistic and
development occurs as rapidly as possible. As such,
increased oxygen would speed metabolic rates and
reduced oxygen would retard these rates and thus af-
fect development time. Above 27°C heat stress may
be a complicating factor.

78

NEWS AND COMMENTS

The 71st annual meeting of the Kentucky of Science will be held at the Morehead State University,
Morehead, in November, 1985. Additional information will be forthcoming in the Newsletter.

DEATH OF A GOOD FRIEND

Dr. Robert A. Kuehne died of cancer on 18 December 1984 at the University of Kentucky Medical Center.
He was 57 years old. I knew Bob Kuehne in good times and in bad, and always as a fine, caring, and intelligent
gentleman, as an incisive thinker, and as a lover of good students; I shall miss him sorely. I first met Bob high
upon the sun-blasted rocks of the Edwards Plateau, and we later roiled some of the dust on the Llano Estacado.
We came full circle, both ending up in Kentucky. Sometimes the coal dust was so thick that we could not find
darters in the streams, but we found something. Sometimes, though, we enjoyed beauty together —at Red River
Gorge, at the Narrows of the Rockcastle, in the wine shops of Lexington. The bad times were never all that bad,
Bob, but the good times, the good times were wonderful.—Branley Allan Branson

Instructions for Contributions

Original papers based on research in any field of science will be considered for publication in the
Transactions. Also, as the official publication of the Academy, news and announcements of interest
to the membership will be included as received.

Manuscripts may be submitted at any time to the Editor. Each manuscript will be reviewed by
one or more persons prior to its acceptance for publication, and once accepted, an attempt will be
made to publish papers in the order of acceptance. Manuscripts should be typed double spaced
throughout on good quality white paper 81/2 X 11 inches. NOTE: For format of feature articles and
notes see Volume 43(3-4) 1982. The original and one copy should be sent to the Editor and the
author should retain a copy for use in correcting proof. Metric and Celsius units shall be used for all
measurements. The basic pattern of presentation will be consistent for all manuscripts. The Style
Manual of the Council of Biological Editors (CBE Style Manual), the Handbook for Authors of the
American Institute of Physics, Webster’s Third New International Dictionary, and a Manual of Style
(Chicago University Press) are most useful guides in matters of style, form, and spelling. Only those
words intended to be italicized in the final publication should be underlined. All authors must be
members of the Academy.

The sequence of material in feature-length manuscripts should be: title page, abstract, body of
the manuscript, acknowledgements, literature cited, tables with table headings. and figure legends
and figures.

1. The title page should include the title of the paper, the authors’ names and addresses, and any
footnote material concerning credits, changes of address, and so forth.

2. The abstract should be concise and descriptive of the information contained in the paper. It
should be complete in itself without reference to the paper.

3. The body of the manuscript should include the following sections: Introduction, Materials and
Methods, Results, Discussion, Summary, Acknowledgements, and Literature Cited. All tables and
figures, as well as all literature cited, must be referred to in the text.

4. All references in the Literature Cited must be typewritten, double spaced, and should provide
complete information on the material referred to. See Volume 43(3-4) 1982 for style.

5. For style of abstract preparation for papers presented at annual meetings, see Volume 43(3-4)
1982.

6. Each table, together with its heading, must be double spaced, numbered in Arabic numerals, and
set on a separate page. The heading of the table should in informative of its contents.

Each figure should be reproduced as a glossy print either 5 X 7 or 8 X 10 inches. Line drawings
in India ink on white paper are acceptable, but should be no larger than 8/2 X 11 inches.
Photographs should have good contrast so they can be reproduced satisfactorily. All figures should
be numbered in Arabic numerals and should be accompanied by an appropriate legend. It is strong-
ly suggested that all contributors follow the guidelines of Allen’s (1977) “Steps Toward Better Scien-
tific Illustrations” published by the Allen Press, Inc., Lawrence, Kansas 66044.

The author is responsible for correcting galley proofs. He is also responsible for checking all
literature cited to make certain that each article or book is cited correctly. Extensive alterations on
the galley proofs are expensive and costs will be borne by the author. Reprints are to be ordered
when the galley proofs are returned by the Editor.

CONTENTS

Geochemical analysis of the Providence Limestone member of the Sturgis Forma-
tion (Upper Pennsylvanian). Mary C. Perkinson, Gary L. Kuhnhenn and Alan D.
STi eRe ec Mano as I onnaDoepoOnsARMonrord abou aasaAGbaronhOonadO} veo ONS 1

Engineering and strength properties of selected silty clay mixtures derived from
Madison County;/Kentucky:AlamD: Srmithieys -tsyavetete syste es sietete relate oler© eleteretetoteiele otetet= 8

Statistical methods in mining engineering: expanded ANOVA techniques for three-
dimensional characterization of mine-roof parameters. Alan D. Smith............-+ 13

Mantle Rock and Alcove Arch, Livingston County, Kentucky. Thomas C. Kind and
Byrn: Shel bye oe ees eravesale ecroieclere take ohare ete ieeneehneie ce elotoroteratotetel aperet be leterelctncerte eet teeeetees 22

Growth of paddle fish in two main stream reservoirs with reference to commercial
harvest. Charles R. Bronte and Donald W. Johnson.........-...2++ceeeeeee scene 28

An Azospirillum lipoferum isolate with high nitrogen-fixing capabilities from a coal
surface-mined site. David N. Mardon and Frederick M. Rothwell................--- 33

The spread effects of nonmetropolitan industrialization. Robert G. Cromley and
ThomasyA::Arcury) she setce sissies isis ois = Se ate Saree ooo ole CTS eee OSE eerie 36

Demography of the raccoon (Procyon lotor) at Land Between the Lakes. Richard A.

Smithiand! MichaeliP)Kenned Ukjeiitasteiciereisiate siete eteieke totale tee etter yet 44

A checklist of phytoplankton (exclusive of diatoms) in Kentucky Reservoir. Lisa A.

Barneseiand Joe'M) King oi 3ac ee eae dec nee ree eh Cte en err etaetoe 46

Excretion of phenolic compounds from the roots of Festuca arundinacea, Eragrostis,

and Lespedeza striata. Robert Creek and Gary L. Wade..............++-++++++005 51
NOTES

Runt egg in the wood duck. Gary Ritchison and Keith D. Krantz ...............+--- 56

The longnose dace, Rhinichthys cataractae (Valenciennes), in Kentucky. Douglas E.
Stephensiand/Kerry WePrathensoascn nose oe seis tae eiekrcia eer er Tee eae rereiore 56

Electrofishing vs angler harvest: differences in length-frequency distributions. Donna

L. Parrish, Thomas D. Forsythe and T. J. Timmons .........-..--++-+2++20-+000: 57
ACADEMY: ABEAIRS rte cxsyrtayere she scpotelctatons ares canine sicher te ole deketerepetcvetelorstatede ected oete eietere ceenenerees 58
PROGRAM Fepoisrs 5 favs iepayeisuetate ais ars zfenenersieiaiapuin ale tsbeva rests rate evaye el ctabecte era ente ater ates ate eer weep 65
ABSTRACTS OF SOME PAPERS PRESENTED AT THE ANNUAL MEETING .............- 74
NEWS: AND COMMENTS .cictraiia seen arate teratsiesisteresciete ieee) tetera rae tale lisieral stetetetetteraes 78
INSTRUGTIONS TOSCONTRIBUTORS erence yee cirri eeeeiiite Inside Back Cover

TRANSACTIONS
DF THE
KENTUCKY
ACADEMY OF
SCIENCE

7.
%

) Volume 46

Numbers 3-4
October 1985

: Official Publication of’the Academy

The Kentucky Academy of Science
Founded 8 May 1914

OFFICERS FOR 1985

President: Joe Winstead, Western Kentucky University, Bowling Green 42101

President Elect: Charles Lovell, University of Louisville, Louisville 40292

Past President: Gary Bogess, Murray State University, Murray 42071

Vice President: Larry Giesmann, Northern Kentucky University, Highland Heights 41076

Secretary: Robert Creek, Eastern Kentucky University, Richmond 40475

Treasurer: Morris Taylor, Eastern Kentucky University, Richmond 40475

Director of the Junior Academy: Herbert Leopold, Western Kentucky University, Bowling Green 42101
Representative to A.A.A.S.: Joe King, Murray State University, Murray 42071

BOARD OF DIRECTORS

Paul Freytag 1985 William Hettinger 1987

William Baker 1985 Lawrence Boucher 1987

Manuel Schwartz 1986 William Bryant 1988

Garrit Kloek 1986 William Beasley 1988

EDITORIAL BOARD

Editor: Branley A. Branson, Department of Biological Sciences, Eastern Kentucky
University, Richmond 40475

Index Editor: Varley E. Wiedeman, Department of Biology, University of Louisville, Louisville
40292

Abstract Editor: John W. Thieret, Department of Biological Sciences, Northern Kentucky
University Highland Heights 41076
Editorial Board: James E. Orielly, Department of Chemistry, University of Kentucky, Lexington
40506 (1985)
Donald L. Batch, Eastern Kentucky University, Richmond 40475 (1986)
Gerrit Kloek, Kentucky State University, Frankfort 40601 (1987)
Joe Winstead (KAS President), Western Kentucky University,
Bowling Green 42101

All manuscripts and correspondence concerning manuscripts should be addressed to the Editor. Authors must be members of the
Academy.

The TRANSACTIONS are indexed in the Science Citation Index. Coden TKASAT.

Membership in the Academy is open to interested persons upon nomination, payment of dues, and election. Application forms for
membership may be obtained from the Secretary. The TRANSACTIONS are sent free to all members in good standing. Annual dues are
$15.00 for Active Members; $7.00 for Student Members; $20.00 family.

Subscription rates for nonmembers are: domestic, $30.00; foreign, $30.00; back issues are $30.00 per volume.

The TRANSACTIONS are issued semiannually in March and September. Four numbers comprise a volume.

Correspondence concerning memberships or subscriptions should be addressed to the Secretary. Exchanges and correspondence relating
to exchanges should be addressed to the Librarian, University of Louisville, Louisville, Kentucky 40292, the exchange agent for the Academy.

RH - Shell Polymorphism in Kentucky Cepaea - Branson

TRANSACTIONS of the
KENTUCKY
ACADEMY of SCIENCE

October 1985
Volume 46
Numbers 3-4

Shell Polymorphism in Kentucky Colonies of the
Exotic Snail Cepaea nemoralis (Linnaeus) (Mollusca:Gastropoda)

BRANLEY ALLAN BRANSON, Department of Biological Sciences,
Eastern Kentucky University, Richmond, Kentucky 40475

ABSTRACT

Six colonies of Cepaea nemoralis from Kentucky localities were investigated for polymorphism in basic
shell color and banding. Banded shells predominated at all colonies. Fusion of bands was common, but fully
banded shells were rare. Yellow and brown morphs were nearly equally distributed (46% and 49%,

respectively).
INTRODUCTION

Blakeslee (1) and Reed (2) both indicated
that Cepaea nemoralis occurred in Kentucky
without presenting exact localities, and Branson
and Batch (3) reported a colony of the snail from
Lexington, Fayette County. This highly
polymorphic, western and northern European
snail appears to have been introduced into
North America around 1857 (4), being spread
principally by horticultural and agricultural pro-
ducts to a number of secondary loci. Cepaea has
been polymorphic for shell banding patterns
since at least Neolithic times (5).

Helicid snails in general (6) express five-
banded conditions and modifications thereof,
the main variations being completely unbanded
shells, middle-banded shells, five-banded ones,
or loss of one or more of the bands and fusion of
adjacent bands without loss or modification of
other bands (6). The same sort of variation is
found in the mantle (the organ that secretes the
shell), reddish-brown bands being grouped
beneath the bands in the shell (6). Some bands
may also be reduced in intensity to faint traces
(8).

These features are, of course, genetically
determined. The genetics of shell color and ban-
ding patterns in C. nemoralis are relatively well-
understood (8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14). The genes
that control shell color (brown, yellow, pink)
and banding constitute a very tightly linked

81

supergene; however, the gene for midbanding
(00300—see below) is not a part of the supergene
but assorts independently as a Mendelian domi-
nant, being expressed only in banded pheno-
types (15). Nonbanded is dominant to all banded
phenotypes. At the color locus, brown is domi-
nant over the other two, and pink is dominant to
yellow.

The question of genetic drift has also been
broached in Cepaea because of the ease with
which new colonies are established. However,
the mating system of Cepaea tends to
counteract erosion by drift and also plays a pro-
found role in determining the effective popula-
tion size of the snail (16, 17, 18). Cepaea is her-
maphroditic, individuals mate more than once,
and they store sperm for long periods, and each
individual may produce offspring from several
matings in a given brood (16), causing depar-
tures from Mendelian ratios. Founder Effect, of
course, must also be considered when in-
vestigating the polymorphism and variation in
any colonizing species. For example, a colony at
Lynchberg, Virginia, consisting of all yellow
shells, probably resulted from a single original
introduction (19).

In Europe (12), Cepaea has a more or less
discontinuous distribution in given regions, i.e.,
occurs as “subpopulations” or colonies, and
lives in various habitats, such as woodlots,

82 RH - Shell Polymorphism in Kentucky Cepaea - Branson

hedgerows, tall grass, open meadows, and so
forth so that there is much colony-to-colony
variation in the frequency of shell color and ban-
ding patterns. Lamotte (12) and others believe
that much of this variation is enhanced by
restricted gene flow by way of low vagility of the
snails and because of local selection pressure.
Supposedly, the yellow snails tend to live in
hedgerows and tall grass, the brown ones in
woodlots, and banded individuals are more
common in contrasting backgrounds, the un-
banded ones in uniform habitats. All this was
hypothesized to be under the partial control of
predator-oriented protective coloration (visual
selection) (10, 12), a hypothesis that was later
more or less confirmed (20). Richards and Mur-
ray (19) demonstrated that the effect of vegeta-
tion in the habitat was less important than the
amount of sunlight falling on the ground with
reference to the occurence of snails having fused
bands, the shadier habitats having higher pro-
portions of shells with fused bnads than sunnier
locations. Changes in habitats may be responsi-
ble for overall changes in the frequency of oc-
curence of both color and banding morphs (21).

There is also considerable evidence suppor-
ting climatic selection on the banding polymor-
phism in Cepaea (22). This factor may be of
great importance when the species exists on the
margins of its range and where small environ-
mental variations may be critical (23, 24), i.e.,
lying close to the limits of tolerance (25). Arnold
(22) suggested that the reduction in banding,
either by elimination of bands or by the fusion of
them, was of direct adaptive value to severe
climates, a contention that was apparently
substantiated by Arnason and Grant (25), who
found the bandless condition to be most frequent
in cold, dark environments, the fused-band
morph being most frequent in temperature-
stable environments with occasional very cold
nights.

WAM orci
wre

A\

Figure 1. A yellow, five-banded Cepaea nemoralis. (Photograph by A-E.

Spreitzer Photography, Columbus, Ohio 43212). Scale line = 5.0 mm.

A final factor that may affect local polymor-
phism in Cepaea nemoralis is the population ar-
chitecture of the species. Of particular impor-
tance is annual survivorship and length of life. It
has been estimated that about one-half of the in-
dividuals that make up most colonies of the
snail die each year (26, 27, 28), although Green-
wood (18) suggested that the figure may lie clos-
ed to 60%. The latter author also estimated the
mean reproductive life span as about 2.39 years.
Of course, fluctuations occasioned by popula-
tion dynamics could cause variation in polymor-
phism, particularly in small colonies (however,
see 18).

Thus, the purpose of this paper is to present
observations on shell polymorphism in Ken-
tucky colonies of Cepaea nemoralis, colonies
that certainly act like ones on the margin of the
species range. These colonies were investigated
under the basic assumption that the Founder Ef-
fect was fully operative.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The scoring techniques of Brussard (15) and
Singh (4), with slight modifications, were
employed. Thus, a score of Y12345 indicates a
yellow five-banded snail (Fig. 1), the bands be-
ing numbered from the suture downward;
B00000 or Y0O0000 (Fig. 2) represents brown or
yellow unbanded shells, respectively. A mid-
banded snail, as shown in Figure 3, is
designated according to shell color, i.e.,
B00300, and so forth. Shells with fused bands
(Fig. 4) are designated by brackets, according to
which bands are fused; for example, B12(34)5 in-
dicates a brown shell having bands 3 and 4
fused. When bands are of reduced intensity, the
bands are indicated by a semicolon, i.e., Y12;;5,
and so forth.

Figure 3. A brown, mid-banded Cepaea nemoralis (B00300). Scale
line = 11.0 mm.

Trans. Kentucky Academy of Science — 46(3-4) 83

Figure 2. Brown (left) and yellow (right) unbanded Cepaea nemoralis, spire views. Scale line = 8.0 mm.

wk SS

2 SNS ee

Figure 4. A yellow Cepaea nemoralis showing bands 4 and 5 fused.
Scale line = 11.0 mm.

COLONY SITES

As will be noted, some of the localities are
represented by small samples only. However,
rather than “lose” the data, the specimens from
these sites were included in the analysis.

Site 1. Trash dump 28.9 km NW Ludlow,
Boone Bounty, Kentucky, near the Ohio
River, June 1984. Collector, John
MacGregor, estimated the colony to in-
clude “hundreds of individuals”. N = 36.

Site 2. Near junction of Thompson Road and
Old Frankfort Pike, behind slaughter
house, west of Lexington, Fayette County,
Kentucky, 6 July 1970. Collectors, Holly,

Andrew and W. B. Barkley, estimated the
colony to number in the “thousands”.
N=172.

Site 3. Lawn at 407 Broadway, Frankfort,
Franklin County, Kentucky, 9 October
1980. A large colony of all yellow snails.
N=7.

Site 4. Lawn on Payne Street, Lexington,
Fayette County, Kentucky, 8 March 1979.
Collector, R. S. Butler, estimated the col-
ony to be “very large”. N= 29.

Site 5. Lawn at 328 Aylesford Place, Lexing-
ton, Fayette County, Kentucky, 15 June
1966. Collector, Frank Howard, estimated
the colony to number “in the hundreds”.
N=12.

Site 6. Water treatment plant, Lexington,
Fayette County, Kentucky, 18 October
1980. A very large colony. N=7.

RESULTS

Table 1 records the banding pattern and
shell color of 319 adult snails collected from the
6 Kentucky colonies at the dates indicated.
Banded shells (81.19%) predominated in all the
colonies, although only 60% of the shells at Sta-
tion 1 were banded, and 89.3% of those at Sta-
tion 4 (25/28) were without bands. Fusion of
bands was relatively common (Table 1), bands 4
and 5 being those most often involved.
Specimens with diluted bands (26/319) were
relatively uncommon, mostly associated with
brown shells (7.52%), only 2 of 319 yellow shells
had diluted bands; none were observed in the

84 RH - Shell Polymorphism in Kentucky Cepaea - Branson

few pink shells present. Bands 1 and 2 and 4 and
5 were most apt to be missing, probably because
the mid-banded allele, as previously mentioned,
segregates independently of the others.

Table 1. comparison of Banding Patterns in Kentucky Colonies of
Cepaea nemoralis (see text for explanation of symbols)

COLONIES
Pattern I Il Ill IV Vv VI z

Y12345
Y123(45)
P123(45)
B(12)3(45)
B;;3(45)
B(;;)3(45)
B3(;;);5
Y02345
BO;;;;
Y023(45)
BO;;(;;)
YO(23)(45)

a a ai.)

_
a

onoccoocroocoscoroooocrso &
wnonNLO

woocrooscococoeoocr oor oor w

_
i

;
_
i)
_
=

B000;;
B(12)000
P00000
B00000
00000

Breer eee nwo BS

:
wreooscoccccors
cooooooococonoocococooocooeoneoccocsoeoscseoecoeo $s

NBPOCSOP HRP HR HH wDSoORBDunNn vowroworororerorooe
a)
Nooscoooooocoeoeoeoo CONC ONHOOCCOSCoCCOOoOCS

Nr ohooococooe

a
o
nN
=

M
8
§
.-]
8
wo

In fact, various forms of mid-banded shells
predominated at all sites except for the small
P00300

series secured at Station 4:
(13/19) = 4.08%; Y00300 (90/319) = 28.21%;
B00300 (83/319) =26.02%; and B00;00

(8/319) = 2.51%. The next two most common
banding patterns were Y003(45)
(15/319 = 4.72%) and B003 (45) (9/319 = 2.82%).
Colony 2 had a high frequency (82/228) of the
brown mid-banded morph as well as a relatively
high frequency (61/228) of yellow mid-banded.
Shells bearing all 5 of the bands, distinct,
diluted, or fused, were rare in the total collec-
tion. Shells with 5 distinct bands (Fig. 1) were
observed in the yellow morph only (Y12345)
(2.5%): 3 at Station 1, 1 at Station 2, and 4 at
Station 4. The distribution of other 5-banded
shells was: B(12)3(45) (1 at Station 2); B;;3(45)
(1 at Station 2); B(;;)3(45) (1 at Station 2);

B;(;;);; (1 at Station 2); P123(45) (1 at Station 4).

Of the bandless morphs, Y00000 was the
rarest, only 1/319 presenting this phenotype.
B00000 was the most common, 11.9% (38/319),
the pink bandless (21/319) was represented in
6.58% of the shells.

Within the total collection, yellow and
brown morphs were nearly equally distributed
(Y = 46.08%; B= 49.22%), whereas pink shells
accounted for only 4.07% of the total. However,
the yellow morph represented only 33.33% of
the population at Station 2; 77.14% at Station 1
and 64.29% at Station 4. Station 2 was
dominated by brown shells (64.48%), having on-
ly 2.19% pink ones. Pink occurred 11.43% and
21.43% of the time at stations 1 and 4, respec-
tively.

DISCUSSION

These results differ markedly from those
reported by Singh (4) from Ontario populations
and by Brussard (15) from various populations
in North America, where yellow, full-banded
shells predominated more often than not.
Because bandlessness is dominant over ban-
ding, one might expect that morph to quickly
swamp colonies once they are established (29).
However, the frequency of occurence or rate of
spread through populations is more associated
with fitness or genotypes than with dominance-
recessiveness (30). Furthermore, Cepaea prac-
tices obligatory panmixis, multiple matings, and
sperm storage (16), all of which may strongly
predispose newly established colonies to certain
variability patterns. Once established, each col-
ony may be affected simultaneously by multiple
selection pressures including climatic conditions
(22,32), that control morph survival and fre-
quency of occurence (31).

The Kentucky colonies of this snail
doubtless represent secondary introductions
from previously founded populations in North
America rather than de novo introductions from
Europe. Each colony probably should be treated
as a more or less unique entity as a consequence
of Founder Effect and, perhaps, periodic popula-
tional cataclysms. It is highly unlikely that there
is any appreciable gene flow between colonies,
since this species is seldom found far from
human habitations.

Brussard (15), based upon electrophoretic
studies (Bray-Curtis method and _ principal-
component analyses) is of the opinion that
North American populations fall into two clearly
recognizable groups, those living in the Pied-
mont and Valley Province of Virginia—char-
acterized by a preponderance of yellow shells
and derivable from Italy—and those found
elsewhere, derivable from multiple northern

Trans. Kentucky Academy of Science — 46(3-4) 85

European centers of origin, often characterized
by mid-banded phenotypes. Whether or not
some or all of the Kentucky colonies of Cepaea
are derivable from those in the Virginia Pied-
mont must be verified or dismissed upon the
basis of electrophoresis. The Piedmont popula-
tions express highly polymorphic LAP-2 and
PGM-2 systems, whereas the colonies derived
from northerp Europe are characterized by a
“fixed” LAP-2° phenotype; they may or may not
be polymorphic at the PGM loci (15).

Thus, the Kentucky colonies of Cepaea
nemoralis should be investigated by means of
electrophoresis. These colonies, to quote
Brussard (15), “may provide numerous oppor-
tunities for studying genotype-environment in-
teractions without the complications of gene
flow, and have the potential for providing a
great deal of information about the rate of evolu-
tion in novel environments.”

LITERATURE CITED

1. Blakeslee, C.L. 1945. The Cepaea nemoralis of
Brighton, Monroe County, New York. Nautilus
59:44-47.

2.Reed, C.F. 1964. Cepaea nemoralis (Linn.) in
eastern North America. Sterkiana 16:11-18.

3. Branson, B.A. and D.L. Batch. 1969. Notes on ex-
otic mollusks in Kentucky. Nautilus 82:102-106.

4. Singh, S.M. 1981. Polymorphism in colonies of the
land snail Cepaea nemoralis at London, Ontario;

changes over three decades. Can. Field-Nat.
95:192-197.
5. Diver, C. 1929. Fossil records of Mendelian

mutants. Nature 124:183.

6. Taylor, J.W. 1914. Monograph of the land and
freshwater Mollusca of the British Isles. Taylor
Brothers, Leeds, England.

7.Emberton, L.R.B. 1963. Relationship between
pigmentation of shell and of mantle in the snails
Cepaea nemoralis (L.) and Cepaea_hortensis
(Mull.). Proc. Zool. Soc. London 140:273-293.

8. Murray, J. 1975. The genetics of the Mollusca, in,
Handbook of Genetics, Vol. 3, ed. R.C. King,
Plenum Press, New York, pp. 3-31.

9.Cain, A.J., J.M.B. King, and P.M. Sheppard.
1960. New data on the genetics of polymorphisms
in the snail Cepaea nemoralis L. Genetics
45:393-411.

10. Cain, A.J. and P.M. Sheppard. 1960. Selection in
the polymorphic land snail Cepaea nemoralis.
Heredity 4;275-294.

11.Cook, L.M. 1967. The genetics of Cepaea
nemoralis. Heredity 22;397-410.

12. Lamotte, M. 1951. Recherches sur la structure
genétique des populations naturelles des Cepaea
nemoralis (L.). Bull. Biol. de la France Belgique.
Suppl. 35:1-239.

13. Wolda, H. 1969. Genetics of polymorphism in the
land snail Cepaea nemoralis. Genetica 40:475-502.

14. Ford, E.B. 1981. Ecological genetics. 3rd. Ed.,
Chapman and Hall, London, England.

15. Brussard, P.F. 1975. Geographic variation in
North American colonies of Cepaea nemoralis.
Evolution 29:402-410.

16. Murray, J. 1964. Multiple mating and effective
population size in Cepaea nemoralis. Evolution

18:283-291.

17.Greenwood, J.J.D. 1974. Effective population
numbers in the snail Cepaea nemoralis. Evolution
28:513-526.

18. Greenwood, J.J.D. 1976. Effective population
numbers in Cepaea: a modification. Evolution
30:186.

19. Richards, A.R. and J. Murray. 1975. The relation
of phenotype to habitat in an introduced colony of
Cepaea nemoralis. Heredity 34;128-131.

20. Currey, J.D., R.W. Arnold and M.A. Carter. 1964.
further examples of variation of populations of
Cepaea nemoralis with habitat. Evolution
18:111-117.

21. Murray, J. and B. Clarke. 1978. Changes of gene
frequency in Cepaea nemoralis over fifty years.
Malacologia 17:317-330.

22. Arnold, R. 1969. The effects of selection by climate
on the land-snail Cepaea nemoralis (L.). Evolution
23:370-378.

23. Bantock, C.R. and D.J. Price. 1975. Marginal
populations of Cepaea nemoralis (L.) on the Bren-
don Hills, England. I. Ecology and ecogenetics.
Evolution 29:267-277.

24. Price, D.J. and C.R. Bantock. 1975. Marginal
populations of Cepaea nemoralis (L.) on the Bren-
don Hills, England. II. Variation in chiasma forma-
tion. Evolution 29:278-286.

25. Arnason, E. and P.R. Grant. 1976. Climatic selec-
tion in Cepaea hortensis at the northern limit of its
range in Iceland. Evolution 30:499-508.

26.Schnetter, M. 1950. Veranderungen der
genetischen Konstitution in naturlichen Popula-
tionen der polymorphen Banderschencken. Zool.
An., Suppl. 15:192-206.

27. Goodhart, C.B. 1963. “Area effects” and non-
adaptive variation between populations of Cepaea
(Mollusca). Heredity 18:459-465.

28.Wolda, H. 1963. Natural populations of the
polymorphic land snail Cepaea nemoralis (L.).
Arch. Neerl. Zool. 15;381-471.

86 RH - Shell Polymorphism in Kentucky Cepaea - Branson

29. Judd, W.W. 1955. Observations on a second col-
ony of the land snail Cepaea nemoralis (L.) at Lon-
don, Ontario, with a consideration of the banding

patterns in the two colonies. Canadian Field-Nat.
69:148-150.

30. Spiess, E.B. 1977. Genes in populations. John
Wiley and Sons, New York.

31. Jones, J.S., B.H. Leith and P. Rawlings. 1977.
Polymorphism in Cepaea: a problem with too
many solutions. Ann. Rev. Ecol. Syst. 8:109-143.

32. Arnold, R.W. 1968. Studies on Cepaea VII.
Climatic selection in Cepaea nemoralis (L.) in the
Pyrenees. philos. Trans. Roy. Soc. London
253:549-593.

RH - Eccoptura in Kentucky - Allen and Tarter

Life History and Ecology of Eccoptura xanthenes (Newman)
(Plecoptera: Perlidae) from a Small Kentucky Stream

BEVERLY L. ALLEN, Department of Biology,
Sue Bennett College, London, Kentucky 40741

DONALD C. TARTER, Department of Biological Science,
Marshall University, Huntington, West Virginia 25701

ABSTRACT

The life history and ecology of the stonefly Eccoptura xanthenes (Newman) was investigated in the Middle
Fork of Cane Creek, Laurel County, Kentucky, between May 1983 and May 1984. Nymphs were carnivorous in
their feeding habits. Generally, mayflies (Ephemerella, Ameletus, Paraleptophlebia) and dipterans (mostly
chironomids) comprised the stable components of the diet during all seasons. Caddisflies (Hydropsyche),
stoneflies (Hastaperla, Leuctra) and beetles supplemented the diet throughout the year. The highest percentage
of empty foreguts (71.7%) occurred in summer. Length-frequency histograms indicate that the nymphal
development requires 2 years. According to mean head width values, the greatest growth (35%) of the nymphal
population occurred from February (2.47 mm) to March (3.33 mm). The chi-square test was applied to 178
nymphs and a significant deviation from the 1:1 sex ratio (0.05 confidence level) was observed. The emergence
period was approximately 4!/2 weeks (11 June-14 July). Direct egg counts ranged from 110 to 233 per female; the
mean was 170. The eggs were oval and measured 0.34 by 0.41 mm.

INTRODUCTION

Stoneflies are integral components of lotic |The recorded distribution of E. xanthenes is
food webs and indicators of water quality. Con- from Alabama, Connecticut, Delaware, Florida,
sequently, ecological studies of each species are Georgia, Kentucky, Maryland, North Carolina,
important to the understanding of the stream Ohio, Pennsylvania, South Carolina, Ten-
ecosystem. Several investigators, including nessee, Virginia and West Virigina (14, 15, 16,
Smith (1), Needham and Claassen (2), Frison 17, 18, 19, 20). Tarter et al. (21) recorded the
(3,4), Minshall and Minshall (5), Tarter and stonefly from Breathitt, Whitley and Wolfe coun-
Krumholz (6), Harper (7), Vaught and Stewart ties in Kentucky. Eccoptura has succeeded in
(8), and Kondratieff and Despins (9), have exploiting small, spring-fed streams (17).
reported ecological studies of North American

stoneflies. No detailed paper has been published MATERIALS AND METHODS
on the life history and ecology of Eccoptura xan-
thenes (Newman). Under laboratory conditions, Middle Fork of Cane Creek, a tributary of

Doherty and Hummon (10), reported that acid the Rockcastle River, lies in the Daniel Boone
mine water did not consistently alter the National Forest in the south-western portion of
respiratory rates of E. xanthenes. The objective Laurel County, Kentucky. The tributary is 9.4
of this investigation was to describe the life km long. It is 19.3 km west of the city of London,
history and ecology of E. xanthenes in Middle off KSR 192, and flows under Forest Service
Fork of Cane Creek, a second order stream in Road 121, 16 km from the 192 turnoff.

Laurel County, Kentucky. The sampling site is a riffle 112 m upstream
from the culvert where the water flows under the
TAXONOMY AND DISTRIBUTION road. The riffle area averaged 10.2 by 2.1 m; the
depth averaged 9.5 cm. The water shed is the
Eccoptera xanthenes was originally de- Cane Creek management area and is undis-
scribed by Newman (11) as Perla xanthenes. The turbed except for management practices. There
male and female cotypes are from Georgia. is no domestic or commercial use of the area.
Klapalek (12) described the genus Eccoptura The substrate is mostly limestone rock with
and changed Perla xanthenes to E. xanthenes. silt and plant litter accummulation in the pool
Needham and Claassen (13) assigned Acro- areas. The soil association for the area is
neuria xanthenes to replace the former designa- Whitley-Latham-Lily (22); gently sloping to
tion of E. xanthenes. Illies (14) elevated the steep, moderately deep to deep soil with loamy
subgenus Eccoptura to the generic level. or clay-like subsoils on ridge tops and side
Eccoptura is a monotypic genus from the slopes. The riparian vegetation was dominated
Appalachian region of eastern North America. by hemlock, Tsuga canadensis (L.) Carr, and

Q7

88 RH - Eccoptura in Kentucky - Allen and Tarter

rhododendron, Rhododendron maximum (L.)

This study was initiated in May 1983 and
completed in May 1984. Collections of nymphs
were made on a monthly basis during the study
period. Due to a lack of specimens in certain
months, the data will be presented on a
seasonal basis.

Water quality tests were performed at the
collection site with a Hach chemical kit, Model
AL-36B, and pH was measured colorimetrically.
Dissolved oxygen and carbon dioxide were
measured and recorded in mg/l. Water
temperature was measured with a mercury ther-
mometer.

Nymphs were dislodged by kicking the
substrate and collected in a long handled dredge
with a mesh net (60 threads/inch). They were
preserved in 70% ethanol for measurements, gut
analysis and sex determination. Body length
(exclusive of antennae and cerci) was measured
to the nearest 0.1 mm using a Vernier calipre.
Size classes were determined by length-
frequency histograms arranged in 3 mm length
groups of 183 nymphs. Head width, measured to
the nearest 0.1 mm with an ocular micrometer,
was used as an index of growth. Percent growth
from one month to the next was calculated using
the mean head width measurement. Monthly
differences in nymphal head widths were used to
calculate the mean, range and two standard er-
rors of the mean (23).

One hundred and 22 nymphal foreguts
(usually 10 per month) were examined to
determine seasonal food preferences. The head
was removed with microdissecting scissors and
the abdomen split ventrally to remove the
foregut. Contents of the foregut were carefully
removed for identification with a Bausch and
Lomb dissecting microscope. The percentage
frequency of occurrence (%FO) was calculated
for each item and the average number of
specimens with foreguts containing each item
[X] was determined.

Sex of nymphs was determined by the
posterior setal margin of the 8 abdominal
sternite (3). In the female the fringe is inter-
rupted, in the male it is continuous. After deter-
mining the sex, the chi-square test was applied
to 178 nymphs to determine any significant
departure from the 1:1 sex ratio at the 0.05 con-
fidence level.

Fecundity in the adult stonefly was deter-
mined by direct counts of ovarian eggs using a
Bausch and Lomb dissecting microscope. Both
ovaries were excised from eight females and
1356 eqgs were counted. The diameters of 136
eggs were measured with an ocular micrometer
(0.01 mm) and a Bausch and Lomb dissecting
scope.

Nymphs were collected in May and June for

rearing in laboratory tanks to study emergence
patterns. Adults were collected with a Ward’s
ultraviolet light trap during June and July. The
exuviae were collected from rocks and bridges to
help estimate the length of the emergence
period.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Stream Environment—the mean annual
temperature for the study period was 11.5°C.
The monthly extremes were 4 and 21°C,
December and July, _respectiviey. The pH
ranged from 6.5 to 7.7; X= 7.5. Dissolved oxygen
concentration ranged from 8 to 10 mg/I; X = 9.4
mg/l. Carbon dioxide concentration values
ranged from 10 to 24 mg/l; X = 19 mg/l.

Nymphal Food Habits—The following food
categories were identified in the foreguts of E.
xanthenes nymphs: Coleoptera, Diptera,
Ephemeroptera, Plecoptera, and Trichoptera
(Table 1). Of the 122 foreguts examined, 62
(50.8%) contained food items and 60 (49.2%)
were empty. There was a marked increase in the
percentage of empty foreguts during the year. In
winter and spring, approximately 33% of the
foreguts were empty. The highest percentage of
empty foreguts (71.7%) occurred in summer, a
possible correlation with warmer water
temperatures (X = 18.5°C) and emergence of
mature nymphs.

The nymphs of E. xanthenes were car-
nivorous in their feeding habits (Table 1).
Generally, mayflies (Ephemerella, Ameletus,
Paraleptophlebia) and dipterans (mostly
chironomids) comprised the stable components
of the diet during all seasons. Caddisflies
(Hydropsyche), stoneflies (Hastaperla, Leuctra),
and beetles supplemented the diet throughout
the year. In fall, the nymphal diet consisted
mainly of chironomids [X = 1.8 per foregut, 50.0
%FO) and caddisfly larvae [X = 1.0 per foregut,
25.0 %FO). In winter, the mayfly Paralep-
tophlebia ranked first in percentage frequency of
occurrence (30.0) in the nymphal diet. A few
benthic populations, including other mayflies,
dipterans and stoneflies, supplemented the diet.
In spring, the nymphal diet_consisted primarily
of the mayfly Ephemerella [X = 1.0 per foregut,
28.5 %FO) and chironomid larvae [X = 1.5 per
foregut, 28.5 %FO). The mayfly Ameletus
ranked second in percentage frequency (23.8)
during spring. In summer, the nymphal diet
consisted mainly of Paraleptophlebia and
chironomids [X = 1.5 and 1.3 per foregut,
respectively, 44.4 %FO for each).

Trans. Kentucky Academy of Science — 46(3-4) 89

Table 1. Seasonal foregut analysis of Eccoptura xanthenes nymphs
from Middle Fork of Cane Creek, Laurel County, Kentucky. X= mean,
%FO = percent frequency of occurrence. Summer = June, July, Aug.;
Fall = Sept., Oct., Nov.; Winter = Dec., Jan., Feb.; and Spring =
March, April, May. N = number of foreguts with food. Total number of
foreguts = 122.

Category Taxa X %FO

Mayflies Paraleptophlebia Ub) 44.4

Summer Dipterans Chironomids 1.3 14.4
(N = 9/32) Beetles Psephenus 1.5 11.1
Mayflies Ephemerella 1.0 16.6

Fall Caddisflies Hydropsyche 1.0 25.0
(N = 12/28) Dipterans Chironomids 1.8 50.0
Mayflies Ameletus 1.0 10.0

Winter Ephemerella 1.0 20.0
(N = 20/30) Paraleptophlebia 1.0 30.0
Dipterans Chironomids 1.0 15.0

Simulium 2.0 15.0

Stoneflies — Leuctra 1.0 10.0

Mayflies Ameletus 1.0 23.8

Spring Ephemerella 1.0 28.5
(N = 21/32) Unidentified 1.0 4.7
Caddisflies Hydropsyche 173 19.0

Dipterans |Chironomids 15 28.5

Stoneflies | Hastaperla 1.0 4.7

Nymphal Development—Length-frequency
histograms showed that 2 size classes were
represented in the nymphal population (Fig. 1).
Recruitment of young nymphs began in July.
The earliest and smallest nymph was collected
12 July 1983, and measured 6.2 mm in body
length (head width = 1.61 mm). Smaller
nymphs could have escaped due to the col-
leciton method. Nymphs at the end of one year
of development had a mean body length of 14-15
mm. Mature nymphs at the end of the second
year of development showed a mean _ body
length of 20-21 mm. The largest male and
female nymphs were 20.0 (16 December 1983)
and 21.9 mm (8 May 1983) body length, respec-
tively. For the study period, the mean total
length (males and females) was 12.4 mm.

Figure 1, Length-frequency histograms at monthly intervals of Eccop-
tura xanthenes nymphs from the Middle Fork of Cane Creek, Laurel
Co., Ky. The number of nymphs collected each month is given in paren-

thesis.

(18) AUG,

(19) JUL

(15) JUN,

—M is

— (13) APR

= (13) FEB

PERCENTAGE FREQUENCY

(12) JAN

(11) DEC

(B) NOV

|
|
|
|

5 10 15 20 25

BODY LENGTH, mm

Head width was used to show the monthly
variation in growth (Fig. 2). Based on the mean
head width values, there were not significant
changes in growth from August to February.
During this time period the mean head width
was 2.62 mm (range = 2.32-2.93). According to
the mean head width values, the greatest
growth (35%) of the nymphal population occur-
red from February (2.47 mm) to March (3.33
mm). Another increase in nymphal growth (8%)
occurred from March to April. The mean head
widths were 3.33 and 3.59 mm, March and April,
respectively. Following the emergence period in
June-July, there was an abrupt decrease in
mean head width in July. The second greatest
growth (21%) occurred from July (head width =
2.43 mm) to August (head width = 2.93 mm).
For the study period, the mean head width
(males and females) was 2.9 mm. The mean
head width values were 3.26 and 2.65 mm,
females and males, respectively.

46mm —5

4.0mm

20

RH - Eccoptura in Kentucky - Allen and Tarter

7

E a
E
- W
= 2 13
QO 3.0mm 4
= 8
a
q ell
wi
x
oat
2.0mm 4
—|

1.0 mm

MONTH

Figure 2. Monthly variation of the head capsule width in nymphs of Ec-

coptura xanthenes from Middle Fork of Cane Creek, Laurel Co., Ky.

Vertical lines = ranges, horizontal lines = means, dark rectangles =

two times the standard error of the mean, and numbers = sample sizes.

There was a high correlation (r 0.68)
(p<0.01) between head width (Y) and body
length (X) of nymphs (males and females). The
following equation was calculated to express
this relationship: Y = 0.133 + 1.269X.

Nymphal Sex Ratio—The sex ratio was
based on 104 male and 74 female nymphs, a
ratio of about 142 males per 100 females. The
chi-square test showed a significant deviation
from the 1:1 sex ratio at the 0.05 level.

Adult Stage—The emergence period of E.
xanthenes was approximately 41/2 weeks. The
first exuviae were found on 11 June and marked
the beginning of the flight period. No exuviae or
adults were collected after 14 July. The adults (8
females) collected in July corresponded with the
highest water temperature (21°C) recorded in

the Middle Fork of Cane Creek during the study
period. Kondratieff and Despins (9) reported an
emergence period of about 7 weeks (approx-
imately May 29-July 17) for E. xanthenes from
North Otter Creek in Virginia. Peckarsky (24)
recorded the emergence period of E. xanthenes
throughout its range as mid-April to August.
Direct egg counts of 8 females showed a
range from 110 to 233 eggs per female; the mean
was 170. The eggs were oval and measured 0.34
by 0.41 mm. Needham and Claassen (2) il-
lustrated the eggs and Stark and Gaufin (17)
provided a detailed description of the eggs.

Trans. Kentucky Academy of Science — 46(3-4) a1

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors are grateful to Ms. Vickie
Crager for typing the manuscript, and Ms. Amy
Messinger for her computer assistance. Also, we
thank Ms. Louise Stivers and Ms. Diane Camp-
bell for assistance in the field work.

LITERATURE CITED

1.Smith, L.W. 1913. The biology of Perla im-
marginata Say. Ann. Ent. Soc. Amer. 6:203-211.

2.Needham, J.G., and P.W. Claassen. 1925. A
monograph of the Plecoptera or stoneflies of
America North of Mexico. Thos. Say Found. Ent.
Soc. Amer. 2:1-397.

3. Frison, T.H. 1935. The stoneflies of Illinois. Bull.
Ill. Nat. Hist. Surv. 20:275-471.

4.Frison, T.H. 1942. Studies of North American
Plecoptera, with special reference to the fauna of
Illinois. Bull. Ill. Nat. Hist. Surv. 22:235-355.

5. Minshall, G.W. and J.N. Minshall. 1966. Notes on
the life history and ecology of Isoperla clio
(Newman) Amer. Midl. Nat. 76:340-350.

6. Tarter, D.C. and L.A. Krumholz. 1971. Life history
and ecology of Paragnetina media (Walker), in
Doe Run, Meade County, Kentucky. Amer. Midl.
Nat. 86:169-180.

7. Harper, P.P. 1973. Emergence, reproduction, and
growth of setipalpian Plecoptera in southern On-
tario. Oikos 24:94-107.

8. Vaught, G.L. and K.W. Stewart. 1974. The life
history and ecology of the stonefly Neoperla
clymene (Newman) (Plecoptera: Perlidae). Ann.
Ent. Soc. Amer. 67:167-178.

9. Kondratieff, B.C. and J.L. Despins. 1983. Seasonal
flight pattern of Plecoptera from North Otter
Creek, Virginia. Ent. News 94:41-44.

10. Doherty, F.G. and W.D. Hummon. 1980. Respira-
tion of aquatic insect larvae (Ephemeroptera,
Plecoptera) in acid mine water. Bull. Environ.
Contam. Toxicol. 25:358-363.

11. Newman, E. 1838. Entomological notes. Ent. Mag.
5:175-178.

12. Klapalek, F. 1921. Plecopteres nouveaux. Ann
Soc. Ent. Belgique 61:60.

13. Needham, J.G. and P.W. Claassen. 1922. The
North American species of the genus Acroneuria.
Can. Ent. 54;249-255.

14. Illies, J. 1966. Katalog der rezenten Plecoptera.
Das Tierreich, 82. Walter de Gruyter and Co.,
Berlin.

15. McCaskill, V.H. and R. Prins. 1968. Stoneflies
(Plecoptera) of northwestern South Carolina. J.
Elisha Mitchell Sci. Soc. 84:448-453.

16. Hitchcock, S.W. 1974. Guide to the Insects of Con-
necticut. Part VII. The Plecoptera or Stoneflies of
Connecticut. State Geological and Natural History
Survey of Connecticut. Bulletin 107:1-262.

17. Stark, B.P. and A.R. Gaufin. 1976. The nearctic
genera of Perlidae (Plecoptera). Misc. Pub. Ent.
Soc. Amer. 10:1-77.

18. Kondratieff, B.C. and J.R. Voshell, Jr. 1979. A
checklist of the Stoneflies (Plecoptera) of Virginia.
Ent. News 90:241-246.

19. Tarter, D.C. and R.F. Kirchner. 1980. An an-
notated list of the Stoneflies (Plecoptera) of West
Virginia. Ent. News 91:49-53.

20. Lake, R.W. 1980. Distribution of the stoneflies
(Plecoptera) of Delaware. Ent. News 91:43-48.

21. Tarter, D.C., D.A. Adkins and C.V. Covell, Jr.
1984. A checklist of the Stoneflies (Plecoptera) of
Kentucky. Ent. News 95:113-116.

22. United States Department of Agriculture. 1981.
Soil Survey of Laurel and Rockcastle Counties,
Kentucky.

23. Hubbs, C.L. and A. Perlmutter. 1942. Biometric
comparison of several samples, with particular
reference to racial investigations . Amer. Natur.

76:582-592.

24. Peckarsky, B.L. 1979. A review of the distribution,
ecology, and evolution of the North American
species of Acroneuria and six related genera
(Plecoptera:Perlidae). J. Kans. Ent. Soc.
52:787-809.

RH - Soybean Resistance to Spider Mites - Mohammad and Rodriquez

Resistance of Selected Soybean Genotypes to the Twospotted Spider Mite

Tetranychus urticae Koch (Arcarina: Tetranychidae)'

Abdul Aziz Atta Mohammad and J. G. Rodriguez
Department of Entomology, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky 40546-0091

ABSTRACT

Nine soybean genotypes, ‘Bonus’, ‘Williams’, ‘Hill’, PI 227687, PI 229358, S-100, D54-2437, ‘Tracy’, and
‘Bragg’, were evaluated for resistance to Tetranychus urticae Koch by using various detached and intact leaf
tests. Mite fecundity was not significantly different on the upper or lower leaf surface of detached leaves of all
genotypes, but on intact leaves, the lower surface was strongly preferred for oviposition. There was no evidence
of any mortality or repellency factor in any of the genotypes. Leaf pubescence did not appear to be a factor in
resistance to mites. Egg production was significantly higher on Bonus, compared to Tracy, Williams and Bragg.
Genotypes PI 227687, PI 229358, Hill, S-100 and D54-2437 were intermediate in their resistance to mites. Egg
production and quiescent deutonymph weight were not significantly affected when mites were fed on Bonus,
Williams and Bragg for 3 consecutive generations. Averaged over 3 generations, the total number of eggs pro-
duced in 20 days post-emergence was significantly higher on Bonus (173.9) compared to Williams (125.9) and
Bragg (104.7). Resistance was primarily associated with a reduction in fecundity of the mites. Ranking for
resistance was similar in seedlings (V1-V2) or in V3 trifoliates taken from V4 plants. The detached leaf bioassay
for resistance proved to be an acceptable technique.

INTRODUCTION

viewpoint and the negative impact that

Soybeans are of much importance pesticides may have on the environment. In

worldwide. In a relatively short period of time,
soybeans have arisen from a minor crop to a
major source of oil and protein. Among the ar-
thropod pests of soybeans generally is the
twospotted spider mite, Tetranychus urticae
Koch. The mite is especially severe in dry
seaons when the soybean plant comes under
water stress. At such times, egg production in
this soft-bodied mite is accelerated because in
the process of maintaining a water balance,
nutrient uptake from the leaf cells is relatively
higher with each unit of water imbibed (1).
Under these conditions, management of mites
becomes a problem, both from an economic

Kentucky, for example, the severe drought of
1983 caused an estimated 50% decrease in soy-
bean yield compared to the 1982 yield (Ky.
Agric. Statistics, 1983-84, ed.). A large percen-
tage of the drought-affected agreage was heavi-
ly infested with T. urticae and received rescue
treatment. Host plant resistance then becomes
a significant management alternative as it can
be very cost effective to the grower if it prevents
mite populations from reaching the economic
injury level.

Research in soybean resistance to mites ap-
pears to have developed slowly, probably
because of the complexity of soybean plant

‘The investigation reported in this paper (No. 85-7-10) is in connection with a project of the Kentucky Agricultural Experiment Station and is
published with approval of the Director, and is part of research presented to The Graduate School, University of Kentucky, as a Master's Thesis by

A.A.A. Mohammad.

Trans. Kentucky Academy of Science — 46(3-4) 93

growth physiology (2). Nevertheless, progress is
becoming evident. Parameswarappa et al. (3)
obtained genetic data on reaction to spider mite
damage on parental, F, and F, generation plants
of 2 soybean crosses. In one cross, mite damage
was apparently monogenically determined with
susceptibility recessive; in the other, suscep-
tibility was apparently due to the complemen-
tion of two nonallelic genes, one from each
parent. For example, 12 soybean cultivars were
tested for possible ‘tolerance’ to T. urticae (4).
Two cultivars, “Dare” amd “Hill”, showed low
‘tolerance’ whereas the other 10 cultivars
showed moderate to high ‘tolerance’. Differen-
tial susceptibilities of soybean cultivars to mite
damage have also been found (5). Rodriguez et
al. (6) found different effects of mite infestations
on dry matter production of the soybean
cultivars “Bonus”, “Fiskeby V”, “McCall”, and
“Williams”. All cultivars showed greater reduc-
tions in growth with early infestation (V2) as op-
posed to late infestation (R5). The cultivar
Williams showed a lower reduction in dry matter
production due to mite infestation than the
other cultivars, but especially Bonus which was
more susceptible to mite injury.

The general objectives of the present study
were to assess the resistance of 9 selected soy-
bean genotypes to T. urticae and to assess the
relative merit/validity of several bioassay tech-
niques in determination or characterization of
resistance. The genotypes selected were chosen
from those studied by the workers cited above
(3, 4, 5, 6).

MATERIALS AND METHODS

General Procedures—Nine soybean genotypes,
‘Braga’, ‘Bonus’, ‘Hill’, ‘Tracy’, ‘Williams’,
‘S-100’, ‘D54-2437,, PI 229358 and PI 227687 were
grown in the greenhouse in this study. The
descriptions of soybean growth stages are those
of Fehr and Caviness (2). Tetranychus utricae
used in the experiments were mites of uniform
age, and infestation procedure involved a double
transfer of female mites, thusly: detached soy-
bean leaf discs, kept on wet paper towels, were
heavily infested with mites from the colony
maintained on beans. The females were allowed
to oviposit on the leaf discs for several hours,
after which the mites were removed with a
stream of air. The remaining eggs then hatched
evenly and were transferred as teneral adult
females with a fine artist’s brush. The first
transfer was to the soybean genotype that cor-
responded to the genotype being tested. Two
time-tested feeding techniques were used:
detached leaf disc and intact leaf (7). Ex-
periments were conducted under standard con-

ditions of 27°C, 80%
photoperiod.

Detached Leaf Technique—In this technique,
leaves at the required growth stages were
detached from the genotypes being tested.
These were placed on wet paper towels in a
plastic tray and the perimeter of the leaf was
then ringed with Tanglefoot® . The test mites
were then carefully transferred onto the leaves,
using a fine artist’s brush. The following tests
were done using this technique.

(1) Detached V2 leaf—comparison of mite
response on upper and lower leaf surface. The
middle leaflet from the V2 trifoliate of plants at
the V3 stage of growth was used. A leaflet was
placed with the lower surface down on the wet
towel and a similar leaflet was placed with the
upper surface down. After ringing with
Tanglefoot® , 5 teneral females were placed on
each leaflet of all 9 genotypes, and replicated 4
times. The experiment was maintained at 27°C
and data were collected on fecundity, mortality
and number of mites trapped in the
Tanglefoot® .

(2) Detached V3 leaf—comparison of mite
response on the upper leaf surface. The pro-
cedure was similar to the above except the V3
leaflet from the plants at the V4 stage was used
and placement was with lower surface down on
the wet paper towel. Data were collected on egg
production, mortality, and the number of mites
caught in the Tanglefoot® barrier.

(3) Overlapping leaf test—Bonus and Williams,
susceptible and resistant cultivars, were selected
for this test (6). These 2 genotypes were com-
pared against each other, and against the 7
other genotypes for feeding and oviposition
preference. Two leaflets, 1 from each pair being
compared, were overlapped by ca 1-2 cm. The
pair were joined thusly by a paper clip and
Tanglefoot® was applied around the edge. This
confined mites to the pair, but allowed free
movement of mites from one leaflet to another,
as they preferred. Ten teneral females were plac-
ed on each leaflet pair and the experiment was
replicated 5 times. Data were recorded on egg
production.

(4) Egg production, daily oviposition, mortality
and longevity of T. urticae on Bonus, Williams,
and Bragg—The middle V3 leaflet from V4 stage
plants was used. Two teneral female mites and 2
mature males were placed on each detached
leaflet. Thirty female mites per genotype were
observed daily. Dead mites and mites trapped in
Tanglefoot® were replaced with mites from the
same culture, maintained on leaf discs of the
corresponding genotype, under similar condi-
tions. Leaf discs were replaced at weekly inter-
vals. Daily oviposition was recorded up to 20
days.

R.H., and 14hour

94 RH - Soybean Resistance to Spider Mites - Mohammad and Rodriquez

(5) Effects on T. urticae reared for 3 consecutive
generations on Bonus, Williams, and
Bragg—Mites were reared from 3 consecutive
generations on detached V3 middle leaflets of
the above mentioned genotypes. Thirty mites
were observed from each generation. Two
teneral females were introduced to the upper
surface of each detached leaflet. Mites that died
or were caught in Tanglefoot® were replaced
from a culture of the same generation and age,
maintained under similar conditions. Leaves
were replaced weekly with fresh leaves of the
same growth stage. Oviposition was recorded
daily for 20 days and quiescent female
deutonymphs from each generation were weigh-
ed using a Cahn electrobalance.

Intact Leaf Technique—(1) Isolated leaf
test. The middle V2 leaflet from V3 stage plants
was isolated by removing the 2 lateral leaflets
from the trifoliate and by banding the petiole
with a strip of ‘Scotch® ’ tape to which a streak
of Tanglefoot® was applied. Five teneral
females, placed on the upper surface of the
leaflet, were free to oviposit on either surface.
This procedure was conducted for all genotypes,
replicated 5 times, and egg production was
recorded after 5 days.

(2) Confinement cage test—The V1
(unifoliolate) leaf of plants at the V2 growth
stage was used. Five teneral females were caged
(2 cm at the base by 1.6 cm high with a ven-
tilated top) on the paper surface of the leaflet.
The cage was clamped to the leaf with an
aluminum hair clip. This was done for all 9
genotypes, and replicated 4 times. After 5 days,
the cages were removed and eggs laid on the
leaf were counted.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Detached Leaf Test—Three parameters
were used to evaluate resistance to Tetranychus
urticae among the 9 genotypes: fecundity (as
measured by egg production), mortality of the
mites on the leaves, and the number of mites
trapped in the Tanglefoot® . Mortality of the
mites was a measure of direct antibiosis, and
the number of mites trapped in Tanglefoot®
was used as an index of the degree of repellency
of the different genotypes to the mites.

The differences in eqgg-production response
when mites were confined to the upper or lower
leaf surface of the V2 leaf are shown in Table 1.
Mites laid more eggs on the upper surface of
genotypes Bonus, Williams, Hill, PI 229358, PI
227687, and Bragg, while more eggs were laid
on the lower surface of S-100, D54-2437 and
Tracy. However, the difference in the number of
eqgs laid on either surface for all genotypes was

not significant. There was no significant dif-
ference also in mite mortality and the number of
mites trapped in Tanglefoot® on both leaf sur-
faces. Generally, very few mites died or were
repelled into the Tanglefoot® on either leaf sur-
face for any genotype. There were differences in
the number of eggs laid on the different
genotypes, the most marked being between
Bonus and Williams (Table 1).

Table 1. Average fecundity and mortality of T. urticae on upper and
lower surfaces of detached soybean V2 leaves (5 teneral females/leaf; 4

replicates).
Avg. no. of
mites /leaf*
Avg. no. t-statistic
Leaf eggs/leaf for paired

Genotype Surface’ Dead InTF (5th day) comparison
Bonus a 0.50 0.50 218 0.80

b 0.25 0.25 206
Williams a 0.75 1.00 147 0.83

b 0.75 0.75 138
S-100 a 0.00 0.25 195 0.68

b 0.25 0.50 206
D54-2437 a 0.25 0.50 170 1.14

b 0.50 0.25 184
Hill a 0.50 0.50 183 0.90

b 0.25 0.50 170
PI 229358 a 0.75 0.50 201 1.92

b 1.00 0.50 182
PI 227687 a 0.50 0.25 198 0.62

b 0.25 1.00 160
Tracy a 0.25 0.75 150 1.27

b 0.25 1.00 160
Bragg a 0.25 0.50 154 1.19

b 0.75 0.75 142

‘a = upper leaf surface, b = lower leaf surface.

*Means in pair are not significantly different from each other at the
5% level (paired t-test).

‘Tanglefoot® .

Because there were no significant dif-
ferences in mite responses to upper or lower leaf
surfaces, it appeared reasonable and convenient
to restrict the bioassay to the upper leaf sur-
faces. The test on slightly older leaves, i.e., on
the upper V3 leaf surface, showed that the
lowest number of eggs (153.8) was produced on
Bragg, followed in increasing order by Tracy,
Williams, Hill, D54-2437, PI 227687, S-100, PI
229358 and Bonus (214.8) (Table 2). The
numbers of eggs on Bragg, Tracy and Williams
were significantly lower than on all the other
genotypes. Mite fecundity on Bonus, however,
was not significantly different from PI 229358,
S-100, PI 227687 and D54-2437. There was no

Trans. Kentucky Academy of Science — 46(3-4) 95

significant difference among the genotypes with
respect to their number of dead mites and the
number caught in the Tanglefoot® , attesting to
lack of acute toxicity/antibiosis and repellency.

Table 2. Average fecundity and mortality of T. urticae on upper sur-
face of detached soybean V3 leaf (5 teneral females/leaf; 5 replicates).

Avg. no. of mites’ Avg. no. eggs/leaf*

over 3 generations was compared among the 3
genotypes, there were significant differences
among the means. The number of eggs produc-
ed on Williams and Bragg was significantly
lower than on Bonus.

Table 3. Preference for oviposition by T. urticae on one of a pair of
overlapping leaves of 2 soybean genotypes (10 teneral females/pair; 4
replicates).

Genotype Dead InTF 5th Day
Bonus 0.2 0.6 214.8 + 14.84a
PI 229358 0.6 0.6 204.6 + 8.84ab
S-100 0.2 1.0 203.6 + 12.7lab
PI 227687 0.2 0.4 198.2 + 11.44ab
D54-2437 0.2 0.2 195.4 + 12.8lab
Hill 0.2 1.0 185.3 + 6.76b
Williams 0.4 1.2 162.0 + 6.89c
Tracy 0.2 0.8 157.2 + 11.63c
Bragg 0.6 0.8 153.8 + 15.11c

‘Means in column were analyzed after transformation and are not
significantly different at the 5% level (Duncan’s Multiple Range Test).

*Means in column followed by a common letter are not significantly
different at the 5% level (Duncan’s Multiple Range Test).

‘Tanglefoot® .

Bonus and Williams were compared in
overlapping leaf tests against each other and
against the other 7 genotypes for ovipositional
preference. Egg production was _ signficantly
higher on Bonus than on Williams, Tracy,
Bragg or S-100 (Table 3). Although more eggs
were produced on Bonus than on Hill, PI 227687
and PI 229358, the differences were not signifi-
cant. Also involved in this test was the presumed
preference that the mite exercised in choosing to
feed on Bonus over Williams, Tracy and Bragg.

In the overlapping leaf tests with Williams,
significantly more eggs were laid on Hill and Pl
229358 than on Williams (Table 4). Mites also
produced more eggs on Bragg, S-100, Tracy,
D54-2437 and PI 227687 although statistically
there was no difference between these genotypes
and Williams. This strengthens the evidence
that Williams has resistance characteristics.

Often reproduction effects are not acute but
rather subtle changes noted over several
generations. To assess this possibility, egg pro-
duction was recorded (for 20 days _ post-
emergence) for each of 3 generations of T. ur-
ticae_ maintained on Bonus, Williams and
Bragg. On all 3 genotypes, fecundity was not
significantly changed over the 3 consecutive
generations, although on Bonus the third
generation appeared to show a substantial in-
crease in the number of eggs laid (Table 5).
However, when the fecundity of mites averaged

Avg. no. of eggs t-statistic

—_ for paired
Genotype (5th day) comparison
Bonus 151.0 3.21
Williams 108.5
Bonus 175.0 1.27
Hill 154.8
Bonus 195.8 1.23
PI 227687 178.5
Bonus 164.0 0.31
D54-2437 168.0
Bonus 211.8 12.36°*
Tracy 101.0
Bonus 177.5 12.03°*
Bragg 110.5
Bonus 205.8 4.48°
S-100 164.3
Bonus 191.0 2.31
PI 229358 161.3

*Means in pair significantly different from each other at the 5% (*)
level, or 1% (**) level.

Table 4. Preference for oviposition by T.urticae on one of a pair of
overlapping soybean leaves of 2 genotypes (10 teneral females/pair; 4
replicates).

Avg. No. of Eggs t-statistic

=e ike es for paired
Leaflet pair (5th Day) comparison®
Williams 142.3 1.15
Bragg 153.0
Williams 131.8 3.75°
Hill 181.3
Williams 142.0 2.67
S-100 189.3
Williams 120.0 6.44°°
PI 229358 160.3
Williams 138.8 1.38
Tracy 154.5
Williams 149.3 1.24
D54-2437 175.3
Williams 136.5 1.96
PI 227687 159.3

*Means in pair significantly different from each other at the 5% (*)
or 1% (**) level.

96 RH - Soybean Resistance to Spider Mites - Mohammad and Rodriquez

Table 5. Fecundity of T. urticae maintained for 3 consecutive
generations in soybean genotypes Bonus, Williams and Bragg. Values
are means of the number of eggs laid per female for 20 days following

emergency.
Avg. No. of Eggs/Mite
Generation

Genotype 1 2 3 Mean’
Bonus 163.7 164.1 193.9 173.9a
Williams 115.5 134.6 127.8 125.9b
Bragg 91.5 116.3 106.2 104.7b
Mean’ 123.6 138.3 142.6

‘Means in the column followed by the same letter are not
significantly different at the 5% level (Duncan’s Multiple Range Test).
2No signficant difference among generations, at the 5% level.

In order to study possible allelochemic

chronic effects detrimental to mite physiology,
quiescent female deutonymphs were weighed
from each of the 3 generations. The results
showed there were no significant changes in the
fresh weight of the mites among the 3 genera-
tions for the 3 genotypes (Table 6). The highest
average weight obtained was 11.37 yg, for the
third generation raised on Williams.
Daily egg production was followed for 20 days
following emergence on female mites feeding on
Bonus, Williams and Bragg. Oviposition was
recorded on day 1 for all 3 genotypes. Peak daily
oviposition on Bonus was reached on day 5,
with a mean of 12.7 eggs per female. On Bragg,
maximum oviposition was 8.8 eggs, also on day
5. On Williams, maximum oviposition occurred
on day 3, with 10.8 eggs. From the 4th day after
emergence up to 20 days, daily oviposition was
substantially higher on Bonus than on Williams
and Bragg. By day 20, daily oviposition had
fallen to a mean of 3.8, 2.8 and 2.4 eggs on
Bonus, Williams and Bragg, respectively (Fig.
1).

UV VISIBLE SCAN OF LIQUID MEDIA CONTAINING VANILLIC ACID

Ny
\

i
\ 10
\
NG ees

200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900
am

Figure 1. mean daily oviposition per female of Tetranychus urticae Koch
on soybean genotypes ‘Bonus’, ‘Williams’, and ‘Bragg’ at 27°C.

Table 6. Weight of quiescent female deutonymphs of T. urticae
maintained for 2 consecutive generations on Bonus, Williams and Bragg

soybeans.

Mean Weight*

Genotype Generation (n) (ug)
Bonus 1 35 11.12 = 0.28
2 33 11.37 + 0.30
3 38 11.09 + 0.44

Mean 11.19
Williams 1 39 10.98 + 0.13
2 30 11.20 + 0.14
3 33 10.53. + 0.37

Mean 10.90
Bragg 1 35 10.89 + 0.32
2 36 10.96 + 0.25
3 31 11.00 + 0.15

Mean 10.95

“Means not significantly different at the 5% level (Duncan's Multi-
ple Range Test).

Table 7. Fecundity and oviposition preference of T. urticae on upper
or lower surface of isolated soybean V2 leaves (5 teneral females /leaf; 5
replicates. Count made 5 days after infestation).

Avg. No. of Eggs‘

Genotype Upper Lower Total’
Bonus 34.8 145.6 180.4 + 9.37a

PI 227687 29.4 140.4 169.8 + 5.99ab
S-100 36.6 133.0 169.6 + 5.67ab
Hill 38.0 120.6 158.6 + 8.57abc
PI 229358 31.4 126.6 158.0 + 10.02abc
D54-2437 17.8 127.4 145.2 + 14.78bc
Tracy 27.8 115.0 142.8 + 9.52c
Williams 19.4 119.0 138.4 + 5.79
Bragg 33.2 101.4 134.6 + 12.05c

‘Highly significant difference (1% level) in the number of eggs laid
on upper and lower leaf surface for all genotypes.

*Means in column followed by a common letter are not significantly
different at the 5% level (Duncan's Multiple Range Test).

Longevity and natural mortality of mites on
Bonus, Williams and Bragg was recorded on
day 1 on all 3 genotypes (Fig. 2). One hundred
per cent mortality was reached on days 26, 28,
and 33, on Williams, Bonus and Bragg, respec-
tively. Fifty percent of the mites feeding on
Bonus had died by day 16, compared to days 17
and 19 for Bragg and Williams, respectively. It is
quite possible that food resources become
limiting earlier on Bonus, causing an earlier
death of the female.

Tests Using Intact Leaves—This study was
conducted to ascertain the validity of using
detached leaves in the bioassays. Two tests were
carried out using intact leaves, one utilizing an
isolated leaf and the other a confinement cage.

Trans. Kentucky Academy of Science — 46(3-4) 97

Mite preference for oviposition on the upper or
lower leaf surface in the isolated leaf test is
shown in Table 7. The difference in the number
of eggs laid on the surfaces was highly signifi-
cant, with the lower surface being strongly
preferred. This is in contrast to comparable
oviposition found when the mites were isolated
on either surface (Table 1), demonstrating that
the females are capable of feeding equally well
from either surface, but preferring to feed from
the lower side. Also, the lowest number of eggs
laid was on Bragg (134.6), and the highest was
on Bonus (180.4), on V2 leaves. The numbers of
eggs on Bragg, Williams and Tracy were
significantly lower than on Bonus, PI 227687,
and S-100, but not significantly different when
compared to Hill, PI 229358 and D54-2437.

100

80

60

40

Bonus e—e

Bragg o—o
Williams #—s

CUMULATIVE % MORTALITY

5 10 15 20 25 30 35

DAYS

Figure 2. Cumulative % natural mortality of female Tetranychus urticae
Koch on soybean genotypes ‘bonus’, ‘Williams’, and ‘Bragg’ at 27°C.

The fecundity of mites confined in cages on
the upper surface of the V1 leaf is shown in Table
8. Once again, the highest number of eggs were
produced on Bonus and the lowest numbers on
Bragg and Williams. The number of eggs laid on
Bonus was significantly higher than on Tracy,
Williams and Bragg. The results of this study at-
test to the validity of utilizing seedlings in the
very early stages of plant growth (V1) for
bioassays on soybean plant resistance to the
twospotted spider mite, at least compared to
V2/V3 stages.

Bonus consistently produced the highest
oviposition, while Tracy, Williams and Bragg, in
decreasing order, had the lowest. Hill, PI's
227687 annd 229358, S-100 and D54-2437 were
genotypes ranked intermediate in resistance.

Table 8. fecundity of T. urticae caged on upper surface of soybean
V1 leaf (5 teneral females /leaf; 4 replicates. Count made 5 days after in-
festation).

Genotype Mean No. of Eggs’
Bonus 206.8 + 10.60a

PI 227687 201.8 + 8.6lab
Hill 195.5 + 7.60ab

PI 229358 193.5 + 10.47abc
S-100 191.8 + 914 abc
D54-2437 184.5 = 13.43abc
Tracy 173.3 + 6.14 bc
williams 167.5 + 10.15c
Bragg 159.5 + 8.72c

‘Means followed by a comon letter are not signficiantly different at
the 5% level (Duncan's Multiple Range Test).

Moreover, the ranking of Tracy, Williams and
Bragg as the most resistant, and Bonus as the
least, was consistent in both detached and in-
tact leaf tests, confirming results of Patterson et
al. (8), irrespective of leaf/plant age ranging
from V1 to V3, the limits of our assays. The work
also showed that feeding preference is directly
related to egg production but that longevity may
be limited by food resources. The genotypes
studied did not exhibit acute toxicity effects (an-
tibiosis) nor did they demonstrate repellency,
confirming our previous findings (6) relative to
the interaction of Bonus and Williams with T.
urticae. The lack of allelochemic or acute effect
was further demonstrated by the similarity of
body weight of quiescent deutonymphs reared
on Bonus, Williams and Bragg. The reduced
weight and fecundity of arthropods feeding on
resistant gentoypes can be partly attributed to
the unsuitability of the plants as a food source
(9, 10). The nutritional value of plants and the
absence of toxic compounds determine the ade-
quacy of the plant as a food source to sustain the
various physiological processes related to
growth and development. When arthropods feed
on resistant plants, they manifest antibiotic
symptoms that range from lethal or acute to
very mild or subchronic (11).

The genotype, PI 229358, was found to be a
source of resistance to the soybean looper
Pseudoplusia includens (Walker) (E. E. Hartwig,
pers. com.), and also a source of pinitol which
inhibited larval growth in Heliothis zea (Boddie)
in bioassay (12). This genotype showed in-
termediate resistance to T. urticae in our
bioassay but the role of pinitol in this case is
uncertain because this compound attains its
higher levels as the plant matures, and our
bioassay utilized young leaves. Also, Rodriguez
et al. (6) showed that T. urticae populations in-
crease as the plant reaches the reproductive
stage.

98 RH - Soybean Resistance to Spider Mites - Mohammad and Rodriquez

Although obvious differences in resistance
to mites were shown in the 9 genotypes, it must
be borne in mind that Painter (13) pointed out,
that resistance is relative, and is definable only
in terms of other and usually more susceptible
genotypes. This situation is demonstrated in the
case of D54-2437, and S-100, where these
genotypes were classified as ‘resistant’ and Hill
was evaluated as ‘susceptible’ to mites (3). In
our study, these genotypes were ‘intermediate’
in their resistance. However, it is possible that
mite populations in the Parameswarappa study
(3) were distributed over more foliage in S-100
and D54-2437 at maturity since these genotypes
have an indeterminate type of growth, as con-
trasted with Hill that has a determinate growth
type. In our study the bioassays were on young
leaves and this has the advantage of not being
influenced by growth type or plant growth stage.

It is therefore important that in categorizing
genotypes for resistance, ambiguity be mini-
mized. This can be achieved to a certain extent
by the use of standard techniques to evaluate
resistance, and including a standard to known
resistance as a reference genotype. We have
demonstrated that resistance of soybeans to
mites can be measured at an early stage of plant
growth and the results are apparently compati-
ble with whole plant-mite interaction.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We are grateful for the assistance of Dr. E.
E. Hartwig, Soybean Research Agronomist,
USDA, Stoneville, MS, who supplied some of
the soybean genotypes. The Assistance of Cary
G. Patterson and M. F. Potts in various phases
of this research is gratefully acknowledged.

LITERATURE CITED

1. Wharton, G.W. and Larry G. Arlian. 1972. Utiliza-
tion of water by terrestrial mites and insects. In In-
sects and Mite Nutrition pp. 153-165, J.G.
Rodriguez, ed., North-Holland Publ. Co., Amster-
dam.

2. Fehr, W.R. and C.E. Caviness. 1977. Stages of
soybean development. Coop. Ext. Ser., Agr. and
Home Econ. Expt. Sta., lowa State Univ., Sci. and
Tech. Special Rept. 80. 11 pp.

3. Parameswarappa, R., L.M. Josephson and E.E.
Hartwig. 1974. Inheritance of spider mite damage
in soybeans J. Heredity 65:379-380.

4. Bailey, J.C. and R.G. Furr. 1975. Reaction of 12
soybean varieties to the twospotted spider mite.
Environ. Entomol. 4:733-734.

5. Carlson, E.C., B.H. Beard, R. Tarailo and R.L.
Witt. 1979. Testing soybeans for resistance to
spider mites. Calif. Agric. 33:9-11.

6. Rodriguez, J.G., D.A. Reicosky and C.G. Patter-
son. 1983. Soybean and mite interaction: Effects of
cultivar and plant growth stage. J. Kansas En-
tomol. Soc. 56:320-326.

7. Rodriguez, J.G., Z.T. Dabrowski, L.P. Stoltz, C.E.
Chaplin and W.O. Smith, Jr. 1971. Studies on
resistance of strawberries to mites. 2. Preference
and nonpreference response of Tetranychus ur-
ticae and T. turkestani to water-soluble extracts of
foliage. J. Econ. Entomol. 64:383-387.

8. Patterson, C.G., D. Reicosky and J.G. Rodriguez.
1977. Spider mite resistance in soybeans. 90th
Ann. Rept. Col. Agric., Agric. Expt. Sta., Univ. of
Kentucky. p. 102.

9. Scott, G.E. and W.D. Guthrie. 1966. Survival of
European corn borer larvae on resistant corn
treated with nutritional substances. J. Econ. En-
tomol. 59:1265-1267.

10. Pathak, M.D. 1970. Genetics of plants in pest
management. In Concepts of Pest Management,
R.L. Rabb and F.E. Guthrie, eds., North Carolina
State University, Raleigh.

11. Kogan, M. 1975. Plant resistance in pest manage-
ment. Introduction to Pest Management, R.L. Met-
calf and W.H. Luckmann, eds., John Wiley &
Sons, New York.

12. Dreyer, D.L., R.G. Binder, B.G. Chan, A.C.
Waiss, Jr., E.E. Hartwig and G.L. Beland. 1979.
Pinitol, a larval growth inhibitor for Heliothis zea
in soybeans. Experientia 35;1182-1183.

13. Painter, R.H. 1951. Insect Resistance in Crop
Plants. The Macmillan Co., New York.

RH - Corn Borer in Kentucky - Peppers and Ajlan et al.

Resistance of Pepper, Capsicum annum L. to European Corn Borer,
Ostrinia nubilalis (Hubner)!

Abdul-Aziz Ajlan, D.E. Knavel, and J.G. Rodriguez
Department of Entomology and Department of Horticulture and Landscape Architecture,
University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky 40546-0091

ABSTRACT

Field tests consisted of (1) screening 2 commercial cultivars and 6 breeding lines of pepper for European
corn borer (ECB) fruit damage in 1981, and (2) inoculating plants with 0, 2, and 4 egg masses of ECB and (3) 0,
1, and 2 applications of acephate after inoculating plants with egg masses in 1981 and 1982. All breeding lines
had less fruit infestation than the cultivar, California Wonder, and 5 of the breeding lines had less fruit infesta-
tion than both commercial cultivars. Increasing egg masses of ECB per plant on California Wonder and UK
76-G increased fruit infestation in both years, but the damage was less severe in UK 76-G. Fruit infestation
decreased with one application of acephate in both California Wonder and UK 76-G, but the damage was less
severe in UK 76-G. Laboratory tests consisted of using capsaicin and ground pepper fruits in larvae diets. Larval
survival decreased with increasing concentration of capsaicin. Using ground fruits of a sweet pepper selection,
UK 76-G, as 20% of the diet, and fruits of a pungent (hot)-pepper selection, UK 14-B, as 10 and 20% of the diet,
decreased the percentage of larval pupation. These concentrations of ground fruits of the pungent-pepper selec-

tion also decreased the percentage of larvae surviving to the adult stage.

INTRODUCTION

The European corn borer (ECB), Ostrinia
nubilalis (Hubner), is a serious pest on peppers,
Capsicum annuum L. in Kentucky. Kentucky
growers produce around 30,000 tons of pepper
fruits annually on approximately 1200 ha for a
net return of 2.5 million dollars. Dupree, et al.
(5) estimated the yield loss to ECB damage in
1978 to commercial growers of pimiento peppers
in Spalding County, Georgia to be about 3.5
million dollars. The damage to peppers is done
primarily to the fruit, where the larvae feed in-
ternally, but occasionally larvae also bore into
the stems, causing stem breakage.

The pest is widely distributed in the corn-
belt area of the United States. Burkhardt (3),
Little (11), and Ritcher (15) stated that ECB at-
tacks over 200 kinds of plants besides corn and
peppers. The pest overwinters as a full-grown
larva in corn stalks or in other protective host
plants. Pupation occurs in late winter or early
spring and lasts about 10 to 15 days. The adults
are active at night and live from 6 to 24 days.
The fertilized females lay their eggs on the under-
side of plant leaves, and the eggs hatch within 3
to 7 days. In Kentucky, the first generation feed
primarily on corn and become full-grown larvae
in 25 to 35 days. The first-generation adults ap-
pear about mid-July and lay their eggs on many
kinds of plants, including pepper. The eggs
hatch into the second-generation brood and

within 24 to 36 hours the larvae enter pepper
fruits. Entry is mainly in the cap (calyx) area or
under the cap, but may also be made from the
shoulder or the end of the fruits. No foliage
feeding has been observed. These larvae feed in-
side the fruit and the cap. This kind of damage
to the fruit allows microorganisms to enter the
fruit, often resulting in fruit rot which causes
dropping of the fruit and, therefore, reduced
yield. When rotting begins, the larvae often
leave and move to infest new fruit. In this way,
one larva can damage several peppers and with
heavy infestations more than one larva can be
found in one fruit. Sometimes full-grown larvae
feed in the stem or the branch and pupation
takes place there, as well as in the fruit. In Ken-
tucky, there are 2 generations and a small third
brood. Weather conditions during egg laying
can affect the severity of ECB problems. Calm,
warm nights are most favorable for moth activi-
ty.

Many studies have been made on the con-
trol of the ECB on corn, including chemical,
biological, and cultural controls. On pepper, the
most effective chemical control has been with
application of Sevin® (carbaryl) (2, 7, 12, 13),
Furadan® (carbofuran) (1, 14), and Orthene ®
(acephate) (2, 10). Presently, the recommenda-
tions in Kentucky (4) are the use of acephate,
carbaryl, or granular carbofuran. The use of the

‘The investigation reported in this paper (No. 85-10-7-14) is in connection with a project of the Kentucky Agricultural Experiment Station and is
published with approval of the Director, and is part of research presented to the Graduate School, University of Kentucky, as a Master's Thesis by

Abdul-Aziz Ajlan.

100 RH - Corn Borer in Kentucky - Peppers and Ajlan et al.

oophagid chalcid wasp, Trichogramma nubilale
Erthe and Davis, has been studied by Burbutis
and Koepke (1) for parasitizing ECB egg
masses. They obtained as much as 88%
parasitism, depending upon the number of
female released per day.

Jarvis and Guthrie (8) reported that sweet
peppers had a higher percentage of damage
fruits than pungent peppers. They also found
that oblate-shaped fruits had the lowest level of
damage and surviving larvae, whereas the
round, elongate and conical shaped fruits had
moderate levels of damage. The bell-shaped
peppers (sweet) had the highest infestation
level. Further, they found that the smaller pep-
pers, which were also the most pungent, had a
smaller number of surviving larvae and less
damage thatn the larger fruits.

The objectives of these studies were: (1) to
evaluate commercial pepper cultivars and
breeding selections for fruit damage by ECB; (2)
to determine the degree of resistance in pepper
selections pressured with egg masses; (3) to
determine the effectiveness of chemical control
on ECB when combined with host plant
resistance as a component of pest management,
and (4) to evaluate the effect of capsaicin, the
naturally occurring chemical for pungency, and
ground pepper fruits in diets for larval survival
and growth.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The pepper cultivars used in these studies
were obtained from commercial sources while
the breeding selections were part of an on-going
pepper breeding program in the Department of
Horticulture and Landscape Architecture,
University of Kentucky. The field experiments
were conducted at the University of Kentucky’s
south Farm near Lexington in 1981 and 1982.
The plot designs were randomized complete
blocks with 8 plants of each cultivar or selection
per treatment. Each treatment was replicated 3
times. The seeds were started in trays and
transplanted to peat pots and grown in a
greenhouse. The transplants were set in the
field on June 3, 1981, and May 20, 1982. The
1982 field experiments were a repeat of Ex-
periments 2 and 3 conducted in 1981.

The pepper plants were infested artificially
in the field by pinning ECB egg mases (approx.
30 eggs/mass) on the stems and near fruits.
ECB damage was determined about 4 weeks
after the first application of eqq masses by
dissecting the fruits and examining them for
evidence of damage by the presence (or
absence) of either larvae, larval frass webbing,
or exit holes.

Field Studies

Experiment 1.—The test consisted of 2 commer-
cial cultivars, Yolo Wonder and California
Wonder, and breeding selections, UK 45, UK 66,
UK 66-CBR4, UK 76-E, UK-76-G, and UK 14-B
(pungent fruit). The plants were infested with 2
egg masses per plant on July 16 in 1981 and on
July 21 in 1982.

Experiment 2.—This test was designed to deter-
mine the influence of placing 0, 2, and 4 eqq
masses per plant on fruit damage in the cultivar
California Wonder and the breeding selection
UK 76-G. The first application of 2 egg masses
per plant was made on July 16 in 1981 and July
21 in 1982. The second application of 2 egg
masses (4 egg mass treatment) was made on Ju-
ly 28 in 1981 and July 29 in 1982.

Experiment 3.—This test was designed to deter-
mine the influence of chemical control on ECB
when combined with host plant resistance as a
component of insect pest management. The
sources of infestation were 2 egg masses per
plant on July 16 in 1981. In 1983, one egg mass
per plant was applied on July 21 and again on
July 29. Acephate was applied in 0, 1, and 2
spray applications at the rate of 0.75 1b ai/A.
The first and second spray applications in 1981
were on July 19 and July 29. In 1982, spray ap-
plications were made on July 24 and August 3.

Laboratory Studies

Experiment 1.—This experiment was to deter-
mine the effect of capsaicin on the development
and survival of ECB larvae. Synthetic capsaicin
(dissolved in 95% alcohol) was added to a
meridic diet described by Lewis and Lynch (9) in
concentrations of 0.001, 0.01, 0.05, 0.1, and
0.2%. Newly hatched larvae were transferred in-
dividually to a 4-dram vial containing a plug of
diet weighing approximately 3 g. The vials were
plugged with cotton, placed on trays and in-
cubated at 27°C, 80% R.H., and 24hr
photoperiod. A total of 25 vials (25 larvae) were
evaluated at each level of capsaicin for (1)
percentage survival to pupation, (2) percentage
survival to adults, (3) days to pupation, and (4)
weight of female and male pupae.

Experiment 2.—Fruits of California Wonder,
and UK 76-G and UK 14B were freeze-dried,
ground, and added to the meridic diet to deter-
mine the effect of natural capsaicin in pepper
fruits on larval survival and development. The
concentrations of dried fruits in diets were 0, 1,
5, 10, and 20%.

All percentage data were arcsin-transferred
prior to subjecting to ANOVA. Means were
statistically separated by either Duncan’s multi-
ple range test or L.S.D.

Trans. Kentucky Academy of Science — 46(3-4)

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Field Studies

Experiment 1.—In the 1981 screening for ECB
damage, commercial sweet peppers had the
highest level of fruit damage. California Wonder
had 46.7% and Yolo Wonder had 43.9% of their
fruits showing damage (Table 1). Fruits of the
pungent selection, UK 14-B, had the lowest level
of damage with 6.9%.

Experiment 2.—Recorded data were similar for
both years (Table 2). The breeding selection UK
76-G had significantly less fruit damage. Placing
2 egg masses/plant on California Wonder plants
resulted in 50.3 and 63.3% damaged fruits while
only 14.4 and 32.9% of fruits were damaged for
UK 76-G in 1981 and 1982, respectively. Placing
4 egg masses/plant on California Wonder
resulted in 65.0 and 60.3% fruit damage, while
only 19.3 and 30.9% of UK 76-G fruits were
damaged in 1981 and 1982, respectively.
Experiment 3.—Unsprayed plants had more
fruit damage than sprayed plants for both plant
types in both years, but damage from natural in-
festation seemed to be more severe in 1982 than
in 1981. The second spray application appeared
to have no effect on reducing fruit damage in
either plant type (Table 3).

It should be noted that plants of the com-
mercial cultivars have morphological features
that differ from those of the breeding selections.
Plants of commercial cultivars have larger
leaves and bell-shaped fruits, while leaves of the
breeding selections are somewhat smaller and
fruits are either conical or elongate. The dif-

101

ference in plant and fruit types and their rela-
tionship to resistance to ECB have been
previously noted (6, 8).

Laboratory Studies

Experiment 1.—Adding capsaicin to the diets at
0.1 and 0.2% concentration reduced larval sur-
vival and the percentage of larvae reaching
adulthood (Table 4). Pupal (male) weight was
highest at 0.1% concentration of capsaicin in
the diet. Jarvis and Guthrie (8) found adult sur-
vival to be highly correlated with pupal survival
and the higher concentrations of capsaicin also
reduced the number of days required to reach
pupation. They found that their higher concen-
trations also reduced pupal weight.
Experiment 2.—Larval survival decreased as the
percentage of ground fruits of UK 76-G (sweet)
and UK 14-B (pungent) selections was increased
(Table 5). The 10 and 20% concentrations of the
pungent selection gave the greatest reduction of
larval survival and the percentage of larvae
reaching adulthood. Low concentrations (1%) of
California Wonder and both UK selections
resulted in similar survival data. The percentage
of larvae surviving to adulthood appeared to be
similar to that reaching pupation. Diets contain-
ing 20% of UK 76-G and UK 14-B fruits resulted
in heavier male weights. Only the high concen-
trated diet of UK 76-G increased female weight
over all other diets. However, high concentra-
tions of both California Wonder and UK 76-G,
and the 10% diet of UK 14-B increased female
pupa weight over other diets.

The use of ground fruits in larval diets gave
results similar to the use of synthetic capsaicin
(8-methyl-non (6)en-(1) oic acid-(1)-14o0xy,
3-methoxy-benzyl-amide) in diets. We conclud-
ed, as did Jarvis and Guthrie (8), that the
presence of capsaicin in the pungent genotype

Table 4, Influence of capsaicin in a meridic diet on survival and development of the European corn borer.

Capsaicin (%) Survival (%) Length of Length of Number Pupal weight
in == larval period pupation days to _ (ma)
diet to pupation to adult (days) (days) adult male female
0.2 29.4 a° 23.5 a 17.5a 75a 25.0 a 71.0 ab 92.0 a
0.1 58.2 b 39.3a 18.7 a 71a 2.8a 70.6 ab 78.6 b
0.05 78.5 ¢ 67.3b 14.5b 73a 21.8b 74.1¢ 88.3 ¢
0.01 90,0 ¢ 81.9 b 13.3 b 7.9a 21.2b T4.1¢ 93.6 ad
0,001 90.0 ¢ 81.9b 13.8 b 76a 21.4b 69.1 b 93.9 ad
Control 90.0 ¢ 81.9b 13.9b 8.3a 22.2b 719a %.2d
“Means followed by the same letter within column are not significantly different by Duncan's multiple range test

(P =0.05).

102 RH - Corn Borer in Kentucky - Peppers and Ajlan et al.

Table 5. Influence of pepper types in a meridic diet on survival and development of the European corn

borer.

Ground pepper Survival (%) Length of | Length of Number Pupal weight (mg)
Cultivar/ fruit (%) in Larval Period pupation days to

Selection standard diet to pupation to adult (days) (days) adult male female
California 1 89.9 ab* 81.9 ab 14.9b 6.9a 21.9a 75.3bcde 96.7 ef
Wonder 5 81.9 ab 78.5 ab 14.6 b 6.9a 21.5a 73.6 de 95.2 eg

10 81.9 ab 78.5 ab 14.6b 7.3a 21.9a 76.6abc 105.26
20 75.6 b 73.2 be 15.1b 7.9 a 23.0a 74.6cde 105.0 bc
UK-767-G 1 81.9 ab 81.9 ab 15.3 b 71a 24a 73.3e 93.6 gh

5 73.2 bc 73.2 be 15.1 b 73a 22.4a 69.0f 89.1i

10 73.2 be 73.2 be 15.2b 7.4a 22.6a 76.6ab 103.2c

20 66.4 cd 61.9¢ 17.5a 7.8a 25.3b 77.7a 109.9 a
UK-14-B 1 81.9 ab 78.5 ab 15.0 b 7.0a 22.0a 76.2abc 98.0de
5 64.2 cd 56.6 c 16.2 ab 6.9a 23.1a 75.4bcd 98.1 de
10 53.1 d 36.6 d 15.3 b 7.5a 22.8a 74.7 bcde 104.0 bc

20 53.1 d 36.6 d 15.2 b 7.5a 22.7Ja 77.6a 98.8 d

Control 0 90.0 a 90.0 a 14.5b T.1la 21.9a 67.8f 92.5h

* Means followed by the same letter within column are not significantly different by Duncan’s multiple range test

(P = 0.05).

was mostly responsible for its resistance to ECB.
Since survival of larvae is acutely affected by
capsaicin, the type of resistance in UK 14-B ap-
pears to be antibiosis. However the type of
resistance demonstrated in UK 76-G is probably
associated with the morphological differences
between its plants and those of other sweet com-
mercial cultivars used in this study. The large
bell-shaped fruits of the commercial cultivars,
borne close to each other and in the crotch or
between branches, are more susceptible to
damage. Larvae can move easily from fruit to
fruit and cause more fruits to rot. Whereas,
fruits in genotypes such as UK 76-G are borne
further apart, are smaller, and are generally
more numerous which makes it less likely for
the larvae to infect all fruits. It was observed
that there were greater numbers of ECB egg
masses laid on plants of commercial cultivars
than on the breeding selections, which indicates
that plant compactness and large leaves provide
hiding areas that make these plants more at-
tractive for oviposition.

Thus it is conceivable that selecting for
small leaf size on compact plants with fruit set-
ting on outer branches would reduce ECB
damage. However, no data are availabe on the
relationship of leaf size or leaf area with size and
numbers of fruits for pepper plants with ECB
damage. It should also be noted that the more
open plant configuration and small leaves would
allow for better chemical penetration and spray
coverage than in present cultivars that have
large leaves and compact fruit setting
characteristics.

LITERATURE CITED

1. Burbutis, P.P. and C.H. Koepke. 1981. European
corn borer control in peppers by Trichogramma
nubilale. J. Econ. Entomol. 74:246-247.

2. Burbitis, P.P., R. Van Denburgh, D.F. Bray and
L.P. Ditman. 1960. European corn borer control.
In peppers, J. Econ. Entomol. 53:390-592.

3. Burkhardt, C.C. 1978. Insect pest of corn In Robert
E. Pfadt (Ed.), Fundamentals of Applied En-
tomology. MacMillan Publishing Co. Inc. New
York.

4.Commercial Vegetable Recommendations.
1984-85. University of Kentucky Experiment Sta-
tion Extension Publication ID-36.

5. Dupree, M., A.H. Dempsey, R. Beshear and H.H.
Tippins. 1979. Observation on the European corn
borer in Georgia peppers. Research Report.
Georgia Experiment Station. 9 pp.

6.Honma, S. and A.S. Wells. 1977. The European
corn borer resistance study on peppers. In Cap-
sicum 77:203-205.

7. Hudon, M. and E.J. Hogue. 1975. Control of Euro-
pean corn borer in peppers. Pesticide Research
Report of the Canada Committee on Pesticide Use
in Agriculture 1975:107-108.

8. Jarvis, J.L. and W.D. Guthrie. 1972. Relation of
horticultural characteristics of peppers to damage
by larvae of the European corn borer. Iowa J. Sci.
46:463-470.

Trans. Kentucky Academy of Science — 46(3-4) 103

9. Lewis, L.C. and R.E. Lynch. 1969. Rearing the
European corn borer, Ostrinia nubilalis (Hubner)
on diets containing corn leaf and wheat germ.
Iowa St. J. Sci. 44:9-14.

10. Libby, J.L. 1978. European corn borer control on
peppers. Insecticide Acaricide Tests 3:81.

11. Little, V.A. 1972. General and Applied En-
tomology. Harper & Row. New York.

12. MacCreary, D. 1957. European corn borer on pep-
pers. Trans. Peninsula Hort. Soc. 47:23-25.

13.MacCreary, D. and W.A. Connell. 1958. DDT
sprays on peppers for European corn borer control.
Trans. Peninsula Hort. Soc. 48:25-28.

14. McClanahan, R.J. and J. Founk. 1972. Control of
the European corn borer (Lepidoptera: pyralidae)
on sweet corn and peppers in Southwestern On-
tario. Can. Ent. 104:1573-1579.

15. Ritcher, P.O. 1947. European corn borer in Ken-
tucky. Ky. Agr. Ext. Sta. Bull. 502. 23 pp.

Table 1. The effect of European corn borer infestation (two egg
masses /plant) in peppers in 1981.

Cultivars /selections Fruit infested (%)*

of peppers
California Wonder 46.7 a
Yolo Wonder 43.9 ab
UK-66 31.9 be
UK-66 CBR 4 22.1 cd
UK-76-E 16 24.6 cd
UK-76-G 16.0 de
UK-45 11.4 de
UK-14B 6.9e

“Percentages followed by the same letter are not significantly dif-
ferent by Duncan's multiple range test (P = 0.05).

Table 2. Effect of egg mass inoculation on European corn borer infesta-
tion in peppers in 1981 and 1982.

Fruit infested (%)

number egg masses /plant

cS Ee dtr ae
Cultivar 1981 1982 1981 1982 1981 1982
selection soi at = ae
California 39.2 55.4 50.3 63.3 65.0 60.3
Wonder
UK-76-G OZPO- “PPINEO TWALISS (GG Po TOR PO . STEPL

**Means significantly different at 1% probability.

Table 3. Effect of acephate application on European corn borer infesta-
tion in 1981 and 1982.

Fruit infested (%)

_number of sprays pe

pe Se ee ee
Cultivar 1981 1982 1981 1982 1981 1982
selection =
California 44.3 65.6 31.1 21.8 19.9 23.3
Wonder
UK-76-G HALPO PALOPO PS LOSS Os en 10.4°

*,°*Means within column significantly different at 5 and 1%,
respectively

RH - The Aquifoliaceae of Kentucky - Jones

The Aquifoliaceae of Kentucky

Ronald L. Jones
Department of Biological Sciences, Eastern Kentucky University, Richmond, Kentucky 40475

ABSTRACT

Documented county distributions are presented for the 4 species of Aquifoliaceae known to occur in Ken-
tucky. These species are Ilex opaca (28 counties), I. decidua (24 counties), I. verticillata (15 counties), and I.
montana (8 counties). A key to the species is given, and their distributions and habitats are discussed.

INTRODUCTION

The Aquifoliaceae is a cosmopolitan woody
family of 4 genera and about 400 species, with
most of the species in Ilex (hollies). Following
Cronquist (1), the family is placed in the
subclass Rosidae, order Celastrales. The
diagnostic features of the family are as follows:
trees or shrubs; leaves alternate, simple,
stipulate; inflorescence axillary, with flowers
solitary, cymose, or fascicled; flowers
4-9-merous, hypogynous, usually unisexual;
fruit a drupe, with 4-9 pyrenes.

In the United States there are 2 genera of
Aquifoliaceae—Ilex, with 14 species, and
Nemopanthus, with 2 species (2). Brizicky (3)
prepared an account of Ilex in the southeastern
United States, including information on species
relationships, reproductive biology, and
economic importance. Statewide treatments of
the Aquifoliaceae in Kentucky have been
published by Garman (4), MclInteer (5), Braun
(6), Meijer (7), and Wharton and Barbour (8).
The objective of this paper is to provide updated
herbarium-documented county maps for each
species of Aquifoliaceae in Kentucky. This study
will provide a contribution toward the prepara-
tion of a flora of Kentucky, a project under the
direction of Dr. John Thieret, Northern Ken-
tucky University.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A total of 216 specimens from 19 herbaria
was involved in this study. Each specimen was
checked for identity, and locality and collector
data were recorded. Cultivated specimen
records and undocumented literature reports are
excluded. The species taxonomy and distribu-
tions are based on Little (2, 9, 10).

RESULTS

This study resulted in the documentation of
4 species of Aquifoliaceae in Kentucky. As
shown in Figure 1, I have found records of Ilex
opaca in 28 counties, I. decidua in 24, I. ver-

104

ticillata in 15, and I. montana in 8. The Ken-
tucky Nature Preserves Commission has collec-
tions, which are presently unavailable for study,
that include Ilex records from the following addi-
tional counties (R. Hannan, pers. comm.): I.
opaca—Leslie, I. decidua—Butler, Hardin,
Logan; I. verticillata—Casey, Lewis, Nelson; I.
montana—Letcher.

I was unable to confirm the occurrence of
any other member of the Aquifoliaceae in Ken-
tucky. The mountain holly, menopanthus
mucronatus (L.) Trel., is a wetland species of the
northeastern United States, but is not known to
be native to Kentucky. There is a C.W. Short
specimen (NY!) of the species that might be
from Kentucky. Unfortunately, the locality of
the collection is not indicated on the label.

Key to Ilex species in Kentucky

A. Leaves evergreen, margins spiny
(onentiress.3 35s eee ees I. opaca

A. Leaves dedicuous, margins crenate to serrate

B. Leaves obtuse, margins crenate, sepals
entire, pyrenes with striate
Surfacesiyaceke scviee ae ee 2.1 decidua

B. Leaves acute to acuminate, margins ser-
rate, sepals ciliate

C. Flowers in axillary clusters,
staminate in puduncled cymes,
pistillate 6-8-merous, sepals obtuse,
petals inture pyrenes with smooth

surfaces.......... 3. I verticillata
C. Flowers on spur branches,
staminate in sessile blusters,

pistillate 4-5-merous, sepals acute,
petals ciliate, pyrenes with striate
surfaces............. 4. I montana

Trans. Kentucky Academy of Science — 46{3-4)

Figure 1. Documented county distributions of the
Aquifoliaceae of Kentucky.

a

een Sy mete

erates
Agee
DAO Sr
IS

(Se
ae
RAG:
DINO Gane
Reece sanage
FR TAA ye

{LEX MONTANA

105

106 RH - The Aquifoliaceae of Kentucky - Jones

DISCUSSION

1. Ilex opaca Ait. American holly.

The American holly is widely distributed
through the southern states, ranging northward
into southern New England, and is usually
associated with rich bottomlands and
mesophytic slopes, Garman (4) considered this
species as common in eastern Kentucky, but
rare in the western half of the state, and listed it
for 47 counties. McInteer (5) also listed the plant
as common in the eastern coal fields, and later
(11) provided a 10-county dot map for the
species. Braun (6) gave 22 counties, and de-
scribed the habitat of I. opaca as “mesophytic
woods and gorges.” According to Wharton (12),
the species is rare in black shale regions, and
grows in oak-pine woods. In Little (9), the
species is mapped through the eastern coal
fields and in 3 counties of western Kentucky.

For the 28 counties reported here, all but 7
are in the eastern coal fields (Fig. 1). The species
is often used as an ornamental, so there is a
possibility that some collections, such as those
from Jefferson and Henry counties, are from
cultivated plants. Ilex opaca thus appears to be
a species of wide distribution and variable
habitat in Kentucky. It occurs in mixed
mesophytic communities, in oak-pine woods,
and even in swamps in the western part of the
state. The American holly often grows in the
understory, but it is our tallest native holly,
reaching heights of 15 m or more. The Ap-
palachian associates of Ilex opaca include
Tsuga canadensis, Fagus gradifolia, Rhododen-
dron maximum, Betula lenta, and Magnolia
macrophylla (13).

2. Ilex decidua Walt. Swamp holly. Possumhaw.

The swamp holly is a coastal plain species
ranging from Maryland to Texas and Illinois.
Garman (4) listed only 4 Kentucky counties, and
it was treated as a rare species of the Jackson
Purchase region by McInteer (5). Braun (6) cited
only Hopkins County, and described the habitat
as “alluvial flats.” Little (10) mapped the swamp
holly through about 20 western Kentucky coun-
ties, and the species is now considered to be
widespread in this region.

The present study produced a total of 24
counties for Ilex decidua in Kentucky, all but 2 in
the western half of the state (Fig. 1). The collec-
tions from Fayette and Madison counties may be
from planted specimens, for the localities were
given only as “Lexington” and “Richmond.” Ilex
decidua is an understory species, reaching 10 m,
and is most frequently found in bottomland
hardwood communities in western Kentucky.
Associates include Itea virginica, Forestiera

acuminata, Styrax americana, Quercus
michauxii, and Liquidambar styraciflua (14).

3. Ilex verticillata (L.)
winterberry.

Gray. Common

The common winterberry occurs in
wetlands through the eastern United States,
becoming less common in its southern distribu-
tion. Only 3 counties are listed by Garman (4),
and MclInteer (5) classified the plant as rare on
black shale and very rare on limestone. Braun
(6) reported 9 counties, and gave the habitat as
“alluvial bottoms, river banks, and swampy
woods.” According to Wharton (12) the species
is infrequent in black shale areas, in “swampy
thickets and borders of swampy forests.” In Lit-
tle (10) the plant is mapped across the eastern
three-fourths of the state, with an additional
record from Hickman County.

I documented 15 counties for Ilex ver-
ticillata, with all but 6 in the east-central part of
the state (Fig. 1). A number of geographic
varieties of this species have been
described—Kentucky plants are var. padifolia
(Willd.) Torr. and Gray. This is a shrubby
species, rarely over 8 m, of floodplain com-
munities, and evidently occurs infrequently
across Kentucky. It commonly grows with Cor-
nus amomum, Cephalanthus occidentalis, Salix
nigra, Platanus occidentalis, and Betula nigra
(12).

4. Ilex montana Torr. and Gray. Mountain holly.
Mountain winterberry.

The mountain holly, also called Ilex mon-
ticola Gray in some manuals, is a native of high-
elevation regions of the Appalachians from New
York to Georgia, but may also be found in wide-
ly scattered localities from Florida to Louisiana
to western Tennessee. Garman (4) provided no
county or regional data for Kentucky, while
MclInteer (5) called the plant a very rare species
of the eastern coal fields. Braun (6) listed 4 coun-
ties and described the habitat as “oak-chestnut
summit forests and in dense forests with
hemlock in sandstone gorges.” Seven Kentucky
counties, including Bell County, are mapped by
Little (10).

I could confirm only 8 counties for Ilex mon-
tana in Kentucky (Fig. 1). The collections in-
dicate that the plant has been most frequently
found in McCreary, Harlan, and Powell coun-
ties. Some specimens have large, glabrous
leaves, while others have smaller, more pubes-
cent leaves. The hairy-leaved forms have been
treated by some authors as distinct taxa (I.
mollis A. Gray; I. beadlei Ashe). The mountian
holly was classified by Radford et al. (15) as a
variety of the Carolina holly, I. ambigua
(Michx.) Torr. These taxonomic differences

Trans. Kentucky Academy of Science — 46(3-4) 107

have yet to be fully clarified.

The mountain holly is a small tree,
reaching a height of 12 m, and occurs very infre-
quently through the eastern coal fields of Ken-
tucky. The Appalachian associates of Ilex mon-
tana include Kalmia latifolia, Amelanchier ar-
borea, Viburnum cassinoides, Chionanthus
virginicus, Rhododendron nudiflorum, and Ilex
opaca (16).

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I am grateful to the curators of the following
herbaria for providing access to their collec-
tions: APSC, Athey Herbarium, BEREA, DHL,
EKY, GH, KNK, KY, MEM, Morehead State
University, MO, MUR, NY, Reed Herbarium,
TENN, Western Kentucky University, University
of Kentucky College of Agriculture, US, and
VDB. | also thank the Eastern Kentucky Univer-
sity Research Committee for providing travel
and supply funds during this project.

LITERATURE CITED

1981. An integrated system of
Columbia

1. Cronquist, A.
classification of flowering plants.
University Press. New York.

2. Little, E.L. 1979. Checklist of United States trees.
U.S. Dep. Agric. Handbook No. 541.

3. Brizicky, G.K. 1963. The genera of Celastrales in
the southeastern United States. J. Arn. Arb. 45:
206-234.

4. Garman, H. 1913. The woody plants of Kentucky.
Bull. Ky. Agric. Exp. Sta. 169:3-62.

5. McInteer, B.B. 1941. Distribution of woody plants
of Kentucky in relation to geologic regions. Ky.
Dep. Mines Miner., Ser. 8, Bull. 6: 3-19.

6.Braun, E.L. 1943. An annotated catalogue of
spermatophytes of Kentucky. Privately Pub.
Cincinnati, Ohio.

7. Meijer, W. 1972. Tree flora of Kentucky. University
of Kentucky. Lexington, Kentucky.

8. Wharton, M.E. and R.W. Barbour. 1973. Trees
and shrubs of Kentucky. Univ. Press. Ky. Lex-
ington, Kentucky.

9. Little, E.L. 1971. Atlas of United States trees, vol.
1, conifers and important hardwoods. U.S. Dep.
Agric. Misc. Publ. 1146, 9 pp., illus. (313 maps,
folio).

10. Little, E.L. 1977. Atlas of United States trees, vol.
4, minor eastern hardwoods. U.S. Dep. Agric.
Misc. Publ. 1342, 17 pp., illus. (230 maps).

11. McInteer, B.B. 1944. Some noteworthy plants of
Kentucky. li. Distribution of some “southern”
species of trees and shrubs. Castanea 9: 101-105.

12. Wharton, M.E. 1945. Floristics and vegetation of
the Devonian-Mississippian black shale region of
Kentucky. Doc. Dis. U. Mich. 179 pp.

13. Cameron, M. and J. Winstead. 1978. Structure and
composition of a climax mixed mesophytic forest
system in Laurel County, Kentucky. Trans. Ky.
Acad. Sci. 39:1-11.

14. Harker, D.F., Jr. et al. 1980. Western Kentucky
coal field: preliminary investigations of natural
features and cultural resources. Vol. 1. Kentucky
Nature Preserves Commission. Frankfort, Ken-
tucky.

15. Radford, A.E. et al. 1968. Manual of the vascular
flora of the Carolinas. The University of North
Carolina Press. Chapel Hill, North Carolina.

16. Greenhouse, B. et al. 1980. Environmental inven-
tory Cumberland Wild River Kentucky. Soil
Systems, Inc. Marietta, Georgia. U.S. Army Corp
of Engineers, Louisville, Kentucky.

RH - Fishes of Salt River, Kentucky - Fisher and Cicerello

Fishes of the Rolling Fork of the Salt River, Kentucky

William L. Fisher
Water Resources Laboratory, University of Louisville, Louisville, Kentucky 40292

Ronald R. Cicerello
Kentucky Nature Preserves Commission, Frankfort, Kentucky 40601

ABSTRACT

Sixty eight species of fishes were collected at 42 sites in the Rolling Fork of the Salt River, exclusive of the
Beech Fork, from 1981 to 1984. Six of the species (Notropis ariommus, N. emiliae, Rhinichthys atratulus,
Noturus stigmosus, Ammocrypta pellucida, and Percina phoxocephala) verify historic distributional findings,
establish new drainage records, or provide information regarding conservation status assignments in Kentucky.
Nine additional species reported from previous collections yield a total of 77 species known from the drainage.
Faunal resemblance indices revealed that 82% of the Beech Fork fauna and 80% of the Salt River fauna is
shared with that of the Rolling Fork. The Rolling Fork appears to support the most diverse ichthyofauna within

the Salt River drainage.

INTRODUCTION

During the past 35 years the fishes of Ken-
tucky have been extensively surveyed; however,
collections from the Rolling Fork, a tributary of
the Salt River, are conspicuously absent (1). The
aquatic resources of the Rolling Fork are of par-
ticular concern because the drainage lies within
Kentucky’s oil shale region (2).

The earliest ichthyofaunal survey of the
Rolling Fork was reported by Woolman (3). Re-
cent studies have been limited to single species
accounts (4, 5), sport fishery surveys (6), and
sampling at potential oil-shale development
sites (2).

The present survey was undertaken to pro-
vide new and updated distributional information
for the fishes of the Rolling Fork. In addition,
the relative similarity between the Rolling Fork
ichthyofauna and that of the other major stream
systems within the Salt River drainage is as-
sessed.

STUDY AREA

The Rolling Fork, exclusive of Beech Fork,
drains 1,804 sq km of north-central Kentucky (7)
(Fig. 1). The drainage basin lies within the
Knobstone Escarpment and Knobs subsection
and the Outer Blue Grass subsection of the In-
terior Low Plateaus Physiographic Province (8),
and drains primarily Ohio-Waverly shales and
Silurian-Mid-Devonian limestones (9). Rolling
hills generally occur in the east-central portion
of the drainage. Rugged, well-dissected uplands
known as the Knobstone Escarpment, or

108

Muldraugh Hill, form the southern and western
divide. Outlying hills are scattered throughout
the remainder of the drainage. The watershed is
predominantly forested, with agriculture occur-
ring on floodplains, and small communities
scattered throughout the drainage.

A recent investigation found the Rolling
Fork water quality to be generally good (2).
Based upon the range of mean values for
parameters measured quarterly during 1983 to
1984 at seven sites within the drainage, the river
has moderately alkaline (70-165 mg/CaCO’),
medium hard to hard water (130-210 mg/1), and
circumneutral pH (7.2-8.3).

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Fish were collected using seines, gill nets,
and an ichthyocide. An effort was made to inten-
sively sample all habitats during each collec-
tion. All collections were made and identifica-
tions determined by one or both of the authors.
Representative specimens of all species col-
lected during the current survey were fixed in
10% formalin, stored in 40% isopropanol or
70% ethanol, and deposited in the University of
Louisville (UL) or Southern Illinois University at
Carbondale (SIUC) fish collections.

Comparisons of faunal similarity were
made using Long’s (10) average resemblance
formula as follows:

average faunal resemblance = C(N, + N,)(100)/2N,N,
where C is the number of species shared by both

faunas, N, is the number of species in the
smaller fauna, and N, is the number of species

Trans. Kentucky Academy of Science — 46(3-4) 109

in the larger fauna. Resemblance values range faunas share no species, and 100 indicates that
from 0 to 100, where 0 indicates that the two the two faunas are identical.

ye oF

CRW

z—_o~
pe
=
ol

ele 36 37
14 19 2i \ 8
18 22 28 34 <2
24 3
NX
15 25 9 oe .
5 0) A 30z\- go
MILES re ra \ 23 oe Ss Vi ir 42
KILOMETERS if
5 10) 27

SCALE (

Figure 1. Map of Rolling Fork drainage, Kentucky, showing location of collection sites (dashed line indicates
boundary of Fort Knox Military Reservation).

COLLECTION SITES 5. Wilson Creek, at confluence with Overalls
Cr., Bullitt Co., 37°52'13”N, 85°3611”W, 3
Eighty three collections were made at 42 Jun 1981.
sites in the Rolling Fork drainage (Fig. 1). The 6. Rolling Fork, Petersburg Rd., 4.8 km W of
lower part of the drainage that lies within the Hwy 61, Hardin-Nelson Cos., 37°4718’N,
Fort Knox Military Reservation, and the Beech 85°43’37’W, 31 Aug 1984.
Fork drainage were excluded from this study. 7. Rolling Fork, at Hwy 61/62 crossing,
Each site description given below includes the Hardin-Nelson Cos., 37°46’01’N,
site number, stream name, locality, county, 85°42'14”’W, 31 Aug 1984.
latitude, longitude, and collection date(s). 8. Rolling Fork, immediately downstream
from Beech Fork confluence, Nelson-

1. Cedar Creek, approximately 0.4 km N of Hardin Cos., 37°45°45”N, 85°42°00’W, 10
Hwy 434 crossing, Hardin Co., 37°4652”N, Jun 1984.
85°50°10"W, 13 July 1984. 9. Younger Creek, at Hwy 583 crossing, Har-

2. Crooked Creek, at L & N railroad crossing din Co., 37°4424’N, 85°4229’W, 9 Jun
downstream from Collings Hill Rd., 2.0 km 1984.

SW of Hwy 251-61 jct., Bullitt Co., 10. Rolling Fork, at Hwy 52 crossing S of Pat-
37°53'22”N, 85°43'20’W, 3 Aug 1983, 31 ton Rd. intersection, Nelson-Larue Cos.,
Oct 1983. 37°41’51”N, 85°36’57’W, 10 Jun 1984.

3. Rolling Fork, at Hwy 434 crossing, Bullitt- 11. Rolling Fork, at L & N railroad crossing
Hardin Cos., 37°4921”"N, 85°43'51”"W, 29 (37°39°33”N, 85°35°45”"W) and Hwy 31E
Sep 1983, 30 Aug 1984. crossing (37°38'57’"N, 85°35'50”W) at New

4. Wilson Creek, at Hwy 61 crossing, Bullitt- Haven, Ky., Larue-Nelson Cos., 18 Mar
Nelson Cos., 37°48'51”N, 85°41’40’W, 28 1981, 21 Sep 1982, 27-28 Jul 1983, 29 Sep

Jul 1983, 31 Oct 1983. 1983.

110 RH - Fishes of Salt River, Kentucky - Fisher and Cicerello

12. Thompson Creek, at Blanton Rd. crossing,
Larue Co., 37°3810’N, 38°35'57’W, 9 Jun
1984.

13. Pottinger Creek, 1.3 stream km upstream
from confluence with Rolling Fork, Nelson
Co., 37°38'47'N, 85°3418’W, 1 Aug 1983, 1
Nov 1983.

14. Rolling Fork, at Gaddy’s Ford Rd., 4.1 km
SW of Hwy 84-247 jct. at Howardstown,
Ky., Larue-Nelson Cos., 37°32’33’N,
85°3732’W, 18 Mar 1981, 1 Aug 1983, 1 Nov
1983, 9 Jun 1984.

15. Otter Creek, at Genseng, Ky., Larue Co.,
37°30°10"N, 85°34'40”’W, 9 Jun 1984.

16. Rolling Fork, at Hwy 462 crossing, Larue-
Nelson cos., 37°33'43’N, 85°31’34’W, 21
Sep 1982, 13 Jul 1984.

17. Sulphur Lick Creek, ford W of Hwy 457 and
0.6 km N of Hwy 84 jet., Nelson Co.,
37°3415”N, 85°31’08’W, 9 Jun 1984.

18. Salt Lick Creek, at Dry Fork confluence,
Larue-Marion Cos., 37°32’09’’N,
85°29°38”"W, 13 Jul 1984.

19. Rolling Fork, at Highview Pike crossing,
Marion Co., 37°3319”N, 85°28'27°W, 14 Jul
1984.

20. Prather Creek, at Hwy 84 crossing, Marion
Co., 37°33'43”N, 85°26740’W, 13 Jul 1984.

21. Rolling Fork, at Hwy 527 crossing. Marion

Co., 37°33'20’N, 85°25'54’W, 13 Jul 1984,

30 Aug 1984.

Rolling Fork, at Hwy 412 crossing, Marion

Co., 37°32'06”N, 85°22°48”W, 20 Oct 1983.

23. Rolling Fork, at Hwy 289 and new Hwy
55/68 crossings, Marion Co., 37°29°37’N,
85°18'36’W, 21 Sep 1982, 4 Aug 1983, 29
Sep 1983, 20 Oct 1983, 1 Nov 1983.

24. Rolling Fork, at Hwy 208 crossing, Marion
Co., 37°30°45”N, 85°15'40’W, 18 Mar 1981.

25. Cloyd Creek, Hwy 208, 0.8km S of Calvary,
Ky., Marion Co., 37°30’30’N, 85°15'41”W,
2 Apr 1981.

26. Cloyd Creek, Hwy 208, 4.3 km S of Calvary,
Ky., Marion Co., 37°28'23”N, 85°15'34”W,
2 Apr 1981.

27. Cloyd Creek, Hwy 208, 1.3 km S of
Philipsburg, Ky., Marion Co., 37°2638”N,
85°15'21”W, 2 Apr 1981.

28. Caney Creek, 1.4 km SW of Arbuckle
Rd.-Hwy 49 jct., Marion Co., 37°30°50’N,
85°13'39’W, 3 Aug 1983, 12 Oct 1983.

29. Pope Creek, at Arbuckle Rd. crossing,
Marion Co., 37°30°18’N, 85°13'32”W, 13 Jul
1984.

30. Rolling Fork, at Hwy 49 crossing, 3.2km W
of Bradfordsville, Ky., Marion Co.,
37°30'08”N, 85°1V11”W, 2 Sep 1983.

31. Rolling Fork, at confluence of North Rolling
Fork and Big South Fork, Marion Co.,

S

37°2932"N, 85°09'35"W, 17 Mar 1981, 2
Sep 1983.

32. North Rolling Fork, 0.45 km upstream from
Big South Fork confluence, Marion Co.,
37°29°39"N, 85°09'20"W, 3 Aug 1983, 12
Oct 1983.

33. North Rolling Fork, 1.6 km E of Bradfords-
ville, Ky., at Mullins Lane crossing, Marion
Co., 37°30°18”N, 85°0754”W, 14 May 1982,
25 Jun 1982, 17 Jul 1982, 18-19 Aug 1982, 10
Sep 1982, 14 Oct 1982, 13-14 Nov 1982, 10
Dec 1982, 11 Jan 1982, 25-26 Feb 1983, 23
Mar 1983, 2-3 Jun 1983, 26 Jun 1983, 21 Jul
1983, 2 Sep 1983, 22 Aug 1984.

34. North Rolling Fork, at Siloam Rd. ford,
Marion Co., 37°31’18’N, 85°0621”W, 2 Sep
1983.

35. North Rolling Fork, Hwy 243 crossing
downstream from Little South Fork con-
fluence, Casey Co., 37°33'00’N,
85°01’27’W, 17 Mar 1981, 2 Sep 1983.

36. North Rolling Fork, Hwy 37 near Forkland,
Ky., Boyle Co., 37°33'04’N, 84°58'57’W, 17
Mar 1981.

37. North Rolling Fork, Hwy 37 at Carpenter
Fork confluence, Boyle Co., 37°3246’N,
84°54’23”W, 17 Mar 1981.

38. Little South Fork, Hwy 243, 1.6 km S of
Hwy 37 ject., Casey Co., 37°3210’N,
85°04’48"W, 2 Sep 1983, 13 Jul 1984.

39. Big South Fork, Hwy 49, 1.6 km S of Brad-
fordsville, Ky., Marion Co., 37°29'23”N,
85°08'12”W, 29 Sep 1983.

40. Big South Fork, Hwy 49, 8.8 km E of Brad-
fordsville, Ky., Marion Co., 37°2713”’N,
85°0448”"W, 2 Sep 1983, 13 Jul 1984.

41. Big South Fork, Hwy 49 crossing near
Jacktown, Ky., Casey Co., 37°26723”N,
85°00'55”W, 17 Mar 1981.

42. Big South Fork, Hwy 78, 0.6 km E of Hwy
243 jct., Casey Co., 37°28713’N,
85°5706’W, 2 Sep 1983, 13 Jul 1984.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Sixty eight species of fishes, representing 9
orders and 14 families, were collected in the cur-
rent survey of the Rolling Fork and its tributaries
(Tables 1, 2). The collections from the 15
mainstem sites yielded 58 species, 16 of which
were not found at the tributary sites. The 10
most common fishes in the mainstem were:
Campostoma anomalum, Notropis_ chry-
socephalus, N. rubellus, Pimephales notatus,
Moxostoma erythrurum, Fundulus catenatus,
Lepomis megalotis, Etheostoma caeruleum, E.
flabellare, and E. zonale. Fifty three species oc-
curred in the collections made at the 27 tributary
sites. Ten of these were not taken in the

Trans. Kentucky Academy of Science — 46(3-4) 111

mainstem collections. The 10 most frequently
occurring fishes in the tributaries included: C.
anomalum, N. ardens, N. chrysocephalus, P.
notatus, Semotilus atromaculatus, F.
catenatus, L. megalotis, E. caeruleum, E.
flabellare, and E. spectabile. Forty two species
were common to both the mainstem and
tributary collections.

Several of our collections verify historic
distributional findings, establish new drainage
records, or provide additional information
regarding conservation status assignments.
Notropis ariommus is of Undetermined status
in Kentucky (11) and is seldom common
throughout its rather wide but discontinuous
range (12, 13, 14). A single specimen collected
by Woolman (3) is the only historic record for
the drainage. Subsequently, Rice et al. (4)
reported an additional specimen, and 17 were
collected from 4 sites during this study. Our col-
lections were from pools of moderate depth
(0.5-1.5 m) with substrates ranging from silt to
pebble-cobble to bedrock. Notropis ariommus is
apparently limited to the upper mainstem of the
drainage between sites 23-33, where it is uncom-
mon.
The collection of Notropis emiliae and
Rhinichthyes atratulus constitute new records
for the drainage. The pugnose minnow record
was previously reported by Cicerello and Warren
(5) and is known from only one population in the
Rolling Fork which constitutes the eastern
range limit of the species in the Ohio River
drainage. The blacknose dace was collected
from a single, spring-fed tributary (site 1), but
probably occurs in similar habitats elsewhere in
the drainage.

Taylor (15) described Noturus stigmosus
based in part upon specimens from the Rolling
Fork at Boothe and New Market that Woolman
(3) had identified as N. miurus. The 12
specimens collected from 3 mainstem sites dur-
ing our study are the only subsequent records for
the Rolling Fork and Salt River drainages (16).
Habitat at these sites consisted of shallow,
moderately swift riffles underlain with gravel,
cobble, boulders, and mussel shells. Branson et
al. (11) consider N. stigmosus Threatened in
Kentucky, and although this species is not com-
mon in the Rolling Fork, we believe additional
specimens can be secured from the rather
limited mainstem habitat between sites 11-21 in
the central part of the drainage.

Ammocrypta pellucida is listed as
Threatened in Kentucky (11) and is undergoing
status review for possible addition to the U.S.
Endangered and Threatened species list (17).
Cicerello and Warren (5) reported the first
record of the eastern sand darter from the
drainage since the 1890 collection by Woolman
(3). We have collected 3 more specimens from
the site given by Cicerello and Warren (5) and
believe appropriate, though limited, mainstem
habitat in the middle part of the drainage will
yield additional specimens.

Percina phoxocephala is regarded as of
Special Concern in Kentucky by Branson et al.
(11). Twenty two specimens of the slenderhead
darter were collected from clean to silted riffle
and/or flowing pool habitat at 4 sites along the
Rolling Fork mainstem. The prevalence of such
habitat along the lower mainstem suggests that
P. phoxocephala is probably rather common in
the drainage, and lends further support to the
recommendation that it should be removed
from the Kentucky Threatened and Endangered
list (14).

Our findings verify all but a few of the
species reported by Wollman (3) from the Roll-
ing Fork and the results of a recent sport fishing
survey by Henley (6). All of the species collected
and identified by Woolman except Hybopsis
storeriana, Notropis umbratilis, and Carpiodes
carpio were taken during our study. However, 9
specimens of Notropis umbratilis were recently
collected from Cain Run, Bullitt Co. (UL 4626),
and the other species are likely to occur in the
Rolling Fork. Woolman’s record for Hybopsis
dissimilis (= H. x-punctata) is not extant and is
unverifiable (J. Harris, pers. comm.).

Henley (6) reported 53 species from 14 Roll-
ing Fork collection sites excluding Beech Fork.
Acceptable additions to the fauna include:
Anguilla rostrata, Pimephales promelas,
Erimyzon oblongus, Minytrema melanops, and
Stizostedion vitreum. Museum records verify the
presence of E. oblongus (UL 4837) and M.
melanops (SIUC 1564), and walleye have been
introduced into the drainage (18). A recent at-
tempt to collect P. promelas from the site
reported by Henley was unsuccessful. Lepomis
humilis was recovered from a Hardin County
pond (UL 6301). The addition of these accepted
records to our findings yields a total of 77 species
known from the Rolling Fork drainage.

112

Table 1. Occurrence of fish species at Rolling Fork collection sites 1 through 21.

RH - Fishes of Salt River, Kentucky - Fisher and Cicerello

Species

Collection Sites
9 10 11 12 13 14

17

18 19 20 21

Lepisosteus osseus
Dorosoma cepedianum
Hiodon alosoides

H. tergisus

Esox americanus
Campostoma anomalum
Cyprinus carpio
Ericymba buccata
Hybopsis amblops

H. dissimilis

Notropis ardens
ariommus
atherinoides

boops

buchanani

|. chrysoicephalus
emillae

photogenis

rubellus

|. spilopterus
stramineus

|. volucellus

|. whipplel
Phenacobius mirabilis
Phoxinus erythrogaster
Pimephales notatus

P. vigilax

Rhinichthys atratulus
Semotilus atromaculatus
Catostomus commersoni
Hypentelium nigricans
Ictiobus bubalus
Moxostoma duquesnei
M. erythrurum

M. macrolepidotum
Ictalururs melas

T natalis

ZZZZ2Z2Z2ZZZZZZ

I. punctatus

Noturus flavus

N. miurus

N. stigmosus
Pylodictis olivaris
Fundulus catenatus

F. notatus

Gambusia affinis
Labidesthes sicculus
Ambloplites rupestris
Lepomis cyanellus

L. gulosus

L. macrochirus

L. megalotis

L. microlophus
Micropterus dolomieui
M. punctulaus

M. salmoides
Pomoxis annularis
Ammocrypta pellucida
Etheostoma blennioides
E. caeruleum

E. flabellare

E. nigrum

E. spectabile

E. zonale

Percina caprodes

P. maculata

P. phoxocephala
Aplodinotus grunniens
Cottus carolinae
Total Species

~~ > KOO

&

> OK

12

<><

pad

Pita

>< > ><

xX

2S ee OK OOK OOS

>< ><

> > > OOK
KOK

14 5 31

<>

17

>< >< ><

OK OOS

tad

>< >< ><

<> KO

>< > ><

15

13

>< > OK OO

12 3 27

> SOS Oe OK

mS KOK OK

<><

24

Trans. Kentucky Academy of Science — 46(3-4)

Table 2. Occurrence of fish species at Rolling Fork collection sites 22 through 42.

Species

Collection Sites

23 24 2 2% 277 2B 29 WD 31 2 3B UM 3

41 42

113

Lepisosteus osseus
Dorosoma cepedianum
Hiodon alosoides

H. tergisus

Esox americanus
Campostoma anomalum
Cyprinu carpio
Ericymba buccata
Hybopsis amblops

H, dissimilis

Notropis ardens
ariommus

. atherinoides

boops

buchanani
chrysocephalus
emiliae

photogenis
rubellus
spilopterus

|. stramineus

. volucellus

. whipplei
Phenacobius mirabilis
Phoxinus erythrogaster
Pimephales nottus

P. vigilax

Rhinichthys atratulus
Semotilus atromaculatus
Catostomus commersoni
Hypentelium nigricans
Ictiobus bubalus
Moxostoma duquesnel
M. erythrurum

M. macrolepidotum
Ictalurus melas

I natalis

I. punctatus

Noturus flavus

N. miurus

N. stigmosus
Pylodictis olivaris
Fundulus catenatus

F. notatus

Gambusia affinis
Labidesthes sicculu
Ambloplites rupestris
Lepomis cyanellus

L. gulosus

L. macrochirus

L. megalotis

L. microlophus
Micropterus dolomieui
M. punctulatus

M. salmoides
Pomoxis annularis
Ammocrypta pellucida
Etheostoma blennioides
E. caeruleum

E. flabellare

E. nigrum

E. spectabile

E. zonale

Percina caprodes

P. maculata

P. phoxocephala
Aplodinotus grunniens

222222222222

Cottus carolinae
Total Species

>< ><

> > ><

19

> > OK

~

>< DS OS OK

oS Oe Oe OK

><

> ><

>< > Oe OK

~*~ ><

>< Pe Oe OK Oe OK

Pad

21

13

> Oe OK

18 6

16

>< >< OS

12

~
>< > OS OK

> eK
> >
> >
> > >

Pad

>< OS Oe OK
pada
>< Oe OK OK Pod

Pd
*<
De OS dg OK OK OK OOK

14 21 2 2 10 18

DS OK DK OK OK OK

10

> > Os

10 10 14 13

PS Oe OK OK OK
Ped

14 12

114

Extensive fish collection data from the
Beech Fork and Salt River by Hoyt et al. (19, 20)
and Henley (6) were used to compare the
relative similarity of the Rolling Fork ichthyo-
fauna with that found in those drainages. Three
species reported by those researchers were ex-
cluded from the analysis. Our reexamination of
the specimens of Noturus eleutherus reported by
Hoyt et al. (20) revealed them to be N. miurus.
Voucher specimens for Fundulus olivaceus and
Percina copelandi collected by Henley (6) are
unavailable and we believe those species were
misidentified. Thus, the total number of species
for the Beech Fork and Salt River were con-
sidered to be 65 and 70, respectively.

Eighty two per cent of the Beech Fork fauna
and 80% of the Salt River fauna are shared with
that of the Rolling Fork. The close affinity of the
faunas was not surprising considering their prox-
imity to one another. Faunal differences were
mainly a result of the absence of several large-
river catostomids from our collections and the
absence of the hiodontids, several cyprinids, an
ictalurid, and a percid (e.g., Hiodon alosoides,
H. tergisus, Hybopsis dissimilis, Notropis
emiliae, Rhinichthys atratulus, Noturus
stigmosus, Ammocrypta pellucida) from known
the ichthyofauna of the Beech Fork and Salt
River.

The Rolling Fork appears to support the
most diverse ichthyofauna within the Salt River
drainage. The central part of the Rolling Fork
drainage is of particular importance as it
possesses habitat that supports 2 of Kentucky’s
threatened fishes as well as several flourishing
mussel beds. In view of recent efforts to develop
the oil shale resources in the Rolling Fork
drainage, special attention should be given to
protecting and maintaining the integrity of these
habitats and the diverse fauna they support.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

We would like to thank B.D. Anderson,
R.S. Butler, K.C. Fisher, J.D. Mayfield, B.L.
Palmer-Ball, Jr., and the staff members of the
Kentucky Nature Preserves Commission for
their untiring assistance in the field. For sharing
collection information and confirming identifica-
tions, we are grateful to B.M. Burr and M.L.
Warren, Jr., Southern Illinois University at Car-
bondale. B.M. Burr, R.D. Hoyt, W.D. Pearson,
B.A. Branson and M.L. Warren, Jr., provided
helpful comments in their critical review of the
manuscript. We are grateful to D.E. Karpoff for
typing the manuscript. This study was sup-
ported in part by the Water Resources
Laboratory, University of Louisville and the Ken-
tucky Nature Preserves Commission under the
direction of R.R. Hannan.

RH - Fishes of Salt River, Kentucky - Fisher and Cicerello

LITERATURE CITED

1. Burr, B.M. 1980. A distributional checklist of the
fishes of Kentucky. Brimleyana 3:53-84.

2. Hannan, R.R., R.R. Cicerello, E.D. Keithan, M.L.
Giovannini, and L.J. Andrews. 1984. Aquatic biota
and water quality and quantity survey of the Ken-
tucky oil shale region. Tech. Rep., Ky. Nature
Preserves Comm., Frankfort, Kentucky.

3. Woolman, A.J. 1892. Report of an examination of
the rivers of Kentucky, with lists of the fishes ob-
tained. Bull. U.S. Fish. Comm. 10:249-288.

4.Rice, S.P., J.R. MacGregor, and W.L. Davis.
1983. Distributional records for fourteen fishes in
Kentucky. Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci. 44:125-128.

5. Cicerello, R.R., and M.L. Warren, Jr. 1984. Range
extensions and drainage records for four Kentucky
fishes. Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci. 45:158-159.

6. Henley, J.P. 1983. The inventory and classification
of streams in the Salt River drainage. Ky. Dep.
Fish. Wildl. Resour., Fish. Bull. 67, Frankfort,
Kentucky.

7. Bower, D.E. and W.H. Jackson. 1981. Drainage
areas of streams at selected locations in Kentucky.
Open file report 81-61, U.S. Geol. Surv.,
Louisville, Kentucky.

8. Quarterman, E. and R.L. Powell. 1978. Potential
ecological/geological natural landmarks on the
Interior Low Plateaus. National Park Service. U.S.
Dept. of the Interior, Washington, D.C.

9. McFarlan, A.C. 1943. Geology of Kentucky. Univ.
of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky.

10. Long, C.A. 1963. Mathematical formulas expres-

sing faunal resemblance. Trans. Kans. Acad. Sci.
66:138-140.

11. Branson, B.A., D.F. Harker, Jr., J.M. Baskin,
M.E. Medley, D.L. Batch, M.L. Warren, Jr., W.H.
Davis, W.C. Houtcooper, B. Monroe, Jdr., L.R.
Phillippe, and P. Cupp. 1981. Endangered,
threatened, and rare animals and plants of Ken-
tucky. Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci. 42:77-89.

12. Gilbert, C.R. 1969. Systematics and distribution of
the American cyprinid fishes Notropis ariommus
and Notropis telescopus. Copeia 1969: 474-492.

13. Gilbert, C.R. 1980. Notropis ariommus (Cope),
Popeye shiner. p. 229 In: D.S. Lee, et al. Atlas of
North American Freshwater Fishes. N.C. State
Mus. Nat. Hist., Raleigh, North Carolina.

14. Warren, M.L., Jr. and R.R. Cicerello. 1983.
Drainage records and conservation status evalua-
tions for thirteen Kentucky fishes. Brimleyana
9:97-109.

Trans. Kentucky Academy of Science — 46(3-4) 115

15. Taylor, W.R. 1969. A revision of the catfish genus

16.

17.

Noturus Rafinesque, with an analysis of higher
groups in the Ictaluridae. U.S. Natl. Mus. Bull.
282:1-315.

Rhode, F.C. 1980: Noturus stigmosus Taylor, Nor-
thern madtom. p. 469 In: D.S. Lee, et al. Atlas of
North American Freshwater Fishes. N.C. State
Mus. Nat. Hist., Raleigh, North Carolina.

United States Fish and Wildlife Service. 1982. En-
dangered and threatened wildlife and plants:
review of vertebrate wildlife for listing as en-

dangered or threatened species. Federal Register
47:58454-58460.

18. Axon, J.R. 1983. Monthly performance report-
dune. Ky. Fish. Wildl. Resour., Frankfort, Ken-
tucky.

19. Hoyt, R.D., S.E. Neff and L.A. Krumholz. 1970.
An annotated list of fishes from the upper Salt
River, Kentucky. Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci. 31:51-63.

20. Hoyt, R.D., S.E. Neff and V.H. Resh. 1979.
Distribution, abundance, and species diversity of
fishes of the upper Salt River drainage, Kentucky.
Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci. 40:1-20.

RH - Lloyd Wildlife Preserve Forest in Kentucky - Bryant

An Analysis of the Lloyd Wildlife Preserve Forest, Grant County, Kentucky

William S. Bryant
Department of Biology, Thomas More College, Crestview Hills, Kentucky 41017

ABSTRACT

The forest of the Lloyd Wildlife Preserve, Grant County, Kentucky was sampled and analyzed in 1978 and
these results were compared to those Braun reported on this same forest in 1950. The same 16 tree species were
reported in both samples, but the percentage composition of the canopy dominants varied considerably between
the 2 sampling dates. This latter difference may be real or an artifact of difference in sampling techniques and
size-class determinations. Resamplings of old-growth forests in the Midwest have shown that compositional
changes do occur as a result of growth, death, and reproduction and can occur over time periods as short as 10

years.

INTRODUCTON

The canopy composition of the Lloyd
Wildlife Preserve Forest (LWPF) in northern
Grant County, Kentucky was reported by Braun
(1). Because of the topography, and the forest’s
location and species composition, she had dif-
ficulty in deciding whether it was more represen-
tative of the Outer Bluegrass or the Eden Shale
Belt subregion of the Bluegrass Region. Her
general concli sion was that it illustrates the
type of mixed forest on the less steep slopes of
the region along the boundary of the Outer
Bluegrass and Eden Shale Belt. Braun’s
description of the LWPF is as follows: “Here
oaks (mostly white and black) form about 30 per
cent of the canopy, beech 22 per cent, and sugar
maple 15 per cent, in a mixed forest of 16 canopy
species”.

This forest was briefly described in
“Naturalist’s Guide to the Americas” (2). Theiv
description is as follows: “This [forest] consists
of two tracts of about 20 acres each that have
never been touched with the ax. It represents the
natural woods as it existed originally in the Blue
Grass region of Kentucky. The trees are mostly
beech, maple, walnut, oak, tulip and other
trees. Lying on the crest of the ridge they are not
subject to wash and the soil is the accumulation
of the humus of ages. Trees that blow over or fall
down are not removed and the rotting logs are
characteristic of a primeval forest”.

At one time the 2 tracts that make up the
LWPF were contiquous, but they are now
separated by a field. Each old-growth tract is = 8
hectares in size. They are nearly identical in
topography and soils. The most widely
distributed soil in the preserve is the Lowell silt
loam, a deep, well-drained soil formed in
residuum from limestone and siltstone interbed-
ded with thin layers of calcerous shale (3). Other
soils present but of limited distribution in the
forest are the Nicholson silt loam, a loessal soil

116

with a slowly permeable fragipan, and the Eden
flaggy silty clay, a well-drained, but somewhat
droughty soil (3).

The average annual temperature for Grant
County is 12.2°C, with an average January
minimum of 6°C and a July maximum of 30°C
(3). The average annual precipitation is 108.5
cm with approximately 55% of the total falling
during April-September (3).

This paper presents the results of a vegeta-
tional study of LWPF and attempts to compare
the results with Braun’s. It is recognized that ex-
act comparisons are impossible due in part to
Braun’s failure to give her canopy size class
diameter determination.

METHODS OF ANALYSIS

The point-quarter method was used to sam-
ple the forest (4). A total of 50 points was sampl-
ed at 30-m intervals along line transects through
the two forest tracts. No points were taken
within 10 m of the forest edge. Only trees & 10
cm diameter-breast-height (dbh) were measured.
Relative frequency (RF), relative density (RD),
and relative dominance (RDo) were calculated,
and these values were summed to give an im-
portance value (IV) for each tree species. Tree
seedlings and shrubs were sampled in 20 0.004
ha circular plots and saplings in 20 0.01 ha cir-
cular plots. Seedling-sapling size classes follow
Bryant (6) and are placed in 5 classes based on
height and diameter. Following Abrell and
Jackson (5), trees ® 30cm dbh were considered
to be canopy trees and those smaller subcanopy
trees. At Natural Bridge, Kentucky Braun (1)
used © 30 cm dbh and at Ault Park, Ohio she
used © 46 cm dbh as her canopy size. These
were the only 2 forests based on her studies for
which she gave canopy size determinations (1).
Much of Dr. Braun’s correspondence and papers
are held by the Cincinnati Museum of Natural
History, but these have not been catalogued. No

Trans. Kentucky Academy of Science — 46(3-4) 117

field notes are known to be in these papers so ex-
act size for canopy members at the LWPF is not
known, however, based on the 2 studies cited it
is known that © 30 cm was a value that she
used for canopy inclusion.

Species diversity patterns were calculated
from Braun’s (1) canopy data and for each
stratum recognized in the present study using
the Shannon-Wiener (7) index (H’): (H') =
->p,log’pi, where S is the number of species and
p, is the proportion of each species in the forest.
The similarity coefficient of Bray and Curtis (8)
was used to calculate vegetational similarity
between Braun’s sample and my sample for
LWPF. It is C = (2w)/(a + b), where a = the
sum of the canopy percentages for all tree
species in Braun’s (1) sample, b = the sum for
my sample, and w = the sum of the lower
percentages for those species which are com-
mon to the two samples. The z test was used to
determine significance of difference between the
two samples.

Counts of fallen trees and standing dead
trees were made at LWPF. Nomenclature
follows Fernald (9) for all trees in the study.

RESULTS

If it is assumed that Carya cordiformis, Tilia
americana, and Quercus rubra are the same as
Carya sp., Tilia neglecta, and Quercus shumar-
dii, respectively, of Braun’s (1) list, then the
same 16 species were recorded in both samp-
lings. Braun (1) counted canopy trees only.
Thus, she gave no information on tree-size
classes or on other strata.

In my study there were 260 trees/hectare
(t/ha), of which 46.5% (121 t/ha) were in the
canopy and 53.5% (139 t/ha) in the subcanopy.
A comparison of the present canopy to the one
sampled by Braun (1) is presented in Table 1.
Sugar maple is now the canopy dominant
followed by white ash and then beech. It should
be remembered that Braun (1) did not state her
canopy class dbh so care was exercised in judg-
ing the 2 samples. Of the 8 most prominent
canopy trees in Braun’s study, Acer saccharum
(sugar maple), Fraxinus americana (white ash)
and Carya ovata (shagbark hickory) have
higher percentage canopy composition in my
sample; Fagus grandifolia (beech), Quercus
alba (white oak), Q. velutina (black oak) and
duglans nigra (black walnut) now have lower
percentages and Tilia americana (basswood) is
about the same. The other 8 tree species were of
minor importance in both samples and it is their
consistency which suggests that the canopy size
class used in both samplings is approximately
the same.

Table 1. Canopy composition of the Lloyd Wildlife Preserve Forest,
Grant County, Kentucky as presented by Braun in 1950 and in 1978 (this
study). Data on subcanopy composition in 1978 also is given.

CANOPY SUBCANOPY
1950 1978 1978
% % t/ha % t/ha
Acer saccharum 15.00 25.81 (31.2) 81.31 (113.0)

Tilla americana 5.40 5.38 (6.5) 3.74 (5.2)

Fagus grand{folia 22.20 10.75 (13.0) 4.67 (6.5)
Juglans nigra 9.60 7.53 (9.1) - ---
Quercus alba 16.20 4.30° (5.2)

Quercus velutina 9.00 7.53 (9.1)

Quercus muehlenbergii 2.40 2.15 (2.6)

Quercus rubra 1.80 2.15 (2.6) --- =e=
Fraxinus americana 6.60 15.05° (18.2) 1.87 (2.6)
Fraxinus quadrangulata 0.60 1.08 (1.3) + +
Carya ovata 4.20 9.68°* (11.7) 2.80 (3.9)
Carya cordiformis 0.60 3.23° (3.9) 0.93 (1.3)
Carya glabra 1.20) 2.15 (2.6) 0.93 (1.3)
Ulmus rubra 3.00 1.08 (1.3) 1.87 (2.6)
Nyssa sylvatica 1.80 1.06 (1.3) = ---
Celtis occidentalis 0.60 1.08 (1.3) 1.87 (2.6)

“These values are significantly different at the 0.05 level
**These values are significantly different at the 0.01 level

Sugar maple in now the dominant sub-
canopy tree, accounting for over 81% (113 t/ha)
of the individuals in this stratum (Table 1). No
other tree species accounted for as much as 5%
of the subcanopy, and the oaks and black
walnut are not represented at all.

Sugar maple ranks first in IV at 118.83
(Table 2) when all trees are included. The IVs for
all other tree species generally follow the present
canopy rankings. The total basal area for the
forest is 35.5 m*/ha, with 86% of that con-
tributed by the canopy component. Based on
seedling-sapling data, only sugar maple
reached tree replacement size and was
represented in all 5 size classes (Table 3).
Basswood is reproducing from sprouts and seed,
but percentage seedling establishment of the
oaks and hickories is low. Beech is not
represented in the seedling-sapling stratum. The
shrub layer is primarily composed of Asimina
triloba and Lindera benzoin, and they are rather
localized in the forest.

Canopy diversity (H’) based on Braun’s data
was 3.33; it is now 3.37. Subcanopy diversity,
1.22, is the lowest of any stratum. Total tree
diversity is 2.53, seedling-sapling when grouped
2.32 and shrub 1.93.

A total of 44 dead canopy trees was
counted. Of these, 36 were windthrown, and 8
were standing dead. Most of them are oaks,
beech, hickory, and basswood; however, some
identifications were difficult due to many of the
trees being in late stages of decomposition.

118 RH - Lloyd Wildlife Preserve Forest in Kentucky - Bryant

Table 2. Relative frequency (RF) relative density (RD), relative
dominance (RDo) and importance value (IV) of tree species at the Lloyd
Wildlife Preserve Forest in 1978.

Tree Species RF RD RDo IV
Acer saccharum 37.70 55.50 25.63 118.83
Fraxinus americana 11.48 8.00 18.66 38.14
Fagus grandtfolia 9.02 7.50 8.52 25.04
Carya ovata 8.20 6.00 5.45 19.65
Quercus velutina 5.74 3.50 10.30 19.54
Tilia americana 4.92 4.50 5.34 14.76
Juglans nigra 4.92 3.50 4.86 13.28
Quercus alba 3.28 2.00 7.44 12.72
Carya cordiformis 3.28 2.00 1.87 7.15
Quercus rubra 1.64 1.00 4.50 7.14
Quercus muhlenbergil 1.64 1.00 2.70 5.34
Carya glabra 2.46 1.50 1.00 4.96
Celtis occidentalis 2.46 1.50 0.70 4.66
Ulmus rubra 1.64 1.50 1.19 4.33
Fraxinus quadrangulata 0.82 0.50 1.21 2.53
Nyssa sylvatica 0.82 0.50 0.62 1.94

Table 3. Seedlings and saplings per hectare of tree and shrub
species at the Lloyd Wildlife Preserve Forest, Grant County, Kentucky.
Relative density (RD), based on all size classes for each species, is
presented also.

Seedlings Saplings

Trees SizeClass 1 2 3 4 5 RD
Acer saccharum 1025.05 24.70 34.58 29.64 39.54 36.03
Ulmus rubra 975.65 24.70 19.76 31.87
Fraxinus americana 419.19 4.94 13.27
Celtis occidentalis 209.95 6.56
Tilia americana 160.55 12.35 4.94 29.64 6.48
Carya sp. 86.45 2.70
Morus rubra 37.05 1.16
Prunus serotina 24.70 0.77
Quercus muhlenbergli 12.35 0.39
Quercus alba 12.35 0.39
Juglans nigra 12.35 0.39
Shrubs & Understory

Trees
Asimina triloba 1222.65 49.40 34.58 51.41
Lindera benzoin 382.85 234.65 19.76 25.07
Sambucus canadensis 271.70 10.69
Staphylea trifolla 111.15 12.35 4.86
Euonymus

atropurpureus 111.15 4.37
Comus florida 61.75 24.70 3.40
Cercia canadensis 4.94 0.19

DISCUSSION

Braun’s (1) data show that the beech-maple
and oak-hickory components of the LWPF were
nearly equal, i.e. 37.2% and 35.4%, respective-
ly. In southern Iadiana Fagus-Quercus-Acer-
Carya forests were termed “western
mesophytic” (10) but, they were later renamed
“mixedwoods” (11) which js similar to Braun’s
(1) designation of the LWPF as “mixed forest”.
The present canopy composition of 36.56%

beech-maple and 31.19% oak-hickory may ap-
pear at first to be little different from Braun (1).
However, this is not the case, since individual
tree species showed differences in canopy
percentages. Similarity (C) between Braun’s (1)
canopy and the present canopy is 70.4%. Bray
and Curtis (8) reported that replicate samples in
the same forests that they sampled probably
would have C values of ~ 80-85%. Again, it is
assumed that Braun and I were samplng ap-
proximately the same canopy-size class for
these differences to be meaningful.

Recent studies of forests suggest that there
may be shifts in the dominant tree species at
long (12) or short term intervals (5, 13, 14). Lind-
sey and Schmelz (13) and Schmelz et al. (14)
recorded composition changes at Donaldson’s
Woods, Indiana for 10 and 20 year periods,
respectively. In their study of Hoot Woods, In-
diana, Abrell and Jackson (5) noted composition
changes due to growth, mortality, and
reproduction over a 10-year period. These works
and others (15, 16, 17, 18) point to an increasing
importance of sugar maple and a decreasing im-
portance of certain associated hardwoods in the
Midwest. Buell et al. (19) stated that the upland
oak forests of New Jersey were changing to
maple.

The abundance of sugar maple in the LWPF
subcanopy shows its shade tolerance and thus
its competitive advantage over associated
species. Sugar maple benefits from release (20)
and because of its dominance in the subcanopy
is in position to take advantage of any canopy
openings created by death or windthrow. White
ash ranked second in IV to sugar maple largely
because of its basal area. Schmelz et al. (14)
found that white ash is increasing in importance
in the canopy of Donaldson’s Woods, Indiana.
Although white ash was quite abundant in the
seedling classes at the LWFP its density was
much lower in the sapling classes. This is in
agreement with Fowells (21) who stated that
white ash is shade tolerant when young, but
with age it becomes intolerant.

The lesser importance of beech and white
oak in the LWPF canopy in 1978 than in 1950 (1)
seems to be consistent with data reported in the
literature. Abrell and Jackson (5) and Schmelz
et al. (14) reported that beech is declining in the
old-growth forests of Indiana. Their conclusions
are based on resampling studies of greater preci-
sion than used in this study. In Indiana,
Schmelz et al. (14) found little growth or in-
crease in density of oak in the seedling-sapling
layers. Anderson and Adams (17) stated that in
the forests of central Illinois, white oak was be-
ing replaced by shade tolerant trees on mesic
sites. Peet and Loucks (22) considered the oaks
to be shade-intolerant species, and in their

Trans. Kentucky Academy of Science — 46(3-4) 119

studies they found oak species to be of greatest
importance in the larger size classes. This also
is true for the oaks at the LWPF.

Although sugar maple presently is the
dominant tree species at LWPF, it seems
premature to conclude that the forest is now a
different type than at the time of Braun’s (1)
sampling. Canopy diversity remains high, and
no species have been eliminated from the LWPF
between the 2 sampling periods. For the longer-
lived species, i.e. oaks and beech, the potential
seed source is still there to maintain diversity.
The shifting and sorting of the dominants
demontrates the dynamics of the forest system
and seems consistent with the results of other
resampling studies. The low diversity in the sub-
canopy follows the trend hypothesized by
Loucks (12). More work on the subcanopy is
needed to determine its relationship to the
canopy.

The earlier reports on the LWPF (1, 2) con-
sidered it to be climax. Its species composition
(23) and basal area (24) are regarded as
characteristics of the regional climax. Accor-
ding to Horn (25), “The stability of the climax
forest, if it exists, is not a stability of age struc-
ture but a stability of species composition.”
Thus, it would seem that the periodic resampl-
ing of old-growth forests is one way to determine
if they are stable.

LITERATURE CITED

1. Braun, E.L. 1950. Deciduous Forests of Eastern
North America. Blakiston Co. Philadelphia, Pa.

2. Middleton, A.R., W.R. Jillson, F.T. McFarland
and W.A. Anderson. 1926. Kentucky. In V.E.
Shelford (ed.). Naturalist’s Guide to the Americas.
pp. 349-354. The Williams & Wilkins Co.
Baltimore, Md.

3, Froedge, R.B. and B.C. Weisenberger. 1980. Soil
Survey of Grant and Pendleton Counties, Ken-
tucky. USDA, SCS. U.S. Gov't. Print. Off.
Washington, D.C.

4.Cottam, G. and J.T. Curtis. 1956. The use of
distance measures in phytosociological sampling.
Ecology 37:451-460.

5. Abrell, D.B. and W.T. Jackson. 1977. A decade of
change in an old-growth beech-maple forest in In-
diana. Amer. Midl. Nat. 98:22-32.

6. Bryant, W.S. 1978. Vegetation of the Boone Coun-
ty Cliffs Nature Preserve, a forest on a Kansas out-
wash deposit in northern Kentucky. Trans. Ky.
Acad. Sci. 39:12-22.

Ue

Qo

10.

1

_

12.

13.

14.

15.

16.

Wf

18.

19.

21.

Shannon, C.E. and W. Weaver. 1949. The
Mathematical Theory of Communication. Univ. of
Illinois Press. Urbana, III.

. Bray, J.R. and J.T. Curtis. 1957. Ordination of the

upland forest communities of southern Wisconsin.
Ecol. Monogr. 27:325-349.

Fernald, M.L. 1950. Gray’s Manual of Botany.
American Book Co. N.Y.

Lindsey, A.A., W.B. Crankshaw and S.A. Qadir.
1965. Soil relations and distribution map of the

vegetation of presettlement Indiana. Bot. Gaz.
126:155-163.

. Lindsey, A.A. and D.V. Schmelz. 1970. The forest

types of Indiana and a new method of classifying
midwestern hardwood forests. Proc. Indiana Acad.
Sci. 79:198-204.

Loucks, O.L. 1970. Evolution of diversity, efficien-
cy, and community stability. Amer. Zool. 10:17-25.

Lindsey, A.A and D.V. Schmelz. 1965. Com-
parison of Donaldson’s Woods in 1964 with its 1954
forest map of 20 acres. Proc. Indiana Acad. Sci.
74:169-177.

Schmelz, D.V., J.D. Barton and A.A. Lindsey.
1975. Donaldson’s Woods: Two decades of change.
Proc. Indiana Acad. Sci. 84:234-243.

Weaver, G.T. and W.C. Ashby. 1971. Composition
and structure of an old-growth forest remnant in
unglaciated southwestern Illinois. Amer. Midl.
Nat. 86:456-56.

Miceli, J.C., G.L. Rolfe, D.R. Pelz and J.M. Edg-
ington. 1977. Brownfield Woods, Illinois: Woody
vegetation and changes since 1960. Amer. Midl.
Nat. 98:469-476.

Anderson, R.C. and D.E. Adams. 1976. Species
replacement patterns in central Illinois white oak
forests. In P.E. Pope (ed.). Proceedings of the Cen-
tral Hardwood Forest Conference II. pp. 284-301.
Purdue Univ. West Lafayette, Ind.

Adams, D.E. and R.C. Anderson. 1980. Species
responses to a moisture gradient in central Illinois
forests. Amer. J. Bot. 67:381-392.

Buell, M.F., A.N. Langford, D.W. Davidson and
L.F. Ohmann. 1966. The upland forest continuum
in northern New Jersey. Ecology 47:416-432.

. Curtis, J.T. 1959. The Vegetation of Wisconsin.

Univ. Wisc. Press. Madison, Wisc.

Fowells, H.A. 1965. Silvics of Forest Trees of the
United States. USDA, Agric. Handbook 271,
Washington, D.C.

Peet, R.K. and O.L. Loucks. 1977. A gradient
analysis of southern Wisconsin forests. Ecology
58:485-499.

Braun, E.L. 1936. Forests of the Illinoian Till Plain
of southwestern Ohio. Ecol. Monogr. 6:89-149.

120 RH - Lloyd Wildlife Preserve Forest in Kentucky - Bryant

24. Held, M.E. and J.E. Winstead. 1975. Basal area
and climax status in mesic forest systems. Ann.
Bot. 39:1147-1148.

25. Horn, H.S. 1971. The Adaptive Geometry of Trees.
Princeton Univ. Press. Princeton, N.J.

RH - Mine Roof Falls in Kentucky — Smith

Statistical Modeling and Mapping Selected
Physical Characteristics Associated with
Roof Falls in an Eastern Kentucky
Coal Mine

Alan D. Smith

Department of Quantitative and Natural Science,
Robert Morris College, Coraopolis, PA 15108

ABSTRACT

Cost-sensitive mine planning systems assume that the physical and economic conditions that will have the
greatest impact on cost and coal quality can be predicted accurately enough to assist mine planners in making
decisions. Although roof falls are discrete in their occurrence, mapping applied to mining design assumes that
the causes of failure are based primarily on geological and rock mechanical properties which may be con-
tinuous in nature and, hence, be subject to detectable patterns. Two such factors, namely thickness of first im-
mediate rock bed in mine roof and estimated volume of fallen material, both extremely important parameters in
entry span calculations and design layout, were measured and mapped for 72 roof falls in an eastern Kentucky
coal mine. The major statistical and analysis tools used in the present study were polynomial trend surface
analyses, hypothesis testing and model comparisons of trend surfaces, and three-dimensional displays
generated from commercially available computer software, via the incremental plotter.

The mean thickness of the first immediate roof bed was determined to be 36 cm and the average volume of
roof fall was found to be 294m‘. Traditional AVOVA techniques and hypothesis testing and model comparisons
of trend surfaces delineated the fifth order surface (R? = 46%) as the statistically best fit (p = 0.01) over the
lower-order, polynomial trends. However, no trend surface accounted for enough explained variance in predic-
ting the estimated volume of fallen debris as a function of location in the mine site. In addition, three-
dimensional graphical displays of structure contour, trend, and residual surfaces were generated to allow the

potential user to portray selected distributions in order to plan preventative measures in the future.

INTRODUCTION

Since the first records were kept in 1838 on
coal mine health and safety, more than 130,000
miners have lost their lives in mine accidents in
the United States. Death rates in mines of this
country have been found to be higher than in
any other Western industrial nation engaged in
coal mining (1). A major cause of this death and
physical injury to underground coal mines is
roof failure. As suggested by Moebs and
Stateham (2), instability in coal mine roofs is
considered to be either the result of defect-
related/geological features or non-defect-
related, such as the strength-stress state ex-
isting in the rock mass (3). Support of
underground entries are based on recommenda-
tions of the physical characteristics of geologic
structures and the overall effect the structures
have on mine roof stability.

The stability of coal mining tunnels, entries,
rooms, and associated openings plays a major
role in the success of any major underground
project. Hence, if the main access openings to a
new coal mine become deformed and damaged

by strata movement to the extent of requiring
serious repairs, special problems may arise
which will have an influence on ventilation, im-
pairment to speed and reliability of transport
systems as well as the direct and indirect costs
involved with the repair program (4-7).

The mechanical design of a roof support
system is basically a matter of a working
knowledge of statics and dynamics, assuming
that the imposed loads and mining conditions
are known. However, in the Appalachian coal
fields the general conditions are known well
enough to allow for the majority of mining
operations, including traditional room-and-
pillar as well as longwall mining techniques, to
be furnished with standard and commercially
available supports. Of course, these support
systems and roof control procedures are equip-
ped with suitable variants and options (8). The
overall design of a mining system, which design
incorporates not only size and capacity of the
equipment to be used; but includes: equipment
adaptability to the mining scheme; equipment
versus human constraint, operation at the de-
signed levels; and coordination of operation,

122 RH - Mine Roof Falls in Kentucky - Smith

maintenance and support design (8).

Hence, a multitude of factors must be con-
sidered in the successful underground operation
(9). Cost-sensitive mine planning systems have
been developed to help coal companies design
underground mines that will recover coal
reserves in the most profitable method. Informa-
tion obtained from borehole logs, local mines,
mining equipment manufacturers, and previous
mining experience should be used in the mine
planning process. According to Ellison and
Scovazzo (10), cost-sensitive mine planning
assumes that the physical and economic condi-
tions that will have the greatest impact on cost
and coal quality can be predicted accurately
enough to assist mine planners in making deci-
sions. In the planning process, many maps,
such as coal seam thickness, expected roof cav-
ing conditions, geologic lineaments, roof shale
thickness, distance to the first sandstone, over-
burden thickness, underclay thickness, as well
as a host of other factors, can be generated as
overlays on each other to assist planners in
selecting appropriate locations and orientations
for the portal, mains, submains, and longwall
panels (3, 11-13). As compiled and summarized
by Moebs and Stateham (11), a recent study to
investigate in a graphic manner, all rock fall
hazards related to geologic conditions in the
Pittsburgh Coalbed for a 9-county area, located
in northern West Virginia and Southwestern
Pennsylvania, resulted in the systemic collection
and analysis of field data. A total of 7 geologic
and 5 mining-engineering related variables were
found to be causally related to roof failure.
However, only 3 of the significant geological
parameters, namely overburden thickness, roof
lithology, and vertical distance to the rider coal
seam, were found to be useful in the final map
preparation.

The thrust of the present study is to ex-
amine the spatial distributions of thickness of
the first immediate roof bed and estimated
volume of fallen debris from a historical record
of previous mine roof falls in a particular site and
determine if spatially predictive relationships ex-
ist and plot them for future design work.
Although mine roof falls are not random events
and their occurrence is usually contibuted to an
interaction of a host of geological and stress-
strength parameters, frequently some of the
conditions that cause failure may be continuous
in nature. Example of this continuous nature in
mine roof failure includes, as previously stated,
overburden thickness, roof lithology, and ver-
tical distances to selected bedding-plane
features. Thickness of the first immediate roof
bed may be continuous and a factor in ground
control. In fact, this factor serves as a standard
input variable in the calculation of safe entry

spans in underground mine design. However,
volume of fallen material in a roof failure is the
result of a complex interaction of tensile and
compression forces occurring in a_ rapidly
changing geologic environment and conditions.
The factors related to the amount of volume
swell and material released from a fall are based
on both continuous and discrete distributions. If
these relationships exist, they may prove useful
in a cost-sensitive mine plan to avoid selected in-
teractions of ranges of thickness of immediate
roof beds and possibly high volumes of fallen
material for room or main entry development

METHODS

The major analysis and statistical tools
used in the present study are polynomial-trend
surface analyses (14), hypothesis testing and
model comparisons of trend surfaces (15-18),
and three-dimensional displays generated from
commercially available computer software via
the incremental plotter (19-21).

One mine was selected for the study of the
Eastern Kentucky coal fields to apply cost-
sensitive mapping procedures with the com-
bined use of trend surface analyses and three-
dimensional modeling techniques. However,
due to proprietary purposes, the mine site will
remain unidentified. A total of 72 actual mine
roof falls were measured and the thickness of
the first immediate roof bed (in cm) and
estimated volume of fallen rock (in m*) were
recorded. The mean thickness was determined
to be 36 cm and the average volume of roof fall
was found to be 293 m°. Each roof fall location
was recorded and trend surface analyses, via
SYMAP (22) and a computer program sug-
gested by Smith (15) were performed. In addi-
tion, three-dimensional graphical displays were
created.

RESULTS

Tables 1 through 2 illustrate the results of
the model comparisons and hypothesis testing
of polynomial trend surfaces in predicting
thickness of immediate roof bed and volume of
fall. Contained in Table 1 is the hypothesis
testing results, in standard analysis (ANOVA)
format, to determine if the fifth degree
polynomial trend surface for thickness of im-
mediate roof bed is significant. The variance ac-
counted for by the fifth order surface was 46 per-
cent, and this was found to be statistically
significant (p = 0.01). Table 1 also contains a
similar ANOVA table presenting the model

Trans. Kentucky Academy of Science — 46(3-4) 123

comparison of the fifth order versus the fourth
order trend surface for the thickness parameter.
Table 2 presents a summary of the actual,
predicted, and residual or error values of the im-
mediate mine bed. The fifth-degree regression
equation, as shown at the bottom of the table,
was employed to derive the predicted values for
immediate roof bed. In Table 1 is a summary of
the F-ratios, probability levels, R* for both the
full and restricted models, degrees of freedom-

numerator, degrees of freedom-denominator,
and significance for each trend surface for the
associated roof fall parameters. As evident from
the table, the fifth degree polynomial trend sur-
face was the statistically best fit; however, no
trend surface accounted for enough explained
variance in predicting the estimated volume of
fallen debris as a function of location in the mine
site.

TABLE 1. -Summary of F-Ratios, Probability Levels, R*? for Both the Full and Restricted Models, Degrees
of Freedom-Numerator, Degrees of Freedom-Denominator, and Significance for Each Trend
Surface for Associated Roof Fall Parameters.

Order of dfn
Trend Surface R? R? poco F-Ratio Prob. Significance
f r dfd
THICKNESS OF THINNEST IMMEDIATE LAYER (N = 72)
1 0.0466 0.0 2/69 1.6872 0.1926 NS
2 0.1063 0.0 5/66 1.5704 0.1807 NS
3 0.2093 0.0 9/62 1.8238 0.0816 NS
4 0.2733 0.0 14/57 1.5309 0.1296 NS
5 0.4595 0.0 20/51 2.1680 0.0136 S
6 0.4945 0.0 27/44 1.5942 0.0828 NS
lvs 2 0.1063 0.0466 3/66 1.4694 0.2309 NS
2vs 3 0.2093 0.1063 4/62 2.0192 0.1027 NS
3vs 4 0.2733 0.2093 5/57 1.0029 0.4244 NS
4vus5 0.4595 0.2733 6/51 2.9294 0.0156 Sze
5 vs 6 0.4945 0.4595 7/44 0.4349 0.8749 NS
VOLUME OF FALLEN MATERIAL (N = 72)
1 0.0118 0.0 2/69 0.4124 0.6637 NS
2 0.0217 0.0 5/66 0.2931 0.9151 NS
3 0.0710 0.0 9/62 0.5265 0.8498 NS
4 0.1204 0.0 14/57 0.5576 0.8861 NS
5 0.2451 0.0 20/51 0.8279 0.6703 NS
6 0.3230 0.0 27/44 0.7774 0.7541 NS
lvs 2 0.0217 0.0118 3/66 0.2228 0.8802 NS
2vs 3 0.0710 0.0217 4/62 0.8222 0.5160 NS
3vs 4 0.1204 0.0710 5/57 0.6409 0.6694 NS
4vus5 0.2451 0.1204 6/61 1.4035 0.2315 NS
5 vs 6 0.3230 0.2451 7/44 0.7230 0.6532 NS

The symbols* denote statistical significance at 0.01 level, ** denote statistical significance at 0.05

level, both for a two-tailed, nondirectional test. The term R’5 refers to the variance explained by the
higher order surface compared to total variation. In addition, this “full model” may contain the
equation that is being tested for its contribution of additional variance in explaining the spatial
distribution of these parameters. The term R’, refers to the restricted model concept in multiple
linear regression terminology. The term is a measure of the relationship of random variation (R*, =
0.0) or the contribution to explained variation associated with the lower order coefficients or the

equation that is being held constant or covaried with respect to the other models.

124 RH - Mine Roof Falls in Kentucky - Smith

TABLE 2 - Location Coordinates, Actual and Predicted Values, and Error Values for Thickness of First Im-
mediate Mine Roof Bed Using the Fifth-Order Polynomial Trend Surface (Partial Listing Only).

Coordinates®

Thickness Values, Inches (cm)

xX Y Actual Predicated” Residual
65.9 8.5 14.0(35.6) 40.735 — 26.735
65.5 15.0 5.0(12.7) 1.842 3.158
65.0 15.8 8.0(20.3) 14.632 — 6.632
17.1 16.1 8.0(20.3) 11.929 — 3.929
16.0 17.4 8.0(20.3) 12.730 — 4.730
16.7 19.4 72.0(182.9) 25.046 46.954
11.1 8.2 12.0(30.5) 47.698 — 35.698

7.0 9.0 22.0(55.9) 42.917 — 20.917
49.4 21.2 22.0(55.9) 29.628 — 7.628

5.5 7.8 30.0( 76.2) 14.546 15.454
29.9 17.5 60.0(152.4) 26.141 33.859
66.2 17.0 60.0(152.4) 54.416 5.584
66.7 17.0 60.0( 152.4) 56.539 5.461
15.4 21.5 3.0(7.6) - 0.027 3.027
11.7 7.7 68.0(172.7) 45.785 22.215
50.0 7.9 13.0(33.0) 6.296 6.704
47.3 20.5 2.5(6.4) 0.283 2.217
46.0 20.5 2.56.4) — 6.780 9.280
47.4 18.7 3.0(7.6) - 1.351 4.351

8Coordinates are in the SYMAP-axis system

bE ifth-order polynomial equation (where X and Y are geographic coordinates):

thickness = 2768.7116427 + 21321686128X + 782.77753213Y - 5.602514505xX"
— 45.814074202XY —- 81.42855572Y* + 0.070304671515x° + 0.85569130249x"y +
-34850956666X Y* + 3.9214765325Y* - 0.00051850363X‘ - .00463995993X°Y -
0.05181088811X*Y* - 0.937890466930001 XY* - 0.96351327910001 Y‘ +
0.227491497260005X* — 0.000000380589X‘Y + 0.00023142890X°Y* +
0.000068338864046X7Y* + 0.00093184394XY* + 0.00094858352Y°

The graphic displays of the three-
dimensional plots for each mine-roof fall
parameter can be found in figures 1 through 11.
Figures 1 and 2 illustrate the basic isopach con-
tour for thickness of first immediate roof bed,
Figure 3 displays the fifth degree polynomial
surface, and figures 4 and 5 present the three-
dimensional distribution of residuals (the dif-
ference between the actual and predicted
values). Figures 6 through 11 display similar in-
formation for estimated volume of fall debris
from the mine roof, using fourth-order surface
as an example. Since, several statistical tech-
niques were applied to the response surfaces
found in the figures, a common orientation was
not shared among all the graphical displays.
The perspective were changed from NE to SE in
order to view high and low areas on the struc-
ture, trend, and residual maps to aid in their
overall interpretation and illustrate the plotting
software’s versatility in graphically presenting
the distributions.

DISCUSSION

As evident from Figures 1 through 11, and
Tables 1 and 2, a significant and predictive trend
exists for thickness of the thinnest immediate
layer in the mine roof, but not for estimated
volume of fallen debris, for the roof falls studied.
A fourth-degree polynomial surface accounted
for a significant amount of explained variance
(R* = 0.46) in predicting thickness of immediate
roof beds. However, as shown in figures 4 and
5, residuals or the errors between the actual and
predicted values occur and are centrally located.

Although coal-mine failure areas are
discrete in their actual occurrence, mapping
procedures applied to mine-layout design
assumes that the causes of failure are primarily
based on geological and rock mechanical pro-
perties, which may be continuous in nature and,
hence, be subject to detectable patterns. As evi-
dent from the statistical analyses of response

Trans. Kentucky Academy of Science — 46(3-4) 125

Figure 1. Structure Contour of Thickness of First Immediate Roof
Layer in Mine Roof as Viewed from the Southeast Direc-
tlon.

Figure 3. Three-dimensional Model of the Fifth-Order, Polynomial
Trend Surface for Thickness of First Immediate Roof Layer
in Mine Roof as Viewed from the Northeast Direction.

surfaces, detectable patterns of the thickness of
the first immediate roof bed, associated with the
recorded roof falls, were found. This pattern is
probably due to continuous geologic conditions
found in the mine site. However, no detectable
pattern was discovered for determining the
regional trend of estimated volume of fallen rock
in these failure areas throughout the mine site.
Although the size of roof falls are related to mine
span, bedding and geological features that may
be continuous, a host of other factors and their
sequential interactions were evidently too com-
plex to effective map and predict, without con-
trolling for these other important parameters. In
addition, since volumes of roof falls are general-
ly not continuous in space, it may not be ap-
parent that polynomial modeling is appropriate
in this circumstance. However, the search in the
literature of coal-mine roof failure presented no
other acceptable alternative for mapping and
predictive evaluation of size and volume
characteristics of fallen debris as a function of
spatial coordinates.

The figures show the magnitude and
distribution of error in prediction of the various
roof-fall parameters. However, as demonstrated
in Table 2, the spatial coordinates of the

Figure 2. Structure Contour of Thickness of First Immediate Roof
Layer in Mine Roof as Viewed from the Northeast Direc-
tlon,

Figure 4, Three-dimenstonal Model of the Fifth-Order, Polynomial
Residual Surface (Positive Values) for Thickness of First
Immediate Roof Layer in Mine Roof as Viewed from the
Southeast Direction.

measured values are somewhat clustered and
irregularly-spaced throughout the mine layout.
When fitting a continuous polynomial surface
over this type of data, the few control points
along the periphery of the mine site allows the
surface to be distorted and highly exaggerated.
The magnitudes of the parameters, as evident
from the legends on each figure that is derived
from the curve-fitting of the regression equation
were quite large and unrealistic. For example, in
Figures 1 and 2, the actual data range, starting
from the base plane, was 0.0 to 2.16 meters. The
magnitudes for immediate roof-bed thickness
reached an unrealistic value of over 10,871
meters. These extreme values, of course, are the
extrapolations of the polynomial surface beyond
the constraints of the data, where spatial control
is not achieved. Hence, most of the graphical
displays are merely artifacts or abstracts of the
polynomial surface that has no real meaning.
Although, the equations used to predict im-
mediate roof-bed thickness are restricted to
about two-thirds of the mine layout, the
methodology is essentially correct. However, a
greater attempt must be made to have represen-
tative control points through the study area.
One useful function of generating these plots are

126 RH - Mine Roof Falls in Kentucky - Smith

to isolate these areas that are unconstrained in _ tions of the polynomial model. In this way, the
terms of modeling. With this knowledge, the model can be correctly applied to those areas
mining engineer/geologist can quickly isolate that are feasible for predictive purposes.

those mine sections that do not meet the condi-

Figure 5. Three-dimensional Model of the Fifth-Order, Polynomial Residual Surface (Positive Values) for
Thickness of First Immediate Roof Layer in Mine Roof as Viewed from the Northeast Direction.

Structure Contour of Estimated Volume of Fallen Material from Mine Roof as Viewed from the

Figure 6.
Southeast Direction.

Figure 7. Structure Contour of Estimated Volume of Fallen Material from Mine Roof as Viewed from the
Northeast Direction.

im
59000)
19434}

16880}

Figure 8. Three-dimensional Model of the Fourth-Order, Polynomial Trend Surface for Estimated Volume of
Fallen Material from Mine Roof as Viewed from the Northeast Direction.

Trans. Kentucky Academy of Science — 46(3-4) 127

m

59000

jse4a4

16880
|
+o

Figure 9. Three-dimensional Model of the Fourth-Order, Polynomial Trend Surface for Estimated Volume of
Fallen Material from Mine Roof as Viewed from the Southeast Direction.

Figure 10. Three-dimensional Model of the Fourth-Order, Polynomial Residual Surface (Positive Values) for
Estimated Volume of Fallen Material from Mine Roof as Viewed from the Southeast Direction.

Figure 11. Three-dimensional Model of the Fourth-Order, Polynomial Residual Surface (Positive Values) for
Estimated Volume of Fallen Material from Mine Roof as Viewed from the Northeast Direction.

CONCLUSIONS

The major benefit of modeling research is to
be able to visualize the actual distributions of
important parameters associated with roof falls.
Examples illustrated in this research allow the
user to portray selected distributions of
parameters in order to access the potential of
these techniques as an aid to avoid potentially
problematic areas. The use of plotting statistical
as well as actual contour surfaces, allows the in-
vestigator a chance to actually visualize what

the surface looks like and the residuals or errors
in prediction and their magnitudes. This process
can bring in the administrator and engineer’s
“common sense” as well as geological and
engineering judgement into play to determine
the best fit or model, if one exists. With the in-
creasing use and availability of appropriate soft-
ware and hardware, computer modeling should
be used in conjunction with statistical models in
estimating the usefulness and limitations of
trend-surface analyses for predictive purposes in
the mining industry.

128

RH - Mine Roof Falls in Kentucky - Smith

LITERATURE CITED

. Warner, Jr., J.R., 1982, Crime in the mines.

Proc. of W. Vir. Acad. of Sci. 54:132-139.

. Moebs, N.N. and R.M. Stateham, 1984,

Geologic factors in coal mine roof stability - a
progress report. U.S.D.I., Bur. of Mines Info.
8976. 27 p.

. Smith, A.D., J.C. Cobb, and K.F. Unrung,

1984, Discriminative analysis of selected rock

strengths and geologic parameters associated
with basic lithologies derived from the eastern
Kentucky Coal Field. Trans. Ky. Acad. of Sci.
45: 36-50.

. Wells, B.T. and Whittaker, 1981, Stability

behavior of coal mining tunnels with different
supports. In Proc. of Ist An. Conf. on Ground
Control in Mining, S.S. Peng (ed.). West
Virginia Univ., Morgantown, WV. p. 67-75.

. Smith, A.D. and R.T. Wilson, 1984, Influence of

support systems on the occurrence and distribu-
tion of roof falls in selected coal mines of
eastern Kentucky. Trans. Ky. Acad. of Sci.
45:4-13.

. Smith, A.D., 1984, Characteristics of mine roof

falls in selected deep-mines of Kentucky: A pilot
study. Trans. Ky. Acad. of Sci. 45:78-81.

8. Hutchingson, T.L., 1981, Design and operation

10.

11.

of powered and entry supports. In Proc. of the
Ist An. Conf. on Ground Control in Mining, S.S.
Peng (ed.), W. Virginia Univ., Morgantown, WV.
p. 201-208.

. Smith, A.D., 1984, Lithologic characteristics of

immediate mine roof in selected coal mines of
eastern Kentucky (abs.). Abstracts with Pro-
grams, 18th An. Meeting of South Central GSA
16:113.

Ellison, R.D. and V.A. Scovazzo, 1981, Profit
planning begins with mapping. Coal Age
86:68-81.

Chase, F.E. and G.P. Sames, 1983, Kettlebot-
toms: Their relation to mine roof and support.

U.S.D.I., Bur. of Mines Report of Investigations,
no. 8785. 12p.

12.

13.

14.

15.

16.

17.

18.

19.

21.

Jansky, J.H. and R.F. Valance, 1983, Correla-
tion of LANDSAT and air photo linears with
roof control problems and geologic features.
U.S.D.I. Bur. of Mines Report of Investigations
8777. 22p.

Smith, A.D., 1985, Statistical evaluation of floor
heave condition and time of failure in
underground coal mines (abs). Proc. West Virginia
Acad. of Sci. 57:27-28.

Davis, J.D., 1973, Statistics and data anlaysis in
geology. John Wiley and Sons, Inc., NY.

Smith, A.D., 1983, Model comparisons and
hypothesis testing of trend surfaces. Trans. Ky.
Acad. of Sci. 44:17-21

Smith, A.D., 1983, Suggested format for presen-
ting hypothesis testing and model comparisons
of trend surfaces. Trans. Ky. Acad. of Sci.
44:75-76.

Smith, A.D., 1983, Computer mapping and
trend surface analysis of selected controls of
hydrocarbon occurrence in the Berea Sand-
stone, Lawrence County, Kentucky. Trans. Ky.
Acad. of Sci. 44:59-67.

Smith, A.D. and D.H. Timmerman, 1983,
Three-dimensional modeling and trend surface
analysis of selected borehold information for
geotechnical applications. The Compass 60:1-11.

Smith, A.D., 1982, Application of selected com-
puter graphics in institutional research. College
and University 58:103-113.

Smith, A.D., 1983, Three-dimensional modeling
of residual surfaces. Trans. Ky. Acad. of Sci.
44:163-164.

Smith, A.D., D-H. Timmerman, and G.A.
Seymour, 1984, A geotechnical application of
computer-generated statistical models of con-
tour, trend, and residuals surfaces. Trans. Ky.
Acad of Sci. 45:18-29.

Dougenik, J.-A. and D.E. Sheehan, 1979,
SYMAP user’s reference manual. Harvard Univ.
Press, Cambridge, MA.

RH - Effect of Soil Phenols on Kentucky Pisolithus — Melhuish and Wade

Effect of Soil Phenolic Compounds on Growth
and Fatty Acid Composition of Pisolithus tinctorius

J. H. Melhuish, Jr. and G.L. Wade
United States Department of Agriculture, Forest Service
Northeastern Forest Experiment Station, Berea, KY, USA 40403

ABSTRACT

One to 1000 » mol/L of ferulic, p-coumaric, and vanillic acids in liquid growth media decreased growth
(dry-weight production), increased total lipids as percent of dry weight and lowered the 18:1 to 18:2 fatty acid
ratio in the ectomycorrhizal fungus Pisolithus tinctorius. Vanillic acid affected the fatty acid ratios only at the
higher concentrations tested. Two-and three-times normal nutrient concentrations decreased growth but partly
offset some of the effects of ferulic acid. These results suggest that phenolic compounds produced by some
higher plants may cause alteration of growth and liquid synthesis in P. tinctorius.

INTRODUCTION

Reclamation of surface-mined lands for
forestry and wildlife uses is an established and
desirable practice, but it has declined in the
United States in recent years due to frequent
failure of reforestation efforts. The Surface Min-
ing Control and Reclamation Act (Public Law
95-87) and regulations promulgated under it now
require regrading of spoils and establishment of
a nearly complete herbaceous ground cover.
Competition between this herbaceous vegeta-
tion and tree seedlings often results in death of
trees. One of the mechanisms of this competi-

tion may be allelopathy, the chemical in--

terferences of plant species with each other (1).
Allelochemics may be acting directly to inhibit
the survival and growth of planted trees, retard
the development of fungi that form mycorrhizae,
and/or interfere with the process of mycorrhizal
formation.

Water extracts from prairie soils inhibited
oxygen uptake of Monterey pine (Pinus radiata
D. Don) mycorrhizae to a greater extent than
did water extracts of forest soils (2). Grass-root
decomposition products also reduced mycor-
rhizal infection of Monterey pine (3). Many
workers have found that mycorrhizare are es-
sential for establishment of trees in adverse en-
vironments such as mine spoils (4). Plant-
produced compounds are known to _ inhibit
mycorrhizal associations (5, 6, 7, 8). Phenolic
compounds limit ion uptake through alteration
of membrane properties, and it has been sug-
gested that phenolic acids can depolarize mem-
branes (9, 10). Little work has been done on the
influences of specific allelochemics on mycor-
rhizae (11).

Ferulic, p-coumaric, and vanillic acids are
phenolic acids that have been identified in other
allelopathic situations (12, 13, 14, 15), and all 3

129

of these compounds have been found in soils (8,
15, 16, 17). Ferulic acid is known to be exuded by
root systems of Festuca arundinacea Schreb.,
Eragrostis curvula (Schrad.) Nees, and
Lespedeza striata Thunb., which are commonly
used as ground cover in surface mine reclama-
tion (18). Vanillic acid is a product of fungal
degradation of ferulic acid (19).

This study investigated the effect of ferulic
acid (3-(4-hydroxy-3-methoxypheny]l)-2-propen-
oic acid), p-coumaric acid (3-(4-hydroxypheny])-
2-propenoic acid), and vanillic acid (4-hydroxy-3
-methoxybenzoic acid) on the growth and lipid
content of the ectomycorrhizal fungus Pisolithus
tinctorius (Pers.) Coker and Couch, a pioneering
ectomycorrhizal fungus associated with pine on
sparsely-vegetated dark-colored acid surface
mine spoils (20).

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Mycelia of P. tinctorius were transferred to
petri dishes containing approximately 25 ml of
glucose-ammonium tartrate agar medium (5).
When the diameter of the colonies was approx-
imately 50 mm., 25 mm? sections were cut on the
perimeter of mycelial mats and transferred to
petri dishes containing fresh agar medium. After
3 days, individual sections that had developed
aerial hyphae were transferred into forty, 125-ml
Erlenmeyer flasks containing 50 ml of glucose-
ammonium tartrate medium without agar (21).
The phenolic compounds were sterilized by
filtration and added to the sterile nutrient solu-
tion.

Flasks were incubated at 25°C in the dark
for 21 days. The mycelia from each treatment
group of 40 flasks were recovered by filtration
using a Buchner funnel, pooled, freeze-dried,
macerated in a Waring blender, and funneled in-
to an extraction thimble. The remaining liquid

130 RH - Effect of Soil Phenolic on Kentucky Pisolithes - Melhuish and Wade.

media were pooled by treatment. After acidifica-
tion, phenols were extracted from about 80 ml of
each medium and separated by thin-layer
chromatography (TLC) (22). Ultraviolet-visible
scans of the liquid media (reduced 1:10) were
performed on a Varian SuperScan 3 spec-
trophotometer for the purpose of determining
absorbance peaks and thus relative amount of
metobolites released into the media.

Macerated mycelia were weighed and lipids
were extracted in chloroform-methanol accor-
ding to Melhuish and Hacskaylo (23), and dried
at 40°C under nitrogen. The lipid extract,
redissolved in chloroform, dried, and weighed,
was considered to be the total lipid fraction. Fat-
ty acids were separated from the total lipid frac-
tion after saponification with alcoholic KOH,
methylation, and fractionation on an alumina
column. They were stored under nitrogen in a
freezer for later use. The fatty acid methyl esters
were separated by gas-liquid chromatography
(GLC). The separated methyl esters were
characterized by comparing their retention
times to those of standards. A methyl stearate
standard was used for quantitative analysis.

An experiment was conducted using 1, 2, or
3 times (1X, 2X, 3X) the normal, concentration of
nutrients in media with and without 100 pmol/L
ferulic acid to determine whether the phenolic
compounds complexed nutrients in the media.
The flasks were inoculated, incubated, pooled,
and processed in the same manner as described
in the preceding experiments.

RESULTS »/

Dry weight production and final pH of the
media have a significant (a = .001) negative
correlation (- 0.84) (Table 1). Initial pH of the
media was 5.40, and the pH dropped propor-
tionally to growth of the fungus. Additionally,
the mycelial mats were lighter in color, and the
sizes of the fungal mats were smaller at the
higher concentrations of phenolics. At 1000
umol/L, and occasionally at 100 umol/L, dark-
colored droplets appeared on the tops of the
mycelial mats. The media also became darker
with each increase in concentration of the
phenolic compounds. UV-visible scans (Fig. 1)
of the autoclaved media before inoculation with
the fungus showed no absorption in the visible
range, but there was a low peak (optical density
= 0.064) at about 260 nm. A peak at the same
frequency was present in all subsequent scans of
the treated media. The optical density of the
vanillic acid treatment increased from .301 in
the control to .622 at 1 mol/L, but optical densi-
ty was lower at 10 and 100 umol/L (.503 and
.383, respectively). Optical density was 0.650,
and a second peak appeared at 285 nm in the
1000 pmol/L treatment.

Table 1. Influence of common phenolic compounds on dry weight
production in Pisolithus tinctorius.

P-Coumaric Acid — Ferulic Acid Vanillic Acid

dry mie pH? dry wt.” pH? dry wt? pH?
Control 100 3.11 100 3.53 100 3.19
1p mol/L 35 3.99 72 3.86 48 4.07
104 mol/L 33 4.00 30 4.37 60 3.79
100. mol/L 31 4.04 37 4.27 54 3.88
1000 mol/L 16 4.52 36 4.45 33 4.12

rad -95 95 97

“Dry weight as percent of control
End pH of growth medium. pH at start of experiment was 5.40.

Table 2. Influence of common phenolic compounds on total lipid
production in Pisolithus tinctorius. Values are percent of control

P-Coumaric Ferulic Vanillic
Acid Acid Acid
Control 100 100 100
1 mol/L 11 80° 116
104 mol/L 134 122 138
100 mol/l 95° 100° 110
1000. mol/L 122 66 120

a
Small portion of sample lost during quantification

Table 3. Influence of common phenolic compounds on fatty acid chain
length and saturation in Pisolithus tinctorius. Values are percent of total
fatty acids.

P-Coumaric Acid Ferulic Acid Vanillic Acid

16:0 18:1 18:2 16:0 18:1 18:2 16:0 18:1 18:2

Control 12. 20 52 13 28 57 13 10 76

lumol/L 13 9 76 14 10 76 16 13 70
10umol/L 12 10 75 16 18 64 13 9 78

100umol/L 13 9 75 13 12 73 14 6 78
1000.mol/L 19 9 69 13 14 70 14 5 79

Table 4. Influence of nutrients and 100, mol/L ferulic acid on growth
of Pisolithus tinctorius.

Dry Wt./Flask pH at End Final Media
OD 260
-FA +FA -FA +FA -FA +FA
1X Nutrients -388 148 3.22 3.94 333 -480
2X Nutrients .214 .158 4.36 4.35 647 -620
SX Nutrients 173 165 4.53 4.55 848 873

Trans. Kentucky Academy of Science — 46(3-4) 131

Bonus ee
Bragg 0-0
Williams sa

ee
f.
oe
:
}

bam
a
e

5 10 15 20

AGE (DAYS)

Figure 1. UV-visible scan of liquid media containing
different concentrations of vanillic acid at end of ex-
periment. NI = No inoculated; C = control; 1, 10,
100, 1000 are in pmol/L.

Extraction of the vanillic acid treatment
media and separation by TLC indicated that
compounds secreated by the fungus included
phenolic compounds. The TLC chromatrogram
at 1000 umol/1 vanillic acid showed numerous,
intense, overlapping bands not seen at lower
concentrations.

Percent total lipid in P. tinctorius increased
when p-coumaric and vanillic acids were added
to the media, but ferulic acid did not consistently
show this response (Table 2). With the smallest
additions of ferulic and p-coumaric acids, there
was a change in the ratio of 18:1 to 18:2 fatty
acids; the proportion of 18:1 decreased to about
half of the control value (Table 3).

Increasing nutrient content of the media to
2X or 3X the normal concentration resulted in
decreased dry-weight production of the fungus
and a corresponding higher final pH of the
media (Table 4). Adding 100 pmol /I ferulic acid
to the 1X media reduced dry-weight production
by 62%, but the proportional reduction in dry
weight and final media pH were less at 2X and
3X the normal nutrient concentration. Optical
density of the media increased with increased
nutrient concentrations, with and without ferulic
acid. Ferulic acid also caused optical density to
increase at normal nutrient concentrations.

DISCUSSION

The negative correlation of dry weights of P.
tinctorius and concentrations of phenolic acids
in the media indicate that the phenolic acids are
detrimental to P. tinctorius growth. Concentra-
tion of phenolics and the appearance of dark
droplets on the mycelial mat surface at the
highest concentrations of phenolics suggest (1)
production of compounds in response to the
phenolics or (2) phenolic-caused leakage of
fungal metabolites into the media.

The apparent higher potency of ferulic and
p-coumaric acids (cinnamic acid derivatives)
over vanillic acid (benzoic acid derivative)
parallels Glass’ (9) observation that cinnamic
acid derivatives are more potent inhibitors of
phosphate uptake than the corresponding ben-
zoic acid derivatives. In the vanillic acid experi-
ment, the control 18:1 to 18:2 fatty acid ratio
was lower than the control of the p-coumaric
and ferulic acid treatments. This may be at-
tributable to temperature fluctuation problems
in the growth chamber used in the vanillic acid
and nutrient concentration experiments. Lower
temperatures themselves also result in a lower
ratio of 18:1 to 18:2 fatty acid (Melhuish, un-
published data).

UV-visible scans of the liquid media at the
end of the vanillic acid experiment suggest that
even the smallest amount of vanillic acid caused
significant release of additional metabolites into
the media (260 nm peak). Lesser amounts of re-
leased compounds at 10 and 100 umol/L may
be due to reduced or altered physiological func-
tions reponsible for production or release of the
media metabolites. At 1000 umol/| the fungus
metabolism may have changed radically,
resulting in more materials contributing to the
260 nm peak and causing the additional 290 nm
peak. Alternatively, membrane integrity may
have broken down, allowing more metabolites
to be released — including some that were re-
tained by membranes at lower toxin concentra-
tions.

Increasing nutrient concentraton decreased
dry-weight production in the absence of ferulic
acid, indicating that oversupply of nutrients was
toxic. Addition of 100 umol/L of ferulic acid to
the normal media level of nutrients reduced dry-
weight production by 62%, but addition of 2 or
3X normal nutrients to 100 pmol/L ferulic acid in
media did not result in additional growth sup-
pression. Optical densities (which we believe to
be a measure of excretion or “leakage”) in-
creased more due to the addition of nutrients
than to addition of ferulic acid. The influence of
ferulic acid was appreciable only at 1X untrient
concentration. Decoloration of the mycelium
accompanied by the appearance of dark-colored
droplets at the highest toxin concentrations in
the other experiments was observed only in the
1X nutrient concentration with ferulic acid. This
supports the idea that additional nutrients,

though in themselves toxic, somewhat
ameliorate the effects of the toxin.
Many have observed P. tinctorius

sporocarps in the harsh envionments of surface
mines which were bare of vegetation except for
scattered host trees (Beckjord, personal com-
munication). We have not found P. tinctorius
sporocarps on surface-mined sites that have

132 RH - Effect of Soil Phenolic on Kentucky Pisolithes - Melhuish and Wade.

progressed beyond the initial stages of succes-
sion or on mined lands reclaimed with extensive
grass-forb covers. We suspect that plant-
produced compounds might be inhibiting P.
tinctorius in such situations. In a field with
woody ground cover, growth of Quercus rubra
L. seedlings infected with P. tinctorius was
significantly inferior to that of seedlings with
Scleroderma auranteum Pers. (24). Molina (25)
noted that some phenolics secreted by one
higher plant might inhibit mycorrhizae forma-
tion between another higher plant and a
compatible fungus by inhibiting cellulose
production.

Changes in P. tinctorius 18:1 to 18:2 fatty
acid ratios, which may be a reaction to stress,
can also be induced by decreasing C:N ratios
(23), changing the nitrogen source for ammonia
to nitrate (26), and lowering environmental
temperature (Melhuish, unpublished). P. tinc-
torius is, in general, more susceptable to toxic
effects of cadmium, lead, and nickel than are
other mycorrhizal fungi (27). Since mycorrhizae
are necessary for tree growth in severe en-
vironments, other mycorrhizal fungal genera
such as Russula, Suillus, Lactarius, Amanita,
and Boletus that have been found in forests next
to surface mines might be more suitable sym-
bionts for plantings on vegetated surface-mined
lands.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We wish to thank Dr. Donald H. Marx,
U.S. Department of Agriculiure, Forest Service,
Athens, Georgia for providing a culture of P.
tinctorius.

LITERATURE CITED

1. Vogel, W.G. 1979. Are trees neglected plants for
reclaiming surface mines? Proc. West Virginia
Acad. Sci. 51:127-138.

2. Persidsky, D.J., H. Loewenstein, and S.A. Wilde.
1965. Effects of extracts of prairie soils and prairie
grass roots on the respiration of ectotrophic
mycorrhizae. Agron. J. 57:311-312.

3. Theodorous, C. and G.D. Bowen. 1971. Effects of
non-host plants on growth of mycorrhizal fungi of
radiata pine. Aust. For. 35:17-22.

4. Marx, D.H. 1975. Mycorrhizae and establishment
of trees on strip-mined land. Ohio J. Sci. 75:288-
297.

5. Melin, E. 1946. Der einfluss von waldstreuex-
trakten auf das wachstum von bodenpilzen, mit
besonderer berucksichtigung der wurzelpilze von
baumen. Symbol. Bot. Ups. VIII: 3.

6. Handley, W.R.C. 1963. Mycorrhizal associations
and Calluna heathland afforestation. Great Britain
For. Comm. Bull. 36. 70 p.

7. Olson, R.A., G. Odham and G. Lindeberg. 1971.
Aromatic substances in leaves of Populus tremula
as inhibitors of mycorrhizal fungi. Physiol. Plant.
25:122-129.

8. Rice, E.L. 1979. Allelopathy—an update. Bot.
Rev. 45:15-109.

9. Glass, A.M. 1973. Influence of phenolic acids on
ion uptake. Plant Physiol. 51:1037-1041.

10. Glass, A.D.M. and J. Dunlop. 1974. Influence of
phenolic acids on ion uptake. IV. Depolarization of
membrane potentials. Plant Physiol. 54:855-858.

11. Horsley, S.B. 1977. Allelopathic interference
among plants. II. Physiological modes of action. In
Proceedings of the 4th North American Forest
Biology Workshop. H.E. Wilcox and A.F. Hawes,
editors. SUNY Coll. Environ. Sci. and For.
Syracuse. pp. 93-136.

12. Harris, P.J. and R.D. Hartley. 1976. Detection of
bound ferulic acid in cell walls of the Gramineae by
ultraviolet fluorescence microscopy. Nature 259:
508-510.

13. Hartley, R.D. and E.C. Jones. 1977. Phenolic com-
pounds and degradability of cell walls of grass and
legume species. Phytochemistry 16:1531-1534.

14. Abdul-Wahab, A.S. and E.L. Rice. 1967. Plant in-
hibition by Johnson grass and its possible
significance in old-field succession. Bull. Torrey
Bot. Club 94:486-497.

15. Guenze, W.D. and T.M. McCalla. 1966. Phenolic
acids in oats, wheat, sorghum, and corn residues
and their toxicity. Agron. J. 58:303-304.

16. Whitehead, D.C. 1964. Identification of p-hydroxy
benzoic, vanillic, coumaric, and ferulic acid in
soils. Nature 202:417.

17. Ktase, T. 1981. Distribution of difference forms of
p-hydroxybenzoic, vanillic, p-coumaric and ferulic
acids in forest soil. Soil Sci. Plant Nutr.
27:365-371.

18. Creek, R. and G.L. Wade. 1985. Excretion of
phenolic compounds from the roots of Festuca
arundinacea, Eragrostis curvula, and Lespedeza
striata. Trans. Kentucky Acad. Sci. 46: 51-55.

19.Henderson, M.E.K. and V.C. Farmer. 1955.
Utilization by soil fungi of p-hydroxybenzaldehyde,
ferulic acid, syringaldehyde, and vanillin. J. Gen.
Microbiol. 12:204-209.

20. Schramm, J.R. 1966. Plant colonization studies on
black wastes from anthracite mining in Pennsyl-
vania. Trans. Am. Phil. Soc., new sr. vol. 56, Part
1. pp. 185-189.

Trans. Kentucky Academy of Science — 46(3-4) 133

21. Melhuish, J.H., Jr. and E. Hacskaylo. 1980a. Fatty
acids of selected Athelia species. Mycologia
72:251-258.

22. Saiz-Jimenez, C., K. Haider and J.P. Martin. 1975.
Anthraquinones and phenols as intermediates in
the formation of dark-colored, humic acid-like
pigments by Eurotium echinulatum. Soil Sci. Soc.
Am. Proc. 36:649-653.

23. Melhuish, J.H., Jr. and E. Hacskaylo. 1980b.
Fatty-acid content of Pisolithus tinctorius in
response to changing ratios of nitrogen and carbon
source. Mycologia 72:1041-1044.

24. Beckjord, P.R. and M.S. McIntosh. 1983. Growth
and fungal retention by field-planted Quercus
rubra seedlings inoculted with several ectomycor-
rhizal fungi. Bull. Torrey Bot. Club 110:353-359.

25. Molina, R. 1981. Ectomycorrhizal specificity in the
genus Alnus. Can. J. Bot. 59:325-334.

26. Beckjord, P.R. 1978. The incidence of ectomycor-
rhizae by Pisolithus tinctorius on Quercus rubra
seedling fertilized with sodium nitrate and am-
monium chloride. Ph.D. Diss. Virginia Polytech.
Inst. and State Univ., Blacksburg. 82 p.

27. McCreight, J.D. and D.B. Schroeder. 1982. Inhibi-
tion of growth of nine ectomycorrhizal fungi by
cadmium, lead, and in vitro. Environ. and Exp.
Bot. 22:1-7.

RH - Plant Distribution in Kentucky — Jones

The Buxaceae, Clethraceae, Myricaceae, Sapotaceae, and Theaceae
of Kentucky

Ronald L. Jones

Department of Biological Sciences, Eastern Kentucky University, Richmond, KY 40475

ABSTRACT

Documented county distributions are given for 5 species, each the sole representative of its family in
Kentucky. The number of county records based on a herbarium survey, are as follows: 19 for Pachysandra pro-
cumbens (Buxaceae); 13 for Clethra acuminata (Clethraceae); 2 for Comptonia peregrina (Myricaceae); 12 for
Bumelia lycioides (Sapotaceae); and 5 for Stewartia ovata (Theaceae). An account is given of the distribution,

habitat, and associates of each species.

INTRODUCTION

This paper reports the Kentucky county
distributions of the Buxaceae, Clethraceae,
Myricaceae, Sapotaceae, and Theaceae, each
represented in the state by a single species. This
study was initiated as part of an organized effort
by Kentucky botanists to document the distribu-
tions of vascular plants in the state, to eventual-
ly lead to the production of a flora of Kentucky.

METHODS AND MATERIALS

The county maps presented here are based
on herbarium specimens examined during this
study only, a total of 170 specimens from 19 her-
baria. Literature reports that I could not docu-
ment and records for cultivated plants are ex-
cluded. Identifications were carefully checked
and the pertinent label data were recorded. The
family classifications follow those of Cronquist
(1), while the species treatments are based on
Little (2, 3), except where noted.

RESULTS

County distributions of 5 species in Ken-
tucky are presented in Figure 1. Pachysandra
procumbens is reported from 19 counties,
Clethra acuminata from 13, Comptonia
peregrina from 2, Bumelia lycioides from 12,
and Stewartia ovata from 5. According to
Richard Hannan (pers. comm.), the Kentucky
Nature Preserves Commission has recent collec-
tions from the following additional counties:
Pachysandra procumbens—Lincoln; Clethra
acuminata—Rowan; Bumelia lycioides—Butler,
Grayson and McLean. These collections are not
yet accessioned and available for study.

For the 5 familes under consideration, |
found no evidence of any other species occurring
natively in Kentucky. Pachysandra terminalis
Sleb. and Zucc., the Japanese pachyandra, may

sometimes persist around old homesites.
Clethra alnifolia L. was reported for the state by
Defriese (4), and listed without comment by
Garman (5), but I was unable to locate any
specimens. Bumelia lanuginosa (Michx.) Pres.
occurs in Illinois and Missouri counties adjacent
to Kentucky, and could eventually be discovered
in western Kentucky. Garman (5) noted an old
report of Stewartia malachodendron L. in Ken-
tucky, but he was “disposed to question the ac-
curacy of the reference.”

DISCUSSION

1. Buxaceae—Pachysandra procumbens Michx.
Allegheny spurge.

The Buxaceae is a mostly evergreen, woody
family of worldwide distribution, and is classified
in the subclass Rosidae, order Euphorbiales.
There are 5 genera with about 60 species. The
genus Pachysandra contains 4 species, with P.
procumbens being the only native American
species (6).

Pachysandra procumbens occurs in the
southeastern United States only, from central
Kentucky to Georgia and Louisiana. Braun (7)
mapped the southeastern distribution of the
species, and later (8) listed 8 conties in south-
central Kentucky. In 1950 Braun called the
Allegheny spurge one of the abundant and
characteristic species of the Western
Mesophytic Forest Region (9). Robbins (6) gave
8 Kentucky counties for the species, and describ-
ed the habitat as “calcareous, clayey soils, on
ravine slopes, in deciduous woods...”

All of the 28 counties reported here (Fig. 1)
are in south-central Kentucky, from Fayette to
McCreary and Simpson Counties. The Fayette
Couniy record is from Raven Run, evidently the
most northerly known site for the species.

134

Trans. Kentucky Academy of Science — 46(3-4) 135

Pachysandra procumbens is a low-growing,
rhizomatous, slightly woody plant of the her-
baceous layer in mesic woods. It has crowded,
evergreen coarsely-toothed leaves, and small
spikes with apical male and basal female
flowers. The Allegheny spurge flowers in early

southeastern United States has been published
by Thomas (10).

Clethra acuminata is an Appalachian
species occurring from West Virginia through
Kentucky to Georgia. Garman (5) cited only
Wolfe County for the species, and MclInteer (11)

(SQOS
sere PW ELR
6) ate US

Y

(Sa
AAT Tes et}

SE
) fet
NS RIS LES

S,

Figure 1. Kentucky county distribtuions of Pachysandra procumbens (A), Clethra acuminata (B), Comptonia
peregrina (C), Bumella lycioides (D), and Stewartia ovata (E).

spring, but the brownish spikes are often
obscured by leaf litter and are easily overlooked.
I have observed this species in McCreary County
growing in rich woods with Hydrastis canaden-
sis, Anemone quinquefolia, Panax trifolium,
Trillium luteum, and Trillium sulcatum.

2. Clethraceae—Clethra acuminata Michx.
Sweet pepperbush.

The Clethraceae is a woody family with a
single genus, Clethra, and about 65 species
distributed in the Americas and in Asia. The
family is classified in the subclass Dilleniidae,
order Ericales. Clethra has long been con-
sidered as closely allied with the Ericaceae, and
in some older treatments it is listed under this
related family. A study of the family in the

considered the sweet pepperbush as very rare in
black shale regions and scarce in the eastern
coal fields. Braun provided a distribution map of
the species (7) and in 1943 she listed 11 counties,
giving the habitat as “steep mesophytic sandy
banks, shaded sandstone cliffs and gorges” (8).
Wharton (12), in her study of the black shale
areas, also called the plant rare, and reported it
from Powell County only. In Little (3), the
species is mapped through about 8 counties in
northeastern Kentucky and 7 counties in
southeastern Kentucky, with an outlying record
from Bullitt County.

The 13 counties reported here (Fig. 1) range
from Pike to McCreary and Pulaski counties.
The sweet pepperbush is probably much more

RH - Plant Distribution in Kentucky - Jones 136

widespread, but many of the eastern Kentucky
counties have been very poorly collected. The
species can be easily identified by the reddish,
shreddy bark, silvery buds, and the terminal
racemes of white, 5-merous flowers, which
develop into small globose capsules. It is less
than 6 m tall, and occurs in the understory of
mixed mesophytic communities typically
dominated by Liriodendron tulipifera, Betula
lenta, Tsuga canadensis, and Fagus grandifolia,
with understory associates such as Magnolia
macrophylla, Cornus florida, and Stewartia
ovata (13).

3. Myricacae—Comptonia peregrina (L.) Coult.
Sweet fern.

The Myricaceae, of the subclass
Hamamelidaceae, order Myricales, is a woody
family of 3 genera and about 50 species,
distributed in both the Old and New World.
Most of the species are in the genus Myrica,
which is represented in the southeastern United
States by 4 species (14). Comptonia is a
monotypic genus native to eastern North
America.

Comptonia peregrina, also called Myrica
asplenifolia L. in some manuals, occurs from
Canada to Georgia and is one of Kentucky's
rarest woody plants. It was first reported
for Kentucky by Braun (8), who collected a
specimen (McCreary Co.; Braun 1010, GH!) at
the “S. fork of Cumberland River river bank,”
on June 18, 1935. Braun noted on the label
that the locality was the “southernmost interior
record.” The species was relocated in 1978 (15)
on gravel bars in Big South Fork of
Cumberland River, McCreary County (Wofford
78-96, EKY!, NY!). In 1980 a single plant was
found on the east bank of the Rockcastle River,
Laurel County (Jacobs 0616791, EKY!).

The sweet fern is thus known from only 2
counties in Kentucky (Fig. 1). I searched the
Laurel County site in April, 1984, without suc-
cess. According to Max Medley (pers. comm.), a
good number of individuals have now been
located at the McCreary County site. This plant
is a many-branched, aromatic shrub, about 1.5
m tall, with pinnately-lobed leaves, flowers in
aments, and nutlets in a bur-like cluster.
It grows on rocky gravel bars and stream banks
that are subjected to frequent scouring. These
are unique Kentucky communities, containing
many other unusual species, such as Orontium
aquaticum, Calycanthus floridus, and Con-
radina verticillata (16). Comptonia peregrina is
a rare plant study element of the Kentucky
Nature Preserves Commission (16), and is listed
as a threatened species by Branson et al. (17).

4. Sapotaceae—Bumelia lycioides (L.) Pers.
Southern buckthorn.

The Sapotaceae are members of the
subclass Dilleniidae, order Ebenales. The family
includes about 70 genera and 800 species, most-
ly of tropical. regions. In the genus Bumelia
there are about 25 species, with 6 occurring in
the southeastern United States (18).

The southern buckthorn is distributed
through the southern states from Kentucky to
Virginia, Florida, and Texas. Garman (5) noted
only 2 counties, and MclInteer (11) stated that
the species is very rare in the sandy, acidic soils
around the western coal fields. McInteer map-
ped the species in Kentucky, finding it fairly
common in Edmonson and Monroe counties
(19). Braun (8) gave the habitat of the species as
“shaded limestone cliffs,” and cited 5 counties.
Little (3) mapped the species through 9 counties
of west-central Kentucky.

The present study documents 12 counties
for the species (Fig. 1), ranging from Ballard to
Wayne County. The southern buckthorn is
nondescript and is probably often overlooked. It
is a small thorny tree with alternate, entire
leaves, small flowers in axillary clusters, and the
fruit is a berry. It may occur in both upland
limestone areas and in bottomlands, often in
open habitats. In the uplands, Bumelia lycioides
is associated with Rhamnus caroliniana, Rhus
aromatica, and Juniperus virginiana, while in
wetter soils it grows with Asimina triloba,
Lindera benzoin, and Sambucus canadensis

(20).

5. Theaceae—Stewartia ovata (Ca.) Weatherby.
Mountain Stewartia.

The Theaceae are classified in the subclass
Dilleniidae, order Theales, and includes about
40 genera and 600 species. According to Wood
(21) there are 6 species in the genus Stewartia,
with 2 native to the southeastern United States.
The family also includes Gordonia lasianthus
(L.) Ellis, a coastal plain species, and Franklinia
alatamaha Marshall, discovered by John and
William Bartram in 1765 in McIntosh County,
Georgia. The famed “Lost Franklinia” has not
been seen in the wild since 1790, but persists
through cultivation.

Stewartia ovata, the mountain stewartia,
ranges through the southern Appalachians from
southeastern Kentucky to central Alabama.
Garman (5) named four counties— Bell, Letcher,
Powell, and Rowan for the species. McInteer
(11) treated the plant as a rather common
species of the eastern coal fields, and later (19)
gave a four-county dot map of the species in
Kentucky. Braun (8) listed Bell, McCreary, and
Whitley Counties, and described the habitat as
“meophytic ravines and gorges, and occasional-
ly on ridges.” The mountain stewartia is mapped
by Little (3) in 4 counties of southeastern Ken-

Trans. Kentucky Academy of Science — 46(3-4) 137

tucky, with an additional site from Menifee
County.

I found records of Stewartia ovata from
Bell, Laurel, McCreary, Pulaski, and Whitley
Counties (Fig. 1). Most of the collections were
from the Yahoo Falls and Cumberland Falls
regions. Except when flowering, the mountain
stewartia can be easily overlooked. It has sim-
ple, alternate leaves, with distinctive spinulose
margins, single bundle traces, and pubescent
buds. The flowers, however, are remarkable;
they are up to ten cm across, with large, white
imbricate petals, numerous stamens with
purplish filaments, and a 5-styled ovary. The
fruit is a loculicidal capsule, about 1.5 cm in
diameter. Stewartia ovata often grows with
Clethra acuminata, and has similar associates.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I thank the curators of the following her-
baria for the use of their specimens: APSC,
Athey Herbarium, BEREA, DHL, EKY, GH,
KNK, KY, MEM, Morehead State University,
MO, MUR, NY, Reed Herbarium, TENN,
Western Kentucky University, University of Ken-
tucky College of Agriculture, US, and VDB.
This study was funded by the Eastern Kentucky
University Research Committee, and _ this
assistance is gratefully acknowledged.

LITERATURE CITED

1.Cronquist, A. 1981. An integrated system of
classification of flowering plants. Columbia Univer-
sity Press. New York.

2. Little, E. L. 1979. Checklist of United States trees.
U.S. Dep. Agric. Handbook No. 541.

3. Little, E.L. 1977. Atlas of United States trees, vol. 4,
minor eastern hardwoods. U.S. Dep. Agric. Misc.
Publ. 1342, 17 pp., illus. (230 maps).

4. Defriese, L.H. 1884. Report on a belt of Kentucky
timbers, extending irregularly east and west along
the southcentral part of the state from Columbus to
Pound Gap, Kentucky. Ky. Geol. Surv. (Timber and
Botany). Vol. 2.

5. Garman, H. 1913. The woody plants of Kentucky.
Bull. Ky. Agric. Exp. Sta. 169: 3-62.

6. Robbins, H.C. 1968. The genus Pachysandra (Bux-
aceae). Sida 3: 211-248.

7. Braun, E.L. 1937. Some relationships of the flora
of the Cumberland Plateau and the Cumberland
Mountains in Kentucky. Rhodora 39: 193-208.

8. Braun, E.L. 1943. An annotated catalogue of sper-
matophytes of Kentucky. John S. Swife., Inc. Cin-
cinnati.

9. Braun, E.L. 1950. Deciduous forests of eastern
North America. The Blakiston Co., Philadelphia.

10. Thomas, J.L. 1961. The genera of the Cyrillaceae
and Clethraceae of the southeastern United
States. J. Arn. Arb. 42: 96-106.

11. McInteer, B.B. 1941. Distribution of the woody
plants of Kentucky in relation to geologic regions.
Ky. Dept. Mines Miner., Ser. 8, Bull. 6: 3-19.

12. Wharton, M.E. 1945. Floristics and vegetation of the
Devonian-Mississippian black shale region of Ken-

tucky. Doctoral dissertation, University of
Michigan. Ann Arbor.

13. Cameron, M. and J. Winstead. 1978. Structure and
composition of a climax mixed mesophytic forest
system in Laurel County, Kentucky. Trans. Ky.
Acad. Sci. 39: 1-11.

14. Elias, T.S. 1971. The genera of Myricaceae in the
southeastern United States. J. Arn. Arb. 52:
305-318.

15. Medley, M. and B. Wofford. 1980. Thuja occiden-
talis L. and other noteworthy collections from the
Big South Fork of the Cumberland River in Mc-
Creary County, Kentucky. Castanea 45: 213-215.

16. Harker, D.F., Jr. et al. 1980. Kentucky Natural
Areas Plan. Kentucky Nature Preserves Commis-
sion. Frankfort.

17. Branson, B.A., et al. 1981. Endangered, threatened,
and rare animals and plants of Kentucky. Trans. Ky.
Aca. Sci. 42: 77-89.

18. Wood, C.E. and R.B. Channell. 1960. The genera of
the Ebenales in the southeastern United States. J.
Arn. Arb. 41: 1-35.

19. McInteer, B.B. 1944. Some noteworthy plants of
Kentucky. II. Distribution of some “southern”
species of trees and shrubs. Castanea 9: 101-105.

20. Harker, D.F., Jr. et al. 1980. Western Kentucky
Coal Field; Preliminary investigations of natural
features and cultural resources. Parts I and II. Ken-
tucky Nature Preserves Commission. Frankfort.

21. Wood, C.E. 1959. The genera of Theaceae of the
southeastern United States. J. Arn Arb. 49: 413-419.

RH - Predatory Behavior in Kentucky Kestrels — Kellner and Ritchison

An Examination of the Predatory Behavior
of Captive American Kestrels

Christopher J. Kellner’ and Gary Ritchison

Department of Biological Sciences
Eastern Kentucky University
Richmond, KY 40475

ABSTRACT

The predatory behavior of captive American Kestrels (Falco sparverius) was examined to determine if
kestrels attacked or handled vertebrate and invertebrate prey in different ways. A total of 157 attacks on 92
vertebrate and 65 invertebrate prey items was observed. A comparison of the attacks on vertebrates versus in-
vertebrates revealed several significant differences. (1) Powered (flapping) flights generally were used in attacks
on vertebrates while attacks on invertebrates were evenly divided between powered flights and gliding flights. (2)
Kestrels made direct contact with invertebrate prey more frequently than with vertebrate prey. However, when
only live, adult vertebrates were considered, kestrels made direct contact with vertebrate prey more frequently
than with invertebrate prey. (3) Whereas all vertebrate prey were taken to a perch before being consumed, most
invertebrate prey were consumed on the floor of the aviary. (4) Kestrels cached significantly more vertebrates
than invertebrates. Thus, kestrels utilized different types of attacks on vertebrates and invertebrates and handl-
ed these two types of prey differently after successful attacks. Such differences probably relate to differences in
the abilities of vertebrates and invertebrates to detect and elude a predator and differences in the average size of
vertebrate and invertebrate prey. The behavioral differences exhibited by American Kestrels appear to (1) in-
crease the chances of successful attacks, (2) increase the chances of further successful attacks within an area,
(3) reduce the chances that prey will escape once captured, and (4) both increase the time available for hunting

and reduce the energy expended while hunting.

INTRODUCTION

The American Kestrel (Falco sparverius) is
an opportunistic predator that feeds on a wide
variety of both vertebrates and invertebrates (1,
2, 3). Certain aspects of the predatory behavior
of kestrels have been examined. For example,
attempts have been made to determine the im-
portance of such factors as shape, color, and
movement in the selection of prey by kestrels (4,
5, 6, 7). Other investigators have reported field
observations suggesting that kestrels may use
different types of attacks for different types of
prey (8, 9). The objective of this study was to ex-
amine the predatory behavior of captive
American Kestrels. Specifically, the objectives
were to determine if kestrels (1) utilize different
types of attacks on vertebrate and invertebrate
prey and (2) handle vertebrate and invertebrate
prey differently after a successful attack.

METHODS

Feeding trials were conducted with 3
American Kestrels (2 females, 1 male) in a 6x 6
x 3 m outdoor aviary. These kestrels were cap-

tured near Richmond, Madison Co., Kentucky,
using a bal-chatri trap (10). Trials were con-
ducted from 5 May to 21 September in 1983 and
from 24 May to 28 May in 1984. Observations
were made through a one-way mirror from an
observation booth located adjacent to the
aviary. The side of the aviary next to the obser-
vation booth was covered so observers could
enter and exit the booth without being observed
by the kestrels. A tube 70 cm long with a
diameter of 10 cm allowed observers to place
prey items into the aviary while seated in the
observation booth. Both vertebrate and in-
vertebrate prey were offered in this manner.
Vertebrate prey included both adult and young
(less than a week old) laboratory mice (Mus
musculus) and adult House Sparrows (Passer
domesticus). Invertebrate prey included a cray-
fish (Cambarus sp.), cicadas (Tibican sp.),
grasshoppers (Acrididae), crickets (Gryllidae),
and cockroaches (Periplanta americana).
Several dead mice (adults) and 2 dead rats (Rat-
tus norvegicus) were also offered as prey to the
kestrels. Prey items were classified as either
large (average weight= 25 gms or more) or
small (average weight = 10 gms or less). Large

1 Department of Zoology, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, AR 72701

Trans. Kentucky Academy of Science — 46(3-4) 139

items included adult mice, young rats, and
House Sparrows. Small items included young
mice and all invertebrates. The average weights
are listed in Table 1.

Table 1. Average weights of prey items offered
to kestrels.

Item No. Offered Avg.
wat. (gms) |
Adult lab mice 32 35
Juvenile lab mice 37 1.4
Juvenile lab rats 2 25
House Sparrows 5 25
Cray fish 1 9.5
Cicadas 3 3
Grasshoppers 51 1.5
Crickets 8 0.4
American Cockroach 3 1

Attacks were classified as either powered or
gliding, depending on whether or not a descent
to a prey item involved flapping flight. The time
interval between presentation of prey and the in-
itiation of an attack by a kestrel was measured
with a digital stopwatch. Other information
noted with each attack included: (1) whether a
prey item was contacted immediately or if the
kestrel landed next to the item prior to contact,
(2) whether a prey item was cached or was con-
sumed immediately, and (3) if an item was car-
ried to a perch, whether it was carried in the
talons or the bill.

RESULTS

A total of 176 prey items was offered to
kestrels. Nine of these potential prey items
escaped and 10 were ignored; thus, a total of 157
attacks were observed (Table 2). Both
vertebrate and invertebrate prey were attacked
almost immediately. The time interval between
presentation of a prey item and the initiation of
an attack was so short that it was difficult to
measure accurately. Most attacks on

vertebrates (77%) were powered. If young mice
were not included in the analysis this percentage
increased to 91% (50/55). Attacks on_ in-
vertebrates were evenly divided between
powered and gliding flights (Table 2). This dif-
ference in the type of flight used to attack
vertebrates and invertebrates was found to be
signficant (X’ = 11.92, d.f. = 1, P < 0.001). The
difference between vertebrates other than young
mice and dead mice and invertebrates was also
significant (X? = 8.66, d.f. = P < 0.01).

Kestrels killed small invertebrates
(grasshoppers, crickets, cicadas, and
cockroaches) by removing their heads. The
single crayfish presented as a prey item was kill-
ed when the kestrel removed parts of the head.
Young mice were either ingested whole or killed
when parts of their heads were removed. Adult
mice were killed by removal of parts of the skull
and brain (generally the frontal or occipital
regions). House Sparrows were handled in the
same way. Dead mice and rats were handled in
the same manner as live prey, i.e., parts of the
head were removed before other portions were
consumed. Thus, both living and dead
vertebrates and invertebrates were handled in
the same manner.

All vertebrate prey items were taken to a
perch before being consumed (Table 2). Adult
mice, young rats, and House Sparrows were
carried in the talons (39/39). Dead mice were
carried both in the talons (6/16) and the bill
(10/16). All young mice were carried in the bill
(37/37). Most invertebrates were consumed on
the floor of the aviary (45/65). Of the 20 in-
vertebrates taken to a perch, 45% (9/20) were
carried in the bill and 5% (11/20) were carried in
the talons. Thus vertebrates and invertebrates
were handled differently by kestrels, with
significantly more vertebrates being taken to a
perch before being consumed. (X? = 86.16,
d.f.=1, P<40.001). Finally, whereas all large
prey (55/55) were taken to a perch before being
consumed, only 56% (57/102) of the small prey
were taken to a perch (Table 2). This difference

vertebrates were classified as powered attacks was also significant (X? = 32.03, d.f.=1,
(Table 2). Overall, 71 of 92 attacks on P<0.001).
Table 2, Summary of attacks by kestrels on various prey items.
Large Prey’ Small Prey?
Total Total
Mice and Dead House Large Younr Invert. Small
Rats Mice Sparrows prey Mice prey
Powered
attack 30/34 15/16 5/5 50/55 21/37 32/65 53/102

(continued)

140 RH - Predatory Behavior in Kentucky Kestrels - Keller and Ritchison

(Table 2 continued)

Gliding

attack 4/34 1/16 0/5
Attack w/

direct

contact 34/34 2/16 5/5
Attack w/o

direct

contact 0/34 14/16 0/5
Carried to

perch:

w/talons 34/34 6/16 5/5

w/bill 0/34 10/16 0/5
Consumed on

floor 0/34 0/16 0/5
Cached 7/34 1/16 0/5

5/55 16/37 33/65 49/102
41/55 0/37 50/65 50/102
14/55 37/37 15/65 52/102
45/55 0/37 11/65 11/102
10/55 37/37 9/65 46/102

0/55 0/37 45/65 45/102

8/55 2/37 0/65 2/102

‘Average weight > 25 gms
?Average weight < 10 gms

Few prey items were cached by kestrels.
Approximately 11% (10/92) of all vertebrates
were cached while no invertebrates were cached
(Table 2). This difference between number of
vertebrates and invertebrates cached was
significant (X? = 5.71, d.f. = 1, P<40.05). Further,
although 14.5% (8/55) of all large prey items
were cached, only about 2% (2/102) of the small
prey items were cached. This difference between
the number of large and small prey items cach-
ed was also found to be significant (X* = 7.51,
d.f.=1, P<40.01).

DISCUSSION

American Kestrels were found to attack
both vertebrate and invertebrate prey almost
immediately upon presentation. Such results
may be due to the relatively small size of the
aviary used in these experiments. That is, prey
were presented within 5 m of kestrels and, at
that distance, there probably was little chance
that the prey would be able to escape. Sparrowe
(11) speculated that kestrels assessed their
chances of success before launching an attack.
He suggested that it would not be adaptive for
kestrels to attack prey immediately or even to
attack all prey sighted because in some cases
the chances for success would be slight and
launching an unsuccessful attack would waste
energy.

Kestrels were found to attack vertebrates
and invertebrates in a significantly different
manner. Whereas powered flights were used in
attacks on most vertebrates, powered and
gliding flights were used equally in attacking in-
vertebrates. This difference may be due to dif-
ferences in the abilities of vertebrate and in-
vertebrate prey to elude a predator. That is, a

vertebrate probably is more likely to detect and
elude a predator than is an_ invertebrate.
Therefore, a kestrel would increase its chances
of success by getting to the prey as soon as
possible, i.e., using a powered flight. Similar
observations have been reported by other in-
vestigators (8, 9). These authors noted that at-
tacks on vertebrates may be characterized as
rapid, head-first dives while attacks on in-
vertebrates tend to be slow, braking attacks.
Differences in the ability to elude a predator may
also explain why some prey were attacked
directly (with contact). Kestrels made direct
contact with adult mice, young rats, and House
Sparrows. When attacking young mice and
dead mice, kestrels generally landed next to the
prey before attacking. Young mice and dead
mice obviously could not escape, therefore, im-
mediate contact would not be required for a suc-
cessful attack. On the other hand, adult mice
and House Sparrows could potentially escape
and, therefore, immediate contact would be
desirable. When considering only adult mice
and House Sparrows, kestrels made direct con-
tact significantly more often with vertebrates
than with invertebrates. Again, this may relate
to the relative abilities of vertebrates and in-
vertebrates to elude a predator. However, it
should be noted that most invertebrates were
also attacked directly (77%). Although in-
vertebrates probably cannot detect predators at
a distance as well as vertebrates (hence the use
of gliding attack by kestrels), once aware of a
predator (i.e., a kestrel landing nearby) an in-
vertebrate may be able to escape. Thus direct
attacks on invertebrates, as well as vertebrates,
might increase the chances of a successful at-
tack.

Once captured, both vertebrates and in-

Trans. Kentucky Academy of Science — 46(3-4) 141

vertebrates were killed by removal of all or parts
of the head. This may be related to the impor-
tance of the head (i.e., brain) in coordinating
escape movements. By removing or damaging
the brain, a kestrel greatly reduces the chances
that the prey will escape. Severing the spinal
cord would have the same effect and some in-
vestigators have suggested that the tomial tooth
might be used to sever the cord (12, 13).
Although this may occur in free-living kestrels,
such use of the tomial tooth was not observed in
this study.

Whereas all vertebrate prey were taken toa
perch before being consumed, most invertebrate
prey were consumed on the floor of the aviary.
Further, whereas all large prey were taken to a
perch, many of the small prey items were con-
sumed on the floor of the aviary. Small prey
(e.g. invertebrates) can be consumed quickly. In
contrast, eating a large prey item (e.g., an adult
vertebrate) takes much longer, not only because
of the size difference but also because kestrels
frequently remove some of the fur or feathers
before consuming mammalian and avian prey,
respectively. Reduced time on the ground may
reduce the likelihood that other potential prey in
the area will detect the kestrel and, thus, in-
crease the chances of success in subsequent at-
tacks. If true, the tendency for kestrels to carry
young mice to a perch is difficult to explain.
Such mice could.be consumed quickly (6 were
ingested whole) so the advantage of carrying
them to a perch is not clear. All adult mice,
young rats, and House Sparrows were carried
with the talons while young mice and most dead
mice were carried in the bill. Those prey carried
in the talons would appear to be those most like-
ly to escape or, possibly, to harm a kestrel. Prey
carried in the talons (as opposed to the bill) pro-
bably are less likely to escape or harm a kestrel
as they struggle.

Only vertebrate prey were cached by
kestrels and most of these were “large” prey. Of
the 10 items cached, 8 were adult mice and 2
were young mice. Rijnsdorp et al. (14) suggested
2 possible reasons for caching: (1) if prey
availability varies temporally, caching would
allow a kestrel to continue hunting rather than
spending time to feed, and (2) by caching large
prey items, kestrels can maintain a lower body
weight during periods when they are actively
hunting (thereby conserving energy). The results
of the present study seem to support these
hypotheses since, as just noted, most prey cach-
ed by kestrels were “large ” prey (adult mice).

In conclusion, the results of this study sug-
gest that American Kestrels do utilize different
types of attacks for vertebrate and invertebrate
prey and also handle these two types of prey
items differently after a successful attack. Such

differences apparently relate to (1) differences in
the abilities of vertebrates and invertebrates to
detect and elude a predator, and (2) differences
in the average size of vertebrate and in-
vertebrate prey. These behavioral differences ex-
hibited by kestrels appear to (1) increase the
chances of further successful attacks, (2) in-
crease the chances of successful attacks
within an area, (3) reduce the chances that prey
will escape once captured, and (4) both increase
the time available for hunting and reduce the
energy expended while hunting.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We would like to thank Mark Luthman and
Mark Vogel for helping with the construction of
the aviary and Barbara Rupard for typing the
manuscript.

LITERATURE CITED

1. Sherrod, S.K. 1978. Diets of North American
Falconiformes. Raptor Res. 12:49-121.

2.Phelan, F.T.S. and R.J. Robertson. 1978.
Predatory responses of a raptor guild to changes in
prey density. Can. J. Zool. 56:2565-2572.

3. Jaksic, F.M., H.W. Green, and J.C. Ynez. 1981.
The guild structure of a community of predatory
vertebrates in central Chile. Oecologia 49:21-18.

4. Mueller, H.C. 1971. Prey selection: oddity and
specific searching image more important than
conspicuousness. Nature 233:345-346.

5. Mueller, H.C. 1972. Further evidence for the selec-
tion of odd prey by hawks. Am. Zool. 12:656.

en

Mueller, H.C. 1974. Factors influencing prey selec-
tion in the American Kestrel. Auk 91:705-721.

7. Ruggiero, L.F., C.D. Cheney, and F. Knowlton.
1979. Interacting prey characteristic effects on
Kestrel predatory behavior. Am. Nat. 113:749-757.

8. Roest, A.I. 1957. Notes on the American Sparrow
Hawk. Auk 74:1-19.

9. Collopy, M.W. 1975. Behavioral and predatory
dynamics of American Kestrels wintering in the
Arcata Bottoms. Unpubl. M.S. Thesis, Humboldt
State Univ., Arcata, CA.

10. Berger, D.D. and H.C. Mueller. 1959. The
balchatri: a trap for the birds of prey. Bird Banding
30:18-26.

11. Sparrowe, R.D. 1972. Prey-catching behavior in
the Sparrow Hawk. J. Wildl. Mgmt. 36:297-308.

12.Cade, T.C. 1967. Ecological and behavioral
aspects of predation by the Northern Shrike. Liv-
ing Bird 6:43-86.

142 RH - Predatory Behavior in Kentucky Kestrels - Keller and Ritchison

13. Balgooyen, T.G. 1976. Behavior and ecology of 14.Rijnsdorp, A., S. Daan, and C. Dijkstra. 1981.
the American Kestrel in the Sierra Nevada of Hunting in the kestrel, Falco tinnunculus, and the
California. Univ. Calif. Publ. Zool. 103:1-83. adaptive significance of daily habits. Oecologia

50:391-406.

Trans. Kentucky Academy of Science — 46(3-4) 143

NOTES

June 1927 in Austin, Texas, Robert Andrew Kuehne
was graduated from Southern Methodist University in
1949, and in 1950 earned an M.S. Degree at the same
institution. Prior to enrollment in graduate school at
the University of Michigan in 1954, he worked as an
aquatic biologist for the Texas Department of Parks
and Wildlife.

He earned the PhD degree in the spring of 1958,
taught a summer session at Michigan State in 1958,
and joined the faculty of the University of Kentucky in
the fall of 1958 as an Instructor.

I first met Bob in the fall of 1959 when I returned
from a two-year sojourn in Indonesia. | found him to
be an extremely congenial individual, with a tremen-
dous store of knowledge of fishes and their way of life.
Bob was always willing, sometimes to his own detri-
ment, to go the last mile out of his way to assist some-
one in need, be it student, faculty member, friend, or
some stranger in need of help. Rarely does one en-
counter such a compassionate individual.

To my knowledge, Bob served as chairman for
three doctoral and nine master’s candidates, and
played a substantial role in three additional doctoral
and six master’s degrees.

Bob is senior author of The American Darters. He
did essentially all the writing and research, and played
a major role in finding darters to photograph. My role
was minor; I helped catch most of the fishes,
phototgraphed them, and helped in organizing, map
making, editing, and proof-reading. Obviously, Bob
was the prime mover, I the assistant.

The labors to bring the book to fruition were enor-
mous, and covered a span of about fifteen years and
many thousands of miles of travel. We were often
cold, wet, hungry, and dog-tired, but I never once saw
Bob Kuehne angry, upset, or even particularly
disturbed.

Aside from The American Darters Bob had some
twenty five papers published in various journals; the
number would have been substantially larger had he
allowed his student’s papers to bear his name. He
refused to do so, although he guided the research and
worked side by side with the student.

Bob was always willing to help a student, a col-
league, or a group thereof, and these activities took
an inordinate amount of his time.

He received the prestigious “Distinguished
Teacher Award” from the Kentucky Student Govern-
ment in 1978. Bob was an outstanding teacher, loved
by both students and colleagues, and he will be sorely
missed.

During a visit to his bedside just a few days before
he passed away, he asked for my hand, gripped it
firmly, and told me that for several years he had often
thought of me as an older brother. Neither of us knew
that the other felt the same closeness. Bob died 18
December 1984, after a brief illness.

All of us who knew him are the better for his having
crossed our paths, and his passing left a void that can
never be filled. —Roger W. Barbour, Prof.,
Emeritus, 4880 Tates Creek Pike, Lexington, KY
40515.

Distribution of the European Hornet in
Kentucky—The number of inquiries received by
University of Kentucky insect diagnostic laboratories
concerning the European hornet, Vespa crabro ger-
mana Christ, increased sharply in 1984. This insect in-
troduced into the United States ca. 1840-1860 (Shaw
and Weidhaas, J. Econ. Entolmol. 49:275, 1956) is
known to have occurred in Kentucky as early as 1958
(USDA, CEIR 8:466, 1958). The distribution of V.
crabro germana according to published reports is
limited to 14 counties in south central Kentucky. This
report combines information from the two published
reports with records of the University of Kentucky
survey entomologists and insect diagnostic
laboratories to provide the most current known
distribution of V. crabro in Kentucky.

The earliest record of V. crabro germana in Ken-
tucky is a 1958 distribution map, illustrating the wasp
present in Rockcastle Co. (USDA, CEIR 8:466, 1958).
In 1967, 13 additional counties, Bell, Boyle, Butler,
Casey, Estill, Knox, Laurel, Lincoln, Madison,
Pulaski, Taylor, Whitley and Wolfe were added to the
distribution (IBID 23:172, 1973). An additional map

144 Academy Affairs

was developed for 1973 but no new Kentucky records
were added.

Six counties were added to the known distribution
of V. crabro germana during 1975-80. Specimens from
these counties (county-year of report) Barren-1977,
Green-1979, Hopkins-1979, Muhlenberg-1979,
Trigg-1980, and Washington-1978 were diagnosed by
U.K. survey entomologists.

During 1984, V. crabro samples were diagnosed
from 19 additional counties: Bourbon, Bullitt, Fayette,
Caldwell, Calloway, Christian, Crittenden, Daviess,
Grant, Grayson, Hart, Lee, Lewis, Logan, Lyon,
Owen, Rowan, Russell, and Wayne.

In addition to these confirmed collections, an in-
formal survey of County Extension Agents for
Agriculture (U.K.-C.E.S.) indicates the distribution of
V. crabro may be even more widespread. Our
knowledge of the distribution of this insect is probably
more closely related to V. crabro germana coming in-
to contact with humans than to its true distribution.
Although the wasp will nest in attics, barn lofts, etc.,
it more naturally occupies hollow trees that may be
far removed from human habitations— Douglas W.
Johnson and Rudy A. Scheibner, Department
of Entomology, University of Kentucky, Lexington,
KY 40545.

Clarks River Revisited: Additions to the Ichthyo-
fauna.—In 1965, Morgan E. Sisk surveyed the
ichthyofauna of Clarks River in western Kentucky and
reported a total of 61 species of fishes (Trans. Ky.
Acad. Sci. 30:54-59, 1969). Prior to and subsequent
to his survey, 13 additional species were reported
from the drainage by various authors (Hubbs, Occas.
Pap. Mus. Zool. Univ. Mich. 530:1-30, 1951; Page
and Smith, Copeia 1976:532-541, 1976; Bauer and
Branson, Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci. 40:53-55, 1979, Burr
and Mayden, Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci. 40:58-67, 1979;
Burr, Brimleyana 3:53-84, 1980; Burr et al., Trans.
Ky. Acad. Sci. 41:48-54, 1980; Rice et al., Trans. Ky.
Acad. Sci. 44:125-128, 1983; and Warren and
Cicerello, Brimleyana 9:97-109, 1983{1984)).

A compilation of distributional records taken from
our own survey efforts and the unpublished collections
of various other workers (fide Brooks M. Burr) in the
drainage yielded a total of 57 collections from the
main channels of both East and West Forks, as well as
from various tributaries, wetlands, and springs. These
collections resulted in the addition of 13 species
previously unknown from Clarks River and extended
the known distributions of 20 other species to one
and/or both forks of the system (Table 1). Presently
87 fish species are documented from the drainage.

Table 1. New Records for the Ichthyofauna of
Clarks River*

Species East Fork West Fork

Esox americanus x
Hybognathus nuchalis °°
Hybopsis storeriana °*
Notropis emiliae x
Notropis lutrensis °*

Notropis whipplei x
Phenacobius mirabilis x
Pimephales promelas °°
Catostomus commersoni ** x
Minytrema melanops x
Ictiobus cyprinellus x
Ictalurus melas x
Ictalurus natalis
Ictalurus punctatus
Noturus gyrinus* *
Noturus miurus**

x KR KR RK RK RK

Noturus nocturnus **
Pylodictis olivaris
Morone chrysops
Centrarchus macropterus x
Elassoma zonatum x

Lepomis gulosus x
Lepomis humilis x
Lepomis marginatus x

ee

x RK KR K RK KR

Lepomis microlophus
Pomoxis nigromaculatus
Etheostoma asprigene °°

Etheostoma chlorosomum
Etheostoma histrio

Percina ouachitae

“x RK RK RK RK

Percina sciera
Stizostedion canadense
Aplodinotus grunniens x x

“x RK RK OK

Complete locality data is available upon
request from the authors.
** Denotes new drainage record

Several of the fishes missed or reported by Sisk
(1969) and other workers are of particular interest
because of their possible indication of environmental
pertubation in the system, their purported rarity in the
state of Kentucky, or the problem of documenting
their presence in the drainage. The discovery of
Notropis lutrensis in the West Fork in the summer of
1984 may be indicative of habitat modification and
degradation in this recently re-channelized arm of
Clarks River. This aggressive, ecologically tolerant

‘The investigation reported in this paper (No. 85-7-44) is in connection with a project of the Kentucky Agricultural Experiment Station and is

published with approval of the Director

Trans. Kentucky Academy of Science — 46(3-4) 145

shiner has recently expanded its range eastward in
both Illinois and Indiana (Smith, The Fishes of II-
linois, Univ. Illinois Press, Urbana, 1979), and may
ultimately replace less tolerant members of the native
ichthyofauna and displace close relatives (e.g.,
Notropis whipplei) through hybridization and com-
petition (Page and Smith, Ill. St. Acad. Sci. Trans.
63:264-272, 1970). To our knowledge, this is the first
record of the red shiner in the Tennessee River
drainage. The eastward spread in Kentucky of the red
shiner may be expected (see Burr et al., 1980) as
habitat in other rivers and streams are degraded by
man’s activities.

The discovery in Clarks River of Percina ouachitae
and Etheostoma histrio is of interest because these
species are listed as of undetermined status and
threatened, respectively, within the state (Branson et
al., Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci. 42:77-89, 1981). Based on
our observations of the large populations of these
species in both West and lower East Forks of Clarks
River, and their widespread occurrence in the lower
Green River (Warren, Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci. 43:21-26,
1982) and much of extreme western Kentucky (Burr
1980), we feel their retention on the state list of en-
dangered and threatened species is unwarranted.
Other species for which we cite records (Table 1), and
which are recognized by Branson et al. (1981), are
Elassoma zonatum and Lepomis marginatus. Exten-
sive clearing and drainage of wetlands in Clarks River
suggests the continued existence of these wetland-
inhabiting species is uncertain.

In compilation of the records comprising this note,
2 enigmatic records came to light. Sisk (1969)
reported Notropis spilopterus from the West Fork;
however, voucher specimens have not been located.
Subsequent workers (Bauer and Branson 1979), in-
cluding the authors, have collected only the closely
related Notropis whipplei from Clarks River. We
regard Sisk’s record as unsubstantiated. Clay’s (The
Fishes of Kentucky, Ky. Dept. Fish Wildl. Res.,
Frankfort, 1975) report of Etheostoma asprigene in
Clarks River was based on a misidentification of E.
neopterum (fide Brooks M. Burr). Our report of E.
asprigene in Clarks River is the first substantiated
record.

We wish to thank Dr. Brooks M. Burr, Southern II-
linois University at Carbondale, for providing records
and editorial comments, and Mr. Richard R. Hannan,
Director, Kentucky Nature Preserves Commission, for
providing field assistance—Bernard R. Kuhajda
and Melvin L. Warren, Jr., Department of Zoology,
Southern Illinois University, Carbondale, Illinois,
62901.

Thlaspi alliaceum (Cruciferae) in Kentucky
and Indiana— Two introduced species of Thlaspi are
widespread in the U.S. A third species, T. alliaceum
L., has recently been found by us in Kentucky and In-

diana as “new” for these states and for the standard
northeastern U.S. floristic manuals (Fernald, Gray’s
Manual of Botany, 8th ed., American Book Co., New
York, 1950; Gleason, The New Britton and Brown II-
lustrated Flora of the Northeastern United States and
Adjacent Canada, New York Botanical Garden, New
York, 1952; Gleason and Cronquist, Manual of
Vascular Plants of Northeastern United States and
Adjacent Canada, Van Nostrand, Princeton, N.J.,
1963). The only U.S. manual we have noted to ac-
count for the species is that for the Carolinas (Radford
et al., Manual of the Vascular Flora of the Carolinas,
Univ. N.C. Press, Chapel Hill, 1968), which ascribes
the species to one county in North Carolina; the
earlier Carolina guide (Radford et al., Guide to the
Vascular Flora of the Carolinas, Book Exchange,
Univ. N.C., 1964) and atlas (Radford et al., Atlas of
the Vascular Flora of the Carolinas, N.C. Agr. Exp.
Sta. Tech. Bull. 165, 1965) do not include the species.
Rollins (J. Arnold Arbor. 62:517-540, 1980), in his ar-
ticle on cruciferous weeds in North America does not
mention T. alliaceum, nor does the FNA checklist
(Shetler and Skog, Eds., A Provisional Checklist of
Species for Flora North America, Missouri Bot. Gard.
Monog. Syst. Bot. 1, 1978). The species is in the Penn-
sylvania atlas — 1 county (Wherry et al., Atlas of the
Pennsylvania Flora, Morris Arboretum, Philadelphia,
1979), the Kartesz and Kartesz checklist (A
Synonymized Checklist of the Vascular Flora of the
United States, Canada, and Greenland, Univ. N.C.
Press, Chapel Hill, 1980), and the National List of
Scientific Plant Names (Soil Conservation Service,
U.S.D.A., Washington D.C., 1982).

We have collected T. alliaceum in 4 counties
(Campbell, Harrison, Kenton, and Pendleton) in nor-
thern Kentucky, 1 county (Pike) in eastern Kentucky,
and 1 county (Dearborn) in southeastern Indiana;
the vouchers are in the NKU Herbarium (KNK). Some
of our northern Kentucky collections were made
within about 3 km from the Ohio border; the species
almost certainly grows in Ohio, but our searches for it
there have so far been unsuccessful. That we have the
species from Pike County, Kentucky—the state’s
easternmost county—at a site about 30 km from
Virginia and West Virginia suggests that it is probably
in those states too.

Thlaspi alliaceum grows in fallow fields and
pastures and along roadsides, often with the other 2
naturalized Thlaspi species. In northern Kentucky the
plant is quite infrequent although it may be common
locally. Part of the vernal flora, the plants are dead
and brown by mid-May. When crushed, T. alliaceum
has a strong garlic odor—thus its specific epithet.
Such an odor is present, but to a lesser degree, in T.
arvense.

Our first collections of T. alliaceum (1982 and 1984)
were identified as T. perfoliatum. We relied on Fernald
(loc. cit.), Gleason (loc. cit.), and Gleason and Cron-
quist (loc. cit.) for identification, being unaware that

146 Academy Affairs

our plant is missing from these works. In spring 1985,
as we became more uncertain as to the plant’s identi-
ty, we made additional collections. Finally we deter-
mined it to our satisfaction through the European
flora (Flora Europaea 1, 1964) and the British flora
(Clapham et al., Flora of the British Isles, Univ.
Press, Cambridge, 1962).

Features useful to distinguish among the three
Thlaspi species introduced into the U.S. are: stem
vestiture, fruit size, and seed characteristics (at 15X).

Thlaspi alliaceum
Stem base with long hairs (Fig. 2)
(sometimes nearly glabrous on older plants):
Fruits 5-8 mm long, 3-4 mm wide, 3 mm
thick, the wing to 1 mm wide (Fig. 4, 7).
Seeds reticulate, brown (Fig. 10).

Thlaspi arvense
Stem base glabrous.
Fruits 9-15 mm long, 7-12 mm wide, 2 mm
thick, the wing to 4 mm wide (Fig. 5, 8).
Seeds concentrically ridged, brown
(Fig. 11).
Thlaspi perfoliatum
Stem base glabrous.
Fruits 4-6 mm long, 2-4 mm wide, 2 mm
thick, the wing to 1 mm wide (Fig. 3, 6).
Seeds essentially smooth, yellow (Fig.
9).—John W. Thieret and John R. Baird,
Department of Biological Sciences,
Northern Kentucky University,
Highland Heights, KY 41076.

Trans. Kentucky Academy of Science — 46(3-4) 147

: eae

Fig. 1-11. Thlaspi. Fig. 1. T. alliaceum: plant in mature-fruit stage, basal leaves gone, X 1/2. Fig. 2. T.
alliaceum: base of plant in early flowering stage, X 1. Fig. 3. T. perfoliatum: fruit, X 5. Fig. 4. T. alliaceum: fruit,
X 5. Fig. 5. T. arvense: fruit, X 5. Fig. 6. T. perfoliatum: septum from fruit, to show fruit thickness, X 2. Fig. 7. T.
alliaceum: septum from fruit, X 2. Fig. 8. T. arvense: septum from fruit, X 2. Fig. 9. T. perfoliatum: seed, X 20.

Fig. 10. T. alliaceum: seed, X 20. Fig. 11. T. arvense: seed, X 20.

148 Academy Affairs

PRESIDENT’S MESSAGE TO THE KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
THE ACADEMY AND THE SPIRIT OF INQUIRY

Upon assuming an office like the Presidency of the Academy one gains the responsibility and privilege to
address immediate goals, plans and hopes of the organization. Seeking help and comfort in beginning this task I
turned to the records of the Academy as preserved in the Transactions. A planned hour or two examining early
volumes turned into several afternoons of enjoyable and stimulating reading and an appreciation of our
organizations history and heritage. An impressive thread of sound achievement in research is documented, as
one would expect, but what caught my attention was a significant pattern of the membership and officers mak-
ing suggestions, taking stands and supporting issues that were either contemporary or well ahead of the time
and that thrust has continued to the present.

At the Fourth Annual Meeting, Academy President A.M. Miller (1) discussed the origin and antiquity of
man and the membership subsequently supported the teaching of organic evolution and freedom of scientific in-
quiry, teaching and research by resolution (2) at a time in the south-central states when such a stand was not
the mode of the day (re the Scope’s trial in Tennessee). At the Thirteenth Annual Meeting, the President of KAS,
A.R. Middleton (3), strongly rebuked suggestions that evolutionary teachings were detrimental to religious con-
victions of students. The Academy has not retreated from the conflict in this regard as is attested by the work of
Wallace Dixon’s (4) Ad Hoc Committee report and the KAS resolution concerning Scientific Creationism.

Early in the history of KAS attempts were made to influence the State Legislature to support science and
the Legislative Committee headed by C. H. Shull (5) developed a proposal that included requests that the
legislature pass a bill providing $1000 for publication of the Tranactions, enact a law to increase the teaching of
science in high schools and to compel school boards to appropriate more for equipment and materials for
science. The state government was also asked to establish an annual prize for research work. Those efforts, far
from being successful, have remained a priority of the membership. Through the development of research en-
dowments the Academy has lead the way in attempting to stimulate and recognize research. The initiation in
1978 of joint efforts between the Academy, Legislative Research Commission and the Council on Higher Educa-
tion to assess the status of research support has been a significant effort and documents the long and arduous
task ahead of the Commonwealth concerning science development and support (6,7,8).

Paper presentations, published abstracts and research articles compiled in our journal continually have
shown great foresight in research areas of the future that could impact the economic development of the state.
The potential of oil shale development was alluded to by Gardner (9) and more recently the 1981 annual
meeting’s plenary session and banquet address featured the topic of genetic engineering that we now see as a
potential strategy developing an alternative to this state’s dependency upon smoking tobacco as a significant
part of the farm economy. Much of what is known concerning the diversity of Kentucky’s flora and fauna is
preserved within the bound volumes of the Transactions providing immense base-line data for contemporary
analysis of the problems facing man and nature. While we may question the magnitude and depth of research ef-
forts Within the state, there is no dispute that the KAS through its paper sessons, symposia, plenary sessions
and publications has provided a treasure trove of material for future scientists to improve upon.

Trans. Kentucky Academy of Science — 46(3-4) 149

As I contemplated the past record of achievements there are admittedly indications of efforts which were
not successful. I also perceived a condition that, at first, seemed to show a glaring weakness of the Academy.
That particular item is the independent and separate makeup of the Academy via its diverse membership which
represents numerous separate disciples of science. Since the early 1930’s the organization has not been
dominated by any one institution in terms of the composition of elected officers (in fact since 1934 the 51
presidents have represented 14 different institutions). | would propose, however, that this seemingly lack of
unified institutional clout so important in dealing with budgetary considerations via the Legislature, Council of
Higher Education, Federal granting agencies and private foundations is now one of the Academy’s best assets.
This rebuttal of my initial statement on this topic comes from a new perception that since the KAS is so free of
institutional bias we have important credibility when commenting, suggesting or implementing changes that ef-
fect the science status of Kentucky. It is in this vein that I would like to address a view from the Presidency of The
Academy concerning both immediate and long-term goals of our organization.

All of the current membership are well aware of the efforts of the Academy to develop better and closer ties
between science, industry and government. Your support and the tremendous hard work by various committees
as well as the officers have built a foundation that will continue to improve such relationships. Financially, the
Academy is slowly building toward a stability that will ensure both successful administrative and publication
functions and support of basic research. Your elected officers are committed to continue in the direction of fiscal
stability. The above goals are consistent with our charge, but now it is also evident that a need exists which,
while trying our patience and stamina, is indeed a worthwhile and logical extension of the Academy’s heritage.
That need is to help provide a rebirth of the spirit of inquiry at the secondary and elementary school levels as
well as among the lay citizens of the Commonwealth of Kentucky.

I am indebted to Bill Hettinger of Ashland Oil for the initial stimulus to address this issue of the spirit (or
lack thereof) of inquiry as a basic component of both education and direction for society. While among scientists
it is not required that I remind you of the scientific method, I would perhaps be remiss by not summarizing an ex-
planation of the scientific method by Mueller (10) who wrote “Fundamentally requisite as a basis for wise deci-
sions is the scientific method. This consists, in simplest terms, in examining every question in a spirit of search-
ing, creative objectivity. For this purpose there should be freedom from all authoritarianism, dogma, and (what
is worst of all) conscious deception; and ample scope for honest criticism and counter-criticism. It is carried out
by the activity of wide-roving imagination, harnessed speculation, ruthless analysis, coordination with other
relevant knowledge from no matter how remote-seeming a sphere, discerning calculation, enlightened observa-
tion, versatile probing, and well-designed testing”. One can not question that such a procedure is demanded for
every endeavor of human understanding. The obvious question is how shall the Kentucky Academy of Science
be a force in promoting the spirit of inquiry?

It is my impression that a great opportunity now exists for meaningful changes in both the training of
teachers of science and in the expectations of student performance in all subjects. By emphasis on the indepen-
dent credibility and objectivity of our membership the Academy can have a leading role in the decision making
processes at the state level. Two of the Academy’s more active components; the Junior Academy and the
Science Education Committee have proven records of accomplishment and are bound to play still a greater role
in the future. A key word today in education and other facets of state government is citizen’s participation.
Although we the Academy have a vested interest in science, our interest is slanted toward a science not geared
toward any particular institution funded by the public. Utilizing our experience from operating the scientific
method we should prove to be very credible in being active participants in drafting the needed changes for the
state’s educational endeavors. No single legislated institution alone can develop that spirit of inquiry. Therefore
I propose that the membership actively participate by supporting local advisory groups as well as the programs
that are being planned by the Academy in the near future.

It seems logical that our synthesis of science, industry and government that has been the major theme of
KAS annual meetings over the part 3 years now aim toward addressing the issue of science and education. This
will be the thrust of symposia and plenary sessions over the next two years.

I feel most fortunate to have the opportunity to associate with so many fine people who are active members
of the Kentucky Academy of Science. The dedication and commitment to bring forth excellence via the science
community shown by the membership is both inspirational and humbling. The membership role shows
dedicated stewardship that has enabled our organization to persist for over 70 years. I found comfort in reading
C. J. Robinson’s (11) minutes of the organizational meeting of the Academy where he recorded comments made
by Stanley Coulter of Purdue University, the principal speaker at that meeting in 1914. In speaking of “Science
and State” Coulter said “The relation involves a mutual duty, offers opportunities and opens splendid
possibilities”. I will be so bold to add that as part of our mutual duty we can provide the spark and catalyst to

generate a new spirit of inquiry for future generations in Kentucky.
Respectfully submitted,

Joe E. Winstead
14 January 1985

150 Academy Affairs

LITERATURE CITED

1. Miller, A.M. 1917. History and present status of opinions in regard to the origin and antiquity of man:
Address of the President. In minutes of the Fourth Annual Meeting of the Kentucky Academy of
Science. A.M. Peter, Sec. Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci. 1:44-46.

2. Jillson, W. R., F. T. McFarland and W. H. Coolidge. 1923. Report of the committee on resolutions.
Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci. 1:148-150.

3. Middleton, A. R. 1926. The effect of teaching of evolution upon the religious convictions of
undergraduate students as evidenced by theses upon this subject. President’s Address. Trans. Ky. Acad.
Sci. 2:172-178.

4. Dixon, W. 1982. KAS policy statement on “Scientific Creationism”. Ad Hoc Committee Report. Trans.
Ky. Acad. Sci. 43:84.

5. Shull, C. H. 1921. Report of the Legislative Committee. Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci. 1:107.

6. Kupchella, C. E., R. Sims, M. L. Collins, and K. Walker. 1979. Federal funding for research and
development in Kentucky: I. Background. Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci. 40:149-150.

7. Kupchella, C. E., K. Walker, R. Sims, and M. L. Collins. 1980a. Federal funding for research and
developoment in Kentucky: II. Kentucky in comparison with other states. Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci.
41:1-11.

8. Kupchella, C. E., R. Sims, M. L. Collins, and K. Walker. 1980b. Federal funding for research and
development in Kentucky: III. Characteristics of colleges and universities with high levels of support.
Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci. 41:150-155.

9. Gardner, J. H. 1917. Some factors influencing Kentucky as an oilstate. Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci. 1:48-50.

10. Muller, H. J. 1961. Survival. AIBS Bulletin 49 (5):15-24.
11. Robinson, C. J. 1924. Minutes of the organizational meeting. Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci. 1:26.

ANNUAL MEETING

The next annual meeting of the Ken-
tucky Academy of Science is scheduled for
8-9 November 1985 at Morehead State
University.

Trans. Kentucky Academy of Science — 46(3-4) 151

ACADEMY BUSINESS

COMMITTEES OF THE KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE: 1984-85

On behalf of the membership of the Academy, President Winstead expresses the sincerest appreciation for
the committment and dedication shown by the individuals serving in the many important leadership roles of the

Academy.

EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE

Joe E. Winstead (President)
Department of Biology
Western Kentucky University
Bowling Green, KY 42101
(502) 745-6004

Charles V. Covell, Jr. (President-Elect)

Dept. of Biological Sciences
University of Louisville
Louisville, KY 40292

(502) 588-6771

Larry Giesmann (Vice-President)
Dept. of Biology

Northern Kentucky University
Highland Heights, KY 41076
(606) 572-5110

Gary Boggess (Past-President)
College of Science

Murray State University
Murray, KY 42071

(502) 762-2886

Robert O. Creek (Secretary)
Dept. of Biological Sciences
Eastern Kentucky University
Richmond, KY 40475

(606) 622-1539

Morris D. Taylor (Treasurer)
Dept. of Chemistry

Eastern Kentucky University
Richmond, KY 40475

(606) 622-1465

Branley A. Branson (Editor)
Dept. of Biological Sciences
Eastern Kentucky University
Richmond, KY 40475

(606) 622-1537

Joe King (AAAS Representative)
Dept. of Biological Sciences
Murray State University
Murray, KY 42071

(502) 762-2786

Herbert Leopold (Director-KJAS)
Smiths Grove, KY 42171
(502) 563-5731

Manuel Schwartz (Chairman, Board of Directors)
Department of Physics

University of Louisville

Louisville, KY 40292

(502) 588-6787 or 588-5235

BOARD OF DIRECTORS

Manuel Schwartz (1986) (Chairman)
Department of Physics

University of Louisville

Louisville, KY 40292

(502) 588-6787 or 588-5235

Paul Freytag (1985)
Department of Entomology
University of Kentucky
Lexington, KY 40546-0091
(606) 257-7452

William A. Baker (1986)

The General Electric Company
Appliance Park A 35-1301
Louisville, KY 40225

(5052) 452-4642

Gerrit Kloek (1986)
Department of Biology
Kentucky State University
Frankfort, KY 40601
(502) 227-6931

Laurence Boucher (1987)
Department of Chemistry
Western Kentucky University
Bowling Green, KY 42101
(502) 745-6244

Bill Hettinger (1987)
Director of Research
Ashland Petroleum Company
P.O. Box 391

Ashland, KY 41101

(606) 329-333

William Bryant (1988)
Department of Biology
Thomas More College
Box 85

Ft. Mitchell, KY 41017
(606) 341-5800

152 Academy Affairs

William F. Beasley, Jr. (1988)
Department of Biology
Paducah Community College
Paducah, KY 42002-7380
(502) 442-6131

COMMITTEE ON PUBLICATIONS

Branley A. Branson (Chairman)
Department of Biological Sciences
Eastern Kentucky University
Richmond, KY 40475

(606) 622-1537

James E. O’Reilly (1985)
Department of Chemistry
University of Kentucky
Lexington, KY 40506-0055
(606) 257-7080

Donald L. Batch (1986)

College of Natural and Mathematical Sciences
Eastern Kentucky University

Richmond, KY 40475

(606) 622-1818

Gerrit Kloek (1987)
Department of Biology
Kentucky State University
Frankfort, KY 40601
(502) 227-6931

Joe E. Winstead (KAS President)
Department of Biology

Western Kentucky University
Bowling Green, KY 42101

(502) 745-6004

KAS FOUNDATION BOTANY
FUND COMMITTEE

William S. Bryant (1986) (Chairman)
Thomas More College

Box 85

Ft. Mitchell, KY 41017

(606) 341-5800

Ralph Thompson (1986)
Dept. of Biology

Berea College

Berea, KY 40403

(606) 986-9341

Ronald Jones (1987)

Dept. of Biological Sciences
Eastern Kentucky University
Richmond, KY 40475

(606) 622-1539

KAS FOUNDATION MARCIA ATHEY
FUND COMMITTEE

Paul H. Freytag, Chairman (1986)
Dept. of Entomology

University of Kentucky

Lexington, KY 40546-0091
(606)257-7456

James L. Lee (1987)

Dept. of Psychology
Eastern Kentucky University
Richmond, KY 40475

(606) 622-1115

Ray K. Hammond (1987)
Division of Science
Centre Co.lege

Danville, KY 40422
(606) 236-5211

Karan Kaul (1985)

Dept. of Biological Sciences
Kentucky State University
Frankfort, KY 40601

(502) 564-6006

William S. Wagner (1986)
Dept. of Physical Sciences
Northern Kentucky University
Highland Heights, KY 41076
(606) 257-7452

COMMITTEE ON LEGISLATION: STATE
GOVERNMENT SCIENCE
ADVISORY COMMITTEE

Charles E. Kupchella (1986) (Chairman)
Department of Biological Sciences
Murray State University

Murray, KY 42071

(502) 752-2786

Jerry C. Davis (1985)
President, Alice Lloyd College
Pippa Passes, KY 41844
(606) 368-2701

Joe Musacchia (1987)
Graduate School
University of Louisville
Louisville, KY 40292
(502) 588-6495

Ex Officio

Joe E. Winstead (President)
Department of Biology
Western Kentucky University
Bowling Green, KY 42101
(502) 745-6004

Trans. Kentucky Academy of Science — 46(3-4)

Charles V. Covell, Jr. (President-Elect)
Department of Biological Sciences
University of Louisville

Louisville, KY 40292

(502) 588-6771

Gary Bogess (Past-President)
College of Science

Murray State University
Murray, KY 42071

(502) 762-2886

SCIENCE EDUCATION COMMITTEE

Ted M. George (1986) (Chairman)
Department of Physics

Eastern Kentucky University
Richmond, KY 40475

(606) 622-1521

Patricia Pearson (1987)
Department of Biology
Western Kentucky University
Bowling Green, KY 42101
(502) 745-6009

Sue K. Ballard (1985)
Celotex Corporation

901 Westpark Drive
Elizabethtown, KY 42701
(502) 769-3391

Donald L. Birdd (1986)
Science Education

Eastern Kentucky University
Richmond, KY 40475

(606) 622-2167

Dan Ochs (1986)
Science Education
University of Louisville
Louisville, KY 40292
(502) 588-6591

Larry Giesmann (Vice-President)
Department of Biology
Northern Kentucky University
Highland Heights, KY 41076
(606) 572-5110

COMMITTEE ON RARE AND
ENDANGERED SPECIES

John MacGregor (Chairman)
KY Fish and Wildlife Resources
Frankfort, KY

(502) 564-5448

Jerry Baskin

Dept. of Biological Sciences
University of Kentucky
Lexington, KY 40406-0225
(606) 257-8770

Donald Batch

Dept. of Biological Sciences
Eastern Kentucky University
Richmond, KY 40475

(606) 622-1818

Wayne Davis

Dept. of Biological Sciences
University of Kentucky
Lexington, KY 40406-0225
(606) 257-1828

Richard Hannan

Director, KY Nature Preserves Commission

407 Broadway
Frankfort, KY 40601
(502) 564-2886

Melvin Warren, Jr.

Dept. of Zoology

Southern Illinois University
Carbondale, IL 62901
(618) 536-2314

Branley A. Branson

Dept. of Biological Sciences
Eastern Kentucky University
Richmond, KY 40475

(606) 622-2635

NOMINATING AND RESOLUTION

COMMITTEE 1985

J.G. Rodriguez (Chairman)
Dept. of Entomology
University of Kentucky
Lexington, KY 40546-0091
(606) 257-4902

Les D. Burton

College of Natural Science and Math

Jefferson Community College
Louisville, KY 40218
(502) 584-0181

Joe King

Dept. of Biological Sciences
Murray State University
Murray, KY 42071

(502) 762-2786

AUDIT COMMITTEE 1985

Gordon Weddle (Chairman)
Dept. of Biology
Campbellsville College
Campbellsville, KY 42718
(502) 465-8158

Thomas R. Beebe
Dept. of Chemistry
Berea College
Berea, Kentucky
(606) 986-9341

153

154

Modesto Del Castillo

Dept. of Science

Elizabethtown Community College
Elizabethtown, KY 42701

(502) 769-2371

MEMBERSHIP COMMITTEE

Larry P. Elliott (1985) (Chairman)
Dept. of Biology

Western Kentucky University
Bowling Green, KY 42101

(502) 745-6002

Academy Affairs

Paul Freytag (1985)

Dept. of Entomology
University of Kentucky
Lexington, KY 40546-0091
(606) 257-745?

Herbert Berry (1986)

Computer and Information Science
Morehead State University
Morehead, KY 40351

(606) 783-2749

BAIRD, JOHN R., 146
BARBOUR, ROGER W., 143
BARNESE, LISA E., 46
BARTON, A. CHRISTINE, 76
BARTON, MICHAEL, 76
Basswood, 117

INDEX TO VOLUME 46 Beech, 117

Beech Fork, 109

Beetles, 88
Betula lenta, 105, 136
B. nigra, 105
Abstracts, 74-77 Big South Fork, 110
Academy Affairs, 58-73 BIRDD, DONALD L., 76
Academy Business, 151-154 Birdsfoot trefoil, 51
Acer saccharum, 117, 118 Black alder, 51
Acorn woodpecker, 56 Black locust, 51
Acrididae, 138 Black oak, 117
Actinastrum hantzschii, 48 Black walnut, 117
var. fluviatile, 48 Blockhouse Creek, 46, 47
Aix sponsa, 56 Borer, European corn, 99
AJLAN, ABDUL-AZIZ, 99 Boyle County, 110
Alcove arch, 22-27 Bradfordsville, Kentucky, 110
Alder, black, 51 BRANSON, BRANLEY A., 81
ALLEN, BEVERLY L., 87 Branta canadensis, 56
Alnus glutinosa, 51 BRENGELMAN, RUSSELL M., 75
Amaranthus retroflexus, 54 Bromus japonicus, 54
Ambloplite rupestris, 112, 113 BRONTE, CHARLES R., 28
Amelanchier arborea, 105 BRYANT, WILLIAM S., 116
Ameletus, 87, 88 Buffalofish, 28, 29
American kestrels, 138 Bullitt County, 109, 111
predatory behavior of captive, 138-142 Bumelia lycioides, 134, 136
Ammocrypta pellucida, 108, 111-113 Buxaceae, 134
Anemone quinquefolia, 135 of Kentucky, 134-137
Angler harvest, 57
vs. electrofishing, 57 Caddisflies, 87, 88
Anguilla rostrata, 111 Cain Run, 111
Ankistrodesmus falcatus, 48 Calcium concentration, 75
var. marabilis, 48 effect on microvascular response, 75
Anabaena sp., 48, 54, Calvary, Kentucky, 110
Anabaenopsis circularis, 48 Calycanthus floridus, 136
A. elekinii, 48 Cambarus sp., 138
Anacystis sp., 48 Campostoma anomalum, 56, 110-113
Anderson Creek, 46, 47 Canada goose, 56
Anova techniques, 13-21 Caney Creek, 110
for three-dimensional characterization Capsicum annuum, 99
or mine-roof parameters, 13-21 resistance to european corn borer, 99-103
Aortic aneurysms, 75 Carp, 28, 29
in the Shawnee, 75 Carpoides carpio, 111
Aphanocapsa pulchra, 48 Carpenter Fork, 110
Aplodinotus grunniens, 112, 113, 144 Carteria sp., 48
Aquifoliaceae, 104 Carya cordiformis, 117, 118
of Kentucky, 104-107 C. glabra, 117
ARCURY, THOMAS A., 36 C. ovata, 117, 118
Ash, white, 117 C. sp., 118
Asimina triloba, 117, 118, 136 Casey County, 110
Azosipirillum brasilense, 33, 34 Catostomus commersoni, 112, 113, 144
A. lipoferum, 33-35 Cedar Creek, 109
from a coal surface-mined site, 33-35 Celtis laevigata, 54
with high nitrogen-fixing capabilities, 33-35 C. occidentalis, 117, 118

Azotobacter paspali, 33,34 Centrarchus macropterus, 144

156

Cepaea nemoralis, 81
shell polymorphism in, 81-86
Cephalanthus occidentalis, 105
Cercis canadensis, 118
Certification program, 75
for physics teachers, 75
Chionanthus virginicus, 105, 106
Chironomids, 87, 88
Chlamydomonas sp., 48
Chlorococcales, 48
Chlorella sp., 48
Chlorellales, 48
Chlorophycophyta, 48, 49
Chodatella quadriseta, 48
C. subsala, 48
C. wratislaviensis, 48
4-cholor-4-biphenylol, 75
glucuronidation of, 75
Chroococcales, 48
Chroococcus dispersus, 48
C. limneticus, 48
var. subsolsus, 48
C. minutus, 48
Cicadas, 138
CICERELLO, RONALD R., 108
CLARK, JULIA, 77
Clarks River, 144
ichthyofauna of, 144-145
Clethra acuminata, 134, 135, 137
Clethraceae, 134
of Kentucky, 134-137
Closteriopsis longissima, 48
Closterium acutum, 49
C. parvulum, 49
C. venus, 49
Clover, crimson, 51
red, 51
Cloyd Creek, 110
Coal pillars, 74
dimensional analysis of, 74
Cockroaches, 138
Coelastrum cambricum, 48
C. microporum, 48
Column gel electrophoresis, 76
Common grackle, 56
Comptonia peregrina, 134
136
Computer graphics, 74
applications to undergraduate education, 74
Conradina verticillata, 136
Cornus amomun, 105
C. florida, 118, 136
Coronilla varia, 51
Cosmarium bioculatum, 49
C. circulare, 49
C. constrictum, 49
Cottus carolinae, 112, 113
Crappie, white, 57
Crayfish, 138
CREEK, ROBERT, 51

Crickets, 138
Crimson clover, 51
Cremaster muscle, 76

effect of bradykinin on water content of, 76

CROMLEY, ROBERT G., 36
Crooked Creek, 109

Crown vetch, 51

Cruciferae, 145

Crucigenia crucifera, 48

C.
C.
C.
C.
C.

fenestrata, 48
irregularis, 48
quadrata, 48
rectangularis, 48
tetrapedia, 48

Cyanochloronta, 48, 49
Cyperus esculentus, 54
Cyprinodon variegatus, 76

effect of salinity on oxygen consumption of, 76

Cyprinus carpio, 28, 112, 113

Dace, longnose, 56

in Kentucky, 56

Dactylococcus acicularis, 48
D. rhaphidioides, 48

D

. smithii, 48

Dictyosphaerium ehrenbergianum, 48
D. pullchellum, 48

Dimensional analysis of coal pillars, 74
Dipterans, 87, 88

Dorosoma cepedianum, 112, 113
DOWE, J. P., 75

Drosophila melanogaster, 77

effects of variation in oxygen levels on, 77

Dry Fork, 110
Duck, wood, 56

runt egg in, 56

Eccoptura xanthenes, 87

life history and ecology of, 87-91

Elaktothrix gelatinosa, 48
Electrofishing, 57

vs.angler harvest, 57

Elassoma zonatum, 144, 145
Engineering properties

of silty-clay mixtures, 8-12

Enterobacter agglomerans, 34
Ephemerella, 87, 88
Eragrostis curvula, 51-55, 129

phenolic compounds from roots of, 51-55

Ericymba buccata, 112, 113
Erimyzon oblongus, 111

Esox americanus, 112, 113, 144
Etheostoma asprigene, 144, 145

EE
. caeruleum, 56, 110-113
. chlorosomum, 144

. flabellare, 110-113

. histrio, 144, 145

. neopterum, 145

. nigrum, 112, 113

mmammamm

blennioides, 56, 112, 113

E. spectabile, 111-113

E. variatum, 56

E. zonale, 110, 112, 113
Euastrum denticulatum, 49
E. binale, 9

Eucalyptus globulus, 54
Eudorina elegans, 48
Euglena acus, 49

E. gracilis, 49

E. proxima, 49
Euglenales, 49
Euglenophycophyta, 49
Euonymus atropurpureus, 118

Fagus grandifolia, 105, 117, 118, 136
Falco sparverius, 138
FALLS, RANDY, 76
Fescue, red, 51
tall, 51-55
Festuca arundinacea, 33, 51-55, 129
phenolic compounds from roots of, 51-55
F. rubra, 51
FINKENSTAEDT, ELIZABETH, 75
FISHER, WILLIAM L., 108
Fishes, 108
of Rolling Fork of the Salt River, 108-115
Forestiera acuminata, 105
Forkland, Kentucky, 110
FORSYTHE, THOMAS D., 57
Forsythia, 51
Forsythia intermedia, 51
Franklinia alatamaha, 136
Fraxinus americana, 117, 118
F. quadrangulata, 117, 118
Fundulus catenatus, 110-113
F. notatus, 112, 113

Gambusia affinis, 112, 113
Gastropoda, 81
Geochemical analysis, 1-7

in Kentucky, 1-7
Gensing, Kentucky, 110
Glenodinium Gymnodinium, 49
G. palustre, 49
G. pulvisculus, 49
G. quadridens, 49
Gloeoactinium limneticum, 48
Gloeocapsa punctata, 48
Glucuronidation, 75

of 4-cholor-4-biphenylol, 75
Golenkinia radiata, 48
Goose, Canada, 56
Gordonia lasianthus, 136
Grackle, common, 56
Grant County, 116
Grasshoppers, 138
Gryllidae, 138
Gulls, 56

Hardin County, 109
HARTMAN, DAVID R., 76
Hastaperla, 87, 88
Hemlock, 87
Hickory, shagbark, 117
Hiodon alosoides, 112, 113
H. tergisus, 112, 113
Holly, American, 104, 105
Carolina, 105
mountain, 105
swamp, 105
Hornet, European, 143
distribution in Kentucky, 143-144
House wren, 56
Howardstown, Kentucky, 110
HOWES, CHARLES D., 74
Hybognathus nuchalis, 144
Hybopsis amblops, 112, 113
H. dissimilis, 111-113
(= H. x-punctata), 111
H. storeriana, 111, 144
Hydropsyche, 87, 88
Hypentelium nigricans, 112, 113

Ictaluridae, 29

Ictalurus melas, 112, 113, 144

I. natalis, 112, 113, 144

I. Punctatus, 112, 113, 144

Ictiobus spp., 28

I. bubalus, 112, 113

I. cyprinellus, 144

Tlex, 104

I. ambigua, 105

I. beadlei, 105

I decidua, 104, 105, 107

I. mollis, 105

. montana, 104-107

. opaca, 104-106

. verticillata, 104, 105, 107
var. padifolia, 105

Industrialization, 36-43
spread effects of nonmetropolitan, 36-43

Itea virginica, 105

—

JOHNSON, DONALD, W., 28, 144
JONES, RONALD L, 104, 134
JOSHUA, I. G., 75
Juglans nigra, 117, 118
Juniperus virginiana, 136
Kalmia latifolia, 105
KELLNER, CHRISTOPHER J., 138
KENNEDY, MICHAEL L., 44
Kentucky Dam, 47
Kentucky Governor’s Scholars Program, 76
Kentucky Lake, 28-32, 47
Kentucky Reservoir, 46-50

checklist of phytoplankton in, 46-50
Kestrels, American, 138

predatory behavior of captive, 138-142

157

158

Kidney microcirculation, 76 Mantle rock, 22-27
control of, 76 Maple, sugar, 117
KIND, THOMAS C., 22 Mapping, 120-128
KING, JOE M., 46 of physical characteristics
Kirchneriella contorta, 48 associated with roof falls, 120-128
K. lunaris, 48 MARDON, DAVID N., 33
var. irregularis, 48 Marion County, 110
K. obesa, 48 Marssoniella elegans, 48
K. subsolitaria, 48 MASON, DIANE, 77
Klebsiella penumoniae, 34 Mavflies, 87, 88
KNAVEL, D. E., 99 Melanerpes formicivorus, 56
KLOEK, GERRIT, 77 MELHUISH, J. H., 129
Kobe lespedeza, 51-55 Merismopedia punctata, 48
KRANTZ, KEITH D., 56 M. tenuissima, 48
KUEHNE, ROBERT A., 78, 143 Mice, laboratory, 138
KUHAJDA, BERNARD R., 145 Micractinium pusillum, 48
KUHNHENN, GARY L., 1, 75 Microcomputer programs, 75
for undergraduate nuclear physics course, 75
Labidesthes sicculus, 112, 113 Microcystis aeruginosa, 48
Lactuca sativa, 52 M. incerta, 48
Lake Barkley, 28-32 Micropterus dolomieui, 112, 113
Land Between the Lakes, 44-45 M. punctulatus, 112, 113
demography of raccoon at, 44-45 M. salmoides, 112, 113
Larue County, 109, 110 Microwave, 74
Larus spp., 56 in preservation of leaves and flowers, 74
Lepisosteus osseus, 112, 113 MILLER, FREDERICK N., 76
Lepocinclis fusiformis, 49 Mine-roof parameters, 13-21
Lepomis cyanellus, 112, 113 Minytrema melanops, 111, 144
L. gulosus, 112, 113, 144 Mite, twospotted spider, 92
L. humilis, 111, 144 resistance of selected soybean genotypes to, 92-98
L. macrochirus, 112, 113 MOHAMMAD, ABDUL A. A., 92
L. marginatus, 144, 145 Mollusca, 81
L. megalotis, 110-113 Morone chrysops, 144
L. microlophus, 112, 113, 144 Morus rubra, 118
Lespedeza, Kobe, 51-55 Moxostoma duquesnei, 112, 113
Sericea, 51 M. erythrurum, 110, 112, 113
Lespedeza cuneata, 51 M. macrolepidotum, 112, 113
L. striata, 51-55, 129 Mus musculus, 138
phenolic compounds from roots of, 51-55 Myrica asplenifolia, 136
Lettuce, 52 Myricaceae, 134
Leuctra, 87, 88 of Kentucky 134-137
Lindera benzoin, 117, 118, 136
Liquidambar styraciflua, 105 Nelson County, 109, 110
Liriodendron tulipifera, 136 Nemopanthus, 104
Little South Fork, 110 New Haven, Kentucky, 109
Livingston County, 22-27 News and Comments, 78
Lloyd Wildlife Preserve, 116 Nitrosomonas, 54
forest of, 116-120 North Rolling Fork, 110
Locust, black, 51 Notropis ardens, 110-113

ariommus, 108, 111-113
. atherinoides, 112, 113

. boops, 112, 113
buchanani, 112, 113
chrysocephalus, 110-113
emiliae, 108, 111-113, 144
. lutrensis, 144
photogenis, 112, 113

. rubellus, 110, 112, 113

. spilopterus, 112, 113, 145
. stramineus, 112, 113

Longnose dace, 56

in Kentucky, 56
Lotus cortniculatus, 51
Lovegrass, weeping, 51-55
Lyngbya contorta, 48
L. limnetica, 48

Madison County, 8-12

Magnolia macrophylla, 105, 136

Maianthemum canadense, 74
sexual reproduction in, 74

Pe) e) Ole) hl hy) dl

N. umbratilis, 111

N. whipplei, 112, 113, 144, 145
Noturus flavus, 112, 113

N. gyrinus, 144

N. miurus, 111-113, 144

N. nocturnus, 144

N. stigmosus, 108, 111-113
Nyssa sylvatica, 117, 118

Oak, black, 117
white, 117
Oocystis borgei, 48
O. crassa, 48
O. parva, 48
Orontium aquaticum, 136
Oscillatoria amphibia, 48
O. limnetica, 48
O. sp., 48
Oscillatoriales, 48
Ostrinia nubilalis, 99
resistance of Capsicum annuum to, 99-103
Otter Creek, 110
Overalls Creek, 109

Pachysandra procumbens, 134, 135
Paddlefish, 28-32

growth of, 28-32

in two mainstream reservoirs, 28-32

with reference to commercial harvest, 28-32

Panax trifolium, 135
Pandorina morum, 48
Paraleptophlebia, 87, 88
PARRISH, DONNA L., 57
Passer domesticus, 138
Pediastrum biradiatum, 48

P. duplex, 48

var. clathraturm, 48
P. simplex, 48

var. duodenarium, 48
P. tetras, 48

Percina caprodes, 112, 113
P. maculata, 56, 112, 113
P. ouachitae, 144, 145
P. phoxocephala, 108, 111-113
P. sciera, 14
Peridiniales, 49
Peridinium inconspicuum, 49
Periplanta americana, 138
PERKINSON, MARY C., 1
Perlidae, 87
Phacus acuminatus, 49
var. drezepolskii, 49
P. helikoides, 49
P. longicauda, 49
P. orbicularis, 49
P. pyrum, 49
Phenacobius mirabilis, 112, 113, 144
Phenolic compounds, 51-55
effect on Pisolithus tinctorius, 129-133
from roots of Eragrostis curvula, 51-55

from roots of Festuca arundinacea, 51-55
from roots of Lespedeza striata, 51-55
Philipsburg, Kentucky, 110
PHILLEY, JOHN C., 75, 76
Phormidium minnesotense, 48
P. tenue, 48
Phoxinus erythrogaster, 112, 113
Physics teacher certification program, 75
Phytoplankton, 46-50
checklist of in Kentucky Reservoir, 46-50
Pickwick Landing Dam, 47
Picidae, 56
Pimephales notatus, 110-113
P. promelas, 111, 144
P. vigilax, 112, 113
Pisolithus tinctorius, 54, 129-133
Platydorina caudata, 48
Plecoptera, 87
Polyedriopsis spinulosa, 48
Polyodon spathula, 28-32
Pomoxis annularis, 57, 112, 113,
P. nigromaculatus, 144
Pope Creek, 110
Possumhaw, 105
Pottinger Creek, 110
Power analysis, 74-75
applied to hypothesis testing, 74-75
PRATHER, KERRY W., 56
Prather Creek, 110
Preservation of leaves and flowers, 74
by microwave, 74
President’s message, 148
Procyon lotor, 44-45
at Land Between the Lakes, 44-45
demography of, 44-45
Providence limestone, 1-7
Prunus serotina, 118
Pylodictis olivaris, 112, 113, 144
Pyrrhophycophyta, 49

Quercus alba, 117, 118

Q. michauxii, 105

Q. muehlenbergii, 117, 118
Q. rubra, 117, 118

Q. shumardii, 117

Q. velutina, 117

Quiscalus quiscula, 56

Raccoon, 44-45
at Land Between the Lakes, 44-45
demography of, 44-45
Raphidiopsis curvata, 48
Rattus norvegicus, 138
Red clover, 51
Red fescue, 51
Re-trenching of teachers, 76
Rhabdoderma lineare, 48
Rx. sigmoidea, 48
fa. minor, 48
Rhamnus caroliniana, 136

159

160

Rhinichthys atratulus, 108, 111-113
R. cataractae, 56
Rhododendron, 88
Rhododendron maximum, 88, 105
R. nudiflorum, 106
Rhus aromatica, 136
RITCHISON, GARY, 56, 138
Robertson County, 37-42
Robinia pseudo-acacia, 51
RODRIQUEZ, J. G., 92, 99
Rolling Fork, 108-115
Roof falls, 120-128
statistical modeling and mapping of
physical characteristics of, 120-128
ROTHWELL, FREDERICK M., 33
Runt egg, 56
in wood duck, 56

Salix nigra, 105
Salt Lick Creek, 110
Salt River, 108-115
Sambucus canadensis, 118, 136
Sapotaceae, 134
of Kentucky 134-137
Scenedesmus, 46
S. abundans, 48
var. asymmetrica, 48
var. longicauda, 48
S. acuminatus, 48
S. acutiformis, 48
S. armatus, 48
S. bijuga, 48
var. alternans, 48
. brasiliensis, 48
. denticulatus, 48
. dimorphus, 48
. incrassatulus, 48
. longus, 48
. opoliensis, 48
. quadricauda, 48
. serratus, 48
SCHEIBNER, RUDY A., 144
Schroderia setigera, 48
Science career preference, 76
Selenastrum bibraianum, 48
S. gracile, 48
S. minutum, 48
Semotilus atromaculatus, 111-113
Sericea lespedeza, 51
Sexual reproduction, 74
in Maianthemum canadense, 74
Shagbark hickory, 117
Shawnee, 75
aortic aneurysms in, 75
SHELBY, LYNN, 22
Sherffelia sp., 48
Silty-clay mixtures, 8-12
derived from Madison County, Kentucky, 8-12
SMITH, ALAN D., 1, 8, 13, 74, 120
SMITH, RICHARD A., 44

NDNNNNNHAN

Snail, 81
Soil phenolic compounds, 129

effect of on fatty acid composition of
Pisolithus tinctorius, 129-133
effect of on growth of Pisolithus tinctorius, 129.133

Sphaerocystis schroeteri, 48
Sphaerozosma sp., 49
Snipe Creek, 46, 47
Sparrows, house, 138
Spondylosium sp., 49
Staphlea trifolia, 118
Starling, 56

Statistical methods, 13-21

in mining engineering, 13-21

Statistical modeling, 120-128

of physical characteristics associated
with roof falls, 120-128

Staurastrum americanum, 49
S. chaetoceros, 49
S. cuspidatum, 49
S. grallatorium, 49

var. forcipigerum, 49

S. paradoxum, 49
STEPHENS, DOUGLAS E., 56
Stewartia ovata, 134, 136, 137
Stizostedion canadense, 144

S. vitreum, 111

Stoneflies, 87, 88

Strength properties

of silty-clay mixtures, 8-12

Sturgis formation, 1-7
Sturnus vulgaris, 56
Styrax americana, 105
Sugar maple, 117
Sulphur Lick Creek, 110

Tall fescue, 51-55
TARTER, DONALD D., 87
Tetradesmus smithii, 48
Tetraedron gracile, 48

T. minimum, 48

34343

. muticum, 48

. pentaedricum, 48
. regulare, 48

. trigonum, 48

. tumidulum, 48

Tetrallantos lagerheimii, 48
Tetranychus urticae, 92

resistance of selected
soybean genotypes to, 92-98

Tetrasporales, 48
Tetrastrum heterocanthum, 48

T.
Theaceae, 134

of Kentucky 134-137
THIERET, JOHN W., 146

staurogeniaeforme, 48

Thlaspi alliaceum, 145-147

T.
T.
Thompson Creek, 110

arvense, 146, 147
perfoliatum, 145-147

Three-dimensional modeling, 74
Tibican sp., 138
Tilia americana, 117, 118
T. neglecta, 117
TIMMERMAN, DAVID H., 74
TIMMONS, TOM J., 57
Trachelomonas abrupta, 49
T. acanthostoma, 49
T. armata, 49
T. bulla, 49
T. eurystoma, 49

var. klebsii, 49
T. hispida, 49
var. coronata, 49
var. crenulatocollis, 49
. intermedia, 49
. lacustris, 49
. playfairii, 49
robusta, 49
. rotunda, 49
. spectabilis, 49
. superba, 49
var. duplex, 49
T. tambowika, 49
T. urceolata, 49
T. volvocina, 49

var. punctata, 49
Trefoil, birdsfoot, 51
Treubaria setigera, 48
Trichogramma nubilale, 100
Trifolium incarnatum, 51
T. pratense, 51
Trillium luteum, 135
T. sulcatum, 135
Troglodytes aedon, 56
Tsuga canadensis, 87, 105, 136
Turkey Creek, 46, 47

AAAI

Ulmus rubra, 117, 188
Ulothrix sp., 48
Ulotrichales, 48

Valenciennes, 56
Vespa crabro germana, 143

distribution in Kentucky, 143-144

Vetch, crown, 51
Viburnum cassinoides, 105
Vickers Creek, 46

VOLP, R. F., 75
Volvocales, 48

WADE, GARY L., 51, 129
Walnut, black, 117

WARREN, MELVIN L., JR., 145
Wasp, chaicid, 100

Weeping lovegrass, 51-55
WHIDDEN, CHARLES J., 75
White ash, 117

White crappie, 57

White oak, 117

161

WIEGMAN, D. L., 77
WILLIAMS, CYNTHIS L., 74
Wilson Creek, 109
WINSTEAD, JOE E., 149
Winterberry, common, 105
mountain, 105
Wood duck, 56
runt egg in, 56
Woodpecker, acorn, 56
Woodpeckers, 56
Wren, house, 56

YOUNG, JAMIE S., 76
Younger Creek, 109

Zea mays, 54
Zygnematales, 49

Instructions for Contributions

Original papers based on research in any field of science will be considered for publication in the
Transactions. Also, as the official publication of the Academy, news and announcements of interest to the
membership will be included as received.

Manuscripts may be submitted at any time to the Editor. Each manuscript will be reviewed by one or more
persons prior to its acceptance for publication, and once accepted, an attempt will be made to publish papers in
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81/ x 11 inches. NOTE: For format of feature articles and notes see Volume 43(3-4) 1982. The original and one
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1. The title page should include the title of the paper, the authors’ names and addresses, and any footnote
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2. The abstract should be concise and descriptive of the information contained in the paper. It should be com-
plete in itself without reference to the paper.

3. The body of the manuscript should include the following sections: Introduction, Materials and Methods,
Results, Discussion, Summary, Acknowledgements, and Literature Cited. All tables and figures, as well as all
literature cited, must be referred to in the text. :

4. All references in the Literature Cited must be typewritten, double spaced, and should provide complete
information on the material referred to. See Volume 43(3-4) 1982 for style.

5. For style of abstract preparation for papers presented at annual meetings, see Volume 43(3-4) 1982.

6. Each table, together with its heading, must be double spaced, numbered in Arabic numerals, and set on a
separate page. The heading of the table should be informative of its contents.

Each figure should be reproduced as a glossy print either 5x 7 or 8x 10 inches. Line drawings in India ink on
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The author is responsible for correcting galley proofs. He is also responsible for checking all literature cited
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CONTENTS

Shell polymorphism in Kentucky colonies of the exotic snail Cepaea memoralis

(Linnaeus) (Mollusca:Gastropoda). Branley A..Branson..................22-.05 81
Life history and ecology of Ecceptura xanthenes (Newman) Plecoptera:Perlidae)
from a small Kentucky stream. Beverly L. Allen and Donald C. Tarter............ 87
Resistance of selected soybean genotypes to the twospotted mite Tetranchus ur-
ticae Koch (Acarina:Tetranchidae). Abdul A. A. Mohammad and J. G. Rogriguez. 92
Resistance of pepper, Capsicum annuum L. to European corn borer, Ostrinia
nubilalis (Hubner). Adbul-Aziz Ajlan, D. E. Knavel and J. G. Rodgrigez.......... 99
The Aquifoliaceae of Kentucky. Ronald L. Jones...........2-..---00e eee eee eres 104
Fishes of the Rolling Fork of the Salt River, Kentucky. William L. Fisher and
Ronald ReiGicerellon saan Melee. on cietee ict ave oears enct-pegereaelet scien tape tele erence aes 108
An analysis of the Lloyd Wildlife Preserve Forest, Grant County, Kentucky. William
Sy Brant ae ares eae Se aa aie ps Sa OSA Pe es PAU oa 116
Statistical modeling and mapping selected physical characteristics in an eastern
Kentucky coallimine:Alan) DtSmiithsecscs tescceceac cee see eee eee cnc oceecinee aaa 121
Effect of soil phenolic compounds on growth and fatty acid composition of
Pisolithus tinctorius. J. H. Melhuish and G. L. Wade...............-..+200.-00- 129
The Buxaceae, Clethraceae, Myricaceae, Sapotaceae and Theaceae of Kentucky.
Ronald ilk: Jonesy iis ae) aiscin'a scieis ersten rs cinvel ats eu eeieelareienetote miertalere shar Sere 134
An examination of the predatory behavior of captive American kestrels.
Christopher J. Kellner and Gary Ritchison............... 000 eee eee eee eee eee 138
NOTES
Dr. Robert Andrew Kuehne: Obituary. Roger W. Barbour....................-- 143
Distribution of the European hornet in Kentucky. D. W. Johnson................ 143

Clarks River revisited: additions to the ichthyofauna. Bernard R. Juhajda and
Melvin Eo) Warners ese deieisc cals aiscieog arctaval nite) else iaovesay alec at ops pais reyeiapny ats Pec urea ea oe SeS 144

Thlaspi alliaceum (Cruciferae) in Kentucky and Indiana. John W. Thieret and John
|S lel oy ds [PER ROR AN Ameen Mae AMA HEP egel (2b enna Mochi lig diols Gia 145

NEWS AND COMMENTS

Presidentis/message:Joe Ex Winstead) suc sas = sieve enicieiele eerie eerie 148

Arnnual)imeetin gee yairc ces eeci cycle eae oH eRe INU ae TEESE aaa rn Un ane 150

ACADEMY BUSINESS

Committees of the Kentucky Academy of Science: 1985....................0005 151
INDEX TONVOLUME 46). care Rie ea aie tlie racae yaad eesten Spann (erate ah oan iy Se a 155
INSTRUCTIONS TO;}CONTRIBUTORS cer renee eee ese ree Inside Back Cover
CONTENT Sipe ie yi ay te Seca r ) \ URI aR a et AI ae te Back Cover

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